THE LIBRARY OF THE NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002070237 BULLETIN NO. 25 BUREAU OF BUSINESS RESEARCH LABOR TERMINOLOGY CAMBRIDGE 1921 COPYRIGHT, 1921 BUREAU OF BUSINESS RESEARCH HARVARD UNIVERSITY FOREWORD In the adjustment of labor relations many disputes develop because of verbal misunderstandings. There are many terms, such as union shop, non-union shop, and open shop, that are used constantly but with no precise meaning. At least, they are used with different meanings by employers and employees. While labor problems can- not be eliminated by a clear definition of the issues, it is probably true that the solution will be simplified if in dealing with organized labor, for example, the employers know with some accuracy what meaning is attached by members of labor unions to the words and phrases which they use. In such a large and controversial field, it is, of course, quite impossible to frame universal definitions that will be satisfactory to all parties concerned. It is necessary, as a practical matter, to take one point of view at a time, and define the terms from that standpoint. This bulletin does not aim to present the viewpoint of employers or unorganized labor, but to give definite meanings to terms used by labor union members in order to assist employers and prospective employers to understand the organized labor point of view. The bulletin will be used in teaching in the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration when prob- lems involving relations with labor unions are under dis- cussion. The students in the School are in training for positions that eventually will result in their becoming employers. The bulletin has been rendered possible by the readi- ness and courtesy of union labor officials in answering questions and in furnishing official documents. Early in the work, letters were sent to the offices of all national and international unions asking for copies of constitutions, proceedings of conventions, and trade agreements. The response was most gratifying and the Bureau appreciates it. The meaning of official documents, furthermore, has been clarified by means of personal interviews and per- sonal correspondence. The terms defined are, for the most part, those that apply in a broad sense to numerous industries rather than in a technical sense to a single industry. For several industries, such as the mining industry, the needle trades, and the railroads, the more important labor unions have been listed. Up to the present time the Bureau has not collected the necessary information for giving similar lists of unions in other industries. It may be found advisable for the Bureau to carry this part of its investiga- tion further. This bulletin represents a first venture into a large and difficult field. It undoubtedly bears the crudities and defects incident to all pioneering. Some definitions may appear ambiguous; others may omit alternative uses of certain terms; and in many cases terms have probably been overlooked that should have been included. It is requested that readers call our attention to such cases and cooperate in the work of improvement and revision. Much of the woik in the actual formulation of these definitions has been performed by Mr. Harry F. Bruning of the staff of the Bureau of Business Research, with the assistance of Mr. David W. Benjamin, a member of the Cigar Makers' International Union of America and former conciliator of the United States Department of Labor. Melvin T. Copeland, Director. LABOR TERMINOLOGY Absentee Control — Control of the executive policies of a business by persons who do not have frequent personal contact with managers and employees. Affiliation — 1. The act of one labor organization in becoming a constituent part of a larger labor organiza- tion, at the same time maintaining some degree of autonomy. A local union, for example, may be affiliated with an allied trades council, a city central body, a state federation, a national or international union, or directly with the American Federation of Labor; likewise an allied trades council, a city central body, a state federa- tion, or a national or international union may be affiliated with the next higher unit of organization. 2. The act of an employers' association in becoming a constituent part of a larger employers' association or group of employers' associations. Agreement, See Trade Agreement. Allied Trades Council — An organization of local unions in allied trades in one town or locality, as for example, The Allied Building Trades Council, The Allied Printing Trades Council, and The Metal Trades Council. There were 682 allied trades councils affiliated with the Ameri- can Federation of Labor in 1920. 1 These are sometimes known as local department councils because of affiliation with departments of the American Federation of Labor. Allowance — Compensation to an employee engaged on piece work, when his regular earnings are reduced by a lack of steady, continuous work due to shortage of mate- 1 Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920; p. 29. rials, faulty planning, or analogous causes, or when an employee is called upon to perform odd or pickup work. The amount of allowance ordinarily is the difference between the actual earnings at the piece rate on that day and the average earnings during a previous period, such as the preceding three days. Amalgamation — The merger of two or more local, national, or international unions into a single organiza- tion. American Federation of Labor — An association of national and international trade and industrial unions, the members of which ordinarily are skilled laborers. The purposes of the American Federation of Labor as outlined in its constitution are: Sec. 'i. The object of this Federation shall be the encourage- ment and formation of local Trade and Labor Unions, and the closer federation of such societies through the organization of Central Trade and Labor Unions in every city, and the further combination of such bodies into State, Territorial, or Provincial organizations to secure legislation in the interest of the working masses. Sec. 2. The establishment of National and International Trade Unions, based upon a strict recognition of the autonomy of each trade, and the promotion and advancement of such bodies. Sec. 3. The establishment of Departments composed of National or International Unions affiliated with the American Federation of Labor, of the same industry, and which Departments shall be governed in conformity with the laws of the American Federation of Labor. Sec. 4. An American Federation of all National and Interna- tional Trade Unions, to aid and assist each other; to aid and en- courage the sale of union label goods, and to secure legislation in the interest of the working people, and influence public opinion, by peaceful and legal methods, in favor of organized labor. Sec. 5. To aid and encourage the labor press of America. (Constitution of the American Federation of Labor, 1920) The American Federation of Labor, April 1, 1920, 1 con- sisted of 5 departments, 110 national and international unions, 46 state federations, 926 city central bodies, and 682 local department councils. There were 36,741 local unions affiliated with the national and international unions, and 1,286 local trade and federal labor unions affiliated directly with the American Federation of Labor. The membership of the American Federation of Labor, April, 1920, was 4,302,148. The five departments into which the American Federa- tion of Labor is divided are Building Trades, Metal Trades, Mining, Railway Employees, and Union Label Trades. Each department includes the national and in- ternational unions in closely allied trades or crafts. The Building Trades Department, for example, for the fiscal year ending March 31, 1920, consisted of 17 national and international unions engaged in the erection, repair, or alteration of buildings, and was subdivided into 348 affiliated local councils and 7 state organizations. It had a total membership of 803,920. The function of a depart- ment is the consideration of interunion matters that con- cern the members as an industrial group, with particular reference to jurisdictional disputes. Any affiliated organ- ization may appeal from a decision of a department to the Executive Council of the American Federation of Labor and from the Executive Council to the American Federation of Labor Convention, which is the court of last resort. Anti-Union Shop, See Non-Union Shop. Apprentice — 1. A minor or other employee who con- tracts to work for a definite period of time in order that he may learn a trade. Rules for the regulation of the 1 Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920 ; p. 22 and p. 27. 8 terms of apprenticeship in their crafts are established by some labor unions. 2. Sometimes broadly applied to any learner. Arbitration — A method of settling a controversy through hearings and decision by an agency mutually agreed upon by employer and employees, such as an um- pire, a committee, or a board. The trade agreements between the American News- paper Publishers' Association and the Typographical, Stereotypers', Pressmen's and Photo-Engravers' Unions provide for the submission of all differences to arbitration boards. A local arbitration board consists of five mem- bers residing in the city in which the controversy takes place. Two members are chosen by each party. The fifth member is chosen by these four. An appeal may be taken from the local board to the national board. A national arbitration board consists of three members of the Execu- tive Board of the National Union and three members of the Special Standing Committee of the American News- paper Publishers' Association; in event of disagreement, they are empowered to select a seventh member by unani- mous vote. The decision of a national arbitration board is final. This illustrates one method of arbitration. Assistance Fund, See Strike Fund. Autonomy, See Trade Autonomy. Average Earnings, See Earnings. Award — Terms for the settlement of a dispute or griev- ance fixed by a board of arbitration or by an umpire. Back Pay — rCompensation for work performed prior to the current pay-roll period. See Wage. Bargaining, See Collective Bargaining ; Individual Bar- gaining. Benefit — 1. A payment by a local or national union to a member whose earning power has been impaired tem- porarily or permanently by accident, sickness, old age, strike, or unemployment, or to the widow or heirs of a deceased member. The total benefits paid by the national and international unions affiliated with the American Federation of Labor during the fiscal year ending March 31, 1920, 1 were as follows : — strike benefits $3,347,143.31 ; death benefits $3,187,773.30; sick and accident benefits $937,219.25; out- of-work benefits $65,026.42; old age and relief benefits $728,115.00. In addition to the benefits paid by the national unions many of the local unions provided death, sick, and out-of-work benefits for their members. 2. A payment to an employee or his family, because of accident, sickness, or death. In some cases such ben- efits are paid by the employer, in others by a mutual benefit association established either by the employees of a company or by an employer and employees jointly. For example, in 1919 the United States Steel Corporation paid accident benefits of $4,267,355.00; the American Sugar Refining Company paid sick and injury benefits of $25,697.00; the American Telephone and Telegraph Company paid sick benefits of $1,754,189.00, accident benefits $635,359.00, death benefits $262,861.00, and in addition gave financial assistance amounting to $246,054.00 for cases of disability that did not come wholly within the provisions of its Employees' Benefits Plan. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company paid in death and disablement benefits and superannuation allowances $2,735,848.00. See, also, Anice L. Whitney : "Establishment of Disability Funds, Pension Funds, and Group Insurance for Employees."— Monthly Labor Review, Vol. VI, No. 2, February, 1918 ; p. 192. 1 Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920 ; p. 39 and p. 42. 10 Blacklist — A list or communication furnished by one employer to another, either upon his own initiative or by previous understanding, to indicate specifically or by in- ference that the worker or workers named should not be given employment. See Boycott. Board of Adjustment — 1. A board established by a labor union to adjust internal union disputes. 2. A board established by employers and employees jointly to adjust grievances. Bonus — Compensation to an employee or group of em- ployees in addition to wages, according to a specific plan announced in advance, for production greater than a stated quantity, prevention of waste, regularity in attend- ance, or other reasons. If such payment is not in accord- ance with a specific plan announced in advance, it is not a bonus but a gratuity. , See Premium System ; Profit Sharing ; Task and, Bonus System. Boring from Within — The practice of undermining the membership of a labor organization or of inducing a change in the labor policy in a single plant, by placing agents inside the ranks to spread hostile propaganda through personal contact with coworkers. Boycott — An organized effort on the part of one or' more groups of employees or unions to restrict the mar- ket of an employer in the purchase or sale of raw mate- rials or finished products. The boycott ordinarily takes the form of a refusal by union members to buy merchan- dise made or sold in a non-union shop, to produce mate- rials that are to be used later by non-union workers, to work on material that has been made in a non-union shop, to transport non-union products, or to buy any merchan- II dise whatsoever from a merchant who handles any boy- cotted article. Attempts also may be made to induce others who are not participants in the dispute to refrain from patronizing an employer or a merchant against whom a boycott has been declared. A primary boycott is one in which the employees or unions involved in the controversy cease to purchase the products of a boycotted employer. A secondary boycott is one in which an active attempt is made to induce patrons of a boycotted employer, such as manufacturers or merchants, not participants in the dispute, to with- hold or withdraw patronage from the employer against whom the boycott has been declared. A boycott ordinarily may be declared by a local union or central labor union without seeking the sanction of the national or international union with which the local union is affiliated. The Constitution of the American Federation of Labor, however, provides: No Central Labor Union, or other central body of delegates, shall have authority or power to originate a boycott, nor shall such bodies indorse and order the placing of the name of any person, firm, or corporation on an unfair list until the Local Union desiring the same has, before declaring the boycott, submitted the matter in dis- pute to the Central Body for investigation, and has made the best endeavors on its part to effect an amicable settlement. Violation of this section shall forfeit charter. (Constitution of the American Federation of Labor, 1920) Brotherhood, See National or International Union. Building Trades' Unions — Among the workmen who are engaged in the erection, repair, and maintenance of buildings, the following national and international trade unions are represented: 12 Average Name of Union Membership * 1920 United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America 331,500 Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators and Paper- hangers of America 103,100 Bricklayers', Masons', and Plasterers' Interna- tional Union of America 70,000 International Union of Wood, Wire and Metal Lathers 59,000 International Hodcarriers', Building and Com- mon Laborers' Union of America 42,000 International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers 24,200 Operative Plasterers' and Cement Finishers' International Association of United States and Canada 19,400 Granite Cutters' International Association of America ; 10,500 Journeymen Stonecutters' Association of North America 4,000 International Union of Elevator Constructors.. 3,100 International Association of Heat and Frost In- sulators and Asbestos Workers 2,200 United Slate, Tile and Composition, Roofers', Damp and Waterproof Workers' Association 1,800 International Association of Marble, Slate and Stone Polishers, Rubbers and Sawyers 1,200 The total membership for the following unions in- cludes not only workmen engaged in the building trades but also in other industries: 1 Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920; pp. 37-38. 13 Average Name of Union Membership l 1920 International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers 139,200 International Union of Steam and Operating Engineers 32,000 United Association of Plumbers and Steamfitters of United States and Canada 32,000 Amalgamated Sheet Metal Workers' Interna- tional Alliance 21,800 Business Agent, See Walking Delegate. Ca'Canny, See Soldiering. Capital — 1. The physical equipment used in operating a plant, such as machinery, buildings, materials, and mer- chandise. As measured in value, capital includes the owner's net investment and also funds borrowed or debts incurred for operating the business. In its accounting systems for mercantile businesses the Harvard Bureau of Business Research defines the owner's capital as "the sum of the assets less the sum of the liabilities to out- siders (not including capital stock or surplus of a cor- poration or undivided profits). The assets include cash, merchandise on hand, equipment at depreciated value, notes and accounts receivable, and prepayments such as prepaid insurance. Good-will is not included, unless pur- chased outright. The liabilities include notes and ac- counts payable and accrued items such as unpaid taxes. A corporation determines its net investment in the same way as a proprietorship or a partnership, irrespective of the amount of capital stock issued. The capital stock authorized may or may not equal the net investment." (Bureau of Business Research, Harvard University, System of 1 Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920; pp. 37-38. 14 Accounts for Retail Grocers. Bulletin No. 3, Vol. Ill, No. 2, May, 1917; p. 14) 2. The employing class which represents the owner- ship of means of production. Central Labor Union— A federation of local unions in one city for joint action on matters of common interest. A central labor union acts as a clearing house for the discussion of matters of mutual interest to its members and encourages the organization of workers. It also may establish educational institutions, maintain a com- mittee to promote legislation favorable to organized labor, and maintain a union label section to encourage the sale of union label products. Ordinarily a central labor union does not have jurisdiction over matters in- volving trade autonomy such as the ordering of a strike, the initiating of a boycott, or the negotiating of a trade agreement. Charter — A certificate of affiliation granted to a sub- sidiary body to establish its constitutional rights, duties, and privileges. For example, the American Federation of Labor grants charters to national and international unions, state federations, central labor unions, district councils, and federal local unions; similarly, a national union grants charters to local unions. The following is the charter of affiliation granted to an international union by the American Federation of Labor in 1919: AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR Doth Grant this CERTIFICATE OF AFFILIATION To IS and to their successors legally qualified to constitute the Union herein named and known under the title of for the purpose of a thorough organization of the trade, and a more perfect Federation of all TRADES AND LABOR UNIONS. And the Union being duly formed, is empowered and authorized to initiate into its membership any person or persons in accordance with its own laws. And to conduct the business affairs of said Union in compliance with the best interests of the trade and labor in general. The autonomy of the Union is hereby ordained and secured. PROVIDED, That the said Union do conform to the Constitu- tion, Laws, Rules and Regulations of the AMERICAN FEDERA- TION OF LABOR, and in default thereof, or any part, this Cer- tificate of Affiliation may be suspended or revoked according to the laws of this FEDERATION. And should the said be dissolved, suspended or forfeit this Certificate of Affiliation, then the persons to whom this Certificate of Affiliation is granted, or their successors, bind themselves to surrender the same with such other property as shall properly belong to this FEDERATION. And further, in consideration of the due performance of the above, the AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR does hereby bind itself to support the said in the exercise of all its rights, privileges and autonomy as an affiliated Union. In Witness Whereof, We have subscribed our Names and affixed the seal of the American Federation of Labor, this day of (American Federation of Labor, History, Encyclopedia and Reference Book, p. 48) Check-off System — An agreement between an em- ployer and a union by which fines, dues, and assessments of members of the union are deducted from their earnings and paid by the employer to the union collector. Check-off. This contract is made and entered into for the sole use of the members of the United Mine Workers of America and the members of the Western Canada Coal Operators' Association. All men who work in and around the mines who are eligible to become members of the United Mine Workers of America shall join i6 that organization and agree to sign check off for all dues, assess- ments, and fines, and the management of the mines agree to forward deductions made to the acting secretary of the district or such other person as that official may designate. (Agreement between Dis- trict No. 18 of the United Mine Workers of America and the Western Canada Coal Operators' Association, July 20, 1920. — Monthly Labor Review, Vol. XI, No. 5, November, 1920; p. 148) Classification of Workers — The grouping of workers according to the grades and kinds of work performed, to provide a basis for fixing the scale of wages. The class- ification of workers may be made by the employer, by a labor union, by mutual agreement between employer and employees, or by an arbitration board. Clearance Card, See Transfer Card. Closed Shop— A plant in which only union members are employed in those crafts or occupations for which labor unions have been organized in the district in which the plant is located. One trade agreement contains the following provisions for creating a closed shop : Each member of the Association will employ none but members in good standing of the local unions above mentioned. ... A member in good standing is one who is fully paid up or who is in arrears for not more than two months of dues and assessments in the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union and who carries a union membership card. . . . The Association agrees that none of its members will engage any workers except such as will present union working cards, directing them to the particular place of business of the member. Upon request of the union the member of the Association will dispense with the services of any or all workers in his employ, in which event, however, the member shall be given an opportunity to retain the workers until they have finished the work in hand. The union un- dertakes to furnish other workers for said firm. (Agreement between the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, and the American Cloak, Suit and Skirt Manufacturers' Association, June, 1919. — Monthly Labor Review, Vol. IX, No. 6, December, 1919; p. 56) *7 See, also, F. T. Stockton : "The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions." — Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science, 29th Series, No. 3, 1911. See, also, Non-Union Shop. Clothing Workers' Unions, See Needle Trades' Unions. Collective Bargaining — The negotiation of a trade agreement between one or more employers and one or more groups of employees acting collectively through representatives chosen by the respective parties. The term collective bargaining occasionally is applied to negotiations between an employer and representatives of the employees in his plant who are organized, usually under a shop committee system, with no outside affilia- tions. By labor union members, the term is applied only to negotiations between one or more employers and representatives of a local or national labor union who may or may not be employed in the plant affected. Company Men — 1. Employees who are looked upon by some of their fellow workers as favoring too strongly the interests of the employer. 