-^T*-*' 
 
 
 '^^^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 -'.'jy*^' 
 
 
 ■ ^ . 
 
 V» ^ i* r 
 
 ^'^l^'^- r 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^Tic-Ni^.' 
 
 
 LJ 
 
 ^ :e:* .-<*: 
 
Hate (IJoUegc of ^^timltntt 
 
 At C^acnell Hniuecattg 
 atlfata, W. g. 
 
 ffitbrarg 
 
Cornell University Library 
 LC 189.S6 
 
 Educational sociology, a digest and syli 
 
 3 1924 013 088 830 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/cletails/cu31924013088830 
 
Teachers College Syllabi, No. 7 Price, 55 Cents 
 
 XTeacbers College 
 Columbia IHnivetsiti^ 
 
 Educational Sociology 
 
 A DIGEST AND SYLLABUS 
 PARTI: INTRODUCTION 
 
 BY 
 
 DAVID SNEDDEN, Ph.D. 
 
 Professor of Education, Teachers College 
 Columbia University 
 
 Published by 
 
 QtrartrrrB (SoUrgr, Clolntnbta Unttinrattg 
 
 525 West 120th Street 
 New Yort Gty 
 
Copyright, 1517, by David Snedden 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. The Meaning of Educational Sociology i 
 
 II. Some Interpretations of Sociology as Related to Education 6 
 
 III. Certain Characteristics of the Group (Social) Life of Man, 
 
 of Importance to the Study of Education 8 
 
 IV. Objectives of Social Economy - n 
 
 V. Standards or Criteria of Purpose in Social Economy and 
 
 Especially Education - - IS 
 
 VI. Specific Objectives of Education - I7 
 
 VII. Physical Education: Sociological Presuppositions and Con- 
 ditions ... - - - 21 
 
 VIII. Vocational Education: Sociological Presuppositions and 
 
 Conditions ... - 26 
 
 IX. Social Education: Sociological Presuppositions and Con- 
 clusions - - - 28 
 
 X. Cultural Education: Sociological Presuppositions and Con- 
 ditions - - - - - 31 
 
 XI. Adaptations of Education to Special Social Classes - 34 
 
 XII. Problems of Curriculum ... 36 
 
 Selected References ----- 38 
 
INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 I. The Meaning of Educational Sociology 
 
 a. All purposive (direct, conscious) education as found in 
 schools (and other agencies primarily educational) is 
 designed to modify the plastic individual in directions that 
 shall prove valuable to himself or to the groups of which 
 he can or must be a member (family, town, state, voca- 
 tional groups, voluntary political groups, cultural groups, 
 sociability groups, etc.). Whilst often the future good of 
 the individual seems to dictate educational programs (edu- 
 cation as a means to: personal advancement; success in 
 life ; " safety first " ; entrance to higher social class ; easier 
 means of earning a living, etc.), nevertheless in the ultimate 
 sense the improved individual is an asset to "society" (in 
 _ some of its groupal forms) and it is society's needs that 
 finally decides the specific purpose and character of most 
 forms of education, and especially those having formal 
 public approval (and public support). Illustrate from pur- 
 posive education for: miliffii*y elite, priesthoods, soldiery, 
 rulers, craftsmen, professions, Bible-reading (early Pro- 
 testant), literate voters, art appreciation, hygienic living, 
 vocational success.- (Ref. : 12:394-400; 3:1-28; 31:540- 
 634.) 
 
 (a) Illustrate from current problems for expansion of 
 education. 
 
 h. Bift, in past, social objectives of most forms of education 
 were held as faiths, hence not reasoned about or discussed 
 (except in case of conflict of class prepossessions, e.g., 
 literacy of the proletariat). Social valuations were held as 
 static ideals, hence education was designed to realize these 
 only. Contemporary sociology (and especially its applica- 
 tions in social economy) now studies entire range of social 
 values (conceived forms of individual and social well 
 being) and forces them into fields of conscious discussion, 
 comparative evaluation, progressive modification. It 
 emphasizes the importance of discovery of the most eco- 
 nomical and effective means for their realization. (Note: 
 groupings of social values given by Giddings (12:376), 
 Ward (32:139), Ross (17:149), Small (21:524).) Ana- 
 lyze, e.g., such social values as : health, wealth, beauty, 
 righteousness, security, liberty, sociability, knowledge, and 
 discuss certain concrete or specific " species " within each.) 
 
 c. Hence, as part of the larger social economy now open to 
 systematic study, scientific inquiry and purposeful adapta- 
 tion of means to the ends of progress, comes education, a 
 
2 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 ' special and important part of social economy. Accumula- 
 tions and organizations of forms of knowledge called 
 sociological now make possible critical study and evalu- 
 ation of the objectives of education, some elimination of 
 educational superstitions (harmful or useless beliefs and 
 customs), the more conscious adaptations of means and 
 methods to the realization of defined ends. Purposive 
 ' and effective action (teleological progress) should become 
 increasingly practicable as sociology is developed, and 
 education makes fuller use of its findings or applies its 
 methods to perfecting educational aims and objectives. 
 (Ref. : 3:94-129; 2:80-207; 1:475-524.) 
 (i) Define: sociology, social sciences, social economy, faiths, faith 
 stages of social evolution, education, purposive education, edu- 
 cational objectives, progress, social inheritance, scientific, social 
 groups, society. 
 (2) Give a variety of illustrations of : specific social objectives of 
 historic forms of education: "faith objectives" now held; 
 social values held at various historic periods; special forms of 
 education for partifgilar social castes, grades or classes. ' 
 
 I. Educational Sociology has its analogues in: educational psychol- 
 ogy, engineering mathematics, agricultural chemistry, medical biology, 
 navigational astronomy, architectural drawing (or art), mining geology, 
 etc. (29 : 18-40.) 
 
 o. In each case a body of " pure " or " detached " knowledge 
 or art is drawn upon for particular contributions to a field 
 of practical effort or "applied science" (or "art"). 
 (a) Describe various fields of " pure " science and art. 
 
 b. A " pure science " has its customary logical organization. 
 Also, a field of applied knowledge (in reality a field of 
 practice) has its logical organization. But a " hyphenated " 
 subject connecting a field of practice and a pure subject, 
 can rarely have a logical organization. It must be selective, 
 first of the elements of the pure subjects that are appli- 
 cable, then of the portions of the practice field that are 
 assisted by the knowledge thus carried over. 
 
 (a) Illustrate from several fields. 
 
 c. But, in practice, teachers of " applied " sciences have either 
 required as prerequisite to their work a general course in 
 the pure science, or else have made a considerable! portion 
 of the applied course consist in reality of the logically 
 arranged materials of the pure subject, e.g., "Agricul- 
 tural" physics often presupposes general physics, although 
 such topics as optics, acoustics, and, usually, electricity and 
 magnetism have no relation to farm work. 
 
MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 3 
 
 2. Education, as the scientific study of a field of practice, is rein- 
 forced by contributions from such "pure" subjects as history, psychology, 
 philosophy, psysiology, economics, architecture, statistics, sociology, etc. 
 
 a. Educational history, philosophy, and architecture are clearly 
 defined fields. 
 
 b. Educational psychology, starting with certain perceived 
 needs or problems (especially as regards methods of 
 instruction, learners' capacity, etc.) in education selects 
 from psychology, helpful knowledge and method towards 
 meeting these needs and solving these problems, espec- 
 ially as regards learning capacity and effective method. 
 
 c. Educational physiology applies in school hygiene, etc.; 
 educational economics in the administration of education; 
 and educational statistics involves use of those facts and 
 methods of statistics as a scientific study that applies to 
 elucidation of education problems. '^' 
 (a) Describe present bases of organization of these applied 
 
 fields. 
 
 3. Education, as a field of practice, (a) deals with persons already 
 living in group (i.e., social) relationships; and (b) its largest determining 
 purpose is to fit the young for effective participation in group or social 
 life, especially as regards vocational, moral, civic, and cultural qualities. 
 
 But the '■ pure " study of society and societies is sociology (with its I 
 auxiliary sciences, anthropology, ethnology, social ethics, civics, and even 
 political economy and economics). 
 
 Hence educational sociology designates the study that, starting with 
 vital problems of education, selects from sociology (and the other social 
 sciences) materials and methods that will contribute to the solution 
 of these problems. 
 
 a. A minor field of usefulness for educational sociology 
 involves interpretation of the instinctive social life of 
 children — as seen in gangs, cliques, sports, taboos, imita- 
 tion, submission to authority — which may guide in making 
 educational programs and providing for discipline, school 
 management, cooperation with non-school agencies of by- 
 education (home, shop, etc.). 
 6. The major field of usefulness for educational sociology 
 will be found in its contributions to the determination and | 
 comparative evaluation of educational objectives (goals, ' 
 aims, pui-poses) ; in throwiug light on the means and 
 methods requisite to the realization of these; and in test- 
 ing the ultimate efficacy of these means and methods. 
 
 4. The variety and number of problems presented by the study of the 
 possible and desirable objectives of education are almost endless. For 
 convenience these can be classified as : 
 
INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 (l) Problems of the objectives which shall be held for school 
 education for normal children in regular or customary schools 
 of general education. For example: 
 
 a. What are the results to society of kindergarten education 
 as now administered? 
 
 b. Assuming the financial and administrative practicability of 
 providing for a substantial amount of school education of 
 all children between four and six years of age, (or three 
 and five), what should be the primary aims of that educa- 
 tion? To offset deficiencies in home education? To pro- 
 vide for certain forms of fuller and more rapid intellectual 
 (or moral or physical) development than the home can 
 provide ? 
 
 c. What are desirable objectives in the training of children, six 
 to twelve, in appreciation of the harmonies found in 
 plastic art? musical art? literary art? 
 
 d. What are the actual social objectives that should control in 
 the organization of materials of history for elementary 
 school purposes? Or, what are the types of social ideals 
 and what the bodies of organized social knowledge that 
 should be possessed by boys from ten to fifteen years of 
 age as a part of their equipment towards citizenship, and 
 how far can these be attained through instruction in 
 history or other forms of social science? 
 
 e. For what proportion of youths is it desirable and expedient 
 to offer in American public schools facilities for the study 
 of a specified foreign language, — such study to be directed 
 towards designated degrees of proficiency, e.g., reading 
 power, speaking power, writing power? 
 
 /. Of what value to society is, or would be, certain definite 
 forms of physical and mental training which are or might 
 be accomplished through school education, e.g., advanced 
 ability to handle mental arithmetic, great accuracy in 
 mechanical drawing, precision in use of grammatical con- 
 structions, sharpened perception of harmonies of form and 
 color in surroundings, accurate markmanship with rifle, 
 fine penmanship, skill in debating, etc.? 
 
 g. To what extent shall physical education (or physical 
 development) be promoted through the schools? And 
 what part can best be played in this by: regular teacher 
 (in lower grades) ? ' a special teacher of hygiene (upper 
 grades)? playground teacher? school nurse? school 
 physician? lecturer? 
 
 h. What are desirable objectives of practical arts instruction, 
 ages 6-12? training, same ages? same subject, ages 12-14? 
 14-16? 
 
MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 5 
 
 i. What social or individual values are now realized through 
 modern language instruction? What social values are 
 desirable? What are feasible? 
 
 y. What specific values can be comprehended under the term 
 "mental training" or "trained mind"? Which of these 
 are feasible and under what circumstances? What are 
 current illusions as to mental training? 
 
 k. What are the actual results of the by-education for children 
 lo-is of: moving pictures? newspapers? libraries? Sun- 
 day schools? street life and playground? police power? 
 participation in productive work? 
 
 1. How are deleterious results to be overcome? How are 
 valuable results to be furthered? 
 
 m. What is meant by moral education? What are the essen- 
 tial phases of moral by-education resulting from the school ? 
 Does the school now achieve any direct moral education? 
 Can it be made to do so? What are some possible means? 
 
 n. What part has physical work played in development of 
 youth in the past? What are contemporary deficiencies? 
 By what means might these be remedied? 
 
 (2) Problems of the objectives which shall be held for general 
 education for special classes. 
 
 a. Shall educational objectives for subnormals be sharply 
 differentiated, according as these will probably (a) be pre- 
 pared for independent living in the competitive social 
 order; or (b) be retained by the state under custody? 
 
 b. What are desirable minimums of cultural education 
 (including mastery of instrumental subjects) for (a) the 
 blind? (b) the deaf? (c) the severely crippled? (d) the 
 moron? (e) the imbecile? and (f) the deaf-blind? 
 
 c. What are desirable and feasible objectives of education 
 for immigrants (non-English speaking) reaching here at 
 15-25 years of age? 
 
 d. What is desirable and feasible in extended general educa- 
 tion of average adults early entered on specialized occu- 
 pations ? 
 
 e. What are the objectives of religious education? What are 
 the most effective agencies for it? What are useful means? 
 What is possible place of public school? 
 
 (3) Problems of objectives for vocational education. 
 
 a. What has been effectiveness of agencies of vocational by- 
 education in the past? Are these of diminishing potency? 
 Specify by occupations. 
 
 b. What are factors determining the individual's productive 
 competency: (natural qualities; social inheritance — skill, 
 
6 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 insight, arts, invention; industrial organization; capital; 
 leadership; exchange; individual's health, happiness, will, 
 training, age, etc)- 
 
 c. Wherein do liberal (or general) education and vocational 
 education differ fundamentally as to objectives? What are 
 the essential characteristics of man as producer? As con- 
 sumer? Showf graphically man's normal life area of: (a) 
 consumption in excess of production; (b) production in 
 excess of consumption. 
 
 d. Shall we classify as producers : public singers ? soldiers ? 
 policemen? merchants? non-wage-earning housewives? 
 teachers? inventors? children being educated? non-work- 
 ing holders of inherited capital? bankers? prisoners? 
 gamblers ? pensioners ? 
 
 e. To what extent can vocational efficiency (for specified 
 vocations) be enhanced by intellectual study (as distin- 
 guished from training for skill) of factors involved? 
 
 /. What part can apprehension of sociological significances of 
 occupational processes play in enhancing vocational interest, 
 comprehension, satisfaction, advancement, efficiency? 
 
 g. To what economic tests, or conditions, can learners of 
 vocations be subjected, ideally? practically? 
 
 II. Some Interpretations of Sociology as Related to 
 Education 
 
 1. For practical purposes sociology may be defined as the science 
 which treats of the group relationships and the group activities of men. 
 (23:436; 21:3-36; 17:3-25.) 
 
 a. The various " social sciences," e.g., anthropology, economics, 
 politics (or civics), ethnology, ethics, as well as history 
 
 ! and geography, are also largely concerned with man in his 
 
 social aspects. 
 
 b. Social economy may be used inclusively to designate that 
 field of study and application of knowledge in which the 
 improvement of the social well-being of man (and chiefly 
 through social action) is the controlling purpose. But 
 where a special field of social economy (e.g., politics, 
 economics, education, sanitation, religion) is already 
 clearly defined, it is customary to exclude it from " social 
 economy," reserving the latter term for fields yet unex- 
 ploited. 
 
 2. Sociology has its " longitudinal " divisions wherein are studied 
 genetic (evolutional) aspects of group life ; and its " latitudinal " or 
 " cross-section " divisions in which contemporary society (or that for a 
 stated period) is studied in cross-section. (12: 199-254; 10:231-302.) 
 
SOCIOLOGY AS RELATED TO EDUCATION 7 
 
 a. Man's "group life" was doubtless once very simple. He 
 is supposed to have evolved from an "animal" (perhaps 
 gregarious) ancestor having no " social inheritance." The 
 numerous changes he has undergone (e.g., upright position, 
 enlargement of brain, hand development, loss of hair, 
 acquisition of speech, invention of tools, objective conser- 
 vation of experience, monogamy, prolongation of infancy, 
 specialization of occupations, religious life) have all 
 imposed severe strains upon his biological inheritance which 
 is readjusted slowly. 
 
 b. The " institutions " of the group life of man — those com- 
 posites of customs, laws, and knowledge, with objective 
 creations (buildings, art products, improvements of land, 
 boundaries, languages) which survive while individuals 
 come and go — serve in large part as the means of studying 
 sociology. 
 
 c. History is a kind of social science, occupied chiefly with 
 the scientific description of the "singular" event, the 
 extensive or detailed fact. It is therefore a reservoir of 
 the materials of sociology which is occupied chiefly with 
 the "general," with "causal relationships," and, ultimately, 
 with prediction and control. (Compare "descriptive 
 geography" with physiography, — in its interpretive 
 aspects ; surveys of production, mining areas, weather, 
 population — census, migration, etc., respectively, with 
 economics, geology, meteorology and the sociology of 
 population distribution, mobility, etc.) (Johnson, H. : 
 The Teaching of History, 1-28.) (16: 140.) 
 
 3. Of especial importance to education (as a field of applied science) 
 are those contributions of sociology which explain (a) the character and 
 functioning of the social and of the (apparently) individualistic instincts 
 in man ; (b) the varieties of means and methods effective in " social con- 
 trol " ; (c) the character of the normal " hierarchical " organization in 
 any form of group life- — economic, sociability, religious, political (includ- 
 ing defensive), cultural — which gives optimum results (to the individual 
 and to his fellows — his society); (d) the actual significance of the 
 values implicit in the words " democracy," " culture,'' " freedom," " right- 
 eousness," etc. ; (e) the survivals of primitive life (in biological inheritance 
 and in social inheritance.) which necessarily limit and predetermine, in a 
 degree, education; and (f) the character and scope of those "improve- 
 ments " in society which are to be achieved chiefly through specified forms 
 of education. (1:185-254; 2:23-61; 12:132-153; 4:17-51.) 
 
 a. We must look chiefly to psychology, of course, for explan- 
 ation of the possibilities of, and limitations to, the educa- 
 bility of the individual. But, as regards the qualities of 
 chief significance to the group life (the expansion, modi- 
 
8 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 fication or repression of the social instincts — sociability, 
 religiosity, conscience, cooperation, honor, anger, sex, con- 
 formity, leadership, worship of unseen, etc.; the promotion 
 of acquisitiveness — wealth getting and conserving; 
 development of vocational productiveness ; promotion of 
 civic attitudes ; etc.) we probably need a special " social 
 psychology." 
 
 b. But " educational sociology " must look chiefly to the 
 front. It is primarily concerned with the definition and 
 comparative evaluation of a long series of educational 
 goals which are so concrete and practicable that each can 
 be made the conscious objective of educational effort, and 
 which, at the same time, are so closely and integrally 
 related to the various highest "goods" that we can now 
 conceive (in relation to realities, not "castles in Spain"), 
 that there shall not be excessive misdirection or waste of 
 effort in realizing them. (33 : S44-S76.) 
 (i) Relate education to: purposive (or conscious) evolution; 
 
 progress; social selection; transmission of social inheritance; 
 
 social telesis (Ward) ; eugenics ; social reconstruction. 
 
 (2) Review historical and contemporary efforts at definition of 
 education. 
 
 (3) Problem : How distinguish school education from non-school 
 education (in purposes, agencies, methods, results) ; education 
 from natural development; experience and education. 
 
 (4) Problem: Analyze current educational terminology, showing 
 prevailing vagueness and ambiguity. 
 
 III. Certain Characteristics of the Group (Social) Life of 
 Man, of Importance to the Study of Education 
 
 I. The social groups studied by the sociologist are of many kinds. 
 These are formed, consciously or unconsciously, to subserve the needs or 
 satisfy the desires of individuals composing the group. (2 : 23-61 ; 
 4:17-51; 12:153-199-) 
 
 a. We readily recognize: (a) family groups, primarily to 
 secure protected childhood for the young; (b) kinship 
 groups, for mutual aid in defence, maintenance of order, 
 etc.; (c) political groups — city, county, state, nation, 
 federation, empire — for defence, maintenance of order, 
 organization of economic activities, etc.; (d) vocational 
 (or economic) groups for cooperation in economic activ- 
 ities, — partnerships, guilds, companies, corporations, 
 unions, associations ; (e) standard of living or social 
 achievement groups — castes, social classes, aristocracies, 
 servile classes, declasses, etc.; (f) sociability (or cooper- 
 ative play) groups, formed for social gratification; (g) 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CROUP LIFE OF MEN 9 
 
 cultural groups (united by common cultural interests, 
 tastes, desires to advance special forms of music, art, liter- 
 ature, history, science, etc.) ; (h) worship (or religious) 
 groups; (i) voluntary (or partisan) political groups; (j) 
 racial groups. 
 
 (a) Make list of loo kinds of social groups in a modern 
 city. 
 6. Groups formed for one function often exercise others. 
 Or membership of one group may be completely decom- 
 posed for exercise of other function, (cf. Giddings, con- 
 stituent and component societies.) 
 (a) Illustrate in current life. 
 
 c. Interlacings of groups and extension of areas within which 
 mutuality of interest and possibilities of cooperation are 
 perceived give us enlarged societies, cf. Large nations, 
 " Christianity," " Catholicism," " banking interests," " Wag- 
 nerites," " golf players," " international socialism," " pan- 
 slavism," "anti-saloon forces." (Add examples from 
 experience.) 
 
 d. Usually, the individual holds a dual position towards each 
 group of which he is a member: his interests, at least in 
 a degree and for the time, are apparently impeded by it — 
 his freedom is restricted, his services are claimed, assess- 
 ments are levied, exercise of likings is limited ; and, per 
 contra, his interests are promoted through the reinforce- 
 ment given by the group. (Give concrete illustrations.) 
 
 e. Similarly, different kinds of groups tend to claim exclusive 
 interest and energy of individual. Note contemporary 
 examples of competition for interests and energy of indi- 
 vidual; vocation vs. home, church, political party socia- 
 bility, culture, etc. (Give concrete illustrations.) 
 
 /. Again, small groups tend usually to strengthen at expense 
 of larger groups exercising same function, unless arti- 
 ficially restrained, cf . Gang vs. community ; city vs. state ; 
 province vs. nation; family vs. community; clique, party, 
 cult, sect vs. larger cognate groups. But external pressure, 
 as well as growing internal sense of need, tend to cement 
 small groups into larger groups (cf. examples of nation- 
 making, coalescing of economic groups, federation of wor- 
 shipping groups, cooperation of cultural and sociability 
 groups) . (2 : 23-61 ; 4 : 17-51 ; 19 : 376-417.) 
 
 g. Examine the thesis that, in the region of civilized and 
 semi-civilized human life, " Darwinian selection " and 
 " survival of the fittest " may be much more a struggle 
 between forms of group organization (their effectiveness 
 in promoting capacity to survive) than among individuals 
 
10 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 composing the groups. 111. from the well ordered state of 
 weak individuals against the poorly ordered one of strong 
 individualists ; regulars vs. mob, etc. Explain evolution 
 of monogamous family, public administration of defence 
 and law, business corporations, trade unions, hierarchical 
 religious organizations, political party machinery, etc. 
 What are contemporary examples of societies and social 
 forms of organization being "pushed to the wall." cf. 
 Kropotkin's Mutual Aid, Nietzsche's Genealogy of Morals, 
 Trotten's Herd Instinct. (28:30-63.) 
 (a) State certain contemporary problems, of survival, 
 showing factors involved. 
 
 2. Adjustment of the individual to the group relationship is instinctive 
 in only some cases — e.g., pairing of sexes, submission of infant to 
 parents, formation of children's sociability groups (including more durable 
 "gang"), etc. In most cases, adjustment involves conflict of desires and 
 felt interests — individualistic with social, near with remote, concrete with 
 abstract. Processes by which the group absorbs and shapes the individual 
 are described as " social control." (18:1-77; 16:59-87; 21:397-524.) 
 
 (i) Formulate statements descriptive of current controversies, 
 " state vs. individual," " individualistic vs. collectivistic," ends 
 of social organization. 
 
 a. Most social groups are longer lived than the individual 
 members. Again, they have a solid corporate character, 
 while individual members come and go. They evolve cus- 
 toms, creeds, formularies, codes, initiations, penalties, — 
 and extensive mechanism to lure and > hold the individual. 
 (Illustrations from experience.) 
 
 b. Devices of social control utilize, amongst other means : 
 (a) the social and cooperating instincts of the individual 
 (and his dislike for exclusion, non-recognition) ; (b) his 
 tendency to imitate or from suggestion to form attitudes, 
 sentiments, valuations ; (c) his devotion to his own inter- 
 ests, success in life, personal aggrandizement, dislike of the 
 strange and of the foreigner; (d) his uncritical attitude in 
 face of mass suggestion. (Illustrate from socialization of 
 small children.) 
 
 c. The educational forces employed by the group in adopting 
 new members are in the nature of by-education; but, oh 
 occasion, direct education is provided. Illustrate from 
 initiations (Hutton Webster, Sutherland), ceremonial rou- 
 tines, education for communion, schools for citizenship. 
 
 d. Certain characteristics of the individual, more or less 
 beyond his personal control, are often held as prerequisite 
 for specific group membership ; e.g., birth, rank, race, art 
 talent, courage in combat, wealth, craft skill. (lUus.) 
 
OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL ECONOMY II 
 
 e. Means of control exerted on behalf of certain types of 
 groups may be anti-social, that is, divisive of the larger 
 society, e.g., birth standards, sumptuary standards, foster- 
 ing of inter-group antagonisms, etc. (Give concrete exam- 
 ples.) 
 
 3. The individual who fits most readily into a variety of the groups 
 approved at any time, possesses as products of heredity, environmental 
 surroundings, and education a variety of recognizable qualities (habits, 
 attitudes, valuations, appreciations, insights) which, when developed to 
 socially approved degrees, are called virtues. We say of the approved 
 individual that he is sincere, obedient, industrious, adaptable, conscientious, 
 honest, truthful, etc. (List 100 " virtues " and their " disapproved " oppo- 
 sites.) (4:399-427; 27:353-400.) (Define characteristics of "B class" 
 farmer; minister; unskilled laborer; single woman — age 30-50 — of 
 wealth and culture.) (Illustrate different grades or kinds of : " loyalties " : 
 "honesties"; "tolerations"; "altruisms.") (Show how doctrine of 
 " formal discipline " vitiates most current discussion of moral education 
 or character formation.) 
 
 IV. Objectives of Social Economy 
 
 I. The objectives of a public social economy are to be realized largely 
 through control of the conditions which make of children men and 
 women capable, as far as practicable, of realizing the known and approved 
 standards of a wholesome and progressive society. (4:451-514; 5:1-47; 
 9:43-97; 21:705-729.) 
 
 a. These conditions may, for practical purposes, be considered 
 in four classes — namely, those due to : (a) biological 
 heredity; (b) nurturing environment or (material environ- 
 ment) ; (c) by-education of social environment (family, 
 church, street, shop, clique) ; and (d) direct education of 
 school and other agencies primarily educational in purpose. 
 h. The biological fact of the long infancy (plastic period) in 
 the human species (a product of evolutional change) con- 
 stitutes in part the basis for control, especially of by- 
 education and direct education, iji: passim.') 
 c. Other bases are found in (a) exceptional adaptability of 
 the human individual as regards food, shelter, work, gen- 
 eral educability, mobility; (b) accumulation of "social 
 inheritance" of knowledge, ideals, institutions, inventions; 
 and (c) capacity for joint or cooperative effort. 
 
 2. Biological heredity, for social economy, constitutes largely a fixed 
 "given quantity," but, under general designation "eugenics," some pro- 
 posals now advanced for social control of marriage towards favoring 
 increase of stocks or strains of most promise (cf. Galton, Davenport). 
 
12 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 (i) Illus. Permanency of biological limitations (Havelock Ellis, 
 Conklin, Jordan, Saleeby). 
 
 (2) What are we to assume as to " transmission of acquired char- 
 acters ? " 
 
 a. Doubtless eugenic results have been achieved in the 
 past — but only in part purposefully — as where upper 
 castes clung to "pure mating." (a) Weak stocks and 
 strains have been first eliminated in war, famine, set- 
 tlement, etc. Perhaps modern war reverses natural 
 selection; (b) strong men claimed ablest women and in 
 largest numbers (wife seizure, wife purchase, polygamy). 
 Perhaps natural selection is also reversed in modern mid- 
 dle-class society, — cf. studies of diminishing birthrate 
 among classes with high standards of living; (c) upper 
 castes have sought to prevent caste mixture or raongrel- 
 izing; (d) possibly the usual processes of courtship 
 selection have favored the strong, intelligent, beautiful; 
 and, (e) possibly, except where competition for higher 
 standards of living is fierce, the strong, intelligent, moral 
 and persistent have, as parents, favored preponderant 
 increase of adults from their families. 
 
 (a) Give illustrations of eugenic selection now operative; 
 also of dysgenic selection. 
 
 b. Negative eugenics proposes social action to prevent unions 
 of those who would probably bequeath hereditary defects 
 to progeny. (Proposals?) 
 
 c. Positive eugenics looks to favoring social action designed 
 to increase those of good heredity. (Proposals.) 
 
 d. The whole subject of eugenics is still in the stage of dis- 
 cussion and examination of fundamental facts upon which 
 tentative proposals may be based, (e.g., " Standards of 
 selection " ; " interference with rights of individuality " ; 
 problems for democracy — "ethics of the barnyard.") 
 
 3. Nurturing material environment here includes those factors of food, 
 shelter, security, rest, play activity, work activity, that affect the growth 
 of the child from birth to maturity. To the social economist, many of 
 the elements of these factors are also " fixed given quantities " ; while 
 others are increasingly within man's control. (13:456-494; 4:571-606; 
 2 : 107-149 ; 3 : 28-81 ; 29 : 145-221.) 
 
 a. Primitive man had little besides natural protection against 
 climate, limitations of food supply, danger from enemies. 
 Civilized society devises endless means of procuring pro- 
 tection from natural climate (housing), of insuring per- 
 manent and adequate food supply (agriculture, cooking, 
 storage), and of fencing off enemies (animal, bacterial). 
 In his zeal, he sometimes cuts off play activities (physical. 
 
OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL ECONOMY 13 
 
 intellectual, emotional) and over-emphasizes work-activ- 
 ities, especially for the young. 
 
 b. Nurturing environment, if too favorable, may produce " hot 
 house" social conditions, precocious development, specialized 
 development, " softening," and so result in termination of 
 stock or strain, (cf. Sterility of thoroughbred animals, 
 historical ascendency of peoples coming from "hard con- 
 ditions," alleged degeneracy of " city dwellers." 111. from : 
 luxurious society ; " women of ease " ; " soft children " ; 
 excess of nurture, etc.) 
 
 c. Hence probability that heredity sets definite limits beyond 
 which the material environment cannot safely be rendered 
 more favorable (see later. Physical Education). 
 
 d. Nevertheless, the rational control of material environment 
 towards providing a reasonably " protected childhood " for 
 every child received by society constitutes a large field of 
 positive action for social economy. Direct education of 
 children towards competent parenthood constitutes one 
 essential means. Important additional fields for investi- 
 gation are: (a) Control of size of family; (b) state aid 
 towards meeting of parental responsibilities ; (c) develop- 
 ment of sanitation ; (d) increasing social control of 
 economic forces. (What are some current proposals? 
 What are public health authorities doing?) 
 
 4. The child's participation in social life (his groups) results inces- 
 santly in developments and changes essentially educational in character. 
 Where this education results as a by-product of activities not primarily 
 educational in character or purpose, it is here called by-education (in con- 
 trast with direct, purposeful or formal education in school, etc.). 
 (2 : 107-157 ; 3 : 1-62 ; 27 : 109-158 ; 23 : 591-765.) 
 
 a. The child is instinctively a learner, and, within limits, his 
 elders — parents, and other adults, older brothers, sisters, 
 and playfellows, — are instinctively teachers. Note the 
 extent to which the child thus acquires speech, conformities 
 in behavior (morals, manners), knowledge, orientations of 
 feeling (values, prejudices, sentiments, ideals), working 
 skills, forms of play, etc. 
 
 b. Note that primary (i.e., determining) functions of family 
 (or home), shop, (farm, office, road, boat), church, play- 
 ground, street, club, press, stage, police power are not 
 education. As they become better adjusted to the discharge 
 of their functions, these agencies may become less valuable 
 as a means of right by-education (cf. contemporary exam- 
 ples). 
 
 c. On the other hand, sometimes, moderate conscious social 
 adjustment may greatly enhance right educative possi- 
 
14 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 bilities of these agencies without material impairment of 
 primary functions (cf. contemporary achievements in hous- 
 ing, homemaking and other forms of vocational cooperative 
 education, juvenile court, educational " movies," super- 
 vised playgrounds, Sunday schools, boys' clubs, etc.)- 
 
 d. By-education is the inevitable result of social participation 
 on the part of the child. Such by-education must be evalu- 
 ated as good, or bad; expansive or restrictive (of social 
 personality) ; social or anti-social. A part of the functions 
 of direct education may be to offset bad results of by- 
 education (e.g., speech, morals, narrow group loyalties, 
 combative tendencies, etc.). 
 
 e. For social economy, important fields of action are found 
 in (a) fostering right educative possibilities of social 
 agencies without impairing primary functions; (b) pro- 
 viding for detachment of child when adverse influences 
 
 , dominate; (c) fostering agencies of direct education to 
 meet deficiences in by-education of special classes. 
 
