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69 OLD SERIES. 
 
 MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 THE 
 
 GEOLOGY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 BORDERS OF THE WASH 
 
 INCLUDING BOSTON AND HUNSTA'NTON. 
 
 (EXPLANATION OF SHEET 69 OLD SERIES.) 
 BY 
 
 W. WHITAKER, B.A., F.R.S. 
 
 AND 
 
 A. J. JUKES-BROWNE, B.A., F.G.S. 
 
 PUBLISHBD BY ORDER OF THE LORDS COMMISSIONERS OP HER MAJESTY*? TREASURY. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED FOR HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE, 
 
 By WYMAN ANq SONS, LIMITED, 
 
 Fetter Lane, E.C. 
 
 And to be pufchased, either directly or througli any Bookseller, ftom 
 
 EYRE AND SPOTTISWOODE, East Harding Street, Fleet Street, EX., and 
 
 32, Abingdon Street, Westminster, S.W. ; or 
 
 JOHN MENZIES & Co., is, Hanover Street, Edinburgh, and 
 
 ,90. Wist Nile Street, Glasgow; or 
 HODGES, FIGGIS & Ca„ Liuited, 104, Grafton Street, Dublin. 
 
 1899. 
 
 Price Three Shillings. 
 
r-" 
 
 LIST OF MAPS, SECTIONS, AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS OF THEJ 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 The Maps are those' ol the Ordnance Survey, geologloally coloured by the GKeological Surrey of the United Kingdom, uade 
 the Superintendence of Sir Akoh. GErKijSj.D.C.Ir., LL.D., F.K.S., Director General. 
 
 (For Maps, details of Sections, and Memoirs issued by the Geological Survey, see " Catalogue,") 
 
 ENGLAND AND WAIiBS.— (Scale 1 inch to a mile.) 
 
 Maps marked * are also published as Drift Maps. Those marked t are published only as Drift Maps. 
 
 Sheets 3* 6, 6*, 7*, 8*, 9, 11 to 22, 26, 26, 30, 31, 33 to 37, 40, 41, 44, 47», 64», 66t, 69t, 70*, 83», 86», price 8s. 6li. each. 
 
 Sheet 4, 6s. Sheets 2», 28, 24, 27 to 29, 32, 38, 39, 68, 84t, 86t, 4s. each. 
 
 Sheets divided into quarters ; all at 3s. each quarter-sheet, excepting those in brackets, which are Is. 6d. each. 
 
 1», 42, 43, 45, 46, NW, SW, NE*, SE, 48, NWt, SW* NEt, (SE«), (49t), 60t, 51* 62 to 57, (57 NW), 69 to 68, 66 SWt, NEt 
 NW», SBt, 67 Nt, (St), 68 Et, (NWt), SWt, 71 to 76, 76 (N), S, (77 N), 78, 79, NW*, SW, NE*, SE», 80 KW« SW*, NB 
 SE«, 81 NW* SW, NE, SB, 82, 83*, 87, 88, NW, SW* NE, SE, 89 NW*, SW», NE, SE* 90 (NE*), (SE*), 91, (NW*), (SW) 
 KB*, SE», 92 NW», SW* NE, SE, 93 NW, SW, NB*, SE*, 94 NWt, SWt, (NEt), SEt, 95 NW* NE* (SB*), 96 NW», SW*, 
 NE*, SE*, 97 NW*, SW*, NE*, SE, 98 NW, SW, NE*, SB, 99 (NE*), (SE»), 100*, 101 SE, NE* NW* SW*, 102 NW», NE*! 
 SW», SE*, 103*, 104* 106 NW* SW*, (NB*), SE* 106 NW*, SW*, NB", SE*,-107 SWt, NE* SE*, 108 SW*, NE*, SE*, 109 NWJ 
 SW», SE*, 110 (NW*), (NE*), SE*, SW*. I 
 
 iVew Series.— I. of Man* 36, 46, 46, 66, 67, 8s. M. I. of Wight, with Mainland*, 830, S81, 344, 345, 8s. M. 232*, 248* "49* 
 263*, 267t, 268* 283t, 284t, 299t, 30at, 828t, 329', 330*, 331*, (332*), (333*), 384*, (341t), 842t, 348t, 850t, 85St, (866t). 
 
 GENERAL MAP :— (Scale 4 miles to 1 inch.) ! 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES.— Sheet 1 (Title), 2s. ; 2 ' (Northumberland, &o.), 7s. ; 3 (Index of Colours), 3s. M.-.i a. of AIau)j 
 3s. 6d. ; 6 (Lake District), 12s. ed. ; 6 (B. Yorkshu-e),, 7s. 6S. ; 7 (N. Wales), 6s. 6d. ; 8 (Central England), 16s. ; 9 (Eastern 
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 4s. 6i'. New SsrUs, printed in colours, sheet 1, 2s. ; .sheets 2 to 1,5, 2s. %d. each. 1 
 
 HORIZONTAL SECTIONS 
 
 1 to 140, 146 to 148, England, price 6s. each. 
 
 VERTICAL SECTIONS. 
 
 1 to 82, England, price 3». 6d. each. 
 
 COMPLETED COUNTIES OF ENGLAND AND WALES, on a Scale of 1 inch to a mile. 
 Sheets marked * have Descriptive Memoirs. Sheets or Counties marked t are illustrated by General Memoirs. 
 
 ANGLBSEYt,— 77 N, 78. 
 
 BBDEORDSHIRB,— 46 NW, NB, SWt, SEt, 62 NW, NE, 
 
 SW, SE. 
 BEBK8HIBE,— 7*, 8t, 12*, 13* 84* 46 SW*. 
 BKECKNOCKSHiaEt,— 36, 41, 42, 66 NW, SW, 57 NE, SE. 
 BUCKINGHAMSHIRE,— 7*, 13* 46* NE, SE, 46 NW, SWf, 
 
 62 SW. 
 CABRMABTHENSHIREt,— 37, 88, 40, 41, 42 NW, SW, 56 SW, 
 
 57 SW, SE. ■ 
 CAERNABVONSHIREt,— 74 NW, 76, 76, 77 N, 78, 79 NW, 
 
 SW. 
 CAMBBIDGESHIRBt,— 46 NB, 47*, 51*, 52 SE, 64". 
 OARDIGANSHIREt,— 40, 41, 66 NW, 67, 68, 59 SE, 60 
 
 SW. 
 CHESHIRE,— 73 NE, NW, 79 NB, SE, 80, 81 NW* SW*, 
 
 88 SW. 
 COBNWALLt,— 24t, 26t, 2et, 29t, 30t, 31t, 82t, & 33t. 
 CUMBERLAND,— 98 NW, SW», 99, 101, 102, NB, NW, SW*, 
 
 106 SB, SW, NW, 107, 
 DENBIGHt,— 73 NW, 74, 75 NE, 78 NE, SE, 79 NW, SW, SE, 
 
 80 SW. 
 DERBYSHIREf, -62 NE, 63 NW, 71 NW, SW, SB, 73 NE, 
 
 72 SB, 81, 82, 88 aw, SlS. 
 DKVONSHIRBt,— '20t, 21t, 22t, 23t, 24t, 25t, 26t, & 27t. 
 DORSETSHIRE,— 16, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22. 
 DURHAM,— 102 NE, SE, 103, 105 NB, SE, SW, 106 SE. 
 ESSEX,— 1*, 2*, 47*, 48*. 
 IXINTSHIREt,— 74 NB, 79. 
 
 GLAMORGANSHIREt,— 20, 36, 37, 41, & 42 SB, SW. 
 GLOUCESTBKSHIREt,— 19, 34*, 36, 43, NB, SW, SB, 44*. 
 HAMPSHIRE,— 8t, 9t, 10*, lit, 12*, 14, IB, 16. 
 HEREFORDSHIRE,- 42 NE, SE, 43, 66, 66 NE, SB. 
 HERTFORDSHIRE,- It NW, 7», 46, 47*. 
 HUNTINGDON,— 51 NW, 52 NW, NE, SW, 64* 65. 
 KENTt,— It SW & SE, 2t, 8t, 4', 6t. 
 LANCASHIRE, -79 NE, 80 N\V^ NB, 81 NW, 38 NW, SWt, 
 
 89, 90, 91, 92 RW, 98. 
 
 -63 NE, 62 NB, 63*, 64*, 70', 71 SB, 
 
 LBICESTERSHISE,- 
 
 SW. 
 
 LINCOLNSHIREt,— 64*, 66*, 69, 70», 83*, 84», 85* 86*. 
 MERIONETHSHIREt,— 69 NE, SE, 60 NW, 74 75 NE 
 
 SE, • 
 
 MIDDLESEXt,— It NW, SW, 7*, 8t. 
 MONMOUTHSHIRE,— 85, 36, 42 SE, NE, 43 SW 
 MONTaOMBRYSHIBEt,-56 NW, 69 NE, SE, 60, 74 SW 
 SE. ■ 
 
 NOEFOLKt,— 50 NW», NE*, 64*, 65*, 66*, 67*, 68* 69 
 NORTHAMPTONSHIRE,— 64*, 45 NW, NE 46 NW 62 NW 
 . NE, SW, 63 NB, SW, & SE, 63 SE, 64. ' ' ' 
 
 NORTHUMBERLAND,-102 NW, NE, 105, 106.107 108* 109 
 110, NW*, SW* NE», SE, • . > , 
 
 NOTTINGHAM,-70*, 71* NE, SE, NW, 82 NE* SB* SW s-1 
 86, 87* SW, . , - . so, 
 
 OXFORDSHIRE,— 7* 13*, 34* 44* 46* 63 SB* SW 
 PEMBEOKESHIREt,— 38, 39, 40, 41, 68 
 RADNORSHIRE,-42 NW, NE, 56, 60 gW SE 
 RUTLANDSHIRE,-this county is wholly included within 
 Sheet 64*, 
 
 SHROPSHIRE,-65 NW, NE, 66 NE, 60 NE, SE 61 62 NW 
 73, 74 NE, SE, ■ > . "' -■■ , 
 
 S0MERSETSHIREt,-18, 19, 20, 21, 27 36 
 
 STAFFORDSHIRE*,-64 NW, 65 NE, 61 NE, SE 0" 63 \\v 
 
 71 SW, 72, 73 NB, SB, 81 SE, SW. ' '- " 
 
 SUFFOLK,— 47*, 48*, 49* 60* 51*, 66* SE* 67' 
 
 SURREY,- 1 SWt, 6t, 7* St, 12t, 
 
 SUSSEX,— 4», 5t, 6t, 8t, 9t, lit. 
 
 WARWICKSHIRE,-44* 45 NW, 53*, 54, 62 NE SW SR 
 63NW, SW, SE, - -t-, svv, fiji,, 
 
 WESTMORLAND,-97 NtV*, SW», 98 NW, NE*, SE*, 101, 
 
 WILTSHIRE, -12«, IS*, 14, 15, 18, 19t, 34*, and 36t « 
 
 WOIlCESTBRSHIRB,-43 NE, 44*, 54, 65, 62 SW, SE. 
 
 YOKI!SHraBt,-86-88, 91 NE,SE 92-97* 98 NB* =;?,* inaNP 
 =!T;, If.T SW, SE, 104* ' •"■''=^*'i 
 
69 OLD SERIES. 
 
 MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 THE 
 
 GEOLOGY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 BORDERS OF THE WASH 
 
 INCLUDING BOSTON AND HUNSTANTON. 
 
 (EXPLANATION OF SHEET 69 OLD SERIES.) 
 BY 
 
 W. WHITAKER, B.A., F.R.S. 
 
 AND 
 
 A. J. JUKES-BROWNE, B.A , F.G.S. 
 
 PUBLISHED BV ORDER OF THE LORDS COMMISSIONERS OF HER MAJESTy'p TREASURY. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED FOR HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE, 
 
 By WYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED, 
 
 Fetter Lane, E.C. 
 
 And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, fiom 
 
 EYRE AND SPOTTISWOODE, East Harding Street, Fleet Str'^et, E.C„ and 
 
 32, Abingdon Street, Westminster, S.W. ; or 
 
 JOHN MENZIES & Co., 12, Hanover Street, Edinburgh, and 
 
 90. West Nile Street, Glasgow; or 
 HODGES, FIGGIS & Co., Limited, 104, Grafton Street, Dublin. 
 
 1899. 
 Price Three Shillings. 
 
 "^ 
 

 A.3oOU.<=|(t 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The districts described in this volume are contained in Sheet 
 6g (Old Series) of the one-inch Geological Survey Map of 
 England and Wales. They embrace The Wash and the tracts 
 of Lincolnshire and West Norfolk which surround that inlet 
 of the sea. On the south and west lies the great plain of the 
 Fenland, while to the east the ground undulates as a wide 
 plateau, no part of which reaches 300 feet in height. 
 
 The western part of the region was chiefly surveyed by 
 Mr. S. B. J. Skertchlv and was described by him in a general 
 Memoir on the Fenland (1877). The eastern or Norfolk por- 
 tion, consisting of Cretaceous rocks, partially concealed under 
 deposits of sand, gravel, and boulder-clay, was mapped by 
 Messrs. W. Whitaker, H. B. Woodward, A. C. G. Cameron, 
 C. Reid, G. Barrow, and S. B. J. Skertchly. 
 
 The present Memoir was entrusted to the editorship of Mr. 
 Whitaker; and on his retirement from the Survey it was 
 completed by Mr. Jukes-Browne. For such parts of the 
 district of the Fenland and The Wash as are included in Sheet 
 69 the descriptions given in Mr. Skertchly's Memoir, just 
 referred to, have been reprinted in the following pages. The 
 eastern district is described by the various officers who took 
 part in the Survey, and whose several contributions are marked 
 by their initials. Mr. William Hill rendered important 
 service to the Geological Survey by making special examina- 
 tions of the zones and lithological subdivisions of the Chalk, 
 and supplying much valuable information in regard thereto. 
 
 The geology of the country illustrated by the Map and 
 Memoir possesses considerable interest, but the well-known Red 
 Chalk of Hunstanton is no doubt its distinguishing feature. 
 As far back as 18 16 this band of rock was noticed by William 
 Smith. Among the later observers reference may be made 
 to R. C. Taylor, Sedgwick, C. B. Rose, The Rev. T. 
 Wiltshire, and Professor H. G. Seeley. The age and 
 relations of the Red Chalk were fully discussed by Mr. 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 Whitaker in 1883, and were established by MESSRS. JUKES- 
 Browne and W. HiLL in 1887. 
 
 Regarding the Lower Greensand, our information, originally 
 derived from the local researches of ROSE, followed by those of 
 FiTTON, was made much more complete and accurate by Mr. 
 J. J. H. Teall in his Sedgwick Prize Essay for 1873. Quite 
 recently some important additions to our knowledge of this 
 subject have been made by Mr. G. W. Lamplugh in the course 
 of his researches in connection with the Geological Survey 
 Memoir on the Lower Cretaceous rocks. 
 
 The Chalk, though it occupies most of the eastern district, 
 forms no prominent features like the Downs of the counties to 
 the south. It has been greatly planed down, and is likewise 
 covered with wide sheets of boulder-clay and gravel. The 
 boulder-clay stretches also beneath the Fenland, in some parts 
 of which it attains a great thickness. 
 
 ARCH. GEIKIE, 
 
 Director-General. 
 
 Geological Survey Office, 
 
 28, Jerinyn Street, London, S. W., 
 loth October, 1898. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Preface by the Director-General 
 
 Page 
 iii 
 
 Chapter i. 
 Chapter 2. 
 
 Chapter 3. 
 
 Chapter 4. 
 
 Chapter 5. 
 
 Chapter 6. 
 Chapter 7. 
 Chapter 8. 
 Chapter 9 
 
 Chapter 10. 
 
 Chapter 11. 
 Chapter 12. 
 
 Introduction. Area. Rivers. Geological Formations 
 and their Range. Physical Features ... ... ... i 
 
 Lower Greensand. General Remarks. Details south of 
 the Babingley River. Details north of the Babingley 
 River (Lower Division, Sands. Middle Division, Clayey 
 Beds. Upper Division, Carstone). Supplementary Notes. 
 Lists of Fossils ... ... ... ... ... 5 
 
 Gault and Red Chalk. General Remarks. Gault {Marl 
 and Clay). Main Mass. Outliers. Red Chalk. Micro- 
 scopic Structure. Analyses. List of Fossils ... 
 
 Lower Chalk. General Remarks. Chemical Analyses. 
 Microscopic Structure. Details (Main Mass. Outlier). 
 List of Fossils 
 
 Middle and Upper Chalk. A. Middle Chalk. General 
 Remarks. Details. List of Fossils. B. Upper Chalk. 
 General Remarks. Details ... 
 
 Glacial Drift. Chalky Boulder Clay. 
 Remarks. Details ... 
 
 General 
 
 GLACI.4L Drift. 
 Details 
 
 Gravel and Sand. General Remarks. 
 
 Glacial Drift. The Brown Boulder Clay and the beds 
 associated with it 
 
 Valley Gravels. Congham and Roydon Valley. Babingley 
 Valley. Wensuni Valley. Creake and Burnham Valley. 
 Ringstead Valley 
 
 The Fenland and Alluvial Deposits. The deposits of 
 the Fenland. Clays and Silts. Peat Beds. The Marsh- 
 lands. Blown Sands 
 
 The Wash. Its physical geography and mode of silting up 
 
 Economics. Building-stones. Bricks. Marl. Springs and 
 Water-levels 
 
 Index 
 
 28 
 
 46 
 
 63 
 73 
 80 
 86 
 
 93 
 
 95 
 103 
 
 no 
 
 Appendix I, Well-sections. — Wells and Borings in the area of Sheet 69. 
 Supplementary record of Wells and Borings in other parts of 
 Norfolk and Lincolnshire — ... ... ... 113 
 
 ,, II. Bibliography. — Supplementary Geological Bibliography of 
 
 Norfolk ... ... ... ... ... ... 135 
 
 144 
 
 725. Wt. 19919. 500 — 12/98. Wy. & S. 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 1. Section near Roydon 
 
 „ 2. Diagram to show the structure and relations of the Red 
 Hunstanton 
 
 Section at Dersingham Chalk-pit 
 
 Section near the Lighthouse, Hunstanton Cliff ... 
 
 Chalk-pit about one mile west of [-larpley Church 
 
 Section at Syderstone 
 
 Section through Holme 
 
 Section in the Cliff Gardens, Hunstanton 
 
 Trees near Holbeach 
 
 Chalk at 
 
 Page 
 33 
 
 36 
 52 
 
 54 
 67 
 77 
 
 99 
 
 The notes of Mr. W. Hill and of the several Officers of the Geological Survey 
 who were engaged on parts of the area described, are as follows, the numbers 
 referring to the pages to which they have contributed : — 
 
 W. Whitakkr, 1-16, 31-35, 56, 65, 66, 75, 76, 78, 80-84, 92-94. '00, no, iii. 
 
 H. B. Woodward, 67, 70, 71, 74-77, 82, 83, 86, 94, 100, 112. 
 
 A. C G. Cameron, 78, 79, 84-89, 92, 110. 
 
 C. Rbid, 68, 75, 78, 83, 84, 87. 
 
 G. Barrow, 70, 77, 83, 112. 
 
 S. B.J. Skertchly, II, 90, 95-101, 103-110, 113, 114. 
 
 A. J. Jukes-Browne, 28-30, 35-71, 73-95, 100-102, 110-115. 
 
 G. W. Lamplugh, 7, IO-I2, 16-25, 87, 88, 91, 
 
 W. Hill, 37, 49, 50, 63, 65, 68-72. 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE BORDERS 
 OF THE WASH. 
 
 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. 
 Area. 
 
 The district represented in Sheet 69 of the, Geological Survey 
 (Old Ordnance) map consists of part of south-east Lincolnshire 
 with the towns of Boston, Holbeach, Sutton St. Mary, and 
 Wainfleet, besides a number of Fenland villages, sometimes 
 closely clustered, and the north-western corner of Norfolk, with 
 the towns of Burnham and Castle Rising, the sea-side resort of 
 Hunstanton, and a number of villages, some of which are large, 
 as Dersingham, Docking, Heacham, and Snettisham. 
 
 The deep bay of The Wash cuts through the central part of 
 this district, almost to its southern border, and practically divides 
 the two counties. Moreover, the rising ground is wholly on the 
 eastern side of the bay, which therefore also practically separates 
 two different areas of land. 
 
 Rivers. 
 
 As the district is largely sea-bord, The Wash being part of 
 the sea, and not really river-estuary (though many streams flow 
 into it), it contains of course no great length of river-valley : 
 indeed, the Lincolnshire part, which is almost wholly Fenland, 
 has no such thing as a valley ; but in it are the outfalls of the 
 following rivers : — 
 
 The Nene, on the south, eastward of Sutton. 
 
 The Welland at Fossdyke, and the Witliam at Boston, on the 
 west. 
 
 The Steeping, on the north, at Wainfleet Harbour. 
 
 In Norfolk is the mouth of the Ouse, a river which has a very 
 large drainage-area, whilst the following three streams flow 
 westward into The Wash : — 
 
 The Babingley River, which usually rises in the Middle Chalk 
 about a mile above Flitcham, and flows in a fairly direct westerly 
 course for some seven miles ' to near Wolferton, with small 
 tributaries from Congham, on the south, and from Appleton and 
 West Newton, on the north. 
 
 The stream rising from near the base of the Chalk at Shern- 
 borne, which, reinforced from the Lower Greensand, finds its way 
 into salt water at Wolferton Creek. 
 
 The stream rising in various parts of the Chalk above 
 
 B 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Sedgford and having its exit near Heacham, with a tributary 
 from near Ringstead, on the north. 
 
 On the northern coast the stream from South Creake flows 
 northward to the sea at Burnham Harbour ; whilst in other parts 
 there are only tiny streamlets. 
 
 At the Rudhams, between Syderstone and Tatterset, and a 
 few miles to the south, are the head waters of the Wensum, an 
 eastern river that flows hence right across the country. The 
 drainage of the south-eastern corner of the district is therefore 
 distinctly separate from that of the rest, the latter belonging to 
 the system of the Ancient Ouse, while the former belongs to that 
 of the Ancient Thames, those names being used for the former 
 .extension of the two rivers, before England became an island, or 
 at all events was so widely severed from Europe as now. At one 
 time probably the Ouse itself was a tributary of the Thames. The 
 great cutting back of the land in eastern England has resulted 
 in forming a multitude -of separate drainage-areas, of com- 
 paratively small size (and many very small) where once all 
 formed parts of a dominant sy.stem, with which they have now 
 no apparent connection. • 
 
 Geological Formations and their Range. 
 
 The various beds noted in the right column of the following 
 Table are those which have been mapped as occurring at the 
 surface in the district. Between the Cretaceous beds and the 
 Drift there is, of course, a great gap, no trace of any Pliocene 
 bed having been found, whilst the great Eocene series does not 
 reach into western Norfolk, being, in that county, confined to 
 the eastern margin. Here, too, the higher part of the Upper 
 Chalk has also been lost by erosion. 
 
 r Coast Deposits ... [ fhrgk^^""^' 
 
 Recent j r Alluvium, including Peat and Fen 
 
 (. ] Silt, which are separately mapped 
 
 C in the Fenland. 
 
 ( River and Valley f Loam and Marl. 
 
 Post-Glacial Drift] Drift [Gravel. 
 
 ^ Marine Gravel (Hunstanton). 
 
 (Gravel and Sand, including Eskers 
 (age sometimes doubtful: some beds 
 above, some below Boulder Clay). 
 Boulder Clay, perhaps of two ages. 
 Brick-earth or Loam. 
 
 . Chalk ^ Upper and Middle Chalk. 
 
 Upper Cretaceous \ \ fe° j^^P^w ' ,- 
 
 ; ( Ked Chalk (a hne only on the map). 
 
 I Gault Marl or Clay. 
 
 Lower Cretaceous. Lower Greensand r Carstone. 
 
 (undivided on j Snettisham Beds. 
 
 the south) ... ( Sandringham Sands. 
 Upper Jurassic Kimeridge Clay. 
 
 Besides the above, clays of Corallian age, and then Oxford 
 Clay, probably occur beneath the Kimeridge Clay, under the 
 
FORMATIONS. 3 
 
 Alluvium and Drift of Lincolnshire, and reach eastward at in- 
 creasing depth underground in Norfolk, though how far we know 
 not. Nor do we know what formation next underlies the Oxford 
 Clay. 
 
 The Kimeridge Clay underhes the Alluvium and Drift of the 
 Fenland, though never coming to the surface. On the eastern 
 side of The Wash it also holds a like position for a short distance 
 from our southern margin, the Lower Greensand probably coming 
 on over it in the marshes somewhere near Wolferton, from the 
 slight northerly fall of the beds. 
 
 At the surface this clay was seen only in very small outcrops 
 between South and North Wootton, which, being without 
 sections, need no further notice : it is the spread of gravel here 
 that hides this formation. Of the underground extension of 
 this clay eastward, beneath the Cretaceous beds, we know next 
 to nothing ; presumably it was touched below the Lower Green- 
 sand in the well at Holkham Hall* (in Sheet 68, north-west of our 
 district), but it is possible that the clay touched at the bottom 
 of the boring (743 or 752 feet) may be a bed in the Lower 
 Greensand. Eastward of this there is no boring in Norfolk that 
 has passed through the Cretaceous beds. 
 
 With the above slight exception, the Cretaceous beds, with 
 their coverings of Drift and of Alluvium, form the part of our 
 district east of The Wash. The Lower Greensand has an out- 
 crop some four miles or more broad on the south, but narrowing 
 northward, on account of the slight fall in the beds in that direc- 
 tion, until lost below the sea at the far end of Hunstanton cliff; 
 and thus it forms, with sundry masses of Drift, the eastern 
 border of The Wash. The Gault, as a clayey bed, occurs at the 
 surface as a narrow band on the south, and this, from the thin- 
 ning of the formation, gradually gets narrower northward, until it 
 disappears at Sandringham, where its place is taken by the Red 
 Chalk, which is too thin for its outcrop to be shown by more 
 than a line on the map. All eastward of this is Chalk, more or 
 less bare'at first, but soon capped by .isolated patches of Drift, 
 and then, further eastward, by a more or less continuous sheet, 
 from beneath which the Chalk comes to the surface almost 
 wholly in valleys only. 
 
 Of the underground extension of the Lower Greensand we 
 know that it must pass beyond Holkham, where a thickness of 
 50 or 70 feet was found in the deep boring ; and we may there- 
 fore conclude that the formation occurs throughout our district, 
 eastward from the outcrop, though probably thinning somewhat 
 in that direction. 
 
 The Gault, or the Red Chalk, may be safely taken as con- 
 tinuous underground, eastward from their outcrop ; and the latter 
 seems to reach to beyond Holkham, judging by the well-section 
 above alluded to, which gives it a thickness- of eight feet, the 
 underlying blue Gault being 10 feet thick. 
 
 See " The Geology of the Country around Fakenham," &c., p. 51 (1884). 
 
 B 2 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Glacial Drift occurs irregularly over the formations 
 already noted, and at all levels, underlying the Fens and cover- 
 ing the plateau of the Cretaceous beds, as well as running down 
 some of the slopes, and to the bottom of some of the valleys. It 
 is Boulder Clay almost wholly that reaches the lowest levels, the 
 rarer gravels and sand being mostly confined to higher ground. 
 
 The later gravels of the River or Valley Drift are confined to 
 the bottoms and lower slopes of the valleys, for we have here 
 none of the higher terraces that in some districts occur far above 
 the present valley-bottoms. 
 
 Physical Features. 
 The district consists of two distinct parts: — i. The monot- 
 onous low plain westward from the old mouth of the Ouse, 
 formed by the Alluvial beds of the Fenland, which is practically 
 at about sea-level, except for the slight rises of Boulder Clay on 
 the north-west. 2. The diversified rising ground of the Creta- 
 ceous beds of Norfolk. This may be said to consist of two 
 members : firstly, a westerly slope of a more or less irregular 
 character, and, indeed, on the south "broken up into two, or some- 
 times three, ridges with narrow plateaus between, where there is 
 a broader outcrop of Lower Greensand, but always ending up- 
 ward with the constant slope of the gentle Chalk escarpment ; 
 and, secondly, the higher table-land of the Chalk and its great 
 Drift covering, much cut up by the many valleys that have been 
 worn through it, including the slope all along the northern coast, 
 that seems to be one side of a valley of which the other side 
 has been lost, possibly pointing to a former easterly course of 
 the Ancient Ouse, on its way to join the Ancient Thames. The 
 southern side of this old valley runs eastward, far beyond our 
 district, to Weybourn, where it would seem to turn somewhat 
 northward, cliffs then coming on. Considerable difference of 
 opinion, however, exists in reference to this subject (see p. loo). 
 
 W. W. 
 
CHAPTER 2. LOWER GREENSAND. 
 General Remarks. 
 
 The Lower Greensand enters the district on the south, ^with 
 an outcrop some four miles broad, between the Woottons and 
 Roydon. The outcrop, however, narrows northward, until it is 
 seen only on the foreshore beneath Hunstanton cliff. This 
 narrowing has two causes, the slight easterly encroachment of 
 the marshes bordering The Wash, and the slight northerly falling 
 of the beds, from which the underlying Kimeridge Clay is seen 
 only on the south, whilst on the north the base of the overlying 
 Chalk sinks to below sea-level at the old village of Hunstanton. 
 
 With the exception of notes of occurrence and of local details 
 by various observers this tract of Lower Greensand with its many 
 villages, was almost unnoticed by geologists for many years, 
 Rose's account of it (together with its southerly extension in 
 Sheet 65) being the only one of any length.* It was not till 
 Mr. J. J. H. Teall referred to the Lower Greensand of Norfolk, 
 in 1875, that the structure of the formation in this northern part 
 of the county was understood, but in a few pages he clearly 
 described it, noting the. three divisions, which had not been made 
 out before.! The correctness of his view has been proved by the 
 more detailed work of the Geological Survey, and his divisions, 
 which he saw from Heacham to Dersingham, have been traced 
 farther south continuously to Appleton, and then at intervals 
 into Sheet 65, as described in the Memoir thereon. 
 
 Where these divisions are clearly marked, that is in all but 
 the southern part of our district, they are as follows, beginning 
 at the top : — 
 
 Carstone, a deep bright-brown ferruginous sandstone or grit, 
 often in massive beds. Thickness about 40 feet. 
 
 Clays and loams, with casts and impressions of fossils (marine). 
 Thickness from o to 30 feet. 
 
 Sand, with occasional flaggy brown stone, but mostly light- 
 coloured. This is thicker than the other two together, and is 
 probably over 100 feet. 
 
 The middle clayey division thins out southward, and its place 
 is taken by thin flaggy ferruginous sandstone, with hard con- 
 cretionary seams of " cindery " ironstone, often full of obscure 
 casts of marine shells. It is possible that the presence of an 
 impermeable bed has had much to do with the formation of 
 carstone above, by preventing the downward infiltration of ferru- 
 ginous water. 
 