2. A term applied by union members to men who are engaged or suspected to be engaged by the employer for espionage; sometimes referred to ironically as "loyal workers." 3. Salaried employees. Company Union, See Shop Committee System. Competitive Wage Bargaining — Bargaining between an employer and employees, individually or collectively, without regard to a standard rate of wages. Compulsory Adjudication — The enforced settlement of a labor dispute, ordinarily by an agency established by an act of legislature. The Act creating the Court of Industrial Relations in i8 Kansas, approved January 23, 1920, provides, among other things : Chapter 29, Sec. 7. In case of a controversy arising between em- ployers and workers, or between groups or crafts of workers, engaged in any of said industries, employments, public utilities, or common carriers, if it shall appear to said Court of Industrial Rela- tions that said controversy may endanger the continuity or efficiency of service of any of said industries, employments, public utilities or common carriers, or affect the production or transportation of the necessaries of life affected or produced by said industries or em- ployments, or produce industrial strife, disorder or waste, or endanger the orderly operation of such industries, employments, public utilities or common carriers, and thereby endanger the public peace or threaten the public health, full power, authority and juris- diction are hereby granted to said Court of Industrial Relations, upon its own initiative, to summon all necessary parties before it and to investigate said controversy, and to make such temporary findings and orders as may be necessary to preserve the public peace and welfare and to preserve and protect the status of the parties, property and public interests involved pending said in- vestigations, and to take evidence and to examine all necessary records, and to investigate conditions surrounding the workers, and to consider the wages paid to labor and the return accruing to capital, and the rights and welfare of the public, and all other mat- ters affecting the conduct of said industries, employments, public utilities or common carriers, and to settle and adjust all such con- troversies by such findings and orders as provided in this act. It is further made the duty of said Court of Industrial Relations upon complaint of either party to such controversy, or upon complaint of any ten citizen taxpayers of the community in which such industries, employments, public utilities or common carriers are located, or upon the complaint of the attorney-general of the State of Kansas, if it shall be made to appear to said court that the parties are unable to agree and that such controversy may endanger the continuity or efficiency of service of any of said industries, employments, public utilities or common carriers, or affect the production or transportation of the necessaries of life affected or produced by said industries or employments, or produce industrial strife, disorder or waste, or endanger the orderly operation of such industries, em- 19 ployments, public utilities or common carriers, and thereby endanger the public peace or threaten the public health, to proceed and in- vestigate and determine said controversy in the same manner as though upon its own initiative. After the conclusion of any such hearing and investigation, and as expeditiously as possible, said Court of Industrial Relations shall make and serve upon all in- terested parties its findings, stating specifically the terms and con- ditions upon which said industry, employment, utility or common carrier should be thereafter conducted insofar as the matters determined by said court are concerned. Sec. 18. Any person wilfully violating the provisions of this act, or any valid order of said Court of Industrial Relations, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof in any court of competent jurisdiction of this state shall be punished by a fine of not to exceed $1000 or by imprisonment in the county jail for a period of not to exceed one year, or by both such fine and imprisonment. Compulsory Arbitration, See Compulsory Adjudica- tion. Conciliation, See Mediation. Conditions of Labor — Wages, methods of wage pay- ment, hours of labor, and other conditions such as meal hours, rest hours, sanitation, stipulations as to quantity of production, stated periods of employment, rights of seniority, and regulations regarding apprentices, learners, and helpers. Continuity of Production — The continual operation of a plant at full capacity, particularly in order to avoid periods of unemployment. Contract at Will — An agreement between an employer and an employee or group of employees that can be terminated at any time by either party; also called inde- terminate contract. Convention — 1. An assembly of delegates represent- ing the membership of a labor organization. 20 The supreme legislative, executive, and judicial power of the American Federation of Labor is vested in the delegates assembled in annual convention, who are elected in accordance with the constitution of the American Federation of Labor. In a national or international union the action of the delegates assembled in convention ordinarily is subject to the approval of the entire membership by referendum vote. A convention of a national or international union generally is held every one, two, or four years. The Constitution of the Amalgamated Clothing Work- ers of America provides: All legislative powers shall be reserved to the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America duly convened in session; except as hereinafter provided for, its executive and judicial powers, whe'n not in session, shall be vested in the General Executive Board. * * * * Local Unions shall be entitled to representation in conventions according to the average membership on which they pay per capita tax for the twenty-four (24) months ending January 30, immediately preceding the convention on the following basis : One (1) delegate for each Local Union of one hundred (100) members or less and one (1) additional delegate for every addi- tional three hundred , (300) members. Local Unions having over one thousand (1000) members shall send no less than three (3) delegates and one additional delegate for every additional one thousand (1000) members or majority fraction thereof. Each delegate shall be entitled to one (1) vote for every one hundred (100) members he represents. * * * * Delegates shall be elected at a special meeting of their Local Union, by ballot, not later than March 31, preceding the convention, and a plurality vote shall constitute an election. No person shall be eligible to election as a delegate unless a member of the Amal- gamated Clothing Workers of America, who shall have been a member in good standing of the Local Union he represents at least one year immediately preceding the date on which said election is held. At the same time and in the same manner that delegates are elected, there shall be elected an equal number of alternates. In case of death, resignation, inability or other disqualification of a delegate, the alternate having the highest number of votes at the election shall succeed to vacancy and become the delegate, with all the rights and privileges thereof. (Constitution of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, 1920) 2. An assembly of members of an employers' associa- tion. Convict Labor, See Prison Labor. Craft — An occupation in which skilled workers, such as pattern makers, molders, or weavers, are employed. Credit Union — A cooperative banking institution or- ganized in accordance with a state statute for the pur- pose of stimulating thrift among its members and of mak- ing loans to members on more favorable terms than can be obtained elsewhere. A credit union may be organized, for example, among the members of a labor union, among the employees of an individual business establishment, or among the persons of one nationality living in one city or district. Examples of credit unions are the Cigar Fac- tory Employees' Credit Union of Boston and the City of Boston Employees' Credit Union. Day, See Standard Time. Day Laborer — An employee who is engaged without any obligation on the part of the employer to furnish em- ployment for a longer period of time than one day. Day Work — 1. Labor performed during the normal daylight period. 2. Labor for which compensation is reckoned by the day. Defense Fund, See Strike Fund. Department Council, See Allied Trades Council; American Federation of Labor. Differential Piece Rate System — A method of compen- sation under which two rates of wages are used, a low piece rate for the workman who falls below the standard output and a high piece rate for the workman who reaches or exceeds the standard output. The standard output is established by means of motion and time studies. The rate paid to the workman who reaches or exceeds the standard output usually is 30% to 100% higher than the average wage in the trade. Direct Action — 1. Action, such as a strike, that is initiated by a local union or by part of its members without reference to the provisions of the constitution of the national or international union with which it is affiliated. 2. Used by employers with reference to any strike or other coercive acts by employees. Disability Benefit, See Benefit. District Council — A federation of local unions in the same trade or industry in a single district. The Constitution of the United Brotherhood of Car- penters and Joiners of America provides: Sec. 26. Where there are two or more Local Unions located in one city they must be represented in a Carpenters' District Coun- cil, composed exclusively of delegates from Local Unions of the United Brotherhood, and they shall be governed by such Laws and Trade Rules as shall be adopted by the District Council and ap- proved by the Local Unions and the First General Vice-President. The General President shall have power to order such Local Unions, as he may deem in his wisdom for the best interests of the organ- ization at large, to affiliate with such District Council, as in his judgment they should, and to settle the lines of jurisdiction of such District Council, subject to appeal. District Councils may be formed in localities other than in cities where two or more Local Unions in adjoining territory request it, or when in the opinion of the General President the good of the 23 United Brotherhood requires it. The District Council so formed shall be governed by the same General Laws governing District Councils in cities. District Councils shall have the power to make By-Laws, Work- ing and Trade Rules for the government of the Local Unions and the membership of the United Brotherhood working in their dis- tricts, which shall in no way conflict with the Constitution and Laws of the United Brotherhood, State Council or Provincial Council, and must be adopted by referendum vote of the members and ap- proved by the First General Vice-President before becoming law, and their representation shall be according to membership. The jurisdiction of the District Councils shall be as provided for by the Constitution and Laws of the United Brotherhood and named in their charter. District Councils shall have the power to enforce Working and Trade Rules in their respective localities ; they cannot make arrange- ments to debar their members from working for contractors or bosses other than -those connected with the Bosses' or Builders' Association. Nor shall they affiliate with any central organization whose Constitution or By-Laws conflict with those of the United Brotherhood. They shall adopt By-Laws and Rules governing local, strike and other donations, except sick donations, and shall provide for and hold trial of all violations of Trade Rules, and may impose such penalty as they may deem the case requires, subject to an appeal to the General President and thence to the General Executive Board, whose decisions shall be final. By-Laws and Trade Rules for the government of the District Council and Local Unions must be submitted by the District Coun- cil to the Local Unions represented in said district, and must be adopted by a majority of members voting, at a special meeting called therefor, and shall in no way conflict with the Constitution and Laws of the United Brotherhood. Local Unions other than those working on building material shall not have a voice, vote or delegate in any District Council of the building tradesmen, but may establish District Councils of their own under By-Laws approved by the First General Vice-President. Examining "Boards may be established by District Councils or Local Unions where no District Council exists. They shall examine candidates as to their qualifications for membership in the United Brotherhood and must report their findings on all applicants in 24 writing. The examinations shall consist of a practical test in the branch of trade in which the applicant desires employment. (.Con- stitution and Laws of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 1917) Docking of Pay— A deduction from wages as a penalty for tardiness, spoilage of work through carelessness, or similar causes. Double Time— Compensation for overtime at twice the rate paid for standard time. Dual Unions— Rival unions in the same industry, only one of which can affiliate with the American Federation of Labor. The Boot and Shoe Workers' Union and the United Shoe Workers are dual unions in the shoe in- dustry. The United Garment Workers of America and the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of North America are dual unions in the men's clothing industry. Earnings — Daily, weekly, monthly or yearly income of an employee as compensation for labor performed. Average earnings may be determined for one worker during a specified period of time, for a group of workers in the same occupation, for all the workers in a group of occupations, or for all the workers in a plant or industry. The method by which average earnings are computed varies according to the purpose for which the figures are to be used — whether for comparison of earnings and the cost of living, for comparison of wages between plants, for comparison of the earnings of different occupations, or for other purposes. In a wage dispute involving the average earnings of all workers in all occupations in one plant, for example, the number of workers and the weekly earnings were approximately as follows : 25 Number of Earnings Total Workers per Week Earnings 2 $75.00 $150.00 17 50.00 850.00 140 35.00 4,900.00 2700 25.00 • 67,500.00 400 20.00 8,000.00 10 15.00 150.00 The employers suggested that an average of the ex- tremes — $15.00 and $75.00 — would show average earn- ings of $45.00. The employees took the position that the men who received $75.00 were employed in a supervisory capacity and that those figures should be excluded in determining the average. The employees recommended the use of what is known in statistics as the mode, which showed $25.00 as the average. The arbitration board decided to divide the total earnings of the whole group by the total number of workers; this method shows a weighted average of $24.95. Eight-Hour Day, See Standard Time. Employees' Representation — An arrangement whereby representatives of employees confer with employers to adjust conditions of labor and to prevent and settle grievances. See Collective Bargaining ; Shop Committee System. Employers' Association — An organization of employers one purpose of which is to deal with employees. In some instances, one object of an employers' association is to enter into agreements with labor unions; in other in- stances, one of the objects is to oppose bargaining with labor unions or to maintain a system in the industry of negotiating with employees without reference to unions. Employment at Will — 1. Employment that can be 26 terminated at the option of either an employer or em- ployee. 2. The status of an old and privileged union member who is exempt from observance of union rules regarding conditions of labor or from the payment of regular dues. Employment Manager — An executive in a plant who ordinarily has supervision over such matters as the hiring and discharging of employees, the terms of employment, and the conditions of labor. Equal Pay for Equal Work — Equal compensation to all persons irrespective of sex for equal work performed. Espionage — The act of spying or of employing spies or secret agents either by employers or by employees. Executive Board of a Labor Union — A body elected by a labor union to transact the business of the union when the union is not in convention. Sometimes known as General Executive Board or Executive Council. The executive board of a national or international union ordinarily is nominated by the delegates at a convention and elected by the members of the union ; in some cases it is elected directly by the delegates assembled in con- vention. The Executive Council of the American Federation of Labor is elected by the delegates present at the annual convention. The Constitution of the International Association of Machinists provides: Article I. Government Between Conventions. Sec. 3. All executive and judicial powers of the Grand Lodge, when not in session, shall be vested in a General Executive Board, which shall consist of the International President, General Secre- tary-Treasurer and five (5) other elected members. They shall have the power to initiate legislation; before such proposed legislation 27 becomes law it shall be approved by a vote of the membership under the referendum as otherwise provided by this Constitution. * * * * Article V. Supervision and Salary. Sec. 16. The General Executive Board shall supervise and direct all the affairs of the Association. They shall have power, individually or jointly, to require full and detailed statements from other officials of any business, financial or otherwise, transacted on behalf of the Association. They shall have supervision over all other officials, with power to remove any officers for incompetency, insubordina- tion, negligence or unfaithfulness. Appointments made by the International President to fill vacancies caused by death, removal or resignation of any officer between elections shall be subject to their approval. They shall retain the services of a competent legal adviser at an annual retaining fee of twelve hundred ($1,200) dol- lars. In co-operation with the Editor they shall have supervision over all business matters pertaining to the monthly Journal, such as the making of contracts for advertising, printing Journal, and mat- ters of like nature, as per Section XI of Article V. They shall make an annual report to all local lodges, covering their various duties and decisions up to January list of each year, and they may either individually or jointly make official statements through the Journal at any other period on matters connected with their office. They shall devote the whole of their time to the business of this Associa- tion; but shall not be eligible to any other office, elective or ap- pointive. They shall have full privilege of delegates in convention, except that of voting. For the faithful performance of their duties the members of the General Executive Board, other than the Inter- national President and the General Secretary-Treasurer, whose salaries are specified in Sections 3 and 8 of this article, shall receive the sum of three thousand ($3,000) dollars per year, payable weekly, railroad fare and hotel expenses. Investing Funds. Sec. 17. The General Executive Board shall deposit or invest all moneys (as provided in Section 7) in a bank of deposit or other institution of sound financial standing in their own names and that of the International President, so that no amount can be drawn therefrom without the signatures of the International President, General Secretary-Treasurer, and one member of this Board, and 28 the seal of the Grand Lodge attached. They shall have the power to withdraw investments, or negotiate loans upon securities belong- ing to the International Association of Machinists, or to sell such securities as the needs of the Association require; but no with- drawals, sales or transfers shall be negotiated without the signa- tures of the International President and the General Secretary- Treasurer, together with the signature of at least one member of the General Executive Board, and the seal of the Grand Lodge attached. Decisions and Appeals. Sec. 18. All decisions rendered by the International President and the General Executive Board, through correspondence or in regular session, shall be published in full upon the monthly financial statement for the current month, issued to all lodges by the General Secretary-Treasurer, and all such decisions shall be complied with in full by all parties concerned, in order to entitle them to enter an appeal. Sec. 19. Appeals may be taken from the decisions of the Inter- national President, first to the General Executive Board, next to a convention or through the referendum to the membership. In no case shall any member or lodge appeal to the civil courts for redress until they have first exhausted all their rights of appeal under the laws of the International Association of Machinists. (Constitution of the Grand Lodge, of District Lodges, and of Subordinate Lodges of the International Association of Machinists, 1018) Fair Day's Work — 1. The quantity of work normally performed by an employee during a standard working day, without undue fatigue, according to the conditions of the trade or plant in which he is employed. 2. The standard established by employees, either by agreement or in formal understanding among themselves, as constituting a rate of output that cannot be exceeded without arousing the criticism of their fellow-workers. Fatigue Study — An investigation of the effects of the duration and other conditions of work upon the physical and mental condition of employees. (Philip S. Florence: "Use of Factory Statistics in the Investiga- tion of Industrial Fatigue."— Columbia University Studies in History, 29 Economics, and Public Law, Vol. LXXXI, No. 3, Whole No. 190, 1918) Federal Labor Union — A labor union affiliated directly with the American Federation of Labor in a craft for which there is no national or international union. In April, 1920, 1 there were 1,286 federal labor unions affili- ated directly with the American Federation of Labor; their total membership was 86,784. The Constitution of the American Federation of Labor provides : Article XIV — Miscellaneous. Sec. 2. Seven wage-workers of good character, following any- trade or calling, who are favorable to Trade Unions, whose trade or calling is not organized, and are not members of any body affiliated with this Federation, who will subscribe to this Constitu- tion, shall have the power to form a local body to be known as a "Federal Labor Union," and they shall hold regular meetings for the purpose of strengthening and advancing the Trade Union move- ment, and shall have power to make their own rules in conformity with this Constitution, and shall be granted a local certificate by the President of this Federation; provided, the request for a cer- tificate be indorsed by the nearest Local or National Trade Union officials connected with this Federation, but not more than three Federal Labor Unions shall be chartered in any one city. (Constitu- tion of the American Federation of Labor, 1920) Federation — 1. An organization of labor unions with a central administration under which the constituent members have a substantial degree of self-government. 