CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY FROM Miss Jean McDermott Cornell University Library VM615 .M19 olin 3 1924 030 903 011 Mi 9 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030903011 ■ a cs ■-' CO 1—1 00 <3 rH.O pq Atlantic 1849 41 Inman Line J) City of Glasgow ■ 1850 45 Allan Line J) Canadian 1854 64 Anchor Line s» Tempest 1856 62 National Line )) Louisiana 1863 67 Guion Line )) Manhattan 1866 70 White Star Line J, Oceanic 1871 77 American Line J) Pennsylvania 1873 111 Hamburgh American Line ,, Borussia 1856 121 North German Line »J Bremen 1858 124 Atlantic screw-steamer „ Great Britain 1845 16 „ iron steamer J) Great Britain 1845 16 „ iron paddle-steamei • J, Persia 1856 32 „ twin screw-steamer 3) Notting Hill 1881 117 „ compound engines Holland 1869 68 „ compound 3-crank Arizona 1879 72 engines triple expansion. Martello 1884 113 engines „ express twin screw » City of New York 1888 58 „ steel steamer Buenos Ayrean 1879 36 „ midship saloons 3J Oceanic 1871 80 ,, steamer lost 3) President 1841 16 lit with gas „ Adriatic 1872 91 lit with electric light ») City of Berlin 1879 55 ATLANTIC EECORDS AND EVENTS. Last wooden vessel built ,, sailing of Collins' Line . „ sirle-lever engines . „ paddle-wlieel built Oldest vessel now in Atlantic trade DATE Collins' Adriatic 1857 Baltic 1858 Cunai-d Scotia 1862 Cunard Scotia 1862 Palestine, bnilt 1855 Longest steamer afloat . . Teutonic, 580 ft. overall „ proposed 1891 New Cunard, 600 ft. overall „ „ ever built . Great Eastern, 69 1 ft. overall Greatest displacement afloat . City of Paris, 17,350 tons „ „ ever built Great Eastern, 32,i60 tons indicated horse-power, paddles .... Great Eastern, 5,ooo tons Greatest indicated horse-power, single screw . . . Etruria, 14,350 tons Greatest indicated horse-power, twin screw . . . City of Paris, 18,500 tors Greatest daily consumption, paddles .... Scotia, 160 tons Greatest daily consumption, screw .... Etruria, 320 tons Greatest average speed per hour, paddles .... Scotia, 14 knots Greatest average speed per hour, single screw . Etruria, 18'8 knots Greatest average speed per hour, twin screw . . . Teutonic, 20'3 knots Greatest distance run in one day Teutonic, 517 knots PAGE 43 43 32 32 113 96 281 118 58 118 118 38 53 32 38 32 38 276 275 QUEENSTOWN TO NeW YoRK. First passage, under 9 days, 1864, Cunard Scotia „ 8 „ 1872, White Star Adriatic „ „ 7 „ 1884, Guion Oregon „ „ 6 „ 1889, Inman City of Paris New Yokk to Queenstown. d. h. 8 13 7 23 6 9 5 19 8 3 First passage, under 9 days, 1863, Cunard Scotia „ 8 „ 1869, Inman City of Brussels 7 22 „ „ 7 „ 1882, Guion Alaska 6 '22 „ 6 „ 1889, Inman City Of Paris 5 23 17 48 18 3 38, ATLANTIC EECOKDS AND EVENTS. XI Fastest passage, 1840, Cunard Acadia, „ 1846, Cunard Europa ,, „ 1852, Collins' Baltic „ „ 1864, Cunard Scotia, Queenstown 1872, White Star Adriatic „ 1876, White Star Britannic „ „ 1880, Guion Arizona „ ,. 1884, Guion Oregon „ ,, 1887, Cunard Umbria „ „ 1889, Inman City of Paris „ „ 1891, White Star Teutonic „ Liverpool to New York 11 n h. m. 4 3 13 15 45 23 17 16 36 10 47 9 42 4 42 19 18 16 31 Fastest passage, 1841, Cunard Acadia, Halifax to Liverpool „ 1852, Collins' Atlantic, New York to Liverpool „ 1 856 , Cunard Persia, New York to Queenstow n „ 1863, Cunard Scotia „ » „ 1869, Inman City of BrUS- , sels „ » „ 1875, Inman City of Berlin „ „ „ 1876, White Star Britannic „ „ „ 1882, Guion Alaska „ „ „ 1887, Cunard Etruria ,, „ ■^, 1889, Inman City of Paris „ » „ 1891, White Star Teutonic „ „ 22 3 15 28 12 47 22 4 36 22 50 21 3 NOTED STEAMERS. 1819 TO 1840. Savannah Royal William No. 2 Sirius • Liverpool • Great Western • President • PAGE First. 4 First British. 5 First actual liner. 13 Liverpool liner. 6 Bristol liner. 15 Liverpool liner. 16 Xii ATLANTIC BBOOEDS AND EVENTS. NOTED STEAMERS— con• P. D. Mahony, Trafalgar Square, London, and Dame Street, Dubhn ; J. C. Shaw, Superintendent of the Marine and Machinery Departments. " Applications for the unappropriated shares may be made to the Company's Bankers or Solicitors or at the offices of the Company in Liverpool, Dublin, and Lon- don ; or to D. and J. B. Neilson, Stock and Share Brokers, Exchange Street East, Liverpool. " John Pollock, "Agent, 24, Water Street. " Liverpool, September 15th, 1838." As an instance of the great attention paid to the earlier Atlantic steamers, the following account of this notable vessel, condensed from the "Liverpool Mercury" of October 12th, 1838, will be of interest : " The Liverpool Steamship. " As this vessel is not only the largest steamer hitherto built at this port, but the first that has been fitted up a priori, expressly for Transatlantic conveyance, much in- terest and curiosity have been excited by the appearance of so noble a specimen of the united skill of the naval architect and the engine-builder ; and so numerous have been the visitors who have inspected her as the works approach towards completion, that some account of her dimensions and equipments may be acceptable to those of our readers who take an interest in the success al- ready developed, and the high promise presented by the application of steam to the purposes of ocean navigation. CHAP. I.J THE EARLY ATLANTIC STEAMERS. 9 \'The Liverpool, it is generally known, was built last ye^ for Sir John Tobin by Messrs. Humble and Mil- crest, and was purchased some months ago by the Liver- pool Transatlantic Steam Company, an association branching out of the Dublin Steam Company, to whose enterprise and exertions for years Liverpool, as a port for steam vessels, is mainly indebted for its growing prosperity. Her length is 235 feet from stem to taffrail ; her beam 35 feet (exclusive of the breadth of her paddle- boxes) ; the depth of hold is 21 feet ; and she admeasures 1,150 feet. " She is considerably longer (we believe 25 feet) than the first-rate man-of-war, and had the mechanical genius in his aspirations imagined and depicted, some thirty years ago, such a floating Leviathan, bearing in its wonderful, and we may add, sublimely powerful means of rapid transit for thousands of miles, even against the adverse winds and the current of the ocean, he would have been set down as a rambling enthusiast, over whose safe keeping his friends should exert a watch- ful eye. " Such, however, are the rapid strides of modern science, and such the enterprise and .liberality with which it is cherished and encouraged, that without wishing to disparage the high merits of the Liverpool or British Queen as modern steamships, we venture to pre- dict that in thirty years more vessels will, in the pro- gress of improvement, be produced as much surpassing these in size and power, as they surpass them that have immediately preceded them. The Liverpool, it is ex- pected, will carry (independently of 450 tons of coals) about 700 tons of goods. " She is what is termed ' shipbuilt,' there being no indentures or dimples in her sides for the reception of paddle-wheels, so that were these removed, she would appear like an ordinary sailing ship, and as such, might be safely navigated " The fineness of her bottom, her length, and excellence 10 THE ATLANTIC FEKRY. [CHAP. I. of her engines, are all favourable , to this supposition, and the solution of the problem will in a few days put an end to further vague speculation. Steam being the principal, or almost sole motive power in contemplation, the rigging of the Liverpool is very light. " She has three masts, a foremast like that of a ship, with a top and yards, taut, but light both in spars and rigging, and a mainmast and small mizenmast, each with a plain topmast and cross-trees like a schooner, also very light, and of moderate height, so that the fore- mast will spread as much sail as both. " The paddle-boxes are of great size and height ; the figure-head and cut-water look well ; and her stern, which is decorated with carved work, emblematic of England and America, is extremely neat and appro- priate. Some of the standing rigging and chimney-stays are, we learn, partly composed of wire, and are thus stronger than common cordage of a greater thickness, while they present less retistance to the atmosphere. " The diameter of the paddle-wheels is 29 feet. " The engines, built by Messrs. Forrester and Co., Vauxhall Foundry, are well worthy of inspection, both in regard to their compactness and beauty in construc- tion, the extraordinary strength, and their superior finish. They are 468 horse-power. The cylinders are each 75 inches diameter, and the stroke of the piston- rod is 7 feet. The propelling force of these machines, (enough to drive the thousands of movements in ten or a dozen of our largest cotton-mills), will be prodigious. " The iron shaft or spindle that turns the paddle- wheels is equal in girth to a man's body, and but fairly proportioned to the revolutionary force which the cranks will communicate. "There are two distinct boilers, and two funnels, placed at some distance from each other, and ranging with the masts. The fire-rooms are spacious ; the coals are supplied from lateral bunkers, made of plate iron ; and large water-taps are at hand in case of danger from fire. gHAP. I.] THE EARLY ATLANTIC STEAMERS. 11 " The 'main or after cabin' is a splendid apartment of 58 feet in length, and 28 feet 9 inches in width at one end, slightly narrowing to 22 feet 4 inches at the stern ; it is 8 feet in height to the beams, and 8^ feet between them " The state-rooms are exceedingly handsome and com- modious. There are in this cabin sixteen in number, each with two berths or beds, with the exception of two, which are each fitted, for the peculiar accommodation of a party, with three beds. They are well lighted from the roofs and sides by patent lights, those in the sides serving also, on being opened, as ventilators. " The colouring of these rooms is a warm, delicate pink, with gorgeous damask silk hangings to correspond, of French white, with crimson satin stripes. At the broadest or midship end of this main cabin is the ladies' retiring or private room, where several beds are also elegantly fitted up, and every convenience for the com- fort and adornment of ' the fair ' is provided " There are tanks in abundance, in addition to which water will be daily and hourly distilled by an appa- ratus fixed for the purpose, and will undergo filtration, so as to be equal in purity and coolness to that of the ' crystal well ' of the hermit. It may be added that in the main cabin, including the ladies' state-rooms, and the sofas, no fewer than fifty beds are provided. " The ' fore cabin' is 45 feet in length, by from 29 feet 4 inches to 23 feet 10 inches in width, and has eight dormitories or state-room's on each side. This room is fitted in a style somewhat different to the other, but scarcely less beautiful or costly. The walls are em- panelled in rosewood and otht r woods, with rich style, and separated by circular-topped pilasters." She sailed from Liverpool on the 20th October, 1838, but put back to Queenstown (then called the "Cove of Cork ")j on the 30th October, sailing thence again on November Gth, and reaching New York on November m a •e CHAP. I.] THE EARLY ATLANTIC STEAMEHS. 13 23rd. She made several voyages which averaged seven- teen days out, and fifteen home; and was then sold to the Peninsular and Oriental Company, who changed her name to theGreatLiverpool. She was afterwards wrecked off Cape Pinisterre, on February 24th, 1846, with a losfe of two lives. It is, however, to the plucky little steamship Sirius (178 feet long, by 25J feet broad, and 18J feet deep, of 708 tons) that belongs the real honour of commencing the great Atlantic ferry of to-day. This memorable little vessel was built by Menzies, of Leith, and was engined by Messrs. Wingate and Co., of Whiteinch, near Glasgow. The engines were on the side-lever principle, having cylinders 60 inches diameter and stroke of 6 feet, fitted with a surface condenser exactly similar to those now in use. The paddle-wheels were 24 feet diameter, and the steam pressure 15 lbs. A newly-formed company named the British and American Steam Navigation Com- pany (the 'leading spirit of which was Mr. John Laird, afterwards M.P. for Birkenhead) chartered her from the St. George's Steam-packet Company, and despatched her from Queenstown for New York on April 5th, 1838, under the command of Lieutenant Eoberts, K.N., who was afterwards lost in the ill-fated President, in 1841. Like the world-famous voyage of the great discoverer, Christopher Columbus, the first voyage of the Sirius was one only carried, out to its end by the energy and deter- mination of the commander; as shortly after leaving port, owing to continuous head winds, the crew became mutinous, and declared it was utter madness to proceed in so small a vessel, she being not quite so large as the 14 THE ATLANTIC FEKEY. [cHAP. I- tugboats of to-day. However, thanks to stern dis- cipline and the persuasive arguments of loaded firearms, the gallant little vessel arrived at New York on April 24th, after an eventful passage of 18^ days, during which she maintained an average speed of 8| miles per hour on a consumption of about 24 tons of coal per day. A few hours after the arrival of the Sirius, another steamer, named the Great Western, owned by the Great Western Steam Navigation Company, of Bristol, ,also arrived, having left Bristol on April 8th, 1838, thus making the passage in 13g- days. This "huge vessel," fts she was then styled, was built at Bristol, by Patterson, and launched on July 19th, 1837, her dimensions being 236 feet long, by 35|- feet broad, by 23i feet deep, and 1,340 tons. She was towed to London to have her engines put on board. The engines were built by Maudslay, Sons, and Field ; they were of the side-lever type, having two cylinders 73J inches diameter, and stroke of 7 feet, indicating 750 horse-power. The pad- dles were 28J feet diameter, and the revolutions about fifteen per minute. Steam was generated in four iron returii-flue boilers, carrying 15 lbs. pressure, and the daily consumption was about 33 tons. The average duration of the passages by the Great Western between Bristol and New York was 15 days, the fastest being about 12i days, and the average speed about 8^- knots per hour. In 1847 she was sold to the Eoyal Mail Com- pany for £25,000, and continued in their possession until 1856, when she was broken up. Another steamer, the British Queen (see frontispiece) 16 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [cHAP. I. ■was built by Curling and Young, on the Thames, for the British and American Steam Navigation Company, to trade in conjunction with the Sirius, the engines being supplied by Napier, on the Clyde. Her dimensions were 275 feet long, 37i feet broad, 27 feet deep, and of 1,863 tons. The engines were of the side-lever type, with cylinders 71^ inches diameter, and 7 feet stroke, of 700 horse-power, driving p9.ddlea 30 feet diameter. She sailed from Portsmouth on her first voyage on July 12th, 1839, and, after trading for some time, was sold to the Belgians in 1841. This was owing to the financial collapse of the company, which misfortune was largely brought about by the loss of the President, which first sailed from the Mersey on July 17th, 1840, and, after two or three long and unsuccessful voyages, eventually disappeared, after leaving New York on March 11th, 1841, with what would now be called a few passengers.' This ill-fated vessel was also built by Messrs. Curling and Young, with engines built by Messrs. Fawcett and Preston, of Liverpool, having cylinders 81 inches dia- meter and 7J feet stroke. Having now briefly enumerated the earliest vessels which were produced to create the first Transatlantic lines, it will perhaps be convenient to here notice another of the earlier steamships, the venerable Great Britain, still extant. This, the first iron steamer of large size, was 322 feet long, 48 feet broad, and 31i feet deep, and of 3,270 tons, and was built at Bristol, by Patterson, for the Great Western Steamship Company, fitted with engines made by them from designs by Guppy. There 18 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. I. were four diagonal cylinders, each 80 inches diameter, 72 inches stroke, indicating 1,500 horse-power, and burning 65 tons per day, working upwards on the crank- shaft, from which motion was brought down to the screw- shaft by means of four endless chains. The propeller was six-bladed, of widely different form from that now in use ; the pitch was about 25 feet, and the diameter 15J feet. Steam at 25 lbs. pressure was generated in three double-ended boilers, fired fore and aft, but with- out the present system of tubes. Each boiler was 34 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 24 feet high, and had eight furnaces, each 7 feet 6 inches long, by 1 foot 11 inches wide. These engines were, however, found to be very defective, and were replaced after a short time. The career of this wonderful craft has been a varied and chequered one. Launched on July 19th, 1843, she was detained for nearly a year in the dock on account of her beam being too great to allow her to pass out through the dock gates. On July 26th, 1845, she sailed on her first voyage from Liverpool for New York, and continued on that station until September, 1846, when she was stranded on Eathmullin Point, County Down, Ireland, where she remained intact for a whole winter, thus early proving the great strength of iron vessels. In 1853 she was entirely refitted with new masts and engines, and placed upon the Liverpool and Australian trade, in which she was fairly successful until 1874, when she was withdrawn. In 1882 she again underwent a com- plete change, being altered to a full-rigged sailing vessel, as which she only ploughed the waters of the sea for a 20 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [CHAP. I. brief period, having put into the Falkland Islands leak- ing, and having been condemned, has remained there ever since as a hulk. In concluding this early history it only remains to just notice the oft-quoted saying of Dr. Lardner,' and we come to the foundation of the great regular lines which to-day bridge the wild and tempestuous Atlantic with swift, silent messengers of peace and plenty. ' This noted saying has been constantly referred to, owing to its showing in a remarkable manner the great strides made in steam navigation. It was only in the year 1838 that, at a scien- tific meeting held in the Boyal Institution, Liverpool, Dr. Lard- ner, a leading scientist of that day, after giving some statistics which he thought proved the difficulty to be insurmountable, stated " that, as to the project which was announced in the news- papers of making the voyage directly from New York to Liverpool, it was, he had no hesitation in saying, perfectly chimerical, and they might as well talk of making a voyage from New York to the moon." CHAPTEE II. THE CUNARD AND COLLINS LINES. The foundation of the modern transatlantic lines — which should rank as one of the great stepping-stones of an ex- ceptionally eventful age — had but a modest origin. It was conceived by a gentleman bearing a name now well known and honoured wherever a steamship floats, namely, Mr. Samuel (afterwards Sir Samuel) Cunard. This famous gentleman, whose likeness is to be found on a later page, was of Canadian birth and origin. Early perceiving the advantages possessed by steamers over sailing vessels for regularity, Mr. Cunard came to England in 1839, and together with two of the ablest shipping men then existing in Great Britain, Mr. George Burns, of Glas- gow, and Mr. David Mclver, of Liverpool, entered into an agreement with the British Government (owing to the earlier vessels already noted being withdrawn) to commence a monthly Transatlantic mail steamship ser- vice, from Liverpool to Halifax and Boston, for an annual subsidy of iJ60,000 per annum. To carry on this trade four steamers, the Britannia (launched February 5th, 1840), Acadia, Columbia, and Caledonia, were built of wood by Eobert Duncan and Co. and others, at Port Glasgow, each being 207 feet long, by 34| feet broad, and 22i. feet deep, and of 1,156 tons. The engines were of the side- lever type, having two cylinders, each 72 inches diameter "I nto D o "Q~[jn~cr||-|h=i~ D J I SALOON II I P'XT STATE RO 0-MS Wi-*Bi" CQA.L BUNKER rfTrPfT^ •0Q>(i\co9i'iSTOK[\ H ' .) 23 June 4 12 6 Canada ■ New York J> 30 ;) 12 12 10 Caledonia Boston June 6 )» 18 11 19 Niagara ■ New York )3 13 )) 25 11 9 Europa Boston )J 20 July 1 10 14 Cambria ■ New York J) 27' )» 10 13 America ■ Boston July 4 3J 15 11 Hibernia ■ New York „ 11 )3 24 12 10 Canada Boston ! „ 18 )3 28 9 22 Niagara ■ New York • „ 25 Aug. 6 12 4 Caledonia Boston 1 Aug. 1 »3 14 12 18 Europa New York ; ,, 8 »3 20 11 17 Cambria ■ Boston „ 15 )) 26 11 2 America . New York ,, 22 Sept. 3 11 10 Hibernia ^ Boston i „ 29 — — — Canada New York i Sept. 5 Sept. 17 12 Caledonia Boston i , , 12 ,, 25 12 18 Niagara ■ New York 1 „ 19 Oct. 2 13 6 Europa ■ Boston „ 26 JJ 7 10 8 Hibernia' New York i 29 )J 13 14 Cambria ■ New York | Oct. 3 ») 18 14 11 America ■ Boston ' ,, 10 7> 21 11 6 Canada New York ! „ 17 28 11 Caledonia Boston „ 24 Not. 6 12 9 Niagara ^ New York ,, 31 )» 13 12 17 Europa Boston 1 Nov. 7 J5 18 11 12 Hibernia New York „ 14 ,, 28 13 16 Cambria . Boston 1 ,, 21 Dec. 3 11 14 America ■ New York „ 28 3i 12 13 16 Caledonia Boston Dec. 5 3> 19 12 18 Canada ■ New York , „ 12 n 24 11 22 Europa Boston „ 19 jj 30 11 3 Hibernia, ■ New York „ 26 1 Jan. 8 13 8 1 struck off Halifax and returned to New York. 2 Did not call at Halifax. ' Had only one engine working. 28 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [chap. II. "We extract from a New York contemporary the follow- ing table of the outward voyages of British mail steam- ships during the past year : " ' Annexed is a table, exhibiting the date of arrival, length of passage, number of passengers, with the day of departure, etc., of each steamer between New York and Liverpool during the past year ; also one showing the time of arrival, passengers, etc., at Boston during the same period : Passengers Passengers Names. Arrival. Pas- sage. fro Liver- m Hali- Day of Departure to Liver- Hali- pool- fax. pool. fax. Canada Jan. 29 16 50 7 Feb. 7 38 10 Europa • Feb. 24 13i 86 — Mar. 7 71 3 Canada . Mar. 25 14i 88 20 April 4 138 5 Europa April 19 m 82 7 May 2 129 — America . May 5 14i 71 4 „• 16 118 U Canada „ 17 IH 71 3 „ 31 139 6 Niagara . June 2 13i 65 5 June 13 115 11 Cambria . „ 15 13J 61 3 ,, 27 94 — Hibernia. „ 29 13i 95 2 July 11 63 10 Niagara • July 14 14 83 — ,, 25 92 12 Europa . ,. 27 12i 123 — Aug. 8 87 6 America ■ Aug. 9 12 92 8 ,, 22 94 3 Canada ■ „ 25 13i 125 3 Sept. 5 84 7 Niagara . Sept. 7 13 127 8 „ 19 48 — Cambria . „ 22 13i 71 11 Oct. 3 51 5 Canada . Oct. 4 12 72 1 „ 17 72 4 Niagara - „ 19 13i 148 — „ 31 14 5 Hibernia. Nov. 5 16 85 6 Nov. 14 48 9 America . „ 18 14 84 3 „ 28 76 3 Canada ■ Dec. 1 13i 46 13 Dec. 12 78 2 Hibernia. „ 18 17 69 6 ,, 26 36 5 "'The average passages to this port from Liverpool were made in 13 days and 16 hours. " ' The following table exhibits the time of arrival, etc., at Boston : CHAP. II.J THE CUNARD AND COLLINS LINES. 29 Names. America ■ Niagara . America . Niagara ■ Cambria ■ Hibernia. Caledonia Europa America ■ Canada ■ Caledonia Cambria ■ Hibernia^ Caledonia Europa - America . Caledonia Europa ■ Cambria ■ Caledonia Europa ■ Cambria ■ Pas- sage. Jan. 12 13 Feb. 11 15 Mar. 9 13 April 7 14 27 13 May 12 13* )) '26 13* June 7 lU jj 21 lOS July 4 llj )> 20 m Aug. 3 13 16 lU ,31 13 Sept. 12 10^ , J 27 lis Oct. 12 12* 25 12* JSov. 10 131 24 14i Dec. 9 14J »J 29 14* Passengers from Liver- pool. 53 50 80 43 41 52 38 53 57 84 45 57 68 65 114 83 83 123 86 14 52 82 Hali- fax. 7 7 17 24 10 12 10 4 18 18 6 13 15 5 6 4 Day of Departure. Passengers Liver- Hali- pool. fax. Jan. 24 49 2 Feb. 21 54 8 Mar. 21 88 14 April 18 MTay 9 110 11 77 12 „ 23 35 3 June 6 44 5 „ 20 105 7 July 4 83 5 „ 18 126 12 Aug. 1 38 9 „ 15 28 4 „ 29 26 19 Sept. 12 18 4 „ 26 50 8 Oct. 10 84 10 „ 24 17 16 Nov. 7 76 7 „ 21 38 3 Dec. 5 20 5 „ 19 16 7 Jan. 9 — — " ' The average passage to Boston from Liverpool is 12 days and 22 hours. " ' The Canada made the shortest passage to this port, and the Hibernia the longest. The- America and Europa made the shortest to Boston, and the Niagara the longest.' " The actual commencement of this now justly-famed line took place on July 4th, 1840, when the Britannia first sailed from the Mersey for Halifax and Boston, carrying the British mail, and arrived at the latter port on the 19th, having made the passage in 14 days 8 hours, including a stop of several hours at Halifax. ' The Hibernia on this trip sprung a leak, and returned to Halifax and left her passengers and mails ; then came to New York for repairs, and sailed on the 29th September for Liverpool direct, with nineteen passengers. so THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. 11. Since this event to the present time the regu,lar sailings of the steamers of this hne have been kept up without interruption, though special efforts have sometimes been required. As the gradual expansion of the trade took place other steamers were built and put upon the station ; namely, in 1848 the America, Niagara, Canada, and Europa ; in 1850 the Asia and Africa, with 1,000 indicated horse-power, burning 76 tons per day, and steaming 12i knots per hour. Each was built of wood, of improved designs, as experience pointed out, but with no radical departures from the Britannia until the year 1856, when the Persia, the first iron steamer, owned by this line was put upon the station to maintain the supre- macy which was now being contested by other lines. Another extract is worth printing as showing the financial working of steam shipping forty years ago. " The British and North American Royal Mail Com- pany. — The following particulars respecting the Cunard steam fleet will be found interesting, as showing how the company maintained the service in 1850 : — Arabia, build- ing, 950 horse-power and 2,500 tons (lately sold to the West India Eoyal Mail Company) ; Persia, building, 950 horse-power and 2,500 tons ; Asia, 800 horse-power and 2,226 tons; Africa, 800 horse-power and 2,226 tons; A.merica, 650 horse-power and 1,826 tons ; Canada, 650 horse-power and 1,831 tons; Europa, 650 horse-power and 1,834 tons ; Niagara, 650 horse-power and 1,824 tons; Cambria, 1,423 tons. But, besides these, there are some subsidiary lines which require to be mentioned. Thus, there are two steamers, the Admiral, of 929 tons and 388 horse-power, and the Commodore, of 800 tons and 350 horse-power, which maintain a communication between Liverpool and Havre; and two vessels, the CHAP. II.J THE CUNAED AND COLLINS LINES. 31 Camilla, of 529 tons and 220 horse-power, and the Lyra, 543 tons and 275 horse-power, which maintain a com- munication between Liverpool and Glasgow. The Mar- garet, also, a vessel of 700 tons and 310 horse-power, and the Laurel, a vessel of 428 tons and 180 horse-power, are sometimes employed upon these subsidiary lines, though, commonly, the Margaret plies between Liverpool and the Mediterranean, and the Laurel plies between Belfast and Glasgow. Thus this great enterprise was (1851) main- tained by a fleet of steamers, the power of which is 6,100 horse for the main line, and 1,723 horse for the feeding and subsidiary lines. The subsidy which the enterprise receives from the British Goverment is, therefore, at the rate of nearly £24: per annum per horse-power upon the whole fleet, feeders and subsidiary lines inclusive. No official or authorized statement has been published of the financial condition of the Cunard Company. Its proprietors are limited in number, and generally to large capitalists, who arrange their interests in private meet- ings, the results of which are not made public. To esti- mate the amount of the capital, let the value of the ships be taken, in round numbers at i;120 per horse- power. Thus, for 7,823 horse-power, we should have a capital of £936,760. To this must be added the furni- ture, plate, etc., of the ships, the offices, warehouses, stations, etc., at the several ports with which they com- municate, the capital engrossed by which, added to the amount just stated, will make a total which cannot fall short of £l,500j000. It follows, therefore, that this com- pany, after having defrayed its current expenses, must have a balance of about £375,000 before it can begin to enjoy any net profit ; for it has resulted from the general experience of England, both by Government and com- mercial companies, that besides the current expenses of working a line of steamers, it is necessary to carry yearly to the account of the capital, to cover interest, sinking fund, insurance, etc., a sum equal to 25 per cent, of the total capital involved." — Liverpool Albion, February 2, 1852. 32 THE ATLANTIC FEERY. [CHAP. II. The Persia, like her later sister the Scotia, which came out in 1862, was 380 feet long, by 45 feet broad, and 31 feet deep, of 3,870 tons, and was built and engined by Mr. Robert Napier and Sons, Glasgow. The engines were on the " side-lever '' principle so often mentioned, having two cylinders each 100 inches dia- meter and 12 feet stroke, and indicated 4,000 horse- power. The paddle-wheels were 40 feet diameter; the boilers were eight in number, having forty furnaces, the steam-pressure carried being 20 lbs., and the consump- tion of coal reached 160 tons per day to propel the ship at a speed of 13J knots. No efforts were spared to render these the crack boats in the service, and with very satisfactory results, as the rates of passage-money were raised for these boats, and a sort of express service for passengers was now practi- cally first introduced across the Atlantic. Owing to the superiority of the screw-propeller being by this time admitted, these two noble vessels proved to be the last of the ocean-going paddle-wheel vessels, and both were sold ; the Scotia being afterwards converted into a twin-screw telegraph- ship, in which capacity she still exists under her original name. Concerning the invention of the screw-propeller, this, like most other matters connected with early engineer- ing, is much disputed, the credit being claimed for Mr. Edward Shorter, of Southwark, who is reported to have taken out a patent for it, and tried it in 1802 on H.M.S. Doncaster, working it by means of an ordinary capstan with gearing ; other names mentioned as the inventors iZ! ■< 1^ Eh < Hi m h! n 34 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. II. are Eobert Hooke, David Bushnell, and Frederic Sau- vage, a Frenchman ; but to Mr. F. P. Smith must be given the credit of first having made it successful. Having obtained his patent in 1836, he had it tried on a small vessel named the Archimedes, which was built by Henry Wimshurst, who also claims to have had a share in working out the screw-propeller. This little vessel was first tried on the Thames in 1839, and obtained a speed of 8i miles. Afterwards it was improved upon by Mr.BennetWoodcroft and Mr. Eobert Griffiths, the latter being the introducer of the form now in general use. The first " screw " steamer brought out by the Cunard company for their Transatlantic service was the China, which was put on the station in 1862, her dimensions being 326 feet long, by 40i broad, and 27^ deep. She was built by Messrs. Napier and Sons at Glasgow, as were the engines, which were surface-condensing, and of a type thea in vogue ; these consisted of two oscillating cylinders (each 80i inches diameter, and 5 feet 6 inches stroke) working upwards, and being geared down to the propeller shaft by ordinary tooth gearing. The pressure carried was 25 lbs., and her average speed was about 12 knots.' Another famous screw- steamer brought out by this company was the Russia, which was put on the service in 1867. She was of slightly larger dimensions than the China, being 370 feet long, by 43 feet broad, and 29 feet deep, and 3,100 tons. She was propelled by in- verted direct-acting engines, having two cylinders, each 85 inches diameter, and 45 inches stroke. The vessel '■ For illustration of engines, see p. 166. ENGINES \^3L □ZD I JT CLASS tcCOMMODA I Middle Deck. Main Deck, stowing arrangement with a long wooden deokhoilse and high bulwarks. DECK PLAN OF SS. CHINA. Face page 34. CHAP. II.] THE CUNABD AND COLLINS LINES. 35 and engines were built by Messrs. J. and G. Thomson. She carried on the express service of the Cunard Com- pany for a few years with the Scotia, but the honour of the fastest passage having been wrested from this line soon after she came out, she did not become noted for high speed, although she continued to be patronized by the majority of the saloon passenger traffic. In 1881 she was sold to the Eed Star Line of Antwerp, and by them lengthened and fitted with compound engines, and re-named the Waesland; and still continues to " bridge the ocean," having recently (1890) been again refitted with triple engines. After the Russia, the Cunard Company still continued to add new iron screw-propelled vessels to their fleet; but none of them became prominent, as they were rather behind the time in design and arrangements- of hull, and machinery, and in passenger accommodation. Their first vessel with compound engines was the Parthia, brought out in 1870, followed in the same year by the Algeria and Abyssinia, which had ordinary expansion ver- tical engines. In 1874 came the Bothnia and Scythia, fitted with compound engines (the latter becoming noted owing to a large whale striking the propeller in July, 1875), and were followed in 1879 by the Gallia, fitted with three- crank compound engines, and in 1881 by the Servia. This huge vessel, like the other Cunarders about this period, was built and engined by Messrs. J. and G. Thomson, of Clydebank. She was 478 feet long, 52 broad, 41 deep, and 8,500 tons; the engines were of the ordinary com- pound vertical three-crank type, the high-pressure 86 THE ATLANTIC FEERY. [cHAP. II. cylinder in the centre being of 72 inches diameter, and each of the low-pressure 100 inches, with a stroke of 6 feet 6 inches. This vessel was practically the first of what may be called the Express Transatlantic Service, as, owing to the immense space required for the powerful machinery necessary for the high speed beginning to prevail, but little room was left for cargo. Another reason for the greater attention given to passenger traffic was the large number of slow small-powered big-carrying modern cargo- boats commonly called " tramps," which were flooding' the freight market with tonnage and so cutting down rales. Although the first steel vessel, and the first with a cellu- lar bottom in the Express Service, the Servia was not the first in the North Atlantic trade, that honour belonging to the Allan Liner Buenos Ayrean, built and engined by Denny, of Dumbarton, in 1879, and the Parisian, built by Napier in 1881. In 1882 another Cunarder, the steel Aurania, also built by J. and G. Thomson, came out, and represented a new departure suggested by the builders, which was, in fact, a reaction against the then prevailing proportions of length to beam, which was generally 10 or 11 to 1. In this craft these proportions were altered to about 8 to 1, the dimensions being 470 feet long, 57i feet broad, 37^ feet deep, and 13,360 tons. The engines were almost of the same design and size as the Servia's. Neither of these vessels attained the honour of the much-prized " fastest record passage," and beyond the fact of the Aurania having become noted for a serious CHAP. II.J THE CUNARD AND COLLINS LINES. 37 breakdown of machinery which disabled her for months, they have not been famous. As may be surmised by the number of vessels which about this time were being brought out by the Cunard Line, they were endeavouring to gain the "premier posi- tion" on the Atlantic which they had now relinquished for over fifteen years ; and it is remarkable that it was by the purchase of a vessel from a competing company, which had already beaten the record, that they at last succeeded in regaining it. This vessel was the magnifi- cent but ill-fated Oregon, which they purchased and first sailed June 7th, 1884, and which will be commented on later. Suf&ce it here to say, that after two short years of very successful working for the Cunard Line, and a short experimental service under the British Admiralty, during which she afforded admirable experience, her career was suddenly terminated by colliding with an American wooden schooner off Fire Island, outside New York Bay, on March 11th, 1886. This memorable event startled the whole maritime world, and the usual alarming statements and prophecies about bulkheads once more became fast and furious ; but that the ingenuity and care of both ship-builders and ship-owners had not been thrown away, is shown very distinctly by the fact that the Cunard Line still retain their noted record of never having lost a passenger's life, whereas had the bulkhead division (which was identical with that first introduced by Messrs. Harland and Wolff) not been efficient and of sound workmanship, thus enabling her to be kept afloat for some hours, it is 88 THE ATLANTIC FEERY. ^ [CHAP. II. more than probable that the loss of life would have been appalling. Up to the present the last vessels brought out by the Cunard Line to maintain the premier position, are the well-known Umbria, which first sailed. October 31st, 1884, and the Etruria, on April 25th, 1885. They were of steel, 500 feet long, 57i feet broad, 41 feet deep, and 13,300 tons. They were built by the firm of John Elder and Co., then reconstituted under the name of the Fairfield Ship- building and Engineering Co., which had also built the Oregon, whose satisfactory performances had no doubt led to the placing of the order with them; and it is worthy of notice that these were the first vessels actually built for the line which succeeded in making the fastest record passage in recent times. Following the usual Cunard custom, there were no pronounced innovations upon the Oregon, the outline of rig being simply modified to correspond with the usual appearance of the fleet, and notwithstanding that the triple engines were then being generally adopted, the machinery was of ordinary three-crank compound type, the diameter of the high-pressure cylinder being 71 inches, and of each of the others, 105 inches, with a stroke of 6 feet. The boiler pressure was 110 lbs., the steam being generated in nine boilers having seventy-two furnaces, and consuming 320 tons per day, with 14,000 indicated horse- power which drove her at 19 knots per hour. These particulars and dimensions are interesting, as being in all probability the highest which will ever be reached in compound engines, owing to the ensuing introduction of the »- FIRST CLASS ACCOMMODATION CABIN FLAN OF UMEBIA AND ETBCBIA. Face 'page 38. 40 THE ATLANTIC FEEKY. [cHAP. H. " twin screws," which divide the power into two separate sets of machinery of considerably more than half the horse- power hitherto used, and also to the introduction of the triple expansion engine, which has rendered the com- pound now obsolete. Since their advent these handsome vessels have been largely and deservedly well patronized, but have had to yield the palm to the former rivals of the Cunard Line, and as there is no finality in such affairs, and the line is eager to regain and hold the fastest record passage, "Paint murmurs of improvement come," so that man's daring and constructive skill, in surmounting the difficulties and trials of advancing still further in the noble kindred sciences of naval architec- ture and marine engineering, is now being put to further test in producing new Cunarders.' Following the inevitable lawS of nature and the dic- tates of the great manipulator, Father Time, the pro- prietary of this great line, like its vessels, has had to undergo change ; the first being the handing over of the private ownership from the founders, Cunard, Burns, and Maclver, in 1878, to a private company entitled " The Cunard Steamship Company, Limited," and registered on February 23rd, 1878, with a capital of ^2,000,000 in 20,000 shares of ^100 each. This was changed again to a public company in 1880, the shares being eagerly taken up by the public. Some time after- wards, early in 1883, the Messrs. Maclver withdrew from the company, and the management was taken over by the directors, assisted by a responsible manager and ' See Appendix. CHAP. II. J THE CTINARD AND COLLINS LINES. 