80S C.7 hill CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY ENGINEERING LIBRARY ConwM Unlvaritty Library TN 80a.G7H91 1861 The coal-fields of Great Britain: tlieir II 3 1924 004 625 939 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004625939 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. By the same Author. THE FOLLOWING MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEEAT BRITAIN. 1. The Geology of the Country around Cheltenham. with Woodcuts and copper-plate Engravings. IMce 28. 6d. 2. The Geology of the Country around Woodstock, Ozon. With Woodcuts, &c. Price 8d. 3. The Geology of the Leicestershire Coal-field, and of the Country around Ashby-de-la-Zonch. With Woodcuta and Index-ltlap. Price Is. 6d. 4. The Geology of the Country around Prescot, Lan- cashire. With Woodcuts. Price 8d, 5. The Geology of the Country around Wigan, Lanca- shire. With Woodcuts. Price 8d. 6. The Geology of the Country around Altrincham, Chesliire. With Woodcuts. Price 8d. CHAEACTERI8TIC FOSSILS OF THE COAL FORMATION. 1. ANTHRACOSIA KOBDSTA. 2. GONIATITES PARADOXICUS. 3. AVICULO-PEOTEN PAPTRACEUS. 4. MELANIA RETICOLATA. 5. LINGULA SQUAMIFORMIS. 6. BPIROREIB ARSON ARIUS. THE COAl-FEELDS OF GREAT Wim: HISTORY, STRUCTURE, AM) RESOURCES. WITH NOTICES OP THE COAL-FIELDS OF OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD. BY EDWAED HULL, B.A., OF THI OSOLOOICAL SURTET 07 OSEAT BRITAra ; FELLUW 01 THB GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONSOil. tSSit^ Maf anH Slluijtratbintf. SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND BNLASOED. LONDON: EDWAED STANTOED, 6, CHARING CEOSS. 1861. tot U4I A-/ 06^"^ /CORNELL. ■^LmRARV^ di(K^ LONDON : PRINTED BI WILLIAM CLOWES AND 80KS, STAMFOSD STREET. TO 8IE EODEEIOK I. MUEOHISON, D.C.L., F.E.S. DIEEOTOR-OENERAL OF THE GEOLOQIOAL SURVEYS OF THE UNITED KINQIX)M, new Kttic matb IS GEATEFULLY AND ArFEOTIONATELY rNSOBIBED. PEEFACE. The chief object of this treatise is to supply a want, which has been often expressed, of reliable information regarding the resources of our Coal-fields, — ^to what extent they have been already exhausted, and for what length of time the present supply can be maintained. Like many others, I was led to inyestigate the subject during the exciting discussions in Parliament upon the Commercial Treaty with France ; and if any proof were needed of the diversity of opinion, and want of sound data upon the question of the exhaustibility of the British Coal-fields, it was abundantly afforded at that time. It therefore appeared to me, that with the large means of information at my disposal — the Maps, Sections, and Memoirs of the Geological Survey, extending over two- thirds of the Coal-producing districts of England, the VUa PEEFACE. assistance of some of my colleagues of the G-eological Survey, of several of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Collieries, and of gentlemen of experience scattered throughout the country — much more definite results might be arrived at than had hitherto been published, I may also be allowed to add, that my own personal knowledge of the Coal-fields of the Central and North- em Counties is not inconsiderable, and that I have not neglected any published sources of information which were accessible. In order to make the work more complete, several introductory chapters on the natiure of the Carbonife- rous rocks — the character of the vegetation of the Coal-period — and the formation of Coal itself — have been introduced. Also, for purposes of comparison, I have added short sketches of the nature and extent of Coal-fields of other parts of the world, drawn from the most authentic sources. Conscious of many defects, I am fain to hope that these pages will be found to accomplish faithfully the great object designed,— to give the public an answer to the oft-repeated question, " How long wiU our Coal- fields last?" PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. In this edition I have made many additions, and, it is hoped, improvements. With the assistance of my col- leagues, Messrs. Geikie and Howell, I have been able to include the mineral resources of Scotland with those of England and Wales. I have also added sections of the Coal-series of South Wales and of Somersetshire, for which I am indebted to Mr. Etheridge. The production of the various Coal-fields has been modified in accordance with the " Mineral Statistics " for 1859, collected by Mr. E. Hunt ; and to this gentle- man I beg to express my acknowledgments for assist- ance in reference to the statistical part of the work. A map showing the area of the productive Coal-fields, and the probable depth and extent of the Coal-forma- tion below the newer strata, is now furnished, besides an additional horizontal section of the formations ia Lancashire. X PEEFACE TO SECOND EDITIOK. Chapters on the "Duration of our Coal Supply," and on "The Physical Geography of the Carboniferous period of Britain," are added ; and I venture to express a hope that the work will now be found what I have long purposed to make it — a safe and complete Hand- book to the British Coal-fields. The notices of the Coal-bearing strata in other parts of the globe have been considerably enlarged. Since these pages were in type Mr. Vivian's Lecture on Coal, ^c, has been placed in my hands. In this very lucid discourse the author defends, on grounds to which I allow great weight, the statements he had made before Parliament on the resources of the South Wales Coal- field. I feel indebted to Mr. Vivian for his severe, though friendly, criticism of my estimate of these same resomrces. After a careful consideration of the facts and observations recorded by Mr. Vivian, I am inclined to believe that I may have under-estimated the available supply from this great storehouse, as I was not aware of the full effect of the " central upheave " in placing the beds of thick coal within reach over so large an area, I shall look forward to making a personal ac- quaintance with a region, only, as yet, known to me by maps, sections, and books ; and should this little work continue in favour with the public, the result may be inserted in a future edition. As Mr. Vivian places the duration of this Coal-field PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. XI at 5,000 years, and myself at nearly 2,000 years, there will be abundance of time for arriving at an amicable conclusion on the subject before the course of events shall have verified or falsified either of our calculations. The woodcut illustrations have been engraved under the superintendence of Mr. S. J. Mackie, Editor of the " Geologist," with the exception of one by Mr. Lees. CONTENTS. P«go Intbodbotion . , . . . ' , .1 PAET I. CHAPTER L History op Coal-minino— Introductory Remarks— Mention of Coal in tlie Bible — Mention of Coal by Theophrastus, B.o. 238— Pliny the Elder — Strabo — Ancient Britons — Flint-axe found imbedded in Coal — Axe of solid oak found in Derbyshire — Stone hammers at Asliby-de-larZouch— Romans in Britain — Cinders found in Roman rmns— Old Works near Wigan pro- bably referable to them — Cinders at Castlefleld, Manchester — Coins amongst Cinders at North Brierley — Works at Benwell and Magna — Lanohester — Anglo-Saxon Period — Mention of Coal by tho Saxon Chronicle (852)— On the derivation of the term " Coal"— British name "Qlo" — Superseded by the Saxon " grijofan" — afterwards " Col" — Anglo-Norman Period— No men- tion of Coal in the Doomsday Book — Two references in the Boldon Book, 1183— Old Roman Proverb— Reign of Henry HI. — Use of Coal prohibited — Edward I. — Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries — Difficulties of Coal-Mining before the Invention of the Safety-Lamp — Agricola's Writings — Pennant's Account of the Flintshire Collieries — Camden's Account of Coal- Works in Warwickshire in 1600 ; and of the Cannel Coal of Lancashire in the 17th Century— Coal-Works in Ireland (very ancient) — Hamilton's Letter on the Works of Ballycastle — Old Coal- Works in the Lothians — Campbell's Account of the Coal Trade in 1670, 1690, 1760— Sir J. Clerk's Account of the Collieries of Whitehaven — Revolution in Coal-Mining after the invention of the Safety-Lamp and Steam-Engine — Past and present Coal Produce of Great Britain — Produce of all the Countries in the World— Produce of Great Britain each year from 1854-59 — Increase, and its causes ...... XIV CONTENTS. Page CHAPTER n. ToBMATioir OP Coal— Two Theories— Fragmentary Character of the representative Plants — Brongniart's classification — Lind- ley's Experiments on the perishable nature of Plants when im- mersed— Umfonuity of the Coal-Vegetation— Arctic Eegions— Climate of the Coal Period— Grades of the Coal-Plants— Ferns — Calamites— Sigillaria— Stigmaria— Lepidodendron— Lepidos- trohi — Halonia — Lycopodites — Knorria — tJlodendron — Coni- fersB ^Sternbergia — Trigonocarpum — Nceggerathia — Greneral character of the Coal-vegetation— Fossil Shells— Goppert's clas- sification of Plants . ■ • • • .SI CHAPTEE III. FoEMATiON OP Coal— Sir W. Logan's Observations on South Wales — TJnderclays — Theory of Oscillations — its difSculties — Darwin's Eeseaiches on the Elevation of Land — Application to the Theory of the Formation of Coal — Evidences that the Coal Formation is of Marine Origin — Fossils — Enormous Subsidence of the Bed of the Sea ia South Wales and Nova Scotia — Aquatic habits of the SigUlaria, &c. — Swamps of the Mississippi, &c. — Nature of the Strata associated with Coal — Composition of Coal — Observations of Bischof — Analyses of Coal — Clay Iron- stone — Faults— Millstone Grit — Yoredale Eocks — Carbonifer- ous Limestone — Permian Eocks — New Eed Sandstone — How a Coal-seam was formed — Tabular view of the Formations . 49 PAET 11. CHAPTEE L SoTJTH Wales Coal-field — General Structure— Scenery — Surveys — Succession of the Strata— Anthracite and Bituminous Coala— Theory of Central Heat — Coal-series of Glamorganshire — Lists of Coal-seams in twelve Districts — Ironstones — ^Analysis of Iron- stones — Faults— EesouTces — Coal under 4000 feet not available — Fossil Eemains . . . . . .64 CHAPTEE n. Bbistol and Somebsetshibb Coal-field — General Structure Succession of the Formations — Coal-series of Somersetshire Eesources, &c. . . . . . . .75 CONTENTS. XV CHAPTEE in. ^^ Forest op Deak Coal-field— Structure— Scenery— Succession of Formations — Succession of Coal-seams — Iron Produce— " Horses" or fiock-faults — Resources . , . .83 CHAPTER IV. FoBEST OF Wtbe CoAL-FiELD— Extent and Structure— Permian Breccia— Section of Coals— Coal-field of the Clee Hills— Struc- ture— Basaltic covering— Position of the Vent from which the Lava flowed , . . . , , ,87 CHAPTER V. Shbewsbubt Coal-field — Extent and Structure — Permian Bocks — ^Alberbury Breccia — Limestone Band in Coal-measures — Coal- fields of the Forest of Wyre, Shrewsbury, and Clee Hills formed near old land . . . . . . .91 CHAPTER VI. CoALBKooK Dale Coal-field — Extent and Structure — Siureys — Mr.Prestwich's Memoir — Permian Beds — Faults — Fossils— Iron- stones — Extent to which the Coal-field has been exhausted — Re- som-cos . . . . , . .93 CHAPTER VII. Coal-fields of North Wales — General arrangement — Denbigh- shire Coal-field— Succession of Strata — Permian Bocks — Coal Series— Ironstones — Fossils — Large district with Coal yet un- disturbed — Resources — Rapid increase of Coal-produce , 97 CHAPTER VIIL Plintshike Coal-field- Extent and Structure — Coal Series — Lower Coal-measures and their Fossils — Resources . . 102 CHAPTER IX. Anglesea Coal-field — Structure and Extent — Great Fault — Succession of Strata and Coal-seams — Permian and Trap Rocks — Number of Collieries and Coal-produce . . . 105 CHAPTER X. South Stafpordshibe Coal-field — Extent — Scenery — Physical Geology — Succession of Strata — Coal-seams — Southerly thin- ning away of Strata — Trap Rocks — Rowley Rag — Greenstone and Volcanic Ash — Ironstones — Fossils — Resources — Produce of Coal and Iron, &c. ...... 107 XVI CONTENTS. Page CHAPTER XI. North Stapfobdshibb Coal-field — Structure and Extent — Suc- cession of Strata — Coal-series — Ironstones — Fossils — Faults — Resources — Coal and Iron Produce ... . • .113 CHAPTER Xn. Cheadlb Coal-pield — Scenery and Structure — Coal-series — Fossils— Iron bed of Ohumet Valley .... 119 CHAPTER Xm. Lanoashibe Coal-field — Extent — ^Western boundary — Faults — General range of the Beds — Succession of Formations— Coal- series at St. Helens — ^Wigan — Bolton— Fossil Fish — Lower Coal-mesisures or Gannister Series — Iron Ores — Faults — Fossils, — Resources — The Manchester Coal-field— Upper Coal-measures — ^Iron Ore — Burnley Coal-field — Structure — Coal-series — Re- sources — Summary of Resources of the Lancashire Coal-field . 121 CHAPTER XTV. Cumberland Coal-field — Structure — Succession of Strata — Coal- sferies of Whitehaven, Workington, Maryport — Faults— Re- sources ....... I3g CHAPTER XV. Wakwiokshiee Coal-field — Extent and Structure — Succession of Strata — Coal-seams — Resources — Extent of Coal under Permian Rocks — Limestone Bed — Trap Rooks .... 140 CHAPTER XVI. Leicestbeshibe Coal-fibu> — Extent and boundaries — Succession of Strata — Coal-series of Moira and Coleorton districts ^Igneous Rocks — Rock-faults — Salt Water in Main Coal — Resources Extent of Coal under New Red Sandstone . . . 143 CHAPTER XVH. Deebyshiee and Yobkshibe Coal-field — Extent and Structure- Lower Carboniferous Districts — Escarpment of Magnesian Lime- stone — Succession of Formations — Coal-series at Shireoak Col- liery, Notts ; and Bamsley, Yorkshire — Gannister Series Fos- sils — Coal-measures under the Permian and Trias — Iron-Ores Resources — Quantity of Coal under the Magnesian Limestone Coal and Iron Produce . • • • • . 147 CONTENTS. XVU Page CHAPTER XVin. Ddrham and NoBTHtJMBBiAN CoAL-piELD — Extent — Coal-measures under the Magnesian Limestone — General Structure of the Coal-fleld — Lower Carboniferous Eocks — Succession of Forma- tions — Coal-seams — Section of the Newcastle District — Basaltic Dykes — Eesouroes — Quantity of Coal imder Permian and Trias — Various Estimates of the Duration of the Coal-supply — Coal and Iron Produce — Coal-fields of the Borders— Geological Posi- tion ........ 155 CHAPTER XIX. CoaIj-fiblds of Scotland — Their range and physical features — Six separate Coal-fields — Geological age — Change in the character of the Lower Carhoniferous Rocks from England to Scotland — Trap Rocks (contemporaneous and eruptive) — General suc- cession of the Scottish Coal-series — Districtofthe Clyde Basin — Mr. R. Moore's Section — Mr. W. Moore's Section— Boghead Coal — Principal Coals— Ironstone Bands— Mid-Lothian and Haddington Coal-fields — Mr. Milne's Synopsis— Mr. Howell's Section — Principal Coals— Mr. Geikie on the Burdiehouse Lime- stone — Resources of the Lothians' Coal-field — Fifeshire Coal- fleld— Coal-series — Clackmannan Coal-field — Ayrshire Coal- fleld — Upper Lesmahago Coal-field — Sections at ^Coal Bum and Auchenheath . . . . . . . 163 CHAPTER XX. Bboba Coal-field — Its Geological age — Coal-seams — Its History —Coal-field of Skye — Resources of the Scottish Coal-fields . 179 CHAPTER XXI. Irish Coal-fields — Former extent of the Coal-measures — Mr. Jukes' classification — Kerry — Cork-^Waterford — Clare — Lime- rick — Kilkenny — Age of the Coal-measures — Tyrone — Bally- castle — Sir R. Griffith's Researches — Coal-Island and Annahone Districts — Antrim District — Age of the Coal-measures — Quan- tity of Anthracite and Bituminous Coa,! raised in 1859 . . 179 CHAPTER XXH. Suhmart op the Coal-besodboes op Gbeat Bbitatn . . 187 XVIU CONTENTS. PAET III. Page CHAPTER I. CoAL-TiSlDS OP EuEOPE -France and Belgium— Ehenish Provinces —The Saarbnick Coal-field— Westphaliar— Cretaceous Coal-field of Buekeburg— Silesian Coal-fields— Spain— Coal-field of Asta- riaa— Portugal— Vallongo— Brown Coal of the Lower Khine— Bohemia— Bussia— Coal-fields of the Ural, Central Eussia— The Donetz — Anthracite and Bituminous Districts— Importance of the Russian Coal-fields ..... 189 CHAPTER n. Coal-fields or Asia — Government Geological Survey — Talcheer Coal-field— those of Palamow, Sirgooja. &c.— Khasi Hills— Cutoh — General cbaracter of the Indian Coal-fields — China — Coal-mining at E — u, and Tingtih — Malaysia and Japan — Borneo— Australian Coal-fields— Victoria— Sydney— New Zea- land . ••...> . I9S CHAPTER m. CoAL-FTELDS OF NoKTH Ambbica — British Possessions — Coal-fields of Newfoimdland, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia — Cumber- land — Section along the Bay of Fundy — Colchester and Hants — Pictou — Richmond and Cape Breton . . . 205 CHAPTER IV. Amehioan States — Original Extent of Coal-formation^-Probabla connection with Europe — Position of Old Carboniferous Land — Professor Rogers* Survey — Appalachian Basin — Illinois — Indiana — Kentucky — Missouri — Arkansas — Michigan — and Texas Coal-fields — Their extent and areas — Total area of United States' Coal-fields — Position of the Strata over the Central Districts — Changes on approaching the Alleghany range — General Structure of this Mountain Chain — Springs of Petroleum and Salt — Thickness of Coal-beds — Sir C. Lyell's account — Succession of Lower Carboniferous Rocks — Fossils — Animals and Plants — Richmond Coal-field- — ^ Its age and structure — Coal-fields and Lignite Strata in Utah Territory — Vancouver Island— Valley of the Mackenzie — Arctic Regions — Coal Produce in America, as compared with that of Britain — Trinidad — Coal and Bitumen of Tertiary Strata — Lignite on the Main Land —Brazil ...... 211 CONTENTS. six PAET IV. Page CHAPTER I. Phtsicai. Limits to beep Coal-mining — Why 4000 feet has been adopted as the greatest depth — Two ever-increasing obstacles — Temperature and Pressure — Internal fluidity of the Earth from heat — Experiments to determine the rate of increase of tem- perature, at Paris — at Neu-Saltzwerk — Geneva — Mondorff — Cornish Mines — Monkwearmouth — Dukinfield — Bose Bridge Collieries — Depth of Temperature no variation — Increase of Temperature due to density of air — Tables showing increase of heat at various depths — Observations of Humboldt in the Mines of Peru — Counteracting effects of Ventilation — Observa^ tions at Shireoak Colliery — Pressure probably not an insuperable obstacle — Recapitulation • . . . . 219 CHAPTEE II. Duration of otin Coal-supply — Available Supply of 79,833 millions of tons — Progressive increase of Production for the last ton years — Future Prospects — America — Large Export Trade of Britain in Coal — Causes tending to accelerate the ex- haustion of Coal— Retarding influences — Effect of increase of population — Manufactures — Steam-vessels — Railways — Export Trade — Probable rise in the price of Coal in consequence of deeper Mines — Proportional drain on the English and Scotch Coal-fields . . . . . .. .236 CHAPTER HI. The Physical Geography of the CARBONiPEBors Period of Britain — Mr. Jukes' Theory of Land in Central England during the Coal-period — Conglomerates of the Oolitic and Cretaceous Strata — Borings at Harwich and Kentish Town — District South of the Thames— Prolongation of the Belgian Trough under the Thames Valley — The position of the Strata at the S.E. of the Somersetshire Coal-field — Mr. Godwm-Austen's Theory — North- Westerly Drift of the Coal-measures — Comparative thickness of the Coal-measures of several Counties — Summary of Con- clusions ....... 245 CHAPTER IV. Coincidences in English Geology — Successive Outcropping of the Formations from London towards the North-western Coun- c XX CONTENTS. Page ties — Due to a North-westerly Upheaval^Oomparative thick- ness of the Trias and Lias in the North-west and South-east Districts — Similar thickening of the Coal-formation towards the North-west — So that the Upheaval and exposure of the Coal- measures has taken place when this Formation was most pro- ductive ....... 255 APPENDIX. A. — Eose Bridge Colliery, near Wigan . B. — Newcastle Coal-trade , C. — Lighting Mines hefore Davy's invention D. — Botanical Nomenclature E. — Coal-mining in China . F. — Coal-mining in Japan . G. — Great Northern Coal-fields H.— Boring at Harwich . ' 262 263 264 265 265 266 267 269 Index 271 LIST. OF ILLUSTEATIONS. Pago Fbontismece — Plate op the Chabactebistio Fossils of the Coal Fobmation. 1. PoBTioN or Feond op Peooptebis lokchitica ■ . 36 2. CaLAMITES VEBTICilLLATUS . . . . .37 3. SiSILLABIA . ' . . , . . .38 4. Lehdosteobus obnatbb , . . . •41 5. Vbbtioal Section in Lower Ooal-measuees near Wigan - 55 6. Seotion across the CoAL-riBLD OP South Wales . . 65 7. Section across the Bbistol and Someksetshire Coal-field 76 8. Section across the Ooal-pield op Coalbrook Dale . 94 9. Section acboss the Dbnbiqhshibe Coal-field . . 98 10. Section acboss the Anglesea Goal-field . . .105 11. Section across the South Stappordshiee Coal-field . 108 12. Section across the North Stapfobdshiee Coal-field . 114 13. Section acboss the Lancashibe Coal-field. . . 121 14. Section aoeoss the Waewiokshiee Coal-field . . 141 15. Section across the Leicestebshibe Coal-field . . 144 16. Section across the Yobeshibe Coal-field. . . 148 17. Ideal Transverse Section op England . . . 260 INTEODUCTION. The question of the exhaustibility of our coal-fields is a highly complicated one ; for while an actual exhaus- tion is beyond all possibility, a practical and sensible failure in the supply of coal is not only possible, but certain in course of time. The debates in Parliament have brought into promi- nence a subject which, from the days of Sir Kobert Peel's premiership, has more or less engaged the serious consideration of public men. The opinion of the learned Dr. Buckland regarding the probable exhaustion of the British coal-fields is known to have influenced the measures of that statesman ; and in the late debates on the Commercial Treaty with France, the statistical in- formation produced by Mr. Vivian is believed to have materially influenced our legislature in favour of the measures of Government. I refer to this debate as illustrating how diversified are the opinions entertained on this subject by some of •the most eminent politicians, and which are only a reflex of those of the public generally. 2 INTKODUCTION. The want of accurate and reliable information on this subject is much felt. If legislation is to be based upon the question whether this country can, without irre- trievable damage to its resources, admit of the unre- strained export of coal, it is surely of first importance that there should be accurate data to go upon; and though I admit that the question is not one which can be determined with mathematical precision, yet we may at least arrive at sufficiently approximate results, by a combination of the evidence obtained from each in- dividual coal-field. The first evidence of a decreasing supply will be a sensible rise in the price of coal : but, through the agency of railways, this will not become general until the resources of all the coal-fields shall have become de- veloped to their full capabilities, because, where the supply shortens in one district, a corresponding impetus will be given to others now only partially opened up. Two illustrations may be mentioned. — Many of us may live to see the southern half of the South Stafford- shire coal-field exhausted, or nearly so ; but while this consummation is approaching, the northern half of the same great coal- tract is far from being opened up to the extent of which it is capable. The exhaustion of the southern portion is already telling upon the northern. The interesting and instructive coal-field of Coalbrook Dale, in Shropshire, is fast approaching extinction as a coal-producing district. There is probably not more coal than will last for a quarter of a century, at the present rate of consumption. But there is a neighbour- INTRODUCTION, ing coal-field, that of Denbighsliire, capable of producing about five times its present supply. Between Br)rmbo collieries on the north and those of Kuabon on the south, there is a large area of virgin ground, well stored with coal, and scarcely disturbed. Other examples wiU be found in the following pages. In speaking of the exhaustion of a coal-field, I do not use the term in an absolute sense. There will always be bands of coal, besides leavings, in the coal-mines, sufiicient to afford a small supply to the immediate neighbourhood for domestic purposes. A coal-field may be said to be exhausted, when it is necessary to import largely from neighbouring districts for manufacturing and more general purposes. From various causes, large quantities of coal have been left in old workings, much of which it will be impossible to recover. Thus in the Leicestershire coal-field, where a bountiful Nature has left a " 12-foot " coal-seam, only one half has actually been raised — the " upper," or " nether " portions being less valuable than the remainder in various parts of the field. I have already said, that the British coal-fields can never be utterly exhausted. This is strictly trae. Even disregarding the coal-beds which He concealed beneath formations newer than those of the Carboniferous period, there are, in some districts, coal-seams which are buried 6000, 8000, and perhaps 12,000 feet beneath the sur- face, and which can never be reached. I refer particu- larly to the great coal-basin of South Wales, which, as Mr. Vivian has shown, is capable of supplying the whole INTEODUCTIOK. of England with coal; — but for, I beHeve, a far shorter period than Mr. Vivian estimates it. In a future page I shall enter in greater detail iato this subject; and here content myself with stating the broad fact of the enormous depth of some of the coal-beds in that basin, on the authority of the late Sir H. T. de la Beche, and SirW. Logan, through whose energy the magnificent geological survey of this district is now in the hands of the public. Now, without assigning in this place any theoretical limit to the depth at which coal may be worked, few will be disposed to deny that coal-seams at these depths might as well be buried beneath the waters of the Atlantic for aU the probability there is of their ever being rendered available. " There are other districts, principally in the Midland counties, where the coal strata, though not themselves of any very great thickness, dip under higher formations till they reach vast depths. For instance, there is no reason to doubt that coal underlies the plaia of Cheshire, between the coal-fields of Lancashire on the north, Staffordshire on the east, and Flintshire on the west ; yet m order to reach the highest workable coal-seam at Northwich, it would be necessary to carry the shaft which reaches the great salt rock at least 4000 feet deeper than at present. There are, however, very large districts in Stafford- shire, Leicestershire, and Warwickshire, overspread by formations belonging to the Permian and Triassic sys- tems, where coal may be reached at depths within 3000 or 4000 feet. In the north-eastern counties of Durham, rSTEODUCTION. 5 Yorkshire, and Notts, there are also vast stores of fuel within reach, but overspread by formations belonging to the age of the Permian and Trias. In Durham, the Magnesian Limestone, which attains there a thickness of 500 feet, has for several years been penetrated in various places down to the underlying coal ; and the same formation, in its southerly extension into York- shire and Nottinghamshire, bids fair to become a coal- producing district of large extent and capacity.* One of the deepest mines in England, that of Shireoak, near Worksop, belonging to the Duke of Newcastle, is situated on the Magnesian Limestone ; and after ob- stacles of no ordinary kind had been triimiphantly surmounted, was carried down into the long-wished-for coal-seam, at a depth of 510 yards. The depth of many coal-shafts in the north of Eng- land is very great. At Ince, near Wigan, the " Cannel " seam is reached by means of two " lifts," at a depth of 600 yards-t Pendleton colliery, near Manchester, is 536 yards deep ; that of Dukenfield, Cheshire, 686 ynrds. The Monkwear mouth pit, near Sunderland, has a depth of 530 yards : and collieries with shafts between 400 and 500 yards are not uncommon in the coal-fields of Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Durham. Notwithstanding, however, all that art and industry can invent to facilitate mining at great depths, — not- withstanding the increased powers of the machinery and improvements in ventilation, the employment of flat wire ropes, the substitution of steel for wrought • See Map. t Appendix A., p. 264. 6 rNTKODUCTION. iron, and the use of. two or more " lifts " or stages, at intervals from the bottom of the mine, — we must ulti- mately reach 'a depth at which the temperature will be so high as to prohibit inexorably mining operations. What that depth may be I shall discuss in a future chapter : iu the meanwMle, let us review briefly the progressive course of coal-mining from its infancy to the present time. PART I. CHAPTER I. FRAGMENTS IK THE HISTORY OF COAL-MINING. The first attempts at coal-mining are enveloped in ob- scurity; but even from the chronicles of those days, when nothing was thought worth recording save the accession of a prince, the feuds of neighbouring states, and the details of a battle, enough has been incidentally noted to enable us to trace back the art of coal-mining to very early times. Its beginning was sufiBciently humble. Its nature and properties being little understood, there was nothing in the outcropping of a black substance along the sides of a hill or the banks of a brook to arrest atten- tion; but it is not improbable that from the earliest periods — at any rate from the time in which implements and weapons of metal replaced those of flint — fossil fuel may have been employed for smelting purposes. Fortunately on this point we are not left altogether to conjecture, as I shall have occasion to show presently. Like majiy other treasures of Nature, the use of coal did not become general until its necessity had become 8 THE COAL-FIELDS OP GKEAT BEITAIK. paramount. While in the days of Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-JSTorman art, and those which immediately suc- ceeded, the plains of England were overspread with almost continuous forests, growing, as in Staffordshire and Lancashire, frequently in dense luxuriance over the mineralized forests of geologic ages, and while these forests readily yielded an abtmdance of fuel for all the purposes of the times, it was both unnecessary and improbable that the labour and risk of mining should become general. The precious mineral was reserved for a generation to whose very existence it is almost a necessity ; a generation that, without its aid, could scarcely (as far as we can see) have arrived at the position in art, industry, and navigation, which it has attained in the nineteenth century. I must now ask my reader to accompany me through a few of those details in the history of coal-mining which I have been able to collect. I do not profess to have exhausted the subject ; for the more I have entered into it, the more am I satisfied that much remains to reward the industry of the antiquarian. The notices we find are like stepping-stones for crossing a river ; some- times they are large, copious, and closely placed, at other times wide apart, so that we have to make a leap perhaps over several centuries at a time ; but I have no doubt further researches wUl enable us to add to the numbers of the stone-steps, so as to lessen the gaps, if we cannot hope to make a continuous road from the shore of the past to that on which we stand. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that the frequent FRAGJIENTS IN THE HISTOUT OF COAL-MINING. 9 references to coal in the Sacred Scriptures caiiiiot be considered as pointing to that mineral as at present un- derstood. The original word doubtless means charcoal, which, like the Latin term, may be employed to desig- nate fuel of both kinds. I should not, however, be so confident that coal itself was not sometimes intended, if there was any certainty of its existence as a product of the Holy Land or Arabia ; but as far as I am aware there is no mention by any traveller of this mineral occurring amongst the Nummulite limestones, the red sandstones, or basaltic lava-floes of these countries. Its nearest position to Palestine is perhaps on the shores of the Black Sea and Bosphorus. Period before Christ. — Theophrastus, a Greek author who lived about 238 years before the Christian era, de- scribes, in brief but determinate language, the nature, uses, and source of coal. It is a suflScient proof of this mineral being intended, that the description applies accu- rately to it, and to no other. He says : " They caU those fossil substances (XiSur avSgaxar) anthracite (or coal), and when they are broken up for use, are of an earthy character (yealSsif) ; nevertheless they inflame and burn even like charcoal (jtaflawEp ol avQpaxw), and are used by the smiths." He adds, that the coal is found along with amber and other substances in Liguria, and in Ehs on the road to Olympias over the mountains.* * It is scarcely necessary to give the original passage of which the above is a Uteral translation, and varies only slightly from that of Mr. John Hill, who edited an edition of the " History of Stones " in 1746. Pennant also notices the passage, and does not hesitate to refer it to coal. 10 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. There are several other passages in the same work descriptive of combustible minerals, but described in such vague language that it is impossible to identify them. The passage above quoted is, it appears to me, sufficient, and its value would scarcely be strengthened by the addition of a score of others which might be applied to as many different substances.* The passage in Plinyf is of little service, though sometimes quoted as referring to coal. Speaking of a certain earth (Chia terra), he merely says of it that "Bitumini simillima est ampelitis." Theophrastus, in speaking of this stone, says : " There is a certain earth in CUicia, which is heated and becomes glutinous. With this they smear the vines (as a protection) against worms." Strabo reiterates the above description — in aU probability only quoting it. Ancient Britons. — It might scarcely be credited, were it not established on incontestable evidence, that there were coal mines amongst those savage clans and roving barbarians, such as we are generally taught to consider the Britons of prehistoric times. The discovery of a Hint-axe stuck into a bed of coal exposed to day in Monmouthshire is a fact which, like the occurrence of a solitary fragment of a plant in a very ancient rock, proves a great deal more than appears at first sight. If we accept the theory, that flint weapons were the earliest representation of three stages of civilization, of which bronze implements were the second, and iron implements * See also the same author in " Ilefii AiBav.'' Art. 49. t Nat. Hist., lib. xxxv. 16. FRAQMENTS IN THE HISTORY OF COAL-MINING, 11 the tliird, this discovery carries us back to a very early period, antecedent to the invasion of the Romans. I am persuaded this is not a solitary case, though I know of none strictly parallel. Near Stanley in Derby- shire, some years since, while some miners were engaged in driving a heading through the " Kilbum coal," they broke into some very old excavations, in which they found axes or picks formed out of solid oak. The imple- ments were entirely destitute of metal, and were cut out from one solid piece of timber. It is hard to imagine the use of such an instrument where iron was Imown ; wliile it is also difficult to conjecture how an axe of this kind could have been formed without the assistance of iron. The neighbourhood of these old workings abounds in iron-ore, several beds of clay iron-stone occurring both above and below the KUburn coal. If the use of these ores had been known, it is scarcely to be supposed that the miners would have made use of picks formed entirely of oak. Implements which appear to have belonged to an equally early period are stated to have been found in old coal-workings near Ashby de la Zouch, consisting of stone hammer-heads, wedges of flint, as also wheels of solid wood.* Whittaker states that there is indubitable evidence from the discoveries at Castle-Field, near Manchester, that the Britons had made use of coal in that neighbour- hood. He refers to the existence of fragments of coal in the beds of sand under the Eoman road, and in a pit a few feet deep contiguous thereto.f But I very much * Mammat's " Geological Pacts." t " History of Manchester," vol. i., p. 302 (1771). 12 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. doubt the value of such evidence. Those acquainted with the Drift, or Post-pliocene deposits of Lancashire and Cheshire, know that drifted fragments of coal are extremely plentiful therein ; and there is strong proba- bility that those upon which he dilates so enthusiastically were carried to their beds in the sand long even before the time of the Ahmigines of Britain ; and not by the hand of man. Romans in Britain. — That the Romans were ac- quainted with the use of coal during their occupation of Britain is highly probable, both from what we know of the character of the race and from circumstantial evidence. They had stations in many places close to the out-crop of valuable coal-seams, and cinders have been found amongst the ruins of Roman towns and villas. I may here mention a case which has always appeared to me as probably referable to this period. Wigan in Lancashire was a Roman station. Not far to the north of that town, a bed of coal — one of the most valuable in Laiicashire, and known as the " Arley Mine," — out-crops along the banks of the river Douglas. Not long since,' while driving a tunnel to divert the course of the river, this coal-seam of 6 feet in thickness was found to have been mined in a manner hitherto altogether unknown. It was found to have been excavated into a series of polygonal chambers, with vertical walls opening into each other by short passages, and on the whole present- ing on a ground-plan something of the appearance of a honeycomb. The chambers were stated to be regular both in size and form over an area of at least 100 yards in one direction, and were altogether different from FRAGMENTS IN THE HISTORY OF COAL-MINING. 13 anything within the experience of the miners of the district. Local tradition ascribed these excavations to the Danes, though I could not discover upon what grounds. We should probably be nearer the truth in assigning them to the Romans during their sojourn in these parts. There is something in the symmetrical an-angement and regularity of the works peculiarly Eoman, reminding one of their tesselated pavements, or the ground plans of their baths and villas, in which symmetry of form appears to be the guiding spirit. It would, however, have been more satisfactory had the evidence rested on the discovery of works of art within the excavations. But it is time to return from this digression to the more sure word of history. If Whittaker, the historian of Manchester, has been unsuccessful, in my opinion at least, in establishing upon satisfactory evidence the use of coal by the Ancient Britons, he has been more fortunate in showing that fossil fuel from the Lancashire coal-field was burnt by their successors, the Romans. Castle-Field — an original settlement of the Britons — was afterwards possessed by the Romans under the name of Mancunium. In the course of time it has slightly changed its name, and de- veloped into the metropolis of the northern counties of England. Amongst other Roman remains turned up about a century ago, cinders and scoriae were discovered in several places, as well as the " actual refuse of some considerable coal-fire."* The same author also relates, that in the West Riding • "History of Manchester," vol. i., p. 301. 14 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BKITAIN. of Yorkshire, near North Brierley,a quantity of Koman coins, the very best indices for dates, were found " care- fully reposited" amid many beds of coal-cinders heaped up in the adjacent fields* Horseley, speaking of some inscriptions found at BenweU, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, the Condercum of the Eomans, states that there was "a coalry not far from that place, which is judged by those best skilled in such affairs to have been wrought by the Eomans."-|- Wallis also states, that in digging some of the founda- tions of the city of Magna, or Caervorran, ia Northumber- land, in 1762, cinders, in all respects similar to those derived from coal, were/ound in considerable quantity.t Mr. T. J. Taylor, in an article on the " Archaeology of the Coal-trade,"§ also refers to the discovery of coal- cinders as part of the relics of the Eoman stations of the neighbourhood, notices of which are contaiaed in the records of the Antiquarian Society of that town. Similar evidences of the use of coal by the Eomans are stated to have been discovered at Lanchester, and Elchester in the county of Durham. Assuming from the general consideration of the case that coal was not unknown to the Eomans — though they do not appear to have invented a name for it while in Britain, and it was probably used more from curiosity than from necessity — we enter upon the Anglo-Saxon * " History of Manchester," vol. i. p. 303. t " Britannia Eomana.'' J " Hist, of Northumberland." § Proc. Archseol. Institute of Kewcastle, vol. i., p. 151. FRAGMENTS IN THE HISTOET OF COAL-MIKING. 15 period, in which there is documentary evidence of the use of pit-coal for domestic purposes. Anglo-Saxon Period. — Britton, in his description of Peterborough Cathedral, renders into modern English the following paragraph taken from the Saxon Chronicle of the Abbey of Peterborough: — "About this time (a.d. 852) the Abbot Ceolred let to hand the land of Sempringham to Wulfred, who was to send each year to the monastery ' 60 loads of wood, 12 loads of coal, 6 loads of peat, 2 tuns full of fine ale, 2 neats' carcases, 600 loaves, and 10 kilderkins of "Welsh ale, 1 horse also each year, and 30 shillings, and one night's entertain- ment.' "* How Wulfred was to send the provident abbot " one night's entertainment " it is not necessary for our purpose to inquire; but this statement of the chronicler is highly valuable as establishing the fact that coal was at this early period an article of household consumption. It may also have been made use of by the monks, who were the artificers and craftsmen of their times, in the -manufacture of metal-work for the churches and monasteries. In connection with this period, it is matter for dis cussion whether our term "coal," which is evidently identical with the German " kohle," has been derived from our Saxon ancestors, or whether, on the other hand, the Germans have derived it from us. It is probable the term was in general use before the invasion of the Normans, otherwise the French or Latin name would in all probability have been adopted. The Saxon * Cathedral Antiquities," vol. v. 16 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BKITAIN. name col (now coal) appears to have superseded the old British name glo, and if introduced into Britain at the colonization of the country by the German tribes, it is in favour of the supposition, that the art of coal-mining was practised in Europe during the first centuries of the Christian era.* If we have derived the term " coal " from our Saxon forefathers, from whom did they derive it ? If ow there * I have been favoured with the following note on the derivation of the word Coal by my relative, Mr. William J. Leacock, which I give entire: — " There are only five copies extant of the original Saxon Chronicle, of which four are in the British Museum. The original Anglo-Saxon words used in reference to Wulfred's rent to the Abbot of Peterborough are — ' anb epselp folSup gpaefan,' i. e., in modern English letters ' and twajlf rothur grsefan.' Bosworth, in his A. S. Dictionary, gives under Grsefe, an ; m. Coal : Carbo fossilis. Chr. 852 : (i.e., the above passage), so that this seems to be the only passage in which the tenu is used. No derivation is given, and I can find no parallel in the Dutch A- German ; but perhaps as we have Anglo-Saxon ' Greaf or Graf;' Dutch the same, German 'Grab,' and so through all the northern languages, for a trench or 'grave,' it simply means the ' dug-up ' earth. " I find, however, in the A. S. Dictionary, ' Col. plur. cola, colu. [,Ters. i.e. Teiresia /ioaZ, Dutch hool.] Coal, carbo: with reference to Psalm 17, 10, 13 and 139, 11, i. e., the Psalms, by Spelman, London, 1640, the division of the Vulgate being used.' " There is also, Gled, Gloed, plur. : with many parallels in the northern languages, meaning a burning coal, coal, fire ; carbo. used in Ps. 17, 14, &o. " In Somers' A. S. Diet, the word Grsefa is not to be found ; but Gi-asf, which means a grove as well as a grave. He gives ' Col. carbo. a coal to burn ;' but saye nothing about derivation. "The following is Richardson's etymological account of the word. ' Coal.' He says it is ' of unsettled etymology. A. S. Col ; German and' Dutch Kohle : Swedish KoV Vossius derives from the Greek, xah^os pro xn^^"'' Ignis epitheton. Waohter from xn^ociv, comburere. TJre seems to decide for the Swedish Quilla, Westro-Goth Kylla ac- cendere ignem (to kindle a fire). FEAGMEXTS IN THE HISTORY OF COAL-MINING. 17 are certain German words which have been derived from the Greek, and amongst these the word " kirche," or church, from xvpiairn, forms a notable example.* Re- collecting how coal of various kinds and ages is dis- tributed over all parts of Europe, it is just possible that the German word " kohle " may be derived from the Greek xoiXor, "hollow," as descriptive of a mineral which it was customary to hollow out of the earth. An American author has remarked that language is " fossil poetry." May there not lie concealed under our blunt Saxon word a germ of poetic thought ? Robert Stephenson was as truly a poet as a philosopher when he said that the heat of burning coal is but the liberation of those rays of the sun which have been locked up in the dark chambers of the rocks since the time that our great luminary shone down on the primseval forests. Now we cannot but recollect that the Latin word for heaven, " coelum," is derived from xoiXor, and thus there is a curious, but only accidental similarity between the word " coal " and the source of " every good and perfect gift." May we not carry out this fancy a step further, and, as believers in an eternal Providence, acknowledge that the mineral is a heaven-born gift to man ? Anglo-Norman Period. — It is matter for surprise, as well as regret, that in the Great Survey of England carried out by William the Conqueror, and recorded in that most matter-of-fact book, the Domesday Book, no instructions were delivered to the commissioners for inquiring into the extent and value of the mineral pro- * See Trench, " On the Study of Words." 18 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. perty of the central and northern counties. They appear to have confined their investigations entirely to the ex- tent, rights, and ownership of the surface land, together with the classification of the inhabitants ; but throughout the counties of York, Lancashire, Derby, and Nottmg- ham, abounding in coal and other minerals, no mention whatever is made of these latter sources of wealth. In order to test this point, I turned to the page relating to Chellaston in Derbyshire, where a most valuable bed of gypsum, or alabaster, underlies a large extent of surface at no great depth, and crops out as a solid bed ten or twelve feet in thickness. This mineral (which we know to have been worked centuries ago) could not even at that time have been undiscovered, for the ploughshare scrapes its surface in many places, and it may well be supposed to have been a source of wealth to the owner. Yet there is no mention made of the mineral value of the property in the " Dom Boc." Even the lead mines of Derbyshire, known to have been worked by the Eomans, are unnoticed, and there- fore we need not be surprised that coal receives no mention. However, in the Boldon Book, containing the census of portions of the northern counties, and published in the reign of Henry II., we find at least two references to coal. It is here stated that the carpenter of Vemouth, now Wearmouth, who is an old man, holds twelve acres for life for making carts and harrows for the tenants, and that the smith (Faber) has an equal quantity of land for the iron-work of the carts, and finds the FBAQMENTS IN THE HISTORY OF COAL-MININQ. 