 S. Agencies of direct education are created by society to meet special 
 needs in development of young or plastic individuals, not met in satis- 
 factory degree by existing agencies of by-education. Hence, all working 
 or practicable definitions of required functions of agencies of direct 
 education, while conforming to the general standards of sound social 
 economy, must, in general, be in terms of special and distinctive ends to 
 be achieved. (3:117-145; 31:540-633; 29:296-367; 19:247-376.) 
 
 a. Purposive education towards discharge of military func- 
 tions is one of the most ancient forms. At times, specific 
 portions of vocational education have been isolated from 
 by-education (apprenticeship) of productive activities, as 
 direct education. Direct education in credal forms and 
 ritualistic activities was long organized apart from by- 
 education of worship. Direct education for prospective 
 rulers (princes, statesmen, and for culture of leisure class) 
 resulted in schools in early societies where conquerors and 
 conquered produced castes. High valuation of literacy 
 for Bible reading, voting, vocational capacity, etc., gives 
 schools for reading and writing vernacular. 
 
 b. Note at present scores of specific aims suggested for direct 
 education, resulting in general from increased comprehen- 
 sion of valuable results to be achieved by direct education, 
 cf. Special forms of cultural, physical, social, and voca- 
 tional education urged for inclusion in public schools. 
 
STANDARDS OR CRITERIA OF PURPOSE IS 
 
 V. Standards or Criteria of Purpose in Social Economy 
 AND Especially Education 
 
 1. Societies (social groups) — and society — possess significance for 
 practical purposes in the last analysis only by virtue of the qualities 
 possessed by the individuals composing these social groups. (2 : 313-342 ; 
 1:90-154; 21:325-397; 33:266-290; 32:234-294.) 
 
 a. Tools, buildings, ideas, languages, laws, institutions become 
 vital only as used by individuals. The social inheritance, 
 though in part transmitted in concrete and objective form, 
 is at last made available for each new generation only by 
 and through individuals. One function of social economy 
 is to help establish good (socially approved) conditions 
 for individuals ; but another equally important is to help 
 shape individuals in whom and through whom the social 
 inheritance can profitably be invested and increased. 
 
 b. It is not intended here to raise the historic issue, society 
 vs. the individual. For practical purposes it is clear that 
 in any social group it is possible for the individual (at 
 least temporarily, and also on the basis of felt or assumed 
 values, — perhaps only apparent values) to foster his own 
 interests at the expense of the group (cf. self-centered 
 member of family, grasping partner, corrupt citizen, 
 cowardly soldier, monopolist, idler) ; while it is no less 
 possible for a social group in pursuit of its real or imagined 
 aims (imagined by its more influential members often) 
 excessively to cramp, suppress, or overwork the individual, 
 (cf. Ancestor worship, political restraint of thought and 
 action, excessive or hurtful service exacted by economic 
 organizations, "judicial cruelty," slavery, suppression of 
 women, military domination, parasitism of certain profes- 
 sions.) Practically, it is clear that existence for civilized 
 man is possible only in and through societies to which he 
 has been shaped, and equally, that social life is practicable 
 only by virtue of the presence of sufficient personalities 
 suitably shaped for it. Note Kant's insistence that man, 
 however lowly, must not be regarded as a means, but 
 always as an end. Christianity involves the same ideal. 
 Democracy involves as its central ideal, the worth of the 
 individual, " man as an end." cf. Professor Fite. 
 
 2. Except under conditions of extraordinary social change (in some 
 particular function — e.g., economic, civic, migration, invention, war) it is 
 reasonably safe to assume that the standards or social criteria effective 
 for a practical social economy can be found in selected groups of adult 
 individuals now composing society. In any event, provisional standards, 
 subject to subsequent specific modification, can thus be derived. 
 
l6 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 a. As a convenient means of deriving such a group, let us 
 grade adults 25-35 (or 30-40) years of age into four 
 classes, on the basis of their possession of one or more 
 measurable (or at least, rankable) qualities. If no criteria 
 of objective character are used already in social science, 
 we can arbitrarily place the twenty per cent of our cases 
 having quality in the highest or most approved form in 
 the A class, the next 30 per cent in the B class, the next 
 30 per cent in the C class, and the lowest 20 per cent in 
 the D class. (If we were using criteria already estab- 
 lished, we should often be obliged to employ different 
 proportions; e.g., if men 30-40 were divided into A, rich; 
 B, fairly prosperous ; C, poor (but self-supporting) ; and 
 D (dependent), ratios would hardly fall as above.) 
 
 Individuals composing society could for practical pur- 
 poses be graded as above as respects: health; indus- 
 triousness ; thrift ; observance of laws ; temperance ; 
 interest or success in family-building; political intelli- 
 gence; moral character; practical activity in community 
 politics; sociability; religious life; interest in art; 
 interest in (specified type of) literature; attitude towards 
 jury duty; etc. (In every case, of course, accurate 
 definition or at least description — with illustrative exam- 
 ples — is presupposed.) 
 
 Again, individuals could be graded on the basis of alge- 
 braic sums of certain qualities : e.g., a man ranked A in 
 thrift, D in moral character, B in devotion to family, and 
 C as a voter might be given a full rank of B or C accord- 
 ing to the weight and importance attached to these various 
 qualities. 
 
 3. For many practical purposes, analysis of the qualities of the B 
 class man of 25-35 (or other age period) will give the most satisfactory 
 points of departure in defining purposes in education. (Of course, once 
 having defined the qualities of B class men to-day we may determine that 
 the B class man of the next decade or two shall in specified respects and 
 degrees be better; here we would consciously provide for progress.) 
 
 a. In planning for the vocational education of prospective 
 carpenters we would first take and grade (on basis of 
 weekly wage, — better, yearly income) all carpenters. We 
 would then ascertain common qualities of the B class men. 
 Then classify these qualities according as they are pro- 
 ducible by direct education or controlled by-education. 
 h. To obtain basis for constructive program of homemaking 
 education, let us take 100 homemakers, 30 to 40, of normal 
 type, e.g., having no servant help, having three to five 
 children, living in detached houses — much the most com- 
 mon t3T)e of homemaker in America. Thirty of our 
 
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION 1? 
 
 hundred we rank in the B class. These now keep fairly 
 good homes. What powers, qualities, technical knowl- 
 edges, skills do they now possess? How did they reach 
 this point? Could their present attainments have been 
 achieved (under a better system of education) more 
 expeditiously, more economically, more surely? 
 
 c. Could we ascertain in some degree what secondary school 
 science and mathematics should be taught to prospective 
 engineers by analysis of needs of B class engineers now? 
 Could we in the same manner derive standards of practical 
 (if not cultural) objectives for teaching of modern lang- 
 uages ? 
 
 d. To a limited extent it should prove practicable similarly 
 to form objectives for physical and for civic education on 
 the basis of exhibits of B class men. 
 
 VI. Specific Objectives of Education 
 
 The possible specific objectives of education are almost numberless. 
 For practical purposes it is important that these be grouped into classes, 
 general divisions, or other workable groupings, to the end that in each 
 group will be found common elements of purpose or of method. 
 
 a. A concrete or specific objective determines a detailed course 
 of procedure adapted only to the achievement of that 
 objective. Naturally, these objectives will differ greatly 
 in magnitude (as measured in terms of time, energy, or ^ 
 attention required for their mastery). For example: to 
 acquire a speaking knowledge of Spanish, a working 
 knowledge of trigonometry, or a specified degree of mas- 
 tery of carpentry, or stenography, could be described as 
 large objectives; but within these, detailed objectives — 
 mastery of certain verb irregularities in Spanish, use of 
 logarithms in trigonometry, skill in use of slide rule, or 
 special spelling for stenographers. 
 
 In educational practice, the most specific objectives for •, 
 practical purposes are the teaching units employed — the i/ 
 question and answer of the catechetical method, the lesson, i 
 the topic, the project, the exercise, etc. Each one of these 
 is assumed to constitute a stone in the total structure of 
 knowledge, skill or other habituation, ideal complex, or 
 appreciative complex, which it is designed to build. (When 
 once the value and general character of large objectives 
 have been determined, it becomes the urgent business of 
 educators to define detailed objectives; otherwise serious 
 ( loss of effort becomes inevitable.) 
 I. Earliest groupings of conscious objectives of by-education and 
 direct education were naturally along sex lines, (a) In clan and tribal 
 
l8 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 life, after the " infant " period spent by all children with women, boys 
 were isolated and prepared for initiation — usually taking place about i6. 
 ^ For each sex, education (largely on the basis of imitation) was, during 
 adolescence, directed towards well-established traditional ends. (Good- 
 sell, Tarde, Dewey and Tufts, Sutherland.) 
 2. The city-state, the kingdom, and the empire along with many other 
 '^ social features of post-barbaric society seem to have rested on conquest 
 'of one population by another. (i5:passim; 21:397-559; 12:79-132.) 
 
 a. Hence appear forms of education adapted to various social 
 classes or castes: for warrior caste (Sparta, Athens, 
 Persia, Samurai, Knighthood) ; for " leisure " class (often 
 a courtship, civic or property holding class derived from the 
 warrior caste — cf. Athens, aristocracy of period of Louis 
 XIV, modern English aristocracy) ; for governing class 
 (cf. Rome, education of princes at all stages, English 
 public schools ) ; for various occupational classes — priest- 
 hoods, trade guilds, entertainers, scholars (cf. almost any 
 period in history). (Here appear beginnings of socially 
 purposive vocational education.) (Add examples from 
 history of education.) 
 
 ,/ 3. With development of attempts at universal education, classification 
 /of objectives on basis of age, maturity, or intellectual development of 
 ■^ learners, appears. 
 
 a. Examples : infant schools, kindergartens, day nurseries, 
 dames' schools, primary schools, elementary schools, 
 graded grammar schools, academies, colleges, universities. 
 (Add examples.) 
 
 '^ 4. Similarly specific objectives, singly or grouped, give types of schools : 
 1/ Bible classes, spelling schools, singing schools, dancing classes, schools 
 for deportment, finishing schools, (Latin) grammar schools, fitting 
 schools (for college), correspondence schools (for specified subjects), 
 language schools, vocational schools, etc. (cf. endless examples in any 
 large commercial city). 
 
 •^ 5. Early reflections about educational psychology produced numerous 
 /attempts to classify educational objectives according to particular "gen- 
 eral powers " of mind and spirit to be educated, e.g., physical education, 
 ■ education of will, spiritual (or religious) education. 
 
 a. Some of these categories, e.g., physical education and 
 moral education, are still extensively used. But: "edu- 
 cation of the will" is now used only in the literature of 
 educational mysticism; no satisfactory boundaries have 
 been set respectively to (or relationships inditated between) 
 moral education, ethical education, spiritual education (or 
 education of the spiritual nature) and religious education. 
 For practical purposes, these are also largely "mystical" 
 
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION 19 
 
 genpralizations. (Analyze practical objections to: "intel- 
 lectual education," " education of the emotions," apd even 
 to " moral education," as descriptive heads.) 
 
 / 6. With modern recognition of the value of play have arisen vague 
 / categories of " education through play " and (presumably) education 
 '' through work. 
 
 a. This differentiation is capable of extension: education 
 through pupil's self-direction (in propitious environment) 
 of his natural or spontaneous learning instincts and 
 impulses; and education through external (social) direction 
 of his activities towards predetermined ends. (" Natural " 
 vs. artificial, informal vs. formal, spontaneous vs. direct, 
 etc.) (Corresponds in part to alpha-beta classification 
 below.) (111. from Boy Scout and other " club " education.) 
 
 / 7. With modern recognition of educative significance of agencies other 
 than school comes vague classification of objectives on the basis of 
 ' agencies offering direct or by-education. 
 
 a. Most conspicuous of these are: home; school; church; 
 shop (generic for all forms of participation in productive 
 activity including farm, office, shipboard, house) ; play- 
 ground (including street association) ; club; press; stage 
 (including moving picture); library; museum; police. 
 
 b. Note that of the foregoing: school, library, museum and 
 police only are (in America) under public direction or 
 complete control; stage and press are necessarily commer- 
 cialized; home, church, shop, police and the usual play- 
 ground have other than educative as primary functions, 
 hence their (secondary, incidental) educative functions 
 must be variable, accidental, badly directed (in fact edu- 
 cation is a by-product). 
 
 v' 8. The most serviceable classification, for the present, is based, first 
 -/upon grouping of all results of education and by-education (superimposed 
 ■^ upon the products of heredity and material environment) as seen in 
 ^ qualities and powers of individuals, under four main heads : (a) physical 
 (those primarily associated with health, strength, longevity, endurance, 
 etc.) ; (b) vocational (those associated with capacity for productive 
 work, service, including the minors of health, social ideal, personal culture 
 that are specifically significant in particular vocations) ; (c) social (those 
 associated primarily with successful group living, including moral habits, 
 moral conformity, civic initiative, possession and use of ethical ideals and 
 standards, etc.) ; and (d) cultural (including stimulation and develop- 
 ment of intellectual and aesthetic interests, — in music, literature, science, 
 plastic art, dancing, travel, history, general knowledge, sociability,. — 
 establishment of hobbies or avocational interests, refinements of social 
 behavior beyond the point required for group participation, etc.) 
 
INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 (a) Define : " cultural education " ; '" liberal education " ; 
 erudition ; scholarship ; " the well-informed man." 
 
 (b) What is "the education of a gentleman"? What is 
 education " for living " ? for " leisure " ? 
 
 a. The above groups overlap, but it is contended each has a 
 focal area; overlapping exists only at margins. 
 
 9. In second place, a cross-sectional division of all of these products 
 (under 8 above) into two divisions, according as they are or should be: 
 (a) the results of "natural" (i.e., spontaneous, untrammelled develop- 
 mental, appreciative) learning; or (b) the results of systematically 
 directed learning towards foreseen goals in adult participation in civil- 
 ized life. These classes are named hereafter respectively beta and alpha 
 objectives. 
 
 (a) Make two classes of objectives of an ordinary life's 
 activities on lines here suggested. 
 
 a. Examples of beta objectives: all the varied products of 
 play; of reading for general interest; of travel, explor- 
 ation, social commingling; of group life for play purposes 
 (gangs, cliques, fraternities); of Boy Scout activities; of 
 volunteer activities in response to ideals of teachers; the 
 learning of the vernacular and numberless other arts under 
 stimulus of social environment (by-education) or the 
 school. 
 
 h. Examples of alpha objectives : the formal subjects of the 
 schools, — usually; the recognized vocations, — usually; 
 many cultural lines when pursued for distinct motives of 
 achievement (art, music, literature, history, dancing) or 
 distinction. 
 
 10. Tabular form for classification of objectives, then, would be as 
 follows : 
 
 Forms of development 
 and education 
 I. Physical 
 
 II. Vocational 
 
 III. Social 
 
 IV. Cultural 
 
 Alpha objectives 
 
 a. Corrective training, m, n 
 
 b. Organized knowledge of 
 special fields of hygiene, 
 p.Q 
 
 c. etc. 
 
 a. Practice in occupation, 
 m 
 
 b. Study of related tech- 
 nical knowledge, occupa- 
 tion, m 
 
 a. Approved school be- 
 havior 
 
 b. Organized knowledge, 
 state government 
 
 c. Essential facts of Amer- 
 ican history 
 
 a. Elem. school arts 
 
 b. Foreign language 
 
 c. Execution of music 
 
 d. etc. 
 
 Beta objectives 
 
 a. Play - — varied forms 
 
 b. Readings in sanitation 
 and hygiene 
 
 c. etc. 
 
 a. Readings, excursions, 
 etc., in vocational soci- 
 ology of occupation, m 
 
 a. School self-government 
 
 b. Boy Scout work 
 
 c Readings, etc., in social 
 
 science 
 
 d. etc 
 
 a. General reading 
 
 b. General science 
 
 c. Musical appreciation 
 
 d. etc. 
 
 II. Other classifications of objectives based, as above, on results to be 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION -si 
 
 realized in the individual, in part for himself and in part for society, 
 follow somewhat different lines. The following are proposals: 
 
 o. It is proposed not to give a separate head to physical edu- 
 cation — requiring that health, physical well-being, shall be 
 inclusive of all others and as a basal condition to them. 
 Similar proposals are to make (a) cultural, and (b) social 
 (moral, civic) relatively more inclusive. 
 (a) But for practical purposes at least, discrimination is 
 indispensable — and at least some of the objectives 
 under each head are of equivalent importance. 
 
 b. Several provide a special head for " family education " — 
 all that designed to promote man's efficiency in organizing 
 and maintaining the family. 
 
 (a) This is a vague and unduly inclusive objective. 
 
 c. One would provide special subdivision for the ethical. 
 
 (a) But this fails to recognize that the final essence of the 
 " ethical " is found in " behavior," " conduct." 
 
 12. The above grouping does not provide in a very satisfactory way 
 for placing of those studies that are fundamentally " instrumental " — 
 to purely cultural as well as to vocational studies, e.g., reading, writing, 
 spelling, mathematics, foreign language. 
 
 13. The classification gives no special place to studies designed chiefly 
 for mental training, e.g., mathematics, Latin, mental arithmetic, science 
 (for scientific method). Assumed that best doctrine favors provision 
 for mental training as a " by-product " of all forms of learning, and that 
 no studies have an exceptional or unique value for " mental training,'' 
 " mind discipline," etc. 
 
 VII. Physical Education : Sociological Presuppositions 
 AND Conditions 
 
 a. In processes of evolution man has imposed many changes 
 of condition on himself to which his hereditary physical 
 equipment adjusts slowly and, often, incompletely: foods, 
 posture, body-covering, distribution of bacteria, localized 
 use of eyes, softened temperature, ventilation, postpone- 
 ment of marriage, prolonged routine work, specialized 
 work, enhancing the decorative significance of women, 
 taxing of nervous system, etc. 
 
 6. The broad problem of physical education, therefore, is 
 that of fitting imperfectly adapted bodily mechanism to 
 conditions created by civilization, with constant emphasis 
 towards anticipating and preventing difficulties, rather than 
 trying to cure them. 
 
 c. The so-called problems of " good and bad " so far as they 
 deal with physical ills are simply concrete manifestations 
 
22 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 of the fact that bodily mechanism fails to keep pace in 
 development with requirements imposed by material and 
 social environment. Provision for natural development and 
 direct physical education must compensate for deficiencies 
 and prepare for new conditions. 
 d. But in many respects man is a wonderfully adaptive 
 mechanism. (Crile.) 
 
 1. Primate ancestors of man were probably vegetarian. There fol- 
 lowed a long period when he was omnivorous, with_ sections heavily 
 dependent on fish and flesh diet. Hence, extensive development of teeth, 
 jaws, alimentary canal. Then came the era of cooked foods, concen- 
 trated foods, partly predigested foods. Effects in under use of teeth, 
 alimentary canal. Problem : to what extent should children repeat 
 ancestral use of coarse foods? 
 
 2. Hereditary mechanism of body in several respects still adapted to 
 quadrupedal (or quadrumanal) life. Man's erect posture needed to free 
 the hands, to hold infants, and, perhaps, to carry brain. Resulting compli- 
 cations in difficulties of child-bearing, liability to rupture, foot and spine 
 troubles, etc. Possible that use of chairs for sitting adds to the difficulties. 
 Problem of fixed postures for children. 
 
 3. Ancestral man probably hairy, then hairless (possible effects of 
 selections, sexual; vermin-borne disease, etc.), then clothed. Clothing 
 seems to " increase tax on lungs and kidneys." Problem of minimum 
 clothing, open-air sleeping, etc., for children. " Natural " aspects of 
 bathing, work to the point of perspiration, stimulation of body through 
 varying temperatures (ventilation), effects of extreme variations in 
 climate, of indoor working, etc. 
 
 4. Primitive man had localized habitat, hence " picked up " relatively 
 few pathogenic bacterial species. Selection in many cases doubtless 
 brought immunity or lessened virulence, or species disappeared except in 
 limited areas where it remained endemic. But exploration, conquest and 
 commerce distribute widely bacterial species heretofore local and 
 among peoples heretofore immune, cf. Cholera, plague, measles and 
 small-pox (among Indians), parasitic hookworm. Man in temperate zones 
 must fight scores and in tropics even more bacterial diseases. Possibilities 
 of prevention : (a) by extirpating (or closely limiting) pathogenic species 
 (possibilities in plague, yellow fever, cholera, malaria, typhus, typhoid, 
 syphilis, tuberculosis) ; (b) by making body resistant through natural 
 development (possibilities in tuberculosis, pneumonia, colds, measles) ; 
 (c) by artificial immunization (small-pox, typhoid) ; (d) early use of 
 antiseptic or curative measures (hookworm, diphtheria, infant blindness, 
 wound infection, etc.) ; and (e) prevention of communication by intelli- 
 gent individual action (personal contacts, use of common vessels, laundry, 
 food inspection, home antisepsis). 
 
 a. Systematic education towards successful combat of bac- 
 terial disease offers possibilities of large social returns. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION 23 
 
 (cf. Irving Fisher, Hutchinson). Part of this instruction 
 under physical education, part under social education (civic 
 action in sanitation). Problem here very like earlier prob- 
 lems of extirpating wolves, poisonous serpents, rats, ver- 
 min, — knowledge, individual effort, social effort. Problem 
 of "natural immunization" to chicken-pox, measles, 
 whooping cough, etc. 
 
 5. Primitive man probably evolved eye suited to most frequent use at 
 fairly long ranges. Heavy strain put on hereditary mechanism by primi- 
 tive handicrafts; and still greater by modern use of printing. Problems: 
 mechanically aiding eyes of children; of increasing visibility of short 
 range work; and of increasing, in early years, extent of easy long range 
 use (Boy Scout activities, etc.). 
 
 6. Civilized man uses artificial heat extensively. Effect of this in 
 preventing full development of bodily capacity in children not known. 
 Primitive man in temperate and colder zones doubtless developed bodily 
 mechanism that thrived (within limits) on exposure to extremes and even 
 suffering therefrom. (Problem of the physical mollycoddles, the softened 
 girl or coop- woman.) 
 
 7. Primitive man doubtless lived much in open air, with abundance of 
 oxygen, breezes, little organic emanation in air. Character, extent and 
 duration of cave-dwelling period not well known, but probably much 
 adaptation to sleeping (but not working) in crowded, unventilated cells 
 at this time produced. Civilization produces necessity of working in 
 rooms (not required even of caveman). Recent hypotheses as to need of 
 ventilation chiefly to provide for escape of heat and varied stimulus 
 rather than to prevent breathing air with high content of COj and organic 
 matter. Problems of open air for sleeping and school work. 
 
 8. Prolongation of infancy (Fiske) of man had effected postponement 
 of maturity of mating impulse until about age sixteen; except that 
 warmth, abundance of stimulating food and deficient physical activity may 
 cause prematurity, also, even under normal conditions, the young exper- 
 iencing foreshadowing of sex impulses, " hauntings," even possible neu- 
 roses (Freud). But conditions of civilized life tend to impose long 
 postponement of approved mating (marriage) — in occidental countries, 
 for " working " classes, 20-24, for " middle " classes, 24-30. Hence, period 
 15 — to marriage is especially characterized by problems of conservation 
 of health as affected by sex life (and continence), prevention of patho- 
 logical manifestations (individual and social), and conservation of 
 aesthetic and social ideals capable of being interwoven with finer mani- 
 festations and irradiations of sex instinct in love, appreciation of beauty, 
 family ideals and religion. (Bigelow, Havelock Ellis.) 
 
 a. Problems involved classify in part under hygiene (physical 
 education) and in part under morality (especially moral 
 ideals — social education.) 
 
24 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 b. While early mating (in socially approved, or in tabooed 
 forms) has been common among primitive peoples, it is 
 also certain that for long periods and for considerable 
 classes of men continence even to advanced years has been 
 assured through dominance of ideals of physical excellence 
 for demands of war; also through prevalence of religious 
 ideals. Note also very general social insistence on con- 
 tinence as pre-condition and concurrent condition for 
 approved marriage, especially for women. 
 
 c. Problems of sex education involve at least (a) knowledge 
 towards prudential ends; (b) knowledge and ideals 
 towards influential motives for continence and idealism; 
 and (c) abundant physical activity, disregard of physical 
 ease (or softness), and unstimulating foods, to counter 
 development of sex impulses. Probably early development 
 in the mind of youth of convictions as to harmful possi- 
 bilities of broodings, day-dreams, etc., will prove helpful. 
 On the other hand, unsound valuations of certain serai- 
 normal manifestations to be guarded against. (Bigelow.) 
 
 d. Assuming co-education to be so conducted as to preclude 
 anti-social developments (thoughts, speech, coquetries), 
 its probable values as a means of normalizing extra-marital 
 relation of the sexes should be examined. Probabilities 
 that potencies of co-education in this direction should be 
 further developed. 
 
 e. Development of social education designed correctly to 
 evaluate family life, each individual's potential contribution 
 to same, and elucidating conditions of soundness in, ought 
 to make valuable contributions. 
 
 g. Primitive man worked spasmodically, intensely at times, and with 
 frequent and irregular intermissions. Perhaps women first developed 
 routine work. Later slaves were held to long routine work ; then, as 
 condition of economic survival, almost all workers except soldiers and 
 " leisure class." All routine work therefore imposes heavy strain on 
 physical powers, (cf. Condemnation of Adam, dreams of freedom from 
 ■ toil, etc.) 
 
 a. Probability that hereditary mechanism has become so 
 adapted that a substantial amount of routine work is 
 necessary to full physical development. 
 
 b. Conditions of maximum productivity in physical work not 
 clearly understood (cf. controversies as to eight-hour day; 
 motion studies — Gilbreth ; reports of industrial accidents ; 
 effects of routine labor on the young). 
 
 c. Effects of routine labor, long prolonged, on plastic youth. 
 Series of special problems. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION 25 
 
 d. Note problems of "borrowed" or "derived" motive for 
 endurance of distasteful routine (or drudgery) — from 
 fear of direct penalty, fear of want or remote disapproval, 
 desire for reward or wage, ambition, etc. 
 
 10. Under modern conditions, physical organism of man subject to 
 peculiar strains of the kind called " nervous " in contrast with more 
 manual or muscular activities of primitive life. 
 
 a. Note whole classes of " brain workers " and of others 
 (clerks, technical workers, readers) who are taxed men- 
 tally or nervously by their work. Probability that this 
 involves exceptional kinds of strain to be prepared for by 
 previous adequate physical development of primitive order. 
 
 11. Woman, under primitive social conditions, is obliged to work no 
 less hard, — often harder in terms of drudgery — than man. But with 
 the appearance of a conquering class, governing aristocracy, then heredi- 
 tary leisure class, finally holders of capital or large producers capable oi 
 "conspicuous waste" (Veblen), arises a demand for women to grace, 
 decorate, or embellish life for commanding men. To preserve decorative 
 qualities such women are freed from toil and natural growth restricted in 
 many respects (small feet — of Chinese women, — hands, waists, soft 
 skins, long hair, rounded contours, — often to be had only from half- 
 arrested muscular development, coop women) ; while " elegant " or 
 " refined " occupations, not vulgarly useful, are prized (embroidery, dilet- 
 tante art). Hence, from early age "hard play" and then "work" is 
 taboo. Result is the production of powers and qualities characteristic of 
 parasitic forms. 
 
 Actual leisure class never very large, but its example in evolving a 
 class of decorative women (and thereby intensifying and giving persistent 
 predominance to feminine qualities making aesthetic appeal at age of 
 mating) spreads into all classes where, under conditions of production 
 with the aid of capital and results of invention, men capable of producing 
 considerable surplus to raise a family are found. Hence, widespread 
 ideal favoring general development of decorative women. Results in 
 America seen in vast numbers of women, ages 12 to 60, competing in 
 decorating the person with clothing and jewels, in painting the skin, 
 favoring arts of manicure and hairdresser, in cultivating as primary ends 
 grace of person and arts of expression and display given by " finishing 
 school " or prized in society. Physical organism doubtless deteriorates in 
 the process, becoming incapacitated in large part for productive work, 
 resistance to disease or weakness, child bearing and child nurture. (20: 
 passim. ) 
 
 a. With rising standards of living in America and democratic 
 society, almost all women aspire to be like the leisure 
 class, decorative women. But note counteracting ideals of 
 household arts teaching, of suffrage movement, of women 
 educated in co-educational schools. 
 
26 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 b. If girls were reared exactly as boys, to what extent would 
 they show a different or weaker physique? Question not 
 easily answered but suggestions obtainable from facts as 
 to physique of European peasant women, women of Sparta, 
 Amazon revolt, etc. 
 
 c. Extent to which excessive specialization of women for 
 decorative purposes results in sterility, non-functioning of 
 nursing organs, great pain in childbirth, pervasive aversion 
 to children in general, — and hence in destructively low 
 birth rate and poor mothering, not known, but doubtless 
 critical in occidental societies (cf. studies of diminishing 
 birthrate, especially in "middle class" society). 
 
 d. A difficult problem involved in combining results of ideals 
 of aesthetically attractive womanhood with results of 
 requirements for adequate physical development. Some 
 signs that aesthetic valuations are even now changing 
 (ridicule of the mid-Victorean woman, premium on the 
 athletic, out-door girl). 
 
 VIII. Vocational Education : Sociological Presuppositions 
 AND Conditions 
 
 a. Vocational education is here inclusively defined as any 
 form of direct or by-education the distinctive purpose or 
 effect of which is to produce the skills, knowledges, ideals, 
 or general experiences that function in a designated calling. 
 111. the bookkeeper, by virtue of certain special knowledge, 
 skill and integrity, is a producer of valuable service in 
 ways that another man of equal qualities, due to heredity, 
 environment, and general education, would find impossible. 
 The specialized training that gave him this power consti- 
 tuted his vocational education. Prob. Analyze distinctive 
 vocational qualities of B class tailor, cook, preacher, kin- 
 dergarten teacher, sailor, frontier farmer, electrical 
 engineer, newsboy, mill-weaver, chauffeur, home-maker (in 
 servantless, four-child home), plumber, proofreader, 
 colonel, tea-taster, gambler, congressman. 
 
 b. In peculiar degree, constructive proposals for vocational 
 education require foundations of sound economic princi- 
 ples, scientifically tested where practicable, careful 
 hypotheses where necessary. Problems showing, e.g., this 
 need : To what extent in any field of work do supply and 
 and demand regulate compensation? Under what condi- 
 tions is exploitation chronic? If the productivity of the 
 individual is increased, how far can he retain for his own 
 use increased product ? Do such things as " overcrowded " 
 occupations really exist? What is the economic status of 
 
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 27 
 
 the wife and mother in non-wage-earning homemaking? 
 Are the fields for "unskilled" labor proportionately 
 increased by the use of capital and applied science (inven- 
 tion) ? 
 c. Consult census, directories, etc., for examples of vocations. 
 
 1. Primitive productive occupations (including fighting) were simple 
 and learned naturally (by imitation, suggestion, working with " achieving " 
 instincts of youths). Chief differentiation was between sexes — women 
 are said to have carried on most arts of tillage and craft. But each 
 individual had to be capable of turning his hand to many things — as do 
 farmers, small shopkeepers, homemakers, fishermen, to-day. 
 
 a. But very early certain arts, including priestcraft and heal- 
 ing, became hereditary or were pursued by cults or guilds. 
 Here begins recognized apprenticeship education — usually 
 by-education, because the use of the learner for productive 
 work was the primary object. 
 
 2. Conquest at first incorporated only children and women of the cap- 
 tured. In higher forms of conquest men are enslaved or left on the land 
 as serfs. This introduces a long era — sometimes thought to be the real 
 source of institutions making "civilization" (Oppenheimer, Gumplowicz, 
 Small), of control of conquered by conquerors, accompanied by forced 
 labor, forced tribute, etc. Occupational differentiation and formation of 
 castes proceed apace. Endless beginnings of systematic vocational train- 
 ing arise (cf. training of slaves, U. S., 1700-1863). 
 
 a. How far will people become good producers, left to ambi- 
 tion of self and families? How far may compulsion for 
 vocational education be necessary? 
 