41 officials under the direc-t supervision of Mr. (now Sir) John Burns, the present chairman, under whicTi regime it now remains. Following the Cunard, the next great steamship effort to be noticed is the commencement of the once famous Collins Line, which was founded in the United States in 1848, to wrest, if possible, the trade from the English steamers. This line commenced its first sail- ing on April 27th, 1849, from New York for Liverpool, by despatching the Atlantic, one of four splendid wooden steamships, the others being named Arctic, Baltic, and Pacific, each of which measured 282 feet long, 451^ feet broad, and 32 feet deep, with a -tonnage of 2,860 tons, built by William Brown, at New York. The machinery was constructed by the Novelty Ironworks of the same place, and was of' the side-lever type, having cylinders 96 inches diameter, and 9 feet stroke. The boilers, four in number, were arranged with two rows of furnaces, one above the other, and were fitted with vertical tubes 2 inches diameter. Steam was carried at 17 lbs. pres- su:^e on a consumption of about 85 tons per day. The paddles were 35| feet diameter, the average speed about 12| knots per hour. Every effort which skill and science could command was put forth in the equijiment of these vessels, each costing over £100,000 ; but cost was con- sidered no object so long as they outstripped the best performance^^ of the Cunard vessels. In this they were successful, but financially they were not, owing, no doubt, to the lavish expenditure, and in September, 1854, they received a terrible blow in the loss of the CHAP. II.] THE CUNAED AND COLLINS LINES. 43 Arctic, which was run into by a small French steamer named the Vesta, off Cape Race in a dense fog, and sunk with a loss of 322 lives, amongst whom were the wife, son, and daughter of Mr. Collins, the managing director and promoter of the line. About two years after this another great disaster befell them in the' loss of the Pacific, which sailed from Liver- pool on June 29th, 1856, but as to her fate nothing was known, the brief and terrible sentence, " Never heard of," being the only tale of how a noble vessel and her living freight were suddenly engulfed in eternity. The last of the great wooden paddle-steamers, the Adriatic, brought out by the Collins Line, arrived in Liverpool in December, 1857, and was by far the finest and fastest vessel built up to that date. She was constructed by Steers, at New York, and was 355 feet long, by 50 feet broad, and 33 feet deep, her gross tonnage being 3,670. The machinery was constructed at the Novelty Iron- works, New York, and consisted of two oscillating cylin- ders each 100 inches diameter and 12 feet stroke, indicating 2,500 horse-power, with a boiler pressure of 20 lbs., the paddles were 40 feet diameter, and at 17 revolutions per minute gave a speed of 13 knots on a daily consumption of 85 to 90 tons. Upon the with- drawal of the Collins Line in -January, 1858, she was laid up, then sold to be put upon the service from Galway (Ireland), promoted in 1861 ; but the line being unsuc- cessful she was again laid up in Birkenhead, and after- wards sold to serve as a hulk in the west of Africa, where she still exists. The two remaining vessels, Atlantic and 44 THE ATLANTIC FEREY. [CHAP. II. Baltic, were converted into sailing-ships and were afloat until recent years, but have now disappeared. The continued success of the Cunard Line soon brought forth others anxious for a share of the great profits which were being reaped. In 1847 the Americans established a line to trade between New York and Bremen, touching at Cowes in the Isle of Wight : it was called the Ocean Steam Navigation Company, and contracted to carry the United States mails twice a month. It lasted, however, only a few years, being very unsuccessful. In 1848 the Americans formed another line of vessels to ply from New York to Havre, touching at Southamp- ton, under the name of the New York and Havre Steam Navigation Company. They commenced running in 1850, with a large subsidy from the United States Government for carrying the mails. The vessels of this line were also very unfortunate, two of them having been lost within twelve months, a misfortune which caused the company to be dissolved some time afterwards. CHAPTEE III. THE INMAN, ANCHOK, AND ALLAN LINES. Just ten years after the foundation of the Cunard Line (namely in 1850), another of the great lines made a small beginning, but with an entirely different type of vessels from the form then existing. This was the now well- known Inman Line, and was announced in the papers by the following advertisement in the "Liverpool Mer- cury," Dec. 6th, 1850 : " Steam communication between Liverpool and Phila- delphia. — The powerful screw steamship City of Glasgow, B. E. Matthews, late of. the Great Western, Commander, 1,610 tons, 350 horse-power, is intended to sail as under : " From Liverpool. — Wednesday, 11 Dec; Wednesday, 12 Feb., 1851. From Philadelphia. — Thursday, 16 Jan., 1851; Thursday, 13 March. " This vessel is well known from her successful voyages between Glasgow and New York, and has ample state- room accommodation for about 120 first and second cabin passengers, no steerage passengers taken. "Rates of Passage. — From Liverpool. — 1st Cabin, 22 guineas ; 2nd Cabin, 13 guineas. From Philadelphia. — 1st Cabin, 100 dollars; 2nd Cabin, 60 dollars. " These rates include provisions and steward's fee, but not wines or liquors, which can be had on board. "Rates of Freight. — From Liverpool — £A per ton measurement. From Philadelphia. — According to agree- ment. 46 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. IH. "Passengers and shippers will find Philadelphia the most central port, possessing railway communication in a few hours and at trifling expense to New York for the North ; being also on the main line from the North through Baltimore to Washington and the Southern States, and the great central railway (now open to within 80 miles of Pittsburg on the Ohio) forms the shortest and most direct route to the Western States. All goods sent to the agents in Philadelphia will be forwarded with economy and despatch. " For further particulars apply in Philadelphia and New York to Eichardson, Watson and Co. ; in Belfast, to Eichardson, Brothers and Co. ; in Glasgow to Patrick Henderson and Co., and in Liverpool to " Eichardson, Brothers and Co., " 12 and 13, Tower Buildings, " Liverpool." This service was founded by Mr. William Inman, of Liverpool, in conjunction with the firm of Eichardson Brothers, of the same place, the intention being to trade between Philadelphia and Liverpool. Their first steamers were the City of Glasgow ' and City of Manchester, the former, which was originally built for trade between Glasgow and New York, was described as follows by the " Glasgow Courier." " A NEW Atlantic Steamer. " Our citizens will shortly have the gratification of witnessing the starting from the Broomielaw of the first ship of a line of magnificent steamships to sail direct between Glasgow and New York. The honour of this undertaking is due to the enterprise of our townsmen, ' The City of Glasgow was afterwards lost in the Black Sea with all hands, but was not then in the Atlantic trade, so is omitted in table of losses. CHAP. III.] THE'INMAN, ANCHOK, AND ALLAN LINES. 47 Messrs. Tod and M'Gregor, who have already their first vessel in a state of considerable forwardness, and is ex- pected to be ready for launching from the stocks by the end of February. " The City of Glasgow, for such is to be the distinguish- ing name of the splendid steamship now rapidly approach- ing completion in Messrs. Tod and M'Gregor's yard, is built of iron, and is of imposing dimensions, although her beauty and symmetry apparently detract from her real magnitude. She is a three-decker, of about 1,600 tons measurement over all, and is to be propelled by a screw 13 feet in diameter and 18 feet pitch, which is to be worked by two lever beam-engines of 350 horse-power. The machinery, etc., will all be placed so low as to leave the sweep of the decks clear without encumbrance. The spar-deck will form a magnificent promenade in fine weather, and in foul weather the main-deck affords ample space for recreation, perfectly lighted and venti- lated, and protected from rain or spray. The total length of the main-deck is 237 feet, and the breadth 34 feet. On each side are ranged the state-rooms, leaving 16 feet clear in the centre. The height between decks is 7 feet. " The accommodation for each class of passengers is admirable and most complete. She will carry 52 cabin, or first-class, passengers, 85 second-class, and 400 steer- age emigrants. The crew, including officers, engineers, firemen, stewards, sailors etc., will probably number about 70, so that she will carry a total living cargo of upwards of 6,00. Two of the state-rooms for first-class passengers have four berths in each, all the others have only two. The state-rooms for second-class passengers have four and eight berths in each. The state-rooms for ladies are so capacious that they may be used as sitting-rooms, should they choose to retire from the main-cabin. The latter is an apartment of noble dimen- sions, and will be elegantly fitted up, and furnished with a well-assorted library. The walls will be decorated with panellings representing views of places of interest 48 THE ATLANTIC FERKY. [CHAP. III. on both sides of the Atlantic. One room is being fitted up as an. apothecary's shop, from which the surgeon will dispense his medicines. Near this is the bath-room, with apparatus for pumping up the salt water from the Atlantic. In fact, nothing has been left undone which science and ingenuity can suggest to add to the comfort and convenience of the passengers. Nor has their safety been uncared for in the construction and fittings of this noble ship. By means of five water-tight bulkheads the vessel is divided into six compartments, so that she would float although several of these divisions were filled. She will be furnished with six capacious lifeboats, having copper tanks under the seats to render them buoyant. Danger from fire has been likewise carefully guarded against. The lamps which light the state-cabins can only be opened by the officers of the ship ; and powerful pumps, to be worked by the engines, are supplied so as to extinguish at once any fire which might break out. In the bottom of the hold are placed iron tanks to con- tain 13,000 gallons of fresh water. There will be ample storage for 1,200 tons of goods. " In addition to the screw motive power the City of Glasgow is barque-rigged, and will carry an enormous press of canvas." The City of Glasgow and City of Manchester were built of iron, upon the Clyde, by Messrs. Tod and M'Gregor, and were 258 feet long, 34|- feet broad, aiid 25 feet deep, and of 2,125 tons, and had overhead geared engines o 350 horse-power, constructed by the same firm, with cylinders 71 inches diameter, and stroke of 5 feet, driving a two-bladed screw-propeller. Steam at 10 lbs. pressure was generated in three boilers having nine furnaces. With the advent of these vessels commenced the long-waged war of paddle versus screw ocean steamers; so that although the Great Britain had been previously in the trade, to the a. 50 THE ATLANTIC FEERY. [CHAP. III. Inman Line belongs the honour of having introduced the first successful iron screw steamer, to which Com- pany's notice it was brought by Mr. Tod, of the firm that built the vessel. The first sailing was the City of Glasgow, which left Liverpool on December 11th, 1850, for Philadelphia, followed soon after by the City of Man- chester, City of Philadelphia, and others. In 1857 they comrcenced calling at New York, which proving a more suitable port, Philadelphia was given up. After this event the direct rivalry between this line and the Cunard commenced ; the latter having by that time got rid of their old rival the Collins Line, now found another coming forward with a modern style of screw-steamship, to compete with them for a share of the enormous sub- sidies which were at that time in vogue. This rivalry soon bore good fruit as far as the public were concerned, as each succeeding new vessel was always built to outstrip the performances of the other line's crack ship, as well as to surpass it in the elegance of the fittings. In 1869 the Cunard Company, in the matter of speed, was eclipsed by the performances of the Inman steamer City of Brussels, which made a splendid run home of 7 days, 22 hours, 3 minutes ; and as the first City of Paris had in 1867 made the fastest outward passage, their rival liad to yield the palm. The first City of Paris was built and engined by Tod and M'Gregor of Glasgow in 1866, and was 358^ feet long, 40^ feet broad, and 26 feet deep, and of 2,875 tons, her engines being of the horizontal trunk type, with 52 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [cHAP. ni. cylinders of 89 inches diameter, and 3 feet 6 inches stroke, consuming 105 tons per day, the speed being 12^ knots per hour. This fine vessel was afterwards lost at sea in March, 1885, under the name of the Tonquin. The City of Brussels, built by the same firm, was launched in 1869. She was 390 feet long, 40J feet broad, 27 feet deep, and of 3,747 tons. The engines were horizontal direct-acting trunk engines with surface condenser, having two cylinders each of 91 i inches diameter, 4 feet stroke, and steam pressure of 30 lbs., which propelled her at a speed of nearly 13 knots on a consumption of 110 tons per day. One of those important details which are so vital in the successful working of these great vessels was first adopted on this ship, namely the steam steering gear which had recently been introduced and tested on the Great Eastern. This valuable auxiliary was designed and successfully worked out by Mr. MacFarlane Gray of the famous Vauxhall Foundry, Liverpool, owned by George Forrester and Co., which has since disappeared like some of the other great firms, such as Woods, Vernon, Jack, and others who have helped on the great civilizer of our day — the ocean steamship. The career of this famous vessel, the first to reduce the passage to under eight days, in December, 1869, de- serves notice, for she was the last of a type of steamship which was at this date much in vogue, having a long narrow wooden deckhouse with high bulwarks, giving but limited space to the passengers.' This was afterwards done ^ See deck plan steamship " China" for this arrangement, p. 34. s la 54 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. UI. away with in 1872, another deck being added and other extensive alterations made to enable her to compete with newer rivals which had come upon the scene. Later, in 1876, the original engines and boilers were re- moved and replaced by four-cylinder tandem compound engines, and in the year 1877 she was the object of attention, owing to a very long delay in arriving caused by the breakage of the shaft, as there were on board many Catholic pilgrims bound to Eome on the occasion of the jubilee of his Holiness Pius IX. In 1883 her career was suddenly ended by a collision with a steamer named the Kirby Hall, which cut into and sank her in a dense fog, off the mouth of the Mersey, on January 7th, 1883. Following the usual order of things, this famous vessel was succeeded by others to maintain the efficiency of the fleet. The City of Ricliinond and other vessels were brought forward, and in 1875 the City of Berlin commenced sail- ing. This fine vessel was built and engined by Messrs. Caird, of Greenock ; she was 488 i feet long, 44|^ feet broad, 34| feet deep, and of 5,526 tons. The engines were of the two-cylinder compound two-crank vertical type, with cylinders of 72 and 120 inches diameter, and stroke of 5 feet 6 inches, the boiler pressure being 75 lbs., generated in twelve boilers having thirty-six fur- naces. The consumption per day was about 120 tons, and her average speed about 16 knots on the passages made outward in September and homeward in October, 1875. These were the fastest ever made up to that time, and were much commented upon, the record being CHAP. III.J THE INMAN, ANCHOR, AND ALLAN LINES. 55 wrested from the newer rival, the White Star Line, which, commencing in 1871, had till then held the premier position. The first use of the " electric light " in this trade was made in this steamer, which was fitted with it in November, 1879. In 1887 new triple expansion engines and boilers were supplied by Messrs. Laird, of Bir- kenhead, and forced draught on the Howden system fitted. After a period of six years, during which time other lines were bringing forward noble vessels to obtain the much-prized "fastest passage," another beautiful vessel, the City of Rome, was launched for this line at Barrow on June 14th, 1881, and sailed on her first voyage from Liverpool, October 13th, 1881. This graceful vessel was the subject of much comment when being built, but the great expectations entertained were, however, not realized. The construction of the hull, beyond being exceptionally strong, calls for no comment. She was built of iron throughout, and was 546 feet long, 52^ feet broad, and 37 feet deep, and of 13,500 tons ; three funnels were for the first time fitted, which being uniformly spaced with four masts, gave the vessel a noble appear- ance in conjunction with the graceful bow and general outline of the hull. For the machinery, which was also by the Barrow Company, the three-crank engine was adopted, but it differed from the other types in the fact that there were six cylinders, three high pressure, each 46 inches, and three low pressure, each 86 inches diameter, fitted tandem fashion, with a stroke of 6 feet. A great departure was made in the working of the slide-valves by means of spur-wheels, which geared the weigh-shaft (on which the 58 THE ATLANTIC FEKBY. [cHAP. III. eccentrics were fitted) with the crank-shaft, and thus enabled the valves to be fitted at the back of the cylinders. Hollow shafting was also fitted throughout, except for the propeller length. The boilers, which were of the usual type in iron, carrying 90 lbs. pressure, were eight in number, with forty-eight furnaces placed two and two in fore and aft line, which enabled a water-tight bulkhead to be fitted fore and aft on each side, so as to form the coal bunkers ; this excellent arrangement was, however, altogether altered, as well as other parts of the machinery, after she was returned to the builders, with a view of attain- ing a speed more in accordance with the newer Atlantic vessels. After completion of these alterations, she was again put in the Express Service, under the auspices of the Anchor Line, in 1884, where she still continues. With the exception of the City of Chicago, bought to replace the City of Brussels in 1883, no steamers weru added to this line until the new regime. The.Inman and International (noticed later) placed upon the service the now famous twin screw steel steamers City of New York (the third of that name, see p. 157), in March, 1888, and City of Paris, in April, 1889. The intro- duction of these splendid ships to the Express Trans- atlantic Service, marks one of these epochs of complete transformation in type of vessel, which, as the years roll by, the demands of the public necessitate, and the advance of engineering science renders possible. In the design and construction of hull and machinery great advances were made, steel being very extensively used. CHAP. III.J THE INMAN, ANCHOR, AND ALLAN LINES. 59 and following the idea of the builders, Messrs. J. and G. Thomson, great breadth of beam was adopted ; also, as STERN OF CITY OF NEW YORK, SHOWING PATENT RUDDER AND TWIN SCREWS. may be seen from the illustration, the most minute subdivision into water-tight compartments, effected by numerous transverse, and, for the first time, fore and aft 60 THE ATLANTIC FEBRY. [cHAP. III. mid-line bulkheads. These were rendered j^racticable on aeoonnt of the adoption, for the first time, in the Express Service, of the "twin screw" system of propulsion. Another great novelty was the adoption of the water chambers, to lessen the rolling in a sea-way. The general outline was somewhat after the handsome appearance of the City of Rome, there being three funnels and three pole-masts with but little sail power, the in- troduction of the twin screws having evidently sounded the death-knell of all the time-honoured and romantic associations of the glistening sail and flowing sheet. The machinery consisted of two separate (port and starboard) sets of three-crank triple engines possessing all the latest improvements ; the boilers being fitted with forced draught on the closed stokehole system, and carrying 150 lbs. pressure.^ One of the most marked innovations which deserves notice was the new arrange- ment of the rudder ; this, unlike the usual type, had no part above the water-line, although the hull was so out- lined or built as to look as if there were, but in this case the rudder proper only reached to a foot or two below the water-line, having the stock passing through a water-tight stufiing-box into a comi^artment in the run, in which a powerful steering gear was placed. This, like all the other auxiliary machines on board, was worked upon Brown's hydraulic system, which was hitherto entirely unknown in this trade. The first of these fleet argosies was the City of New ' Howden's system of forced draught has since been fitted on steamship " City of Paris " in 1891. DECK PLAN, CITY OF NEW YORK. Face page 60. CHAP. III.] THE INMAN, ANCHOR, AND ALLAN LINES. 61 York, which came out in 1888, and was followed in 1889 by the City of Paris; the splendid runs of the latter soon brought them to the front rank, and in May, 1889, the honour of being the first to reduce the passage to below six days fell to the City of Paris. Public attention was much turned to this vessel early •in 1890, owing to an accident of exceptional mag- nitude, which occurred to the machinery on March, 25th, 1890, when nearing the Irish coast on a homeward lun ; this, as is now well known,- consisted in tlie com- plete wrecking of the starboard engine, caused by the breakage of the shaft at the tube mouth. Until this mishap it was generally assumed that total disablement and flooding of both port and starboard machinery was almost impossible, and certainly most unlikely, but hke other calculations of man's extensive but nevertheless limited foresight, it was found not to be infallible. Portions of the wrecked engine damaged the mid line bulkhead, allowing the water, which had, owing to the breakage of the sea connections, filled one engine-room, to flow freely into the other. Although completely disabling the ship, the breakdown caused no injury to life or limb, and at no time was there any danger of foundering or other fatal accident, for she floated quite safely until towed into Queenstown harbour, whence, after a short detention occupied in closing the wrecked sea con- nections and pumping out the water, she proceeded under her own steam to Liverpool ; a fact which once and for ever ought to prove that bulkheads, when properly ar- ranged and constructed, will effectually prevent sinking. 62 THE ATLANTIC FEERY. [cHAP. III. Since the advent of these two great " Cities " the Inman and International have rested on their laurels, although they also have yielded the palm of the fastest passage to their former rivals as will be recorded later. Like that of the Cunard Company the proprietary of the Inman Line has undergone changes. It passed first from the private ownership of its energetic founder, Mr. William Inman, to a private limited company in 1875, which after- wards, in September, 1886, endeavoured unsuccessfully to raise additional capital by the public issue of deben- tures. The whole organization and fleet was then purchased by the International Navigation Company of the United States, better known as the Eed Star Line, and the entire management altogether passed from the well-known name of Inman to that of Messrs. Eichardson, Spence and Co., who now continue it under the name of the Inman and International Company, Limited. In 1851 a line was formed in Glasgow to trade between that port and New York City ; under the name of The Glasgow and New York Steam-packet Company. The first steamer, the Glasgow, sailed in 1851, and was followed by the New York and Edinburgh. The line was fairly successful until 1858, when the New York was lost, which proved the first step downwards, for soon afterwards the other steamers were sold, and the line was broken up in 1859. The first successful line from Glasgow was that known as the Anchor Line, in 1856. This line, under the management of Messrs. Handyside and Henderson, com- menced by despatchmg the steamer Tempest to New York. This trade was, however, only carried on as a secondary CHAP. III.J THE INMAN, ANCHOR, AND ALLAN LINES. 63 one to their Mediterranean trade until 1863, when they commenced with large steamers, the first two being named the Britannia and Caledonia. The trade increased so rapidly that it was soon found necessary to commence weekly sailings. The recent additions to the Anchor fleet rank amongst the largest of the Atlantic vessels. One of the modern innovations introduced by this now extensive line was the carrying of dead meat by the dry air process of refrigerating. This was effected on board the S.S. Oircassia by means of machinery specially arranged and made by Messrs. Bell, Coleman and Co. The enormous trade now carried on in this particular service to every part of the world dates from this success- ful venture, which was made in March, 1879 ; the first actual experiment was, however, that of the S.S. Strath- leven in the Australian trade, fitted towards the end of 1878 by the same firm of Bell, Coleman and Co. The next expansion of the Transatlantic service which we must notice was designed to connect Canada with the mother country, and to this end a contract was entered (in August, 1852) into by a firm in Liverpool, named MacKean, MacLasty and Lamont, with the Canadian Government for an annual subsidy of £24,000. Early in 1853 the first steamer, Geneva, sailed from Liverpool for Quebec, and was followed by others named the Ottawa, Cleopatra, etc. The service lasted until late in 1854, when it came to an end through the Crimean war causing a demand for steamers as " troopers." After the termination of this service, another was soon 64 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [chap. ni. afterwards created by Sir Hugh Allan, of Canada, in conjunction with his brothers in Glasgow, and, under the name of the Allan Line, still flourishes. The first vessel was the Canadian, which sailed from Liverpool, on the 20th September, 1854, for Quebec and Montreal ; this was an iron screw-propelled vessel built by Denny, of Dumbarton, 278 feet long, 34 feet broad, 24 feet deep, and of 1,873 tons, with inverted direct-acting screw engines by Tulloch nnd Denny, haviug cylinders 62 inches diameter, uml : i feet stroke, the boiler pressure CANADIAN (1854), FIRST STEAMSHIP OF THE ALLAN LINE. being 12 lbs. per square inch. Owing to this vessel and her sister, the Indian, being chartered by the Govern- ment, no further sailings took place until April, 1856, when, under the name of the Montreal Ocean Steamship Company, an excellent service was commenced which has since been carried on regularly. Like the other great lines the Allan has kept con- tinuously adding to its fleet, from time to time, and such well-known vessels as the North American, Anglo-Saxon, Circassian, Nova Scotian, Polynesian, Sarmatian, have borne CHAP, ni.j THE INMAN, ANCHOE, AND ALLAN LINES. 65 the Canadian flag from time to time down to the hand- some steel Parisian, which was built by Messrs. R. Napier, on the Clyde, in 1880. She was 440 feet long, 46 feet broad, 33 feet deep, and of 5,865 tons. The engines, also by Napier, were compound three-cylinder three-crank type, the diameter of the high-pressure 60 inches, and of each of the low 85 inches, with a stroke of 5 feet, and boiler pressure of 80 lbs. Since the advent of this vessel many steamers of the cargo type have been added to the Allan Line to supply the demands of their extensive services spreading over the globe, but none for the express passenger trade, so that practically the Cana- dian mail and passenger service has not advanced since 1881. In 1888 a contract was entered into by the Orient Line, of London, with the Canadian Govern- ment, to commence a superior service with a guaranteed mean speed of 18 knots ; this, however, has fallen through. Unlike the other lines the proprietary of this Company has undergone no change, but still remains a private concern, being about the only private Atlantic steamship line left. That the Canadian Government is still determined not to rest content is evident by the rumours occasionally heard of a high-speed service, the latest, in March, 1891, being, that a few influential gentle- men are promoting a high-speed service to be placed under the management of the Allan Line. CHAPTER IV. THE GALWAY, NATIONAL, AND GXJION LINES. In 1857 a line was organized to trade between Galway (Ireland) and St. John's, Newfoundland, the shortest ocean route between this country and America ; it com- menced in June, 1858, with a subsidy from the Govern- ment for carrying the mails. As the steamers were not up to the standard as regards speed and power, the service was conducted with great irregularity and was eventually given up in 1861. In August, 1863, a line was commenced from Liver- pool, making Galway the final port of call, with a subsidy from Government of j£75,000 per annum ; it lasted, however, only a short time, being finally given up in January, 1864. In 1863 the next line was established by some Liver- pool merchants with three steamers named the Louisiana,,' Virginia, and Pennsylvania, under the name of the National Steam Navigation Company, but it was not until the latter end of 1864 — when the Coinpany was re- organized under the name of the National Steamship Company — that this line became a paying one. Since that period it has carried on a regular trade, but its performances have not proved remarkable, for, although ^ Afterwards called the Holland (see next page). CHAP. IV.J THE GALWAY, NATIONAL, AND GUION LINES. 67 the vessels are large and strongly built, they are ex- treflaely slow. Notwithstanding that their vessels do not rank among the swift class, they have been fairly suc- cessful, and have carried large numbers of steerage passengers. Besides their Liverpool and New York trade, vessels of this line also sail from London to New York at regular intervals. To this line belongs the honour of having first intro- duced the compound engines to the Atlantic trade, the' Holland having had her original engines compounded in 1869, by Messrs. J". Jack and Co., of Liverpool, by the addition of a high-pressure cylinder 46 inches dia- meter, placed tandem fashion on the top of each of the original low-pressure cylinders, which were 86 inches diameter, the stroke "being 4 feet, and boiler pressure 60 lbs. The most remarkable vessel of recent years placed upon the Atlantic was brought out by this Company, namely, the high-speed America of 432 feet long, 51^ feet broad, 36 feet deep, and 5,528 tons. She was designed and built of steel, by Messrs. J. and G. Thomson, on their altered proportions ; the engines, also by the same firm, were of the usual three-cylinder compound three- crank type, the high-pressure diameter being 63 inches, and each of the low-pressure 91 inches, with a stroke of 5J feet, and boiler pressure 95 lbs. The advent of this vessel was much commented upon, owing to the new departure she represented, as the Company had hitherto specially refrained from the Express Service. A dis- tinctive new feature in her arrangements was a hand- 68 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [CHAP. IV. some dome over the saloon, which gives it an airy and lofty appearance. It has since been imitated in the Inman City of New York and City of Paris (see p. 165). The America being driven at a very high speed on con- siderably less consumption, namely 190 tons per day, than the other " record breakers," soon took front rank. Her general appearance differed from the then prevail- ing type, there being only two masts and two very lofty elliptic funnels. Notwithstanding that she succeeded in breaking the record in June, 1884, by a passage home- ward of 6 days, 14 hours, 18 minutes, she was sold in 1886 to the Italian Government, owing to an alteration having been effected in the management of the Company, which felt reluctant to enter into such an expensive and restless competition. Just three years after the National Line commenced, the managers of one of the then noted fleet of emigrant sailing vessels known as the Black Star Line, seeing that the steamships were drawing all the passenger trade, inaugurated the now well-known Guion Line, the founders being Messrs. Williams and Guion, the former representing the line in New York, and the latter in Liverpool. They commenced in 1866, the first vessel being named the Manhattan, an iron screw-propelled vessel, 335 feet long, 42J feet broad, 28 feet deep, and of 2,869 tons, having low pressure inverted direct- acting surface-condensing engines, with cylinders 60 inches diameter, and 3J feet stroke. This vessel and her machinery were built by Messrs, Palmer, at Jarrow on the Tyne, and was followed by the Minnesota, Nevada, 00 00 m a ■< n 72 THE ATLANTIC FEREY, [cHAP. IV. Idaho, and others ; and later on, in 1870, by the now -well-known Wyoming and Wisconsin, iron vessels built and engined by Messrs. Palmer, each being 366 feet long, 43^ feet broad, 34 feet deep, and of 3,238 tons. The engines were amongst the first compound type in the Atlantic trade, with one vertical high-pressure cylinder 60 inches diameter, and one double trunk horizontal low-pressure of 120 inches diameter, both working on the same crank, the stroke being 3i feet, and having Corliss valves ; these engines and original boilers, carrying 70 lbs. pressure, are still at work in 1892. Some time afterwards, in 1872, two strange vessels named the Montana and Dakota, of entirely different de- sign, both in hull and machinery, from the then existing type of Atlantic steamers, were brought out. Their dimen- sions were 400^ feet long, 43f feet broad, 40| feet deep ; the engines were compound,' one high-pressure, working inverted, of 60 inches diameter, on a forward crank, and two low-pressure, working horizontal, on after crank, each 113 inches diameter, with' a stroke of 3| feet, and having Corliss valves. The first boilers (carrying 100 lbs.) of the Montana were constructed on the prin^ ciple of a series of cross tubes, 15 inches diameter, but these failed with loss of life, and were replaced by ordi- nary tubular boilers, carrying 80 lbs., before she com- menced sailing. Although specially built to lead the van on the Atlantic highway, neither of these vessels succeeded in "breaking the record," and were both ' See illnstraUon in the chapter on machinery. \ \ CHAP. IV.J THE GALWAY, NATIONAL, AND GUION LINES. 73 afterwards wrecked, the Dakota in May, 1877, and the Montana in March, 1880, at places on the Welsh coast within a few miles of each other. After an interval of seven years another splendid vessel, the Arizona, was brought forward by the Guion Line. She was of iron, built and engined by Messrs. John Elder and Co., Glasgow, and measured 450 feet long, 4.5^ feet broad, 35| feet deep, and 5,164 tons. Her machinery was of completely new design to this trade, being compound with three crank- shafts, each having one cylinder, the high-pressure, of 62, inches diameter, being in the centre, and the low-pressures each of 90 inches, with a stroke of 5| feet. There were seven boilers carrying 90 lbs. pressure and having thirty- nine furnaces ; the consumption per day averaging 125 tons, or about 25 per cent, more than the fastest vessels, Britannic and Germanic, then existing. These she succeeded in surpassing by making the fastest out- ward passage in May, 1880, and homeward in July, 1879.^ The general design, excepting machinery, was simply a copy of these two noted vessels, as have been all the other fine vessels since brought out by the various Lines. Soon after the Arizona had become noted for her rapid passages, this fine vessel became more famous by perform- ing a feat hitherto thought impossible, namely, running full speed into a huge iceberg and then returning to port to tell the tale ; this remarkable episode occurred in the month of November, 1879, on a homeward passage, and resulted in her putting into St. John's, Newfoundland, ^ This has since been reversed, see p. 90. 74 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. IV. with her bow completely smashed and crumpled up almost to the collision bulkhead, which did good service by remaining intact. Beyond the delay and the heavy cost of rebuilding a new bow, this mishap caused no injury to the vessel or the line, but, on the contrary, so proved the excellent construction of the hull that she has since continued to be well patronized. In consequence of the success of the Arizona, another iron steamer, the Alaska, built by the same firm, of similar type, but of somewhat larger dimensions and machinery, was put into commission early in 1882, and under the pseudonym of the "Atlantic greyhound" at once became famous by making the " fastest passage," and eventually became the first to reduce the passage to less than seven days in June, 1882. The last vessel to be added to the Guion fleet was the Oregon (already briefly noticed in the Cunard Line) ; this magnificent vessel, which first sailed under the Guion flag, was of iron, and was built and engined by Messrs. Elder on the same design as the two preceding vessels, but of increased size, her dimensions being 500 feet long, 54 feet broad, 40 feet deep, and 7,375 tons. The com- pound engines were magnificent specimens of marine engineering ; they consisted of one high-pressure cylinder 70 inches diameter, placed in the centre, and two low- pressure, estch 104 inches diameter, with 6 feet stroke, the boiler pressure being 110 lbs. and consumption about 310 tons per day. Only a brief time elapsed after the first voyage, on which she sailed, on October 7th, 1883, before she became noted for her passages, and eventually, z o o a o w 76 THE ATLANTIC FEREY. [CHAP. IV. in August, 1884, reduced the time of crossing the Atlantic to less than 6 J days. Notwithstanding her magnificent performance with the "red capped" funnel, she was, *or financial reasons, transferred to the Cunard Line in June, 1884, and, as already related, was sunk by a collision. After many years of successful and satisfactory working under the original founders, the organization was turned into a private limited company in 1883, and after the death of Mr. S. B. Guion, which occurred in December, 1885, was changed into a public one in the November of 1886, under the name of " The Liverpool and Great Western Steamship Company, Limited." CHAPTEE V. WHITE STAR LINE. Owing to the long period which elapsed after the formation of the Guion Line, it was thought that the Transatlantic trade had ceased to be a further field for extension, but in 1870 this illusion was dispelled by the formation of the Oceanic Steam Navigation Company, Limited, better known as the White Star Line, which now stands pre-eminently at the head of the great steam- ship companies of the globe. It was announced by the following advertisement from the " Liverpool Daily Post," March 1, 1871, in which it may be noticed some of the names formerly used by the Collins Line were proposed though they were not adopted. " White Stae Line, Oceanic Steam Navigation Company, Limited. " The new first-class full-powered screw steamships Oceanic, Baltic, Atlantic, Pacific,' Arctic,' Adriatic. " Sailing on Thursdays from Liverpool, and calling at Queenstown on Fridays to embark passengers. "Will sail as under for New York, via Queenstown. 