19 requisite coal (carbones invenit). I think this pas- sage cannot be considered as referring to charcoal obtained from wood. In this sense the verb invenit would be inapplicable, but is not so when used in refer- ence to a kind of fuel which requires discovery. The census of Seggefeeld follows very closely upon that of Vemouth, and here also the smith of the village is said to find the coal for his forge.* What a curious in- sight into the customs of those times is afforded by these passages ! In the small communities of Vemouth and Seggefeeld, the carpenter and smith are bound to keep in repair, and probably provide, the implements of agriculture for the farmers in consideration of a certain extent of land, money being probably not in general use amongst the villagers of that period. The Latins had an old proverb, quoted amongst many others by Phajdrus, " Carbonem, ut aiunt, pro thesauro invenimus." This has been considered as referring to charcoal ; but it appears to me under this supposition to lose all its significancy. The same objection may be urged to this interpretation as has been stated in refer- ence to the passage in the Boldon Book — for the same expression is used in both. " Finding " a lump of coal instead of treasure has some meaning in it, but the find- ing of a piece of charcoal under similar circumstances appears utterly unintelligible. * Inquisitio de consuetudinis, et reditibus totius Ep'atus Dunelmensis, Anno 1183. The difficulty of reading this work, which, like the Domes- dny Book, is full of abbreviations and elliptical expressions, is great ; as cxampUs I quote the passages above alluded to : — " Vemouth. Faber xii. acr' r> ferramentf caruo' & carbones qm' invenit." "Faber, 1 bovat. ^ ferramet^ caruc'. que fac". & carbon' invenit. 20 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BKITAIN. The year 1259 is memorable in the annals of coal- mining. Hitherto the mineral had not been recognized by authority or in any public document ; but in that year King Henry III. granted a charter to the freemen of Newcastle-on-Tyne for liberty to dig coals. Under the term "sea-coal" a considerable export trade was established with London, and it speedily became an article of consumption amongst the various manufac- turers of the metropolis. But its popularity was short- lived. An impression became general that the smoke arising therefrom contaminated the atmosphere, and was injurious to the public health. Years of experience has proved the fallacy of the imputation ; but in 1306 the outcry became so general that the Lords and Com- mons in Parliament assembled presented a petition to King Edward I., who issued a proclamation forbidding the use of the offending fuel, and authorizing the de- struction of the furnaces and kilns of all who should persist in using it. Tliis was the year before the mo- narch's death, and the year which saw the overthrow of his life-long attempts upon the throne of Scotland, through the iatrepidity of Eobert the Bruce. But the proclamation against coal was as abortive as the endea- vour to conquer the patriotism of the Scots. Prejudice gradually gave way as the value of the fossil fuel be- came better known, and from that time downwards its use became more extended; and it is very ])robable that throughout the 14th and 15th centuries coal was extracted near the outcrop of the beds over most, if not all, of the coal-fields of Britain and Ireland. His- torical records are still extant from which we learn that ' FRAGMENTS IX THE HISTORY OF COAL-MINING. 21 collieries were opened during the 14th century in various parts of Yorkshire, Durham, and Northum- berland. The anonymous author of the " History of Fossil Fuel," observes in reference to the 13th century : " The strongest and most unequivocal proof that this species of fuel (coal) was in use amongst us during the reign of Hem-y the Third is to be found in an inquisition preserved among the additions to Matthew Paris's History, of the date of 1245. Here we find it called carlo maris, or sea-coal — an appellation retained through succeeding centuries — with express mention of making pits to win it, and of the wages of the colliers that wrought in them." Leland* has the following passage: "The vaynes of the se-coles ly sometyme upon clines of the se, as round about Coquet Island, and other shores ; and they, as some will, be properly called se-coles ; but they be not so good as the coles that are digged in the inner part of the lande." We have numerous references to the use of coal in the ] 4th century. Surtees, in his " History of Durham," mentions a coal-mine, in connection with the vicarage of Merrington, in the county of Durham, in 1 343 ; as also the notice of the sinking of pits at Ferryhill, in the same county. Mr. Taylor, in the Memoir already alluded to, says : " We have thus a tolerably clear historical account of the Newcastle coal-mining and its adjuncts in the 14th century, ^^'e have seen that collieries were then * "Itinerary,' vol. viii. 22 THE COAL-FIELDS OP GEEAT BEITAIN. certainly opened over a considerable extent of our coal-field, since they were being worked in the districts of Newcastle, Elswick, Birtley, Winlaton, Merrington, and Lanchester. To these may be added coal-mines ia Bedlingtonshire, the produce of which was probably shipped in the river Blyth (Northumberland), for we find the Bishop of Durham in 1368 appointing a super- visor of the mines of that district. That coals were also shipped from Sunderland in the same century we have proof in the rolls of Whitby Abbey in 1395, when 13 shillings and 4 pence were paid to William Eede of Sunderland for four chaldrons of coal."* The use of coal in London was resumed within a few years after its prohibition by the king in 1306 ; as we find in the " Petitiones in Parliamento," in 1321-2, a claim made for ten shillings, on account of coal which had been ordered by the clerk of the palace, but the payment for which had been neglected. Amongst other incidental notices of coal in the 14th century is that of ^neas Sylvius, afterwards Pius II. On his visit to Scotland he had opportunities of wit- nessing the poor receiving as alms at the gates of the monasteries pieces of coal, " which," he states, " they bum in place of wood, of which their country is destitute."! Coal-mines are also mentioned in the abbey leases of this century. Tynemouth priory had a colliery at Elswick in 1330, let at a yearly rental of six marks, to be paid so soon as the tenant commenced working the * Proc. ArchsDol. Inst. Newcastle, vol. i. t iEuei Sylvii Opera, p. 443. (See Appendix.) FKAQMENTS IN THE HISTOBT OF COAL-MINING. 23 coal. The rent of another new colliery in 1334 is stipu- lated at 40«. yearly.* In the reign of Queen Elizabeth the coal-trade flourished greatly, and continued to be regarded as an important source, not only of local but of national revenue by succeeding monarchs. In the reign of Charles I. the trade was burdened by excessive taxation and grievous monopolies. After the capture of New- castle by the Scottish army, the House of Commons undertook the regulation of the coal trade, by which step, supplies were shipped into the port of London for the use of the poor, coals having previously risen to the price of 4:1. per chaldron.f The difficulties under which mining operations were carried on before the invention of the steam-engine, and more particularly of the " Davy lamp," must have been very great. An anonymous writer in the " Builder " states, that in many mines the only alternative the medisBval miner had to pitch darkness was the phos- phorescent gleam from dried fisli.J Those who wish to understand the art of mining as it was carried on at this period will find their curiosity amply gratified by turn- ing over the pages of Agricola's treatise on mining. This author, who wrote in the middle of the 16th cen- tury, has illustrated the various processes by a profusion of quaint drawings on a large scale. The horse-gin, which survives to the present day in many districts, was the engine chiefly employed both for lifting the coal, and for getting rid of the water. This latter object was ♦ Proc. Arch. lust. Nuwcastle, vol. i. t "Hlat. Foi. Faol," p. 3Iu. J Sej AppiaJix E., p. 235. 24 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIN. also sometimes effected by means of pumps turned by -windmills, or through tunnels driven with great labour to an outlet at a lower level. Pennant, in his account of the collieries of Flintshire, states that there is documentary evidence to show that the coal-seams of Mostyn were worked in the time of Edward I. ; and in the 17th century, Dublin and the eastern parts of Ireland were supplied from this district.* In the year 1600, or thereabouts, coal was worked at Bedworth in Warwickshire, as we learn from Camden, who describes the process, and says that the miners assured him that large toads had been found in the solid coal.f In this century also the mineral treasures of the bishoprick of Durham were well known ; and early in the 17th century the cannel-coal of Lancashire was used, not only by the poor for candles, but was manu- factured into various articles of ornament or use. Cam- den, in speaking of the discovery of this most valuable description of coal at Haigh, near Wigan, says : " This neighbourhood abounds with that fine species of coal called canal or candle. It is curious and valuable, and besides yielding a clear flame when burnt, and therefore used by the poor as candles, is wrought into candlesticks, plates, boxes, &c, and takes a fine polish like black marble."! * "Tour in Wales," vol. i. (1784). t Camden'3 " Britannia." Gough's edit., vol. ii., p. 464. This belief amongst miners of the existence of live toads in coal is very extra- ordinary, and is almost coextensive -with the art. I was assured by a miner in Lancashire, near Ormsldrk, that a toad had been brought up in a piece of coal from a mine thirty-six yards in depth, which imme- diately revived on reaching the surface I i " Britannia," vol. iii., p. 390. FRAGMENTS IN THE HISTORY OF COAL-MINING. 25 That coal was worked in Ireland at least as early as the beginning of the IGth century, and possibly much earlier, may be inferred from the following account given by Hamilton in his "Letters on the Coast of Antrim." He relates that in 1770 the miners of Bally- castle, in pushing forward an adit towards a bed of coal in an unexplored part of the coal-field, unexpectedly broke into a narrow passage, which proved to have been carried several hundred yards to a bed of coal, and then branched off into chambers. Pillars had been left at proper distances. Some remains of tools and baskets were found, which speedily crumbled to pieces. Those who are aware how the accounts of mining operations are handed down through several generations will readily admit that the old works here mentioned, and of which aU local tradition had been lost, must have been carried on at least a century and a half before the period when they were afterwards discovered, which would throwback the date nearly to the beginning of the 16th century. In Scotland the coal-seams of the Lothians and Fife- shire were probably worked at a very early period. Agricola, and after him Camden, mentions that in his time there existed in the latter county old coal-pits, filled with water, and surrounded by mounds of refuse called coal-heufffis ; and he adds that " many of the beds of coal have been on fire for centmes, and the heat stiU continues to melt the snow on the surface."* These old coal-works would appear to have been at least as old as the 15th century. * Camden's " Britannia," vol. iv., p. 114. This elaborate work was publislied in 1607. 26 TlfE COAL-FIELDS OP GREAT BRITAIN. Campbell, in his "Political Surrey of Britain," pub- lished in 1774,* gives us some interesting details of the coal-trade in his time. He states, that although coal was employed in manufactures for several hundred years, it did not come into general use tUl the reign of Charles I., and was then sold for seventeen shillings a chaldi-on. In 1670, about 200,000 chaldrons, and at the Eevolution (1690) upwards of 300,000, and in the reign of George III. (1760) double that quantity, was annually consumed in Britain. He adds: "There is little room to be alarmed from the apprehension of their (the mines) being exhausted, as the present works are capable of supplying us for a long series of years, and there are many other mines ready to be opened when any of these shall fail," — a piece of information which must have been exceedingly consolatory to those of the last generation, but not so assuring to us who have lived to see the annual consumption of nearly 70 mil- lions of tons. Sir John Clerk, in a letter to a friend, wi'itten in 1739, gives an interesting account of the collieries of Whitehaven.t The coal-beds even at that time were worked far under the sea, so that, as the writer observes. Sir James's riches in part swim over his head, for ships pass daily above the very ground where his colliers work. The coals were drawn up by an engine turned by two horses, which went their circuits at full trot every eight hours, and three changes were employed * Vol. ii., p. 30. t These coUieriea belonged to Sir James Lowtlier, who was held in high estimation by the people, his death being looked forwaid to as a public calamity. Oamden, vol. iii., p. 434. Gongh's edit. FRAGMENTS IN THE HISTOBY OP COAL-MINING. 27 every twenty-four hours. Sir John Clerk then proceeds to give a long and minute account of the quantity of coal raised, its cost, and how much the proprietor cleared after paying all expenses, which amounted to the very moderate figure of 600?. a year, or thereabout. The writer also states that the upper coal-seams were much exhausted near the sea, but that untouched trea- sures lay below. We have now reached the margin of a new epoch in coal-mining, marked by the discovery of the safety- lamp by Sir Humphry Davy in 1815, and of the steam- engine by Watt, in 1784.* While the latter invention opened up a thousand new channels for the employ- ment of coal, and at the same time gave the power of raising this mineral from great depths, the former enabled the miner to light his way thi-ough those dark caverns surrounded by inflammable gases with com- parative safety. The uses to which coal is applicable, and the products which may be extracted from it, are almost limitless. In Britain alone it propels 5,200 locomotive engines with their trains over 9,500 miles of railway. It heats 607 iron-furnaces, besides those for smelting other ores. It sets in motion the machinery of 3,000 factories, 2,500 steam-vessels and smaller craft, ♦ The inventions of Watt extend over a quarter of a century ; but the year 1784 was tliat in which he patented the invention of the parallel motion of the piston-rod, the counter for recording the strokes, the throttle valve, the governor, and the indicator. In that year also he patented a locomotive engine. The " fii'st practical steam-boat" was the " Charlotte Dundas," built by Symington in 1801. The first effective locomotive engine was patented by Trevithick and Vivian in 1802. And at the trial on the Manchester and Liverpool railway, George Stephen- son's engine, the " Kockot," gained the prize in 1829. 28 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BKITAIK. and lights, I dare not say how many, forges, fii-es, stoves, and ovens. It unlocks, when heated, invisible gases to iUumine our streets, public buildings and dwellings by night, producing the cheapest, most manageable, and withal, most agreeable of lights. When gently distilled, it pours forth streams of pitch and oil, which may ulti- mately prove so plentiful and easy to procure as to allow the unhappy whale to move at will through the ocean, without fear of the harpoon. With the paraffine oil we can light our lamps, lubricate machinery, and, when solidified, produce candles as pure as alabaster. From the tar, the most beautiful violet and rose-coloured dyes may be elaborated, and we can unlock the gums, essences and scents, resembling those of cloves, almonds, and spices, which have lain dormant since the time when the coal plants themselves were growing. Lastly, the very smoke of our chimneys has its use, for it is a great disinfecting agent in populous towns. At the commencement of this century, the quantity of coal raised in Great Britain probably did not exceed 10 millions of tons. In 1819, according to Mr. R. C. Taylor, the produce of our collieries was 13 millions. In 1829, or ten years afterwards, 2,018,975 tons were shipped into the port of London alone. In 1840, the total quantity raised in Britain, according to Mr. M'CuUoch, was 30 millions. Since then the increase has been rapid though fluctuating. The quantity of coal raised in Great Britain is nearly one-third greater than the combined produce of all the remaining coal-fields of the world. This will appear from the following synopsis. FRAGMENTS IN TUE HISTOKT OF COAL-MINING. 29 Annual Production of Coal in various countries. Tons. • Great Britain and Ireland (1859) .. .. 71,979,765 t North America (1800) 21,000,000 t British Possessions of America .. .. 1,500,000 t Franco (1860) 7,900,000 t Belgium (1860) 8,900,000 t Prussia, Saxony and Hanover .. .. .. 12,000,000 ' Lower Austria .. .. .. 34,639 Upper „ 213 Styria 1,876 Bohemia 509,079 Moravia and Silesia .. .. 362,522 Hungary .. .. .. .. 110,666 V Servia and Banat 83,905 t Spain (1860) 300,000 t Russian Empire (estimated) 1,500,000 t Japan, China, Borneo, Australia 2,000,000 § Austrian Empire (1858) Total produce of all countries .. .. 128,242,673 It thus appears that the total quantity of coal raised over the whole globe is about 128 millions of tons, of which Great Britain and Ireland produce more than the half, sufficient to girdle the earth at the equator with a belt of 3 feet in thiclmess, and about 5 feet in width. Now when we recollect that the coal-fields of North America are nearly 36 times larger than those of Great Britain, we may form some conception of the enormous drain to wliich, in comparison with that country, the miueral resources of our little island are subjected. * " Mineral Statistics of Great Britain," by E. Hunt, t " Situation do 1' industrie houillere en 1860," Paris. 1 EatimatoJ. § " Mineral Statistics," 1858. 30 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIN. The annual increase in the production of coal since the year 1854, is about one and a haK million of tons. I do not go further back, because it is doubtful whether much reliance is to be placed on estimates advanced by several authorities earlier than that year, when the "Mineral Statistics" of Great Britain, collected by Mr. K. Hunt, were published. The following are the estimates obtained through this source ; and it will be observed that the increase is by no means uniform. Coal-produce of Great Britain, 1854 — 59. Tons. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. Scotland Ireland 7,448,000 148,750 Total .. England and Wales Scotland Ireland 64,661,401 56,983,450 7,325,000 144,620 Total .. England and Wales Scotland Ireland 64,453,070 59,008,815 7,500,000 136,635 Total .. England and Wales Scotland Ireland 66,645,450 57,062,604 8,211,472 102,630 Total .. England and Wales Scotland Ireland 65,376,706 57,062,604 8,926,249 120,750 Total .. 66,109,603 FRAQMES^TS IN THE HISTOBY OF COAL-MINIKG. 31 1859 •{ Tons. England and Wales 61,559,465 Scotland 10,300,000 Ireland 120,300 Total .. .. .. 71,979,705 The increase, therefore, in the five years ending 1859, is 7,318,304 tons, being at the rate of 1,463,673, or about one and a half million of tons per annum. This increase is due to several causes, principally these : — the increase of population, the expansion of manu- factures and the iron-trade, the extension of railways, and the gradual substitution of steam-vessels for sailing ships in the navies of Great Britain and Europe. Opposed, and in some measure acting as a check to these causes of increase, are to be placed the inventions for economizing the use of fuel, by the substitution of improved boilers, furnaces, and fire-places, for the wasteful kinds previously in use. The causes of in- crease will, however, always greatly overbalance those of decrease. CHAPTEE II. FOKMATION OF COAL. That coal is of vegetable origin, is demonstrated not only by its microscopic structure, its combustible pro- perties, but also by its position in the strata, and by the fossil plants with which it is always associated. There are at least two theories, each having its advocates, to account for the formation of coal : the first, which would 32 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BRITAIN. assign its origin to the drifting of vegetable matter by rivers and floods into estuaries and shallow seas, where becoming water-logged it formed a bed or stratum along the bottom, and was entombed by the overspread of sediment; the second, which refers its origin to the growth of successive forests, over the areas now occu- pied by the seams of coal themselves.* Without denying the probability that some excep- tional .beds of coal have been accumulated by drifting, and believing that drifted plants and stems of trees are of frequent occurrence in the sandstones and other strata of the Coal-measures, yet the second theory, — that of the growth of the plants in situ, — appears so much superior to the former in explaining the compli- cated phenomena which present themselves, that I feel constrained to adopt it here. The subject will be more intelligible to the reader if he become in some degree familiar with a few of the leading members of that luxuriant flora which flourished in the Carboniferous period. That we have only a fragmentary wreck of the plants of this period must be evident, for although vegetation attained a vigour which has never before or since been equalled, yet the number of species of coal-plants as yet determined is only about l-20th of that of living plants now growing over Europe alone. The number of species * The arguments and dilEonlties on both sides of the question are very fairly stated by Mr. Jukea, in his " Memoir on the South Staffordshire Coal-field," second edit. ; and also by Mr. Salter in Part iii. of the " Iron Ores," Mem. Geol. Survey. FOEMATION OF COAL. 33 noticed by the great botanist Brongniart was 500, which are classified as follows :* — Thallogens .... 6 species Acrogens .... 346 „ Gymnospenns . . . 135 „ DoubtM . . . . 13 „ Professor Unger has raised the number to 683 ; but when we recollect that this includes not only the plants of Europe but of North America, it shows how much is lost to us of the vegetable productions of the Carboni- ferous period. The perishable nature of plants under moisture, or water, is perhaps the principal cause of the fewness of the species preserved. For instance, there is every pro- bability that there were grasses, mosses, and sedges, but of these we have scarcely a trace. It is probable, however, that individuals of a few species predominated very largely, as is the case now in oiu- pine forests, and in the great cypress swamps at the mouth of the Mis- sissippi. Dr. Lindley, by a very interesting experiment, appears to have arrived at a clue to account for the large preponderance of certain classes of plants amongst those which have been preserved. By immersing in cold water for two years a large number of plants, as nearly as possible representatives of those of the Coal- measures, he obtained the folloAving residts. — He found that the Dicotyledonous plants are in general incapable of resisting decomposition when immersed for two years, with the exception of the Coniferas. 2ndly, That Mono- • " Histoire dea Ve'g^taux Fossiles." (Appendix) D. D 34 THE COAl-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIN. cotyledonous plants are less liable to decomposition, but that grasses and sedges perish rapidly. 3rdly, That fungi, mosses, and equisetums disappear, while ferns have a great power of endurance, the eifect of immer- sion being only to destroy all traces of fructification ; a satisfactory reason why fossil-ferns seldom present this portion of their structure, though the fronds themselves occur in great numbers, and in admirable preservation* There appears to have been an imiformity in the vegetation of the coal-period, to which there is now no parallel. The same genera, and many of the same spe- cies, ranged throughout the whole of Europe, and of North America from the Arctic regions as far south as the 30th parallel, that is to say, over a space compre- hending about 45 degrees of latitude ; and this unifor- mity of vegetation is continued vertically, for we find the same species ranging throughout the whole series of strata, sometimes amounting to a thickness of 14,000 feet. But perhaps the most iuexplicable phenomenon in connexion with this subject is the occurrence of coal and Carboniferous plants in the Arctic regions. They have been brought from Melville Island in lat. 76°. Speci- mens of coal, fossH-wood, and shells belonging to Carbo- niferous types have been brought to this country by Sir E. Belcher from Albert Land, in lat. 78° of the western hemisphere, and by Mr. Lamont from Spitzbergen, in about the same parallel in the eastern, where the coun- try is described as frightfully barren and desolate, and entirely destitute of vegetation, with the exception of * lindley and Huttoa : " Fossil Flora." vol, iii. FORMATION OF COAL. 35 saxafrages, reindeer moss, and similar dwarfish plants.* Eeasoning from analogy we could never have supposed that in latitudes now subject to the severest frosts throughout the greater part of the year, and even de- prived of light for a long period, a vegetation could have flourished allied to that of the tropics, or at least to that of the warmer temperate zones of the present day. But, in truth, the period of the coal-formation was en- tirely unique ; it was never forestalled, and has never been repeated ; and of some of the most important coal plants, as 8igillaria and Lepidodendron, there are no living representatives. The general opinion of the highest authorities,! appears to be that the climate did not resemble that of the equatorial regions, but was one in which the temperature was free from extremes : the atmosphere being warm and moist, somewhat resembled that of New Zealand and the surrounding islands, which we endeavour to imitate artificially in our hothouses. Of the plants which are commonly preserved to us, the ferns seem to take the lowest rank, and the Coni- ferae the highest, the Calamites, Sigillarice, and Lepidoden- drona occupying intermediate positions.^ The ferns con- stituted a most prolific class, occurring in vast quantities in the shales which overlie the coal-seams. The SigiUarise, Lepidodendrons, and Calamites appear to have formed the greater mass of the coal ; and the roots of the former especially (Stigmarise) penetrate in vast quantities the ■ Lignite and large trees have also been found in Iceland, but of what period is uncertain. t See Sir C. Lyell, " Elementary Geology," 5th edit., p. 399. i Dr. J. D. Hooker " On the Vegetation of the Carboniferous Period." Mem. Qeol. Survey, vol. ii., p. 395. 36 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIN. Fig. 1. under-clays or floors of the coal-seams. Coniferous trees, however, formed a considerable portion of the mass of the coal, and seem to hare grown in company with the more characteristic plants above mentioned. I now proceed to give a short description of the genera which have been the most prolific and characteristic amongst the iiora of this ancient period. Feens. — These form a very large proportion of the Carboniferous flora ; and, with the excep- tion of their fructifi- cation, which has al-' most always disap- peared, are preserved in great perfection. They are represented at the present day by the arborescent forms of the Tropics, which flourish in Ceylon, the islands of the Pacific, and the Indian Archi- pelago, where they are so abundant as to equal in numbers the whole of the phane- rogamic plants. Pecopterislonchitica. rpj^g j^Og^ abuudaut Portion of frond ; two-thirds nat. size. From a speci- men in the Natural History Museum, Manchester. SpCcieS iu British Coal- measures are — Peeopteris, of which there are 60 species ; FOEMATION OF COAL. 37 Fig. 2. Sphmopteris, 28 species ; Neuropteria, 24 species* Of the 140 species known in Britain, 50 occur in the same formation in North America, some ranging from Nova Scotia as far south as latitude 35° f- It is, however, to be remarked that we know little of the habits of the ferns of the coal-period, whether they grew out of the ground, or attached to the stems of trees ; and it is even extremely uncertain what proportion of the large assemblage of species were tree-ferns, as we never find the fronds attached to their stems ; and the stems them- selves are of extreme rarity, Oalamites.J — This is an abundant genus, and is con- sidered by Brongniart to be represented in our day by the Hquisetacece, of which the horse-tail of our swamps and ponds is a familiar example. This family extends from Lap- land to the Equator, attaining the greatest number of species in the temperate zone. The fossil genera differed from the ° Calamitea verticillatus. recent in the absence of the From a specimen in the Natural His- . , J. ii tory Museum, Manchester. One-fourth encrrcung sheaths at the natural size. * I omit Cyclopteris, as it is still uncertain whether it belongs to the fern tribe. Mr. Salter believes it to be the leaf of a conifer. See " Geologist," vol. iii. t Hooker. Ibid., p. 404. t More recent researches appear to show that Calamites differ essentially from Equisetacese, and in many of its internal characters 38 THE COAL-FIELDS OP GREAT BRITAIN. joints. The Calamites almost always occur leafless, and frequently attain a length of twenty feet. SiGiLLAEiA.— This plant is perhaps, individually, Fig- 3. the most abundant, and has contributed more than any other to the production of coal. It has no living representatives ; and about sixty species are known. SigiUaria may be readily distinguished from the stems of other plants, and of Lepidodendron, by FragmentofSiglllaria. Half natural size, compressed.- - a 4. J 4- ' From a specimen in the Natural History tUe IlUxeS aUQ StnSB Museum, Manchester. ^f ^^^ ^^^.^ ^^^^ disposed longitudinally, or parallel to the axis of the trunk, and impressed with leaf-scars at regular inter- vals between the furrows.* SigiUaria attained a colossal stature. Sir C. Lyell approaches SigiUaria. The following is the description of this genua by Lindley and Hutton : " Sterna jointed, regularly and closely furrowed, hollow, divided internally at the joints by a transverse diaphragm, &c. Leaves (?) verticiUate, very narrow, numerous, and simple." — " Fossil Flora." * The following is the diagnosis of Lindley and Hutton: "SigiUaria, stem conical, deeply furrowed, not jointed ; soars placed between the fiirrows, arranged in vertical columns, smooth, much narrower than the interval which separates them." — " Fossil Flora.'' FORMATION OP COAL, 39 mentions an individual 72 feet in length, found at Newcastle* They expand to a breadth of six to eight feet at the base, and from this taper towards the summit. Stems are frequently found standing erect on the roof of the coal, traversing several series of strata. t The character of the foliage is altogether uncertain, but the nature of the root has been clearly demonstrated by Mr. E. Binney, from observations in the Manchester coal-field. Enormous rhizomes, or root-stalks, radiating from a central axis, and spreading horizontally, had fre- quently been observed and described, under the name Stigmaria fieoides. They are covered over by multi- tudes of small circular ifidentations, from which radiate carbonized rootlets, penetrating the clay in which the rhizomes are embedded. They were at fiist supposed to be a distinct class of plants : but when Mr. Binney dis- covered, in the neighbourhood of Manchester, several upright stems of Sigillaria attached by their bases to these spreading rhizomes, it became evident that these portions stood in the relation of stem and root ; and fossil-botany now labours under the disadvantage of having two generic names for different parts of the same plant.| • " Elements of Geology." 5th edit., p. 376. t Several stems were found standing on the upper surface of a coal- seam at Dixonfold near Manchester. X Several fine specimens are in the geological collection of tho Museum of Natural History, Manchester. In one of them the upper part of the stem is a large Sigillaria, the lower part passing downwards into massive rliizomes (Stigmarim). The internal structure hoth of the rhizome, and rootlet has been very clearly made out by Mr. Binney. The central axis of the former consists of a bundle of large vessels, dis- posed loDgitudinidly, and surrounded by a zone of cellular tissue with 40 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BRITAIN. The internal portion of this plant (SigiUaria) has rarely been preserved in a state suitable for investigating its structure. A silicifled fragment, however, fortu- nately reached the hands of one of the greatest investi- gators of the coal-flora, M. A. Brongniart, who was thus enabled to examine with the microscope the form and arrangement of the tissues. The result of this investi- gation tended to show that Sigillaria formed a peculiar family of Coniferce, but without any liviug representa- tive.* LspiDODENDKON.-f- — This is an abundant and large- sized plant of the coal-period ; one specimen from the Jarrow coal mine being more than 40 feet in length, and 13 feet in diameter near the base. Notwithstand- ing its size, it has been shown by Brongmart to have its representative in the diminutive club-moss (Lycopo- dium) of our mountaiu heaths. This tribe is generally trailing; but in the tropics there are a few erect species, one of which, L. densum of New Zealand, attains a height of three feet. A fragment of Lepidodendron may be easily distin- guished from Sigillaria by the manner in which the leaf- scars are arranged spirally around the stem, giving it a medullary raya. The outer zone or bark Bext succeeds. The central axis of the rootlet consists of a bundle of polygonal vessels, surrounded by a ring of cellular tissue inclosed in its outer covering of bark. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xv. * " Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle," torn. i. 1839. t Diagnosis : — " Lepidodendron. Stems dicbotomous, covered near their extremities by simple linear, or lanceolate leaves, inserted upon rhomboidal areolsa ; lower part of the stem leafless ; areolae marked near their upper part by a minute soar." Lindley and Hut-ton. FORMATION OP COAL. 41 scale-like aspect, from which it derives its name. There are about 40 British species, distinguished by the form and arrangement of these scars.* In the tnmks of Lepidodendron small oval or coni- cal bodies (Lepidostrobi) have frequently been found, often in numbers. They were evidently catkins or fruit-cones, divisible into two lobes — the upper covered by scales or bracts — and the seeds or spore-cases being within. See fig. 4. When enclosed within the trunk they are found in an erect position: in other words, Fig. 4. with their major axis parallel to that of the tree. Dr. Hooker, by a series of careful observations, has shown the lepidostrobi to be the fruit of the tree itself, and ac- counts for their presence in the trunks by supposing them to have been washed in by tropical rains and floods when the trunks them- selves were standing , hollow decayed. -f- The leaves ^Of Lepido- Brfatol Museum. (Hooker.) dendron were linear, and have been found attached to the stem.J The root is supposed, though without any degree of certainty, to be represented by Halcnia, a Qr\f\ Lepidostrobus ornatus in a no- dulo of ironstone. In tho ♦ Memoira of the Geological Survey, vol. ii., part 2, p. 440, with plates. t lu Lord Stamford's museum at Enville there is a specimen of Lepidodendron, collected by Mr. H. Beckett, containing three species of shells— Vnio (?), modiola, and mytilus. X For figures of whicli see the ■' Fossil Flora." 42 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BRITAIN. portion of a plant covered with projecting scars spirally- arranged, and originally supposed to have been a plant allied to Lepidodendron itself. At tlie same time the root has never been found attached, and it is not im- probable that Stigmaria jicoides may have constituted, at least in some of its varieties, the root of both Sigillaria and Lepidodendron. Lycopodites. — This was a genus of plants allied to Lepidodendron, with pinnated branches, and leaves inserted all round the stem in two opposite rows, not leaving clean and well-defined scars. The genus Knorria of Sternberg no longer exists as such, according to the view of Prof. Goppert, who is of opinion that it is only a form of Sagenaria or Lepi- dodendron ; and that the most common species in the Lower Carboniferous Eocks, Knorria imbricata, belongs to Sagenaria Weltheimiana.* Ulodendkon. — A plant of which the afSnities are al- together uncertain. It was of considerable size, reaching 2 feet in diameter : the bark is covered with leaf-scars in quincunx order, and is impressed with large circular branch (?) scars at alternate and regular intervals. CoNiFEE^. — It is not without significance, as bearing upon the theory of "Development," that coniferous trees formed a very important part of the flora of this ancient period of the world's history ; so that, as remarked by Sir C. Lyell, their presence precludes us from cha- racterizing the Carboniferous flora as consistiug of im- * "Ueber die fossile Flora der Silurisohen der Devouisolien iind Tmteren KoMenfonnation," 1859. FOEMATION OP COAL. 43 perfectly developed plants, the Coniferae taking a high position in the ranks of vegetable organization.* The prevalent type seems to have been that of the Araucariiin or Norfolk Island Pine ; but seed-cones resembling those of the genus Pinus have also been found. One specimen from the Newcastle coal-field is figured by Lindley.-f The Coniferae of the coal-period differed from those of the present day in the large size of their pith ; and the remarkable, and for a long time inexplicabh^ fossil, found generally in sandstones, known as Sternhergia, has been demonstrated by Professor Williamson to be the pith of these trees. The little ribbed nodular mass, Trigonocarpum, found in great numbers throughout the Coal-measures, formerly considered as the fruit of a palm, is now believed to have been that of a coniferous plant, which like the nut of the yew-tree was enclosed in a fleshy envelope. "With regard to the leaves, it is now believed that some which were formerly supposed to belong to palms, as Nceggera- tUa, a beautiful fan-shaped frond, were in reality those of Coniferse, represented in the recent sub-tropical coniferous tree Salisburia adiantifolia. Thus it appears that all evidence of the existence of palms amongst the Carboniferous flora has been obliterated. » " Elements," p. 374. The late 5Ir. Hugh Miller has demonstrated the existence of Conifersa at a much earlier period— that of the Old Kcd Bandstono of Scotland. See " Footprints of the Creator," p. 199. Prof. Goppert has recently shown that the Coniferse make their appearance amongst the upper Devonian rocks. — " Joum. Geol. Soc." vol. xvi. ■f "Fosail Flora," vol. lii. p. 43. 44 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GBEAT BEITAIN. These details may appear to some umnteresting ; but they serve to show how necessary is a large acquaintance with the vegetation of the present, before we can rightly understand that of the past. An acquaintance, however varied, with the recent botanical productions of our own countiy, would tend to throw little light on the nature of that flora which flourished upon the same spot so, many ages back. The tropics, and even the diametrically opposite portions of the earth, as New Zealand, Australia, and Norfolk Island, have to be searched, in order to furnish analogous productions; and where these are sought for in vain, as ia the case of several Carboniferous genera, we are at a loss how to reproduce before our minds those bygone structmres of which we find but the defaced ruins. We have only here described those forms which were most prolific — many more must have existed of which we have no trace. We may, however, fully accept the opinion of Mr. Hugh Miller, that this was " a hard, dry, and flowerless vegetation." We feel pretty certain on other grounds, than the mere absence of their remains, that those orders of plants which refresh our senses with their flowers and fruits (as these terms are com- monly imderstood) existed not in the true coal-period. There is every reason for believing that the Bosacece, Leffuminosece, and a few other tribes adapted to charm the eye and minister to the wants of manj did not appear till man himself was formed ; therefore, with all the luxuriance of the foliage, and the denseness and stature of the trees which overspread the great lagoons FORMATION OF COAL. 45 of the Carboniferous period, the general effect must have been sad and sombre in the extreme. But it per- sisted, through long ages, in unspeakable loneliness and silence, echoing neither voice nor sound, except when some giant of the forest snapped in twain and fell heavily into the arms of its companions. The sun shone warmly down by day upon that world, and the moon and stars by night illumined its wide plantations of dark slumberous pine-trees. But man was not there to behold, nor even a mammiferous beast of the field, or bird to fly above in the open firmament of heaven ; and only at rare intervals did the sluggish stealthy reptile force a path through the thick jungle. There Avas a painful , absence, throughout the landscape, of the moving creature that hath life. Having thus very briefly noticed the plants which were chiefly employed in the production of coal, we are in a position to consider the manner in which this mine- ral became imbedded, and thus securely stored through countless ages for the use of man. Fossil Shells of the Coal Series of England. The moUusca of the true Coal-measiu-e period are confined to a few genera and species. Bivalves are most numerous, after them Cephalopods, and Gasteropods are rare. In the Upper and Middle Coal-measures of England the most abundant, and frequently the only shells, belong to the genus Anthracosia, a bivalve, formerly supposed to be allied to the genus Unio, and hence the inhabitant of fresh water, ii some of the beds of shale forming 46 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GKEAT BRITAIN. the coal-roofs, and in the bands of ironstone, this shell occurs in countless numbers, though generally flattened and distorted by pressure. Of this genus there are a great number of species and varieties. One of the most marked, Anthracosia rohusta, from Lancashire, is repre- sented in the plate of fossil-shells in the frontispiece. The genus Modiola has also its representatives iu the Middle Coal-series. Amongst the dark shales of the Lower Coal-measures, the molluscs are found often in great numbers, and in considerable variety. Their favourite haunt appears to be the roofs of the Coal-seams. Of the Cephalopods, Nautili and Goniatites are plentiful ; Orthoceras, found plentifully near Burnley, in Lancashire. Of the Gas- teropods, Macrocheilus, Cirrus, Pileopsis, and Patella; all these are scarce. Of the Conchifers, Anthracosia (often associated in the same bed with Aviculo-pecten and Goniatites, from which we reasonably infer that it is a sea-shell), Posidonia and Aviculo-peeten. — This last is most frequently represented by the species papyraceus, which occurs in the dark shale overlying some of the coal-seams of Lancashire and Yorkshire. In this position its vertical range is only a few inches ; but within these limits, the flattened, paper-like valves, impressed on the dark groundwork of the shale, lie so thickly strewn that the form of the shell itself is lost, and there only appears a confused assemblage of very fine and sharply cut ribs, radiating from a number of central points, and crossing each other in mazes of net- work. The species next in numbers to the above is Aviculo-pecten dissimilis. FORMATION OF COAL. 47 A new genus of bivalve shells confined exclusively to the Coal-formation, and occuiTing plentifully in South ^^'ales, has lately been established by Mr. Salter, under the term Anthracomya, who believes that these molluscs were inhabitants of a muddy bottom, in which they burrowed as the Mya does upon our own shores. Of the Pteropods, we iind representatives in Bellero- phon and Gonularia. Of the Brachiopods, which are so abundantly dis- tributed in the Lower Carboniferous Eocks, forming, both as individuals and species, the majority amongst the MoUusca of the Mountain Limestone, we very rarely find any examples in the Lower Coal-series of England, with the exception of the Lingula. Two or three species of this shell are not uncommon in the shales of Lancashire and the Northern counties. Spirifer, Productus, Orthis, Athyris, and Bhynconella, have also been found in Lancashire, Denbighshire, Coal- brook Dale, and South Wales. The Annelids are represented by Spirorbis, which is abundant both in the black shales of the Lower, and Limestone bands of the Upper Coal-measures. Tracts of mai'ine worms (Arenicola) frequently cover the surfaces of the fine micaceous flagstones. It is, perhaps, as well to state that the account of the shells of the Coal-measures above given applies only to England. The Coal-formations of Scotland and Ireland belong, /or^ the most part, to an earlier period, that of the Lower Carboniferous, and the moUusca which they contain are allied more closely to those of the Car- boniferous Limestone, 48 the coal-fields of gbeat beitain. Goppert's Classification of the Flora op the Silurian, Devonian, and Lower Carboniferous Formations. Professor Goppert, as the resiilt of an elaborate series of investigations embodied in a work just given to tbe world, offers the following synoptical classification of the flora of the above-mentioned formations which is speci- fically distiact from that of the true Coal-measures. I. Silurian Formation. 1. Lower Silurian formation . . 17 species. 2. Upper Silurian formation . . 3 „ -20„ These all belong to the Algce. IL Devonian Formation. 1. Lower Devonian 6 species. Five 'of these are Algoe, one a terrestrial Sigillaria. — S. Hausmanni, Gopp. — found in Scandinavia. 2. Middle Devonian 1 species. A terrestrial plant Sagenaria Weltheimiana. 3. Upper Devonian 57 species. Ferns, Calaminece, Fquisetacece, Lepidodendreoe, Lyco- podiacex, Sigillariece, Coniferce, ■ Nceggerathiece. 1. Lower Carboniferous . . . 108 species 1. The Carboniferous Limestone contaius 47 species, of which one is an Alga. Note.— The student is recommended to study Dr. Hooker's interest- ing essay " On the Vegetation of the Carboniferous Period as compared with that of the present Day."