 3. In civilized democratic societies ideals of productive work are held 
 for all. Problems arise as to training for this work. 
 
 o. Decline of apprenticeship system of vocational by-education. 
 What were the merits of apprenticeship for: professions? 
 trades? agriculture? office callings? 
 
 b. Why does " factory " system impair efficiency of shop 
 by-education ? 
 
 c. Does perfection of machinery in general diminish need for 
 full vocational education? (Note: automobile, locomotive, 
 typewriter, loom, mowing machine, shoe-making machine, 
 sewing machine, power saw, steamship, telegraph, printing 
 press, power forge hammer, rifle, power drill, explosives 
 — for mining, Bessemer process, safety razor, gas stove, 
 photo-engraving. ) 
 
 4. Problems of women in industry — the modern problem of women 
 following productive work away from home. (Schreiner.) 
 
 a. Census statistics show rapidly increasing number of women 
 
28 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 in commercial and industrial pursuits. What are age dis- 
 tributions and how related to marriage age? 
 
 b. Physiological effects of highly specialized vocations into 
 which women go — what are the problems? 
 
 c. Problems of the vocational education of girls and young 
 women for specialized, pre-marriage wage-earning. 
 
 d. Problem of wage-earning for home-making women. 
 
 5. Problems of vocational education for home-making women. 
 
 a. When is it desired (motivation)? When is it necessary? 
 When can it most economically be offered (or acquired) ? 
 Of what shall it consist? 
 
 b. What are essential features of B class home (non-servant, 
 3-6 children, $900-$! soo standard), to-day? 
 
 6. Problems of vocational education for specialized industrial workers 
 (men). 
 
 a. Transitions: early juvenile occupations; late juvenile; 
 early adult;" late adult; directorship. 
 
 b. Direct, full-time education; direct part-time education 
 (preparatory, extension). Analysis of by-education of 
 occupation. 
 
 7. Problems of vocational education for trades. Trades in the older 
 sense of the word are disappearing. Do dynamic industries involve trades ? 
 
 8. Problems of agricultural education ; professional education (men) ; 
 professional education (women); commercial education; nautical educa- 
 tion. 
 
 9. Vocational guidance — its place and possibilities. (Bibliography; 
 Brewer and Kelley, A Selected Critical Bibliography of Vocational Guid- 
 ance, Harvard University, 1917.) 
 
 10. Organization problems of vocational education — full-time, part- 
 time, continuation, preparatory, extension. 
 
 11. Pedagogical problems of vocational education — practice, pro- 
 ductive work, technical studies, sociological phases. 
 
 IX. Social Education : Sociological Presuppositions and 
 
 Conclusions 
 
 (General Reference: Ross, Social Control, Macmillan.) 
 
 a. Social education here taken to include all forms of direct 
 and by-education designed to shape individual for " group " 
 life, includes moral, civic, ethical, religious education; 
 character building ; inculcation of the " virtues " as 
 habitual attitudes and practices or ideals — honesty, chas- 
 tity, truthfulness, thrift, courage, loyalty, sociability (good 
 
SOCIAL EDUCATION 29 
 
 mixer), charity, toleration, fair-play, civic sense, etc. 
 (Enumerate scores of other "'virtues.") 
 6. Immediate ends of social education capable of being dif- 
 ferentiated (in part) as habits (or habitual attitudes) ; 
 appreciations (taste, valuations) ; insight (knowledge, 
 intelligence) ; ideals (goals of desire, standards accepted). 
 Problem of motivation for social education. 
 
 1. Note large basis for social education in individualistic, small-group, 
 and large-group instincts. 
 
 a. Note theory that primate ancestor of man was not gre- 
 garious — possibly solitary, gorilla-like. (Compare man 
 with gregarious animals.) 
 
 b. Note early appearance in children of individualistic 
 instincts — property, self-protection (lying, fighting), "self- 
 ishness," self-centeredness of adolescent. 
 
 c. But note early appearance of " small-group " instincts — 
 family, clique, playmates, gang, etc. 
 
 d. Note tendency of primitive men to intensify " small-group " 
 development, and antagonize " large-group " interests — 
 clan, brotherhood, union, feud, Greek vs. barbarian, aliens, 
 pagans, nationals. Conflict between small and large groups 
 as regards antagonisms, virtues, etc. 
 
 f. Problem of social education found in transforming of 
 " virtues " and modification of attitudes developed from 
 simple instincts — sympathy, pugnacity, property, cooper- 
 ation, toleration, etc. 
 
 2. Primitive societies had ever-present problems of social education. 
 Peace and cooperation were essential within group if it was to sustain 
 and defend itself. 
 
 a. Wjf has always been the most visible and dramatic test 
 of group solidarity. Other tests (to reproduce well, to 
 migrate, to develop capital, to diffuse intelligence, to control 
 natural forces, to resist sloth and licentiousness, to admin- 
 ister justice) are doubtless equally crucial, but not so 
 evident, visible. Hence much of history is that af war. 
 
 b. Religion has its largest function in promoting the fears, 
 aspirations, taboos and rewards making for social coherence 
 (when pure, genuinely functional; it, too, is subject to 
 degeneration at times). 
 
 c. Note the use of art in primitive " social control " and 
 " social welding." 
 
 3. Societies seem to pass through a mediaeval (early civilization) stage 
 when "custom control" (dogma, authority, belief, tradition, "divinely 
 sanctioned " laws) play a very large part. 
 
30 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 a. Institutions now develop (creeds, theologies, constitutions, 
 courts of justice, courts of ruling classes, castes, cere- 
 monials, imposing art — literature, architecture, drama). 
 
 b. We — too near breaking of periods of this era — are prone 
 to evaluate its results in terms of its declining, " old-age " 
 manifestations. In its early stages, doubtless a much 
 needed and splendid advance beyond barbarism. (Note 
 symptoms of breakdown of custom control — in religion, 
 politics, economic institutions, domestic institutions.) 
 
 4. Modern societies strive to emerge on the plane of rational social 
 control. 
 
 a. Democracy strives to make the individual a person — an 
 end, not a means. 
 
 b. Modern man aspires to free thought, free speech, free 
 worship, free migration, free business, free domesticity, 
 free government, within limits of group safety, (cf. Refor- 
 mations, revolutions, higher criticisms, etc.) 
 
 c. Free man, leading in these matters, is distressed to find 
 serfs, bondmen, slaves, women, even children, following, 
 imitating, as.Serting rights. He resents the inevitable spread 
 of democracy and free thinking outward and downward. 
 Hence perennial present conflict between authority (cus- 
 tom rule) and strivings of democracy. 
 
 5. Problems of social education to-day, then, must take account of and 
 use manifestations of democracy. 
 
 a. Note the diminishing place of creeds, dogmas, taboos, unin- 
 telligible prohibitions, ceremonials, emotional appeals, 
 respect for authority (as such alone), conscription (of 
 will and intelligence), sacredness of private property, 
 obedience to scholars, etc. Note general indifference to 
 laws, as such. 
 
 6. Note demand for scientific justification, approval of intelli- 
 gible ideals, respect for personalities, regard for visible 
 social service. 
 
 c. A period of tiansition is always one of disintegration, 
 danger of revolution, decline of many valuable customs, 
 standards, etc. But " the clock does not turn back." 
 
 6. Objectives of profitable social education of two kinds: (a) pro- 
 vision of right conditions for social development; (b) provision of 
 definite objectives for social training and education. 
 
 a. Social control, in interests of right social education, of 
 home, street, clubs, "movies," literature, police power, 
 occupational life, all now practicable. Social provision of 
 broader group activities (Boy-Scout, school government, 
 
CULTURAI. EDUCATION 31 
 
 public service, military training, co-education, economic 
 part-time production) also possible. 
 b. Community civics, specialized literature of idealism, gov- 
 ernment, study of nations, economics, ethics, probably all 
 good means to direct social education. But specific objec- 
 tives yet obscure, hence means and methods uncertain. 
 
 X. Cultural Education : Sociological Presuppositions and 
 
 Conditions 
 
 o. The division " Cultural Education " is designed to include, 
 first, those objectives of education — direct education and 
 by-education — embodying that common knowledge and 
 appreciation which do not clearly function in vocations, 
 useful group-activities, or personal physical well-being, 
 and which in a civilized state are sought on behalf of all 
 persons. Some of these objectives — e.g., vernacular in 
 spoken and written forms, elementary arithmetic, local 
 geography, maimers, and everyday reading — have func- 
 tional values in all kinds of education; but it is clear that 
 their largest value is in establishing a common culture. 
 The beginnings of literature, art, science, history, and 
 world geography also enter as elements of this common 
 culture. 
 
 b. There is included, in the second place, all those objectives 
 that are sought on behalf of individuals for the sake of 
 enriching the personal life, especially as regards intel- 
 lectual and aesthetic interests, when these are not special- 
 ized for vocational, social, or physical ends. Include vari- 
 ous " interests " in ancient history, current events, gene- 
 alogy, numismatics, archaeology, ethnology, poetry, essays, 
 fiction, biography, wit and humor, English grammar, Rus- 
 sian literature, Greek drama, Shakespearean drama, con- 
 temporary drama, "ice age" geology, neighborhood flora, 
 mountain exploration, foreign travel, violin music, ancient 
 art, modern architecture, eclipses, dress, dancing, enter- 
 tainment, decoration of home, hobbies, avocations, etc. 
 
 I. Play, the value of which for the physical, social, and cultural growth 
 of the child is not disputed, has its analogue in the cultural interests of 
 youths and adults. 
 
 a. Biologically speaking, play represents one of nature's means 
 of providing for growth and involves, of course, " surplus 
 energy" — above that needed for work and direct growth 
 processes. So, doubtless, the aesthetic and intellectual 
 interests function obscurely in growth, and obviously they 
 utilize " surplus energy." 
 
3l2 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOCV 
 
 2. "Education for leisure" is an approved ideal of "liberal educa- 
 tion." In a sound economic order all have some leisure or time apart 
 from vocational, civic, and physical necessities (work, sleep, exercise) ; 
 this leisure will be filled with sociability, amusement, recreation, attempts 
 to satisfy aesthetic, intellectual, and physical desires. These may be of a 
 low order and deleterious — physical indulgence, degrading sports, hurt- 
 ful amusements. With right education, more enduring tastes and interests 
 can presumably be established towards the enrichment of individual, and, 
 indirectly, of social, life. 
 
 a. In social evolution a conquering predatory class has often 
 produced a minority of adults who had a disproportionate 
 amount of leisure. In periods of high social idealism, these, 
 competing in higher forms of utilization, have promoted 
 fine arts, decorative arts, building, sports, and even science, 
 research, etc. Under other circumstances, they compete in 
 ornamenting the person, fostering elegant parasitism, and 
 in "conspicuous waste." (Veblen.) 
 
 b. In industrial society or one having land-owning aristoc- 
 racy, holders of capital, and especially their descendants, 
 constitute successors of leisure class, and these also com- 
 pete in special cultural developments, sometimes beautiful, 
 sometimes sordid. 
 
 c. Few men in America now willing to admit membership 
 in, or exhibit characteristics of, leisure class. That pre- 
 rogative is sometimes left to their decorative women — 
 usually wives and daughters (or worse). 
 
 3. The transmission of the " social inheritance " of culture becomes a 
 large purpose in societies, even when practical consequences of such 
 transmission are not obvious. Schools are created to this end in cases 
 where by-education of other agencies would not suffice. 
 
 a. During most historic periods premiums placed upon tellers 
 of tales, singers, readers, sages, ritualists, teachers, his- 
 torians, etc., who can thus transmit. Equal importance 
 attaches to monuments, inscriptions, runes, museums, 
 libraries, galleries, place names, word spellings, commemo- 
 rative feast and name days, etc. 
 
 b. A crude, strong people conquering a relatively refined, 
 culturally advanced people gives rise to curious new inter- 
 ests, cf. Heroic Ages in Greece, Servia, Scandinavia, 
 England. 
 
 c. The "mining out" of the cultural riches of a past that 
 has become overlain creates a peculiarly intense "back- 
 ward looking" set of cultural interests. The memorable 
 example of the Renaissance, " discovering " Roman liter- 
 ature, then Greek and Hebrew, (cf. Literature of the 
 Renaissance.) The impetus given the study of classic 
 
CULTURAL EDUCATION 33 
 
 languages (and to lesser extent, literatures) persists to 
 this day, especially outside of Latin countries. 
 
 4. The "humanities" or "humanism" signify those cultural studies 
 prized especially on behalf of the more influential men of society, the 
 " leaders," by which they are enabled to see the social or human side of 
 the world in its larger aspects. It is usually expected that "social," i.e., 
 civic and moral, results will derive, hence these studies, if shown so to 
 function, might be classed as social. (Note that some observers rank 
 the "social science" studies — so popular in American colleges, as the 
 " New Humanities.") 
 
 a. The problem as to how far it is expedienT^or wholesome 
 for the highest approved culture of a people to be made 
 thus dependent on the past is still important. Too much 
 dependence on the past may paralyze initiative (cf. 
 Nietzsche, The Study of History). For purposes of con- 
 servation, reliance on static order, doubtless use of the 
 past for " followers " is desirable. But probably only very 
 exceptional " leaders " who give social variability can 
 profitably utilize the past, except as a means of explaining 
 or confirming or negating hypotheses already formed. 
 
 b. Note thesis developed later that probably the past in history 
 and literature should be studied only in the fight of good 
 grounding in the present. 
 
 5. Culture, for purposes of education, should be distinguished into 
 (a) common culture — which it is expected all in a democracy shall 
 possess, and (b) individual culture, the possession of the interested indi- 
 vidual and his congenial fellows. 
 
 a. We assume certain degrees of proficiency in the oral ami 
 written language arts — speech, writing, reading, — interest 
 in general reading, and some knowledge of the best litera- 
 ture, comprehension of simple arithmetic (arithmetic of 
 utilization), acquaintance with common facts and princi- 
 ples of history and geography, and appreciation of simple 
 music and plastic art, as constituting the basis of common 
 culture. 
 
 b. Beyond .this, education — in direct and indirect forms — 
 makes provision on a public, endowed or commercial basis, 
 for endless special forms of special cultural development 
 along lines of literature, art, music, history, science, crafts, 
 sociability, travel, etc. Within limits, it is usually agreed 
 that society can well afford at public expense to foster 
 these forms. (Note: classical studies in secondary schools ; 
 varied "liberal" courses in college; endowed and state 
 galleries, museums, theatres, expositions, public art, etc.) 
 
 6. " Liberal education " — here used to include both cultural and 
 
34 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 social education — can be interpreted profitably as " education for utili- 
 zation " — thus placing it in contradistinction to " education for pro- 
 duction" (vocational education). Utilization not necessarily a final end 
 itself, but in such fields as literature, science, art, crafts, sports, travel, 
 ends beyond utilization (health, sanity, " progress," " rich personality " 
 character, salvation) are difficult of analysis. Hence, as in the case of 
 play, we say gratification of aesthetic and intellectual interests on high- 
 grade play basis is a justifiable end in itself (not to be confused with 
 "art for art's sake," etc.). 
 
 o. Man is a potential utilizer of the literature, art and tnusic 
 of all ages and cUmes; the scientific knowledge — mathe- 
 matics, astronomy, chemistry, mechanics, sociology, geology, 
 ethnology, etc., — that the experience of the world has 
 rolled up ; the institutional life that has become organized ; 
 the endless forms of association with unseen personalities 
 which we call religion; the varied forms of association 
 which make family, community, and other forms of group 
 life; the services of unnumbered specialist workers in 
 medicine, law, accounting, mining, tillage, transportation, 
 teaching, exploration, manufacture, decoration, housing, 
 diversion, defence. 
 
 b. Man's political relationships (the ends of "good citizen- 
 ship") can be assembled in two chief categories: (a) 
 Good citizenship consists, first, in conforming, in fitting 
 to the established order, in obedience to laws and service- 
 able conventions — all expressed in the passive virtues of 
 obedience, patience, industry, submission, temperance, 
 thrift, etc. (b) For many, good citizenship consists also 
 in taking the initiative, being aggressive, breaking with 
 routine and established order, criticising laws and their 
 executors, — all expressed as active virtues, such as non- 
 conformity, independence, radicalism, free thinking, organi- 
 izing of new movements, etc. 
 
 But as regards many civic functions, man is chiefly a 
 cooperative employer of specialist service — a joint utilizer 
 of that service. Hence social education may be inter- 
 preted partly in terms of making man a good chooser, 
 discriminating buyer, generous rewarder of specialist ser- 
 vice — a socialized consumer. 
 
 XL Adaptations of Education to Special Social Classes 
 
 a. Societies, general or special, utilize education as a means 
 of producing desired results of conformity, initiation, etc., 
 in individuals or social groups. Note historical examples. 
 
 I. The state, (or philanthropy anticipating), uses school education for 
 a wide range of classes : (a) cultural (bright, average, retarded, illiterate 
 
ADAPTATIONS OF BDUGATION TO SPECIAL SOCIAL CLASSES 35 
 
 youths, iJliterate adults) ; (b) vocational (leaders, public servants, talented, 
 orphaned, socially needed, crippled, speech defective) ; (c) anti-social 
 (recidivists, young felons, misdemeanants, youthful delinquents, incorri- 
 gible from standpoint of home and school, disciplinary cases, female 
 offenders) ; racial (colored, conquered territories, immigrants) ; standard 
 of living (homes, utilization, art) ; health ; thrift ; temperance ; defend- 
 ers ; immigrant citizens ; religious devotees, etc. 
 
 a. The fundamental problem here concerns desirable and 
 feasible limits of social custody — direct control under 
 direction of government. Hovir far expedient for state 
 permanently to enter on productive work with blind, recidi- 
 vists, subnormals, etc. Difficulties involved as regards: 
 economic competition with private enterprise ; state as 
 "business man"; restraints on the freedom of individual, 
 etc. 
 
 b. Note that custodial care and education have been provided 
 historically for poorer or neglected groups before provision 
 for normal — on assumption of competency of agencies of 
 by-education. 
 
 2. Problems of objectives in education of defectives at present grow 
 out of failure to consider that education in terms of its ultimate outcomes. 
 For example: 
 
 a. Schools for blind and deaf endeavor to give kinds and 
 scope of education similar to that for normal children. 
 
 b. They neglect supremely important ends of genuine (as 
 against make-believe or sentiment-colored) vocational edu- 
 cation. 
 
 c. Schools for mental subnormals and cripples do not base 
 their programs upon clear cut differentiation between cases 
 that must remain custodial and those that can be prepared 
 for independent existence. 
 
 (a) Investigations : current programs of these schools 
 studied to ascertain actual objectives. 
 
 (b) Problems of the social education of defectives, especi- 
 ally mingling with normals. 
 
 3. Problems of education of delinquents, especially acute on side of 
 socialization. Uncertainties as to how far anti-social manifestations are 
 the result of heredity, or of bad by-education. Schools now weak in 
 follow-up oversight 
 
 a. Segregation for education — a desirable means — how far 
 opposed to final socialization? 
 
 6. Difficulty of preventing institutionalizing, of promoting 
 capacity for self-direction, saving, resisting powers, indus- 
 try. 
 
36 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 c. Partial vs. entire custodial oversight — a problem at all 
 stages. 
 
 (a) Examine institutiotial reports to determine actual 
 objectives. 
 
 4. Problems of providing nurturing environment and by-education for 
 parentless children. 
 
 o. Adoption, "hired homes," institutional custody required, 
 
 according to circumstances. 
 h. Problem of transition to independence. 
 
 (a) Review history of education of orphans. What has 
 been the special contribution of Oiristianity ? 
 
 5. Problems of the social adjustment of immigrants. 
 
 a. Desirability of a national policy. Limitation on private 
 
 and local effort. 
 h. Possibilities of ceremonial adoption into citizenship. 
 c. Aims of education: individual efficiency; citizenship; 
 
 standard of living; personal culture. 
 
 (a) Formulate detailed problems of education of immi- 
 grants for New York. 
 
 6. Problems of special education of subject peoples or classes. 
 
 a. Central oversight, and support from local sources. 
 
 6. Special efforts to procure leaders from peoples concerned. 
 
 c. The vocational basis, misunderstood, because of effective 
 by-education in controlling peoples. 
 
 d. Conflict of social ideals in education. 
 
 (a) What problems remain as regards education of: 
 Negroes ; Filipinos ; Porto Ricans ; Indians ; East 
 Indians (for Great Britain)? 
 
 XII. Problems of Curriculum 
 
 Definition of the desirable and feasible general objectives of education 
 (for the state, for the individual in general, for a democratic people, for 
 cultural, physical, social, or vocational efficiency of specified classes) must 
 be followed by definition and specification of immediate and concrete 
 objectives for each year's (and even day's) work. Hence courses, pro- 
 grams, curricula, tests, manuals, etc. 
 
 a. Definitions : (a) Course (of study) here limited to one 
 organized field of subject matter, e.g., French, English 
 literature, algebra (unless otherwise specified, one year's 
 work is understood). Not used in sense of: commercial - 
 course, classical course (here use curriculum for the 
 school's offerings and programs for the pupils' takings). 
 
 (b) Curriculum — the offerings of the school for a speci- 
 
PROBLEMS OF CURRICULUM 37 
 
 fied field of education, e.g., commercial, classical, graduate, 
 etc. (Note that a school may offer several curricula.) 
 (c) The pupils make from the curricula a program of 
 studies or courses for a specified period. 
 b. For purposes of effective teaching and administration, it 
 is desirable that courses in alpha fields or subjects be 
 broken progressively into short and concrete units, each 
 with a clearly indicated objective, expressed in terms of 
 skill, appreciation, knowledge, ideal, etc. 
 
 1. Curricula for any given class should rank offerings on basis of 
 probable educational values, placing first those studies that are prescriptive 
 under stated conditions. But note: 
 
 a. There may be specific prescription in general (as spelling, 
 penmanship, in lower grades). 
 
 b. There may be specific prescription for those electing par- 
 ticular goal — algebra for engineers, advanced spelling for 
 stenographers, Latin for A.B. degree. 
 
 c. There may be prescription of attendance but not of mas- 
 tery, e.g., compelling presence at prayers, lectures, concerts, 
 etc., but no testing of attainment 
 
 d. Quantitative prescription (time, quantity of matter) need 
 not involve specific prescription of matter (literature, songs, 
 field games, science projects — social, natural mental). 
 
 e. Minimum standards should be defined for alpha subjects 
 of universal import — then pupils deficient should be 
 required to make up deficiencies. 
 
 /. Many offerings will be pvirely elective. 
 g. School and society have right and obligation to require 
 profitable employment of available time. 
 
 2. Curricula should make formal recognition of ends or objectives and 
 indicate or refer to means and methods. Note: 
 
 a. Texts, manuals, guides, syllabi are all detailed instruments 
 (plans and specifications) of curricula. 
 
 b. Large number and variety of specifications and suggestions 
 can be made without prescription — the implication being 
 that the teacher will follow these unless he has equally 
 well defined and evaluated substitutes. 
 
 (a) Discuss: Curriculum specifications as a means of 
 supervision; text as teacher's guide; text as pupil's 
 tool; desirability of writing all texts exclusively for 
 learners and supplementing with teacher's guide 
 (manual). 
 
 3. Problem of standards of purpose in alpha subjects and application 
 of tests of proficiency — illus. spelling, penmanship, arithmetic, drawing, 
 modern language, vocation. 
 
38 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Selected References 
 (Reference to these sources is made by number in the digest.) 
 
 1. Baldwin, James Mark. Social and Ethical Interpretations in Mental 
 
 Development. New York, 1899. 
 
 2. Cooley, Charles Horton. Social Organisation. New York, 1909. 
 
 3. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. New York, 1916. 
 
 4. Dewey, John and Tufts, James H. Ethics. New York, igo8. 
 
 5. EUwood, Charles A. The Social Problem. New York, 1915. 
 
 6. Fisher, Irving. Report on National Vitality. Bulletin, 30, Comm. 
 
 Nat. Health. Washington, 1909. 
 
 7. Fiske, John. The Destiny of Man. Cambridge, 1884. 
 
 8. Fiske, John. The Meaning of Infancy. Cambridge, 1909. 
 
 9. Giddings, Franklin H. Democracy and Empire. New York, 1900. 
 
 10. Giddings, Franklin H. Elements of Sociology. New York, 1900. 
 
 11. Giddings, Franklin H. Inductive Sociology. New York, 1901. 
 
 12. Giddings, Franklin H. The Principles of Sociology. New York, 
 
 1896. 
 
 13. Goodsell, Willystine. A History of the Family as a Social and 
 
 Educational Institution. New York, 1915. 
 
 14. McDougall, William. Social Psychology. Boston, 1909. 
 
 15. Oppenheimer, Franz. The State. Indianapolis, 1914. 
 
 16. Parsons, Elsie Clews (trans, of Gabriel Tarde). Tarde's Laws of 
 
 Imitation. New York, 1903. 
 
 17. Ross, Edward Alsworth. The Foundations of Sociology. New 
 
 York, 1905. 
 
 18. Ross, Edward Alsworth. Social Psychology. New York, igo8. 
 
 19. Ross, Edward Alsworth. Social Control. New York, 1915. 
 
 20. Schreiner, Olive. Woman and Labor. New York, 191 1. 
 
 21. Small, Albion W. General Sociology. Chicago, 1905. 
 
 22. Small, Albion W. The Meaning of Social Science. Chicago, 1910. 
 
 23. Spencer, Herbert. The Principles of Sociology. Vol. I-2. New 
 
 York, i8g6. 
 
 24. Spencer, Herbert. The Principles of Sociology. Vol. II-2. New 
 
 York, 1896. 
 
 25. Spencer, Herbert. Synthetic Philosophy. Vol. VIII. Principles of 
 
 Sociology. Vol. III. New York, 1897. 
 36. Spencer, Herbert. Principles of Ethics. Vol. II. New York, 1896. 
 
 27. Sutherland, Alexander. The Origin and Growth of the Moral 
 
 Instinct. Vol. I. London, 1898. 
 
 28. Sutherland, Alexander. The Origin and Growth of the Moral 
 
 Instinct. Vol. II. London, 1898. 
 
 29. Ward, Lester F. Applied Sociology. Boston, Ginn & Co., 1896. 
 
 30. Ward, Lester F. Dynamic Sociology. Vol. I. New York, 1897. 
 
 31. Ward, Lester F. Dynamic Sociology. Vol. 11. New York, 1897. 
 
 32. Ward, Lester F. Outlines of Sociology. New York, 1899. 
 
 33. Ward, Lester F. Pure Sociology. New York, 1907. 
 
Teachers College Syllabi, No. 8 Price, 80 Cents 
 
 XTeacbetg College 
 Columbia TUniverstt^ 
 
 Educational Sociology 
 
 A DIGEST AND SYLLABUS 
 
 PART II: APPLICATIONS TO 
 CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 BY 
 
 DAVID SNEDDEN, Ph.D. 
 
 Professor of Education, Teachers College 
 Columbia University 
 
 Published by 
 
 StrarljirrB (SalUgr. (Eotitmbia SnivrrBitg 
 
 525 Wert 120th Street 
 New York Gty 
 
Copyright, 191 7, by David Snedden 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 XIII. Introductory Definitions and Analyses 
 
 XIV. Objectives in Development of Children, Ages 1-4 - 
 XV. Objectives of Education and Development for Children, 
 
 Ages 4-6 
 XVI. Objectives of Education of Normal Children, Ages 6-12 
 XVII. Objectives of School Education of Normal Youths, 
 
 12-18 
 XVIII. Objectives of Education of Persons, Ages 18-22 
 XIX. Objectives of Extension Education 
 XX. Objectives of Special Education and Development of 
 
 Physical Defectives 
 XXI. Objectives of Special Education and Development for 
 
 Delinquents and Other Anti-Social Classes 
 XXII. Objectives of Special Education for Immigrants 
 
 XXIII. Objectives of Special Education for Employed Classes 
 
 XXIV. Objectives of Special Education for Military Training 
 XXV. Objectives of Education in English Language 
 
 XXVI. Objectives of Education in Natural Science 
 XXVII. Oljjectives of Education in Social Science, Including 
 
 History 
 XXVIII. Objectives of Education in Mental Science 
 XXIX. Objectives of Education in the Fine Arts 
 XXX. Objectives of Education in English Literature 
 XXXI. Objectives of Education in Ancient Foreign Languages 
 
 and Literatures 
 XXXII. Objectives of Education in Modern Foreign Languages 
 and Literatures 
 
 XXXIII. Objectives of Education in Mathematics 
 
 XXXIV. Objectives of Education in Geography 
 
 XXXV. Objectives of Education for Promotion and Conser- 
 vation of Physical Well-Being 
 XXXVI. Objectives of Practical Arts Education 
 XXXVII. Objectives of Agricultural Vocational Education 
 XXXVIII. Objectives of Commercial Vocational Education 
 XXXXIX. Objectives of Homemaking Vocational Education 
 XL. Objectives of Industrial Vocational Education 
 XLI. Objectives of Professional Education 
 XLII. Objectives of Education for Guidance - 
 XLIII. Formation of Individual Programs Including Election 
 
 of Studies 
 XLIV. Problems and Topics for Investigation and Report 
 XLV. Reference List of Bibliographies 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 9 
 II 
 II 
 
 14 
 IS 
 IS 
 IS 
 
 16 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 2S 
 27 
 30 
 
 33 
 35 
 39 
 
 40 
 42 
 44 
 4S 
 47 
 48 
 50 
 51 
 
 S3 
 55 
 66 
 
EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY: APPLICATIONS TO 
 
 DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF 
 
 DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 
 
 XIII. General Explanations, Definitions, and Analyses 
 
 A. Among other purposes, the methods and results of educational 
 sociology may be applied to : 
 
 I. The determination, in any particular case, of the respective actual or 
 possible contributions towards approved ends of development and educa- 
 tion of: heredity; material environment; social environment (agencies 
 of by-education) ; and direct education. 
 
 a. For example, oral communication. By inheritance, the 
 child derives vocal organs, aural organs, nervous mechan- 
 isms required. (Note cases of defective heredity.) 
 Material environment gives few special effects. By-educa- 
 tion gives definite forms of speech — English or French, 
 grammatical or the reverse, dialect or pure pronunciation. 
 By-education exerted by many agencies besides home. 
 School functions in: (a) correcting defects due to bad 
 by-education in vernacular; (b) giving pupils new levels 
 of attainment (voice culture, oratory, sentence structure, 
 business voice, etc.) ; and in teaching foreign language. 
 
 b. Provide parallel illustrations for: (a) written communi- 
 cation; (b) religious creeds; (c) vocational competency 
 (e.g., dentist, sailor, bank president, piano playing) ; 
 (d) love of poetry; (e) mathematical powers; (f) scien- 
 tific inquiry. 
 
 2. The evaluation of the contributions of natural inheritance towards 
 individual powers, as a basis of determining actual and possible contribu- 
 tions of direct education. 
 
 a. What is desirable scope and character of direct education 
 for persons born: (a) blind? (b) measurably below the 
 average in general mental ability (moron) ? (c) with a 
 clear genius for singing? (d) with exceptional capacity 
 for abstract mathematics? 
 
 b. What are possible vocational guidance tests? Educational 
 guidance tests? 
 
 c. What bearings on educational programs should result from 
 knowledge that certain individuals are by heredity: (a) 
 predisposed to tuberculosis? (b) of ancestry with long 
 record for viciousness and immorality? (c) predisposed to 
 expression in plastic arts? 
 
2 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURMCULA AND STUDIES 
 
 3. The evaluation of contributions towards optimum development and 
 education of results of agencies of bx-education. 
 
 a. What are normal contributions of specified types of homes 
 to (a) general knowledge? (b) body postures? (c) die- 
 tetic habits and tastes? (d) appreciations of plastic arts? 
 (e) vocabularies, ages 12 to 14? (f) ideals of honesty? 
 (g) habits of honest practice? (h) vocational homemaking 
 competency for girls? (i) vocational competency for farm 
 boys? 
 
 b. What are contributions of normal play in hilly rural region 
 for boys 12-14 (or other specified age or sex) to : (a) 
 general muscular development? (b) various habits of 
 initiative, self-reliance, etc.? (c) sex continence? (d) 
 nature knowledge? 
 
 c. What are contributions as by-education of wage-earning 
 employment of : (a) girls, 16-20, in well-managed depart- 
 ment store, as regards: morals? health? experience cap- 
 able of functioning later in homemaking? useful general 
 intelligence? (b) boys, in telegraph messenger service? 
 (c) girls, as helpers or workers in textile factory? 
 
 d. What are valuable contributions (or reverse) towards 
 (specified classes) of church worship? Shakespearean 
 
 plays? modern dramas? moving pictures? free public 
 library reading? the afternoon newspapers? 
 
 4. The evaluation of actual or possible conU;ibutions of specialized 
 forms of agencies of direct education. 
 
 a. Describe twenty diflferent types of schools and alleged 
 aims of each. 
 