1 These names were not adopted, those of Republic and Celtic being substituted for them. 78 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [CHAP. V. Oceanic, 4,500 tons, 3,000 horse-power, Captain Digby Murray, to sail to-morrow, Thursday, March 2nd, 1871. " These steamships have been designed to afford the very best accommodation to all classes of passengers, and are expected to accomplish quick and regular pas- sages between this country and America. " The state-rooms, with saloon and smoking-rooms, are placed amidships, and cabin passengers are thus re- moved from the noise and motion experienced at the after part of the vessel. "Passengers are booked to all parts of the States^ Canada, and Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, India, etc., at moderate through rates. A surgeon and stewardess carried on each ship. Drafts issued at New York for sums not exceeding ilO, free. " Parcels will be received at the Company's offices until 6 P.M. of the day before sailing. " Bills of lading to be had from Messrs. Benson and Holme, and Mawdsley and Son. Shipping notes at the Company's office. Loading berth, S.W. corner Bramley Moore Dock. " Saloon passage, £18 18s. and £16 16s. ; return ticket, 27 guineas. Steerage as low as by any other first-class, line. " Bates of freight, etc., may be obtained by applying to J. H. Sparks, at the Company's offices, 19, Broadway, New York ; in Belfast, to Samuel Gowan and Co., 4, Corporation Street, or to "ISMAY, ImBIE and Co., " 7, East India Avenue, or 10, Water Street, " London, E.G., Liverpool." This Company, like some of the others on the Atlantic, was an offshoot of one of the sailing clipper lines of former years, namely the " "White Star." This sailing fleet having come under the management of Mr. T. H. Ismay in 1867, and he having already had P3 a S m 80 THE ATLANTIC FBEEY. [CHAP. V. some experience of steamships as director of the National Line, already noticed, conceived the idea of establishing a first-class passenger line across the Atlantic with a fleet of steamers in every way superior to anything then in existence, a scheme which was by this time ripe for carrying out, owing to the radical improve- ments in design of hull and interior arrangements which were by this time being brought forward, mainly by Messrs. Harland and Wolff, of Belfast. Being substantially supported by several influential shipping men, Mr. Ismay, in 1869, entered into negotia- tions with the Belfast firm to build steamers of the latest and most modern type, and in 1870 he was joined by Mr. William Imrie, who had been previously a fellow apprentice of his. In February, 1871, their first steamer, the famous Oceanic first appeared upon the Mersey from Belfast ; her dimensions being 420 feet long, 41 feet broad, 31 feet deep, and her capacity 3,601 tons. This vessel will long be remembered as the pioneer of those improvements which, since her advent, have made travelling by ocean steamers so thoroughly com- fortable and luxurious. The curiosity of every one con- nected with nautical matters was thoroughly aroused by the way in which the then existing theories and designs of steamships were in this new craft set aside. Instead of the usual high bulwarks and narrow wooden deck- houses, another iron deck was added, with open iron rail- ings for bulwarks, so as to allow the water to come and go on deck ; the saloon was placed amidships, and extended ini Ml 5 a H rl C3 O r^ CO IS E>^ an O g 3 -S Si CQ w ■^ u h M a J4 Eh i*J ti-i5 CHAP, v.] WHITE STAR LINE. 81 the entire width of the vessel ; both forward and aft of the saloon the numerous state-rooms were arranged ruUR CYLINDER COMPOUND ENGINES V/;-llTS STAR LINE ENGINES or THE OCEANIC. SIDE VIEW. along both sides, and as all the side lights were about twice as large as any previously fitted to Atlantic G 82 THE ATLANTIC FEKKY. [chap. Y. steamers, the light and airy appearance of the interior soon took the attention of Atlantic passengers. The FOUR Cl'UNDER CO>lP H 1-3 Q < ST 00 00 H 98 THE ATLANTIC FEREY. [CHAP. V. termed three flag poles, the partial abandonment of sail , power initiated by the Inman and International Line being carried still further, and the two funnels are spaced so far apart as to allow the saloon being placed between them, the great length of the vessel allowing this to be done uniformly with the masts. Beyond the fact that the hulls are divided into tsmall compartments by both transverse and fore and aft bulk- heads, and that the saloon accommodation is of the most luxurious kind, having extensive state- and retiring-rooms en suite and of considerable height, the interior calls for no comments, but attention may be drawn to the in- genious arrangements of the first-class accommodation, whereby each state-room is fitted with only one berth, so that, when preferred, a passenger can j)rocure the privilege of having a room to himself. The propelling power, although twin-screw, possesses the novelty in this trade of having the propellers over- lapping a few feet instead of being a slight distance out on each side from the hull, this system, although appa- rently novel, has long been in use elsewhere, and has been used also by Messrs. Harland and Wolff in some cross-channel vessels. Early in 1891 another step forward was taken by this line in increasing their fleet of cargo steamers, such as the Cufic and Runic, by the addition of the Nomadic and Tauric, improved forms of cargo vessels specially adapted for live cattle. These also have the overlapping twin screws which have proved so successful on the express boats. They will, no doubt, be the prototype of the b3 a m Iri o 1^ m ■TTiTri-TT- T -Ji: so 1^ w pi i> CE D ^pwr^?rrr7T7w F-^5H!^B1 • ■ -' \*' - ■''■' ^^■' ■■ '-'••*'*i*' ■, '.-■ 100 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. V. future cattle fleets of Great Britain, as their exceptionally good ventilation and general arrangements render them admirably adapted for this class of trade. It may be interesting to mention that the now exten- sive trade of carrying live cattle across the Atlantic and other oceans was commenced in July, 1874 ; the first steamer to bring cattle to Liverpool from the continent of North America was the SS. European, belonging to Messrs. H. N. Hughes and Nephew, with 373 head of cattle, out of which three were lost ; the next vessel the San Marcos in July, 1875, with 276 head, all for the firm of George Eoddick. The dead meat trade by refrigera- tion commenced on the Guion Line's Wyoming in October, 1875, a few small lots having previously been success- fully carried in 1874 on the White Star liners Celtic and Britannic. Unlike the other Transatlantic lines the proprietary of the White Star has undergone no change, the well- known and respected names of Ismay, Imrie and Co. (since joined by Mr. W. S. Graves in 1881, and the two sons of the senior partner, Mr. Ismay, in 1891) still con- tinuing to steer its course in the same brilliant and enterprising manner as from the commencement. The following important correspondence, reprinted from the " Liverpool Daily Post," of March 18th, 1887, explains the arrangement above referred to with H. M. Government : The Government and Armed Ceuisees. " A Parliamentary paper just issued contains copies of correspondence respecting the subvention of merchant 102 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [CHAP. V. steamers for State purposes. The paper opens with a letter, dated the 31st January, from Mr. Ismay (of Messrs. Ismay, Imrie and Co., White Star Line), giving the terms on which they were prepared to carry out the scheme for the subvention by the Admiralty of mercan- tile vessels specially built for service as armed cruisers. Mr. Ismay says : — " The Oceanic Steamship Company " 1. Undertake to hold at the disposition of the Govern- ment, for purchase or hire, at the option of the Admiralty, to be exercised from time to time during the continuance of the agreement, the following vessels, viz. : — Britannic, £130,000 ; Germanic, £130,000 ; Adriatic, £100,000 ; and Celtic, £100,000. " 2. In the event of purchase, the foregoing prices are to be held as the values of the vessels on the 1st January, 1887, plus 10 per cent, for compulsory sale, less an abatement of 6 per cent, per annum on the depreciate.d annual value for the period that may elapse between the 1st January, 1887, and the date of purchase by the Govern- ment. In such ease the Company shall be entitled to remove from the ship or ships the plated ware, cutlery, crystal, earthenware, blankets, counterpanes, and linens, which articles are not to be considered as part of the equipment of the ships ; such proportionate quantities, however, as may be necessary for the number of officers and warrant officers that would form part of the ship's complement, if used as an armed cruiser, to be left on board free of charge. " 3. In the event of charter by the Admiralty the rate of hire of the before-named vessels, all or any, to be at the rate of 20s. per gross registered ton per month, the owner providing the crew, or at the rate of 15s. per gross registered ton per month, the Admiralty finding the crew, all risks of capture and of hostilities being assumed by the Admiralty ; the Company to be allowed seven days on pay at the stipulated rate of hire on any of the vessels so chartered for taking down cabin fittings 104 THE ATLANTIC FBRKY. [cHAP. V. not required by Admiralty, and ten days on the same pay at the termination of the service for replacing these fittings, the work of dismounting, dismantling, and reinstating to he performed by the Company at the expense of the Admiralty. " 4. Should the Government hire and subsequently elect to purchase any steamer under this agreement, three- eighths of the amount of hire paid during the period not exceeding six months immediately preceding the pur- chase to be allowed by way of rebate from the amount of purchase money provided by these presents. " 5. During the currency of this contract any vessels which may be substituted in the mail service for those before named (except the steamers hereinafter referred to) shall also be subject to the like conditions as regards purchase and hire. In the event of purchase the price shall be fixed at the cost price to the Company, with 6 per cent, additional for compulsory sale, less an abate- mient in the manner already provided in Clause 2. " 6. The Company have determined to build one or two vessels of high speed, and they agree to construct these vessels of such type and speed as shall render them specially suitable for service as armed cruisers, and in accordance with the plans and specifications already submitted and approved by the Admiralty. In considera- tion, the Admiralty agree to pay to the Company for the vessel or vessels so approved, an annual subvention, payable half-yearly, at the rate of 15.9. per gross regis- tered ton per annum, such subvention to commence from the date on which the vessels respectively start on first voyage with the mails, and to be continued yearly for a minimum period of five years, terminable at the end of five years or thereafter on twelve months' previous notice, always provided that no subvention is payable to any vessel after the 1st January, 1894, if the Admiralty shall have given the twelve months' previous notice. " 7. In the event of the Company ceasing to carry the mails under the contract now being concluded before the CHAP, v.] WHITE STAR LINE. 105 Company shall have received five annual subventions under the condition of clause 6, they shall be entitled to receive for any part of the period that may not have expired at the time of the termination of the mail con- tract a subvention at the rate of 20s. per gross registered ton per annum, in lieu of 15s. as already provided. In consideration of the subvention, the Company shall be precluded from entertaining in connection with any of the vessels referred to in this contract offers for sale or charter for a period exceeding five weeks, unless, in the case of a longer charter, with the approval of the Admiralty previously obtained, without first giving to the Admiralty the option of exercising the pre-emption to purchase or hire, such option to be exercised as regards any vessel receiving a subvention within seven days, and as regards the other vessels within forty-eight hours. " 8. In the event of the Company giving notice to the Admiralty, it shall be accompanied by such evidence Qf the bona fide nature of such offer for sale or charter as shall, in the opinion of the Admiralty, be satisfactory, otherwise the said notice shall be considered void and of no effect. " 9. In the event of charter by the Company for a period in excess of that named, the subvention to be suspended during the currency of such charter, unless continued by previous special arrangement with the Admiralty. " 10. Should the Admiralty elect to charter any vessel receiving the subvention, the rate of hire for such vessel to be at the rate of 20s. per gross registered ton per calendar month, the Admiralty providing the crew, or 22s. 6d. per ton if the owners are required to find the crew. In the form'er case the Admiralty are to assume all risks ; in the latter the risk of loss or damage from hostilities only to be for their account. The terms defined in Clause 3 for time allowance for dismantling and refitting to apply also to these vessels. " 11. In order that the vessels receiving a special sub- vention may be ready for service as arm^d cruisers at 106 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. V. the shortest possible notice, the Company shall afford to the Admiralty every facility compatible with the use of the vessels as mercantile ships for fitting on board during the construction of the steamers such permanent fittings and arrangsments for their armament, on plans to be approved, as will enable them to be prepared for service within a week of arrival and discharge of cargo at Liver- pool. And as regards the guns contemplated to be placed upon the upper deck, the Admiralty are to provide the racers and other fittings and gun mountings, which the Company are to keep, if required by the Admiralty, in their storehouse at Liverpool without charge, ready for immediate placing on board the shi^js at the cost of the Admiralty, and to maintain the same in clean order ready for immediate use free of charge. " 12. It is understood that the crews of the vessels em- ployed under this agreement shall consist as nearly as possible of one half of men belonging to the Eoyal Naval Eeserve, and the Company agree to do everything in their power to give effect to this requirement at the earliest possible date after the commencement of the agreement. " 13. Should any of the foregoing ships be sold to a British shipowner approved by the Admiralty, the privi- leges of the agreement are to remain attached to the ship or ships under the new ownership. " 14. The price for the ships receiving the subvention is to be the cost price thereof, subject to the general con- ditions set out in Clause 2 ; but the Admiralty agree not to exercise their pre-emption as regards purchase only for two years after their completion. " 15. The subvention payable under this agreement to be suspended on the loss of any ship, or in case they are not being maintained in a seaworthy condition, with a Board of Trade certificate, and the Admiralty are at liberty annually to inspect the steamers. " 16. Any additional capital expenditure over new boilers and machinery to the vessels enumerated in CHAP. V.j WHITE STAR LINE. lOY Clause 1, to be added to the value of the vessel in the event of purchase, but without 10 per cent, bonus for' compulsory purchase. " 17. If the vessels under this agreement are hired or purchased by the Admiralty, so as to interfere with the Company's obligations under the mail contract, the Admiralty to agree to obtain the concurrence of the Post Office to release them from such obligations. " Writing on the 19th February, the Admiralty accept the proposed terms, the subvention to commence from the date on which the vessels respectively start on their first voyage with their mails. On the 2nd February the Admiralty communicated the nature of the scheme to the Treasury, explaining that the opportunity of prac- tically developing the scheme has been offered by the negotiations in progress for the conveyance of the mails between the United Kingdom and New York. As to the standard of speed, the Admiralty consider that no vessels of less than seventeen or nineteen knots an hour would meet the object in view. And existing vessels, even with this speed, would not be so valuable for their purpose as those specially built to the Admiralty requirements. The Admiralty had formed no definite idea as to the number of vessels that should be retained, but consider that probably ten would be the maximum number at all likely to be placed at the disposition of the Admiralty within the next five years, at the maximum annual charge of i;50,000. The Admiralty had been in corre- spondence with several large companies, but arrange- ments had only been concluded with the White Star and Cunard Lines. Although the vessels of the White Star Line huve not the high speed that the Admiralty seek to obtain,^ yet they are undoubtedly fast ocean-going vessels, and would prove efficient transports. The prices named are fair both for purchase and hire, and afford a protec- tion to the public service against having to pay excessive rates that might be current in time of war. ' Since fully attained in the Teutonic and Majestic. 108 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [cHAP. V. " As regards the conditions as to vessels to be built, their lordships view with much satisfaction the arrange- ment they have been enabled to effect in this respect. Plans of two proposed new vessels to be forthwith con- structed, and completed in about eighteen months or two years, have been laid before the Director of Naval Construction. That officer has reported to their lord- ships that these plans would provide vessels far in advance of anything that has yet been submitted to the Admiralty for the purpose of armed cruisers. They would be of large size, of exceedingly high speed, pro- vided with twin screws, have their engines and boilers below the water line, be divided into numerous compart- ments, and have a protected steering gear. In regard to capacity they would be capable of conveying fully 2,000 men, whom they could land at Bombay via the Suez Canal in 14 days, or via the Cape in 22|- days. Their coal capacity would be such that at a cruising gpeed they could probably keep the sea for a long period, probably not less than three months. These vessels will be completed in about eighteen months, and the sub- vention will be an annual charge of about £6,500 for each vessel so long as they carry the mails, or £8,500 should the mails be withdrawn from them. "As respects the Cunard Company, that Company already possess the two fastest vessels in the British mercantile marine — namely, the Etruria and Umbria, both of which have a speed at sea of 18 knots an hour. Although these vessels do not possess the advantages that the Admiralty would obtain had they been con- structed upon designs to meet their requirements, yet their lordships think they are vessels of such high speed and such a high class that their retention by the board for national purposes when required is desirable. They have, therefore, entered into negotiations to retain the ■Umbria and Etruria, and the Aurania — a steamer almost equal in speed — on similar terms to those made with the White Star Company. The annual expenditure for the CHAP, v.] WHITE STAR LINE. 109 retention of these vessels will amount to an average of £5,300 each. " The Treasury's reply is dated 10th February and approves of the proposed agreements. " The offer of the Cunard Line is contained in a letter by Mr. John Burns, dated 8th February. He offered for sale or hire the following vessels : — Etruria, of 7,718 gross tons, value iJ310,000; Umbria, 7,718, £301,000; Aurania, 7,269, £240,000 ; Servia, 7,392, £193,000 ; Gallia, 4,809, £102,000. " The terms of the subvention and purchase are similar to those agreed to by the White Star Line, but for the charter of the three first vessels the demand is 20s. per ton register per month without crew, and the other two 15s. per ton per month without crew. In the event of the Company determining to build new ships for the mail service, they undertake to submit the plans to the Admiralty, with a view to their being constructed in a manner best suited to the purpose of armed cruisers. " The Admiralty, writing on the same day accepted the proposals for the Etruria, Umbria, and Aurania." CHAPTER VI. DOMINION, AMERICAN, STATE, WAEREN, WILSON, AND BEAVER LINES. Following the example of the White Star Line, another of the existing lines, the Dominion, commenced in 1872 a service between Liverpool, Quebec, and Montreal; this was an offshoot of the Liverpool and Mississippi Steam- ship Company trading between Liverpool and New Orleans, and has continued in the service ever since, carrying the Eoyal Mails in conjunction with the Allan Line. Since the commencement many fine vessels have been added to the Dominion fleet, the last being the Vancouver, a fine iron steamer, sister to the Inman City of Chicago, built on the Clyde. This vessel was brought out in 1884 ; her dimensions are 430| feet long, 45 feet broad, 33| feet deep, with a gross tonnage of 4,928 tons. The engines, by J. and J. Thomson, are of the three crank compound type, having the high-pressure cylinders, 53 inches diameter, placed over the after crank, the two low-pressure cylinders being each 80 inches diameter, with a stroke of 5J feet. Since this fine vessel came out no fast mail passenger vessels have been added to this fleet, but it is rumoured that some fine vessels emanating from the great Belfast firm will soon be afloat.' ' Since this was written the Labrador, built at Belfast, has Ijeen added, in 1891. CHAP. VI.J DOMINION, AMBEICAN, STATE, ETC., LINES. Ill 'Besides the passenger service the Dominion Line also carries on an extensive cargo and live cattle trade to both Liverpool and Bristol. Since its foundation the manage- ment has been in the hands of the well-known firm of Messrs. Flinn, Main, and Montgomery, no change having taken place since its inauguration. From the failure 'Of the Collins Line and others noted, down to the year 1871 no efforts were made by the United States to establish an American Transatlantic line, but in that year steps were taken in Philadelphia, and an order placed with Messrs. Cramp, of that city, to build four iron screw steamers, each 343 feet long, 43 feet broad, 34^ feet deep, and of 3,119 tons, with vertical two-crank compound engines, having cylinders 57 and 90 inches diameter, with a stroke of 4 feet, and boiler pressure of 60 lbs. These vessels, named the Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Pennsylvania, were fitted with large first class passenger accommodation, and, in conjunction with other English steamers named Lord Gough, British Prince, etc., have carried on the American Line between Liverpool and Philadelphia since its commencement with the Pennsyl- vania early in 1873. After carrying on this service under the original promoters for some years, these four steamers were taken over by the International or Eed Star Line (al- ready noted) in 1884, who had the large saloon accom- modation removed, and employed them in the more profitable emigrant and cargo service in which they are still engaged. 112 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [cHAP. VI. It is interesting to note that it was on one of these steamers the now well-known system of Howden forced draught was introduced in the Atlantic trade, this being fitted to the steamship Ohio in the year 1887, when she had new triple engines fitted, and new boilers, which re- sulted in a great addition to her earning space. These four steamers, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Pennsylvania, are the only regular liners on the Atlantic trade which fly the American flag, owing to the United States' law which prohibits any vessel to fly it unless actually constructed in the country, and it is for this reason the Inman boats City of Paris and City of New York fly the English flag although constructed with American capital. In 1873 a venture which has since struggled to keep a place upon the Atlantic highway was formed in Glasgow to trade from that port — and occasionally Liverpool — to New York, under the name of the State Line. This continued to ply, calling at Larne (Ireland) until early in the year 1891, when it collapsed, the steamers passing into the hands of the Allan Line to swell their already enormous fleet. In the same year also, 1873, the South Wales Atlantic Steamship Company was formed to run from Cardiff to New York, but only lasted two years, notwithstanding that they had no dock dues to pay at Cardiff and were supplied with coal gratuitously by the Marquis of Bute, who was one of the largest shareholders in the line. The two steamers were named Glamorgan and Pembroke, and were fitted up in superior style, the former having CHAP. VI. ] DOMINION, AMERICAN, STATE. ETC., LINES. 113 been lighted with Allan's patent gas apparatus, which, like the vessels, was unsuccessful. The next expansion of this great trade was made in 1874 from Bristol, the port which first created and carried it on. This was made by a company called after the one which originated the enterprise, namely the .Great Western, which now carries on a moderate freight and cattle service. The year 1875 also saw the birth of another Liverpool line of steamers named the Warren Line, which com- menced a steam service to Boston by the purchase of the Guion Line pioneers, Manhattan and Minnesota. These they had fitted with new compound engines, and then placed them on the station for their freight and cattle service early in the year noted, and since then have gradually expanded and added some of the finest freight and cattle service afloat to their line. Under the flag of the Warren Line the vessels of the North Atlantic Steam Navigation Company and others also sail, and it is interesting to note that they have in their service one of the oldest, if not the oldest, vessel on the Atlantic, namely, the Palestine, built by Steele and Co., of Greenock, in 1858. In February of the same year, 1875, another huge trading fleet appeared on the Atlantic, sent forth by the great shipping firm of Wilson, whose already extensive trade from Hull enabled them to command a profitable trade from almost any part -of the world. In 1884 they introduced to the Atlantic trade the triple expansion engines on their steamship Martello,' a vessel 370 feet 1 See below, p. 182. I 114 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. VI. long, 43 feet broad, 28 feet deep, and of 3,709 tons, with triple engine having cylinders 31, 50, and 82 inches diameter, and 4 feet 9 inches stroke. This service still continues, having been largely increased by a London connection which was formed, in conjunction with another line in 1886, to be noticed later. Another of the existing regular lines, the Beaver, ■or, more correctly speaking, the Canada Shipping Com- pany, Limited, also commenced in 1875 to change from their fine fleet of iron sailing clippers to the steam service, and had three fine iron steamers named the Lake Nepigon, Lake Champlain, and Lake Megantic, built for them on the Clyde, since when they have carried on a regular service to Canada in the summer and New York in the winter, and considerably increased their fleet. CHAPTEE VII. LEYLAND, JOHNSTON, AND LONDON LINES. Notwithstanding the numerous lines already noted, another came upon the scene in 1876 to compete with the Cunard Company for a / share of the Boston trade ; this important Company, now known as the Leyland Line, commenced on this service in 1876, but had long been engaged in the Mediterranean trade from Liverpool under the esteemed firm of Bibby, which had retired from the management some years before. To carry on this service the six largest ships of the then existing fleet were placed upon the route, and as they were, so to speak, prototypes of the White Star boats, being built prior to them by the same firm of builders, they were suc- cessful, and were soon afterwards fitted with larger com- pound engines and generally altered to suit them for the wild Atlantic. Since its inauguration the Leyland Line has been most successful, two steamers, Virginian and Venetian, built by Messrs. Palmer, of Jarrow, the Bostonian and others, built by Messrs. Harland and Wolff, having been added at intervals to the fleet and so kept it up, to the standard necessary for a regular Transatlantic freight line. In the year 1880 the only regular line from Liverpool to Baltimore was commenced by the firm of Messrs. W. 116 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [OHAP. VII. Johnston and Co., who were already extensively en- gaged in the steamship trade to the Danube and other ports. The service is now carried on very extensively with some fine cattle and freight steamers such as the Queensmore, Rossmore, Barrowmore, Sedgemore, and others. Another service from London to Baltimore has also been carried on since early in 1890 with fine steamers of the same class. In addition to these lines, there are now very many other occasional vessels engaged, such as the St. Ronans and Borderer, trading to and from the various ports of the United States and Canada, which countries may well be termed the great granaries of modern times owing to the enormous supplies they send to the mother country. Although the great city on the Mersey still controls almost the whole of the passenger and by far the greater bulk of the freight service of this vast " coming and going " of modern commerce, a considerable number of other freight lines now find location on the Thames, in order to supply direct the teeniiing mass of humanity centring in the great emporium of the world, London. One of the principal of these is that now known as the Wilson-Hill Line, which, as already noticed, now carries on the service formerly known as the Monarch Line. This once noted line was commenced in 1881 under the of&cial title of the Exchange Shipping Company, Limited, by Messrs. Patton, Vickers and Co., with a view of carry- ing on direct from London to New York a regular salooa and emigrant passenger service combined with cargo. CHAP. VII.j LEYLAND, JOHNSTON, AND LONDON LINES. 117 and was commenced with the Assyrian Monarch and other steamers built by the Earle Shipbuilding Company, in Hull, followed afterwards by others built on the Clyde. During the early portion of its career a fairly , successful business was carried on, but this gradually fell away, and in 1887 the line collapsed, and the steamers, after being laid up in London for some time, were taken over by the Wilson Line, of Hull, and the Allan Line, of Glasgow, represented by the line then trading from London, called the Hill or Twin Screw Line. This latter line (Twin Screw) came into notice in the year 1881 by bringing forward the first twin screw pro- pelled steamer in the Transatlantic trade. This vessel was named the Netting Hill, and was built of steel on the Clyde, her dimensions being 420g- feet long by 45 feet broad, 26| feet deep, and of 3,902 tons, and was followed afterwards by others of similar dimensions and con- struction. Although fitted with limited passenger accommodation, they were not designed for what is now generally known as the Express Transatlantic Service — ^their speed only averaging about 12 knots per hour. The engines are of the compound tandem type, but having only one crank-shaft and set of cylinders for each (port and starboard) engine, the diameter of each high- pressure being 32J inches, and of the low-pressure 76 inches, with a stroke of 4 feet. These vessels now carry on a regular service from London to New York in the live cattle and freight trade. 118 THE ATLANTIC FEREY. [CHAP. VII. in conjunction with the vessels of the old Monarch Line, as previously mentioned. In addition to the Wilson-Hill, National, and Johnston Lines, already noted as trading from London, extensive services are also carried on by the Furness Line to Halifax and Boston, and the Atlantic Transport to Baltimore, Philadelphia, Boston, etc., via Swansea, commenced in 1886. Another line commenced in recent years in the live cattle and freight service is the Donaldson, from Glasgow to Canadian ports, which commenced with the steamship Colina in May, 1887, and still continues. It will perhaps be of interest to give a brief final notice of the once famed Great Eastern. Her dimensions were 679i feet long, 83 feet broad, 48 feet deep, and of 18,915 tons, with oscillating paddle engines, having four cylinders each 74 inches diameter, and stroke of 14| feet, and hori- zontal screw engines, with four cylinders, each 84 inches diameter, and 4 feet stroke, the boiler pressure being 30 lbs. generated in ten boilers, having a hundred furnaces fired athwartships. The career of this colossal structure, commencing with her launch in 1858, was singularly un- fortunate, as with the exception of the successful laying of the first Atlantic cable, and a few others, she has never once been a commercial success. As if to add still further to her misfortunes, the last years of her existence saw this once wonderful example of the "much-belauded pet of man's constructive skill " lowered to the level of an advertising medium, and then to be the bugbear of the ports of the kingdom, one port even going so far as .9 00 ^ » g s O 120 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [CHAP. VII. to ask Parliament to grant them powers to prevent her floating on the tranquil waters within their precincts. After a year or two of this degraded existence, she again underwent one of the periodic sales which had occurred almost annually throughout her career, but for the last time, as she was purchased by a firm of ship- brokers for i;16,000, and was eventually broken up at New Ferry, on the banks of the Mersey, almost in the same year (1890) that the Great Britain ended her career at the Falkland Islands, representing with the broad gauge on the railway, now also doomed, the last of the costly and bitter memories of the engineer Brunei, who, unfortunately for many, had more influence with great capitalists than other far more capable and less fanciful engineers. CHAPTEE VIII. CONTINENTAL LINES. Turning now to the continent of Europe, we find many steamship coiApanies competing for shares of the traffic ever flowing to and fro on the greatest highway of com- merce the world has ever known, and which may well be termed the " Nursery of the Steamship," owing to the great achievements in naval architecture and marine engineering which from time to time it has brought forth. Amongst the largest and most important of these ia the wellrknown Hamburg-American Line, trading from Hamburg and Cuxhaven to New York, calling at South- ampton. This powerful company, like the English lines, first commenced the trade with sailing ships in 1847, and gradually developed into steam, their first steamer being the Borussia, an iron screw steamer, built and engined by Messrs. Caird, of Greenock, in 1855. Her dimensions were 317| feet long, 40 feet broad, 28 feet deep, and of 2,349 tons ; the engines were overhead oscillating geared, with cylinders each 67 inches dia- meter, and stroke of 6 feet. This vessel, the pioneer, started on her first voyage on June 1st, 1856, and was followed by a sister ship named the Hammonia, which two steamers kept up the service, in conjunction with the sailing vessels, until the year 1860, when the latter 122 THE ATLANTIC FBEKY. [CHAP. VIII. were disposed of and more steamers added. Since then the line, having, in April, 1875, absorbed the opposition Hamburg company known as the Eagle Line, has de- veloped into an extensive concern, sending its steamers east and west, and gradually expanding its Transatlantic connection, until at the present time it stands at the head of the continental lines, and possesses, besides an ordinary moderate speed passenger service to New York, an express service almost equal to the Liverpool lines, its modern twin-screw steel boats being of the finest type, with the most advanced arrangements for comfort. Of these the Colombia and Normannia have been built on the Mersey and the Clyde respectively, and the Augusta, Victoria, and the Fiirst Bismarck by the Vulcan Company, at Stettin. The relative sizes of the ships and engines, which are triple expansions of the latest type, are as follows : Colombia, 463| feet long, 55| feet broad, 35^ feet deep, and of 7,363 tons. Triple engines, cylinders 41, 66, 101 inches diameter, with 5| feet stroke. Augusta and Victoria, 459 feet long, 55| feet broad, 38 feet deep, and of 7,661 tons. Triple engines, cylinders 41, 67, 106 inches diameter, with 5j feet stroke. Normannia, 500 feet long, 57^ feet broad, 38 feet deep, and of 8,250 tons. Triple engines, having six cylinders, two of 40, two of 67, sis of 106 inches, with 5J feet stroke. Fvirst Bismarck, 502 feet long, 57| feet broad, 38 feet deep, and of 8,874 tons. Triple engines, cylinders 43, 67, 106^ inches, with 5J feet stroke. 124 THE ATLANTIC FEREY. [CHAP. VIII. Like the new Inman vessels this fine quartette have adopted the three funnels, and abandoned the use of sail power, and make the passages across between South- ampton and New York under seven days, taking about eight days to and from Hamburg. The other important German line is that known as the Norddeutscher Lloyd from Bremen, which was founded in 1856 by a Bremen citizen, Herr H. H. Meier, who succeeded in amalgamating the various steamship com- panies, coasting and otherwise, then existing, and forming out of them this great company. It was practically con- structed in February, 1857, and commenced the Trans- Atlantic service in June, 1858, with the screw steamer Bremen, 318 feet long, 40 feet broad, 26 feet deep, and of 2,674 tons, with inverted direct-acting engines, having cylinders 90 inches diameter, and 3J feet stroke, indica- ting 2,500 horse-power. She was built for them by Caird and Co., of Greenock, together with three others, named the New York, Hudson, and Weser. Since this event a regular trade has been carried on, and many vessels added to the Norddeutscher fleet from time to time ; in 1862 and 1863 the Hansa and America, followed by the Hermann, Deutschland, and Union, all built by Caird and Co. In 1868 a weekly service was commenced from Bremen to Baltimore, and since then extensive offshoots have been created to the most distant parts of the globe. In 1881, under the spirited management of Herr Lohmann, the present managing director, new 17^ knots express steamers, named the Elbe, Werra, and Fulda, each 126 THE ATLANTIC FERKY. [CHAP. VIII. 438 feet long, 48 feet broad, 36i feet deep, and of 5,381 tons, built by Messrs. Elder and Co., were placed upon the New York service, and were followed afterwards by the 18 knot AUer, Trave, and Saale, in 1885 and 1886, which were single screws, and had the first triple expansion engines in the Express Service (although not the first on the Atlantic, as ah-eady noted), the diameter of cylinders being 44, 70, and 108 inches respectively, with a stroke of 6 feet, and of 8,200 indicated horse-power. Since then has appeared the Lahn, 19 knots, of slightly larger dimensions, from the Fairfield Shipbuilding Company, having triple engines with two high-pressure cylinders, each 32J inches, one intermediate, 68 inches diameter, and two low-pressure, each 85 inches, with stroke of 6 feet, and indicating 9,500 horse-power; also in 1890 and 1891, from the Vulcan Shipyard at Stettin, the Spree and Havel, two fine vessels, 463 feet long, 52 feet broad, 34 feet deep, and of 6,963 tons, with triple engines of slightly larger power. Owing to the gradual improvement of these fine vessels during the past decade, it will be noticed there is no great gap in their increasing speed, so that the service is carried out with express boats, which make the passages to and from New York in fairly equal time. The vessels of the North German Line maintain a weekly service to New York, leaving Bremen and New York every Wednesday and Saturday, and calling at South- ampton ; also a weekly service to Baltimore leaving Bremen and Baltimore each Wednesday. To enable ihem to carry en this great trade and tlae other branches. ENGINES OF THE ALLEB. 