— Memoirs of the Geological Surve'-, vol. ii. ■' ' FORMATION OF COAL. 49 2. The flora of the " Culm," belonging to the Lower Carboniferous series of Devonshire, contains twenty- three species, of which one plant is marine. Of all the species of the Lower Carboniferous Rocks only seven pass upwards, and one single plant, Neurvp- teria Loehii, survived into the Permian period. CHAPTEE III. FORMATION OF COAL. When Sir William Logan, twenty years ago, was en- gaged on his great survey of the coal-field of South Wales, he found it to be an invariable rule that every coal-seam reposed on a bed of clay (imderclay) pene- trated by the rootlets of Stigmaria ficoidea.* This ob- servation has been extended to every coal-field in Britain, and although the character of the underclay varies considerably, sometimes becoming a hard siliceous stone, yet the presence of the carbonized rootlets shows that it has borne the same relation to the coal as have the softer underclays. This observation of Sir W. Logan established the hypothesis that the plants of which coal is formed grew upon the spot where we now find them mineralized, and that the underclays formed the soil from whence they sprung. Now these underclays are distinctly stratified, showing that they have been deposited under water ; and hence ♦ " Geologiosd Transactions," 2nd series, vol. yi. 50 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BEITAIN. it was supposed that in order to become tlie receptacles for the growth of luxuriant forests, they must have been elevated into dry land, and then, after having been covered by vegetation, again submerged to be over- spread by sands and clays and other sedimentary mate- rials which combine to form the strata of the Coal- measures. This theory reqiiired a series of oscillations over a large extent of the earth's surface, which seemed rather improbable, and not in accordance with observa- tions on changes of level which have been made in various parts of the world. That there are slow eleva- tions, and subsidences of the surface in operation more or less extensively, is proved by phenomena exhi- bited on our sea-coasts,* where in some cases old sea- beaches are found at elevations far beyond the reach of the waves, and in others, where forests, and even towns, are known to be engulfed ; and the whole of the geolo- gical record teaches us that similar vertical movements have been taking place from the earliest periods. Along the eastern coasts of South America, Mr. Dar- win has described the existence of a succession of ter- races, risiag in tiers from the sea-level up to an elevation of 1200 feet. He has shown that each of these terraces has in turn been for a long period subjected to the action of the waves, which have swept away a vast quan- tity of material, and hollowed out caverns in the rock.f Now as the whole of the land, from the highest terrace down to the level of the ocean, has evidently been * For many examples see Lyell'a "Principles of Geology.',' t " "Voyage of the Beagle," vol, iii. p. 200. FORMATION OF COAL. 51 under the sea, to have attained its present position it must have been elevated, and each coast line marks a pause in the process of elevation. Here is an example of a constant change of level, mth pauses ; and it pro- bably furnishes an illustration of Nature's mode of action during the coal-period. The process, however, in this case must be reversed, and instead of periodical elevations it is necessary to infer a slow and gradual subsidence of the sea-bed, accompanied by pauses marked in many cases by the formation of a seam of coal.* But another question requires elucidation. The coal-seams are associated with strata deposited imder water; and all recent investigation strengthens the probability that this water was not fresh, but marine. In the northern coal-fields of England, some of the coal-seams are covered by black shales containing re- mains of fishes and marine shells, as Goniatites, Aviculo- pecten, Orthoceras ; and along the coast of Dunbar, in Scotland, bands of limestone, with marine shells, as Spirifer, Productus, &c., rest upon coal-beds, and on the upright stems of SigUlaria-t In Coal-measures belong- ing to the higher portion of the Carboniferous series, bivalves which were formerly supposed to belong to the fresh-water genus Unio, have since been found in the same stratum vji^kModiola and Spirifer. For this genus * This illustration has previously been employed by Mr. Binney, to Tfhom, more than to any author, we are indebted for our present know- ledge of the circumstances under which coal has been formed. It is, however, so apt, that I have no hesitation in reproducing it here. t These limestones contain fossil representatives of the Carbonifer- ous Limestone of England ; and it is well known that a portion of the Coal-measures of Scothmd are of earlier date than those of England. 52 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIN. we adopt the name Anthracosia of Professor King,* though believing it to have lived ia seas or estuaries. Mr. Binney has shown the probability, that the little coiled shell {Microcmchus carhonarius), is in reality a coiled Serpula or Spirorbis, which attached itself to the coal- plants ;-|- and lastly, the minute crustacean abundant in coal-shales, and supposed to have belonged to the fresh- water genus Cypris, is with more probability referred to the marine genus Cythere. Without asserting, therefore, that there are no fresh-water strata associated with the Coal-measures, I think we may conclude that the whole formation has been essentially of marine origin — a con- clusion at which we might arrive on other grounds, when we consider that the formation was at one period continuous over the greater part of Central North America, and would have required for its generation a lake of a size at least six times the area of all the great lakes of that continent united. There are two conclusions which strike us most forcibly when reflecting on the formation of ova coal- fields ; — the enormous subsidence of the sea bed, and the lapse of time it must have required to produce a series of strata, with their coal-seams, in all several thousand feet in thickness. EecoUecting that every bed of true coal represents a land-surface, or at least a sea-levelj when we find, as in the case of the coal-field of South Wales or of Nova Scotia, strata with coal-beds through a thickness of * Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist. Jan. 1855. t It is scarcely necessary to remark that Serpula is a marine annelid. FORMATION OP COAL. 53 10,000 or 12,000 feet, it is evident that this is a mea- sure of the actual sinking of the sea-bed for this one geological period ; or, to take an example : — the height of Mont Blanc is about 15,000 feet ; now the vertical displacement which the South Wales coal-field under- went was nearly sufficient to have brought the summit of the Alps to the sea-level. Of the lapse of time in the formation of our coal-fields we can have but a faint conception ; it is only to be truly measured by Him with whom a thousand years are as one day. But the magnitude of the time is only sur- passed by the boundlessness of the providential care which laid up these terrestrial treasures in store for His children, whom He was afterwards to call into being- Let me therefore dismiss this subject with one illustra- tion. Mr. Maclaren, by a happy train of reasoning, for which I must refer the reader to his " Geology of Fife,"' arrives at the conclusion that it would require a thou- sand years to form a bed of coal one yard thick. Now, in the South Wales coal-field there is a combiaed thick- ness of coal amounting to one hundred and twenty feet, or forty yards, which, according to this hypothesis, would have required a period of 40,000 years for its formation. If we, now, assume that the 12,000 feet of sedimentary materials was deposited at the average rate of two feet in a century, corresponding to the rate of subsidence, it would have required iMooxioo + 40,000= 640,000 years to produce this coal-field.t • Page 116. t In tliis estimate I haye adopted a medium between two extreme 54 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BEITAIJiT. I have spoken of the difficulty of conceiving frequent elevations of the sea-bed during the long period of sub- sidence in order that a land surface might be laid dry for the growth of vegetation. A much more probable supposition is, that the coal-plants were fitted to grow either partially submerged or at the sea-level. Analogy would lead us to this conclusion in the case of Sigillaria, Calamites, &c., and amongst the dense forests of larger trees, there may have been an undergrowth of reeds and grasses. The great swamps at the estuary of the Mississippi, and those along the coasts of Louisiana, Nova Scotia, and the tropical lagoons of the African coast, furnish us with the nearest representations of the nature of those forests that have produced our coal-beds ; but none of them are strictly analogous. The physical conditions of the coal-period stand alone, and we cannot but conclude that they were ordained beforehand for a great and evi- dent purpose. The strata which are associated with the coal consist of sandstones, which were once sand ; shales and fitre- clays which were once fine mud. Some of the shales are so highly carbonaceous as to be nearly black, and form impure coal called " bass." Bands of limestone occur estimates given by Lyell, " Elements," p. 386, 387. For a good resume of tliis subject see Mr. Jukes' " Manual of Geology," p. 95 et seq. Professor Phillips attempts a calculation of the time required for the production of the South Wales Coal-field founded on the supposition of the sedimentary materials having been formed at the mouth of a large river, such as the Ganges, and the carbonaceous portions having been stored up at the rate of one inch in 127-2 yeai-s ; the result arrived at being about half a million of years. " Life on the Earth," p. 134. FOEMATION OF COAL. 55 iu the higher beds of the Coal-measures m England, and throughout the greater portion of the formation in Scotland. The sandstones are frequently rippled, and obliquely- laminated, showing the prevalence of currents ; they also contain fragments of ^'8«- drifted plants. The shales have generally been deposited slow- ly and tran- quilly. The general succes- sion of strata which accom- pany coal is shown in the annexed sec- tion, taken from the neighbour- hood of Wigan, SuccesBlon of Strata In I Golden Candlestick 2 6 Shale .... 120 North Sheets . . i Coal .... 2 Cat (red ash) . . 1 CO Shale .... 48 South Sheets . . 3 A. Slaie-aeam . . 1 8 Biband-coal 1 2 1 Shale .... 24 .0 Standing-coal . 4 g Coal .... 1 M Fern Bag . . . 2 6 S Strata .... 24 1 Stone Bag . . . 3 » Coal .... 1 n Callows-seam . . 4 Sandstone . . . 60 Fenrick, or Black- Stoney-seam 1 4 stone-coal . . 3 Strata .... 180 White-axen (ash) . 2 6 Coal .... 4 Firestone-seam . 2 Millstone Grit. . 180 [ Millstone Grit. ^o«e.— The terms used at the sides of the columns are intended to show that tlie seams, in the North and South areas of the Coal-field, are most likely the same under different names, and are here attempted to be correlated. In estimating the resources of this coal-field, large deductions must be made on several accounts. First, a 82 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BEITAIN. for the disturbed, folded, and contorted state of the strata along the borders of the Mendip Hills and other places, while towards the centre of the Somersetshire basin, many of the coal-seams are buried at depths between 4000 and 5000 feet, with the Pennant grit iuterposed ; and secondly, the coal-seams are generally so thin as to render many of them unavailable at great depths. I have therefore deducted one third in the following estimates. Ustimate of Resources. 1. Area (of which only 45 square miles are not) ' concealed "by newer formations) . . . . / " 2. Greatest thickness of measures with coal . . 5,125 feet. 3. Number of coal-seams' from 2 feet and up-\ -, . wards, 20, giving a thickness of coal of . . / 4. Total original quantity of coal (corrected fori 4,143 milUons of tons. denudation) . . . . ■ . • . . ■ ; 5, Deduct for quantity inaccessible, spoiled,\ „ ,,„„ &c., one-third, leaving .. .. ../ '- 2,489* 2,000 6. Deduct for quantity already worked out, one-' tenth, leaving 7. Deduct for quantity below the depth of 4,000 feet, one-fifth ; leaving for future supply about .. 8. Dividing this quantity by 750,000 tons, the produce for 1859, we find that this coal-field would require 2660 years to become exhausted. The chief conclusion to be drawn from the above results is, that this coal-field is capable of yielding at least five times the present quantity of coal if worked to the extent of its capabilities.! * t. e., under the newer formations, 1742 millions. The actual coal- fleld contains only 747 millions. •f The production above stated (750,000 tons) is calculated by sub- tracting 500,000 due to the Forest of Dean, from 1,250,000, the total quantity raised in both coal-fields in 1858. Hunf s " Mineral Statis- tics," 1859. 83 CHAPTEE m. FOREST OF DEAN COAL-FIELD, GLOUCESTEESHIEE* The structure and resources of this coal-field are now tboroughly^understood. It forms a more perfect " basin " than any other coal-field in England, as the strata everywhere dip from the margin towards the centre, except at one part of the western side, where the oval outline is interrupted for a short distance.! The Coal-measures are surrounded by belts of Mill- stone Grit and Cai'boniferous Limestone, which gene- rally rise considerably above the tract of the Coal- measures they enclose, just as the banks of a lake are higher than the lake itself; and the Carboniferous Limestone in turn rests upon a bed of Old Ked Sand- stone. The general structure resembles that of the South Wales coal-field in miniature, and the transverse section (Fig. 6) illustrates the coal-basia of the Forest of Dean as well as that to which it more especially refers. Scenery. — The scenery around the skii-ts of this coal- basin is rich and varied. The eastern ridge of the Car- boniferous Limestone overlooks the vale of the Severn, and commands the escarpment of the Cotteswold Hills of Gloucester and Somerset. At the opposite side of • The Eoyal Forest covers a space of 23,000 acres, of which 11,000 are in timber. Deer formerly abounded, but are now almost extinct. t See Maps of the Geological Survey, 43, S.E. and S.W., and Mr. Sopwith's large map in the Museum of Practical Geology. 84 THE COAL-riELDS OP GKEAT BEITAIN. the coal-field the eye rests upon the Vans of Brecon, 2,700 feet in height, and the ranges which mark the northern bounds of the great South Wales coal-field. The limestone ridge on which you stand is cut into lofty cliffs Kniag the gorge of the Wye, and in its extension southwards towards Chepstow, produces those remark- ably terraced cliffs which render the scenery of that part of the river as beautiful as it is peculiar. The area of the coal-field is about 34 square miles. It contains 31 seams of coal, of which only 8 are of a thickness of 2 feet and upwards ; and the total series, as stated by Sir H. de la Beche, is as foUows :* — 1. Coal-measures with 31 coal-seams .. 2,765 feet 2. Millstone Grit 455 „ 3. Carboniferous limestone .. .. 480 „ 4. Lower Limestone Shale .. .. 165 „ 5. Old Bed Sandstone 8,000 „ or more. In the Carboniferous group there is a decrease by two-thirds in the thickness of the strata as compared with the Bristol district. Over the centre of the basia the strata lie nearly horizontally. On approaching the eastern borders they rise very rapidly, but along the opposite, or western edge, the lower beds spread out considerably, and ia consequence have a much larger horizontal range than those higher up ia the series. The coals are beiag gradually worked from the margin of the basin where they crop out, towards the centre where they are deep ; on which account it is probable that progressive mining operations wiLL be much hindered by the accumulation of water in the old workings. * Mom. Geol. Survey, vol. i. p. 203. FOREST OP DEAN COAL-FIELD. 85 Mr. Richard Gibbs assures me of an interesting fact in relation to the strata of this district. He states that along a portion of the south-west side of the coal-field, the Millstone Grit and Limestone are overlapped uncon- formably by the Coal-measures. Succession of the Cocd-Seams. Sandstones and shales with thin coals Cow Del/ Strata Dog Ddf Strata Smith Coal Strata LitOeDdf Strata Park End High Delf .. Strata .. .. .. .. /Starfcey Dei/ (with parting) Strata Bocky Ddf Strata : Upper Churchway Ddf [mth. poximga) Strata .. .. .. Lower Churchway Ddf .. Strata Braley Ddf Strata .. .. Nag'g Head Delf Strata Wbittington Ddf .. .. •• •• Strata Coleford High Delf Strata .. •• •• Upper Trenehard Delf .. Strata Lower Trenehard, or Bottom Coal The Forest of Dean in 1859 contained 10 iron furnaces, Ft. In. 830 8 91 10 1 2 46 9 2 6 34 6 1 8 48 8 3 7 56 2 50 1 9 77 6 1 11 34 1 6 150 1 9 430 2 9 153 2 6 137 5 124 2 72 1 4 86 THE .COAL-riELDS OF GEEAT BEITAIN. of which 6 were in blast, producing upwards of 31,750 tons of pig-iron. The ore used is derived from the clay-ironstone of the Coal-measures, from haematite extracted from the Carboniferous Limestone, and from other extraneous sources, Th& Swse. — In one of the coal-seams, called " Cole- ford High Delf," there occurs one of those iuterruptions in the regular com-se of the strata, which tend to throw much hght on the original conditions under which coal was formed, but are an occasion of ^erious.loss and dis- appointment to the proprietor. Eiver channels filled with sand or clay, traversing coal-seams, occur in almost every coal-field, and are known as- " rock-faults," and " horse-backs ;" but the case to whifch I have alluded is so remarkable, and has been. so fully investigated, that it will serve as a general illustration of these phenomena in other , districts.* The description, is by Sir H. De la Beche,t who says — The horse with its branches resembles a channel cut amongst a mas? of vegetable matters ia a soft condition. ■ It ranges S. 81° E. for a length of two miles, and a breadth of 170" to 340. yards. A number of miaor channels communicating with each other and the maiu channel are named " Lows." Mr. Buddie compares the horse to the bed of a .river, and the lows to smaller streams cutting only a lesser depth. The channels are fiUed principally mth sandstone, which extends over the coal-seam and forms its roof. * Mr. Jiibes has. yery fully described these horses or rock-faults in the " Thick Coal" near Dudley, in his "Memoir on the South Stafford- shire Coal-field," p. 45. t Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. i, p. 156. COAL-FIELD OP THE POUEST OP VVTRE. 87 Mesources. 1. Areftofcoal-flold 34 square miles. 2. Greatest thickness of Coal-measures .. 2,760 feet. 8. Number of coal-seams from 2 feet and up-1 -. wards 8, giving a total thickness of ..J " 4. Total original quantity of coal (corrected fori q,„ .„. ,. denudation) .. .. .. .. J 842 millions of tons. Deduct for loss and quantity worked out one-) third, leaving for future use . . . . . . / 561 6. This, at the present rate of production of 500,000 tons,* would last for 1120 years. This result shows, that like the two previously de- scribed coal-fields, that of the Forest of Dean is capable of yielding a very much larger supply than is the case at presentf CHAPTER IV. COAL-FIELD OP THE FOREST OP WYEE, W0BCESTBE8HIBE. A COAL-PiELD of about as large a superficial extent as that of the Forest of Dean stretches from the northern end of the Abberley Hills, and spreading out under the Forest of Wyre, ultimately becomes contracted north- wards to a narrow balld lining the banks of the Severn south of Bridgenorth. • With this estimate I have been furnished by Mr. L. Brough, H.M. Inspector of Mines. t My colleague, Mr. Bristow of the Geological Survey, estimates the resources of this coal-field somewhat higher, as he informs me that several coals under two feet in thickness can there be worked at a profit. 88 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GKBAT BRITAIN. The Coal-measures repose on a bed of Old Red Sandstone, consisting of red marls, sandstones, and cornstones (concretionary earthy limestone), and are overlaid by a thick mass of Lower Permian strata, com- posed of red sandstones and marls with calcareous con- glomerates, and marly breccia,* very fully developed, at Enville. This Permian breccia has excited much in- terest regarding its origin; for Professor Eamsay has shown that it bears a strong resemblance to accumula- tions originating in glaciers, and spread over the sear bottom by floating ice, such as that of the Boulder clay of the Glacial epoch. If this theory be correct, a vast change must have come over the climate of these, countries between the coal-period and that which imme- diately succeeds it. This coal-field has not been fully explored ; but as far as is known, the coal-seams which it contains are both thin and of inferior quality. The following series occurs near the western margin, as exhibited in Mr. Aveline's section drawn across this district-t Section of Coal Strata, Forest of Wyre. Feet. Inches 1. Sandstone and shale 76 2. Coal .. 1 10 S. Sandstone and shale 24 4. Coal 2 5. Sandstone and shale 39 6. Coal .. 4 7. Sandstone, shale, &e. * " Breccia" is a word used to designate strata formed of angular pebhles, " conglomerate" being confined to strata where the pebbles are rounded or waterworn. t Sections of the Geol. Survey, sheet 50 ; also Geol. Map, 55, NJE. COAL-FIELD OF THE FOREST OF 'WYEE. 89 At Kinlet the lowest coal-seam in the above sec- tion is of good quality, and reaches a thickness of 5 feet. The strata of which this coal-field is composed repre- sent merely the upper Coal-measures, which seldom contain beds of coal of much value or thickness. One bed, however, varying from 4 to 5 feet, has been traced by Mr. Gr. E. Koberts over a considerable extent of the central part of the coal-field, and is represented in the section below. The absence of the central and lower portion of the formation may be accounted for on the supposition, that this part of England was dry land till near the close of the Carboniferous epoch. Mr. Roberts has brought to light several very interest- ing particulars regarding the fossils, both animal and vegetable. In a band of limestone, apparently syn- chronous with that in the upper Coal-measures of Coal- brook Dale, Warwickshire, and elsewhere, he has found fish-teeth and scales, Cythere {Cypris) inflata, Spirorbia carbonarius, and fine specimens of Posydonia, deter- mined by Mr. Rupert Jones. But perhaps the most interesting paleeontological objects obtained by Mr. Roberts, are specimens of Pecopteris and other ferns retaining their fructification.* At Arley Colliery, near Bewdley, the strata have been penetrated to a depth of 454 yards, ultimately reaching a mass of basaltic rock. Only one workable coal, at a depth of 176 yards, appears to have been found. • For fuller details see Mr. Eoberta' " Kocks of Worcestershire." 90 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. The Coal-fields of the Clee Sills, Salop. Two small outlying coal-tracts, remnants of a forma- tion which once spread continuously from South Wales and Gloucestershire, are perched on the summits of the Titterstone and Brown Clee HUls iu Shropshire, at a height in the latter case of 1780 feet above the sea, and if lighted up with the combustible materials with which they are stored, would serve as beacon-fires for many a mile around. These coal-fields are rather more than a mile each in diameter, and are capped by a bed of hard basalt, to which, owing to its power of resistance to marine denu- dation, the hills sprobably owe their preservation. On these flat-topped hills are planted several small collieries, whose shafts pierce the basalt before entering the coal. The vent from which this igneous rock has been erupted is situated in the Titterstone Clee Hill ; and from this orifice the basalt has apparently been poured forth in the form of liquid submariae lava, at some period after the Coal-measures were formed.* The thickness of the coal formation is but small, containing only two or three thin coal-seams, and the strata rest generally directly on Old Eed Sandstone ; but representatives both of the Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone Grit are inter- posed at the eastern side of the Titterstone Hill. I have referred to these districts more on account of their geological interest, than for any economical value they may be supposed to possess. * See horizontal section of the Geological Survey, sheet 36. 91 CHAPTER V. SHREWSBURY COAL-FIELD. This coal-field forms a narrow band extending from the base of Haughmond Hill, east of Shrewsbury, to the banks of the Severn near Alberbury, a distance of about 18 miles. Like the coal-field of the Forest of Wyre, the coal-strata repose on the older rocks wthout the intervention of the Millstone Grit and Carboniferous Jjimestone ; but in this instance the fundamental rocks belong to the Cambrian and Lower Silurian periods. Notwithstanding its length it is seldom more than a mile in breadth ; and in its lower part contains two or three coal seams which have been worked to a small extent, but are not of sufficient value to induce mining opera- tions far from the outcrop. The Coal-measures are overlaid by Lower Permian strata, consisting of red and purple marls and sand- stones, surmounted at Alberbury and Cardeston by a remarkable stratified breccia,* composed of angular frag- ments of white quartz, and Carboniferous Limestone cemented by calcareo-ferruginous paste. The " Alber- bury breccia " may be regarded as the remnant of an old shingle beach formed found a coast-line, composed of Carboniferous and Silurian rocks. Li the upper part of this coal-field a band of Ume- * Sir R. I. Murchiaon, " Silurian System,'' p. 63. 92 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. stone* occurs with estuarine and marine organisms, some of which were at first supposed to be of fresh-water origin. It contains a small crustacean Cyth^re, a bivalve shell, Anthracosia, and an annelide, Spirorhis carhonarius. Now it is a remarkable instance of the persistency of some calcareous strata over large areas, that this band of limestone, seldom more than a foot in thickness, can be traced in the Coal-measures of Coalbrook Dale and the Forest of Wyre southward, of Lancashire northward, and of Warwickshire eastward, representing an area of about ten thousand square mUes ; and throughout this expanse it is always found associated with those upper- most coal-strata, which preceded the introduction of the Permian rocks. The coal-fields of the Forest of Wyre, the Clee Hills, and Shrewsbury, together with a fourth district extend- ing from the base of Caer Caradoc to within a few miles south of Shrewsbury, are of so valueless a nature iu regard to their coal deposits, that I do not consider it necessary to attempt an estimate of their resources. They have all been formed in the vicinity of old land- surfaces, and around lines of coast composed of more ancient rocks. The strata themselves belong generally to the higher part of the coal-series, which throughout England is but sparingly enriched with beds of coal. * Tliia limestone ia described by Sii E. I. Murchison (" Siluria," p. 321.) 93 CHAPTER VI. COAL-FIELD OF COALBROOK DALE, SHEOPSHIEE. This coal-field has a triangular form, with its base in the valley of the Severn, near Coalbrook Dale, and its northern apex at Newport. Along its western side it is bounded partly by a great fault, which brings in the New Eed Sandstone, and partly by the Silurian rocks of the Wrekin, which rises with its smooth and arched back to a height of 1320 feet above the sea, and half that amount above the general level of the country around. Along its eastern side the coal-field is bounded by Permian strata, under which the Carboniferous beds appear to pass, but diminished both in thiclmess and in productiveness of coal. The general dip of the strata is eastward; and in making a traverse to the foot of the Wrekin, we cross in succession the base of the Coal-measures, the Mill- stone Grit, Carboniferous Limestone, a bed of basalt, and at length reach the Silurian rocks which form the general foundation to the Carboniferous formations in this district. This succession of strata is illustrated by the section. (Fig. 8.) This coal-field has been mapped and described by the Geological Surveyors,* and is the subject of an elaborate memoir by Mr. Prestwich, published in the Geological * Geological Maps, 61 N.E., and Section Sheet, 54, 58. 94 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIK. a § 2 02 5 Q il 1 ^ fi m^ 63 ■i o ^ E'Cs ass*! Transactions.* The strata are remarkable for the variations they undergo within narrow limits — some beds rapidly disappearing, or changing their characters. Along the eastern borders the higher strata consist of calcareous breccias and gravels, resembling volcanic ashes, mixed with reddish mottled clays. The coal-seams are also more than usually subject to change ; and towards the eastern border, where they pass under the Permian strata, several of the upper coal-beds die out along a gently sloping plane ; this is probably due to a cause assigned by Mr. Marcus Scott, who considers that the lower beds with coal have been upheaved and par- tially denuded before the upper Coal-measures were deposited over them.t It is satisfactory, how- ever, to learn, that in the new col- liery belonging to Lord Gran- ville, which passes through about 40 yards of Permian strata, the • 2iid Series, vol. v. t From a coramunication made to theGeol. Society, April 1861 COAL-FIELD OP COALBEOOK DALE. 95 coal-seams have been found at their proper depth and thickness, as far as the sinking has yet been carried — 316 yards. If the coals should be found persistent under the Permian rocks, there is a large area beyond the borders of the coal-field itself, where they may be reached at depths under 2000 feet. The strata of this coal-field are much broken by faults. The largest of these is the western boundary fault ; another, the lAghtmoor fault, trayersing the centre of the coal-field from north to south, has a "throw" of about 100 yards : west of this fault the coal-beds are almost exhausted. There are also many transverse fractures. Organic Remains. — These are extremely varied, and have been enumerated in detail by Mr. Prestwich. They occur principally in the ironstones, of which the principal depositories are the Penneystone and Crow- shaw bands. Fish: Hybodus, Qyracanihm formoma, Cochliodus, Megalichthys Hibberti, Pleuracanthug. Crus- tacea : Limulus, a genus allied to the king-crab ; Gly- phea, Cypris, or Cytherc inflata. MoUusca : Nautilm, Orthoceras, Bellerophon, Conularia, Spirifcr bimdcatus, Produetus scabriculus, Aviculo-pecten, Anthracosia (Unio), Ctenodonta (or Nucula), Lingula, Mhynchonella. Insectsj one or more species of scorpion ; two beetles of the family Curculionidce, and a neuropterous insect, resembling the genus Corydalis, and another related to the Phasmidce* There are several courses of ironstone measures, which in 1859 yielded 149,480 tons of pig-iron, from 30 blast- furnaces ;t the Coalbrook Dale and LUleshall companies being the largest producers. • Lyell, " Elem. Gcol.," p. 388. t " Mineral Statistics," 1859. 96 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GKEAT BEITAIN. The coal under a very large portion of this field has been nearly exhausted, as wOl be apparent to any one who crosses it by the Wolverhampton and Shrewsbury railway, where, over a large area, nothing but dismantled engine-houses and enormous piles of refuse from aban- doned coal and iron mines meet the eye. The collieries have gradually migrated from the western outcrop to- wards the east. Under these circumstances, it is pro- bably within the mark to deduct from the original mass of coal two-thirds for the quantity already worked out. Nearly 20 years back, when Mr. Prestwich was engaged in his survey, the district west of the Light- moor fault was alpiost destitute of coal. ' Begources. 1. Area of the coal-field 28 square miles. 2. Greatest thickness of Coal-measures .. 1,200 feet. 3. Number of coal-seams of upwards of 2 feet, in thickness, 6, giving a total thickness of 27 feet of coal. 4. Original quantity of coal (corrected for) .„ .... denudation.) / 43 millions of tons. 5. Total quantity worked out and lost, abonfl 28 millions, leaving for future use ../ Which at the present rate of consumption of 765,750 tons (1859) would be exhausted in about 20 years. This estimate only applies to the actual coal-field. As already stated, the Coal-measures dip under Permian and New Ked Sandstone along the eastern margin, and already have these rocks been invaded by at least one coal-shaft, which will speedily be followed by others, should the coal-beds prove continuous— but of this there are at present some doubts. 97 CHAPTEK VII. THE COAL-FIELDS OF NOHTH WALES. Geiieral Structure. An interrupted tract of Coal-measures extends from the northern slopes of the valley of the Severn, south of Oswestiy, to the mouth of the estuary of the river Dee, in Flintshire, crossing the river at the entrance to the Vale of Llangollen. The Coal-measures are overlaid In- Permian strata on the south, and New Eed Sandstone on the north, and repose on beds of MiUstone Grit and Carboniferous Limestone, each about 1000 feet in thick- ness. These form a range of lofty lidls with terraced escarpments looking westward, and exliibit a very noble and striking feature when viewed from behind Llan- gollen, where they assume the form of a long line of ramparts, the strata being piled like lines of masomT, tier above tier. Tliis rampart forms the physical line of demarcation between Wales and England, though the conventional boundary extends into the plain along the eastern slopes. These calcareous hills are frequently traversed by faults, and are full of lodes rich in argentiferous galena ; the most remarkable of which is the " Great Minora vein," coinciding with a line of fault traversing the Denbighshire coal-field from south-east to north-west, and which in 1857 yielded 2496 tons of ore. H 18 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. s 3 £ s The coal-fields here described form part of the counties of Denbigh and Flint : and north of the valley of the Alyn become separated into two portions, by the upheayal along the Hne of a great fault of the Lower Carboniferous Kocks.* The tract south of this fault is called the Denbighshire coal-field ; that to the north, the Flintshire coal-field — each of which will now be described sepa- rately. Eh 5 B ■aS DENBIGHSHIRE COAL-FIELD. This coal-field commences about three miles south of Oswestry, where the New Eed Sandstone begins to rest directly on the MiUstone Grit, and extends northward by Oswestry, Euabon, and Wrexham, to the north of the valley of the Alyn, which winds through a deep defile, and exposes in its banks an almost complete section of the coal-forma- tion. The length of the coal-field is about eighteen mUes; and it is » This is one of the largest faults in Bri- tain, and has been traced from the sea on the coast of Merionethshire, through Bala Lake into Cheshire. See maps of Geological Sur- vey, sheet 74, N.E. and S.W. DENBIQHSHIKE COAL-FIELD. 99 about four miles in breadth at Wrexham, where crossed by the section. (Fig. 9.) The general succession of the strata is as follows : — 1. Trias, or New Red Sandstone. ThickncBS. 2. Lower Permian rocks . . . . . . 1,000 to 2,000 ft. !1. TTppor series, 1,000 feet i 2. Middle (with coals) 800 „ ( 2,800 to 3,000 „ 3. Lower (thin coals) 1,000 „ ) 4. Millstone Grit . . , . . . . , 800 to 1,000 „ 5. Carboniferous Limestone .. .. .. 1,000 to 1,500 „ The Lower Permian strata consist of red and purple marls and sandstones, and may be seen along the banks of the Dee west of Overton, and in the brook which flows eastward of Wrexham. The Coal-measures may be classed imder three divi- sions. The upper consists of red and grey sandstones and reddish clays, and contains only a few very thin and worthless coals : of these beds there are good sec- tions along the banks of the Alyn, west of Gresford. The middle series constitutes the coal-bearing strata, and contains the following coal-seams of good quality, besides several others not worth mentioning : this series corresponds, with slight variation, to that in Flintshire. Succession of Coal-Seams, Benhighshire Goal-Field. Upper and Lower sulphuieous coals — not worked. 1. Smith Coal .. .. -. 2 ft. 2 in. to 2 ft. 4in. 2. Drowsall Coal (good quality) . . 3 3. PoweU Coal . . . . . . 3 3 4. Two-yard (with " Ribbon" coal under) 5 to 6 5. Crank Coal (brassy ironstone mea-1 „ 8 to 3 sures occur here) • . / 6. Brassy Coal (Black-band ironstone) g q occurs here) . . . • ' 7. Main Coal C to 7 6 Total thickness of coal .. ..27 1 to 30 1 100 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BEITAIN. The lower measures contain several coal-seams, vary- ing from 2 to 3 feet, which have been but little sought after in the presence of the thick seams from the middle series. There are several valuable beds of ironstone, the prin- cipal being " the brassy " and " black-band," from which in the year 1859, 38,822 tons were raised for the Brymbo and Frood furnaces. The remaias of fish are abundant in this coal-field, and have been classed by Sir P. Egerton under the fol- lowing genera : Hhizodus, Ccelacanthus, Platysomus, and Palceaniscus. The black-band ironstone is very full of fish-scales, teeth, &c., and also contains a bivalve shell of the genus Anthracosia. In the Lower Coal-measures the black shales contain Goniatites and Aviculo-pectm, as is the case in Lancashire and Yorkshire.* Though containing coal-seams of good quality, and reaching thicknesses of 7 feet, there is a large tract lying between Brymbo and Euabon over which the coal lies perfectly undisturbed ; nor have the coals been followed to any great depth, one of the deepest collieries being only 173 yards-t I think, therefore, I am justified in placing the quantity already worked out at only 1-1 0th of the whole.J * For tlis information I am indebted to Mr. E. Binney. t Westminster Colliery. t I am confirmed in this estimate by Mr. Beckett, of Wolverhamp- ton, -who is well acquainted with this and the adjoining coal-fields. DENBIGHSHIKE COAL-FIELD. 101 Regourceg. 1. Area of the coal-field .. .. .. 47 square miles. 2. Greatost thickness of Coal-measures 3,000 feet 3. Nhmber of coal-seams above two feet, 7, ) „„ j. , ., • , „ f 30 „ of coal, gwmg a thickness of . . . . t 4. Original quantity (corrected for denudation) 727 millions of tons. 5. Deduct for quantity worked out 1-lOth, and I .„„ for loss l-4th, leaving for future uao / " " 6. Which at the present rate of production of 1,038,500 tons (1859) would last for 470 years. It is interesting to observe that the produce of this coal-fieltl is nearly double what it was in 1857. In the first edition of this treatise, I stated that the drain was so disproportionate to the great resources of this coal- field, that the supply would last for 930 years at the rate of production for the year 1858 — amounting to only 527,000 tons. I also made the following observations — " Tills result shows what is the fact, that the qTiaiitity of coal raised in this coal-field is far below that which it is capable of producing. Collieries are, however, now being erected along the Chester railway, and in a few years the production will probably be doubled. The great depth of the " Drift " accumulations (sand, gravel, and clays) has operated to keep this coal-field partially concealed." In referring, therefore, to Mr. Himt's return for the year 185!), I was somewhat startled to find my anticipa- tions of the rapid increase of production so speedily verified ; and I have little hesitation in predicting a still fui'ther increase in the quantity of coal to be an- nually raised in Denbighshire. 102 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIN. The quantity above estimated is included within a maximum depth of 2000 feet; a depth of 4000 feet would embrace a band of country containing above one-half more. The number of collieries in this coal-field, ia 1859, was 39. CHAPTER Vni. FLINTSHIRE COAL-FIELD. This coal-field is disconnected with that of Denbigh- shire by the upthrow of Carboniferous Limestone and Mnistone Grit over a small tract between Gresford and Hopa From this it extends along the western side of the estuary of the Dee to Point of Aire, a distance of 15 miles ; but throughout a considerable part of its range the productive portion is very narrow, and greatly broken by faults. The general dip of the beds is towards the north-east, and there is no doubt but that they imderUe the New Eed Sandstone of the Cheshire plain ; for they actually reappear on the Cheshire coast at Parkgate, where they are upheaved along a line of fault.* * Map of the Geol. Survey, 79, N.E. Also Section Sheet 43, with description. For much information regarding this coal-field I am indebted to Mr. Beckett, of Wolverhampton. FLINTSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 103 The following is the general section of this coal-field : Ft. In. 1. Fonr-foot Coal [ ^°''^ \ .. 4 I Cannol 1 Strata .. .. 41 2. Bind Coal 2 6 Strata with ironstone .. .. ..62 g ( JffoMm CoaJ (in three beds) .. .. 6 6 I Cannel .. .. .... 1 6 Strata with ironstone 29 4. Brasty Coal 3 Strata 82 5. Main Coal .. .. .. .. 7 Strata • • 180 6. Lower Four-foot Coal (supposed) . . 4 It will be observed that the Main and Brassy coals of Flintshire and Denbighshire correspond ; that the "Hollin" coal of the former is the "Two-yard" coal of the latter, while the "Powell" coal represents the " Bind " coal. The intermediate ironstone-measures also correspond. The " Lower four-foot " coal in the Fliat- Bhire section cannot yet be said to have been satis- factorily determined. The general quality of the coal is excellent. In the Lower Ooal-meixsures, below all the strata above named, Mr. Binney informs me that there are several thin seams with roofs of blaclc shale, containing Goniatites and Avieulo-pecten, corresponding to the Gannister coals of Lancashire and Yorkshire. These coals are visible in a brook section south of Hope, which in another part displays very beautifully the unconformable superposi- tion of the New Bed Sandstone on the Lower Coal-mea- sures. The strata of the Flintshire coal-field rarely attain a 104 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT EKITAIN. great depth. If we cross the centre of the district from west to east, we find the beds repeatedly upheayed along dislocations ranging north and south. The result is, that the greater portion of the coal beiag placed so near the surface has already been exhausted, and pro- bably not more than one-half remaias for future use. The valley of the Dee seems to offer favourable posi- tions for deep shafts ; and already the coal is being won under high-water mark on Mostyn Bank. There can scarcely remain a reasonable doubt of the continuation of the coal-formation from Flintshire to Lancashire and Staffordshu-e under the intervening tract of New Bed Sandstone. Resources. 1. Area of the coal-field .. 35 square miles. 2. Number of coal-seams at least 5, sriving a 1 „- „ . » thickness of .. } 25 feet of coal. 3. Original quantity (corrected for denudation) . . 54 millions of tons. 4. Quantity raised, one-half ; ditto spoiled, ) and lost 1-lOth ; leaving for future use J " " 5. At the present rate of production of 587,500 tons (1859), the coal- field would be exhausted in about 40 years. This coal-field contains 37 collieries. ANGLE8EA COAL-FIELD. lOi ^ CHAPTEE IX. ANGLESEA COAL-FIELD. Crossing a mountainous region of 4") miles in breadth from the FHnt- shire coal-field to the centre of Anglesea, we find a series of Carbo- niferous strata on the whole similar to those just described. The Anglesea coal-field forms a band of country stretching from Hirdre-faig to Malldraeth Bay, a distance of nine miles. Its breadth at Malldraeth Marsh is a mile and a half. The Coal-measures are over- laid imcomformably by red sand- stone, conglomerate, and marl, of Permian age, and from beneath the coal-strata the Millstone Grit and Carboniferous Limestone rise in suc- cession, their base resting on highly- contorted and metamorphic schists of Cambrian or Lower Silurian age. The existence of this coal-tract is entirely due to an enormous fault, haying at one point a down-throw on r I 106 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIN. the north-west of 2300 feet. Through its agency the Carboniferous strata, have been dropped down, and are protracted on all sides by the ancient Silurian rocks. (See Section 10, page 105.) The following is the general succession of the strata as determined by Professor Eamsay.* Suocessim of Strata, Anglesea Coal-Field. Ft. In. Permian Eocka — Eed sandstone, marl and conglomerate 195 Coal-measures— OoaZ ("GIopux") lying in lumps ..9 1309 feet. Shale .. .. .. .. 61 Coal .. .. .. ..3 Shale 63 Coal .. .. ■■ ..4 Strata .. .. .. .. 75 Coal (irregular) .. .. .. 2 Strata .. 43 CoaX .. .. .. ..6 Strata .. .. .. .. 90 Coal (with cannel roof) . . . . 18 Strata (about) .. .. .. 300 Coal (supposed Berw Uehaf coal, in 1 7 6 3 beds with partings .. > Strata .. .. .. .. 650 Millstone Grit Goa J (perhaps in Millstone Grit) ..2 to 3 YeUow sandstone and Conglomerate . . 200 p , . . [ Gray and black limestone, and sand- l Limestone 1 ^toii^i 'with Productus, Spirifer, > 450 I Corals, &c. .. .. ) Some of these coal-seams crop up against the base of the Permian strata, proving the great discordance be- tween the formations. A greenstone dyke rises in a line of fault near Berw colliery, but appears not to enter the Permian strata. * See description of Horizontal Section of tlie Geological Survey, sheet 40 ; also Geol. Map, sheet 78. SOUTH STAFF0ED8HIEE COAL-FIELD. 107 Another small coal-tract lines the banks of the Menai Straits near Carnarvon. In 1857 the Anglesea coal-field contained five col- lieries, producing about 4500 tons of coal. In 1859 the same number of collieries produced 35,000 tons. CHAPTER X. SOUTH STAFFOEDSHIKE COAL-FIELD. This coal-field extends from the Clent HiUs on the south to Brereton, near Rugeley, on the north, a distance of 21 miles, and is of an average breadth of seven miles. It appears to have been upheaved bodUy along two great lines of fracture, which range in approximately parallel directions from north to south. Beyond these lines, Permian and Triassic rocks set in. Aspect of the Coal-field. — This district is one of ex- treme productiveness in coal and iron ; and its proximity to the towns of Wolverhampton, Dudley, and Birming- ham, has imparted an extraordiuaiy impetus to these foci of industry. But indeed it may be said, that the whole line of country connecting these towns, a distance of 12 miles, forms one great workshop : and on a fine night, the spectacle from the walls of Dudley Castle, which rises from the centre of the coal-field, is one which has scarcely a parallel. The whole country within a radius of five or six miles is overspread by collieries, iron-foxmdries, blast-furnaces, and the dweUings of a 108 THE COAL-FIELDS OP GREAT BEITAIK. a f^ a ?S1^% i\ i dense population ; and from amidst the thick smoky atmosphere, the tongues of fire from the furnaces I shoot up an intermittent light which ^ illuminates the whole heavens. But the spectacle before our eyes does not represent the whole sum of ^ human labour ; for whilst ten thou- « sand hands are at work above ground one-half as many, perhaps, are be- neath the surface, hewing out the I coal which is to be the prime-mover '^ of the whole machinery. I Physical Geology. — It has been s shown by Mr. Jukes,* that while the ^ Lower Carboniferous rocks were being deposited over other parts of England, a band of country stretching I from Shropshire across South Staf- I fordshire and Warwickshire was dry I land ; consquently there is no Car- " boniferous Limestone or Millstone Grrit, and the Coal-measures repose S directly on an eroded surface of upper "^ Silurian rocks, which at Sedgley, ^ Note. — The Section at. the side of the page p^ is reduced from one by Mr. Jukes. * " South Staffordshire Coal-field," Mem. Geol. Survey, 2nd Edition, (Preface.) See Geol. Maps, 62 S.W., 62 N.W., and corre- sponding Sections. SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 109 Dudley, and Walsall, rise from beneath the Coal-forma- tiou. (See Section, Fig 11.) The general succession of the strata, as given by Mr. Jukes, is as follows : — Ft. Trias-Bunter Sandstone (J- J!PPT"°**l'^iT'^*°°« - f" 1.200 2. Conglomerate beds . . 