I^^SUvVl rms ! if 1 ^^^^^^^H ^■'i^^^''^V4'SiV#SS3IE^K^^^?^^^R^H^1'Z^^^^^^^^^^^^l I^AJIp \/ 'Neva fork Hntt Q}0UKgc of J^gticulture At flforncU Iniucraitg Slibtarg ,-^ Cornell University Library LC 1081.L43 Examples of industrial education, 3 1924 013 369 909 The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013369909 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION BY FRANK MITCHELL LEAVITT ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO One example is worth a thousand arguments. — Gladstone GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY FRANK MITCHELL LEAVITT ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 512,6 LC ID'S/ 14-S (^\4b'6% 1- lU s -s t Z3 nj .S t Q- 1— 1- S .2 8 ^ 0) £ .2 LU C3 > S s LU ■ ' 3 oiii 2: LU Q a.- « <: -J [OOIIOS ui sjiTSaA JO S3pBj3 Xq uopBDijtssEp ;uas3Jd; saoa^^o^ siooHog HOiH saavao AavxMawma 6s 66 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION and of interesting them in continuation-school opportunities, either day or evening, where such exist. There is a possibihty that the early worker may become a permanent student, a thing strongly to be desired. While these pupils have entered upon the differentiated seventh-grade course with the idea of terminating their studies at the end of the eighth grade, possibility of changing their plans and of continuing their school work beyond this point should not be closed to them. The possibilities offered on completing the eighth grade should be entrance to a trade school or to a vocational course in the high school. Pupils should not expect to enter upon the classical high-school course with the same chances of success as those who did not differentiate their work at the seventh grade. Let us now examine the paths open to the pupils planning to go beyond the eighth grade. All such would continue through grades seven and eight with effective preparation for the high school. Arriving at the first year of the high school the ways divide again very much the same as in grade seven. Those planning to remain two years or less may elect a specific vocational course, at the end of which they may (i) go to work, (2) decide to continue with intensive vocational work in the high school for one or two additional years, or (3) enter the trade school, to which later reference will be made. The remainder of the pupils, those expecting to graduate from the high school, whether they enter college ar not, have a choice between several high-school courses, — classical, com- mercial, agricultural, or technical (including domestic science and art). Finally, those who decide at the beginning of the third year of the high school to terminate their studies on graduation will have open to them not only the college preparatory course and the general high-school course, but optional intensive vocational A PLAN FOR IMMEDIATE REORGANIZATION 67 courses. They should not expect to enter on existing college courses from the vocational classes. A qualifying statement should be made, and the importance of this fact is great. At the place of branching, some of the subjects of instruction may easily be common to the curricula of both or of all branches made at that point. This will serve both a social and an educational end, since it reduces segrega- tion to the minimum and removes something of the irrevoca- bility of the decision. We have examined the plan as to its horizontal stratification. A clearer meaning of its import may be gained from considering one or more of its vertical divisions. At the foundation, and common to all divisions, lies a six years' training of the most scientific and modern character, with every possible effort devoted to meeting the needs of each indi- vidual educationally, in the literal meaning of the word. Here no thought of economic efficiency need enter to modify any method shown to be successful in awakening real interest and intellectual effort on the part of the children. No retarded child should be considered stupid or lazy simply because he is "differ- ent" from the imaginary average. In fact, he should not be retarded but should be subjected to such stimuli as will excite his interest and impel effort. It is probable that few children will be found wholly unresponsive to the various methods which modern educational science has demonstrated to be effective. From this point the pupils may be divided into four rather distinct groups : (i) those going to college ; (2) those planning to complete the high-school course ; (3) those planning, to take only the two-year vocational course in the high school ; (4) those expecting to terminate their schooling at the end of the elemen- tary course. Let us examine the main subdivisions of the most extensive and liberal training, namely, that terminating in the professional 68 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION schools. This may be divided horizontally between (i) a period devoted to broad general training, corresponding to the elemen- tary grades and the first two years of the high school ; (2) a shorter period, devoted to laying the groundwork of the specialty, which corresponds to the later high-school and the early college years, in which electives enable a student to select the group of sub- jects which will be the best foundation for any given profes- sion, as, for example, the selection of history, language, political science, etc., for prospective students in the law school ; and (3) the intensive and relatively narrow specialization in the chosen profession. This last period is believed to be of prime impor- tance for the professional man. It is practically impossible for any considerable number to secure satisfactory entrance to the professions without it. The plan which we have outlined will make it possible to give to the students in all of the four divisions something analogous to this complete training for the professions. Here the time element must be taken into account. After it is learned what amount of time the student has at his disposal it should then be proportionately divided between these three general subdivisions found to be so essential to the professional man : first, the broad general training ; second, a preparation in the group of studies which will form the best groundwork for his specialty ; third, a brief period of intensive specialization which will pre- pare him for a successful entry upon his chpsen vocation. The fact cannot be too strongly emphasized that entry upon a vocation without special training of some kind is becoming more and more difficult, and the attempt to make, such an entry without this special training, and without guidance and advice, is attended with difficulties and grave dangers which the schools have too long ignored. While it is believed that the plan outlined would be broad enough, if adequately carried out, to embrace tlje two following A PLAN FOR IMMEDIATE REORGANIZATION 69 types of schools, it is certain that under present conditions there is a demand for the intermediate industrial school and for the trade school. Until retardation has been effectually prevented or greatly reduced, there is need of courses similar to the differentiated seventh- and eighth-grade courses, but open to any boy or girl thirteen years of age or over who is in or below the sixth grade. These are sometimes called separate or intermediate industrial schools. In addition, it is probable that another type is needed, and this might be called a trade school. There are few public trade schools in the country, but they fill a distinct place. Trade schools should be open to boys and girls of sixteen years of age, should emphasize the development of skill, and should lead very directly to some particular trade. In certain localities part-time cooperative courses are the most effective means of giving a thorough industrial training. As mentioned in a former chapter, they have their peculiar advan- tages and disadvantages, but they should be promoted wherever conditions are favorable both to the cause of labor and the cause of education. Continuation schools, both day and evening, are also to be desired, the former for apprentices and the latter for adults. These in no way affect our plan except that they furnish at all points another educational opportunity for those entering upon their industrial life. They do not obviate the necessity for any part of the complete scheme. Finally, it is not expected that the child will be left to find his own way in the maze which this plan spreads out before him. Vocational guidance is a concomitant of vocational education. By a skillful combination of the wisdom, interest, and experience of the parent, teacher, and employer it is possible to base such guidance upon principles approaching a science. 70 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION This involves, first, the giving of imformation about vocations in general and about the particular opportunities for work in the immediate vicinity, and also about the opportunities afforded by the several schools for giving adequate training for these positions. This will be based on information carefully selected and collated and made available for intelligent use. Such infor- mation might be so arranged as to show at a glance just what was involved in the preparation for a given vocation in terms of years, money, and effort, and what characteristics were needed in the individual for success therein. Next comes assistance in placing the pupil when the tran- sition from school to work must be made. At this time he needs to be shown the advisability of taking a position suited to his tastes and his peculiar qualifications, and one which of- fers an opportunity for advancement, even though at the outset it may not be so attractive as some other which pays a larger initial wage. And finally, the young worker should receive sympathetic supervision and counseling subsequent to his entry into his new work. This is a most trying time for many a boy and girl, and should be given most careful attention. There is need for specially trained assistants in all this work. It will almost certainly be contended by some that all this involves the formation of plans by parents and children at a much earlier age than is possible or desirable. It should be noted that this is merely an opinion, and that there is little or no available material either to refute or to substantiate it. A preliminary investigation is now being made which may throw some light on the question. As this book goes to press the returns have not been so thoroughly studied as to warrant a definite statement, but the plan of investigation and the im- pressions received from information thus far available may be of interest. A PLAN FOR IMMEDIATE REORGANIZATION 71 The following letter and questions have been submitted to schools in Denver, Colorado ; Springfield, Illinois ; Cincinnati and Youngstown, Ohio ; Indianapolis, Indiana ; Dandridge, Tennessee ; and Chicago, lUinois. (Sent to superintendents or school principals) THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO Dear Sir : We are making an investigation, the purpose of which is to determine whether any considerable number of parents have formed definite plans for the future education of their children by the time the child has reached his thirteenth year, and, further, to learn whether parents are willing to divulge such plans and to cooperate with the schools in selecting the best studies consistent with them. The schools have very generally proceeded on the assumption that these facts could not be ascertained in enough cases to warrant any differentiation in courses of study based on such information. Even if the investigation does nothing more than to confirm this belief, it will be worth the making, but it is hoped that something much more positive will result. [Signed] (Blank given to teachers for distribution) QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED OF PARENTS OF ALL CHILDREN BETWEEN TWELVE AND THIRTEEN YEARS OF AGE I . How much longer are you planning to send your-^ daughter school ? (Mark answer with an x.) Till-^ ■ j-is fourteen years of age. TilH , Us sixteen years of age. TilN , 1-completes the course in the elementary school. TilN ^ j-completes the course in the high school. Other classifications.- 2. If the boy or girl is to leave school at fourteen, what work do you expect that he or she will take up ? 72 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED OF TEACHERS 1. If not clearly indicated above, is the child reported on this blank a boy or a girl ? . 