128 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. VIII. the Company own a fleet of about forty steamers over 1,000 tons each, besides numerous smaller craft, and also possess their own graving and other docks, together with extensive works for the overhaul and maintenance of their fleet. One of the principal lines doing- an extensive business from Europe direct is that officially termed the Societe Anonyme Belge-Americaine, better known as the Eed Star Line, from Antwerp. This now extensive service was commenced by the iron steamship Vaterland, 320| feet long, 38^ feet broad, 31 feet deep, and of 2,748 tons, with two-crank compound engines, having cylinders 40 inches and 80 inches diameter, and stroke of 3J feet. She sailed from Antwerp on January 19th, 1873, for Philadelphia, and was followed afterwards by the Nederland and Switzer- land in 1873 and 1874. It is interesting to note that these vessels, which, were built and engined by Messrs. Palmer, of Jarrow, were the first ever built to carry petroleum in bulk, in which an extensive trade to Antwerp was then commencing. As, however, the passenger trade was also carried on by these vessels, the petroleum shortly became only secon- dary, and, owing to the restrictions of the supervising authorities, was finally discontinued. Owing to the continued expansion of their trade other vessels were soon added to the Eed Star fleet, the Belgen- land in 1878, and Rhynland in 1879, built by the Barrow Shipbuilding Company, and later by the Zeeland, Waes- land, and Pennland, which under the respective names of the Java, Russia, and Algeria, were previously known in 130 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. VIH. the Cunard fleet. Following them came two fine vessels, known as the Westernland and Noordland, from the yard of Messrs. Laird Brothers, Birkenhead, in 1883. In 1889 the last addition was made to the fleet by Messrs. J. and G. Thomson, of Glasgow, who built a fine high speed single screw steel steamer named the Friesland, 430 feet long, 51^ feet broad, 35 feet deep, and of 6,800 tons, with triple expansion engines, having cylinders 35^, 56, 89 inches diameter, and 4| feet stroke, and with a working pressure of 160 lbs. With this fine fleet a regular weekly first class pas- isenger and emigrant service is carried on to New York, and a secondary one fortnightly to Philadelphia. Of the Transatlantic lines trading from France the most important is the Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, which commenced to run from Havre to New York in 1862 with English built iron vessels, fcom the firms of Messrs. Napier and Sons, on the Clyde, and Messrs. Palmer, on the Tyne. The French company, like the other numerous lines, has gradually increased its fleet and expended its services, and now possesses a magnificent fleet of steamers, the finest of which are vessels of large size and good speed, constructed some years ago to maintain a place amongst the other express lines to New York. One of these vessels. La Normandie, was built of iron at Barrow, in 1882, with engines having six cylinders, corre- sponding to those of the City of Rome ; she was followed by the La Bourgogne, La Champagne, and La Bretagne, the two latter being constructed at the Company's own works at St. Nazaire.; they are each 495 feet long, 52 feet 132 THE ATLANTIC FEERY. [cHAP. Till. broad, 33| feet deep, and of 6,900 tons, with six-cylinder compound three-crank engines. "With these four vessels a superior service is maintained between New York and Havre, though they are not equal in speed to the more modern vessels of the British and German lines. Other French lines trading in the cargo service are the Chargeurs Eeunis, Compagnie Commerciale, from Havre, and the Compagnie Bordelaise, from Bordeaux. From Italy Eubattino's immense fleet keeps up a service between the Mediterranean and New York, as does also the Fabre Line ; from Copenhagen the Thing- valla Line began in 1879, and carries on the only direct service from Denmark to New York. This line became noted a few years ago through the foundering in April, 1889, of one of their vessels, the ss. Danmark, when not a life was lost out of 734 souls on board, all having been rescued by the Missouri, of the Atlantic Transport Line from London. In 1872 the Dutch line, ofi&cially styled the Neder- landsch Amerikaansche Stoomvaart Maatschappij, of Eotterdam, but known in this country as the Nether- land - American Line, commenced a regular passenger and freight service to New York. By the purchase in recent years of several of the well-known Liverpool liners as the Baltic, Republic, British Empire, British Crown, and others, they have established an excellent service between Eotterdam and New York, the steamers now being known under such names as the Veendam, Maasdam, Rotterdam, and Am^erdam. CHAPTEE IX, THE WORKING OF ATLANTIC LINES. Like the other great organizations formed in the nine- teenth century for the use and convenience of man, the ocean steamship companies enter so much into the routine of life, that a brief glance into the manner and means by which the current — or circulation — of the beautiful vessels is kept up is likely to be of interest to many and useful to some. In considering the subject, it will at once be apparent that it is necessary for the successful working of a Steamship Line that there should be one leading head to guide the entire organization, whether it be under public or private ownership. Acting under him comes the directing staff, which is practically in two separate sections. These may be termed the "Inside" and " Outside " sections. The "Inside" section comprises the partners, direc- tors, or managers, and, in conjunction with them, the heads of the various departments which are carried on in the office, such as the finance, accountant's, freight (in- ward and outward), passenger, and oftentimes insurance departments. To the same section belongs the arrangement and conducting of the various negotiations, incidental to the 134 THE ATLANTIC TBERY. [cHAP. IX. general business of the line — such as, the carriage of passengers, freight, and mails ; the fixing of th« sailing schedules ; and the thousand and one details which must be fully worked out with the various connections, scat- tered throughout the portions of the world in which the line may be directly or indirectly engaged ; also arranging with the feeders or carriers, consisting of the various rail- ways and steamboat lines, running more or less in con- junction with them ; and also, if they be mail steamers, advising and conferring with the postal authorities, to insure despatch and regularity in the transmission of the mails and generally the utmost efficiency and safety. The duties of the various heads of the departments are apportioned to men of great experience in their special line, so that each may be worked to its utmost capacity. The chief of the freight has for his duties, the tracing, following up, and securing for his line the carrying of every kind of merchandise, machinery in transit, breadstuffs, dead meat, live cattle, bullion, and so forth, which it is possible to secure. In the pas- senger branch the same restless energy exists in spread- ing the great network of alluring advertisements — hand- some pictures of the steamers, accounts of fast passages, details of accommodation — by the aid of active agents in every town of the various countries likely to use the watery highway on which the vessels of his line come and go. The chief of the accountancy department, as the name indicates, has to keep straight the financial concerns of CHAP. IX.J THE WORKING OF ATLANTIC LINES. 135 the whole undertaking, commencing at the first great item of capital account, and going down through the immense number of departments in what may be called the home district, to the smallest transactions of all the branches and agencies in outlying foreign ports. The more important matters of the line — such as the building of new vessels; the opening up of new services ; the regulation of times of sailing ; carriage of mails ; agreements with government ; arrangements for charter, and such like — are, of course, retained in the hands of the principal and his partners or directors, and nothing is known of them outside until their proceedings are matured and definitely settled. As soon as any new step has been decided upon, the heads of the various departments are called upon to report and point out the various details requiring development or improvement, each in his own special line, and from time to time pro- ceed to the shipyard and engineering works, and regu- larly inspect the progress of the work ; consulting with the owners and builders as the work advances, with a view of securing the latest and most modern arrange- ments. The system by which the whole of the various depart- ments and staffs are engaged in keeping up the working of the steamers is somewhat as follows : — On the arrival of eacli ship in the home port, the commander reports to the head office the more important events and occur- rences of the voyage, and the heads of the three departments — deck, engine, and steward's — return a complete " indent " of the overhauling or work necessary 136 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. IX. in their divisions to their respective Superintendents. The latter then go into the various matters, satis- fying themselves that the work on the list is requi- site, and orders for the work to be carried out are then given to whichever branch of the shore staff it comes under. At the same time that this overhauling "indent" is handed in, a complete list is furnished of the stores con- sumed, of the quantity remaining on board, and of what is required for next voyage. This is also scrutinized by the Superintendents, and then passed on to the various officials, to have the articles supplied in good time for the next sailing date. Should there be any extensive or heavy repairs to be effected, or any important alteration to be made, the Superintendent of the department in question then brings the matter forward before the principals, and the details of the work (or, if necessary, the substi- tution of one vessel for another), are then arranged mutually with the other Superintendents. In order to insure effective and perfect working, regular fixed meetings of the partners, managers, and superintendents are held, at which the commanders then in port also attend, and the various matters which from time to time require general attention are discussed and arranged, so that each department is kept thoroughly in touch with, and cognizant of the doings of the others. As it is impossible always to define the limits of where one responsibility ends and the other begins, the utility and, indeed, necessity of this system is obvious. Turning now to the other great section; the "Outside," CHAP. IX.] THE WORKING OF ATLANTIC LINES. 137 this, like the " Inside " section, is conducted under the head or chief, with the other partners or managers acting in conjunction with the heads of the engineering, sailing, and victualling departments which are actually engaged in working the steamers. The moat important is naturally the engineering de- partment, which embraces almost innumerable divisions, V for all of which the Superintending Engineer is responsible. It is this department upon which, when a new steamer is about to be taken over from the builders, devolves the duty of arranging the engineering staff on board the vessel. This class ranges from the sailing chief engineer, with his staff of engineers, electricians, and refrigerating engineers, down to boiler-makers, greasers, firemen, and trimmers, and amounts nowadays to a small army of over 160 men in all. A very important duty is the up-keep and maintenance of the whole machinery of the vessel, not only in the engine department, which alone comprises upwards of forty different engines, besides the main engines, but also the auxiliary apparatus scattered throughout the vessel, such as windlasses, winches, steering-gear, and others, and the various parts of hull and deck which are subject to wear and tear. To these requirements must be added the incessant wants of the passenger depart- ments, in the way of rearrangement and extension of saloon or emigrant accommodation, the 'supplying and overhauling of the extensive fittings of the culinary and pantry branches, with the numberless minor but impor- tant requirements of a floating hotel. 138 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. IX. To effectually fulfil these multifarious duties tbe Superintending Engineer has under his charge extensive repairing works, in which are located the various machines and tools required to carry on the work of the different branches of manufacture and repair. Engineering, forging, smithing, brass and lead-founding, boiler making, and general iron and steel work, plumbing, whitesmith's and tinsmith's work, brass-finishing, paint- ing, carpentering and joinery, pattern-making, boat- building, sawing, leather working, laundry work, uphol- stering, electrical engineering, rigging, sail-making, electro-plating, and other kindred matters, are all placed under responsible foremen, who again, in most cases, have charge of a considerable staff to carry out the work on board when the vessels are in port. In the works are extensive stores, containing all the necessary articles constantly in requirement by the different de- partments, so that the vessels may be completely over- hauled and outfitted by the line's own establishment and staff. The other important department of the marine or " deck," as it is more commonly called, is under the control of the Marine Superintendent. This gentleman is responsible both for the general work of the ship in port, and for the efficiency of the navigating staff at sea ; the latter consisting of the commander, officers, boatswains, quartermasters, and crew. The numerous other duties connected with the docking and berthing on arrival ; the manner and rate of discharging and loading of cargo ; coaling, and outfit for the coming voyage, also fall to his CHAP. IX.J THE WOEKING OF ATLANTIC LINES. 139 care. Acting with the Engineering and Victualling Super- intendents, he generally, also, arranges for the work of the other departments which may require attention previous to commencing the next voyage. The nature of this superintendence varies for almost every trip. At one time it is to extend or improve the saloon accommodation ; at another, it is to arrange for dry docking, for the overhaul of machinery, or for survey- ing purposes. Sometimes the cargo holds may need attention ; at others the meat chambers require altera- tion ; on another voyage more extensive emigrant accom- modation is needed; and, at all times, the equipment either in sails (which, however, are rapidly falling into disuse), or running-gear, or lifeboats, or such-like sub- sidiary requisites claim vigilant attention. Every now and then it is necessary to open-up, place in position, and expose all the various pump-gears, fire-hose, boat appli* ances, et hoc genus omne, for the annual inspection of the supervising authorities. Added to all these duties is, to a certain extent, the working of the freight at the quay side, for although this is controlled from the office by the freight department, it is necessary that the wharfingers and stevedores who manipulate it should work to suit the state of the ship. Then comes the preparing for the voyage : seeing that the cargo and coaling is thoroughly completed ; hatches and openings secured ; decks washed down ; and all made straight and fair, ready, with fit officers and crew, to receive the passengers and mails on the advertised date, and to pass the inspection, not only of the Government 140 THE ATLANTIC FBERY. [cHAP. IX. officials, but also the critical and exacting scrutiny of the partners or managers themselves. The third division of the " Outside " section— the victualling department — is also under the charge of a responsible Superintendent, to whom is intrusted the en- tire management of the stewards' department, the control of the outfit for the living-quarters both of the passengers and the leading sections of the crew, and the victualling throughout, including the supply of wines, medical requi- sites, and other articles necessary for the wants of so large a floating population. Besides the shore staff, the Super- intendent is assisted on board by the purser, who gene- rally takes charge of all the ship's papers and documents relating to finances, passengers, and freight ; and who also, assisted by the chief and second stewards, super- vises the working of the large staff required in the distri- bution of the saloon passengers in the berths and places assigned to them, in preparing for the daily meals, and in arrangements for cooking, baking, etc., so that the whole working may be such as to give satisfaction, insure cleanliness and secure all necessary attention to each individual, whether in the state-rooms, saloon, or smok- ing-room. Another of the important functions of these officials is that of keeping a check upon the supply of the immense quantities of food and drink which are in almost continual demand. Not an unimportant object of atten- tion for the Victualling Superintendent is the rearrange- ment of his staff, with due regard to the perpetual fluctuation in the number of passengers, as at one time the vessel may be full, and at another have but few to CHAP. IX.] THE WORKING OF ATLANTIC LINES. 141 provide for ; so that, if too many hands are shipped, there is not work for them, and, on the other hand, if too few are shipped^ the complaints of want of atten- tion come in volumes from disappointed travellers. To illustrate the elaborate system necessary for the actual working of a twin-propelled Atlantic liner, it is only necessary to describe the general routine of the various departments, beginning with the news of her coming arrival in the Mersey, which is generally re- ceived by telegraph from Queenstown, and again from Holyhead. On the news being received in the general manage- ment division of the office, the expected hour of arrival is at once communicated to the Post Office and Custom House, and an hour appointed for the steam tender to leave the landing stage to meet the liner in order to take off first the saloon, and afterwards the other passengers, while if the mail be a heavy one, a special tender is set apart for it. The passenger department on being informed, generally communicates the hour of the tender's departure to the various hotels, railway com- panies, and others directly interested, and makes pre- parations for the landing of the passengers and the examination of their baggage by the Customs. With this tender goes the Victualling Superintendent, accompanied by the Health and other Government officers whose duty it is to pass the ship for entrance into port, and grant permission for the disembarkment of the passengers. On the arrival of the various papers and documents at 142 THE ATLANTIC FEREY. [cHAP. IX. the office, the ship is entered at the Custom House and all the necessary formalities are gone through to allow the work of debarkation to proceed whilst the clerical depart- ment at once commences the work of sending out advices as to the supplies of coal, and the delivery of outward freight pn quay for the next voyage. The Marine Superintendent and his department, on hearing the time of arrival, make all arrangements to dock and berth the ship as soon as possible after arrival, and get ready for the discharge of cargo, and the re-coaling. After the vessel is docked, the crew are paid off in the presence of a Board of Trade officer as soon as convenient, and nowadays are at once signed on again for the next voyage. The chief officer then submits his "indent" for repairs, stores, and requirements for the next voyage, and this document guides the Marine Super-- intendent in his arrangements when the vessel is in dock. As soon as the vessel is moored, work is commenced by the stevedores. The hatches are opened and the dis- charge of the cargo is busily proceeded with by a small army of men, some unloading and others coaling for the coming voyage. Immediately, the holds are empty the reloading is commenced, so that no time is wasted, and it is no uncommon thing to discharge 4,000 tons of in- ward and load 3,000 of outward cargo, and also put about 2,000 tons of coal into one of these vessels in about two working days. In the engineering department the work, although altogether out of the public sight, is much more, exten- CHAP. IX.] THE WORKING OF ATLANTIC LINES. 143 sive. As soon as the engines are stopped, the large staff is started to wipe down the machinery, blow down the boilers, or otherwise let off steam, and generally pre- pare the whole for inspection and overhauling. The simpler portion of this is done at once ; and when the chief engineer's " indent " has been through the hands of the Superintending Engineer, the important or heavy work is proceeded with ; both the sea-going and shore staff working conjointly, as the former are alto- gether responsible for the proper overhauling and ad- justment of the moving parts, so as to insure good working at sea. The boilers after being cleared of the enormous quantity of ashes, soot, and rubbish, always consequent on such a large number of furnaces, are care- fully cleaned out ; if necessary the inside is scaled, and the whole is thoroughly overhauled by the ship's boiler- makers and the shore staff under an experienced fore- man, and also under the keen supervision of the chief and second engineers, who are thoroughly alive to the fact that good work in port means less trouble at sea. In addition to this work there is also the overhauling of the machinery in other parts of the vessel, and the sundry repairs required in the other departments, which only can be effected by skilled mechanics. After the passenger department has finished with the disembarkation of the passengers, the chief steward turns his staff to clearing away and sorting the numerous articles de voyage which have been in use throughout the trip, some being put aside for next voyage, and others 144 THE ATLANTIC FEEKY. [CHAP. IX. sent to the company's works for repair or overhaul. Of these, by far the most extensive is the " Unen," as it is generally termed, and it may be here mentioned that so extensive and complete are the laundries that the whole of the table and bed-linen for over 300 saloon passengers can be returned to the ship in the space of forty-eight hours ready for use, thoroughly pressed and aired. As soon as the clearing up has been done and the Victualling Superintendent has passed the " indent," the saloon, state-rooms, and other quarters, together with all furniture, are thoroughly overhauled and re- furbished. The galley and pantry meanwhile are also being attended to by their respective staffs, aided here again by the shore staff, and the various cooking and serving utensils are replaced or sent to the works for repair. It is almost impossible for an outsider to realize the immense quantity of large and small articles which continually require repair or renewal in this department of large passenger vessels, and for the large liners an immense staff of tinsmiths is required to be continually at work, both in making new and patching up worn articles. Another class of men kept continuously at extensive work are the carpenters and joiners, and also cabinet- makers, who, under an experienced foreman, are con- stantly engaged in the saloons, state-rooms, steerages, deck-houses, hatches, stores and crew's quarters. The elaborate and extensive lavatories nowadays required, also command the constant attention of experienced plumbers, owing to the labyrinth of pipe arrangements CHAP. IX;] THE WOEKING OF ATLANTIC LINES. 145 in the ship, which supply fresh and take away the waste water. Draughtsmen are also constantly occupied in noting and making drawings of the changes and alterations continually being effected, both to keep pace with im- provements and to further economize. Besides all these hands directly engaged in work about the ship, it is necessary to retain, both at the quay side and the works, a large staff of book-keepers, clerks, and time- keepers to attend to the extensive wants of the clerical department ; and in addition, reliable watchmen to take charge during the hours when the workmen are off. One officer and engineer are also required to be on board, and certain others of the steamer's crew ready to act in case of fire or other casualty. In addition to the overhauling for an ordinary stay in port, must be reckoned the very great extra work entailed if there be any heavy machinery to replace or any mis- hap on the voyage to repair, and also when the annual Board of Trade inspection required by law on all pas- senger vessels becomes due, as the vessel must then be put in dry dock. To this requirement must be largely attributed the excellent conditions and regulations now existing on all passenger vessels, although great credit also must be given to the enterprising owners, when urged by competition, for going even further than the requirements, in adopting all possible means to increase the safety and comfort of their passengers and crew. In order to show the excellence of this annual in- spection which is invariably carried out by the Board's 146 THE ATLANTIC FBEEY. [CHAP. IX. own Officials (men of tried experience), it will not be out of place to briefly describe the routine and con- ditions necessary to obtain the renewal of the passenger certificate. The first thing is to pay into a mercantile marine office the necessary fees, which vary in amount according to tonnage, at the same time giving notice of where the vessel is lying, and also the hour she will be ready in a graving dock for the purpose of allowing the surveyor to " sight," otherwise carefully survey the bottom, propeller, and all other fittings not visible afloat, which must be done before any painting or exterior work is effected. This is looked upon as the most vital point of the survey, the passenger certificate always dating from the day of sighting. Other matters examined by the surveyors are the deck and other fittings and gear ; the holds ; and the hand and steam bilge-pumps, which must have all parts actually shipped in place, and the valves and interiors open for examination ; in addition as many of the bilge strainer boxes as possible must be exposed, together with as many of the limbers,' in order to examine the state of the cement in bilges and to note any signs of working of the ship itself. The bulkhead sluices '^ must also be turned, the water-tight doors closed and opened, the handles and fittings for these being permanently attached or sus- pended in convenient position alongside. The fire-hose ^ " Limbers," the spaces between the frames of the vessel in the bottom under the ceiling. ' " Bulkhead sluices " are the valves in the bilge-pipes, etc., run- ning through the bulkheads. CHAP. IX.J THE WORKINa OF ATLANTIC LINES. 147 must be connected to the water service, and be stretched out for inspection with projecting nozzles attached, and connecting keys in place. The elaborate equipment of boats has to receive careful attention ; each must be uncovered and actually have on board the necessary sails, masts, yards, oars, thole-pins and rowlocks, attached with strong chains; rudder and tiller ready in place, plugs, bailers, two fresh-water breakers or casks, bread-tank, life-belts and axe, so that each article can be thoroughly inspected. The capacities and lowering arrangements of the boats — which are strictly defined, not only by the British but also the United States authorities — must be up to standard, and a complete list of their sizes and capacities, when required, must be handed to the sur- veyor ; the boats must also be lowered into the water to test the gear and their water-tightness. All the scheduled signal and spare lamps must be cleaned and open for survey, the various foghorns, rockets, etc., for night signalling, and the sounding leads, must be submitted to inspection. The anchors must also be cleaned and scraped, with th& official and proof numbers distinctly visible, and, in dry dock, the whole of the cables must be run out in the bottom of the dock and have the shackle-pins all backed out, so that the numbers may be verified with the certificates of tests. A still more extensive survey has to be gone through in the machinery departments ; the whole of the work- ing parts, such as cylinders, valves, pistons, pumps, 148 THE ATLANTIC FBBRY. [cHAP. IX. crank-pins, bearings, safety-valves, fresh-water con- densers and other portions must be opened up for in- spection, also the boilers both in the steam and on the fire sides ; it is also necessary at stated intervals to take off the propellers and draw in the stern shafts for examination. This precaution is now generally taken every twelve months by most of the. leading lines, a practice strongly to be commended. In addition to these requirements all the official papers of the ship, namely, ship's register, the various cer- tificates relating to the compasses, chains and anchors, and also those of the captain, chief and second officers, and chief and second engineers have to be presented for notification. After all these steps have been completed, the Board's surveyor has to send to the principal office in Whitehall, London, a declaration made by him stating that the ship is complete in all requirements. On receipt of this the certificate is forwarded to the owners, which allows her to carry passengers for a stated period. When it is remembered that, in addition to all these requirements, very extensive rules and regulations of the Board of Trade have to be complied with by the builders of the ship and machinery previous to the vessel's obtaining a certificate, it is evident that but little is left to be desired in the thoroughness of the protection afforded to the marine travelling public by the British Legislature; and when the enactments are carried out by the surveying staff with such ability, intelligence and willingness to help at all times as the author has ex- CHAP. IX. J THE WOEKING OF ATLANTIC LINES. 149 perienced for over fifteen years, there is no doubt they provide a strong incentive to all concerned to aim at and achieve a higher grade of perfection in the safe and per- fect working of high speed passenger vessels even than that now reached. True it is that now and again murpiurs of discontent arise from some enterprising builder or engineer, or from some far-seeing shipowner, who finds a restriction placed on some new untried advance ; but if a successful trial proves a new idea to be satisfactory and safe so far as human life is concerned, which is the Board of Trade's first requirement, then ready acceptance may be obtained, even if outside the usual authorized forms. In addition to this annual inspection in the home ports, another has nowadays to be undergone by the surveying staff of the United States Government, who, some ten years ago, enacted a law which rendered it compulsory for all vessels carrying passengers from the ports of that country to have a certificate, granted on somewhat similar conditions to the British regulations. Eeturning now to the direct working of the ship : as soon as the advertised date for sailing draws near, the "Out- sklu " section having had the work on board completed and all departments in Order, steam raised and engines tried, and everything ready to receive passengers, while the " Inside " section has transacted all its portion of the work, definite dates are announced for the embarkation of first the steerage, then the second class, and finally the saloon passengers. This may take place at the loading berth in the company's dock, but more generally from 150 THE ATLANTIC FEKEY. [cHAP. IX. the landing stage, a notice of these hours being widely circulated. At a certain specified hour the official clearance takes place on board, which means the passing of the ship by the Health and Emigration officers, as well as by the Board of Trade, the Customs clearance having been arranged previously, so that the vessels may go out of dock into the river and await the passengers and mails. The form of clearing a vessel is carried out by two Government officers, one being a sea-going officer of tried experience from either the Eoyal Navy or Mercantile Marine, and the other a fully qualified medical man ; these two gentlemen upon arrival proceed to' examine the steerage passenger accommodation as to sleeping, lava- tories, exits, ventilation, and other necessaries; afterwards each individual steerage passenger, adult or child, has to pass the medical officer, to provide against the chance of any infectious disease on the passage. The medical outfit is subjected to examination, and the entire crew has to be mustered and pass the inspection of both officials, so as to insure their being fit and able men for their respective duties. A careful examination is also made of the lifeboats, some being lowered into the water, and often an inspection of other details, such as night signals and rockets, the supply of fresh water, freeboard, etc. The necessary papers being filled in and signed, the vessel is cleared, and ready to proceed to sea as soon as the saloon passengers and perhaps mails are on board. The embarkation of the saloon passengers, which, as a rule, is the final scene, takes place from the dock or t- 00 •a l-l a IB i 13 n Ed H 152 THE ATLANTIC FEERY. [cHAP. IX. landing stage at a ■ convenient time shortly preceding that at which the vessel gets under weigh, and is accom- panied with much bustle and stir but no confusion, everything being done systematically. The celebrated landing stage, which plays so useful a part in the coming and going of the Liverpool Trans- atlantic liners, is one of the most important appurten- ances of the great port on the Mersey. , Notwithstanding its close proximity to the surface of the water, it was completely destroyed by fire on July 28th, 1874. This disaster was occasioned by some workmen, who were working near the embayment in the stage, allowing a naked light to set fire to some of the creosoted wooden beams then existing below the deck of the stage, and owing to the inflammable nature of the material and to its inaccessibility, no effectual means could be found to extinguish it, so that the whole structure, extending nearly half a mile, was totally destroyed. Some idea of the extent of the fire can be gathered from the illustration, which is reproduced from a photo- grajih taken from the Birkenhead side about three hours after the fire commenced. No lives were lost, but the reconstruction of the stage occupied a considerable period, and entailed a cost of over £250,000. CHAPTEE X. AT SEA ON AN ATLANTIC LINEE. Upon the arrival of the tender with the saloon passengers alongside the ship, the commander and officers are in attendance at the gangway to receive them, and all the stewards ranged ready, under the purser and chief steward, to direct them to their different rooms and berths, and attend to the removal of the smaller baggage; the larger baggage, which is despatched by another tender, being stowed by the deck department in quarters specially set apart for it. After a short period, the whole of the passengers and their baggage being on board and all ready for sailing, the tender leaves and returns to the stage with the owners or representatives, and officials of the company, and, if the state -of tide permits, the vessel gets under weigh at once under the supreme charge of the captain, whose station is on the navigating bridge. With him is also the pilot, whose duty it is to navigate the vessel through the channels and passages for which he is duly licensed. There is also on the bridge, alongside the captain and pilot, the fourth officer, whose duty is to transmit the engine-room and steering orders. The chief officer's position when leaving or entering port is in the bow of the ship, to attend to the working 154 THE ATLANTIC PERRY. [CHAP. X. of the anchor and other duties in that quarter; to attend to the stern, the second officer takes up his posi- tion on the poop; the third officer gives special attention to the prompt carrying out of the orders given to the quarter-master at the wheel, and so on, each officer having a proper station and duty assigned to him. In the engine department, also, the duties of each of the staff are distinctly defined for the time of leaving and entering port, so that nothing is left undone to secure systematic working throughout. After the vessel has got fairly under weigh and cleared the channel, the "stand-by," as it is technically termed, is dispensed with, and the duties are changed for the regular watches at sea, not to be changed again until the arrival off New York, except in event of foggy weather coming on at sea. It is interesting to compare the recorded experiences of a passenger in one of the great Atlantic liners at different periods. In Dickens' " American Notes " we have a narrative relating to the year 1842, which not- withstanding the humorous vein in which it is written, is obviously a graphic and truthful account of an excep- tionally bad passage. The book is so well known that we need not do more than refer the reader to it. Mr. Hepworth Dixon describes life on a Transatlantic steamer in October, 1874 : How splendid are these passage boats ! The "Republic" is a floating palace, with the style and comfort of a Swiss hotel. I will not say she is better than the vessels in our track ; but I have put my foot on many decks, and laid my head in 156 THE ATLANTIC FBEEY. [CHAP. X. many berths, and I am perfectly content with the " Republic." After trying her for several days and nights in weather of roughest sort, even at the equinoxes, I am ready to despair of finding any vessel more completely to my mind. A floating palace with 500 souls on board, we measure more than 400 feet in length, and have a saloon amidships, gay with gold and soft with cushions, in which the young ladies can flirt, and their elders dawdle over books and print."?. The smoothness is remarkable, and the ventilating perfect, with the exception of one evening when we hold a concert ; we breathe a fresh and bracing air that gives a wonderful keenness to the languid palate. We have a host of little comforts, some of which are not to be had in a fir.st-class Swiss hotel. We have a good piano, and a real library of books, a smoking-room, a barber's shop, and a ladies' saloon. Each passenger has a printed list of his fellows, and a track chart of the ferry ; so that he knows the persons on his right and left, and keeps a daily check on the officer who marks our log. The crew is perfect, from the captain, in whose skill and vigilance we put our deepest trust, down to his boy Tommy, a young and laughing scapegrace, who attends my own parti- cular berth, and sees that there is plenty of iced water in my jig- Through mist and storm we keep with singular fidelity to Commander or Lieutenant Maury's steam lane for outward- bound vessels. Maury's lanes are now well known. They were first laid down by order of the American Govern- ment, in order to avoid risk of collision in the fog. The out- ward lane lies to the north, beyond the influence of the Gulf Stream ; the homeward lane to the south, in the strength of the current. They never touch each other ; so that steamers keeping their course can never dash into each other's sides. CHAP. X.j AT SEA ON AN ATLANTIC LINER. 157 As a picture of the life on one of the finest of the passenger steamships of to-day, we may give a sketch of the homeward voyage on board the City of New York, as described by a passenger : I. The Ocean Votage. The sea I the sea ! the open sea I The blue, the fresh, the ever free I The ocean voyage is two days old. The sea is smooth and the skies are clear. The great steamer City of New York steadily ploughs her way through the dark blue waters, skim- ming lightly over the indigo-hued waves that are thrown back from the prow with a raffled edge of silvery foam. The pas- sengers have become sufficiently confident to partake of a good breakfast, and in the enjoyment of contented idleness are wandering about the ship, or reclining in their chairs whiling away the time. The fresh sea air blows gently over the decks bringing its wholesome tonic. The chief thing that everybody is elaborately endeavouring to do, may be summed up in the single word — nothing. And how to do this most successfully seems the only apparent anxiety. The Transatlantic voyage is the best possible realization of the true meaning of absolute rest. The steamer has gone far away from the land, and the light blue sky and dark blue ocean meet all around, in the great expansive and almost limitless circle of the horizon, without a spot to break the line bounding the vision. The ship and her company have become all the world to those on board, and thus cut off from everything outside, the voyage is an enforced idleness. Letters cannot come, nor can tele- grams vex, so that no business cares disturb the delicious serenity of the situation. Haunting a favourite spot on the lee side of the promenade deck-house, the easy chair is reclined back at just the proper angle for comfort. Looking lazily 158 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [cHAP. X. out upon the passing ocean, seen between your toes, you fade away gradually into a semi-unconscious dreamland in blissful peace with all mankind. A book may for a moment divert attention, but the complete restfulness of the situation almost paralyzes the effort to read it, no matter how light the litera- ture. The quick-moving machinery sings a constant lullaby, and makes the dreamland fancies come and go. Fellow voyagers are scattered all about the spacious deck enjoying similar idleness, and as one looks out over the sea, the foam-streaked waves through which the steamer swiftly moves, rush by almost like the rapids of Niagara. The sun- light paints the waters blue, or leaden as the clouds may come to obscure it. The sharp half-hourly strokes of the ship's bell tell the passing time in the language of the sea, without regard to the accuracy of the landsman's time- piece, which is always getting behind. Then may come a gpell of fog, and as the lookouts peer sharply forward, the powerful steam siren sounds its deep bass sonorous blast that goes far over the sea, to warn approaching vessels that may be enshrouded in the mist. Rapidly pushing ahead, the vast travelling hotel outstrips the clock, and daily greets the rising sun further eastward around the globe. Thus the voyage goes on, dreary in fog and storm, when everything on deck is wet and cheerless, but most pleasant on the bright days, when all hands come out to sun themselves. The sterner sort pedestrianize along the extensive promenade deck, discus- sing the probabilities of the voyage, and watching the heaving of the log that aids in measuring the distance sailed. And then the day wears away gradually into the night. The sun that has risen ahead of us and gone past, finally sets in its bank of cloud beyond the wake of the vessel. The full moon shines brightly over the waters, and when the pleasures of the time are ended, the cabin is sought, and the gentle motion of the ship rocks all to sleep. CHAP. X.j AT SEA ON AN ATLANTIC LINEE. 