500 3. Lower mottled sandstone .. 200 1,200 II. Breccia of felstone, por- phyry, & Silurian rocks 2. Ecd marls, saiKlatono, & |1.000to3,000 calcareous conglomerate ) Coal-measures — Southern district. Ft. Upper Coal-Mcasurcs — Red and mottled clays, red and grey) 1,300 sandstone and gravel beds J Middle Coal-Mea-i 1. Brooch dial .. .. .. 4 sures — 510 .. ) Strata, with ironstone i. ..130 2. Tlilclc Coal .. .. ..30 Strata with " Gubbin ii-onstono" . . 2(1 3. Heathen Coal .. .. . . 4 Strata witli ironstone .. ., 109 4. New Mine Coal .. .. .. 8 Strata with ironstone . . . . 16 5. Firc-Clay Coal .. .. .. 7 Strata .. .. .. ..30 6. Iloitom Coal .. .. .. 12 Strata with several courses of iron- stone.. .. .. .. 140 Upper Silurian Eocks — 1. Ludlow rocks, with Aymesti-y limestone. 2. Wenlock and Dudley Limestone and Shales. 3. Woolhope Limestone (?) 4. Llandovery Sandstone. Coal-seams. — From the above list it will be seen, that in the Dudley district there are six workable seams of coal, giving a total thickness of 65 feet. The most remai-kable of these is the " Ten-yard," or " Thick coal," 110 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIN. of a general thickness of 30 feet and a source of enormoua wealth to the district. It underlies a large area, at a moderate depth; and has either been worked out, drowned, or destroyed to such an extent, that probably little more than one-tenth remains to be won. It is rather subject to "rock-faults," or "horse-backs," instances of which are given by Mr. Jukes ;* and the author has seen an instance at Baremoor coUiery, where the whole mass of coal has been replaced by sandstone — the junction being formed of a series of interlacings. Thinning of the Strata southwards. — ^In the northern part of the coal-field, at Essington and Pelsall, this massive bed becomes split up into nine distinct seams, with a combined thickness of exactly 30 feet of coal ; but separated by 420 feet of sandstones and shales, all of which are absent to the south of the " Great Bentley fault." This remarkable thinning out of the strata takes place in a distance of five miles from north to south, and' is an additional instance of the vastly higher amount of persistency in the coal-seams than in the sedimentary strata with which they are associated. Dip of the Beds. — North of the Great Bentley fault, the general dip is from east to west ; and there is an extensive tract of about ten miles in length extending to Beaudesert, and three in breadth, over which the lower coal-seams lie undisturbed, as those which are worked at Essington and Wyrley occupy a higher position. At Brereton there are several shafts sunk through Con- # " South Staffordshire Coal-field," &c., p. 45 et seii. SOUTH STAFFOKDSHIEE COAL-FIELD. Ill glomerate beds of the New Eed Sandstone, under which formation the coal is extensively worked. TEAP ROCKS. Basalt. — In several localities over the southern portion of the coal-field, several varieties of igneous rocks are found, frequently burrowing through and altering the Coal-measures, and sometimes resting upon them. The finest exhibition is the basaltic mass of Eowley Eegis, or " Kowley rag," forming a lull about two miles in length, and 820 feet in height. This basalt assumes the co- lumnar structure, affording examples of prisms as perfect as those from the Giant's Causeway in Ireland. Mr. Jukes considers that this rock has been poured out in the form of a lava-flow, during the coal period ; for the beds of coal dip undor the basalt, and have been fol- lowed till found " blackened," or charred, and utterly worthless.* At Pouk Hill, near Walsall, is another mass of co- lumnar basalt, in which there are vertical, horizontal, bent, and radiating columns. Chreenstffne. — In the Lower Coal-measures, a sheet of greenstone spreads almost without interruption from the base of Eowley Eegis, through the centre of the district, to Wolverhampton, Bilston, and Bentley. This would appear to have been a lava-flow of earlier date than the basalt, but ejected from the same vent, which we may suppose to be situated near the centre of the hiU. There are also beds of volcanic ashes and gravel associated * "South Staffordshire Coal-fleld," &c., p. 120. 112 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BEITAIN. with the Upper Coal-measures at Hales Owen, probably nearly contemporary in their formation with the Rowley basalt. Ironstones. — The ironstones occur in beds, associated with shale, and are the principal repositories of the fossils. The principal bands are : — 1. The Pins and Pennyearth ironstone-measures. 2. The Grains ironstone K^j^^ ^^^ ^j^j^,^ Coal. 3. The Gubbin ironstone! 4. The New Mine ironstone. 5. The Pennystone do., with marine fossils, Frodticta, Avicula- peeten, Lingula, &c., a Folechinus, and fish-teeth and bones- 6. Poor Eobin, and White ironstone— only local. 7. Gubbin and Balls ironstone. 8. Blue Plats, Silver Threads, and Diamond ironstone. Fossils. — Fish : G-yracanthus formosus (ichthyodoru- lites), Bliizodus, Pleurodus, CtenoptycJivm, MegalicMhys Sihherti, Cochliodus, Pcecilodus. Molluscs : JProductics, Conularia, Lingula, Myalina, AntJiracosia acuta (iu coal), Aviculo-pecten scalaris ; Annelides ; and the usual Coal- measure plants.* Resources. In order to arrive at an estimate of the resources of this coal-field, it is necessary to consider the northern and southern halves separately ; as the former contains about three-fourths of the original quantity of coal, the latter only one-tenth. 1. Area of coal-field .. .. .. 93 square miles 2. Average thickness of workable coal above) 2 feet / 16 yards. * These fossils have been detei-mined by Mr. Salter, of the Museum of Practical Geology. They are similar to those of the " Pemieystone " band of Ooalbrook Dale. NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 113 3. Total original quantity of coal (oorreotedi 3,072 millions of tons. for denudation) .. .. ../ 4. Of this, the Northern part contained .. 1,024 „ Deduct l-4th, leaving for future use .. 768 „ 5. The Southern part (south of the Bentleyl 2048 fault) contained .. .. ../ ' " Deduct 9- lOths, leaving about .. .. 205 „ 6. Total quantity remaining (768+205) .. 973 „ Which at the present rate of consumption would be exhausted in about 210 years. In 1859 there were in the South Staffordshire coal- field, 422 collieries ; at which 4,450,000 tons of coal, and 825,000 tons of ironstone, were raised. The average production of iron from this ore being 33 per cent. The number of furnaces in blast in the district was 123 ; in which 475,300 tons of pig-ii-on were smelted in 1859, and 597,809 tons in 1858.* CHAPTER XI. NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD. The North Staffordshire coal-field, though of smaller area than that of South Staffordshire, has vastly greater capabilities. The strata are about four times as thick, with twice the thickness of workable coal ; and instead of being bounded on each side by an enormous fault, which at one step places the coals at almost unap- proachable depths, the Coal-measures of North Stafford- shii'e dip under the Permian and Triassic rocks along a • " Mineral Statistics," 1858 and 1859. I 114 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GKEAT BEITAIN. M M JC6 line of many miles at tlie south- western border of the coal-field, and under these formations coal may be obtained at a future day. Moreover, there are none of those protrusions of igneous rocks which have pro- duced so much injury to the coal- beds near Wolverhampton, Dudley, and Hales Owen. This coal-field has the shape of a triangle,- mth its apex to the north at the base of Congleton Edge ; the eastern side is formed of Millstone Grit, and the westerly of New Red Sandstone or Permian strata. Along the south the Coal-measures are overlaid by Per- mian marls and sandstones, and these strata run far up into the heart of the coal-field by Newcastle, along the line of a great fault, which ranges north-north-west towards Talk-on- the-Hill.* On that division of the coal-field extending eastward of this tongue of Permian rocks are situated the Potteries, a group of populous towns, from which all parts of the world are supplied with china-ware rival- ling that of Dresden, with vases and various kinds of vessels modelled after Etruscan patterns, but adorned * Geological Survey, Map 72, N.W. B Bh.S NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 115 with paintings from natural models, executed with a perfection of colouring and outline to which the Etrus- cans never attained ; here also are produced those tes- selated pavements which adorn so many of our clmrcheti and public buildings. For the production of these works of art chalk-flints are brought from the south of Enghind, decomposing granite from Cornwall, gypsum from Cliel- laston, siliceous chert from Derbysliire. The coai-ser kinds of eartht'inviire and tiles are made in large quan- tities from the clays of the Upper Coal-measures, and the coal supplies the heat for the baking ovens. Succession of Strata, JSforth Staffordshire Coal-field* Greatest thickness. Fermian ijoc/ce— Red and purplo sandstone, niail.i Feet, and corustones (with pluiits\ strata! slightly unconformable to the coal-f ^"0 moHsuros .. .. .. J Coal-measures — 1. Uppur — Brown sandstones, green-\ 5,000 feet. ish conglomerate ililie the vol- 1 cauio ashes of S. Staffordshire) J 1,000 with tliiek beds of red and purple ] mottled elays ; tliin coals .. 2. Middle — Sandstone, shales, with! ironstone, and about 40 ooal-( 4,C00 seams .. .. .. ' 3. Lower — Black shales and flatra, I with Wetley Moor thin coals. [ 1>000 {Gonlcitites, Fecten.) . . .. ' Milhlmie Orit — Coarse grits, sliales, and flags .. 4,000 Yoredale Ilcnlis, — Black shales, &o., with marine fossils '2,300 Carbom/irous Limestone .. .. .. .. 4,000 to 5,000 I If we compare the above section with that of Soutli * See Horizontul Sections of the Geological Survey, Sheets 42 and 55, with Explanations. This coal-field was survt^yed by llr. W. W. Smyth, and the author, in I85G-7. 116 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. StaffordsHre we cannot but be struck with tbe vast accession of sedimentary materials in this northerly direction. StJiccessim of Coal-Seams. Ft. In. Ft. In. 1. Peacock Goal 6 6 12. Coal 3 Strata 20 strata .. 270 2. Spencroft .. Strata (with shells) 3 121 9 13. Birches' Coal Strata 4 300 6 3. Great Bow 8 14. Ten-feet Coal 6 Strata 71 Strata 102 4. Gannel Row 5 15. Bowling Alley .. 4 6 Strata 54 Strata 81 5. Wood Mine 2 16. Solly Lane 5 10 Strata 29 Strata 84 6. Deep Mine 2 8 17. Sparrow Butts Coa 4 9 Strata .. 361 Strata 222 7. Wingliay Coal .. 4 6 18. Flats 3 Strata 377 Sti-ata 108 8. Ash or Bowhurst.. 8 19. Frog's Bow 4 6 Strata 121 Strata 30 9. Burnwood 5 20.. Cockhead .. 4 6 Strata 68 Strata 420 10. Golden 'Twist 3 6 21. Bullhurst .. 4 Sti-ata 486 Strata 60 11. Moss field .. 4 7 22. Winpenny 3 Strata .. 30 Lower Coal-measures, with two thin coals of Wetley Moor. Besides the above there are 15 other seams of little or no value. Ironstone measures. — This coal-field contains several very valuable bands of ironstone, of which the following ar£ the principal : — 1. Top red mine of SUverdale, 18 inches thick ; 2. Gubhin ironstone, which is filled with the bivalve shell Anthracosia ; 3. Pennystone ; 4. Two- feet mine; 5. Burnwood ironstone. NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 117 Fossil Eemains. — Fish : Messrs. Gamer and ^lolyneux have 1)1 -en collecting with much success specimens of the iehthyolites, which occur in profusion in some of the , ironstone bands and their associated shales, the " Bassy mine " being the most prolific. They occur principally in the higher strata of the coal-field, and the following genera are recorded :* Dipterm (?),t Palceoniscus onia- tissimus, Qyrolepis, Qcelacanthus, EMzodtis, Moloptychim, Otenodus, Megalichthys, Saurichthys (?)t Ctmacanthm, Hyhodus, Diplodus, Ctenoptychim, Petalodm, Eelodus, Pleur acanthus, Onchus (?), Orthacanthus (ichtliyodoru- lites, sometimes 12 inches in length), Lcptacanthus, Gy- racanthus. Of Mollusca, the only examples foimd in the Middle and Upper measures have been nine or ten species of the genus Anthracosia which are abundant in some of the ironstont^s, and in the roofs of some of the coal-seams, especially the Great Row siam, as I am in- formed by Mr. Henry Eaton. In the Low ur measures Avimilo-pecten and Spirorbis (Microconchus) carbonarius occur. Plants of most of the usual Carboniferous genera are abundant. Faults. — The faults of this coal-field ai-e not nume- rous except in the neighbourhood of Talk-ou-the-Hill. There are, however, several very large dislocations : one of which forms the boundary of the coal-field along its * Trans. Brit. Association, 1859, p. 103. These genera (I under- stand) have been verified by one of our highest authorities. Sir Pliilip De M. Egerton. t I have placed a (?) after Dipterus and Saurichthys, as the former of these genera is generally considered exclusively Devonian, the latter Triassio. 118 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GKEAT BEITAIN. north-western edge. It runs along the western base of Congleton Edge and west of Talk, throwing down the New Eed Marl of the Cheshke basin on the north-west against the Carboniferous rocks on the south-east. This , dislocation is more than 500 yards, and its direction is north-north-east. Another fault, with a downthrow on the east of 350 yards, passes by Newcastle and east of Hanchurch ; and at Hanford there is a third and paral- lel line, with a downthrow of 200 yards, on the same side. East of Longton the coal-field is bounded by a large fault, which was visible near the entrance to the railway tunnel when it was being made : it throws in the New Red Sandstone on the east side. Resources. This coal-field has been worked only to a small ex- tent in comparison with its enormous resources. Yet, that these resources are now being recognised is evinced by the fact, that between the years 1857-59 the quantity of coal raised nearly doubled itself. As the coal- bearing strata are upwards of 5000 feet in thickness', it is evident that in some parts of the district, to- wards the borders of the Permian rocks, the lower coals can never be reached, so that we must make large deductions (about one-third) for the quantity which is not likely to become available. 1. Area of coal-field .. .. .. 75 square miles. 2. Total thickness of measures.. .. 5,000 feet. 3. Number of workable coal-seams, 22, with 1 n^ j^ ^ ,. ,, . , „ > 94 feet of coal, a thickness of . . . . .. i CHEADLE COAL-FIELD. 119 4. Total original quantity of coal .. 3,600 millions of tons, 5. Prom this deduct 1 -3rd (as above) .. 2,400 6. Deduct for quantity worked out 1-lOth ; and for waste l-4th. 7. Leaving for future use .. .. i,620 AVIjioIi at the present rate of consumption would last forVlO years This coal-field contained in 1859 only 127 colleries, raising 2,200,000 tons of coal ; a quantity small when compared with the produce of South Staffordshire. "Wt- may, however, expect that in future years whUe the produce from South Staffordshire gradually diminishes, that from North Staffordshire shall constantly increase. I entertain a very high opinion of the resources of tliis coal-field. It is practically inexhaustible, as it descends to unapproachable depths, while the beds of coal and iron are of the finest description. In the same year 624,000 tons of iron-ore were raised, nearly half of which was sent into the southern part of the county, and the remainder smelted in 23 blast fur- naces, producing 143,500 tons of pig iron.* CHAPTER Xn. CHEADLE COAL-FIELD, STAFPOEDSHIEE. A SMALL, and but slightly productive coal-field stretches from the valley of the Churnet on the north-east to the hills of New Red Sandstone, which stretch in a pictu- resque and abrupt semicircle along its southern borders. * V Mineral Statistics," X858. 120 THE COAL-FIELDS OP GEEAT BRITAIN. Towards this range the strata dip (S.S.W.), and on the north side of the Churnet the high moorlands of the Mill- stone Grit rise from beneath the Coal-formation. In the centre of the coal-iield, an outlier of New Bed Con- glomerate reposes unconformably on the Coal-measures, and forms the site of the pretty town of Cheadle. * The following is the succession of the coal-seams : — 1. Two-yard coal. 2. Half-yard coal. 3. Yard coal. 4. Littleycoal. 5. Four-foot coal. 6. Woodhead 3-feet coal. ncematite Bed of Ghumet Valley. The Lower Coal-measures of the Churnet Valley con- tain two thin coals, one of which has a roof of black shale with Croniatites and Aviculo-pecten.'f Below these there occurs a valuable bed of iran ore, which is now beiug extensively worked along the valley from the outcrop. This iron bed varies from 6 to 20 inches in thickness, is of a deep-red coloui-, and contains about 35 per cent, of iron. It seems to be in reality but shale highly impregnated with hydrated peroxide of iron. * See Geol. Survey, Map 72, N.E., and Horizontal Section, sheet 57, with "Explanation." f Mr. Binney, Trans. Geol. Soc, Manchester, vol. ii. p. 81. 121 CHAPTEE XIII. THE LANCASHIKE COAL-FIELD. This great coal-bearing tract is very irregular in outline, and consequent- ly difficult to describe. It may, however, bo said to occupy a band of country lying east and west, send- ing offshoots at intervals into the Trias and Permian formations on the ° south, and into Lower Carboniferous t" strata which form its mountainous «■ limits on the north. These offshoots • a are occasioned generally by enor- » mous faults. " The extreme western boundary is a great fault, which, throwing down the New Eed Sandstone on the west side, ranges through Eccleston, £■ Lathom Park, Bickerstaffe, Knows- ^ Q ley Park, and Huyton. To the | northwai'd the high moorlands, | formed of MiUstone Grit and Lower | Coal-measures, traversed by deep | valleys with scarped flanks, reach elevations of 2,000 feet, and stretch with a semicircular outline from 122 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIN. Chorley to Staleybridge, by Bolton, Bury, and Oldham. From this elevated tract the country gradually descends towards the Valley of the Mersey, and the Coal- measures dip under the Triassic and Permian strata, which form the low-lying districts, by Eainford, Newton, Ashton in Makerfield, Leigh, Astley, Bccles, Man- chester, and Stockport, near which point the coal-field crosses the Mersey and enters Cheshire. The extreme length from Bickerstaffe to Staleybridge is 32 miles, and the average breadth 6 miles. Smaller isolated coal-fields occur at Croxteth Park, Manchester, and Burnley. General Succession of Formations. Trias . 4,750 ft. Keuper (A, B, of fig. 13.) Bunter (C. D.) Maximum thickness. Feet. .. 3,000 1 . Eed Marls (Cheshire') . . 2. Lower Keuper Sand- l stone (Waterstones) I 1. Upper Mottled Sand- i- stone J 2. Conglomerate beds .. 3. Lower Mottled Sand- 1 stone (often absent) ) Upper Eed marls and lime- \ (E.) stones of Leigh, Patri- Permian croft, Manchester, with Series . SeMzodus, Balievellia, 355—650 Turbo, Tragos, Bissoa, feet. Naiica minima. 2. Lower Sandstone of CoUyhursti 1 (P.) &o. J to .J/bte.— Several valuable memoirs on this coal-field have appeared by Mr. Binney, Trans. Geol, Soc, Manchester, vols. 1. and ii., part 7 ; also by Mr. Bowman— J6id. See^also Mr. Dickinson's Vertical Section, in Eeport of the Inspectors of Mines for 1858. The Geological Survey of Lancashire is now in progress, and partly completed. 500 500 650 100 250 100 400 THi; LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD. 128 Coal- measures 6,800 ft. to 7,300 Upper Shales, sandstones, anil \ (H 1.) limestones of Ard- wick, with Spirorbis, Ci/tliere, and fish of tlie genera Ctenopty- chius, Megalichthys, Pa- hroniscHK, &c. : and a bed of black-baud iron- stone with Anthracoaia PhiUipsii. Below tliese beds are sandstunis, sliales, and thin coal- seams. Maximum Thickness. Feet. 1,500 to 2,000 Middle - (H2.) 3. Lower, or Gannister Beds. (H 3.) -From the WorsKy Four feet Coal to the Fliig, below the"ArleyMine," 3 500 with Anthracosia, Mo- i diola, flsh, &c. J Flags, shales, and thin ' coals, with Gannister floors, and roofs of shale with Spirorbis, Goniatitea, Nautilus, Avicula-pecten.LinguJa, A-nthraoofia, fish, Cij- there or Gypris. Millstone l From the " Rough Eock " to the lowest i Grit i millstone grit (with thin coals) ) Limestone Shale or Yoredale Rocks, with molluscs .... The coal-series varies considerably in diiJerent parts of the districts, and there is a general thickening of the sedimentary materials, as sandstones and shales, towards the N.N.W. Thus the same coal-seams are farther apart at St. Helens than at Prescot, and at Wigan than at St. Helens. Several coals can be traced over the entire district 1,800 ,3.500 2,000 121 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BRITAIN. under different names. The "Little Delf" of St. Helens is the "Arley Mine" at Wigan, the "Eiley Mine " of Bolton, and the " Dogshaw Mine " of Bury. It is the lowest coal-bed of the Middle Coal-series, and one of great economic value. Its roof frequently con- tains fish remains, and some yards above it there occurs a very constant bed of ironstone filled with Anthror cosia {unio) robusta. Above this is the " Bushy Park " coal, which is very constant ; but unfortunately the most valuable of all the coal seams, the Cannd Mine of Wigan, thins away in every direction from Wigan as a centre. The Trencher Bone of Bolton is the Wigan 9-feet, and the Eoger 9-feet of St. Helens. Cremral Section of the Goal-series at St. Helens. (The numbera show the Coals which correspond to each other.) Yards. Ft. In Strata of Upper Coal-measures without coal 650 Lyons Delf Goal (inferior) 2 8 Strata .. 16 2 London Delf Coal (inferior) 2 6 Strata .. 28 2 2 Fotato Delf (inferior) . . 5 Sti-ata 14 Earthy Delf (unworkable, full of partings) . 4 8 Strata .. 94 1 St. Helens Main Coal .. 9 Strata 10 2 Four-feet- Coal 3 6 Strata 18 2 Cannd 1 6 Strata 92 2 Coal .. 3 10 Clay 1 1 2 Bavenliead Main Coal . . 7 Strata 33 THE LANCASHIEE COAL-FIELD. 125 Bastions iVne Strata Higher Roger Coal (inferior, with partings) Strata .. .. Flaggy Del/ .. Strata with Lower Roger Goal . . 2. Bushy Park Coal Strata 1. Arley Main or Little Del/ Yards. Ft. In 4 3 4 1 ) 4 61 2 4 . 152 2 4 6 54 3 Greneral Section of the Coal-series at Wig an. ; Yards. Ft. In 1 Strata .. .. (about) 100 1.5. Ince Yard Coal .. 3 Strata with ironstone 51 14. Ince Four-foet Coal 3 7 Strata.. 27 13. Inne Seven-feet (with poi-ting) 7 Strata.. 23 1 12. Furnace Mine (with parting) 4 7 Strata.. 84 10 n. Pemberton Five-feet Mine 5 2 Strata (with a coal-seaia 2 feet thick) 25 1 10. Pemherton Four-feet Mine 4 6 Strata.. 149 9. Wigan Five-feet (inferior) 4 6 Strata.. 21 8. Wigan Four-feet (inferior) 4 7. Strata, with a worthless coal called " Nine- feet Mine" 125 6. Cannel (best gas coal) 3 Strata (variable) 1 1 5. King Coal 3 10 Strata.. 79 4. Yard Coal 3 Strata.. 50 3. Bone Coal 2 3 Strata.. 3 2. Smj(/i CooJ (Eushy Park) 3 6 Strata.. 60 1. Arley Mine (the most valuable next to the Can nel) 4 126 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GKEAT BRITAIN. O-eneral Sectim between Manchester and Bolton. (Curtailed from that of Mr. Dickinson.) Upper Coal-measures -with 17 beds of Coal, too tliiu for working . . Worsleyi-Feet Coal (good) Strata, with 25 seams of coal under two feet 15. Bin Coal (inferior) Strata li. Albert Mine .. Strata Cmmbourke Coal Strata 13. ijams JlTtne (good) Strata, with 2 coal-seams under two feet . . iWldie Coal (good) Strata (of variable thickness) Black Coal S. Old Doe Coal (3 beds with two partings) . . Strati 8. Five-quarters Coal Strata {with 3 coals under 2 feet) 7. Trencher Bone Coal (3 - 6 to 6 feet) Strata .. .. .. .. G. Cannel Mine (oannel only. 6 inches) Strata 5. Saplin Coal (with parting) Strata Plodder Coal (coal and shale, variable) Strata 4. Yard Mine Strata with 4 thin coals . . 2. Three-qimrters Mine Strata 1. /riej/ il/i'ne (with parting) The strata here enumerated are characterized by several bands with Anthracosia. From the cannel, the Yards. Ft. In. 420 4 3 294 3 6 26 3 3 14 4 48 5 5 6 84 2 7 8 7 3 8 10- 1 3 6 88 2 5 34 4 6 19 1 4 35 . 6 3 38 3 56 2 68 2 3/6 to 4 6 THE LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD. 127 late, Jfr. Peace cullected splendid specimens of fishes belonging to the genera Megalichthys, Holoptychius, Ctcn 60 feet of coal. 18 ; giving an average thickness of J 4. Total original quantity of coal (corrected 1 5,947 j^ilUona of tons. tor denudation) . . . . } 5. Deduct for quantity already raised, l-6th . . 4,956 „ „ 6. Deduct for waste, &c., l-4:th ; leaving for ) „ „nn future use J •^'^"" " Note. — For the calculation of the probable duration of this coal- field see p. 135. THE MANCHESTER COAL-FIELD. The north-eastern side and suburbs of Manchester stand upon a small coal-field, entirely enclosed by New Eed Sandstone, except at Collyhurst, where it is in con- THE MANCHESTEB COAL-FIELD. 131 tact with Permian strata. The shape of this coal-field is oblong, with its longest diameter lying N.N.W., and about four and a half miles in length ; in its broadest part it is about a mile and a half across. South of the fault which crosses it north of Miles Platting, and throws in on the north side the Permian beds of CoUyhurst, the dip of the strata is south-west- The highest beds consist of red clays, shales, sandstones, and six beds of limestone, containing Spirorbig and fish ; two thin coal-seams, and a bed of black-band ironstone containing in great abundance Anthracosia Phillipgii, and scales of fish. Mr. Binney considers this to be identical in position with the black-band ironstone of the Upper Coal-measures of Stoke, Stafibrdshire. These strata can be traced along the banks of the river Med- lock, at Ardwick. The fossils which they contain have already been described. Beyond question this is the finest representative series of Upper Coal-measures in the whole of Britain. Below these calcareous beds, there occm-s a thick series of shales, sandstones, &c., with seven beds of coal, the thickest of which is only four feet. One of these coal-seams is probably on a parallel with the Worsley "four-feet" miue and its associated strata ; but the thick coals, which lie about lOOO feet below this coal at Pendleton, have not yet been reached in the ^lanchester coal-field. Iron Ore. — Mr. Binney, who has described this dis- trict with a fulness tliat leaves little to be required, has discovered in the bed of the Medlock a calcareous haematite, occmTiug in lai-ge blocks, which he considers 132 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GKEAT BEITAIN. identical with the valuable ore now being worked at Patricroft.* THE BUENLEY COAL-EIELD.-|- Situated some ten miles to the north of the main mass of the Lancashire coal-field, and 'connected by a moun- tainous tract of Lower Coal-measures and Millstone Grit, the small, but rich coal-foasiti of Burnley occupies a valley encircled by hills of these formations. The outline of this coal-field is nearly oval: its longest axis, lying north-east and south-west, traverses Burnley. It is about seven mUes in length and five in greatest breadth. The eastern side of the coal-basin is boimded by a large fault, along which the Lower Coal-measures have been upheaved on the east side iuto high, terraced hills, while on the west side of the faidt the productive Coal- measures plunge at high angles towards the centre of the basin. In this direction they gradually flatten; and at Burnley are perfectly horizontal. On approaching the opposite side of the basin, the dip rapidly augments ; and along the base of Padiham Heights the strata rise to the surface iu rapid succession. There is one point of much interest in connection with this coal-field. A transverse section across the ♦ " On the Geology of Manchester." — Trans. Geol. Soo. Manchester, vol. i. t My information regarding this coal-hasin is derived from my friend Mr. Binney, and from a visit in company with members of the Geological Society of Manchester, at the invitation of Sir J. Kay-Shut- tleworth of Gawthorpe Hall. I have also to acknowledge some notes furnished by Mr. T. T. Wilkinson of Burnley. THE BURNLEY COAL-FIELD. 133 ridges of Padiham Heights and Pendle Hill, in the direction of Clitheroe, gives in unbroken succession a complete series of beds from the Fulledge main coal, or Arley mine, to the Carboniferous Limestone ; and I believe it is the only spot in Lancashire where none of the links of this chain of rocks are absent. This section includes : — 1. The outcrop of the " Arley mine," under Padiham reservoir : 2. The Lower Coal- measures, or Gannister beds, with thin coal-seams ; 3. The « Eough Eock " and the beds of Millstone Grit, the lowest of which forms the escarpment of Pendle HUl, 1831 feet in height ; and 4. The Limestone Shale or Yoredale series passing downwards into massive en- crinital limestone. The whole of this series reaches a thickness probably little short of 10,000 feet. Succession of Coal-seams at Burnley. Thickness Feet. strata 30 Doghole Coal 6 Strata .. 21 Kershata Coal 3 Strata .. 81 Shell Coal (Anthracosia) 2J Strata .. 18 Main Coal 5 Strata .. 33 Maiden Coal 3 Strata, with 8 thin coal-seams {Anthracosia robusta) 162 6. Lower Yard, 01 Five-feet CoaHyritli ahalea) .. 5 Strata .. .. .. .. .. 21 7. Lower Bottom Coal or Four-feet Coal .. 3i Strata .. .. .. .. .. 78 8. Impure Oanuel •• .. .. .• ^i Strata .. .. .. •• •• 21 9. Thin Coal and " fish bed ' "* Strata .. .. .* •• 1 ■ Ooai 28 inches ) 10. Great Mine Shale 12 „ , Coal 19 .. J 134 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BEITAIN. Thickness. Feet. 2| 66 4 (coal) Strata .. 201 11. China Bed .. •• •• •• 2 Strata, .. .. 99 12. Dandy Bed .. .. .. .. 2 Strata .. .. .. .. .. 141 13. FuUedge main coal or Arley mine .. . . 4 Lower Coal-measuree, with Ganniater coal, and two or three other seams with roofs containing Goniatites, Aviculo-pecten, &c. Millstone Grit series, with several thin coals. From this section it will be seen that, near the centre of the basin, there are 1017 feet of strata, down to the lowest thick coal, representing the Arley mine of Wigan, or the Doffshaw mine of Bury. There are about twelve workable coal-seams, with 40 feet of coal ; and about 200 yards above the FuUedge main seam we find the bed of Anthracosia roJmsta, apparently the same species which occurs in the Wigan district, 47 yards above the Arley mine. Resources. The basin-shaped structure of this coal-field has only recently been determined ; and consequently, towards the centre, the lowest coals lie still undisturbed by the miner's pick, these seams having tiU recently been worked only near their outcrop. The upper seams occupy a comparatively small area ; and without pretend- ing to accuracy, we may assume the quantity already worked out at one-tenth of the whole. * For species collected by Mr. G. Wild, see Trans. Geol. Soo. Man- chester, vol. ii., p. 6. t;he bubnley coal-field, 135 The coals of the Gannister series are not included in the following estimates : — 1. Area .. .. .. ., 20 square milee. 2. Thickness of strata 1,017 feet, with 40 feet of workable coal. 3. Total original quantity (corrected for 1 ^gg ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ denudation) .. .. ) 4. Deduct for quantity worked out 1-lOth. 5. Deduct for waste, &o., l-4th. 6. Leaving for future use about 270 millions of tons. The thin coal-seams of the Lower Coal-measures are worked at Church, Quarlton, and Darwen, and axe spread at intervals over a large extent of the hilly dis- tricts beyond the boundaries of the middle or productive series. General Summary of Resources of the Lairuiashire Coal- fields. 1. Area of the main coal-field .. .. 192 square miles. 2. „ Manchester coal-field .. 6 „ 3. „ Burnley coal-field .. 20 Total 217 Quantity of available Coal. 4. Main coal-field.. .. .. .. 3,700 millions of tons. 2. Manchester coal-field .. .. 20 „ „ 3. Burnley coal-field .. .. •• 270 „ „ Total 3,990 The quantity of coal raised in 1859 was 10,650,000 tons. Taking the future production at 11 millions of tons, there is sufficient coal to last for 363 years (note, p. 136). The above calculation includes the coal within a ver- tical depth of 4000 feet. 136 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GKEAT BKITAIN. This coal-field in 1859 contained 416 collieries— viz. : Lancashire, 381 ; Cheshire, 35, — the latter producing 700,5t)0 tons. The number of collieries in 1857 was only 390. Note. — IMr. Hunt in the Introduction to the " Mineral Statistics," for 1859, states that Her Majesty's Inspectors estimate the quantity of coal raised in that year at even a higher figure than that stated above, amounting to no less than 11 J millions of tons. Mr. Hunt considers this as slightly an over-estimate — but we may fairly assume 11 millions as an average result. The increase within the last few years has been very great, as the amount raised in 1857 was only 8,565,500 tons. CHAPTEE XIV. CUMBEELAND COAL-FIELD. The zone of Carboniferous rocks which wraps round the northern flanks of the Cumberland mountains is sur- mounted by the rich coal-field of Whitehaven, Work- ington, and Maryport. Between this last town on the north and St. Bees' Head on the south, it stretches along the coast of the Irish Sea, and extends inwards for a distance of five miles, in which direction the beds rise and crop out. From Maryport the coal-field ex- tends eastward to Bolton. Its total length is about 20 miles, and greatest width, at Workington, about 5 miles.* From the Memoir of Professor Sedgwick, who has recorded the distinctive features of this coal-field, I gather the following descending series.f * Euthven's Geological Map of the English Lakes. t Trans. Geol. Soc. of London, vol. iv. I have also been kindly assisted by Mr. Dickson, of Whitehaven, who has furnished several colliery sections and much general information. CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 137 Succession of Strata. Now Bed Sandstone of St. Bees' Head, decomposing into grotesque and castellated forms. Permian strata .. 1. Gypseous marls surmounted by sandy marls and micaceous sandstone. 2. Conglomerate of magnesian limestone, &o., resting on an eroded surface of tho AVhite- haven sandstone. 3. (?) Massive reddish sandstone of Whitehaven. Professor Sedgwick appears doubtful of the affinities of this rock — 100 to 150 feet. Coal-measures . . .1. Upper, most fuUy developed at Cleat Moor, 2,000 feet • containing 7 workable coal-seams. 2. The Lower, with 4 or 5 thin and inferior coal- seams. 1, Grits and limestone shales, with thin bands of coal at Hesket Kew Market. Succession of the Coal-Seams. Whitehaven. Thickness. Feet. Strata 432 1. Tard Band (about) .. 3 Strata 30 2. Coal 2J Strata, with a thin coal-seam 78 3, Bannoch Band . 8to9 Strata . 60 4. Main Band . 6 to 11 Strata 240 5. Low Bottom Coal 4 Strata I. Fiery Band Strata Workington. 132 2 96 * Mr. Dickson calculates this at considerably less. 138 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIN. Thickness. Feet. 2. Brassy Band .. .. .. •• ^t Strata • 72 3. Cannel or Metal Band .. ■■ .. 4to6 Strata .. .. .. •• •• 60 4. Bannock Band ^ •• •• •• ^z Strata 30 5. Little Main Band .. .. ■■ ■• 3 to 4 Strata 180 6. Main Band .. .. •• •• 9 to 10 Strata 210 7. Yard Coal.. ..- .. .• •■ 2 to 3 Strata 102 8. Four-feet Coal .. .. .. •• * Strata 150 9. VdaUBand .. .. ■• - 3 to 4 At Maryport, beneath the Lower Red Sandstone, there occurs the " Ten-quarter coal," 7 feet tldek, supposed to represent the "Bannock Band" of Workington, and the "Metal" and "Cannel bands," separated by 36 feet of strata, are considered to represent the " Main band." The thick coals of Workington are thrown out south of that town by a large fault, upheaying the Lower Coal- measures, which occupy an extensive plateau, stretch- ing from Harrington to the hiUs north of Moresby. Another great fault, with a downthrow on the south- west, again brings in the productive measures of White- haven. Unfortunately, however, between this fault and the village of Barton, the beds dip to the east, so that all the coal-seams below high-water mark crop out under the sea, and the coal cannot be extracted on account of the quantity of sea-water which finds its way along CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 139 the planes of bedding. In some positions the coal has been followed more than a mile under the sea. From Workington to Flimby, a large unwrought coal- field is supposed to exist, and from . Workington to Maryport the general dip of the strata is north-west, and the coals crop out inland, where they have been worked to some extent in very early times. From Maryport to Bolton, by Crosby and Aspatria, the coal-seams are overlaid by the newer strata of either Permian or Triassic age. Resources. — Probably not more than one-fourth of the thick coal of this field remains to be extracted. Much of it has been destroyed by denudation. A smaller por- tion has already been exhausted, and a still smaller cannot be won on account of physical obstructions. We may thus sum up its capabilities for future supply : — 1. Area of middle productiye measures .. 25 square miles. 2. Average thickness of workable coal . . .. 15 feet. 3. Quantity of coal originally 387 millions of tons. 4. „ „ worked out and destroyed . 290 , „ 5. „ ., remaining for use . . . . 97 „ „ Which would last for nearly 100 years at the present rate of produc- tion. In 1859 there were 28 collieries, raising 1,041,890 tons of coal. 140 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIN. CHAPTEE XV. WAEWICKSHIBE COAL-FIELD.* This is a small but ricli coal-field, extending towards the south-south-east from a mile east of Tamworth, in a constantly narrowing tand, by Atherston and Nimeaton, to near Wyken — a distance of 15 nules. At the northern end the strata form a trough four mUes in breadth, bounded on the west, north, and east by large faults which bring in the New Red Sandstone. The Coal- measures dip imder a large district occupied by Lower Permian rocks, extending under Coventry and Warwick. This tract, with an area of 90 square miles, is underlaid by coal at a depth not greater than 2500 feet in any part, often much less. At the south end of the coal- field the whole of the Coal-measures are overlapped by the New Eed Sandstone, which passes across the edges of the beds and rests upon the Permian rocks. The prolongation of the coal-seams under the Trias has been proved for more than two miles. * For details of this coal-field see Mr. Howell's Memoir " On the Geology of the Warwickshire Coal-field, &c.," and the Maps and Sec- tions of the Geological Survey. The section of the coal-field is reduced from No. 5, Sheet 51, by Mr. Howell, WAKWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 141 General Succession of the Formations. Trias 11: Lower Permian Bocks. Coal- measurca. Millstone Grit. Maxim, thickness. Ft. Bed Marl .. .. 600 Lower Keuper Sandstone 180 3. Bun tor Sandstone, only sparingly represented. 1. Brown and purple sand- stones and marl with cal- careous breccia and conglo-} 2,000 merate with Strophalosiaf Labyrinthodon, and plants' ^ 1. Sandstones and shales, t» at the base of which, > » band of limestone ^ with Spirorbie carbo- B narus .. .. .. 50 g 2. Coal-measures with five | workable coals lying "^ nt'fir the centre of the c^ series .. .. 1,400 | 8. Lower Coal-measures un- s p productive of coal, and " traversed by dykes of g greenstone .. .. 1,500 ^ 1. Hard siliceous rock, ^ with bands of shale, ? altered by intrusive greenstone (about) . . 500 ~ o I Coal-seams. — The five workable coals lie about 1000 feet below the Spirorhis limestone. At the northern end of the district they are separat- ed by about 120 feet of shales and sandstones, which all decrease in thickness, wlule the coals remain nearly the same, and at Wyken, 142 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GKEAT BEITAIN. near Coventry, the five seams combine to form one bed of coal 26 feet in thickness. This is a change parallel to that which occurs in South Staffordshire in the case of the thick coal, which becomes split up northwards from Wolverhampton. Both cases exemplify in a remark- able degree the greater persistency of coal-beds over the sedimentary strata with which they are associated. Resources. 1. Area ot coal-field (beyond the boundary of l the Permian rocks to the outcrop of the \ 30 square miles. " Seven-feet coal") .. .. ..J 2. Thickness of coal . . . . . . 26 feet. 3. Original quantity of coal (corrected for de- 1 gg? milHons of tons. nudation) . . . . . . .. ) 4. Deduct for quantity worked out, and loss \ . , „ l-3rd ; leaving for future use . . . . / Which at the present rate of consumption, 355,750 tons, would last for about 1,000 years. Under the Permian rocks there is about an equal quantity of coal at a depth of less than 2500 feet, and about four times as much under 4000 feet. Mr. Howell's sections show the probability that the coal-seams He very regularly, and nearly horizontally under this formation. I cannot, therefore, but regard as of pe- culiar value this vast reservoir of fuel lying at the borders of the south-eastern counties, and actually closer than any other coal-bearing district to the metropolis of Britain. The Lower Coal-measures are traversed by several intrusive dykes of greenstone, which nearly correspond with the planes of bedding. These dykes have been THE LEICE8TEBSHIBE COAl-FIELD. 143 injected subsequently to the deposition of the Coal- measures, as they have baked and blanched the shales mth which they are in contact. At the base of these strata we find the Millstone Grit changed into quartz rock through the influence of a mass of greenstone upon which it rests. Beyond this the whole of the strata are broken off by a great fault, which introduces the Trias. CHAPTEE XVI. THE LEICESTEESHIEE COAL-FIELD.* This small but valuable coal-field occupies an irregu- larly-shaped district south of the Valley of the Trent. Along its western, northern, and southern sides, it is bounded by strata of the age of the Trias ; and along the north-east, by the ancient slates, and porphyries of Charnwood Forest, which form a miniature moimtain range, rising in rugged knolls, and serried ridges above the general level of the country. The Coal-measures underlie the New Ked Sandstone to a large and un- known distance towards the south and west ; and ia the * This coal-field has been very ably illustrated by Mr. Mammatt, in his " Geological Facts," and more recently by the works of the Geolo- gical Survey, consisting of Maps 63, N.W.,71,S.W. ; Horizontal and Vertical Sections ; and a Memoir " On the Geology of the Leicester- shire Coal-field," by the Author, 1860. The Kev. W. H. Coleman has also largely contributed to the knowledge of a district of pecuUai geological interest. 144 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BEITAIN. ^1 Ed H H fe5 o i 6 £X ?a 63 "6 Coleorton district several col- lieries are situated upon the Keuper Ked Marl, and pierce this formation downwards to the coal beneath; the deepest of these shafts is at Bagworth colliery. The coal-field is physically divisible iato three districts — that of Moira, on the west; Ashby-de-la-Zouch, in the centre ; and Coleorton, on the east. The central district is formed of Lower Coal-measures, without workable coals, and is bounded on both sides by down-cast faults, which intro- duce the workable coal-beds of Moira and Coleorton. The coal- series of these latter districts cannot be identified with each other, though they are probably synchronous. " The main-coal " of Moira is from twelve to four- teen feet thick ; that of Cole- orton, from sis to eight feet. ' General Succession of Formations — Leicestershire. Trias .. I [ Keuper series I Bunter, (sometimes atsent) 700 ft.' 200 .. LEICESTERSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 145 PormiaD Bocks Oarboniferona , Series. 1,500 ft. Breccia, sparingly represented. 1. Middle Coal-racasurea, with about 20 I coal-seams, of which 10 are workable ' 2. Lower Coal-measures, unproductive .. 1,000 3. Millstone Grit . . . . . . 50 4. Yoredale series and Carboniferous Limestone. The following is a list of the coal-seams in both the Moira and Coleorton districts. Coal-seams of the Leicestershire Coal-jield. Moira District— (West.) Coleorton District- -(East.) Ft. In. Ft. In. Ell Coal (b) 3 8 Stone smut (c) ..4 9 Dicky Gobbler (6) 3 6 Swannington (o) . . ..3 7 Block Coal (a) .. 3 6 Slate-coal (6) ..4 8 Little or Four-feet (a) . . 4 6 Coal .. 2 10 Cannel(6) 3 6 Coal ..3 7 •J . / Over seam "*"'\Netherseami •■ 12 Main-coal (a) ..6 Upper Lount (6) . . ..3 9 Toad(c) 3 6 Second Lount (6) ..3 Little Woodfleld (o) 2 6 Middle Lount ..4 6 •Woodfield(&) 5 Nether Lount ..4 6 Stockings (o) 9 Heath End Coal & Cannel 10 Eureka (o) 4 6 Lower Coal-measures. Strata below this unproved In the above list, I have omitted several of the least important coals. The letters a, 6, c, indicate the degrees of quality. I shall conclude this account of the Leicestershire coal-field by stating a few geological facts of interest. Igneous Rocks. — At Whitwick, a remarkable bed of " whinstone " or greenstone, intervenes between the Coal-measures and the New Eed Sandstone. In one of the shafts of Whitwick coUiery it is 60 feet thick, and has turned to cinders a seam of coal with which it comes in contact. It has evidently been poured out as a sheet 146 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BRITAIN. of lava over the denuded surface of the Coal-measures at some period prior to that of the Trias. Roch-faults. — In the same district, the main-coal has been extensively invaded by channels filled up with fine sand, which completely replace the coal over several hundred yards. One of these banks of sandstone, at Pegs-green colliery, was found to be 80 yards in width. It is composed of the same sandstone that forms the roof of the coal itself. In another of these, south of "Whit- wick colliery, a tunnel was driven to a distance of 110 yards without passing through it. These phenomena are similar to those already described in the case of the coal-field of the Forest of Dean. Salt-water. — In the Main coal of Moira, especially in the Bath colliery, at a depth of 593 feet, salt-water, beautifully clear and of nearly the same composition as sea-water, trickles down from the fissures where the coal is being extracted. The brine is carried to Ashby de la Zouch in tanks, and is considered highly beneficial in scorbutic and rheumatic afiections. JReamirces, 1. Area of productiye coal-field . . . . 15 square miles. 2. Number of workable coals above 2 feet . . 10, with 13 yards of coal. 3. Total original quantity of coal . . . . 302 nuUions of tons. 4. Deduct for quantity raised one-half, spoiled ) eni one-third, leaving for future use . . / " 6. But the quantity under the New Eed Sand- ^ stone at a depth under 8000 feet is at I least double the above supply, making a ( " " total of . . . . . . . . j Which at the present rate of production, 800,000 tons, would last about 200 years. DERBYSHIEE AND TOKKSHIKE COAL-FIELD. 