2. What will be the age of the child in September, 191 1 ? 3. If not withdrawn from school, when would you expect the child to graduate from the elementary school ? Indicate below. f February f February f February T February IQI2^ T IQf^S T 1014^ T iQi^-^T ^ June ^ -jyune ^ ^yune ^ ^ y une It is quite evident that the results of this prehminaiy investi- gation cannot be taken as conclusive, but they seem to furnish some evidence that parents are willing to cooperate with the school authorities in the important matter of adapting education to time limitations where such limitations exist. In fact it appears to the author that this willingness to co- operate is more marked on the part of the parents than it is in the case of the typical school principal. The chief obstacle to the investigation seems to have been the attitude of the principals. They say, " We are not much interested in vocational education in our school," or " How can a boy of thirteen know what he wants to do ? " or "Parents do not know what they will do re- garding the education of their children, and they would not tell you if they did." Others feel that " the parents are incapable of filling out the blanks intelligently." Nevertheless one principal, in a predominantly foreign district, secured fairly trustworthy replies in essentially every case. He was able to demonstrate the fact that 25 per cent of his twelve- to thirteen-year-old pupils were to receive but two more years of schooling. From an examination of the returns it appears that a consid- erable number of parents are willing to state, when the child is between twelve and thirteen years of age, that his schooling is to terminate at fourteen, or as soon as the law permits. It is, of course, entirely possible that some of these parents may A PLAN FOR IMMEDIATE REORGANIZATION. 73 reconsider the question and keep the child in school for one or two years more, but this very desirable decision will be reached more frequently when the schools make some concessions to the needs of the early workers. It is believed that one or more of the features of the plan outlined in this chapter will be found effective in meeting the needs of pupils of this type. An examination of the chart (p. 65) will show graphically the several features of the plan, and the descriptions of the various schools and classes given in the following chapters are illus- trative of one or another of these features. It will be seen that taken together they form as complete a plan as the one here outlined. While no city in the country has yet evolved such a complete system, it will be seen that it is perfectly feasible to do so, since each feature of it has been put into successful opera- tion somewhere. It is felt that a study of these several examples of industrial education will furnish the strongest arguments in their favor. It is the author's intent, therefore, to give, in the remaining chapters, descriptions and brief historical sketches of typical schools and to interpret the nature and purpose of the instruc- tion given in them. In most instances he has personally visited and studied the schools described, although liberal use has been made of the published statements of those directly responsible for their management. No attempt has been made to include all the existing exam- ples of industrial education, though it is believed that no con- spicuous instance of an original and important contribution by a public school has been omitted. Bulletin No. II of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education gives a descriptive list of trade and indus- trial schools in the United States. While this list is more com- plete than the one given herewith, it omits, as not falling within 74 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION the scope of the work of the society, several experiments which the author beheves lie at the very foundation of the larger conception of the movement for vocational education. These experiments are classified as "prevocational," and, as the term indicates, they deal with the period preceding that in which a real vocational training is possible or desirable. As such schools furnish a suitable foundation for vocational education, and espe- cially as they succeed in interesting in such education pupils who would otherwise be lost to the school system altogether, their vocational significance is not to be questioned. It is there- fore believed that they may very properly be included in this study of industrial schools. Some of these experiments are de- scribed in Chapter X. CHAPTER IX EXAMPLES OF MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION In the preceding chapter a plan was proposed for meeting the immediate needs of the present generation of school children without modifying, in any radical way, the prevailing systems of school organization. Everything suggested therein might be put into operation and still leave untouched the common divi- sion into elementary and secondary schools of eight and four years respectively, and the present practice of grading on aver- ages and of advancing the pupils by yearly or semiannual pro- motions based on such grading. It is not to be doubted, however, that widespread dissatisfaction exists among educators with what are seen to be purely artificial distinctions and inconsequential practices. More clearly formu- lated purposes are determining the selection of subject matter, the adoption of methods of instruction, and particularly the formulation of plans of grading and promotion. In all parts of the country this dissatisfaction is indicated by the thoughtful experiments which are being inaugurated in school manage- ment. In the following pages a few of these experiments are briefly described. It has been recognized that retardation lies very near the source of those peculiar educational ills which it is the purpose of industrial training, especially that proposed for the elementary grades, to cure. All efforts to reduce preventable retardation are worthy of careful study. Wherever "special classes," so called, classes for mental defectives or delinquents, or ungraded classes of any 75 76 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION description, are organized, this desirable end is