 Until the existence of a middle clayey division in the Lower 
 Greensand of north-western Norfolk had been made out, the 
 presence of clay, dipping beneath the Carstone, on the foreshore 
 
 * Phil. Mag., ser. 3, vol. vii., pp. 175-179 (1835), axAProc. Ceol. Assoc, vol. i., 
 no. 8, pp. 234-236 (1862). 
 t " The Potton and Wicken Phosphatic Deposits," 8°, Cambridge, pp. 16-19. 
 
6 LOWER GREENSAND. 
 
 near Hunstanton Station, led to the mistaken idea that Kime- 
 ridge Clay came to the surface there, and that the Lower Green- 
 sand therefore consisted of Carstone alone in that part. On this 
 account, partly, the total thickness of the formation was under- 
 estimated. 
 
 The occurrence of a clayey member is suggestive of the Sand- 
 gate -Beds of Surrey and Kent, which hold a like position in the 
 midst of sandy beds, but the palaeontological evidence, though 
 somewhat meagre, is sufficient to negative such a correlation. 
 It is rather to the north that we should turn for comparison, as 
 Mr. a. Strahan has pointed out in discussing " The Relations 
 of the Lincolnshire Carstone."* 
 
 Laying stress on the difficulty of correlating the Norfolk 
 deposits with those of Lincolnshire, Mr. Strahan remarks that 
 whilst on the one hand the clay of the former county seems 
 much too thin to be taken as the representative of the Tealby 
 Beds in the latter, on the other hand, if the whole of the Nor- 
 folk beds are taken as representing the Carstone (or uppermost 
 division) of Lincolnshire, then we must suppose that the whole 
 of the underlying Speeton Series (including the Tealby Beds) is 
 absent, which would imply a rapid thinning out. The later 
 researches of Mr. Lamplugh (1898) have, however, shown that 
 the latter supposition cannot be sustained, and that some por- 
 tion of the Tealby Beds is certainly represented in Norfolk (see 
 
 P- 23). 
 
 The term Carstone (as the name of a division) is here restricted 
 to the highest member of the series, in which alone massive 
 Carstone occurs. 
 
 As a local name for the middle clayey member, that of 
 Snettisham Beds is suggested, as the outcrop runs through that 
 large village. 
 
 For the lower sands we propose to use the term " Sandringham 
 Sands," adopting, with slight modification, the name suggested 
 by Mr. F. W. Harmer for the whole of the Lower Greensand 
 of Norfolk.t 
 
 In the detailed description, which naturally takes a course 
 from south to north, following on to that in the Memoir on the 
 country to the south (Sheet 65), we have to begin with a tract 
 in which no divisions have been made on the map ; but on 
 crossing the Babingley River the divisions become clear, almost 
 from the first, and thereafter we can treat the rest of the Lower 
 Greensand tract in stratigraphic order. 
 
 Details South of the Babingley River. 
 
 In the comparatively broad outcrop here the Lower Greensand 
 is much hidden by Drift, both at high and low levels, and there 
 are also small outliers of Gault. 
 
 Although the divisions were not traceable in this tract yet 
 there is some sign of their occurrence, one of the sections to be 
 
 * Quart, foum. Geol. Soc, vol. xlii., pp. 490-492 and table. 
 t " Testimony of the Rocks in Norfolk" (1877). Plat?. 
 
LOWER GREENSAND. 7 
 
 described showing a mass of flaggy stone at the top, with a thin 
 layer of clay dividing this from the sand beneath. 
 
 A long old pit along the northern edge of Wootton Warren Wood (most 
 of which is in Sheet 65, to the south) was overgrown in 1881 ; but it seemed 
 to be all in sand on the northern side, whilst on the south there were in 
 places cappings of loam (? decalcified boulder clay). 
 
 In a pit just eastward of the high-road, about three quarters of a mile 
 E.N.E. of South Wootton Church, pipes of gravelly earth were seen over 
 light-coloured sand. 
 
 At the long sandpit in the Sandringham Sands on North Wootton 
 Common, on the north-western side of the high-road, about a mile east- 
 ward of the church, there are at top some patches of gravel, largely con- 
 sisting of broken-up sandstone, and for the most part wholly so. The 
 appearance is suggestive of an origin from weathering, and since a sand- 
 stone of like kind has been noted as occurring in the sand, one is led 
 to think that these blocks may also have come therefrom. 
 
 This pit was being largely worked at the time of my visit, the light- 
 coloured sand being carried along a tram-line to the railway-station. In 
 places there was a ferruginous deposit along joint-planes, as well as in 
 concretions. 
 
 By the border of the marsh more than a mile nearly north-east of North 
 Wootton Church I saw clayey greensand and phosphatic nodules turned 
 out of a ditch. The sand bordering the marsh here is boggy, being water- 
 logged. 
 
 C. B. Rose says : — " Between the castle and the water-mill at Castle 
 Rising, I observed large blocks of sandstone lying by the roadside, ap- 
 parently removed from the loose sand dug for domestic purposes : they 
 varied in colour from hght ash to nearly a black." * 
 
 At the western end of Roydon Common (S.S.E. of Rising Lodge) an old 
 pit showed gravelly soil over light-coloured bedded sand, which was seen 
 to the depth of several feet. A little lower, to the east, another pit showed 
 some 12 feet of ferruginous stone, jointed, and with a little sand here and 
 there. 
 
 A pit on the high ground of Roydon Common, about li miles south- 
 westward of the church (and at the margin of the map), gave the following 
 section, in 188 1 : — 
 
 Irregular carstone and sand ; the bottom part generally with irregular 
 grey loamy layers (one at the bottom being clearly marked, a 
 laminated bluish-grey clay, with sand) ; up to 1 5 feet, or more. 
 Light- coloured (mostly nearly white) fine sharp compact sand ; the 
 junction with the bed above being tolerably even, as far as could 
 be seen ; 1 5 feet. 
 In a small pit lower down (? in Sheet 65) some of the light-coloured sand 
 s agglutinated or compacted into a soft sandstone. 
 
 In another pit near the western edge of the same Common, a little over 
 half a mile south-east of Rising Lodge, Mr. G. W. Lamplugh saw the 
 following section in 1898 : — 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Top soil, with flints i 
 
 Shattered rubbly brown sandstone and sand 4 
 
 Irregular ill-defined layer of hard tabular sandy \ 
 ferruginous concretions (" ragstone "), the outer / 
 portion of some being full of casts of shells (see C 
 
 list, p. 27) J 
 
 Softer, more flaggy, brown sandstone, with- irregular con- 
 cretions containing smaller nodules (and shells ?) 
 Massive brown sandstone, with ferruginous joints and 
 incipient concretions. Obscure markings, perhaps 
 shells 
 
 I to 2 
 
 TAil. Mag., ser. 3, vol. vii., p. 177 (1835). 
 
8 LOWER GREENSAND. 
 
 The following is from one of ROSE'S papers :— " In a quarry . . at the 
 Short-trees Plantation [near Roydon], there is a bed of pure white sand- 
 stone, which is used for the sills of windows and the lintels of doors. 
 
 Under an east-and-west hedge-bank along the slope of the chalk-topped 
 hill over half a mile N.N.E. of Roydon Church there is sand, at the top 
 part clayey (a sandy clay), partly greyish, with some weathered calcareous 
 nodules. 
 
 Details North of the Babingley River. 
 Lower Division. — Sandringham Sands. 
 
 Although much the thickest of the three divisions, and taking 
 up the greatest space at the surface, there is less to be said about 
 this than about the others. The sand is mostly light-coloured, 
 sharp and silvery, and as a rule much finer in grain than the 
 Carstone. In its upper part, however, it is often iron-stained, 
 and in places cemented into a flaggy brown stone. Current- 
 bedding of course occurs. 
 
 The outcrop is free from Drift, except at the southern margin 
 along the Babingley Valley, and northward by Snettisham, 
 where low-lying Boulder Clay borders the marshes. It sinks to 
 the marsh-level north of Heacham. 
 
 Brown stone and sand were seen in a pit about two-thirds of a mile W.S.W. 
 of West Newton Church, and flaggy stone occurs on the plateau eastward 
 of Wolferton (Wolverton of old series maps). 
 
 At the top of the short cutting just E.N.E. of Wolferton Station the 
 ground has been cut back for stone, and there is fine yellowish or brownish 
 sand, firm and to a certain extent hardened, with irregular cindery 
 erruginous concretions full of obscure casts of shells (see p. 27), altogether 
 up to about eight feet thick, with the soil. The cutting is deep on the 
 southern side, and in sand, mostly fine, sharp, bedded and partly false- 
 bedded, the upper part pale brown buff and partly coarse, the lower part 
 light-coloured. There are some thin hard ferruginous layers, one of which, 
 just above the level of the rails, is grey in the middle (? pyrites) as also is 
 another, about six feet above the level of the rails (? carbonate of iron). 
 
 In describing this cutting many years ago, Dr. J. Lowe drew attention to 
 spherical ferruginous nodules in the sand, consisting of concentric coats of 
 sand hardened by iron-oxide, round a nucleus of fine loose sand. He 
 thought that the sand had been perforated by some boring-animal, the 
 borings seen being generally horizontal, filled with coarser sand than tha 
 surrounding them, and with their sides hardened by iron-oxide, so as to form 
 a tube. The nodules occurred at the end of these tubes, and, he thought, owed 
 their formation to the presence of remains of the boring-animal.t I am 
 inclined to think, however, that the whole thing is of purely mineral 
 origin. 
 
 The next cutting, farther eastward, is in the lower part of these sands, 
 the colour varying from white to pale brown in the bottom part, and across 
 the bedding (white on the west, then brown, then whitish again on the east). 
 This change of colour was seen on the clearer and higher northern side, 
 which had been cut back for a roadway, and it is suggestive of bleaching 
 from surface-actions, which would get more readily at the bottom part of the 
 sand where that is nearer the surface and therefore less protected. 
 
 Beyond this, down to the marsh, the bottom part of the sand tract, north 
 of the railway, is waterlogged and forms a very gently-inclined boggy-plain, 
 passing down to the alluvium. 
 
 * Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. i., no. 8, p. 234 (1862). 
 
 t Pef. Brit. Assoc, for 1868, Sections, pp. 72, 73 (1869), and under a different title 
 in Geol. Nat. Hist. Repertory, vol. ii., p. 247 (1868, shorter), and in a Norfolk news- 
 paper (1868, longer). 
 
LOWER GREENSAND. g 
 
 In the sand in the lower part of the cutting there are numerous irregular, 
 round or knobbly, pyritous nodules. All seem sandy and in some the pyrites 
 passes into brown and red ferruginous stone. This and other facts before 
 noted suggest that the Carstone may have derived its ferruginous matter 
 rom oxidated pyrites. 
 
 [On Sandringham Warren there are several small pits from which thin 
 flaggy brown stone is obtained, overlying the sharp white and pale yellow 
 Sandringham Sands. Cindery ferruginous layers occur near the base of 
 this stone, in which obscure casts of shells are often abundant. — G. W. L.] 
 
 At the pit marked on the map, less than a mile south-west of Dersingham 
 Church, the sand was firm and in parts hardened to a crumbling stone. 
 This seems to be the section alluded to by Fitton as showing " white sand 
 under yellow slightly consolidated sand."* 
 
 Rose's note of the occurrence " at Dersingham Heath" of "Nautilus 
 radiatus, a Thetis, and a Natica "t does not enable us to fix the locality ; for 
 there is no such name on the map. The fossils probably came from the 
 flaggy stone above mentioned (see also p. 20). 
 
 In a pit a little north-east of Snettisham railway-station a thickness of 
 four feet of loamy beds was seen near the top of the sand. 
 
 In the railway-cutting, over half a mile W.N.W. of the same place, there 
 is crimson sand amongst the light-coloured. 
 
 Beyond this the Drift greatly hides the sand, but in 1898 it was exposed 
 in a shallow pit beneath the clay at the brickyard nearly a mile S.S.W. of 
 Heacham Church. 
 
 Middle Division. — Snettisham Beds. 
 
 This division of the Lower Greensand has been traced, in a 
 continuous outcrop, from south of Appleton, near the Babingley 
 River, to Heacham-, at which latter place it is partly hidden by 
 Gravel and Alluvium, and to the north by low-lying Boulder 
 Clay ; but it has been seen again on the foreshore near Hun- 
 stanton railway-station and in the foundations of the pier. 
 
 It thickens northward, and, though there is a fairly broad out- 
 crop south of the village of Appleton, along the rather sharp 
 slope from that place northward to Dersingham the outcrop is 
 so narrow that it can only be shown on the map by a line. 
 
 Then, however, it broadens somewhat, probably through the 
 setting in of argillaceous material at a lower horizon than that 
 hitherto seen, so that northward from Dersingham both the 
 upper and lower boundary-lines can be drawn, the two mostly 
 near together, where not on flatter ground. 
 
 From Snettisham the outcrop runs out as a westerly spur 
 along the marked slope of Lodge Hill, and from Horsewell to 
 Heacham the outcrop is broader than usual, though slightly 
 hidden by Drift. 
 
 Along part of its winding course this outcrop is sometimes 
 traceable from causing a zone of dampness, the clay stopping 
 . the downward percolation of water from the Carstone. 
 
 In this division casts of marine shells, of the same age as the 
 beds, occur rather plentifully (see list on p. 25). 
 
 At Appleton the clay is shown in some pits about a third of a mile south 
 of the church and again in ditches, ponds (old pits), &c., south of the 
 church. It seems to take up some area at the surface, though probably 
 thin, and its outcrop is not far from the boundary of the Gault, so that the 
 sand between can be of no great thickness. 
 
 * Trans. Geol. Soc, ser. z, vol. iv., p. 313 (1836). 
 t Geol, Mag,, vol, iv., p. 31 (1867). 
 
lO LOWER GREENSAND. 
 
 Clay was also seen in a ditch, by the foot of the slope south of east from 
 West Newton Church, the bottom six inches being ferruginous, sandy, and 
 with scattered small pebbles and phosphatic nodules. Beneath this, sand, 
 mostly with a little ferruginous stone at top, was seen. 
 
 By the high road just north of the sixth milestone, north-east of Babingley, 
 I saw lying about some pieces of grey clay, like that of the Lower Green- 
 sand ; so that there may perhaps be a small outlier under part of the gravel 
 hereabout, though the ground seems lo\V for this clay to occur in place. 
 Possibly the clay may be a slipped mass, or a transported boulder, or it may 
 be a layer in the gravel, merely looking like that with which we are now 
 concerned. 
 
 On the southern slope of the hill, a little south-east of the lodge on Sand- 
 ringham Warren and about a mile E.S.E. of Wolferton Station, is an 
 abandoned brickyard. No good section was to be seen, in 1882, but the 
 sides of the pit showed sand and carstone, the floor being of grey clay. 
 Mr. Teall has noted that the clay is here apparently overlaid by white 
 sand.* Just below, within the brickyard, were some pits in light-coloured 
 sand, loamy just at top. The clayey beds therefore must be thin here. 
 
 Signs of their presence were seen at the two re-entering angles of the line 
 engraved on the map about half a mile N.N.W. of Sandringham Church 
 and midway between them. 
 
 The wood up the little valley, about a third of a mile south-eastward of 
 Dersingham Church, is very springy and boggy from water being thrown 
 out of the ferruginous sand by the underlying clayey beds. 
 
 Just south of the lane, less than a quarter of a mile S.S.E. of the church, 
 under the hedge of a garden at the top of the sharp slope, by a dam (?old 
 fish-pond) and close to the road on the west the following section was 
 seen in 1898 by Mr. Lamplugh : — 
 
 Soil ... 1 foot. 
 
 Brown weathered loamy material, with an irregular) 
 layer of small pebbles ( = weathered upper part of > 2 feet. 
 
 ferruginous band in next section) J 
 
 Brown loamy sand, with small smooth pebbles, and' 
 bits of pale phosphatic stone ; also a phosphatic 
 nodule, with dark mterior, 4 inches diameter, full of - 
 casts of fossils, including Crioceras'i (undeterminable 
 fragment) ; Pinna sp., Cythercea sp., &c. 
 Indurated seam of brown sand, passing streakily into' 
 the sand below. A large bivalve {Pleuromya ovalis) 
 in the attitude of life, 6 inches below the pebbly band. 
 Pale silty sand with yellow streaks = Sandringham 
 Sands 
 
 A better section is visible in the above-mentioned lane, east of the school- 
 house, where the following succession can be traced in the southern bank of 
 the shallow road-cutting, the beds being much less affected by weathering 
 than in the former exposure. 
 
 Stiff' grey clay with occasional flat decomposed " box- ■) Seen about 
 
 stone " nodules. No fossils found j 5 feet. 
 
 Rusty-brown, changing to brick-red, band of clayey^ 
 ironstone, full of iron-shot grains, and with a sprink- 
 ling of small smooth pebbles up to quarter inch | 
 diameter, containing casts of Pleuromya, &c. ; and }- 2 to 3 feet, 
 small tubular concretions like the ironstone at Lodge I 
 Hill ; sharpish junction with clay above, but merges I 
 into clayey loam below, which rests on J 
 
 Fine whitish-grey or buff" sands, with thin silty ■) Seen about 
 
 seams = Sandnngham Sands ) 5 feet. 
 
 The upper brown loamy pebbly beds of the first section evidently renre- 
 sent the ironstone band in the lane, thoroughly leached and weathered The 
 important relation of these sections to those to the northward and southward 
 IS discussed on p. 20. q ^ J 
 
 * " ThePotton and Wicken Phosphatic Deposits,'' p. 19 (1875). 
 
 6 inches. 
 
 Seen to over 
 4 feet. 
 
LOWER GREENSAND. II 
 
 Clay was again seen at three quarters of a mile east of the railway-station, 
 and in the bend of the road close by, westward. 
 
 The brickyard on the eastern side of the high-road about three quarters 
 of a mile north-westward of Dersingham Church has long been abandoned, 
 and the pit (about 12 feet deep) has fallen in, but in 1882 the following 
 imperfect succession could be made out : — 
 
 Wash of brown sand. 
 
 Clayey beds. At top pale grey clayey sand and loam ; then, light 
 grey clay, with ironstone nodules, of which there were many 
 on the floor of the pit. Below this a little red clay (with buff and 
 grey) was seen. 
 
 Fine buff and brown sand (? any clayey layer in it). 
 
 FiTTON says : — " In a brickfield near Mount Amelia I found casts of the 
 following shells, in masses of agglutinated ferruginous sand," and he names 
 seven, besides " some other indistinct bivalves and univalves."* Some of 
 the names are those of Upper Greensand species, so that the identifications 
 are doubtful and not worth reproducing, but the genera agree well with those 
 present in the Snettisham nodules. 
 
 Round Ingoldisthorpe clay was seen in several places, from nearly half a 
 mile south-south-westward of the church to about a third of a mile east of it, 
 in which latter part there is a broader outcrop in the little valley. 
 
 At the brickyard, a third of a mile south-west of Snettisham Church, a 
 thickness of about 12 feet of grey sandy clay and clay with a ferruginous 
 layer was seen, and there seemed to be some red clay at the bottom. Casts 
 of shells have been got in ironstone nodules, of which some were lying about 
 in the pit.t 
 
 An old pit in the wood at the south-western end of Lodge Hill showed 
 about IS feet of grey sandy clay, weathering brown, with some ironstone- 
 nodules in the top part, and below the middle a hard fossiliferous ferruginous 
 sandy bed, six inches or more thick (see p. 19). 
 
 It is probably this pit of which Mr. Teall has given the following 
 section, which he must have seen when clearer. He describes it as " in 
 south-west face of Lodge Hill," and as " a good section, showing the rela- 
 tions of the clay to the carstones above and the sands below."t 
 
 Soil. 
 Base or wash of Carstone. Red sand, 2 feet, passing down into the next. 
 
 Yellow and white clayey sand. 
 
 Laminated clayey sand, i^ feet. 
 
 Middle ] Dark grey stiff clay, 4-5 feet. 
 
 Division j Clayey sand, with concretions of ironstone, 2 feet. 
 
 (top doubtful) / Sandy clay, with fossils {Lucina, Pecten orbicularis, 
 
 \ &c.) 
 
 The woodcut-section through Lodge Hill, given by Mr. Teall, errs in 
 showing an outcrop of Kimeridge Clay, the clay seen at the western foot of 
 the hill being Boulder Clay, and the lower member of the Lower Greensand 
 going down to marsh-level on the south. 
 
 Mr. Skertchly noted springs, thrown out from the overlying carstone, 
 just eastward and more than half a mile north-eastward of Lodge Farm. 
 Less than half a mile north-eastward of that farm I saw carstone over loamy 
 and sandy clay, in a pond, by the western side of the track. 
 
 Clay was seen by the bend of the road northward of Horsewell. 
 
 At the old brickyard farther north (nearly a mile S.S.W. of Heacham 
 Church) a thickness of about 1 2 feet of clay and sandy clay was at one time 
 visible but is now overgrown. The earth was grey, the upper part being 
 rather the darker and ochreous-stained, and there being a red ferruginous 
 layer in the middle, with lumps of soft stone just below. This was on the 
 
 * Trans. Geol. Soc, ser. 2, vol. iv., p. 313 (1836). He also remarks that Fuller's 
 Earth was said to occur in the Lower Greensand at Ingoldisthorpe (^Ibid. p. 306). 
 
 t This yard was not being worked in 1898, but some shells and impressions of ferns 
 were found in the ironstone nodules. — G. W. L. (See p. 19.) 
 
 % " The Potton and Wicken Phosphatic Deposits, "p. 18(1875). 
 
12 LOWER GREENSAND. 
 
 western side ; on the other the red bed was not seen, but the clay reached 
 higher. 
 
 The existing brickyard joins on, to the north, and carries the section 
 upward, in like beds, to a higher level. In 1898 the following section was 
 exhibited partly in the pit, partly in a sinking through the floor carried down 
 to the underlying sand : — : 
 
 Section in the bank at the eastern end of the brickfield, by G. W. 
 Lamplugh. 
 
 Weathered top-stuff; brown loam with scattered "J o t-n c fppt 
 
 pebbles of flint, &c 3 ■^ ' 
 
 Weathered brownish and bluish clay 5 » 
 
 Dark blue tenacious clay, with decomposed pyrites') 1 
 
 and a decomposed pyritous layer at the base . . . j ^ " 
 
 Tough palish blue-brown clay, with pale brown -\ 
 
 pyritous concretions containing fossils : Crioceras C 3 >j 
 
 Emericif Sr'c. (see list, p. 25). Seen in bank for... ) 
 Continuation of section in a sump at eastern end of brickfield. 
 
 Tough dark brown and blue clay, passing into ... 6 „ 
 
 Dark pyritous silt 2 „ 
 
 Clay {fide workmen ; only uppermost portion visible) 71 „ 
 
 (The material thrown out of the sump showed that 
 a layer of small irregularly- oval hard bluish-grey 
 claystone nodules, full of grains of coarse grit, 
 occurred at the bottom of the clay. Some of these 
 were covered with worn Serpulce and penetrated by 
 borings, but I saw no other fossils in them.) 
 
 Sand (yfrf« workmen) ; to water 2 „ 
 
 (Pale yellow sand, with some coarsish grains, had 
 been thrown out from the bottom of the sump.) 
 A sandpit at the entrance to the yard showed 6 feet of pale grey and 
 yellowish sand, chiefly fine in texture, but with coarsish streaks, and with 
 thin seams showing deep ferruginous staining ; =; Sandringham Sands. 
 
 G. W. L. 
 Farther on clay was seen in places, until the outcrop was wholly masked 
 by gravel. 
 
 On its reappearance, on the northern side of the narrow Alluvium of the 
 side-valley, clay was again seen just south-east of the church. 
 
 After a short course north-westward, through the park, the outcrop is 
 again, and finally, hidden under Alluvium and Drift, and the last known of 
 these clayey beds is that they were found in sinking piles for the pier at 
 Hunstanton. The beds are also said to have been exposed on the neigh- 
 bouring foreshore, presumably when the sand had been swept away, and 
 Mr. John Gunn saw them farther west [? south] at low tide, when the 
 beach had been scoured away. 
 
 Upper Division. — Carstone. 
 
 This upper sandy member is almost wholly cemented by 
 iron-oxide into a soft stone, here usually massive and thick- 
 bedded ; more so indeed than anywhere else along the outcrop 
 of the Lower Greensand that borders the northern side of the 
 London Basin ; so that it yields the chief building-stone of the 
 county. 
 
 As might be expected from the character of the deposit, 
 fossils are scarce, and, excepting the fragments of wood, nearly 
 all are contained in eroded phosphate nodules and masses of 
 hard grit near the base of the deposit. 
 
 These fossils have been fully noticed by Mr. W. KEEPING, 
 whose work will now be quoted.* 
 
 * ' ' The Fossils and PalEeontological Affinities of the Neocomian Deposits of Upware 
 and Brickhill," 8°, Cambridge, 1883, pp, 32-34, 56 (but not always following this order). 
 
LOWER GREENSAND. 
 
 13 
 
 " The richest of these derived phosphatised Neocomian faunas 
 is that of Hunstanton, where the following species were collected 
 for the Woodwardian Museum " : — 
 
 Ammonites cornuelianus, d'Orb. 
 X „ Deshayesii, Leym. 
 
 X „ Martini, aOrb. 
 
 „ s p . (allied to 
 
 Koenigi). 
 „ 2 sp. 
 
 X Ancyloceras gigas, Sow. 
 Ancyloceras, tuberculated sp. 
 Nautilus. 
 Pleurotomaria. 
 
 Perna Mulleti, Desk, (some de- 
 rived, some looking like natives) . 
 
 Farther on he describes the beds as " a set of ironsands and 
 pebble beds with a zone- of nodules near the base. . . 
 Fossils occur rather rarely in this bed, in the . . . nodules " ; 
 and the forms marked X in the above list " are all good Upper 
 Neocomian or Aptien species very characteristic of the Ather- 
 field clays — to which beds Mr. Wiltshire has consequently 
 referred the Hunstanton series. But so far as I have seen or 
 been able to learn all the Hunstanton species are ' derived ' 
 fossils. . . They are all either . . . rolled phosphatised 
 casts, or are found in the hard rolled lumps of dark iron grit 
 [see below] ... so that these fossils instead of proving the 
 bed to be of Atherfield clay age, really show that it is of some 
 age posterior . . . though it is probably not far removed." 
 
 " Comparing the Hunstanton bed directly with the Upware 
 Nodule bed we find some resemblances between the two lithologi- 
 cally, also in the contained phosphatic nodules and pebbles ; and 
 particularly in the species of derived Neocomian fossils . . . 
 and I consider that, notwithstanding the absence of a true 
 indigenous fauna ... we have good reason to consider the 
 Hunstanton and Upware sands and pebble beds as belonging 
 apprpximately to the same age." 
 
 After noticing the occurrence at Upware and Potton of " a 
 peculiar dark-coloured grit rock, containing a special fauna," he 
 goes on to say : — " At Hunstanton large masses of exactly 
 similar rock as big as large cannon-balls are found in a zone 
 beneath the carstone and above the clay." I think, however, 
 that he is mistaken in looking on these blocks as boulders, and 
 that they are rather concretionary or weathered masses of one of 
 the marked hard beds occurring there. 
 
 " From these blocks we have in the Woodwardian Museum 
 the following," with some marked x added from the table on 
 p. 34 of the book, and others, marked E, on the authority of 
 Mr. R. Etheridge.* 
 
 Cephalopoda. 
 
 E. Ammonites cornuelianus, d'Orb. | Hamites or Ancyloceras, small 
 
 I sp. with double row of spines 
 
 I along back. 
 
 E. Dentalium. 
 
 E. Pleurotomaria gigantea. Sow. 
 Scalaria. 
 
 Gasteropoda. 
 
 Solarium neocomiense, d'.Orb. 
 Tornatella. 
 X Trochus. 
 
 In Mr. Wiltshire's paper. Quart. /ourn, Geol. Soc, vol. xxv., p. 189 (1869). 
 
H 
 
 LOWER GREENSAND. 
 
 Lamellibranchiata. 
 
 Nucula(E. N. planata, Desk.]. 
 Pecten orbicularis, Sow. 
 
 „ striato-punctatus, J?om. 
 Pectunculus. 
 Perna Mulleti, DesA. 
 Pholadomya. 
 
 Scrobicularia phaseolina, PAi/. 
 Trigonia. 
 Small triangular bivalve. 
 
 E. Avicula macroptera (?) 
 
 Cardium subhillanum, Leym. 
 
 Corbula. x 
 
 Cytherea (Venus) orbigniana, E. 
 
 Forbes. X 
 
 E. Dianchora (Spondylus). X 
 
 Goniomya rauliniana, ctOrb. 
 E. Isocardia angulata, Phil. E. 
 
 E. Leda. X 
 
 Lucina (E. L. crassa, Sow). 
 
 Brachiopoda. 
 
 E. Terebratula biplicata, Sow., (? prselonga). 
 
 Fragments of Wood. 
 
 This upper division has a much narrower outcrop than the 
 lower division, with a breadth for the most part under a third of 
 a mile, the exceptions being where spurs run out (at Sandring- 
 ham Warren and at Lodge Hill, Snettisham) or where valleys 
 have been cut back (at Ingoldisthorpe and at Heacham). It is 
 only where carstone is well developed that notable sections 
 were seen. 
 
 On either side of Appleton sand occurs, but at West Newton Church there 
 is carstone. At Dersingham sand seems to come just above the clayey 
 division, a quarter of a mile south-east of the church, whilst Carstone was 
 seen N.N.E. of the same. 
 
 At Snettisham carstone occurs, just above the clay, on the road an eighth 
 of a mile south-westward of the church, whilst just northward of the village 
 are our first good exposures. 
 
 The large pit about a third of a mile N.N.W. of the church gave the 
 following section in 1885 : — 
 
 White Chalk. A trace at the highest part. Fallen pieces show this to be 
 
 hard. 
 Red Chalk, loose and weathered. 
 
 Lower 
 Greensand. 
 
 Hard ferruginous sand, with whitish layers. 
 
 Carstone. In some blocks from the soft top part there 
 were pebbles. Terebratula biplicata, Sow., Serpuldi 
 (crushed), and Spongia were found in brown gritty 
 sand about two "feet down. 
 
 Of the firm carstone, blocks up to 15 inches cubed were worked. There 
 was another pit close by and another to the west, by the high-road. 
 
 The carstone here is very massive and some blocks showed beautiful 
 iridescent surfaces, due to infiltration along joint-planes, and almost as 
 richly coloured as peacocks' feathers. Its upper portion, known as 
 " ragstone " by the quarrymen, is harder, more flaggy, and of a redder 
 brown than the massive lower beds. 
 
 At Lodge Hill sand has been seen over the clay at one part and carstone 
 at another (see p. 11). Carstone was also seen on the western side of the 
 high-road an eighth of a mile south of Horsewell. 
 
 At Heacham the stone has been worked on the northern side of the rail- 
 way, a quarter of a mile eastward from the church. 
 
 At Hunstanton, a little southward of the railway-station, the entrance to a 
 chalk-pit showed brown sand underlying the Red Chalk. Carstone has also 
 recently been revealed at the base of the gravel-pit adjoining the Hunstan- 
 ton Gasworks (see p. 91). 
 