147 In the Leicestershire coal-field there are 14 collieries, five of which work the coal under the New Bed Sand- stone. There are at present no iron-fumaces. Fossils. — The plant remains are abundant, and have been figured in Mammat's " Geological Facts." The only shells are of the genus Anthracosia ; and of Crus- tacea — Cy there, or Cypris, of an undescribed species, discovered by Mr. H. Green. CHAPTEE XVII. DEEBYSHIEE AND YORKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. This great field, though forming parts of the shires of Derby, Nottingham, and York, is physically one; and in treating of its structure and resources we must ignore political and social landmarks. It is the largest coal- field in England ; and about 150 square miles smaller in area than that of South Wales. Its eastern boundary is the escarpment of the Mag- nesian Limestone, with its subordinate Lower Permian strata, which, commencing near Nottingham, extends northwards beyond the limits of the coal-field itself. Upon reaching the crest of the escarpment, you find yourself on the edge of a table-land, resembling that of the Oolite of Gloucestershire, but less lofty. One point of this ridge is crowned by the turrets of Bolsover Castle. The southern boundary is New Eed Sandstone, and the strata rise and crop out westward as far north 148 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BEITAIN. i 8 S if 1 PS ej so jS Si as Bradford and Leeds, where they bend round to the east, and finally disappear under the Magnesian Limestone, which passes over and rests directly on the Millstone Grit. The greatest length of the coal-field from south to north is 66 miles ; and its breadth varies from five to twenty miles. Though the general dip of the strata is eastward, there generally occurs along the centre of the field a gentle undulation (shown in the section, fig. 15), which for a certain distance produces a westerly dip ; but the strata always roU over when approaching the base of the Permian Kocks. The coal-seams are only occasionally broken by faults. To the westward, the Lower Car- boniferous series rise into the lofty ranges of the Pennine chain, form- ing a natural division between the counties of Stafford and Lancashire on the west, and Nottingham and Yorkshire on the east, as well as their respective coal-fields. In fact, the upheaval of the Lower Carboni- ferous rocks, has rent asunder a coal-field which originally stretched DERBYSHIRE AND YORKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 149 across from Staffordshire and Cheshire to Nottiagham- shire and Yorkshire. The loftiest escarpment of this central chain is Mickle Fell, formed of MiUstone Grit, 2600 feet ; and the Car- boniferous Limestone of Derbyshire reaches an elevation of 2533 feet.* Succession of Strata, Southern Ilxtremity — DerhysMre and Notts. The suc- cession of strata along a line drawn from Kirkby Wood- house through Alfreton Common and Wingfield Manor to Crich, may be very clearly ascertained, both from the details of the coUieries, and the natural sections which present themselves. The following is the series in descending order. Permian Bocks. Middle Coal-measurea 2,500 ft. 1. Marls and sandstone 2. Magnesian limestone (lower bed) 3. Marls and sandstone Strata to Top Hard Coal, about Waterloo Coal . . EU Lower Hard Furnace Black Sbale or Clod Kilburn V Shales with iron-stones . . Feet. 40 60 30 700 1,600 Lower Coal-measures, or Oannister series. Flagstones of Wingfield Manor. Shales and flaggy sandstones, with two coals underlaid by Gan- nister floors . . . . 1,000 • See Professor Phillips' " Geology of Yorkshire," where the physi- cal features of the Pennine chain are graphically portrayed ; also Mr. Denny's " Fossils of the Yorkshire Coal-field," Proc. Geological Society, Yorkshire, vol. ii. 150 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. Feet. 350 {Eough rock. j Flags and shales. I Hard millstone ) Limestone Shale, or Yoredale Books . . • • 250 The Black Shale coal represents the " Arley mine " of Lancashire; and the Kilbum coal, the "Low Moor coal " of Yorkshire. Li the lower beds there are several valuable ironstones, filled with Anthracosia. The whole series is very thin when compared vnth their represent- atives in Lancashire.* For the purpose of affording a comparison of the for- mations towards the north and south of the field, I select sections from Nottinghamshire, and Barnsley in York- shire. G-eneral Section of Strata. Nottinghamshire, t — (Shireoak Colliery.) Barnsley, Yorkshire.J Ft. Ft. Upper Permian Magnesian Limestone 75 marls and sand- Lower Permian Sandstone . 54 Permian stone .. .. 56 Eocks. Magnesian lime- stone .. ..102 Lower Permian sands and shale 38 Strata, with beds of hema- AokwoHh rock ."54 tite and ironstone . . 42 Strata 510 The Manor Coal .. .. 2 Shaf ton Coal 5 ♦ Horizontal Section of the Geol. Survey, Sheet 60. The author is much indebted to Mr. Bean, manager of the Butterly Company's "Works, for assistance and information. t Partly taken from section of Shireoak Colliery by Messrs. Lancas- ter and Wright. Joum. Geol. Soc, vol. xvi., p. 138. X Eev. W. Thorpe, Section of Strata. — hid. DERBYSHIRE AND YORKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 151 General Section of Strata — continued. Nottinghamshire. Btrata, with several thin Ft. eoala 706 Shireoalc or Melton, or Bael- hro'HaRCoal .. .. 4} Strata, with an inferior coal, 3/2 thick 120 Furnace Coal .. .. 2f Btrata 138 Hazlei Coal .. .. .. 3 Strata 238 Top Hard Coal (or Barnsley Coal) 3S Strata . . j Dmuihill Coal,2i\ .. ..155 Btrata . . J Waterloo Coal .. .. J Strata, with 2 coals, two feet each in thickness.. .. 345 Soft Coal 8i Strata 120 Lower Hard Coal . . . . 4 Strata I Piper Coo!, 2i I .. ..200 Strata I Furnace Coal .. .. 4 Btrata 360 Barnsley, Yorkshire. Clod or Black Sluile Coal .. 6 Strata .. 480 Kilbum Coal .. 5 Strata (with ironstone) .. 350 J'umacel Coal . . .. n Strata (principally shales) 150? Lower Coal-measures.-Plag- stones,shale3, and the coals with Grannister, thickness rather uncertain (about) . . 500 Millstone Grit. Strata, principally sandstone Ft. (Chevitrock) .. ..393 Muck Coal .. .. .. 3i Strata 219 Woodmoor Coal .. .. 3 Strata with half-yard coal . . 45 Winter Coal .. .. .. i Strata Beamshaw Coal .. .. 3 Strata, with Kent Coal 1 foot, and Mapple Coal 4J fett (inferior quality) Strata 216 Barnsley Coal .. . . 9\ Strata 198 Bwallow Wood Coal .. 3 Strata 234 Joan Coal .. .. ■• 2 Strata 60 Flodon Top Coal .. .. 3i Strata 120 Park Gate Coal .. .. 5 Strata 78 Thomcliffe thin Coal .. 2 J Strata 123 Four-feet Coal (variable) .. 2 J Strata 108 Silkstone Coal .. .. 5 Strata 195 Whinmoor or Lowmoor Coal 2J Strata.. .. (about) .. 150 Gannister flagstone (about) . . 36 Strata, principally shales . . 495 Halifax Coal, (with Pecten papyraceua in the roof', and a floor of Grannister . . If Strata (shales and flags) . . 81 Halifax soft Coal .. ■■ IJ Strata 150 Millstone Grit. 152 THE COAI-FIBLDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. In Derbyshire the principal coals are the " Top hard " and " Lower hard " seams, produciog the valuable splint-coal, and in Yorkshire the most remarkable are the "Snkstone" and "Barnsley thick coals." The former is undoubtedly identical with the " Arley mine " of Lancashire ; and thus this fine bed of coal, which seldom exceeds five feet in thickness, has originally spread over a tract embracing not less than 10,000 square miles ! In the Lower Coal-measures, or Gannister beds, de- scribed originally by Professor PhUKps,* one or more of the coals, with their roofs of black shale filled with Avioulo-pecten papyraceus, Gcmiatites, Posidonia, &c., can be identified with those which range over North Lancashire : all of which facts go to prove the original continuity of these great coal-fields.:f- Fossil Remains. — These have been summed up by Mr. DennyJ as consisting of 17 species of fish (placoid and ganoid). Of molluscs, 5 cephalopods, 17 conchi- fers and brachiopods. Crustacea, Cy there (Cypris). In the roofing shale of several of the coal-beds fish remains occur, and so plentifully in the case of one of these, at Middleton, that the miners call it the " fish-coal." In the roof of the "Halifax coal," of the Lower Coal-measures, Gfmiatites Listeri is found throughout its entire course, sometimes beautifully preserved in iron pyrites, and with this is associated Avicuh-pecten papyraceus. * Article " Geology," in Encyclopedia Metropolitana. t See Mr.,Biniiey, Trans. Geol. Soo. Manchester, vol. ii., part 7. t Proo. Geol. Soc. Yorkshire, vol. ii. DERBYSHIRE AND YORKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 153 In the " Catherine Slack coal " near Halifax, Naur tilus Rawsoni and Orthoceras Steinhaueri are frequent. In the Middle Coal-measures there are bands of iron- stone, filled, over a great extent of country, with Anthra- cosia (Unio) and Cythere (Cypris). The Coal-meamireB under the Fermian and Trias. — I have already stated that the whole of the coal-field dips at a very small angle beneath the escarpment of the Magnesian Limestone ; and there is probably as large an amount of coal below this formation as beyond its westerly limits. The greatest thickness of the Permian beds is shown in the section of Shireoak colHeiy to be 200 feet, as the shaft commences at the base of the New Red Sandstone ;* and as the depth increases very gradually eastward, the " Shireoak " and " Top hard " coals must occupy a very large extent of ground at a less depth than 1000 yards, though the diminished thick- ness of the latter at Shireoak shows a general tendency to thin away towards the east. In Yorkshire there does not appear to be any tendency to an easterly thinning out of the coal-seams ; but they usually rise towards the north- east, near to and under the Magnesian Limestone.t Irrni Ores. — There are several courses of valuable ironstone in this coal-field, supplying about 50 blast furnaces, yielding in the West Eidiag 96,200 tons of pig-iron, and in Derbyshire 106,960 tons. In addition to these the Cleveland ores, which are derived chiefly from • As I am informed by my colleague, Mr. W. T. Aveline. t As I am informed by Mr. Charles Morton, H. M. Inspector, to vbom I am indebted for iuformation regarding this coal-field. 154 THE COAL-FIELDS OP GEE AT BKITAIN. the Middle Lias, yielded in 1857 upwards of one million of tons. Hesources. In estimating the resources of this coal-field I include only the workable seams of the Middle Coal-measures ; the coals of the Gannister series, though frequently of good quality, beuig too thin to be worked at depths much greater than 300 yards. 1. Area of coal-field (not including that por- tion underneatii the Magneaian Limestone) 760 square nules. 2. Greatest thickness of productive coal- measures (from the Ackworth rook above theShaftoncoalto the Low Moor coal)... 2,500 feet. 3. Average number of workable coals above 2 feet, 15 ; giving a vertical thickness of coal . . . . . . . . . . 46 „ 4. Total original quantity of coal (corrected for denudation) .. .. .. 17,656 millions of tons, 5. Deducting 14th for the quantity worked out, and l-4th for waste, &c., we obtain for future use (about) .. .. 8,800 „ ,, 6. The area, overspread by Permian (Magne- sian Limestone) and Trias, under which several of the workable coals lie at a depth within 4,000 feet, is about 400 square miles, containing .. .. 12,000 „ „ 7. From this deduct l-3rd for loss, leaving for future supply . . . . . . 8,000 „ „ 8. Total available quantity under 4,000 feet in depth is therefore 8,800 4- 8,000 .. 16,800 9. This at the present rate of consumption would last for 1,340 years. This result shows to how limited an extent the great resources of this coal-field are as yet developed. In fact we may in some parts traverse large districts well stored with coal, where not one colliery is in sight, and the GREAT NORTHERN COAL-FIELD. 155 fact becomes more apparent when we recollect that the great tract occupied by Magnesian Limestone and New Red Sandstone — under which the whole of the beds of coal are known to descend — is as yet pierced only by five collieries, producing, as I am informed by Mr. Mor- ton, about 200,000 tons of coal annually. The produce of this coal-field has been nearly sta- tionary for the last three years, owing probably to the depression in the iron-trade during 1859. There were, in 1859, 559 collieries, producing 12,497,100 tons of coal, which may be thus arranged : — Derbyshire and Notts .. 176 collieries . . 4,250,000 tons of coal. Yorkshire .. ..383 „ .. 8,247,100 „ Total .. ..559 ., 12,497,100 CHAPTER XVIII. GREAT NORTHERN COAL-FIELD OF DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. The general succession of the strata and their relative position over the area of this coal-field is similar to that of Yorkshire, so that one section will serve to illustrate the structure of both. I must therefore beg the reader to refer to the transverse section at the commencement of the last chapter (fig. 15, p. 148). The Great Northern coal-field extends from Staindrop, near the north bank of the Tees, on the south, to the 156 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIN. mouth of the Coquet, where it enters Ahiinouth Bay, on the north, the distance being ^nearly 50 miles. Its greatest diameter is near the centre, along the course of the Tyne, which forms the great highway for the ex- port of coal to the London market.* From the Coquet to the Tyne the North Sea forms the limits of the coal-field. South of this the escarp- ment of the Lower Permian Sandstone and Magnesian Limestone forms the boundary at the surface ; but the Coal-measures underlie these newer rocks, and since Dr. William Smith, f first on theoretical grounds and afterwards by actual experiment, demonstrated the existence of the coal-field at HasweU near Durham, both the Triassic and Permian formations have been perforated over a large area, especially at Seaham and Eyhope in Durham. The general dip of the strata is easterly as far as the margin of the sea, where they are almost horizontal.^ The Permian strata are uncon- formable to the Coal-measures ; and from the mouth of the Tyne southwards they rest successively on lower beds, tni, at the south end of the coal-field, they finally overlap the whole coal-series, and for a distance of 48 miles (from the bank of the Tees to the margin of the Yorkshire coal-field) repose directly upon Millstone Grit and Yoredale Eocks. * I have calculated the area of this coal-field from Mr. W. Oliver's map in the Mining Becord office. There are some interesting details in " Our Coal and our Coal-pits," published by Messrs. Longman. + About half a century ago. J As I am informed by Mr. M. Dunn, H. M. Inspector, to whom I am indebted for much information. GREAT NORTHERN COAL-FIELD. 157 From below the coal-field of Durham and Xorthum- berland the Lower Carboniferous Rocks rise towards the west and north into swelling moorlands, and ultimately into the mountainous tract of the Pennine chain, attain- ing, at Hedge Thorpe a height of 2347 feet, and at Yevering Bell, 2000 feet. Permian Rocks. Magnesian Lime- stone) SOO to 600 feet. General Series of Formations* New Bed Sandstone. — Bed eandttone and conglomerate. /I. Upper Permian marls, with gypsum 2. Crystalline limestone, with Sc7»tzodu« Schlotheimi, and Mytilm septifer. 3. Brecciated limestone (Tynemouth Cliff), lying on — 4. Fossiliferous limestone, with Pro- ductue, Strophaloaia, Athyris, Avicula, &c., and numerous bryozoa. .5. Compact limestone, with similar fossils. 6. Marl slate, calcareous shales and thin-bedded limestone, with fishes of the genera PaUeoniecue, Acro- lepie, Platysonms. 7. Lower Permian sandstone with gypseous marl, Pinnites Brand- lingi, Trigonocarpum, SigiUaria reni/crmie, Calamites approxima- \ tus .. 1 . Upper series, with thin coals, and a band of ironstone with Anthracoeia, Lingula Credneri, Cypris or Cy- there inflata, HoloptychiuB Hibberti 2. Middle series. From the " High Main Coal" to the " Low Main Coal" 3. Lower Coal-measures, with 2 beds of coal, between 2 and 3 feet thick Coal-Measures, 2,030 feet. 100 feet. 200 900 430 700 • From the works of Professor King and Professor Sedgwick. 158 THE COAL-FIELDS OP GREAT BKITAIN. Millstone Grit Coarse grits and shalea .. •• 414 ft. Toredale Bocks Shale, with tands of limestone and thin coals .. .. •• ■• 5^0 „ Scaur Limestone. * — Ten beds of limestone, parted by as many beds of shale, contain- ing coal-seams in Northumber- land, upwards of .. .. .. 1,120 „ ^ofe.— For a list of the fossils of the Permian and Upper Coal- measures, see Mr. J. W. Kirkby, Jom-n. Geol. Soc, vol. xvi., p. 412. Coal-seatm.-f — The most important coal in the New- castle district is the " High main " or " Wallsend " seam. It is the highest workable coal, and varies from 5 to 6 feet in thickness. It is traversed by the " 90-fathom " dyke, and is persistent in its general character to its northern and western outcrop, but southward towards the vaUey of the Wear is split up into two seams by the intercalation of sandstone and shale. " The " Bensham " seam, 20 fathoms below the " High Main," is very variable in its qualities, and is often un- workable. It acquires its chief value towards the east, and is worked extensively under the Magnesian Lime- stone at Sunderland. Its general thickness is 6 feet. The " Low Main " seam is known to range from Wid- dington on the north to Ferry Hill on the south, a dis- tance of about 40 miles. This coal, south and west of Newcastle, is moderately soft, and excellent for house- hold use and coking. But passing northwards its character changes; it becomes very hard and less gaseous, and constitutes the most important bed of • Professor Phillips' " Manual of Geology," p. 163. t For the details of the coal-seams, I am indebted to Mr. Dunn, H.M. Inspector of CoUieries. GREAT NOETHERK COAL-FIELD. 159 steam-coal. Below these lie several other seams, which will become more extensively worked as the supply from the valuable beds above described becomes curtailed. The following is a list of the general series of coal- seams, for which I am indebted to Mr. Dunn. Coal Series of Northumberland and Durham. (Newcastle District,) Upper Coal-moasurea 1. Migli Main Coal .. Strata 2. Metal Goal Strata 3. Stone Coal Strata 4. Yard Coal Strata 5. Bensham Coal Strata 6. Five-quarter Coal .. Strata 7. Low Main Coal Strata .. 8. Crow Coal Strata .. 9. Five-quarter Coal .. Strata .. 10. Buler Coal Strata'.. 11. Townley ox Harvey Coal Strata .. 12. Jelly Coal Strata .. 13. Stone Coal Strata .. 14. Five-quarter Coal .. Strata .. 15. Three-quarter Coal Strata .. 16. BrodcwM Coal Ft. In. 900 6 33 1 6 33 1 6 63 2 10 63 2 10 78 3 48 6 60 2 10 24 3 8 30 1 10 96 3 1 42 2 2 42 2 5 18 3 4 30 2 6 54 2 11 160 THE COAL-FIELDS OE GREAT BRITAIN. The series below the Low Main coal are taken at Blaydon and Wylam, as they have never yet been worked at Newcastle. Basaltic Bykes. — The coal-field is traversed by several basaltic dykes, generally ranging east and west, and run- ning for several miles in nearly straight lines. The beds of coal on approaching these dykes become anthracitic, and ultimately worthless. Near Newcastle one of these dykes is also a fault, with a downthrow to the south oi 90 fathoms : it coincides with the valley of the Tyne, and enters the sea north of Tynemouth. The Cock-field FeU Dyke, in South Durham, ranges from W. N. W. to E. S. E. There is also a natural system of fissures, called " cleats," ranging N. N. W. MesmLrces, In estimating the extent of this coal-field, we must include not only the superficial area formed of the Coal- measures, but also the district overspread by the Magne- sian Limestone and New Red Sandstone, as far south as the Valley of the Tees, there being no doubt whatever that most of the coal-beds are accessible under this area at a depth under 4000 feet. In the following estimates, I shall give the resources of each separately, as well as conjointly. Actual Coal-jield beyond the Magnedan lAmestam. 1. Area .. .. .. .. 460 square miles. 2. Number of workable seams above two feet about 10, with tMckness of .. .. 36 feet of coal. 3. Original quantity of coal (corrected for denudation) •• .. .. 8,548 millions of tons. GREAT NORTHERN COAL-FIELD. 161 4. Deducting for quantity worked out, l-4th, and wuste, l-4th, leaving .. .. 4,274 millions of tona 5. Dieluct for quantity mised between 1856-9 48 „ „ 6. Leaving for future supply . . . . 4,226 „ „ Qtmntitt/ under the Permian and Trias. 1. Area, witli coal under 4,000 feet in depth 225 square miles, 2. Thickness of workable coal . . . . 24 feet. 3. Quantity for future use, after deducting for loss, &c. . . . . . . . . 3,000 millions of tons. 4. Total quantity under 4,000 feet in depth is thiirofore 4,226 + 3,000 = .. .. 7,226 5. This, at the rate of consumption for the year 1859, would last for about 450 years. The produce of this Coal-field is slowly but steadily increasing, and should the amount of coal raised even- tually reach 20,000,000 of tons, the period of its dura- tion will be proportionably shortened. Various estimates of the dm-ation have been made, of which a summaiy is given by Mr. Fordyce. One authority, Mr. GreenweU, calculates the period at 331 years. Mr. T. Y. Hall maki's the period 365 years, and perhaps 400 years will prove a close approximation.* This Coal-field contained in 1859, 183 collieries, pro- ducing 16,001,125 tons of coal. There were in the same year 80 blast furnaces, of which 52 were in blast, producing 401,839 tons of pig- iron. In the year 1857 the number was only 69, so that the iron-trade appears to have xmdergone a great expansion, which, on the occurrence of a large demand, must lead to a gi-eatly iucreased consumption of coal. * See Appendix H. For further information see " Synopsis of the Newcastle- Coal-field," by Mr. Buddie, Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. of Northmnberland, vol. i. M 162 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GBEAT BRITAIN. Coal-jklda of the Borders. Far down in the Carboniferous Limestone series of the North of England occur beds of workable coal, which in Scotland increase in number and economic value. They form coal-fields bordering the Tweed and its tributaries in Northumberland, and the Esk in Dumfriesshire. Though marked on the map as coal-fields, it is to be recollected that they are of much earlier date than the great coal-tracts of Durham and Yorkshire. The coal- seams underlie, for the most part, several thick beds of Carboniferous Limestone; and iu turn repose on red sandstones of the Tweed. Mr. N. Wood has rightly re- ferred these red sandstones, not to the Devonian, but to the Carboniferous period; for, as I am informed by Mr. Geikie, a thick series of Lower Carboniferous strata intervene between them and the true Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. Mr. Wood,* who has given a full account of these Lower Carboniferous coals of Northumberland, states that they are worked at Talkia, Tindal Eell, Fourstones, Acomb, and FaUowfield. A very iuterestiug section of the series is tabulated by Mr. Hutton from the Millstone Grit, down to the "4-feet seam" of Tindal Fell, for which I must refer the reader to the memoir itself.f * Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumbeiiand, vol. i. t lUd. Tol. ii., p. 204. 163 CHAPTER XIX. COAL-FIELDS OF SCOTLAND. It will be observed, on looking at a geological map of Scotland, that the series of formations of which that countiy is composed, are arranged in bands crossing the island from south-Avest to north-east, and on the whole, parallel to the central range of the Grampian mountains. The Carboniferous series of Scotland forms one of these bands, stretching from sea to sea, and occupying a trough between the southern slopes of the Grampians on the one side, and the indented iianks of an elevated district, composed of Old Red Sandstone, and Lower Silurian rocks, stretching from Kirkcudbrightshire to Berwick, of which the Lammermuir, Moorfoot, and Lead Hills form a part. The height of many of these hills is considerable. Merrick Hill reaches an elevation of 2751 feet, Cairns-Muir-of-Deugh 2597, Black Lai-g 2890,* and Black Hope Scar 2136 feet. The western margin of the Carboniferous area is washed by the Firth of Clyde, and the river itself drains a large tract of the great central coal-basin. The eastern limit is the North Sea on both shores of the Frith of Forth. The northern boundary line passes • According to the Geological Map of Scotland, by Prof. Nicol. 164 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. from Axdrossan, by Glasgow, Stirling, and Cupar. Tlie southern boundary is extremely irregular, deeply in- dented by promontories of Lower Silurian, and Old Eed Sandstone, which sometimes protrude to the surface, and divide the coal-formation into separate basins. At the same time the coal-strata have been deposited in bays formed in these older rocks. The extreme length from the coast of Ayr to Fifeness, is 94 miles. The average breadth, 25 miles. This great range of Carboniferous rocks is not aU productive of coal ; hence the coal-bearing series forms several distinct fields or " basins," separated either by physical barriers, as friths and rivers, or by the uprising of the Lower unproductive Carboniferous or Devonian rocks from which the Coal-series has been swept away. These separate fields may be thus denominated. 1. The coal-field of the Clyde Basin. 2. Mid-Lothian and Haddington coal-field. 3. The Fifeshire coal-field. 4. The Clackmannan coal-field. 5. The Ayrshire coal- field. 6. The Lesmahago coal-field. Geological Age of th& Scottish Ooal-Jields. — By far the greatest part of the workable coal-series of Scotland is included in the Carboniferous Limestone group, while at the same time there are coal-seams referable to the MiUstone Grit, and true Coal-formation of central Eng- land. Owing to denudation, this upper series is but spariagly distributed, forming the " flat coal-group " of the centre of the basins. If we observe the gradual change which the Lower Carboniferous rocks of England undergo in their ex- GREAT SCOTTISH COAL-FIELD. 165 tension from the midland counties into Northumberland and South Berwickshire, we shall be prepared for their remarkable mineralogical character as developed in Scotland. In Dcibyshire, the Carboniferous Limestone consists of an enormous mass of calcareous rocks once formed in a sea teeming with animal life, almost desti- tute of sedimentary material, and entirely so of coal. Further north, in Lancashire and Yorkshire, workable coal-seams are found at a stage earlier than the true Coal-measures — namely, in the Millstone Grit, associated \vith fossil shells allied to those of the Carboniferous Limestone. StiU further north, the bold coasts of Northumberland exhibit the great limestone formation opening out into different courses, and including thick beds of shale, and several coal-seams ; one of the calcareous bands, near the centre of the group, being characterized by Posidonomya Becheri, a fossil belonging to the " Calp " of Ireland, and the Culm limestone in Devonshire.* These coals of Northumberland have been shown by Mr. N. Wood to be situated near the base of the Carboniferous Limestone, and are worked over a considerable tract of country.f They occupy exactly the position of the Lower Coal-series. of Scotland ; but in this latter country, the sedimentary strata receive a great augmentation of volume, while the calcareous beils are proportionally diminished. Instead of the solid beds of limestone of Derbyshire, we find in the Lothians, and elsewhere, a thick series of sandstones, ♦ Murchison — " Sihiria,'' Srd edit., p. 311. t Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumberland, vol. i. 166 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GKEAT BEITAIN. shales, black-band ironstones, and coal-seams, with occasional beds of marine limestone, containing fossils of the Carboniferous Limestone period. Trap RocTcs. The base of the Coal-formation of Scotland is the Old Eed Sandstone ; and at or near the junction there has been a very general outpouring of submarine lavas and ashes, which we now find consolidated into greenstone, felspar-porphyry, and tufa, in some places earthy and amygdaloidal. These are stated by Sir C. Lyell to con- stitute a ridge parallel with the Ochils, extending from Stirling to near St. Andrews, where they are very clearly exposed in the coast chffs.* These bedded igneous rocks receive then- highest exemplification in the bold escarpments of the Pentland Hills and Salis- bury Crag. The really stratified character of these rocks has only recently been demonstrated by my colleagues, Messrs. Geikie and Howell, and is beauti- fully indicated in the new geological map of Edinburgh. It is here shown that they follow the dip and direction of the associated strata — all pointing to the conclusion that they have originally been poured out over the bed of the sea, at intervals, dming the deposition of the * " Elementary Geology," p. 561. One of the most remarkable forms whicli these rocks assume along the coast, is known as the " Eock anil Spindle." It consists of a pinnacle of tuif which may be compared to a distaff, and near the base is a mass of columnar greenstone, in which the columns radiate from the centre like the spokes of a wheel. Headers of Burns will recollect that " the rock" is the Scotch name for a distaff. GREAT SCOTTISH COAL-FIELD. 167 Lower Carboniferous strata. Rocks of a similar origin occur amongst the Garlton Hills, and probably include many of the great protrusions, which are found at inter- vals along the whole course of the Scottish coal-field, from the mouth of the Frith of Forth to the coast of Apshire. They may always be distinguished from eruptive traps by their bedded character ; and, as a general rule, the strata which overlie them are not altered or metamorphosed, as when brought in contact with eruptive dykes. In contradistinction to these are the dykes of later date, injected along fissures in the strata, in which they produce well-marked changes; such as expelling the bituminous part of coal, and hardening sandstones and shales. Three dykes of this nature are mentioned by Mr. Milne, in the coal-fields of Mid-Lothian, called the " Niddry," " Morison's Haven," and " Cockenzie " dykes. The eastern part of the Fifeshire coal-field has also been invaded by masses of trap which have broken up, and injured the coal to a large extent. Q-eneral Succession of the Coal-series. The whole of the coal-bearing strata of Scotland may be arranged under three great divisions, corresponding to the principal groups of the Carboniferous system of England, though under somewhat altered conditions. They are as follows : — Upper Coal-ieriea. — Eepreeenting the true Ooal-meaeures of England, and frequently called the " Flat Coal Group." It consists of reddish sandstone, shales, fireclays, ironstone, and coal-seams. This group generally 168 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BKITAIN. occupies the centre of the troughs or basins, where the strata are horizontal or nearly so— but owing to the denudation of the strata is not very widely spread. The fossil shells belong to the genus Anthracosia. Millstone drit.—A thick series of gritty sandstones, known as "Koslyn Sandstone," and "Moorstone Book," with beds of shale, and a few bands of coal and limestone with marine shells, as Spirifer, Frodue- tus, also Cyathophylla, and JSncrinites. Lower Coal-series. — Sandstones, shales, marine Umestones, ironstones, and coal-seams in considerable number and thickness. This group constitutes the most im- portant portion of the Scottish Coal-field. Underneath these come lower beds of marine lime- stones, and below them an enormous thickness of sand- stones and shales, including the celebrated Burdiehouse limestone, and a few thin coals in the upper pqrt, resting finally on the Old Eed Sandstone. The above classification is nearly that adopted by my colleagues of the Geological Survey in their Memoir on the Mid-Lothian Coal-field,* and applies generally to the whole of Scotland. With this general introduc- tion I now proceed to give some special details regard- ing the coal-series in different parts of the country, commencing with the Clyde Basin. District of the Clyde Basin. This district extends from Renfrewshire to the Frith of Forth, and includes portions of the shires of Dum- barton, Lanark, Stirling, and Linlithgow. It is bounded on the north and west by broad sheets of trap, and » " Geology of Edinburgh," Mem. Geol. Survey, by Messrs. Howell and Geikie. GREAT SCOTTISH COAL-FIELD. 169 through the centre rises an unproductive area of Lower Carboniferous Limestone. Along the south the coal- strata rest upon an indented ridge of Silurian slates, by which they are separated from the Lesmahago coal-basin. The general succession of the coal-seams in Lanark- shire, is illustrated by a vertical section by Mr. Kalph Moore, of which the following is a synopsis : — Upper Series. — From the Upper Foiii--feet Coal downwards, with ten 840 feet. coal-seams from two feet and upwards in thickness ; also with the "Palace Craig," the "Airdrie" and " Slaty" black band ironstones. Middle Series. — From the " Moorstono Koek," or Millstone Grit, down 960 feet. to the Garnkirk limestone. Lower Series. — Six courses of marine limestone from the Garnkirk bed 2,200 feet. downwards to that which overlies the Hurlet coal. Tliree courses of black-band ironstone, and several beds of valuable coal. Mr. William Moore, in a valuable communication to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, presents us with the following succession of the coal and iron beds of that part of the coal-field lying along the valley of the Clyde. Coal and Ironstone Series in the Valley of the Clyde. Depth. Thickness i'atlioms Ft. In. 4'^ — Palace Oraig Ironstone (impure) 48 — Upper Coal (good) 3 to 4 6 6.3 — Ell Coal (good) 8 67 — Pyotshaw Coal (splint) 4 68 - Main Coal (good, soft quality) . 3i to 5 76 - Humph Coal .. 1 8 81 — SpUnt Coal (for iron smelting) . 3 84 — Sour Milk Coal (variable) 3 103 — Musket Blacltband Ironstone 1 4 106 — Soft Band Ironstone 1 8 Thickness. Ft. In. 5 2 6 7 8 5 2 1 6 10 1 1 1 170 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BBITAIN. Depth. Fathoms. 120 — Curly Band Ironstone .. 127 — Virtue Well Coal 132 — BeUside Ironstone 134 — Galderbrae Ironstone 136 — Kiltongue Coal (variable) 148 — Drumgray or Ooxrod Coal 203 — Slaty Blackband Ironstone „ — Boghead Gas Coal (1 to 20 inches) 447 — Fossil Ironstone 467 — Lesmahago Gas Coal . . 502 — Gooan Band Ironstone .. The " Boghead coal," in the county of Linlithgow, the object of a celebrated trial at law, and one of the most valuable of the brown cannels of Scotland, occurs in a small area, and is of an average thickness of 18 inches, but reaches in some places 30 inches. It is a true coal, as it rests on a bed of fire-clay full of Stig- maria, and is surmounted by shale and ironstone with plants and shells {Anthracosia). It yields about 70 per cent, of volatile matter, and is in high request for the manufacture of parafEne oil. Mr. Moore sums up as follows: — The workable coal-seams are ten in number, viz., the Upper, Ell, Pyotshaw, Main, Humph, Splint, SourmUk, Virtue Well, Kiltongue, and Drumgray seams. They are aU valuable for household and manufacturing purposes, and in these seams, the total available quantity still to work is about 424,()20,700 tons. Taking the present annual produce of the district under consideration (be- tween the Friths of Forth and Clyde), at 8|- millions of tons, this quantity of coal would last 130 years.* * Trans. Glasgow Philosophical Society, 1860. GREAT SCOTTISH COAL-FIELD. 171 The number of ironstone bands described and shown in this section is 12. Of these the principal are seven in number: the Mushet Blackband, the Eoughband, tlie Bellside, Calderbrae, Slaty, PossU, and Govan Ulackbands. The quantity of ironstone in these seams, within the area of this district, amounts to about 72,081,400 tons in the calcined state. This quantity will supply all the iron-works in the district, comprising nearly 100 blast furnaces, for about 72 years, supposing them to continue in full operation as heretofore, and to consume as at present, one milHon of tons of calcined ironstone yearly. Fossil Remains. Mr. J. Craig has classified the fossils in this district as follows.* In his " Upper Fresh-water " series, comprehending the strata from the Millstone Grit upwards, there occur several species of Anthracosia (Unto) and fishes, as Megalichthys Hibberti, Gyracanthus formosus, Ctena- ehanthus. In liis " Upper Marine " series, the limestones contain Encrinites, Nuoula, Bellerophon, Euomphalus, Orthoceras, &c. Coal-field of Mid-Lothian and Haddington. This coal-field consists of a double trough, the deeper of which lies in Edinburghshire on the west, and the shallower in Haddington on the east. The western boundary is the Pentland Hills, along * Brit. Assoc. Eop. 1840. 172 THE COAL-PIBLDS OP GEE AT BRITAIN. the base of which the Carboniferous strata plunge rapidly towards the centre of the trough. The axis of the trough lies nearly north and south, passing through Dalkeith. On approaching the Carberry ridge the beds again rise and crop out, and the Eoman Camp limestone forms a ridge dividing the two troughs. On the east of the Carberry ridge the lower coal-seams again roU ia, and form the wide trough of Haddington, where the beds He in a position not much removed from the horizontal. To the north of these troughs, the coal-seams strike out to sea, are overspread by the Frith of Forth, and re- appear on the opposite coast of Fifeshire. The thickness of the Coal-series in the Lothians is, according to Mr. Milne, upwards of 1000 fathoms, con- sisting of sandstone 286 fathoms, of shales 188, of lime- stone 27, of clay 12, and of coal 21 fathoms. There are from 50 to 60 coal-seams of greater thickness than one foot, the thickest being 13 feet.* My colleague, Mr. Howell, arranges the Coal-series into three gi-oups corresponding to that given above or the Coal-formation of Scotland generaUy.f The total thick- ness is 3,150 feet exclusive of the Lower Carboniferous series, which has little or no workable coal : — Feet. 1 Coal-measures (flat coal group) . . .. 1,220 2. Millstone Grit .. .. .. 340 3. Carboniferous Limestone Series .. 1,590 These formations pass gradually into each other, and * " Coal-fields of Mid-Lothian." Trans. Eoy. Soc, Edinburgh, t " Geology of Edinburgh." Memoirs of the Geol. Survey. GREAT SCOTTISH COAL-FIELD. 173 are quite conformaLle. The Coal-measures (No. 1) are confined exclusively to the western trough, and do not occur in Haddington. The faults generally range from east to west, transversely to the axis of the troughs. The workahle coal-area as measured from the maps of the Geological Survey is 64 square miles. Coal-series of Mid-Lothian. Taken from the centre of the trough near Dalkeith. a I S , I Sandstone and Shale Clay Kiiowes Coal Splint Coal Bwtif Coal Jewell Coal Coal Cowpita Little Splint Cowpits Five-feet Glass Coal Barrs Coal Cowpits Three-feet „ Six-feet.. Millstone Chit Cowden Deception Coal .. „ Cryue „ Mavis .. „ Great Seam „ Diamond LiUa Willie „ Blackbird Seam .. „ Coronation „ Hard Splint „ Smithy Coal Bryant's Splint .. „ Aleck's Coal „ Coal „ Little Splint Coal „ Parrot Seam ^ Chalkieside Lime Coal Feet. In. 346 3 6 3 10 3 6 4 2 8 2 2 5 6 2 4 3 4 6 340 2 2 2 6 2 8 8 2 7 5 1 3 11 3 10 3 3 2 9 5 8 2 7 2 6 2 1 2 1 3 3 174 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GEEAT BEITAIN. The above include only coals of 2 feet and upwards. There are altogether no less than 46 seams with an aggregate thickness of 122 feet of coal. There are also 9 seams of ironstone of 2 inches and upward. The principal coals are " the Great Seam," which has been traced from its outcrop at Gilmerton, under the valley of the Esk, over the Carberry ridge, to the valley of the Tyne, a distance of 12 miles. It extends from the flanks of the Lammermuir range northward to the sea. Below this, at a depth of 250 fathoms, is the " North Greens " coal, which yields the " Parrot-coal," valuable for its gas. Mr. Geikie describes in detail the structure and organic productions of the celebrated Burdiehouse lime- stone, and arrives at the conclusion that it was slowly elaborated at the bottom of an estuary of a river into which the remains of terrestrial plants were drifted from the land, while bone-covered fishes haunted the waters, and huge sharks {gyracanthus) ascended from the sea to share in the decaying putrescent matter ever brought down from the interior.* Resources of the Coal-jklds of the Lothians. Mr. Mdne in 1839 gave the following estimate of the mineral resources of this district : — Upper Group .. .. .. 710 millions of tons. Two Lower Groups . . . . 5,000 5,710 Deducting for loss, and the quantity worked out, this is reduced to about 2,250 "Story of a Boulder." GEEAT SCOTTISH COAL-FIELD. 175 Taking the yearly produce at 390,000 tons, there has been raised in the twenty-two past years since 1839, about 84 millions of tons, which, deducted from the above, leaves for future supply 2,241 millions of tons. FifegJiire Coal-field. This coal-field is of considerable extent and of great mineral productiveness, but is over a lai-ge area of its (■astern part, much dislocated by faults, and destroyed by th(^ intrusion of igneous rocks. Nearly the whole of the coal-seams enter the sea lietween Kirkcaldy and East Wemyss, and present the following section as given by llr. Landale in his valuables memoii-.* Coal-series of Flfeahlre. Ft. In. Ft In 1. Parrot Sciini .. .. 2 6 17. BorelandCoal 3 6 2. Pilkembare Coal .. 2 18. SandWtU „ 3 3. Wall . 3 19. Dysart Main Seam . . 21 4. Barn Craig „ .. 5 6 20. Dysart Lower Seam . . 7 5. Upper Coxtool Coal 3 21. Dunnikier Fivo-fuft ti. Liiwer „ „ . 3 6 Coal 2 6 7. Doll Coal . . . 2 2 22. Four-feet Coal 4 8. Midn or Clumis . 9 23. Three-feet ,. 3 9. Bush Coal .. . 3 6 24. Black and Parrot Coal 5 3 1(1. I'arrot „ . 2 3 25. Upper Smithy 3 11. Wood „ . 3 "U. Lower „ ,. 1 G 12. Earls Parrot Coal . 2 27. Parrot Seam Coal 2 13. Bowhouse „ . 6 6 28. Coal Seam .. 2 4 14. Brankaton „ . 4 29. luvertiel Coiil 5 6 15. Coal More 16. Coal Mangey „ 2 6 6 . 2 Total thickness of Coal 120 6 The Invertiel coal overlies a thick and veij' constant bed of hmestone which forms the physical base of the coal- producing strata. Underneath tlus Kmestone is a thick series of Lower Carboniferous rocks, the coal-seams of which ai-e not of economical value. » Trans. Highland Society, vol. a. 176 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. OlacTcmannan Coal-Jkld. This coal-field is separated from that of Fife by the uprising of the Lower Carboniferous rocks near Dun- fermline. It stretches along the northern and eastern banks of the river Forth, by which it is separated from the great central coal-field of the Clyde Basin. Ayrshire Coal-jkld. The Ayrshire coal-field stretches along the coast from Ardrossan to the mputh of the river Doon, and extends inwards to the base of the hills of trappean and De- vonian rocks, by which it is separated fi-om the coal- field of the Clyde basia. It is a rich and productive district, large quantities of coal being shipped from Ayr, Troon, Irvibe, and Ardrossan. Upper Lesmahago Coal-basin. To the south of the central mass of Carboniferous rocks are several detached outhers, separated by the older Palaeozoic rocks. The principal of these are the Lesmahago and Muirkirk Coal-basins in the county of Lanark. The Carboniferous series, as shown by Mr. Geikie, here rest upon the Lower Old Ked Sandstone to which they are unconformable. The following are sec- tions of the Coal-series curtailed from those of Mr. Slimon.* * From Appendix to Sir E. Murchison's paper on the " Lesmahago Silurians" in Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xii., p. 25. The Geological fea- tures of this district are also described by Mr. Geikie. Ibid. vol. xvi. As these pages were passing through the press, Mr. WiUi'ams Her Majesty's Inspector, kindly procured for me details regarding the Upper and Lower Lesmahago Coal-basins, of which I can only insert a small portion. GREAT SCOTTISH COAL-FIELD. 177 Section 6 Strata .. .. (about) .. 75 Berry Coal (good quality) .. 4 6 Below these tliere are two or three other seams. Most of the coals are of good quality, and have not, as yet, been worked to any great depth. Anteim Coal-Disteict. The Antrim coal-district, in point of geological posi- tion, is by much the most remarkable in Ireland. It is situated on the north coast of the county, and extends to the west and south of the magnificent promontory of Fair Head from Ballycastle to Murlough Bay, a distance of four miles. Its average breadth is one mile and a half. The general arrangement and succession of rocks which compose the coal-formation of the district, is finely exposed to view in the range of precipitous cliffs which stretches from the Salt Pans, east of Ballycastle, to Murlough Bay. Throughout this hne of coast, th& ANTRIM COAL-DISTBICT. 185 coal-strata are in some places surmounted by masses of basalt, presenting towards the sea ranges of vertical columns. In other parts, the beds are bent, faulted, and traversed by several dykes of greenstone. A good section of the beds is visible in the cliffs near the Gob mine, exhibiting a height of strata amounting altogether to 373 feet, of which 51 feet at the summit consist of imperfectly columnar trap, and the remainder is composed of alternating beds of coal, sandstone, shale, and limestone. The main bed of coal is 4 feet thick. The following is the section visible on the northern side of Murlough Bay from the top of the cliff downwards : — Section in Murlough Bay. Feet In. Columnar Greenstone (about)] . . . . 100 Brownish-red Sandstone .. .. ..20 Bituminous Coal .. .. .. 1 Bed Sandstone .. .. .. .. 80 Black Sliale .. .. •• ..6 While Mirw Coal (highly bituminous) . . 2 6 Brownish -red Sandstone .. .. ..40 Bituminous Coal.. .. .. .. 6 Red Sandstone .. .. •• .. 20 Blacli Shale 10 Biiuminoua Coal (Goodman's Vein) . . . . 2 6 Black Shale .. .. •. .• 60 Uninflammable carbonaceous Coal .. . . 2 6 Black Shale passing into flinty-shale . . 2 Second columnar Greenstone (basalt) . . 70 Black Shale .. .. •• ..2 Non-flaming Coal, with thin beds of black I g g Shale .. •• •• •• Black Slate (base not visible) .. ..10 437 6 186 THE COAL-FIELDS OP IBELAND. It appears from the foregoing section, that the coal- formation at Miirlough Bay contains six beds of coal, four of which are highly bitununous, and two wholly carbonaceous, or anthracitic. The four bituminous beds aU occur between the first and second basaltic ranges, and the two carbonaceous beds are nearly iu contact, one above, and the other beneath the second basaltic range. The general base of the coal-formation of the Antrim coast is probably mica slate. The early workings in the coal-mines of Ballycastle have already been alluded to. The coal of the greater part of the Irish Coal-mea- sures is anthracite, as the well-known Kilkenny coal. The produce of all the collieries, numbering 45, for 1859, was as follows : — Tons. Anthracite and small coals . . . . 78,250 Bituminous Coals .. .. .. 42,150 Total .. .. .. .. 120.400 187 CHAPTER XXni. Summary of Eesobrces. — Great Britain. The following is a synopsis of the results arrived at in previous chapters : — Overspread by fonnatlons newer than the Coal- Name Area Quantity of measureE . Square Coal to a depth of Coal-field. Area Quantity of Miles. of 4,000 ft. sq. miles. Coaltoadeptb of 4,000 feet. Minions of tons. Approximate Miliis.of tons. 1. Anglesea 9 inconsiderable ,, 2. Bristol and Somerset 45 746 105 1.742 3. Ooalbrook Dale 28 28 ,, ,, 4. Cumberland 25 97 .. 5. Denbighshire 47 490 20 412 6. Derby and Yorkshire 760 8,800 400 8,000 7. Durham & Northum- berland 1 460 ■4,270 225 3,000 8. Flintshire .. 35 20 uncertain ,, 9. Forest of Dean 34 561 10. Forest of Wyre .. , , inconsiderable .. 1 1 . Lancashire . . 217 4,010 25 500 12. Leicestershire 15 50 30 400 13. North Staffordshire . 75 1.618 20 619 U. South Staffordshire. 93 973 ,. ,, 15. Shrewsbury .. inconsiderable 16. South Wales 906 16,000 17. Warwickshire 30 417 107 1.767 England and Wales . . 2,779 38,080 932 16,440 Scotland 1,720 25,323 •■ From the above calculations we obtain the following results : — That in Great Britain there is a total area of 188 SDMMAEY OF EESOUECES. 