brought nearer realization. These classes, however, are so commonly found in school systems to-day that no detailed mention of them need be made. The methods of grading and the plans of promotion briefly described below are suggestive of still further progress in this direction. No attempt is made to treat the subject exhaustively or chronologically, but merely to emphasize the fact that the educational opportunity of the industrial worker can be advanced quite as effectively by saving " two wasted years " before four- teen as by devising special schools and methods for caring for retarded children between fourteen and sixteen years of age. The grading system has been quite generally based on the supposition that a certain amount of school work should be accomplished in a definite period, and the unit of time has commonly been one year. Under this system the pupil who is " retarded " usually, albeit with numerous individual exceptions, repeats the entire year's work. While in many cities promotions are now made semiannually, and elements of flexibility are being introduced into school grad- ing geneifelly, it is probably within the facts to consider yearly promotions to be the plan which commonly obtains in the United States. Cambridge, Massachusetts The well-known " Cambridge Experiment " has been in oper- ation in that city for nearly twenty years. It permits pupils of varying abilities to pass through the " grammar " school by one or another of four different ways, requiring from four to six years respectively. This is done without "' skipping " a grade or receiving " double promotion." This is accomplished by arranging three courses of study, A, B, and C, planned to cover the total amount of work normally MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION ^'^ done in the last six years of the elementary school, in four, five, or six years respectively, by conducting classes along each course and by providing for transfers from one to another at inter- mediate points. This plan has not only resulted in reducing the percentage of pupils who take more than the allotted time to complete the elementary-school course, but also in enabling a considerable number to do the entire work of the school with a saving of one or even two years from the normal six. St. Louis, Missouri In St. Louis the school year is divided into four quarters, each quarter being ten weeks in length. Where the schools are sufficiently large it is possible to have a class corresponding to each quarter. By this arrangement contiguous classes are rarely more than ten weeks apart, and frequently are less. At the end of each quarter the pupils are graded, receiving marks of Excellent, Good, Moderate, Conditioned, or Failed. A pupil who continuously receives the highest grade, " Ex- cellent," is usually given the opportunity of attempting the work of the class immediately in advance, maJiing up such work as may be necessary. A pupil who receives the grade " Failed " repeats the work of the quarter with the class immediately below the one in which he failed. Even if he is unable to recover the ground thus lost, he has added but ten weeks to the time required to complete the course. Class promotions are made four times a year, and the com- paratively short intervals between classes permit individual pro- motions at any time. The plan has been in operation for many years, and is be- lieved to be instrumental in lessening the amount of repetition in passage through the grades. This opinion seems to be sus- tained by Dr. Ayres's estimate ('" Laggards in Our Schools," p. 87) 78 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION that the average number of years for completing the eight grades in St. Louis is 8.98, thus placing this city well toward the head of the list of the twenty-nine cities investigated. Portland, Oregon , Another city which stands well up in the above-mentioned list is Portland, Oregon. Regarding grading and promotions in the schools of that city Mr. Frank Rigler, city superintendent of schools, in his report for 19 10, says : In the earliest schools teaching was addressed to individuals, not classes. Each pupil recited in his turn from his own book. It soon became clear to teachers that time might be saved by teaching a group of several pupils to- gether. This was the beginning of classification, and out of this simple arrangement developed all the systems of classification now in existence. But while class teaching began as a matter of economy of time, it was soon found to possess other points of advantage over individual teaching. Its chief superiority is due to the fact that new ideas find different attachments in different minds, because of differences in antecedent experience. This causes a different point of view for each pupil in the class, hence the at- trition and liveliness of a well-conducted class recitation. In the formation of classes in a modern school several things must be considered, first among them the size of the class. It has been said by an innovator that one teacher may instruct a class of eighty or one hundred just as easily as a smaller number, because a presentation good for one is good for all within the sound of the teacher's voice. The fallacy of this view is apparent when we reflect that it is not only the teacher's duty to present her subject to a class, but also to note the effect of such presentation upon each individual in her presence. No teacher can perform this latter function if she has to address one hundred pupils.. Those who can perform it with a class of forty pupils are comparatively few. Those who can notice the effect of teaching upon twenty are many times more numerous. Per- haps somewhere between fifteen and twenty-five is the ideal number to be engaged in any recitation, and this leads to the conclusion that in the modern elementary schoolroom there should be two classes, one of which is study- ing while the other is f eciting. Besides having the right number engaged in a recitation, an ideal classification would require that their attainments and their powers be exactly equal. It is not possible, of course, to obtain this ideal classification, but when instruction addressed to the class seems MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 79 