 We now come to the long cliff-section, and, at the risk of some 
 repetition, it may be well to give a general account of this, 
 leaving the details of the Red Chalk, of the Chalk, and of the 
 
LOWER GREENSAND. 
 
 IS 
 
 Drift to follow under those headings. At first the low southern 
 part of the cliff consists of Drift, a reddish boulder clay; but the 
 Lower Greensand rises up northward, and takes up the whole 
 cliff to where the steps up to the top are placed, where the Red 
 Chalk comes on above, to be succeeded at once by the Lower 
 Chalk. From the slight northerly fall of the beds the 
 Red Chalk sinks to a lower level in that direction, so that 
 at the northern end of the cliff we find only White Chalk, the 
 Lower Greensand and the Red Chalk passing below the beach- 
 level about where the coast turns to the north-east. 
 
 The following notes of the succession of beds were made 
 in 1880:— 
 
 / Hard white chalk, massive, bedded and jointed, the joint-planes 
 
 I mostly stopping at its base. Very firm, so that it overhangs in 
 places. In the lower part some beds like the next in character. 
 Grey chalk, hard, weathering to a rough surface, somewhat sandy, 
 full of broken shells of Inoceramus, with a nodular structure in ' 
 parts. Some of the joint-planes run through to the base of this, the 
 Inoceramus-h^d of authors. From about 2 to 2 J feet. 
 Whitish and cream-coloured hard nodular chalk, with sponge-like 
 branches, in the upper part chiefly, and showing " striated struc- 
 ture" (pseudomorph of calclte after aragonite). From 18 to K 
 inches. 
 
 / Pinkish-red chalk, with broken shells of Inoceramus, Belemnites, and 
 
 ^ 1 a few small pebbles. Sometimes not very markedly divided from 
 
 ^ j the bed above, when seen close, though from a general point of 
 
 U / view the division seems marked. Not so clearly seen where the 
 
 ^ \ bed dips down to a low level. About 18 inches. ■ 
 
 « I Red chalk, the lower part softer, and the bottom part sandy, with 
 glauconite-grains, apparently passing into the bed below. Contains 
 
 \ a good many small pebbles. 
 
 Carstone, in great part with small pebbles, especially in certain layers ; 
 one marked pebbly bed some way down, weathering very dark. Some of 
 the unweathered joint-planes are filled with thin veins of quartz. 
 
 The carstone of this cliff differs from that worked at Snettis- 
 ham in being of a coarser character, a grit rather than a sand- 
 stone to a great extent. It is somewhat fossiliferous (see p. 13), 
 and Mr. Westmoreland (who had a large collection at the 
 lighthouse) told Mr. Woodward, in 1878, that the most fossili- 
 ferous part came just above the clay, on the south, and consisted 
 of a nodular bed with Perna, &c. Mr. Wiltshire, indeed, 
 says that for "the space of 30 feet below the . . . Red Chalk 
 no fossils have been hitherto found at Hunstanton in the 
 Carstone."* 
 
 RosEt has described part of the carstone here as a breccia, 
 which he says " can be seen only at Hunstanton," adding that 
 it had been considered the base of the division, but that, at low 
 water, he had found a layer of the ordinary character beneath 
 this and saw the latter resting on the clay. The term breccia is, 
 of course, incorrect, the included stones, &c., being rounded. 
 
 * Quart. Jouin. Gtol. Soc, vol. xxv., p. 189 (1869). 
 + Proi. Geoh Assoc, vol. i., no. 8, p. 235 {.1862). 
 
l6 LOWER GREENSAND. 
 
 Caves are said to have been hollowed out in the rock by 
 the action of the sea, but none were seen at the time of the 
 
 Survey. j v, j 
 
 The foreshore here gives an interesting exposure of hard beds, 
 which are in part very clear, and show the slight northerly 
 dip (1883). . , 
 
 There are signs of an outcrop of a hard bed starting trom 
 about the middle of the pier. , r t. 
 
 A marked hard bed begins at about the landward end of the 
 pier, and shows for some way northward, probably continuing 
 (after interruption from sand) in some of, the ridges shown far 
 out, at low water. The seaward bottom edge of this bed is 
 conglomeratic, and with some phosphatic nodules. 
 
 Another marked hard bed begins just beyond the end of the 
 sea-wall, "at the steps '(wh6re the Red Chalk comes on at the 
 top of the cliff), and runs along the shore for some distance, to 
 • beyond the highest part of the cliff (before reaching the light- 
 house), and has a fairly broad outcrop. 
 
 The third marked bed is the top one, along the shore at the 
 far end of the cliff, and it is formed by the dark conglomeratic 
 bed, which is shown along' the cliff. _ These rocks show a double 
 set of joints, which cause the bed to weather out into large 
 blocks, the ,view of which, from the top of the cliff, may be 
 described as Hke an enormously magnified paddle of Ichthyo- 
 saurus, projecting from beyond the beach. 
 
 W. W. 
 
 f 
 
 Supplementary Notes on the Norfolk Lower 
 Cretaceous Rocks. 
 
 [The following notes on the Lower Cretaceous Rocks of 
 Norfolk have been furnished by Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, who re- 
 examined the chief sections while this Memoir was in the press 
 (June, 1898), in collecting information for the General Memoir 
 on the Lower Cretaceous Rocks of England. The subject will 
 be more fully discu.ssed in that Memoir.] 
 
 The chief result of my investigation has been to show that 
 the distinction between the Lower Sands— for which I propose 
 to use the term " Sandringham Sands "* — and the Upper Sands 
 or " Carstone " is more definite than has hitherto been supposed. 
 Northward of.Dersingham, the upper limit of the Sandringham 
 Sands is fixed by the Snettisham Clay, as described in the fore- 
 going pages. Southward of Dersingham, the lower part of this 
 clay appears to pass into a thin-bedded flaggy brown ferruginous 
 sandstone, with a fosslliferous band of concretionary ironstone 
 towards its base, which is prolonged southward as a capping to 
 the Sandringham Sands after all the clay has disappeared, being 
 traceable across the area on the southern margin of Sheet 69, 
 and into that of Sheet 65, wherever the top of the sands is exposed. 
 This band has been confused with the true Carstone, but is, I 
 
 * Adopting and restricting Mr. IIarmer's nomenclature ; see note on p. 6. 
 
■ LOWEK GREENSAND. I7 
 
 think, distinct from it. It is well exposed on Sandringham 
 Warren, east of Wolferton, where the words " Flaggy Car- 
 stone " are engraved on the map. 
 
 It does not occur in massive beds like the Upper Sands or 
 true Carstone, and can usually only be raised in thin flaggy 
 fragments of soft sandstone, such as have been used in building 
 Wolferton Station, or in irregular hard tabular lumps of con- 
 cretionary ironstone, called " ragstone " by the quarrymen. The 
 fossils of this ironstone are preserved only in the form of obscure 
 hollow casts, giving the rock a " slaggy " or " cindery " aspect. 
 They consist of marine shells, of which, in most cases, the genus 
 only can be determined, along with fragmentary plant-remains 
 and wood (see list, p. 27). The condition of the rock suggests 
 that a calcareous constituent has been removed by percolation, 
 and that at the same time the ferruginous constituent has been 
 altered and rearranged, partly obliterating the fossils. In its 
 original condition, it probably resembled the calcareous clay- 
 ironstone concretionary bands in the Snettisham Clay at 
 Snettisham and Lodge Hill. The best localities for obtaining 
 the fossils of this horizon are the top of the cutting immediately 
 to the eastward of Wolferton Station, the shallow stone-pits on 
 Sandringham Warren, west of the high-road, and the small 
 quarry on Roydon Common, a little over ^ mile S.E. of Rising 
 Lodge, described on p. 7. 
 
 The steep flat-topped features of the western side of Sand- 
 ringham Warren, and of Roydon Common and the country to 
 the southward in Sheet 65, are due to the superior hardness of 
 this rock, capping the incoherent Lower Sands. 
 
 Sandringham Sands. — Of the numerous fine sections in these 
 sands in the southern part of the sheet, that in the railway- 
 cutting at Wolferton is at present the best, the material being 
 extensively dug there for ballast. On Grimston Common, in 
 the northern part of the adjoining Sheet 65, there are large pits, 
 whence, I was informed, the sand, besides being used as ballast, 
 is exported to the West Riding of Yorkshire, and other places, 
 for glass-making, &c. The material is, as a rule, much finer in 
 texture than the Upper or Carstone Sands, and generally of a 
 silvery white or pale grey colour, though in places stained buff, 
 yellow, reddish, or pale brown. It is intercalated with silty 
 layers, often so fine-grained as to retain water. In general 
 appearance, it recalls the sands of the Hastings Series of the 
 . • South of England, and bears little lithological resemblance to 
 the Spilsby Sandstone of Lincolnshire. I found no opportunity 
 for studying its base, which appears to contain some greensand 
 and phosphatic nodules (see p. 7). At Downham Market, in 
 Sheet 65, layers of loamy greensand, interbedded with the silvery 
 sand, are revealed in the large pit in the lower portion of these 
 sands, 300 to 400 yards S.E. of the church. Near the northern 
 margin of the same sheet, thin streaks of fine clay were observed 
 in several localities in the upper part of the sands, and I think 
 it probable that the clays which have been mapped in this sheet 
 at Gaywood^ Leziate, and Ash Wicken are lenticles, intercalated 
 with the upper part of the Sandringham Sands, and therefore at 
 
Ig LOWER greensand. 
 
 a slightly lower level than the Snettisham Clay of Sheet 69. 
 The only fossils which I could detect in these sands, or in the 
 above-mentioned clays, were vegetable fragments and wood. 
 The clay-stone nodules from the clay at Brow of the Hill brick- 
 yard, Ash Wicken (Sheet 65), contain minute fragments of 
 plants, unmixed with other remains, in such abundance as to 
 suggest that the deposit had accumulated in the immediate 
 proximity of land, and possibly where the conditions were not 
 purely marine. Indeed, the general aspect of all except the 
 lowermost portion of these Sandringham Sands seems to me to 
 be suggestive of estuarine conditions. 
 
 Snettisham Clay. — Of the clay-pits in this division mentioned 
 in the foregoing pages I found that the only one now being 
 worked is that at Heacham, where the section given on p. 12 
 was revealed. I was able, however, with some difficulty, to 
 obtain fossils also from the old pits at Lodge Hill and Snettis- 
 ham, and in the road-cutting and bank at Dersingham, as 
 mentioned on p. 10. 
 
 At Heacham, the fossils occur as sharp casts, enclosed in pale 
 brown clay-stone nodules with septae of iron pyrites. These are 
 most abundant in a band about 10 feet from the top of the 
 section ; indeed, the whole of the fossils obtained by me were 
 probably from this horizon, with the exception of Serpula sp., 
 which I noticed in small pyritous nodules thrown out from the 
 base of the clay, in the sinking below the floor of the pit. 
 Crioceras Emerici (?) and a second species, C. Hillsi (?), are the 
 commonest fossils, and with these are associated beautifully 
 delicate casts of a small Cerithium and other gasteropods, and 
 of numerous small lamellibranchs, of which the little Corbula, 
 found also at Lodge Hill and Snettisham, is the most abundant. 
 Fragments of plants occur, but are rarer and not so well pre- 
 served as at Snettisham. One of the nodules which I examined 
 appeared to be the cast of a portion of the large Pecten cincius, 
 though scarcely determinable. The probability of the occurrence 
 of this species in the section is rendered stronger by the fact that 
 I afterwards obtained a recognisable specimen from the old pit 
 at Lodge Hill. A list of the Heacham fossils, as far as deter- 
 mined, is given on p. 25. Mr. Teall has recorded " two species 
 of Ammonites, one unquestionably A. Deshayesii" from this 
 locality,* but does not mention the occurrence of Crioceras. His 
 specimens have unfortunately been mislaid, and, with his 
 concurrence, we have thought it better to omit A. Deshayesii ' 
 from the list pending further confirmation, since the general 
 character of the fauna suggests a somewhat lower horizon than 
 that at which the species is usually found. 
 
 When exposed to the weather the nodules in this pit decom- 
 pose curiously into a series of concentric layers with a hollow 
 centre, the fossil impressions being thereby obliterated. In the 
 other pits, while some of the concretions possess the same 
 peculiarity, there are fortunately others which weather differently, 
 and in such fashion that the casts of organisms are not destroyed. 
 
 • "The Potton and Wicken Phosphatic Deposits,", p. 17 
 
LOWER GREENSAND. 19 
 
 In the old pit at Lodge Hill, now almost overgrown with trees, 
 the casts are excellently preserved in large, irregular masses of 
 sandy or loamy ironstone, which form a band about one foot in 
 thickness, 9 or 10 feet from the top of the north-eastern corner 
 of the pit. This is probably the " Argillaceous Sand, with iron- 
 stone concretions," of MR. Teall'S section.* 
 
 The rock is sprinkled with small, bright, " iron-shot " grains, 
 like the Ironstones of the Tealby Series in Lincolnshire, and has 
 also a scattering of small smooth " lydite " pebbles like those in 
 the Carstone. The fauna is more varied than at Heacham, and 
 with a better exposure it is evident that an extensive series 
 might be collected. Pecten orbicularis is the commonest fossil, 
 but along with it are many other lamellibranchs and a few highly 
 ornamented gasteropods of the genera Cerithium, Trochiis, &c. 
 A single hollow cast of Belemnites was found, to which further 
 reference will be made. Smaller highly fossiliferous oval 
 nodules, about the size of large potatoes, occur immediately 
 above the band of ironstone. I obtained a few fragments of 
 ferns, in better condition than the plant-remains at Heacham, 
 but not so good as those at Snettisham. Traces of shells 
 were visible in the clay immediately underlying the ironstone, 
 but the matrix was too much weathered to permit their removal 
 or identification. 
 
 The Snettisham pit, now no longer worked, is evidently on the 
 same horizon as the Lodge Hill pit. In one part of the brick- 
 yard the ferruginous band has been left as a working-floor, but 
 the stone has weathered like the Heacham nodules, and almost 
 all traces of its fossils have vanished. The smaller harder con- 
 cretions, however, which overlie it here as at Lodge Hill, are 
 crowded with beautiful casts of shells, &c., along with rather well- 
 preserved portions of the fronds of ferns, and from these I was 
 able to make an extensive collection. As in the similar nodules 
 at Lodge Hill, by far the most abundant forms are the delicate 
 Cerithium, the small Corbula, Pecten orbicularis, and Thetis 
 Sowerbyi. Among numerous other fossils, two casts of Belem- 
 nites were obtained ; also fragments of Crioceras Emerici (?). 
 
 In all the sections, the clay is Streaky and variable, some layers 
 being of stiff tenacious mud or clay, while in others the argilla- 
 ceous material is largely intermixed with sand or silt. From the 
 general character of the deposit, we might expect anywhere to 
 find changes in its lithological composition, such as are indicated 
 by the Dersingham sections described on p. 10. 
 
 In this locality, in the lane east of the school-house, we find a 
 band of clayey ironstone, sprinkled with " iron-shot " grains and 
 small pebbles, like that of the Lodge Hill pit, overlain by stiff 
 greyish clay with ferruginous nodules, and underlain by and 
 passing down into the clayey loam which caps the Sandringham 
 Sands. But in the section in the bank only about 100 yards 
 farther south, so far as the weathered state of the exposure will 
 permit us to judge, there appears to be no clay below the gritty 
 ironstone band, which thus rests directly on the Sands. In both 
 
 ' The Potton and Wicken Phosphatic Deposits," p. 18. 
 
 C 2 
 
20 LOWER GREENSAND. 
 
 sections I found fossils in tiie ferruginous band The clays are 
 considerably reduced in thickness at this point, and I think the 
 facts justify the supposition that the ferruginous band is the 
 prolongation of that of Lodge Hill and Snettisham, and that in 
 these sections we see the southward thinning out and disappear- 
 ance of that part of the Snettisham clay which underlies it. 
 
 Where the top of the Sandringham Sands is next exposed, in 
 the pits on Sandringham Warren, three quarters of a mile farther 
 south-west, it is overlain by the " cindery " ferruginous "rag- 
 stone " rock, with casts of shells, &c., which has already been 
 described. The Dersingham sections thus supply the link 
 which, I think, connects this fossiliferous band with the fossili- 
 ferous horizon in the Snettisham Clays. 
 
 In Norfolk, as in Lincolnshire and in Yorkshire,* the Lower 
 Cretaceous Clay probably thickens north-eastward, and thins 
 out rapidly or passes into sand south-westward, as the mapping 
 in this sheet indicates. Southward of Dersingham we are evi- 
 dently at the margin of the area of deposition of the argilla- 
 ceous material of the Snetti-sham beds. 
 
 Carstone. — I did not succeed in finding any section in the 
 interior in which the junction of the Carstone with the Snettis- 
 ham Clays was definitely exposed, the rubble at the top of the 
 Lodge Hill pit being probably not in place. At Hunstanton, 
 on the shore near low-water, I found that hard grey clay had 
 been thrown out in preparing the foundations of the piles for an 
 extension of the pier, but this part of the shore was, as usual, 
 covered with sand. We know, however, from the statements of 
 previous observers, that after storms the base of the Carstone 
 is sometimes exposed at this place. On a previous visit in 
 September, 1895, the conditions were better than at present, and 
 I then saw the following succession on the foreshore north of 
 the pier, which must have reached very nearly to the base of the 
 Carstone. The exposed beds ran obliquely across the foreshore 
 from not far below high^water mark under the pier to low-water 
 about one-third of a mile farther north, as follows : — 
 
 Carstone of the cliff and upper part of shore. 
 
 Dark coarse Carstone, weathering rustily, but often 
 
 dark green within the blocks about 5 feet. 
 
 Finer yellow soft car-sand ... ... „ 2103 „ 
 
 Yellow coarsish Carstone with ferruginous concretions 
 
 generally inclosing pieces of fossil wood „ i „ 
 
 Pebbly yellow Carstone with yellow phosphatic frag- 
 ments and fossiliferous dark brown phosphatic 
 
 nodules ' „ 2 „ 
 
 In the nodules, Amm. Deshayesii is the commonest fossil, in more or less 
 imperfect condition, generally having the worn and corroded aspect usual to 
 fossils preserved in this kind of nodule. 
 
 Nautilus sp. and fragments of a Crustacean also found. 
 Green clayey sand, with scattered coarse pebbly grains, seemed to under- 
 lie the fossiliferous bed, but was not clearly exposed. 
 
 It is from the nodule-bed that the so-called " derived phos- 
 phatised " fossils, mentioned on a previous page, have been ob- 
 tained. 
 
 * See Qttart. Jotirn. Geol. Soc, vol. lii., p. 206. 
 
LOWER GREENSAND. 21 
 
 I have already elsewhere* stated my conviction that this 
 fauna is at its proper horizon, and cannot, strictly speaking, be 
 considered derivative. And this -conviction has been strength- 
 ened by my recent investigation, and by a re-examination of the 
 specimens in the Woodwardian Museum and at Jermyn Street. 
 The fauna is not mixed, but is consistent throughout, and is 
 ne-wer than that of the Snettisham Clay. 
 
 It is equivalent either to that of the lower part of the Hythe 
 Beds or of the upper part of the Atherfield Clay, further palaeon- 
 tological work in the South of England being necessary before 
 the correlation can be more precisely stated. Meanwhile, the 
 important result is suggested that, since there is nowhere any 
 definite break between the upper part of the Carstone and- the 
 Red Chalk, the Carstone, as a whole, may represent the com- 
 bined Hythe, Sandgate, and Folkestone Beds of the South of 
 England. 
 
 The Carstone pits, near Snettisham, have been considerably 
 enlarged in recent years, to supply building material for the 
 rapid growth of New Hunstanton and Heacham, without, how- 
 ever, revealing any new points of importance. They do not go 
 down to the base of the deposit, but I was informed that at the 
 lowest level reached, large pieces of fossil-wood were frequently 
 found, and it is probable that this is at the same horizon as the 
 similar band on the Hunstanton shore, mentioned in the section 
 given above. 
 
 One of the old pits, south-west of Bilney Lodge, in Sheet 65 
 (referred to in the Memoir on the Sheet, p. 15), still presents a 
 good section in this division, but elsewhere south of Snettisham 
 1 saw no good exposures of the true Carstone. 
 
 Notes on the Palceontology and Correlation. 
 
 The fossil-lists given on pp. 25-27 have been prepared in 
 the Palaeontological Department. They are based entirely 
 on the specimens in the possession of the Geological Survey, 
 collected during my recent visit to the localities, together with a 
 few obtained by Mr. Rhodes from Heacham, Lodge Hill, and 
 Snettisham, in 1881. In several of the fossils from the clay-pits 
 it has only been possible at present to give the genus, some 
 probably belonging to new species. This applies especially to 
 the small Corbula, and to Gervillia, Area, Perna, Cerithium, and 
 Trochtis. The specimens from the " cindery " ironstone of 
 Sandringham Warren, Wolferton, and Roydon, are, however, in 
 any case, rarely in a condition for specific determination. 
 
 The fauna is unfortunately one which, in the present state of 
 our knowledge, cannot adequately be discussed. The palaeon- 
 tology of the English Lower Cretaceous rocks is in a backward 
 state generally, and especially in regard to the lamellibranchs, 
 which constitute the principal feature in these collections. This, 
 we hope, will shortly be remedied by the Monograph in course 
 of preparation by MR. H. Woods, and meanwhile ft would be 
 useless to attempt to complete the investigation. What is 
 
 QuarL Jown. Ceo!. Soc, vol. Hi., pp. 198 and 211. 
 
22 LOWER GREENSAND. 
 
 chiefly lacking is a more satisfactory knowledge of the paleon- 
 tology of the English marine Lower Cretaceous deposits older 
 than the Atherfield Clay. The Cephalopoda of these deposits 
 have been admirably described by Professor A. Pavlow, 
 but our knowledge of the other elements of the fauna is still very 
 
 '™My impression, derived partly from the general assemblage of 
 the fossils, and partly from the occurrence of certain species and 
 the absence of others, is that the nearest equivalent of the 
 Snettisham Clay will be found at the horizon of the lealby 
 Limestone in Lincolnshire. This fossiliferous limestone forms 
 an impersistent stratum at the top of the Tealby Clay, well 
 developed between Caistor and Donington,t but dying out, 
 southward, apparently being replaced in Sheet 84 by "roach, 
 "a soft yellow ferruginous marl, containing oolitic grains oi 
 iron," which "occasionally passes into a hard ironstone rock, t 
 The "roach" has not yielded fossils, but its lithological 
 characters recall the ironstone band of the Snettisham Clay. 
 
 The variety of Pecten orbicularis, which occurs in most of the 
 Norfolk sections, is one of the commonest fossils of the Tealby 
 Limestone, but has too wide a range to count for much. Pecten 
 ductus, occurring at Lodge Hill, and possibly also at Heacham 
 (see p. 18), is also abundant in the Tealby Limestone, and 
 ranges downward to the Claxby Ironstone or lower.| Thetis 
 Sowerbyi, Pholadoinya Martini, Pleuromya neocomiensis,P. ovalis, 
 Cardium subhillanum, Nuculana scapha are also fossils of the 
 Tealby Limestone, or of its equivalent horizon at Speeton ; 
 but they are all common " Lower Greensand " forms of wide 
 distribution. The assemblage is one, however, pertaining to the 
 higher horizons of the Speeton Clay — a point of some impor- 
 tance. Trigonia scapha is interesting, as I am informed by 
 Mr. Newton that it has been considered a shell of rare occur- 
 rence in England ; it is apparently present in most of the 
 Norfolk sections, but has not yet been recorded from 
 Lincolnshire, where specific determinations of the forms of the 
 Tealby Limestone are still wanting. The absence from the 
 Snettisham beds of the forms occurring commonly at the lower 
 horizons in Lincolnshire, viz., Trigonia ingens, T. tealbiensis, 
 &c., tells against the correlation of the Norfolk deposit with 
 any of the lower members of the Lincolnshire series. 
 
 Crioceras Emerici (?), the commonest Cephalopod in these 
 Norfolk beds, is known from the middle part of the Speeton Clay, 
 and probably occurs at the same horizon in Lincolnshire ; but its 
 upward range has not been accurately fixed. Crioceras Hillsi 
 has not been recorded from Speeton or Lincolnshire, but has been 
 found at Upware and in the Hythe beds ; in Germany it appears 
 to occupy a somewhat higher horizon than in Norfolk. The 
 
 * " Argiles de Speeton et leur equivalents," Bulletin de la Soc. imp. des natur. de 
 Moscow (1891). 
 
 t See Memoir on Sheet Sj* " The Geology of the Country around Lincoln." 
 
 X See Memoir on Sheet 84, " The Geology of East Lincolnshire," p. 19. 
 
 § See " On the Speeton Series in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire," Quart. Journ, Geol. 
 Soc, vol. lii., p. 210. 
 
LOWER GREENSAND. 23 
 
 casts oi Belemnites furnish evidence in support of the general 
 conclusion stated above. One of the specimens, from Snettisham, 
 is the hollow left by a small Belemnite with the alveolar cavity 
 distinctly indicated. A second, from Lodge Hill, gives the cast 
 of portion of a larger specimen, from which a general idea of the 
 outline, and especially of the section of the Belemnite, can be ob- 
 tained. Of the known Belemnites of the Speeton Clay and of the 
 Lincolnshire beds both these casts can be definitely stated not to 
 belong to Bel.jaculum or its allies, which are the characteristic 
 species of the Tealby Clay,* while the fauna which accompanies 
 them renders it extremely improbable that they represent Bel. 
 lateralis or its allies, which occupy the zone below that of Bel. 
 iaculum. 
 
 Both specimens, however, can be closely matched by in- 
 dividuals in my collection from Speeton and from Lincolnshire 
 which were found in the Zone of Bel. brunsvicensis, belonging to 
 that or a closely allied species, Bel. speetonensis, both common in 
 the Tealby Limestone. 
 
 Thus the palaeontological evidence, so far as it goes, is con- 
 sistently favourable to the correlation of the fossiliferous band 
 of the Snettisham Clay with the Tealby Limestone of Lin- 
 colnshire and some portion of the zone of Bel. brunsvicensis 
 in Yorkshire. This also agrees with the stratigraphical posi- 
 tion of the clay, since the base of the Carstone contains 
 ammonites found in Brunswick,t in beds overlying the zone of 
 Bel. brunsvicensis. It is open to question whether the whole of 
 the clay belongs to this horizon where, as at Heacham, there are 
 several feet below the fossiliferous band, or whether the lower por- 
 tion may range down to the level of the Tealby Clay of Lincoln- 
 shire ; but the general aspect of the deposit, and the extent to 
 which it is interbedded with sandy streaks, suggests that the 
 rate of accumulation was comparatively rapid and that not more 
 than one stage is likely to be represented in it. 
 
 The local correlation of the fossiliferous ironstone at the top of 
 the Sandringham Sands south of Dersingham, with the ironstone 
 band in the Snettisham Clay must rest mainly on the strati- 
 graphical evidence already given, as the fossils of the " cindery " 
 ironstone are not sufficiently well preserved to be of much value. 
 The probable presence of Trigonia scapha in the Wolferton 
 section'is, however, a point in its favour. 
 
 A notable feature in all the fossiliferous exposures of the 
 Snettisham Beds, is the presence of vegetable remains in consider- 
 able abundance, in which they differ from the equivalent deposits 
 in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, where, so far as I am aware, no 
 land fossils excepting fragments of sea-borne drift-wood are 
 found. In Norfolk portions of the leaves of plants appear to 
 increase in quantity in going southward. At Heacham they are 
 small and inconspicuous ; at Lodge Hill fern-leaves are larger 
 and more plentiful ; and at Snettisham are among the commonest 
 
 * Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc, vol. Hi., p. 207-8. 
 
 f See Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Unieren Kreide in Herzogthum Braunschweig von 
 G. Muller in Berlin. Jahrbuch der Konigl. pi'euss. Geol. Landesanstaldt fiir 1895. 
 
24 LOWER GREEN SAND. 
 
 fossils of the nodules. Farther south the " cindery " ironstone 
 shows bits of wood and plants obscurely preserved in all the 
 exposures, even where no trace of shells remain. They 
 indicate the proximity of land and perhaps the presence of 
 a quiet inlet receiving land drainage. This would explain some 
 features of the molluscan fauna which are otherwise difficult to 
 understand, to wit, the absence, so far as is known (and in any 
 case, the rarity), of Exogyra sinuata, Ostreafrons, and other shells, 
 usually the most abundant fossils of marine deposits of this age, 
 and also the great number of individuals of certain species in one 
 place, and their rarity or absence in another not far distant. The 
 life-assemblage and the variability, like the plants, suggests that 
 the area was affected and the fauna modified by strongly-marked 
 local conditions. The Carstone overlying these beds is, I believe, 
 usually considered a shore-deposit, but I am inclined to think 
 that it may represent somewhat deeper (though yet shallow) 
 waters, with stronger currents, than the Snettisham Beds, which 
 would explain its wide extent and uniformity in Norfolk and 
 Lincolnshire. 
 
 Regarding the correlation of the Sandringham Sands no 
 definite statement is at present advisable. In position they in- 
 vite comparison with the Spilsby Sandstone of Lincolnshire, but 
 differ in so many respects from that deposit that I do not think 
 it probable they are of the same age. One of the distinctive 
 peculiarities of the Spilsby Sandstone is the highly polished 
 surface of the coarse grit-grains of which it is largely composed ; 
 it also contains a peculiar marine fauna with Jurassic affinities. 
 
 The Sandringham Sands, so far as they are exposed to view 
 in the area, are fine, unpolished, and in places somewhat loamy, 
 and their only fossils are the bits of wood and plants contained 
 in pyritous nodules and clayey streaks. They are probably 
 closely allied to the Snettisham Beds in age, and if so must be 
 newer than the Spilsby Sandstone. As hinted above, they may 
 not impossibly be of estuarine origin. 
 
 As the base of the Sands is below marsh-level in the greater 
 part of the area included in Sheet 69, and where it rises above, 
 at the southern margin of this and in the adjoining Sheet 65, is 
 nowhere open to inspection, there is some possibility that its 
 lowermost portion may possess different characters from the rest, 
 and may represent the Spilsby Sandstone. But the field-evidence 
 lends no countenance to this supposition, for while the whole of 
 this part of Norfolk, together with a wide stretch of country 
 farther south, contains scattered glacially-transported boulders 
 of Spilsby Sandstone with the characteristic fauna,* there is 
 never any indication that these are of local derivation, but signs 
 on the other hand that they have been largely obtained from the 
 area now covered by The Wash. 
 
 * The assemblage of fossils in some of these boulders is not quite that with which 
 I am acquainted in any exposure along the outcrop in Lincolnshire. Along wilh 
 familiar Spilsby forms one sometimes finds others in large numbers, like Terehi alula 
 ovoides, which are not seen in Lincolnshire. The ice has evidently had access to a 
 local development of the deposit somewhat difierent from its character where now 
 exposed. 
 