2,779+932+1720 = 5,431 square miles stored with coal to a depth of 4,000 feet. And that the quantity of avail- able coal within the same horizontal and vertical limits is 38,080+16,440+25,323=79,843 millions of tons. These are the broad tangible results. This quantity is sufficient to sustain the present sup- ply, of nearly seventy-two millions of tons, for upwards of a thousand years without exhaustion. But as the supply is liable, from a variety of causes, to progressive in- crease, we shall in a future page* proceed to consider the questions of the probable yearly rate of increase, and of the length of time during which the British Coal-fields will be capable of meeting this augmenting drain on their resources. • See chap, ii., Part IV., p. 230. PART III. CHAPTEE I. COAL-FIELDS OF EUROPE. France and Belgium. — The Cool-formation of these countries extends" in a long and narrow trough from Aix la Chapelle westward, by Liege, Namur, Mons, and Valenciennes, at which place it is concealed beneath nearly horizontal beds of Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. West of this town, however, the coal has been proved to a distance of 80 miles ; and again reaches the sin^ace a few miles north-east of Boulogne. Here the dip is north, and the Carboniferous Limestone rises from below the Coal-measures. There is every reason to believe that this is a prolongation of the same trough which enters beneath the Cretaceous strata at Valen- ciennes. Before reaching the sea at Calais, the Car- boniferous strata are concealed by Lower Oolite, and no- where reappear across the south of England till we reach Somersetshire. The coal-trough is not everywhere continuous, being dissevered into elongated basins east of Mons, by the elevation of the Lower Carboniferous beds. These latter 190 THE COAL-FIELDS OF EUEOPE. themselves, as in the north of England, sometimes contain coal which has been mistaken for that of the true Coal-formation ; and at Liege and Mons the strata are repeatedly crumpled, and thrown into a vertically zig-zag position, so that the same shaft passes several times through the same seam of coal. We have ana- logous cases along the northern flanks of the Mendip Hilla in Somersetshire, but not so generally known. The whole length of, the trough, measured from Aix la ChapeUe to Calais, and considered as continuous, is about 210 miles ; but the breadth is variable, and never great. The united extent of these coal-fields is probably nearly 1200 square miles; but there is a considerable tract between Valenciennes and Calais, overspread by Chalk and Tertiary formations, under which the Coal-measures have not yet been proved, and where they He at con- siderable 'depths.* The general arrangement of the strata ia this part of their course may be thus ex- pressed : — Lower Tertiary Strata. Cretaceous Strata. I shaU now state the names of the towns and villages situated along this trough, from west to east, taking as * MM. Dufre'noy et EUe de Beaumont, Carte G^ologique de la Prance. KHENISH PEOVINCES. 191 a guide the map of M. A. Dumont* Commencing at Lillers in Artois, it ranges by Bethune, Douai, Valen- ciennes, Cond^, Mons, Namur, Huy, Liege, Aix la Cha- pelle — where the strata are folded into several distinct troughs ; and about ten miles east of this town the Coal- measures become entirely concealed beneath the allu- vial plain of the Rhine. Their course beneath this plain would appear to be north-east, by Juliers and Kaiser- werth, to the Valley of the Rhur, at the margin of the coal-field of Westphalia. The depth of the Liege coal-basin at Mont St. Giles, according to Herr Von Oeynhausen, reaches to 3,809 feet below the surface, and the coal-basiu of Mons is fuUy 1,865 feet deeper stilLf But this is small in com- parison with the depth attained by the strata in the Saarbriick coal-field. There are several other small coal-fields suiTounding, and planted within the great central plateau of France, of which the following are the principal : — St. Etienne, about 15 miles long by 6 broad; St. Germain, Auzon, and Donjon. Bhenish Provinces. — The coal-field of Rhenish Prussia is one of the largest in western Europe. It has an area of about 900 square miles, and stretches from Saarbriick on the W. S. W., to Kreutznach on the E. N. E., a dis- tance of 50 miles, with an average breadth of 20 mUes. Along its northern edge it rests upon the Devonian * Carte G&logique de le Belgique. f Humboldt's " Cosmos." Sabine's Trans, Note 125. 192 THE COAL-FIELDS OF EUROPE. Slates of the Hundsriick— the general dip being south- ward, in which direction the Coal-measures pass below the sandstone of the Vosges, and Permian beds. There are extensive intrusions of igneous rocks, especially along the northern outcrop, which detract from the mineral value of the district affected by them. According to the observations of Herr Von Dechen,* the thickness and depth of the Coal-measures in the Saarbriick basin is very great. From several measure- ments it was found that the lowest coal-strata known in the district of DuttweUer, near Bettingen, descend to a depth of 20,682 English feet, or 3 • 6 geographical miles below the level of the sea. This is a depth below the sea equal to the height of Chimborazo above it ; and at this depth the temperature may be inferred to range as. high as 467° Fahr. This coal-field is remarkable for having yielded the remains of several species of reptiles, discovered by Mr. Leonard Homer, and named by Professor Goldfuss Archegosaurus, having characters intermediate between the Batrachians and Saurians.f Westphalia. — The Carboniferous rocks, which east of Aix la Chapelle are lost beneath the Upper Tertiary strata of the Valley of the Ehine, re-appear on the right bank of that river in Westphalia, north-east of Dusseldorf. Whether the Coal-measures themselves actually underlie the Ehine valley, is uncertain ; but ' " Cosmos." Sabine's Trans. Note 125. t Lyell, Elements of Geology, p. 53, 5th edit., and Joum. Geol. Soc, vol. iv. SPAIN. 193 assuming this to lie the case, I have ah-eady stated the line it would be found to occupy. The coal-field lies along the Valley of the Ehur. It is of a triangular shape, lying nearly east and west. Its greatest transverse diameter is 16 miles, and its length about three times this distance. But the visible breadth and length is much less than the actual, as the coal-field extends far below the Cretaceous strata to the northward, and coal is now being worked by shafts sunk through these newer formations.* The Coal-field of Biickeburg, in Hanover, is of pecu- har interest, being referable to the Cretaceous period as determined by Sir R. Murchison. In Silesia there are coal-fields, apparently of consi- derable area, extending from the Eiesen Gebirge eastward and westward into Bohemia. The coal is bitu- minous, and along with iron is vigorously worked. Spain. — The coal-field of Asturias, along the southern shores of the Bay of Biscay is, as I am assured by Mr. R. Hunt, of considerable extent and capability, though at present but little opened up. The coal belongs to the Lower Carboniferous series. M. Shultz, Director-General of Mines, states that the .coal-basin of the centre of the Asturias forms a most extensive district, having more than sixty seams of coal, generally of the best quality, approaching to a vertical position, and extending several leagues from west to east. The eastern limit of the coal-tract appears to be Santander; and westward, probably Cape Ortegal. The * Murchison and Sedgwick. Trans. Geol. Soc, vol. vi. O 194 THE COAL-FIELDS OF EUROPE. strike of the rocks is parallel to the axis of the Pyre- nees ; and near the eastern extremity of the range, on the southern flanks north of Eipoll, coal is extracted from beds which would appear to be an extension of those which yield that mineral in Asturias. In Portugal, a small coal-field occurs at Vallongo, near the mouth of the Douro. The strata associated with the coal contain carboniferous plants, such as Pecopteris and Neuropteris. This district has been described by the late Mr. D. Sharpe, who was in all probability incorrect in referring this coal-field to the Silurian period.* Mr. Sharpe gives the following section of the coal- series in this district : — 1. Eed Sandstone with beds of dark carbonaceous shale. 2. Coarse conglomerate. 3. Coal-seam, 6 feet thick. 4. Conglomerate and shale, with a thin coal-seam. 5. Coal, four beds from 2 to 5 feet in thickness, resting on black shale. This is the principal seam of the district. 6. Shales with chlorite. The " Br own Coal " formation of the Lower Ehine. and the Alps, is considered by M. Von Buch to be of Miocene age. The quality of the lignite which it yields is extremely variable, both in quality and quantity. In some places the seams attain a thickness of several feet ; and near Bonn the associated shales are used for the production of alum. Bohemia. — According to the accounts of M. Michel ChevaHer,-j- nature has left to Bohemia a rich dowry of » " On the Geology of Oporto, &o.'' Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. v. t Sur Us riohesses de la Soheme en combustibles fossiles. Annales deS Mines, torn. i. RUSSIA. 195 mineral fuel. Besides the older coal-bearing strata, there are very extensive areas underlaid by lignite of excel- lent quality, now worked in the north-western districts. M. C'huNiilifir considers that the coal-formation belongs to two different ages ; that of Eastern Bohemia to the Lower Permian or Kothe-todte-liegende ; that of Western to the true Carboniferous system. The former extends in a band along the base of the Chaine des Ge'ants (Riesen Gebirge). This band is probably con- nected with the coal-formation of Silesia. The western formation is distributed into three basins. 1st, that of Rakonitz ; 2nd, that of Radnitz ; 3rd, that of Pilsen. Of these, the basin of Rakonitz is the most extensive. The flora of Rakonitz and Radnitz, described by M. Stur and Count 0. Sternberg respootivuly, consist of about 21 genera of carboniferous plants. Russia. — The coal-fields of Russia are considered by Sir R. I. Murchison to belong to the Lower Carbonifer- ous period.* They are included in a set of strata which has a very extensive range, but is only at intervals productive of valuable coal-beds. These carboniferous rocks form a narrow band along the western base of the Ural Mountains, from the Arctic Sea to lat. 51° S., plunging generally at high angles towards the west, and containing coal, here associated with sandstones, repre- senting probably the "Millstone Grit" of England. On reaching the river Ural, they ai-e concealed beneath the Permian formation, which lajis over their edges, but ♦ " Russia and the Ural Mountains,'' vol. i., p. 69. 196 COAL-FIELDS OF OTHER PAETS OF THE WOBLD. tliey re-appear again in Central Eussia, occupying large areas in the governments of Eiazan and Moscow, and stretching northwards to the White Sea, a distance of nearly 900 miles. Throughout this region they are only locally productive. The foUowing is the general succession of the Car- boniferous series in Russia : — MiUstcme Grit. Eepresented along the Western flanks of the Ural range ; beds of siliceous grit, shales, and coal- seams. Goniatite Grit. — Either below or equivalent ,to the above ; calcareous grits and shales, with traces of coal. Upper Limestone. — Beds of limestone and shale, with traces of coal ; characteristic shell being Fusulina cylindrica. Middle Limestone. — Without coal, in the Northern region, with a little coal of good quality in the Southern Steppes ; characteristic shell, Spirifer Mosquends. Lower Limestone. — Without coal in the North, with coal in the Southern regions ; characteristic shell, ProdMctus giganteus. Sandstones and Shales. — With coal in the Northern region. The coal-seams of the Moscow basin are generally impure, pyritous, and fragile, and seldom equal in quality to the best lignites of the Tertiary age in the Alps. Some of the seams are from 3 to 6 feet in thick- ness, and as they outcrop m natural ravines, are easily accessible. The coal-field between the Dneiper and the Don, north of the Sea of Azof,! is considered by Sir E. Murchison to be by far the most valuable in Eussia. This tract has a length from W.KW. to E.S.E. of 230 miles, and its transverse diameter is 100 miles. Its * "Eussia and the Ural Mountains," vol. i., p. 60. t Generally known as the " Coal-field of the Donetz." RUSSIA. 197 total area is about 11,000 square miles. It contains many valuable beds of coal, which dip under and are overspread to the north-east by cretaceous rocks, and to the south-west by Permian limestone (Zechstein), imder both of which formations the coal may at some day be mined, as is the case in Belgium and England. The most valuable seams occur at Lugan and Lissitchia- Balka. It is a most remarkable circumstance in connection with tlic formation of the Donetz, tliat the same beds of coal from l^einp; higlily bituminous in the western parts of tliis coal-field, jxiss by imperee[>til ile gradations into anthracite in the eastern parts, in a manner analogous to that of the South Wales coal-field in oiu: own country. In the western, or bituminous districts, the coals are associated with limestones containuig Sjiirifcr Mosqveims, towards the centre these calcareous beds tail out, and are replaced by beds of sandstone and shale, which become hardened and altered as the coal-seams become an- thracitio. On the whole it would appear from the copious details and sections contained in the work of Murchison and his companions, that the coal-fields of the Kussian empire, certainly of enormous area, are in some parts highly productive, and if vigorously opened up ai-e Mkely to become of great economic value. The whole coal- producing series is of earUer date than the true Coal- measures of England ; the greater part of the beds of coal being contained in the Carboniferous Limestone series, as in the case of Scotland and Ireland. 198 COAL-FIELDS OF OTHBE PAETS OF THE WOELD. Poland. — At the south-western extremity of Poland, and ■within a short distance of the confines of the Eussian, Austrian, and Prussian States is situated a small but extremely productive coal-field. It contains three kno'vm coal-seams, the middle one of which is no less than 16 yards in thickness, and is probably the thickest bed of mineral fuel in Europe. It is worked from the outcrop in mines near the village of Dombrowa, and has the following composition : — Cai-bon .. .. .. 50'38 "Volatile matter . . . . . . 47 • 23 Ashes .. .. .. .. 2-39 100-00 This coal-seam dips from the outcrop at an angle of from 12° to 32°. The two remaining seams vary from 3 to 9 feet in thickness, and differ from the main seam in having a smaller per centage of volatile matter. The area of the coal-field is supposed to be about 16 square miles. The formation belongs to the true Carbo- niferous period, reposing on Silurian rocks, and dipping under Tertiary strata.* CHAPTEK II. INDIA. The areas and resources of the coal-fields of India ai-e as yet imperfectly known, but are now undergoing * Por this account of the Coal-field of Poland, I am indebted to Captain A. Antipoff, of the Russian Engineers. INDIA. 199 the investigation of the Government geological sur- veyors, who have already produced some valuahh? maps and memoirs. The Messrs. Blanford, in their " Keport on the Talcheer Coal-field," have shown that there at one time existed a widely-extended tract of carbona- ceous deposits, which have been subsequently disse- vered by denudation into the coal-fields of Eampur and Upper Damoodah, and, still further to the east, that of Burdwan.* In the north-west are the coal-fields of Palamow, Su-- gooja, and probably a chain of small fields connecting these with a great carbonaceous district stated to exist north-west of Sumbulpur. The so-called " Talcheer coal-field " lias been shovvn by Messrs. Blanford to bo entirely destitute of coal.-f- The sedimentary rocks of this coal-field are composed of three groups, each resting imconformably on that beneath it. The middle or Damoodah gi-oup is at least of not more recent age than the Permian, as it is over- laid by shales which have yielded a minute Estheria, and the cranium of a Labyrinthodontoid batrachian. This coal-field yields rich ii-on-ores, capable of producing highly tenacious iron. Professor Oldham describes a smaU coal-field of Eocene Tertiary age, resting on Nummulitic limestone, in the Khasi hills. Eastern Bengal ; and in the north- western part of the same presidency there are extensive ' This coal-field has been also described by the Eev. Messrs. Hislop and Hunter, English Missionaries. Joiim. Geol. Soc, vol. xi. t Memoirs of the Geol. Suivey of India, vol. i. pai't 1. 200 COAL-FIELDS OF OTHER PAETS OF THE WORLD. tracts yielding coal and lignite.* Of these, the coal- formation of Cutch is the best known. It is of the Lower Oolitic period, and is overlaid by sandstone of the age of the KeUoway rock, containing Ammonites Herveyi. It would thus appear to be the Indian representative in time of the Brora coal-strata of Sutherlandshire, of the Oolitic coal of Yorkshire, and of Virgiaia in the United States.— (LyeU.) As far as our knowledge extends it would appear that the coal-fields of our Indian empire are not highly pro- ductive, that the coal is frequently of an inferior quality, and that it has been formed at several periods, from the Carboniferous to the Tertiary inclusive. The extent of coal-bearing strata is, however, very large. China. — What may be the extent of the coal-fields of Cliina, we have no means of judging. At the same time we know of several places where the mineral is mined. One of these districts is near the city of E-u, ia the pre- fecture of King Hua (lat. 29° 15' N., long. 119° 46' E.). The coal is here worked in pits from 300 to 500 feet in depth, and the mines are opened out into galleries branching off into the seams at successive stages in the descent.-]- The mineral is also worked iu the cliffs of the Pe-Kiang river at Tiugtih, by means of adits driven into the side of the hill at the outcrop of the coal-seams. And lastly, at a place five miles from the city of Whang- shih-Kang on the river Yang-tse-Kiang, an account of which is recorded by Mr. Oliphant.J * Mem. Geol. Survey of India, vol.i., part 2. t Eev. K. H. Cobbold, Journ. Geol. See., vol. xii. X " Lord Elgin's Mission to China and Japan," vol. ii,, p. 389. MALAYSIA AND JAPAN. 201 The working of coal in China dates probably from a very ancient period. Our earliest notice is by the cele- brated traveller, Marco Polo, towards the close of the 13th century. Malaysia and Japan. — That magnificent group of islands lying between the Indian and North Pacific Oceans, seems to be as rich in the mineral treasures of the past, as it is in the vegetable productions of the present. Besides gems, and metallic ores in abundance, including iron, which yields the unrivalled Japanese steel, several of these islands contain strata stored with coal. And when we regard the geographical position of these islands, lying on the confines of the Eastern hemisphere, and in the track of vessels trading between America and Asia, the economic value of these som-ces of fuel can scarcely be over-estimated. It was on this account that the American expedition to Japan kept steadily in view the establishment of depots for coal on several points on the coast of that island for the supply of American steam-vessels.* AA'ith a similar object the Indian government have given attention to the supplies of coal known to exist in Borneo, and have been suc- cessful in inducing the chiefs to form depots of coal on the coasts. It is also satisfactory to learn that the trials made both in New York, Calcutta, and m the steam-vessels themselves, of samples of coal from these islands are very favourably reported. In Japan, coal-mines ai-e worked in the districts of Kiiisin and Nippon; and the testimony of Ksempfer * " American Expedition to Japan." 202 COAL-FIELDS OF OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD. regarding its abundance is corroborated by that of the oiEcers of the American expedition. The Islands of Formosa and Karapty, the latter of which is now ap- pended to the Kussian Empire, also contains this mineral in considerable quantity!* In Borneo, the province of Labuan on the north-west coast abounds in coal ; and several beds outcrop near the river Gooty at the north-east of the island. Mr. BeUot states that the mineral resembles the best cannel, and burns readily.t It also occurs in Pulo Cheremia, an island at the mouth of the Borneo river, where it is stated to form a naked surface stretching out to sea, and laid bare at ebb tides. The glistening aspect of the mineral washed by the saline waters, and glancing back the rays of a tropical sun is said to have suggested its name of " Mirror Island." It is highly probable that deposits of coal are by no means confined to the above island, but that they are also distributed more or less extensively throughout most of the islands lying between the Continent and AustraHa. AUSTRALIA, The state of Victoria contains carbonaceous de- posits, from which coal has already been extracted. The Government geologist, Mr. Selwyn, has been engaged for several years in developing the mineral resom-ces of this highly-favoured colony. Mr. Selwyn states that if the mass of the coal-bearing strata * Atkinson's " Travels in the Amoor." t Mr. T. BeUot. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. iv. AUSTEALIA. 203 of Victoria be Oolitic (Jurassic), there are certainly others in the eastern districts of the colony which con- tain plants of the true Carboniferous tj[)c, while the beds themselves rest and pass downwards into calcareous rocks with fossils, which are nearly aU Carboniferous or Devonian forms.* How remarkable, that both here and at our Antipodes, in Britain in the Northern, and Australia in the Southern hemisphere — countries now standing in the relation of parent and cliild — Nature should have been elaborating mineral fuel during the same eventful period of the Earth's bygone history ! Sydney. — Coal-bearing strata occupy a large portion of the district of Sydney, stretching along the coast from Port Stephen's southwards. The formation con- taining the mineral has been described by M. de Strzelecki, who gives the following section of a coal-pit near Newcastle, showing no less than 5 beds of coal.* Conglomerate .. Coal Cherts, gritstones with flint pebbles Coal .. Grey clay and shale with impressions of Sphenopteris lobifolia, Gloseopteris BrowniuHa,&c. Coal .. Greenish sandstone Coal .. Greenish sandstone CoaZ (deepest bed) Feet. 23 3 44 5 43 5 25 3 50 3 Total depth .. .. .. 204 M. de Strzelecld also describes coal-deposits in two * " Geology of Victoria," Jomn. Geol. Soc. London, vol. xvi. p. 145. 204 COAL-FIELDS OF OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD. " basins," those of the South Esk and Jerusalem, in Tasmania. They appear to be of the same geological age as those of Sydney, and, perhaps, Victoria. That this is the true Carboniferous epoch of the European coal- fields seems to be placed beyond question by the oc- currence of shells of the genera Spirifer, Productus, Nucula, and plants, such as those above-mentioned. New Zealand. — This beautiful island is rich in coal and lignite, which will prove of great value for steam Qavigation. Mr. C. Forbes describes carbonaceous strata in Preservation Island, Massacre Bay, and Waikato. They aU belong to the Tertiary period.* AFRICA. The researches of Livingstone have brought to light coal deposits on the banks of the Zambesi, described by Mr. Thornton, geologist to the expedition now in progress. Dr. Livingstone has rightly estimated the beneficial effect upon the future navigation of this great river, hkely to be exerted by the existence of these " stones that burn," the term by which the natives designate this mineral. The carbonaceous deposits which are known to exist to some extent along the Eastern districts of the Cape of Good Hope have not hitherto proved of much value. * Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. ii. 205 CHAPTEE in. NORTH AMERICA. British Possessimis. The States of America not appertaining to tlie British Crown have retained possession of by far the greater portion of the coal-producing region of the North Ameri- can continent. In Canada proper, there exists not a vestige of the coal-formation ; and the coal-fields within the boundaries of the British Emphe are confined to its outlying north-eastern districts, of Ne\\'foundland, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, and the borders of the Rocky Mountains. These we proceed to describe. NEWFOUNDLAND. From the survey of Mr. Jukes, it appears that there are two smaU, and as far as loio^vn not highly productive, coal-fields in Newfoundland ; one extending along the eastern shore of St. George's Bay some distance inland, and the other from Grand Pond to White Bay.* The foi-mation is similar to that of Nova Scotia, con- sisting of two members wlaich pass into each other. The lower member consists of red sandstone, red and green marls, with gypsum ; the upper, of dark shales, fireclays, sandstones, and conglomerate and coal. This last has been found in several places, marked on Mr. Jukes' map, the thickest bed being about three feet. * " Geology of Newfoundland." 206 COAL-FIELDS OP OTHER PAETS OF THE WOELD. NEW BEUNSWICK AND NOVA SCOTIA. The geological structure and mineral resources of this region have been very lucidly described by Dr. Dawson.* From the excellent geological map which accompanies his work, it would appear that nearly one half of these territories are composed of Carboniferous rocks ; but of this less than a third contains productive Coal-measures. The following is the general succession of the Car- boniferous series : — Thickness. 1. Upper Coal Series. — Grey and red sandstones and shales, conglomerates, and a few thin beds of limestone and coal of no economic value . . . . . . . . 3,000 feet. 2. Middle Coal Series. — Grey and dark sandstones, and shales, &c., with valuable beds of coal and ironstone ; beds of bituminous limestone, and numerous underclays with Stigmaria .. .. .. .. „ 4,000 „ 3. Lower Carboniferous or Oypsiferous Series. — Eeddish and grey sandstones and shales, overlying conglomerates ; thick beds of limestone with marine shells, and of gypsum . . . . . . more than 6,000 „ Fosdl Hemains. The fossils of the upper series are composed princi- pally of plants, as Calamites, Ferns, and Coniferous wood. In the middle series, representing the middle Coal- measures of England, remains of both the animal and * " Acadian Geology." NORTH AMERICA. 207 vegetable kingdoms appear to be remarkably abundant, and an^ classed by Dr. Dawson us follows: — Kcptilcs. — Denrlrerpeton Acwlianum, discovered by tlie author and Sir C. Lycll, within the upright trunk of a Sigillaria. Baphete» planiceps a large butrachian allieil tn Laliyrintliodon ; besides one or more species indicated by their tracks. Fishes. — Palieonitcug, Holoptychius, MigaliclUhys, and several other \m- determinud genera. Articulttta. — Cypris oi Cijtherina, several species. SpirorbU, either im- bedded or attached to plants. Mollusca. — Pupa vetusta, tlie first example of a land shell ever found in tho Carboniferous rocks. Modlola, Anlhracosia (Unio), of two or more species. A large number of plants of European genera, and many of European species. The lower Carboniferous series, representing all the strata of England, from the Millstone Grit downwards, contains, a reptile, discovered by Sir WUliam Logan ; fishes of the genera Holoptychius, and Palceoniscus. Of Annelides, Spirorbis and Cythrma ; of crustaceans, a Tribolite ov Limulus; besides a large series of mollusca, of the genera Nautilus, Orthocenis, Cmndaria, Euom- phalus, Natica, Terehratula, Spirifer, Productus, Cardio- morpha, Pecten, Avicida, Modlola, Inocardia, Cypricardia: of Polyzoa, Fmestella, ^-c, Crinoids, &e. ; and a few plants. CUMBERLAKD COAL-FIELD. This is by far the largest C;ii-boniferous tract, cover- ing an area, according to Professor Eogers, of 6,889 square miles.* It extends along the whole line of coast, and as far inland as the base of a range of mountains * Geol. of Pensylvania," vol. ii. 208 COAL-FIELDS OF OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD. which trend along the northern coast of the Bay of Pundy. Its southern limits are the Cobequid Hills. Unfortunately, the surveys of this great coal-field have not tended to raise our expectations of its economic im- portance, as the greater portion of it appears to be composed of the Lower and Upper Carboniferous series, both of which are destitute of valuable coal-beds. If economically unimportant, it is far otherwise in a scientific point of view, as, along the coast of the Bay of Fundy, at South Joggins, it displays the finest natm-al section of the Coal-formation in the world. The whole series of this district attain a thickness of 14,570 feet, with 76 seams of coal. Of these, 4,515 feet are brought to light in the coast-section. The beds rise along the face of the cliffs, clean and fresh, to a height of 150 feet, at an angle of 19° ; so that in proceeding along the coast from north to south, for a distance of about ten miles, we arrive at constantly newer beds, which at low tide may be traced out from the base of the cliff for a distance of 200 yards. Sir C Lyell counted 19 seams of coal, and at least 10 forests of upright stems of Sigil- laria, the longest of which was 25 feet, with a diameter of 4 feet where broken off ; and they were found iava- riably based on the upper surfaces of the beds of coal. In the Cumberland coal-field, the principal coal is the "Joggins Main Seam," consisting of two beds, 3J and IJ feet thick. There are also workable seams at Spring- lull, besides several places in New Brunswick, especially a remarkable pitch-like vein called the " Albert Mine," on the Petitcodiac Eiver. NORTH AMEEICA. 209 COAL-FIELDS OP COLCHESTER AND HANTS. This district is separated from that of Cumberland by the Cobequid chain of hills, and has an area of about 200 square miles. It is principally valuable for its limestone and gypsum. The coal-seams appear to be all under 18 inches in. thickness. COAL-FIELD OF PICTOU. This coal-field has an area of about 350 square miles, and is remarkable for containing two very thick beds of coal, the upper 37 feet, and the lower 22 feet in thick- ness, separated by 157 feet of strata. These seams have partings of inferior coal, and ironstone at intervals. The upper bed has been largely worked at the Albion mines ; and though there of good quality, has been proved to deteriorate at a short distance both to the north and south of that locality. The range of the lower seam is not yet known. COAL-FIELDS OF RICHMOND AND CAPE BRETON. The combined areas of these fields may be estimated at 350 square mUes. Several workable seams of coal have already been discovered, besides valuable deposits of limestone and gypsum. For our knowedge of the Sydney coal-field we are particularly indebted to Mr. E. Brown, who gives the following synopsis : — The produc- tive measures cover an area of 250 square miles, with a thickness of about 10,000 feet of strata.* Of several very fine natural sections exposed to view along the coast, » Journ. Geol. Soo., London, vol. ii. and vi. P 210 COAL-FIELDS OF OTHEK PARTS OF THE WORLD. Feet. In. 3 8 280 5 730 6 9 450 4 8 the most interesting is that to the north-west of Sydney Harbour, extending a distance of 5000 yards, and exhi- biting a vertical thickness of 1860 feet of strata. Of these, 34 are coal-seams, combinuig to produce 37 feet of coal. Four only are workable. The following is the general section of these coals : — Oranberry Head Top Seam Strata Lloyd's Cove Seam Strata Main Seam Strata Indian Cove Seam Valuable coal-seams occur also at Lingan and Bridg- port ; one of which, 9 feet in thickness, yields a fine coke, and is esteemed as a gas-coal. Limestone and gypsum also abound: and on the whole, the mineral resources of Cape Breton county appear veiy promising. In 1851, the quantity of coal raised at Sydney was 53,000 chaldrons. Emigrants and settlers would do well to make them- selves acquainted with the mineral resources of the dis- tricts in which they propose to settle ; as they may procure a tract of land which may prove, from its mineral wealth, of benefit to themselves and their de- scendants. 211 CHAPTEE IV. STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. Tlie great hydrographical basin of the Mississippi and its tributaries, is underlaid tlirougbout the greater part of its area by productive Coal-measures, with enough coal to supply the whole of that vast continent, were it as populous and as industrious as Britain, for a decade of centuries. This great Carboniferous formation spread originally in one continuous sheet over the whole of Central America, probably from the flanks of the Eocky Mountains to the shores of the North Atlantic, and from the Gulf of Mexico to Newfoundland ; and though we are unable strictly to define the original margin and hmits of this great coal-generating tract, yet there is reason to believe, as has been pointed out by Sir C. LyeU, that land existed at that period where now rolls the Atlantic, and that the British Islands were con- nected mth America by a cliain of islands, or a tract of land, over which the plants of the Carboniferous period migrated and spread themselves in dense forests. .Such an hypothesis seems the most satisfactoiy explanation of the remarkable fact, that tlie Carboniferous vegeta- tion of America is identical, at least generically, with that of Europe ; which coidd not have been the case imder any of the received theories of the distribution of plants and animals, if these regions had been separated by wide bai-riers of ocean. 212 COAL-FIELDS OF OTHEK PARTS OF THE WOELD. Moreover in tracing the Carboniferous strata, from Texas and Missouri on the south-west to the Alleghany Mountains and Nova Scotia on the east and north, we find a progressive thickening of the sedimentary materials, such as sandstones and shales, which become both more abundant, and of coarser texture, as we approach the sea-board of the Eastern States. This poiuts to the position of the old land, from which these materials were derived, as having lain somewhere in the North Atlantic ; and combined with the evidence derived from the vege- tation, becomes almost demonstrative of the axiom, that what was land is now sea. The great tract of Coal-measures, which was, without doubt, originally connected throughout, has now become dissevered into five coal-fields, the areas of which are thus stated by Professor Eogers :* — The Appalachian JBasin.— Length, 875 miles ; average breadth, 180 ; area .. .. 55,500 sq. miles. The Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky Basins. — Length, 370 ; breadth, 200 ; area .. .. 51,100 „ „ The Missouri and Arkansas Basins. — ^Length, 550 : breadth, 200 ; area .. .. ..73,913,, „ The Michigan Basin. — Length, 160 ; breadth, 125; area .. .. .. .. 13,350 „ The Texas Basin.— Length, 160 ; area .. 3,000,, „ Total area .. .. .. 196,863,, „ Over the central and western districts, the strata lie regularly, and only slightly removed from the horizontal position ; but on proceeding eastwards, and approaching " " Geol. of Pennsylvania.'' The reader would do well to refer to the small but very beautiful map of M. Jules Maroou, in Peterman's " Mittheilungen,'' vol. vi., 1855. AMERICAN STATES. 213 the chain of the AUeghanies, they become bent ; and ultimately folded and crumpled along lines parallel to the axis of the mountains. Corresponding with this folding of the beds, the coals lose their bituminous pro- perties, and along the western flanks of the mountains occur only as anthracite. The close connection between the crumpling of the coal-seams, and the loss of the vola- tile constituents of the coal itself, is strongly marked ; for in proportion as we recede from the axis of dis- turbance, the coal-seams become more bituminous. The Alleghany BQlls consist of a succession of parallel ridges, divided by narrow and deep valleys, correspond- ing to the folding of the strata. The axis is nearly parallel with the coast of the Atlantic, and reaches at Black Mountain an elevation of 6476 feet. The geo- logical structure of this remarkable range leads to the conclusion, that it has been formed by the exertion of lateral |pressure, acting along the Atlantic side, and forcing the strata towards the west, with a power to which geology aifords few parallels.' In consequence of the structure of the beds, and the subsequent partial de- nudation, these moimtains contain several small trough- shaped coal-fields, in which the coal has become meta- morphosed, and assumes a columnar structure, the axes of the columns being perpendicular to the planes of bed- ding. There are also springs of pitch and petroleum,* * An account of the discovery and opening of one of these oil springs at the vUlage o£ Cuba, in Alleghany county, appeared in the Kew York " Tribune" of 8th January, 1861. When a pipe had been driren down 25 feet, the oil ascended with such force as to fill a barrel in an hour, Sometinies it was mixed with water. 214 COAL-FIELDS OP OTHER PAETS OF THE WORLD. of great yalue ; and others of brine, containing 10 per cent of common salt (chloride of sodium), and small quantities of iodine and bromine. Free carburetted hydrogen also bursts forth at the fountains of the country.* The thickness of some of the coal-seams is in keepiag with the vastness of the coal-fields. In consequence of the thinning away of the sedimentary materials westward, several seams are often brought into contact, and form one mass. In the Bear Mountains there has thus been formed a seam'of 40 feet in thickness, which is described by Sir 0. LyeU. It is anthracite, and is quarried from the outcrop into the hill. Sir Charles considers that the thickness of the origiiial mass of Tegetable matter, before condensation by pressure, and the discharge of its various gases, may have been from 200 to 300 feet ! The Coal-measures, as in England, rest upon a floor of Carboniferous Limestone, with, ia some places. Mill- stone Grit intervening; the age of the coal-fields in both countries is therefore identical. The fossils of the Carboniferous Limestone are generically the same with those of Europe — such as Spirifer, OrtMs, Terehratula, Productus, Pentremites, and Retepora. The plants from the Coal-measures are Lepidodendron elegans, Sigillaria Sillimani, Neuropteris cordata, N. Loshii, Pecopteris lonchitica, Oalamites Oistii, &c., of which all but the second occur in Europe. * Professor Eogers. From a oommimioation to the British Associa- tion, 1860. AMEBICAN STATES. 215 Th£ Jurassic Coal-field of Richmond, Virginia. Some miles eaat of Eichmond a small coal-field of 26 miles from north to south, and 12 in its greatest dia- meter, occupies a depression in the granitic rocks of that part of the country. This coal-field has been shown by Professor Eogers and Sir C. Lyell to be of an age con- temporaneous with the Oolitic coal-field of Whitby ia Yorkshire, and the plants JEquisetum columnare and Pe- copteris Whitbyenais are abundant in both places. The Richmond Coal-field contains several beds of valu- able coal, one of wliich is from 30 to 40 feet in thickness, highly bituminous, and equal to the best coal of Newcastle. Other Coal-fields and Lignite Formations. Coal-fields of smaller extent and imcertain age occur, according to M. Marcou, at the sources of the Rio Colorado, in the Utah territory, and on the shores of the Pacific Ocean north of Cape Blanco.* In Vancouver Island, and on the opposite coast of America, there are extensive deposits of Tertiary and Cretiiceous age, bearing beds of lignite and coal, which are extensively worked for the supply of the steamers navigating between Victoria and the Frazer River.t Mr. Isbister describes extensive lignite deposits in the vaUey of the Mackenzie River, probably of the same geological age as those in Vancouver Island. These strata have been traced by Sir J. Richardson from the shores of the Arctic Sea, along the eastern base of the • " Geologische Karte der Vereingten Staaten," in Petennan's " Mittheilungen," ISSo. •f Mr. BttuermaD, " Journ. Geol. Soc," vol. xvi., p. 201. 216 COAL-FIELDS OP OTHEE PAETS OF THE WOELD. Eocky Mountains as far south as lat. 52°. The beds of lignite attain a thickness of 9 feet, and are well shown where the Bear Island Eiver flows into the Mackenzie. Dr. J. Hector, who accompanied Captain J. Palliser's expedition in 1857-60, has determiaed the Geological age of the lignites of North-western America and Van- couver Island to be Cretaceous, though others of inferior quality and of Tertiary age also exist. Coal and lignite occur, on Jameson Land, Banks' Land, and Melville Island. In Albert Land, in lat. 78°, Sir E. Belcher found bituminous schists with coal, and apparently connected with these strata, lime- stones with Productus and Spirifer. We have, there- fore, grounds for believing, from these mommients of the Carboniferous .age, that our coal-vegetation extended into regions which are at present so inhospitable as almost to exclude the existence of Vegetable Hfe. How great and wide-spread the changes of chmate, and how mysterious the cause ! Produce of the North American Coal-fields. The quantity of coal raised in the American States in 1855, was 5,000,000 of tons.* If we suppose it has since increased at the rate of ten per cent, per annum, the quantity for 1860 would be 7,500,000, or say eight miUions of tons. If to this we add two miUions for the produce of the coal-fields in the British Possessions, we have a total for the whole of No^th America of ten millions of tons. Now, taking the area of these coal-fields at 204,000 ' Taylor's " Statistics of Coal," 2iid edit., Philadelpliia. TEIKIDAD. 217 square miles, and comparing it with that of the British coal-fields, 5431 square miles, we find that the former is 38 times larger than the latter. But the quantity of coal raised in America is only about one-eighth the quantity raised in Britain ; and in order that the develop- ment of the coal-fields of the former coimtry should equal that of the latter, America ought to raise 2704 millions of tons annually. TRINIDAD. This Island has long been celebrated for its lake of mineral pitch ; but besides this, it contains beds of coal and lignite, likely to become of considerable economic importance. The very successful survey by Messrs. Wall and Sawkins, the Report of which has just been published,* puts us in possession of all that is at present known. The strata with which the beds of coal are associated belong to the Tertiary period, and are very widely distributed. In the middle of the island there is a thickness of 6 ft. 10 in. of workable coal, in two beds ; and in the southern section, double that amount in three beds. The strata, consisting of shales, sands, and car- bonaceous clays, which contain these coal-seams, reach a total thickness of about 2000 feet. They range across the island in parallel zones, and present interesting sections along the coast, very faithful details of which are pre- sented by Mr. Wall. The asphalt is almost invariably disseminated in the newer Parian group, which con- • " Report on the Geology of Trinidad," Mem. Geol. Survey, 1860, witti maps aud sections. 218 COAL-FIELDS OF OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD. tains the beds of lignite and a large amount of vegetable matter. It is considered by Mr. Wall to be the result of chemical reaction, conducted under the ordinary- temperature of the island, producing bituminous, ia place of ordinary anthraciferous, substances. The bitu- men thus developed is exuded at the surface; and where a natural hollow occurs forms a lake. The same Tertiary formations, under the term " Newer Parian," have been traced by Mr. Wall on the neigh- bouring coast of the Continent, and are known to con- tain lignite and coal at Piaco on the Orinoco, and iu the provinces of Barcelona and Coro. Mineral pitch is also found with these strata.* It is proper to observe, that these Tertiary lignites are inferior in economic value to the coal of the true Carboniferous formations of Europe and North America; and so long as these latter are shipped in suflScient quantity into the West Indian Islands, the fossil fuel of Trinidad is not likely to be largely worked.t BRAZIL. It is very probable that the central parts of the South American continent will some day be found to contain coal and lignite in considerable quantity. For the present we are assured that a coal-field of upwards of 60 leagues in extent exists in the centre of Brazil, capable of affording a supply for hundreds of years.f * Mr. Wall, Joum. Geol. Soc, vol. xvi. t In 1859, no less than 99,100 tons of coal were shipped into the British West Indies from Great Britain, t " Quarterly Review," 1860. PART lY. CHAPTEB I AN INQUIRY INTO THE PHYSICAL LIMIT TO DEEP COAL- MINING. The reader will have observed that I have confined my calculations of the resources of our coal-fields to that portion of ihem included within 4000 feet of the surface, notwithstanding there are hundreds of miles stored with coal at greater depths than this. It is therefore proper that I should explain the grounds on which I consider, not only that aU the coal below 4000 feet must for ever remain beyond our reach, but that in confining myself to this hmit, I may have even exceeded to some extent the available Hmit of depth. There are two agencies in mining constantly acting with increasing energy as we descend vertically from the surface — temperature and pressure ; and though at first sight the latter would appear likely to offer the greatest obstacles to deep mining, it will probably be found that in reality increase of temperatmre wiU prove the first insuperable barrier. Let us examine this subject further. That the earth has once been a fluid mass, molten by heat, and has subsequently cooled down at the outer surface by radiation into space, is a proposition which is 220 AN INQUIET INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. based partly on direct, and therefore incontestable, observations of temperatures ia mines, artesian borings, and hot springs; and partly on theoretical considera- tions, which have occupied the attention of the highest intellects from Strabo down to our own times. With the direct evidences we are only here concerned; but perhaps the strongest testimony of an iutemal heated mass pervading the interior of the earth, at a depth not very great as compared with the earth's radius, is afforded by the phsenomena of granitic, plutonic, and metamorphic rocks, and the outburst of hot springs, and volcanic fires. The following are some of the most interesting ex- periments which have been recorded for determimng the rate of increase of terrestrial temperature ia various parts of Europe. The first of these is the experiment at the Puits de GreneUe, near Paris, the particulars of which are stated by Arago and Humboldt.* The water ascends from the Greensand formation which outcrops at Lusigny, south- east of Paris. The depth of the weU from the surface is 1903 English feet, and 1675 feet below the level of the sea. The temperature of the spring is 81"95 Fahr., and the rate of increase is 1° F. for every 58*9 English feet. At Neu-Saltzwerk, in Westphalia, a boring was com- menced at a height of 232 feet above the level of the sea^ and it reached an absolute depth of 2285 feet. Its * " Cosmos," Sabine's Trans., vol. iv., p. 35. — See also Mr. W. Hop- kins' Essay in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. cxlvli. This eminent authority considers the increase of temperature at an average of 1° I*, for every 60 feet, as having been satisfactorily established. AN INQUIRY INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. 