trivial to the top, or unintelligible to those at the bottom, the classification is bad and ought to be changed. Practical classification, in what are ac- counted good schools of the present day, lies somewhere between these two extremes. The fact that the classification is not ideal requires it to be supplemented by individual teaching. It is noticed by the alert teacher that the assignment, study, and recitation of a lesson have not produced the desired effect upon certain pupils of the class. Therefore such efforts must be supplemented by individual work. While it has always been the prac- tice in most schools to recognize this function of individual teaching, yet in some parts of the country, notably Batavia, New York, there has been, within the past decade, a revival of interest and emphasis upon this very important matter. Other things being equal, it is desirable that a class or- ganization, when once formed, should remain fixed for a considerable period of time. The fact that only equality of attainments is considered when mak- ing up classes tends to defeat this desirable end, for that part of the class having the greater mental power draws rapidly away from the other part. So whether there be a formal division or not, there must be a practical divi- sion made by the teacher, by addressing one part of the instruction to the upper half of the class, and the other part to the lower half. In fact, I have heard teachers themselves classified as teachers of leaders and teachers of trailers, according to the proportion of the time that they devoted to the two groups into which an ordinary class tends to divide. The Portland system of classification prevents this disintegration of classes by taking into consideration power as well as attainment when classes are formed. The course of study is divided into fifty-four parts, numbered continu- ously from one to fifty-four. The time is divided into terms of five months each, promotions taking place regularly at the end of each term. Three terms, or one and one-half years, constitute what we for convenience call a cycle. Classes are permitted to progress at whatever rate is found suit- able to their powers, but the two standard rates are three parts per term for second divisions and four parts per term for first divisions. The normal class interval at the beginning of a cycle is three parts of the course of study, measured not in time but in work. In large schools the class interval is often only two parts of the coursCj sometimes in the lower classes only one part of the course. At the beginning of each cycle any group of pupils who have reached the same point in the course of study is separated into a first and second division. By the end of the first term the first divisions will have passed over four parts of the course of study, and the second divisions over only three. By the end of the second term the first divisions will have passed 8o EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION over eight parts of the course of study, and the second divisions over only six. At the end of the third term the first divisions will have advanced twelve parts, and the second divisions only nine. It will be seen now that each first division has overtaken the second division next above it. In the new cycle these two divisions are united and again divided. In this redivision some of the pupils that did first-division work during the preceding cycle are put into a second division, and some who did second-division work are put into a first division. While the normal cycle is a period of three terms, and while most of the overtaking and redividing is done at the end of these cycles, neverthe- less in large schools where the interval between some of the classes is only two parts of the course, the second divisions are overtaken in two terms. On the other hand, in smaller schools, the class interval is sometimes four parts of the course of study, and the cycle is extended to four terms. At the close of each term, occasionally during the course of a term, there is some overtaking and redividing to be done. I am of the opinion that in a thirty-room building the class interval for the first ten rooms could be made one part, for the next fifteen rooms two parts, and for the highest five rooms three parts, of the course. In every schoolroom there are two divisions progressing at different rates. Where the more advanced is a first division the classes are said to be diverging, that is, the interval between them is " increasing." Early in the cycle this is the condition in most schoolrooms, but in the third term of the cycle we try, as far as possible, to have first divisions roomed with second divisions which are in advance of them. Such classes are said to be " con- verging," that is, the interval between them is diminishing. In the exigencies of rooming it is sometimes necessary to make up a " division " by taking the stronger members of a first division and classing them with the weaker ones of a second division, who are one or one and one-half parts in advance of them. In such cases the division commences its work at the point already reached by its stronger members. The interval of one or one and one-half parts can thus be passed over very rapidly, being review for the weak ones and new work for very strong pupils. Such emergency divisions, however, do not usually continue more than a term. By that time the strong pupils have outstripped the weak and they are then classed with the strongest members, of the same second divisions whose weaker members they have just passed, their place being taken by the middle section of the same division. An important feature of our system of classification is promotion by subjects instead of by " averages." A pupil may do first-division work in one subject and second-division work in another. Sometimes he will MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 8 1 have to recite part of his worli in one room and part in another, but no inconvenience need result from this. In fact, it is an advantage in rooming, as we can make his headquarters in the less crowded of the two rooms. This system of classification and promotion was introduced into the schools of Portland in 1897, and has been in operation continuously since