 B. General Explanations. 
 
 I. General definitions. The offerings of subjects, courses, supervised 
 activities, etc., made by a school on behalf of a designated group of 
 learners will be called a curriculum. A strand or element of the curricu- 
 lum consisting of organized materials of instruction, etc., here called 
 subject. A stated portion of a subject is called a course. The subjects 
 (or for a stated period, courses) taken by an individual student is 
 designated student's program. 
 
 a. Examples of curricula: kindergarten; elementary school 
 (first six grades); junior high school industrial arts; 
 junior high school modern language; high school college 
 preparatory; high school general; high school general for 
 first two years; high school technical; high school com- 
 mercial; blind children 12-16; morons 12-25; illiterate 
 negroes 18-25 ; day industrial school, machinists ; day indus- 
 trial school, printers ; day industrial school, weavers ; day 
 commercial school, stenographers ; day commercial school. 
 
GENERAL EXPLANATIONS, DEFINITIONS, AND ANALYSES 3 
 
 '■ salesgirls; agricultural school, gardeners; agricultural 
 
 school, poultrymen; homemaking day school, girls 14-17; 
 homemaking day school, girls 20-24; evening extension 
 vocational school, stenographers; short-course day exten- 
 sion agricultural school, gardeners; elementary school 
 teaching; high school teaching, modern language; agri- 
 cultural school teaching; school nursing; medical; blind 
 school teaching; university extension (cultural), etc. 
 6. Examples of subjects: kindergarten stories; primary 
 reading (mechanics); elementary school playground; 
 junior high school French; junior high school scouting; 
 senior high school general science; stenographers' English 
 language; carpenter's drawing; gardeners' soils; college 
 (liberal) government; etc. 
 
 c. Examples of courses: first grade nature study; eighth 
 grade oral reading; eleventh grade physics; first year 
 college algebra; adult illiterates, beginners' reading; etc. 
 
 d. A curriculum ordinarily consists of the offerings (with 
 alternatives) designed for a group of students exhibiting 
 modal capacities, interests, prospective needs. If curricu- 
 lum is prescriptive in detail for all, then curriculum and 
 students' program are identical. But ordinarily individual 
 students over twelve years of age will be given alternative 
 subjects (and courses) within one curriculum; and, where 
 school offers two or more curricula, students may be per- 
 mitted to make program (of studies or courses) from 
 several curricula. 
 
 e. Note abandonment of : classical course, commercial course, 
 etc. 
 
 2. " Teaching unit " will be employed to designate portion of offering 
 whereby particular objective is to be accomplished. This objective may be 
 simply one step or stage towards larger objective. Ordinarily, a " cur- 
 riculum " is largest unit ; a " course " is a " long unit " ; while a course 
 may be broken into " short units," such as lessons, exercises, experiments, 
 problems, projects, topics, cases, readings, conferences, recitations, reports, 
 quizzes, inquiries, essays, activities, etc. 
 
 a. The need of sound pedagogical organization of long as well 
 as short units as a condition of effective school work should 
 be apparent. Much confusion exists here now. Ordin- 
 arily, for younger learners: (a) the ultimate objectives of 
 curricula and courses must be taken on faith; but (b) 
 the proximate objectives of short units should be clearly 
 felt and comprehended. 
 h. In alpha courses (work, instructing and training towards 
 pre-established goals) definite organization of pedagogical 
 units necessary. In beta (play, developmental) activities 
 
EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 organization of units should not be artificial, to interfere 
 with desirable spontaneity; but here also, definite organi- 
 zation of units and equally definite organization of means 
 of flexibility, desirable, (cf. Handbook of Scouting, Chil- 
 dren's Book of Knowledge, Popular Science, Popular 
 Mechanics, Young People's Guides to Reading, etc., for 
 good examples.) 
 
 c. What are probabilities that most teaching units are now 
 unsound ? Query as to : length ; integration with best 
 learning capacities; integral character as regards 
 approaches, concentration, proliferation, application; 
 objectivity of resulting achievement. 
 
 d. Probability that " correlation " can be achieved only within 
 short teaching unit. Correlation of subjects (or courses) 
 not practicable (except by creating new subject out of two 
 or more previously independent). But within short unit 
 possible to have major specific objective, and minors from 
 other fields (e.g., learning to use camera, application of 
 knowledge of optics; writing essay, use of spelling, etc.). 
 
 e. Lessons, exercises, experiments, recitations, well under- 
 stood units. " Problem " understood in mathematics ; 
 imperfectly elsewhere ; a valuable unit for " thinking " 
 
 'i activities. "Project" designates activity chiefly concerned 
 with visible concrete achievement (and may be classified as 
 " school execution " ; " home execution " ; " observation and 
 report"; etc.) "Case" designates larger unit of indi- 
 vidual investigation, report, etc. " Reading " self-explana- 
 tory. 
 /. Determine, hjrpothetically, suitable units for boys, 12-16, in 
 physical development; rifle shooting; towards useful adult 
 forms of honesty, truthfulness, initiative; correction of 
 defects of speech; towards good writing (composition); 
 right ideals of citizenship in local affairs; utilization of 
 good in contemporary literature; humane treatment of 
 animals ; development of " mechanical " interests ; develop- 
 ment of musical appreciation ; development of power of 
 sustained oral presentation of ideas to audience; mastery 
 of reading French; mastery of important stages of 
 machinist's trade. 
 
 Distinctions between vocational and "liberal" objectives. 
 
 a. Note that popular usage always clearly recognizes voca- 
 tional competency in men and women 20-50, but without 
 discriminating or evaluating sources — heredity, environ- 
 ment, by-education, direct education. 
 6. Popular usage also recognizes results of " liberal " educa- 
 tion. " Cultivated," " well informed," " urbane," " pos- 
 
GENERAL EXPLANATIONS, DEFINITIONS, AND ANALYSES 5 
 
 sessed of broad vision,'' " tolerant," are some approved 
 characterizations. 
 
 c. First positive measure of vocational power is ability to 
 produce exchangeable goods or service — goods or service 
 for which other producers are willing to exchange their 
 goods and service. 
 
 d. Second positive measure — to continue as effective pro- 
 ducer over long series of years. 
 
 e. Third positive measure: ability to adjust — advance, shift, 
 regress — in productive ability as circumstances warrant — 
 youth to prime, prime to old age, follower to leader, rou- 
 tine to executive, " generalist " to specialist. 
 
 /. Fourth positive measure : ability to render in and through 
 vocation, civic service — service not compensated for in 
 command over exchangeable goods. (Certain forms of 
 professional service, superior and conscientious grades of 
 workmanship, fidelities and other qualities in work beyond 
 those " nominated in the bond.") (Note that military ser- 
 vice — except full-time specialist — civic service, family 
 service — except specialist — and general contributions to 
 social order and progress are not here linked with voca- 
 tion ; these are " civic service." ) 
 
 g. First negative measure of vocational power: ability to 
 maintain health and strength against (and sometimes 
 through) pressures and specializations of vocation. 
 
 h. Second negative measure: ability so to adjust and control 
 productive efforts as to insure development and conserva- 
 tion of optimum cultured personality. 
 
 i. Third negative measure: ability so to adjust and control 
 productive work as to insure optimum discharge of civic 
 and family social obligations. 
 
 4. " Power " will be used to designate in general abilities to perform 
 useful work, profitable execution. " Power " in penmanship, spelling, 
 reading French, using trigonometry in engineering, setting type, draughts- 
 manship, teaching primary school, etc., denotes abilities to execute results, 
 in accordance with certain standards accepted by society. 
 
 5. " Capacities " will be used to denote ability to " receive," to appre- 
 ciate, to assimilate. Capacity in literature, art, play, hygiene, history, etc., 
 thus designates in each case appreciation of some estimated or evaluated 
 degree. 
 
 6. Ultimate values of " liberal " or " general " education are conceived 
 as : (a) development of natural powers and capacities in approved direc- 
 tions by simple provision of suitable environment and stimulation ; and 
 (b) artificially controlled promotion of capacities for appreciation, and 
 execution along non-vocational lines. (Illustrate from specific food habits, 
 
6 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 play, competitions, tastes, interests, moral standards, sentiments, attitudes, 
 capacities.) 
 
 a. Indicate popular tests of liberal education. 
 
 XIV. Objectives in Development of Children, Ages One to 
 
 Four 
 
 I. Children under four develop in powers and acquire social inheritance 
 in large measure if only means of nurture and by-education are suitable. 
 For children normally environed, no direct schooling is deemed necessary. 
 a. Note increasing insistence on child's receiving a " fair 
 start " in heredity and in prenatal care of mother. Exam- 
 ples of eugenic proposals and of mother care. Problem of 
 the illegitimate; of wage-earning mother. 
 6. Problems of determining normal nurtural environment as 
 to: food nurture; shelter; clothing; ventilation; cleanli- 
 ness ; sleep ; physical exercise ; facilities for play ; facili- 
 ties for association. 
 
 c. What are normal standards of by-education for: speech; 
 body movement; moral behavior; sociability (with 
 mother ; father ; older sisters and brothers ; babies ; neigh- 
 bors of equal age); manners; habits of inhibition; gen- 
 eral knowledge; games, plays; intellectual nurture 
 (stories, information) ; work. 
 
 d. Possibilities of " hot-house " forcing. Probable reasons 
 for; against. Fields for experimentation. 
 
 e. Possibilities of using " play " activities without strain to 
 achieve useful ends in civilized society. Typewriting 
 machine as useful plaything. Early training to read. Mas- 
 tery of a foreign language. Acquisition of useful knowl- 
 edge instead of fables. Correct vernacular. Simple useful 
 arts (gardening, cooking) as part of play. 
 
 /. Review of proposals of Montessori. 
 
 g. Problems of day nurseries to offset deficiencies in nurture 
 and by-education caused by wage-earning of mothers. 
 Review of practices. Ideals for public action? Provision 
 of widows' pensions. 
 
 h. Theories as to community cooperation in care of children 
 under four. 
 
 i. Park kindergartens. 
 
 j. Problems of providing for orphaned children. 
 
 k. Problem of state or other socially corporate assistance, 
 correction, or direction of nurture and by-education. 
 Examples of present control of health, economic condi- 
 tions, housing, milk supply, cruelty and neglect. 
 
OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT, CHILDBEN 4 TO 6 7 
 
 XV. Objectives of Education and Development of 
 Children, Ages Four to Six 
 
 1. Public school system historically has made few attempts at education 
 of children under six to eight years of age. Kindergarten and other 
 analogous agencies recent developments. 
 
 a. Apparently two unlike ideals operative: 
 
 (a) Protection and furtherance of development of children 
 of poor environment and provision of facilities for 
 by-education ; and 
 
 (b) Provision of special forms of positive education for 
 children normally circumstanced. 
 
 b. Compare creche (France), day nursery, infant school 
 (England), and certain stages of dame school. 
 
 2. Problems of social need of schools or other public agencies in 
 education and development of children 4 to 6 still important. What 
 functions here does society need? Does kindergarten organization and 
 program meet them? 
 
 a. What evidence that substantial good can be accomplished 
 for children in approximately normal environment by sup- 
 plemental efforts of a school? 
 
 b. Answer depends upon social value of stimulated or directed 
 (deviated from, or intensified "natural") development. 
 
 c. Probable need of assistance in development for children 
 imperfectly environed. Agency meeting this need should 
 (a) possess standards of normal environment; and (b) 
 in case of particular groups determine existing deficiencies. 
 
 d. For example, basing deductions in part upon ancestral 
 conditions to which young have for ages conformed and 
 in which they developed; and in part upon observations 
 of children's present development, we can assume following 
 elements, in degrees to be determined, essential to growth: 
 
 (i) Food; (2) rest and sleep ; (3) shelter — housing 
 and clothing for rest and play ; (4) facilities for phys- 
 ical play — ground space, sunshine, steeps, sand, grass, 
 running water, trees, hiding places, portable objects, 
 toys, domestic animals, older companions, younger 
 companions, equal age companions; (s) facilities for 
 intellectual play and growth, tellers of stories, singers 
 of songs, satisfiers of curiosity; (6) facilities for 
 social play and growth, comforters, lullaby-singers, 
 protectors, leaders, playmates, chums; (7) teachers — 
 in by-education of manners, etc.; (8) agencies for 
 protection of health, insurance of hygienic surround- 
 ings, etc. 
 
 e. ' To what extent does kindergarten now compensate for 
 
8 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 deficiencies in particular elements indicated above? How 
 far should it? How could it? 
 
 /. What changes of organization would be necessary to make 
 kindergarten an agency of compensatory function? Allo- 
 cation to : rich communities ? poor city communities ? poor 
 rural communities? special types of families? 
 
 g. Review above in light of contemporary demands of society 
 for guarantees of " a more protected childhood and a 
 better start in life." 
 
 h. Analyze other possible approaches, e.g., improvement of 
 home and (by some social effort) freeing mother to be 
 more truly caretaker and educator of children. 
 
 i. Special problem of wage-earning mother. 
 
 /. Special problem of immigrant mother unassimilated to 
 American speech and standards of living. 
 
 k. Special problems of defectives and dependents : (a) blind ; 
 (b) deaf; (c) morons; (d) cripples; (e) orphaned. 
 
 /. Possible functions of school or community nurse; oi 
 extension classes for mothers. 
 
 XVI. Objectives of Education of Normal Children, Ages 
 
 Six to Twelve 
 
 1. Note this as field of " common " education, and emphasis on " school 
 arts " — reading, writing and number — sometimes catechism, which give 
 us first intellectual " work " which by-education of home cannot compass. 
 
 a. Ref. History of education for objections to illiteracy — 
 Bible-reading, voting, transaction of business. 
 
 b. One authority contends " common " education was chiefly 
 developed to produce vocational efficiency. Comment. 
 
 c. Note efforts of philanthropy to supply " common " educa- 
 tion in default of public action : church schools, schools 
 for orphans, defectives, delinquents, illiterate adults. Why? 
 
 2. Explain introduction as part of elementary school programs of: 
 
 a. Geography, especially political "* 
 
 b. American history 
 
 c. Advanced phases of arithmetic 
 
 d. Drawing 
 
 e. Manual training 
 /. Hygiene 
 
 g. Nature study 
 h. Music 
 
 3. Recall attempts to interpret functions of elementary school more 
 broadly than teaching " school arts." 
 
OBTECTIVES OF SCHOOL EDUCATION OF NORMAL YOUTHS 9 
 
 a. Ref. Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Herbart, Parker, 
 Eliot, the McMurrys, Dewey. 
 
 b. Note also sources of specific additions : hygiene ; tem- 
 perance; music; manual training; household arts; cales- 
 thenics ; thrift ; drawing ; kindergarten games ; flag salute ; 
 local history; humane treatment of animals; bird conser- 
 vation; forest conservation; gardening; (add examples). 
 
 4. Analyze assumed values determining variety and scope of require- 
 r:ients now urged for elementary school. 
 
 a. English language — reading, writing, spelling, composition, 
 language lessons, grammar, oral composition, word analysis. 
 
 6. English literature — miscellaneous school reading, standard 
 selections, home reading, use of library, memory gems, 
 dramatics. 
 
 c. Arithmetic, written and mental. 
 
 d. Geography — in some form in all grades. 
 
 e. History — world (often proposed), European of pre-Amer- 
 
 ican period, American (usually in story materials). 
 
 /. Civics, morals and manners, self-government. 
 
 g. Elementary science, nature study. 
 
 h. Art, drawing, color. 
 
 i. Music, singing by imitation, sight reading. 
 
 j. Practical arts — clay, raffia, wood, paper, textiles. 
 
 k. Physical education, hygiene, calesthenics, physical play. 
 
 /. Thrift, school savings. 
 
 m. Cooking, sewing, care of infants. 
 
 n. Gardening — school, home, window. 
 
 0. Moving picture — standards of appreciation. 
 
 XVII. Objectives of School Education of Normal Youths, 
 Twelve to Eighteen 
 
 I. For this period we assume : compulsory full-time school attendance 
 12 to 14; optional full-, part-, or no-time attendance 14-18 (with probable 
 right to enforce part-time attendance) ; provision, where practicable, of 
 central schools (maximum walking distance two miles, riding, one hour 
 each way) ; departmental teaching; flexible curricula, permitting consid- 
 erable freedom in formation of student programs ; and long school day to 
 permit reasonable inclusion of " beta '' activities. 
 
 a. " Normal " means here inclusion in large modal group ■ — 
 at least 40% on each side of median — of those graded as 
 to mental ability, home influences, fundamental interests, 
 future prospects, etc. Note that " exceptionals " are found 
 " above " as well as " below " normals. 
 
10 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 b. But as regards particular qualities, powers, interests, and 
 prospects, variabilities, always existent, here probably 
 become acute and of real significance in making curricula 
 for schools and, from these, programs for individuals. 
 (Illustrate variations, individual and groupal, as to powers 
 — mathematical, musical, manual dexterities ; interests — 
 in abstract studies, in constructive work ; prospects — for 
 prolonged schooling, for civic leadership, for entry on pro- 
 fessional calling, for advancing cultural appreciations.) 
 
 2. Chief contemporary problem of junior and senior high school cur- 
 ricula is to distinguish between required and elective elements in programs 
 of learners. Range and variety of offerings possible to large, richer school 
 very great (see XLIV). Following suggested principles applicable to 
 school with ideal equipment (size, facilities, teaching force) : 
 
 a. Every pupil shall occupy his entire school time profitably. 
 
 b. Each normal pupil shall give at least 800 hours in 13th 
 year and 900 hours in 14th year to "alpha" studies and 
 activities ; and 1,000 hours thereafter for full-time students. 
 
 c. Every pupil electing an alpha study in which failure to 
 complete advanced stages (after suitable "trial" period) 
 invalidates whole (e.g., foreign language, music, English 
 language, special mathematics, plastic art, rifle shooting, 
 a vocation) shall be penalized therefor. 
 
 d. Certain standards of common (universal) competency 
 (powers) having been defined as desirable and feasible for 
 normal 12-year-olds, pupils therein deficient shall be 
 required to make up deficiencies (e.g., spelling, penmanship, 
 arithmetic, silent reading, geography power, correct speech, 
 right use of voice). Note that scientific (i.e., objectively 
 measurable, tangibly evaluated) standards here are not yet 
 available, but can be produced with due effort. 
 
 e. Similarly, if it can be shown that specified forms of power 
 suitable for attainment at ages 12-14 (normal subjects) 
 through school education should be expected of all (com- 
 mon standards), then studies to this end should be pre- 
 scribed. Note that it is doubtful if one can define these 
 now; our preconceptions (faiths, beliefs) too vague, our 
 evaluation of results of extra-school education and develop- 
 ment too incomplete. Even in such fields as English speech, 
 writing, hygiene, arithmetic, drawing, music, geography, 
 history, government, science, our standards now factitious, 
 pedantic, unrelated to life. (In any one of these fields, 
 ascertain : what all-round B class citizen to-day shows ; 
 what are his obvious deficiencies — in functioning powers, 
 that is; and what universal prescription can do to help 
 next generation.) 
 
OBJECTION OF EXTENSION EDUCATION II 
 
 /. Guidance (for school education, by-education, and towards 
 vocation) should be fully developed and perhaps some par- 
 ticipation therein made obligatory. But criteria for 
 guidance now lacking. E.g., we do not know when pupils 
 should be advised to take studies to compensate for 
 inherited deficiencies of power or capacity — music, plastic 
 art, mathematics, practical arts, poetry — and how far cul- 
 ture should be realized along lines of least resistance — 
 i.e., greatest native capacity. 
 
 XVIII. Objectives of Schools and Other Agencies for 
 Persons, Eighteen to Twenty-Two 
 
 1. For this period we assume (a) full-time general or liberal education 
 for limited groups ; (b) two years to general education followed by 
 beginnings of professional education for limited groups ; (c) need 
 of opportunities for extension work for persons employed; (d) possible 
 requirements of education for military service; (e) special training toward 
 leadership. 
 
 2. Note also idealistic proposals that within these years a period should 
 be devoted to state service in lieu of compulsory military service as found 
 in other countries. 
 
 3. During these years, for a substantial minority, beginnings should be 
 provided in training for leadership. Note confusion in ordinary use of 
 term, " leader," (a) sometimes used to denote a person holding a well-paid 
 vocation or one that requires much training, — for example, theology, law, 
 medicine, engineering; (b) also used to denote man occupying position in 
 which he has large and obvious following, for example, official in army, 
 captain of vessel, leader of labor union, business manager, superintendent 
 of schools, etc. 
 
 a. Note historical fact that professional men have also nat- 
 urally been looked upon as leaders, a fact less true than 
 formerly for many professions. 
 
 4. Problems of training for leadership of second class, those largely of 
 finding persons of superior ability already grounded in lower fields of 
 work or contact and giving the supplemental training. Examples: fore- 
 man, overseer, political group leader, social leader, etc. 
 
 5- Problems of professional training to-day found more in field of 
 method and aim. Note contemporary movements to make professional 
 training more practical, to measure power of practical achievement as 
 element in granting diplomas. 
 
 6. Problems of new professions. 
 
 XIX. Objectives of Extension Education 
 
 I. Variety of forms of extension education — cultural, civic, military, 
 physical, recreational, vocational — all designed primarily for persons at 
 work. 
 
12 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 a. Interpretation of continuation, part-time, cooperative, even- 
 ing school, forms for young persons. 
 
 b. Interpretation of correspondence courses, university exten- 
 sion, lyceum courses, Chautauquas, circulating libraries, etc. 
 
 2. Social needs of school centers, public facilities for recreation, public 
 libraries, public concerts, museums, and of education in their use. 
 
 a. Special problems of vocational education. 
 
 b. Special problems of cultural and recreational education. 
 
 c. Special problems of civic education. 
 
 d. Problem of physical work (productive) for sedentary 
 workers. 
 
 3. Problems of teaching units and methods in extension education. 
 
 XX. Physical Defectives 
 
 1. Physical defectives here include all variants (by heredity or early 
 environment) for whom ordinary educational processes are inadequate — 
 deaf, deaf and dumb, blind, cripples, mentally subnormal (of all grades), 
 etc. 
 
 o. Note that at first, classifications here are rough and inclu- 
 sive of only extreme cases. As diagnosis improves, addi- 
 tional classes are formed — e.g., completely blind, partly 
 blind; morons, imbeciles, etc. Ex., vocal, aural, skeletal, 
 defectives. 
 
 b. Fundamental classification ultimately required: (a) those 
 probably requiring permanent public assistance, release from 
 conditions of individual competitive existence; and (b) 
 those able, after proper start, to "go alone," without state 
 support. 
 
 2. Philanthropic effort has pioneered education of defectives. Probable 
 over-development of attempts to make defectives like normals. Under- 
 valuation of vocational education. Absence of evaluation of results in 
 terms of adult life — 20-60 years. 
 
 a. Philanthropic effort often reflects best spirit of Christian 
 individualism — the valuation of worth of human soul. 
 But like elemental Christian charity, it is often emotional, 
 temporary, unscientific — hence in long run, sometimes even 
 unsocial. 
 
 b. Rare cases where physical defectives — more commonly 
 blind, occasionally crippled — have become marked social 
 assets. One Helen Keller leads to extended efforts to give 
 fullest possible development to culture capacities of blind. 
 
 3. Complications involved in providing normal family life for defec- 
 tives probably incapable of meeting conditions of competitive self-support. 
 Public assistance agencies, designed to make them at least self-supporting, 
 needed. 
 
PHYSICAL DEFECTIVES 13 
 
 a. For these classes is extended cultural education required — 
 e.g., general reading, art appreciation, etc.? 
 
 &. Add specialized vocational education at successive stages — 
 14, 18, 22 — designed to make them fully productive in 
 state directed service. 
 
 4. For classes for whom independent existence is contemplated, very 
 specialized forms of liberal and vocational education required. 
 
 o. Liberal education should consist of (a) special forms of 
 cultural interest and capacity so developed as to give them 
 relief from lonelinesses and, privations which their condi- 
 tion entails; and (b) special forms of social education 
 (including vocational guidance) adapting them to particu- 
 lar social conditions which they must meet. 
 
 b. Obviously, vocational education of a definitely adjusted 
 and specialized character required. Need of survey of 
 possible occupations, for blind, deaf, subnormal, crippled. 
 Lessons from European countries, as consequence of war, 
 now available. 
 
 5; Special problems of blind. 
 
 o. Blindness impairs mental powers less than deafness. Hence, 
 given sources of mental stimulation — music, reading, con- 
 versation—blind grow readily in cultural appreciations. 
 
 b. But extreme difficulties in teaching studies like geography, 
 science, art, etc. Hence, absurdity of many current 
 attempts at general education. 
 
 c. Difficulties of employing deaf in cooperative work. 
 
 d. Probabilities that majority of blind can be assisted to 
 higher productiveness by state action than otherwise. 
 Analyze possible openings, cooperative and other. 
 
 6. Special problems of deaf. 
 
 a. Serious effects of deafness on development of apprecia- 
 tions, especially abstract thinking. 
 
 b. Conflict of methods of communication. 
 
 c Difficulties of employing deaf in cooperating work. 
 d. Vocations for the deaf. 
 
 7. Special problems of the crippled. 
 
 a. Vocations. 
 
 8. Special problems of the mentally subnormal (those not ordinarily 
 anti-social). 
 
 a. Classification. 
 
 b. Obstacles to freedom — especially of women under so years 
 of age. 
 
 c. Vocations. Note frequent excellent working powers of 
 
14 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 subnormals, and bearing of work on physical and moral 
 wholesomeness. 
 
 9. Speech defectives. 
 
 XXI. Delinquents and Other Anti-Social Classes 
 
 1. Here included all classes variant because of anti-social tendencies, 
 inherited or acquired — delinquents, misdemeanants, incorrigibles, way- 
 wards, truants. 
 
 a. Probably important but obscure physical defects — skel- 
 etal or nervous malformations, under- or over-develop- 
 ments, etc., fundamental to many forms of anti-social dis- 
 position. 
 
 6. Note also probable tendencies of impoverished environ- 
 ment and of defective early by-education to retard or arrest 
 development of normal kind and to foster development of 
 primitive kinds — gang cooperation, self-preservative pred- 
 atory tendencies, combativeness, gross sex impulses, etc. 
 
 2. Fundamental classifications in all early education based upon char- 
 acter of environment and available by-education, (a) Is the home ade- 
 quate or capable of being made adequate? or (b) must public (or philan- 
 thropic) agencies supply substitutes? 
 
 a. Early diagnosis on this basis necessary to determine func- 
 tions of school education — which is supplemental, if home 
 environment is right, and which must develop new means 
 if it is not. 
 
 3. Provision of substitutes for home influence — in case of broken 
 homes or homes unequal to task — always most difficult problem. Note, 
 classification cottages, probation, out-placing, rewards, self-support. Im- 
 portance of special kinds of personality, and means of making it effective 
 in public provision of means for by-education. 
 
 a. Devices used in American school for delinquents ; so-called 
 Parental School ; English " day " truant school ; George 
 Jr. Republic; etc. 
 
 6. Problems of avoiding: contamination; mechanization of 
 routine ; " institutional dependence " ; gang labor ; uncom- 
 pensated labor. 
 
 c. Problem of "harbor" for youths placed out. 
 
 4. Constructive proposals for: 
 
 a. Disciplinary classes in cooperation with normal home. 
 
 h. Truant classes in connection with: (a) normal home; and 
 
 (b) defective, but still useful home. 
 c. Residence schools for neglected and anti-social children, 
 
 10-14. 
 
MILITARY TRAINING IS 
 
 d. Residence schools for hardened cases, 14 upward, boys. 
 
 e. Same, girls. 
 
 5. Problems of prison education for adults, (a) reformable and (b) 
 irreclaimable recidivists. 
 
 6. Problems of vocational education of delinquents. 
 
 XXII. Special Education for Immigrants 
 
 1. Classification required based upon diagnosis of (a) present equip- 
 ment of individuals ; (b) probable needs of individuals ; and (c) prob- 
 able needs of society on their behalf. 
 
 a. First on basis of language, then age, followed by economic 
 and literate (in native language) classes. 
 
 2. Social need that permitted migration should be followed by positive 
 efforts at political, economic, and social assimilation. 
 
 a. Special problems presented by the socially (racially) unas- 
 similable, when immigration permitted. 
 
 3. Problems of purposes in education of immigrants : 
 
 o. Linguistic 
 6. Civic 
 
 c. Standard of living 
 
 d. Vocational 
 
 e. Religious 
 
 4. Problems of utilization of possessed social inheritance. 
 
 XXIII. Special Education for Employed Classes 
 
 1. Problems of special education for employed classes differentiated 
 according to needs of : cultural education (including recreational educa- 
 tion) ; civic education; education for military competency; extension 
 education for vocation. 
 
 2. Note general demand for opportunities for extension education 
 towards leadership in vocation and also for recreation. 
 
 3. Analysis of efforts to provide education during dull seasons. 
 
 XXIV. Military Training 
 
 I. Conditions of competition among nations leading to conflict dras- 
 tically tests capacity for coordinated effort and training to special ends 
 of military efficiency. 
 
 a. Note historical enlargement of national areas with proba- 
 bility of federation such as will lessen war. 
 
 b. Note also steady introduction of science and organization 
 in international conflict with resulting draft upon all forces 
 
l6 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPUCATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 of people as distinguished from specialized military forces 
 at sundry periods in past time. 
 c. Analyze significance of James' proposals for moral equiva- 
 lents of war. 
 
 ■2. Problem of the citizen army vs. specialized soldiery from standpoint 
 of international efficiency and from standpoint of prolonged intervals of 
 peace between possible conflicts. 
 
 a. Subsidiary problem of a trained office staff with citizen 
 army. Contrast examples of Switzerland and America. 
 
 3. Analysis of proposals for universal service in defence, including all 
 forms of special service — for example, food production, transportation, 
 medical, scientific — as well as actual sharing in immediate conflict. 
 
 a. The problem of coordinating military training with train- 
 ing for vocation. 
 
 b. The problem of keeping alive military competency by use 
 of vacation or other periods for military training. 
 
 4. The problem of physical training of youths from 14-18 as founda- 
 tions for military training. 
 
 XXV. English Language 
 
 I. Three (possibly four) types of objectives in English language 
 studies: (a) speaking; (b) reading; (c) writing; and, possibly, (d) 
 hearing. Each has its peculiar techniques. Common elements in speaking 
 and writing, oral reading, etc. 
 
 a. Clear-cut differentiation of objectives (now wanting in 
 English language teaching) will always : (a) take account of 
 learner's previous attainments; (b) give place to con- 
 comitant factors of thought or idea power as related to 
 language expression and appreciation; and (c) then 
 develop special and often highly specialized techniques of 
 adding new powers or improving existing powers. 
 
 b. In certain language phases, functions of school peculiarly 
 residual, e.g., speech (including pronunciation, structure 
 usage, vocal powers — all ages ; and silent reading — (older 
 pupils). 
 
 c. Sharp differentiation here made between teaching of Eng- 
 lish language and teaching of English literature. Funda- 
 mental objectives surely very wide apart (although actual 
 objectives of literature study not yet determined). Lang- 
 uage courses may employ selections and extracts from 
 literature for anatomical and other exercise purposes — 
 but that is not the study of literature. 
 
 d. English language studies largely of alpha character. Out- 
 comes are definite and measurable powers to be used 
 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE 17 
 
 throughout life in definite instrumental ways. One appre- 
 ciation (beta) offering at least desirable — appreciation of 
 good usage in those having extraordinary powers. 
 
 2. Speech or oral expression a division in which by-education is pecu- 
 liarly potent, leaving school residual functions of, as yet, very imperfectly 
 defined character. 
 
 a. What are desirable social objectives? Doubtless: (a) for 
 the individual — ease, economy and effectiveness of com- 
 plete expression of ideas in varying situations (with equals, 
 inferiors, superiors); (b) for the community — fulness 
 of mutual understanding, disappearance of caste or class 
 distinctions; and (c) for the nation — homogeneity of 
 forms (pronunciations, dialects, " accents ") and maximum 
 of expressiveness. Probably also interaction of language 
 and thought as objectives, but psychology of this very 
 obscure. 
 
 b. Oral intercourse of two fundamentally unlike kinds : (a) 
 conversation, chat, " give-and-take " ; and (b) sustained 
 presentation — reading or speaking to audience. Note that 
 for all ordinary "conversation" between "peers" (equals 
 in intellectual and social ways) results of by-education 
 seem ample. " Education " in speech chiefly to prepare for 
 communication between those not peers, and for sustained 
 presentation — the last being a difficult goal. 
 
 c. Language structure — " speaking grammatically " — a spe- 
 cific goal at all stages. Probable uselessness of " grammar " 
 study as basis, at least until age 15. Need of " survey " in 
 each case, possession by each learner of " map " showing 
 his powers and weaknesses. Clumsiness of present per- 
 formance in schools. 
 
 d. Voice training — including pronunciation, enunciation, etc. 
 — also an objective at all stages. Poverty of present 
 " alpha " mechanisms. Need of series of specific objectives. 
 Probably harmful effects of present methods of school 
 reading and recitation. Problem as to whether singing 
 provides valuable exercises towards voice training. 
 
 e. Oral reading — in true sense of communication of new 
 matter to listening audience — probably important objective 
 at stages from age ten to twenty. Probably archaic char- 
 acter of present " oral reading." Note that " reciting," 
 " elocution,'' " speaking," " oratory," and drama — all 
 involving oral delivery of memorized text — may be 
 regarded as pedagogical sub-species or variants of oral 
 reading. 
 