159 At first this enforced idleness of the sea voyage — so different from the rush and hnrry of business on land — is most delicious. But after a while the thoroughly rested mind is satiated, and there comes a growing anxiety for something to do. All things are now relished that give the mind employment. A passing vessel is a wonderful sight — all eyes watch her, and all tongues gossip about her. The wonder is great, that with all the ships constantly passing between the two Continents, it is yet possible to steam along for a whole day without seeing a sail no matter how distant. The banks of Newfoundland also cause much de- bate, some having the idea that they are a sort of dry land. The gulls, circling about the ship ; the porpoises gambolling in the waves ; the Mother Carey's chickens ; and occasionally a whale — are subjects of interested study. And thus we go along — taking three or four meals a day to help kill time, with brief saacks between on deck — and like Columbus are constantly on the lookout for land. After a little more time spent in idle dreaming, the vigour of nature asserts itself more and more, and as we cross the New- foundland banks, the bright sunshine and smooth sailing of the ship prompt to exertion. Then one is ready to start out for a survey of the vessel, and to realize the extent and mag- nificence of the " City of New York." And first to her prow, where the sharp bows cleave the water, cutting the waves like a knife and throwing a spray-cloud on either side that runs off diagonally backward, covering a long wave of foam. From under the bowsprit there looks down upon the water the fine figure-head of a goddess of the seas, whose surrounding orna- mentation is an adaptation of the coat of arms of New York city, with other appropriate designs. The gradually narrow- ing promenade deck extends up to the prow, its expanded forecastle covered with great capstans and windlass, huge chains and anchors, and derricks rising above, that by noise- less yet speedy hydraulic power move the anchors and power- 160 THE ATLANTIC FBEKY. [CHAP. X. ful cargo lifts. As the.ship speeds along, the constant look- out seaman stands peering out over the ocean ahead to give timely notice to the officers back on the bridge, of everything coming in sight. Breakwaters cross the deck behind the anchors, to divert any flow of water that may be shipped over the bows, and abaft the forecastle is a railing marking the for- ward limit of the passengers' promenade. In its extent and attractiveness, this promenade is some- thing unparalleled in the construction of ocean passenger ships. Looking astern from the forecastle, the broad surface on each side of the deck-house stretches back for over five hundred feet. This broad surface on either hand is divided longitudinally by a centre railing. Within the spaces between the railings and the deck-house, the passengers are reclining on their easy chairs, Clothed in all sorts of picturesque cos- tumes in their rugs and wraps, and lying aboutin the most com- fortable if not the most graceful attitudes. All colours of the rainbow and all styles of yachting and picnic fashions are dis- played in this parterre of chromatic steamship luxury, bordered on one side by the white wall of the deck-house, pierced with its row of little round windows, and on the other side by the deep blue sea. Outside the railing is the wide and unob- structed promenade stretching almost from stem to stei'n, where scores are pacing briskly along the deck taking their morning " constitutional," while others lean over the ship's side watching the restless sea and the distant fishing vessels that are numerous on the banks. At the forward end of the deck-house rises the high rounded glass-covered dome of the grand saloon, having in front of it the ponderous foremast of the ship, with its spars and furled sails, and well aloft the fore- top, a circular railed-in space, where, in time of storm and fog, and sighting land, an additional lookout is stationed. On either side of the deck, in front, are the huge cylindrical structures in which are carried at night the steamer's port and CHAP. X.J. AT SEA ON AN ATLANTIC LINEE. 161 starboard — red and green side-lights — while in the ventilator shafts which rear their hooded tops above the deck, electric motors whirl the busy fans about and thus give constant sup- plies of fresh air in the apartments below. Here also labour the more muscular passengers at the exhilarating yet tantaliz- ing game of "deck billiards," the flat wooden discs, when shoved along, gyrating in wayward fashion, as the motion of the ship may give them an unexpected twist down towards the leeward side. And here also, at the furthest forward point, stands the anxious voyager, who wishes to divide work with the lookout, and anticipating the end of the journey, get the earliest glimpse of the approaching shores of the Emerald Isle. High above the promenade deck, just abaft the saloon dome, crosses the "bridge," or as it may be termed, the "head- quarters " of the ship. Upon it stand the officers on duty guiding the vessel, with constant eye upon the compass and the sea, while an obedient seaman quickly acting upon any order controls the adjacent tiller, which by hydraulic power moves the rudder. Close alongside are the signals to the engine- room, and the " tell-tale " showing by a dial the course the ship is sailing and disclosing the slightest deviation. Canvas covers the front of the bridge to keep ofE the wind, for the swift progress creates an almost constant gale as the vessel drives ahead. On another bridge beneath are the wheel-house and chart-room with the captain's quarters, and here the ship's course and progress are worked out by abstruse systems of nautical mathematics. Behind the bridge in succession rise the three huge black smoke stacks, each with its white encircling band, the especial mark of the Inman line. Heavy smoke pours out of them, and iscarried by the windin a long dark line diagon- ally away from the vessel for miles over the sea, as the coal is shovelled into the furnaces below. Rising also from the deck on either side of these great stacks are the six large air " in- M 162 THE ATLANTIC FEERY. [cHAP. X. draughts " that supply these fires. Powerful fans drive the air down them into the enclosed spaces around the stoke- holes, so that the furnaces are kept constantly aglow by this abundant draught of fresh air, which can only find its vent through the fires and thence into the stacks. Behind the bridge, stretching far abaft, and carried on either side of the deck-house high above the promenade, is the long double line of the vessel's life-boats, each with its davits and tackle rigged for instant use, and having a spacious platform beneath to aid convenient working. Extending our promenade beyond the stacks, we conoie to the engine hatches, and through their open port-holes in the sides, one can peer far down below and see the broad cylinders with their intricate surroundings of valves and machinery, and their quick-moving piston rods darting up and down as each revolution of the screw-shaft drives the ship along. A flush of heat and an odour of steam come up to tell of the forces moving the ponderous machinery, yet all goes smoothly and well. At intervals there are passage ways opened through the declj-house to give convenient access between the two sides of the ship ; and these also contain the entrance doors to the suites of apartments that are so attractive to the traveller. Each suite has its drawing-room, boudoir and bed- chamber, a little flat in miniature, with l&vatory and bath, and windows looking out upon the sea. Sofas and wardrobes abound, they are converted into beds at night, and the methods of combining comfort with luxury are unique, making them spacious and attractive to a degree unusual on shipboard. The mainmast rises through the afterpartof the promenade deck-house, while at some distance further astern, a railing crosses the deck to divide off the second cabin space, these passengers being allotted the afterpart of the promenade. Their space is the full width of the broad deck for over one hundred feet in length extending back to the stern ; and under CHAP. X.] AT SEA ON AN ATLANTIC LINEB. 163 its protecting awnings these second cabin passengers have an accommodation exceeding in comfort and actual luxury any- thing heretofore provided for them, with a broad stairway leading down to their dining-saloon. The people from the first cabin walk back here, and envy them this wide and level deck, which is just the place for a dancing-floor, and is sheltered from the winds by the protecting deck-houses in front. From its centre rises the mizzen mast, with the spanker clewed up to the mast, ready for use if needed. A hundred or more pas- sengers are reclining in chairs or lying about this spacious deck getting much the most comfortable Transatlantic pas- sage they ever experienced. They nurse their babies, gossip and sing with music and games, and have generally that very good time which people in their walks of life know so well how to enjoy. Near the stern upon this deck, are compasses und complete steering gear, with starting and stopping signals, for use when the vessel is backing or is guided from the stern, as she is designed to be moved as readily backward as forward. At the very stern is the little mast bearing the ship's colours, and from which are displayed signals of recognition to pass- ing vessels. Upon the circle of railings guarding the stern are hung life buoys ready to throw into the sea at a second's notice should any one fall overboard. Behind the ship, the sea boils up in a maelstrom of foam, which flows away in a long white line toward the western horizon, marking the wake, as the displaced waters rush in to fill the chasm through which she has just passed. Beneath us quickly revolve the great twin screws, one on each side of the rudder, and as we look ■over the rail, the rush of the blades can be seen through the clear blue water, making the beautiful spirals of air bubbles under the surface that gradually rise and burst out a short •distance behind in white explosions like the smoke of artillery. As we swiftly cross the banks of Newfoundland there are 164 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. X. vessels all about us. Some are steamers speeding westward to America ; others are merchantmen with all sails spread, plodding over the sea and displaying their signal flags, being anxious for report to owners at home. But most of them are iishermen — little schooners rocking upon the waves, with their fleet of dories trailing behind, waiting for a school of cod or mackerel to come along, and their skippers probably having decided opinions about fishery treaties and the international questions arising over the supply of bait. The sight of these fishermen upon the banks causes a sensation among the pas- sengers, for it does not take much to stimulate us now that a full complement of restfulness has been obtained. We pass close by one or two of them, and see their trawls and ready baited hooks in the dories, and the crew give us a cheer, although we gaze upon them rather with a feeling of pity at the enforced hardships of their lives. Tet they are all happy, with little care excepting that the approaching steamer may disturb the fish and stop them biting, or, if in fog, threaten to run the dories down. The keen and bracing air as we have roamed about the spacious promenade deck has again prompted the appetite, and the passengers are quite ready for the welcome gong sum- moning to lunch. The mid-day meal is the natural prelude to a brief siesta on the luxurious deck chair, where, wrapped in rugs to keep out the cold, the breeze and motion induce to sleep. After this refreshment , the survey of the magnificent vessel is resumed. In the forward portion of the promenade deck-house doors open from either side into a spacious rotunda, covering the stairway leading down to the grand saloon. This makes a hall about thirty feet wide, beneath which the cabin stairway descends with strong broad balusters, and easy steps. Just behind this hall on the promenade deck, doors open into the library. We wander into this gem of an apartment, cosily located between two of the smoke stacks, around one of which 166 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. X. the books are arranged in their bright bindings, while the other makes the back for a semi-circular ottoman. Luxurious sofas are placed all around this pretty room, and ladies sit at the tables writing letters to those at home. Upon the walls, which are finished in light coloured ornamental woods, elegantly panelled and carved, medallions bear the names of the leading authors ol America and Britain. The round win- dows have glass screens richly engraved with poems of the sea, and an octagonal sky-light pours a flood of warm mellow light upon the writing tables below, while at night the electric lights give brilliant illumination. Here the passengers, when the air is too fresh outside, come in to rest and read, or write their letters and study maps and railway time books in prepa- ration for the landing. Another equally beautiful apartment is located forward of the stair-hall — the iadies' drawing-room. Pretty sky-lights here send down their mellow radiance upon the rich ottomans and carpets, and mirrors reflect the beauties of the finely de- corated walls, whose elegant panels are surmounted by a gorgeous ceiling. Here gather the ladies and children, and as the piano plays they look out of the side windows at the steadily passing sea with its foaming "white caps '' bubbling every- where in the sunlight, or through the attractive little oriel that overlooks the dining-saloon below. The grand dining-saloon is one of the chief achievements of the builders of this great steamer. It seems as if it were at least eighty feet long and fifty |eet wide. The broad stair- way leads down to the entrance where one comes in through wide glass doors, having on each side the capacious side- boards over which the food is served, while behind these are the pantries with their supplies of glassware and crockery, and the hot plates. Opposite, there rises a miniature Grecian temple portico above a balcony whereon is placed an organ. Between them is a broad space, over which is elevated the CHAP. X.] AT SEA ON AN ATLANTIC LINER. 167 great dome of the saloon, its high archway of richly coloured glass admitting a flood of light upon the dining-tables beneath, from which on each side stretch cosy alcoves, each with its little round windows looking out upon the waves. All the kitchens are hidden on the decks below, out of sight, smell, or hearing. The decoration of this grand saloon, and its blending of colours are most pleading. The white dome interior, and its delicately coloured stained glass, are in artistic con- trast with the rich hues of the walls and the elegance of the table service. It is no wonder that the appetizing qualities of sea air are aided by these attractive surroundings, in making the passengers almost all the time seek the solid enjoyments of this splendid refectory. Passing further aft, upon the saloon deck behind the stair- hall is the children's dining-room, and then one gets among a labyrinth of state-rooms and interior apartments of the ship, with bath-rooms and lavatories, all constructed with the latest improvements ; and finally comes to the engine hatches, one on each side of a central hallway, used also as an auxiliary children's dining-room. Here can be seen to greater advan- tage the swift-moving machinery, with the engineers climbing upon their iron ladders deep down below, as they oil and watch the motions of the ponderous engines whose cranks lightly turn the heavy screw-shafts beneath. The boilers are con- cealed in spaces forward, where forty firemen are always on duty shovelling the coal into fifty-four furnaces creating tbe steam for the enormous power of the ship. Within the large air-tight enclosed spaces around the stoke-holes, the powerful downward air current always gives a cooling draught most re- freshing to these perspiring firemen, as it makes the fires glow and burn. Abaft the engine hatches, another stairway leads up to the promenade deck, and beyond it is the smoking-room, 168 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [cHAP. X. having a comfortable barber's shop as an adjunct. This smoking-room, as broad as the ship and as long as it is wide, has many comfortable seats and little tables lighted from the sky-lights above. Here usually assemble the greatest travellers and nautical luminaries of the ship. Many are the tales told in this attractive assembly-room, as the veterans spin their yarns and discuss every topic. And in the evenings, when the trials and enjoyments of the day are ending, here gather the active spirits who spend their time guessing the distance travelled ; for no subject creates more interest and even excitement than the discussion of the ship's daily run. What pleasant memories cluster around this attractive smoking-room of the " City of New York," where sometimes a hundred people congregate as participants or auditors of some debate of grave import evolved from the events of the voyage. As the night wears on, one after another leaves the group, and seeking the state-room turns into the little bed, with the gentle motion of the ship rocking all to sleep. And- thus, in the ocean crossing, the day and night pass away, as with monotonous regularity the great twin screws drive the ocean monster forward, while the constant wash and swirl of the waters unite with the vibration of the machinery in sing- ing our soothing lullaby. II. The Arrival. Britannia needs no bulwarks, No towers along the steep ; Her march is o'er the mountain waves, Her home is on the deep. In crossing the Atlantic, one is forcibly reminded of the poet Campbell's lines above quoted. Britannia's march is certainly over the mountain waves, and her home is on the deep, if the universality of the British flag on all the vessels CHAP. X.] AT SEA ON AN ATLANTIC LINER. 169 we have passed be any indication. Possibly some day it may be otherwise, bat now the Union Jack flies over almost all the commerce of the North Atlantic, In the grey of an early morning the dull monotony of the sea voyage was most pleasantly broken by the announcement that we had sighted land. With gladness the passengers traced out ahead the dim outline of the Emerald Isle, and when they had rubbed their eyes and the haze was somewhat dissipated, the steamer passed the noted rocks of the Bull, Cow, and Calf, with the lighthouse on the Calf Rock towards which the steamer had been pointing in all her long journey over the waste of waters. These are three curious isolated rocks adjacent to Cape Clear, and far out from the mainland, the tallest abont two hundred feet high, being the Bull, the broadest the Cow, and the little fellow modestly coming along behind as the procession travels apparently towards the shore, being the Calf. The latter is nearest the path of vessels, and consequently has the lighthouse, the Calf Rock Light being with Fastnet, famous as the beacons making the approach to the English Channel. Then, in the early morning, the steamer passed the high, bold headlands of Ireland, which project with deeply in- dented intervening bays, and have a white fringe of breakers beating against the bases of the cliffs falling sharply off to the water from the table-land above. Among the first of these was the bold promontory of Brow Head, surmounted by the signal station, and as we passed the steamer displayed her signal flags which were answered from the shore, whence her arrival was quickly flashed by telegraph forward to Queenstown and England, and back to America. About six miles off shore is the remarkable pyramidal pile of rocks known as Fastnet, and we sailed between it and Brow Head. This great pile far out in the sea looks as if especially put there to bear the great revolving flashing light which thus 170 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. X. guards the Channel entrance. On the tops of the more promi- nent headlands along this rock-bound coast are other little white lighthouses, with their buildings and enclosing walls also painted white. The blue waters of the ocean have turned green as they bathe these shores, upon which not a tree is to be seen. The highly cultivated fields, divided by their green hedge-rows, extend down to the edges of the cliffs, whence one might fall hundreds of feet into the breakers below, while here and there the indented bays open up smiling valleys, with little clusters of thatched cottages scattered over the landscape. And thus as Ireland passes in review the debate among the passengers about her misfortunes is opened, and one is reminded again of the poet Campbell and his plaintive lament : There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin. Our steamer moves swiftly past the frowning promontory renowned in soiig and story, the " Old Head of Kinsale," sur- mounted by its tall, white lighthouse marked with encircling red rings, indicative of the bright red light it sends far over the sea. Then the vessel rounds the more modest cliffs of Robert's Head, to reach the " Cove of Cork," halting off the entrance of this pretty bay at Roche's Point, marking the end of the ocean voyage of about 2,800 miles from Sandy Hook. We gaze through the narrow passage in which we have halted, at the green hills within the harbour so dear to every Irish- man's heart. Queenstown lies behind the point, and on either hand inside are the forts guarding this important haven — Rocky Island with its excavated chambers holding vast stores of gunpowder, and Haulbowline Island with its huge fresh- water tank hewn out of the solid rock. Farther in is the noted penal settlement of Spike Island. A little steam tender, dancing like a cork on the waves, comes out from the harbour and fastens alongside us, while the passengers and their CHAP. X.J AT SEA ON AN ATLANTIC LINER. 17l luggage for Queenstown are taken ofE. This transfer gives much amusement to the large audience on the steamer's exten- sive decks, who have been so long without such entertainment that the novelty brings them all out to watch the dexterous and comical gyrations of their compatriots who with multiplied bags and bundles are trying to look dignified as they slide down the gangway-plank to the tender. Then the mail-bags are transferred, and with parting cheers she briskly paddles off into the harbour, leaving a long stretch of foam behind as she goes in among the hills. Almost before the tender has started away, our voyage is resumed along the southern Irish coast, past the rock of Ballycotton and its lighthouse, and a panorama of green and brown fields, little white cottages, and grey towers scattered at intervals, the cloud shadows chasing each other along the sloping fronts of bays and headlands. Then the shores recede towards Waterford, and the steamer, distant from the land, takes a long stretch around the south-eastern coast to St, George's Channel. Another isolated rock — Tuskar, with an- other lighthouse surmounting — marks the turning point, and the route lies between Ireland and Wales, the ship moving diagonally across the channel to Holyhead. Here are seen the little tugs towing the ships down from Liverpool that are starting, in some cases, on long voyages around the world. As we move along, the rock-bound coast of Wales comes in sight on the right hand, the Irish coast having disappeared on the left ; and here is got the earliest view of old Albion, and with Dibdin our English passengers exclaim : it's a snug little island 1 A right little, tight little island ! Sometimes the distant peak of Snowdon can be seen if the day be favourable, but night has come upon us, and under guidance of the lighthouses, the steamer passes around the great head- lands of Wales — Holyhead and the Great Orme's Head, pro- 172 THE ATLANTIC TEKEY. [cHAP. X. trading northward not far away from the Mersey. Entering the low shores of its estuary, this famous river is ascended, and the anchor is dropped in front of Liverpool, the greatest seaport in the world. Its docks stretch for miles along the river front, protected by their massive granite walls ; and are filled with shipping whose masts rise among the spacious storehouses. In the early morning a steam tender comes out and takes ofE the passengers and their luggage, carrying them to the landing stage, where there is a brief customs inspection and a hurried good-bye. We bid farewell to the noble ship that has so safely carried us over the sea, and the Transatlantic journey is ended : Still they must pass ! the swift tide flows. Though not for all the laurel grows. Perchance in this beslandered age The worker, mainly, wins his wage ; And time will sweep both friends and foes When Finis comes ! J. C, CHAPTEE XI. MACHINERY OF ATLANTIC LINEES. Although the type and construction of the engines have been generally defined in noting the steamers already mentioned, it may not be uninteresting to briefly review the changes in design of the machinery in use at dif- ferent times. The first engines were of the side-lever type, which is illustrated by the sketch of the machinery of the Arctic (p. 174). The earlier engines in the Liver- pool, President, and Sirius, were all of this type, but lacked their finish and completeness, and also carried lower pressures, such as 5 lbs. and 8 lbs. per square inch; with them the consumption per indicated horse-power aver- aged as much as 6 or 7 and even 8 pounds of coal per horse-power per hour. The design of boilers generally used was that known as the return-flue boiler, and served its purpose until the pressures became too high for the large area of flat surfaces exposed, which were found to require considerable staying. The pressure carried in the earlier days was so slight, that in the log book of the Britannia it was recorded on one occasion: "Broke the larboard steam-pipe, lapped it with canvas and rope-yarn and proceeded with low pressure," meaning evidently 4 lbs. or 5 lbs. per square inch ! So much has been noted of this old vessel, that CHAP. XI.J MACHINERY OF ATLANTIC LINERS. 175 it is interesting to here give the names of the first engineers who served on board. The chief was named Mr. Peter Kenneth ; the second, Mr. Thomas Brown ; the third, Mr. James Bell ; the fourth, Mr. Eobert Waddell, who afterwards rose to be chief engineer of the Scotia; and Mr. James Wardrop, fifth. The design of the side-lever engine being fairly suitable for the paddle-wheels, was generally retained down to the Scotia, the last of the side-lever type, and it was still such a favourite as to induce modifications of it being retained for screw propulsion in the form of a beam-engine. The arrangement of this type is illustrated by the diagram of the engines of the Cunard steamer Etna, built in 1855, on p. 176. It will be noticed that the two cylinders are placed on the port side to work vertically up to the beam, the other end of which is connected to the shaft on which the spur-wheel is keyed ; this wheel gears into a pinion on the forward end of the propeller-shaft, and, with a view of obtaining a good disposition of the weights, the wheels were placed between the forward and after engine, of which the forward one only is shown on the sketch. This system of gea.ring for screw engines of what were then considered large power, was introduced to keep down the high piston speed which would have been required if the engines had had their piston-rods and crank-shaft connected direct to the screw-shaft, the revolutions for a side wheeler ranging from 14 to 18 per minute, whilst those for the screw-shaft required to run from 40 to 80, 90 and sometimes even 150, which was then considered much too fast for ordinary wear and tear. End Elevation, Looking Aft. Half Plan. ENGINES OP ETNA, 1855. !^.?2i£^ Z? 1:2^2,^ ENGINES OF THE CHINA. Face pare 176. CHAP. XI.J MACHlNER-y OF ATLANTIC LINEES. 177 An interesting anecdote, which illustrates the marked difference between the relative velocities of the paddle- wheel machinery and the direct-acting inverted screw engines, is often told of one of the older chief engineers, who had been transferred from the charge of one of the slow-moving paddles to a quick direct acting screw. He was struck by the apparent working full speed of the engines, although the order from the bridge had been given to go slow ahead ; after surveying the situation for a moment, he called out to the second engineer, who was handling the engines, " The order is to go slow, better slow her down at once." To this the second replied, " They are going dead slow," on which the chief at once answered, " Is that so ? Well, they may get some one else to take charge of this job, for I won't be in the engine-room when they are going full speed, as it would not be safe, they are sure to fly to pieces." Another form of engine with gearing, was that shown on the annexed plate, which is after the form fitted in the first Transatlantic Gunard screw steamer the China. The cylinders are of the oscillating type working upward on the crank-shaft, on the after end of which is keyed a large spur-wheel fitted with wooden teeth, and gearing direct to the pinion on the screw-shaft by four sets of teeth. One great novelty about these engines was the fitting of a sur- face condenser, which, although tried earlier, was given up, owing to the difficulty experienced in keeping the tubes tight ; by this time, however, it was again being brought forward and made serviceable. Another form of geared engine for screw propulsion, N 178 THE ATLANTIC FEREY. [chap. XI. was the steeple type introduced in the earlier Inman steamers. Considerable trouble was experienced in all these engines with the gearing, owing to the heavy wear, which required constant renewal of the wooden teeth, and it was eventually found that they gave more trouble than the engines connected direct on to the screw-shaft. Section at XY Loohing Forward. THEEE CYLINDER COMPOUND ENGINES, MONTANA AND DAKOTA. After the engines for screw machinery were arranged so as to be connected direct to the propeller-shaft, many types came into vogue, each line favouring its own form, the Inman adopting the horizontal trunk engine, the Cunard the inverted direct-acting, followed afterwards by the Guion and other lines. The Guion Line in its first vessels adopted the r T T T T [For^ Fore and Aft Elevation. Plan. THREE CYLINDER COMPOUND ENGINES, MONTANA AND DAKOTA, 1872. 180 THE ATLANTIC FEERY. [CHAP. XI. inverted direct-acting engine, but afterwards changed, in the Wyoming and Wisconsin, to the type having one vertical cylinder and one horizontal with trunk, both working on the same crank. They were followed after- wards by the type shown on pp. 178, 179, which were fitted in the Montana. There was one inverted high-pres- sure cylinder working direct on the forward crank-shaft, and two horizontal low-pressure with return connecting- rods, one on each side of the vessel. The valves of these engines, as also of the Wyoming and other vessels, were of the Corliss type, as may be noticed by the shape of the cylinders and the parts marked A. Another peculiarity shown on this diagram is the vertical ash-shoot, into which the overboard discharge of the circulating water is led. The idea of this shoot, which was first introduced on the earlier White Star boats, was to avoid the annoyance caused in passenger vessels by the putting of the ashes overboard, but it was, however, only a partial success, giving rise, like many other'con- trivances, to greater evils than it cured, so that it was eventually done away with on all vessels. Another feature of the two sister vessels, the Montana and Dakota, is clearly shown on the section, namely the excessive "tumble home" ^ of the vessels about midships, which gave them a very peculiar appearance. ' This term " tumble home " is used by nautical men to denote the manner in which the sides of the vessels gradually recede inwards from a little below the water line to the deck level ; this was done to a great extent in the old three-decker lineTof-battle ship. TWO-CBANK COMPOUND ENSINES, 1870. 182 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. XI. Since the general introduction of the compound engines in 1870, the inverted direct- acting type of engines with two cranks, shown on p. 181, has become almost universally adopted. Where the arrangement of one high and one low-pressure cylinder has been departed from, it was generally to get more power by placing the high- ■*«;s«^^ THREE CKANK TRIPLE ENGINES, 1888. pressure cylinder above the low, tandem type, as instanced by the sketch of the first White Star boat's engines illustrated on pp. 81, 82. Sometimes the high-pressure cylinder was placed underneath the low; but all these designs have once more given place to the simple arrange- ment of the triple compound engine with three cranks, -illustrated above, and in the annexed diagram of the ENGIKES OF THE SS. MAETELLO (p. 113). Face page 182. CHAP. XI.] MACHINERY OP ATLANTIC LINERS. 183 Martello's engines. Owing, however, to the great demand for still higher indicated horse-power, the tandem system seems again coming into vogue with triple engines, as it enables two high-pressure cylinders to be placed above the two low-pressure, which is to be the arrangement for the new high-speed vessels of the Cunard Line. It is also remarkable that since the introduction of the three-crank engine, the number of disablements through the breakage of crank or tunnel-shaft, have been practically reduced to nil during the last seven years, as, to the author's knowledge, only one case of a broken crank-shaft has occurred in the Express Trans- atlantic Service during the past eight years, and in the single case noted no serious delay was experienced, owing to the fact of the vessel being twin-screw.^ One serious case of breakage was that of the City of Paris' tube-shaft already noted at page 61, but this must certainly be attributed to circumstances outside the ordinary working, as the cause of breakage was altogether abnormal and not such as ought to be ranked amongst average risks incurred. In describing the advances made in the machinery of the express liners, it is remarkable that no great improvement or radical change has taken place in the designs of the boilers, which still remain of the same cylindrical type with return tubes, the only change being the general adoption of the Fox corrugated flue, followed later by the now well known Purves ribbed flue. With ' Since this was written the breakage of a crank-shaft on the Ounard Liner Servia has been reported in July, 1891. 184 THE ATLANTIC FEKRY. [cHAP. XI. this single exception no alteration has been made in design, but very considerable advances have been made in the tools and appliances employed for boiler making, with a consequent improvement in the actual manufacture of the boilers, which has much increased their durability. Other modifications have been effected in the general design of the machinery by the substitution of piston for slide-valves, to reduce the excessive friction due to the high steam-pressures and large surfaces ; built steel crank-shafts have been altogether substituted for solid ones, and in many cases the hollow shafting has been adopted. The removal of the various feed, bilge, and circulating pumps from the main engines has also allowed of better arrangement in design. The introduction of the electric light, forced draught, and refrigerating engines, has added many extraneous machines to the modern engine-room, and in the deve- lopment of these auxiliary engines their construction has become a speciality of many firms, with the result that they are all of superior make, and do their work most satisfactorily, requiring but average care to keep them in order at sea. One of the most radical departures of recent years is of course the twin screw, which, as may be noticed, has brought about an alteration in the design of the stern from the single screw type long in vogue, illustrated by a reprint of a photograph of a model of one of the most successful steamers, the Britannic. The simplest form for the twin screw, and the one generally adopted by the different governments, is that ^K' \,a.s^#J^« -^ if - ,H^ i ^i^^t - -» -t»r.i «.ti-falD8«!! MIMi'fiL.^^ — T ^^ f-^^ -., -i ^j> > * * v* •Sim ^'' '■ !\ ?" l\!lL:a2 rPT '^lorii E. — STARBOARD THRUST BLOCK, TEUTONIC. ''Wr / «!^ ',/' ' , /' M if'', I '• ' ••A ><-//.■•.•;.•;' ■'■;?;.i:;.'.- Face page 1 94. CHAP. XI.] MACHINBEY OP ATLANTIC LINEES. 195 350 per minate. They draw the air from the hottest places in the stokeholds and force it into chambers in the uptakes at the bases of the chim.neys. There are fifty vertical tubes in each chamber, and through these tubes the products of com- bustion pass, while the air from the fans circulates round them, and passing down the sides of the smoke-boxes, is finally delivered into the closed ash-pits at a temperature of about 250 degrees. About one-fourth of the whole air supply is admitted over the fires. In addition to the eighteen fans we have named, three others, two for keeping the dynamo rooms cool, and one for ventilating the firemen's quarters, are fitted. ' It will not be without interest if we give here a few facts and figures, which will help to convey to our readers some idea of the gigantic scale on which the processes of combustion, evaporation, and condensation, and the performance of work are carried on in the Teutonic and the Majestic. The only difficulty we have lies in selecting standards of measurement which can be readily grasped by the mind. The engines of the Teutonic indicate about 17,000 hol'se- power, sometimes of course a little less, sometimes a little more ; therefore as the power is fairly equally divided among the six cylinders, each regarded as a distinct engine indicates nearly 2,833 horse-power. The energy transmitted to each crank-shaft is 8,520 horse-power. It is far more easy to talk of 17,000 horse-power than it is to realize what its develop- ment involves. The boilers of the Teutonic have to produce - about 120 tons of steam per hour, with an absolute pressure of 195 lbs., the safety-valve load being 180 lbs. on the square inch. Of course the feed pumps have to deliver 120 tons of water into the boilers against this pressure every hour. The feed- water required for one hour would fill a cubical tank nearly 16^ feet long, broad, and deep ; for at 36 feet to the ton 120 tons means 4,320 cubic feet. The energy expended in 196 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. XI. putting this great body of water into the boilers is over 57 horse-power, allowing nothing fof friction in pipes or losses of any kind. The feed pumps really absorb about 120 indicated horse-power. The total feed-water for one day of twenty-four hours amounts to 103,680 cubic feet, which would fill a cubical tank 47 feet on the side. Such a tank would hold 6,500,000 gallons ; this would be an ample daily supply for a town of 26,000 inhabitants, giving every person 25 gallons per day. To convert this water into steam about 12'5 tons of coal are burned every hour, or in round numbers 300 tons a day. We do not put these figures forward as official, but they are not far from the truth. This means that on a trip to America the Teutonic burns all the coal that six trains of thirty-two wagons each can carry. The 12|^ tons of coal need for their combustion not less than 250 tons of air. Assuming that this air before it enters the fans has a temperature of about 80 degrees, it will weigh, omitting fractions, 7 lbs. per 100 cubic feet. The 250 tons represent, then, 8,000,000 cubic feet, which would fill a cubical tank 200 feet on the side. To raise this air from 80 degrees to 180 degrees, as is done in the heating apparatus we have described, represents about 5,800 theoretical horse-power, and a large portion of this may be regarded as clear gain, being obtained for nothing. In other words, if the air were delivered cold to the furnaces instead of hot, some 20 tons of coal extra would be required per day. The centrifugal circulating engines, as well as the electric lighting engines, were made by Messrs. Tangyes, of Birming- ham. Small as the circulating engines appear to be in this great vessel, out of it they would be considered of fair size, big enough, for example, to deal with the pumping out of a pretty large graving dock. In the Teutonic the duty of these circulating engines is of the first importance. They must run constantly when the main engines are moving, they CHAP. XI.] MACHINERY OF ATLANTIC LINEES. 