that time. Before its introduction we used the orthodox eight-grade system with semiannual promotion. If a pupil wished to go faster than the eight- year rate, he might take a term's work with one class and the review work with the next higher class. Thus in a term of five months, he did work that was intended for a year. It will be noted, however, that the rate at which the higher term's work was done, under these conditions, was five times as fast as the ordinary rate of pupils ; and if it were kept up continu- ously, a pupil would finish the eight grades of the elementary schools in one and three-fifths years. The result of such a system was that very few pupils ever did more than the normal quantity of work, and those who did were found subsequently to be deficient in the ground passed over with such unwarranted rapidity. Then again, there was no way in which a pupil could take a lower rate than the orthodox one, without failing and repeating the work of a term. If I understand the plan pursued at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and one recently mentioned by Dr. Edison under the head of plus classes, the rate of speed for first classes or first divisions is one and one-half times that of the slower classes or second divisions. If this rate were continued through- out the course, it would cause the first division to complete the work of the elementary schools in five and one-third years, the slower ones doing it in the orthodox eight years. Now, under the Portiand plan, a pupil who does first-division work during his entire life in the elementary school will be prepared for high-school work in seven years. A pupil who does second- division work all the time will require nine years to complete the elemen- tary course. We find that perhaps a third of the pupils require this time, and they get it with us, not by failing once or twice and repeating some particular part of the course, but by doing somewhat less work each term for the entire nine years. Our first division proceeds one and one-third times as rapidly as our second division, or one and one-eighth times as rapidly as the normal class in the orthodox eight-grade system. Fully half of our pupils are able to maintain this rate throughout the course, without detriment to their health and without much home study. A considerable number do part first-division and part second-division work, and thus complete the elementary course in seven and one-half, eight, or eight and one-half years. 82 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Menomonie, Wisconsin In Menomonie the system of grading, from the fifth grade through the high school, is not vitally related to the plan of promotion. Pupils are graded every six weeks and ?'« each subject, the " grade " indicating the position of the pupil with relation to the class average in that subject. If the pupil falls a certain per- centage below the class average, successively, in a subject, he is required to take the work in that subject with the next lower section. Such a pupil may carry the work of the grade from which he has just fallen, if he is able to do so, and may be re- instated at the end of the six weeks, provided he can reach the required standing in the subject. The superintendent, Mr. "George A. Works, states that a considerable proportion of the pupils recover their grade during the six weeks' trial period. The plan gives an equal opportunity to the able pupil to carry additional work in the class just in advance. It is obvious that this plan requires a departmental system, and would therefore be of questionable expediency for earlier grades. Cleveland, Ohio Beginning with the summer of 1 9 1 1 , the entire school system of Cleveland was reorganized on a quarterly plan of four terms of approximately three months each, there being only a brief vacation between the quarters. While this reorganization involves many educational questions, it is of interest in this connection because the schools were open, during the first summer quarter, only to pupils who were below grade. There were about ten thousand such pupils in the city, about five thousand of whom enrolled for the summer quarter. This, therefore, may properly be considered another plan for reducing retardation. MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 83 Chicago, Illinois Experiments intended to reduce the amount of retardation in both the elementary and the high school were inaugurated in the Chicago public schools in the summer of 1911. There were administered in connection with three of the va- cation schools, although in a measure independently of them, what were styled "Review Schools." Classes were formed for Grades 5, 6, 7, and 8, and were open to children recommended by principals of the elementary schools. To be eligible for membership in these classes a child must have failed of promotion the preceding year, but also must have shown some ability to recover his grade by the extra work of the summer session. The measure of success was to be determined by an examination given by the principal of the elementary school on the return of the children in September. Three such review schools were in session for six weeks of the summer vacation, on four mornings a week from nine till twelve o'clock. Wendell Phillips High School Summer high-school classes, for pupils who had failed in one or more studies during the preceding year, were organized in the Wendell Phillips High School. The classes received two lessons a day in each subject, with a study hour between, and were thus enabled, with ten recitations a week, to cover in five weeks the work of a quarter, or what amounted to a complete review of a semester's work. No pupil was permitted to enter the school for the purpose of doing advanced work. Partly as an experiment, and partly because of financial con- ditions, a tuition fee of ten dollars was charged each pupil. This fact is thought to have some bearing on the measure of success 84 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION attending the venture. Two hundred and ten pupils were reg- istered in these classes and 89 per cent passed in one or more subjects. The tuition fee practically covered all expenses. It is expected that the review schools will become an integral part