LOWER GREENSAND. 
 
 25 
 
 In suggesting, however, that the Sandringham Sands are as 
 a whole newer than the Spilsby Sandstone, and presumably 
 equivalent to some portion of the Tealby Clay, I do not wish to 
 make any pretence to have obtained, as yet, sufficient evidence 
 to justify the correlation. The southward prolongation of the 
 Sands beyond the borders of the county has still to be investi- 
 gated. 
 
 G. W. Lamplugh. 
 
 I. — Fossils of the Snettisham Clay. 
 
 
 S 
 
 d 
 
 s 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 CS 
 
 1^ 
 
 r" 
 
 si 
 
 
 J3 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 O 
 
 81 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
 hH 
 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 CJ 
 
 
 h-i 
 
 i-I 
 
 c/2 
 
 c 
 
 Plantce. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lignite 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Weichselia (Lonchopteris) Mantelli (?), 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brong 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Annelida. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Serpula gordialis, Schloih 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Brachiopoda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rhynchonella sulcata (?), Park. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Terebratula sp. (cf. T. depressa, Lam.) 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Lamellibranchiata. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Area sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Avicula 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Avicula sp. (cf. A. Cornueliana, d'Orb) 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Cardium subhillanum, Leym. 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Cardium sp 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Corbula sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Cucullsea sp 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Cytherasa (?) sp. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 Exogyra sp 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Gervillia sp 
 
 Modiola(?) 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Nucula sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Nuculana scapha, rfOz-iJ 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Pecten orbicularis, Sow. (an oval 
 
 
 
 
 
 variety) 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Pecten cinctus (?), SmK 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Perna sp. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Pholadomya Martini, Forbes 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Pinna sp. 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Pleuromya ? (Panopaea) neocomiensis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 (fOrb 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Pleuromya ? (Panopjea) ovalis, Sotik ... 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
26 
 
 LOWER GKEENSAND. 
 
 Fossils of the Snettisham Clay — (continued). 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <A 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 (U 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 OJ 
 
 Q 
 
 Thetis Sowerbyi, Roem 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Trigonia scapha, Pict. and Camp. 
 
 
 
 
 
 (= ? T. scapha, ^^.) 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Gasteropoda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Actteon affinis, d'Orb 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Aporrhais Robinaldina (?), rf'(9^3. ... 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Aporrhais sp. (cf. A. retusa, Sow.) ... 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Cerithium turriculatum, Forties 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Cerithium sp. (near C. aculeatum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fork MS.) 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Cerithium sp. ... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Dimorphosoma ancylochila, Gard. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Natica sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Pterocera Fittoni, Forbes 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Trochus sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Ceplialopoda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ammonite (fragment) 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Belemnites sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Belemnites sp. (B. brunsvicensis 
 
 
 
 
 
 group) 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Crioceras sp. (cf. Emerici, Lev.) 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Crioceras sp. (cf. C. Hillsi, Sow.) ... 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Crioceras (?) 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Vertebrata. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fish vertebrae 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
LOWER GREENSAND. 
 
 2; 
 
 II. — Fossils of the Ironstone south of Dersingham. 
 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 M-. e 
 
 
 b 
 
 IU.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 If 
 
 
 .a 1 
 ■3 J= 
 
 "32 
 
 *§ 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 *i 
 
 
 
 §"1 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 PlantcE. 
 
 
 
 
 Fragments of wood 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Annelida. 
 
 
 
 
 Serpula (Vermicularia) sp. (cf. S. polygonalis, 
 
 
 
 
 Sow.) 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 Polyzoa ? 
 
 
 
 
 Polyzoon (?) 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Lamellibranchiot 1. 
 
 
 
 
 Arca(?) 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Corbula(?) 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Nuculasp 
 
 ? 
 
 X 
 
 
 Pecten orbicularis (?), Sow 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Pectunculus sp. (cf. P. umbonatus, Sow.) 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Tellina sp. (cf. T. inasqualis, Sow) 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Tellina (?) 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Trigoma.sca.'ph.a.Q), Pict. and Camp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Trigonia sp. (type of T. caudata, Ag.) 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Gasteropoda. 
 
 
 
 
 Gasteropod fragments 
 
 
 X 
 
 
28 
 
 CHAPTER 3. GAULT AND RED CHALK. 
 General Remarks. 
 
 The existence of Gault in West Norfolk was first indicated 
 by W. Smith in his map of Norfolk (1820), and confirmed by 
 C. B. Rose in 1835.* The proofs of its existence were accepted 
 by FiTTON in 1836, who says : "The average thickness of the 
 Gault in West Norfolk is not more than 15 feet, according to 
 Rose, who has traced the connection between the detached 
 portions, indicated on Smith's map, as far as West Newton, 
 . . . beyond that point the blue Gault is no longer ob- 
 servable ; its place being occupied by the red marly stratum of 
 Hunstanton Cliff." t 
 
 Rose's estimate of thickness is, however, scarcely correct, as 
 the Gault is nearly 60 feet thick near West Dereham, but thins 
 gradually northward, being about 19 feet thick at Roydon on 
 the south border of Sheet 69. His concluding statement, too, 
 has also been disputed, and various opinions have been held 
 with regard to the relations between the Gault and the Red 
 Chalk. On this point, however, we consider the view taken by 
 Rose and Fitton to be correct. 
 
 In 1886 some doubt was thrown on the existence of Gault 
 in Norfolk by MESSRS. Reid and Sharman.J who thought the 
 marl referred to it might be only the basal portion of the Chalk 
 Marl, but the discovery in the same year of Lower Gault with 
 Ammonites interruptiis at Muzzle Farm near West Dereham 
 (Sheet 65), and olXi'^-^zx ^^wXtv^'VCa. Ammonites rostratus and 
 Inoceramus sulcatiis near Grimston dispelled this doubt and 
 established the existence of Gault beyond dispute.§ 
 
 With regard to the Red Chalk, or Hunstanton Limestone, as it 
 is sometimes called, a full account of the literature concerning it, 
 and of the controversy about its precise age, has been given by Mr. 
 Whitaker in an Address to the Norwich Geological Society 
 in 1883.11 To this, therefore, the reader is referred for a notice 
 of the varying opinions, held by different writers from the first 
 mention of it by Wm. Smith in 18 16 down to the discussion of 
 it by Mr. Whitaker himself in 1883. 
 
 In this place it will suffice to say that five different views 
 have been proposed regarding the age of the red rock : — 
 
 ( 1 ) That it represents the Gault. 
 
 (2) „ „ „ Upper Greensand. 
 
 (3) ,. ,, „ • Gault and Upper Greensand. 
 
 (4) ,, „ „ Chalk Marl. 
 
 (5) That it is partly Gault and partly Chalk Marl. 
 
 * Phil. Mag., Series iii., vol. vii., pp. 172, l8o, 275. 
 t Trans. Geol, Soc, Series 2, vol. iv., p. 312, 
 + Geol. Mag., dec. iii., vol. iii., p. 55. ~ 
 § See Quart. Jo urn. Geol. Soc, vol. xliii., pp. 549, 550. 
 Trans. Nona. Geol. Soc, part vii., pp. 213-222. 
 
GAULT AND R£D CHALK. 29 
 
 The first view was held by SEDGWICK, Rose, FiTTON, 
 Davidson, Wiltshire, and Barrois. 
 
 The second was advocated by Seeley. 
 
 The third seems to have been first suggested by John Gunn 
 in 1864, was accepted by JUDD in 1868, and by BONNEY in 1875. 
 
 The fourth was suggested by GuNN in 1878, was accepted by 
 Whitaker in 1883 as one alternative. 
 
 The fifth was suggested by Whitaker in 1883 as the only 
 view other than No. 4 which he could accept. 
 
 In the paper above referred to Mr. Whitaker conclusively 
 showed that the Hunstanton Red Chalk is not likely to repre- 
 sent Upper Greensand so far as Upper Greensand means any- 
 thing separate and distinct from Upper Gault. Prof. Seeley 
 compared its fossils with those of the Cambridge Greensand, 
 which was always called Upper Greensand at the time he wrote. 
 Since that time, however, it has been proved that the fossils of 
 the Cambridge nodule-bed have been derived from the Gault, 
 and that the thin layer in which they occur is the basement-bed 
 of the Chalk Marl; hence Mr. Seeley's palseontological argu- 
 ment really supports the conclusion that the Red Rock is Gault. 
 
 Mr. Whitaker relies on two arguments for his view : — 
 
 1. That he had traced what appeared to be a clayey kind 
 of Chalk Marl northward as far as Sandringham. Hence 
 he says the argument that the Red Chalk represents the 
 Gault, because it comes on where the latter has thinned out, 
 might be just as well put forward in favour of the theory 
 that the Red Chalk represents the Chalk Marl. 
 
 2. He points out that there are a certain number of 
 fossils in the Red Chalk that do not occur in the Gault, 
 and are only known elsewhere in the Chalk. In the list 
 accompanying his paper 1 1 such species are noted, and he 
 thinks it is more surprising that species characteristic of 
 the later formation (Chalk) should occur in an earlier 
 deposit than that Gault species should continue to exist in 
 a deposit of Chalk Marl age. Hence he agrees with the 
 dictum of John Gunn that it is " the fossils of the latest 
 type that must be used in identifying the period " of a bed. 
 
 In 1886 afi erffleavour was made to obtain more definite and 
 detailed stratigraphical evidence concerning the relations of the 
 Chalk Marl, Gault, and Red Chalk in West Norfolk, and the 
 results were published in 1887.* In this paper it was claimed 
 that the following points had been ascertained : — 
 
 1. That the soft Chalk Marl thins out entirely within the 
 area of Sheet 65 (before reaching Roydon). 
 
 2. That the base of the Chalk Marl at Roydon is a hard 
 cream-coloured limestone, which passes northward into the 
 so-called " sponge bed of Hunstanton." 
 
 * Jukks-Browne and W. Hill, "On the Lower Part of the Upper Cretaceous 
 Series in West Suffolk and Norfolk," Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc, vol, xliii., 
 pp. 544-598. 
 
 D 
 
30 GAULt. 
 
 3. That the soft grey marl, which Hes below this hard 
 bed at Roydon, and which was taken to be part of the 
 Chalk Marl by Mr. Whitaker, is really Gault. 
 
 4. -That this grey marl extends as far north as Dersing- 
 ham, where it passes down into a brown and red marly clay 
 (about four feet thick). 
 
 The authors infer that this red marly clay is replaced between 
 Dersingham and Heachani by the Red Chalk, and consequently 
 that the latter is the actual stratigraphical equivalent of the 
 Gault. With regard to the fossils they cannot accept the 
 doctrine that those of the latest type or highest range should be 
 relied on as guides to the age of the bed. They regard the so- 
 called chalk species found in the Red Chalk as indicators of a 
 greater depth of water than that of the southern Gault, and point 
 to the occurrence of two of them, viz., Ostrea curvt'rostrts. and 
 Ter&bratulina rigida, in the Norfolk Gault. 
 
 Finally, it may be well to indicate the points on which 
 Messrs. Whitaker, Jukes-Browne, and Hill are now in 
 agreement. They agree : — ■ 
 
 1. That there is no separate representative of the Upper 
 Greensand at Hunstanton, and that the normal succession 
 in Norfolk is a passage from Upper Gault to Chalk Marl. 
 
 2. That so far as the fossils are concerned, it is admitted 
 that both Lower and Upper Gault are represented in the 
 Red Rock, and that there is no proof nor even probability 
 that these fossils are derived. 
 
 3. That since a large part of the southern Upper Green- 
 sand is merely a sandy facies of the Upper Gault those are 
 right who have considered both Gault and Upper Greensand 
 to be represented in the Red Rock. 
 
 4. That the Red Chalk has yielded some species which 
 occur elsewhere in the Chalk and not in the Gault, and that 
 the presence of these species is a fact to be accounted for. 
 
 5. That so far as Cephalopoda are concerned, the species 
 found in the Red Chalk are those of the Gault, none of those 
 which are specially characteristic of the Lower Chalk having 
 yet been found. 
 
 Mr. Whitaker differs from the other two % believing that 
 the Red Chalk includes a Chalk Marl element. ' 
 
 ' In the detailed description it will be convenient to take first 
 the southern tract in which marly Gault occurs, and then the 
 northern one where Red Chalk is found. A. J. J.-B. 
 
 SOUTHERN AREA. ' 
 
 Gault (Marl and Clay). 
 
 Main Mass, 
 
 Where the outcrop enters the district, near Roydon Row, it is 
 about three quarters of a mile broad. . It soon broadens some- 
 what (except for a covering of Drift sand), at Congham being 
 
GAULT. 
 
 31 
 
 over a mile, and at Hillington nearly a mile. Across the 
 Babingley River it gets narrower, however, and soon is but a 
 tenth of a mile wide, by Appleton and West Newton, whence it 
 dies away near Sandringham, where the Red Chalk comes in, 
 and can be shown only by a line on the rnap. 
 
 In this short course the Gault is chiefly marly and of very 
 pale grey, but very pale red or pinkish layers often occur. 
 
 The following analyses of various beds of the Gault are. taken 
 from the paper by MESSRS. Jukes-Browne and HiLL, to which 
 frequent reference will be made.* 
 
 Analysis, by Mr. W. D. Severn, of marl from the depth of five feet in the 
 boring at Roydon (see p. 33) : — 
 
 Residue, insoluble 
 
 in hydrochloric acid ... 
 
 ... 25-55 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 
 ... 66-31 
 
 Alumina 
 
 
 3'33 
 
 Iron (as FeoOa) 
 
 
 •81 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 ... 
 
 ... -46 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 
 ... trace 
 
 Moisture (at 100° 
 
 c.) 
 
 ... 1-85 
 
 98-31 
 
 Analysis of the limestone at the base of the marl in the Roydon railway- 
 cutting. By Dr. W. Johnstone :— 
 
 Insoluble residue (silicates, &c.) 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia 
 
 Manganese ... 
 
 Alumina 
 
 Peroxide of iron 
 
 Trace of organic matter 
 
 6-64 
 89-46 
 
 1-32 
 -18 
 
 "4 
 I "4 
 ri 
 
 100-50 
 
 Analysis of the red marls, also b> 
 
 ' Dr. Johnstone :— 
 
 
 
 Grimston 
 
 (just south of 
 
 district). 
 
 Roydon. 
 
 Dersingham. 
 
 
 Silica and Silicates 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 Peroxide of iron ... 
 
 Alumina and phosphoric acid ... 
 
 Manganese 
 
 Organic matter, &c 
 
 2-26 
 69-5 
 
 ■9 
 •66 
 
 3 '4 
 1-6 
 trace 
 I '34 
 
 24'I3 
 64-46 
 
 ■9 
 ■36 
 6- 
 
 •9 
 trace 
 
 3-25 
 
 257 
 64-49 
 1-32 
 •33 
 4"i6 
 -8 
 trace 
 3"2 
 
 
 loo' 
 
 100- 
 
 I GO- 
 
 A comparison of these three analyses, with that of the gr^ 
 marl, shows that the pink marl " may be regarded as the same 
 
 * Quart. Journ. Geal. Soc, vol. xliii., pp. 544, 586, 588' (1887). 
 
 D 2 
 
32 GAULT. 
 
 marl [as the grey], coloured red by peroxide of iron, the propor- 
 tions of siliceous matters and carbonate of lime being almpst the 
 same, while the proportions of iron and alumina are in an inverse 
 ratio." 
 
 At Roydon Row a pond in a field near the back of the Chequers Inn 
 shows gravelly earth at top, and then, at one part, some red marl. There 
 are plentiful signs of the grey marl around here. A ditch at the north- 
 eastero-corner of Congham Park (as shown on the old map), and east of the 
 footpath (not on that map) is chiefly in grey clayey marl. Some dark grey 
 clay and red earth end oflf somewhat strangely, almost as if the wrong 
 way up, the clayey marl passing wes^ard under the red earth, and that 
 under the clay, whereas one would expect them to occur in the reverse 
 order. I felt in doubt whether there was some disturbance, or artificial 
 arrangement. 
 
 The Gault was cut into along a ditch running about south and north up the 
 gentle rise a little eastward of Grimston Road Station and about a third of a 
 mile south-east of Roydon Church. At the lower part, to the south, for 
 some way brown sand was the chief thing thrown out ; then, northward, 
 where the rise increases a trifle, brown and red earth ; then pale bluish- 
 grey chalky earth, with many small Belemnites, small hard nodules of race 
 and some phosphatic nodules (apparently at the bottom), decomposed out- 
 side to a white surface. At the top were a few small nodules and fragments 
 of hard chalk, which also occur over the ground to the east. 
 
 In the next ditch eastward the upper part was clear (1881) and gave a fair 
 section of the marl, not so clear down the slope (south) but about the middle 
 clear for a bit, the following section being then seen : — 
 
 Pale-grey clayey marl, passing down into the next. 
 
 Brown marl, with red in the lower part, a foot or more. 
 
 Grey clay, like ordinary Gault, proved to a depth of 2 feet by boring. 
 
 Possibly the beds may rise slightly at this spot, as the marl seems to go 
 some way farther south. 
 
 Grey marl was shown along the road over a third of a mile east of Roydon 
 Church and pinkish marl in a pond by a cottage north-eastward. 
 
 Just south of the southern end of the cutting about a third of a mile north- 
 eastward of Grimston Road Station I dug in ditches crossed by the line 
 and found a little whitish clayey marl, with a little red earth below, and 
 slightly lower a small phosphatic nodule in clayey earth. 
 
 The following account of the cutting is taken from the paper already men- 
 tioned* :-■" Entering from the southern end, a dark grey calcareous clay 
 is seen for about 50 yards. Some thirty yards south of the bridge which 
 spans the centre of the cutting this clay is seen to be overlain by a bed of 
 hard, bluish-grey rock, 8 or 10 inches thick. Two feet above this bed and 
 extending for almost the entire length of the cutting from this point to the 
 north, rather more than a foot of the clay is coloured a bright reddish-pink. 
 This band is divided in places by uncoloured material. North of the bridge 
 a second bed of pale yellowish-grey rock, about 8 inches thick, is seen above 
 the red band, separated from it by a few inches of marly clay. The lower 
 of these hard beds proved fossiliferous, the most abundant form being 
 Inoceramus conccntricus ; associated with it were hioceramus sulcatus, 
 Ammomtcs lautus, and A. rostratus. The upper bed appeared to contain 
 few fossils. Inoc. concentricus occurred sparingly." Above this upper bed 
 there is pale grey marl containing small Belemniies. 
 
 r^Jn*\"°r^ "'^^'^ ^"."'"S: there is a low hill capped by an outlier of 
 Chalk, which IS exposed m a small pit, and in order to ascertain the full 
 thickness of the Gault here the authors of the paper above quoted had a 
 boring made in the pit. By digging it was found that the hard creamy- 
 white limestone which forms the basal bed of the Chalk Marl passes down 
 into a grey clayey marl like that in the upper part of the railway-cutting ; 
 the change is a rapid one and the passage-bed consists of lumps or lenticular 
 
 • Quart, fourn. Geol. Soc, vol. xliii., p. 551. 
 
GAULT. 
 
 33 
 
 layers of the hard hmestone separated by marly material. The complete 
 section here as partly seen in the pit and partly obtained by boring is shown 
 in the annexed diagram for the use of which we are indebted to the Council 
 ot the Geological Society : — 
 
 Figure I. Section near Roydon.'^ (Jukes-Browne and W. Hill.) 
 Scale, J inch to a foot. 
 
 Pit. Feet. 
 
 Chalk , 
 Marl \ 
 
 
 
 ■■TtJt— '! 
 
 Soil 
 
 Hard, greyish, gritty chalk, including 
 many green-coated nodules at its 
 base f/jioceramus-hed) 
 
 Very hard, creamy-white limestone be- 
 coming rather yellower toward the 
 base ... 
 
 5i 
 
 Gault 'f§ 
 
 L.G.S. 
 
 Boring. 
 
 Rather tough, grey argillaceous marl 
 \i'\\!a.'Belemnites ... ... ... 
 
 Yellowish or tawny marly clay, one 
 drawing of the auger (5 inches) 
 being markedly red, the rest stained 
 and blotched with red 
 
 Bluish-grey clay becoming darker be- 
 low, sandy and almost black at the 
 base 
 
 Brown sand, proved to. 
 
 10 
 
 34i 
 
 No hard beds were noted in boring, but subsequent examination of the 
 cores showed that hard material had been passed through, and apparently 
 just beneath the yellow and red marl. 
 
 The grey marl has been seen in places northward and south-eastward of 
 Congham Hall, and pink marl a little west of Hillington Railway Station. 
 
 The small outcrop of marl in the gravel tract W.N.W. seems almost to 
 abut against the Lower Greensand on the other side of the stream, and 
 there may, perhaps, be a small fault here, masked by the gravel. 
 
 Grey marl was seen, just above the outcrop of the Lower Greensand by 
 the lane about a mile a little S. of W. from Flitcham Church, and pink marl 
 a little northward of Appleton Church. 
 
 The springs in Denbeck Wood, eastward of Appleton, which supply 
 Sandringham House with water, are thrown out at the junction of the Chalk 
 and the marl. Near Sandringham I have seen marl in places. By the 
 side of the lane a little eastward of the Home Farm it was grey and partly 
 
 * From Quart, /oiim. Geo!, Soc, vol, xliii. p. 550. 
 
34 GAULT. 
 
 reddish, this being probably referred to feter by MESSRS Jukes^Browne; 
 and HiLi as "iust east of the [kitchen-]- gardens.' They add . At a 
 subsequent visit ^ths exposure was coverid'up but red clayey earth was 
 een?usrabove the outcrop of the Carstone around some young trees which 
 had just been planted."* Wt-coloured marl seems to ha^^ been turned 
 out at the Gasworks (touching the Home Farm on the noith). Pink marl 
 occurs in the higher part of the kitchen -garden, and again north-westward 
 near the main road, which does not now run as shown on the old ..map, but 
 
 more to the east. , ^ ■,. i. 
 
 lust northward of this the outcrop seems to cease, at all events it gets 
 untraceable, unless as a mere line, but Messrs. Jukes-Browne and Hill 
 have established the presence of the Gault a mile farther to the north by 
 means of a boring in the chalk-pit about half, a mile north-eastward .of 
 Dersingham Church. In this boring marly beds, about 7 feet thick, were 
 found between the Chalk and the Carstone, the, upper 2 feet being hght 
 e-rey the remainder yellow, red, and brown, as described farther on (p. 52). 
 EveA this, however, can hardly be taken as " the final thmning-out of 
 the Gault clay," for that probably occurs somewhere between Dersingham 
 and Shefnborne or Ingoldisthorpe, beyond which part signs of the Red 
 Chalk set in. 
 
 Outliers. 
 
 Southward of Castle Rising and westward of Roydori there 
 are some outliers, though in all but one case the Gault is more 
 or less hidden by .Drift. 
 
 An old pit in a field about half a mile south of the castle was mostly 
 overgrown in 1881. On the west there seems to be some Drift, and at the 
 north a little light-coloured sandy Boulder Clay was seen, with rubbly chalk 
 rising up from beneath eastward. At the east this latter is firmer, except 
 for soil and for weathering in the top part, and the upper part of this firmer 
 chalk contains a harder greyer flaggy layer, seen only at one spot. The 
 bottom of the pit showed signs of the pale pinkish marl, and in the lowest 
 part was a small pond ; so that the pit goes through to Gault. 
 
 The above agrees with what was seen in another still more obscure 
 ploughed-over pit about a quarter of a mile westward, which showed white 
 and pale pinkish marl 
 
 Marl was also seen about a third of a mile eastward of the first pit. 
 
 There is a very small outlier about half a mile south-east of the castle. 
 An old pit here had its highest (southern) part hidden ; but there seemed 
 to be a little Boulder Clay (unmappable) at - top. The lower part was in., 
 marl, with some traces of pinkish beds and also of stone, and there was 
 water at the bottom. 
 
 An old pit about two thirds of a mile west of Roydon Hall showed, on the 
 east, a little whitish chalky Boulder Clay over chalky earth (? decomposed 
 and partly reconstructed chalk), whilst on the north whitish marl was seen 
 to rise nearly to the surface, capped by a little of the Boulder Clay, the top 
 part of the marl having a pale pinkish tint. The lower part was hidden by 
 fallen earth. The bottom was wet, and with a pond. I dug at one place 
 into grey clay, and at another, where ploughed, found a little red earth. 
 
 A small pit at the northern edge of Roydon Common, less than a mile 
 W.S.W. of the Church, gave a like section, there being a little Boulder Clay 
 over reconstructed (?) chalk, and whitish marl (with pieces of stone). There 
 was water at the bottom, and it looked as if the marl is either faulted 
 down or comes on very irregularly against the Lower Greensand, just south. 
 
 About a third of a mile west of Roydon Church, and just north of the 
 sandpit at Roydon Hall, is a small hollow in a field with water at the bottom 
 (Nov., 1881); it is in marl, mostly whitish, but at the base of a deep red. 
 On boring into this for some inches I found dark grey sandy clay. It looks 
 as if there might be a little Boulder Clay at top, but this could hardly be ' 
 mapped. 
 
 * Quart. Tourn, Geol. Soc, vol. xliii., p. 553. 
 
RED CHALK. 35 
 
 Jusf -eastward, by the hedge of the next field, is a larger shallow-pit also 
 showing the pale grey marl, with chalky rubble at top at one jjart, and at 
 another Boulder Clay. A deeper hole in the pit (?for drainage) gave the 
 following section :— ■ 
 
 "A little of tlie pale grey marl. ' " ' 
 
 Very little of the red bed, which seems to pass down into 
 the next. - . , . , _ ' 
 
 Gault. -1 Clay, the greater part dark gr-ey (but the top discoloured 
 
 to brown) and the bottom part lighter coloured : a few 
 , , phosphatic nodules at top and at bottom : in all, about 
 ■two feet' or more : passing down into the next. 
 /-Brown sand, which, a -few -inches down, hardens into a- 
 Lower ) sandstone ; about three feet in all. 
 
 Greensand. . 1 Brown hard sand, with thin irregular veins of iron-sand- 
 
 ■ C stone in the top part ; seen to about three feet. .J 
 A' third shallow pit, just north, in the corner of the same field, showed 
 only a little rubbly chalk or marl, and apparently some Boulder Clay. 
 
 The marl was again seen in another old pit, in the next field to the north,' 
 and signs of the like in another, a little higher westward, by the hedge of 
 the same field. ' . •- 
 
 A larger and fresher old pit showed-thefollowing beds :— . . . .. . -.i . ■"_:.' 
 
 At east and south. — Boulder Clay. 
 \ At north And west.^Rubbly -chalk-, with, whitish marl on west. •.- •,- "v 
 The bottom consists largely of the bright red bed, probably with clay 
 below, as water is held. 
 ,- ,A hole _(? for drainage) showed the top part of the Lower Greensand, 
 
 as in the section noted above; to the depth of three feet or so. 
 ■ r _ - - W. W. 
 
 NORTHERN AREA. "' ' 
 
 • - Red Chalk. 
 
 This red earthy limestone is too thin, and its outcrop, conse- 
 quently, too narrow, to be shown by more than a line of colour 
 on the map ; a line which marks the base of the Chalk Hills: 
 from the west of Shernborne, above the villages of Ingoldis- 
 thorpe, Snettisham, and Heacham, to the cliffs near Hiinstaoton. 
 
 As the rock has not been utilised for any commercial purpose, 
 the inland exposures are few and small. It was formerly visible 
 in the cartway leading into the chalk-pit south-east of Heacham, 
 but is not seen in-the pit itself It is also exposed at Snettis- 
 ham (see p. 14) and in a chalk-pit near Hunstanton Station, but 
 the only good section of it is that in the cliffs to the northward, 
 and it is to this that the fallowing account relates,- Near the 
 pier the Red Rock is at the summit of the cliff, but it gradually 
 descends as the cliff trends eastward, till it comes down to the 
 beach near Old Hunstanton. 
 
 The Red Rock at Hunstanton is about four feet thick, possibly 
 rather less in places, but it forms a very even and regular,as well 
 as conspicuous, band along the cliff face. It rests evenly upon 
 the surface of the Carstone, without any signs, of erosion beyqnd. 
 the presence in its lower portion of numerous quartz-grains, large 
 and small, like those which compose the underlying sandstone. 
 . It forms a single massive bed, not laminated nor .divisible into 
 separate la-yers, but at the same time it is by no means of homo- 
 geneous composition throughout; Its basal portion is softer and 
 l-ess"calcareous than the rest, being also much more sandy, and 
 of a deep brick-red colour. The central part of the rock (from 20 
 
36 RED CHALK. 
 
 to 24 inches) is a dark red, rough and nodular limestone, with few 
 large quartz-grains, but containing many fossils. _ The highest 
 part, about a foot thick, is a hard light red or pink hnaestone, 
 mottled with white, and is probably more calcareous than the 
 
 rest 
 
 The upper surface of the red limestone is a marked plane of 
 division, and the rock is separated from the overlying chalk by 
 an irregular seam of dark red ferruginous earth, which swells out 
 here and there, and appears to fill spaces caused by inequalities 
 in the under surface of the Chalk. 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ^\l7WJ<7]Jy^^^f^ Sponge Bed. 
 
 .: yS,,, >',,::r ,1- ' \-'i'^T Red earth. 
 
 Figure 3. Diagram to show the structure and relations oj the Red Chalk at 
 Hunstanton. (Jukes-Browne.) 
 
 Some observers have thought that the different portions of the 
 Red Rock contained a different set of fossils, but, so far as our 
 experience goes, the difference is chiefly a matter of relative 
 abundance, Beleinnites mitiimus and Terebratida bipUcata being 
 most abundant in the lower part, while the highest part yields 
 many specimens of Inocerami and of Exogyra haliotoidea. 
 
 The higher part of the Red Chalk also exhibits some of the 
 cylindrical and branching bodies which have been regarded as 
 parts of a Sponge, and named Spongia paradoxica. Portions, 
 however, that have been sliced and examined under a micro- 
 scope show no sponge-structure nor any other kind of organic 
 structure. Prof. Hughes has discussed these curious bodies, 
 and concludes that they are probably " merely concretions, 
 owing their symmetry of form and regularity of arrangement to 
 rock structure, which is more obvious in the cliff than in hand 
 specimens."* They are still more abundant in the overlying 
 bed, to which the name " Sponge Bed " has in consequence been 
 given by some writers. 
 
 The seam of dark red earth is in places worked out by the 
 waves, and hollow spaces are left in consequence. In some of 
 these hollows brown sand has been found, and it has been 
 supposed by some observers that this sand was deposited there 
 with the red earth, but we think the sand has been washed up 
 and driven in by the sea-waves. 
 
 Structure of Red Chalk. 
 
 Mr. W. Hill has kindly communicated the following account 
 of the minute structure of the Red Chalk of Hunstanton from 
 specimens collected by himself: — 
 
 * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xl. , p. 276 (1884). 
 