2. A group of employers' associations with a central administrative organization. Floater — A workman who habitually leaves one locality to follow his trade in another locality merely for the sake of variety; not applied to a workman who changes his 1 Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920; p. 22. 30 locality or occupation because of the seasonal character of the industry. Full Capacity— The maximum potential output of a plant during its regular working period. Full Pay— Compensation to an employee for full time even though he has worked only part time because of con- ditions in production over which he has no control. Full Time — Employment regularly for a standard day or a standard week. Gang — A group of workmen employed to perform an allotted task jointly. Gang Piecework, See Piecework. Garment Workers' Unions, See Needle Trades' Unions. Garnishment of Wages — An order issued by a court to an employer to withhold payment of wages due an em- ployee pending the determination of the claim of a third party against the employee. Grievance — A cause for dissatisfaction or controversy regarding wages, hours, or general conditions of labor. Grievance Committee — 1. A committee established by a labor union to confer with employers for the settlement of grievances brought before it by members of the union. The General Rules of the Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen provide: Consideration of Grievances. No. 5. Any member considering that he has been unjustly dealt with by his employer, or that he is otherwise aggrieved, shall make a statement of the grievance in writing and present the same at a meeting of the lodge. The lodge shall then determine by a majority vote of the members present, employees of the division, whether to sustain or reject the grievance. Should the grievance be sustained, the lodge will then authorize either the local chairman or the local grievance committee to lay the matter before the trainmaster, super- intendent, or other proper officer, and use every means to effect a 31 satisfactory settlement, and report his or their action and all things pertaining to the case to the lodge. If the result is not satisfactory, it may be referred to the general grievance committee for further action. A member or a lodge may withdraw a grievance placed in the hands of a general grievance committee, provided such action is taken before said grievance has been presented by the general grievance committee to the officer of t;he company, but not thereafter. On small systems where the office of salaried chairman is main- tained, upon the request of all lodges on such systems, the President of the Grand Lodge may issue dispensation permitting the General Chairman to handle local grievance. (Constitution and General Rules of the Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen, 'igig) 2. A committee appointed by an employer or by the employees in a single plant to advise regarding the settle- ment of grievances. Helper — An experienced assistant to a journeyman. Hours of Labor — 1. The number of hours agreed upon by employer and employees as constituting a standard working day or standard working week. See Standard Time. 2. The number of hours actually worked. Incorporation of Labor Unions — Vesting of labor unions with corporate powers and the assumption by them of corporate liabilities. Several labor unions are incorporated under state laws, but this is not the general practice. Increase in Rate of Wages, See Wage. Individual Bargaining — A method whereby the condi- tions of labor are fixed by an individual contract between the employer and each employee. This method is the opposite of collective bargaining whereby the conditions are fixed by an agreement between the employer and the employees acting as a unit. Industrial Council — A national or district organization jointly representing employers and employees in an in- 32 dustry. An industrial council ordinarily consists of rep- resentatives of one or more national or international unions and of one or more employers' national associa- tions. In the printing industry the industrial council is known as the International Joint Conference Council of the Com- mercial and Periodical Branches of the Printing Industry. The employees are represented by the International Typographical Union, the International Printing Press- men and Assistants' Union, the International Brotherhood of Bookbinders, and the International Stereotypers' and Electrotypers' Union; the employers: the Closed Shop Branch United Typothetae of America, the Printers' League of America, and the International Association Employing Stereotypers and Electrotypers. Its constitu- tion provides : I — Preamble. Only through joint conferences in the spirit of mutual helpful- ness between employees and employers can the foundation be laid for stable and prosperous conditions within the printing industry. To promote the spirit of co-operation and to deal with the problems of the industry in a way to insure the protection of the interests of all concerned, the establishment of an International Joint Con- ference Council, made up of representatives of employers and em- ployees, which shall be thoroughly informed as to conditions and interests of all parties in the industry and in a position to suggest for ratification regulations which shall eventually become the law of the industry, is considered essential. Compulsory arbitration by law is deemed impracticable as a means of adjusting controversies between employers and employees. Controversies between employers and employees can and should be adjusted through voluntary agreements to refer disputes to boards of conciliation and arbitration composed of representatives of employers and employees in the industry affected. It is in this spirit of arbitration and conciliation that the organization and operation of a Joint International Conference Council for the Printing Industry and Allied Trades is undertaken. 33 II — Proposal. To establish for the Printing Industry and Allied Trades a joint International Conference Council, upon which Council there shall be equal representation of employers and employees. The International Conference to be known as "The International Joint Conference Council" hereinafter referred to in this agreement as the Interna- tional Council. Ill — Scope of Activities. The International Council is to devote its activities not primarily to disputes, to the fixation of wage scales, the making of specific wage agreements, and the like, but to matters of policy. Among the activities which might come within the scope of the International Council are the following: (a) Outlining of general trade policies which will secure the greatest degree of co-operation between employer and employee, and at the same time insure full protection of the interests of the public (b) Consideration, reporting, and advising on any legislation affecting the trade. (c) Studying and proposing methods for securing uniform work- ing hours and shop practices. (d) Co-operation with those departments of the Government exercising jurisdiction to maintain such selling prices as will insure a reasonable remuneration to both employers and employees. (e) Consideration and review of the causes of any disputes which arise in the Industry. All conciliation and arbitration proc- esses covered in existing agreements must be exhausted before appeals are taken to the International Council. Where no arbitration or trade agreements are in effect, appeals may be taken through regular and recognized channels to the International Council. (f) Investigation of the question of apprenticeship conditions; adoption of suitable methods of selection for apprenticeship, and the technical training for apprentices, learners, and journeymen throughout the industry; the improvement of process, designs, and standards of workmanship; to seek adequate representation on the control and management of all technical institutes ; to consider and report upon all improvements of processes, machinery, and organ- ization, and appropriate questions relating to management and the examination of industrial experiments, with special reference to co- operation in carrying new ideas into effect, and full consideration 34 of the employees' point of view in relation thereto. The better utilization of the practical knowledge and experience of employees, with provision for facilities for the full consideration and utilization of acceptable inventions and improvements designed by employers or employees, and for the adequate safeguarding of the rights of the designer of such improvements. (g) Determination of practicability of establishing wage adjust- ment boards throughout the industry. (h) Consideration of any matters of general interest to the Trade, whether industrial, educative, economic, legislative, or hygienic may be taken up. IV— Authority. (a) Each side shall submit its bill of particulars for action in the form of resolutions, which, after having been unanimously passed by the International Council, shall be submitted for ratifica- tion to the constituent bodies of the organizations, parties to this agreement. Resolutions passed by the International Council and ratified by the constituent bodies of the organizations, shall be bind- ing upon all parties to this agreement and shall become the law of the trade. (b) For the purpose of carrying out the intents and objects for which this International Council is formed, local unions, chapels, and shop committees affiliated with the respective International Unions, parties to this agreement, local allied printing trades coun- cils and local associations of employers in the respective trades dealing with the unions under this agreement, shall be recognized as proper and legitimate agencies through which the International Council is to function. (c) It shall be the right of any of these local groups of print- ing trades employers and of local groups of employees to submit to the International Council for consideration and action any proposal of mutual interest, provided, however, such proposals will not violate the legitimate processes and relations in existence between local unions and respective international unions or be in conflict with existing agreements. (d) That all local agreements hereafter entered into between local unions and local employers shall be underwritten and guar- anteed by the International Union having jurisdiction over the particular trade making such local agreement. In the event that any local union or local employer violates or disregards the terms 35 of this agreement the action of such recalcitrant union or employer shall be publicly disavowed by this International Council and the aggrieved parties shall be furnished with an official document to that effect. V — Membership and Organization. (a) The International Council shall consist of eight members, four chosen by the ratifying employers' association, viz.: 2 from the United Typothetae of America, Closed Shop Branch, I from Printers' League of America, 1 from the International Association of Employing Stereotypers and Electrotypers, and 4 by the ratifying labor organizations, viz. : 1 each from International Typo- graphical Union, International Printing Pressmen and Assistants' Union, International Stereotypers' and Electrotypers' Union, Inter- national Brotherhood of Bookbinders. (b) The International Council may, at any regular meeting, receive applications from organizations of either employees or em- ployers, who have not ratified this agreement and by unanimous vote may admit such applicants to all privileges and responsibilities of this agreement. VI — Constitutional Questions. (a) Election of the members of the International Council shall be in each case determined in the manner prescribed by the ratify- ing organization. Alternates to act for members in their absence, shall be appointed or elected in the same manner as prescribed herein for members. The members shall hold office until their suc- cessors are duly chosen. (b) Each group of the ratifying members of the International Council shall select a chairman. These chairmen shall call meetings and preside jointly. (c) On written demand of a majority of the members of either side of the International Council, the joint chairmen shall call a meeting at a convenient time and place; and see to it that a notice is sent to each member of the International Council, which notice shall state the time and place and purpose of the meeting. (d) A record of the transactions of each International Council meeting shall be kept and distributed to the members of the Inter- national Council. (e) Unanimous vote is necessary to carry any resolution in- volving the establishment of general principles affecting any of the 36 trades, parties to this agreement. Ordinary routine business of the International Council may be decided by a majority vote. (f) For the sake of expediting business, the meetings of the International Council will ordinarily be confined to members. The International Council may, however, adopt such rules and regulations governing the attendance of other than members at the meetings as they deem advisable and necessary. (g) The International Council may adopt from time to time such rules of procedure in the conduct of business as may properly come before it when such rules will not conflict with any procedure set forth in the general plan. (h) Amendments to this general agreement shall be submitted in the form of resolutions and passed and approved in the manner prescribed in paragraph (e), Section VI, and paragraph (a), Sec- tion IV. VII — Finance. (a) The expense of attendance at meetings shall be borne separately by the respective bodies of the International Council unless otherwise mutually agreed upon. (b) Expenditures for meeting places or clerical services will be borne jointly. (c) All accounts will be audited and approved by an Executive Committee selected from the membership of the International Coun- cil which will be authorized to act in all such matters. VIII — Withdrawal from Membership. (a) Any constituent body may withdraw from the International Council by giving six months' notice in writing to the International Council. In the lumber industry in the northwest the industrial council is known as the Loyal Legion of Loggers and Lumbermen. It consists of the owners, operators, and employees engaged in logging, milling, and manufactur- ing lumber in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. It was established in November, 1917. The following statement is quoted from its constitution and by-laws : Four times during the first year of the organization's existence, delegates and representatives were called into conventions to confer with General Disque. Resolutions, passed at these meetings, placed in his hands all matters of disagreement between workers and em- 37. ployers, as touching wages, hours of work, and living conditions. Although opposed by those who have lived off the strife between capital and labor, the Loyal Legion continued to grow in numbers and internal cohesiveness, until, at the end of the first year, the membership had reached a total of over one hundred and twenty- five thousand. It had accomplished much. A brief recapitulation of only those items of the highest import shows that the achievements herein- under set forth are to the credit of the organization: (i) The stabilization of the industry, and reduction of the annual labor turnover to a nominal figure. (2) The elimination of strikes, lock-outs, sedition, and sabotage, and the birth of a better understanding between the employer and the workman. (3) The establishment of the basic eight-hour day, a point which had been a matter of contention for years. (4) A vast improvement in camp and living conditions and camp sanitation. (5) An increase in the production of lumber for general war purposes, including the building of ships; and an increase of over 1,500 per cent in October, '1918, of specially selected spruce, fir, and cedar, suitable for airplane manufacture, over the similar production in October, 1917. (6) Finally, through the mutual co-operation of employer and workman, it has enabled the latter to take a real place in discussing and shaping the policies of the industry as a whole, through the establishment of the Local Conference Committees, District Com- mittees, and the Central Council. Upon the granting of the armistice on November 11, 1918, the Loyal Legion was confronted with the withdrawal of Government supervision. The vital question to the members was, "Would that mean a return to the former conditions, longer hours, and less wages, strikes, sabotage, and insidious propaganda, or could the Loyal Legion, which had accomplished so much for them, be con- tinued as a peace organization?" The requests that an opportunity be given for the membership to determine its future became so many that conventions were held in the City of Portland, Oregon, Decem- ber 6, 1918, and in the City of Spokane, Washington, December 9, 1918. The action taken at these conventions was overwhelmingly in 38 favor of continuation. New members of the twelve district boards were selected by both operators and employees, and the new Board of Directors, which consists of the Chairmen of the District Boards, was instructed to formulate a permanent plan and program for the Loyal Legion, and to draw up a constitution and rules to govern it. This Board of Directors was called together for the purpose in- dicated on January 6, 1919, and the rules and regulations herewith appended, were adopted. There are four steps provided for adjusting contro- versies; first, Employees' Conference Committees; sec- ond, District Boards, consisting of four employers and four employees; third, Board of Directors, consisting of twelve employers and twelve employees ; fourth, Neutral Adjustment Board, consisting of three members. The organization of these bodies is as follows : Article III. Sec. 2. The Employees' Conference Committee of each local shall consist of the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, and Secretary. * * * * Sec. 3. The industrial relations between employer and employee shall be conducted through the Employees' Conference Com- mittee in the manner described. Two classifications of such rela- tions are recognized: "Matters of local concern" and "Questions of general import." "Matters of local concern'' shall consist of questions affecting the living, working, and recreation conditions of each local ; unwarranted discharge of members ; tool charges and breakage ; and all local con- ditions surrounding the employment or affecting the obligations of members of the organization in that local, and exclusive of "Ques- tions of general import." "Questions of general import" are those affecting the industry by districts, or as a whole, such as wages and hours, general adminis- tration affairs, and all matters of general value either to locals or members of the association. Consideration must be given the fact that questions of hours and wages, which in some cases are ap- parently of local concern, in reality affect the entire industry and must be considered as "Questions of general import." Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of the Employees' Conference Com- mittee to confer with the operator or operator's representative 39 on all differences of local concern arising in the local from which it is elected, and to endeavor to adjust such differences in a manner satisfactory to both parties. This committee shall be strictly an employees' committee and shall at all times act as the spokesman for the men concerned, rather than as an arbitration board. Upon a failure to agree with the operator on any question under considera- tion, the Employees' Conference Committee shall submit the case in writing to the Chairman of the District Board, through the Headquarters Office, for action by that body at its next meeting. The Employees' Conference Committee may initiate questions of general import but shall not have jurisdiction in the final settlement or interpretation of such questions. * * * * Article IV. * * * * Sec. 2. District Boards for each district of the Loyal Legion shall consist of four employees, two millmen and two loggers, to be elected at the annual convention by the employee members from among the Local Employees' Conference Committees of the District, and of four operators, two millmen and two loggers, selected by the employers of the district concerned. * * * * Sec. 3. The duty of the District Board shall be to hear all mat- ters on appeal from the Employees' Conference Committee; and it may initiate matters of general import for the consideration of the Board of Directors. The decision of the District Board on matters of local concern shall be final, except that it shall be clear to the Board of Directors that a fair and impartial hearing was given to all matters brought before it by the Employees' Conference Com- mittee. Upon a failure to agree on matters submitted, the District Board shall refer the case or cases in writing to the Board of Directors, but no such reference shall be made until the District Board shall have exhausted all honorable means of adjusting the question. It shall be the duty of the Chairman of the District Board to report all cases before it, and the disposition of the same to the Secretary-Manager. An appeal from any decision by the District Board may be taken to the Board of Directors upon a proper show- ing by those interested. The employees' Board Chairman and the operators' Board Chairman shall be supplied with a copy of the report and the proceedings of all District Board meetings within 40 five days after adjournment. Regular meetings of the District Board shall be held ten days prior to any regular meetings of the Board of Directors. The District Board may also be convened upon call of the Secretary-Manager of the Loyal Legion at any time. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors composed of the employees' District Board Chairman, and the operators' District Board Chair- man, of each district, shall constitute the supreme body of the Loyal Legion of Loggers and Lumbermen. * * * * Sec. 6 The President of the Loyal Legion shall be the presiding officer for all meetings of the Board of Directors. He will not be entitled to a vote except in case of an equal division in the vote, of the Board of Directors, when all members are present, which would mean that twelve votes were cast in the affirmative and twelve votes in the negative. In such case the President will cast the deciding vote, but any question so decided shall be subject to appeal in the following manner : The employee members of the Board of Directors will select one disinterested person, not connected with the logging or lumber in- dustry, to represent them, and the employer members will make a similar selection. The, two men so selected shall determine upon a third disinterested party, who, if available, is to be a Federal Judge, and to the three men thus selected, the question that has been ap- pealed will be referred for final decision. All decisions of the Board of Directors shall be promulgated by a bulletin or bulletins bearing the names of, and the approval of, the Board of Directors; said bul- letin or bulletins shall include all resolutions and decisions regarding wage scales and camp and mill regulations, and shall supersede all previous bulletins on the same subject. Industrial Union — A local or national union in which membership is open to all workmen in the industry ir- respective of occupation or craft. The United Mine Workers of America, for example, is an industrial union which admits to its membership workers in every occupation in the coal mining industry such as miners, blacksmiths, machinists, carpenters, electricians, engineers, firemen, brakemen, drivers, load- ers, and laborers. Its constitution provides : 41 Article II. Objects. First. To unite in one organization, regardless of creed, color, or nationality, all workmen eligible for membership, employed in and around coal mines, coal washers, and coke ovens on the American Continent. (Constitution of International Union United Mine Workers of America, 1920) The American Federation of L,abor, at its 1901 Con- vention, while holding that it was organized on a craft basis, made the following important exceptions: Owing to the isolation of some few industries from thickly populated centers where the overwhelming number follow one branch thereof, and owing to the fact that in some industries com- paratively few workers are engaged over whom separate organ- izations claim jurisdiction, we believe that jurisdiction in such in- dustries by the paramount organization would yield the best results to the workers therein, at least until the development of organ- ization of each' branch has reached a stage wherein these may be placed, without material injury to all parties in interest, in affiliation with their national trade unions. (Report of the Proceedings of the Twenty-first Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1901 ; p. 240) Industrial Workers of the World (I. W. W.)— A labor organization formed in 1905 to include workers in all oc- cupations, skilled or unskilled, irrespective of craft. This organization does not sign wage agreements with em- ployers that interfere in any way with the right to strike ; it demands the abolition of the wage system and the elimination of the employer. The estimated membership of the Industrial Workers of the World in 1919 was as follows : Average Name of Union Membership 1 1919 Lumber Workers' Industrial Union 20,000 Metal Mine Workers' Industrial Union 15,000 Agricultural Workers' Industrial Union 6,000 1 American Labor Year Book, 1919-1920; p. 195. 42 Construction Workers' Industrial Union 5,000 Marine Transport Workers' Industrial Union 4,000 Metal and Machinery Workers' Industrial Union 4,000 Railroad Workers' Industrial Union 2,000 Textile Workers' Industrial Union 1,000 Hotel, Restaurant, and Domestic Workers' Indus- trial Union 1,000 Printing and Publishing Workers' Industrial Union 1 Ship Builders' Union 1,000 Local unions not transferred to industrial unions 7,000 General Recruiting Union 4,000 Injunction — A writ issued by a court of equity to restrain an employer or employees from proceeding with a course of action that would result in injury for which the injured party would have no adequate means of legal redress. The use of an injunction frequently is opposed by labor unions on the ground that it abridges the right to trial by jury and that it is not strictly confined to the protection of property rights but is used to enjoin the exercise of personal rights, such as the right to induce an employee of a non-union shop to become a member of a labor union, to picket a plant in which a strike has oc- curred, or to distribute circulars among workers in a non- union shop. For example, the Supreme Court of the United States in Duplex Printing Press Company vs. various defendants individually and as representatives of a district council and a local lodge of the International Association of Machinists, January 3, 1921, ordered: There should be an injunction against defendants and the associa- tions represented by them, and all members of those associations, restraining them, according to the prayer of the bill, from inter- 1 Membership not given. 43 fering or attempting to interfere with the sale, transportation, or delivery in interstate commerce of any printing press or presses manufactured by complainant, or the transportation, carting, in- stallation, use, operation, exhibition, display, or repairing of any such press or presses, or the performance of any contract or con- tracts made by complainant respecting the sale, transportation, delivery, or installation of any such press or presses, by causing or threatening to cause loss, damage, trouble, or inconvenience to any person, firm, or corporation concerned in the purchase, transporta- tion, carting, installation, use, operation, exhibition, display, or repairing of any such press or presses, or the performance of any such contract or contracts; and also and especially from using any force, threats, command, direction, or even persuasion with the object or having the effect of causing any person or persons to decline employment, cease employment, or not seek employment, or to refrain from work or cease working under any person, firm, or corporation being a purchaser or prospective purchaser of any printing press or presses from complainant, or engaged in hauling, carting, delivering, installing, handling, using, operating, or repair- ing any such press or presses for any customer of complainant. Other threatened conduct by defendants or the associations they represent, or the members of such associations, in furtherance of the secondary boycott should be included in the injunction accord- ing to the proofs. The following is an example of an extremely severe injunction issued against a labor union : We therefore, in consideration thereof, and of the particular matters in said bill set forth, DO STRICTLY COMMAND YOU, the said above named defendants, and the persons before mentioned, and each and every one of you, that you do absolutely DESIST AND REFRAIN : From in any manner interfering with, hindering, obstructing or stopping the business of the complainants, respectively, or of their respective agents, servants or employees in the operation of the busi- ness of the complainants, respectively; From picketing or maintaining any picket or pickets at or near the premises of the complainants, respectively, or along the routes followed by the employees of the complainants, respectively, in going to and from their homes and to and from the place of busi- ness of the complainants, respectively; 44 From watching or spying upon the complainants' places of busi- ness, and upon the employees of the complainants, respectively, and from watching or spying upon those who enter or leave said places of business, or who seek to enter the employment of the com- plainants, respectively, or who seek to do business with the com- plainants, respectively ; From assaulting or intimidating by threats or otherwise the em- ployees of the complainants, respectively, or any persons who may become or seek to become employees of the complainants, respec- tively ; From congregating about or near the places of business of the complainants, respectively, or any place where the employees of the complainants, respectively, are lodged or boarded, for the purpose of compelling, inducing or soliciting the employees of the com- plainants, respectively, to leave their employment or to refuse to work for the complainants, respectively, or for the purpose of preventing, or attempting to prevent, persons from freely entering into the employment of the complainants, respectively ; From entering upon the grounds or places where the employees of the complainants, respectively, are at work for the purpose, or with the effect, of hindering, interfering with or obstructing the business of such employees or of the complainants, respectively; From interfering with, or attempting to hinder the complainants, respectively, in carrying on their respective business in the usual and ordinary way; From following the employees of the complainants, respectively, to their homes, or to other places, or from calling upon such em- ployees for the, purpose, or with the effect, of inducing them to leave the employment of the complainants, respectively, or for the purpose, or with the effect of molesting or intimidating such em- ployees or their families; From attempting by payment or promise of money, employment or other rewards, to induce employees of the complainants to leave their employment ; From instituting or maintaining any boycott or boycotts against the complainants, respectively; From compelling or inducing, or attempting to compel or induce, any of the employees of the complainants, respectively, to refuse or to fail to do their work or to perform their duties as such em- ployees ; 45 From sending any circulars or other communications to cus- tomers of thes complainants, respectively, or to other persons who might deal or transact business with the complainants, respectively, for the purpose, or with the effect of dissuading such persons from so doing ; From doing anything which subjects any of the complainants' employees to hatred, criticism, censure, scorn, disgrace or annoyance because of their employment by the complainants, respectively, until this Honorable Court in Chancery sitting, shall make order to the contrary. Hereof fail not, under penalty of what the law directs. (Documentary History of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, Vol. II, pp. 118-119) A union sometimes obtains an injunction against another union. For example, the officers and members of Local Union 257, Painters and Decorators of America, with national headquarters at Lafayette, Indiana, ob- tained the following decree against the officers and mem- bers of Local Union 257, Painters and Decorators of America, with national headquarters at Baltimore, Mary- land: It is ordered, adjudged, and decreed that the defendant associa- tion, the defendants, and each and every of them, their committees, agents, and servants, be restrained and strictly enjoined from in- terfering and from combining, conspiring, or attempting to inter- fere, with the employment of members of the plaintiffs' said associa- tion, by representing or causing to be represented in express or implied terms, to any employer of said members of plaintiffs' association, or to any person or persons or corporation who might become employers of any of the plaintiffs, that such employers will suffer or are likely to suffer some loss or trouble in their business for employing or continuing to employ said members of plaintiffs' said association; or by representing, directly or indirectly, for the purpose of interfering with the employment of members of the plaintiffs' said association, to any who have contracts or may have contracts for services to be performed by employers of members of plaintiffs' said association, that such persons will or are likely to suffer some loss or trouble in their business for allowing such employers of members of plaintiffs' said association (and because they are such employers) to obtain or perform such contracts; or 4 6 by intimidating, or attempting to intimidate, by threats, direct or indirect, express or implied, of loss or trouble in business, or other- wise, any person or persons or corporation who now are employing or may hereafter employ or desire to employ any of the members of the plaintiffs' said association; or by attempting by any scheme or conspiracy, among themselves or with others, to annoy, hinder, or interfere with, or prevent any person or persons or corporation from employing or continuing to employ a member or members of plaintiffs' said association; and from any and all acts, or the use of any methods, which by putting or attempting to put any person or persons or corporation in fear of loss or trouble, will tend to hinder, impede, or obstruct members, or any member, of the plain- tiffs' said association from securing employment or continuing in employment. And that the plaintiffs recover their costs, taxed as in an action of law. (Plant vs. Woods, 176 Mass. 492) Inside Shop — A plant operated under the direct super- vision of an employer in which working conditions readily can be inspected by a labor union or by city or state officials ; a term commonly used in the needle trades. International Union, See National or International Union. Intimidation — 1. An act or a threat by an employer to discourage interference with the continuous operation of his plant, or to compel employees, through fear of dis- crimination or penalty, to act in accordance with his dictates. 2. An act or threat by employees to prevent others from accepting employment in a plant where a dispute occurs, or otherwise to influence their course of action through fear of reproach or physical injury; not applied to peaceful picketing. Irregularity of Employment— Interruption of employ- ment resulting from such causes as seasonal fluctuation in the demand for the product, lack of transportation facilities, shortage of materials, faulty management, or inclement weather precluding outside work, as in the 47 building trades. Irregularity of employment may involve layoff, part time, or unemployment. Job Ticket — Written instructions issued to an employee or group of employees with detailed directions for the performance of a task. Job Work — Labor for which the compensation is in a lump sum, for the performance of a quantity of work taken as a whole, irrespective of the time required for its completion. Joint Committee — 1. A committee that includes rep- resentatives of both employer and employees. 2. A committee that includes representatives of two or more groups of employees. Joint Conference Council, See Industrial Council. Joint Industrial Council, See Industrial Council. Joint Plant Council, See Shop Committee System. Journeyman — A workman who has mastered the tech- nical requirements of a craft that requires special prepara- tion or training. Jurisdictional Dispute — A controversy between labor unions regarding the scope of the trade over which each claims the right to exercise authority. For example, at the 1919 Convention of the American Federation of Labor, the special committee on jurisdic- tion over construction of reinforced concrete ships sub- mitted the following report : Your committee finds, after hearing the representatives of all trades interested, that the construction of reinforced concrete ships is performed in the same manner as is the construction of reinforced concrete buildings. We therefore recommend that all construction work on reinforced concrete ships shall be performed by the trades having jurisdiction over the construction work on reinforced con- crete buildings. (Report of the Proceedings of the Thirty-ninth Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1919; p. 454) 4 8 In another instance the Maintenance of Way Em- ployees claimed jurisdiction over the construction, repair, and alteration of all buildings owned by railroads, thereby encroaching on the jurisdiction claimed by the building trades unions. After consideration of this dispute, the following action was taken at the 1919 Convention of the American Federation of Labor: We, therefore, recommend that the convention direct the Brother- hood of Maintenance of Way Employees and Railway Shop Laborers to cease encroaching on the jurisdiction lines of other affiliated organizations, and to transfer to the respective international unions all those members now within their organization who properly come under the jurisdiction of other international unions, and the Executive Council of the American Federation of Labor be in- structed to see that this is done within a reasonable time, and in the event that the Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employees and Railway Shop Laborers fail to comply with same, the Executive Council of the American Federation of Labor is hereby empowered to suspend the charter of the Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employees and Railway Shop Laborers until such time as they comply with this decision. (Report of the Proceedings of the Thirty-ninth Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1919; p. 462) The departments of the American Federation of Labor attempt to settle jurisdictional disputes. The National Board for Jurisdictional Awards, Building Industry, is another agency established for the same purpose. Kansas Court of Industrial Relations, See Compulsory Adjudication. Knights of Labor — A national labor organization formed about 1869. This organization developed from a little local union of seven garment cutters in 1869 to a vast amalgamation of more than 600,000 members in 1886, the year of its greatest power and influence. The real significance of the history of the Knights of Labor lies in the aims, the policies, and the structure of that organization. In government it was more highly centralized, perhaps, than any 49 general labor organization that has ever existed for any considerable length of time. Its general executive board, to illustrate by a brief statement, could suspend any local officer or member, revoke any charter, and by a unanimous vote, terminate any strike, general or local. In structure it was polyglot. It began as a trade union, but soon introduced mixed assemblies in which members of any trade were received; incorporated in its ranks employers, professional men, in fact any person over sixteen years of age not a lawyer, banker, professional gambler, or liquor dealer; and amalgamated these potentially discordant elements into district assemblies and finally into a national organization from which local autonomy of any sort was practically eliminated. Lastly, the official policy of the Knights of Labor was to discourage strikes and boycotts and place the main reliance upon political action, co-operation, and education. Back of its structure, government, and policies was the inspiring theory that mechanical inventions are making the skilled trades increasingly dependent upon the lower grades of unskilled labor, and that the laboring classes must be elevated en masse or not at all. "That is the most perfect government," the official motto asserts, "in which an injury to one is the concern of all." The period from 1886 to the present time marks a decided, though possibly a temporary, victory for the trade union as opposed to the labor union, for federation as opposed to amalgamation. The Knights of Labor declined, at first slowly and then with head- long rapidity. First they became involved in extensive strikes and costly co-operative schemes, the failure of which damaged the prestige and drained the treasury of the order. Then their peculiar organization brought them into inevitable conflict with the strict trade unions, whose cause was taken up and vigorously championed by the Federation of Labor. And as the Knights declined, their political entanglements became more marked. (Adams and Sumner, Labor Problems, The Macmillan Company, 1919; pp. 219-221) Label, See Union Label. Label League — An association of labor unions for the purpose of stimulating the demand for union label prod- ucts and for preventing misuse of the label. Labor — 1. Human effort, mental or physical, put forth for the sake of economic gain. So 2. A body of workmen, as distinguished from em- ployers and capitalists. 3. Work performed by employees, operatives, and artisans. Labor Movement — The organized effort of wage earn- ers to better their economic conditions by means of local, state, national, and international unions. Labor Turnover — The frequency of change in the per- sonnel of a working force. Students of the problem are not in full agreement as to the proper method of measuring labor turnover. This subject is discussed in the following references : Carl G. Barth: "Labor Turnover." — Bulletin of the Taylor Society, Vol. 5, No. 2, April, 1920; p. 52. Frederick S. Crum : "How to Figure Labor Turnover." — Quarterly Publications of the Ameri- can Statistical Association, New Series, Vol. 16, No. 126, June, 1919 ; p. 361. Paul H. Douglas : "Methods of Computing Labor Turn- over." — American Economic Review, Vol. 9, No. 2, June, 1919; p. 402. Sumner H. Slichter : "The Scope and Nature of the Labor Turnover Problem." — Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. XXXIV, No. 2, February, 1920 ; p. 329. Labor Union — 1. A labor organization the purpose of which is collective bargaining with employers regarding wages, hours, and general conditions of labor. 2. Sometimes applied in a narrow sense to an organ- ization of unskilled workers. Lapsed Member — A member of a union who has been suspended for non-payment of dues or other indebtedness to the union. In a closed shop, employees who are mem- bers of a union ordinarily refuse to work with a lapsed member. Layoff — Temporary cessation of employment due or- dinarily to lack of orders for the product ; a layoff does not constitute permanent discharge. Si League, See Isabel League; National or International Union. Learner — A person who engages in an occupation, without a contract for a specific period of time, in order to improve his knowledge of the craft. Limitation of Output — 1. The establishment of a standard of output by employees, either expressly or by implication, as the maximum limit for each task, not to be exceeded within a specified period of time. 2. The establishment of a maximum limit of produc- tion by one or more employers. Living Wage — A rate of wage sufficient to permit the maintenance and progressive improvement of the Ameri- can standard of living in the group to which the worker belongs. Mr. James Duncan, Vice-President of the American Federation of Labor, has made the following statement : The principle and purpose of the so-called living wage also needs to include a wage sufficient to supply a reasonable margin to provide and build up a fund for support of the wage earner and family during times of enforced idleness and to meet the unremunerative period of old age. Local Union — A labor union the members of which are employed in one plant, city, or locality and through which the individual workers act collectively. A local union or- dinarily is a branch of a national or international union. Lockout — 1. The discontinuance of operations in one or more plants by employers acting individually or col- lectively, in order to resist labor demands or to enforce the acceptance of conditions of labor by employees. 2. Refusal to continue to give employment to a group of workmen. Lodge, See National or International Union. Loss in Working Time — Interruption of production, 52 for which the employee himself is not primarily respon- sible, but which is occasioned by failure to receive mate- rials or some similar cause. See Allowance. Loyal Legion of Loggers and Lumbermen, See Indus- trial Council. Lump-of-Labor Theory — A theory that there is only a definite quantity of work to be performed and that the introduction of labor-saving devices or methods, by in- creasing the output per employee, will result in a loss of employment by part of the workers. Management — 1. Administration of an industrial or commercial enterprise. 2. The body of officials that directs and supervises the operations of an industrial or commercial enterprise, including executives such as the general manager, the production manager, and the sales manager. Mediation — The effort of an outside agency to. bring together an employer and employees for mutual agree- ment in adjusting a controversy or in removing a cause for grievance. Metal Trades' Unions — In machine shops, foundries, and similar metal working industries the following national and international trade unions are represented: Average Name of Union Membership 1 1920 International Association of Machinists 330,800 International Brotherhood of Boiler Makers, Iron Ship Builders and Helpers of America . . . 