of the Chicago school system. Berkeley, California The plan of organization described below has been in op- eration in the Berkeley schools for two years with marked and salutary effect on the retention of pupils. The units of the school system are three in number instead of the conventional two. The first, the elementary school, com- prises the first six years ; the second, the lower high school, the seventh, eighth, and ninth years ; and the third, the upper high school, the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years. While satisfactory completion of the work of the first or second unit confers eligibility for the next higher grade, the main em- phasis is not placed on preparation with the higher school as a goal. Instead, the work of each unit is based on the assumption that all the children might leave school at the end of that par- ticular cycle of work. Mr. Frank F. Bunker, superintendent of city schools, says that he is willing to contend that such a plan results ' " not only in the best possible preparation for those who drop out, but likewise the best possible preparation for those who go on from grade to grade, finally entering the university." In a report to the Board of Education recommending the adoption of the plan, Mr. Bunker said : An examination of this plan will convince one, I think, that the division of the grades into three groups is a much more natural one than the ar- rangement under which we are now working, with a division of the grades into two groups only. Statistics show that the masses are held in school no longer than through the fifth grade, and that at the close of the fifth grade they drop out in very MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 85 large numbers, which means, educationally, that whatever is to be taught to the masses must be given in the first five or six years. In the schools comprising this group of the first six years I would have the course of study uniform for all children and somewhat narrow in its scope. I would see to it that emphasis is placed on those things which the masses must have if they are to get on at all. I would see to it, whether or not anything else were got, that at least the children learn how to read, how to write, how to use their own language, both orally and in written form, how to perform with facility and accuracy the simple operations of arith- metic and of accounting, and I would also see to it that in these first six years they get somewhat of a sympathetic knowledge of their city, state, and national government, and that they also learn the elementary things about sanitation and health conditions which everybody needs to know, not only to protect themselves as individuals, but to protect society as well. I would select from the corps for work in these first six years, teachers who are particularly adapted to handling children of this early age and to incul- cating the content which I have just outlined. In the " introductory high schools " there would be congregated the seventh, eighth, and ninth years. These years comprise another natural group, inasmuch as children would enter it at the beginning of the period of adolescence, when by nature they naturally crave an opportunity to dip into a wide range of subjects and activities, which is Nature's way of insuring a freedom of choice in determining occupation, and somewhat of intelligence in the same. I would have certain prescribed subjects for this group, but in addition thereto would permit as many electives as possible, thus making it unnecessary, as at present, for every child in the seventh and eighth grades to take exactly the same work as every other child. In contrast to the work of the first six years, I should wish to see the work of this group made exceedingly rich in content and variety, and particularly in human interest. I should hope- to see the work of this group relate very closely to life and be as far away as possible from that which is purely academic in education. I should wish much emphasis placed on learning how to study, how to use the library, how to get material from the same with expedition and with judg- ment. If a child foresees that he wants to take German or Latin in the high school proper, I would wish him to begin these languages when he enters this group and thus have six years of work in the same before he enters col- lege instead of four, according to our present arrangement. I should wish to see the work of this group shaped up to make a more easy transition from the work of the elementary grades to the departmental work of the high school. In line with this I should wish teachers assigned to work in these grades who have a broad culture and wide experience in teaching in the grades. 86 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION By an arrangement of this kind it would seem that the work of the high school proper could be made more intensive than it is at the present time, with higher standards of scholarship and more rigid requirements than at present obtain, and without working any hardship upon the young people who enter the same ; for it would seem that if this work which I have outlined be carefully and efficiently done, that the incoming student will have developed a much more serious attitude toward his work than obtains at the present time, will have oriented himself better, so far as his subjects are concerned, and that the break will not be so great or so dis- couraging as with the plan under which we are now working. It is evident that the crucial point of this unique organization is to be found in the lower high school, and the plan commends itself for the reason that this period of school life coincides very closely with that period of youth which is, perhaps, the most dif- ficult for the teacher to understand, and, therefore, the one where the pupils suffer most from misdirected effort on their own part and also on the part of their teachers. In this system of schools the major purpose of the intermediate unit is one of adjustment. Among other opportunities offered in this "trying-out" period is the possibility of selecting studies which appeal to the awakening vocational interests of some of the pupils. Thus far the vocational subjects offered have been commercial rather