RED CHALK. 37 
 
 My slides from the base of the Red Chalk are roughly cut. 
 I have, however, no doubt from that which I can see that there 
 is a greater amount of inorganic material here than in the higher 
 parts of the rock. The grains of quartz sand are certainly more 
 abundant, while the impression conveyed by such parts of the 
 slides as one can see through is that organisms of sorts are less 
 common. There do not appear to be any deiinite particles 
 or aggregations of peroxide of iron, and presumably the whole 
 of this part of the rock is uniformly stained with this material. 
 
 Thin sections of the upper and middle part of the red chalk show that 
 the matrix of this rock consists largely of calcareous material in the condition 
 of minute particles of crystalline calcite. Along the edge of a section, or 
 where the section is thin, the particles of calcite seem to be clear and 
 colourless, but where the section gradually thickens a red tint becomes 
 more and more appareflt, but it does not seem possible to separate, optically, 
 any material from which the colour might be derived. There are spaces, 
 small in area, not very sharply defined, where the colour is darker and the 
 rock more opaque, and not infrequently the cells of foraminifera and spicular 
 canals seem filled with dark reddish matter. In this part of the rock the 
 proportion of fine inorganic matter must .be small. 
 
 The mass of the rock is full of angular, sub-angular, and rounded grains 
 of quartz, many large enough to be detected by the naked eye ; also many 
 grains which from their rounded outline seem to be glauconite, but except in 
 a few instances this clear green mineral seems to have become a dark 
 brown and almost opaque substance. 
 
 Foraminifera are common and "spheres" abundant. The infilling 
 material of the foraminiferal cells is generally granular crystalline calcite 
 without colour, but examples occur in all slides showing the infilling 
 material in gradations from white crystals to a colour of darker red than 
 the surrounding matrix. Sponge-spicules occur, and shell-fragments are 
 present, but are not abundant. 
 
 Mr. Hill was specially asked to compare the structure of 
 the Red Chaik of Hunstanton with that of hard beds in the 
 Chalk formation, and on this point he writes as follows : — " I 
 should regard the upper two thirds of the bed as, lithologically, 
 a real chalk. The particles of its matrix do not differ from 
 those of certain other chalks, though they are coarser than in 
 some. In this respect the matrix of different beds of chalk 
 show a gradation which appears to correspond with the degree 
 of induration and crystallization of the rock ; the particles being 
 most minute in the softer chalks and marls, and largest in the 
 semi-crystalline beds like Chalk Rock. In the Red Chalk the 
 crystallization of the particles has not gone far enough for 
 the matrix to be described as granular crystalline calcite, but 
 the particles are strongly coherent." 
 
 "A slide of this Red Chalk has a general character of its own, 
 and will not compare with any definite horizon in the Chalk above 
 it, but it is not easy to pick out particulars in which it differs. 
 I am inclined to think, however, that on the whole it contains 
 more well-preserved and clearly outlined tests of Foraminifera 
 than most samples of chalk, and in this respect it resembles Chalk 
 Rock ; but very possibly the species present in the two rocks are 
 different. Calcareous spheres are abundant, but not more so 
 than in some parts of the lower chalk," 
 
3S 
 
 RED CHALK. 
 
 .; •:., Analyses. ■ - ' . " _ , ., 
 
 : Many analyses of the Red Chalk of Hunstanton have been 
 made at different times, and it will be well to reproduce them, 
 because, as might be expected, the different portions of the rock 
 differ somewhat in chemical composition. 
 
 • The earliest analysis which has come under our notice was made by Mr.- 
 RiCKARD, and published by the Rev. T. Wiltshire in 1859,* this bewg as 
 
 follows :^ . : - - - 
 
 Carbonate of lime, with a little alumina ... ... 82-3 
 
 •Peroxide of iron • ... ... ... ••■ 6"4 
 
 Silica ... ... ... ■" — "'3 
 
 loo'- 
 
 A little later a more complete analysis of the rock was made by MR.. R. C. 
 
 Clapham, and published in 1862.+ With tWs may be- grouped another; 
 
 made by Mr. F. Sutton, a few years lat'er.J: [..-,... ' ,„ 
 
 Clapham. Sutton. . . 
 
 Carbonate of lime ... ... 8o'o4 .... 8o"i • .. 
 
 Sulphate of lime ... „. "i ... trace 
 
 Peroxide of iron ... ... 9'6 ... 8'S 
 
 Alumina ... ... ... i'42 .•• I'S 
 
 Silica ... ... ... ... 9-28 ... 9-4 
 
 Manganese ... ... ... trace ... — 
 
 Magnesia ... ... ... — ... trace 
 
 Organic matter ... ... ... — ... .8'5 (? 5) 
 
 ioo-"44 ... io8" (? 100) 
 
 . Mr. W. M. Lupton noted, in 1863, that the peroxide of iron varies from 
 9 to if per cent. ; but analyses made by Prof. A. H. CHURCH^i and 
 pubirshed the same year, show a much higher percentage for parts of the. 
 rock. He says "the hard nodules [/.«., the darker fed nodular portions of 
 the rock] contained as much as from 31 '2 to 36'9 per cent, of anhydrous 
 sesquioxide of iron, while the pale red varieties . . . contained no 
 more than from 1273 to 4'i." The following are the details of the analyses 
 referred to, the first and second columns showing the composition of the 
 darker nodular samples, and the third that of the lighter red. part. 
 
 Carbonate of calcium ... 
 
 4475 
 
 50-07 
 
 65-03 
 
 Sesquioxide of iron 
 
 36-9 . 
 
 3i"2 
 
 1273 
 
 Alumina 
 
 •18 
 
 not de 
 
 termined 
 
 Sihca 
 
 72 
 
 
 2-21 
 
 Sulphate of calcium ... 
 
 ■04 
 
 •07 s 
 
 •IS 
 
 Carbonate of magnesium 
 
 •35 
 
 1 ■ 
 
 Manganese ... 
 
 trace 
 
 
 Chloride of sodium 
 
 ■03 
 
 \ not determined 
 
 Water 
 
 16-41 
 
 
 Other substances and loss 
 
 •62 
 
 -' 
 
 
 I GO' 
 
 
 
 The first analysis " includes all the chief constituents, while the others refer 
 only to the sulphate of calcium, the carbonate of calcium, and the sesqui- 
 oxide of iron." ' '' 
 
 J * Geologist, vol. ii. , p. 260 (1859). . , _.'-.. 
 
 ^ + Chem. News, No. 160, p. 313 (1862), and Geologist, vol. yi., p. 29 (1863). 
 X Geol. Mng., vol. iii., p. 43 (1866), from Nonuich Mercury, gth Dec, 186.5. ' 
 § Quart. Journ. Chem. Soe., n. ser., vol. i., pp. 79-86 (1863). 
 
RED CHALK, 
 
 39 
 
 Prof. Church remarks that the large quantity of water miy result from 
 the season (April) in which the specimens were got, but some of this water 
 Was not removed by an exposure to a high temperature. 
 
 The following analysis of red clay from the Red Chalk of Hunstanton has 
 also been made by Prof. Church,* who remarks that this was " the finer 
 portion of the urtdissolved residue . . .' separated from the sihceous 
 fragments which accompanied it," which " amounted, on the average, when 
 air-dried, to 9'3 per cent, ofthe weight of the chalk taken, but some dark 
 samples furnished higher percentages." The chalk analysed was " the 
 paler and more ordinary variety," as distinguished from the dark nodules. 
 
 ' ■ 
 
 Air-dried. 
 
 Dried at 100 C. 
 
 Ignited. 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Silica 
 
 Ferric Oxide (Fefi,) ... 
 
 Aliimina- ... ... 
 
 Magnesia (MgO) . .... :. ... 
 
 Potash (KjO) ... V ... ; 
 
 1473 
 52-87 
 12-81 
 15-65 
 2-65 
 i'33 
 
 - 7-54 
 57-33 
 13:89 
 16-97 
 2-87 
 ., '■45 
 
 62-01 
 
 15-02 
 
 18-36 
 
 3'il 
 
 '■56 
 
 i"..: - - , . .1 -". ' 
 
 ■ 100-04- 
 
 100-05 
 
 - 
 
 ioo"o6 
 
 The most recent analyses known to us are some by Dr. W. JOHNSTONE, 
 who took a series of samples from all the beds in the cliff at Hunstanton, 
 and analysed each carefully and completely. He has not published these in 
 detail, but placed one of the highest pink portion -at the disposal of Messrs.- 
 Jukes-Browne and Hill, who published a summary of it, as below :^— 
 
 Silica and insoluble residue 
 ■ Carbonate of Lime 
 Alumina- '_ ... ... - 
 
 Peroxide of iron 
 Manganese ... 
 Magnesia ... 
 
 7-50 
 
 83-81 
 
 1-67 
 
 5-72 
 
 -58 
 
 -62 
 
 99-90 
 
 ■ Dr. Johnstone also analysed a sample of the hard red nodular lumps 
 taken from the lower and redder portion of the Red Rock with the following 
 result : — 
 
 Lime 
 
 ... ... 
 
 22-839 
 
 Carbonic Acid 
 
 
 ... 18-922 
 
 Alumina (AI2O3) 
 
 ... 
 
 1-214 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 (P.O,) 
 
 -336 
 
 Peroxide of Iron 
 
 (Fe^O^) 
 
 42-683 
 
 Oxide of Manganese (MnO) ... 
 
 758 
 
 Oxide of Copper 
 
 (CnO) 
 
 034 
 
 Trioxide of Arsenic (AsjOj) ... 
 
 ... 1-286 
 
 Sulphuric Acid (SO3)... 
 
 '342 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 
 ... 1023 
 
 Silica 
 
 
 8-425 
 
 Magnesia ... 
 
 
 -708 
 
 Water 
 
 
 •120 
 
 Organic Matter 
 
 
 '323 
 
 Alkalies 
 
 
 -951 
 
 
 99-964 
 
 Chem, News, vol. xxxi., no. 806, p. 199 (1875). 
 
40 RED CHALK. 
 
 Assuming that -284 of the Lime is combined with the Phosphoric Acid, 
 and that all the rest is combined with Carbonic Acid to form Carbonate of 
 Lime, and that the Alkalies are in the state of Chlorides, we have the 
 following composition : — 
 
 Carbonate of Lime ... 
 
 ... 40-327 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia 
 
 ... 1-486 
 
 Phosphate of Lime ... 
 
 -620 
 
 Alumina 
 
 r2i4 
 
 Peroxide of Iron 
 
 ... 42-683 
 
 Oxides of Manganese, Copper, and Arsenic 
 
 ... 2-078 
 
 Silica and Clay 
 
 ... 8-425 
 
 Chlorides of Soda and Potash... 
 
 ... 1-974 
 
 Water and Organic Matter 
 
 •443 
 
 99-250 
 
 The combination of the Sulphuric Acid is uncertain and is omitted. 
 
 Summarising the results of the preceding analyses it would 
 appear that the rock contains a large amount of peroxide of 
 iron, especially in the hard nodules of the lower part which 
 contain as much as from 37 to 42 per cent. Ordinary samples 
 of the central part appear to have from 8 to 10 per cent, with 
 10 or 1 1 per cent, of siliceous matter and 80 per cent, of car- 
 bonate of lime. The most calcareous and lighter-coloured 
 portion consists roughly of nearly 84 per cent, of carbonate of 
 lime with about 6 per cent, of iron and manganese, and 7 or 8 
 per cent, of siliceous matter. 
 
 Combining the results obtained by chemical analysis with 
 those derived from a microscopical study of the rock we seem 
 justified in concluding that the Red Chalk of Hunstanton is a 
 highly calcareous rock resembling in all essential particulars the 
 harder kinds of chalk. Mr. Whitaker has maintained that the 
 rock is really Chalk, and he is so far right that it may certainly 
 be regarded as, lithologically, a kind of chalk, but this in no way 
 affects the determination of its age, since chalk is merely a 
 variety of limestone, and may be of any age. 
 
 With respect to its colouring it is not easy to say whether the 
 red ferruginous matter was deposited with the chalky material 
 on the sea-floor, or whether it has been infiltrated subsequently 
 and replaces some of the original carbonate of lime. 
 
 It has generally been supposed that the red colour was 
 merely a stain, and Mr. Hill'S description of his slides shows 
 that for large portions of the rock this is the case. But a very 
 small amount of ferric oxide is sufficient to give a red colour to 
 a rock, 2 or 3 per cent, being enough, and the quantity in some 
 parts of the Hunstanton rock seems from the analysis to be so 
 large that it must be regarded either as an original constituent 
 or as a mineral deposit subsequently introduced. 
 
 If the Red Chalk occurred only where the bed was underlain 
 by Carstone, it might be thought that the colour was derived 
 from that rock ; but this can hardly be the case, for the bed is 
 still red in those parts of Yorkshire where it lies on the Jurassic 
 or Speeton clays. Moreover, at Speeton its equivalent is a red 
 marl 30 feet thick, 
 
RED CHALK. 4I 
 
 It has been suggested that the ferric oxide has come from the 
 thin layer of peroxide or hematite which overlies the Red Chalk 
 at Hunstanton, but no such layer has been observed in Lincoln- 
 shire or Yorkshire, and in Lincolnshire there is often a more 
 gradual passage from red to white chalk than there is at 
 Hunstanton. Further, the formation of the layer of peroxide 
 at Hunstanton would still remain to be accounted for, and the 
 whole matter requires more detailed investigation than has 
 hitherto been made. 
 
 Fossils of the Hunstanton Red Rock. 
 
 The following is a list of the fossils of the Red Rock of this 
 locality, as complete as we have been able to make it. 
 
 The list of Foraminifera is taken from the paper by MESSRS. 
 Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey in Joum. Roy. Micr. Soc, 
 1890, p. 549 ; with corrections with which we have been 
 favoured by Mr. F. CHAPMAN. 
 
 The Polyzoa are taken from papers by Mr. G. R. Vine in 
 Brit, Ass. Rep. for 1884 and 1892, in Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc, 
 vol. xlvi., p. 454 (1890), and in Proc. Yorksh. Geol. Soc, vols. xi. 
 and xii. (1891-92). 
 
 The lists of other classes are taken partly from that in the 
 paper by Mr. Whitaker, with additions and corrections by 
 Mr. Jukes-Browne from notes of the collections in the Wood- 
 wardian Museum, Cambridge, and elsewhere. 
 
 The occurrence of the same species in Gault, Cambridge Greensand, and 
 Lower Chalk is shown in the parallel columns. Excluding Foraminifera and 
 Polyzoa, there are about go species and well-marked varieties ; of these 14 
 are not yet known out of the Red Chalk, thus reducing the number for 
 comparison to 76. So far as the range of these 76 species is known 47 of 
 them occur in English Gault, and 41 of them as derived fossils in the 
 Cambridge Greensand, while only 39 occur in Lower Chalk. Two others, 
 however, occur in the sandy matrix of the Cambridge Greensand which 
 may be reckoned as Chalk species, and bring up the number to 41. If, 
 however, we look to those which are exclusively Gault or Chalk species, we 
 find 26 of the former and only 12 of the latter ; while if we take the 
 Cephalopoda alone as guides, all of them are characteristic Gault species, 
 only one {Am. plamUatus] ranging up into the Lower Chalk. 
 
42 
 
 Fossils from the Red Chalk. 
 
 Red Chalk. 
 
 Foraminifera. 
 
 Anonialina ammonoides, Reuss 
 
 „ grosserugosa, GriXnb. 
 
 Bulimina Presslyi, Reuss 
 
 Cristellaria crepidula, F. and M. 
 „ italica, Defr. 
 
 „ rotulata, Lam. 
 
 Dentalina communis, (fOrb 
 
 Globigerina bulloides, rf'OriJ 
 
 „ cretacea, d'Orb 
 
 „ linnffiana, d'Orb 
 
 Lagena"apiculata, Reuss 
 
 „ . Icevis, Mont. 
 
 Lingulina carinata, rf'(9?-i5. 
 
 Nodosaria calomorpha, .ffjj 
 
 „ limbata, ^'0;'i5. 
 
 Polymorphina sp. 
 
 Textularia pygmasa, .fffaw 
 
 „ Xxoohai, d' Orb. 
 
 „ turris, d'Orb 
 
 Trochammina ... 
 
 Spongida. 
 
 Chenendopora expansa, .ff^;z£//. 
 Plocoscyphia labrosa, T. Smith 
 
 „ labyrinthica, Mant. 
 
 Coscinopora quincuncialis, T. Smith ... 
 Ventriculites tesselatus, T. Smith 
 
 Actinozoa. 
 
 Cyclolites polymorpha, Co/^ 
 
 Micrabacia coronula, Golc/f. '. 
 
 Podoseris elongata, Z'««c. ... '" 
 
 „ mammilliformis, Dune. ... 
 
 Echinodermata. 
 
 Cidaris dissimilis (?), i^(pr(5i?j 
 
 „ gaultina, Forbes ... [[[ 
 
 „ vesiculosa, Goldf. ... '." 
 
 „ new sp. (spines) ..' 
 
 Echinoconus (?) sp. 
 
 Holaster lasvis (?), Z)«/«f. " \\\ '" 
 
 „ suborbicularis (?), De/r 
 
 Peltastes Wiltshire!, Seeiey 
 Pentacrinus Fittoni, Aztsiin 
 Pseudodiadema Brongniarti, m'l^ht, nm A <r 
 „ ornatum, Go/i^. ... * 
 
 ,, . var. scriptum, SecUr ... 
 
 1 orynocnnus rugosus, 5i'«/(?y 
 
 ,1 brevis, Seeley ... \\\ 
 
 o 
 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 
FOSSILS FROM THE RED CHALK. 
 
 43 
 
 Red Chalk. 
 
 A nnelida. 
 
 Serpula antiquata, SiJjv '. 
 
 „ articulata (?), Sovik 
 
 „ cristata, Dry 
 
 „ depressa, Goldf. 
 
 „ rustica, Sby. ... ... 
 
 „ (Vermicularia) umbonata, Miint. 
 
 Crustacea. 
 
 Pollicipes unguis, 5rai 
 
 ? Entomostraca 
 
 Polyzoa. 
 
 Apsendesia collis, d!Orb 
 
 „ papyracea, (/ 0;'i5 
 
 Ceriopora micropora (?), Goldf. 
 
 Diastopora (Berenicea) contracta, Scelcy 
 
 ,, faecunda, Vine 
 
 „ hunstantonensis, Vine 
 
 „ Jessoni, Vine 
 
 „ papillosa, ^«K55 . ... •■• 
 
 „ regularis, d'Orb 
 
 „ radians, Novak 
 
 „ (Cellulipora) sulcata. Sec ley 
 
 Entalophora proboscidea, ^rfrt'. 
 
 Hippothoa(?) simplex, rf'0A-i5. (? Membranipora) 
 
 Heteropora cryptopora, Goldf 
 
 „ irregularis, d'Orb 
 
 Membranipora elliptica, NovaJt 
 
 „ fragilis, d'Orb 
 
 „ gaultina. Vine 
 
 „ obliqua, rf'O^iJ 
 
 Multicriseis variabilis, rf'OyiJ 
 
 „ mammillata, (/"OriJ 
 
 Proboscina angustata, (i' O^^ 
 
 „ dilatata, d'Orb 
 
 „ hoh-^imcdi, NovaJt 
 
 „ gigantopora, Viite ... .... . ... 
 
 „ gracilis, i?£«is, var. Reussi... , ... 
 
 „ hunstantonensis, Vine 
 
 irregularis. Vine 
 
 inornata. Vine 
 
 „ Jessoni, Vine 
 
 „ ramosa, d'Orb. 
 
 „ rugosa (?), d'Orb 
 
 „ subelegans, d'Orb 
 
 „ toucasiana,. rf'0/'i5 
 
 uberrima, rf'O^'i^. ••• . ••• , •• 
 
 Reptomulticava collis, rf'O^-iJ 
 
 „ favus, Seeley 
 
 „ mammilla, Reuss 
 
 „ -- simplex, rf'O^^. 
 
 
 SIS 
 
 O J3 
 
 1-10 
 
 OC 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 --- 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
44 
 
 FOSSILS FKOM THE RED CHALK. 
 
 Red Chalk, 
 
 Polyzoa —(continued). 
 
 Stornatopora divaricata, Roem 
 
 gracilis, Edw 
 
 granulata, Edw •■• 
 
 var. incrassata, d Vrb. 
 
 linearis, d'Orb 
 
 longiscata, d'Ort. 
 
 ramea, Blahiv 
 
 regulosa, Reuss 
 
 ,, variabilis, Vine 
 
 Truncatula subpinnata, (TOrb 
 
 Unicaveacollis, rf'0/'i5 .••• 
 
 Unitubigera papyracea, d'Orh. (see Apsendesia) 
 
 Zonopora irregularis, rf'O?-^ 
 
 undata (?), d'Orh 
 
 „ variabilis (?), d'Orb 
 
 Brachiopoda. 
 
 Kingena lima, Defr. 
 
 Rhynchonella Cuvieri (?), d'Orb. 
 
 » „ lineolata, PAi/. 
 
 „ sulcata. Pari 
 
 Terebratula biplicata, Sow ••• 
 
 „ var. dutempleana, d Orb. 
 
 ',', capillata, d'Arch 
 
 „ semiglobosa, 5oa'. 
 
 „ sulcifera, Morris 
 
 "Terebratulina triangularis, C//^. 
 
 Lavullibranchiata. 
 
 Anomia sp. ... 
 
 Avicula gryphffioides, 5orp 
 
 Exogyra conica, 5rai 
 
 „ haliotoidea, Sow. 
 
 „ „ var. rauliniana, d'Orb. 
 Hinnites Etheridgei, Seeley, MS 
 
 „ SdXtm, Seeley, MS 
 
 „ St\xA&x\ (J), Pict. and Roux 
 
 „ trilinearis, Seeley 
 
 Inoceramus concentricus, Prt^"^ 
 
 „ Crvpii,Mant. 
 
 „ sulcatus, Sow 
 
 „ tenuis, Mant. 
 
 Lima globosa. Sow 
 
 „ \i\&ri7ma.(^),P.and Roux 
 
 Ostrea curvirostris, Nilss. 
 
 „ irons, Park 
 
 „ normaniana, d'Orb. 
 
 „ vesicularis, Lam. 
 Perna lissa, Seeley 
 
 „ transversa, See ley 
 
 X 
 X 
 
 ? 
 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 
 Occur in Cambridge Greensand, but not as derived fossils. 
 
FOSSILS FROM THE RED CHALK. 
 
 45 
 
 Red Chalk. 
 
 Lamellibranchiata — (continued). 
 
 Pecten Beaveri, >S'oa' 
 
 „ elongatus (?), Lam. 
 
 „ orbicularis, Sow. ... 
 *Plicatula minuta, 'S'^u/iy 
 
 „ pectinoides, Sow 
 
 „ sigillina, Woodw. 
 
 Spondylus gibbosus, rf'Or^ 
 
 „ striatus, Sow. 
 
 Trigonia scapha, Ag. (= T. hunstantonensis, 
 Seeley) ... ... ... 
 
 Gasttropoda. 
 
 Aporrhais marginata, Sow. 
 
 Cerithium ornatissimum, Desk 
 
 Natica Genti, Sow. (= gaultina, d'Orb.) 
 Pleurotomaria sp. 
 
 Cephalopoda. 
 
 Ammonites (Hoplites) auritus, Sow 
 
 „ (Desmoceras) Beudanti, ^ro«^. ... 
 
 „ (Hoplites) Guersanti, d'Orb. 
 
 „ ( ), ) interruptus, Britg. 
 
 „ ( ij ) lautus, Sow 
 
 „ ( „ ?) ochetonotus, Seeley 
 
 „ (Desmoceras) planulatus, Sow. 
 
 „ (Schloenbachia) rostratus, Sow. ... 
 
 „ (Desmoceras) spheerotus, Seeley ... 
 
 „ (Hoplites) splendens, Sow. 
 
 „ ( ), ) tuberculatus, Sow. 
 
 Belemnites attenuatus, Sow. 
 
 „ minimus, Zisi 
 
 Crioceras occultus, Seeley 
 
 Nautilus albensis, d'Orb. 
 
 „ hunstantonensis, Foord and Crick 
 „ simplex (?), Sow. 
 
 Pisces. 
 
 Edaphodon Sedgwickii, Ag. 
 
 Urepaniphorus canaliculatus, Eg. 
 
 Notidanus sp 
 
 Lamna appendiculata, ^^. 
 
 Rep till a. 
 
 Ichthyosaurus campylodon, Carter. ... 
 Plesiosaurus latispinus (?), Owe/i 
 
 o 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 uo 
 
 o J3 
 
 i-!CJ 
 
 A. J.J.-B. 
 
 * Occurs in Cambridge Greensand, but not as a derived fossil. 
 
46 
 
 CHAPTER 4. LOWER CHALK. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 It is only recently (1887) that the Lower Chalk of Norfolk 
 has been brought into correlation with that of more southern 
 counties The hard chalk of Hunstanton cliff had been 
 described by many writers, and attempts have been made to 
 correlate certain parts of it with known horizons,* but the beds 
 there exposed are so different from those which occupy the 
 same stratigraphical position near Cambridge that, until the 
 intervening area had been carefully examined and some idea 
 had been obtained of the manner in which the one hthological 
 type or facies passed into the other, no correlation of the several 
 horizons could be more than suggestive. 
 
 The examination of the Lower Chalk along the tract between 
 Newmarket and Narborough was made by the present writer 
 and Mr. W. Hill in 1886, and important clues were obtained at 
 Mildenhall, Stoke Ferry, Shouldham, and Marham. In the 
 same year Mr. Whitaker accompanied Mr. Hill in a 
 traverse from Narborough to Hunstanton, for the purpose of 
 continuing the work. One important result of this traverse was 
 the identification of the representative of the Totternhoe Stone 
 in a series of quarries from Sandringham to Hunstanton ; 
 another was the tracing of the Melbourn Rock, which had been 
 recognised to the southward, and this fixed the upper limit of 
 the Lower Chalk. 
 
 Mr. Hill paid several subsequent visits to this part of 
 Norfolk, and to him indeed is due the chief credit of estabHshing 
 zonal divisions of the Lower Chalk in that area on a sure basis, 
 for he not only measured the section in every quarry, but 
 collected the fossils from each horizon, as- well as a series of 
 rock-specimens which he sliced and examined under the micro- 
 scope. The results of our joint work were published by the 
 Geological Society, and the following account is drawn up from 
 the printed papert : — 
 
 As elsewhere in England the Lower Chalk is divisable into 
 two broad zones : (i) that oi Ammonites varians qx Rhynchonella 
 Martini, and (2) that of Ammonites rotomagensis or Holaster 
 subglobosus. The former is the equivalent of the Chalk Marl of 
 the southern counties, but in Norfolk it consists entirely of hard 
 chalk, having at its base the hard whitish rock or so-called 
 " Sponge-bed " of the Hunstanton cliff, above which comes the 
 grey shelly band, which has been termed the " Inoceramus bed." 
 The Totternhoe Stone forms the base of the higher zone, and is 
 a bed of hard grey chalk with a basement layer of rough green- 
 coated nodules. Above this horizon is thin-bedded platy chalk, 
 lighter coloured above, and passing up into hard white rock in 
 which fossils are scarce. 
 
 * Barrois," Recherches sur le Terr. Cr^t. Sup.," p. 156, and Jukes-Browne, Geol. 
 Ma^., dec. ii., vol. vii., p. 255 {1880). 
 
 t Quari. Journ. Geol. Soc. , vol. xliii. , p. 544. 
 
LOWER CHALK. 
 
 47 
 
 The subzone of Belenmitella [Actinocamax] plena, which 
 forms a thin band at the top of the Lower Chalk in other parts 
 of England, appears to be absent in this part of Norfolk. 
 
 The thickness of the Chalk Marl varies from 13 to 18 feet, 
 that of the Totternhoe Stone is always from 2 to 2\ feet, 
 that of the upper beds is from 35 to 40 feet, so that the total 
 thickness of the Lower Chalk in this part of Norfolk is only 
 55 feet, as compared with a thickness of 160 or 170 feet in 
 Cambridgeshire. This reduction seems to be due chiefly to 
 the diminution in the amount of fine silt or inorganic material, 
 and the consequent concentration of the shelly and calcareous 
 matter, so that all the beds become more purely calcareous as 
 they are followed to the northward. 
 
 Several analyses have been made of the lower beds of the 
 Lower Chalk in Hunstanton Cliff. The two earliest that have 
 come under our notice are the following. 
 
 An analysis of the White Chalk of Hunstanton Cliff was 
 made in 1862 by Mr. R. C. Clapham,* and another, of a 
 specimen taken from, immediately above the Red Chalk, by 
 Mr. F. Sutton in 1865.! These may be combined, as 
 below :— 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 Peroxide of iron 
 Alumina 
 Magnesia 
 Silica ... 
 Man^an«se 
 Organic matter 
 
 IOO-27 loo' 
 
 The following analyses of the basal bed of the Chalk at 
 Hunstanton were made by Dr. W. Johnstone, and are taken 
 from a paper by Prof. HughesJ :— 
 
 Clapham. 
 
 SutloH. 
 
 95-8 
 
 96'2 
 
 ro8 
 
 ri 
 
 •52 
 
 ■6 
 
 ■48 . 
 
 — 
 
 2-28 
 
 2'OI 
 
 •II 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 •09 
 
 
 Sponge-bed. 
 
 Spmge-bed, 
 just above the 
 
 Spongia 
 
 
 paradoxica. 
 
 
 
 Red Chalk. 
 
 Lime 
 
 53'23 
 
 52-05 
 
 52-4 
 
 Carbonic anhydride 
 
 42-295 
 
 41-456 
 
 41-283 
 
 Alumina... 
 
 ■353 
 
 trace 
 
 ■477 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride 
 
 •289 
 
 -268 
 
 •338 
 
 Sesquioxide of iron 
 
 •325 
 
 •635 
 
 -213 
 
 Oxide of manganese 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 748 
 
 773 
 
 •81 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 Chloride of sodium 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 Sihca ... 
 
 3-17 
 
 5-02: 
 
 5-057 
 
 Organic matter ... 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 
 1 00 '4 1 
 
 100-207 
 
 100-578 
 
 * Chem. News, no. 160. p. 313, and Geologist, vol. vi., p. 29 (1863). 
 
 -|- Geol. Mag.,vo\. iii., p 43 (1866), from Norwich Mercury', 9 Dec, 1865. 
 
 X Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 1., p. 278 (1884). 
 
 E 2 
 
48 
 
 LOWKR CHALK. 
 
 The first of these indicates a proportion of about 95 per cent, 
 of carbonate of lime, the other two of about 93 per cent, the 
 difference being due to a somewhat larger amount of silica in 
 the second and third samples than in the first. 
 