221 temperature is 91° 04' Fahr., and as the mean annual temperature of the air at Neu-Saltzwerk is about 49° 28' Fahr., we may infer an increase of temperature of 1° for 54-72 English feet, or 1° cent, for 924 Paris feet. The boring of the well at Neu-Saltzwerk, as compared with that of GreneUe, has a greater absolute depth by 461 French, or 491 English feet, and a greater relative depth below the level of the sea of 354 French, or 377 Enghsh feet ; and the temperature of its water is 5° 1 cent., or 9° 18' Fahr. higher. The rate of increase of temperature in the shallower well at Paris is nearly 1-14 less rapid than in the deeper well at Neu-Saltzwerk. This observation is important, as it is sometimes supposed that the rate of increase diminishes in a constant ratio as the depth increases. Near Geneva an artesian boring to a depth of 724 English foet, gave an increase of 1° Fahr. for every 55 feet. The locality is at an elevation of 1600 feet above the level of the sea. At Mondorff, in the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, an artesian boring, of great interest, from the number of formations through which it penetrated, gave a result of 1° Fahr. for every 57 feet. The details were as follows : — Metres. Lias .. .. .. •• ■• 54'11 Keuper (Red Marls, &c.) Muschelkalk (Limestone) Grcs bigarrfi (Sandstone) Old ecbistose rocks 206 02 142 -17 311-46 16-24 Total .. •• •• •• 730-00 222 AS INQUIEY INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. An extensive series of experiments carried on in the mines of Cornwall, by Mr. E. Were Fox,* has induced that gentleman to arrive at the conclusion that the iucrease of temperature progresses iu a diminishing ratio, and Mr. K. Hunt adopts a similar view founded on observations in the same district. Difficult as it is to conceive, and far more to account for, such a result, which would appear to show, that -as we approach the source of the heat, the heat itself decreases, yet it cannot be denied that the results obtained by these observers (if taken by themselves) seem to favour the conclusions at which they have arrived. The following is a synopsis of Mr. Fox's experiments : — A temperature of 60° at 59 fathoms below the surface. „ 70° at 132 80° at 239 Being an increase of 10° at 59 fathoms deep, or 1° in 35-4 feet of 10° at 73 „ deeper or 10in43-8£'„ and of 10° at 114 „ stUl deeper, or 1° in 64-2 „ The deepest observations were taken in the Tresavean miue in 1837, at the followiug depths : — 262 fathoms.. .. .. 1,572 feet .. 82° -5 290 „ .. .. .. 1,740 „ .. 85°-3 Same depth in another lode .. .. .. 86° "3 „ in a third lode .. .. .. 92°"1 Mean temperature for 1,740 feet .. 87-9 Mr. Hunt has found the temperature as high as 100° at a depth of 320 fathoms in this miue. AJlowing due weight to opinions coming from these observers, I cannot accept as of universal application an hypothesis of the increase of temperature iu a diminish- * Eeport. British Association, vol. is. AN INQUIRY INTO DEEP COAL-MINIXG. 223 ing ratio. It does not appear to be in harmony with the results obtained on the Continent, where the increase of temperature in the deeper well of Neu-Saltzwerk, is 1-14 more rapid than in the shallower well of GreneUe. Nor can it be reconciled with the observations in Dukinfield Colliery (about to be given in detail), where the increase in the uppermost strata, down to 270 yards, is 1° for 88 feet, and in the lowest down to 685 yards, 1° for 65'6 feet. Professor Phillips has made observations on the temperature at the Monkwearmouth Colliery, which have shown an increase of ubout 1° for every 60 feet. The experiments lately carried out by Mr. Astley, during the progress of sinking the Dukiniield Colliery, are perhaps the most valuable of any lutherto under- taken in this country. Through the kindness of Mr. Fairbairn, of Manchester, I have been supplied with the whole of the details, which I here insert at length. The observations were conducted with gi-eat care. The ther- mometer was inserted in a diy bore-hole, and removed as far as possible from the influence of the air in the shaft, and left in its bed for a length of time, varying from half an hour to two hours. The results also carry with them more than usual importance, from the fact that they extend downwards to a depth of 2055 feet, with an additional observation made in the open work- ings, at 120 yards from the shaft, and at a depth of 2151 feet.* * Mr. Fairbairn has kindly allowed mo to make use of these experi- ments for publication, but they will probably soon appear from himself in a more extended form. 224 AN INQUIKT INTO DEEP COAL-MINING- Thermometrioal Observations in the Buhinjkld Colliery, Cheshire, between 1848 and 1859. Date. Depth in Temperature Description of Stratum. Yards. Fahr. 1848. July 28th 5-6 51° Red rock — no vaiiation. 1849. 1st 231 57-7 Blue shale — wet 12th 234-7 58 ditto dry hole 16th 237 58 ditto ditto July 14th 239 57-5 16th 240 58 ditto ditto 27th 242 57-5 ditto ditto August 9th 244 58 ditto ditto 25th 248 58 ditto water 27th 248 57-25 ditto ditto 31st 250 57-25 ditto ditto Novem. 14th 252 58 Decern. 6th 256 '5 58 Blue shale— dry 15th 262-5 58-5 ditto do. 22nd 270 58 Bituminous shale — dry 1850. January 9th 279 58-5 Strong warrant earth 26th 286-5 59-12 Eook bands February 11th 293 59-5 Coal roof 19th 300 59-87 WaiTant earth March 5th 809 59-87 Purple mottled shale 1851. June 9th 858 62-5 Warrant earth August 14th 378 64 Tender blue shale Novem. 7th 403 65 Coal roof 19th 419 65-87 Eock bands 1852. February 6th 433 66-5 Black shale May 28th 446 67 Strong fire-clay 18.57. February 28th 483-5 67-25 Sandstone— dry hole Shale March 7th 487 67-76 April 11th 501 68-5 Sandstone May 6th 511-5 68-75 Blue shale 19th 521-5 69-38 Strong shale June 9th 533 69-75 Warrant earth 22nd 589 69-88 Blue shale 27th 546 71-75 Coal and earth July 18th 555 71-25 Grey sandstone AN INQUIRY INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. 225 Thermometrical Observations, ^c. — continued. Date. Depth in Temperature Description of Stratum. yards. Fahr. 1857. August 1st 563 72-25 Eed rock (Sandstone) 15th 569 71-25 ditto wet hole September 2nd 578 72-12 ditto ditto „ 19th 589 71-5 ditto ditto October 3rcl 597 72-25 Grey rock — dry liole 17th 608 72-25 Coal roof— wet hole 27th 613-5 72-25 Coal floor ditto 1858. March 22nd 621 72 Strong shale — dry Dark-blue shale 29th 627 71-5 AprU 23rd 645-5 72-25 Shale — dry hole ditto ditto May 1st 651 72-25 19th 658 72-5 ditto ditto June 9th 669 73-25 Bituminous shale — dry hole 19th 673 74-12 Grey rock July 17th 683 75-25 Bluu shale 2l8t 685 75-5 do. do. 1859. March 5th» 717 75-0 " Black Mine" Coal roof. Note. — The irregularities observable in the table are always to be ex- pected in such oases. They arise from several causes, such as difference of density, conducting power, and moisture in the strata. Sometimes the water percolated to the bulb, and slightly affected the results, 1. The first observation gives 51° as the invariable temperature throughout the year at a depth of 17 feet. Between 231 yards and 270 yards, the temperature was nearly uniform at 58 '0 And the increase from the surface would be at the rate of 1° F. for 88 feet. 2. Between 270 and 309 yards, the increase was at the rate of 1° for 62-4 feet. 3. Between 309 and 419 yards, the increase was at the rate of 1° for 60 feet. * In workings at 120 yards down engine incline firom the shaft Q 226 AN INQUIRY INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. 4. Between 419 and 613 yards, the increase was at the rate of ]° for 86-91 feet. 5. Between 613 and 685 yards, the increase was at the rate of 1° for 65-6 feet. 6. The last observation, taken in the mine itself, at 120 yards from the pit, is valuable, as showing that the temperature of the air ,does not greatly differ from that of the surrounding strata. The result of the whole series of observations gives an increase of 1° for every 83-2 feet, which is a less rapid increase than that exhibited by the generality of experi- ments. I have been favoured by Mi*. Bryham with a series of interesting observations upon temperature made at Eose Bridge Colliery, near Wigan. I first give those relating to the temperature of the strata, made in sink- ing the shaft between the years 1854 and 1856, and reaching to a depth of 600 yards. Thermometrical Observations at Hose Bridge Colliery. Date. Depth in Yards. Temperature Fahr. Description of Stratum. 1851 July .. August 161 188 64-5 66 Blue shale Warrant earth or fire-clay 1858. May .. July .. 550 600 78 80 /Blue shale with ironstone \ bands Warrant earth 1861. March* 600 72 f Two feet in solid strata at pit \ bottom ^ * The strata had been cooled down by exposure to the air-current. AN INQUIET INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. 227 It will be observed that these observations show a greater increase than those of Dukinfield, and more in accordance with those of other districts. The Coal-formation may be expected to show greater irregularities than many other formations of a more uniform composition and density, consisting as it does of a great variety of strata alternating with each other, differing in porosity, conducting power, mineral charac- ter, and in the greater or less facilities for the perco- lation of water, we cannot expect a formation of this kind to exhibit everywhere a uniform increase of tem- perature in descending through it. Nevertheless, the above results justify us in assuming a more gradual increase than 1 degree for 60 feet, in the case of coal- mines ; and if we adopt an amount of 1 degree for 70 feet, which is a mean value between the results obtained at Dukinfield colliery and other sources, we shall not, in all probability, greatly err. In endeavouring, then, to ascertain what would be the temperature in coal-mines at a greater depth than 2000 feet, we must first determine the temperature to which the addition of 1 degree for 70 feet is to be made. This is shown by the first observation recorded in the above table — viz., 51 degrees, at 17 or 18 feet. In general it has been found that at a certain depth, varying from 15 to 50 feet, the temperatTire remains the same all the year round ; and is nearly that of the mean annual temperature of the air. The depth of this " invariable stratum," according to Humboldt, depends upon the latitude of the place (increasing from the equator towards the poles), on the conducting power of 228 •AN INQUIEY INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. the rock, and on the amount of difference between the temperatures of the hottest and coldest seasons. At Greenwich, the mean temperature, is 49-5° ; and in the deepest of several underground thermometers, 25 feet from the surface, the extreme variations were (1858), from 48-85° to 52-27°, giving a mean of 50-56°— a result, diifering by only half a degree from that of Dukhifield Colhery, obtained ten years earKer.* We may therefore adopt 50-5° as the standard of departure — or in other words the temperature of no variation at a depth of 50 feet underground. But there is an additional element tending to raise the heat in deep mines ; namely, the increased density of the air. This is a constantly augmenting quantity, but may be taken, for general purposes, at 1 degree for every 300 feet of depth. Combining these two elements, we obtain the maxi- mum temperature at the various depths shown in the following table : — Tahle showing the tlieoretical increase of Temperature at several depths ; the "temperature of no variation" heing taken at 50' 5° Fahr., at a depth of 50 feet from the surface. Depth in feet. Increase of Temperature due to depth. Increase of Temperature due to density of air. Resulting Temperature. 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 21-42 27-85 35-5 42-14 49-28 56-42 5-0 6-5 8-5 9-83 11-66 13-16 76-92 84-85 94-00 102-47 111-44 120-08 "Greenwich Observations" for 1858, AN INQUIBT INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. 229 The above results give a more rapid increase than that offered by direct experiment at Dukinfield colliery ; but will be found to correspond more closely with the observations at Rose Bridge Colliery, near Wigan. That this increase of temperature is entirely inde- pendent of atmospheric agency, or the elevation of the place relatively to the level of the sea, is proved by the interesting experiments of Humboldt. In a silver mine above the little town of Micuipampa, situated on the Andes of Peru, at an elevation of 11,875 English feet above the sea, the great traveller found that the tem- perature of the Mina del Purgatorio, was 254° Fahr., higher than that of the external air. The mean annual temperatm-e at Micuipampa is about 45-5° Fahr., the temperature at the bottom of the mine was 79"6°, being an increase of 34 -l". In another mine at the same elevation, the difference betwefen the internal and external air was 15'8° Fahr., and the waters which were streaming down showed 52*3° Fahr. Similar results were obtained in other localities,* leading to the conclusion that the source of heat is internal, and independent of the form of the ground or its elevation. If we are justified, then, in concluding that the internal heat of the earth under oiu: feet is such that at a depth of about 2500 feet, the mean temperature would reach upwards of 90°, equal to that of the tropics, it is evident that this depth becomes the ultimate limit to mining operations, unless we succeed in reducing the temperature by artificial appliances. • " Cosmos." Sabine's Trans., vol. iv. 230 AN INQUIRY INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. Ventilation is the great means to which we must look, not only for supplying pure air, but for keeping the mines sufficiently cool for mining purposes at great depths. It is not improbable that the constant flow of cooler air through the arteries of a mine, wiU have the result of ultimately lowering the temperature of the strata through which it passes. We should expect that its effect would be to carry away the supply of caloric given off from the heated siu:face of the rock, and thus eventually to reduce tlie temperature of the mine. Yet it would appear, from an observation recorded by Hum- boldt, that this permanent cooling of the rock, after several years of exposure to the atmospheric air is an exceedingly slow process. We all know how much hotter are the narrow, iU-ventilated parts of a mine, where a thorough draft has not yet been established, than the main passages through which the air constantly circulates. On this point, the experiments which* have been kindly undertaken by my friend Mr. 0. Wright, at Shireoak coUiery, tend to throw some Hght. Premising that this colliery has been but recently opened, and that the workings are not at present very extensive, it was found, first, that the " intake air "* had a temperature of 63° ; while the "return air" was 69°, or 6° higher— certainly a moderate increase of temperature ; but, be it remembered, after a comparatively short circulation. In a "goaf" or chamber, removed seven yards from the air current, the temperature was 72° ; being an in- crease of 9° upon the " intake air." * i.e. The air at the bottom of the shaft, before entering the AN INQUIRY INTO DEEP COAL-MININa. 231 Lastly, in a " close heading," 80 yards from the air- current, the temperature was found to be 86°, or no less than 23° higher than that of the intake air. It is not improbable that in this heading a certaiu amount of heat was generated by spontaneous combustion. These results show the effect of a free current of air through the works in moderating the heat due to the causes above assigned. The depth of Shireoak colliery is 510 yards, or 1530 feet. Now, according to the calculation given in the above table, the temperature ought to be 77-45°, which is about a mean between that in the " goaf," seven yards from the air-current, and that in the " close head- ing," 80 yards from it. Again the temperature of the " return air," which had passed through the workings, was 69°, or nearly 10° under that due to the depth. We may therefore conclude that the general effect of the ventilation would be to reduce the temperature by about 10° and upwards. A valuable series of experiments have been kindly made for me by Mr. Bryham, in a stiU deeper colliery, that of Eose Bridge, near Wigan, already alluded to, in two coal-seams, the upper being the " Pendleton Four- feet," at 300 yards deep, and the lower the " Cannel Mine," at 600 yards. I give them in fuU. I may here be allowed to suggest to managers and proprietors of deep collieries the advisability of adding to our knowledge by carefully conducted experiments to determine the effects of ventilation in moderating the temperature of mines during different seasons of the 232 AN INQTJIET INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. year. The observations ought to be made with good thermometers. Observations mi Temperatures of Air Currents, ^c, at Base Bridge Colliery, Wigan. Temperature at surface in shade 56°. ..g ta .g . o p-i 1 Distance Date. n ll be P.-S as a ■s travelled by the current. o H H I860. Sept. 4th 300 35-00 59-5 64-0 68-0 4-5 8-5 1,000 yards. (4 yards out of alr- t current. . .. 600 81-76 60-5 730 75-0 13- 15-0 1,500 yards. 8 yds out of current. Temperature at surface in shade. 42°. 1861. Mar. ISth 600 105-58 50-75 ■- Main intake. (Taken in Dumb 96-40 , , 68-75 180 < Drift ; distance tra- 23-26 31-50 51-5 51-0 67-5 16-0 ( veiled 2,200 yards. (Distance travelled \ 2,400' yards. 21-00 10-50 60-0 71-0 67-5 20-0 16-5 /Distance travelled \ 3,140 yards. /Distance travelled \ 1,900 yards. /4 yards out of main \ intake air. »» •• •- 71-7511-75 /4 yards- out of main \ return air. Barometer in C3,nnel Mine (600 yards) 30 •5, at surface 28-8. The above experiments show many points of interest. 1. We cannot but be struck with the enormous amount AN INQUIRY INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. 233 of caloric continually being carried off from the mine. Thus in one of the experiments it is shown that at a depth of 600 yards, a current of air equal to 21 cubic feet per minute, passes off from the mine 20° warmer than it entered, after circulating through 3140 yards. 2. It will be observed that the surface temperature, depending upon the season of the year, materially affects the temperature of the whole mine ; and if the extreme temperatures of summer and winter had been observed, the results would doubtless have been proportionate. Thus with a surface temperature of 56°, the return air is 73° with 1500 yards of circulation, while with a sur- face temperature of 42°, the return air is only 67'5° with 1900 yards. 3. The increase of heat received by the air while passing down the shaft appears to be consider- able. Thus in a depth of 300 yards the increase was 59'5 ; — 56 = 3'5°, and in a depth of 600 yai'ds the increase was 60-5— 56=4-5° in September, and 50-75 -42 = 8-75 in March. Lastly : Several observations show how neces- sary is the air-current in moderating the temperature, for whenever the thermometer was placed beyond its influence, the mercury immediately ascended. All these points bear directly upon the question of deep mining. We must also take into consideration the effect of the ventilation at different seasons of the year. This is considerable. I have known water at the bottom of a deep pit to have been frozen several inches during the prevalence of severe frosts. Therefore, if the current- air should descend the shaft, and enter the works at a temperature of from 30° to 40°, there is every probability 234 AN INQUIEt INTO DEEP COAl-MINING. that it would be able io reduce the heat eyen of a mine 4000 feet in depth, to a degree not only tolerable, but admitting of healthy labour. I therefore look forward to the possibility of mines being carried down to such a depth, that it wiU be practi- cable to excavate the coal during the winter months only. Pressure. — It is impossible to speak with certainty of the effect of the accumulative weight of 3000, or 4000 feet of strata on mining operations. In all probability, one effect would be to increase the density of the coal itself, and of its accompanying strata, and so to -increase the difficulty of excavating. Coal-mining labours under a disadvantage not felt in mining other minerals, namely, the impossibility in general of having recourse to blast- ing. The increased firmness of the strata will most assuredly be felt ; but the question whether its resist- ance will prove beyond the powers of manual skill and mechanical contrivances to surmount, can only be solved by actual experience. I am informed by Mr. Bryham, that from his experience the density of coal-seams is not perceptibly greater at 500, or600yards, than at half that depth. In the face of these two obstacles — temperature and pressure, ever increasing with the depth — ^I have con- sidered it Utopian to include in calculations having reference to coal-supply, any quantity, however con- siderable, which lies at a greater depth than 4000 feet. Beyond that depth, I do not beKeve it wiU be found practicable to penetrate. Nature rises up and presents insurmountable barriers. AN INQUIRY INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. 235 Mecapitulation. The results at which we have arrived are briefly as follows : — 1. There are coal-deposits in various parts of Great Britain, at all depths, down to 10,000 or 12,000 feet. 2. That mining is possible to a depth of 4000 feet, but beyond this the high temperature is likely to prove a barrier. 3. The temperature of a coal-mine at a depth of 4000 feet will probably be found as high as 120° Fahr. ; but there is reason to believe, that by the agency of an efficient system of ventilation, this temperature may be so reduced, at least during the cooler months of the year, as to allow of mining operations without un- usual danger to health. 4. That for working mines of greater depth than 2000 or 2500 feet, underground stages, with independent winding machinery and engines, will be found not only to render very deep mining practicable, but also to lessen the amount of risk from accident. 5. Lastly. Adopting a depth of 4000 feet as the limit to deep mining, there is still a quantity of coal in store in Great Britain, sufficient to afford the present supply for a thousand years.* * See p. 236. — The quantity of coal in England and Wales would only afford the preeent supply of 72 millions for 1000 years ; but, with the Scottish Coal-fields included, the amount will allow of the increase above stated. 236 DURATION OF OUB COAL SUPPLY. CHAPTEE II. DUKATION OF OUE COAL -SUPPLY. The results we -have axrived at are from their nature definite and determinable. Thougli only approximately correct — perhaps rather overstating the coal-supply than the contrary, yet it is reassuring to know that there is an aTailable quantity of coal of 79,843 millions of tons, which, if di\dded by 72 millons of tons (the quantity raised in the year 1859 nearly), would last for no lesg than 1100 years. Yet we have no right to assume that such will be the actual duration ; for the history of coal-mining during the last half century has been one of rapid advance. The actual amount of this increase is rather uncertain, owing to the fact that, until the collection of the mineral sta- tistics by Mr. E. Hunt, of the Mining Eecord office, we had no returns upon which much dependence could be placed. According to Mr. M'CuUoch, the quantity of coal raised in 1840 was 30 millions of tons ; and taking the quantity raised in 1860 at 72 millions, it would appear that the produce had more than doubled itself in twenty years. Supposing that Mr. M'Culloch's estimate is rather below the truth, we shall assume that, in the twenty years ending 1860, the supply exactly doubled DUEATIOK OF OUR COAL SUPPLY. 237 itself. Now if we liad reason to expect that the in- crease of future years was to progress in the same ratio, we might well tremble for the result ; for that would be nothing less than the utter exhaustion of our coal-fields, with its concomitant influence upon our popu- lation, our commerce, and national prosperity, in the short period of 172 years ! The following calculation brings us to this result. — The produce in the year — Total supply, = 79,843 Millions of tons. That is to say — the total available supply would be ex- hausted before the lapse of the yeai- 2034.* But are we reaUy to expect so rapid a di-ain in future years ? — I think not ; and for the following reasons. In the first place, we may expect that America will come to our aid in assisting to supply the world with coal. As I have already shown, the supply irom that great reservoir has hitherto been extremely limited ; and as appears by the returns, Britain actually exported 201,436 tons during the year 1859, to the United States. • It is scarcely necessary to observe that the exhaustion of our coal- fields could never in any case take place abruptly. The supply must reach a maximum, and afterwards gradually decline. Millions of tons 1860 was 72 \ —80 would be 144 1900 288 —20 576 —40 1,152 K -60 2,304 -80 4,608 2000 9,216 -20 18,432 —33-34 42,979 1 238 DUEATION OF ODB COAL SUPPLY. She has also largely shipped her coal into almost every port in the Old and New World, including those of Brazil, West Indies, and the British Colonial Possessions — countries whose rocks are more or less richly stored with this very commodity. We need not dwell upon her exports to other parts of the world, collected and tabulated with admirable industry by Mr. Hunt.* In glancing over the long catalogue of names, we scarcely miss a single territory of note in any part of the globe. But such an outflow of the life-blood of this country cannot long contiaue, while on the opposite shore of the Atlantic there He in their pristine integrity coal-bearing tracts upwards of seventy times the area of our own. According to all the laws of commerce, the steady rise in the price of coal ia this country, enhanced by ship- ment to far distant ports, must call into existence the dormant energies of our neighbours who, by a moderate amount of mining enterprise, are well capable of at least relieving us of the privilege of supplying the New World with mineral fuel Another reason for not anticipating an increase as rapid as that of the preceding quarter of a century is, that there has until lately been a great, and in some cases culpable waste, both in the getting and using of the mineral. This arose from a variety of causes — imperfect modes of mining, and the impossibility of obtaining a market for any but the finest qualities of whole, or unbroken coal. At present very .little of a good coal-seam is left behind in the mines ; and the * Mineral Statistics, 1859. DURATION OF CUB COAL SUPPLY. 239 small coal, or slack, which used formerly to be left be- hind, or else destroyed, is now raised and sold at a cheaper tate than the block coaL Greater economy is also being effected in the use of the precious mineral. Owing to its high price, even ia the mining districts themselves, manufacturers are sub- stituting for the old wasteful boilers, others, for which an equal amount of steam can be generated at the ex- pense of one-third of the fuel previously used. Thus the increased price of coal is producing the salutary effect of husbanding the supply ; and we cannot but feel that it is a crime to waste a single ton. On the other hand, there are constantly in operation certain causes, natural, political, and commercial, tend- ing to accelerate the drain. The first of these is the in- crease of population in our own country : and Mr. Hunt informs me, as the result of his experience, that for every additional person born there is required an additional ton of coal. Now, during the last fifty years the population of Great Britain has increased nearly nine millions ; and though we can scarcely expect an increase in the same ratio, owing to the greater impetus which emigration has received lately, yet, until those compensatory influ- ences which are in constant operation, shall bring about an equilibrium between the capacity of the land and the number of its inhabitants — a very distant prospect, — we have here a most certain cause of an increased drain on our coal supply. We may however reasonably expect that the advance of science wiU enable us materially to 240 DURATION OP OUK COAL SUPPLY. economise fuel, even for domestic purposes; but even on this supposition, we must allow an increase of one million of tons for every five years, for increase of popu- lation alone.* The next great cause, or rather system of influences, likely to accelerate the drain of our coal, is the increase of our manufactures —at present very rapid — and the gradual substitution, to a large extent, of steam-vessels for ships in our navy and mercantile marine. It requires no gift of prophecy to foresee to how great an extent this is likely to proceed ; and in the next half century, the sail may be of the two the rarer means of propul- sion. In this, however, lies our safety. I can conceive the coal-fieldsjof this country so far exhausted, that the daughter in her maturity shall be able to pay back to the mother more than she herself received. May we not look forward to a time when those " water-lanes " which both dissever and unite the Old and New World, shall be trod by keels laden with the coal-ptoduce of America, for the ports of Britain ? and in such,a traffic, there wiU be abundant use for vessels as capacious and swift as the " Great Eastern." The third and last cause which I shall notice is the export to Continental countries. At present this amounts to about 4:^ miUions of tons ;t an amount Kkely to in- * As the population increases in an accelerated ratio, a proportionate increase in the coal supply would also be necessary ; but for our pur- pose the above is sufficiently near for the next half century t 4,316,136 tons in 1859. DUKATION OP OUR COAL SUPPLY, 241 crease, owing to the repeal of the protective duty. I tliink it will scarcely be denied, that Parliament granted an unwilling assent to a measure which gave an un- limited freedom to the drainage of our resources in the special article of coal. That measure was carried chiefly, though not altogether, in deference to the great priu- ciple of free-trade ; but even the most ardent advocates of free commercial intercourse cannot but be aware that the doctrine may not be ap[ilicable to a mineral which, when once consumed, cannot be reproduced. That we shall ultimately return to the principle of retaining for our own use that mineral upon which the wealth, com- merce, and political influence of this country so largely depends, can only be a question of time. It may possibly arise, however, that the vertical limit of luioing shall be ultimately regulated more according to the laws of commerce, than from the influence of physical obstacles. Even before reaching those depths where either the temperatmre of the mines, or the in- creased density of the mineral, may render mining im- practicable, other countries may come into the market, and be able to supply Britain with fuel at a cheaper rate than she can supply herself. The deeper the mines, the larger the outlay in the first instance, and the gxcater the expense of mining ever after ; and these expenses in- crease in a more rapid ratio than the deirth. Thus, if it cost lOOjOOOZ. to open a colKery at a depth of 2000 feet, it would probably require 250,'OOOZ. to open one at twice that depth. The value of the coal must therefore increase in a proportionate rate with the outlay ; and it B 242 DUBATION OF OUE COAL SUPPLY. may therefore one day so happen, that the price of coal in BritaiQ shall reach such a poiat, that other countries may step ui and undersell our own colliery-proprietors. Now, if ever such a state of affairs arrives (and judging by the analogy of the past, not always a safe guide, such a course of events appears certaiu), the only coimtry likely to enter into the market is America. Can we not see in this another impulse to the westward march of civili- zation ? And may not the incubus of slavery find rehef by the diversion of the industry of those large tracts, now constituting the Slave States, into new channels ? The factories of Britain, supplied with the raw material from her Indian Empire on the one hand, are fed by the coal-fields of America on the other. Thus placed as she is iu a central position, accessible on every hand by sea, and supplied with machinery, she still remains the great workshop of the world. Like the heart which gives back, renewed and fitted for its functions, the blood it receives crude and impure, and thus imparts energy and life to the whole frame, so Britaiu, the world's great heart, may be destined to play a similarly important part ia that world's future life. America possesses, in her great rivers, noble highways for pouring forth into the broad ocean the riches of her coal-fields, even inde- pendently of artificial means of transport ; the progress of steam-navigation leads us to expect that not long hence the average time for crossing the Atlantic wiU. be seven days; and it therefore requires no prophetic powers to foresee the accomplishment of Captain Mamy's fine thought — of the formation of real, though invisible, DURATION OP OUR COAL SUPPLY. 243 water-lanes through the dissociabilis ceqiu/r connecting Britain and America, along which, to avoid catastrophe, it wUl be as necessary for steam-vessels to steer their course, as for trains running in opposite directions on the same railway, to keep to different lines of rails. How far these speculations shall have their fulfilment, time only can show. We are short-sighted creatm-es at best ; and God is as merciful as He is wise, in denying to us the power of looldng far into the future. It camiot, however, be otherwise than assuring to know, that even such an event as the exhaustion of our own coal-supply, however far or near in time, will not necessarily be at- tended with the utter collapse of our national industiy ; because America is ready, when the time arrives, to stretch forth the helping hand. The coal-fields of Eussia are also of large extent ; and though but very partially developed, or even explored, may yet be destined to play a large part in the com* merce of Europe. Meanwhile science, and especially chemistiy, we may feel sure, will not be slow in eliminating for our use the light and heat that is everywhere around us. The re- searches of Dr. J oule have shown that these agents are only a kind of motion — or rather the results of motion in matter ; and that matter we have in water, in air, and in a thousand embodied forms ; nor can we suppose that any part of the Creator's universe has been regulated on so short-sighted a plan, that it shall become disorganized because some of the elements necessary to its economy have failed. Leaving these speculations, let us look at the subject 244 DUEATION OF OUE COAL SUPPLT. from a practical point of -view. I have already stated my reasons for believing that the increase of production, reckoned from the earlier part of the present century, is not to be considered as an iadex to that of future years. The estimates for those years are little more than guesses ; and the expansion of commerce during them was ex- ceptional. I prefer taking as an index the increase for the last five years, which, as I have shown, amounts to about IJ nullion of tons per annum, or 150 millions in a century. At this rate of increase, let lis examine for what length of time the available supply, to a depth of 4000 feet, would be likely to last. Taking the total available quantity of coal in Great Britain at 79,843 millions of tons, it will be seen by the following table that, with the above rate of increase, it would be only sufficient for upwards of 300 years. Produce in the years — •' Millions of tons. I860 . . 72 1860 - - 1900 2,940 Total supply. 1900 - - 2000 13 ,350 = 79,843 2000 - - 2100 28,350 Millions of tons 2100 - - 2185 35,131 The reader will, however, concur with me in the opinion that prognostications extending to three cen- turies are as useless as they are likely to prove erroneous. We need scarcely trouble ourselves with the destiny of the race of the fifth or sixth generation. The produc- tion of coal can never in any case reach a maximum and then suddenly collapse ; and it is very doubtful if the circumstances of the coal-fields would admit of a much greater di-ain in any one year than one hundred millions DURATION OF OUR COAL SUPPLY. 245 of tons, or 10,000 millions in a century. In this case the supply is sufiScient for eight centuries. In the first edition of this work, it was stated that there was sufficient coal in England and Wales to last, at the present rate of production, or 60 million of tons, for a thousand years. The calculation here given in- cludes Scotland : and we find that in the whole of Great Britain the supply is sufficient to last for upwards of a thousand years, with a production of 72 millions of tons annually. It thus appears that the drain on the Scottish coal-fields, in proportion to their powers of production, is far less than on those of England and ^Yales in propor- tion to theirs. Nor have the resources of Scotland been exaggerated ; as it will be observed that my estimate is gi'eatly below that of previous authorities. CHAPTER III. THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD OF BRITAIN. There is an economic interest attaching to this subject which rarely falls to the lot of geological speculations. It involves the (question of the extent to which the Coal- formation may be inferred to underlie the south-eastern parts of England, where it dips under, and is for ever concealed beneath the newer formations. We have to inquire whether the whole extent of country in the direction of the Thames and the Channel was so far depressed during the coal-period as to admit of the 246 THE PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHY OP THE growth of vegetation and the deposition of strata, or, on the other hand, retained the character of a mountainous tract of dry land. It then remains for inquiry how much of the coal formed over a portion of this tract was sub- sequently removed by denudation of the old seas. LuTvd Surface of Central England. — Mr. Jukes was the first to show, what is now generally admitted upon stratigraphical grounds,* that during the deposition of aU the older, and the greater portion of the newer Carboni- ferous strata, including the Coal-measures, a tract of land stretched. right across the centre of England, from Here- ford and Salop, in the direction of the Wash. This tract formed a barrier between the coal-fields of the northern and central counties, and those of South Wales, Somerset- shire, and the Forest of Dean. In a westerly direction, it comprehended probably the greatest part of the North Welsh Highlands, and those parts of Shropshire which include the Longmynd and neighbouring ranges. The boundaries of this land towards the north were doubtless irregular, and we may suppose it to have 'been varied by bays and headlands. One of these headlands probably protruded northwards, along the western side of the Coalbrook Dale coal-field.t Within the bays, the coal-fields of the Clee HiUs, and the southern extremities of those of the Forest of Wyre and Warwickshire were probably formed. Nor can it be doubted that the thinnmg away of the strata, the deterioration of the coal-seams, and the absence of the lower portions of the * Memoir on the South Staffordshire Coal-field, 2nd edit. t About 1 J mile north of Wellington, in a boring beneath the New Ked Sandstone, ti'ap was found. CAUBONIFEEOUS PERIOD OF BRITAIN. 247 Coal-measures at the southern extremities of the four coal-tracts of the central counties, indicate the proximity of land. • The old Cambrian rocks of Chamwood Forest, though once partially covered by coal-strata, and the bosses of trap which project through the Eed Marl, east of Atherstone, help us to trace the margin of the old coast. Its further course we can only attempt to define upon theoretical considerations to have been towards the north-east, entering the sea somewhere be- tween the Humber and the Wash, and stretching in the direction of the Scandinavian promontory. The southern margin of this land-surface is even more diflScult to define than the northern, and it is, therefore, impossible for us to determine with any degree of certainty, whether any part of that large tract lying between the valley of the Thames, and the coal- fields of the central counties is underlaid by produc- tive Coal-measures. The Oolitic and Lower Cretaceous strata along the Thames valley, near Farringdon and Abingdon, as shown by Mr. Godwin-Austen, afford indications of the proximity of ancient palseozoict rocks. The Portland Limestone and the Lower Greensand are filled with pebbles, in the latter of large size, composed * Mr. Jukea states that deep borings at the southern extremity of the South Staffordshire coal-field have proved the absence of those lower measures which, further north, are so rich in ironstone. (Iron Ores of Great Britain.) A bank of Silurian rocks is also known to stretch for some distance along the east side of this coal-field, which cuts out the coal-measures, as proved at Lord Dartmouth's colliery. South-east of Rowley, the main coal becomes so split by sandstone, and thins out so rapidly, as frequently to be not worth working. t i. e. Silurian or Cambrian. 248 THE PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY OE THE of Lydian stone, quartz rock, and slate. Whatever the age of the rocks from which these pebbles have been drifted, they are certainly older than the Carboniferous ; but they may have been upheaved and laid bare after the Carboniferous epoch. Again, at Harwich,* slate-rock apparently cleaved, and in aU probability older than the Carboniferous period, has been proved by boriug beneath the Tertiary strata. The deep artesian boring at Kentish Town is very in- structive. At a depth of 1122 feet from the surface, and underneath the Gault, a conglomerate bed was dis- covered, and Mr. Prestwich,t who closely watched the progress of the work, states that this conglomerate yielded specimens of various old and crystaUiae rocks, as syenite, greenstone, porphyry, quartz, and granular schist, with traces of fossUs ; all evidently of a pre- Carboniferous age. Underneath these were foimd beds of reddish sandstones and marl of uncertain age. It is much to be wished the boring had been carried a few yards further down. It would, therefore, appear, from the evidence of these conglomerates of various ages, that they are in the neighbourhood of very old crystalline and schistose rocks, though it is impossible to say how far the pebbles may have travelled. On the other hand, the evidence of the extension of the coal-formation iato the counties immediately north of the Thames is absolutely nothing. * Jour. Geol. Society, vol. xiv. Mr. Prestwioh, Sir C. Lyell, and Mr. Briatow, have all stated to myself their opinion that these slate specimens are of an earlier date than the Oarboniferous Appen- dix H. CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD OP BRITAIN. 249 District South of the Thames. — It has been seen that the coal-fields of Belgium and France stretch in the form of a deep trough from Liege towards Boulogne. Here we lose all trace of the Carboniferous rocks till « c) reach Somersetshire, where we find the axis of up- heaval along the range of the Mendip Hills, directly in line with, and corresponding to that of the Carboniferous strata of France, known as the axis of Artois. Hence it has been suggested by Mr. Godwin- Austen* that the one may be a prolongation of the other, under the Cretaceous and Wealden groups, south of the valley of the Thames. In uci'ordance with this theory, wo might expect a band of Coal-measures, continuous with that of Somersetshire, to stretch under Salisbury Plain, or the Vale of Wardour, and right across the country towards Dover; and that some such general aiTange- ment of the strata actually exists is highly probable. It is not, however, generally known that at its southern extremity the Somersetshire coal-field is actually a basin, and that the lowest beds of the Coal-measures rise to the east and terminate under the Lias and Oohte, before reacliing Frome, Bradford, and Bath. This fact, proved, as I am assui-ed by my friend Mr. Etheridge, by several borings and pits, may well lead us to be cautious in speculating on the existence of coal along the supposed axis of the Thames Valley. The uprisiug of the Lower Carboniferous rocks, west of Bradford, may be, and probably is, merely a local irregnilarity. It is in consequence of a Kne of dislocation which, ranging * Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xi. 250 THE PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHT OF THE along the Malvern Hills, produces the upheaval of the coal-field by Chipping Sodbury and Cleeve Bridge, near Dointon, and twists round the limestone of the Mendip Hills, from the east to the north-east and north.* Not- withstanding such an interruption, there is every pro- bability that the Coal-formation again roUs in further to the east, in the form of a trough, as already explained ; but the possibility of similar upheavals of the older rocks, renders it impossible to speculate with precision upon a subject of so much economic,, as well as theo- retical, interest.! The. North-westerly Drift of the Goal-measures. — It is a most interesting fact, that the strata which compose the Coal-measures thin away towards the south-east of England, and expand in volume towards the north-west. I have elsewhere shown that this is also true in the case of the Triassic, Liassic, and some members of the Oolitic formations. J The same principle has been shown by Professor Phillips § to hold good in the case of some of the Carboniferous series of Yorkshire, and by Mr. Geikie in the case of the coal-series of Scotland, where the sandstones and shales show a marked tendency to become thicker towards the north-west. These phenomena aU point to the conclusion that, during the Carboniferous and subsequent periods, a continent or large tract o * See ante, p. 79. t In the map, I have indicated the possible extension of this band of coal-bearing strata by faint shading. X " On the south-easterly attenuation of the lower Secondary for- mations," &c. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xvi. § " Geology of Yorkshire," p. 176. CAEB0NIFEE0TJ8 PEEIOD OF BRITAIN. 251 land occupied the North Atlantic, and was drained by rivers, and swept by currents, which poured the sedi- mentary matter composing these rocks over the sub- merged portions of Britain. I shall now give, as shortly as possible, the principal points in evidence of this south-easterly attenuation. 1. If we compare the Carboniferous series of Scotland with the corresponding strata in the north of England, we shall find that, in the former coimtry, the sediment- ary materials predominate enormously over those in the latter. 2. If we compare the Coal-measures (above the mill- stone grit) of Lancashire, with those of North Stafford- shire, and this with South Staffordshire, we shall find a gradual lessening in the development of the strata from the north to the south. Thus : — Thickness of Coal-measures in feet. Lancashire. North Staffordshire. South Staffordshire. 6,800 5,000 1,810 The difference would appear stiU more striking if we had included tlie Lower Carboniferous series. 3. Again, if we compare the same sets of strata in Lancashire and South Derbyshire, or Leicestershire, we shall find the same fact borne out ; thus : — Lancashire. South Derbyshire. Leicestershire. Coal-measures .. .. 6,800 3,500 2,500 MiUstoue Grit and 1 g g^^ gQO 75 Yoredale Series. 