 /. Oral composition — sustained oral delivery of ideas for 
 which language structure is improvised as delivery pro- 
 
l8 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 ceeds — a valuable objective for all in modern life. Class 
 recitations are examples, and in them approved standards 
 should be maintained. Debating as a valuable means. Need 
 of defining series of specific objectives in teaching oral com- 
 position. 
 
 g. Vocabulary building, including readiness of recall, an unde- 
 fined problem as yet in oral expression. 
 
 h. Grammar, rhetoric, " elocution '' — all have possible "' units " 
 to offer in oral applied " language study " speech, but these 
 not yet defined. 
 
 ('. Special problems of oral language training for : (a) teach- 
 ers; (b) publicists; (c) preachers; (d) telephone oper- 
 ators ; etc. 
 
 3. Reading, as used here, means only " silent " reading. Conditions of 
 civilized society make this an objective of education second in importance 
 only to speech; and because of ineffectiveness of by-education in early 
 years, the first objective of all lower schools. 
 
 a. Note desirability of devising means of teaching silent read- 
 ing without the boring and probably harmful means of 
 " oral reading " as now found in grades one to seven. 
 
 h. Note probably harmful effects of trying to " correlate " 
 study of " silent reading " with other studies, including 
 literature. 
 
 c. But note potency of by-education as result of newspaper 
 and general reading (including "movie" legends) from 
 tenth year on. 
 
 d. Problems of teaching (printed) word recognition; phrase 
 recognition ; and expression. " Eye span." 
 
 e. Probability that reading of script should not be taught for 
 at least one year after reading of " print " has been begun. 
 
 /. Problems of teaching silent reading as approach to eaclj 
 new stage or type of subject matter — geography, arithme- 
 tic, history, chemistry, "heavy magazine," etc. 
 
 g. Problems of interaction of silent reading (as text recog- 
 nition) and assimilation or apperception of thought con- 
 veyed. 
 
 4. English writing (including penmanship, spelling, composition, gram- 
 mar, rhetoric, etc.) one of historically first objectives of school education. 
 Note inadequacy of by-education at all stages. 
 
 a. Penmanship to be regarded as a difficult manual art. Prob- 
 ability that it should not be commenced until second or 
 third year in school life, on pedagogical as well as physi- 
 ological grounds. Possibilities of substituting "printing" 
 machines (typewriters) at early stages. Physiological and 
 
NATURAL SCIENCE IQ 
 
 psychological problems of " methods " of teaching penman- 
 ship. Qualitative standards, and possibilities of defining 
 optimum standards of rate (quantitative standards). Pos- 
 sibilities of successive learning stages, e.g., ages 7, 12, 16. 
 Problems of " special " penmanship for vocations. 
 
 fc. Spelling as a specific objective. Problems of scope for 
 successive stages of general education. Special, for voca- 
 tions. Problem of effects of by-education through reading. 
 
 c. Composition — need of further specific objectives. Only a 
 few — capitalization, special forms for letters, punctuation, 
 etc. — now clearly defined. Need of definition of problems 
 of structure beyond those found in oral composition. Prob- 
 lems of source material, and of interaction of thought and 
 expression. Shall " all written work be exercises in compo- 
 sition " ? Problems of grammar, rhetoric, etc. 
 
 5. Problems of a technique of providing for improvement in appre- 
 hending " heard " English. 
 
 6. Problems of "appreciative" course in English language. 
 
 7. Problems of departmentalization of teaching English language in 
 upper grades, and of correlation in all grades. How far and under what 
 conditions should "special subject" teachers "teach" English language, 
 oral and written? What, then, are functions of teachers of this subject? 
 
 8. Special problems of vocational English language. 
 
 XXVI. Natural Science 
 
 1. For purposes of this syllabus, all science is treated in three main 
 divisions : natural, mental, social. 
 
 a. Fundamentally, all phenomena considered by " science " are 
 " natural." But convenient custom makes "' natural science " 
 exclude phenomena of society, and of mental action, 
 although including phenomena of human physiology, 
 hygiene, etc. 
 
 b. " Natural science " as here used includes data and phe- 
 nomena usually embraced under physics (mechanics, hydro- 
 statics and hydraulics, electricity, optics, etc.), chemistry, 
 biology (zoology, botany, bacteriology, physiology, etc.), 
 astronomy, geology, earth geography (human geography is 
 placed with social sciences), etc. There are included also 
 " applied " natural sciences — agriculture, hygiene, engin- 
 eering, navigation, etc. Anthropology, ethnology, history, 
 economics, etc., are placed with social sciences. Mathe- 
 matics is given a place apart. 
 
 2. What does or should " science " mean in education ? Interpretations 
 must be broad. All the objective facts of nature belong here when viewed 
 by the learner as non-mystical, as explainable in terms of " natural " law 
 
20 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 or causation, as capable of organization in sequences and structures. The 
 attitude of the viewer is largely determining — does he see in sensational, 
 curious, uninterpreted phenomena ultimate play of " natural causes " (as 
 opposed to the animistic causation imputed by primitive minds) ? Has he 
 general conviction that, given time and means, rational explanations are 
 obtainable — of tides, earthquakes, images, magnets, bird migrations, dis- 
 ease, souring of milk, vaccination, flowing sap, wireless telegraphy, man's 
 skeletal resemblance to chimpanzee, air-borne contagions, nurture of 
 infant eels, oil in sandstones, vermiform appendix, fear of the dark? If 
 so, he has the beginnings of scientific insight and attitude. 
 
 a. For the purposes of the scientist, disposed to disregard 
 infant stages, higher standards may be necessary to define 
 the " classified and tested " knowledge to be included under 
 any science. But standards of adults of specialized capac- 
 ity are hurtful in education of youth in all fields — art 
 appreciation, practical capacity, language power, no less 
 than science. Older sciences — • astronomy, mechanics, 
 chemistry — have advanced far in interpretation of com- 
 prehensive relationships and unvarying sequences — laws, 
 principles, generalizations, explanations. Clear demarca- 
 tions are here established between ascertained specific and 
 general facts and hypotheses or theories. But the child 
 must scale these heights gradually. Scaling foothills, if 
 peaks are kept in view, will constitute sound introductory 
 pedagogy — child-leading. 
 
 h. Hence science study adapted to any stage of mental devel- 
 opment will not seek to go far beyond limits of accessible 
 (i.e., instinctive or environment-stimulated) interests, and 
 found capacities for genuine assimilation. But however 
 far it goes, it should observe phenomena as real things, 
 as naturally (including humanly) caused, as, in greater or 
 less degree, explainable on basis of law, principle, general- 
 ization. 
 
 c. Wrong pedagogy of science teaching attaches excessive 
 importance to fundamental explanations early reached — 
 forgetting that even in oldest sciences we have yet few 
 final explanations. In astronomy, learning that sun does 
 not move about earth was a great advance; that earth 
 moves about sun was another; that planets and sun con- 
 stituted a " system " was another ; but back of these known 
 fields are many yet to be explored. Even young child can 
 very readily be led a little way in observation and inter- 
 pretation of scientific phenomena; older ones will go some 
 farther; and the exceptional few very far. 
 
 3. What purposes should control in the use of natural science in edu- 
 cation? 
 
NATURAL SCIENCE 21 
 
 (i) In various fields of vocational education special forms of 
 instruction in science, and training in use of scientific media 
 are required, (a) " Some knowledge of chemistry " (as we 
 say, vaguely) is required on the part of the youth preparing for 
 the callings of assayer, physician, pharmacist, chemical engin- 
 eer, metallurgist, etc. (b) Is " some knowledge of chemistry " 
 also required of the prospective farmer, cook, plumber, elec- 
 trician, chauflfeur, dyer, toolmaker, dentist, school nurse, pri- 
 mary school teacher? If so, what? Chemistry as a separate 
 study, or simply some detached units from chemistry? Dis- 
 tinguish among educational knowledges, beliefs and super- 
 stitions in this matter. 
 
 (2) Repeat above analysis for : (a) Relation of physics to mechan- 
 ical engineering, medicine, machine shop practice (foreman), 
 machine shop practice (machinist), machine shop practice 
 (specialty worker), gardening, poultry raising, captaincy (ship- 
 board), captaincy (army), dentistry, homemaking, textile fac- 
 tory working, plumber, chauffeur, etc. ; (b) Relation of astron- 
 omy to navigation (captain), navigation (third mate), navi- 
 gation (sailor), farming, clairvoyance, aerial navigation, etc.; 
 (c) Relation of bacteriology to fruit raising, lumbering, war 
 leadership, homemaking, dentistry, nursing (child), nursing 
 (bedside), etc. 
 
 (3) From the standpoint of man as an effective " user " (consumer, 
 utilizer) some kinds of " appreciation " of science seem desir- 
 able, (a) What kinds of scientific knowledge will make men 
 in certain threating situations as regards health consult best 
 available " technical " — i.e., scientifically equipped — service 
 instead of purveyors of advertised drugs, " faith healers," 
 "voodoo doctors,'" unqualified midwives, etc.? (b) What kinds 
 and degrees of scientific instruction and training will give us 
 individual buyers capable of distinguishing (or of obtaining 
 advice) as between the true and false, the genuine and the 
 imitation, the pure and the adulterated in foods, clothes, furni- 
 ture, fertilizers, decorations, vehicles, medicines, tools, etc.? 
 Or collective buyers (voting citizens) of street paving, build- 
 ing materials, gas, water supplies, drainage, civic buildings, 
 etc.? 
 
 (4) From standpoint of common " likemindedness," " citizenship," 
 mutual understanding of each other, vital appreciation of 
 world in which we find ourselves, fairly comprehensive, (but 
 not deep) appi-eciation of scientific explanations of natural and 
 artificial phenomena probably desirable for all. Include appre- 
 ciative understanding (with some idealization) (when defin- 
 able) of : electric traction, rain, moon's phases, rotting of 
 fruit, photography, volcanoes, deep sea life, interstellar ether. 
 
22 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 mountain sculpture, moving pictures, color printing, soil fer- 
 tilizing, yellow fever prevention, animal eugenics, earth's age, 
 pottery glazing, seed transportation, sun spots, placer gold min- 
 ing, concrete building, balanced rations, detonation, telephony, 
 and thousand other phenomena studied under " pure " and 
 " applied " science. 
 
 XXVII. Social Science (Including History) 
 
 Social Science, as division of elementary and secondary education, here 
 includes all those studies, practices, readings and other stimuli which are 
 chiefly designed to promote more effective social attitudes and action as 
 a result of sound knowledge and right appreciation. 
 
 a. The term " social education " is useful to include all by- 
 education and direct education making for better group 
 life. In schools we can organize: studies of community 
 civics, civil government, social geography, contemporary 
 nations, American history, world history, biographies, 
 thrift, morals, character, social psychology, elementary 
 economics, beginners' sociology, ethics; practices of school 
 self-government, cooperative " clean town " enterprises, 
 relief activities, scouting, camping; constructive use of 
 libraries, home-reading, moving pictures, newspapers, 
 drama, election campaigns, home gardening, police power; 
 wage earning; and social (including vocation) guidance. 
 
 I. Problems of general aims or objectives for social science not difficult 
 to formulate. Custom gives fairly clear views of the desirable group 
 member, (cf. Analysis in Ross: Social Control). A hundred general 
 terms express social virtues of man, as : defender (courage, self-sacrifice, 
 patriotism, heroism — opposites in cowardice, poltroonry, peace-at-any- 
 price, desertion, sneak) ; respecter of property (honesty, fair-dealing, 
 square dealing, uprightness; opposites — greediness, fraud, cheating, 
 thievery, grafting, covetousness, stealing, pedatoriness, filching, roguery) ; 
 controller of personal passions (chastity, continence, temperance, absten- 
 tion, frugality; opposites — licentiousness, drunkenness, gluttony, gamb- 
 ling); worker (industrious, provident, thrifty, frugal; opposites — lazi- 
 ness, loafing, vagrancy, spendthriftiness) ; as truth-sayer and keeper of 
 promises (trustworthiness, truthfulness, reliability; opposites — lying, 
 deceiving, double-dealing, welshing, perjuring) ; as conformer to law and 
 custom (law-abiding, self -restrained, peaceful; opposites — law-breaking, 
 disorderly, quarrelsome, peace-disturbing, malicious) ; supporter of weak 
 (charity, sympathy, pity, magnanimity, mercifulness, kindliness, benevo- 
 lence, altruism, philanthropy, generosity; opposites — malignity, unchari- 
 tableness, unforgivingness, pitilessness, mcrcilessness, spoiling) ; as giver 
 of justice (just, fair; opposites — unjust, jealous, envious); as progres- 
 sive (liberal, broad, tolerant; opposites — narrow, Philistine, intolerant, 
 pull-back); as social initiator (leader, pioneer; opposites — boss, monop- 
 olist). 
 
SOCIAL SCIENCE 23 
 
 a. These " social virtues " in the individual have foundations 
 in social instincts (analyze) and in tensions between indi- 
 vidualistic instincts (analyze, e.g., virtuous conduct result- 
 ing from individual desire for property of others and for 
 approval of others). 
 
 6. Conditions of material environment (including food-supply, 
 etc.) constrain or give openings to these instincts (cf. 
 effects of limited food-supply on '' property-sense," selfish- 
 ness, ownership of women ; effects of climate on sociability, 
 gregariousness, sex relations, parental control; effects of 
 sea and mountain on industry, providence ; effects of desert 
 on conservation of property). 
 
 c. Social environment (including persisting institutions) 
 greatly serves to give specific direction to, to intensify or 
 to suppress, these instincts, (cf. Effects of: family on 
 early stages of many virtues; gang or clique life on per- 
 sonal qualities; of police power on attitude towards law; 
 of church on altruistic qualities ; of press, stage, library, on 
 extension of ideals; of vocation on self -aggrandizing and 
 conforming qualities; of war). 
 
 2. But problems of defining specific aims for the direct education (of 
 either alpha or beta type) of school are largely unsolved as yet. 
 
 a. In case of forming attitudes or habits, function of school 
 necessarily residual in many cases. School does not need 
 to " teach " courage, loyalty, honesty, sex continence, truth- 
 fulness, frugality, industry, toleration, reverence, inven- 
 tiveness, leadership, respect for authority; it finds founda- 
 tions of these in all its members. School's function is to 
 " teach " certain new kinds or varieties or shades ; to qual- 
 ify existing standards by new valuations. But problems 
 of commanding means of idealization (including valu- 
 ations) and practice (training) very difficult. 
 
 6. School can readily do much towards interpretation — 
 bringing unseen and unfelt relationships into view, sub- 
 jecting old situations to play of new lights of appreciations, 
 ideals, e.g., The boy aspires to manhood, then to approved 
 manhood; what are conditions of lasting approval as to 
 courage, loyalty, temperance, industry, etc.? Here will be 
 found large field for social science, probably to be handled 
 by "case" and (perhaps) project system. 
 
 c. All teaching of social science designed to react on per- 
 sonal ideals and behavior fraught with difficulties of inva- 
 sion of personality — violation of moral " privacy." Large 
 possibilities of discovery of indirect or "third person 
 objective " methods of approach and attack here. 
 
 d. Community civics, civil government, study of nations (con- 
 
24 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 temporary), and history lend themselves readily to imper- 
 sonal and objective methods; but teaching is often "non- 
 functioning" on that account. 
 
 3. Place of history study in social education. Here several important 
 problems. Under what circumstances does history study " function " in 
 important social habits, appreciations, ideals, insights, knowledges, etc.? 
 (Use of some history might also be promoted for cultural purposes ; and, 
 in some cases, for vocational ends). 
 
 a. Human knowledge of history was early organized (like 
 Latin grammar, geometry, algebra, logic, Latin classics, 
 geography). Hence easily became traditional element in 
 curriculum of secondary and higher schools. Men of keen 
 minds, seeking extension of knowledge, turn naturally to 
 history. Inference that it is valuable educational agency 
 easily arises. Vague notion that past can guide to future 
 (it certainly can explain the present). Democratic citizen- 
 ship requires general study of history — a popular belief. 
 Are facts of history important? generalizations f ideals.' 
 and for what ages and classes? 
 
 b. History organizes naturally on (a) territorial (or national) 
 and on (b) chronological basis. Compare relative import- 
 ance of remote and recent history as regards (a) illumi- 
 nating problem of citizenship, (b) fostering approved social 
 ideals, and (c) giving appreciation of scientific attitude 
 towards historical data and records. How much of chrono- 
 logical history (e.g., American, world) is desirable for con- 
 ception of unity of history? 
 
 c. How can appreciations of social evolution, development, 
 progress, be developed? 
 
 d. Make distinction between " history " and " materials of 
 history." Objectives of incorporating latter as found use- 
 ful, in social science study of contemporary problems. Pro- 
 vide for students (a) 11 to 14, (b) 15-18, (c) 19-22, series 
 of topics, projects, cases in social science study for citizen- 
 ship ; in each case what " materials of history " can use- 
 fully be employed? 
 
 e. Outline course of " units " in social science designed to give 
 historical perspective or conception of chronological order, 
 to take two per cent of school time each year, ages 6 to 18. 
 
 /. Outline course in current materials designed to produce 
 " scientific attitude " as regards reports and records for 
 youths 12-18. 
 
 g. In social science for junior high school, what shall be 
 criteria of selection of cases, projects, topics and other 
 teaching units? Conditions of flexibility of choice for 
 learners? How use history? 
 
MENTAL SCIENCE 25 
 
 4. Problems of dififerentiating alpha and beta phases of learning in 
 social science study are many. 
 
 a. What are varieties (and scope and character of each) of 
 
 social by-education achieved by home, 0-6? 6-12? 12-16? 
 
 16-18? What are corrections or reinforcements required 
 
 by schools? 
 h. Same for church? playground? press? stage? police 
 
 power? library? club? vocation (12-18)? 
 
 c. What species or grades of instinctive social qualities are 
 recognized by schools, for different age, economic, migra- 
 tion, racial, sex groups? 
 
 d. What are beta types of school activity in social education 
 for ages 4-6? 6-12? Differentiate: social play, mutual aid, 
 standards of behavior (including school order), socialized 
 work, "auditorium" cooperation (Gary), sports, altruistic 
 pursuits (Boy Scout), stories of achievement, current liter- 
 ature of youthful ideals, vocation guidance, patriotic songs, 
 stories of peoples, stories of individuals. 
 
 e. Are alpha types of social education needed, 6 to 12? What? 
 /. What are suitable types of beta school activity in social 
 
 education, 12-14? 14-16? 16-18? 18-22? Analyze problems 
 of organization; flexibility; adaptation to local social 
 environment. 
 g. Analyze problems of social education in vocational schools, 
 e.g., printing, farming, homemaking, (hereafter called 
 sociological phase of vocational education). To what 
 extent of beta type? 
 
 5. Analyze Boy Scout movement as means of social education. 
 
 a. Note its utilization of the " natural growth " qualities, its 
 flexibility of means, its freedom from illusion of formal 
 discipline, cumulative character of its devices, its creation 
 of atmosphere of idealism. 
 
 XXVIII. Mental Science 
 
 I. The term " mental science " here used (as analogous to " natural 
 science" and "social science") to include studies and other practices 
 designed to give comprehension of operation of mental powers, to develop 
 appreciations and ideals as to their control, use and development, and to 
 give some mastery of processes of such control, use and development. 
 (Compare with certain objectives of physical education- — ideals of physi- 
 cal development; insight; practice, etc.). 
 
 a. As in case of natural and social science, environment and 
 daily experience provide super-abundance of the materials 
 (data, facts, experiences, observations) of mental science 
 study for all grades from first to twelfth. But present 
 
26 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 means of making such materials pedagogically available 
 utterly inadequate. (Note abundance of nitrogen in air 
 and difficulties of making same available.) 
 6. "How to Study" now a promising approach in grades. 
 Need of analyzing problem of specific objectives of learn- 
 ing — e.g., how best to memorize poetry, build French 
 vocabulary, learn touch typewriting, keep mind from 
 objectionable brooding or woolgathering, solve mathemati- 
 cal problems, etc. 
 
 c. For high school, need of some systematic approach to units 
 of study important for adolescents, presented objectively, 
 and concretely. Pathological aspects and introspective 
 methods doubtless should be greatly subordinated. Prac- 
 tical applications (even working projects) to be found in 
 control of formation (or breaking) of specific habits, 
 acquiring certain knowledge, evoking and giving active 
 effect to certain sentiments and ideals. Doubtless self- 
 consciousness always to be avoided, personal privacy 
 respected, as in teaching physiology and hygiene. " Present 
 company excepted " a motto in conference. 
 
 d. Here should be developed also means and methods of 
 realizing some large objectives of mental training, (a) 
 The ideal of "a good memory." May be generalized from 
 experiences with many special " powers " of memory — 
 for words, dates, names, faces, logical chains of associated 
 ideas, " visual memories," " auditory, olfactory, tactile, 
 memories." If " formal discipline " (mental discipline or 
 gymnastics through educational " simples " — geometry, 
 Latin, bench work, manual-of-arms drill, etc.) is possible, 
 its realization must start here in conscious effort, (b) 
 " Scientific attitude " towards nature's presentments — 
 facts, data, phenomena, principles, laws, (c) Scientific 
 attitude towards man's presentments — legend, tradition, 
 gossip, rumor, verbal report, written report, record, docu- 
 ment, monument, and other human products used in trans- 
 mission and increase of knowledge. 
 
 2. Comprehension of significance of good and bad forms of by-educa- 
 tion can best be developed under mental science, and influences brought to 
 bear for amelioration of conditions. 
 
 a. Interaction of physical and mental conditions of growth. 
 
 b. Possibilities of self-education. 
 
 c. The face as gradually perfected index of mind and char- 
 acter. 
 
 3. Important connections to be developed between mental science and 
 vocational guidance, followed by vocational training. Problems of dis- 
 covering specialized talent, preventing vocational misfitting, etc. 
 
THE FINE ARTS 2/ 
 
 XXIX. The Fine Arts 
 
 I. The term " fine arts " is here used in contradistinction to useful arts 
 — or practical arts — and, in broadest sense, includes : painting, sculpture, 
 decorative architecture, material decoration, photography (graphic and 
 plastic arts, using harmonies of form and color and appealing directly to 
 the eye) ; song, instrumental music (musical arts, using harmonies of 
 sound appealing directly to the ear) ; epic, lyric, essay, novel (literature 
 appealing to imagination) ; and dance, drama, opera, cinema, oration, and 
 other " art composites." 
 
 o. The primary appeal of the fine arts is to the " aesthetic 
 sensibilities." Man's equipment of instincts includes many 
 readinesses or predispositions to respond to particular 
 forms of aesthetic appeal (to " feeling," " emotional nature," 
 "sentiments," etc.) Note varieties of appeal made by 
 music; contrast with "appeals to understanding" (intelli- 
 gence, scientific imagination, knowledge) made by various 
 forms of science, record of fact, etc. Also note that man's 
 " sense of the useful " — in dwellings, highways, imple- 
 ments, clothing, printed record, speech, body movement and 
 carriage (and also foods, odorous objects, sex relations, 
 etc.) is often at war with his sense of the "beautiful," 
 " tasteful," " aesthetic." Note efforts of most socialized 
 artists to reconcile (or rather find optimum resultants) in 
 architecture, furniture, fabrics, dress as body decoration, 
 food service, sex relations, public speaking, printed matter, 
 etc. ( remark attitudes towards the " ornate,'' " flowery," 
 " perfumed " ; also " ginger-bread architecture," " florid 
 oratory," " sentimentality.") 
 6. Probably appeals made by fine arts have had " survival " 
 values in past for individual and for society — in favoring 
 sexual selection (still in evidence among animals), mutual 
 aid (in work, war, maintenance of order), social sympathy 
 (family, worship, amalgamation), transmission of social 
 inheritance (tradition, legend, social ideal), making accept- 
 able knowledge, ideals. Thus resulted reciprocal develop- 
 ment of " capacities for response " (instincts of taste, 
 appreciation, " emotion ") and means of arousing or awak- 
 ening such states (harmonies of form and color, odors, 
 tastes, in plants ; same, to which add harmonies of sound 
 and motion, in animals ; add, for humans, numerous 
 appeals to memory, imagination, intelligence). 
 c. Note that aesthetic appeals to sight, hearing, imagination 
 and understanding represent only so-called " higher " aes- 
 thetic responses. Of no less sociological importance are 
 aesthetic responses to taste (gustatory senses), odor (ol- 
 factory senses), and touch (tactile senses). Even yet large 
 
28 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 range of keen aesthetic responses may easily be evoked 
 along these lines by foods and drinks, perfumes and other 
 odoriferous articles, objects smooth or otherwise to touch. 
 Now generally esteemed vulgar to use more than slightly 
 and deUcately these appeals to " appetites " — food, drink, 
 bodily comfort, sex. 
 
 d. Probability that in all fundamental activities of social life, 
 utilization of aesthetic appeals (as historically known) 
 steadily gives way to " intelligence " appeals — calculation, 
 tested formula, reasoned action, unemotional deliberation 
 (in a word, "science," as against "art"). This clearly 
 true in fields of olfactory and gustatory appeals; probably 
 true in tactile appeals, and those evoked by terpsichorean 
 arts ; apparently true in cruder appeals to auditory, visual 
 and imaginative capacities. Trace diminishing place of art 
 in work, worship, mating, war; in making fundamental 
 appeals for order, self-development, cooperation, adequate 
 parenthood, thrift. 
 
 e. But equipment of instincts of aesthet'ic response still per- 
 sists. In some cases, substantial atrophy without injury 
 possible (smell, taste, tactile sense) although morbid mani- 
 festations frequent. In other cases, use of these appeals to 
 "spice" life, to supplement prosaic " drab " activities pos- 
 sible. Note use of music, light literature, bodily deco- 
 ration, dancing, drama, certain forms of painting, archi- 
 tecture, and sculpture for these " diversion," " recreation," 
 " pleasure-giving " functions — and cant about " art for 
 art's sake," "pleasure (or happiness) as an important end 
 in life," etc. Note also strong tendency of devotees (pro- 
 ducers and utilizers of these vestigial art functions) to 
 become (or, by selection, to be) freakish, immoral, degen- 
 erate (aesthetes, feminine men, masculine women, sex per- 
 verts, epicures, mystics, impracticals, dreamers, visionaries, 
 charlatans). Note also large intermingling of decadent 
 forms of art sensibility in socially pathologic areas — 
 Bohemias, red-light districts, " conspicuous consumption " 
 (rich or near-rich), hotels and restaurants catering to epi- 
 curean tastes in food, drink, dancing and sex, theatres, 
 " beauty parlors," places of religious revival or esoteric 
 worship, etc. 
 
 2. Functioning applications of fine arts in modern social life, meeting 
 tests of being dynamic and democratic, are at least three: (a) art for 
 diversion, recreation after specialized toil, soothing of tired nerves, etc., — 
 popular music, moving pictures, dancing (in a degree), long and short 
 stories, light drama, illustration; (b) art applied to objects of utility to 
 enhance agreeable associations — "' good " speech, " artistic " writing (of 
 facts or imaginings), "graceful" carriage, "well-designed" (aesthetic, as 
 
THE FINE ARTS 29 
 
 distinguished from utilitarian, design) tools, implements, books, cars, 
 buildings, roadways, table-ware, clothes, etc. ; and (c) art applied in 
 display advertising, publicity, where attention must be " taken captive " — 
 even through the emotions. 
 
 a. Actual social values of these still doubtful. First easily 
 leads to excessive, degenerative, morbid forms, second 
 tendency often leads to subordination of utility to beauty — 
 bodily decoration, architecture. Display advertising prob- 
 ably now source of enormous social waste. 
 
 b. Problems as to other social uses of art for contemporary 
 society. Can it be used to elevate moral and social ideals 
 — through song, drama, novel, moving picture? to 
 " enrich " life — whatever that may mean ? to promote 
 general social understanding? to perfect the family? to 
 increase diffusion of serviceable knowledge? To answer 
 questions of this sort we need more knowledge than is yet 
 available both of psychology and of sociology. 
 
 c. It is possible that, apart from all general social consid- 
 erations, certain stimulation and development of art-appre- 
 ciation capacities essential to wholesomeness. (Theory 
 that vestigial or suppressed instincts become centers of 
 " decay " — cf . Freud, Jung) . Question as to how far sys- 
 tematic art education may be necessary to preserve whole- 
 someness. 
 
 d. Are the following fine arts obsolescent : sculpture, poetry, 
 serious drama, oratory, dancing, music of worship, paint- 
 ing, architecture (as a primary rather than subordinate 
 decorative element) ? Answer in terms of : appeal to 
 democratic majorities; appeal to few who ultimately influ- 
 ence and direct many, etc. 
 
 3. Probably important functions of school education in art fields where 
 utilization is dynamic and popular are : 
 
 a. So to direct such utilization as to lessen anti-social conse- 
 quences — immoral fiction, sensual music, demoralizing 
 moving pictures, lascivious dancing, etc. 
 
 b. To insure as far as practicable that " applied art " shall 
 not displace or distort basal utilities in dress, furniture, 
 books, communication, etc. 
 
 c. To keep within reasonable social bounds competitive outlay 
 on display advertising. 
 
 d. Where practicable, to use art to elevate ideals and social 
 sentiments (perhaps literature only). 
 
 4. Is it desirable to use school education to revive extended appre- 
 ciation of obsolescent forms of art — folk-song, folk-dancing, painting, 
 " art " or " expression " dancing, monumental architecture, epic, lyric, etc. ? 
 
30 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 At suitable times, these in historic products, may well be studied as 
 " history " — but that has no substantial connection with art appreciation. 
 
 5. Objectives of school education in art appreciation suggested above 
 should all fall within " beta " class — hence freedom of election, methods 
 designed to give appreciation, amateur execution, etc. 
 
 6. Persons showing talent as potential producers of socially valuable 
 art (not yet clear what that is) should be given early encouragement and 
 support to specialize as high grade producers. Specialized vocational 
 schools desirable for these. 
 
 XXX. English Literature 
 
 1. Problems of defining literature arise when we try to frame school 
 programs, improve home and library reading, and bring influence of 
 school to bear on press and stage. 
 
 a. For practical purposes shall we include all non-vocational 
 reading as literature? Mother Goose? Robinson Crusoe? 
 Stories told orally? Sunday supplements? Rollo, Alcott, 
 Coffin, and other similar series? St. Nicholas? 
 
 b. Or would useful ends be better served by restricting 
 term literature to those things that embody good art (by 
 adult standards) and are enduring? What, then, shall we 
 call all popular reading matter outside field of literature? 
 
 c. Since in education " literature is what literature does" (i.e., 
 produces effects of literature) most practical course is to 
 include under " literature " all non-vocational reading and 
 orally-told story which " attract " because of combination 
 of interest-satisfying content with some art of presentation. 
 Within this general field, classes should be made, e.g., 
 classic, contemporary, journalistic, childrens', adolescent, 
 imaginative, travel, biography, etc. 
 
 2. Problems of " social purposes " or " functioning " of literature in 
 society generally require solution before possible uses in education can be 
 defined. Some of these problems are the same as those of " art " in 
 general (which see). Others are peculiar to literature because of its 
 general accessibility (in recent centuries especially) and its relatively 
 small employment of the senses (compared with other "fine arts"). 
 
 a. From standpoint of producer, literature is often included 
 in concept, " art for art's sake." Were Homer, Euripides, 
 Juvenal, Plutarch, Dante, Milton, Bunyan, Pope, Tenny- 
 son, Dickens, Whittier, Lowell, Whitman, Kipling, Wells, 
 Olive Schreiner, animated by " social purpose " ? What of 
 Sappho, Virgil, Horace, Tasso, Chaucer, Shakespeare, 
 Addison, Byron, Keats, Swinburne, Poe, Henry James? 
 ' h. What do " the people " get from " great " literature ? pleas- 
 ure? ideals? vision? common standards and sentiments? 
 