 The following analysis of a sample of the Inoceramus Bed at 
 Hunstanton was made by Dr. W. Johnstone {Quart. Journ. 
 Geol. Soc, vol. xliii., p. 587) : — 
 
 Lime 
 
 Carbonic acid (anhydride) 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 Alumina (AlaOa) 
 
 Peroxide of iron (FcsOa) 
 
 Manganese ... 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Sodium chloride 
 
 Silica (insoluble) 
 
 Moisture and organic matter 
 
 51-50 
 40-54 
 •16 
 •09 
 •35 
 ■50 
 - '47 
 -25 
 
 75 
 3-38 
 1-40 
 
 99'39 
 
 Neglecting the Sulphuric Acid and -assuming that all the 
 Lime is combined with the Carbonic and Phosphoric Acids the 
 composition of the rock may be stated as below : — 
 
 Carbonate of lime ... ... ... ... qi-gi 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia ... ... ... -cq 
 
 Phosphate of lime (Ca32P04) ... ... ... -^r 
 
 75 
 
 Sodium chloride 
 
 Oxides of iron and manganese 
 
 SiHca and clay 
 
 Moisture and organic matter . 
 
 •97 
 373 
 1-40 
 
 99 '3 1 
 Bed, taken from 
 Johnstone* :— 
 
 ■936 
 
 -176 
 
 38-650 
 
 •663 
 
 2-522 
 
 47-250 
 
 ■601 
 
 trace 
 
 1-255 
 trace 
 -058 
 7-554 
 
 99'665 
 A further analysis of the insoluble part yielded the following 
 result : — ° 
 
 The following analysis of a sample of the Inoceramus 
 
 the pit north-east of Roydon Church, was made by Dr. W. 
 
 Moisture 
 
 Water of combination 
 Carbonic dioxide 
 Sulphuric anhydride - . 
 Phosphoric anhydride 
 Calcium oxide 
 Magnesium oxide 
 Alumina 
 Ferrous oxide 
 Manganous oxide 
 Sodium chloride 
 Insoluble residue 
 
 Silica 
 Alumina 
 Ferric oxide ... 
 Calcium oxide 
 Organic matter 
 
 5'547 
 -900 
 -560 
 -107 
 -440 
 
 7-554 
 
 See Proc, Noi-.mch Geol. Soc, vol. i., part viii., p. 238 (1884). 
 
LOWER CHALK. 49 
 
 The sample is remarkable for containing so much phosphoric 
 anhydride, equivalent to 5-5 per cent, of calcium phosphate. 
 The amount of calcium carbonate would seem to be only 
 7984 per cent., but there are some difficulties in reconstructing 
 the mineral composition of the rock from this analysis. 
 
 Microscopic Structure. 
 
 As might be expected from the preceding description, the 
 successive beds of the Lower Chalk differ considerably in 
 microscopic structure. Moreover, as the Lower Chalk is traced 
 through Norfolk from Stoke Ferry to Hunstanton, certain beds 
 are found to thin out and disappear, so that there is a lateral 
 change in structure, as well as a vertical one. The following 
 account is taken largely from the paper already quoted, supple- 
 mented by some further notes supplied by Mr. W. Hill. 
 
 The glauconitic marl, which has been traced from Stoke 
 Ferry to Shouldham (in Sheet 65), does not appear in the quarry 
 half a mile N.N.E. of Roydon Church. 
 
 The bed which directly overlies the Gault at Roydon is a 
 hard creamy-white limestone, the structure of which is com- 
 parable to the hard Chalk Marl which overlies the glauconitic 
 basement-bed at Shouldham. Thin slices show that it consists 
 mainly of fine amorphous calcareous dust, through which 
 Foraminifera and calcareous spheres are abundantly scattered, 
 but these enclosures, with a few shell-fragments, hardly form 
 25 per cent, of the material. 
 
 That the so-called " Sponge Bed" of Hunstanton is a similar 
 rock will be evident from the following description of two 
 slides by Mr. Hill : " The matrix is fine amorphous calcareous 
 material, full of " spheres " and Foraminifera. Compared with 
 the Red Chalk below, it is scarcely so crowded with organisms, 
 and fragments of shell are rather more abundant. No grains 
 of quartz or of glauconite are observable. A slide from the 
 part which immediately overlies the Red Chalk, however, con- 
 tains a few small grains of sand and glauconite, and also small 
 aggregations of an opaque substance distributed through the 
 mass, which, by direct light, have the rusty appearance of an 
 oxide of iron." 
 
 Respecting the Inoceramus Bed, the following is quoted from 
 our joint paper* : " In the hard grey chalk above the creamy- 
 white limestone at Roydon, we find the gritty character of the 
 [Chalk] Marl, which we have noted as gradually increasing to 
 the northward, still more marked. Here it closely resembles the 
 Totternhoe Stone in appearance and structure, consisting of 
 about 60 per cent, of coarse, irregularly-sorted shell-fragments, 
 
 Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc, vol. xliii. p. 583, 
 
50 LOWER CHALK. 
 
 mostly prisms of Inoceramus shells ; grains of glauconite are 
 abundant, and the whole is set in a matrix of _ amorphous 
 calcareous material. The green-coated nodules at its base are 
 not shelly, but agree in character with the underlying lime- 
 stone." They are probably slightly phosphatic. 
 
 Of the hioceratnus Bed, as seen at Snettisham, Heacham, and 
 Hunstanton, Mr. Hill writes : " The lower part of this bed 
 might be described as a calcareous sand, being almost entirely 
 made up of the prisms and minute broken fragments of 
 Inoceramus shells, the interstices being filled with fine calcareous 
 paste. Foraminifera are common, and the specimens are con- 
 spicuous for their robustness and large size. Small grains of 
 glauconite are common, but no other mineral can be recognised. 
 
 " The grittiness caused by the number of shell-fragments 
 passes away upwards, and the proportion of fine matrix increases. 
 The structure of the basal portion suggests the action of a current 
 which carried away much of the finer material, leaving only the 
 heavier particles and shells." 
 
 Totternhoe Stone. — The ordinary Totternhoe Stone, from the 
 outcrops in the counties of Bedford, Hertford, and Cambridge, 
 consists of from 60 to 70 per cent, of shell-fragments which are 
 generally very uniform in size, many glauconite grains which are 
 frequently of large size, and a small percentage of fine quartz- 
 sand, the interstices being filled as usual with fine calcareous 
 matter. 
 
 " At Sandringham, Dersingham, and all exposures beyond the 
 massive bedded layer at the top of the hard Chalk Marl 
 possesses the same shelly character as its equivalent in Hertford 
 and Cambridge. Specimens from most of these exposures show 
 some little irregularity in the size of the comminuted fragments 
 of shell, but that from the cliff at Hunstanton is very like theupper 
 part of the stone exposed in the Totternhoe quarries. It must 
 be added, however, that the fine quartz-sand, which at Tottern- 
 hoe forms a part of its constituent material, is almost absent at 
 Hunstanton. The gradual diminution in the proportion of this 
 can be followed along the line of the outcrop of the Stone."* 
 
 The Grey Chalk above the Totternhoe Stone differs in having 
 a much larger proportion of fine amorphous matrix with com- 
 paratively few shell- fragments and no glauconite. Spheres and 
 Foraminifera occur in moderate numbers. 
 
 Details. 
 
 The Lower Chalk enters the district by Roydon, but is there 
 overspread by Drift sand, and the first exposure is in the 
 Hilhngton pit on the eastern side of the road between that 
 place and Congham. This pit is worked on two levels and the 
 combined section is as follows : — 
 
 Quart. Joitrn. Geol. Sac, vol. xliii., p. 584. 
 
LOWER CHALK. 51 
 
 Up^er Level. Feet. 
 
 Soil and chalk rubble ... ... ... ... ... i 
 
 Hard, thin-bedded platy chalk, white with yellowish stains, and a 
 
 thin band of buff marl near the top ... ... ... 19 
 
 Lower Level. 
 
 Whitish thin-bedded chalk... ... ... ... ... 4^ 
 
 Thin, but persistent layer of buff marl ... ... ... o 
 
 Hard, thick-bedded, whitish chalk ... ... ... ... 4 
 
 Dull, white chalk, in thick beds divided by layers or seams of 
 
 greenish-grey marl ... ... ... ... ... 10 
 
 The whole of this section is evidently above the horizon of the Totternhoe 
 Stone. The lowest beds contain Holaster suhglobosus and Discoidea 
 cylindrica. The overlying whitish chalk is a conspicuous band on account 
 of its massive appearance and smooth, clean fracture ; its structure resembles 
 that which occurs at the summit of the Lower Chalk farther south.* In the 
 platy chalk near the top of the pit, Mr. Hill found an echinoderm which 
 appeared to be Echinoconus siibroiicndiis, a Middle Chalk species not pre- 
 viously found in the Lower Chalk. There can be no doubt that the section 
 shows the highest part of the Lower Chalk, and it is possible that the marl 
 band near the top is the representative of the Belemnite marls of the southern 
 counties, an horizon which appears to be on the point of thinning out at 
 Marham'in the district to the south (Sheet 65). 
 
 The large old pit, marked on the map east of West Newton, and just west 
 of the water-tower, showed at the highest part, under the tower, a yellowish 
 nodular layer, six feet or more down, above which the hard, flaggy chalk 
 projected slightly in places. 
 
 The old pit, three quarters of a mile north-east of Sandringham, exposes 
 what we take to be the representative of the Totternhoe Stone. The upper 
 part is hidden, but lower down six or seven feet of chalk are seen, the beds 
 being as follows : — 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Rather hard dull greyish-white splintery chalk, about ... ... 3 
 
 Hard grey gritty stone, with many glauconite grains, and some 
 small phosphatic nodules ; a layer of green-coated nodules 
 at the base ... ... ... ... ... ... 2^ 
 
 Hard cream-white chalk, rather mottled and with few green 
 
 grains, seen for ... ... ... ... ... \\ 
 
 A good exposure of the lower part of the Lower Chalk is to 
 be found in the parish pit of Dersingham, about half a mile 
 north-east of the church. The section here was described by 
 Dr. Barrois in i876,t and he carefully distinguishes a hard 
 bed with nodules at its base, though he did not possess the clue 
 which leads us to regard it as the representative of the Tottern- 
 hoe Stone. As already mentioned, a boring was made from the 
 floor of this pit to ascertain what lay beneath the hard Chalk 
 Marl, The complete section disclosed by the quarry and the 
 boring is given below : — 
 
 * See Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc. , vol. xliii. , p. 569. 
 t "Recherches sur le Terr. Cret. sup.," p. 106. 
 
52 
 
 LOWER CHALK. 
 
 Figure 3. Section at Dersingham Chalk-fit.^ (Jukes-Browne and 
 * -^ W. Hill.) 
 
 Grey 
 Chalk. 
 
 Chalk 
 
 Marl. 
 
 
 Gault. 
 
 Car- 
 stone. 
 
 Scale, 8 feet to an inch. 
 
 Quarry. 
 
 -II If^^wi'/-. 
 
 — u' — n-— 111 — I— 
 
 I— 111^— H I' I — 111,^1-^ 
 
 'ill 1111 - 
 
 
 hi\^ \ is^ 
 
 =S!C 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Rather hard, thin bedded or platy 
 whitish chalk 
 
 Hard, tough, massive grey chalk, 
 with a layer of green-coated 
 nodules at its base (Totternhoe 
 Stone) 
 
 Hard, creamy-white chalk in thick 
 beds, passing down into greyer 
 chalk .. 
 
 Boring. 
 
 Hard, grey chalk, becoming gritty 
 and shelly below, and liaving a 
 layer of yellowish green-coated 
 nodules at its base (Inoceramus 
 Bed) ... 
 
 Very hard, compact white limestone 
 
 Rather soft, greenish white marl, 
 
 passing abruptly to 
 Pale, yellowish-buff marl, hard and 
 
 compact at first, softer and browner 
 
 below, passing gradually to 
 Rather hard, clayey marl, mostly red 
 
 but streaked or blotched with 
 
 tawny-brown 
 
 Reddish-brown sandstone 
 
 i6 
 
 2i 
 
 li 
 
 2^-3 
 
 2-2^ 
 
 Total ... ... ... 44 
 
 For reasons already stated we refer the grey and coloured 
 marls to the Gault, and regard the hard white limestone above 
 them as the base of the Chalk, and as the equivalent of the so- 
 called " sponge bed" at Hunstanton. The succeeding grey and 
 shelly chalk is clearly identical with the " Inoceramus bed " of 
 Hunstanton, and the overlying white chalk represents the higher 
 part of the Chalk Marl of Stoke Ferry in the district to the south 
 (Sheet 65) ; the total thickness of the zone of Ammonites 
 varians at this locality being ig\ feet as compared with 75 J feet 
 at Stoke, showing a rapid northerly attenuation. 
 
 * ¥toTa Quart. Jbuin, Geo/, Sot., vol, xliii., p. 560. 
 
LOWER CHALK. 53 
 
 The grey stone above corresponds in appearance and structure with the 
 Totternhoe Stone of Burwell, and the layer of greenish nodules at its base 
 resembles that which is locally called "the brassil " at Burwell. This layer 
 may be traced all round the pit, though the nodules are more abundant and 
 the lay^r consequently more evident in some places than in others. The 
 stone above consists largely of comminuted shell-fragments, and the pro- 
 portion of fine silt or sand is even less than in Cambridgeshire ; glauconite 
 grains are abundant. That its thickness should be so small is not sur- 
 prising when we remember the general diminution in the thickness of the 
 whole of the Lower Chalk when traced to the north. 
 
 The chalk above is whitish and contrasts with the grey bed below. 
 
 There is a large pit in the upper zone to the south-east of Ingoldisthorpe 
 but neither base nor summit is exposed. 
 
 The quarry about half a mile south-east of Snettisham Church shows just 
 the same succession ; the Totternhoe Stone is a prominent feature, and 
 fossils can be obtained from it in both pits (see p. 57), but there are fewer 
 grains and the nodules at the base are not so clear as in the sections 
 already mentioned. The Chalk below is more fully exposed, about 1 5 feet 
 being visible, all hard, grey, and shelly, like the material of the Inoceramus 
 bed at Hunstanton ; the basal limestone must, in fact, be only a foot or so 
 below the floor of this quarry. 
 
 One of the most complete sections of the Lower Chalk of 
 Norfolk is exposed in the large quarry south-east of Heacham. 
 The pit is worked in two levels, which give a continuous section 
 of nearly 60 feet in depth, and the beds dip to the eastward 
 at 3° to 5°. 
 
 Upper Level. Feet. ' 
 
 Soil and rough weathered chalk ... ... ... ... 3 or more. 
 
 Mplhoui-n C ^'^^^1 yellowish, nodular rock in massive beds ; 
 ^ , \ containing broken Inoceramus shells, and 
 
 (. having a marly layer at the base ... ... 6 
 
 / Hard, whitish chalk in thin beds, forming two 
 courses, separated by a -thin band of buff- 
 coloured marl ... ... ... ... ... 2 
 
 Hard, whitish chalk, weathering into thin 
 layers, the base obscured by talus ... ... 3 to 4 
 
 Lower Level. 
 Lower / Thin bedded platy chalk, with a marly bed 
 Chalk \ near the top, becoming more massively 
 
 bedded below ... ... ... at least 30 
 
 Hard, grey, flaggy chalk, with a layer of 
 green-coated nodules at the base : Tot- 
 ternhoe Stone ... ... ... 2 
 
 ! Hard, bedded, cream-white chalk, becoming 
 
 somewhat greyer toward the bottom ... 12 or more. 
 
 About 59 
 
 The outcrop of the Red Chalk is seen at the entrance of the pit, and it 
 can hardly be more than 6 or 7 feet below the base of the above section, so 
 that the total thickness of the Lower Chalk here may be estimated at about 
 56 feet. The Totternhoe Stone is conspicuous by its decided grey colour, 
 which contrasts with the white chalk below ; the hardness and whiteness of 
 all the beds except this band arej in fact, a noticeable feature. (For the 
 fossils found here see p. 57.) 
 
 The next exposure of the Lower Chalk is in a quarry south-east 
 of Hunstanton railway-station. Here the Red Chalk is seen 
 near the entrance, overlain by about 30 feet of hard bedded 
 chalk, including the Totternhoe Stone, which is 2\ feet thick 
 with nodules at the base. 
 
54 
 
 LOWER CHALK. 
 
 We now come to the well-known Hunstanton cliffs. The 
 base of the Chalk, £^., the layer known as the "sponge-bed 
 (from the curious cylindrical bodies or concretions it contains;, 
 comes in at the top of the chff about half a mile north of the 
 railwav-station ; and the Totternhoe Stone takes the ground a 
 little to the south of the lighthouse. The section (Fig. 4) was 
 taken a little north of the lighthouse. 
 
 Fimre 4 Seciion near the Lighthouse, Hu7istanto7t Cliff. (Jukes- 
 Browne and W. Hill.*) 
 
 Grey 
 Chalk 
 
 Totternhoe 
 Stone 
 
 / 
 
 Chalk 
 Marl, / 
 iS^feet \ 
 
 Scale, 8 feet to an inch. 
 
 Soil and chalk rubble 
 
 Feet. 
 ... 2 
 
 :l>- If jh^-^i; 
 
 
 III ' II II '1 II 
 
 1: ii :, II II 
 [ II II L 
 
 II. II 
 
 
 Red Chalk 
 
 Carstone 
 
 Thin-bedded whitish chalk, with some 
 indefinite marly layers near the base 9 
 
 Compact dark grey gritty chalk, with 
 nodules at the base 
 
 Hard, creamy- white chalk, regularly 
 bedded, becoming greyer below, 13 
 
 and passing into 
 
 Hard grey and shelly chalk, full of 
 broken fragments of Inocerami, and 
 having a layer of greenish nodules 
 at the base, with scattered nodules 
 throughout ... 4 
 
 Hard, white chalk, with branching 
 cylindrical bodies ... \\ 
 
 Red Chalk, pink at the top, dark red 
 and sandy at the base 3I 
 
 Ferruginous sandstone, seen for 
 
 4 
 
 39 
 
 The white nodular limestone (or so-called " Sponge Bed ") 
 which forms the base of the Chalk Marl is separated by marked 
 planes of division from the beds above and below. The basal 
 
 From Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xliii., p. 562. 
 
LOWER CHALK. 55 
 
 part of the bed is in places stained pink. It is full of irregular 
 branching cylindrical structures, which bear a certain resem- 
 blance to the silicified stems of Siphonia, as preserved in 
 the Upper Greensand of Wiltshire, and under the mistaken 
 idea that they were really the remains of such sponges, the bed 
 itself came to be known as the " Sponge Bed." The nature of 
 these bodies has recently been studied by Prof.T. McK. HUGHES, 
 who found no- trace whatever of any organic structure ; they are 
 filled with material exactly like that of the enclosing rock, and 
 he concludes that they are a kind of concretionary structure* 
 (see ante, p. 36). 
 
 The material of this white rock is a nearly pure limestone, 
 containing about 94 per cent, of calcic carbonate. Under the 
 microscope it is seen to consist largely of fine amorphous 
 material, in which are enclosed calcareous spheres, Foraminifera, 
 and small shell-fragments (see p. 49). 
 
 Fossils are common in this bed (see p. 57), the most abundant 
 being Avicula gryphcEoides and Terebratula biplicata. 
 
 The hard shelly rock above is known as the " Inoceramus 
 Bed " ; in reality there are two or three courses of grey shelly 
 rock, the lowest being very rough and coarse in texture, contain- 
 ing large fragments of Inoceramus shell and many potato-like 
 green-coated nodules. The succeeding beds are less coarse, and 
 have a great resemblance to the Totternhoe Stone of Cambridge 
 and Herts ; they consist mainly of irregularly sorted fragments 
 of shell, these forming about 60 per cent, of the mass ; grains of 
 glauconite are abundant, and the remainder is fine calcareous 
 matter, chemical analysis showing 91 per cent, of calcium car- 
 bonate. The commonest fossil is a variety of HolastcT siibglo- 
 bosus,3. species which has not yet been found below the Tottern- 
 hoe Stone in Cambridge, but occurs at this low horizon through- 
 out the west of Norfolk. 
 
 There is a gradual passage upward into the hard white chalk 
 which represents the mass of the Chalk Marl ; in this shell- 
 fragments are present but in less quantity, the proportion of fine 
 amorphous matter being greater, and shells of Foraminifera, 
 entire and broken, being more abundant ; glauconite is rare or 
 absent, and the rock is a nearly pure limestone. 
 
 The Totternhoe Stone is similar to that at Heacham and 
 Dersingham. It forms a marked feature in the face of the cliff, 
 and the fallen blocks of it can be distinguished from the 
 Inoceramus bed by their darker colour, and by the finer grain 
 and more even fracture of the rock. Its composition, as 
 revealed by the microscope, has been described on p. 50. 
 
 Of the whitish chalk above there is little to be said ; it 
 weathers in a platy fashion, and corresponds entirely with that 
 which overlies the Totternhoe Stone in the sections already 
 described. 
 
 * Quart. Joum. Geol. Sec, vol. xl., p. 273. 
 
56 LOWER CHALK. 
 
 Outlier. 
 
 The only outlier of Chalk in this sheet is that about half a 
 mile N.N.E. of Roydon Church, and it is of much importance, 
 inasmuch as it shows the basal beds of the Chalk Marl, and is 
 the site of the boring mentioned on page 33, which pierced the 
 Gault. 
 
 The lowest bed seen in the quarry is a very hard yellowish or creamy- 
 white limestone containing Terebratula biplicata and Aviciila gryphceoides ; 
 this was found by digging to be over five feet thick, and to be yellower where 
 it passed down into the soft marl below ; its upper part is piped with the 
 grey material of the overlying bed. The beds above consist of hard grey 
 shelly chalk, precisely like the material of the " Inoceramus Bed " at Hun- 
 stanton, and having a similar layer of green-coated nodules at their base. 
 This shelly chalk has a thickness of about six feet, and was described 
 by Mr. Whitaker in 1884* as possibly the representative of the Tottern- 
 hoe Stone, he being struck by its similarity to that stone, just as the present 
 writer was by the resemblance of the Hunstanton Inoceramus Bed to the 
 same stone in i88o.t The boring recorded on page 33 made it clear, how- 
 ever, that the Roydon shelly rock was the equivalent of the Inoceramus Bed 
 of Hunstanton. As in the latter, there is about 60 per cent, of coarse shell- 
 fragments of various sizes and irregularly sorted ; glauconite grains are 
 abundant, and the remainder is chiefly fine amorphous calcareous matter. 
 The included green-coated nodules consist of compact limestone, like that 
 of the underlying rock. 
 
 Fossils from the Lower Chalk. 
 
 The following list of fossils has been compiled from those 
 published in the paper previously quoted {Quart. Journ. Geol. 
 Soc, vol. xliii.), from those given by Dr. Barrois in his 
 " Recherches," and from specimens collected by Mr. Whit- 
 AKER, which were named at Jermyn Street by MESSRS. 
 Sharman and Newton. The localities from which the 
 fossils were obtained are indicated by letters thus : — 
 
 D = Dersingham. 
 H = Hunstanton. 
 He = Heacham. 
 Hi = Hillington. 
 I = Ingoldisthorpe. 
 
 R = Ringstead, Barnet Ringstead 
 
 Farm. 
 Sn = Snettisham, i, south-east, 2, 
 
 E.N.E. 
 W = West Newton, Prince of 
 
 Wales' Water Tower. 
 
 The Hst from the upper beds in the Hunstanton cliff given by Dr. 
 Barrois ("Recherches," p. 158), may include some specimens from the 
 Totternhoe Stone, but we have entered them all in the column for the beds 
 above that horizon. 
 
 * Proc. Norwich Geol. Soc, vol. i., p. iii. , p. 238. 
 t See Geol. Mag., dec. ii. , vol, vii., p. 248. 
 
LOWER CHALK. 
 
 57 
 
 
 o 
 
 p 
 
 :;i i I 
 
 Ik I I 
 a I II 
 
 I 
 
 Q 
 
 ffi 
 
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 w 
 
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 5 
 
 
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 Q Q 
 
 fi^ 
 
 ffi 
 
 K 
 
 SI 
 WK 
 
 j^l 
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 IK 
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 w 
 
 Q 
 
 ffi I KW ffiKiHK 
 
 <u <u c o 
 
 I - I X I I I X I X I I I 
 
 ^ 
 
 : 3 
 
 . 4-) 
 
 
 isoni, Go 
 
 Mant. 
 
 Hinde 
 
 1 
 
 i^ 
 
 Leptophragma Murch 
 Plocoscyphia labrosa, 
 Strephinia convoluta. 
 Ventriculites ... 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^2 
 
 k^ 
 
 3 
 ,13 
 
 o 
 A 
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 O o 
 PQ'-S 
 
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 ft O > 
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 P~ D-.S "5.i£ 
 
 
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 W 
 
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58 
 
 LOWER CHALK. 
 
 
 ei 
 
 ^ 
 
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 Q I I 
 
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 X 
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 I CO I I I MC/: 
 
 1^ I i M I 
 
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 c 
 
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 KK 
 
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 W I I I K I K I W I ffiffi 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 t/l rt Ul Ul C^ 
 
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 s ^ . . . 
 
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 Oh CO 
 
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 ■.s 
 
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 =■§ 
 
LOWER CHALK. 
 
 59 
 
 Pi 
 
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 w 
 
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 h-i 
 
 w 
 
 K 
 H 
 
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 en 
 
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 c/o 
 
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 J3 
 
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 OP 
 
 Q I 
 
 
 
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 WW 
 
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 IQ IQ 
 
 I IW I 
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 J3 
 
 JW 
 
 w I w 
 
 I I 
 
 W I 
 
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 XX I 
 
 M Iw I 
 
 MM! 
 
 I I I K I ffiW 
 
 li I I I 
 
 X 
 
 I 
 
 I 11^ II 
 
 X \ I I ffi I w 
 
 1 Ip^ 
 
 X I WW 
 
 Urn" «« • 
 
 M W 
 
 fl^ 
 
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 ctl 
 
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 so 
 
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 bi) O nl 
 
 III 
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6o 
 
 LOWER CHALK. 
 
 X 
 
 X I 
 
 IQ 
 
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 W 
 
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 OJ CO c o 
 
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 X \xx \ xxxxxx 
 
 I I 
 
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 I I X I I I I XXX I 
 
 io "^ "x; - 
 
 
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 sis 
 
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 PhH 
 
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 rt In U 
 
 )-• <U n* 
 
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 B ■S o 
 ci<!co 
 
 6 
 
 <: 
 
LOWER CHALK. 
 
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 Ill|x|xx||l| 
 
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 ; 
 
 
 
 6- d li > 
 
 
 
 
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 eras) pi 
 ceras) 
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 List. 
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 ), Lam. 
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 es (Hapl 
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 TO 
 
 P 
 
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 ultimi 
 
 costatus 
 
 tubercul 
 
 d^d. 
 
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 5 S 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
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 t, p rt u H 
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62 LOWER CHALK. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 The fossils from the basement-bed at Hunstanton were 
 collected by Mr. H. G. Fordham, who devoted himself to 
 collecting from this bed when visiting Hunstanton. The species 
 were identified by himself, except the sponges which were 
 named by Dr. G. J. Hinde. 
 
 The assemblage is not quite the same as that found in the 
 Chalk Marl of Cambridgeshire and the south of England ; the 
 species are in the main the same, but their relative abundance is 
 very different. Thus Ammonites varians, which is so common 
 and characteristic a fossil of the Chalk Marl throughout the 
 midland and southern counties, becomes very rare in Norfolk, 
 so rare that it is not certain whether it has ever been found in 
 the neighbourhood of Hunstanton. The same may be said of 
 Ammonites Mantelli, which is very common in the south of 
 England, rare in Cambridgeshire, and still rarer in Norfolk. 
 Rhyuchonella Martini, again, is so common to the southward that 
 it was thought the zone might bear its name, but it becomes so 
 rare in Norfolk that the typical form has only been found at 
 Snettisham, that in the basement-bed at Hunstanton being a 
 fine-ribbed variety which has much affinity with Rhynchonella 
 lineolata. 
 
 But while some species elsewhere common become rare in 
 Norfolk there are others, seldom found in this zone elsewhere, 
 which are very abundant in Norfolk. Of these the most im- 
 portant is Holaster subglobosus ; so rare is this species in the 
 Chalk Marl of the counties between Suffolk and Oxfordshire 
 that no specimen has passed through my hands. In the shelly 
 " Inoceramus Bed " near the base of the Norfolk Chalk Marl it 
 is, however, very common, and it also occurs occasionally in the 
 beds between that and the Totternhoe Stone. There can be 
 little doubt that the conditions of depth and current-action 
 which were specially favourable to this urchin, existed at an 
 earlier period in Norfolk than in the middle and south-east of 
 
 England. 
 
 A. J. J.-B. 
 
63 
 
 CHAPTER 5. MIDDLE AND UPPER CHALK. 
 MIDDLE CHALK. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 When this district was mapped by the officers of the Survey, 
 the staff was being pressed to finish the one-inch map of 
 England, and Httle endeavour was then made to work out the 
 zonal divisions of the Chalk, which would have delayed the 
 completion of the mapping. i\.s already stated (p. 46), Mr. W. 
 Hill repeatedly visited West Norfolk in 1886 and 1887 for the 
 purpose of studying the Gault and Lower Chalk, and aided by 
 Mr. Whitaker he succeeded in fixing the upper limit of the 
 Lower Chalk by identifying the Melbourn Rock which forms 
 the basement-bed of the Middle Chalk. They traced the course 
 of its outcrop, and the line thus drawn was engraved on the 
 Geological Survey map. 
 
 It should be mentioned that the existence of this rocky band 
 at Shernborne had been noticed by Dr. C. Barrois so far back 
 as 1875, and had been correctly referred by him to the base of 
 his zovi&oi I noceramus labiatus. He also described the chalk of 
 the Terebratulina gracilis zone as occurring near Sedgeford, and 
 that of the Holaster planus zone as cropping out by Docking, 
 Bircham Newton, and Great Bircham. These three zones make 
 up the Middle Chalk or Turonian of Dr. Barrols, and to him 
 therefore is due the credit of localising these zones in West 
 Norfolk. 
 
 Still more recently (in 1897) Mr. Hill revisited West Nor- 
 folk for the purpose of studying the highest beds of the Middle 
 Chalk and the lower part of the Upper Chalk ; in the hope of 
 bringing this part of the Norfolk Chalk into correlation with\hat 
 of the more southern counties. H[e found great difficulty in 
 doing this because of the lithological changes which take place 
 in the character of the Middle Chalk as it is traced through the 
 country, and also because the exposures are few and seldom of 
 any great depth, and because fossils are scarce. 
 
 Dr. Barrois thought that the zone of Holaster planus in 
 Norfolk was characterised by the presence of grey flints, and 
 consequently " that all the quarries in which the grey flints are 
 found may be referred to the zone of Hoi. planus!'* Mr. Hill, 
 however, found that grey flints occurred in the zone of Tere- 
 bratulina gracilis, and that those in the zone of Holaster planus 
 are not exactly grey, being much darker, and more correctly 
 described as greyish-black. Moreover, he saw reason to think 
 that the higher beds in which these grey-black flints occurred 
 did not belong to the Hul. planus zone but to the zone of 
 Micraster cortcstudinariicvi. In the absence of fossils, however, 
 
 * " Rechcrclies siir le Terr. Cret. sup.," p. 162. 
 