197 mast be started before the main engines, and must be kept running during all temporary stoppages, in order that the great condensers may be kept cool, and ready to deal with the immense volumes of steam which are discharged from the low- pressure cylinders of the main engines. The weight of steam to be condensed may, as we have said, be taken roughly at 120 tons per hour, a quantity which gives some idea of the important part which surface condensation has played in the progress of steam navigation. About 26,000 gallons of water are made into steam at a pressure of 180 lbs. per square inch, and reconverted into water every hoar. To effect this condensation about 4,000 tons of sea water are passed through the tubes of the surface condensers every hour. This duty is effected by Messrs. Tangyes' circulating pumps, and it may be interesting to state that the amount of water dealt with on the round trip between Liverpool and New York is over 1,000,000 tons — enough to fill a reservoir about a mile long, a quarter of a mile wide, and six feet deep ; and that if the water were fresh, the daily quantity would suffice for a city of 700,000 inhabitants. The following are the principal dimensions of these circu- lating pumping engines as fitted on the Teutonic : — Two centrifugal pumps, each with discs or impellers •') feet diameter, with suction and delivery pipes 20 inches diameter. For each pump two vertical compound engines are provided, each with cylinders 8 inches and 15 inches diameter, 14 inches stroke, one engine being amply large to perform the full duty, even when lifting water 2.5 feet high from the bottom of the vessel. The unusually large diameter of the disc enables the work of circulating to be done at the very moderate speed of 85 to 95 revolutions per minute when the main engines are working full speed, while the very liberal proportions and surfaces which have been adopted throughout give good security for proper working and durability. The engines are fully equipped 198 THE ATLANTIC FERBY. [CHAP. XI. with continuous oiling arrangements, and all the minor fittings usually found in first-class work. The enormous distances traversed by the pistons of marine engines is never realized ; at all events, we have never seen any statement of the facts in print. It suffices to give the speed in feet per minute ; but no one stops to consider what this implies. In the Teutonic the stroke is 5 feet, and the average revolutions 78 per minute. Each piston therefore traverses 780 feet per minute, or 46,800 feet per hour, and 1,123,200 feet per day, or in six days not less than 1,275 miles. In other words, more than one-third as many miles as the ship steams. The aggregate distance traversed by the three pistons is 7,650 miles, or about two and a half times the distance run by the ship. This is pretty well,' considering that the piston rings are rubbing all the time. The length of the ring in the low-pressure pistons is 345'57 inches, or 28 feet 9| inches, so that there is a good deal of surface to take the wear, but it is not, under the circumstances, remarkable that cylinders should wear and require re-boring. The slipper guides, too, are not spared, each slipper passing over the same distance as each piston. The refrigerating machinery on board the Teutonic, as well as that on board the sister ship Majestic, is on the Linde system. It is used for refrigerating the insulated meat holds, and also for the passengers' provision rooms. The general arrangement of the holds and passengers' stores is shown in the plates F and G. There are two meat holds of a total net capacity of about 40,000 cubic feet, and each hold is provided with distinct refrigerating apparatus ; though the arrange- ments are such as to permit of either refrigerator working on either hold, or, indeed, one refrigerator on both holds. The machinery is placed below the holds between the screw tunnels, the space being very narrow, so that it was necessary to adopt a somewhat special arrangement and to use two separate ^n Aft air Cooler T^n K. — KBFRIGEEATING CHAMBERS AND GEAR, SS. TEUTONIC, 'A'A^,W^yyyjy'^^r'^. ' Face page 198. /-. Wafer delivery Circulating, water pump a. — KEFBIGEBATING CHAMBERS AND GEAE, SS. TEUTOSIC, Face page 198. Ecceptric bush be-aring for throwing iargi pinnion tnSc out of gear Rudder StocA H.4-D0UBLE STEAM. STEEEING GEAR, SS. TEUTONIC. Face page 19g CHAP. XI.] MACHINERY OF ATLANTIC LINERS. 199 machines instead of the duplex type which is now generally preferred. In the Linde system cold is produced by the evaporation nnder comparatively low pressure of liquid anhy- drous ammonia, a liquid which possesses a boiling point at atmospheric pressure of about 37-| degrees below zero Fah. The low evaporating pressure is produced and maintained by a small pump, which draws off the vapour as quickly as it is produced, and then compresses and discharges it into a vessel, termed the condenser, in which the ammonia vapour is con- densed and rendered fit for use again in the refrigerator or evaporator. On plate Gr, is shown the pump or compressor, which is combined with a small single-cylinder steam-engine, the whole being mounted upon a box cast-iron bed-plate,' with covers at each end, in which is contained the series of wrought iron coils forming the condenser. In the present instance the compressor is an ordinary double-acting pump of cast iron, with a metallic piston, steel valves and boxes, and a special stuffing-box for preventing the escape of the ammonia, It is not water-jacketted, as a special feature of the Linde system is the very low temperature — almost isothermal — that is maintained during compression. Before entering the con- denser the compressed ammonia vapour is passed through a vessel in which any oil that may have entered through the stuffing-box is removed. The ammonia condenser consists of a series of wrought iron coils, each in one long length of tube, so as to avoid inaccessible joints. These coils are attached to one of the end covers of the bed frame, so that when required they can be readily drawn out for examination by merely removing the nuts of the bolts or studs fixing the cover. When the machine is in operation cold water is circulated around the coils by means of a pump, so as to carry off the heat given up by the ammonia in passing from the vaporous to the liquid state. In each machine a jet condenser with an 200 THE ATLANTIC FEEBY. [CHAP. XI. air pump is provided, for getting rid of the exhaust steam from the engine, but as a rule this is not used, as on the voyage the steam is exhausted into one of the surface con- densers connected with the other machinery. The refrigerators in which the liquid ammonia is evaporated consist of series of wrought iron tubes wound in such a manner as to get the largest amount of surface into the smallest amount of space. There are two sets of coils, one to each machine, bat one of the sets is again divided into two in order that the refrigeration of the passengers' provision rooms can be carried on independently of the meat holds. Thecoils'' spaces are shown in the illustration. They are below the meat holds, and are well insulated with wood and charcoal, in order to prevent the passage of heat from the machine room, which, owing to its position, becomes extremely hot in warm weather. The holds and provision rooms are cooled by means of currents of cold air produced by Blackman propellers, driven by independent steam engines. These fans draw the air from the holds and pass it over the coils in which the liquid ammonia is being evaporated. In this way the air is made to supply the heat required to evaporate the ammonia, and in so doing it becomes cooled to an extent which depends upon the quantity of air circulated. In actual practice about ten degrees is a very usual reduction. The air is circulated to and from the holds by wood trunks in the usual way. It is of course impossible to exaggerate the impor- tance of the steering gear in a ship like the Teutonic. The most elaborate precautions have been taken to secure immunity from breakdowns. The arrangement is novel in design, and covered by patents secured by Messrs. Harland and Wolff. In its main features it ■will be seen from the diagram, plate H, that it re- CHAP. XI.] MACHINERY OF ATLANTIC LINERS. 201 semblea a great horizontal spur wheel, 18 feet in diameter, movable round the rudder head. This wheel is connected to a tiller, keyed on the rudder head, by arms, each of which is made up of a layer of flat springs. The object of the springs is to take up the blow of a sea, and so relieve the gear of the excessive shock to which it would otherwise be subjected. The spur wheel is worked by specially designed steam steering engines, in duplicate. The tiller wheel and brake gear are all built up of cast steel, and, in regard to strength and workmanship, thoroughly in keeping with the rest of the ship. CHAPTEE XIL THE MEN WHO HAVE MADE AND CONDUCX THE ATLANTIC FERBY. Turning now from the general doings of the great vessels and lines, it will be interesting to recall the individuals whose names have become for ever fixed in the pages of maritime history, and of whom many have now "gone down to rest." Among the first of these was Sir SAMtiEL CuNARD, the founder of the great line now bearing his name, who was born in Newfoundland in November, 1787, and was there representing the great East India Company in Halifax, when he was attracted by the advertisement of the English Admiralty for the mail service across the Atlantic. Shortly afterwards (in 1838) he came to England, and having received an intro- duction to, he met and consulted with Mr. Eobert Napier, of Glasgow, who in turn introduced him to Mr. G. Burns and Mr. David Maclver, which resulted in the line being founded and the contract signed by the three names, Samuel Cunard, George Burns, and David Maclver, and was continued by the joint firms of Cunard, Burns, and Maclver, until Sir Samuel's death in London on April 28th, 1865. Mr. George Burns, who was associated with Mr. Cunard, was born in the neighbourhood of Glasgow in SIE SAMUEL CUNARD, BAKT. BORN 1787, DIED 1865. ONE OF THE POUNDERS OF THE CUNARD LINE. JOINT SIGNER OF FIRST ADMIRALTY MAIL CONTRACT. 204 THE ATLANTIC FBREY. [cHAP. XII. the year 1795, and in 1818 commenced business as a general merchant with his brother James in Glasgow. A few years afterwards he took over a fleet of sailing coasting vessels to Liverpool and elsewhere, and com- menced with steamers to Belfast in the same year, 1824. Following the usual course, steam was substituted on the Liverpool line, and a fusion made with Messrs. Maclver, of Liverpool. After the founding of the Cunard Line, Mr. George Burns resided in Glasgow, looking after the interest of the line there, and also the ex- tensive coasting trade, and eventually retired from busi- ness in 1860, from which time up to his death he resided at Wemyss Bay, on the Eiver Clyde. In May, 1889, he was created a baronet, and died the following year on June 2nd, 1890, aged ninety-five years. David Mac Iyer, the other signatory to the contract with the Admiralty for carrying the mails, was born in Scotland in 1807, and was brought up in the ofi&ce of the American Consul in Greenock. Together with his younger brother Charles he founded the well-known firm in Liverpool of D. and C. Maclver, which took charge of the Liverpool business of the Cunard Line, together with their other services, and was successfully carried on by them together until his death in 1845, aged only thirty- eight years. The other great name which must be associated with this splendid enterprise was that of Mr. Eobeet Napier, the engineer, who practically rendered the venture a success, as his far-seeing judgment in designing and using the best-known systems of marine engineering. SIR GEORGE BURNS, BART. BORX 1795, DIED 1890. ONE OF THE FOUNDERS OF THE CUNARD LINE. JOINT SIGNER OF FIRST ADMIRALTY MAIL CONTRACT. 206 THE ATLANTIC FBERY. [CHAP. XII. prevented any breakdown or failures of machinery, which would have damaged the reputation and success of the line. He was born at Dumbarton on June 18th, 1791, and commenced business in May, 1815, by pur- chasing a small blacksmith's shop in Glasgow. Some years afterwards, in 1823, he made his first marine engine for a Clyde steamer, and continued afterwards making numerous engines for other boats down to 1839, when he made the engines for the Atlantic steamer British Queen, and also for the first four Cunard steamers, the connection with that firm being then formed. Amongst other noted vessels engined by him were the old three-decker Duke of Wellington, the last of England's wooden walls ; the second of the English armour-clads,- the Black Prince, built and engined by him, and other famous vessels. He died on June 22nd, 1876, aged eighty-five. Amongst the names deserving a place on the roll of honour connected with the Transatlantic Service is that of Mr. E. K. Collins, the patrotic American who endea- voured in the earlier days of the trade to secure for his eountry a foremost place in the great steamship enters prises then just developing. Mr. Collins was a native of Truro, Massachusetts, where he was born on August 5th, 1802. He com- menced his business career at the age of fifteen, in New York City, and after a few years' service as junior, he was engaged by a firm of West Indian merchants, and was employed as purser — or, as it was then styled, supercargo — on board the vessels, where he had occa- MR. DAVID MACIVEE. BORN 1807, DIED 1846. cuNARD l:ne. joint signer of first admiralty mail contract. 208 THE ATLANTIC FBRBY. [chap. XII. sionally some exciting adventures with the numerous pirates then roving about those islands. Some years afterwards, in 1822, he joined his father in the general shipping and commission business, and eventually became head of the firm, which he then com- menced to develop extensively, first by putting fine full- rigged sailing ships on the West Indian and Mexican trade from New York ; and later, in 1836, by establish* ing the splendid service of sailing packets between New MR. KOBEET NAPIER. INTRODUCER OP SIDE-LEVER ENGINES. BORN 1791, DIED 1876. York and Liverpool, known as the Dramatic Line, on' account of all the vessels having theatrical names, such as the Shakespeare, Garrick, etc. A noted departure in these fine vessels, besides their superior internal fittings, was the total abandonment of the fine-lined vessel having CHAP. XII.J MEN WHO HAVE MADE THE ATLANTIC FERRY. 209 a sharp rise of floor, and the substitution for it (against the opinions of the noted New York shipbuilders) of the flat-floored form of hull. MK. E. K. COLLINS. FOUNDER OF THE COLLINS LINE. BORN 1802, DIED 1878. Like the other owners of the Transatlantic sailing liners, Mr. Collins watched with keen interest the work- ing of the earlier British Atlantic steamers, and having 210 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. XII. satisfied himself that they would prove rivals to the sailers, he endeavoured at an early date, but without any success, to induce the United States Government to assist in promoting a line of American -built and owned steamers, so as to be available for naval service. His early appreciation of the utility of steamers was fully shown by a conversation he had with some friends on board one of his own sailers early in 1841, when seeing the ill-fated President steam past, he declared " that he would do his utmost to promote a line of steamers to cross to Liverpool in ten days." But as already noted, owing to the delay of the. United States Government, it was not until 1847, when the Act was passed by Congress, that he was in a position actually to commence the formation of the steamship line bearing his name, and which two years afterwards, in 1849, com- menced with the Atlantic, Arctic, Baltic, and Pacific. Upon the withdrawal of the steamers early in 1858, he turned his attention to other matters, and died in New York in January, 1878. Mr. William Inman, the founder of the line now bearing his name, was born at Leicester on April 6th, 1825, and was son of Mr. Charles Inman (a partner in the firm of Pickford and Co., the carriers), who having retired from that firm, came to Liverpool. Here his son William completed his education, and eventually became a partner in the firm of Eichardson Brothers, in conjunc- tion with whom he first promoted the steamship service, which he afterwards made so famous. This he success- fully conducted until his death, in his fifty-sixth year^ FOUNDER OP INMAN LINE. BORN 1825, DIED 1881. 212 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [cHAP. XII. at Upton, his Cheshire residence, on July 3rd, 1881, shortly after the launch, and before the advent of, the beautiful City of Rome, the last vessel ordered by him. Mr. Stephen Baekbe Guion, the founder of the Guion Line, was of American birth, and came to Liverpool, about the year 1851, in connection with the steerage passenger trade of the Black Star Line of sailing ships, which he extensively developed. After a short con- nection, as agent, with the Cunard Company for the purpose of working up the steerage passenger traffic, followed by a similar connection with the National Line, he founded his own line in 1866, and successfully carried it on until shortly before his death. This took place on December 19th, 1885, in his sixty-sixth year, at Liverpool, where he was widely known and respected, having occupied several public positions with great credit and ability. Mr. Chaeles MacIvee was born in Glasgow in the year 1811, and was early connected with his brothers in the shipping business, and on the death of his brother David he retained the sole management of the Liverpool branch of the line, which he conducted very energetically, the vessels of the Cunard Line being generally known in Liverpool as Maclver's boats. During the early days of the volunteer movement he raised a corps amongst the Cunard Line staff in Liverpool, and became colonel of it. In 1882 he retired from the line, not being in unison with his co-directors as to the future working of the concern, which was then feeling the rivalry of the other lines, and died a few years afterwards, in 1885, aged FOUNDER OF GUION LINE. BORN 1819, DIED 1885. 214 THE ATLANTIC FBEEY. [CHAP. XII. seventy- four, at Malta, where he, for some time pre- viously, had been in the habit of spending the winter. Sir William Pbarce was born at Brompton, near Chatham, on January 8th, 1833. He was trained in the Government service at Chatham, and from there he passed to the Clyde and assumed the management of Napier's Yard ; but after a few years he took a position at Fairfield, where, in 1870, in conjunction with the relatives of John Elder, then deceased, he originated the firm of John Elder and Co., of which he became sole partner in 1878. It was just prior to this that he commenced the more extensive ventures of ocean navigation with which his name has become associated, since when he has built upwards of 200,000 tons of shipping, of nearly 800,000 horse-power, and over £7,000,000 sterling in value, amongst which may be mentioned the Arizona, built for the Guion Company, after the model and designs of the White Star boats ; and also the Alaska and Oregon, vessels that for speed were only surpassed by his later achievements, the Etruria and Umbria, and later on by the new Inman and White Star liners from the yards of other noted firm?. Concurrently with this, he constructed the entire Atlan- tic fleet of the North German Lloyd's, which includes seven of the fastest ocean-going continental steamers afloat. His great capacity for work, and his ceaseless energy, coupled with , exceptional powers of management, and judgment in the selection of men, have resulted in the creation of a vast ship-producing organization, which accomplished the extraordinary feat of constructing an CUNAED. LINE. BORN 1811, DIED 1885 216 THE ATLANTIC FBEEY. [CHAP. XII. Atlantic liner of 5,000 tons in the incredibly short space of ninety-eight working days. He was elected the first member of the newly-created constituency of the Govan Division of Lanarkshire in 1885, and again in 1886, having previously contested Glasgow in the Conservative interest in 1880. He was chairman of the Guion Steam- ship Company and of the Scottish Oriental Steamship Company. He was created a baronet in 1887, and died in London, December 18th, 1889. Mr. T. H. IsMAY, the founder and managing director of the White Star Line, was born at Maryport in the year 1837, and came to Liverpool, in 1852, as an appren- tice to the shipping firm of Messrs. Imrie, Tomlinson and Co. On completion of his term with them, he pro- ceeded to the west coast of South America in a sailing ship, the direct steam service then not having been estab- lished. On his return he joined, as junior partner, in 1860, the firm of P. Nelson and Co., and in 1864 became one of the directors of the National Line, then enjoying great prosperity. Afterwards, in 1866, he acquired the business of the famed White Star Line sailing fleet to Australia, having previously commenced business on his own account. In 1869 he formed the White Star Line of steamers, and in 1870 was joined by Mr. Imrie,' one of his present partners, who was son of the senior partner of the firm in whose office he served his articles. Since then he has ' Since this was written his retirement from the firm has been announced, although still retaining his entire interest in and position of Chairman of the White Star Line. FOUNDER OF WHITE STAR LINE. BORN 1837. 218 THE ATLANTIC FBEKY. [cHAP, XII. steadily aimed at and succeeded in making his famous line of stea.mers the head of the great shipping concerns of Great Britain, and has also found time to become a director of the Eoyal Insurance Company, and of the London and North Western Eailway Company ; the Chair- manship of which was recently offered to, but declined by, him. He has also served on several Royal Commissions, on which his extensive experience proved useful. Not the least important point of his career was the propounding of the excellent arrangements in 1878 (when the general designs and arrangements of the Teutonic and Majestic were first worked out), by which the Government was enabled by a practicable and reasonable agreement, to directly connect the fastest steamers of all the great lines with the Royal Navy, for service in time of war, though they were not acted upon until some years later in 1887. Another pleasing record is the handing over of the sum of £20,000, as a nucleus for a fund for the support of aged and indigent merchant seamen, to commemorate the occurrence of his fiftieth birthday in the jubilee year of her Majesty, Queen Victoria, in 1887. Mr. James Spbnce, the senior and respected partner in the well-known firm of Richardson, Spence and Co., was born in the north of Ireland in 1829, and received his early training in Philadelphia, under his uncle, Mr. Clarke, who was one of the partners in the firm of Richardson, Watson and Co., of that city. This firm then owned an excellent line of packet ships, trading between that port and Liverpool, the agents or con- INMAN AND INTERNATIONAL LINE. BORN 1829. 220 THE ATLANTIC FBKKY. [cHAP. XII. signees in the latter port being Messrs. Eichardsori Brothers, which later on commenced the line now known as the Inman. In 1854 Mr. Spence returned to England, and founded his now well-known house, in connection with Messrs. Thomas Eichardson and Co., of New York and Phila- delphia. In 1872 they became agents and managers in Europe for the American Steamship Company, better known as the American Line to Philadelphia, which still continues successfully under their able management. In 1885 a further extension of his firm took place, in the acquisition of the business of the Inman Line, which had been absorbed by the International Company of America. This important accession was mainly carried through by his partner, Mr. Edmund Taylor, who had previously been with the old firm of Eichardson Brothers, and who had been associated with Mr. Spence from the commencement as manager and partner. Besides the extensive business of his firm, Mr. Spence also finds time to devote to the important Bank of Liver- pool, of which he is one of the managing directors. Sir Edward James Harland, Bart., the head of the great shipbuilding and engineering firm at Belfast, is a native of Scarborough, where he was born in 1831. After spending a few years at college in Edinburgh, he was apprenticed in 1846 to the firm of Eobert Stephenson and Co., Newcastle-on-Tyne, who were extensive builders of locomotives, and also marine and land engines. Upon the completion of his articles, he entered the drawing office of Messrs. J. and G. Thomson, Glasgow, where he OF MESSRS, HARUND AND WOLFF BELFAST. BORN 1831. 222 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. XII. was engaged until 1853, when he took over the manage- ment of a shipbuilding yard in Newcastle-on-Tyne, be- longing to Messrs. Toward. After being there for a short time, he was offered a similar post in the Belfast shipyard, then owned by Messrs. Robert Hickson and Co., which he accepted towards the end of 1854. In the year 1858 the owner retired, and he became proprietor of the concern himself, and built his first vessel, the steamship Venetian (until recently the African Steamship Company's steamship Landana) for Messrs. Bibby, of Liverpool, which he launched early in 1859. Soon afterwards, in 1860, he was joined by his present partner, Mr. Wolff, and since then the firm has achieved world-wide fame, and gradually grown, until it is now one of the most important and extensive in the world. In 1885 Sir Edward Harland was elected Mayor of Belfast, and had been previously for some years Chair- man of the Harbour Board, and was created a baronet of the United Kingdom in the year 1885. Some time afterwards, in 1889, he was elected Member of Parlia- ment for one of the divisions of the city. The extensive business of which he is the head is still ably carried on by the other partners, Messrs. Wolff, Wilson and Pirrie ; the two latter of whom were amongst the first pupils trained by the firm. Mr. James E. Thomson, the present managing director of the great Clydebank establishment, was born ' in Glasgow in the year 1844, and received his training in the shipyard of his father and uncle, James and George Thomson, then situated between Glasgow and Govan. MR. JAMES E. THOMSON. OF MESSRS. J. AND G. THOMSON, SHIPBUILDERS, GLASGOW BORN 1844. 224 THE ATLANTIC FBERY. [cHAP. XII. He joined the firm as partner in the year 1868, and has since continued to guide its course in the same satisfactory way as his predecessors, assisted by his brother, Mr. George P. Thomson. Amongst the notable merchant vessels built by them may be mentioned the Russia, Servia, and Aurania for the Cunard Line ; the high-speed America for the National Line ; the City of New York and City of Paris for the Inman Line; and the Friesland for the Eed Star Line of Antwerp. In addition to these, this extensive establishment has of late years turned out some noted warships, such as the Eeina Regente, El Destructor, Chizoda, and others for foreign governments ; and the Ramillies, Terpsichore, Thetis, and others for the British Government. Another of the noted engineers, indirectly connected with the Transatlantic trade, who have left their mark, is Mr. John Elder, to whom belongs the honour of being the first to introduce successfully the compound, or double expansion engine. He was born at Glasgow on March 8th, 1824, and received his technical training in the shops of Mr. Eobert Napier. After working for a short time in some shops in Eng- land, he returned to Glasgow, and joined the firm of Eandolph and Cunliffe, afterwards known as Eandolph, Elder and Co., and supplied the first compound engine to a paddle steamer, named the Brandon, in 1854. Some years later, in 1868, he became sole owner of the establishment, and changed the firm to John Elder and Co., under which style it has turned out some of the well-known vessels of to-day. '"^ ME. JOHN ELDER. INTRODUCER OF COMPOUND ENGINP;S. BORN 1S:4, DIED : 226 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. XII. The following year, 1869, he died in London at the early age of forty-five, leaving a large fortune to his widow, who has generously aiaplied it to promote the ' science of naval architecture and engineering, to which her husband personally contributed so much. Amongst the numerous Clyde engineers who have won for themselves a distinguished position must be mentioned Mr. Alexander C. Kirk, LL.D., to whom belongs the honour of having made the now universally adopted triple expansion engine a practical success. Mr. Kirk is a native of Forfarshire, and was born in 1830. He received his technical training at the works of Eobert Napier. Afterwards he entered the service of Messrs, Young, Meldrum and Binny in their paraffin oil works, and when there, had his attention turned to the want of an effective means to maintain a low tem- perature throughout the summer months, which was required to extract the solid paraffin. After careful study and experimenting, he eventually succeeded in producing the first successful refrigerating machine, afterwards developed by Bell, Coleman, and others. In 1870 Messrs. John Elder and Co. appointed him manager of their engineering works, from which time he has been directly connected with marine engineering. In 1874 he designed and had built the first large triple expansion engines for the steamship Propontis, but owing to the failure of the boilers they were not successful. Some years later, owing to the great improvements made in the manufacture of the ordinary marine boilers, INTRODUCER OF TRIPLE EXPANSION ENGINES. BORN 1830 228 THE ATLANTIC FBEEY. [CHAP. XII. which enabled higher pressures to be carried, he again turned his attention to the triple expansion system, and in 1881 produced the steamship Aberdeen, which was a complete success, and was soon followed by others ; so that, although triple engines had been previously made by the Ouseburn Engine Works, and the system also used by Messrs. Perkins, it is to Dr. Kirk that the credit must be given of being the first to make them a practical success. In 1877 he joined his present firm of Messrs. E. Napier and Sons, Glasgow, as senior partner. Of the superintending engineers who are responsible for the machinery of these great vessels, it is interesting to note that the first gentleman to occupy this important post in any of the regular lines was Mr. Kobert Thomson, who was engineer to the Cunard Line under the regime of Messrs. D. and C. Maclver from the commencement, until his death in October, 1871. Mr. Thomson was born at Partick, Glasgow, in 1811, and served his apprenticeship with a firm of millwrights and engineers named Graham, Wellington and Co. Afterwards he commenced his sea service on one of the early steamers, named the Commodore, trading between Glasgow and Liverpool, from which he joined the Cunard Line. On his death, in 1871, he was succeeded by his assistant, Mr. Logan, who occupied the position until his death in 1885. Mr. Logan was succeeded by the present superintendent engineer, Mr. James Bain, who was appointed to the post from Lloyd's Eegistry, in which service he was engaged as engineer surveyor. CHAP. XII.J MEN WHO HAVE MADE THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. 229 His earlier training was received at Glasgow, where he was apprenticed to Messrs. E. Napier and Co., from whence he joined the Cunard Company as sea-going engineer. Afterwards, in 1872, he joined the "White Star Line, then bringing forward its new style of boats, in which he sailed as chief engineer until appointed to Lloyd's in 1875. The first superintendent engineer of the Inman Line was Mr. Douglas Hebson, who has long been known in Liverpool, where he carried on an extensive practice as consulting engineer. After occupying the post for a few years, he resigned, and was succeeded, in the year 1864, by Mr. John Purves, who had been assisting him for some years previous. Mr. Purves was a native of Leven, Fifeshire, and received his training in the shops of Messrs. E. and W. Hawthorn. He occupied the post down to the year 1880, when he was succeeded by Mr. T. F. Irwin, and died soon after at Liverpool, in 1884. After a few years Mr. Irwin, having entered into private practice as consulting engineer in Liverpool, was suc- ceeded by Mr. George Allibon, who retained the post until his death in 1885, when the present superintendent of the line, Mr. J. S. Doran, of New York, assumed the duties, having been for some years superintendent of the Eed Star Line, which at that time took over the undertaking. The well-known superintendent engineer of the Allan Line, Mr. William Wallace, is a native of Greenock, where he i-eceived his training in the shops of the Caledonian Eailway and Messrs. Caird. On completion 230 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. XII. of his apprenticeship he entered the shops of Messrs. Tulloch and Denny, of Dumbarton, and afterwards came to Liverpool to look after the engine department of the line some years after its commencement, and has since continued in the same position, where he has won for himself well-deserved reputation. The other great line, the White Star, has its engineer- ing department under the superintendence of Mr. S. Gordon Horsburgh, who has occupied the post almost since its creation. He is a native of Dundee, and was apprenticed in the engineering works of Messrs. J. and G. Thomson, of Clydebank, Glasgow, after leaving which he served as sea-going engineer in the service of Messrs. Bibby, of Liverpool, and was from that line appointed to his present position in 1871. Since joining this famous service he has been most successful in helping to sustain the splendid reputation of the line, and by so discharging his onerous duties as to deserve the con- fidence and esteem of everyone coming in contact with him. On the commencement of the Guion Line, the charge of the engine department was placed under the super- intendence of Mr. Jordan, who was responsible for the vessels during construction until after the building of the Montana and Dakota. He continued in the position until the year 1876, when he resigned, and was suc- ceeded by the present superintendent, Mr. J. G. Hughes, since when the noted vessels, Arizona, Alaska, and Oregon have been added to the fleet. CHAPTEE XIII. EARLIER EVENTS. Turning now to a general review of the various in- teresting incidents of the great Atlantic trade during the last fifty years, no better record can be obtained of the earlier events than those published from time to time by the various Liverpool and New York newspapers and journals. As an instance of the earlier newspaper notices of steamboats, it fnay be well to refer to a page from the "Agricultural Magazine" for November, 1803, in the author's possession, which gives the following under its notice of " Manufactures and Useful Arts : " — "An Account of Mr. Symington's New Steam Boat — Several attempts have been made to apply the force of steam to the purpose of propelling boats in canals, and there seems to be no reason to think the under- taking by any means liable to insuperable difficulties. Mr. Symington appears already to have had considerable success, and the method that he has employed for making a connection between the piston and the water-wheel, is attended with many advantages. " By placing the cylinder nearly in a horizontal position, he avoids the introduction of a beam, which has always been a troublesome and expensive part of the common steam engines : the piston is supported in its position by friction wheels, and communicates by means of a joint with a crank, connected with a wheel, 232 THE ATLANTIC PBREY. [cHAP. XIII. which gives the water-wheel, by means of its teeth, a motion somewhat slower than its own ; the water-whe^l serving also as a fly. The steam engine differs but littte with respect to the condensation of the steam, from thosp of Boulton and Watt now in general use : there is ap apparatus for opening and shutting the cocks at plea- sure, in order to reverse the motion of the boat wheneveS it may be necessary. The water-wheel is situated in ai cavity near the stern; and in the middle of the breadth!? of the boat, so that it becomes necessary to have two rudders, one on each side, connected together by rods, which are moved by a winch near the head of the boat, SO' that the person who attends the engine, may also steer. It has been found most advantageous to have a very small number of float boards in the water-wheel. " Another material part of the invention consists in the arrangement of stampers, at the head of the boat, for the purpose of breaking the ice on canals, an opera- tion which is often attended with great labour and expense. These stampers are raised in succession by means of levers, of which the ends are depressed by the pins of wheels, turned by an axis communicating with the water-wheel. "Mr. Symington calculates that a boat capable of doing the work of twelve horses, may be built for eight or nine hundred pounds. An engine of the kind has been actually constructed at the expense of the pro- prietors of the Forth and Clyde Navigation, and under the patronage of the Governor, Lord Du-ndas : it was tried in December (1801), and it drew three vessels, of from 60 to 70 tons burden, at the usual rate of two miles and a half an hour. Mr. Symington is at present (July 1802) employed in attempting still further im- provements, and when he has completed his invention, it may, perhaps, ultimately become productive of very extensive utility. " Octoher 18, 1803. " W." CHAP. XIII.] EARLIER EVENTS. 233 This is interesting as being one of the first notices of steamboats. But in former days the most interest was aroused when any accident occurred which delayed the arrival of the steamer at the appointed time; the nature of the in- tensity of this excitement may be judged from the deep feeling expressed in an article in the " New York Herald " on the reception of the news of the safety of the Collins' Line steamer Atlantic, which had been long overdue at that port, owing to the breakage of the paddle-shaft, which had compelled her to put back to Queenstown Harbour instead of going on, and as no telegraph cables then existed, the news was not received in New York for a considerable time afterwards. " The fate of the Atlantic {Collins' Line), account of her safety^ — By the arrival of the steamship Africa at this port, on Saturday, the lJ:th, we received the most welcome and gratifying intelligence that it has ever been our pleasure to place before our readers, namely, the safety of the steamship Atlantic. We congratulate our readers and the community at large on the receipt of this wel- come intelligence. The Atlantic, it seems, experienced a similar accident to that which the steamship Niagara, of the Cunard Line, met with about a year ago, and which disabled her on her trip to New York. Now, having made this joyful announcement, let us describe, if we can, the sensation which the arrival of the Africa, and the expectation of her bringing intelligence of the Atlantic, created in New York and vicinity. " No sooner were her guns heard in the city, than hundreds, and we may say thousands, of our citizens rushed to the Battery and to ' Liverpool "Albion," March 10th, 1851 {from the "New York Herald"). 234 THE ATLANTIC PEREY. [cHAP. XIII. all the docks on the north river from the depot of the Collins' Line of steamships to Castle Garden, to ascertain ■whether the Atlantic had been heard from. They were tantalized by the reports of the Africa's guns, as they were fired, one after another, for upwards of an hour, and many an eye was strained in looking for the blue and red lights, the signals of the vessels of the Collins' Line. At length a steamship was seen approaching the city from Quarantine ; but the signals which she bore were not those of the Atlantic or any vessel of the Collins' Line. ' But if this is not the Atlantic it must be the Africa, and she will, no doubt, bring some intelligence of the Atlantic,' argued the more intelligent of the anxious multitude. It was the Africa ; and as she came up the bay, firing gun after gun, it was believed by the thou- sands on the look-out that that vessel would not expend so much powder to announce her own arrival only. ' ' It must be that the Africa brings good news of the Atlantic, or she would not fire so many guns,' said the multitude. ' "What can it mean, what is the object of this uncommon firing ? ' was the inquiry on every side, and the response was, ' The Atlantic is safe ; the Atlantic has been heard from ' Soon the Africa approached her dock; but she did not move half fast enough to satisfy the impetuosity of the thousands who felt as if every moment was an hour until her anival. At length the Africa reached her wharf in Jersey City, and when she got within hailing distance one of the officers ascended the paddle-box and with his trumpet announced, ' The Atlantic is safe ; she has put into Cork with a iDroken shaft.' A shout of rejoicing at once went up, which made the welkin ring, which was continued for several minutes. During all this time the crowd grew larger, while many of those who heard the glad news ran home to tell it to their families and friends. "Eut what shall we say of the excitement which the account of the safety of the Atlantic created in New York, and especially in the lower part of the city ? No sooner CHAP. XIII.J EARLIER EVENTS. 