ENOLISH LITERATURE 3' 
 
 substitutes for experience? Analyze some customary 
 hypotheses. 
 
 c. What do " the people " get from popular (and often fugi- 
 tive) literature — fiction, short story, ephemeral poetry, 
 magazine article? low standards? democratic ideals? 
 pleasure? widened comprehension? satisfaction of emo- 
 tional longings? Why do we sometimes say such literature 
 is "demoralizing"? Under what conditions is it elevating? 
 How effective is (or could be) censorship in " improving " 
 this literature? 
 
 d. What are essential characteristics of " literature " to which 
 large numbers of children 2 to 5 (to whom orally pre- 
 sented) "take naturally" (even "eagerly and hungrily")? 
 Children from 6 to 10? from 11 to 14 (boys) ? from 
 II to 14 (girls)? IS to 18 (boys of superior economic 
 rank) ? Do. (of low economic rank) ? 15 to 18 (girls of 
 superior home environment) ? Do. (of poor environment) ? 
 
 e. How successful have schools and colleges been in develop- 
 ing enduring interests in classic literature? Were these 
 classics written for younger readers? Examples? Did 
 educated youths " take " to them when they were fresh ? 
 What " classic " literature still has natural fascination for 
 childhood? adolescent youth? 
 
 /. For the effective " functioning " of literature (in any spe- 
 cified way) is a degree of contemporaneity essential? Is it 
 easy or even practicable for us to-day to apperceive or 
 apprehend the "milieu" of Sophocles? Caesar? Tasso? 
 Dryden? Wordsworth? Cooper? Consider separately as 
 regards: (a) mating love; (b) war; (c) man's knowledge 
 of the world and universe; (d) man's belief in, and 
 attempted intercourse with, unseen personalities (religion) ; 
 (e) prevailing ideals of democracy; (f) control of natural 
 forces; (g) fatalistic convictions; (h) other large social 
 and personal elements. 
 
 g. Is human nature " always the same " ? To what extent 
 have abolition of slavery, spread of scientific knowledge, 
 development of democracy, universal education, use of 
 complex mechanisms in war, development of trade unions, 
 employment of capital, science and invention in production, 
 rising standards of living, mobility of labor, rational con- 
 trol of sex morals, and "placing the gods far beyond 
 Olympus," made it difficult to respond to old literature 
 (except on part of cults devoted to the antique, or fol- 
 lowers of the illusion of the " Golden Age behind ") ? To 
 what extent do these entail requirement of contemporaneity 
 as a condition for many kinds of " functioning " of liter- 
 ature ? 
 
32 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 3. Problems of elevating native interests in literature as a " mental 
 play," or " intellectual nurture " agency appear when we recognise natural- 
 ness, universality, and developmental character of these spontaneous 
 interests. 
 
 a. All children manifest intellectual hunger for stories, orally 
 presented. Almost all will continue this interest in printed 
 presentations, if mechanics of silent reading are mastered 
 sufficiently well and early (cf. popularity of cheap fiction, 
 popular journals, etc.). Standards of production will rise 
 with improvement of demand. Note economical character 
 of this form of " beta " education. Means found in school- 
 room reading, school libraries for home reading, circu- 
 lating libraries, public libraries. Harmful effects of adult 
 " goody " standards, and of artificial " art " standards. 
 " Reading aloud " by teachers as important prelude to self- 
 motivated silent reading even in case of older pupils being 
 initiated on higher levels. (Can teachers generally read 
 aloud well?) 
 
 4. Literature obviously very potent in producing ideals, attitudes, appre- 
 ciations, valuations, standards, sentiments, aspirations. Hence, very potent 
 in character formation, and in impelling to action involving feeling ele- 
 ments. Problems of purpose : to what specific ends can it be used ? Prob- 
 lems of means : what literature can be used ? Problems of tnethod : how 
 must it be used? 
 
 a. For pragmatic purposes in social education (formation of 
 social character, inspiring to Social action) literature must 
 be of vital, holding interest. " Forcible feeding " of little 
 avail. Literary analysis, searching for moral, anatomical 
 study of literary cadavers (as apperceived by learners) 
 doubtless bad — the intrusion of adult and pedantic stand- 
 ards. 
 
 6. But for realization of definite objectives in social educa- 
 tion (e.g., humane treatment of animals, the " square deal " 
 in business relations, sexual continence, subjection of crude 
 combative instincts, patriotism (a very vague end), keeping 
 " physically fit," respecting the aged, honest voting, efficient 
 use of time, playing a " fair game," keeping one's word, 
 the "successful life," not "quitting," etc.) doubtless useful 
 literature can be found. But probably it must be used 
 impersonally, individual learner must not be made self- 
 conscious, certain privacies must be respected. " Goody " 
 good teachers cannot promote this cultivation — they are 
 too prone to violate privacies, to pull up sprouting plants 
 for open air inspection. Art of attaining these ends prob- 
 ably one of most difficult in education. 
 
 5. Problems of relating literature to vernacular language very con- 
 
FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES 33 
 
 fusing. Use of term " English " without qualification, bad. Doubtful if 
 any close connection ought to exist between vernacular language and 
 veri^acular literature studies — purposes not merely unlike, but very remote 
 from each other. 
 
 a. Literature will doubtless he used in language study — 
 mechanics of reading, spelling, composition, vocabulary 
 building, voice training, silent reading, grammar, rhetoric, 
 etc. — but not to real ends of education through literature — 
 in fact, literature so used is spoiled for those purposes. 
 Literature is an appreciation study — language mostly a 
 series of specific power objectives (capacities to do work). 
 6. Probable that language studies, aiming towards specific 
 powers (of execution) should be carried on through vita), 
 vigorously held thought (ideas, feelings) content of 
 learner, rather than through weakly apprehended, second- 
 hand content of literature, (cf. Bad effects of imitating 
 styles, of communicating second-hand ideas — affected cul- 
 ture, etc.) Capacities to appreciate far outrun powers of 
 expression, communication. Literature suitable to third 
 grade might be used for sixth grade language; literature 
 apprehended at 14 might be used as language " cadavers " 
 at 18. 
 
 6. Study of " history of literature,'' " evolution of literature," etc., 
 belongs under social science studies (which see). 
 
 XXXI. Foreign Languages and Literatures — Ancient 
 
 These here taken to include Latin and Greek, but principles apply equally 
 to Pebrew, Old English, Arabic, etc., which, as languages, persist to-day 
 only in limited areas and in decidedly modified forms, and the literatures 
 of which reflect very alien cultures and inspirational forces. 
 
 I. For Western World studies of ancient languages and literatures of 
 much importance in periods of renaissance when they were large and 
 vital sources of knowledge, ideals. Note also long period during which 
 Latin was only medium of scholarly intercourse. 
 
 a. Traditions of these values persist even after (a) extensive 
 literatures have been created in vernaculars, (b) vernac- 
 ulars become more available for scholarly intercommuni- 
 cation, and (c) vernacular literatures in large measure 
 have assimilated and express (except as to niceties of art 
 factors) significant content of classical literatures — 
 because; (i) other materials of study not well organized; 
 (2) social demand for an " aristocratic, exclusive and 
 somewhat mystic culture"; (3) dominance of public, and 
 even more of endowed education by the " successful " 
 products of classical education; (4) sheer traditionalism 
 
34 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 of successful educators and theologians — and, to lesser 
 extent, lawyers and magistrates — whose influence has been 
 strong in determining educational standards ; (5) vogue of 
 theories of psychological " faculties," leading easily to 
 beliefs in virtues of educational "simples" or specifics for 
 general mental training; and (6) beliefs that study of 
 classical languages enhances powers to use vernacular or 
 to master modern languages. 
 
 b. Classical languages and literatures once central means in 
 pursuit of "humanities" — "appreciations of the higher 
 (or highest, some think) of things human. Note vagueness 
 of definition of humanities and probability of close con- 
 nection with studies suited to a " leisure '' (gentlefolk") 
 class. Per contra, note connections with Protestant 
 reformers, educators, magistrates and theologians in 
 revival of learning which leads down to yesterday in 
 modern England, Germany, America. 
 
 c. Note persistence as requirement for admission to college 
 and for A.B. degree. 
 
 2. Waning influence of Latin and Greek languages and literatures in 
 liberal education conspicuous in recent years. Note decline first in Latin 
 countries, longest persistence in England, America, Germany. Factors in 
 diminishing influence: 
 
 a. Widening range of secondary education, necessitating non- 
 classical curricula to meet democratic needs. 
 
 b. Diminishing fruitfulness of classical studies in new ideas 
 and ideals, and, per contra, increasing eificacy of non- 
 classical studies for same purposes. 
 
 c. In very recent years, diminishing confidence in these studies 
 as of exceptional value for: (a) mental training; (b) 
 basal contributions to study of English and modern foreign 
 languages ; and (c) culture attributable to " humanities." 
 
 3. Contemporary problems : 
 
 a. On part of individual, what degree of mastery of a classic 
 language and its best literature is requisite to produce in 
 significant measure: (a) a fimctioning culture? (b) func- 
 tioning appreciations that are of "the humanities"? (c) 
 reinforcement of English? 
 
 b. On part of society, what proportion of individuals learned 
 in the Latin and Greek classics would suflice in optimum 
 measure to keep alive social interest in them and to trans- 
 late anew their values? (cf. Hebrew, Arabic, Irish, Norse, 
 Sanscrit, Chinese, Inca). 
 
 c. To what extent, for youths of scholarly tastes and capaci- 
 ties, can more modern sources furnish equivalent values? 
 
MODEBN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES 35 
 
 d. To what extent can society derive equivalent values from 
 more modern sources? 
 
 e. In what ways and to what extent does study of classics 
 (as, e.g., possible in modern secondary school and when 
 taught by methods now approved) reinforce powers to use 
 English? Capacities to appreciate English products? 
 
 /. What are specific possible contributions from study of 
 
 Latin to study of : Spanish? French? German? Russian? 
 g. What are, specifically, alleged possible contributions of 
 
 study of Latin to mental discipline? 
 h. What are possible contributions of some knowledge of 
 
 Latin to study of : medicine ? law ? biological science ? 
 
 music? 
 
 4. Proposals for consideration. 
 
 a. Large, prosperous schools might open classes in Latin and 
 Greek for pupils 12 years of age or over who, fully advised, 
 give promise of lasting interest, and whose language studies 
 thus far give promise of ready mastery. (But secondary 
 school pupils should not be permitted to take both Latin 
 and Greek; the second might be taken in college.) 
 
 b. For students already successful in English and a modern 
 language, a short course in Latin open at beginning of nth 
 grade, and designed to reinforce English and the modern 
 language. 
 
 c. An elective short course in " Word Analysis," dealing with 
 various sources of English vernacular, open in 8th or gth 
 grade. 
 
 d. Cultural short courses on Roman and Greek literatures 
 approached through translations — loth to izth grades. 
 
 e. Final abandonment of prescriptions of Latin — for gradu- 
 ation from any school, for admission to any school, or for 
 any standard degree. 
 
 XXXII. Modern Languages and Their Literatures 
 
 I. Modern Languages here taken to include French, Spanish, Portugese, 
 German, Russian, Japanese, Chinese (or form thereof) and the literatures 
 in these tongues approved by contemporaries. 
 
 a. Note that French or German or both are frequently pre- 
 scribed and almost always desired among college entrance 
 qualifications ; that gradually one of these has been accepted 
 as alternative to Latin ; that probably one-third of all high 
 school students give some time to French or German; and 
 that cost of these offerings now in American high schools 
 is probably upward of seven million dollars yearly. 
 
36 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 b. Offerings of Spanish increase very rapidly in high schools, 
 especially commercial departments. 
 
 c. German- — rarely other languages — taught in some school 
 systems in grades, usually to children of German speaking 
 parents. 
 
 2. Objectives of modern language instruction most ill-defined at pres- 
 ent in secondary schools. 
 
 a. Among possible objectives no clear-cut differentiation is 
 made between reading and speaking powers, though the 
 first might, within moderate limits, be accomplished in 
 four or six years of well directed work. 
 
 6. Written composition is frequently required, but purpose 
 not clear. 
 
 c. Surveys are needed to determine : (a) kinds and degrees 
 of mastery desired; and (b) proportion of cases in which 
 attempted goals are realized. Specifications under (a) 
 should distinguish : ( i ) preliminary superficial " bowing 
 acquaintance " with language as printed ; (2) partial read- 
 ing knowledge (with close reliance upon dictionary) ; (3) 
 substantial ready reading knowledge of current prose (as 
 found in newspapers) ; (4) substantial reading knowledge 
 of "approved" literature, including poetry; (s) compre- 
 hensions of colloquial vernacular as spoken; (6) ability to 
 speak intelligibly; (7) ability to write (e.g., business 
 correspondence) plain prose; (8) (add other standards). 
 Specifications under (b) should discriminate and evaluate 
 usual results for (i) secondary school pupils terminating 
 study after " two-years' course " ; (2) secondary students 
 meeting usual two- and three-point college entrance stand- 
 ards and no longer continuing study; (3) probable results 
 of four years in secondary school and four years in college 
 given to one language; (4) results of " four years" divided 
 between two modern languages; (s) results of intensive 
 short courses for scientific reading; (6) other practices. 
 
 3. Survey needed of qualifications now usually possessed by teachers 
 of French, German, and Spanish. In most cases, probably meagre. Could 
 they sustain easy conversation with natives of foreign country? Could 
 they write? Note frequency with which high school teachers attempt to 
 teach two modern languages. 
 
 4. Proposals for discussion : 
 
 a. Small high schools (combined with junior high schools) 
 should offer only one modern language; this should be 
 designed primarily to establish ready reading knowledge, 
 and methods should be devised to that end ; only pupils 
 above average in English, and probably able to continue 
 
MATHEMATICS 37 
 
 study for several years, should be admitted; if possible, 
 study should be begun at 12, perhaps using no reading at 
 first; and every reasonable effort should be made to have 
 student continue language four or preferably six or eight 
 years to point of working mastery of prose reading. 
 
 6. Schools with large resources, after making provision of 
 reading knowledge on part of promising students, may 
 open limited classes designed to impart speaking and writ- 
 ing powers. Objectives here to produce interpreters, trans- 
 lators, and others capable of use of foreign language, 
 including interpretation of culture materials. Japanese, 
 Russian, etc., included. Every effort made to retain pupils 
 until effective mastery reached. Endowments for foreign 
 travel desirable. 
 
 S. Problems. 
 
 a. Is it expedient or desirable for state to make offerings of 
 modern language instruction as by-education at ages 2-6? 
 (Done by certain classes as private education abroad — 
 e.g., Russia.) Probably only means of insuring genuine 
 speaking mastery. 
 
 b. Having free-reading knowledge as goal, how far is study 
 of grammar necessary? Many ready readers of English 
 have^' little conscious knowledge of grammar. 
 
 c. State endowment of candidates for teaching — at least to 
 assist in foreign travel — needed. 
 
 XXXIII. Mathematics 
 
 The term " mathematics " used to embrace arithmetic, and higher forms 
 found in secondary schools. 
 
 I. Confusion of objectives always found in mathematics teaching. 
 
 u.. Vocational needs (farmers, builders, navigators, lumber- 
 men, engineers, small merchants, investors) in conjunction 
 with special classes have been taken up for general appli- 
 cation in schools. Hence the importance attached to : 
 various forms of denominate number tables ; applied per- 
 centage; mensuration; solid geometry; trigonometry, etc. 
 
 b. Mathematical exercises readily fitted to illusory schemes 
 of " mental discipline." Note ease with which teachers can 
 assign and supervise difficult work. Note also complexity 
 and endless quantity of unapplied (and unapplicable) 
 mathematics readily available for school use. Note, e.g., 
 insistence on mathematics in women's schools and colleges. 
 
 c. Easy to produce plausible defences of "culture" value of 
 
38 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 mathematics — as giving abiding interests, expanded con- 
 cepts for interpretation of environment, valuable logical 
 " forms " of thought, appreciations of " control " of nature 
 through mathematics, etc. Ideally, and for a few special 
 types of minds, functioning of this kind feasible; is it so 
 for many? Doubtful. Would test of "interest" apply? 
 d. Educators foster belief that secondary school mathematics 
 is required for studies (presumably in science, economics) 
 subsequently to be pursued. Mythical character of this 
 belief. 
 
 2. Proposals for reconstruction: distinguish sharply general needs 
 (users, consumers, or common to many vocations) from specialized voca- 
 tional needs ; develop new means of attaining " appreciation " (cultural 
 insight) ends in mathematics ; and make mental training a necessary 
 accompaniment of all teaching designed for permanent " functioning." 
 
 a. Ascertainable amounts of mathematical knowledge and skill 
 are necessary for men and women in their common activi- 
 ties as buyers, users, travellers, general readers, citizens. 
 Effective mastery of these doubtless requires : definite drill 
 on fundamentals ; much experience and training in apply- 
 ing to concrete and usual life situations ; and omission of 
 all complexities. 
 
 Beyond that called for here, is any mathematics needed 
 as common element in many vocations? Doubtful. 
 
 b. Vocational mathematics should be provided after voca- 
 tional choice has been made (continuation school for young 
 persons already employed, evening school for apprentices 
 over 17, vocational school, prevocational trigonometry in 
 high school for prospective engineering students, short 
 courses for persons seeking foremanship or higher stages, 
 etc.). Probably, best results can be secured here (a) by 
 clearly defining ends in terms of actual requirements of 
 particular vocation; (b) by teaching in part through definite 
 applications; and (c) by using to full economic motives. 
 
 Mathematics required for prosecution of subsequent 
 studies (after period of compulsory school attendance has 
 been passed) should be offered in same way as vocational 
 mathematics. 
 
 c. Among beta studies designed at various stages in growth 
 ' to give appreciation of, and insight into, material and social 
 
 environment, should be offered appreciation courses of 
 mathematics, of which no present types exist. Such courses 
 no more require technical knowledge of mathematics than 
 do appreciation courses in music, painting, poetry, science, 
 home decoration or travel require technical knowledge and 
 skill in composing, painting, verse-making, research, calci- 
 
GEOGRAPHY 39 
 
 mining, or navigation. Such courses would include: 
 stocks, exchange, compound interest, commission, insur- 
 ance, solid geometry, much of mensuration, triangulation, 
 calculus, statistics, etc., all so presented as to produce 
 appreciation, vivid and interpretive, of man's use of mathe- 
 matics as aid to short expression, accurate description, 
 instrument of precision, revealer of laws, means of control 
 in war, building, mining, harnessing natural forces. Effec- 
 tive means (readings, pictures, models, etc.) all yet to be 
 devised. 
 d. Beliefs in superiority of mental arithmetic, cube-root, par- 
 tial payments, algebra, geometry, etc., as instruments of 
 mental discipline (mental gymnastics) now questioned. 
 Illusions of faculty psychology here persist, as well as 
 Puritan distrust of " easy gains." Functioning of any exact- 
 ing mental activity (geometry, verbal memorization, chess, 
 Scouts' observation of nature, puzzles) doubtless much 
 dependent on interest, self-activity. Present tentative solu- 
 tion : do not seek mental discipline as a primary and 
 determining end of any extensive subject or series of 
 educational activities. Let other and more demonstrably 
 realizable ends (cultural, civic, physical growth, vocational) 
 determine choice of subject matter, activities; then so 
 realize these ends that right and effective mental training 
 results as an accompanying process. 
 
 3. Miscellaneous proposals. 
 
 a. Desirable that experiments be made in abandoning all alpha 
 arithmetic until ninth age year or third grade. 
 
 6. In junior high school, differentiation of general or con- 
 sumers' arithmetic along main lines to correlate roughly 
 with practical arts or prospective interests, industrial, com- 
 mercial, agricultural, household. Avoid illusion of "pre- 
 vocational." 
 
 c. No prescription of mathematics for entrance to, or gradu- 
 ation from, high schools or colleges of general education. 
 Specific and demonstrably needed special prescriptions to 
 apply to all vocational schools. 
 
 XXXIV. Geography 
 
 1. Composite (beta) course in home geography (social, natural science), 
 nature study, etc., (observations, readings, pictorial presentations), ages 
 6-10. 
 
 a. Problem of avoiding imdue systematization. 
 
 2. Geography (for beta objectives), ages 10-12. 
 
 a. Fields of observation and reading materials. 
 
40 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 b. Use of moving picture as means. 
 
 c. Problems of defining pedagogical "packages," or units. 
 
 3. Problem of determining desirable alpha objectives of geography for 
 ages 10-12. 
 
 a. Note prevailing confusion here at present in texts and 
 manuals. 
 
 4. Geography in junior high school. Problems of objectives — social 
 service, natural science, practical arts, cultural — still complicated. 
 
 o. Need of clear cut distinctions between beta and alpha 
 objectives. 
 
 b. Probable need of distinctions between social (or human) 
 geography and " natural " geography, and means of devel- 
 oping appreciations of interrelations. 
 
 c. Problems of teaching units — readings, projects, studies, 
 cases, problems, etc. 
 
 5. Prevocational or vocational geography for commercial vocations. 
 
 XXXV. Promotion and Conservation of Physical Well- 
 Being 
 
 I. The functions of school-controlled and school supervised education 
 in promotion and conservation of physical well-being will include : 
 
 a. Such instruction of one generation as may secure better 
 heredity in the next. (An obscure field as yet — see dis- 
 cussions of eugenics). 
 
 b. Such development, instruction, and training as will enable 
 parents of next generation to provide better material envi- 
 ronment and by-education for young. 
 
 c. Use of school as center of suggestion and possible direction 
 towards home and other responsible agencies to secure 
 better material conditions for development of present gen- 
 eration. (Applicable chiefly to distinctly subnormal homes, 
 and to be exerted chiefly through specialized agencies, e.g., 
 school nurse, school physician, day, nursery, care-taker, 
 home and school visitor, etc.). 
 
 d. Provision through school of means of nurture. (Except 
 in case of children deprived of parents, probably of little 
 application. School meals clearly a palliative. If public 
 agencies must enter, then more comprehensive policy 
 needed.) 
 
 e. Enlistment of home in improving by-education of indi- 
 vidual to prevent illness, promote self-development, etc. 
 (a large field, requiring extension of functions of " health 
 department — beyond scope now planned for school physi- 
 
PROMOTION AND CONSERVATION OF PHYSICAL WELL-BEING 4^ 
 
 cian, school nurse, etc.). (Only a slightly practicable field 
 for "regular" teachers — possibilities in day nursery, kin- 
 dergarten, country school.) 
 
 /. Enlistment of home and other agencies in improvement of 
 collective means of physical well-being — playgrounds, 
 school health supervision, sanitation, (flies, water, com- 
 municable disease, etc.). 
 
 g. Improvement of conditions under which school activities 
 are carried on, as these affect physical well-being. (A 
 large field, requiring development of scientific technique 
 and special agencies.) 
 
 h. Provision of means, incentives and requirements for physi- 
 cal play. (A field with little specialized knowledge or ser- 
 vice as yet; control of athletics, however imperfect now, 
 perhaps a beginning.) 
 
 i. Provision of means and requirements for physical work. 
 (A field now ignored, but probably of signal importance.) 
 
 j. Positive physical training. (Various attempts made here- 
 tofore — gymnastics, calisthenics, etc. — probably of little 
 significance. Dancing has possibilities, but belongs to play 
 — beta — group. Corrective gymnastics, technically indi- 
 vidualized, probably important for a small minority.) 
 
 k. Boy Scout and other similar large activities probably of 
 much promise. Fundamentals of military power — special 
 powers, walking, creeping, climbing, running, wading, 
 swimming, sleeping out, burden carrying, rifle shooting, 
 grenade throwing, trench digging — possible of accom- 
 plishment on beta basis, using volunteer squads, leaders 
 assigned for " short unit " responsibility. Specific military 
 exercises probably must be carried on by extra-school 
 agencies — if under i8, at summer camps, etc. 
 
 I. Extensive development of intellectual appreciation of 
 ideals, principles, facts of physical development, sanitation, 
 individual hygiene, possible through use of " beta learning " 
 devices, as yet but imperfectly developed. Lectures (spe- 
 cialists in sex hygiene, etc.), moving pictures, (community 
 sanitation), attractively presented readings (all phases) 
 and many other means available. 
 
 m. Possible fields for " alpha " types of instruction not yet 
 clearly defined. 
 
 2. Problems. 
 
 a. To what extent does school work (intellectual application) 
 from 6 to 9 retard normal physical development (as against 
 what would take place with freedom of movement, play, 
 etc.). 
 
42 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 b. To what extent is it desirable or expedient that physical 
 functions probably not to find employment in civilized adult 
 life should be left systematically underdeveloped in youth? 
 
 c. To what extent is physical work probably a necessity to 
 physical development? (Note especial application to middle 
 economic class girls — receiving chiefly intellectual educa- 
 tion, and sharing largely in social play life.) 
 
 3. Administrative proposals. 
 
 a. The long school day, covering both alpha and beta intel- 
 lectual and physical activities — seven hours per day for 
 pupils 6-12, eight hours for those 12-18. 
 
 b. Discontinuance of all "home work" or home study of 
 alpha type. 
 
 c. Development throughout system of agencies responsible 
 for school's share in promotion and conservation of physi- 
 cal well-being — such agencies to include expert medical 
 service, but to be under pedagogic direction superior to 
 that now by-produced from medical service. 
 
 XXXVI. Practical Arts 
 
 " Practical Arts " here include all activities derived from productive 
 activities of adults and adapted to schools for purposes of general edu- 
 cation. 
 
 a. Possible objectives in general education include: satis- 
 faction of instincts for construction, manipulative execu- 
 tion, use of tools, fabrication of objects of play, etc. 
 (forms of growth through play, amateur participation) ; 
 instruction and training in standards of utilization (man 
 as consumer, taste, appreciation, insight, socialized utili- 
 zation) ; vocation guidance (through sampling of mater- 
 ials, standards, and processes of callings) ; socialization, 
 (through development of appreciation of activities of other 
 social classes — city boys' gardening, farm boys' weaving 
 clothing, etc.) ; and avocational capacities to assist in 
 " upkeep " of consumers' equipment — house repair (plumb- 
 ing, painting, electrical work, concrete, lock repair, etc.), 
 personal clothing, amateur cooking, nursing, etc. 
 fc. Activities based upon adult productive work introduced 
 into schools to train future workers are vocational. Prac- 
 tical arts education rarely has discernible vocational out- 
 come. 
 c. Attempts to combine vocational education and liberal edu- 
 cation through practical arts probably defeat ends of both. 
 Desirable pedagogical methods fundamentally unlike. 
 
PRACTICAL ARTS 43 
 
 d. Should "practical arts" be always a beta subject? — voca- 
 tional education always an alpha subject? 
 
 1. For convenience we may classify practical arts subjects as follows: 
 
 a. Agricultural arts : home gardening ; treeplanting and 
 nursing ; poultry raising ; food packing ; " corn club " 
 work ; pig clubs ; milking, butter and cheese making ; fruit 
 drying; farm products marketing; farm mechanics; etc. 
 
 h. Industrial arts : cloth weaving ; house repair and building ; 
 house painting; installation of screens, drainage, water 
 supply, electric bells, electric lighting, central heating: 
 machine dissection and reassembly (sewing machines, guns, 
 lawn mowers, stoves, pumps, bicycles, motors, optical 
 instruments, vacuum cleaners, washing machines, lathes, 
 etc); bookbinding; printing; photography; wallpapering 
 and decoration; fabrication of playground apparatus; 
 furniture making; tool sharpening; wall building; road 
 construction; boat building; photomounting ; engraving; 
 mechanical draughting; pottery and glass making; shoe 
 repairing; tailoring and clothing repair; and scores of 
 others. 
 
 c. Commercial arts : typewriting ; business penmanship, 
 arithmetic, documents, English; display advertising; sell- 
 ing ; bookkeeping ; package making ; comptometer ; filing ; 
 banking; telegraphy; dictaphone; etc. 
 
 d. Household arts: kitchen cooking; camp cooking; food 
 preserving ; food buying ; food serving ; house planning ; 
 toy house construction ; home (or room) decoration ; fur- 
 niture choosing, distributing, upkeep; bed-making; repair 
 (or upkeep) of apparatus for plumbing, heating, lighting, 
 cleaning, ventilating, screening, cooking, sewing; infant 
 nursing (feeding, cleaning, dressing, exercising) ; sick 
 nursing; decorative window and yard gardening; clothing 
 buying, making, repairing; accounting; entertaining; fes- 
 tivals ; and many others. 
 
 e. Nautical arts : fishing ; fish planting ; boat making ; boat 
 sailing ; etc. 
 
 2. Fundamental principles affecting objectives: 
 
 a. The amateur spirit must dominate. Rarely should there 
 be prescription. Exclusion from participation should attend 
 failure to show and sustain true amateur and progressive 
 spirit. Flexibility of offerings should be as great as admin- 
 istrative facilities will permit. Much reading, illustration, 
 etc., should illumine work. Natural interests should con- 
 trol selection of enterprises. 
 
 b. Offerings (so named when presented or suggested by 
 
44 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 school ; may be called " enterprises " from standpoint of 
 learners) should take form of concrete, objective units, 
 each fully described by printed matter, pictures, models, 
 etc. These units (enterprises) should approximate ascer- 
 tained scope, length, for preservation of interest, suggestion 
 of accomplishment. Minimum time, for learners 12-14 
 perhaps one hour; maximum, sixty hours. 
 
 c. Enterprises will be of several kinds : school execution pro- 
 jects; home execution projects; reading and report pro- 
 jects; cases (for investigation and oral report); topics 
 (for reading and study); problems (for solution). 
 
 d. Some enterprises may be cooperative; others, individual. 
 
 e. Does the subject "belong" to schools after 16 years of age? 
 
 XXXVII. Agricultural Vocational Education 
 
 1. Introductory. 
 
 a. Note sharp distinctions to be drawn between agricultural 
 vocational education and agricultural general education 
 
 - — agricultural arts, agricultural science, home (and on occa- 
 
 ' sion school) gardening (amateur), agricultural reading. 
 
 ' b. Note almost complete absence of apprenticeship in agricul- 
 
 ture; but persistence of opportunities for learner to share 
 in family vocations — unlike industries, commercial callings 
 and professions. 
 
 ' c. Note conditions which favor : (a) commencement of 
 
 strictly vocational education even at 15 years of age, where 
 one year period is available; and (b) extension of special- 
 ized training by short courses, at intervals after preliminary 
 training. 
 
 2. Probability that effective agricultural education of lower than pro- 
 fessional grade can be conducted only on basis of initial high differen- 
 tiation with progress towards composite occupations. 
 
 a. For example: at outset boy learns effectively to raise 
 chickens ; or a mixed garden ; or to care for half dozen 
 cows and their product ; or to raise potatoes ; or mastery 
 of some other commercial specialty. 
 
 6. At outset all agricultural science, economics, accounting 
 and art should center primarily in project specialty as 
 alpha field. Supplemental general reading (general agri- 
 culture, etc.) as sociological phase (on beta basis) should 
 occupy clearly secondary place. 
 
 c. If general education is continued, it should be on beta basis 
 and lie outside of working day (as music, literature, cur- 
 rent reading) for practising farmers. 
 
COMMERCIAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 45 
 
 3. Organization of agricultural department ought to be practicable in 
 every agricultural area of 400 families. Department can be effective with 
 one teacher and 14-20 pupils. 
 
 4. Problems. 
 
 0. Shall immediate objectives of training be the agricultural 
 employe, the renter, or the independent farmer? Proba- 
 bilities that farming will entail larger use of capital, avail- 
 able only to inheritors or to responsible borrowers. Pos- 
 sible tendencies towards intensive small area farming, and 
 opportunities for renter. 
 
 b. Probable increase in demand for well qualified laborers — 
 corresponding to specialists in industries and commerce. 
 Difficulties of seasonal work. 
 
 c. Need of survey of needs and opportunities of agricultural 
 producers as preliminary to vocational training. 
 
 5. Scope of field for agricultural education. 
 
 Table showing number of persons over lo years of age in all occupations, and 
 in agricultural occupations. (JJ* S. Census igw.) 
 
 Male Female 
 
 All (gainful) occupations 30,091,000 8,075,000 
 
 Homemakers (estimated) 20,000,000 
 
 Agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry 10,851,702 1,807,501 
 
 Dairy farmers 59,000 2,500 
 
 Dairy farm laborers 32,000 2,500 
 
 Farmers 5,600,000 250,000 
 
 Farm laborers 4,500,000 1,500,000 
 
 Fishermen and oystermen 68,000 500 
 
 Gardeners, florists, fruit growers, and nurserymen 130,000 8,000 
 
 Garden, greenhouse, orchard and nursery laborers 125,000 7,000 
 
 Lumbermen, raftsmen, and woodchoppers 150,000 77 
 
 Stock herders, drovers and feeders 60,000 885 
 
 Stock raisers 5 1 ,000 2,000 
 
 All others in this division 90,000 11,500 
 
 XXXVIII. Commercial Vocational Education 
 
 1. Distinguish several types of vocational commercial education from 
 " commercial arts " education suitable for inclusion as general education. 
 
 a. " Business " penmanship, " commercial " arithmetic, " busi- 
 ness forms ' (or papers), "commercial law,'' commercial 
 geography, industrial history, typewriting, elementary book- 
 keeping, — all suitable means in general (consumer's) edu- 
 cation as elective for youths 12-16. 
 