 F 3 
 
64 MIDDLE CHALK. 
 
 this must remain a doubtful point, and Mr. liiLL did not observe 
 any bed resembling the Chalk Rock within the area of Sheet 69 ; 
 so that the exact line of division between Middle and Upper 
 Chalk still remains doubtful. 
 
 Zone of Rhynchonella Cuvierl 
 
 In this part of Norfolk the chalk of this zone is hard, rather 
 rough, and veined by irregular seams of bluish-grey marl, so 
 that when weathered it splits up into thin platy fragments. The 
 lower part for seven or eight feet is very hard, rough, and 
 nodular, with many broken fragments of Inoceramus shell, and 
 this is clearly the equivalent of the Melbourn Rock. The higher 
 beds are less shelly and less nodular, and these pass up into 
 similar chalk in which layers of grey flint-nodules occur. 
 
 We are inclined, however, to limit the zone of Rhynchonella 
 Cuvieri to the portion which is without flints or, at any rate, 
 without regular layers of flints, referring the more flinty chalk to 
 the zone of Ter. gracilis. Of this hard flintless chalk the" thick- 
 ness cannot be great, possibly not more than 30 feet. 
 
 Details. 
 
 The outcrop of the rocky chalk which forms the base of this 
 zone enters the district to the east of Roydon and passes through 
 a pit on the southern side of Congham Common and close to the 
 top of the large quarry south of Hillington, if, indeed, it is not 
 shown in that quarry as suggested on p. 50. 
 
 In the railway-cutting to the east of Hillington Station there 
 is hard yellowish chalk, breaking with a rough fracture and 
 containing numerous fragments of Inocerafiius-sheW. These 
 beds are probably just above the Melbourn Rock. Proceeding 
 eastward up the cutting the chalk gradually becomes whiter, 
 less shelly, and not so hard or rough, though firm and thick- 
 bedded. 
 
 No exposures were found between Flitcham and Shernborne, 
 but less than a quarter of a mile north of Shernborne Church 
 hard yellowish nodular chalk was seen in a small exposure by the 
 roadside, close by an old quarry the sides of which are now 
 overgrown and its floor cultivated. This is doubtless the quarry 
 mentioned by Dr. Barrois,* in which he recognised " the hard 
 nodular bed which throughout England occurs at the base of 
 the zone of Inoceramus labiatus" and H-hich is now called the 
 Melbourn Rock. Dr. Barrols obtained here Ammonites 
 nodosoides, Rhynchonella Cuvieri, and other fossils (see list on 
 p. 69). 
 
 What we take to be the highest part of this zone is exposed 
 in a quarry about half a mile south-east of Sedgeford Church. 
 This is described by Mr. Whitaker as hard, massive, bedded, 
 and jointed chalk, with a nodular structure in parts. It is 
 
 * " Recherches sur le Terr. Cri^t. siip.," p. 160, 
 
MIDDLE CHALK. 65 
 
 doubtless the quarry mentioned by Dr. Barrois (Recherches, 
 p. 161) as showing "white marly chalk, without flints, and 
 weathering into small platy pieces." He records the following 
 fossils Inoceramus Brongniarti, Inoc. sp., Terebratula seiniglobosa, 
 Holaster coravium [? species], and Eckinoconus subrotundiis^ 
 and he refers it to the zone of Terebratulina gracilis. It 
 certainly cannot be far from that zone, but as flints are absent 
 we group it in the lower zone. 
 
 The cutting on the railway, three quarters of a mile east of 
 Sedgeford Station, shows similar chalk, and there is also a small 
 quarry in a field adjoining the cutting. From these exposures 
 Mr. Hill and Mr. Rhodes obtained the fossils listed on 
 p. 69. 
 
 Eeturning to the base of the zone, this trends north-westward 
 from Shernborne and passes above Snettisham toward Heacham, 
 and the equivalent of the Melbourn Rock is well exposed at the 
 top of the large quarry south-east of Heacham. 
 
 About six feet of very hard yellowish nodular rock is here seen (seep. 53); 
 it lies in thick beds, but where these are weathered they split up into thin 
 platy pieces along veins of greenish marly material, the lumps having rough 
 and uneven surfaces. The base of this nodular chalk is clearly marked, but it 
 rests directly on hard white chalk without the intervention of any marly bed. 
 There is, however, a thin, layer of buff-coloured marl in the white chalk 
 about a foot below what we take as the base of the Melbourn Rock. 
 
 The upper bed of the Melbourn Rock and part of the overlying chalk 
 are exposed in the railway-cutting north-west of Sedgeford, and have 
 yielded some fossils. 
 
 Another good exposure occurs in the quarry north-east of 
 Barret Ringstead Farm ; the following account of the section 
 being compiled from the notes of Mes.srs. Whitaker and 
 Hill : — 
 
 Feet. 
 Rubble of hard broken chalk about 6 
 
 / Hard, rough, creamy-white chalk ... „ 3 
 
 Middle ) Very hard, rough, yellowish, nodular rock, with 
 Chalk. ) much broken Inoceramus-shell, in two massive 
 
 C beds, each about 3^ feet thick (Melbourn Rock) „ 7 
 
 ( Dull, white, thin-bedded chalk, divided by thin grey 
 Lower 1 marly seams and weathering into platy fragments ,, 12 or 13 
 Chalk, j Greyish-white chalk, in thicker beds, hard and 
 
 ^ massive, with marly seams „ 4 
 
 32 
 
 In the rough shelly rock Rhynchonella Cuvieri and Inoceramus mytiloides 
 are common. The chalk is much jointed, and slices seem to have slipped 
 along the joints towards the valley, so that at the end of the pit it is seen to 
 be much shattered and broken. 
 
 Zone of Terebratulina gracilis. 
 
 In this part of Norfolk the chalk of this zone differs consider- 
 ably from that of the same age in more southern counties. 
 Instead of the soft, smooth, white, massivelj'-bedded chalk, with 
 occasional layers of soft grey marl, which is its usual character 
 in the South of England, there is here a hard white veiny chalk. 
 
66 MIDDLE CHALK. 
 
 differing little from the chalk of the Rhynchonella Cuvieri zone 
 except in being whiter and in containing many layers ot 
 flints, as well as some very large Paramoudra-like flmts 
 
 Moreover, the fossil which is so characteristic of the zone 
 in southern counties {Terebratulina gracilis) is very rare or 
 absent in Norfolk, for hitherto no specimen has been found. 
 Some fossils, however, occur, and among them Inoceramus 
 Cuvieri, Inoceramus Brongniarii Q) and Echinoconus subrotundus, 
 which are common in this zone elsewhere. 
 
 Details. 
 
 This Chalk enters the district between Congham Common 
 and Great Massingham. 
 
 What appears to be the base of the zone is exposed in a small chalk-pit, 
 in a field less than a mile E.N.E. of Hillington Church, between the wood 
 and the railway. Mr. Whitaker visited this pit, and describes it as 
 showing "hard white chalk, with a layer of flint-nodules m the upper 
 
 part." ... , , , • , 
 
 The eastern end of the railway-cutting north of this pit is probably in the 
 same chalk, and from this Mr. Rhodes obtained (at about \\ mile east of 
 the station) Inoceramus Brongniarti (?), Inoc. Cuvieri, and a portion of a 
 Cidaris. 
 
 The higher part of the zone is (or was) exposed in an old pit 2i miles east 
 of Hillington Church, near the hill-top, and just north of the gravel-spur. Of 
 the chalk here seen Mr. Whitaker notes that "it is partly hard, but none 
 of it quite so hard as that of the lower beds, and it contains layers of flints, 
 one near the bottom being apparently continuous and rather thick. There 
 is a small fault or slip of about a foot downthrow on the west." 
 
 Mr. Whitaker also noted a quarry " about a mile and a quarter E.N.E. 
 of Flitcham, which showed rather hard chalk with large flints, some forming 
 nearly continuous layers. At the top is a very hard layer overlain by a 
 layer of soft marl." 
 
 A chalk-pit at Fring, a little south-east of the church, gives a good section 
 in part of this zone. Mr. Whitaker saw it in 1883 and notes that 
 about 30 feet of chalk was exposed, " about six feet or more down are two 
 layers of flints about \\ feet apart, partly tabular but not continuous 
 throughout. Below these, for about 15 to 20 feet, there seem to be no 
 flints. Then comes a layer of flint-nodules and below it about five feet 
 more of chalk." Mr. Whitaker did not see any fossils, but Mr. Hill, 
 visiting the pit in 1897, succeeded in finding Rhynchonella Cuvieri and 
 Echinoconus subrotundus. 
 
 The quarry south-east of Sedgeford referred by Dr. Barrois to this zone 
 is regarded by Mr. Hill and ourselves as belonging to the zone of Rhyn- 
 chonella Cuvieri (see p. 65). 
 
 The lower beds of the Ter. gracilis zone are exposed in a fairly large 
 quarry a quarter of a mile south of Ringstead St. Andrew's. This is about 
 25 feet deep, and shows beds of hard veiny chalk with a few grey flints, none 
 of large size. Mr. Rhodes obtained a few fossils from this pit (see list, p. 69). 
 
 The quarry three quarters of a mile south of Holme is probably in the 
 same zone, the chalk being hard and white, and some of the same fossils 
 were found in it by Mr. Rhodes. 
 
 Regarding the quatry half a mile S'outh of Thornham Mr. Hill writes, in 
 1897 : "This must be quite at the top of the Ter. gracilis zone. There are 
 two faces, and about 30 feet of chalk are exposed. It is very veiny, the 
 ' veins being strongly marked in rather dark grey marl, and it weathers along 
 these veins into platy pieces. There are, however, some layers without veins 
 which weather as a whole without splitting, and are from a foot to 18 inches 
 thick. There are several layers of large grey flints, and some large Para- 
 
MIDDLE CHALK. 
 
 67 
 
 moudra flints were exposed. Tereh-atula semiglobosa and fragments of a 
 large Inoceramus were the only fossils seen." 
 
 Zone of Holaster planus. 
 
 Lithologically, so far as this part of Norfolk is concerned, the 
 zone of Holaster planus is a continuation of that of Terebratulina 
 gracilis. The chalk is firm and rather hard, and contains grey 
 flints, which occur in three forms, i.e., as small nodules either 
 scattered or in layers, in flattened lenticular masses which are 
 sometimes nearly continuous floors, and as large irregular 
 " Paramoudras." 
 
 The extent and thickness of this zone is uncertain, because 
 at present the characteristic fossil {^Holaster planus') has only 
 been found in two or three pits ; but the following places are 
 well within the limits of its outcrop : Massingham, Harpley, 
 Houghton, the Birchams, Docking, and Titchwell. 
 
 Details. 
 
 The most southerly pit referable to this zone is one noted by Mr. 
 Whitaker over half a mile west of Little Massingham Church ; in this he 
 found rather hard chalk with a few scattered nodular flints and a thin con- 
 tinuous layer of flint. 
 
 * 
 
 Figure j. — Chalk-pit about one mile west of Harpley Church. 
 (H. B. Woodward.) 
 
 B. Layers of tabular flint. 
 
 A. Seams of laminated clayey earth. 
 
 The following notes on the area round Harpley, Houghton, and Bagthorpe 
 are by Mr. H. B. Woodward :— 
 
 About a mile west of Harpley Church there was a large pit showing 
 20 feet of hard white Chalk dipping at about 2° E. 35° N. (see Fig. 5). 
 
68 MIDDLE CHALIv. 
 
 The surface of the Chalk was disturbed and piped, and Boulder Clay was 
 present on the higher ground not far away. About the middle of the face 
 of Chalk there were some interrupted layers of tabular flint, slightly undu- 
 lating and not parallel, two to four inches in thickness ; and these contain 
 in places in i/ie /ii/ii lenticular seams of chalk. The flint occurs along the 
 planes of bedding. Lower down there were two thin layers of laminated 
 clayey earth. In the absence of fossils it is impossible to say whether this 
 chalk belongs to the zone of //. planus or to that of Ter. gracilis. 
 
 A pit by the border of the park north-east of Houghton Church showed 
 lilocky white Chalk (about 20 feet) with three isolated layers of tabular flint. 
 Here and there the flint and Chalk were stained bright red on the surface 
 with iron-oxide. Above the Chalk was a weathered layer of chalky Boulder 
 Clay, five to eight feet in thickness. 
 
 West of Bagthorpe a pit showed the Chalk with impersistent layers of 
 tabular flint, and an irregular top of Boulder Clay and flint gravel. 
 
 Between Bagthorpe and Bircham Tofts the Chalk is covered by a thin and 
 irregular deposit of Boulder Clay ; and it is a question whether or not more 
 bare Chalk might have been shown on the map. H. B. W. 
 
 In 1897 Mr. W. Hill determined the existence of the zone of Holaster 
 planus, near Great Bircham, in a quarry three quarters of a mile N.N.W. 
 of the church which showed the following section : — 
 
 Soil and broken chalk ... 
 
 Layer of large separate flat lenticular flints grey- 
 black inside 
 
 Chalk, much broken, with Holaster planus 
 
 Layer of large grey-black flints 
 
 Broken Chalk with a few scattered small flints 
 {Rhynclmnella sp.) ... ~ 
 
 Layer of large massive flints ... 
 
 Chalk, seen for 
 
 IS 9 
 
 Dr. Barrois had previously indicated this zone in a neighbouring 
 quarry ; he writes : " To the west of Bircham Newton a large quarry is 
 opened on the same horizon, in a hard white chalk with nodules of grey flint, 
 and grey tabular layers from 2 to 2\ inches thick, and less than three feet 
 apart. Between these layers there are large isolated flints similar to those 
 which are so frequent in the Norwich Chalk, and which are known by the 
 name of Paramoudras. There are in this quarry layers of nodular chalk. 
 I collected Ammonites prosperianus, d'Orb., Echinocorys nbbus Lam ' 
 Holaster planus, Mant." ' '' 
 
 He then mentions the Glacial clay and reconstructed Chalk which cover 
 the surface of the chalk between Bircham and the neighbourhood of Dock- 
 ing, where the H. planus zone is again seen and where he collected 
 Belemmtes sp., Rhynchonella piicatilis, Sby., Ostrea vesicular is. Lam 
 Ho.aster planus, Mant., and Echinocorys gibbus. Lam. " The presence of a 
 Beleninite at this horizon is interesting ; it is a fragment, the precise deter- 
 mination of which IS unfortunately not possible : it is comparable with Bel 
 Strehlensis, Fritsch." * 
 
 In the pit a quarter of a mile north-west of the church at Dockino 
 Mr. C. Reid noted chalk with a dip of 60° to the E.S.E., but this may be°a 
 mass included m the Glacial Drift (see p. 78). 
 
 The Chalk seen in a quarry a quarter of a mile south of Titchwell Church 
 may be regarded as belonging to this zone, although no fossils have been 
 found m It to confirm this determination. Mr. Hill, who visited it in 1807 
 communicates the following note:-" The quarry-face shows from 3^ to 
 40 feet of rather firm and massive white chalk «ith layers of ?rev-black 
 flints and some scattered nodules. About 10 feet from the top is a con 
 spicuous layer of flattened flints about four inches thick. This layer 'seems 
 to form a nearly continuous floor, but its surface is uneven and knobbly A 
 similar layer, but less thick, occurs about 18 inches beneath it " 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In, 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
MIDDLE CHALK. 
 
 69 
 
 In the following list the localities are indicated thus : 
 
 Sh = Shernborne. F = Fring. BH = Great Bircham. 
 
 Se = Sedgeford. R = Ringstead. B = Bircham Newton. 
 
 H = Heacham. Th = Thornham. D = Docking. 
 
 List of Fossils from 
 
 THE Middle Chalk. 
 
 
 
 Zone of 
 
 Zone 
 
 Zone of 
 
 
 Rhy 
 
 nchonella 
 
 of 
 
 Holaster 
 
 
 Cuvieri. 
 
 Ter. gracilis. 
 
 planus. 
 
 Echinoder7nata. 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 Cidaris sp. (spines) 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 — R ~ 
 
 BH 
 
 Cardiaster sp. (? pygmseus) 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 — R 
 
 
 Cyphosoma sp 
 
 — 
 
 _- — 
 
 — — — 
 
 BH 
 
 Discoidea minima, ^^ 
 
 Sh 
 
 — — 
 
 — R 
 
 
 Echinoconus subrotundus, Brong. 
 
 — 
 
 Se H 
 
 F R 
 
 
 Echinocorys vulgaris, Breyn. ... 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 — — — 
 
 — B D 
 
 Holaster planus, Mant. 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 — R? — 
 
 BH B D 
 
 Micraster sp 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 — — — 
 
 BH 
 
 Brachiopoda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rhynchonella Cuvieri, d'Orb. ... 
 
 Sh 
 
 Se H 
 
 F R 
 
 
 „ Martini (?), Mant.... 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ reedensis, Eth. 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 — — — 
 
 BH 
 
 „ plicatilis, 5ciw.(large) 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 __ ^ __ 
 
 BH — D 
 
 Terebratula carnea. Sow. 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 — — — 
 
 BH 
 
 „ semiglobosa. Sow.... 
 
 — 
 
 Se H 
 
 — R Th 
 
 BH 
 
 Terebratulina striata (?), Wahl.... 
 
 — 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 Lamellibranchiata. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inoceramus mytiloides, Mant. ... 
 
 Sh 
 
 Se - 
 
 — R 
 
 
 „ Brongniarti, Sow. ... 
 
 — 
 
 — H 
 
 -^ — Th 
 
 
 „ Cuvieri, (POrb. 
 
 ^- 
 
 — H 
 
 
 
 ,. . sp. ... 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 — — — 
 
 BH 
 
 Ostrea vesicularis, Lam.... 
 
 Sh 
 
 — H 
 
 — — — 
 
 — — D 
 
 Cephalopoda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ammonites (Acanthoceras) nodo- 
 
 
 
 
 
 soides, Schoth. ... 
 
 Sh 
 
 
 
 
 „ (Pachydiscus) peram- 
 
 
 
 
 
 plus, Mant. 
 
 — 
 
 Se? — 
 
 — — — 
 
 — B 
 
 ,, (Acanthoceras) rusti- 
 
 
 
 
 
 cus (?), So2V. 
 
 — 
 
 Se 
 
 
 
 ,, large smooth sp. ... 
 
 — 
 
 — H 
 
 
 
 Belemnites sp 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 — — — 
 
 — B 
 
 UPPER CHALK. 
 
 As already mentione.d it is very difficult if not impossible to 
 say where the Upper Chalk begins in West Norfolk, and par- 
 ticularly in our district. Dr. Barrois thought that all the 
 chalk with grey flints might be referred to the Middle Chalk, 
 but at the same time he admits that he was unable to recognise 
 the zone of Micraster cortestudinarium in a positive manner. 
 Mr. VV. Hill has recently visited all the quarries and exposures 
 that he could find in the eastern part of this area, and cannot 
 agree with Dr. Barrois in referring all the chalk with grey and 
 blackish-grey flints to the zone of Holaster planus. He thinks 
 
70 UPPER CHALK. 
 
 the higher part of this chalk may belong to the zone of M. 
 cortestudinarinm, and he even found black-grey flints in some of 
 the quarries referred by Dr. Barrois to the zone of M. coran- 
 guinum. 
 
 With the exception o{ Echinocorys {Ananchytes) vulgaris, ioasWs 
 are so rare in these pits that it is very difficult to determine the 
 question. In the first place, no specimen of Micraster cortestu- 
 dinariiun has yet been found ; but if we eliminate those places 
 where Holaster planus has been found and those vihexe Micraster 
 coranguimim occurs, there is left a tract of country in which a 
 few scattered exposures are to be seen, and these may provision- 
 ally, for the sake of convenience, be referred to the zone of 
 Micraster cortestudinarium. 
 
 ? Zone of Micraster cortestudinarium. 
 
 This band of chalk which we provisionally correlate with that 
 of Micraster cortestudinarium underlies all the south-eastern 
 corner of the area by Rudham, Tatterset, Bagthorpe, Barmer, 
 and Syderstone. With it may also be classed that exposed at 
 South Creake, and that in the valley between 'Stanhoe and 
 Burnham Westgate. 
 
 Details. 
 
 The first noticeable quarry is that marked on the Geological Survey map 
 about a mile north-east of Rudham Station. Mr. Woodward contributes 
 the following note :— This pit showed Chalk with a thin covering of brown 
 soil and chalky Boulder Clay, altogether about 20 feet in thickness being 
 exposed. Impersistent lines of tabular flint and two irregular layers of 
 nodular flint occurred. Besides these there were at least three veins of what 
 might be called " cross courses," or vertical and oblique veins of flint. The 
 Chalk was evidently disturbed, and it appeared as if the tabular layer of flint 
 had been shifted so as partly to overlap itself. 
 
 Mr. Hill visited this pit in 1897 and reports that it is about 30 feet deep 
 in chalk with greyish-black flints, some rather large. He found a fragment 
 of a Belemnite and a small Rhynchonella. 
 
 South-east of Rudham Church Mr. WOODWARD found a pit which showed 
 tolerably hard chalk with a few lines of black and grey flint and balls of 
 flint. 
 
 ■ Another quarry, about half a mile north-east of Houghton Church, may also 
 be referred to this zone. Mr. Hill saw it in 1897 and writes, — It is in 
 rather softer white chalk than is usual and the flints are blacker and smaller 
 in size. About 25 feet of chalk is shown, but the only fossils seen were a 
 fragment of a Cidaris spine and a crushed Echinocorys vulgaris. 
 
 Mr. G. Barrow contributes the following note : — Another patch of 
 Chalk commences at Barmer House and stretches in a comparatively narrow 
 strip along the east side of the road towards Syderstone. North of Barmer 
 are two shallow clay-pits having chalk at the base containing rows of large 
 flat flints and bands of very hard chalk. 
 
 Chalk is also exposed in a pit about a quarter of a mile south-east of 
 Syderstone Church. 
 
 The following is a translation of a note by Dr. Barrois : — " I have not 
 identified the zone of Micraster cortestudinarium in a positive manner, but 
 I refer to it a chalk with numerous black flints, visible in the cutting to the 
 east of Stanhoe Station. I have not, however, recognised the characteristic 
 fossils."* 
 
 * "Recherches sur le Terr. Cret, sup.," p. 162. 
 
UPPER CHALK. 7 1 
 
 Of the Chalk in this cutting Mr. Barrow remarks that it is hard and 
 almost flaggy ; when treading upon a heap of fresh fragments of this rock 
 the pieces ground together emit a slight clinking sound. This outcrop 
 would seem to continue along the bottom and lower flanks of the little 
 valley through which the railway runs, though here and there small patches 
 of clay are seen. 
 
 Zone of Mickaster coranguinum. 
 
 It is somewhat doubtful how much of this zone comes within 
 our area. The challc of Burnham Overy certainly belongs to it, 
 and Dr. Barrois regarded that of North and South Creal^e in 
 the same valley to the southward as also a part of it. Mr. W 
 Hill visited these localities in 1897, and found that the flints 
 in the South Creake Chalk are dark grey, while those at Burn- 
 ham Overy are darker grey-black, and some black ; the only 
 fossil he could find at South Creake was the ubiquitous Ecliino- 
 corys vulgaris. He is consequently doubtful whether it is really 
 in the M . coranguinum zone. On the other hand, Dr. BarroIS 
 records from this pit not only Micraster coranguimcm but al.'^.o 
 Echinoconus conicus. 
 
 Taking all the facts into consideration we are inclined to place 
 this chalk of South Creake in the zone of M. coranguiniiin, 
 though it is probably quite at its base, and that of Burnham 
 Overy is doubtless a little higher up. 
 
 Details. 
 
 Dr. Barrois says* : "This zone is quarried to the south of South Creake. 
 The chalk contains layers of black banded flints, from one to two metres 
 apart. Ferruginous infiltrations have coloured this chalk in several places, 
 penetrating along the flint layers. At the base of one of the quarries are 
 fragments of I'nocerami, such as often occur at this horizon ; in the upper 
 part there are thin layers of clayey marl." He mentions the following 
 fossils : — Micraster corangui?ium, Echinocorys gibbus, Echinoconus conicus, 
 Ostrea hippopodiiim, PUcatiila sigillina, and Inoceramus sp. 
 
 The following is a note on one of these pits by Mr. J. Rhodes : — South- 
 west of the church at South Creake a pit showed thick beds of hard Chalk, 
 with bands of nodular flint. Among the fossils were Terebraiula, Rhyn- 
 chonella, fragments of Inoceramus, Ostrea, spines of Cidaris, fragments of 
 Ananchytes, and Ventriculites. The fossils were most abundant 5 feet above 
 the bottom of the pit."t Mr. Hill notes that there is now (1897) from 20 
 to 25 feet of chalk exposed in this quarry. 
 
 Mr. H. B. Woodward remarks that "chalk is well exposed in pits north 
 of Burnham Overy Church, and to the east of Burnham Thorpe ; it may be 
 seen also in the cutting east of the railway-station, where the beds are hard 
 and flaggy. The pit close to the church at Burnham Thorpe showed well- 
 bedded chalk in layers of irregular thickness and durability. Even layers 
 and some irregular masses of dark bluish-grey flint occurred, mostly in 
 partings between the beds." 
 
 Dr. Barrois refers the Chalk of Burnham Overy to the zone of Micraster 
 coranguitium, and says, " it is a rather hard white chalk, in beds from 3 to 5 
 feet thick, separated by (layers of) rather large black flints. Fossils are 
 not common." He mentions the following Inocerami (with thick shell), 
 Spoftdylus latus, Echinocorys gibbus, Amorphospongia globosa. 
 
 • Translated from "Recherches sur le Terrain Cretace superieur,'' p. 162. 
 
 t From the note-book of Mr. J. Rhodes. Other fossils from South Creake (pit 
 in the area of 68 S.W.) are noted by Mr. Woodward in the explanation of the 
 adjoining map, "Geology of Fakenham, &c.,"p. 7. 
 
72 UPPER CHALK. 
 
 Mr. W. Hill visited the quarry at Burnham Overy, north of St. 
 Clement's Church, in 1897, and took the following section : — 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 Soil and rubble ... ... ... ... 2 o 
 
 Firm (but not very hard) white chalk with flints, 
 
 both scattered and arranged in lines about 
 
 18 inches apart ... ... ... about 
 
 A thin parting of marl 
 
 Rather rough and harder white chalk. Echino- 
 
 corys vulgaris ... 
 Thin parting of marl 
 Hard white chalk, containing cream-coloured 
 
 lumps, some thin flints at the base at inter- 
 vals. Micrasier sp. 
 Parting of marl 
 White chalk, containing hard crystalline lumps, 
 
 passing down to smoother, softer, but firm; 
 
 white chalk 
 Firm, white chalk with flints, seen for 
 
 A. J. J.-B. 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 ■6 
 
73 
 
 CHAPTER 6. GLACIAL DRIFT. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 In the area under description, the most prevalent Glacial 
 deposit is a light-coloured marly or chalky Boulder Clay, but 
 associated with this are loams or brick-earths, with sands and 
 gravels of a varying degree of coarseness. On the northern and 
 western borders of Norfolk, and also north of Boston, there 
 appears to be a different kind of Boulder Clay which is brown or 
 reddish in colour, and contains very little Chalk debris, but many 
 stones from distant sources. With this clay also are associated 
 a varied series of loams, sands, and gravels. 
 
 It is possible that the one set of Glacial Drifts is older than 
 the other set, but no clear evidence of such difference in age was 
 obtained during the survey of the area, and consequently no 
 attempt was made to separate them on the map. The colours 
 on the map distinguish, as far as possible, the stony clays (or 
 boulder clays), and the clean loamy clays or brick-earths from 
 the sands and gravels. This is a lithological division, but as the 
 boulder clays often pass into clays (with few stones) which are 
 used for brick-earth, and as the one is sometimes interbedded 
 with the other, as well as with sand or gravel, the distinction 
 cannot be made consistently accurate for all localities. 
 
 The sands and gravels do not occur on one horizon, but occur 
 sometimes below Boulder Clay, sometimes as lenticular beds and 
 masses in such clay, but more often, in the area under considera- 
 tion, they overlie the mass of Boulder Clay. There are also 
 places where the gravels seem to be banked up against the clay, 
 or where clay has cut out some part of a previous deposit of 
 gravel and sand, and there are cases where it is impossible to 
 say which kind of material was first accumulated. 
 
 As the grey and chalky Boulder Clay, with its associated beds, 
 covers a large portion of the Chalk area, and also underlies a 
 great part of the Fenland tract, we shall describe this group first 
 without, however,' making a definite assertion that it is the older 
 group. The Boulder Clay will be described in the first place, and 
 the sands and gravels subsequently in a separate chapter, irre- 
 spective of their superposition. 
 
 Finally, as the Brown Boulder Clays and loams seem to 
 occupy distinct and separate surface areas from the chalky clays, 
 they and the associated sands and gravels will be described in 
 another chapter ; it should be remembered that the Brown 
 Clay is probably superimposed on the Grey Boulder Clay at and 
 north of Boston, and possibly elsewhere. 
 
 The Glacial Drift on the chalk area varies greatly in thickness, 
 from a mere remnant of a few feet to a depth of 40 or 50 feet. 
 Many wells have been sunk through it to the chalk, but only 
 two are said to have traversed more than 50 feet, and of this 
 one (at Docking), conflicting accounts are given ; in the other 
 (at Massingham), the depth of Boulder Clay is said to be lOO feet. 
 
74 GLACIAL DRIFT. 
 
 Under the Fenland the Glacial Drift varies similariy in depth. 
 It consists, so far as known, entirely of Boulder Clay, and this 
 has a thickness of 30 feet at Lynn (under 20 feet of Fen Beds), 
 but is said to be over 90 feet at Long Sutton (under 57 feet of 
 Fen Beds), and is probably 166 feet thick at Boston (under 
 24 feet of Fen Beds.) 
 
 Chalky Boulder Clay. 
 
 The Boulder Clay on the higher ground in the eastern part of 
 the area comprised in Sheet 69 forms part of the great spread 
 of Glacial Drift which covers so much of Norfolk. The clay is 
 generally of a light colour, pale grey, buff or whitish, and 
 contains much chalky matter, so that it has been called "the 
 Chalky Boulder Clay," in contrast with the brown and reddish 
 Boulder Clays of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire. 
 
 It contains flints of many shapes and sizes, lumps of hard 
 chalk, of Red Chalk, of Carstone, and other derived fragments 
 which have clearly come from western or north-western out- 
 crops. Blocks and masses of chalk are also of frequent occur- 
 rence, some of them being evidently of large size. 
 
 This chalky clay was formerly dug very largely for 
 agricultural purposes. The " marl " was used to spread, not 
 only on the sandy and gravelly lands, but also on the loamy 
 and gravelly soil which often covers the clay land. Mr. H. B. 
 Woodward remarks that the " extent to which it was dug is 
 attested by the numerous old ' marl-pits ' which are to be found 
 all over the Boulder Clay tracts, few fields being without one 
 and many having two or more such excavations." 
 