235' were the guns of the Africa heard than every one Hving on the north side of the city hurried to the docks in the neighbourhood of the north river, and eagerly sought for any information concerning this favourite vessel. The publication office of this paper was crowded to such an extent that it was with great difficulty the gentlemen connected with the establishment could find a way of ingress or egress. From our establishment the excite- ment was carried to all parts of the city. ' The Atlantic is safe ' was announced from the stages of the different theatres. The performances were temporarily suspended in those places of amusement by the cheering which ensued : and out of doors the welcome intelligence was passed from person to person, that ' the Atlantic is safe,' until every one in the city was acquainted with the gratifying intelligence. We confine ourselves within the limits of truth and fact, when we say that every man, woman, and child in our great metropolis went to bed last night with a ' thank God ' on their lips that the Atlantic was safe." Notwithstanding that the iron hulls for vessels were altogether adopted by the Inman Company from the inauguration of the line, it would appear that the Lords of the Admiralty had not in 1852 awakened to their advantages, as the "Times" of January, 1852, commenting on the matter, had the following : — " Iron V. Wood. — A general impression prevails that the Admiralty prohibition of the use of iron for mail contract steamers, which has thus far cost so many sacrifices, is intended henceforth to be abandoned. The change, however, seems likely to be made with reluctance, and without any open and creditable ac- knowledgment that the public have all along been in the right and the Government in the wrong. The mode in which this acknowledgment is avoided is by the insertion of a clause, whenever notices for new tenders are issued, 236 THE ATLANTIC FEERY. [cHAP. XIII. to the effect that the vessels are to be of wood, but that the parties to the competition may state what deduction they will make upon being allowed to substitute iron. In this way, it is understood, the last two new contracts have been managed, so as to admit of a quiet and, as it were, unacknowledged departure from the old rule. There is no admission that iron is the best material, and it is made to appear, in fact, as if it were something inferior, which might be put up with on account of its cheapness. The Admiralty, however, would' probably themselves be sorry to admit that mere economy has anything to do with the matter. Safety of life and cargo, and efficiency as regards speed and all the other attributes of a good vessel, are the first things to be looked to, and economy can only be a recommendation when it is superadded to them. By adopting iron on the latter ground the Admiralty, therefore, virtually show that they hold it to be sup'erior to the former. With regard to the necessity of postal vessels being built of wood to enable them to resist shot and to be turned into war steamers, the recent contracts for Australia and the African coast indicate that this point has been abandoned. Apart from the fact that speedy communi- cation with our colonies would be more than ever necessary during war, the Government may at length have recognized that the condition essential, above all others, with respect to vessels performing such a service is, that they should be of a material that would enable them by their speed almost to defy capture, and that would at the same time, in case such a loss should occur, prevent them from being of any use to the enemy. Hitherto the very opposite principle has been acted upon. The vessels have been rendered slow by the peculiar build and material requisite to adapt them to war purposes, while this adaptation causes them to assume a character which would constitute them valuable prizes that might be turned at once into weapons of offence against us." CHAP. XIII.J BARLIEE EVENTS. 237 At the same time the interest in the contest between the screw and paddle steamers began to be aroused, and the doings of each came to be duly advertised, as instanced by advertisements in the Liverpool "Albion" of April 26th, 1852, under the headings "Screw Steamship, City of Manchester," and " Paddle- Wheel versus Screw Steamers." " The Screw Steamship City of Manchester. — The Liver- pool and Philadelphia Steamship Company's steamship City of Manchester, Captain Eobert Leitch, arrived in the Mersey, from Philadelphia, at nine p.m., on Friday, the 16th, with seventy-seven passengers and a very full cargo. An opportunity for comparison has oifered on this voyage between screw and paddle steamers, both to the westward and eastward. On her outward voyage, she left Liverpool exactly twelve hours before the Royal Mail steamship Niagara, and delivered her letters in Philadelphia on the same day, they having gone the whole distance by water, and the Niagara's mails having been sent from Boston by railway. On the homeward passage, the City of Manchester brings three days later Philadelphia newspapers and letters than the Niagara, and entered the Mersey exactly three days after her. The passages, both outwards and home- wards, being, as nearly as possible, at the same rate of speed ; if anything, in favour of the City of Manchester. The City of Manchester had 1,100 tons of cargo, weight and measurement on board on her arrival at Phila- delphia ; and had 1,200 tons weight of cargo on board on her arrival at Liverpool, the Niagara coming home in ballast. According to Government returns, the Niagara is a paddle steamer of 1,850 tons builder's measurement, 1,008 tons register, and 750 horse-power. The City of Manchester is a screw steamer of 2,125 tons builder's measurement, 1,309 tons register, and 350 horse-power. 238 THE ATLANTIC FBERY. [chap. XIII. Paddle-Wheel veisus Sceew Steambes. As even sailing ships, under favourable circumstances, may, once in a time, equal the speed of the best ocean steamers, so is it quite possible for any large-sized screw, of even small engine-power, to do alniost as mlich once in the twelve months ; but " an opportunity for .comparison has offered on other voyages (besides the one noted above) between screw and paddle steamers, T)oth to the eastward and west- ward," as the following statement of the passages of the Cunard .steamers and the Liverpool and Philadelphia screws very plainly illustrates : — PASSAGES TO THE WESTWARD. Vessel's Name. Date of Sailing. i'lfi/ of Glasgow . Africa .... ■City of Glasgoiv . Philadelphia Europa j Bo.ston . . t 'itij of Glasgoio . . . | Philadelphia Asia New York Ciiy^ of Glasgow . ' Africa .... f-"iti] of Manchester Europa .... City of Glasgow . Asia (City of Manchester Africa .... City of Glasgow . Niagara ... City of Manchester Africa City of Pittsburgh Niagara . . . City of Glasgoiv . Europa .... City of Manchester . Asia City of Glasgoiv . Canada City of Manchester . Asia Philadelphia. New York . Philadelphia . Boston . Philadelphia. New Yorlv Philadelphia. New York . Philadelphia. New York . Philadelphia. New Yorki . Philadelphia. Boston . . . Philadelphia. New York . Philadelphia. New York . Philadelphia. New York . Philadelphia. New York . Dec. 7 1851. Feb. 12 Feb. 15 April 16 April 12 June 18 June '21 July 26 July 2(i Aug. 13 Aug. 16 Sept. 17 Sept. 13 Oct. 8 Oct. 11 Nov. 5 Nov. 8 Nov. 29 Nov. 29 Dec. 10 Deo. 6 Dec. 31 1832. Jan. 3 Feb. 4 Jan. 31 Mar. 5 Feb. 28 Date of Arrival. 1851. Jan. 2 1850. Dec. 22 1851. Mar. 3 Feb. 28 May 4 April 23 July 7 July 2 Aug. 13 Aug. .-> Aug. 30 Aug. 28 Oct. 3 Sept. 24 Oct. 28 ( )ot. 25 Nov. 2(1 Nov. 19 1852. Jan. 11 1851. Dec. 13 Jan. 1 Dec. 23 l.So o Feb. 9 Jan. 16 Feb. 24 Feb. 18 Mar. 20 Mar. 12 about D. H. 22 14 17 18 18 13 18 10 22 19 11 3 18 6 10 12 17 6 12 9 16 6 10 23 20 3 14 15 6 11 8 43 13 16 22 16 23 40 13 12 2) 10 17 21 15 1 12 23 CHAP. XIII.] EAELIBE EVENTS. '239 PASSAGES FKOM THE WESTWARD. Vessel's Name. City of Glasgow . . Niagara . . . ' . City of Glasgow . . Europa City of Glasgow . . Niagara . . . . City of Glasgoiv . . T^rica City of Manchester . Africa City of Glasgow . . Asia City of Manchester . Africa City of Pittsburgh . America . . . . City of Glasgow . . Niagara . . ... City of Manchester . Africa City of Glasgow . . Canada City of Manchester . Canada City of Glasgow . . Cambria . . . . City of Manchester . Niagara .... Date of Date of SaUing. Arrival. 1851. 1851. Philadelphia. Jan. 16 Jan. 30 Boston . . . Jan. 15 Jan. 27 Philadelphia. Mar. 15 Mar. 31 Boston. . . Mar. 12 Mar. 23 Philadelphia. May 15 May 31 Boston . . . May 14 May 25 Philadelphia. July 17, Aug. 1 New York . July 16 July 26 Philadelphia. Aug. 28 Sept. 14 New York . Aug. '21 Sept. 6 Philadelphia. Sept. 11 Oct. 1 New York . Sept. 10 Sept. 21 Philadelphia. Oct. 9 Oct. 23 New York . Oct. 8 Oct. 19 Philadelphia. Oct. 27 Nov. 16 Boston. . Oct. 29 Nov. 9 Philadelphia. Nov. 6 Nov. 23 New York . Nov. 5 Nov. 18 Philadelphia. Dec. 4 Dec. 20 New York . Dec. S Deo. 14 1852. 1852. Philadelphia. Jan. 8 Jan. 23 Boston. . Jan. / Jan. 18 Philadelphia Feb. 24 Mar. 12 New York . Feb. 25 Mar. 8 Philadelphia. Mar. 4 Mar. 23 Boston . . . Mar. 3 INIar. 16 Philadelphia. April 1 April 16 Boston . . . Mar. 31 April 13 about D. H. 13 16 12 15 12 11 15 18 10 12 14 18 10 5 17 6 10 6 20 10 19 14 3 10 9 19 12 11 5 17 1 12 12 15 6 11 3 15 10 le 17 11 17 18 18 12 17 15 6 13 4 Another interesting ne^¥spaper article which bears upon the Atlantic trade, owing to the vessel herself having made a few voyages in this trade, is the report of the first annual meeting of the " Great Eastern " Steamship Company, which appeared in the Liverpool " Albion " of August 8th, 1853, under the heading of: — " Immense Ocean Steamers. — At the first half-yearly meeting of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company, held 240 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. XIII. in London, on Saturday, the Chairman (Mr. H. T. Hope) stated that their anticipated success was hased upon the fact of their being able to carry goods and passengers with- out the numerous stoppages which a voyage to India or Australia entailed upon other vessels. Their theory, right or wrong, was, that until vessels were constructed of a magnitude sufficient to carry a quantity of coals suitable to the length of the voyage, the full advantages which steam navigation was calculated to confer would not be secured to passengers to India or Australia. Their capital was £1,200,000, with power to increase it to £2,000,000, and until one-tenth of the capital, or £120,000, was paid up, they could not enter into any binding contract for the building of vessels or execution of works. The company, therefore, were not responsible for the works that had been already undertaken ; every- thing had been done at the risk of the contractors. On the last occasion of their meeting it had been suggested that they ought not to commence operations until 40,000 shares had been taken, representing a capital of £800,000. They were a few hundred shares short of that absolute amount, but they had upwards of 39,000 shares taken, and the others would probably be taken up when the parties who had applied for them returned to town. The report was then read. It stated that they had in- vited tenders from several parties, and had concluded provisional arrangements for the construction of the engines and of the hull of the first ship with Messrs. James Watt and Co., of Soho, and Messrs. Scott Eussell and Co., of London. The ship will be built on the Thames, and is to be completed in eighteen months. The dimensions and power of the ships are intended to be as follows, viz. : — Length, 680 feet ; breadth, 83 feet ; depth, 58 feet, with screw and paddle engines ; aggregate nominal horse-power, 2,600. They are to be so con- structed as to take their whole amount of coals for the voyage from near the pit's mouth at a rate not exceeding, for the best quality, 12s. to 14s. per ton. On the voyage CHAP. XIII. J EARLIER EVENTS. 241 of existing steamships to Australia or India and home, the consumption amounts to from 4,000 to 6,000 tons ; the cost of which would supply 15,000 to 20,000 tons if taken on board at some port in immediate communica- tion with the coal-field. The ships will carry, besides their own coals, upwards of 5,000 tons' measurement of merchandise, and will have 500 cabins for passengers of the highest class, with ample space ifor troops and lower class passengers. These, the directors consider, they will not only be able to carry at rates much smaller than those by any existing steamships, but with an un- precedented amount of room, comfort, and convenience, which the great size of the vessels will enable them to afford. In thus increasing the size of their ships, the directors believe that they are also obtaining the elements of a speed hitherto unknown ; and if hereafter coals applicable to the purposes of steam can be supplied from the mines of Australia, the carrying capacity of their ships, both for cargo and passengers, will be propor- tionately increased. The great length of these ships will undoubtedly, according to all present experience, enable them to pass through the water at a velocity of fifteen knots an hour, with a smaller power in proportion to their tonnage than ordinary vessels require to make ten knots. The hulls of the ships will be of iron, and of more than usual strength, whilst the magnitude of their dimensions will afford peculiar facilities for introducing many precautionary measures conducive both to strength and security. The whole of the ship's bottom, and up to six feet above the water line, will be double, and of a cellular construction, so that any external injury will not affect the tightness or the safety of the ship. The upper deck will also be strengthened on the same principle, so that each ship will be a complete beam, similar to the tube of the Britannia Bridge. The vessels will be divided into ten completely separate water-tight compartments ; and, as the intermediate spaces are sufficient in such ships, being each sixty feet in length, to afford a con- 242 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. XIII. venient arrangement of separate saloons and cabins, the bulkheads can be carried completely to the upper deck, giving an efficiency to the system of compartments which has not yet been attainable ; and these compartments admit of further subdivision up to the lower deck, which- will be from four to eight feet above water. Separate sets of engines, each with several cylinders and separate boilers, will be applied to work the screw, distinct from those working the paddle-wheels, so that in the event of temporary, or even permanent derangement of any one of the engines, or of either the paddle-wheels or of the screw, the other engines and propellers would still be available, and the only result would be a proportionate diminution of speed and consumption of fuel, thus rendering the chances of any serious delay almost in- finitely remote. The ship will become, by its construc- tion, a beam of strength sufficient to meet any strain to which it can be subjected, and will consist of so many distinct compartments that no local injury, however serious, can affect its buoyancy to any dangerous extent. The result of the directors' calculations (made on the assumption that the carrying capacity for goods out- wards should be occupied at the rate of £4 10s. per ton, being considerably below present freights, and only one- half of the cabin room occupied, at rates for first class passengers, £65 ; second class, £35 ; and third class, £25, including provisions, giving to each of the respec- tive classes enlarged accommodation, and assuming that only one-third of the vessel's capacity would be occupied on the homeward voyage,) is that, after making the most ample allowance for working expenses, depre- ciation, wear and tear, and insurance, a surplus remains equal to forty per cent, per annum upon the capital invested. " Mr. Charles Geach, M.P., expressed a belief that the working of these vessels would be as efficient and satis- factory as the theory on which they were projected was sound and true. CHAP. XIII.] BARLIBE EVENTS. 243 " On the motion of Mr. Thomas Bisgood, the report was adopted." As the days of the old famous sailing passenger clippers have now passed away, the following extract from the same paper, of July 4th, 1853, will revive the recollection of how highly they were praised, and of the great interest taken in them, notwithstanding that even at that date the doings of the Cunard and Collins Line were drawing world-wide attention : — Arrival of the Clipper-Shi'p Sovereign of the Seas. — The celebrated American clipper-ship Sovereign of the Seas, Captain M'Kay, arrived in the Mersey on Saturday evening, from New York, having made the run in a shorter time than ever previously accomplished by a sailing ship. She departed from New York, in tow of a steamer, at 3 p.m., on the 18th ult., and averaged 296 miles per day, or 12'73 knots per hour. " The Sovereign of the Seas was built by Mr. M'Kay, of Boston, the builder of the celebrated clipper-ships Stafford- shire, Flying Cloud, Flying Fish, etc., and was named after a ship built at Woolwich Dockyard, in the year 1637. Her tonnage corresponded with the year, and she was the first vessel built with ' fiushe decks,' and the largest, up to that period, belonging to the English navj^ Her keel measured 187 feet 9 inches ; her main breadth of beam was 48 feet 4 inches, and she had three decks, a poop, and topgallant forecastle. She was pierced for 126 guns. It will thus be seen that Mr M'Kay could not have selected a better name for his ship, its historical associa- tions being full of instruction. " The Sovereign of the Seas has a dead rise of 20 inches, and concave lines, but has the longest and sharpest bows of any ship or ocean steamer afloat. Her dimensions are as follow : — Length between perpendiculars, 258 244 THE ATLANTIC FEERY. [CHAP. XIII. feet ; over all, from the knightheads to the taffrail, 265 feet ; extreme breadth of beam, 44 feet, about 20 feet forward of the centre ; breadth at the gunwale, 42 feet ; depth, 23| feet, including 8 feet height of between- decks ; deck rise, 20 inches ; sheer, nearly 4 feet ; and registered tonnage, 2,421 tons. Considering the sharp- ness of her ends, she has large tonnage capacity for a clipper, great surface and length of floor, and is very buoyant and easy under canvas. She is sheathed with yellow metal up to 20J feet forward, and to 21^ feet aft. Her bulwarks are 5 feet 2 inches high, sur- mounted by a monkey rail of 18 inches, and the space between the main and rack rails is filled in with a heavy clamp, bolted both ways. All her accommoda- tions are on deck. She has a full topgallant forecastle, a large house amidships, and a spacious trunk cabin, in two divisions, built into a half-poop deck, with steerage- room abaft. Her construction, for solidity and strength, is of the highest order ; her frame is entirely of seasoned white oak, and all her planking and ceiling, as well as her deck frames and lower deck, are of the best of hard pine, and she is copper fastened, square bolted, and trenailed through. In her hold all her knees are of oak, and all her hooks throughout ; in the between-decks, the knees are all constructed of hackmatack. She is 11 feet 8 inches through the backbone, including the moulding of the floor-timbers, which is 19 inches. And all her keel and kelson fastenings are of IJ copper and iron bolts, driven in the strongest style, and rivetted. Her keel is sided 16 inches; and, besides the midship kelsons, ehe has double sister-kelsons, one over the other, on each side, which combined side 15 inches, and mould 30. She has, moreover, the stoutest and most beautifully proportioned set of spars that ever towered above a ship's deck, which spread about 12,000 yards of canvas. All her lower masts are ' made ' from the head to the step, each mast in five pieces, bolted and hooped together. Her bowsprit is also a ' made ' spar, all the 246 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [cHAP. XIII. outside pieces being of hard pine. Her masts rake, com- mencing with the fore 3-8ths, 4-8ths, and 1 inch re- spectively to the foot. Her foremast is 41 inches in diameter, 89| feet long ; topmast, 19 inches diameter, 50 feet long ; topgallantmast, 14 inches diameter, 27J feet long; royal. Hi inches diameter, 18 feet long. Main- mast, 44 inches diameter, 92| feet long ; topmast, 19J inches diameter, 54 feet long ; topgallantmast, 14| inches diameter, 30 feet long ; royal, 12 inches diameter, 20 feet long ; .and skysailyard, 10 inches diameter, 14 feet long. Mizzenmast, 34 inches diameter, 82f feet long ; topmast, 16 inches diameter, 43 feet long; topgallantmast, 11 inches diameter, 24 feet long ; and royal, 9J inches in diameter, and 17 feet long. About the date of the foregoing account the system of carrying emigrants on these clippers was begin- ning to attract public attention, owing to the sufferings entailed through overcrowding, inattention and the like, and the following extract from the " New York Herald," of October 26th, 1853, on the condition of the emigrants in those days, will serve to show how serious was the mortality brought about by the then existing state of things, which compare very unfavourably with the steamship services of to-day, when a death is an event of such a rare occurrence as to be noted in the daily papers, notwithstanding that over a thousand a trip are frequently carried by the numerous steamers in the trade. ' ' Among the arrivals at this port of emigrant ships during the past few weeks, a very large number of deaths have been reported. In one vessel, the Charles Sprague, the unusually large number of forty-five persons died on the passage from Bremen; and in another, the Win- CHAP. XIII.] BAELIBR EVENTS. 247 Chester, from Liverpool, the number of fatal cases amounted to no less than seventy-nine. The following is the number of cases at this port ' from September 9th up to the present time : — Arvivecl 1863. * Ships. Where from. No. Of Passengers. Deaths. Sept. 9 Zurich ' Havre 358 2 „ 11 Lucy Thompson Liverpool 800 35 „ 15 Niagara J) 249 38 „ 21 Charles Sprague Bremen 280 45 „ 26 Oder Hamburg Liverpool 237 14 „ 27 Winchester 463 79 „ 29 Kate Hunter jj 342 1 „ 29 Rhine Havre 566 24 „ 30 Talleyrand Hamburg 210 11 „ 30 Louisiana 142 3 Oct. 11 Harvest Queen Havre 367 5 „ 12 Copernicus Hamburg 152 19 „ 14 Orphan Bremen 280 4 ,, li Marmion Liverpool 295 34 >, 17 Waterloo J, 294 4 „ 17 James Wright 53 430 1 „ 19 Statira Morse.., Glasgow Lon(K)n 201 2 „ 20 Sir Robert Peel 407 6 „ 20 Cordelia Bremen 339 3 „ 20 London Havre 229 2 „ 21 New York Liverpool 400 16 „ 21 Benjamin Adams 53 620 15 7,701 363 "Although the captains, in their reports, with one exception, merely mentioned the fact of such a number having died, it is pretty certain that the disease which carried them off was cholera, that fatal malady which is making such havoc among the shipping in Europe. Several, no doubt, died by the common diseases, but that cholera was raging on board many of the above- named vessels is beyond all question, from the fact that thirty-three persons who were landed at quarantine were ' New York. 248 THE ATLANTIC FEERY. [cHAP. XIII, suffering from that epidemic. The sickness on the Ben- jamin Adams was decidedly cholera ; and, in addition, the ship Sagadahock, from Gottenburg, which arrived at Boston on the 24th ult,, reports the loss of seventy passengers by the same disease. In reference to this ' matter, a committee of the American Medical Associa- tion has drawn up a memorial to Congress, urging tlie necessity of compelling all emigrant-vessels to carry a surgeon." At this time when the steamships were beginning to take emigrant or steerage passengers, a very exten- sive trade was carried on by the famous American sailing clippers, the extent of which may be judged from the advertisements of the different lines and vessels sailing from Liverpool about that date, taken from the Liverpool " Albion," of July 17th, 1854. CHAP. XIII.J BABLIEE EVENTS. 249 Until further Notice, tlie Rate of Freiglit to Boston will be £4 per Ton, and to New York £6 per Ton. XJntil further Notice, CARGO for tlie STEAMERS will be received on and after Nine o'clock, Morning, of Saturdays ruEvious to sailing, instead of on Mondays, as heretofore. Freight on Parcels, 5s. each, and upwards, according to size. PARCELS for different Consignees collected and made up in Single Packages, addressed to one Party for delivery in America, for the purpose of evading payment of Freight, will, upon examination in America by the Customs, be charged with the proper Freight. BEITISH AND NOETH AMERICAN EOYAL MAIL STEAMSHIPS,^ APPOINTED BY THE ADMIRALTY TO SAIL BETWEEN LIVEBPOOL AND NEW YOBE {DIREGT), AND EETWEEN LIVEBFOOL AND BOSTON, The BOSTON Ships only CALLING at HALIFAX to land and receive Passengers and Her Majesty's Mails. Captain. Captain. Arabia ('. H. E. JUDKINS. Africa Wm. Harrison. Persia Alex. Rvhik. America W.J.C. Lang. Asia Edvvd. G. Lott. Niagara John Leitch. Canada Jame.s Stone. Europa Neil Shannon. Cambria Captain \V. Douglas. The under-noted or other Vessels are ippo.inted to Sail From LIVERPOOL: 1854. Canada . . . For Bo.ston Saturday, the 22nd July. Arabia ... For New Yokk Saturday, the 29th July. America ... For Boston Saturday, the 5th Aug. Europa ... For New York Saturday, the 12th Aug. Niagara ... ... For Boston Saturday, the 19th Au^'. Africa .. For New York From AMERICA: Saturday, the 26th Aug. Europa .. From New^ York Wednesday, 12th July. America ... From BosioN Wednesday, 19th July. Asia .. From New York ^^'ednesday, 26th July. Niagara ... .. From Boston Wednesday, 2nd Aug. Africa .. From New York Wednesday, 9th Aug. Canada .. From Boston .. Wednesdays 16th Aug. The Passengers and Goods for New York are intended to be lande.d at Jersey City, within the jurisdiction of the Custom-house of New York. ' New the Cunard Line. 250 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. XIII. Chief-Cabin Passage to HALIFAX and BOSTON, £2&. Secomd-Cabin Passage, £15. Chief-Cabin Passage to NEW YORK, £30. Second-Cabin Passage, £20. These Bates include Steward's Fee and Provisions, but without Wines or Liquors, which can be obtained on Board. Dogs charged £5 each. These Steamships have Bccommodation for a limited number of Second- Cabin Passengers. Apply, in Halifax, to Samtiel Cunakd ; in Boston, to S. S. Lewis ; in JJew York, to Edwakd Cbnard; in Havre and Paris, to Donald CnEEiE; in London, to J. B. Koord, 52, Old Broad Street; in Glasgow, to G. and J. Burns ; and in Liverpool, to D. and C. MAC IVEE, 1 4, "Water Street. Note. — Ail letters and newspaiehs intended to be sent by these Vessels must pass through the Post Office, and none will be received at the Agents' Offices. The Owners of these Ships will not be accountable for Gold, Silver, Bullion, Specie, Jewellery, Precious Stones, or Metals, unless Bills of Lading are signed therefor, and the value thereof therein expressed. Passengers will be charged Freight on their personal Luggage when it exceeds Hulf-a-Ton Measurement. tS- To prevent disappointment or difficulty. Passengers are respectfully informed that Packages of Merchandise will not be allowed to be shipped as Luggage, or with their Luggage. Passengers are nut permitted to go on Board by the Steamer that takes the Mail. Parcels will be i-eceived at the Office of the Agents here until Six o'clock on the P'kiday Evenings previous to Sailing. The Canada, for HALIFAX and BOSTON, will start on Saturday next, the 22nd instant.' The Steam-tender Satellite will leave the Landing- Stage, opposite the Bath.5, George's Pier, at Eight o'clock, morning, of that day, with the Passengers for the Canada. CARGO for the Alps is now being received at the Huskisson Deck, according to priority of arrival. STEAM TO NEW YORK AND {via JAMAICA) TO CHAGHES. The undernoted or other first class Screw Steamships will sail FROM LIVERPOOL FOR NEW YORK, Once a Month until further notice, the extended service being Twice a Month, when the Ships now building are completed : Andes Capt. Moodie. I Jura , Capt. Douglas. Alps Capt. WicKMAN. I JE.\.-na Capt. Little. ' July, 1854. CHAP. XIII.] BAELIEE EVENTS. 251 FOR BOSTON AND NEW YORK. Alps Wednksdat next, 19th July. Passage Money to Boston, beyond which Port Passengers cannot be booked, £18, including Provisions and Steward's Fees, but without Wines or Liquors, which can be obtained on board. Freight on Fine Goods to America, £3 per Ton Measurement ; other Goods by Agreement. Freight will be collected in America at the rate of §4.80 to the Pound Sterling. Apply in Halifax to Samuel Cdnaed ; in Boston to S. S. Lewis ; in New York to Edward Cunakd ; in Havre and Paris to Donald Cuerie ; in London to J. B. Foord, 52, Old Broad Street ; in Glasgow to George and James Burns ; or in Liverpool to D. and 0. MAG IVER, 14, Water Street. As soon as Goods are going for Canada, and any quantity offer for , PORTLAND, these Vessels will call there. The Rate of Freight by these Steamers is £6 Sterling per Ton Measure- ment, until further notice. Freight must be paid in advance on Goods consigned to order, unless the Names of the Consignees are given at the time of Shipment, and upon all Goods when the amount included in one Bill of Lading does not exceed £6 Sterling. The Bate of Chief (Jaeis Pa.ssage by these Steamers is £30, reserving Four of the largest State Booms in the Pacific for Families, for which an Extra Price will be charged. These Steamers have superior accommodation for a limited )iumber of Second Cabin Passengers, at £20 each, including Provisions. All Parcels charged 5s. and upwards, according to size. UNITED STATES MAIL STEAMEES BETWEEN LIVERPOOL AND NEW YORK} The Steamships comprising this Line are the Atlantic Capt. West. I Arctic Capt. Luce. Pacific Capt. Nye. [Baltic These Vessels are appointed to sail as follows From LIVERPOOL Capt. COMSTOCK. Atlantic Baltic Arctic Atlantic Baltic Wednesday, 26th July. Wednesday, 9th Aug. Wednesday, 23rd Aug. Wednesday, 6th Sept. Wednesday, 20th Sept. And every alternate Wednesday. ^ Collins Line, now extinct. 252 THE ATLANTIC FEEBY. [cHAP. XIII. From NEW YORK. Saturday, Stli July. Saturday, 22nd July, Saturday, 5tli Aug. Saturday, 19th Aug. Saturday, 2nd Sept. Atlantic Baltic Arctic Atlantic Baltic And every alternate Saturday. N.6. — No Goods for the Atlantic can be talcen after Two o'clock p.m. on Tuesday, the 25th instant, nor can Parcels be received after Six o'clock in the evening of that day. Freight on Goods, payable at New York, is charged at the rate of Four Dollars and Eighty Cents to the Pound Sterling. D"gs, Jt5 each. An experienced Surgeon is attached to each Ship. The Owners of these Ships will not be accountable for Gold, Silver, Bullion, Specie, Jewellery, Precious Stcmes, or Metals, unless Bills of Lading iire signed therefor, and the value thereof therein expressed. *,.* No Berth secured until the Passage Money is paid. Steamships ply regularly between New York and Charleston, Savannah, Havana, Jamaica, New Orleans, and Chagres. Goods destined to any of these Purls, and addressed to E. K. (/'ollims and Co., New York, by the above Steamers, will be forwarded with despatch and economy. The Steam-tug Company's boat Samson will leave the Landing-Stage, George's Pierhead, at Ten o'clock, a.m., on Wednesday tlie 26ih instant, with the Passengers for the Atlantic. Passengers will be charged Freight on their personal Luggage when it exceeds Half-a-'l'on Measurement. For -Freight oi- Passage apply to Messrs. E. K. Colliks and Co., New York ; John Munroe and Co., 26, l^ue Notre Dame des Victoires, Paris ; G. H. Drai'KK, 79, Hue d'Orleans, Havre; Stephkn Kennard and Co. , 27, Austin Friars, London ; or to BROWN, SHIPLEY and CO., Liverpool. TAPSCOTT'S AMEEICAN PACKET OFFICES. General Office : OLDHALL, OLDHALL STREET. Passenger Office : ST. GEORGE'S BUILDINGS, REGENT ROAD. The following First-Class Packets will be despatched on their appointed days, as under : Fur NEW YORK. Tons. To sail. Manhattan, Peabodt 2500 ... ... This day. Centurion, Coombs 2000 ... ... 25tli July. Chimborazo, Gilchrist 1800 ... .. 30th July. Constellation, Allen 3500 ... — Houghton, Cotter 1800 ... — E Z, Hartshokne 18U0 ... — CHAP. XIII.] EAELIER EVENTS. 253 . _ Tons. To sail. Forest King, Allen 2000 Coosawattee (new), J. Paxton ... 2000 Northampton, Keed iiSOO ... A Z, Chandler 1800 _ West Point, Mulliner 2000 ... .. — Andrew Foster, Hollerton ... 2000 Shamrock (new), DoANE 3000 Progress, Chase 3000 ... .. — Continent, E. B. Brummond ... 2000 Empire (new), Zerega 2000 Philanthropist, Wilson 1800 ] Helios, Nason 2000 Kossuth, Dawson 2550 Dreadnought (new), Samdels ... 2500 — Adriatic, Jack 1500 Albion (new), VVilli.4ms 2000 Emerald Isle, Cornish 2000 ... ].. Antarctic, Stoufer 2500 — Edward Stanley, Roeinson 2500 — Benjamin Adams, Drdmmond ... 2500 William Tapscott (new). Bell ... 3000 — And succeeding Packets every Five Days. For BOSTON. Carnatic, Devereadx 1500 18th July. For PHILADELPHIA. Saranak, Decan 1000 12t!i Aug. Wyoming, Ddnlevy 1100 12th Sept. Tuscarora, Tukley 1232 12th Oct. Tonawanda, Jhlids 1300 ]2th Nov. The above Ships are of the largest class, and commanded by men of experience, who will take every precaution to promote the health and comfort of the Passengers during the voyage. Private Eooms for Families, or perstms who wish to be more select, can at all times be had, and deposits of £1 each, to secure Berths, should be remitted, which shall have due attention. Surgeons can have free Cabin Passages by the above Ships. Persons proceeding to the interior of the United Stales can know the actual outlay, and make the necessary arrangements here, to be forwarded, on arrival at New York, without one day's delay, and thereby avoid the many annoyances Emigrants are subject to on landing at New York. Drafts and Exchange for any amount, at sight on New York, payable in any part of the United States, can at all times be furnished to those who prefer this safer mode of taking care of their funds. For further par- ticulars apply, post-paid, to W. TAPSCOTT AND CO., Liverpool, and 7, Eden Quay, Dublin, Agents for W. and J. T. Tapscott and Co., New York. 83- Tapscott's "Emigrant's Guide," Fifth Edition, can be had by remitting Six Postage Stamps. 254 THE ATLANTIC FEREY. [chap. XIII. "EED CEOSS" LINE OF PACEETS. Saul, Martindale and Co. dispatch a regular succession of FTRST- CLASS PACKETS to tlie different Ports of America. For XEW YOEK. Tons. .. 1500 .. 2000 .. 3000 .. 2000 .. 1800 ,. 2000 .. 3000 .. 2000 .. 1800 . . 3000 .. 1500 ,. 2000 .. 1800 J. Nesmith, Chase Highflyer, Waterman . . . Kate Hooper, Jackson Franklin King, Borland Otseonthe, Young Kate Hunter, Busche... Winfield Scott, M'Lellan Eastern Queen, Porter C. Nesmith, Salisbuet Premier, Ross Phoenix, Hoxie St. Patrick, Whiteman Sea Nymph, Harding... For PHILADELPHIA. W. Sprague, Chase 2000 Cerro Gordo, Chandler ... 1800 Nashwauk, M'iNTyRE 2000 W. V. Kent, Klitner... ... 1600 For BALTIMORE. A. B. Thompson, Mustard ... 2000 .. Mary Hale, Rollins 2000 .. Annapolis, Graham 2000 Susan E. Howell, Raffles ... 1500 .. For CHARLESTON, S.C. Amelia, M'Kenzie... Muscongus, Carter Naomie, John.son ... Carnatic, Stalker Franchise, Robinson 2000 1200 1500 1200 1800 For QUEBEC. 1800 2000 1800 2300 2000 2000 To sail. 20th July. 26th July. 20th July. 20th Aug. 20th July. 20th Aug. 20th July. Hotspur, Smith 1800 18th July. Dauntless, Jones 2000 To follow. Harmony, Jamieson Crown, Campbell... John Davies, Jones Mary Carson, Mills The above Ships are of the largest class, and combine all the most recent Improvements conducive to the health and comfort of Passengers. Berths in the First, Second, and Third Classes can be secured by remitting a Deposit of £l for each Person to the Subscribers. A Surgeon wanted for a Quebec Ship. For further particulars apply to SAUL, MARTINDALE AXD CO., 36, ■\Vaterluo Road. GHAP. XIII.J EARLIER EVENTS. 255 "ST. GEOEGE" LINE OF PACKETS FOE NEW YOEK. Sails on the iOth instant. The very superior first-class extraordinary fast-sailing American Clipper- Ship Highflyer, Captain G-. B. Waterman (she is the same morlel and Sister-ship of the well-ltnown Clipper Dreadnought), 1200 tons register; one year old ; coppered and copper-fastened ; built under particular inspec- tion, of the choicest materials in the United States; and as a conveyance she is unsurpassed by any Ship in the World. For Freight or Cabin Passage, having very superior Accommodation, apply to A. TAYLOR AND CO. Freight payable in New York at S4.80 to the Pound Sterling. Agent in New York, David Ogden, Esq. LOADING BERTH, WELLINGTON DOCK. THE "BLACK STAE " LINE OF PACKETS. LIVERPOOL TO NEW YORK. Fachet of the 25th Jxily. The fine first-class American Packet-ship Calhoun, D. li. Trueman, Commander; 1,749 tons register; New York built; copper-fastened and coppered. Apply to C. GRIMSHAW and CO. Goods will be received till Midnight of the a4th instant. LINE OF PACKETS FOE NEW YOEK. Sailing on the Wth of every Month from the Waterloo Dock. Tons. Siddons, John S. Taylor 1100 Aug nth. Roscius, J. W. Porter 1200 Sept. 11th. J. Rutledge, W. A, Sands 1250 Oct. 11th. G^rrick, R. W. Foster 1150 Nov. 11th. Sheridan, S. Clark 1100 Dec. 11th. NewShip, 1500 Jan. 11th. New Ship, 1500 Feb. 1 1th. Goods will not be received after midnight of the 9th of each month. These Ships are all of the first and largest class, built in the city of New York, of the best materials, combining great speed with unusual comfort for Passengers, and they are commanded by men of e.'iperience. For Freight or Cabin Passage apply to RICHARD S. ELY, 35, Oldhall Street. Freight will be collected at the rate of 4 dollars 80 cents to the Pound Sterling. 256 THE ATLANTIC FEBEY. [CHAP. XIII. THE LIVERPOOL AND PHILADELPHIA STEAM- SHIP COMPANY'S' FAVOURITE IRON SCREW STEAMSHIPS. City of Manchester 2125 tons ... Capt. W. Wylie. City of Philadelphia (new) 2189 tons ... Capt. K, Leitch. City of Baltimore (new) ... 2538 tons ... Capt. R. Leitch. Are intended to sail as iindei- : From LIVERPOOL. City of Philadelphia Wednesday, 26th July. City of Manchester Wednesday, 6th Sept. Trom PHILADELPHIA. City of Manchester Saturday, 22nd July. City of Philadelphia Saturday, 19th Aug City of Manchester Saturday, 30lh Sept. Rates of Passage fkom Livekiool : Cabin, in Two-berth State Roums ... 21 guineas each Berth. „ Three-berth , „ ... 17 „ „ „ Forward ,, ,, ... 15 ,, ,, Inchiding Provisions and Steward's Fee ; all having the same privileges and Messing togethpr. A limited number of Passengers will be taken at 8 guineas, including as much Provisions as required ; and these Passengers are hereby informed, that in order to satisfy the requirements of the Government Officers, the date filled into their contract ticket will be in every case the date of the day preceding the fixed day of sailing. These Steamers carry " Phillips's Patent Fire Annihilators." An experienced Surgeon is attached to each Steamer. Dogs chai'ged £3 each. Freight ^64 per Ton, and Unmanufactured Goods, &c., will be taken suViject to agreement, payable here or in Philadelphia, at S4 80c. per pound Sterling. Apply in Philadelphia, to Samuel Smith, 17, Walnut Street; in Belfast, to Richardson Bkothers and Co.; in Dublin, to Coknelius Carleton ; in London, to Edwards, Sanford and Co., for Passengers, and PiCKFOKD and Co., for Goods; in Paris, to Feed. Redfern, 8, Rue de la Paix ; in Havre, to W. Davidson ; in Manchester, to Geo. Stonier ; and in Liverpool, to RICHARDSON BROTHERS AND CO., 12 and 13, Tower Buildings. N.B. — When the arrangements are completed, and sufficient Goods offer, one of the above, or other Steam-vessels, will proceed to Baltimore, calling at Norfolk, Virginia, or other Ports on the Chesapeake, going or returning. ' Now Inman and International Line. CHAP. XIII.J EARLIER EVENTS. 257 The sailing of the Clyde has unavoidably been postponed till the 26th instant. Intending Shippers and Passengers will please make early application for room. SCEEW STEAMEES BETWEEN G-LASGOW AND NEW YOEK. The Clyde Screw Steam-Packet Company's Screw Steam-Packets; Clyde, 1,200 tons, 250 horse-power, David Henderson, Commander: Petrel, 800 tons, 200 horse-power, R. H. C. Tims, Commander ; are intended to sail as under, namely : From GLASGOW. From NEW YOKK. Clyde 26th July. I Clyde 15th Aug. .PetreJ 15th Aug. | Petrel ;.. .,. 