103,000 International Molders' Union of North America 57,300 1 Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920 ; pp. 37-38. S3 International Brotherhood of Blacksmiths, Drop Forgers, and Helpers 48,300 Amalgamated Sheet Metal Workers' Interna- tional Alliance 21,800 Metal Polishers' International Union 10,000 International Brotherhood of Foundry Em- ployees 9,100 Pattern Makers' League of North America 9,000 International Federation of Technical Engineers, Architects and Draftsmen's Union 3,500 International Union of Stove Mounters 1,900 The total membership figures of the following unions include workmen employed not only in the metal trades, but also in other industries : Average Name of Union Membership 1 1920 International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers of America 139,200 International Union of Steam and Operating En- gineers 32,000 United Association of Plumbers and Steamfitters of the United States and Canada 32,000 Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers 31,500 International Brotherhood of Stationary Fire- men and Oilers 29,600 International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers 24,200 Mine Workers' Unions — Among the workmen em- ployed in the mining industry, the following national and international unions are represented : 1 Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920; pp. 37-38. 54 Average Name of Union Membership * 1920 United Mine Workers of America 393,600 International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers 21,100 Oil Field, Gas Well and Refinery Workers 20,900 Quarry Workers' International Union of North America 3,000 Minimum Wage — 1. The rate of wage agreed upon between employer and employees as constituting the minimum rate to be paid. 2. A minimum rate of wage for women and minors fixed by a board established by an act of legislature. Motion Study — A study of the performance of a par- ticular operation in order to determine methods by which it can be simplified and useless motions eliminated. See Time Study. National or International Union — A national union is a federation of local trade or industrial unions in one trade or industry in the United States. An international union is a federation of local trade or industrial unions in the United States and Canada, occasionally with branches in Mexico. A national or international union sometimes is designated as a brotherhood, a league, or a lodge. In 1920 there were about 120 national and international unions with a total membership of approximately 5,000,000. While the functions of the various national and international unions differ considerably, they gener- ally fix national and international working rules for the trade or industry, negotiate trade agreements, control the 1 Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920; pp. 37-38. 55 initiation, management, and termination of strikes, con- trol the declaration of boycotts, organize local unions and administer strike and benefit funds. The administration of strike, death, and sick benefits in some cases is vested in the national union; in other cases it is vested in the local union with a small degree of centralized control by the national union. For example, in the Granite Cutters' International Association 95% of the general dues collected by the local unions are paid to the international union, in the International Molders' Union 78%, in the Boot and Shoe Workers' Union 67%, in the Pattern Makers' League 57%, and in the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners 45% of the general dues are paid into the treasuries of the national unions. Needle Trades' Unions — In the needle trades, which are engaged in the manufacture of men's, women's, and children's clothing and garments, the following national and international unions are represented : Average Name of Union Membership 1020 Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America 1 . . 175,000 International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union 2 105,400 United Garment Workers of America 2 45,900 United Cloth, Hat, and Cap Makers of North America 3 15,000 'Not affiliated with the American Federation of Labor; mem- bership figures obtained from the Secretary of the Union. 2 MembersEip figures obtained from Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920; pp. 37-38. * Suspended from the American Federation of Labor, 1917 ; membership figures obtained from "Needle Trades Form Huge Alliance," Advance, Dec. 17, 1920; p. 1. 56 International Fur Workers' Union of the United States and Canada 1 12,100 Journeymen Tailors' Union of America 1 12,000 A number of local unions of men's neckwear makers are also organized in the trade. Night Work— Labor performed after the termination of the normal daylight period. Non-Unionist — 1. A workman who is not a member of a labor union. 2. A workman eligible to join a labor union who refuses to become a member. Non-Union Shop — 1. A plant in which union mem- bers are not employed. This is sometimes called a closed non-union shop, because it is closed to union members. In a non-union shop an employee sometimes signs an individual contract of employment stipulating that he will not join a union. The following is an example of such a contract : • I apply to the .... Company for employment as ... . and if employed agree that such employment will be upon the fol- lowing terms and conditions : Wages .... Hours of labor to be arranged as employer may deem expedient, not exceeding .... in any one day, not exceeding .... in any one week; overtime to be optional, for which time and one- half will be paid. Factory conditions are accepted as satisfactory and will not be the subject of a controversy during my employment, though suggestions for improvement will be welcomed by employer. I understand that employment is upon a strictly non-union basis, and I agree that while retained in employment I will not be or be- come a member in a trade union ; that if I hereafter apply for mem- bership in any trade union I will at once notify my employer, who may thereupon terminate my employment; that upon termination 1 Membership figures obtained from Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920; pp. 37-38. 57 of my employment for any reason I will not in any manner annoy, molest, or interfere with the business or customers or employees of said employer. (Proceedings of the First Industrial Conference, 1919; PP. 234-235) The following is a notice issued by a non-union shop : To whom it may concern: Notice is hereby given that the business of the undersigned is operated upon the non-union basis ; that its employees are not mem- bers of labor unions ; that each of its employees has in writing ac- cepted employment by the undersigned on the understanding that such employee is not a member of a labor union; that the under- signed maintains a non-union shop, and that during his employment said employee will not become a member of any labor union, and will have no dealings, communications, or interviews with the officers, agents, or members of any labor union in relation to mem- bership by such employee in any labor union, or in relation to the employment of such employee. (Proceedings of the First Industrial Conference, 1919; p. 234) 2. A plant in which a labor union forbids its members to accept employment. This is sometimes known by labor men as a scab, rat, unfair, or foul shop. The Constitution of the Cigar Makers' International Union provides: Sec. 194. When a local union shall decide to close any shop to the members of the International Union, three officers of the local union shall furnish a full statement of the facts to the International President, who shall furnish a copy of the same to the International Executive Board, who shall have power to approve, reject, or modify the terms of the closing of said shop. No shop shall be closed unless two-thirds of the members of the International Execu- tive Board vote in favor of the closures. (Constitution of the Cigar Makers' International Union of America, 1920) See Individual Bargaining. Old-age Certificate — A card issued by a local union to an aged member permitting him to work under condi- tions other than those laid down by the rules of the union. See Employment at Will. 58 Open Shop — A plant in which both union and non- union labor is employed without discrimination. The following statement, which was posted in the factories of one large shoe manufacturing company, is an example of the declaration of an open shop policy : Labor Unions: Policy of the . . . . Company. i. There are several labor unions in the shoe industry. 2. The position of this Company regarding each and all of these unions is entirely neutral. 3. The Company cannot advise an employee whether or not to join a union or whether or not to join any particular union. This question the employee must decide for himself. 4. The Company cannot allow any discrimination against, nor can it favor any person because of membership in a labor union. The Company must do what it believes to be right by everybody working here. 5. The Company must act toward all employees according to the facts in each and every problem. All employees have the right to the same treatment whether or not they belong to this or that organiza- tion. 6. The policy of this Company with regard to becoming a union shop has not changed. Any statement that the Company intends to compel employees to join any particular union is not true. 7. We have not yet been convinced that the Company ought to accept in their entirety the principles and policies of any one labor union now existing in the shoe manufacturing industry. 8. This Company does intend to avoid committing any aggressive act which is unjustifiably antagonistic to or hastily directed against any labor union. 9. We recognize that the true interests of the Company and its employees are identical. We believe that the most satisfactory solution of problems arising in this factory can be had only by frank, open conferences with employees, thus utilizing their understanding of shop conditions. 10. There should be the freest possible opportunity to discuss problems with the Company management either: A. Personally, direct with the foreman, employment supervisor, superintendent, or general manager. 59 B. Through special committees chosen by the employees in any department. C. Through regularly elected general committees. If and when such committees are chosen, it is clear that every employee should have an equal vote. Although ordinarily an open shop is not established by written agreement, the following provision creating an open shop is included in the trade agreement of the Bos- ton Elevated Railway Company: Sec. 2. The Company will do nothing to prevent or discourage any employee from becoming or continuing to be a member of the Asso- ciation, and will in no way discriminate against a member thereof because of such membership. The Association will not discriminate against any person in the employ of the Company because of his refusal to join the Association or to continue a member thereof, but if any member of the Association is expelled or suspended from his membership therein for violation of any of the provisions of this agreement, the Company, being satisfied that such expulsion or suspension was for such reason and was justifiable, shall dismiss such employee from its service. If any member of the Association employed by the Company neglects or refuses to pay to the Associa- tion any dues or assessments which have duly become a liability from him to the Association during his membership thereof, and while such employee, and before notice in writing by him to the Secretary of Division No. 589 of the Association of which he is a member, of his desire and intention to discontinue his membership therein, and shall continue such refusal to pay such sum or sums as are so justly due from him to the Association, after a determina- tion by the Company of the justice of the claims of the Association for such sums from such employee, the Company will discharge such employee from its service or suspend him until all such sums have been paid. {Articles of Agreement between the Boston Elevated Railway Company and Amalgamated Association of Street and Electric Railway Employees of America and Division 589 Thereof, May 1, 1910, to April 30, '1920) Order, See National or International Union. Organization — A group of employers or of employees with a constitutional form of association and formulated rules and regulations of procedure. 6o Organized Labor — The workers who are organized in trade and industrial unions. Outlaw Organization — 1. A labor union that has seceded from an organization such as a national union or the American Federation of Labor. 2. A labor union whose charter has been revoked. 3. A labor union formed by workers who have re- nounced their previous union membership and affiliations. Outlaw Strike, See Strike. Outside Shop — A small shop in which work is per- formed by contract on materials furnished by a manufac- turer. Overproduction — Output in excess of the quantity that ordinarily can be disposed of at remunerative prices. Overtime — Time worked before or after standard time. See Double Time; Standard Time; Straight Time; Time and One-half. Padrone System — A nearly obsolete system whereby laborers, usually Italians, pay a stipulated amount daily or weekly to the padrone or boss who procures employ- ment for them. Part Time — Employment for less than standard time. Payoff — Payment of the entire amount of wages due an employee at time of quitting or discharge. Pay-roll Period— The period of time for which the earnings of employees are computed as the basis for regular wage payments. Pension — 1. A stated amount paid periodically by an employer to a retired employee, according to a predeter- mined plan, in consideration for past service. Under a contributory pension system, the pension is paid from a fund to which the employee contributes a 6i stated portion of his earnings regularly during the period of his active employment. Under a non-contributory pension system, the em- ployee does not make specific contributions to the pen- sion fund. In some instances employees participate in the manage- ment of the pension system ; in other cases the system is administered solely by the employer. The pension system of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, for example, provides that after twenty-five years' continuous service an employee is entitled to a pension when he reaches the age limit of seventy, or he may be retired at sixty-five if incapacitated ; retirement is compulsory at seventy. The pension is based on 1% °f the average earnings of the ten years preceding retire- ment for each year of service ; i. e., if the average earnings of the last ten years were $100 per month and the length of service forty years, the pension would be $40 per month. A pensioner may engage in other employment outside the railroad without affecting his pension. 2. Old-age benefits paid by labor unions. Picketing — 1. The act of workmen in patrolling a plant in which; a strike or lockout is in progress in order to persuade others to refrain from accepting employment or from continuing to work in that plant. 2. The act of workmen in patrolling a plant in which a labor controversy is in progress in an attempt to enforce a boycott. Piece Rate — Wages paid for each unit of work per- formed under a piecework system. Piecework — A system whereby the compensation of an employee is based upon the number of units that he produces, irrespective of the time required. 62 Gang piecework is a system of compensation of a group of employees in accordance with the quantity of work performed by the group. The earnings of the group ordinarily are paid to the gang boss in a lump sum for distribution among the members of the gang. Plant Development Work, See Welfare Work. Policing of Industry — The maintenance by an employer of a staff of guards or inspectors for the protection of a plant against violence on the outside or against "boring from within" by employees; also for protection against petty thieving, fire, or any other loss. Posting of Hours — Posting a schedule of standard working hours in a plant. Preferential Shop — A plant in which union members are given preference in employment, usually by a trade agreement. One trade agreement provides : Each member of the Association shall maintain a preferential union shop. A preferential union shop is hereby defined to be a shop in which members of the union in good standing shall be preferred in the hiring and retention of help. The Association agrees that its members will not discriminate in any manner against their workers for union membership or activity. A union worker within the meaning of this provision shall be a worker who proves his union membership to the satisfaction of the employer or his rep- resentative and the shop chairman. (Agreement between the Inter- national Ladies' Garment Workers' Union and the Cloak, Suit, and Skirt Manufacturers' Protective Association, May 29, 1919. — Monthly Labor Review, Vol. IX, No. 6, December, 1919; p. 52) Premium System — A method of compensation whereby the standard rate of output is determined from past ex- perience or through time study, and the workman in addi- tion to his hourly wage is paid a percentage of the hourly rate for any time saved by performing the task in less than the allotted time. Day wages are guaranteed to all 63 employees working under the premium system. Thus, if the allotted time is 8 hours and the work is performed in 6 hours, the workman receives his hourly wage for 6 hours plus a bonus of 25% to 50% of the hourly wage for the 2 hours saved. Printing Trades' Unions. — In the printing trades, which are engaged in the production of newspapers, magazines, books, and job work, the following national and interna- tional unions are represented : Average Name of Union Membership ' 1920 International Typographical Union of North America 70,500 International Printing Pressmen and Assistants' Union of North America 35,000 International Brotherhood of Bookbinders .... 20,700 Lithographers' International Protective and Ben- eficial Association of the United States and Canada 6,100 International Photo-Engravers' Union of North America 5,900 International Stereotypers' and Electrotypers' Union of North America 5,900 International Steel and Copper Plate Printers' Union of North America 1,400 Machine Printers and Color Mixers 500 The Steel Plate Transferrers' Association of America 100 Prison Labor — Productive labor performed by con- victs. In the United States there are five systems under which 1 Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920 ; pp. 37-38. 64 convicts are employed : — lease, contract, piece-price, state- account, and state-use systems. Under the lease system, the convicts are hired out to a private party for a definite period of time, the state receiving a specified sum of money and the lessee agree- ing to feed, clothe, and shelter the convicts and to main- tain discipline. The lessee frequently sub-leases the con- victs for work on farms, mines, or roads. Under the contract and piece-price systems, the con- victs work in the prison for a contractor who furnishes the material and owns the product. For the services of the convicts, the contractor pays the state a specified amount per day for each man, or per piece of product, the state furnishing in some cases power, rent, light, and water. Under the state-account system, the state employs prison labor in manufacturing and sells the product in the open market. Under the state-use system, the state employs prison labor in the manufacture of products for use in other state departments and institutions. The lease, contract, piece-price, and state-account sys- tems come into direct competition with other labor in the open market. They are considered vicious by labor men and by makers of competing products. Production — See Continuity of Production; Overpro- duction; Standard Production. Profit — Net profit is the amount that a business earns over and above the cost of materials or merchandise pur- chased and expense charges of every sort. According to the practice that the Harvard Bureau of Business Research has established in its accounting sys- tems for retail and wholesale businesses, the expenses that are deducted include such items as wages paid to 65 employees, depreciation of equipment, and also a fair salary for the proprietor or partners, rent whether the store is owned or leased, and interest on the net invest- ment in the business. Net profit is thus distinguished from interest and is not considered as a return upon the investment, but rather as the result of good management, or occasionally of fortuitous circumstances. Profit Sharing — A system whereby each of a substan- tial number of employees receives a portion of the net profit of a business in accordance with a clearly defined, predetermined plan. Burritt, Dennison, Gay, Heilman, and Kendall: Profit Sharing. (Harper & Brothers, 1920.) Boris Emmet: "Profit Sharing in the United States," U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin No. 208, December, 1916. Promotion — Advancement of an employee to a superior position usually because of proficiency or on the basis of seniority. For example, promotion for the employees of some railroads usually is made only by seniority. Protective Fund, See Strike Fund. Protocol, See Trade Agreement. Railroad Employees' Unions — Among the workmen employed in the operation and maintenance of railroads the following national and international unions are rep- resented : Average Name of Union Membership 1920 Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen 1 184,500 Brotherhood Railway Carmen of America 2 . . . . 182,100 1 Not affiliated with the American Federation of Labor ; mem- bership figures obtained from the Secretary of the Union. 2 Membership figures obtained from Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920; pp. 36-38. 66 United Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employees and Railway Shop Laborers 1 154,060 Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and En- ginemen 2 125,862 Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers 2 86,697 Order of Railroad Conductors of America 2 . . . . 56,000 The Order of Railroad Telegraphers 3 48,700 Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Em- ployees " osH Switchmen's Union of North America s 14,000 Brotherhood of Railway Signalmen of America 3 12,300 Order of Railroad Station Agents 4 9,000 Brotherhood of Railroad Patrolmen 3 2,600 Order of Sleeping Car Conductors s 1,200 The total membership figures of the following unions include workmen employed not only by the railroads but also in other industries : Average Name of Union Membership' 1920 International Association of Machinists 330,800 International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers of America 139,000 International Brotherhood of Boiler Makers and Iron Ship Builders and Helpers of America. . 103,000 1 Suspended from the American Federation of Labor, 1919 ; mem- bership figures obtained from the President of the Union. * Not affiliated with the American Federation of Labor ; mem- bership figures obtained from the Secretary of the Union. * Membership figures obtained from Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920; pp. 36-38. 4 Membership figures obtained from the President of the Union. 'Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920 ; pp. 37-38. 