than industrial, but in such a community as Berkeley this is perhaps all that could reasonably be expected in the second year of such an important transition. Concord, New Hampshire The reorganized school system of Concord consists of three units or groups, which are numbered in the reverse order of the grades or years in school. Group 3, the elementary group, comprises the first six grades ; Group 2, the lower of the secondary groups, com- prises the seventh and eighth years; and Group i, the ninth, tenth, and eleventh years, or the high school proper. MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 87 The plan is thus similar to that of Berkeley, with the im- portant difference that, by the Concord plan, an attempt is made to save a year's time. It is believed that this is made possible by eliminating reduplication, which so frequently obtains in the last elementary and the first high-school year of the traditional school system. As carried out, the plan actually provides greater opportunity for differentiation than is found in Berkeley, as will be seen by referring to the course of study for 1911-1912 (see pp. 88-90). In commenting on the plan Mr. Rundlett, superintendent of schools, says : " Through the first six years of this course the studies remain practically uniform for all pupils, the main idea being to teach them how to read, to write, to use the mother tongue properly, the essentials of history and geography, how to take care of their bodies and to live in cleanliness and purity, — in short, those things which all people should know in order to make the best use of their lives. Upon completing the work of Group 3 the student may take up the work outlined for Group 2, making his choice of approved high-school courses or pursuing still farther what are commonly called the three R's. This change comes at a time in the pupil's life when he seeks variety. If he forecasts a college course, he may have five years of study instead of four. If he wishes a more practical course, he may choose a commercial or a mechanic arts course. In these grades emphasis will be placed upon teaching the pupil to become self-reliant, how to study as well as how to recite, and to get material for his work with dispatch and with good judg- ment. He will be introduced to departmental teaching, handled by teachers who make a study of individual natures, and have the approval of the state department as being qualified for the work, thus securing the benefit of teaching backed by broad culture and by individual grade experience. In the high school proper. Group i, advantage will be manifest in a de- creased enrollment, so that the general atmosphere will be relieved of the confusion of numbers. Eventually more rigid requirements and better standards of scholarship should result, because entering pupils will have had two years of serious preparation along lines of high-school work. This scheme is combined with semiannual promotion throughout the entire course." 88 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION < < a w en « 8 English 4 United States History and Civics- 4 Chemistry 5 Free-hand Drawing (girls) > , v Mechanical Drawing (boys) J ^^' Mach. Shop Practice, Adv. Mech. (boys) \ /gx Household Economy, Sewing (girls) / *. / 4 Choose One French 5 Review Mathematics 4 - English 5 Physics 5 Mechanical Drawing (boys) \ / •, Free-hand Drawing (giris) / ^4; 2 Mach. Shop Practice, Ele. Mch. (boys) \ ,0^ Household Economy, Sewing (giris) / *• ■' 4 Choose One French 5 English History 5 r English 5 Geometry 5 Mechanical Drawing (boys) > / ■, Free-hand Drawing (girls) J ^^J 2 Pat. Making, Forging, F'dry Prac. (boys) \ .^ Domestic Science, Sewing (girls) J ^ ■^ 4 Choose One French 5 Medieval and Modem History 5 Biology 5 :: < o PS M a s 8 8 English 4 United States History and Civics 4 Bookkeeping (one half year) ■> Banking (one half year) i 4 Economics (one half year) \ Commercial Law (one half year) J" "* Choose Ojie French 5 Chemistry 5 Stenography 4 Typewriting (4) 2 - English 5 Bookkeeping 5 Choose Two French 5 Physics 5 Stenography 4 Typewriting (4) 2 = English 5 Geometry 5 Commercial Arithmetic (one half year) "» Bookkeeping (one half year) / ^ Choose One French 5 Medieval and Modem History 5 ^ p <: u w o o English 4 United States History and Civics 4 Choose Three Latin e Greek 5 French 5 German 5 Review Mathematics 4 Advanced Mathematics 4 Chemistry 5 English 5 Choose Three Latin e Greek 5 French 5 German 5 Physics 5 English History 5 - English 5 Geometry 5 Choose Two Latin e Greek 5 French 5 Medieval and Modem History S Biology 5 7: > t:) H m ^ a a\ ^va^\ Hxdiji ^vaA Hianoji 'iys\ aaiHX MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 89 u^mu^ N -t in uMii in « ^.nm^M S2- i''^— \ e bD 1 § ^ Year Mathematics iry 'rawing (boys) \ , , awing (girls) / ^'*' rk'g,Cab.Mak'g,T :nce, Sewing (girls) E Literature tic and Algebra Grammar and Compositi States History- ship :ary Cabinet Work (boys) Cooking (girls) 3 ix^^^ i First Histc icalD nd Dr )odwo: ic Scie English Liters Arithmetic English Grami United States Penmanship (: Manual Traini Sewing, Cooki CVl English Myers's Ancient Mechan Free-ha Adv.Wc Domest English Arithme English United ! Penman Element Sewing, Pk ir)ifluT^-M vnm^inM „ mtnmu^M n t) .S 1 P^ S a ''I B E hj rt & .111^ s^l " ■e rand story }(4) U First Ye rcial Hist rcial GeOj ship (2) Literatui tic and A Gramma states Hi ship (2) Training , Sewing Literatui tic Gramma; States Hi ship (2) Training , Sewing hi English Myers's Comme] Comma Penman English Arithme English United ! Penman Manual Cooking English Arithme English United i Penman Manual Cooking HH ^^^ ^^ , 1 (0 .S *^ s a B •S s E5§ ' Literature tic and Algebn states History Literature tic Grammar and States History Training \ ; and Sewing / English Myers's Ancient Latin French ■sS ^ r- ^ (-■ — -^ °" Englii Arithi Latin Unite wi^ b&a 5 Pk ^ S 00 t^ " E e s u ^ " a «■§ '^ -a -c ■. rt o rvaA isaij go EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION s z < 2 Ph = = = = = :; = - = - = = = K = - _ = ' >• X <: « o o o = = :; - =■' * * * * >- o = = := = = = = W ■< o o z < - = - = = :: * * * * s a h 2 ■< - = - = = - - = = * o r. w - = = = = - = - ~ - «- * 2 3 w = - = = = = = :. - = - = 1-1 « -. " K O \^ W a u m <; ■o in ■* rO