15th Sept. These Vessels have been fitted up expressly for the Trade, and present the best opportunity for the conveyance of Goods and Passengers. Kates of Passage, exclusive of Wines and Liquors, which can be had on board at moderate rates i — Cabin, 18 guineas; Steerage, 9 guineas. No Steward's Fee. Freight, including Clyde Dues, Measurement Goods, 80s. per Ton and 5 per cent, primage. Coarse Goods according to agreement. No Bills of Lading will be signed excepting those printed expressly for the Company, which can be had at Tdrner and Rose's, 7, South Castle Street, and one of the number affirmed to (duly stamped) will be retained for the Ship. Apply in Glasgow to D. A. B. Morrat, 14, York Street; or to HALL AND MACKINNON, 18, South Castle Street, Liverpool. THE CANADIAN STEAM NAVIGATION COMPANY. Under Contract with Her Majesty's Frovincial Government of Canada. Company's Offices : No. 3, Royal Insurance ^ WILLIAM RUDD, Buildings, North John Street. S Secretary. STEAM TWICE A MONTH TO QUEBEC AND MONTREAL. The Company's first-class powerful Screw Steamships, Ottawa Capt. J. B. Atkins. Erie (new) ... Capt. Cleopatra.. Capt. H. Salt. Huron (new) ... ... Capt. Charity .. Capt. W. Baton. Ontario (new) ... Capt. Sarah Sands 1 (chartered) ... Capt. W. Ilsley. ^ Afterwards famous on account of having had a great fire on board at sea, while engaged as a troopship, when owing to her being of iron all the lives were saved. After the fire was subdued she put into the Mauritius with whole of after end completely burnt out, November, 1857. s 258 THE ATLANTIC FEKRY. [chap. XIII. The under-noted or other Vessels will be dispatched as follows, from (Birkenhead Dock) Liverpool, for QUEBEC and MONTREAL direct, on the 10th and 25th of each Month, from April to September inclusive; and from Quebec on the 5th and 20th of each Month from May to October inclusive. When any of these dates fall on a Sunday, the Vessels sail on the Monday following. Charity Tuesday 25th July, 18.'i4. Rates of Passage to Quebec: First Cabin, 20 guineas; Second Cabin, 12 guineas, including Provisions, but not Wines or Liquors ; Third Class, 6 guineas, including Provisions properly cooked. Carries a Surgeon. Freight to Quebec or Montreal : Measurement Goods, 80s. per Ton, and 5 per cent, primage. Coarse Goods per agreement. Goods for these Vessels will be received at the Transit Sheds, Birkenhead Dock, and in Liverpool at the Duke's Dock, for conveyance to Birkenhead, at the Shipper's risk and expense. For Freight or Passage, or further information, apply to LAMONT AND M'LARTY, 21, Water Street, Liverpool. ST. JOHN, N.B., AISTD LIVEEPOOL LINE OE PACKETS. Appointed to sail from LIVERPOOL on the 5th and 20th of every month. Ships. Captains. Reg. Ton. To sail. John Barbour . Marshall ... .. 997 ... 20th July, 1854 John Bannerman .. . Robertson ... .. 1198 ... 5lh Aug. Joseph Tarratt . Pritchaed ... .. 942 ... 20th Aug. Imperial . MOKAN .. 1297 ... 5th Sept. Liberia . Cruickshank .. 870 ... 20th Sept. Eudocia . DOANE .. 1015 ... 5th Oct. Middleton . Delasv .. 996 ... 20th Oct. David G. Fleming.. . Nichols .. U23 ... 5 th Nov. These fine Ships have been specially selected for this Line, are built of the choicest materials in the province, and are classed and coppered. Their Commanders are men of experience and ability, and Shippers may rely on their being despatched on their respective dates. Bills of Lading, of which two captain's copies are required, will be signed at the Office of the Con- signees for the Captain, of which Shippers will please take notice. For Freight or Passage, for which these Vessels have excellent accommodation, apply, in St. John, to Mes.srs. .1. and R. Reed ; here, to the respective Captains, on Board, Brunswick Dock Basin, or to FERNIE BROTHERS and CO.,. Orange Court, Castle Street. CHAPTBE XIV. EVENTFUL PASSAGES AND SCENES. Owing to the excessively wild and tempestuous nature of the North Atlantic Ocean, many exciting passages have from time to time been experienced during the past fifty years, giving opportunity for many acts of bravery, and severely testing the design and construc- tion of the steamers. No more vivid description could be given than the account, already referred to, by Charles Dickens, of the Britannia's passage in 1842, and although in those days the staunchness of these vessels was not so tested as in later years when the speed and power increased, there is no doubt the privations of the passengers were greater. That, how- ever, anxious times are occasionally experienced of later years is evident from the following account of the first voyage of the Kepublic, one of the early White Star vessels in 1872, sent by a Philadelphia gentleman to the, " New York Nautical Gazette." In the course of his story he says : " The storm increased until nine o'clock the next day, when we were struck on the port side by a sea. I had many a time talked of being ' struck by a sea ' just as of shipping a wave, but from that moment, and hence- forward for the remainder of my life, I received a new impression of what this term means. Without such 260 THE ATLANTIC FBEBY. [cHAP. XIV. experience I have thought of water as a yielding element — something that would rise and wash across the ship, but it had never entered my mind that to be struck was like having tons of solid matter hurled against the ship like the ball from a cannon. As I said, we were struck from the port side, amidships, opposite the main saloon ; along this side, on the sofas, were seated about one-half the passengers then in the saloon, say eight to ten. '•' The plating at this point is about seven -eighths of an inch thick, and the framing some eight inches deep, and, notwithstanding, this side was struck with such force that the passengers were knocked from their seats like cork balls. My friend Mr. Eogers, of Cincinnati, was ' projected ' over the top of the port dining-table, and under the central one, receiving a severe contusion on his head, and a serious injury in his right leg. " The dead-lights were forced in, and a flood of water followed the passengers across the saloon. I happened to be on the other side at the time, and seeing that the side was not actually stove in, I went to the assistance of the chief steward, a brave, determined man, and tried with him to secure the dead-lights by putting down the safety shields ; we succeeded except in one, where the frame was crushed and bent. The frames are about one inch thick, and one and a half inch wide, with slotted bolt lugs two inches wide, and these lugs were bent like hooks. A strong man could not with a sledge, have struck a blow that would have had the same effect. This was being struck by a sea. As soon as the excitement in a degree abated, I went to the top of the companion-way, and could not, after a warning from the officers, resist the temptation of thrusting my head through the shat- tered door to see what I could of the effects on the ship. That one glance was enough ; the rail was gone, boats were strewed over the deck in splinters, the davits, five inches diameter, were wrenched from their sockets, and swinging over the side. The course had been changed a little, so as to bring the weather on the star- CHAP. XIV.J EVENTFUL PASSAGES AND SCENES. 261 board side, or else no one could have ventured to make even so hasty a reconnaissance. While up there I learned of a new horror — that the engine skylights were stove in, and the seas were breaking into the engine-room. It was determined to tarpaulin the engine hatch, and Captain Williams, with some half-a-dozen plucky sailors, went out on the deck. Fixing life-lines for safety and retreatj they made their way forward and secured a heavy tarpaulin, which was dragged back, and, fortu- nately, was secured over the hatch, and the men, except Captain Williams, safely housed before we were again struck. Just as he had completed his dangerous task a sea went over, catching him, and carrying him against the funnel stay, and then against the funnel itself ; he dropped down apparently a lifeless mass, and the men, who esteemed him for his bravery, went to his rescue, and, awaiting their chances between seas for some ten minutes, got him into the companion-way, and carried him downstairs to the main saloon. " I had never seen such a sight before, and hope I never shall again. " It was another proof of the force of the sea, a further explanation of the meaning of ' being struck ; ' the man was literally crushed : the blood flowed from- his ears, mouth and nostrils, his thigh was broken in two places, and his ribs crushed on one side. A powerful man weighing over 200 lbs., crushed like an insect by the sea! This cast a new gloom over the passengers, while the hurri- cane increased. The seamen sheltered in the forecastle and elsewhere : strong men used to storms and dangers, gave up hope. It appeared as if everythmg was swept from the decks. The wind no longer conveyed an idea of moving air, but of a moving solid, that swept all before it. " Through that dreadful night that succeeded no one slept. The sea broke over the saloon decks, and the water came down the companion-way in tons; the stewards bailed and attempted to keep it out of the 262 THE ATLANTIC FBERY. [cHAP. XIV. saloon, but could not. The skylights over the state- rooms were in several places stove in, and in one case a room occupied by two ladies was filled to a depth of several feet. One lady went into hysterics, and required several men to hold her. At seven o'clock in the morning we were again ' struck by a sea ' on the port bow. It seemed as if the whole forward part of the ship had been torn away. " This was the most severe shock of all, and had it, like the former one, been abreast the saloon, the effect would have been more terrible still. This was the last heavy stroke we experienced. The glass went up, and twenty- four hours later we could go on the saloon deck to see the devastation around us. It was terrific. But one boat out of ten was left, and it was stove. The frag- ments of the others were lodged about the deck, but none so large that a man could handle them. " The funnel stays were parted, the combing about the funnel was parted from the deck, and nearly the whole of the railing was lost or hanging over the sides ; and strangest of all, and to me the greatest evidence of the force of the sea, the mizzen boom of hard pine, twelve inches diameter, was crushed as though it were a reed. Nothing but water could have struck it, and considering the elasticity of the boom and its attachments, with its capacity of resisting transverse strain, it was hard, in- deed, to conceive that it was broken by the sea ; but we were no longer sceptical." Later in the 1880 decade many exciting voyages have been experienced, the more notable being one when the forward funnel of the Cunard Servia was shattered by a tremendous sea, about thirty feet above the normal water- line. Some time afterwards the White Star Germanic was struck by a tidal wave with such violence as to wrench the steam winches from off the decks, and stove CHAP. XIV.] EVENTFUL PASSAGES AND SCENES. 263 in some of the strong iron deck-houses, which allowed the saloon to be flooded. Other instances of the terrible strength and power of the great Atlantic waves are nume- rous. At one time it is the complete crushing of the stout whalebacks which protect the bow and stern ; at another the snapping off of davits six and seven inches diameter ; at another time the funnel is washed away ; and in one remarkable instance, that of the Philadelphia liner British Queen, in 1881, nothing but the substantial build of the hull and upper works saved the vessel from foundering, as a tidal wave rolled on board and swept the entire decks fore and aft, clearing the bridge, wheel- house, companion, and captain's house, funnel, eight lifeboats and their davits, some of the winches, and all hand-rails, and causing loss of life to the crew, but no injury whatever to the 700 passengers on board. Not- withstanding all this damage to the upper works, she proceeded on her voyage, and was soon afterwards passed by a high-speed steamer, and reported as steaming at full speed without a funnel, all well. The position of the Transatlantic mail steamers, in the event of war breaking out between Great Britain and the United States, was defined in 1856 by the following ex- tract from the " Illustrated London News," of June 21st, 1856 ; but under the existing circumstances, by which mail steamers are armed cruisers of Great Britain, it is doubtful if such a magnanimous agreement would now be effective. "There are now six mail steam-packet communica- tions every month between England and the United 264 THE ATLANTIC FBEEY. [CHAP. XIV. States. In article 20 of the United States and English Postal Convention, it states that ' in case of war between the two nations the mail packets of the two countries shall continue their navigation without impediment or molestation until six weeks after a notification shall have been made on the part of either of the two Governments, and delivered to the other, that the service is to be dis- continued, in which case they shall be permitted to re- turn freely and under special protection to their respec- tive ports.' " CHAPTEE XV. THE MANNING, EXPENSES, AND COST OP ATLANTIC LINERS. Turning to the navigating of an express liner, mention must be made of the commanders, officers, and seamen who have from time to time led the van in the past, such as Judkins, Nye, Lucy, Cook, McMickan, Sir Digby Murray, Kennedy, Grace, Gleadell, Hewitt, Munroe, W. H. Thomson, Hamilton Perry, and others, whose names must be placed with those who at present main- tain the same traditions of energy and daring, such as Hains, McKay, Watkins, Land, Parsell, Brooks, Murray, Eandle, and others, who now possess the great honour of piloting the twenty-knotters to and fro on the Atlantic, aided by faithful and intelligent officers. Assisting these also come the carpenters, boatswains, quartermasters, A.B.'s, and others, of whom it may be truly said, that they are always ready to cope with, and if possible sur- mount, any difficulty or ordeal which they may be called upon to meet in the densest fogs, heaviest snow-storms, or wildest weather even of the North Atlantic. Except by one intimately acquainted with the working and manning of an express liner, only a faint idea can be formed of the great change which has. taken place relatively in the number of hands required in the various departments ; the department now requiring the 266 THE ATLANTIC FEEEY. [CHAP. XV. fewest hands being the sailing, which in former times was of necessity the most extensive. Nowadays this department numbers, for a twin screw Hner, exclusive of the commander, only 46 ; made up of 5 officers, 2 carpenters, 2 boatswains, 6 lookout men, (specially examined as to colour blindness), 6 quarter- masters, 1 storekeeper, 1 lamp-trimmer, 22 seamen (A.B.'s), and 1 mess steward. These are divided into two watches, port and starboard, consisting of 2 officers, 3 lookouts, 3 quartermasters, 1 boatswain, and 11 sea- men. The staff under the chief engineer numbers 160, rated as follows : — 1 senior second engineer, 1 second, 2 thirds, 2 fourths, 2 assistant seconds, 2 assistant thirds, 2 assis- tant fourths, 2 fifths, and 2 sixths. In addition come 2 boiler makers, 2 electricians, 1 refrigerating engineer, 1 winchman, 2 store-keepers, 26 greasers, 6 leading fire- men, 60 firemen, and 42 trimmers. In other words, 18 engineers, 2 electricians, 2 boilermakers, 108 stokehole staff, 26 greasers, 1 winchman, and 4 storekeepers. This immense staff is arranged in three watches of ioni hours each as follows : — 6 engineers, 6 greasers, 20 firemen, 14 trimmers, 1 electrician, and 2 electrician greasers, and has charge of no less than 56 different engines, large and small, inclusive of the two sets of main engines. In the passenger and victualling departments, a staff averaging about 112 men are engaged under the purser and chief steward, and are rated as follows : — 1 second steward, 30 saloon, 12 bedroom, 4 pantrymen, 4 " boots," CHAP. XY.] MANNING, EXPENSES, AND COST OF LINERS. 267 12 second cabin stewards, 18 steerage stewards, 8 cooks, 4 scullions, 5 bakers, 3 butchers, 5 boys, 1 captain's steward, 1 barber, and 4 storekeepers. This number, unlike the other departments, is, however, always vary- ing more or less, according to the number of passengers to be carried. Adding the totals of the three departments together, namely, 47 in the sailing, 161 in the engine, and 114 in the passenger, the large number of 322 hands, are required, as a rule, in the running of these vessels, whose wages may be taken at, say £300 for the sailing department, £960 for the engine, and £470 for the passengers, making a total of £1,730 per month. When these figures are considered, together with the other heavy expenses of up-keep or maintenance, office expenses, insurance, agency commission, shore staff, works, port charges, interest on capital, and deprecia- tion, it may be fairly taken that, at least, the sum of £16,000 is required to be realized per trip, before any profit can be counted upon ; so that some idea of the enormous sums at stake in the working and manage- ment of an express Transatlantic line can be realized. When these vast figures are considered, together with the very extensive requirements enumerated elsewhere, the chimerical nature of the schemes proposed from time to time for forming new lines, which promise three and four days' passage across the Atlantic, can easily be discerned ; for they are overwhelming proof that the difficulties in the way of any company or firm, without shipping experience, who would create all at once 268 THE ATLANTIC FEEKY. [CHAP. XV. a service more luxurious, and having higher speed, than that now afforded by the existing lines, which will at the same time prove a financial success, are utterly un- surmountable. As an instance of how much will be required to obtain even a little improvement, it will be inte- resting to follow the changes required, as shown by the following estimate, which is based upon moderate improvements in the existing forms of ships and ma- chinery. If we take for example the Teutonic and Majestic (whose models, as in the case of the earlier White Star boats, notably the Britannic and Germanic, seemed to serve them in good stead), to attain their present speed of 20 knots, requires about 17,000 indicated horse-power each, which means (allowing enough for all the auxiliary engines) a consumption of, in round figures, 300 tons per day of 24 hours, or say 1'6 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour. Assuming that the consumption may, by ad- vancing improvements, be reduced to IJ lbs. per hour, and that the size of the machinery be so increased as to admit of a daily consumption of 400 tons per day, which would mean engines powerful enough to indicate 25,980 horse-power, or say, two sets indicating nearly 13,000 each (which is about the average of the Etruria's single set at present) , then, assuming this will give an average speed of 22 knots per hour, the reduction in the time occupied in making the passage will only be some twelve or thirteen hours, so that the coming vessel, to ensure a five days' passage across the Atlantic, will require to indicate over 26,000 horse-power, and consume about 400 tons of coal CHAP. XV.] MANNING, EXPENSES, AND COST OF LINERS. 269 per day, which means a considerable increase in the engine-room staff. In addition, the more important feature of first cost will have to be considered ; for, taking the cost of the Teutonic at, say, £460,000, it will be apparent that nearly £600,000 must be invested in one vessel, which, with the other expenses increasing proportionately, means the earning of immense sums before any return can be obtained for the enormous capital at stake.^ ^ See Appendix. CHAPTEE XVI. ATLANTIC RECORDS AND TABLES. With a view of illustrating in a brief form the records and doings of the great lines and noted vessels during the last fifty years, the author has designed and worked out the diagram, and compiled and arranged the various tables which are to be found at the end of the book. An examination of the diagram is of great interest, as the dimensions and leading particulars of typical vessels, for the various periods ranging from 1840 to 1890, are each set out to a scale of 100 feet per inch, so that the relative dimensions and performances of each can be seen at a glance and compared with each other. The lines marked T will be found by reference to the table to denote the time occupied on the passage, and by measuring off on the vertical scale on the right hand of the sheet, the number and fraction of days required for the passa,ge of any of the vessels is at once found. With this line, T, should also be compared S, which denotes knots per hour, as it is interesting to observe that as the time, T, on passage gradually decreases from 14 days 8 hours to 5 days 17 hours, the speed per hour gradually- increases from 8| to 20 knots. The next important point is the relative sizes of the ships, which are plainly set out by the offsets marked D, CHAP. XVI.] ATLANTIC EECOKDS AND TABLES. 271 denoting the load-line displacements to a scale of 3,000 tons to the inch, and which may be readily measured from the tenth scale plotted on the left side of the sheet. The displacement being the factor which denotes the real size of a vessel, it will be seen how vast was the size of the Great Eastern, designed nearly forty years ago, for although her length only exceeds that of the Teutonic by 120 feet, her displacement reaches the enormous total of 32,160 tons, compared with the 16,740 of the latter vessel. To trace the gradual rising of the steam-pressure carried in the boilers, it is only necessary to note the line P, which shows the gradual advance from the 12 lbs. of the Britannia in 1840, to the 30 lbs. in the City of Brussels in 1869, which practically was the range during the period of single expansion engines. After the City of Brussels, a great increase to 60 lbs. — the commencing pressure for the compound or double ex- pansion engines — is shown on the Oceanic, and again a gradual increase to 110 lbs. on the Oregon and Etruria in 1883 and 1885. This is succeeded on the City of Paris and Teutonic, by the still higher pressures of 150 lbs. and 180 lbs. respectively, which have followed on the adop- tion of the triple expansion engines now in vogue, and are, up to the present, the highest pressures carried in the ex- press trade ; but as 210 lbs. is now carried elsewhere for quadruple expansion engines, it is only a question of how soon another advance will be made. Together with the advancing boiler-pressures, the other important items of indicated horse-power and 272 THE. ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. XVI. consumption, marked H and C, also show interesting changes and results, one of the most marked being the re- latively heavy consumption required for the horse-power given out by the large paddle-wheel steamers. This is at once reduced by the screw-propeller, and again by the adoption of the compound engine, and is followed by a still further relative reduction on the introduction of the triple expansion engines. On comparing the vessels and their performances by the offsets, the excellent results given by the high-speed America stand out most prominently, the S and T points being equal to any, whereas all the others are con- siderably lower ; but at the same time it must be noted that commercially she was but an indifferent success. From a study of this diagram it is interesting to form a' brief synopsis of the leading features, as for in- stance : The longest vessel now existing is the Teutonic. The one having greatest displacement is the City of Paris. The greatest displacement yet reached was 32,160 tons on the Great Eastern. The greatest power indicated by paddle engines was 5,000 on the Great Eastern. The greatest power indicated by paddle engines on regular Transatlantic lines was 4,000 on the Scotia. The greatest power indicated by single screw engines was 14,000 on the Etruria. The greatest power indicated by twin screw engines was 18,600 on the City of Paris. CHAP. XVI.] ATLANTIC RECORDS AND TABLES. 273 The highest consumption per day attained , by paddle boat was 160 tons on the Scotia. The highest consumption per day attained by screw boat was 320 tons on the Etruria. The highest average speed attained by paddle-boat was 14 knots by the Scotia. The highest average speed attained by screw boat was 20"35 knots by the Teutonic. The lowest steam-pressure carried in boilers was 12 lbs. on the Britannia. The highest steam pressure carried in boilers is 180 lbs. on the Teutonic. Fastest outward passage, Queenstown to Sandy Hook (New York), 5 days, 16 hours, 31 mmutes by the Teutonic. Fastest homeward passage, Sandy Hook to Eoche's Point (Queenstown), 5 days, 22 hours, 50 minutes by the City of Paris. ^ In addition to the diagram, the various tables, which will be found at the end, also serve to show the great advances made, thus : Table No. 1 gives the various dimensions of the more famous vessels, together with a brief description of the engines, and practically calls for no comment; but Tables Nos. 2 and 3, which give the rapid passages both out and home, will be found interesting, as showing the vessels' dates, and when the passages to and fro on the Atlantic were reduced respectively to nine, eight, seven, and six days. With a view of making a comparison, 1 This has since been reduced by the Teutonic in October, 1891, to 5 days, 21 hours, 8 minutes. T 274 THE ATLANTIC PEERY. [chap. XVI. the following account of the doings of the various sailing ship lines in 1840, taken from the " Liverpool Mercury" of June 26th in that year will be of interest. Extract from "Liverpool Mercury," June 2Qth, 1840. PASSAGES OF SAILING VESSELS. To England. To New Yoek. Name of Line. No. of Voyages. Time on Passage. Fastest Passage. No. of Voyages. Time on Passage. Fastest Passage. Old Black BaU Line Dramatic Line i . . Star Line .... Swallow Tall Line . 23 11 11 11 22J days 24' " 22} „ 18 days 17 „ 21 „ 17 „ 23 12 11 11 83i days 33} „ 39 „ 36 „ 22 days 23 ,, 27 „ 28 „ STEAMERS. Great Western Liverpool ^ . . 13| days 12J days 161 „ 13} ,, 16} days 13 days 17} „ 16 From this it will be seen the best average passages outward to New York were 33J days by the Dramatic Line clippers, the fastest passage being 22 days, made by the old Black Ball Line. For the homeward trip, the best average passages were those of the Dramatic Line, being 20J days, the fastest passage being made by their vessels and also those of the Swallow Tail Line in 17 days. The time occupied by the only two regular steamers, the Great Western and Liverpool, is also of interest, as showing the speeds then attained, and which may be continued down to the pre- 1 See life of E. K. Collins, p. 208. 2 The Liverpool had eighteen hours farther steaming than the Great Western. CHAP. XVI.] ATLANTIC EECOEDS AND TABLES. 275 sent day by reference to the Tables Nos. 4 and 5, which show the average passages made by the various steam lines since 1850. The next table, No. 6, the author has compiled from reliable sources for the purpose of show- ing the average passages which may be expected to pre- vail in the Express Transatlantic Service before many years have passed, as there is no doubt each of the great lines will sooner or later be compelled to increase the number of their high-speed vessels from two to at least four. By the table it will be seen that the averages for the two fastest vessels of each line have been for the year 1891 as follows : Outward. Homeward. d. h. m. d. h. m. Cunard Umbria and Etruria . 6 11 50 6 10 20 Inman City of New York and City of Paris ,6 6 4 6 8 24 White Star Teutonic and Majestic . 6 2 30 6 3 50 which practically ensures a future regular average passage outward and homeward of a little over 6 days. Taking the distance generally travelled between Queens- town and Sandy Hook as averaging about 2,800 knots outward, and 2,840 homeward, these results indicate a mean average speed of 18| knots outward, and 19 knots homeward, which is but little below the maximum speed attained. Up to the present time the greatest distance run in one day of 24| hours has been 517 knots, equal to 595^ miles, which was achieved by the White Star liner Teutonic in the month of August, 1891, on an outward passage. This gives a rate of 21 knots, or 24 statute 276 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [cHAP. XVI. miles per hour, and as it is more than probable that this excellent result may at any time be repeated for some days in succession, it is not beyond the bounds of probability that one of the existing vessels may make the passage in about 5| days ; ■which practically means leaving Liverpool on the Saturday of one week and land- ing in New York about the same hour on the following Friday.' The last table, No. 7, which remains to be commented upon, contains in brief a record of the various steam- ships which have succumbed to the perils of the deep, and, in some instances, left sad memories of friends and relations swallowed up by the great sea, and in others of deeds of indomitable courage and daring (such as the rescue of every life from off the Danmark), greater and more heroic than any which have ever earned the dis- tinction of the Victoria Cross amid the clash of arms, because they have been effected under more thrilling circumstances, and in a higher and nobler cause. Out of the 122 vessels lost, it will be noticed 62 caused loss of life either directly or indirectly, and it is a matter of great congratulation to notice that not a single life has up to the present been lost by any casualty to the great express liners, a fact which must be largely attributed to the effective bulkhead division now in vogue, as illustrated by the Oregon disaster and the City of Paris breakdown. ^ Since this was written the Majestic of the White Star Line has in February, 1892, on an outward passage, maintained an average speed of 20'4 knots per hour all the way across. CHAP. XVI.] ATLANTIC RECORDS AND TABLES. 277 Of the other vessels, it will be noticed that 24 were never heard of after leaving port, so that no de- finite reason can be assigned for their loss ; the first to figure under this heading being the unfortunate President in 1841. Of the others, 53 were wrecked, 15 foundered, 9 were burned, 5 sunk by ice, and 16 sunk by collision, which last has so far been the only one in this unfortunate cate- gory of maritime dangers to claim as a victim one of the swift ships of the great express trade. In concluding this description and retrospect of the past fifty years of the working and management of the great North Atlantic lines of steamships, it will not be out of place to take a look into the future and see what may yet be in store for posterity, as it would be idle to deny that there is any finality in such matters ; and so long as the travelling public demand and will pay for yet higher degrees of comfort and speed, new vessels will be brought forward, possessing still further improvements, as every effort which skill and science can command will be put forward, by the great shipbuilding firms, to produce some- thing in advance of their preceding achievements. What the nature of the advances will be it is difficult to surmise, as of course every step forward reduces the field for further improvements and extension ; and although it is quite possible to reduce the time now occupied by merely increasing the power of the machinery, and of necessity the present enormous daily consumption of coal, it is plainly evident that the speeds now attained by the " Fleet Messengers of the Mersey " are fast 278 THE ATLANTIC FERRY. [CHAP. XVI. reaching the same condition as the speeds of the express trains, which have been for many years past at a stand- still, the maximum speed of to-day on the railways being but little, if any, more than that attained many years ago. But that gradual advances will be made in the near future there is no doubt, and so long as the desire to shorten the duration of ocean voyages, and competition exists, shipowners, engineers, and builders will be pre- pared to advance beyond anything yet achieved, if even moderate financial success can be counted upon and the premier position maintained. TABLES AND APPENDICES. •sl-l 1 ever, dies. 0. 0. paddle, i - acting zontal. w. ever, dies. J - acting zontal trunk, screw. Do. ompound tan- dem, screw. Do. a k com- d, screw. 0. •sal- ur^iu A 1" CO o CO on M M o (_) CO •ssoBuina as o 0 ^ I> Tfl 00 t- ' ■SISpUIX^Q i», ■<* w (?q N-* ■* (M (N (N(N ^ s -aoBldBid s W \a eoooga «? eoi> OJ s UJ 3 g ■9ST3UU0X rH CO CN U-J COCO UJ lO CO ifl >o us (N XO (M r-" J^ ^ ■iHd9(i ^ u" cp iO (M 00 00 ^ coos IN Tjl •q!)pTO.ia s bo ■* ^ ^ (NOJO fO S3 ^ da ■& IM (M (NOTSO CO CO TfH ■>* ■* Irt . 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Ateeage Passages op Steamships of Atlantic Lines FROM 1850 to 1890. Outward. Year. Canard. Inman. Guion. White Star. D. H. M. D. H. M. D. H. M. D. H. M. 1850 13 1852 12 19 26 — — 1855 12 12 — — 1866 10 11 34 11 15 18 — 1873 10 16 40 10 22 4 12 6 38 9 19 48 , 1875 10 17 24 10 20 45 11 8 47 9 16 33 1876 10 13 32 10 1 44 10 23 45 8 21 14 1877 10 5 23 9 t 21 10 3 30 8 18 27 1878 9 22 27 9 4 15 9 20 1 8 15 39 1879 9 23 48 9 12 6 9 20 40 8 21 12 1880 9 22 12 9 10 45 9 16 50 8 23- 12 1881 10 6 29 9 12 52 9 23 55 8 21 40 1882 9 17 39 10 45 9 10 41 9 18 1883 9 11 15 9 17 3 9 9 5 8 20 29 1884 9 11 15 9 20 3 9 9 5 8 20 29 1885 8 54 9 13 42 9 18 23 8 16 22 1886 7 11 10 9 11 32 9 3 27 8 16 15 1887 7 10 38 9 23 37 8 22 43 8 14 4 1888 7 8 5 9 2 44 9 1 2 8 12 45 1889 7 10 30 8 3 28 9 6 51 8 7 27 1890 7 15 23 8 16 9 9 14 ,34 7 17 TABLE No. 5. Average Passages op Steamships of Atlantic Lines FEOM 1850 to 1890, Homeward. Year. Cunard. Inman. Guion. White Star. D. H. M. D. H. M. D. H. M. D. H. M. 1850 12 16 1855 11 12 1866 9 4 39 10 11 40 1873 9 7 59 10 2 10 20 18 8 22 39 1876 9 4 48 8 17 52 9 20 4 8 12 13 1877 9 5 59 8 21 51 9 12 54 8 11 9 1878 9 8 37 9 3 9 18 50 8 16 19 1879 9 3 26 8 22 33 9 9 46 8 10 32 1880 9 6 58 9 1 59 9 9 9 8 17 26 1881 9 9 29 9 2 18 9 11 14 8 13 54 1882 8 20 17 9 2 21 8 16 20 8 10 50 1883- 8 20 46 9 2 55 8 13 1 8 11 6 1884 9 2 14 9 7 37 8 22 6 8 13 21 1885 7 14 36 9 2 19 9 5 34 8 6 44 1886 7 3 29 9 2 18 8 18 52 8 6 42 1887 7 5 46 9 8 6 8 15 10 8 5 9 1888 7 31 8 18 5 8 15 47 8 3 46 1889 7 2 40 7 23 23 8 14 1 7 22 7 1890 7 4 52 8 6 37 8 20 6 7 6 16 TABLE No. 6. Average Passages or the Two Fastest Steamers of EACH Line. Outward. Year. Cunavd. Inman. White Star. 1889 .... 1890 .... 1891 .... D. H. M. 6 20 33 6 18 10 6 11 50 D. 6 6 6 H. M. 11 26 6 4 6 4 r>. H. M. 6 11 29 6 5 6 2 30 Homeward. Fastest Passages yet made by the Fastest Steamer of each Line. Outward. Year. Month. Steamer. Line. D. H. M. 1888 1889 1891 May September August Etruria City of Paris Teutonic Cunard Inman White Star 6 1 47 5 19 18 5 16 31 Homeward. 1888 1889 1891 November December October Umbria City of Paris Teutonic Cunard Inman White Star 6 3 17 5 22 50 5 21 3 C5 QO o E-l o 00 o H a EH H O 1-3 1^ O P3 P OS p< IH w OS H E-l O 09 B P." 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"■3.S 0} A j3 J-g ■«•='* » S S S o £ 0) S n jTi-a-a ^ Do - PhO _Jt8o_,-* o M MS M 0) S TS A5 ."•S i .aj< 'S -d "^ Ml white k . k, red 11. k, red •Si; ■gj §5 « Oh piMn n ■a •^ p. .&5 .-a Is I ■§■? aT Is O H^.1^ ■?;^ .■S^'35 s'i' Sa"! S3 6 Cm .3 11 "-^ s • -g S rti?; ■ 1" lZi|2i CJ I si c3 !3 o j «000„B i .IIIJI APPENDICES. NEW CUNARD LINERS. 1892. Since the foregoing was written the Cunard Line, in order to once more attain the honour of having the fastest vessels on the Atlantic, have placed an order with the Fairfield Ship- building Company, of Glasgow, for two immense steamers to be built of steel, having twin screws fitted after the style of the White Star boats, but not overlapping. Up to the present (February, 1892) the various particulars and dimensions of these vessels have not been officially announced, but they are to be 600 feet long, B.P. 65 feet broad, and 42"7 feet deep, and over 21,000 tons displacement and 13,000 tons gross, and have a speed on trial of 22 knots per hour, and about 21 at sea, which speed would mean a passage of some- thing over 5-^ days across the Atlantic, or about half a day less than the Teutonic and Majestic. It is stated the machinery is to indicate 25,000 to 26,000 horse-power, or about 50 per cent, more than the City of Paris. The two sets of main engines are to be triple expansion with three cra.nks, but five cylinders to each engine, namely, two high -pressure, placed tandem on top of the two low- pressure cylinders, and placed one on the forward crank-shaft, and one on the after crank-shaft, the one intermediate-pres- sure cylinder being on the middle crank-shaft. Steam at 160 lbs. pressure will be generated in twelve huge double-ended boilers and one single boiler, having 100 furnaces in each ship. As it is no doubt likely that some system of forced draught (probably Howden's) will be fitted, the consumption of coal will range about 400 tons per day, giving about If lbs. per indicated horse-power. , 294 APPENDICES. The cabin arrangements are designed to have the saloon between the funnels, as in the White Star steamers ; it will be over 85 feet long by 63 feet wide, and seat 400 passengers, and the utmost efforts will be made to secure the highest degree of elegance and comfort. To construct and work these immense vessels an enormous capital will be required, as taking the cost of hull finished at £.30 per ton (a moderate figure) on the 13,000 tons, and the machinery at £10 per indicated horse- power, the figures will be £390,000 and £260,000 respectively, making a total cost of £660,000 for each steamer, or £lj300,000 invested in two vessels. YICTUALLING REQUIREMENTS AND STORES OF AN ATLANTIC LINER. The following interesting particulars, for the year 1886, of the victuals put on board a Cunard liner for the round voy- age, and also of the staff employed by the Company, are given in the "Life of Sir George Burns," by Edwin Hodder, 1890 ; these figures must now be considerably increased owing to the continued expansion of the traffic : — " Eor a single passage to America the Etruria, with 547 cabin passengers and a crew of 287 persons on board, carries the following quantities of provisions : — 12,550 lbs. fresh beef, 760 lbs. corned beef, 5,320 lbs. mutton, 850 lbs. lamb, 350 lbs. veal, 350 lbs. pork, 2,000 lbs. fresh fish, 600 fowls, 300 chickens, 100 ducks,. '50 geese, 80 turkeys, 2t30 brace grouse, 15 tons potatoes, 30 hampers of vegetables, 220 quarts ice cream, 1,000 quarts of milk, and 11,500 eggs (or at the rate of one egg per minute from the time the ship sails from Liverpool until her arrival in New York). , " The quantities of wines, spirits, beer, etc., put on board for consumption on the round voyage, comprise 1,100 bottles champagne, 850 bottles claret, 6,000 bottles ale, 2,500 bottles porter, 4,600 bottles mineral waters, 650 bottles various spirits. " Crockery is broken very extensively, being at the rate of 900 plates, 280 cups, 438 saucers, 1,213 tumblers, 200 wine- glasses, 27 decanters, and 63 water-bottles in a single voyage. "As regards the consumption on board the whole Cunard APPENDICES. 295 fleet for one year, the figures seem almost fabulous : — 4,666 sheep, 1,800 lambs, 2,474 oxen are consumed — an array of flocks and herds surpassing in extent the possessions of many a pastoral patriarch of ancient times — besides 24,076 fowls, 4,230 dncks, 2,200 turkeys, 2,200 geese, 63 tons of ham, 20 tons bacon, 16 tons cheese, and 831,603 eggs. " Other articles are in extensive demand, and in the course of a year there is consumed : — one ton and a half of mustard, one ton and three quarters of pepper, 7,216 bottles pickles, 8,000 tins sardines, 33 tons salt cod and ling, 4,192 fonr-lb. jars of jam, 16 tons marmalade, 22 tons raisins, cnrrants, and fi.gs, 18 tons split peas, 16 tons pearl barley, 17 tons rice, 34 tons oatmeal, 460 tons flonr, 23 tons biscuits, 33 tons salt, 48,902 loaves of bread 8 lbs. each. " The Cunard passengers annually drink and smoke to the following extent :— 8,030 bottles and 17,613 half-bottles champagne, 13,941 bottles and 7,310 half-bottles claret, 9,200 bottles other wines, 489,344 bottles ale and porter, 174,921 bottles mineral waters, 344,000 bottles spirits; 34,360 lbs. tobacco, 63,340 cigars, and 66,876 cigai-ettes. " The heaviest item in the annual consumption of the Com- pany is of course coal, of which 356,764 tons are burnt — nearly equal to 1,000 tons for every day in the year. "This qnantity of coal, if built as a wall four feet high and one foot thick, would reach from Land's End to John o' Groats' House. "With regard to the aggregate employment of labour by the Cunard- Company, it includes 34 captains, 146 oflB.cers, 628 engineers, boilermakers, and carpenters, 665 seamen, 916 fire- men, 900 stewards, 62 stewardesses, 42 women to keep the upholstery and linen in order, with 1,100 men of a shore gang, or about 4,506 people to run the ships, which traverse yearly a distance equal to five times that between the earth and the DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATLANTIC STEAMERS, 1840-1890. 330O0 Tbna I/t^rilarrTnyTtt Tmu I ei fat Kiu>ts BRITANIU A.C REAT BRITAI N. ARaiC. PERSIA. G REAT EASTERN . SCOTIA. C ITYOf BRUSSEI S OCEAWIC . BRITAHHI LOTYOF BERLIH. CITY OF ROME. AURANIA OREGON AMERICA ETRURIA CITY OF PARIS TEUTONIC 18*0. 18*3. 1850. 1855. 1858. 1864.. 186_8. ISTL ISTiT 1875. " YOFRC 1881. 'W ® (gfe (g)