12,300 4,100 2,575 From the above sections, on the accuracy of which 252 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OP THE the utmost reliance may be placed, it will be ob- served how rapidly the sedimentary materials decrease in volume towards the south-east ; and we might there- fore be justified in concluding that, had the form of the old sea-bed admitted of it, the Carboniferous rocks would have ultimately died out towards the escarpment of the Chalk from failure of sediment. This was probably pre- vented by the barrier of land which, as we have reason to believe, stretched across the region now occupied by the Lias, Oolite, and Chalk. Of the conclusions, then, we have arrived at, this is the sum. 1. The Midland and Northern coal-fields were separated from those of South Wales, Gloucester, and Somerset, by a tract of land of old Silurian or Cambrian rocks, the southern limits of which it is not possible to define with accuracy; but it is probable that it included the greater part of the district north of the Thames. 2. To the south of this tract of land lies another, but contemporaneous, system of Carboniferous rocks, extend- ing, with many interruptions, from the coianty of Pem- broke, through those of Griamorgan, Somerset, Wilts, Surrey, Kent, and across the north of France into Bel- gium. 3. The Carboniferous rocks of the central and north- ern counties, as well as those of Scotland, experience a rapid increase in thickness towards the north-west. The same law holds good also in regard to the lower Secondary formations, and leads us to infer the exist- ence, throughout these periods, of a great tract of land, CAEBONIPEROUS PERIOD OF BRITAIN. 253 lying in the dii-ectiou of the North Atlantic, of which the Scottish Highlands may have formed part. From the waste and denudation of this great Atlantic Continent, were derived the materials of which the Car- boniferous and newer formations were built up ; and if we could restore these formations to their pristine dimen- sions, and measure their volume, we should then be able to tell how great was the amount of waste this old con- tinent experienced ; and we might roughly estimate the period of its duration. The Highlands of Cumberland and Wales were also elevated for the most part dm-ing the same lapse of time. The details on the map have been drawn in accord- ance with the above conclusions, and will enable the reader to discover whether any particular district is underlaid by the coal-formation, and if so, at what depth from the surface. CHAPTEK IV. COINCIDENCES IN ENGLISH GEOLOGY. There are certain coincidences in the history of the coal-period, in the characters of the strata which enfold the mineral itself, and in the present distribution of the carboniferous rocks relatively to those of more recent formation, which ought not to be left unnoticed in a work treating of the British coal-fields. The combina- 254 COraCIDENOES in ENGLISH GEOLOGY. tion, in the same system of strata, of coal, iron, and lime has long since been used by Dr. Buckland and subse- quent writers as evidence that the strata have not been allowed to accumulate altogether without an ordained plan. But whatever weight may be allowed to an argument for the wisdom and goodness of the Creator drawn from these sources (and on this point there will always be much diversity of opinion), it derives additional force from a consideration of the stratigraphical arrange- ment of the rocks themselves. Whether it proves any- thing or not, the subject is at least of sufficient theore- tical interest to claim our consideration for a few moments.* It has already been shown that the Coal-measures of England thin away and ultimately die out towards the south-eastern counties, and also that most of the region lying between Staffordshire, Warwickshire, and Leicester- shire on the one hand, and the valley of the Thames and Channel on the other was dry land during the period of the productive Coal-measures, and is therefore desti- tute of coal. So that if this district, stretching east- ward to the sea, and southward to the Thames, were stript of its covering of Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Triassic rocks, we should in all probability find a bare tract of Cambro-SHurian slates and porphyries. Now when we cast our eyes over a geological map of England, the feature which most forcibly arrests our * The reader will be assisted in understanding this subject by referring to the Map wMcli accompanies the volume. COINCIDENCES IN ENGLISH GEOLOGY. 255 attention is the manner in which the formations are dis- posed. We observe them to stretch diagonally across the island in successive bands, outcropping towards the north-west, and dipping under each other in the oppo- site direction, so that if we make a traverse, for instance, along the line of the London and North-AVestem Eail- way, we pass in succesi on all the formations from the Tertiary to the Carboniferous between London and Dudley. Now, all this is owing to the strata having been upheaved towards the north-west, and a vast por- tion of them having been carried away by marine denu- dation ; * for had they been left undisturbed and in their original horizontal positions, the older formations, in- cluding the Coal-measures, would have remained buried beneath the newer at great depths. Again : a comparison of a number of sections made during the progress of the Geological Survey, have led me to the conclusion that those formations which overlie the Coal-measures, including the Permian, New Red Sandstone, and Lias, have a tendency to thin out towards the south-east (as is also the case with the Coal-measures themselves), and on the other hand, to become most fully devoloped in the direction of the L-ish Sea between Wales and Westmoreland. This will be rendered clear by the following comparative sections, founded on actual admeasurements, between the north- west and south-east of the midland counties. * When land is placed either during elevation or subsidence within the action of the waves, it is liable to destruction from their attacks, while the tide or other currents carry away the materials to other parts of the ocean. 256 COINCIDENCES IN ENGLISH GEOLOGY. CheaUre and Laucashii-e, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, N. W. Midland. S.B. New Bed ] Keuper series .. 3.450 ft. .. 1,200 ft. .. 600 ft. Sandstone I Bunter „ .. 2,150,, .. 800,, .. absent. or Trias. J 5,600 „ .. 2,000 „ .. 600 ft. Here it -will be observed that the attein:\,ation of the Trias is so rapid, as to lead us to infer that in its pro- longation southward and eastward from Warwickshire it scarcely extends below the Chalk of Cambridge or Bedfordshire. In order to extend this comparison of developement to the Lias, I shall now giye the following compara- tive sections measured on several occasions at Bredon Cloud,* a hiU at the north-west of Gloucestershire, at the Cotteswold Hills near Wiuchcombe, and in the valley of the Evenlode at Stonesfield in Oxfordshire.t ""'t^T'' Cotteswold Hills. St°-|eU. [Upper .. 380 feet. 200 feet. 10 feet. Lias j Middle.. 250 „ 150 „ 15 „ I Lower .. 700 „ unknown unknown. The positions of the above localities lie in a relative direction from N. N. W. to E. S. E., nearly parallel to that of the attenuation of the Trias, and although the depth of the Lower Lias has not been proved in Oxford- shire, analogy leads us to infer that it thins out in that direction ; while upon the same principles we cannot but conclude that all the members of this formation * Hor. Sec. Geol. Survey, sheet 60. t " Geology of Woodstock," Mem. Geol. SiUTcy. COINCIDENCES IN ENGLISH GEOLOGY. 257 originally overspread the plains of Lancashii-e and Cheshire in great force.* The distribution of the lower Permian strata is some- wliat irregular, as they attain a thickness of 1,800 or 2,000 feet in Staffordshire and Warwickshire. Their develop- ment in Lancashire is variable. It is therefore evident that the Coal-measures of the central and north-western counties of England and Wales have been at one time buried beneath an enor- mous accumulation, amounting to several thousand feet, of lower Mesozoic strata ;t but it is still more worthy of observation that this greatest vertical development took place over those districts which are occupied by the rich coal-fields of the shires of Derby and York, Lan- caster, Flint and Denbigh, Salop and Stafford, sub- sequently laid bare and rendered accessible by suc- cessive denudations. On the other hand, as we have seen, the same post-Carboniferous strata become thinnest in the direction of the Thames valley, over those dis- tricts where we believe the Coal-measures have never been formed, and where, if penetrated, we should only reaeli Cambro-Silurian rocks of a date anterior to the Coal-formation. Thus we see that the marine denuda- tion has been more active and effectual in removing thfi Secondary strata over those parts of England where they overspread the Coal-formation, than in those dis- tricts where they overlie rocks older than, and there- fore destitute of, coal. * Outliers of the Lower Lias occur in Cheshire and Cumberland, the remnants of a once wide-spread formation. t The terms Mesozoic and Secondary are sjTionymons. S 258 z ■a '^ S g ^ « o 12! h . ^ •act] I §" ►J 'a = E.g £. 5 as ^S m g a ^ ■a a 3 • ri The reader will be as- sisted in the comprehen- sion of this subject by the following ideal section, which (minor details being omitted) is intended to illustrate the past and pre- sent distribution of these strata along a band of country stretching from north-west to south-east across Central , England. (Fig. 17.) The original foundation upon which rests the Car- boniferous system is shown to be the Silurian and Cambrian rocks, as we find to be the case in Stafford- shire and Leicestershire. The Coal-measures are re- presented by a black band, thickest towards the north- west, becoming thinner and ultimately ending against the older rocks towards the south-east. The over- lying formations are also represented, each outcrop- ping in succession towards COINCIDENCES IN ENGLISH GEOLOGY. 259 the north-west, in which direction they become most largely developed, and thinning away towards the south- east. It will be observed that the Coal-formation comes to the surface where it is most productive, and that the overlying formations have been most unspar- ingly swept away where they have originally been depo- sited in greatest force. Now this enormous denudation is a consequence of the upheaval which the formations have experienced at several periods ; and as the strata on the whole dip towards the south-east, the elevatory forces have con- stantly acted with greatest energy in the direction of Wales, Westmoreland, and the north-western counties, also along an axis passing along tlie Pennine chain, and over the areas of several of the coal-fields ; but they have all combined to produce one grafld result, namely, the exposure of the Carboniferous rocks towards the north-west of England. Let us now regard this subject from another point of view. Supposing for a moment that the elevatory forces had acted with greatest energy and effect along the south-east of England so as to produce a general dip towards the north-west, in other words, in a direc- tion opposite to the actual dip of the strata, what, let us inquire, would have been the result ? The answer is obvious, and we can state positively that, to all intents and purposes, England would have been almost as destitute of coal as she would have been had there been no Carboniferous formation. Let the reader glance at the ideal section (p. 258), and then imagine 260 COINCIDENCES IN ENGLISH GEOLOGY. the dip reversed, and the denudation to have taken place principally towards the south-eastern side. Two results will at once present themselves. In the first place the old pre-Carboniferous rocks — those of the Cambro-Silurian system — would occupy the right-hand side of the section, and on the lefl>hand side the Coal- formation would nowhere reach the surface, as it would lie buried beneath an accumulative depth of Secondary rocks : upon it would be piled strata belonging to the Permian, Triassic, Liassic, and Oolitic systems, 6000 to 8000 feet in depth, renderiag it iuaccessible. Even supposing the elevation of the highlands of England and Wales to have occurred for the most part, as was undoubtedly the case, after the Carboniferous period, these mountains would have been enveloped and pro- bably smothered in the embrace of the post-Carboni- ferous strata, and the highlands of England would have lain along the region now occupied by the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. Under these conditions, Britain would have formed but an appendage of the European Continent. She could not, in all probability, have as- sumed that insular position which, through the favour of an overruling Providence, has rendered her " a shadow from the heat, a refuge from the storm" to the oppressed of Christendom. I think, then, it must be evident that there is a happy relationship between the origiaal formation of the rocks and their present distribution; we might even go further, and say that it is highly advantageous, if not the best possible. If the elevatory forces ha:d COINCIDENCES IN ENGLISH GEOLOGY. 261 exerted themselves over the south-east instead of the north-west of England the result would have been disastrous, the former region would have become a mountainous tract, similar to that of AA' ales, the latter an undulating plain, fitted, indeed, for agriculture, but unproductive of mineral treasures. The concurrence of events here referred to is the more remarkable as there is no apparent connection between the direction of the elevatory forces and the strata which are influenced by them. Two great series of events, each necessary to give effect to the other, and fraught with the highest temporal blessings to mankind, followed in due course. In a particular por- tion of our island rich mineral treasures were laid up, but they would never have become available if the internal forces of the earth had taken a direction differ- ing from the reality. As it is, the Carboniferous rocks have been placed within reach over those districts where they are most rich in coal and iron, while that portion of the country where we have reason to believe they were never formed, is mantled over with strata, which, if not peculiarly rich in mineral productions, is profusely stored with the medals of a past creation. 262 APPENDIX. A. EOSB BbIDGE CoLLIEKT, near WlGAlf. In this colliery two, or rather three, coal-seams are worked. The shaft was originally sunk to the " Pemberton Four-feet" Coal in 1854, and for three years this seam was worked to a considerable extent. In September, 1857, another shaft was commenced at some distance from the former one, to extend from the "Pemberton Pour-feet" mine, to the " Cannel " and " King " Coals which here lie nearly close together, and which were won on June 30th, 1858. Engine, boiler, and winding machinery were then erected in a chamber hollowed out in the workings of the Pemberton Pour-feet Coal, and the trucks from the workings of the Cannel and King Coal, after having been lifted by the imderground engine are wheeled along a tramway to the bottom of the upper shaft, through which they are raised to the surface. The use of two or more lifts or stages produces a loss of time and outlay, but has the advantage of allowing of the working of very deep coal-beds without the risks and dangers APPENDIX. 263 always attending such undertakings. It is probable that this moans will be generally adopted for working coal-seams from 2000 to 3000, or even 4000 feet in depth. B, In 1699, Newcastle had two-thirds of the coal-trade, and 300,000 chaldrons, in all, went annually to London. The over-sea trade • employed 900,000 tons of shipping. Coals about that time sold in London for 18s. a chaldron, out of which 5x. were paid to the king. Is. 6d. to St. Paul's, and Is. 6d. metage. It was then stated to the House of Com- mons that 600 ships, one vidth another of the burden of eighty Newcastle chaldrons, were employing 4,500 men, requisite for carrying on the trade. Hist. Fossil Fuel, p. 318. JEneas Sylvius, afterwards Pope Pius II. The following is the passage taken from that part of the travels of .ffineas Sylvius, relating to Scotland. The account of that kingdom is finished off within the space of one page, which, however, is as much as it had any right to expect, the whole of the British Isles being graphically portrayed by means of three times that quantity of letter-press, and of a sketch-map, which is the more easy of comprehension, as it ignores distance, and is remarkable for simplicity of detail. After dwelling on the scarcity of trees for fuel and other purposes in Scotland at this time (probably the end of the 14th century), he proceeds to describe the following mar- 264 APPENDIX. •vellous spectacle, of which he was a witness, " Nam pauperes pene nudos ad templa mendicantes, acceptis lapidibus elee- mosynss gratia datis, l»tos abiisse conspeximus ; id genus lapidis, sive sulphurea, sive alia pingui materia prreditmn, pro ligno, quo regio nuda est, comburitur." — Be Scotia : " Opera,'' chai>. xlvi. " OkdINATIO ViCAEiE EoClESLS! DE Mbeeington." 1843. " Necnon, et medietatem pecimire dedecima minerae car- bonem Willielmi de Het, et heredum suorum." "History of Durham," by E. Surtees, 1828. Appendix, vol. iii. p. 396. Lighting Mines befoeb the Invention or the Davy Lamp. There were, however, other means adopted for giving a feeble and uncertain light. The steel mill was the invention most frequently employed in the northern counties ; a de- scription and figure of which is given in the " History of Fossil Fuel." By means of a multiplying wheel, a steel periphery was made to revolve rapidly in contact vrith a piece of flint, by which a, succession of sparks was produced. The sparks, being formed of minute particles of steel heated to redness, are incapable of igniting the explosive gases of the mine, though sufficiently bright to Hght dimly the workings. In those mines where earburetted hydrogen gas existed in minute quantities, naked candles were employed for lighting, and gunpowder for blasting. APPENDIX. 265 D. The following explanation of the terms here used, as given by Sir C. Lyell, may be of service to those unfamiliar with botanical nomenclature, especially in its application to paleeontology. Lindley. S § Ph Brongniart. 1 Oryptogamoua 1 amphigens, or cellular crypto- gamic. J 2 Oryptogamoua acrogens. '3 Dicotyledonous gymnospermB. 4 Dicot. Angiosperms. Exogens Thallogens. Lichens, sea-weeds, fungi. ,5 Monocotyledons. Endogens, Acrogens. Mosses, equisetums, ferns, lyco- podiums, — (Lepidodondron Sigillaria ? calamites, &c.) Gymnogens. Conifers and Cycads. Compositaj, legumiuosse, um- belliforso, cruciferse, rosacece, forest trees, &o. Probably no representatives in tie Car- boniferous flora. Palms, lilies, aloes, rushes, grasses. E. COAL-MINING IN ChINA. Marco Polo, who travelled through China towards the close of the 13th century, mentions coal as one of the com- modities in use in his time in that coimtry. At the present day, it is worked in the cliffs of the Pe-Kiang river at Ting- tih, by means of adits driven into the side of the hiU at the outcrop of the coal-seams. The works are carried on in the most primitive manner, without the aid of machinery, and the mode of working coal through vertical shafts, which may be considered, as the second stage in the art of mining, appears little known. In this respect, as in almost every 260 APPENDIX. other, the Chinese are far behind their neighbours the Japanese. Probably, if an inhabitant of the celestial em- pire were shown some of the largest collieries of Newcastle, or Wigan, he would scarcely deign to look at them, or would gravely inform you that they have similar, or better • machinery, and deeper mines " Pekin side." Mr. Oliphant states that coal is procured from a mine about five mUes distant from the important city of Whang- shih-kang, or " Yellow Stone,*" on the river Yang-tse-kiang, situated about 400 miles from its mouth. — " Narrative of Lord Elgin's Mission to China and Japan," vol. ii. p. 389. F. Coal-mining— Japan. Mr. Oliphant states that coal is raised in Japan somewhat extensively — but as a Government monopoly. One mine, at a place called Wuku Moto, in the interior of the main island of Niphon, was visited by some of the Dutch Mission. They describe the mine as being well and judiciously worked, and the coal as bituminous in its nature, and made into coke for use. That the coal is worked by means of vertical shafts appears from the fact that the Prince of Pizen once ordered a steam- engine from Europe for pumping the water out of his mines ; but, through the native jealousy of the presence of foreigners in the country, refused to allow the Dutch engineer to erect the machinery upon the spot. The Japanese, however, are qmte independent of European aid for such an object, as they thoroughly understand the construction and manage- ment of the steam-engine.—" Lord Elgin's Mission to China and Japan," vol. ii. Ktempfer, in his " History of Japan," also refers to the abundance of this mineral — stating that it is dug in great APPENDIX. 267 quantity in the province of Tsekusen, and in most of the northern provinces. This rich and productive empire also yields abundance of gold, silver, copper, and iron ; and the Japanese armourers excel the ^Europeans, and perhaps any other nation, in tempering steel. G. Mr. Fordyce in his "History of Coal, Coke, and Coal- fields, 1860," gives the following account of the calculations which have been made regarding the duration of the Great Northern Coal-field of Durham and Northumberland. He says : " The most able mining engineers have based their calculations upon the various workable coal-seams, and upon the consumption of coal at the time of their inquiry ; hence different results have been arrived at without there being any material difference of opinion as to the quantity of coal yet unworked. Mr. Hugh Taylor, in his evidence before a Select Committee of the House of Lords, in 1829, based his calcu- lations upon the consumption of coal at 3,500,000 tons per annimi, and therefore estimated the dilation of the Northern Coal-field at 1727 years. This opinion has been adopted by various subsequent writers who, it would appear, have over- looked the annually increasing demand for the coal of the district. Were Mi-. Hugh Taylor giving an opinion at the present time, with a consmnption of about 17 milli on tons per anniun, instead of 3,500,000, it would only prove his state- ment to be pretty nearly correct as to the quantity of work- able coal in the counties of Durham and Northumberland. Mr. GreenweU states that 'the Northern Coal-field would continue 331 years ;' his estimates were made in 184:6, at which time he gives the consumption of coal at the rate of upwards of 10 millions of tons per annum. Mr. T. Y. Hall, in 268 APPENDIX. 1854, referring to the estimates of Mr. Taylor and Mr. Green- well, states, ' that various methods of calcidations by sections of different districts have been tried both by Mr. GreenweU and myself, unknown to each other, and the results, which it was impossible to anticipate, have been found to be perfectly similar as regards quantity.' Mr. Hall, in 1854, takes the annual consumption of coal at 14 millions of tons, including the small coal as saleable, and gives 365 years as the period at which this coal-field will be exhausted. He estimates the total quantity of coal that may be workable under the area of 750 square miles at . . . 8,182,805,757 tons. Deducting for loss and waste . 1,608,561,151 „ Ditto for quantity already extracted 898,812,433 „ Ditto for casualties, &c. . 553,543,217 „ Leaving for future use . . 5,121,888,956 „ This quantity divided by 14 millions, annually extracted for sales and pit consumption, gives 365 years. But fi-om the great annual increase in the demand for coal from this portion of the coal-field of Great Britain, Mr. Hall assumes that the consumption is not unlikely, before many years elapse, to reach not less than 20 millions of tons annually. Supposing that this quantity should be required, then, at that rate of demand, the coal-field would be exhausted in the course of 256 years." Mr. Fordyce appears to concur in these calculations of Mr. Hall ; for myself, I am ready to accept results which have been arrived at on independent grounds by persons so well acquainted with the district as the authors above named. My own calculations of the resources and the length of time necessary for their exhaustion is somewhat greater, arising, principally, from a smaller deduction for waste and loss than that assinned by Mr. Hall. APPENDIX. 269 H. BOEINO AT HaKWICH. The following are the particulars of this interesting trial in search of water : — Drift 25 foet Tertiary Strata 51i „ Chalk 888 „ Greenaand and Gault 61 „ Black Slaty Eock . . 44i „ 1070 Mr. Prestwich is eyidently inclined to refer the slate to the Silurian period. Its cleaved character, the absence of lime, and the trace of one fossil shell — apparently a large Posi- donia — seem to corroborate this view. INDEX. Africa, Coul deposits uear the Zambesi and the Cape, 204. Agricola, on Coal, 23. Albert Land, fossil wood from, 34 ; Coal, 216. AUeghanies, U. S., Structure of, 213. America, Coal-fields of, 205. Analysis of Ash, 57; of Coal, 58 Anglo-Norman Period, 17. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 15. Anglesca Coal-field, 105. Anthraoosia, 46, 124, 131 Anthracomya, 47. Antliiafite — South Wales, 67 ; Ireland, 149. Antrim Coal-field, 185. Appalachian Coal-field, 212. Arago, M., on temperatures of Artesitm Wells, 220. Arctic Eegions, Coal in, 216. Arloy Mine, Lancashire, 12, 123. Area of Coal-formation of England and Wales, 1S7. Arohegosaurus, 192 Arkansas, Coal-field of, 212. Ash of Coal, 56 ; composition of, 57. Ashby-de-la Zouch Coal-field,143 ; resources of, 146. Astley, Mr., experiments at Du- kinfield Colliery, 2-23. Asturias, Coal-field oi, 193. Australian Coal-fields, 202. Aveline, Mr. W. T., on the Coals of the Forest of Wyre, 88. Aviculo-pecten, 46, 127, 120, 162. Ayrshire Coal-fields, 176. Brtgworth Colliery, Leicestershire, 144. Ballycastlo Coal-field, 184. Barnsley, Coal-series at, 150. Basalt of the Clee Hills, 90 ; Coal- brook Dale, 93 ; Eowley Eegis, in. Bauerman, Mr., on Lignite of Van- couver Island, 215. Bay of Fundy, 207. Bear Mountains, U. S., Coal of, 214. Belcher, Sir E., on Arctic Eegions, 216. Belgium, Coal-produce, 29 ; Coal- fields, 189. Bedlingtonshire, 22. Bedworth, Warwickshire, 24. Belgium Coal-field, 189. Bevan, Mr., on Fossils of the South Wales Coal-field, 75. Binnej, Mr. E., on Fossils of the Chm-net Valley, 120; Iron Ore, Manchester, 128 ; on Stig- maria, 39 ; Flintshire Coal-field, 103. Bischof, Observations of formation of Coal, 56, 57, 272 INDEX. Blandford, Measrs., on the Indian Coal-fields, 199. Boghead Cannel, 170. Boldon Book, mention of Coal, 18, Bolsover Castle, 147. Borneo, Coal in, 201. Brazil, 218. Brimbo Colliery, 100. Brine in Coal, 146, 214. Britons, Ancient, 10. Bristol Coal-field, 75. Bristow, Mr., on the resources of the Forest of Dean Coal-field, 86. Breccia, Permian, 88. Brora Coal-field, 178. Brown Coal of Germany, 194, 195. Buckland, Dr., on duration of the Coal-fields, 2. Biickeburg Coal-field, 193. Buddie, Mr., on " the horse " of the Forest of Dean, 86. Burdiehouse Limestone, 168, 174 Burnley Coal-field, 132. Bryham, Mr., Observations on tem- perature at Kose Bridge Col- Hery, 231. Calamites, 35, 37. Cannel of Wigan, 24, 124. Cape Breton, Coal-field of, 209. Campbell's " Political Survey of Great Britain " quoted, 26. Camden's " Britannia" quoted, 21. Caatlecomer Coal-field, 181. Castle-Field, Manchester, 13. Charnwood Forest, 143. Cheadle Coal-field, 119. Ohellaston, Derbyshire, 18. Cheshire, depth of Coal in, 4. Charles I., Coal trade in reign of, 24. China, Coal in, 200. Churnet "Valley, Iron Ore of, 120. Clackmannan Coal-field, 176. Clee Hills, Coal-field of, 90. Clerk, Sir J., letters of, 26. Clyde Basin, Coal-field of, 168. Coal, origin of term, 15 ; forma- tion of, 31, 49, 54 ; composition of, 56, 62. Coal-measures, 54 ; tripartite di- vision of, 62. CoalbrookDale, Coal-field of, 93. Coal-mines, depths of, 5 ; early no- tices of, 20, 21, 22, 24. Coniferous plants of Coal period, 35, 42. Coventry Permian Eocks, 140. Craig, Mr. J., on the Coal-mea- sure Fossils of Scotland, 171. Crinoidea, 59, 60. Cumberland Coal-field, 136. Cumberland, N. America, 207. Cutch, Coal-field of. 200. Darwin, Mr., on the terraces of Pa- tagonia, 50. Davy, Sir H., 27. Davy Lamp, 27. Dawson, Dr., on the Coal-fields of New Brunswick and Nova Sco- tia, 206. Deepest Coal-field in Europe,192. De la Beche, Sir H., on South Wales Coal-field, 66,69; on the Forest of Dean Coal-field, 83. Denbighshire Coal-field, 3, 98 ; re- sources, 101. Denny, Mr., on the fossils of the Yorkshire Coal-field, 152. Dendrerpeton, 207. Derbyshire Coal-field, 147 ; re- sources, 155. Depth of Coal-pits, 5. Dickinson, Mr., sections of the Coal-series of Lancashire, 126. Dickson, Mr., on the Cumberland Coal-field, 136. INDEX. 273 Domesday Book, 17. Donctz, Russia. Coal-field of, 196. Dukinflcld Colliery, 5 ; observa- tions of temperature, 22,3. Duration of the British Coal sup- ply, 139. Durham, Bishopric of, 21 ; Coal- field, 155; resources, 160. Dykes of Greenstone, 142 ; Basalt, Durham, 160 ; in Scotland, 166. Edward I.. Proclamation of, 20. Egorton, Sir P., on the Fish of the Denbighshire Coal-fiuld, 100. Elswick, Colliery at, in 1330, 22. Entire exhaustion of British Coal- fields not probable, 1 — 3. Esk, Coal-flcM of, 162. Etheridge, Mr., on Bristol Coal- field, 77, 78. Faults nature of, 59 ; SouthWales, 72; Denbighshire, 97; Angle- sea, 105 ; S, Staffordshire, 107 ; N. Staffordshiri', 117 ; Lanca- shire, 128 ; Burnley, 132. Ferns of Coal period, 35, 30. Fifeshire Coal-field, 175. Flintshire Coal-field, 102 : re- sources, 104. Flint Axe in Coiil, 10. Forbes, Mr. C, on Coal in New Zealand, 204. Forest of Dean Coal-field, 83 ; resources, 86. Forost of Wyre Coal-field, S7, 92. Fordyce, Mr. W., on the duration of tlie Coal-field of Durham, 161 Formosa, Island of, 201. Fox, Mr. W., on temperature of Cornish mines, 222. France, Coal produce, 29; Coal- fields of, 189. Fundy, Bay of, N. America, 20S. Gannister beds, Lancashire, 127 ; Derbyshire, 149, 152. Gamer and Molyneux, Messrs., on the Fossils of the N. Stafford- shire Coal-field, 117. Geikiu, Mr. A., on the bedded Trap of Scotland, 166 ; on the Lothian Coal-field, 108 ; no the Burdiehouso Limestone, 174. George III., Coal-trade in reign of, 26. Geneva, Artesian Well, 221. Goniatites, 46, 102, 120, 127, 152, 129. Glo, British name for Coal, 16. Gbppert's classification, 4S. Grffifan, Saxon for "Coal," 16. Greenstone Dyke, An^lcsea Coal- field, 106 ; S. Slaffor.lsliiru Coal- field, 111; Warwickshire, 142; Bed of, at Whitwick, 115. Greenwell, Mr., on the Durham Coal-field, 161. Griflith, Sir R., on the Coal-fields of Tyrone and Antrim, 182. Haigh, near Wigan, Cannel of, 24. Hall, Mr. T. Y., on the Durham Coal-field, 161. Hamilton, letters on Antrim, 25. Harwich, boring at, 248. Hector, Dr. I., on the age of the Lignites of N. America, 216. Hopkins, Mr., on the increase of temperature in descending from the surface, 220. Horner, Mr. Leonard, on the rep- tiles of Saarbriick, 192. Horsley"s " Britannia Roraana," 14. Howell, Mr. H., on the Warwick- shire Coal-field, 142 ; on the 274 INDEX. Mid-Lothian Coal-field, 168, 172. Hunt, Mr. K., on temperature of Mines, 222 ; on Mineral Statis- tics, 236. Hutton, Mr., on the Ooal-series of the Borders, 162. Iceland, Lignite in, 35. Illinois, Coal-field of, 212. lace. Boss Bridge Colliery, 5, 226, 231. Increase in the Coal-trade from 1840—1860, 236. India, Coal-districts of, 199. Indiana, Coal-field of, 212. Ireland, early Coal-mining, 25 ; Coal-fields, 179. Ironstone of the Coal-measures, 58. Iron Ore, Chumet Valley, 120. Isbister, Mr., on the Lignite of North America, 215. Japan, Coal-mining, 201. Jukes, Mr. J. B., on the South Staffordshire Coal-field, 108; on the Irish Coal-measures, 180. Newfoundland, 205. Karapta, Island of, 202. Kentish Town, horing at, 24:8. Knorria, Prof. Gbpperfa views, 42. Lanarkshire Coal-series, 169. Lancashire Coal-field, 121 ; re- sources, 135. Landale, Mr., on the Fifeshire Coal-field, 175. Leacock, Mr. W. J., on derivation of the word " Coal," 16. Leicestershire Coal-field, 3, 143 ; resources, 145. Lepidodendron, 35, 40. Lepidostrobus, 41. Lesmahago Coal-hasin, 176. Limestone, Carboniferous, of Der- byshire, 59. Lindley, Dr., experiments on plants, 33. Logan, Sir W., on South Wales Coal-field, 49. Lothians, Coal-field of, 171 ; re- sources of, 174. Lycopodites, 42. Lyell, Sir C, on stems of trees in the South JoggiuB Coal-field, 208 ; on Dendrerpeton, 207 ; on the position of land in the Coal period, 211 ; on the Jurassic Coal-field of Richmond, 215; on Coal in the Bear Mountains, 214. Magnesian Limestone, Durham, 5, 156, 157 ; Notts, 5, 147 ; York- shire, 5, 147. Maclaren, Mr., on the length of time necessary to form a Coal- seam, 45. Macrocheilus, 46. Mammatt's " Geological Facts " quoted, 11. Manchester, or Mancunium, 13 ; Coal-field of, 130. Marcou, Mr. J., on Coal of Noitli America, 215. Melville Island, Coal-plants from, 34, 216. MeiTington Vicarage, 22. Maryport, 136, 138. Michigan, Coal-field of, 212 Millstone Grit, position of, 59. Milne, Mr., on the Coal-field of the Lothians, 172. Missoui-i, Coal-field of, 158. Moira, Leicestershire, 144. INDEX. 275 Mollusca of the Coal-meaeures, 45. 46. Modiola, 46. Molyneux and Garner, Messrs., on the Fossils of North Stafford- shire, 117. Moiidorff, Artesian Well, 221. Monkwearmouth Colliery, 5, 223. Moore, Mr. R., on the Coal-series of Lanark, 169. Moore, Mr. W., on the Coal-series of the Clyde, 169. Murohison, Sir E., on Alberbnry Breccia, 91 ; on the lower Car- boniferous Eocka of Northum- berland, 16.1 ; on the Brora Coal-field, 178; on the Coal- fields of Eussia, 195. Naggerathia, its affinities, 43. Nautilus, 46. Neu-Saltzwerk, temperature of well, 220. New Brunswick, Coal-field of, 206. Newoastle-on-Tyne, Charter of Henry HI., 20. Newfoundland, Coal-field of, 205. New Zealand, Coal and Lignite of, 204. Northumberland Coal-field, 155. Nottinghamshire Coal-series, 147. Nova Scotia, Coal-field of, 206. Oldham, Prof, on the Coal-field of the Kliasi Hills, Bengal, 199. Oliphant, Mr., on Coal-mines in Japan and China, 200. Orthis, 47. Orthoceras, 46. Paris, Matthew (1245\History,21. Parliamentary Debates, 1860, 1. Peel, Sir R., measures of, 1. Pendle HUl. 123. Pendleton Colliery, 5. Pennant, 24 Pennine Chain, 148, 157. Permian rocks, 60 ; Derbyshire, 125 ; Notts, 127 ; Durham, 132. Peru, operation of temperature in the mines of, 229. Phillips, Prof. J., on the time required for the formation of the 8. Wales Coal-field, .'")4 (Note) ; on " Gannister Beds," 127 ; on the temperature of Monkwearmouth Colliery, 223. Pictou, Coal-field of, 209. PhiBdrus, quotation from, 18. Plants, classification of, 33. Pliny, 10. Poland, Coal-field of, 198, 209. Posydonomya, Bccheii, 165. Potteries of N. Staffordshire, 114. Polo, Marco, Travels in Cliina,.201 Pressure in Deep Mines, 218, 234. Prestwieh, Mr., on the Coalbrook Dale Coal-field, 93. Price of Coal (in 1395), 22. Produce in Coal of Great Britain, 29. Produce of the American Coal- fields, 29. Prussia, Coal produce, 29. Puits de Grenelle, Paris, Tempe- rature of, 220. Radstock, Colliery at, 78. Ramsay, Prof A. C, on Permian Breccia, 80; on the Auglesea Coal-field, 106. Resources of the Coal-fields South Wales, 73 ; Somerset- shire, 82 ; Forest of Dean, 87 Coalbrook Dale, 96; Denbigh- shire, 101; Flintshire, 104 South Staffordshire, 112 ; North Staflfordsliire, 118 ; Lancashire, 276 INDEX. 135; Cumberland, 139; War- wickshire, 142 ; Leicestershire, 146 ; Derby and Yorkshire, 154 ; Durham, 160 ; Summary, 187, 236; Scotland, 179; Great Britain, 187. Eeeapitulation, 235. Rhenish provinces,Coal-fields,191. Ehynoonella, 47. Eichardson, Sir J., on the Lignite of North America, 215. Eichmond, Virginia, Coal of, 215. Eichmond, Britisli America, 209. Eidiug, West, Yorkshire, Eoman Works, 13, 14. Eoberts, Mr. G. E., on tlie Forest of Wyi-e Coal-field, 89. Eock-faults, Forest of Dean, 68 ; South Staffordshire, 90 ; Lei- cestershire, 146. Eogers, Prof, on the Coal-fields of America, 212 ; on the Springs of the Alleghany Mountains, 214. Eomans; the 12, 13. Ebse Bridge Colliery, Wigan, ob- servations on temperature, 226, 232. Eussian Coal-fields, 195. Euthven's Geological Map, 136. Saarbruok Coal-field, 191. Saltzwerk Artesian Well, 220. Salt Water in Coal, Leicestershire, 146. St. Bees' Head, 136. Scott, Mr. M., on the Upper Coal- measures of Coalbrook Dale, 94. Scotland, Coal-fields, 163 ; re- sources of, 179, 245. Sea-Coal, 21. Sedgwick, Prof , on the Cumber- land Coal-field, 136. Selwyn, Mr. A., on the Coal-field of Victoria, 202. Shireoak Colliery, 5, 150, 231. Shrewsbury Coal-field, 91. SigiUaria, 35, 38, 40. Silkstoue Coal, 152. Shmon, Mr., on the Lesmahago Coal-field, 176. Smith, Dr. W,, the first to point out the existence of Coal below the Magnesiau Limestone of Durham, 156. Somersetshire.Coal-field, 75 ; Coal- series of, 80 ; resources, 82. South Wales Coal-field, 64 , thick- ness of strata, 70 ; resources, 73 ; Fossils of, 75. Spirorbis, 47, 52, 141. Spitzbergen, Fossil plants &om, 34. Staffordshire, North, Coal-field of, 113 ; resources, 98. South, 2, 107 ; resources, 112. Stanley in Derbyshire, ancient Coal- works, 11. States of N. America, annual Coal- produce, 29; Coal-fields, 211; prospects, 237. Sternbergia, 42. Stigmaria ficoides, 39, 49. Strzlecki, M. de, 180. Summary of resources, 187, 236. Sxurtees, "History of Durham," 177. Sydney Coal-field, 203. Sylvius, .aineas, Travels in Scot- land, 22. Talcheer Coal-field, 199. Taylor, Mr. Hugh, on the re- sources of the Durham Coal- field, 160. Taylor, Mr. T. J., Archseology of Coal-trade, 21. INDEX. 277 Temperature of Minee, 222, 235. Texas, Ooal-field of, 212. Thames Valley, possible extension of Coal-strata south of, 219. Theophrastus on Coal, 9, 10. Trap Bocks, Scotland, 166. Trias, subdivisions of, 60. Trigonocarpum, 43. Tweed, Coal-field of the, 162. Trinidad, Coal and Pitch of, 217. Tyrone Coal-fleld, 182. Ulodendron, 42. Vallongo Coal-field, 194. Vancouver Island, Coal in, 215. Ventilation of Mines, 230. Victoria, Australia, Coal in, 202. Vivian, Mr., on resources of the South Wales Coal-field, 1, 3. Von Decken on the Saaibruck Coal-field. 192. Wales, North, Coal-fleld of, 97; South, thickness of strata, 3 ; . do. of Coal, 53 ; time necessary to form the S. W. Coal-field, 53. Wall, Mr. J., on the Geology of Trinidad, 217. Wallis, " History of Northumber- land," 23. Warwickshire Coal-field, 140 ; re- sources of, 142. Watt, inventor of the steam-en- 27. Westphalia, Coal-field of, 192. Whitehaven, 23, 136 ; Coal-series, 137. Whittaker, " History of Manches- ter," 13, 14. Whitwick Colliery, Leicestershire, 145. Wigan, probable Eoman Coal- works, 12 ; Coal-aeries of, 127. Wood, Mr. N., on the Coal-fields of the Borders, 162. Workington Coal-series, 137. Wright, Mr. C, Observations on temperature of Shireoak Col- liery, 230. Wyre, Forest of. Coal-field, 87. Yorkshire Coal-field, 147 ; re- sources of, 154. LOHDOH : PRINTED BT WIIIJAM CLOWES AHD SOSS, SIAHFOED STREET. OPINIONS OP THE PEESS. Mr. Hull's treatise is an admirable one, and will prove of value to all who wish to obtain accurate statistical information on this important subject.— JKbram^ Post, Jan. 17th, 1861. It was the belief of the late Dr. Buckland that the supply yielded by our coal-fields would be sensibly diminished in no very distant future. Mr. Vivian holds that they are, practically speaking, inexhaustible, andthe Government and the Legislature have recently based their proceedings upon the same view of the question. Such, however, was the extreme diversity of opinions expressed upon the point during the debates on the Commercial Treaty with France, as to throw doubts upon the authenticity of all the data on which those discordant opinions were respectively founded. Now, it is surely of the highest importance that the public should know accurately whether or not this country can, without irre- trievable damage to its resources, admit of the unrestrained export of coal ; and, therefore, Mr. Hull could not have more usefully employed his talents, and the unrivalled resources at his command, than in taking stock of the great deposits of mineral wealth on which we are dravring so largely, and at so rapidly-increasing a rate. The conclusion he has come to is, prima facie, encouraging. He finds that, adopting a depth of 4000 feet as the limit to deep mining, there is still a quantity of coal in store in England and Wales, sufficient to alTord a supply of sixty millions of tons, (not quite 5 per cent more than the present consumption) for about a thousand years. — Spectator. January. The author of this work has been engaged in the geological survey of many of our more important coal-fields. His opportunities for deter- mining the conditions of the existing beds of coal have been many, and he has not been wanting in industry upon the work. He has been aided, to some extent, by his fellow-labourers on the geological survey, and, con- sequently, has been enabled to bring together a large number of impor- tant facts. . . . Although we difier from Mr. Hull in the mode of arriving at conclusions and in the results of computation, we recommend his " Coal-fields of Great Britain " to all who desire information on the occurrence of coal. The work, too small for the vastness and importance of the subject, still contains a fund of useful matter, and it may lead to a more careful consideration of the entire question than it has yet received, and be the means of solving a problem upon which the vital interests of England depend. — London Review. February 20th. Mr. Hull has done the State good service by collecting the most reliable information respecting the present condition and future prospects of the collieries. A large proportion of the measurements and estimates con- tained in his book are the fruits of his own labours and those of his col- leagues of the Geological Survey. And the whole is well arranged, and put in the clearest form and the smallest possible compass. This book furnishes a concise account of each of the British coal-fields ; OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. Its general structure, area, and thickness ; the faults or mechanical dis- placements wliich disturb its uniformity : the nature of its boundaries ; the beds of ironstone it contains ; and the number and thickness of the seams of coal, with estimates of the original and present qiiantities avail- able for use.— Critic. February 2nd. How long will our coal-fields last ? is a question which has been so re- peatedly asked, that it is probable that any work in which the subject is carefully and rationally discussed would meet with an adequate amount of patronage: and upon these grounds we conclude that the volume entitled " The Coal Fields of Great Britain : their History, Structure, and Dura- tion," which has just been issued, and which is replete with reliable data, will be found to be very generally acceptable. From Mr. Hull's connection with the Geological Survey of Great Britain, he has had facilities for acquiring information which would otherwise have been un- attainable, and that he is well able to record his facts in a lucid and per- spicuous style, must be acknowled^jed from the character of the several works which have previously emanated from his pen. The professed object of the treatise is to afford reliable information regarding the re- sources of our coal-fields — to what extent they have been already ex- hausted, and for what length of time the present supply can be maintained ; and certainly this object has been fully attained. . . . The work is amply illustrated by geological sections, and diagrams of fossils met with in the carboniferous strata, and, as a whole, forms one of the most complete hand-books upon the subject of coal which has yet been published. — Mining Journal. January 26th, Addison once made a suggestion to distil the quintessence of books into a series of brief publications ; as millions of volumes then would be utterly annihilated, and the works of an ave could be contained in a few shelves. Mr. Hull appears to have token the hint, and studied the style of the illustrious British essayist ; for in the iftodest volume before us he has concentrated the labours of many predecessors in the same depart- ment of study, and conveyed the result of his researches in languge sin- gularly luminous and unpretending. It appears opportunely at this moment, wheu the recent treaty with France renders the consideration of supply and export of very deep interest, for our "black diamonds" are more precious than all the jewels of Golconda. . . . Our readers must be referred to Mr. Hull's own pages, for a most intelligent, careful, and scholar-like description of all the coal-fields of the world, undisfigured by pedantic technicalities or assumption, and conveyed in good honest English weirding, in a style so agreeable as to elevate a very dry subject into positively agreeable writing. — Literary Gazette. January. Into a very concise little volume— all the more valuable because of its conciseness — Mr. Hull has collected the results of his own observations, extending over several years, and of a careful study of various materials to which his official position gave him ready access. His subject is full of interest to every owner of a coal-scuttle, and his able handling of the facts at his disposal entitles us to put faith in his inferences. . . . We have only drawn from Mr. Hull's volume a few of his more practical de- tails. It is right to add that he has also put together much information mspecting the geological properties of various sorts of coals, their pro- cesses of formation, and the fossil vegetables and animals which tliey con- tain.— £'j'am/n«r. February tlth. This is a small, but extremely interesting and valuable book— valuable chiefly however, for the consideration of one topic— the duration of the uroduc'e of our coal-fields. When we look at the fact that, of the ninety- OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. five millions of tons now raised for the supply of the whole world, the British Isles alone contribute seventy-five millions ; and that our home- consumption also is not only enormous, but perpetually on the increase, the vital character of the question, in a national point of view, is strikingly apparent ; and Mr. Hull's statements, brief as they are, will be read with great interest even by those who are not geologists. — The Geologist. February. To give trustworthy information to economists in regard to the pro- bable duration of our British coal, is, as we have seen, the professed object of this book; and the author, from his employment upon the Geological Survey, and the large means of information at his disposal in maps, sections, memoirs, mining statistics, and private intelligence, is perhaps as well qualified as any person to pass a judgment upon this great national question ; and we think it is not too much to say that he has produced a work worthy of his opportunities. — Cheltenham Chronicle. January 22nd. A copious and reliable work, on the history, structure, and probable duration of the coal-fields of Great Britain. — Manchester Courier. January 12th. To his invaluable record of facts connected with the coal resources of Great Britain, the author of the work before us has added a brief outline of the Coal-fields of Europe, India, Australia, New Zealand, and America ; and in order to illustrate the admirable manner in which he has executed this portion of his task, we will give the following extract from the Chapter on the United States — The Engineer, Ai^tU \9. "Howlongwill our coal-fields last ? " is a question of great importance, especially in connection with whatever may serve greatly to increase the consumption of coal. It is necessary we should be put in possession of such facts as may enable us at least to approximate to a correct notion on the subject, and the valuable work of Mr. Hull is, in this respect, of much ser- vice ; he has had large means of information at his disposal, and he has made good use of them From an article in Chamber^ Journal, March. 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