67 International Brotherhood of Blacksmiths, Drop Forgers and Helpers 48,300 Amalgamated Sheet Metal Workers' Interna- tional Alliance 21,800 Rate Cutting — Reducing a piece rate with the result that it is necessary for an employee to turn out a larger quantity of product in order to earn as large an amount as before the rate was changed. Rate of Wages, See Wage. Rate Setting — 1. Fixing the rate of wages to be paid for each piece of work performed under a piecework sys- tem. The piece rate ordinarily is fixed at an amount that will yield an employee earnings equal to the current market rate in similar occupations provided the employee produces the estimated number of pieces per hour or per day with proportionately higher earnings as he increases his output. The number of pieces of work to be produced in a given time by an employee is estimated in some cases by guess-work, in others from past records, or time study. In 1920 the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union and the Cleveland Garment Manufacturers' Asso- ciation cooperated to determine by means of time study the reasonable rate of output per employee and a fair rate of wages to be paid. 2. Fixing the rate of wages to be paid per day or per week. Rating Scale, See Wage Scale. Recognition of Union— An agreement whereby an em- ployer undertakes to deal with representatives of a labor union in adjusting conditions of labor in those occupa- tions in his establishment in which union members are employed. Referendum Vote — A vote by members of a labor union 68 upon a question that has been referred to the union as a whole, such as an amendment, strike, or election of officers. Reinstatement Without Prejudice — Reinstatement of a discharged employee without the forfeiture of any rights that he previously has earned or enjoyed, such as priority of service or bonus. Representatives of Their Own Choosing — Representa- tives selected by employees freely, according to their own judgment, from coworkers in the same plant, from mem- bers of a labor union, or from other counsel. Restriction of Output — 1. Act of an employer in cur- tailing production through such means as layoff, part time operation, or complete cessation of operation in order to create a scarcity of the product. The restriction of output may be effected either with or without fixing a maximum limit to the quantity to be produced. 2. Act of one or more employees in reducing output below the normal quantity in an attempt to insure con- tinuous employment or maintenance of wages. Retainer, See Allowance. Retirement Allowance, See Pension. Retiring Card, See Withdrawal Card, Right of Individual Freedom of Action — The right of individual bargaining. Right of Transfer— 1. The right of a manager to transfer an employee from one division in a plant to another. 2. The right of a member of a union to transfer from one local union to another. See Transfer Card. Right to Discharge — The right of an employer to dis- 69 charge an employee without regard to union membership or other restrictions. Several unions, for example the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, deny the exercise of this right un- less each case is submitted to a committee of employees for hearing and decision ; but the Cigar Makers* Interna- tional Union recognizes the right to discharge without hearing. Sabotage — Willful destruction of the property of an employer by employees. Scab — 1. A strikebreaker. 2. A member of a union who works under conditions that are not in accordance with union regulations. Scamping — 1. Intentional failure of an employee to perform his task properly. 2. Practice of an employee who exceeds his customary rate of output under conditions that lead his fellow- workers to believe that he is seeking personal gain to their disadvantage or acting contrary to their mutual un- derstanding of what constitutes the proper rate of pro- duction. 3. Act of an employer in attracting labor from com- petitors by underhand methods. Schedule, See Schedule of Hours; Trade Agreement; Wage Schedule. Schedule of Hours — A document stating the hours formally agreed to by employer and employees as con- stituting standard time. Seniority — The status of an employee according to length of service; frequently the basis for preference in promotion, in selection of work, and in retention of posi- tion when a layoff occurs or when the plant is operated on part time. In the settlement of a strike, provision 70 sometimes is made that unless an employee returns to his former position by a stated date he shall forfeit his right of seniority. Service Work, See Welfare Work. Settlement — Award ; terms accepted for the adjustment of a dispute or controversy between employer and em- ployees. Shift — 1. The change of one set of employees for another in plants that are operated continuously or for more than one working period in any one day. 2. The period of time during which a group of em- ployees regularly performs its task, such as the day shift, the night shift, the first shift, the second shift, the third shift, or the lobster shift which does not conform to the period of a regular shift. An alternating shift is an ar- rangement under which each group of workmen alter- nates its working period between the night shift and the day shift, usually at weekly intervals. A rotating shift is an arrangement under which each group of workmen on a three-shift system changes its working period from one shift to another usually at weekly intervals. See Trade Agreement. In railroad work a shift often is called a trick. Railroad dispatchers and operators in twenty-four-hour offices, for example, commonly work three tricks — first trick, 12 M. to 8 A. M., second trick, 8 A. M. to 4 P. M., third trick, 4 P. M. to 12 M. 3. A group of employees working during a shift period. Shop Card, See Union Card. Shop Collector — A member of a labor union delegated by the union to collect dues and assessments from its members in the plant in which the collector is employed. 71 Sometimes the shop collector is also delegated to represent the union in adjusting any difficulty that may arise in the plant. He also may act as shop chairman, shop deputy, or shop steward. Shop Committee System — A system of employee rep- resentation in a single plant whereby one. or more com- mittees of the employees confer or bargain with the em- ployer or his representatives for the adjustment of con- ditions of labor and the settlement of disputes in the plant. Some shop committee systems are established by agree- ment between employers and labor unions; others are organized in individual plants without relation to labor unions. A union shop committee is one representing a labor union in the enforcement in a particular plant of the terms of a local or national trade agreement or the work- ing rules of the union. In case of disagreement regard- ing the interpretation of the trade agreement provision is generally made for appeal to a higher tribunal. The duties and functions of a union shop committee of the United Mine Workers of America as denned in a dis- trict trade agreement are as follows : Settlement of local and general disputes. (a) In case any disputes or grievances arise under this agree- ment or any local agreement made in connection therewith, whether the dispute or grievance is claimed to have arisen by the company, or any person or persons employed, or by the men as a whole, then the parties shall endeavor to settle the matter as hereinafter pro- vided. But before any grievances or disputes shall be submitted to the pit committee, the person or persons affected shall endeavor, by personal application to the pit boss, overman, or foreman in charge of the work where the dispute arises, to settle the matter, and in the event of them agreeing their decision shall be final. (b) In case of any local dispute arising in any mine and failure to agree between the pit boss, overman, or foreman in charge of the 72 work where the dispute arises and any employee, the pit committee and mine superintendent or mine manager shall endeavor to settle the matter, and if they agree their decision shall be final. (c) In the event of the failure of the pit committee and the mine superintendent or mine manager to settle any dispute so referred to them, as well as in the event of other disputes arising, the matter in dispute shall be referred in writing to the commissioner of the Western Canada Coal Operators' Association and the president of District No. 18, United Mine Workers of America, who shall meet as soon as practicable, and not in any event later than 14 days, with a joint committee of six, composed of the commissioner of the Western Canada Coal Operators' Association, the general manager or general superintendent of the mine where the dispute arose, and another appointed by him, the president of District No. 18, United Mine Workers of America, the president or secretary of the local where the dispute arose, and one other district officer. If they agree, their decision shall be binding upon both parties. In the event of their failure to agree, they shall endeavor to select an independent chairman, and failing to agree upon an independent chairman, the commissioner of the Western Canada Coal Operators' Association and the president of District No. 18, United Mine Workers of America, shall ask the Minister of Labor to appoint such chairman. The decision of the committee thus constituted shall be binding upon both parties, provided, however, during the term of office of the director of coal operations, he shall act as or appoint the in- dependent chairman mentioned herein. (d) In the meantime, and in all cases while disputes are being investigated and settled, the miners, mine laborers, and all other parties involved must continue to work pending investigation and until final decision has been reached ; but where miner, miners, mine laborer, or mine laborers has or have been discharged by the com- pany, he or they shall not remain in the employ of the company while his or their case is being investigated and settled. If the claim be made within five days where a man or men has or have been unjustly discharged, the case shall be dealt with according to this article, and if it is proven that he or they have been unjustly dealt with, he or they shall be reinstated. If a claim is made for com- pensation for time lost, in cases where reinstatement has followed, it shall be left to the joint committee as provided for in subsection (c) to decide what amount (if any) is to be paid. 73 (e) Any breach of this agreement by any of the parties hereto is not to void the said agreement, but the same is to be continued in full force and effect. (f ) If the commissioner of the Western Canada Coal Operators' Association or the president of District No. 18, United Mine Work- ers of America, is unable, on account of sickness or absence from the district, to attend to the duties hereinafter set out, these duties in the first instance would be assumed by either the president or vice-president of the Western Canada Coal Operators' Association, and in the second instance by either the vice-president or secretary of District No. ;i8, United Mine Workers of America, due notice of who would attend to these duties to be sent immediately, in the first instance, to the party of the first part and in the second instance to the party of the second part. (g) All settlements and decisions that have been made and are in effect should be considered in taking up disputes during the life of this agreement. Duties of pit committee. — The pit committee shall ,be a committee of three to each mine or other plant covered by this agreement, selected by the employees working at such mine or other plant from among their own number, except one member may be a check- weighman or an officer of the local union, not necessarily an em- ployee of the company. This member must previously have been selected as checkweighman or officer from amongst the employees of the aforesaid mine or other plant. Due notice of such selection, properly certified in writing, shall be given to the company. The duties of the pit committee shall be confined to the settlement of disputes between the pit boss or foreman and any employee work- ing in or around the mines, arising out of this agreement and all agreements made in connection therewith, the pit boss or foreman, and man or men, having failed to agree. The pit committee in discharge of its duties shall under no cir- cumstances go around the mine for any cause whatever, unless called upon by the pit boss or foreman or by a miner or dayman who may have a grievance which he has first tried to and can not settle with the boss. Members of the pit committee employed as daymen shall not leave their places of duty during working hours except by permis- sion of the pit boss or foreman, or in cases involving the stoppage of the mine. (Agreement between District No. 18 of the United 74 Mine Workers of America and the Western Canada Coal Operators Association, July 20, 1920, Monthly Labor Review, Vol. IX, No. 5, November, 1920; pp. 148-149) The shop committee systems organized in individual plants or by single companies without relation to a labor union differ widely in the form of their organization and in the scope of their functions. The following statement gives the plan of employee representation adopted by one manufacturing company: It is the idea of the plan to determine all questions of manage- ment and policy concerning the Shop and Office by conference of Committees. For this purpose the following Committees, to serve all employees of the Company by direct representation, are arranged for: 1. The General Shop Committee. 2. Foremen's Committee. 3. The General Office Committee. 4. Management Committee. The duties and organization of these Committees are outlined in the following pages. General Shop Committee. This shall be composed of twelve members, one elected from each of the following groups: Group 1. Blacksmith Shop. Group 2. Boiler and Pipe Shop. Group 3. Copper Shop. Group 4. Extinguisher Shop. Group 5. Foundry, Casting House, Rough Grinders, Sand Blast, Shipping Room and Yard Gang. Group 6. Tool Room, Brass Shop, Grinding Room, and Main- tenance Room. Group 7. Machine Shop and Screw Machine Department. Group 8. Steamer Erecting, Steamer Assembly, Chassis Test, Motor Assembly, Truck Shop, Wagon Shop and Experimental Department. Group 9. Paint Shop. Group 10. Polishing and Nickel Plating. Group 11. Miscellaneous. Group 12. Wood Shop. 75 Elections. For the purpose of conducting elections the General Shop Com- mittee shall appoint an Election Committee of three of their number to serve for their term of office on the Shop Committee. The Election Committee shall appoint Nominating Committees in each group. At least two men shall be nominated from each group. A blank space shall be left on the ballot for the purpose of writing in any other name not so nominated and the man receiving the highest number of votes in that group shall be elected. Eligibility. No person shall be eligible to election as a member of the General Shop Committee who has not taken out first papers as a citizen of the United States and been in the employ of the Company at least one year, or who is not yet twenty-one years old. Any man is eligible to vote for a General Shop Committee mem- ber immediately upon his employment by the Company. * * * * Meetings. Regular meetings of this Committee shall be held once a month during working hours and in the offices of the company. Date of such meeting shall remain the same throughout the year. The Chairman shall call a special meeting at the request of five members. * * * » Duties. It shall be the duty of the General Shop Committee to consult, work out with the Management Committee and determine all phases of management, directly affecting Shop policies. For the better handling of its work, the Committee may appoint through its Chair- man, Sub-Committees to deal with such questions as employment and discharge of men, sanitation and safety, wages and hours, economies, suggestions, etc., which come under this head. Departmental Representation. There shall also be appointed by the General Shop Committee, one or two men in each Department of the Shop, to act as its rep- resentatives. These representatives shall refer all questions affect- ing the Shop, such as employment and discharge of men, sanitation and safety, wages and hours, economies, suggestions, or any other questions, to the attention of the General Shop Committee through the committee men of his group, for their consideration or discus- sion with the Management Committee. They shall also co-operate 76 in carrying out, in their Departments, the policies determined by the General Shop and Management Committees. Departmental representation shall be on the following basis : One — in Blacksmith Shop. One — in Carpenter Shop. One — in Copper Shop. One — in Boiler Shop. One — in Foundry. One — in Tool Room. One — in Brass Shop. ' One — in 'Grinding Room. One — in Screw Machine. Ones— in Machine Shop (North End). One — in Machine Shop (South End). •One — in Polishing and Nickel Plating. One — in Shipping Room and Yard Gang. One — from Truckers. One — in Sand Blast. One — in Rough Grinding. One — in Bar Stock. One — in Hardening Room. One — in Drayage and Receiving Room. One — in Chassis Floor. One — in Motor Assembly. One — in Truck Floor. One — in Extinguisher Department. One— -in Paint Shop. One — in Wagon Floor. One — in Final Finishing Department. One — in Minor Assembly. * * * * Savings Committee. 1. There shall be a Savings Committee of six members, three of these to be elected from the General Shop Committee and three appointed by the Management Committee. 2. This Committee shall meet once a month to decide on the relative efficiency of the Plant and of the savings made during the month. 3. They shall recommend to the General Shop Committee and the Management Committee the basis of savings distribution for 77 the current month, which will remain in force as approved by the Management Committee and the General Shop Committee until changed by them. Foremen's Committee. 1. The Foremen's Committee shall consist of five Foremen elected by the Foremen of the Plant. 2. This Committee shall elect a Chairman and a Secretary. Duties. It shall be the duty of this Committee to consider any suggestions for the better and smoother working of the Departments through- out the Shop; to consider complaints brought up by Foremen of the various Departments and to act with the General Shop Com- mittee where necessary, whenever they can be of service in settling questions between Departments or between any Foreman and his men. It shall be their duty to act with the General Office Com- mittee as an Advisory Committee, to the Management Committee whenever called upon. It shall also be their duty to act with the other Committees in the organization on any questions where Fore- men or their Departments are involved. * * * * Meetings. The Foremen's Committee shall meet regularly at least once a month, but may be called together by the Chairman at other periods should the necessity arise. The Foremen's Committee will meet at stated intervals with the General Office Committee, to discuss any matters involving the relations of the Shop Departments and Office Departments. General Office Committee. i. This Committee shall consist of five men from the office ap- pointed by the Management Committee for a period of one year. 2. They shall elect a Chairman and a Secretary. Duties. It shall be the duty of this Committee to consider any suggestions for the better and smoother working of the Departments throughout the Office. It shall be their duty to consider complaints brought up by any member of the Office Organization ; to appoint any Sub-Committees necessary to accomplish its work; to act in conjunction with the Foremen's Committee as an Advisory Committee to the Management Committee whenever called upon and to bring to the attention of 78 the other Committees in the organization, any questions affecting the relations of the Office Departments with the Departments of which the other Committees are representatives. Any decision affecting the office organization shall have the approval of the Management Committee and General Office Committee. Departmental Representation. The General Office Committee shall appoint representatives in the different branches of the Office Organization. It shall be the duty of these representatives to consider any complaints, any criticisms of existing methods and any suggestions for improve- ments coming to their attention. Such matters should be discussed by them with the Heads of their respective branches of the Organ- ization. Should they fail to reach an agreement, or should they be unable to correct the troubles under discussion, it shall then be the duty of the representative to bring the matter before the General Office Committee. It shall be the duty of the General Office Com- mittee in such cases to correct the existing difficulty. Should the trouble be of such nature that the General Office Committee cannot settle it, the Committee can then present the matter to the Manage- ment Committee. Departmental representation shall be on the following basis : Two — in Cost Department. One — in Time, Department. One — in Traffic Department. Three — in Stock and Production. One — in Inspection Department. Two — in Efficiency Department. One — in Purchasing Department. Three — in Apparatus Sales. Three — in Sundry Sales. One — in Administration — Filing. Three — in Credit — Comptroller, One — in Engineering General. Two — in Draughting. One — in Specification Department. One — in Bills of Material. One — in Service Department. Two — in Accounting — General Bookkeeping. Two — in Billing Department. 79 Management Committee, i. The Management Committee shall consist of five men ap- pointed by the Company — President, Treasurer, Works Manager, Assistant to the Works Manager, General Foreman. 2. It shall meet with the General Shop Committee regularly once a month, or as often as necessary. 3. Three of its members shall constitute a quorum for such a meeting. 4. The majority vote at such a meeting of the Management Com- mittee shall be the decision of the Committee. Advisory. 1. There shall be an Advisory Committee to the Management Committee composed of the Foremen's Committee and the General Office Committee. 2. They shall meet with the Management Committee, as required, to discuss the Shop policies brought up to them by the General Shop Committee. (The Plan of Co-Operative Management Adopted by the Com- pany and Its Employees — American-LaFrance Fire Engine Com- pany, Inc., Elmira, New York, May, 1919) Shop Deputy — A member of a labor union delegated to represent the union in adjusting any dispute that may occur in the plant in which he is employed. He may col- lect dues and assessments from union members; also known as a shop chairman or a shop steward. Shop Steward, See Shop Deputy. Shutdown — A stoppage of the operation of a plant or a department by an employer for such reasons as lack of materials or lack of demand for the product, usually without reference to a labor dispute. Skilled Laborer — A workman who has mastered the technical requirements of a craft ; a journeyman. Sliding Scale, See Wage Scale. Soldiering — The intentional failure of an employee to produce the quantity of work of which he is readily capable. 8o Speed Boss — 1. An expert mechanic in a machine shop who instructs the workmen in performing work in ac- cordance with the best methods. 2. A tasksetter. Speeding-Up — The act of inducing or forcing an em- ployee to increase his rate of production beyond his customary rate. Stamp, See Union Label. Standard Production — 1. Quantity of work that an employee normally performs during a specified period of time. 2. The predetermined quantity of work established as a standard for an employee or employees after thorough investigation usually including standardization of. meth- ods, time study, and motion study. 