 6. Probably, under present circumstances, leanings towards 
 " commercial " callings (as more attractive, respectable 
 than industrial or agricultural) will appear, and some of 
 above offerings will be taken with vocational intent — but 
 such should be regarded as incidental, and misunderstand- 
 ings as to values should be prevented. 
 
 2. Conditions of direct and by-edacation for commercial vocations as 
 accounting, telegraphy. 
 
46 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 a. Historically, no apprenticeship for so-called clerical and 
 Other business callings. But introductory stages have 
 served as sources of experience and as basis for promotions. 
 
 6. Certain special knowledge or forms of skill in demand 
 in commercial callings became ends of private school 
 commercial education decades ago -^legible and flow- 
 ing (sometimes decorative) penmanship, commercial 
 arithmetic, business papers, bookkeeping, and commercial 
 law. These arts even now basis of much so-called voca- 
 tional commercial (or business) education. 
 
 3. Scope of field for commercial education. 
 
 Table showing number of persons over to years of age in all occupations, and 
 in commercial occupations. (U, S, Census 1910.) 
 
 Male Female 
 
 AH (gainful) occupations 30,091,000 8,075,000 
 
 Homemakers (estimated) 20,000,000 
 
 Trade 3.146.582 468,088 
 
 Bankers, brokers, and money lenders 103,000 2,500 
 
 Clerks in stores 275,Soo 1 1 1,500 
 
 Commercial travelers 161,000 2,500 
 
 Deliverymen 229,500 150 
 
 Insurance agents and officials 95,ooo 2,500 
 
 Laborers in coal and lumber yards, warebouses, etc. 80,500 673 
 
 Real estate agents and officials 123,000 3,000 
 
 Retail dealers 1,128,000 67,000 
 
 Salesmen and saleswomen 663,500 258,000 
 
 Wholesale dealers, importers, and exporters 50,000 923 
 
 AM others in this division 139,000 15,000 
 
 Clerical occupations 1,143,829 593,224 
 
 Agents, canvassers, and collectors 96,000 9,000 
 
 Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants 299,500 187,000 
 
 Clerks (except clerks in stores) 598,000 123,000 
 
 Messenger, bundle, and office boys 97,000 1 1,000 
 
 Stenographers and typewriters 53,ooo 263,000 
 
 a. Range of foregoing obviously from specialized, slightly 
 skilled, to quasi-professional. 
 
 b. Large proportion especially suited to women — stenography, 
 clerical, bookkeeping, counter salesmanship. Note rapid 
 increase in use of mechanical devices, decline of bargaining 
 in salesmanship, specialization of functions. 
 
 4. Proposals for placing commercial education on definitely vocational 
 basis : 
 
 a. Clearly differentiate general courses from vocational 
 courses in all commercial curricula. Clearly state voca- 
 tional objectives of vocational courses. Preferably do not 
 allow election of (certainly do not prescribe) medley of 
 courses general and vocational. (In most cases, general 
 courses should be completed in advance of entry on voca- 
 tional courses.) 
 
 b. Define powers usually required of stenographers in (a) 
 cities, (b) small cities and towns, as a major and minor 
 (e.g., filing, selling, keeping simple accounts, drawing com- 
 
HOMEMAKING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 47 
 
 mercial papers, translating, etc.). Adjust vocational train- 
 ing accordingly, dispensing with present vague and blind 
 practice followed in most public schools. 
 c. Differentiate various kinds and grades of counter-sales- 
 manship (for girls) and field salesmanship (for boys) and 
 devise programs of part-time training for each. 
 
 XXXIX. HoMEMAKING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
 
 1. Definitions and distinctions. Possible scope of household arts educa- 
 tion as liberal (general — social, cultural, and physical) education. 
 
 o. Distinguish for periods, 2-6 ; 6-12 ; 12-14 ; 14-16 ; 16-25 ; 
 special and extension. 
 
 b- Cooperation of home in liberal household arts education. 
 
 c. Discuss : standards of living for different social classes ; 
 principles of sound utilization; reading and objective samp- 
 ling. 
 
 2. Analysis of desirable objectives of homemaking education based on 
 present standards of B class home for, e.g., : (a) city income standard, 
 $900-$i,loo, one wage-earner, one horaemaker, five consumers (equivalent 
 four adults) ; (b) farm income standard $700, one earner, one and a half 
 homemakers (by-products $200), equal of six consumers; and other 
 defined type cases. 
 
 a. This analysis should classify kinds of performance (with 
 indication of standards) in major elements of (a) foods, 
 (b) clothing, (c) child nursing, (d) chamberwork; and in 
 minor elements of (e) sick-nursing, (f) accounting, (g) 
 house selection and furnishing, etc. 
 
 b. Analysis also required of means, whereby present home- 
 making powers were attained under present conditions and 
 where such acquisition has been wasteful or ineffective. 
 
 3. Importance of cooperation with home in all homemaking education. 
 
 4. Proposals for curricula: 
 
 a. For girls 14 to 16 years old ; 
 fc. Do. 16-18; 
 
 c. Do. 18-25; 
 
 d. Extension homemaking. 
 
 5. Scope and field of homemaking education. 
 
 Table showing number of persons over 10 years of age in all occupations and 
 in homemakinff occupations. (U. S. Census 1910.) 
 
 Male Female 
 
 All (gainful) occupations 30,091,000 8,075,000 
 
 Homemakers (estimated) 20,000,000 
 
 Homemakers and Homemakers' Assistants 
 
 Homemakers (estimated) 20,000,000(1) 
 
 Female servants (really homemakers' assistants) 1,309 500(2) 
 
 (i) U. S. Census, 19-10, gi-ves: * 
 
 Women over 15 years of a«e (single) 8 933 170 
 
 Women over 15 years of age (married, • widowed or ' ' 
 
 divorced) 21,045,983 
 
 (2) From census division Domestic and Personal Service." 
 
48 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 XL. Industrial Vocational Education 
 
 1. Sharp distinctions essential between vocational education for specific 
 industries and manual training or industrial arts for general education. 
 
 a. From certain industries, particularly those retaining primi- 
 tive characters (employing handicraft largely) have been 
 taken exercises and elemental practices (together with 
 related technical studies) for "manual" or "technical" 
 education, for experience giving, etc. (cf. Weaving, clay- 
 working, basketry, mounting,' stenciling, in lower grades; 
 metal work, woodworking, printing, intermediate grades; 
 metal work, turning, pattern making, foundry, electrical 
 work in highest (ninth to twelfth) grades. As recent 
 occasional developments, add: work with jewelry, pottery, 
 house repair, concrete, painting, machine (bicycle, motor, 
 sewing machine) repair, shoe repair, bricklaying, carpentry, 
 power engine operation. 
 
 h. A small per cent of pupils will find vocational leads here. 
 Readjusted industrial arts may yet serve in vocational 
 guidance. Propose plans for such, assuming need of guid- 
 ance among twenty typical industries. 
 
 2. Scope of field for industrial education. 
 
 Table showing number of persons over xo years of age in all occupations and 
 in industrial occupations — Group A. (U. S. Census igio.) 
 
 Male Female 
 
 All (gainful) occupations 30,091,000 8,075,000 
 
 Homemakers (estimated) 20,000,000 
 
 Extraction of minerals 963*730 ip094 
 
 Coal mine operatives .^ 600,500 405 
 
 Gold and silver mine operatives 55t400 39 
 
 Other mine operatives 136,000 141 
 
 .Quarry operatives 81,000 45 
 
 All others in this division 78,000 464 
 
 Manufacturing and mechanical industries 8,837,901 1,820,980 
 
 Apprentices 100,000 i5»Soo 
 
 Bakers 85,000 5,000 
 
 Blacksmiths, forgemen, and hammermen 240,500 31 
 
 Brick and stone masons 170,000 15 
 
 Builders and building contractors 173*500 849 
 
 Carpenters 8i 7,000 38 
 
 Compositors, linotypers, and typesetters 113,500 i4»ooo 
 
 Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factoiy)... i)5oo 448,000 
 
 Electricians and electrical engineers i3S»5oo 92 
 
 Engineers (stationary) 231,000 lo 
 
 Firemen (except locomotive and fire department). 111,000 
 
 Foremen, and overseers (manufacturing) 155,000 20,000 
 
 Laborers (not otherwise specified) : 
 
 Clay, glass and stone industries 152,500 2,500 
 
 Food industries 75*500 6,000 
 
 General and not specified laborers 853,500 16,000 
 
 Helpers in building and hand trades 65,000 79 
 
 Lumber and furniture industries 313,000 4,000 
 
 Metal industries 519,000 9,000 
 
 Textile industries 71,000 16,000 
 
 All other industries 35i,boo 35,000 
 
 Machinists, millwrights, and toolmakers 488,000 93 
 
 Managers and superintendents (manufacturing)... 103,000 1,500 
 
INDUSTRIAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
 
 Manufacturers and officials 252,000 
 
 Milliners and millinery dealers 5f500 
 
 Molders, founders, and casters (metal) 121,000 
 
 Painters, glaziers, varnishers, enamelers, etc 335iOoo 
 
 Plumbers and gas and steam fitters 148,000 
 
 Semiskilled operatives (not otherwise specified) : 
 
 Cigar and tobacco factories 80,000 
 
 Clay, glass, and stone industries 79,000 
 
 Clothing industries 96,000 
 
 Food industries 52,000 
 
 Lumber and furniture industries 154,000 
 
 Metal industries 394,000 
 
 Printing and publishing 33»ooo 
 
 Shoe factories 122,000 
 
 Textile industries 298,000 
 
 All other industries 318,000 
 
 Sewers and sewing machine operators (factory) . . . 60,000 
 
 Shoemakers and cobblers (not in factory) 69,000 
 
 Tailors and tailoresses 164,000 
 
 Tinsmiths and coppersmiths. 60,000 
 
 All others in this division 669,000 
 
 Transportation 2,531,075 
 
 92,500 
 65,500 
 57,000 
 
 408,000 
 70,000 
 63,000 
 
 567,500 
 
 180,000 
 96,000 
 76,000 
 63,000 
 80,000 
 59,000 
 85,000 
 62,000 
 9.500 
 
 496,000 
 
 Brakemen 
 
 Conductors (steam railroad) 
 
 Conductors (street railroad) 
 
 Draymen, teamsters, and expressmen 
 
 Foremen and overseers (railroad) 
 
 Hostlers and stable hands 
 
 Laborers (railroad, steam and street) 
 
 Laborers (road and street building and repairing. 
 
 Locomotive engineers 
 
 Locomotive firemen 
 
 Longshoremen and stevedores 
 
 Mail carriers 
 
 Motormen 
 
 Switchmen, flagmen, and yardmen 
 
 Telegraph operators 
 
 Telephone operators . - 
 
 All others in this division 
 
 5,000 
 
 I23|500 
 
 117 
 2,500 
 
 71*500 
 
 9,500 
 49,000 
 36,500 
 13,000 
 44,000 
 34,000 
 
 59, GOO 
 
 352,000 
 
 145,000 
 
 213,000 
 
 782 
 
 41,000 
 
 24 
 
 10,500 
 
 106,596 
 
 73 
 
 240 
 
 6 
 
 3,500 
 
 44 
 1,000 
 
 53 
 
 8,000 
 
 88,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 Table showing number of persons over 10 years of age in all occupations and 
 in industrial occupations — Group B. (U. S. Census igio.) 
 
 Male Female 
 
 All (gainful) occupations 30,091,000 8,075,000 
 
 Homemakers (estimated) 20,000,000 
 
 Domestic and personal service (except female servants) 1,241,328 1,221,346 
 
 Barbers, hairdressers, and manicurists 
 
 Bartenders 
 
 Boarding and lodging house keepers 
 
 Charwomen and cleaners 
 
 Hotel keepers and managers 
 
 Housekeepers and stewards 
 
 Janitors and sextons 
 
 Laborers (domestic and professional service) . 
 LaundererB and laundresses (not in laundry) . 
 
 Laundry operatives 
 
 Midwives and nurses (not trained) 
 
 Porters (except in stores) 
 
 Restaurant, cafe, and lunch-room keepers.... 
 
 Saloon keepers 
 
 Servants 
 
 Waiters 
 
 All others in this division 
 
 Public service (not elsewhere classified) . 
 
 173,000 
 
 101,000 
 
 23,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 91,500 
 
 50,000 
 
 13,500 
 
 36,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 84,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 67,000 
 
 263,000 
 
 102,500 
 
 97,000 
 
 445.733 
 
 Guards, watchmen, and doorkeepers 
 
 Laborers (public service) 
 
 Officials and inspectors (city and county) . 
 
 Policemen 
 
 Soldiers, sailors, and marines 
 
 All others in this division 
 
 *Here omitted — included under homeraaking. 
 
 78,000 
 66,500 
 50,000 
 62,000 
 
 77,000 
 69,000 
 
 22,000 
 
 250 
 
 142,500 
 
 27,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 173*500 
 
 21,500 
 
 3,000 
 
 520,000 
 
 76,000 
 
 117,000 
 
 73 
 
 10,500 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,309,500* 
 
 86,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 13.558 
 
 103 
 
 729 
 
 3,500 
 
 603 
 
50 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 3. Problems of establishing as basis of programs of industrial educa- 
 tion " age of efficient entrance " to each of above. 
 
 a. Many specialized factory callings are able to use " full 
 responsibility" workers at ages younger than 14. (Note 
 history of textile, mining, small metal working, and food 
 packing industries.) Examples. 
 
 b. On the other hand, many others are open only to men and 
 women of maturity, substantial physical development, and 
 experience. Examples. 
 
 4. Problems of establishing character and extent of effective by-edu- 
 cation for respective callings. 
 
 a. Note that in productive fields not composed of severely 
 competing units, tendency to elaborate means of voca- 
 tional education is marked, (cf. Telephone, printing, cer- 
 tain specialty manufacturers.) 
 
 b. Analyze causes for decline of apprenticeship in factory or 
 other subdivided fields of production. 
 
 5. Problems of defining vocational efficiency — in any industrial calling 
 in terms of : (a) skill and other specific habits that may well be " taught " 
 by specialized school processes; (b) skill and other results in habit that 
 can ordinarily come as by-products of long experience; (c) technical 
 knowledge (intelligence, insight) that can best be taught either (i) in 
 advance of, (2) concurrently with, or (3) subsequent to, " school " prac- 
 tice, through specialized school education; (d) technical knowledge 
 available through school education in (i) advance of, (2) con- 
 currently with, or (3) subsequent to, "life'' (commercial) practice; (e) 
 technical knowledge obtainable only from practical experience; (f) voca- 
 tional sociology obtainable from school education; and (g) vocational 
 sociology obtainable only from experience. 
 
 6. Problems of defining ways and means for specific vocational educa- 
 tion in (a) practice phase, (b) technical phase, and (c) sociological phase. 
 
 7. Problems of transition from early to late vocations. 
 
 8. Problems of part-time vocational education. 
 
 9. Problems of extension work. 
 
 XLI. Professional Education 
 
 1. By professions are commonly understood vocations of higher grade, 
 involving large proportion of mental work and origination or executive 
 adjustment. 
 
 a. Note that for certain professions — medicine, theology, 
 military direction, law — vocational schools early tended to 
 replace apprenticeship; and same tendency has developed 
 for professional vocations of teaching, engineering, nurs- 
 ing, business direction, journalism, navigation. 
 
51 
 
 6. Note that general education antecedent to professional 
 study often spoken of as for " leadership." But leadership 
 has two distinct meanings — leadership of men, a visible, 
 personal following; and superior calling (a vague unsatis- 
 factory application of terms). Only a few lawyers, 
 teachers, physicians, etc., become leaders in any true sense. 
 
 2. Aims of professional education now well defined — and opportunities 
 not wanting. Problems of specific aim and of method remain. 
 
 a. What is optimum degree of specialization, based on social 
 need desirable in, e.g., engineering, agriculture, medicine, 
 nursing, business direction, teaching? (Discuss on basis 
 of social economy.) 
 
 6. What are optimum means of providing early basis of con- 
 crete participation in, e.g., teaching, medicine, engineering, 
 defence direction, business, journalism. Part-time devices. 
 Proposals that degree should only follow apprenticeship 
 period under supervision. 
 
 c. Problems of concrete specialization. 
 
 3. Rise of new professions — education, rural administration, municipal 
 administration, business. 
 
 4. Scope of professional education. 
 
 Table showing number of persons over lo years of age in all occupations, and 
 in professional occupations. (U. S. Census igio.J 
 
 Male Female 
 
 All (gainful) occupations 30,091,000 8,075,000 
 
 Homemakers (estimated) -. 20,000,000 
 
 Professional service 929,684 733.88s 
 
 Actors 16,30s 11,992 
 
 Artists, sculptors, and teachers of art 18,500 15,500 
 
 Civil and mining engineers and surveyors 59,000 5 
 
 Clergymen 1 1 7,000 6S5 
 
 Lawyers, judges, and justices 114,000 558 
 
 Musicians and teachers of music 55,ooo 84,500 
 
 Physicians and surgeons 142,000 9,000 
 
 Teachers 121,000 478,000 
 
 Trained nurses 6,000 76,500 
 
 All others in this division 280,000 57,000 
 
 XLII. Guidance 
 
 I. Guidance as a function of educational agencies may be (a) educa- 
 tional guidance, (b) vocational guidance, and (c) civic guidance. 
 
 a. Guidance for some or all activities and responsibilities of 
 life is normally one product of by-education in home, shop, 
 and miscellaneous association of club and street. It is 
 also a by-product (often unconscious) of school educatiot), 
 as this gives insight, arouses ambitions, shapes ideals. 
 
 b. Contemporary demand is for guidance on scientific and 
 purposive basis as far as practicable, (a) After period of 
 
52 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 elementary education, students confronted by variety of 
 educational possibilities. Choice of curricula, election of 
 courses, necessary. At present either blind tradition, 
 caprice, or suggestion of associates largely controls. Intelli- 
 gent direction is wanting, (b) Between 14 and 20 almost 
 all youths make momentous vocational choices. Under 
 primitive conditions where son follows father in career, or 
 under rural conditions, where few varieties of openings 
 exist, situation not so serious. But under modern condi- 
 tions (specialized work, mobility of labor, varjdng needs 
 of technical preparation) existing situation of laissez faire 
 very wasteful of energy, health, happiness, (c) Young 
 citizen in allying self with party, in starting family, in 
 considering place of location, making investments, etc., 
 often in need of assistance not obtainable from ordinary 
 agencies of by-education. 
 
 2. Great desirability that in schools should be developed facilities for 
 guidance for youths over 12 years of age, whether in full-time attendance 
 or not. Guidance can make use of following means : 
 
 a. Publicity as to educational, vocational and civic possibilities. 
 Involves (a) development of readings in great variety and 
 of much concreteness and suggestiveness ; and (b) lectures, 
 illustrated and others serving similar purposes. Should 
 include agencies of idealization. 
 
 b. Facilities for individual consultation with specialists 
 informed as to possibilities and capable of interpreting 
 needs and powers of prospectors (those seeking to make 
 wise choices). 
 
 c. Tests, examinations, and other scientific means of diag- 
 nosing qualities of prospectors and of prognosticating 
 probable directions of successful application. 
 
 d. Finding agencies (for schools, employment openings, facili- 
 ties for further investigation, etc.) to intermediate between 
 prospector and appropriate lines of future activities. 
 
 3. Economy and effectiveness to be achieved for persons under twenty 
 or twenty-five only by keeping within school organization guiding agencies 
 (libraries, tests, expert advice, permits, etc.), training agencies (voca- 
 tional schools), and placement agencies, all under specialized and compe- 
 tent direction. 
 
 a. Note tendency to have vocational education provided 
 paralleling vocational pursuit — and in dull seasons as self- 
 chosen, " short sessions." Vocational school best special 
 means of vocational guidance. 
 
 b. Note probably large use to be made of specific guidance 
 literature — readings, etc. 
 
INDIVIDUAL PROGRAMS OF STUDY 53 
 
 4. Necessity of basing guidance on accepted optimum standards of: 
 (a) economic differentiation, productiveness, and shifting; (b) cultural 
 attainment; and (c) civic participation. 
 
 a. Note need of revision of prevailing conceptions of " social 
 service." 
 
 b. What are cultural contributions of vocation? 
 
 c. Note specializing of employing functions in large com- 
 mercial agencies. 
 
 d. Problems of " over-crowded " fields of work. 
 
 5. Desirable that vocational training and vocational participation, volun- 
 tary as to field, shall ultimately be prescribed for all. But prescription of 
 special forms only for minority of " slackers " who will not make choice 
 for selves. 
 
 o. Where shall training for national defence enter? 
 b. Idealistic proposals for "moral equivalents of war." 
 
 XLIII. Individual Programs of Study 
 
 1. Offerings of all schools tend to increase, thus giving problems of 
 election of subjects and courses in framing individual programs — for year 
 or longer period. 
 
 a. Note tendency of older colleges and secondary schools to 
 permit election among curricula (often called "courses") 
 each relatively rigid. Analyse theory of " compulsory con- 
 centration and dispersion" of studies. 
 
 b. Review arguments for fixed curricula. "Elements of 
 knowledge," " five windows of the soul," " fimdamentals 
 of the social inheritance," " culture of the educated man." 
 
 c. Review history of " the elective system " in school and 
 college. Supposed advantages and disadvantages. "Of 
 less importance what one studies than how one studies." 
 
 d. Contrast possibilities of election in vocational and in 
 liberal education. 
 
 2. Principles to be employed in guidance of election among educa- 
 tional offerings not yet established. Following proposals are hypothetical : 
 
 a. During period of compulsory attendance school should 
 define and require in substantial measure those forms of 
 instruction and training (especially of alpha types) that, 
 in some cases neutralizing differences, and in some cases 
 compensating for deficiencies, of by-education, will promote 
 group homogeneity (illustrate from speech, written lang- 
 uage, general science, history, social science, hygiejie, geog- 
 raphy, inter-racial and international knowledge, art appre- 
 ciation, utilities appreciation, etc.). 
 
S4 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOtOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 b. During voluntary school attendance (post-compulsory 
 period) it is to be assumed that all working time of learner 
 is profitably employed; hence that residue for school (full- 
 time or part-time by approved arrangement) is profitably 
 employed; but where choice of offerings is sought by 
 learner, burden of proof rests on school to establish 
 reasons for refusing learner choice in any case, where 
 administrative conditions permit. 
 
 c. Where certificate or diploma attesting completion of 
 requirements for attainment of goal of pre-established sig- 
 nificance and worth — " elements of first six grades," " mas- 
 tery of modern language," " pre-vocational subject," "two- 
 year general high school," " stenographers' vocational," 
 etc., then the necessary elements should be prescribed. 
 
 d. The right of the state to good citizenship, vocational 
 powers, powers of national defence, etc., paramount. 
 Hence when for specified groups, probable attainments in 
 these directions are matters of demonstration, right of 
 prescription acknowledged. But, except for compulsory 
 attendance, compulsory minimum standards of scholar- 
 ship, and military training, no standards of worth now 
 demonstrated in proposed prescription — in secondary edu- 
 cation — of, e.g„ English language, mathematics, foreign 
 language, etc. 
 
 e. A minimum knowledge of English language, English liter- 
 ature, history, geography, etc., having been approved as 
 desirable for normal citizenship, deficiencies therein might 
 well be made a basis for prescribed studies as condition of 
 continuance in higher schools — equivalent to familiar prac- 
 tice of " working off conditions." 
 
 3. Problems of framing curricula and programs. 
 
 a. As basis for initial discussion, assume: (a) large, rich, 
 prosperous schools open to pupils 14 to 18 years of age; 
 (b) school offerings measured on basis of total number of 
 clock hours ordinarily required by normal pupils ; (c) 
 school year of 200 days of eight clock hours each (8 to 12 
 and I to s) to embrace all assigned study, sufficient physical 
 play, or work for health purposes, etc.; (d) that, unless 
 otherwise specified, all studies and activities are non-voca- 
 tional and are chosen for contributions to personal culture, 
 physical development, and enlightened citizenship. 
 
 b. List all possible offerings (take suggestions from Sect. 
 A, Ch. XLIV) for a given age group (4 to 6; 6 to 12; 
 12 to 14; 14 to 16; 16 to 18, etc.) with assumed desirable 
 quantitative allowances for each. Then make curricula 
 for (designated) types of schools, e.g., rural school of 
 
PROBLEMS AND TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 55 
 
 eight grades (ages 6-14) ; rural school of four grades 
 (ages 6-10) ; poorly equipped urban school, with teacher 
 for each grade; richly equipped urban school, teacher 
 having all work one grade (except industrial and house- 
 hold arts, age 12-14) ; richly equipped kindergarten in 
 city; small junior high school (100 pupils, ages 12-14); 
 rich junior high school on 6-3-3 basis; rich and large high 
 school offering liberal education ages 14-16; and various 
 types of vocational schools. 
 c. Formulate principles and conditions to govern in the mak- 
 ing of individual programs. 
 
 XLIV. Problems and Topics for Investigation and Report 
 
 As directed in class, students will select from the topics below one or 
 more for intensive study, primarily to establish desirable objectives as 
 these may be derived from study of requirements of individual in con- 
 temporary society. In general, the student should: 
 
 a. Select a field in which he has had teaching experience or 
 other concrete contact ; 
 
 b. Formulate, as fully as practicable, the specific problems 
 involved ; 
 
 c. Search references for suggestions, clearly differentiating 
 materials thus procured from his own contributions of 
 observations, inferences, etc. 
 
 d. Definitely organize personal contributions of hypothesis, 
 inference, question, problem, etc. 
 
 e. Prepare report in written form for submission. 
 
 A. Specific problems of controllable by-education, development, or 
 direct education (study, instruction, training) on behalf of specific groups 
 of individuals or of society. In each case clearly differentiate conclusions 
 based on knowledge from suppositions, opinions, or hypotheses. 
 
 a. Alleged or faith objectives now controlling in presen- 
 tation ; 
 6. Actual objectives realized (a) at close of active period of 
 study or exercise, and (b) in B class adult, 30-40, so far 
 as ascertainable; 
 
 c. Current controlling methods of presentations ; 
 
 d. Proposed readjustments of conditions of by-education as 
 antecedent to, or accompanying, if any; 
 
 e. Proposed restatement and evaluations of objectives, 
 sharply differentiated between beta and alpha classes, and 
 specifying character of expected results both qualitatively 
 and quantitatively where practicable, especially in alpha 
 categories ; 
 
56 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 /. Proposed scope of subject and demands for time (meas- 
 ured in actual hours — not periods) of (a) alpha or (b) 
 beta application. 
 
 g. Proposed place in indicated (hypothetical, if necessary) 
 curriculum for designated group of learners; 
 
 h. Proposed fundamentals of means of attaining ends desired ; 
 
 i. Proposed fundamentals of methods of employing these 
 means ; 
 
 j. Proposed means and methods of evaluating results. 
 
 (A general topic, or subject, or else a group or combination of 
 topics, may be taken. See bibliographies, Ch. XLV.) 
 
 I. English speech for normal children, ages 4 to 6. 
 
 la. English speech for those 4-6 with other vernaculars or home languages. 
 
 lb. English pronunciation. 
 
 ic. Special English speech for oral defectives. 
 
 id. Correct usage and vocabulary. 
 
 2. English speech for normal pupils, 6-12 (give especial attention to 
 effects of by-education). 
 
 2a. Voice training, enunciation (as special objective). 
 
 2b. Oral reading (as si>ecial objective) (special problem of oral reading as 
 
 basis for silent readin^^). 
 2c. Spoken vocabulary building. 
 2d. Cforrect usage in spoken English. 
 2e. Oral composition to audience. 
 
 2f. Recitation (oral delivery to audience of memorized text). 
 2g. Pronunciation. 
 2h. Special classes — voice defectives, alien home vocabularies. 
 
 3. English speech for normals, 12-18. 
 
 3a. Oral composition (defined as sustained presentation to audience). 
 
 3b. Voice training, enunciation. 
 
 3C. Spoken vocabulary building. 
 
 3d. Oral reading and recitation to audience (elocution, oratory). 
 
 3e. Correct usage in spoken forms. 
 
 3f. Pronunciation. 
 
 3g. Special classes — speech defectives. 
 
 3n. Special classes — of alien vernacular. 
 
 4. English speech — liberal arts college. 
 
 5. English speech — teachers' training classes. 
 
 6. English speech — deaf pupils, 4-20. 
 
 7. English speech (class and objectives to be supplied by student). 
 
 8. English writing for normal children, 6-12. 
 
 8a. Penmanship, reading, legibility and speed of execution, as objectives. 
 
 Typewriting as minor problem. 
 8b. Spelling — quality and scope (simplified spelling, as minor problem). 
 8c. Composition, written (especial attention to specific or sub-objectives). 
 8d. Grammar, and correct usage, supplemental to that realized under oral 
 
 English. 
 
 9. English writing for normal youths, 12-18. 
 9a. Spelling. 
 
 9b. Penmanship and typewriting for general use. 
 
 9c. Grammar and correct usage. 
 
 9d. Rhetoric and fine usage. 
 
 9e. Written com[)osition. 
 
 9f. Word anal^rsis. 
 
 9g. English writing for stenographers. 
 
PROBLEMS AND TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 57 
 
 10. English writing in liberal arts college. 
 
 11. English writing for blind, 4-20. 
 
 12. English writing (special subject). 
 
 13. English silent reading, normal pupils, 6-12. 
 
 13a. English oral reading as basis of silent reading. 
 13b. Special techniques of silent reading. 
 
 13c. Special drills in silent reading of, arithmetic, geography, history, news- 
 paper. 
 
 14. English silent reading, normal pupils, 12-18. 
 
 14a. Grammar and rhetoric in silent reading. 
 
 14b. Special drills on subject matter of other courses. 
 
 15. English silent reading for special needs (subject to be supplied). 
 
 16. Silent reading for the blind. 
 
 17. Social education and development (including moral training, civic 
 and ethical instruction, religious education, etc.) for normal children, 1-6. 
 
 17a. Moral habituation, by-education. 
 17b. Moral habituation, kindergarten. 
 
 18. Social education, normal children, 6-12. 
 
 i8a. Moral habituation, by-education. 
 
 i8b. Moral habituation, school groups. 
 
 i8c. Civic instruction. 
 
 i8d. History, instruction in. 
 
 i8e. Religious education. 
 
 i8f. Current events, historical. 
 
 19. Social education (social science, social development), ages 12-18. 
 19a. Community civics. 
 
 igb. Principles and practice of government. 
 
 19c. Elementary sociology. 
 
 igd. Elementary economics. 
 
 196. Study of nations — promotion of international co-operation. 
 
 igi. Ethical instruction (indicate Fairchild's proposals for " character forma- 
 tion"). 
 
 i9g. Boy Scout program of moral education. 
 
 i9h. Religious education. 
 
 Tpi. Self-government in schools. 
 
 19J. American history. 
 
 19k. World history or special division of history as means of social education. 
 
 19I. Literature as means of social education. 
 
 19m. Other " fine arts " as means of social education. 
 
 ign. Vocational participation as means of social education. 
 
 190. Special problems of habituation (habits, attitudes) in moral or social 
 education. 
 
 i9p. Special problems of " moral or social intelligence " in social education. 
 
 igq. Special problems of formation of ideals in social education. 
 
 igr. Special problems of heredity ("original nature") in social education. 
 
 19s. Special problems of schools' influence on agencies of by-Cducation in 
 social education. 
 
 igt. Education for participation in national defence as phase of social edu- 
 cation. 
 
 igu. Social education as a by-product of military education. 
 
 igv. Problems of group activities in schools as means of realizing some ends 
 of social education. 
 
 igw. Problems of " formal discipline " in moral education. 
 
 igx. Geography as social science study. 
 
 ] gy. Current history — history in the making. 
 
 20. Natural science for normal children, ages 6-12. (Adaptations of 
 all physical and biological sciences — except portions of physiology reserved 
 for physical education — to education of young people; and so defined 
 as to include all approaches to correct — or non-mystical — appreciations 
 of facts and interpretations of relationships, however partial or incom- 
 plete.) 
 
 20a. Nature study. 
 
S8 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURKICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 21. Natural science, ages 12-18 (defined as above). 
 
 2ia. General science, as beta subject. 
 
 2ib. Biology, as alpha subject. 
 
 21C. Physics, two phases, general. 
 
 2id. Chemistry, two phases, general. 
 
 2ie. Astronomy. 
 
 2 if. Earth science or physical geography. 
 
 2Tg. Physics, as prevocational. 
 
 2ih. Chemistry, as prevocational. 
 
 2ii. Problems of teaching "scientific method" in fields of natural science. 
 
 2ij. Current information as to progress of science — a proposed beta subject. 
 
 2ik. Agricultural science as element in liberal education. 
 