3. The normal output of a plant when working at full capacity. Standard Rate of Wages, See Wage. Standard Time — 1. The hours within which the normal day's work or the normal week's work, as agreed upon between employer and employees, is to be per- formed. The standard day denotes the hour at which the normal day's work shall commence, the hour at which it shall end, and the time allotted for lunch. For example, if the hours agreed upon start at 8 A. M. and run until 12 M. and from 1 to 5 P. M., this is the standard time. Infringe- ments of these regular hours ordinarily are construed as overtime. If an employee's standard time commences at 8 A. M. and his employer orders him to report for work at 6 A. M., the time worked prior to 8 A. M. usually is construed as overtime. On the street railways of Boston, to take another ex- 8i ample, an eight-hour platform day is the standard day. According to the agreement, the work must be performed within a spread (outside time) of fourteen hours. Sixty per cent of the schedule runs must be within eleven hours and forty per cent must be within eleven to fourteen hours. Articles of Agreement between the Boston Elevated Railway Company and Amalgamated Association x>f Street and Electric Railway Employees of America, and Division 580 Thereof, May 1, 1919, to April 30, 1920. An eight-hour day is any eight working hours during the twenty-lour hours mutually agreed upon between employer and employees as constituting standard time. The bask eight-hour day is eight hours' work per day according to a standard schedule with extra compensation for all hours worked beyond the standard time. The straight eight-hour day is eight hours' work per day ac- cording to a standard schedule, without overtime under any circumstances, except perhaps in emergencies. The eight-hour-shift day is eight hours' work per day for each shift, with time allowance for meals and rest, in plants that are operated continuously. The standard working week is the number of hours that are agreed upon as constituting a normal period to be worked each week and the number of hours to be worked each day according to a standard schedule. The basic fcrty-eight-hour week is forty-eight hours' work per week according to a standard schedule with extra compensation for the hours worked beyond the standard time for each day or week. 2. A certain period of time set for the performance of a task as the result of time study, previous experience, or repeated tests. State Federation — An association of labor unions in 82 one state. The Constitution of the Massachusetts State Branch of the American Federation of Labor defines its objects as follows: Article II. Sec. i. The object of this Federation shall be the encourage- ment and formation of local trades and labor unions in every city and town in this State. Sec. 2. To assist in establishing national and international trades unions. Sec. 3. To aid and encourage the labor press and to encourage the purchase of union label products and further the interest of trade union emblems not antagonistic to the American Federation of Labor. Sec. 4. To render every assistance possible to affiliated unions in their effort to secure legislation in the interest of the workers, and to introduce such legislation as its conventions may decide upon. (Constitution of the Massachusetts State Branch of the American Federation of Labor, 1920) Steel Workers — In the iron and steel industry, which includes the operation of such plants as blast furnaces', steel furnaces, and rolling mills, the Amalgamated Asso- ciation of Iron, Steel, and Tin Workers in 1919 had a membership of 19,000, in 1920, 31,500. During 1919 a special campaign was conducted by twenty-four national and international trade unions affiliated with the Ameri- can Federation of Labor to organize the workmen em- ployed in the iron and steel industries. In August, 1919, it was stated that these unions had increased their mem- bership in the iron and steel plants to over 150,00c). 1 The unions associated in this campaign were the follow- ing, their total membership figures including workmen employed not only in the manufacture of iron and steel but also in other industries : 1 American Federationist, February, 1920 ; p. 167. 83 Average Name of Union Membership 1 1920 United Mine Workers of America 393,600 International Association of Machinists 330,800 Brotherhood Railway Carmen of America 182,100 International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers of America 139,200 International Brotherhood of Boiler Makers and Iron Ship Builders and Helpers of America. . 103,000 Bricklayers', Masons', and Plasterers' Interna- tional Union of America 70,000 International Seamen's Union of America 65,900 International. Molders' Union of North America 57,300 International Brotherhood of Blacksmiths, Drop Forgers and Helpers 48,300 International Hodcarriers', Building and Com- mon Laborers' Union of America 42,000 International Union of Steam and Operating En- gineers 32,000 United Association of Plumbers and Steamfitters of United States and Canada 32,000 Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers 31,500 International Brotherhood of Stationary Fire- men and Oilers 29,600 International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers 24,200 Amalgamated Sheet Metal Workers' Interna- tional Alliance 21,800 International Union of Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers 21,100 1 Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920 ; pp. 37-38. 84 Switchmen's Union of North America 14,000 International Brotherhood of Foundry Em- ployees 9,100 Pattern Makers' League of North America 9,000 International Brotherhood of Steam Shovel and Dredge Men 1 5,412 The United Brick and Clay Workers of America 5,200 Coopers' International Union of North America 4,300 Quarry Workers^ International Union of North America 3,000 Store-order System — A method of paying employees by orders on a retail store usually owned by the employer. The system has been criticized because it was asserted that in some cases abnormally high prices for merchandise were charged to employees who held store orders and could not go elsewhere to buy. At one time the store- order system was common in the mining districts, and it has been used occasionally in the textile industries. It is sometimes called the truck system. Straight Time — 1. Compensation for overtime at the same rate as paid for standard time. 2. Employment according to a standard schedule of hours. In the building trades, for example, straight time is employment by the week, as distinguished from broken time that is employment by the hour. Strike — Cessation of work by employees collectively, whether organized or unorganized, in order to enforce labor demands ordinarily after negotiations for settle- ment have failed. An outlaw strike is one undertaken or continued by a local union or by part of its members without the sanc- 1 1919 membership. Report of the Proceedings of the Thirty- ninth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1919; p. 40. 85 tion of the national union ; also known as an independent, wildcat, or illegal strike. A sympathetic strike is one undertaken by a union, having no grievance of its own, in order to support another union that is on strike. A sympathetic strike generally occurs in an undertaking in the operation of which several trades are interdependent. In most organized trades the power to declare or sanc- tion a strike is vested exclusively in the national union ; in some cases, however, it is vested in the local union. The Constitution of the International Association of Machinists provides : Article VIII. Investigation. Sec. ii. Any subordinate lodge requiring the assistance of the Grand Lodge to vindicate its rights and privileges under the Con- stitution shall be required to conform to the following sections, and shall await an official answer. Any subordinate lodge failing to comply with these provisions shall forfeit the right of securing strike benefits or other financial aid from the Grand Lodge during the dispute, except in case of extreme emergency, of wages being cut, of increase of hours, or the violation of the cardinal principles of the Association, when the International President may have power to act until such time as the General Executive Board may be con- ferred with. Approval. Sec. 2. When a difficulty occurs under the jurisdiction of any subordinate lodge, through a reduction of wages, or through the principles of the organization being immediately jeopardized in any manner, or should any subordinate lodge desire to make a demand for an increase of wages, the members directly involved shall hold a special' meeting, called by the lodge having the greatest number of men involved, and shall take a secret ballot to determine whether they shall accept or reject such reduction or make a demand for an increase of wages. It shall take a three-fourths vote of all mem- bers present to decide, except that no member of this Association shall be allowed to vote upon the question of strike in any lodge unless he has been a member of said lodge for at least sixty days. 86 If, in the judgment of the meeting, it shall be decided to reject such reduction, or to make a demand for an increase of wages or a reduction of hours of labor, said demand having been submitted, either in writing or by a committee or business age,nt, and being refused, the recording secretary of the lodge holding the meeting shall send to the International President a bill of grievance, slating the nature of the trouble and the action of the lodge thereon. Im- mediately upon receipt of said grievance the International President shall send a copy to each member of the General Executive Board, and the International President, a member of the Board, or a deputy shall proceed to the place of difficulty, and, with a member of the local, investigate the cause of the trouble, and, if possible, effect a settlement. Upon receipt of report and the decision of the Board, the International President shall notify the lodge of the result ; but in no case shall a strike be declared without the consent of the International President and the General Executive Board. Discontinuance of Grievance. Sec. 3. Should the lodge fail to receive the sanction of the General Executive Board, it shall hold a meeting and declare the grievance at an end. Continuing such grievance after it failed to be sanctioned may be considered sufficient cause for suspension from all rights and privileges, at the option of the General Executive Board. Title and Rate of Benefits. Sec. 4. Members who quit work on account of a grievance ap- proved by the General Executive Board, and who have been three months in good standing, shall receive the following sums per week : Single men, $6 per week; married and single men with others dependent upon them for support, $8 per week; specialists paying three-fourths (J4) per capita tax rate shall receive three-fourths (34) rate of benefits; apprentices at one-half rate. Declaring Off a Strike. Sec. 5. When a proposition for settlement or one to declare off a strike is presented at a regular or called meeting of the lodge, it shall require a majority vote by secret ballot of all the members involved to accept the . proposition. When the General Executive Board finds it impossible to settle the difficulty in a satisfactory manner, they shall order the men to resume work, as they would not receive further financial aid — excepting that it shall be dis- cretionary with the executive officers to give relief in deserving cases, such relief not to exceed, weekly, the amount as provided above. Exceptional Relief. Sec. 6. The International President and Executive Board shall have power to draw from the general fund of the Association an amount sufficient to finance any strike or lockout. Handling Unfair Work. Sec. 7. In cases of disputes where the employer is getting his work done in shops or places of employment other than those owned or controlled by himself, it shall be the duty of all members to refuse to work on such jobs or at any shop or place of employment where such work is done. If ordered to do so by the local lodge (sanctioned by the district lodge, if one exists in the locality) having jurisdiction over shops doing such work, such order to be approved by the International President and General Executive Board before becoming effective or entitling member to strike or victimized benefits. (Constitution of the Grand Lodge of District Lodges and of Subordinate. Lodges of the International Association of Machinists, 1918) Strikebreaker — A person who is hired to take the place of an employee who is on strike. Strike Committee — A committee appointed by a labor union for the purpose of managing a strike. Strike Fund — A fund accumulated for paying strike benefits. The Constitution of the Cigar Makers' International Union provides : Sec. 92 (a). A special fund to provide for the payment of strike benefits shall be created by the levying of an assessment of $1.00 on all thirty-cent and sixty-cent dues-paying members. Class B members shall pay 50 cents or one-half of the full assessment levied in the months of September and March of each calendar year payable in eight weeks. This fund to be designated as a special strike benefit and shall be used for no other purpose than the pay- ment of members on strike or lockout which has been approved by the International Union. This assessment to continue until it reaches a per capita of $5.00 of all members of the Cigar Makers' Interna- tional Union. 88 The International President then shall notify the members of the discontinuation of said assessment until it falls below $2.00 per capita, when it shall again be levied. The funds so collected shall be deposited by Financial Secretaries of local unions in bank as provided for in Section 1169 of the con- stitution, and all monies collected from such assessment shall be deposited in a separate fund from local and International monies, and shall be subject to the direction of the International President, who may order the withdrawal of said fund in whole or in part as the circumstances may warrant. After the same has been ap- proved by the International Executive Board. (Constitution of the Cigar Makers' International Union of America, 1920) Strike benefits usually are paid by a national union, the amount of the benefits being fixed by the constitution or rules of the union. The Constitution of the Pattern Makers' League provides : Sec. 27, Clause 5 — Members out of work because of lockouts or on an authorized strike shall receive eight dollars and fifty cents ($8.50) per -week, and benefits shall be paid for each full working day the members are out. All arrearages and dues must be deducted before benefits are paid. (Laws of the Pattern Makers' League, 1917) Strike benefits also may be paid by a local union from a local strike fund, from assessments levied on members who are working, or from contributions by other unions. The Constitution of the Cigar Makers' International Union provides : Sec. 189. Local unions shall have the right to levy assessments and suspend members if the same be not paid in eight weeks, provided said assessment be not in aid of an unauthorized strike; but this shall not debar local unions from levying weekly assess- ments for other purposes. In localities where more than one charter is held, assessments for the purpose of label agitation may be levied at joint meetings, providing a two-thirds majority of those voting are in favor thereof. Local assessments in aid of a strike in any other trade shall not exceed 50 cents weekly, and such assessments shall not be levied for a longer period than from one meeting to another. (ConsHfwtion of the Cigar Makers' International Union of America, 1920) Strike benefits sometimes are paid to strikers who are not members of a union. For example, in the case of a strike in an open shop the union may pay benefits to all the strikers. Such benefits usually are paid by the local union. Strike Vote — A vote by a local or national or interna- tional union on the question of declaring a strike. In most cases the constitution and by-laws of the unions require such a vote before the union officials are author- ized to call a strike. A vote for a strike does not neces- sarily result in a strike ; in many cases the strike vote is asked by the union leaders to give them full authority in negotiating with employers. For example, the conven- tion of the United Mine Workers of America on Septem- ber 22, 1919, adopted demands that included the following provision : 12. We recommend that in event a satisfactory wage agreement is not secured for the central competitive field before November 1, 1919, to replace the one now in effect, that the international officials be authorized to and are hereby instructed to call a general strike of all bituminous miners and mine workers throughout the United States, the same to become effective November 1, 1919. (U. S. Department of Labor, Monthly Labor Review, Vol. IX, No. 6, December, 1919, p. 63) The joint conference of coal miners and operators that followed was unable to reach an agreement, and on October 15, 1919, the Acting President issued a strike order calling for cessation of mining operations at mid- night October 31, 1919. The strike vote is often in much more general form 9& than this example and is intended as a step in negotia- tions. Sweating System — 1. Employment of workers for long hours under unhealthy and unsanitary conditions for abnormally low wages, usually on work given out to be performed in the home or in a small shop. 2. Exploitation of needy, ignorant, underpaid workers. Sympathetic Strike, See Strike. Task — A definite quantity and quality of work of a particular kind ordinarily to be performed within a specified period of time. Task and Bonus System — A method of compensation according to which a workman is paid the ordinary rate of wages for less than standard output or an increased rate of wages for output equal to or greater than the standard output, which is determined by means of motion and time studies. Under this system, when the workman turns out more than the standard output, he is paid a stipulated rate 20% to 50% higher than the day rate. Tasksetter — 1. A workman whose rate of output on a specified task is used to establish the standard for other workers. 2. A pacemaker. 3. An expert who establishes the standard time for the performance of each task. Teach-worker — A workman with special training or experience who is employed to instruct other employees. Time and One-half — Compensation for overtime at a rate one and one-half times the rate paid for standard time. Time Study — A method of determining the quantity of output that a capable worker may reasonably be ex- pected to produce in a specified time with specified equip- 91 merit and materials. A time study involves an analysis of one or more operations into the elementary motions in its performance ; the modification or elimination of the unnecessary motions ; and the determination of the time required for the performance of the essential motions with allowance for such factors as interference, fatigue, and inertia. See Motion Study. Time Work — L,abor for which compensation is reck- oned by a unit of time such as the hour, day, or week, not according to the number of units of product turned out during that time. Tolling — Payment to a boss, foreman, or superin- tendent for the purpose of securing employment or pro- motion. See Padrone System. Trade — A craft, or occupation in which skilled work- men are engaged. Trade Agreement — An agreement between one or more employers and a labor union to govern industrial rela- tions in a plant or industry. It ordinarily fixes wages, hours, and other conditions of labor, and provides machin- ery for interpreting and enforcing observance of its terms. A railroad trade agreement sometimes is called a schedule. For employees a trade agreement is entered into by a national union, by an allied trades council, or by a local union. In the coal mining industry, for example, a trade agreement is made by the national union and establishes working conditions for the industry. In the building trades a trade agreement generally is made by a building trades council and establishes working conditions within 92 a district. In the machinists' trade, a trade agreement generally is entered into by a local union. The following example of a trade agreement is taken from the coal mining industry. Conditions of labor in the central competitive field, comprising Western Penn- sylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, are fixed every two years by the interstate agreement between the United Mine Workers of America and the coal operators. With this interstate agreement as a basis, the district unions and the operators establish conditions in their respective districts. The district trade agreements provide methods of enforcing the agreement. This system has been in operation since 1898. The Interstate Agreement of 1916, known as the New York Agreement, was as follows : The following agreement made and entered into this 9th day of March, 1916, covering prices and conditions of mining in Western Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois for the two years begin- ning April 1, 1916, and ending March 31, 1918,, to-wit: First, all coal shall be weighed and paid for on a mine-run basis, except that the Block Coal District of Indiana shall continue upon the present screen coa! basis, and that the pick mining rate therein be advanced 5 cents per ton and machine mining 4 cents per ton. Second,, the pick mining rate in the thin vein district of Western Pennsylvania shall be 67.64 cents per ton and in the Eastern Ohio, Hocking, Cambridge and Amsterdam-Bergholz districts of Ohio the mining rate shall be 67.64 cents per ton, and throughout the balance of Ohio the pick mining rate shall be advanced 3 cents per ton unless otherwise agreed to in joint conference by operators and miners in. any of the sub-districts or scale districts within the state ; and in the bituminous district of Indiana 64 cents per ton and in Danville district of Illinois 64 cents per ton. Third, machine mining in the thin vein district of Western Penn- sylvania 50 cents per ton ; in Ohio 50 cents per ton ; in the bituminous district of Indiana, chain machine mining 52 cents per ton and punching machines 54 cents per ton; in the Danville district of Illinois 54 cents per ton. 93 Fourth, all day labor, dead work, yardage and room turning advanced five per cent on existing prices. Fifth, an eight-hour day means eight hours' work in the mine at usual working places for all classes of inside day labor. This shall be exclusive of the time required in reaching such working places in the morning and departing from the same at night. Drivers shall take their mules to and from stables, and the time required in so doing shall not include any part of the day's labor, their work beginning when they reach the change at which they receive empty cars, but in no case shall the driver's time be docked while he is waiting for such cars at the point named. When the men go into the mine in the morning they shall be entitled to two hours' pay, whether or not the mine works the full two hours. But after the first two hours the men shall be paid for every hour thereafter by the hour, for each hour's work or frac- tional part thereof. If for any reason the regular routine work cannot be furnished the inside labor for a portion of the first two hours the operators may furnish other than the regular labor for the unexpired time. Sixth, all internal differences are hereby referred to the various districts for settlement with the understanding that only by mutual consent shall anything be done in sub-district, district or wage scale conventions that will increase the cost of production or decrease the earning capacity of the men. All rules now incorporated in existing contracts shall remain in force unless changed by agree- ment between operators' and miners' representatives. Seventh, all district organizations herein represented shall take up the question of preparation of coal and adopt such rules and regulations with proper penalties as will best suit the condition of each district herein represented. Eighth, a joint commission of three miners and three operators shall be appointed by the two organizations (Illinois miners' and operators' associations) who are hereby given authority to establish the proper machine mining rates in the long wall mines of Northern Illinois without regard to existing machine differentials. Resolved, that an interstate joint conference be held prior to April i, 1918; the time and place of holding such meeting is referred to a committee of two operators and two miners from each state herein represented, together with the International officers of the United Mine Workers' organization. (United Mine Workers of 94 America, District No. 6, Ohio, for Scale Year April i, 1918, to March 31, 1920; pp. 29-31) See Collective Bargaining; National or International Union ; Shop Committee System. Trade Autonomy— The right of each craft organization to govern its own affairs. Trade Union — A local, national, or international union of the workmen engaged in one occupation or craft. Transfer Card — A certificate issued by a local union to a member in order that he may transfer his membership to another local union in the same national or interna- tional union. The Constitution of the Granite Cutters' International Association provides as follows : Sec. /i 15. Any member going from the jurisdiction of one branch to another shall be furnished with a clear card by the branch that he is leaving, provided he is clear on the books of our International Association of all fines, assessments, dues, or other charges up to and including the month in which the card is drawn; if a member is not in good standing, his travelling card to show plainly his standing in the branch issuing the card. Sec. 116. All travelling cards to show the date when the bearer was in good standing in the branch he left, also the date of issue of card and the amount due our Association at such date; the member's arrears as marked on travelling card to go to credit of branch collecting the same; a member depositing his card cannot receive the same card he deposited. Sec. 117. Members holding travelling cards and working outside the jurisdiction of any branch, shall deposit their cards in the nearest branch, or in our International Association so that an account can be kept of such members ; and if in the latter, when moving to the vicinity of a branch, they shall be furnished by our International President with a travelling card, showing their standing; when moving to another locality outside the jurisdiction of any branch, such members shall immediately notify our International President of such change of location. (Constitution of the Granite Cutters' International Association of America, 1919) 95 Travelling Card, See Transfer Card. Trick, See Shift. Truck System, See Store-order System. Trusteeing of Wages, See Garnishment of Wages. Turnover, See Labor Turnover. Undermanned — 1. The condition under which the number of employees provided in a train or crew is in- adequate to perform the necessary work. 2. The operation of a train or ship with a smaller num- ber of employees than is required by a full crew statute. Unemployment — Idleness due to inability to obtain employment. Unfair List — A list of employers, declared to be an- tagonistic to organized labor, given publicity through verbal or written publication for the purpose of carrying out a boycott or of otherwise hampering the employers' operations. Union — A local or national organization of workmen, the chief purpose of which is collective bargaining with employers regarding wages, hours, and general conditions of labor. See Central Labor Union; Company Union; Federal Local Union; Industrial Union; Labor Union; Local Union; National or International Union; Trade Union. Union Card — 1. A card certifying membership in a local labor uniom 2. A certificate issued to a shop, such as a barber shop, in which only union labor is employed. Union Contract, See Trade Agreement. Union Label — A trade-mark attached to a product cer- tifying that it has been made by members of the union granting the label. The union label is the property of the 96 union by which it has been issued and generally is regis- tered under the trade-mark act. In some trades permission to use the union label is granted by the union to a manufacturer for use in one of his establishments, provided he employs only union labor in that establishment, even though he operates other es- tablishments under non-union or open shop conditions. In certain other trades, as for example in the cigar in- dustry, the use of the union label is not granted to any manufacturer unless only union labor is employed in all the establishments under his control. In June, 1920, 60 union labels were in use by labor or- ganizations with the endorsement of the American Fed- eration of Labor. The following is the union label contract of the Boot and Shoe Workers' Union : Agreement entered into this day of 192. . . by and between shoe manufacturer of hereinafter known as the Employer, and the Boot and Shoe Work- ers' Union, with headquarters at 246 Summer Street, Boston, Mass., hereinafter known as the Union, witnesseth : First The Union agrees to furnish its Union Stamp to the Employer free of charge, to make no additional price for the use of the Stamp, to make no discrimination between the Employer and other firms, persons, or corporations who may enter into an agree- ment with the Union for the use of the Union Stamp, and to make all reasonable efforts to advertise the Union Stamp, and to create a demand for the union stamped products of the Employer, in com- mon with other employers using the Union Stamp. Second. In consideration of the foregoing valuable privileges, the Employer agrees to hire as shoe workers only members of the Boot and Shoe Workers' Union, in good standing, and further agrees not to retain any shoe worker in his employment after receiv- ing notice from the Union that such shoe worker is objectionable to the Union, either on account of being in arrears for dues, or dis- obedience of Union Rules or Laws, or from any other cause. The Employer agrees that there shall be no discrimination against 97 any member of the Union because of his or her activity in Union affairs. Third. The Employer agrees that he will not cause or allow the Union Stamp to be placed on any goods not made in the factory for which the use of the Union Stamp is granted and the Employer agrees that it will be a violation of this contract to use the Union Stamp or Stamps in any other place than the particular factory for which the use of the Stamp is granted. Fourth. It is mutually agreed that the Union will not cause or sanction any strike, and that the Employer will not lockout his employees while this agreement is in force. All questions of wages or conditions of labor, which cannot be mutually agreed upon shall be submitted to The decision of this Board of Arbitration shall be final and bind- ing upon the Employer, the Union, and the employees. The Employer agrees that where a change of system or method is made, he will notify the Local Union affected and endeavor to mutually agree upon a price to be paid. Failing to agree, the matter shall be arbitrated, and the decision rendered shall date from the time of change in system and method. In the event of the Employer or Local Union, or a duly author- ized agent, giving written notice to the General President of their desire to refer to arbitration any matter in dispute, relative to wages, conditions of employment, interpretation of contract, or any other difference of opinion, he shall insist that the application for same shall be signed within seven days from his receipt of said notice. Failure of either party to comply with this clause shall constitute a direct violation of this contract. Fifth. The Union agrees to assist the Employer in procuring competent shoe workers to fill the places of any employees who refuse to abide by Section FOUR of this agreement, or who may withdraw or be expelled from the Boot and Shoe Workers' Union. Sixth. The Employer agrees that the regularly appointed col- lectors, or business agents acting in the capacity of collectors, shall not be hindered or obstructed in collecting dues from members working in the factory. Seventh. The Employer agrees that the General President of 98 the Unipn, or his deputy upon his written order, may visit the employees in the factory at any time. Eighth. The Employer agrees that the Union is the lawful owner of the Union Stamp, and the Employer agrees npt to make or cause to be made any Union Stamp or Stamps, and it is further agreed that the Union will furnish free of cost all Stamps necessary to be used under the Agreement. Ninth. The Union agrees that no person except the General President, or his deputy upon his written order, shall have the right to demand or receive Union Stamps from the Employer. Tenth. Should the Employer violate this agreement, he agrees to surrender the Union Stamp or Stamps in his possession to the General President, or his deputy upon his written order, and that the said General President or his deputy may take said Stamp or Stamps, wherever they may be, without being liable for damages, or otherwise. Eleventh. In case the said Employer shall for any cause fail to deliver the said Stamp or Stamps to the General President, or his deputy, as provided in this agreement, the Employer shall be liable to the General President for the sum of two hundred. (200) dollars, as liquidated damages, to be recovered by the General President in an action of contract, brought in the name of the General President, for the benefit of the Union, against Employer. Twelfth. The agreement shall remain in force until Should either party "desire to alter, amend, or annul this agreement, it shall give a written notice thereof to the other party three months before expiration of the agreement; and if the parties fail to give such notice the agreement shall continue in force for another year, and so on from year to year until such notice is given. - Thirteenth. In case the Employer shall cease to do business, or shall transfer its business or any part thereof to any person or persons, or corporations, this agreement shall be ended, and the Stamp or Stamps shall be returned to the General President forth- with, without demand from the Union, when a new agreement of similar tenor to this may be entered into between the Employer and the General Executive Board of the Boot and Shoe Workers' Union. (The Shoe Workers' Journal, April, 1920; p. 33) Union Shop — A plant in which wages, hours of labor, and other conditions of employment are fixed by a union trade agreement. 99 Unskilled Laborer — A laborer engaged in work that requires no skill or special training. Vampire System, See Padrone System. Voluntary Association — An organization of employers or of employees in which no pressure or coercive meas- ures are used to enforce membership. Volunteer — A person who takes a position that has been vacated by a striker in a case where public safety or welfare is threatened; this position is not taken for the sake of pecuniary gain. The term is not properly applied to a strikebreaker. Wage — The rate of compensation for labor agreed upon by individual or collective bargaining. The money wage is the compensation measured in monetary terms; the real wage is the purchasing power of the money wage in terms of merchandise and service. The rate of wages is the compensation per hour, per day, per week, per month, or per piece ; this is to be dis- tinguished from earnings which are the income received for labor performed. A standard rate of wages is a uniform rate for all em- ployees for a specific kind or grade of work within a definite area; the area may be a city or town, a district, or the United States. A percentage increase in the rate of wages is the addi- tion to the previous rate of wages of a specified percent- age of that rate. A flat increase in the rate of wages is the addition of the same fixed amount to the Wage of each employee ir- respective of skill or of previous rate of wages. For example, every employee in a plant may be granted an increase of ten cents an hour. A retroactive increase in the rate of wages is one that takes effect prior to the date of the award granting the increase. In wage disputes provision frequently is made for the payment of the increase in the wages from a definite date preceding the date of settlement. See Allowance; Back Pay; Bonus; Differential Piece Rate System; Docking of Pay; Earnings; Full Pay; Overtime ; Piecework ; Premium System ; Standard Time ; Straight Time ; Task and Bonus System ; Time and One- half ; Time Work. Wage Agreement, See Trade Agreement. Wage Bill — A schedule of the rate or rates of wages posted in a shop or plant; sometimes called "Bill of Prices." Wage Board — A board established by a labor union or jointly by employers and employees to regulate the wages to be paid for new or unusual tasks not covered by a standard wage schedule. Wage Committee — A committee of employees or their representatives appointed to formulate a scale of wages. Wage Scale — Rates of wages for related tasks agreed upon by employer and employees. A rating scale is a scale of wages paid to employees rated according to their ability or classification in their occupation. A sliding scale is a system whereby compensation for labor performed under the piecework system is based upon the selling price of the product. For example, the Western Scale of Prices Governing Wages in Rolling Mills for the year ending June 30, 1918, agreed "that the following scale of prices, based upon the actual scales and shipments of iron or steel, as arranged for in conferences, shall govern the wages of the several departments as herein stated, commencing July 1, 1917, and ending June 1 01 30, 1918. It is further agreed that no scale shall go below the base price named on the rate selected." The following table illustrates a few of the rates paid according to the sliding scale : BAR AND 12-INCH MILLS. .087 ■OB Si |i "as : * : » ! a 1?? a ■* • » * a : s a o 3" S 2 o e 1st c 13 e e zs ■ 3" * 3 1.00 .59 .376 .202 !l8 .09 1.05 ^.596 .38 .204 .182 .091 1.10 .602 .384 .206 .184 .092 .089 Wage Schedule — A document stating the wage scale formally agreed to by employer and employees. The following wage schedule states the wage scale agreed to by the Building Trades Employers' Association and the United Building Trades Council, Boston, Massa- chusetts, June 27, 1919 : 102 ,gS hhhhhhhhh'h'hhhh ll 33%S33333SS333 5 CN N ft) ft* 4) & oo N a 5i tnoo >S o\ i^ & o» w o\ £<>- • CO • CO • a . V . ■ o • J3 ■ • rt : E ■ V V CO CO 3 fa tl V ll J! wwwo o> cu V cu _ J" a c K a W W •£ tfjj ff»| «j .-a -a -a >> S S .2 .2 a .3 S3 o o o O O ffi ffi A ^ CO v c 9 . n S "3 - ° tB ►2 .3 8 8 Ml 103 HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH « N m « « « $$%**4$$;f*;f $■**$* Ov Ov Oy b> Os & o> OtO*OtO\OvOvOtO\Qe *" <*S TO TO to TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO o o u u u o u oooouuooo QQQQOQQQQQQQQQQQ gR8'8g§gRg§R88§R8 : §|'f H ' H H MM MM hHMM M 3* ^ £? oooooooooooooooo -*-• "^ h & s, a | § §> -a § | |f || § §. § ££| rtrtrtcdrtCcflrirtrtrtrtrtflirtrt . - c - - § I rt •*-• 3 rt 5 t/a E g •a « e v E « rt . CO H < « 6 B vq q\ q\ «•* q* Sfc *© q* 'by»© q* ct q\ \5 ■€£ •*-»#- a S e t/i H a V H .. to SCO K '3 to o a a -a « « « : E s ■ u n II u, i* ffi 4) >U *^ t* — •e-e a | g V V ^ C C eo *8 o H 1 I i •a S to en ii 5 *&ii ."> O V _E iL .£■ ^ ^1) •'S !m ^« S S S o fc •= •= W H O 104 Walking Delegate— A representative of a labor union whose duties are to collect dues from members, to secure the proper enforcement of union rules, to solicit member- ship, and to organize local branches. In many cases the walking delegate negotiates with employers regarding the adjustment of conditions of labor or the settlement of controversies ; in some, cases he may be instructed by his local union to call a strike. He ordinarily devotes all his time to the performance of his duties as walking delegate, and frequently is called upon to represent employees in negotiations in a plant in which he is not and never has been employed. Walkout — A temporary cessation of work by a group of employees without having presented demands to the employer or his representatives, or without having made a formal statement of their grievances. Water Transport Workers' Unions — Among the work- men employed in the operation of vessels and the hand- ling of cargoes the following national and international trade unions are represented : Average Name of Union Membership ' 1920 International Longshoremen's Association 74,000 International Seamen's Union of America 65,900 National Marine Engineers' Beneficial Associa- tion of the United States of America 17,000 American Association of Masters, Mates, and Pilots 7,100 Week, See Standard Time. Week-work — Labor for which compensation is reck- oned by the week. 'Report of the Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor, 1920; pp. 37-38. 105 Week -work -with -production -standards is a system whereby compensation for labor performed is based upon a period of one week together with the fixing of a standard output per man by agreement between employer and employees. Weekly Rest — An arrangement in plants that are operated continuously, in accordance with which each employee is entitled to at least one day a week regularly for rest and recreation. Welfare Work — Provision by the employer of facilities for recreation, amusement, lunch rooms, rest rooms, hos- pitals, medical attention, and improvement of sanitary conditions for his employees. Withdrawal Card — A card issued by a local union to a member who leaves the union after having complied with all requirements. Some local unions require that a member who becomes a foreman, superintendent, or executive shall take out a withdrawal card. When a withdrawal card is redeposited, the member thereby is reinvested with all the rights pertaining to full membership. The Constitution of the Granite Cutters' International Association provides as follows: Sec. 118. On sufficient proof being submitted to our International Association Headquarters that a member is to leave our trade to go into another business or occupation beyond the jurisdiction of our International Association, or leaves the trade because of sickness, or is to leave America for a foreign country, he will on paying up all charges against him on the books and on application to his branch, be entitled to an International Association withdrawal card, to be issued from our International Office. On payment of 60 cents per month he can be enrolled on the funeral fund list while away from our trade and be granted a funeral fund certificate. If a member is living in an isolated locality he may apply to our International Office, paying up all arrears to our International President. A funeral io6 fund member allowing his funeral dues to exceed three months, shall not be entitled to funeral benefits until three months after he is clear on the books of our Association, but a funeral fund mem- ber allowing his arrears to exceed six months, shall have no further claim on this Association, and his funeral fund card becomes an ordinary withdrawal card and subject to all its qualifications. Sec. 119. No member shall be granted a withdrawal card to remain a member of the funeral benefit until he has been a member of our Association for one year. Sec. 120. Any member going into business as an employer, and by agreeing to observe the hours of labor and the agreement governing the locality where he is established, and owning tools for conducting business and hiring three or more journeymen, shall upon applica- tion, be granted a withdrawal card. Failure to continue so doing revokes the card. Sec. 121. Should anyone who holds a withdrawal card, with or without funeral benefit certificate, resume his trade, he shall be en- titled to full benefit as a -member in good standing on presenting his withdrawal card and payment of $3, which includes the month's dues. Provided that those holding withdrawal cards, but not funeral fund certificates, will not be entitled to funeral benefit until after depositing such cards and working six months at our trade. Sec. 122. Should the holder of a withdrawal card resume his trade within six months, such card shall stand only as a travelling card; provided, that in case the holder of a good standing funeral benefit withdrawal card resumes his trade within six months, he shall not be declared in bad standing ; providing he pays all he owes as ordinary dues on depositing his withdrawal card. Sec. 123. When the holder of a withdrawal card returns to our trade, his withdrawal card shall be turned into the branch or district where he is employed, and with the first report of the secretary or district officer shall be returned to headquarters, and a record shall be kept by our International President of all such cards so returned. Should the withdrawal card member return to our trade in an isolated locality, he shall immediately forward his withdrawal card to our International Office to be similarly recorded. Sec. 124. Our International President to keep a record of all members remaining in funeral benefit who hold withdrawal cards and are not in the vicinity of any branch and who prefer to pay 107 their monthly payments to our International President, so that a correct record can be kept of the standing of such members. Sec. 125. Holders of withdrawal cards cannot become active members unless they return to work at our trade; and members with ordinary withdrawal cards cannot have them changed to funeral fund cards without legitimately returning to our trade and remaining at same at least six months. Sec. 126. Any member procuring a card under false pretenses or attempting to do so or aiding in such an attempt, or manipulating or defacing cards, shall on conviction be fined $25; or for evading the payment of arrears by claiming a lost card, or similar excuse, on conviction shall be fined $10; the fines to be paid in addition to what was due on the card originally. Also any journeyman holding a withdrawal card and starting to cut granite without depositing it in the nearest branch, or in our International Office, on conviction shall be fined $10, and charged dues from time he started to work again under our jurisdiction. Sec. 127. Members must deposit their cards in the branch under whose jurisdiction they are employed within one week after secur- ing employment, shop stewards to see that the name or names of such members are entered upon the branch books at the next meeting. Sec 128. Any member presenting himself to any branch without a travelling card shall pay to the financial secretary the sum of 25 cents for procuring the same ; all money received in this manner to be retained by the secretary as compensation for his trouble. (Con- stitution of the Granite Cutters' International Association of America, 1919) Working Week, See Standard Time. Workmen's Compensation Act — A statute fixing the compensation to be paid for the injury or death of an employee arising out of and in the course of his employ- ment. Laws providing for the payment of this compen- sation ajid the amount of the compensation have been enacted in 42 states in the United States. These laws are based on the theory that an industrial injury is properly an incidental expense of the business and that this burden should be borne by the business rather than by the io8 individual employee. The amount of the compensation, the time that payment begins, and the period for which it continues, and the employees who are included in the compensation differ in the various states. (Lindley D. Clark: "Scope and Operation of the Workmen's Compensation Laws of the United States." — Monthly Labor Review, Vol. X, No. 4, April, 1920 ; p. 14) Works Council, See Shop Committee System. DATE DUE - •* ^-i3g^^ szx ?T , Mti u ,J!ia ^M^