 21. Science in liberal arts college. 
 
 23. Agricultural science in vocational schools of agriculture. 
 
 24. Physical science in industrial schools. 
 
 25. Mental science for normal children, ages 6-12. 
 
 25a. " How to study," in general, or in particular field of attainment. 
 
 26. Mental science and development, ages 12-18. 
 
 26a. " How to study," in jjarticular fields. 
 
 2613-. Appreciation of scientific method, natural science. 
 
 26c. Appreciation of scientific method, social science. 
 
 26d. Specific exercises in training of designated mental powers. 
 
 26e. Appreciations, ideals, understandings, and controlled habituations, towards 
 
 the " trained mind." 
 26f. Hygiene of mental work and play. 
 26g. Objective study (case, project and topic methods) of animal and human 
 
 psychology. 
 
 27. Mathematics, ages 6-12. 
 
 27a. Fundamental arithmetic, written. 
 27b. Fundamental arithmetic, oral. 
 
 28. Mathematics, ages 12-18. 
 28a. Arithmetic, general. 
 
 28b. Industrial arts arithmeticor mathematics. 
 
 28c. Household arts arithmetic or mathematics. 
 
 28d. Agricultural arts arithmetic or mathematics. 
 
 28e. Commercial arts arithmetic or mathematics. 
 
 28f. Junior high school general mathematics, alpha grade, 
 
 2Sg. Junior high school mathematics, appreciative, beta grade. 
 
 28h. Prevocational mathematics, junior high school. 
 
 28i. Algebra. 
 
 28J. Plane geometry. 
 
 28k. Trigonometry, pre-engineering. 
 
 28I. General mathematics, appreciation, beta course. 
 
 28m. History of mathematics. 
 
 28n. Mathematics, problems of correlation. 
 
 29. Vocational mathematics. 
 
 29a. Specialized industrial mathematics (vocation specified). 
 
 29b. Specialized homemaking mathematics. 
 
 29c. Specialized agricultural mathematics. 
 
 29d. Specialized commercial mathematics (vocation specified). 
 
 30. Geography, ages 6-12. 
 
 31. Geography, ages 12-18. 
 
 32. Commercial arts geography. 
 
 ZZ' Classical languages and literatures, 12-18. 
 33a. Greek language, and literature in Greek. 
 33b. Latin, language and literature. 
 33c. Classical literatures in translation. 
 
 33d. Latin as medium of reinforcement of English language. 
 33e. General course in classics, appreciation. 
 
PROBLEMS AND TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 59 
 
 34. Modern foreign languages and literatures, 12-18. 
 
 34a. French reading. 
 
 34b, French, speech and writing. 
 
 34c. German reading. 
 
 34d. German, speech and writing. 
 
 346. Spanish, commercial reading. 
 
 34f. Spanish, general reading. 
 
 34g. Spanish, commercial writing. 
 
 34h. Spanish, speech and general writing. 
 
 341. Russian. 
 
 34J. Italian. 
 
 34k. Portuguese. 
 
 34I. Japanese. 
 
 34m. Chinese. 
 
 34n. Contemporary review of modern languages and literature (appreciative). 
 
 35. English literature, 2-6 (including story as used in kindergarten and 
 
 before). 
 
 Z^. English literature, 6-12 (including oral story and all reading mater- 
 ials not specifically technical to another subject). 
 
 36a. Tales, stories, fiction, biography. 
 
 36b. Poetry. 
 
 36c. Drama and dramatization. 
 
 36d. Literature " masses," selected to affect special field of sentiment and 
 action — humane treatment of animals, patriotism, religious attitude, 
 ambition for success in life, appreciation of unlike peoples, appreciation 
 of democratic ideals, etc. 
 
 ^6e, Literature selections as basis of special English language studies. 
 
 37. English literature, ages 12-18. 
 
 37a. Classical prose — including 19th century. 
 
 37b. Classical poetry and reading drama. 
 
 37c. American prose. 
 
 37d. American poetry. 
 
 37e. Nineteenth century poetry. 
 
 37f. Drama and dramatization. 
 
 37g. Contemporary drama. 
 
 37h. Contemporary prose — including short and long story. 
 
 37i. Contemporary poetry. 
 
 37J. History of English literature. 
 
 37k. Classical and modern foreign literature in translation. 
 
 37I. Intensive analysis of selections. 
 
 37m. Literature — selected materials — for achievement of special objectives, 
 aesthetic, historical, or social (moral), e.g., understanding of place of 
 mythology, appreciation of the courtship motive, stimulation of ethical 
 ideals in relations of employes and employers, inspiring reverence, 
 idealization of moral excellence in designated fields of conduct. (Note 
 difficult pedagogical problems involved.) 
 
 38. Graphic and plastic art, ages 6-12. 
 
 38a. Elementary drawing and artistic construction (representation, design, 
 
 decoration, flat and round) (amateur execution). 
 38b. Elementary graphic and plastic art appreciation (pictures, sculpture, 
 
 decorations, pure,'* *' applied " in architecture, dress, landscape, other 
 
 utilities) . 
 
 39. Graphic and plastic art, ages 12-18. 
 39a. Freehand drawing (representation). 
 39b. Mechanical drawing, general education. 
 39c. Painting;, general education. 
 
 39d. Decoration and artistic craftsmanship, general education (amateur 
 
 execution). 
 39e. Drawing (mechanical or other, prevocational) . 
 39f. Appreciation of applied art in environment. 
 
 39g. Appreciation and interpretation, of " pure " art — painting, sculpture, etc. 
 39h. Graphic and plastic art, vocational for teachers. 
 
 40. Music, ages 1-6 (in home and school). 
 
 41. Music, ages 6-12. 
 
 41a. Rote singing and appreciation — in concert and individual. 
 41b. Appreciation of mechanically rendered music. 
 
60 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 41C. Music reading for voice. 
 
 4id. Individual pla^ring, instrumental. 
 
 4je. Collective playing, instrumental. 
 
 42. Music, ages 12-18. 
 
 42a. Chorus singing, without reading. 
 
 42b. Chorus singing, with reading. 
 
 42c. Music reading and singing, individual. 
 
 42d. Reading for instrument and playing, concert or band. 
 
 42e. Reading for instrument and playing, individual. 
 
 42f. Musical appreciation, based on expert rendition supplied. 
 
 42g. Musical appreciation, based on mechanical rendition supplied. 
 
 42h. Selected music as means of realizing stated ends. 
 
 43. Musical training for designated vocations. 
 
 44. Practical arts, ages 6-12 (defined as manipulative work based on 
 modifications or extractions from adult productive activities, taken in 
 good amateur spirit, etc.). 
 
 44a. Gardening, home and school. 
 
 44b. Co-operation with home in household arts. 
 
 44c. Field, home and playground industrial arts. 
 
 45. Practical arts, ages 12-1S. 
 
 45a. Industrial arts, junior high school. 
 
 4Sb. Agricultural arts, junior high school. 
 
 45c. Commercial arts, junior high school. 
 
 45d. Household arts, junior high school. 
 
 45e. CoK)peration in home maintenance, industrial arts. 
 
 45f. Co-operation in home maintenance, household arts. 
 
 45g. School and i>ublic buildings repair and upkeep, industrial arts. 
 
 45h. Market service, industrial arts craftsmanship. 
 
 45i. Prevocational practical arts training for (specified) vocation or voca- 
 tional training. 
 
 46. Physical development and education, ages i to 3 (defined as con- 
 servation and development of physical well-being). 
 
 46a. Community oversight and co-operation in conservation of physical well- 
 being of children under 3 (prenatal, infancy, etc.). 
 46b. Play and play facilities, ages i to 3. 
 
 47. Physical development and education, ages 3 to 6. 
 47a. Kindergarten as means. 
 
 47b. Play and play facilities. 
 
 47c. Special oversight for children of wage-earning mothers. 
 
 47d. Problems of parentless children under 6. 
 
 48. Physical development and education of children, 6-12. 
 
 4Sa. Play and play facilities. 
 
 48b. Intellectual and other school work as related to physical development. 
 
 48c. Physical work vs. physical play. 
 
 48d. Instruction in hygiene. 
 
 48e. Reat^ings and other beta activities in hygiene. 
 
 48f. School meals, free and purchased. 
 
 48g. Problems of alternation of work and play, length of school day recesses, 
 forced play, etc. 
 
 49. Physical development and education, 12-18. 
 
 49a. Instruction in hygiene. 
 
 49b. Provision of facilities for play. 
 
 49c. Organized games and sports. 
 
 49d. Competitive athletics. 
 
 496. Gymnasium training. 
 
 49f. Military drill as physical education. 
 
 49g. Extra-school physical work. 
 
 49h. Extra-school activities — Boy Scout, dancing, etc. 
 
 491. Special hygiene — sex. 
 
 493. Special hygiene — nervous work. 
 
 49k. Special hygiene — narcotics and stimulants. 
 
 49I. Problems of eiiEects of school work and life on permanent health. 
 
 49m. Provisions to insure health of girls. 
 
 50. Physical training for (specified) vocation. 
 
PROBLEMS AND TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 6l 
 
 51. Vocational agricultural education, ages I4-25. 
 51a. Farming, practical phase, for (specified) area. 
 51b. Farming, technical phase, for (specified) area. 
 51C. Farming, social phase^ for (specified) area. 
 
 5 id. Poultry-raising, practical phase, for (specified) area. 
 
 5ie. Poultry-raising, technical phase, for (si>ecified) area. 
 
 5if. Poultry-raising, social phase, for (specified) area. 
 
 5ig. Repeat for other specified agricultural vocations. 
 
 5ih, Extension teaching for established specialists. 
 
 Sii. Professional agriculture for agricultural college. 
 
 52. Vocational industrial education, ages 14-25. 
 52a. Plumbing, practical phase for (specified) area. 
 52b. Plumbing, technical phase for (specified) area. 
 52c. Plumbing, social phase for (specified) area. 
 52d. Textile mill doffer hands, practical phase. 
 52e. Textile mill doifer hands, technical phase. 
 52f. Textile mill doffer hands, social phase. 
 
 52g. Garment makers, mechanical operating specialists, practical phase. 
 
 52h. Garment makers, mechanical operating specialists, technical phase. 
 
 521. Garment makers, mechanical operating specialists, social phase. 
 
 52J. (Repeat for other selected industrial vocations.) 
 
 53. (Organize topics for commercial vocational education.) 
 
 54. (Organize topics for professional education.) 
 
 55. (Organize topics for homemaking education.) 
 
 56. (Organize topics for nautical education.) 
 
 B. Problems of curricula for designated groups under specified condi- 
 tions. In each case : 
 
 a. Define (or estimate) possibilities and limitations due to 
 heredity; 
 
 b. Define (or estimate) conditions imposed by environment; 
 
 c. Define (or estimate) positive and negative contributions of 
 by-education (a) prior to employment of curriculum activi- 
 ties, and (b) concurrently with it; 
 
 d. Define general and specific objectives (aims, expected 
 results, goals, purposes) of curriculum on behalf of indi- 
 vidual at close of curriculum period ; 
 
 e. Same, during adult prime (age 25-40 or 30-50) ; 
 
 /. Define general and specific estimated objectives of curricu- 
 lum on behalf of specified society (family, corporation, 
 municipality, state, nation, religious organization, political 
 party organization, international group, society in general, 
 etc.) during three decades following close of curriculum 
 period ; 
 
 g. Distinguish as sharply as practicable between objectives 
 that are to be realized through developmental (beta — spon- 
 taneous, "natural," amateur, play) activities, and those to 
 be realized through systematized instruction and training 
 ("artificial," " forced," work-a-day, disciplined, alpha activ- 
 ities) ; 
 
 h. Distinguish between objectives expected to be realized: 
 
62 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 (a) through activities almost wholly under control of 
 school, 
 
 (b) those ordinarily due to agencies of by-education, and 
 
 (c) those due to other sources ; 
 
 i. Distinguish sharply between vocational and general (or 
 
 liberal) educational objectives ; 
 j. Where practicable, distinguish among objectives of liberal 
 
 education the cultural, social (moral, civic) and physical; 
 k. Distinguish sharply between schemes of offerings (with 
 
 specified conditions of election) and prescriptions. 
 
 1. Normals, ages 3-6, low economic level, congested urban environment, 
 home-staying mother (no summer vacation removal). 
 
 2. Normals, ages 3-6, high economic condition, city environment (sum- 
 mer vacation removal). 
 
 3. Normals, ages 3-6, rural environment. 
 
 4. Normals, ages 3-6, day-wage-working mothers, congested city envir- 
 onment. 
 
 5. Normals, ages 3-7, day-wage-working mothers, village environment. 
 
 6. Subnormals, 3-6, not due to hereditary causes but to deficient environ- 
 ment and by-education (mal-nutrition, disease, uncleanliness, bad habits) 
 in congested urban environment. 
 
 7. Normals, ages 3-6, of alien home language, low economic environ- 
 ment. 
 
 8. Normals, ages 6-12, strictly rural environment (no consolidation of 
 schools practicable). 
 
 9. Normals, 6-12, rural environment, consolidated schools of 100 or 
 more practicable. 
 
 ID. Normals, 6-12, village or open urban environment. 
 
 11. Normals, 6-12, low economic environment, crowded urban housing. 
 
 12. Normals, 6-12, prosperous urban or suburban environment. 
 
 13. Subnormals, 6-12, mental, as shown in school work, due chiefly to 
 hereditary causes. 
 
 14. Subnormals, 6-12 (as shown in school work) due to environmental 
 causes and deficient by-education (including migratory family life). 
 
 15. Variants — not subnormal, 6-12 (including brilliant, truant, undis- 
 ciplined, etc.). 
 
 16. Normals, 12-14, last of compulsory full-time attendance, rural 
 environment. 
 
 17. Normals, 12-14, village and open city environment. 
 
 18. Normals, 12-14, low economic conditions, city dwellers, probably 
 wage-earners, 12-14 on,. after period of compulsory attendance. 
 
 19. Normals, 12-14, high economic conditions. 
 
PROBLEMS AND TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 63 
 
 20. Normals, 12-14, city and village environment, boys and girls with 
 commercial interests. 
 
 21. Normals 12-14, city and village environment, boys and girls with 
 mechanical interests. 
 
 22. Normals, 12-14, city and village environment, girls with household 
 arts interests. 
 
 23. Normals, 12-14, city and village environment, boys and girls with 
 strong interests in abstract studies. 
 
 24. Normals, 12-14, country environment, boys and girls with strong 
 agricultural interests. 
 
 25. Subnormals, 12-14, city and village environment (no hereditary 
 defects but two or more grades retarded, owing to poor environment, by- 
 education, etc.). 
 
 26. Normals, 14-16, with voluntary interest in abstract studies but likely 
 to leave the general school at 16. 
 
 27. Normals, 14-16, with strong mechanical interests, not yet seeking 
 special vocational education but likely to leave the general school at 16. 
 
 28. Normals, 14-16, with strong commercial interests but not seeking 
 vocational training and likely to leave general school at 16. 
 
 29. Normals, 14-18, likely to remain four years in general school before 
 seeking vocational specialization. 
 
 30. Normals, 14-16, under economic pressure and desirous of early 
 self-support ; in community offering openings chiefly in specialized industry 
 and commerce (differentiate for sex). 
 
 31. Normals, 14-16, disposed to give two years to foundations of 
 industrial training for entry upon wage-earning at 16. 
 
 32. Normals, 14-16, disposed to give two years to commercial training 
 for entry upon wage-earning at 16. 
 
 33. Normals, terminating general education at 16, disposed to seek 
 employment in wage-earning specialties. 
 
 34. Normals, terminating general education at 16, willing to give two 
 years to foundations of trade training. 
 
 35. Normals, terminating general education at 16, disposed to give two 
 years to vocational school preparation for commercial callings. 
 
 36. Normals, terminating general education at 14 or 16, disposed to give 
 one or more years to vocational training for agriculture. 
 
 37. Normals, terminating general education at 14 or 16, disposed to 
 give four hours per week of school attendance. 
 
 38. Normals, 14-16, in wage-earning employments, required by law to 
 give four hours per week of school attendance. 
 
 39. Normals, 14-16, employed not more than s hours per day or 30 
 hours per week, required by law to give 15 hours per week school attend- 
 
64 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 40. Normals, 16-18, employed, not more than 30 hours per week, 
 required to attend school 15 hours per week. 
 
 41. Normals, 17-25, voluntarily attending evening trade extension 
 schools. 
 
 42. Normals, 17-25, voluntarily attending evening trade preparatory 
 schools. 
 
 43. Normals, 17-25, voluntarily attending evening schools for general 
 education. 
 
 44. Normals, 17-25, voluntarily attending evening social center schools. 
 
 45. Normals, 17-25, voluntarily attending evening homemaking schools. 
 
 46. Normals, 14-25, voluntarily discontinuing wage-earning employment 
 for short course industrial preparatory instruction. 
 
 47. Normals, 14-25, voluntarily discontinuing work for short course 
 vocational commercial education. 
 
 48. Normals, 14-25, voluntarily discontinuing wage-earning employment 
 for short course homemaking training. 
 
 49. Normals, voluntarily attending full-time agricultural preparatory or 
 extension vocational school. 
 
 50. Vocational education for teachers of first 6 grades. 
 
 51. Vocational education for teachers, junior high school specialties. 
 
 52. Vocational education for teachers, secondary school specialties. 
 
 53. Vocational education for teachers, industrial school specialties. 
 
 54. Vocational education for teachers, homemaking specialties. 
 
 55. Vocational education for teachers, agricultural vocational schools. 
 
 56. Vocational education for teachers, commercial vocational school. 
 
 57. Vocational education for school nurses. 
 
 58. Vocational education for hospital and bedside nurses. 
 
 59. Vocational education for public health nurses. 
 
 60. Vocational education for (designated) professions. 
 
 61. Blind, ages 4-12. 
 
 62. Blind, general education, 4-16 or 18. 
 
 63. Blind, 14-25, for vocations under direction of state. 
 
 64. Blind, 14-25, for independent vocations. 
 
 65. Deaf, 4-12. 
 
 66. Deaf, general education, 12-16 or 18. 
 
 67. Deaf, 14-25, vocational education for vocations under direction of 
 state. 
 
 68. Deaf, 14-25, for independent vocations. 
 
 69. Mental subnormals, highest grade, ages 6-12. 
 
 70. Mental subnormals, highest grade, ages 12-16 or 18. 
 
 71. Mental subnormals, highest grade, 14-25, vocational education for 
 vocations under charge of state. 
 
 72. Mental subnormals highest grade, 14-25, vocational education for 
 independent vocations. 
 
 73. Mental subnormals, intermediate grade, 6-12. 
 
 74. Mental subnormals, intermediate grade 12-16 or 18. 
 
 75. Mental subnormals, 14-25, vocational education for vocations under 
 direction of state. 
 
PROBLEMS AND TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 65 
 
 76. Mental subnormals, low grade, custodial, 6-18. 
 
 77. Mental subnormals, low grade, for vocations. 
 
 78. Crippled children, 4-12. 
 
 79. Crippled children, 12-18. 
 
 80. Crippled children, 14-25, for state controlled vocations. 
 
 81. Crippled children, 14-25, for independent vocations. 
 
 82. Delinquent boys under commitment or parole, 10-14. 
 
 83. Delinquent girls under commitment or parole, 10-14. 
 
 84. Delinquent boys, 14-18, under commitment or parole^ general edu- 
 cation. 
 
 85. Delinquent girls, 14-18, under commitment or parole, general edu- 
 cation. 
 
 86. Delinquent boys and young men, 14-25, under commitment or parole, 
 vocational. 
 
 87. Delinquent girls and young women, 14-25, under commitment or 
 parole, vocational. 
 
 88. Male prisoners, long term and recidivist, over 25, for institutional 
 vocations. 
 
 89. Female prisoners, long term and recidivist, over 25, for institutional 
 vocations. 
 
 90- Unemployed and vocationless adults. 
 
 91. Immigrants, non-English speaking, 12-16. 
 
 92. Immigrants, illiterate, 16-25. 
 
 93. Illiterate adults, native born, of English speech. 
 
 94. Special programs for talented individuals or leaders, 12-25. 
 
 95. Vocational education for men enlisted in navy. 
 
 96. Vocational education for men enlisted in army. 
 
 97. Education of boys, 14-17, for national defense. 
 
 98. Education of men, 18-25, for national defense. 
 
 99. Vocational education for prospective bricklayers. 
 
 100. Do. for garden farmers in (specified locality). 
 
 lOi. Do. for homemakers, urban dwellers, family income $900 to $1350. 
 
 102. Do. for stenographers in large commercial houses. 
 
 103. Do. for mates on lake vessels. 
 
 104. Do. for specialized shoe operators in factories. 
 
 105-110. Vocational education for other specific fields to be selected. 
 
 C. Miscellaneous problems of educational aims for analysis and inves- 
 tigation. 
 
 In each case, analyze and define descriptive terms and expressions com- 
 monly used. Show relation of educational objectives comprehended to 
 other objectives necessary to make unified and comprehensive scheme for 
 age and social groups specified. Determine whether a definitely bounded 
 field of desirable objectives can best be comprehended and described by 
 the terms used. Specify ages and social status groups for whom positive 
 proposals are made. 
 
 I. Liberal education, as distinct from vocational education. 
 
66 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 4 
 5. 
 6. 
 7- 
 8. 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 12, 
 
 13 
 14. 
 
 Cultural education. 
 Recreational education. 
 Education for leisure. 
 Education for character formation. 
 Education of taste. 
 Education for family life. 
 
 Education for national defence (not as a vocation). 
 Education for leadership. 
 Education for an industrial society. 
 Education of the emotions (or feelings). 
 Education of the will. 
 Education of the imagination. 
 
 Mental discipline through educational " simples " (mental arithme- 
 tic, grammar, Latin, geometry). 
 
 XLV. Reference List of Bibliograp.jiies 
 
 (Many references to articles and books may be found by consulting titles 
 given below — or related titles suggested by them — in: 
 
 Monroe's Encyclopedia of Education. 
 
 Poole's Index. 
 
 Readers' Guide. 
 
 Bibliography of Books on Education in Columbia University Library 
 (igoi). 
 
 Burnham, W. H. Bibliographies of Books on Educational Subjects 
 (Worcester, 1912). 
 
 Johnston, C. H. High School Education. 
 
 Johnston, C. H. The Modern High School. 
 
 Monroe, P. Principles of Secondary Education. 
 
 Consult also Indexes and Index Volumes of : Proceedings of National 
 Education Association; Educational Review; School Review; Elementary 
 Teacher; School and Society; Education; Report of (Washington) 
 Bureau of Education; Bulletins of Bureau of Education; Proceedings of 
 Religious Education Association; Pedagogical Seminary; Journal of 
 Educational Psychology; Psychological Review; Educational Adminis- 
 tration and Supervision. 
 
 (Explanations: B before a title indicates series of card references to that subject in 
 card catalogue of Bryson Library, Teachers College. Thus: " B French study " 
 indicates that under the title, " French study," will be found card references to books 
 on that subject. 
 
 Ch. ref. means reference lists at ends of chapters. 
 
 Passim means references throughout text and in footnotes.) 
 
 Agricultural Arts — S~ee also Gardening, School. 
 
 B Agriculture Study; School gardening. 
 Agricultural Education. 
 
 B Agriculture Study; School gardening. 
 
 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture — Publications of interest to teachers of 
 agriculture. 
 
REFERENCE LIST OF BIBLI0GRAPH1F,S 67 
 
 U. S. Bur. of Ed. Bull. lo for 1912. Bibliography of Agriculture and 
 Home Economics. 
 Agricultural High Schools — See High schools; Agricultural schools; 
 
 Agricultural education. 
 Algebra — See Mathematics. 
 Arithmetic — B Arithmetic study. 
 
 Art Education — B Art ; Art study ; Art history ; Art, industrial ; Deco- 
 ration. 
 
 O'Shea, M. V. Dynamic factors in Education. 
 Art, Graphic and Plastic — See Art education ; Drawing. 
 Athletics — See Physical education. 
 
 Biology — B Biology study; Botany study; Zoology study. 
 Blind — B Blind, Education of. 
 
 lUingworth, W. H. History of the Education of the Blind (139-142). 
 
 Tewksbury, E. B. Sociological Factors. 
 Botany — See Biology. 
 
 Boy Scout Education — See also Physical education. B Boy Scout. 
 Business Education — See Commercial education. 
 Chemistry — B Chemistry study. 
 Citizenship — See Social education. 
 Civics — See Social education. 
 Civil Government — See Social education. 
 Classics or Classical Languages — See Latin. 
 Colleges — B College; College entrance requirements; Coeducation. 
 
 Walkley, R. S. Bibliography of Relation of Secondary and Higher Edu- 
 cation — U. S. Bur. of Ed. Bull. No. 32, 1914. 
 Commercial Arts — See Commercial education. 
 Commercial Education — B Education, commercial. 
 Commercial High Schools — See High schools. 
 Composition — See English language. 
 Current Events — See History. 
 Dancing — See Physical education. 
 Day Nurseries — See Nurseries. 
 Deaf — B Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 Fay, E. A. Manual of the Deaf (contains sp. bibliography). 
 
 Best, H. The Deaf (footnotes). 
 Defectives — See Blind ; Deaf ; Defectives, mental. 
 Defectives, Mental — B Children, defective. 
 
 Dresslar, F. B. School Hygiene (ch. ref.). 
 
 Wallin, J. E. W. Experimental Studies of Mental Defectives (passim). 
 Delinquents — B Crime, juvenile; Children, defective. 
 
 MacDonald, A. Abnormal Man (352-410). 
 Drawing — See also Art education. B Drawing. 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, ch. XX). 
 Education, Rural — See Rural education. 
 Elementary Schools — B Education, elementary. 
 English Language — B Composition, English; Reading; Rhetoric. 
 
 Hinsdale, B. A. Teaching the Language Arts (203-205). 
 
68 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 Klapper, P. Teaching Children to Read (204-205). 
 
 Baker, E. A. A Descriptive Guide to the Best Fiction. 
 
 Barnes, W. English in the Country School (27s) 
 
 Cook, W. A. and O'Shea, M. V. The Child and His Spelling (267-262). 
 English Literature — B Literature. 
 
 Fairchild, A. H. B. The Teaching of Poetry in the High School (177- 
 181). 
 Ethics — See Social education. 
 French — B French study. 
 Gardening — B School gardens. 
 Geography — B Geography study. 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, ch. XXI). 
 Geometry — See Mathematics. 
 German — B German study. 
 Government, Civil — See Social education. 
 Grammar — See English language. 
 Greek — See Latin. 
 
 Gymnasium — See Physical education. B Physical training. 
 High Schools — 
 
 Brown, J. F. The American High School (398-407). 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, ch. XXHI). 
 History — 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, ch. XVI). 
 
 Johnson, H. Teaching of History (Bib. appendices). 
 
 Wyer, J. I. Bibliography — American History Association Report 1899: 
 (561-612). 
 Homemaking Education — See Household arts. 
 Home Economics — See Household arts. 
 
 Household Arts — B Household arts; Home; Home economics; Home 
 economics study; Home education. 
 
 U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 10, 1912. (Bib. of Agriculture 
 and Home Economics.) 
 Hygiene — See Physical education. 
 Imbeciles — See Defectives, mental. 
 Immigrants — B Immigrants. 
 Industrial Arts — B Manual training. 
 
 Leland, C. G. Practical Education, etc. (272-280). 
 Industrial Education (vocational) — See also Vocational education. B 
 Education, technical; Education, industrial. 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib., footnotes, ch. VIII). 
 Junior High Schools — B Junior high schools. 
 
 Nat. Soc. for the Study of Ed., 15th Yearbook, Pt. Ill (146-157). 
 Juvenile Court — See Delinquents. 
 Kindergartens — B Kindergarten. 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, ch. I). 
 
 Guggenheimer, A. Froebel and the Kindergartens (Bibliography). 
 Languages — See Latin ; Modern languages. 
 
REFERENCE LIST OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES 69 
 
 Latin — B Latin. 
 
 Liberal Arts College — See Colleges. 
 Literature, English — See English literature. 
 Manual Training — See Industrial arts. 
 Mathematics — B Mathematics study ; Algebra. 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, ch. XVIII). 
 
 Smith, D. E. and Goldziher, C. Bibliography of the Teaching of Mathe- 
 matics. Bureau of Education Bull. No. 29, 1912. 
 Mechanical Drawing — See Drawing. 
 Mental Science — 
 •Heck, W. H. Mental Discipline and Educational Values (199-208). 
 
 O'Shea, M. V. Dynamic Factors in Education. 
 
 Rowe, S. H. Habit Formation and the Science of Teaching (287-301). 
 
 Sisson, E. O. The Essentials of Character. 
 Modern Languages — See also French; German. B Language study. 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib., footnotes, ch. XV). 
 Moral Education — See Social education. 
 Music — B Music. 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib., footnotes, ch. I). 
 Nature Study — See also Science, general. B Nature. 
 Normal Schools — B Teacher training. 
 Nurses, Training of — B Nurses, training of. 
 Penmanship — See also English language. 
 
 Freeman, F. N. The Teaching of Handwriting (Bib., footnotes). 
 Physical Defectives — See Blind ; Cripples ; Deaf. 
 Physical Education — B Hygiene; Physical training; School, open air. 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (dancing) (Bib., footnotes, ch. II). 
 
 Dresslar, F. B. School Hygiene (ch. ref. and 203-211). 
 
 O'Shea, M. V. Dynamic Factors in Education (301-312 and footnotes). 
 
 Rapeer, L. W. School Health Administration (Bib. notes and ch. ref.). 
 
 Wood, T. D. and Reesor, M. F. Bibliography of Educational Hygiene 
 and Physical Education (Teachers College). 
 Physics — B Physics study. 
 Play — See also Physical education ; Playgrounds. 
 
 Groos, Karl. The Play of Man (Bib., footnotes). 
 Practical Arts — B Arts ; Arts and crafts ; Gardening ; Handicrafts ; 
 
 Household arts; Industrial arts. 
 Prevocational Education — See Practical arts. 
 Professional Schools or Colleges — See Colleges. 
 Psychology — See Mental science. 
 Reading — See also English language. 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib., footnotes, ch. XIX). 
 
 Jenkins, F. Reading in the Primary Grades (Bib., footnotes). 
 Religious Education — See also Social education. 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib., footnotes, ch. IV). 
 Rural Education — B School, rural. 
 
 Betts, G. H. and Hall. O. E. Better Rural Schools (Bib. append. I). 
 
70 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY : APPLICATIONS TO CURRICULA AND STUDIES 
 
 Cubberley, E. P. Rural Life and Education (349-363). 
 
 Foght, H. W. Rural Denmark (Bib. append.). 
 Science, Elementary — See Science, general; Nature study. 
 Science, General — B Science ; Science essays ; Science, general ; Science 
 study. 
 
 U. S. Bureau of Education, Bull. No. I, 1911 (Bib. of Science Teaching'). 
 Science, Natural — See Biology; Chemistry; Physics. . 
 Self-Government — See also Social education. B School state. 
 Sex Hygiene — See also Physical education. 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib., footnotes, ch. VH). 
 Social Education — See also Religious education. B Citizenship ; Civi^^, 
 community ; Democracy. 
 
 Brooks, R. C. Bibliography of Municipal Problems. 
 
 Brown, J. F. The American High School. 
 
 Cabot, E. L. Ethics for Children (passim). 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib., footnotes, chs. V and XXIV). 
 
 Meyer, H.'H. B. Selected List of References on Commission Govern- 
 ment of Cities. 
 
 Rowe, S. H. Habit Formation and the Science of Teaching. 
 
 Sisson, E. O. The Essentials of Character. 
 Social Science — See Social education. 
 Sociology — 
 
 Wright, C. D. Outline of Practical Sociology (Bib. chs. XI-XVII and 
 ch. ref.). 
 Spanish — See Modern languages. 
 Spelling — See English language. 
 Teacher Training — See Normal schools. 
 Technical High Schools — See High schools. 
 Technological Schools — See Colleges. 
 
 Trade Education — See Industrial education ; Vocational education. 
 Truants — See also Delinquents. B School attendance. 
 Vocational Education — See also Industrial education. B Education, 
 vocational; Vocational education. 
 
 Brown, J. F. The American High School. 
 
 Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib., footnotes, ch. VIII). 
 
 U. S. Bur. of Ed., Bull. No. 22, 1913. 
 Vocational Guidance — 
 
 Brewer, J. M. and Kelly, R. W. Harvard Bulletin in Education 
 (Selected Bibliography). 
 
 Gowin and Wheatley. Occupations (ch. ref. and appendix). 
 Zoology — See Biology. 
 

 ■' ::V^iC 
 
 ^K>< 
 
 
 ^;>^' 
 
 Wi..