 There is every reason to think that the Chalky Boulder Clay 
 and its associated beds once formed a continuous sheet or 
 mantle over the whole of the area comprised within Sheets 65 
 and 69 of the Geological Survey Map. It may even now form 
 a nearly continuous sheet beneath the northern part of the 
 Fenland and the adjoining portion of The Wash. 
 
 On the higher ground of the area, that is to say in West 
 Norfolk, this once extensive mantle of Boulder Clay has been 
 largely removed by Post-Glacial erosion and denudation, and 
 this is especially the case over the western slopes of this 
 higher ground. 
 
 Glacial Drift still mantles the greater part of the country in 
 the south-eastern part of the district, because this tract forms 
 a kind of table-land, and includes the water-shed between the 
 rivers which flow eastward and northward and the shorter 
 streams that run west^^'ard. This table-land has consequently 
 been less acted upon by detritive agencies ; nevertheless, most 
 of the valleys which traverse it have been cut down to the 
 underiying chalk. Farther west, however, rain and rivers have 
 carried away so much of the Glacial Drift that only disconnected 
 patches of it remain. 
 
CHALKY BOULDER CLAY. 75 
 
 Boulders. — Isolated boulders derived from the Glacial Drift 
 are of frequent occurrence in West Norfolk. In most cases they 
 have simply been weathered out of the Boulder Clay or gravel in 
 which they were originally embedded. Sometimes they still rest 
 on Glacial Drift, sometimes they lie on the surface of the Chalk 
 or of older beds, from which all the covering of Drift has been 
 removed by the action of rain and running water, the boulders 
 being too heavy for removal by such means, and too hard to 
 have been entirely split up and destroyed by frost and sun. It 
 is noticeable indeed that the boulders which remain are all of very 
 hard rock, such as sandstone or quartzite ; no doubt many 
 similar boulders of chalk, limestone, and other more easily de- 
 structible rocks have been gradually broken up and destroyed 
 by the above-mentioned subaerial agencies. 
 
 The following notes refer to the position and chai'acters of some of these 
 boulders : — 
 
 Mr. Whitaker observed that in two old pits, one about a mile and the 
 other three quarters of a mile westward of Roydon Church, there were two 
 boulders of hard Neocomian sandstone [greenish-grey glauconitic stone], 
 one, measuring 7^ x 6| x 2 feet, of a roundish shape, with the top surface 
 ground flat and coarsely scratched. In the other the sandstone is fossilifer- 
 ous, and contains phosphatic nodules, the block measuring about 6X4X i^ 
 feet. 
 
 The same observer noted, about two thirds of a mile N.N.W. of Congham 
 Church, between road and railway, a boulder of Millstone Grit, measuring 
 about i\\ X 2J feet, and showing about if above ground, the rest being 
 embedded in the soil. 
 
 Mr. Woodward observed a large quartzite boulder in the Boulder Clay 
 of the railway-cutting between Massingham and Rudham Stations. 
 
 He also saw two large boulders of quartzite to the north of the Black 
 Swan Inn at Creake, one of which measures 4x3x2 feet. 
 
 Mr. Reid measured a boulder of basalt by the road-side at Choseley, 
 north of Docking, and found its dimensions to be 4 x 2 x i^ feet. 
 
 Details. 
 
 In dealing with the notes of local exposures in the Boulder 
 Clay and brick-earth, it will be convenient to begin with the 
 area adjoining the southern border of the sheet, and to take 
 first the tract which lies south of Castle Rising. 
 
 Castle Rising. — An irregular patch of Boulder Clay, with some gravel in 
 the midst of it, stretches from the town to Rising Lodge, and thence along 
 the hill-top towards Roydon. This was mapped by Mr. Whitaker, 
 but the only exposure he found was in a gravel-pit (see p. 80). 
 
 There are several small patches of Boulder Clay near Roydon, and two 
 others near Hillington. Mr. Whitaker contributes the following notes on 
 exposures near Hillington, Anmer, and Massingham : — 
 
 Hillington. — In an old pit on the north of a barn about half a mile N. of E. 
 from Hillington Church, the northern and clearer end showed, in 1882, 
 hollows of very stony Boulder Clay over buff loam and sand ; a lower part 
 showed the buff loam with Boulder Clay apparently rising up from beneath 
 (but this may be a deep continuation of one of the hollows). The southern 
 part seemed to be in Boulder Clay and Chalk-rubble. There were boulders 
 of fossiliferous Neocomian Sandstone, with phosphatic nodules. 
 
 Aji?ner.- -At the triangular Common E.S.E. of Anmer, there is a set of 
 old pits, in a slight hollow, and clearly dug for buff and pale grey loam or 
 sandy clay, which must have been largely worked for bricks. It is probably 
 of Glacial age. There was an exposure of the loam at the south-eastern part 
 
ye GLACIAL DRIFT. 
 
 of the patch mapped, and loam or sandy clay was also seen beyond the 
 Common on the north-western side of the higher road. The boundary is 
 made doubtful by the drifted sand, which hides everything. 
 
 There is another large patch of Boulder Clay south of Anmer, and in a 
 pit just southward of the barn, on the hill-top, about a mile north-eastward 
 of Flitcham, the southern side gave the following section (1882) : — 
 Sandy and loamy soil. 
 Whitish, very chalky, Boulder Clay. 
 Pale gravelly sand, at one spot to about 2 feet. 
 Chalk with flints, at the bottom of the pit. 
 
 On the western side, sand, partly gravelly, was seen to come on over the 
 Boulder Clay, and toward the north there is a thickness of about 10 feet of it. 
 The eastern side was overgrown, and very little of the pit was clear. 
 
 Another old pit, in a field north-westward of the farm, showed little Boulder 
 Clay (really a marl), irregularly piped by brown loam and sand, with flints, 
 clearly the result of decalcification. Probably here, also, chalk was found 
 beneath. 
 
 In an old pit over half a mile north-eastward of Anmer Church, a like 
 section was seen to those just described. 
 
 In an old pit in a field a little south-east of Ling House, north of Anmer, 
 was seen whitish sandy chalky Boulder Clay, decalcified at top, where it 
 is penetrated by brown sand with flints. It looks as if chalk with flints had 
 been found beneath. 
 
 Another old pit, in a field just north-east of the same house, showed like 
 earth (sandy), up to eight feet thick, over soft white rubbly chalk. 
 
 At another, just south of the lane, not half a mile east of that house, I 
 could not well make out the beds. There seemed to be little of the Boulder 
 Clay piped into rubbly chalk ; and the Chalk probably comes up near to the 
 surface. 
 
 At yet another pit, by the hedge marked on the map, about a third of a 
 mile northward, chalk with flints (weathered at top) comes to the surface on 
 the southern and lower side, whilst on the north there seems to be a little 
 of the Boulder Clay. 
 
 Little Massinghmn. — At the brickyard there was in 1882 a shallow pit 
 with water, just south of the church, showing loam and sandy clay, weathered 
 brown at top and with flints, the lower part being grey and with fewer flints. 
 In many parts (south) only the brown earth was to be seen. Judging by 
 the earth thrown out a well has been carried through whitish Boulder Clay 
 into chalk (see p. 120). The most southerly pit was in light brown and grey 
 loam, with few stones. 
 
 A pit on the eastern side of the Peddar Road, nearly a mile west of Little 
 Massingham Church, showed a tiny patch of pale sandy chalky Boulder 
 Clay, passing- off" into rubble, over chalk with flints. A fault was shown by a 
 continuous layer of thick flint at the bottom. W. W.' 
 
 Great Massingham. — South of Upper House and a mile and three quarters 
 east of Great Massingham, Mr. Woodvi^ard saw a pit opened in Boulder 
 Clay, and north-east of the House another pit showed a "jamb" of dis- 
 turbed chalk in a loamy and flinty deposit consisting partly of reconstructed 
 chalk with knobs of hard chalk and chips of flint. 
 
 In the cutting north-east of Rudham Station, Mr. Whitaker saw a long 
 detached mass or boulder of chalk. 
 
 The Massingham tract of Boulder Clay was of course originally continuous 
 with that round Harpley, and this again with that north of Houghton and 
 Rudham, but they are now separated by narrow \aUeys which are cut down 
 into the underlying Chalk. 
 
 The following notes are by Mr. H. B. Woodward : — 
 
 Harpley and Rudham. —Xmund these places the Boulder Clay is fre- 
 quently covered by a loamy and sandy soil with flints. This soil sometimes 
 becomes so gravelly in appearance that it is not easy to decide from surface 
 evidence whether or not it should be mapped as a gravel. 
 
 Rather more than a quarter of a mile north of East Rudham Church, a 
 clayey soil with flints has been dug for making bricks, and bricks were also 
 made from a similar soil south-west of Harpley Church, 
 
CHALKY BOULDER CLAY. 'J^ 
 
 At Rudham the clay contains much hard chalk, and occasionally strips or 
 masses of chalk, also large flints or " paramoudras," and pieces of iron-sand- 
 stone (Carstone). 
 
 Bircham. — At Great Bircham there are two brickyards, one west of the 
 town, in which Mr. Reid saw about lo feet of stony loam and laminated 
 clay without stones, apparently overlying about 3 feet of chalky gravel, 
 but the whole was very irregular. 
 
 At the brickyard east of the town, Mr. Woodward found ordinary 
 Boulder Clay dug for brick-making, and saw a contorted mass of sand which 
 appeared to rest on the clay and to be connected with the patches of sand 
 and gravel that occur in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Banner and Syderstone. — Mr. Woodward mentions a pit south-east of 
 Barmer Church, which showed four or five feet of Boulder Clay resting on 
 much disturbed and partly reconstructed chalk ; on the south-west side of 
 the pit there was some sand and gravel. He also saw, in 1883, the section 
 represented in Fig. 6, in a pit near Syderstone, and remarks that '' There was 
 evidently a piped surface of Chalk prior to the accumulation of the Boulder 
 Clay. The ' pipes ' or pockets are known locally as ' golts ' of sand and gravel, 
 and these were truncated at the surface and portions of the gravel and sand 
 were incorporated with the Boulder Clay during its formation. The Boulder 
 Clay itself has subsequently been decdcified and 'piped,' and in one instance 
 (on the left side of the section) the newer pipe has merged downwards 
 into one of the earlier pipes in the Chalk. The Chalk itself was glaciated, 
 being much broken up, while the flints were shattered." 
 
 
 
 Figure 6. Section at Syderstone. 
 
 (H. B. Woodward.) 
 
 Length about 2 chains. Height 16 feet. 
 
 2. — Chalky Boulder Clay, piped, with upper part decalcified. 
 
 I, — Chalk with flints, blocky, and much disturbed by glacial action. It 
 
 contains pipes of sand and gravel, lined in places by dark brown or 
 
 black clay. 
 
 Uoch'ng.— The following notes on the Boulder Clay near this place are 
 furnished by Mr. Barrow :— 
 
 Between Bircham Newton and Docking the clay contains many large 
 lumps and blocks of ferruginous sandstone full of fossils (r Carstone). It 
 also contains lumps of hard chalk and rounded flints. 
 
 North-east of Bircham Newton and about three quarters of a mile south 
 of Docking Lodge is a pit showing the following sequence : — 
 
 Decomposed chalky clay with a clearly marked base-line. 
 
 Fine sharp and clean sand, apparently more than 10 feet. 
 
 Chalky Boulder Clay seen below at one side. 
 
^% GLACIAL DRIFT. 
 
 At Docking Lodge a pit shows chalky Boulder Clay overlain on the south 
 side by five or six feet of bedded sand and gravel. ■, , r n 
 
 A pit three quarters of a mile south of Docking Lodge showed the follow- 
 ing succession : — 
 
 Chalky Boulder Clay. 
 
 Fine sharp sand, over lo feet. 
 
 Chalky clay seen below. 
 
 At the pit on the south side of Docking the clay was so free from stones 
 that it was spoken of as brick-earth ; at the entrance to this pit the clay 
 rests on coarse gravel, or more probably a seam of gravel occurs in the clay, 
 the gravel consisting of hard rounded flints and pebbles of hard chalk. 
 
 In two pits near Stanhoe the clay is of a yellowish-white colour, and in 
 one case a seam of coarse sand occurred in it. 
 
 Just north-east of Docking there are two pits which intersect a transported 
 mass of chalk. It is steeply inclined to the west, and has Boulder Clay both 
 above and below it, but is thinner in one pit than the other. The line con- 
 necting the exposures runs N. lo W. and S. lo E. G. B. 
 
 Mr. Reid contributes the following notes on sections seen by him near 
 Docking : — 
 
 A pit one mile W.S.W. of the church showed about 15 feet of bedded 
 chalky Boulder Clay with scarcely any other stones than chalk and flint. 
 
 Another pit a quarter-mile south-east of the last showed — 
 Boulder Clay two feet. 
 Glaciated [? reconstructed] chalk eight feet. 
 Chalk with flints. 
 
 A quarry about a quarter of a mile north-west of the church is in chalk, 
 and has been mapped as if it showed chalk in a normal position, but Mr. 
 Reid records that it has a dip of 60' to the E.S.E ; consequently it is most 
 probably a transported mass like that seen in the pits north-west of the 
 village. The chalk here exposed contains both scattered nodules and layers 
 of flint, and is overlain by about two feet of brown chalky rubble. 
 
 An old pit on the Heacham road one mile from Docking exposed four feet 
 of hard sandy loam with angular stones (apparently decalcified Boulder 
 Clay) overlying eight feet of very chalky Boulder Clay. C. R. 
 
 East of Docking, round Stanhoe, and thence to the edge of the Creake 
 and Burnham Valley, as well as northward toward Brancaster, there is a 
 broad spread of Boulder Clay. Few notes respecting it have come into our 
 hands, but it would appear to have everywhere the usual characters of the 
 chalky and stony type of Boulder Clay already described. 
 
 Sedgeford.— West of Docking there is a considerable tract of gravel 
 (see p. 84), but towards Sedgeford Boulder Clay is again found, and on the 
 hill east of the village there is a separate tract consisting partly of brick- 
 earth and partly of Boulder Clay capped by a patch of gravel. Of this tract 
 Mr. Whitaker furnishes the following notes :— 
 
 About a third of a mile east of Sedgeford Station, on the north of the rail- 
 way and on the east of a lane not marked on the map, and touching both, is 
 an old pit and pond, showing pale grey and buff fine sandy clay or loam, in 
 parts with some very small chalk-pebbles, apparently a sandy Boulder Clay. 
 There are two other old pits opposite, one on the west of the lane, the other 
 on the south of the railway, overgrown, but presumably in like earth, all 
 these pits being in the little wood. The little cutting just westward was 
 overgrown, but chalk was turned out at a telegraph-post. 
 
 A little way south of the railway just west of the next road to the east, 
 from a farm, is a larger old pit and pond, showing stiff grey clean clay. 
 
 Above, or south of, the farm, which is on the eastern side of the road, is 
 a pond overgrown, but showing some buff sandy Boulder Clay, like that in 
 the pit to the north-west, just noted. W. W. 
 
 Brancaster Field, -yix. A. C. G. Cameron reports that the clay on the 
 high ground south of Brancaster and Burnhanj Deepdale is mostly of the 
 light-coloured chalk?y type. Thus a pit on Barrow Common showed a fine 
 
CHALKY BOULDER CLAY. 79 
 
 whitish chalky clay at the top with little but chalk in it, and below was a 
 bluish clay with many stones and boulders. Another pit near by was 10 
 feet deep in a greyish Boulder Clay with large pieces of chalk, large scratched 
 flints and other stones ; at the top are two feet of clayey gravel (? weathered 
 Boulder Clay soil). 
 
 He mentions another pit about three quarters of a mile south of Burnham 
 Deepdale as exposing " Boulder Clay which is red in the upper part and 
 white below, and has numerous flints in it." If the red clay here is like the 
 reddish (Hessle) clay of the low ground near Brancaster this section may be 
 of some importance as showing the superposition of that clay on the chalky 
 clay. 
 
 Mr. Cameron also mentions a pit just south of Moodie Cottage, Burn- 
 ham Sutton, in which he saw a sandy marl with contorted beds and a gravelly 
 base overlying very chalky Boulder Clay which seemed to pass under a mass 
 of chalk or chalk-rubble. Here, again, there seems to be a newer deposit 
 (? of Hessle Clay age) resting on the (? older) chalky Boulder Clay. 
 
 A. J. J.-B. 
 
 2 
 
8o 
 
 CHAPTER 7. GLACIAL DRIFT {Continued). 
 
 Gravel and Sand Associated with Chalky Boulder 
 
 Clay. 
 
 The gravelly and sandy deposits associated with the chalky 
 Boulder Clay are difficult to classify. In this area such deposits 
 for the most part overlie the clay, but they occasionally underlie 
 it, and are in some cases clearly interbedded with it. There are 
 also isolated patches of gravel which are not now in contact with 
 Boulder Clay, but which from their position and character appear 
 to be of Glacial age and have been coloured as Glacial gravel 
 on the map. 
 
 These gravels and sands present all degrees of coarseness 
 from a fine sand to a coarse sand with scattered stones, and 
 from a fine gravel to a deposit of large stones and boulders. 
 As a general rule their materials have been principally derived 
 from the Chalk, sometimes they consist almost entirely of rolled 
 chalk pebbles, in other cases of such pebbles mixed with flints 
 in varying proportion ; even the sands are generally composed 
 of fine chalk and flint debris. A careful search, however, 
 generally discovers some travelled stones, and these have usually 
 come from sites to the westward or north-westward. Thus, on 
 the Lower Greensand area lumps of Kimeridge clay are common 
 in the Drift, and on the Chalk area pieces of Carstone and Red 
 Chalk occur. There are also fragments of sandstone and lime- 
 stone which have come from the north or north-west, and some 
 of basalt, but these are rare. 
 
 Details. 
 
 In describing local details, it will be convenient to begin as 
 
 before near Castle Rising, and the following notes on that 
 
 district and the adjoining area to the eastward are by 
 Mr. Whitaker. 
 
 Castle Rising.— Gmvd. rises from beneath the eastern end of the patch of 
 Boulder Clay, south of Castle Rising. There is a pit at the edge of the wood 
 rather more than three quarters of a mile south-west of the church. When 
 seen in 1881, the southern end of the eastern face showed a trifle of whitish 
 Boulder Clay, over about eight feet of bedded grey brick-earth, with a layer 
 of chalky gravel at about the middle. The beds rose northward, and were 
 then lost, chalky sand and gravel rising up from below ; but farther on the 
 gravel was again capped by a little of the brick-earth, also chalky, to the 
 thickness of nearly three feet at the north, and there are also traces of 
 Boulder Clay at top. A thickness of eight feet of the gravel was shown at 
 one place ; but all the lower part was hidden by fallen earth. The uprising 
 of this gravel from beneath the bordering Boulder Clay is shown by a small 
 spot of colour on the map. 
 
 Still farther south is a larger patch of gravel, which also passes beneath 
 Boulder Clay to the south-eastward. Gra\el has been dug in it west of Rising 
 Lodge. 
 
 f^abins;ley.—^or\h of the Babingley River there are two irregular patches 
 of Glacial gravel ; one about a mile in length north-east of Babingley appears 
 to rest directly on the Lower Greensand, the other on a hill south of West 
 
GRAVEL AND SAND. 8 1 
 
 Newton overlies Boulder Clay and brick-earth. Gravel has been dug at both 
 places. 
 
 The patch of gravel north-eastward of Babingley varies greatly in level ; 
 but seems to be continuous from end to end. The possibility of a little clay 
 occurring beneath it has been alluded to (p. 94). 
 
 Just west of the sixth milestone, on the high-road, was a pit, 12 feet deep, 
 in gravel and sand, with small boulders of dark grey laminated fossiliferous 
 clay (probably Kimeridge) in the lower part, and, near the bottom, with a 
 layer of pale grey clay at one part. The gravel is chiefly of flints. 
 
 Westward of the hill-top is a line of old pits in the gravel and sand, from 
 the Sandringham road to the high-road. 
 
 IVesi Newton. — On the Common on the hill-top (about a mile W.S.W. 
 from West Newton Church) there was another set of pits showing gravel 
 and sand, to a thickness of 1 5 feet. The gravel here consists chiefly of 
 flints and of chalk-pebbles (of various sizes), with some ferruginous stone 
 from the Lower Greensand, and it is partly coarse, partly fine, and 
 irregularly bedded. 
 
 On lower ground just by (E.S.E.) were other pits in sand and flint-gravel, 
 to the depth of about 10 feet at one spot. 
 
 In the patch south of West Newton there was, in 1882, a gravel-pit near 
 the top of the hill, about three quarters of a mile south of West Newton 
 Church ; the face was mostly hidden, but at the southern end I saw a few 
 feet of current-bedded sandy gravel, chiefly of flints, and with some pieces of 
 ferruginous stone from the Lower Greensand. To the north, on the eastern 
 side, and at a lower level there was buff sand to over five feet thick, above 
 gravel, chiefly of hard chalk-pebbles (which are rare in the other part) and 
 flints, to a depth of seven feet. The sand occurred only on the east. 
 
 At an old pit, just north-west and close to the plantation, there seemed to 
 be some Boulder Clay, at all events, whitish clayey earth of some sort, as 
 also at another old pit toward the western part of the hill, and westward of 
 the same plantation. 
 
 HiUington. — At and near this place there is a tract of Glacial deposits 
 consisting of Boulder Clay, loam, gravel, and sand, much intermingled. An 
 old pit, about 15 feet deep, in the small round wood, marked on the map, 
 two thirds of a mile south-eastward of HiUington Church, showed, in 18B1, 
 a sort of gravel, composed chiefly of pebbles and blocks of chalk, tightly 
 packed ; with many blocks of dark grey clay (? Kimeridge), full of indis- 
 tinguishable shells, and some boulders of chalk and of a few other rocks. 
 This was seen to be roughly bedded, with sandy layers (full of chalk-grains),' 
 and near the middle to contain an irregular bed of loam, in great part marly 
 and tough, and partly with chalk-grains, which rose to the surface at the 
 south. The top part of the gravel is clayey in places, and the very little 
 of this seen would do for very stony Boulder Clay. 
 
 At a later visit (1883) the underwood having been cut down made the 
 section clearer, and some large boulders of chalk and large lumps of the clay 
 were seen. The material was about the most jumbled-looking in the district, 
 a sort of Boulder Clay less the clay. W. W. 
 
 Between HiUington and Massingfiain.— Another tract of gravel with some 
 Boulder Clay on its southern side lies on the high ground, about two miles 
 east of Congham. Of this MR. Whitaker observed :— 
 
 In the pit, marked on the map, on the northern side of the road, 2^ miles 
 east of Congham Church, there is, at top, three feet or more of rubbly earth, 
 with flints (chiefly in the bottom part). At the north this expands into a 
 hollow of Drift, consisting of traces of light-coloured sandy Boulder Clay at 
 lop, in parts, and gravel, mostly chalky, with a layer of irregular iron-sand- 
 stone. The chalk beneath, shown to a depth of about 1 5 feet, is singularly 
 broken up, being composed of lumps of all sizes (up to nearly two feet in 
 length), and of less hardness than the chalk at lower horizons, in a softer 
 matrix. There is an irregular layer of flints in the lower part, and there are 
 other flints in places above. At the south (overgrown) there are also traces 
 of the Drift-hollow, which must run about north and south across the pit, 
 and with more decided Boulder Clay. 
 
82 GLACIAL DRIFT. 
 
 An old pit on the northern spur of this hill, nearly a mile south of Harp- 
 ley Dam House, was also examined in 1882 ; the lower part was hidden, but 
 a thickness of about seven feet of gravel was seen. This consisted chiefly 
 of chalk-pebbles, except at the top, where the chalk has been dissolved 
 away irregularly, leaving the other stones in brown sand ; there are also 
 flints, some pieces of ironstone from the Lower Greensand, and a good 
 many small dark nodules, like the phosphates of that formation. Two fair- 
 sized boulders, apparently of Neocomian Sandstone, were seen — one at the 
 bottom of the gravel, the other lying in the pit. 
 
 An old overgrown pit a little W.S W., marked on the map, showed 
 gravelly earth at top, and there are other signs of the like, which led me to 
 map gravel over the hill-top instead of only over the northern spur, as I was 
 at first inclined to do. 
 
 There are several small patches of gravel on the southern slope of the 
 valley along which the railway is carried, and in one of these, about half a 
 mile W.N.W. of Little Massingham Church, a pit in a little wood showed 
 soil and gravelly patches overlying brown and buff' sand, with a few gravelly 
 layers, the total depth being up to 1 1 feet. W. W. 
 
 The following notes on the tracts of gravel in the south-eastern corner of 
 the area are by iViR. H. B. WOODWARD : — 
 
 Kipton Heath. — The tract of gravel which comes to the surface on Kipton 
 Heath passes eastward beneath Boulder Clay. A pit south of Kipton Ash 
 Fair Place showed chalky Boulder Clay resting on pale buff" and white chalky 
 sand, with much current-bedding, and with layer of small chalk-pebbles here 
 and there. About seven feet of this sand was visible. By the railway, west 
 of Kipton Heath, a pit showed alternations of buff and brown sand ten feet 
 in thickness, with a gravelly soil on the top. On the Heath gravel has been 
 dug. 
 
 Tatterset stands on gravel, which also probably passes beneath the 
 Boulder Clay of the higher land to the eastward. A large pit by the side of 
 the high-road at Tatterset showed the following section : — 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Reddish flint gravel, some large flints i 6 
 
 Sand, with seams of loamy clay, somewhat 
 
 contorted ? i 
 
 Pale buff-coloured gravel composed of chalk 
 
 and flint, with some large boulders of flint... 12 to 15 
 The different appearance of the two gravels is ho doubt due to the solution 
 of the chalk and the oxidation of the iron in the upper bed, while the lower 
 gravel has been protected from such alteration by the intervening layer of 
 loamy sand and clay. 
 
 Syderstone.—Oxi the high ground south of Syderstone, forming Rudham 
 and Syderstone Commons, there is a large tract of gravel, and a pit on 
 Rudham Common exposed about 18 feet of coarse gravel, composed mainly 
 of flint and chalk-stones, with some patches of Boulder Clay. There is 
 similar gravel south-east of Wickend Farm, but north-eastward, near White 
 Hall, there is sand. 
 
 Hough/on.— Knoth&r tract of sand and gravel lies on the Chalk to the 
 north of Houghton, and a pit half a mile north-west of Houghton Hall 
 showed white and buff sand, with some gravel resting on Chalk. Over a 
 large part of the Houghton estate the soil is very light and sandy, especially 
 to the west of the Hall, but in many places the old pits show that chalky 
 clay or Chalk was reached at no great depth. 
 
 Harpley.—O-a. Harpley Common and to the south-east of it there is much 
 coarse flmt boulder-gravel, composed of large rounded flints, shattered flints 
 ironstone nodules, and a few quartzite pebbles in a brown loamy sand the 
 whole very irregularly arranged. H. B W 
 
 Mr. Whitaker has the following note on sections here :— 
 An old pit in a field just west of the hill-top, and over a quarter of a mile 
 north-eastward of Harpley Dam House, showed, in 1882, coarse gravel, with 
 
GRAVEL AND SAND. 83 
 
 a matrix of brown loam. It was chiefly composed of rather large flints, 
 with many pieces of ferruginous stone from the Lower Greensand. At one 
 part a lump of buff sand came abruptly up to the surface. 
 
 Another old pit a Httle northward, in the ne.xt field, showed at the top (the 
 rest being hidden) a little mixture of chalk, flints, and chalky sand (? the 
 bottom part of the gravel), with chalk apparently close below. W. W. 
 
 West of Wash Meres a pit showed coarse gravel and Boulder Clay resting 
 on Chalk. Another patch of coarse " cannon-shot " gravel occurs to the 
 northward about half a mile north-east of Bircham Heath Farm, and a pit 
 here exposed about 1 5 feet of such material. Large paramoudras were seen 
 here, and one measured two by two feet, having an irregular cavity extend- 
 ing about three parts of the depth. 
 
 Bircham. — On Bircham Common is another large tract of sand and gravel 
 which appears to overlie Boulder Clay, and a tongue of this extends north- 
 eastward to Bagthorpe. A pit by the wood south of Bircham Tofts showed 
 1 2 feet of buff sand, with seams of chalky gravel and a covering of gravelly 
 soil. 
 
 In the brickyard east of Great Bircham Church there is sand which, 
 although included and contorted with the Boulder Clay, appears to be 
 connected with the sand and gravel that spreads over much of the district 
 to the southward. H. B. W. 
 
 West of Great Bircham there are several patches of gravel in and below 
 the Boulder Clay, and at Bircham Newton, a quarter of a mile south-west of 
 the church, was a pit in a kind of gravel which Mr. Reid describes as 
 rounded chalk rubble, with foreign pebbles passing down into angular chalk 
 rubble, with nests of sand. 
 
 Docking. — A large irregular tract of gravel occurs near Docking, 
 spreading to the west, north, and south of the village. About three 
 quarters of a mile south of the church is a large gravel-pit, of which 
 Mr. Barrow furnishes the following note : — The gravel here consists of 
 great boulders of hard chalk and flint mixed with finer material, and is re- 
 markably well bedded. It rests against a steep face of chalk, and it appears 
 to pass under the Boulder Clay. I could not see this in the quarry, but 
 the man there assured me very positively that it did. I hunted a long time 
 but could find no shells. The finer material consists chiefly of fine flakes 
 and grains of hard chalk ; the great amount of which makes the whole 
 dazzlingly white in the sun. 
 
 Mr. B.\rrow contributes the following notes respecting the long strip of 
 gravel which follows the road from Docking to Syderstone. It extends 
 for about two miles to the south-east, and then turns to the west towards 
 Bircham, and keeping north of Bagthorpe forms a small strip along the 
 Bircham and Syderstone road. As a rule this gravel consists of rather large 
 rounded lumps of flint and sometimes hard chalk, in a matrix of coarse 
 sand. It is subject, however, to considerable local variation. In one of the 
 western pits on Docking Common it consists mostly of broken angular- 
 looking flints, rounded ones being uncommon. At the southern end of the 
 Common is a bed of fine, clean red sand in the gravel, the latter, however, 
 shows no bedding. 
 
 When this gravel comes nearest to Little Barwick it presents a curious 
 character. It has been so firmly cemented together by iron that blocks of 
 it have been used in building several cottages in the immediate neighbour- 
 hood. 
 
 The other little patches of gravel mostly call for no particular notice. 
 The one near Docking Lodge looks suspiciously like a decomposition pro- 
 duct of a very stony clay ; but the farmer assured me that in the wood it 
 went to a considerable depth ; and the fact that there are no marl-pits in it, 
 seems to show that it must be a distinct deposit. G. B. 
 
 The tongue of gravel which runs northward from Docking seems to be in 
 a hollow of the chalk which comes up to the surface in the railway-cutting 
 west of the Station. Mr. Whitaker referring to this cutting remarks that 
 it is now overgrown, and the junction of the Drift with the Chalk is con- 
 cealed. On the southern side of the cutting, however, he saw a little buff 
 sandy Boulder Clay overlying buff sand with thin layers of Boulder Clay near 
 
84 GLACIAL DRIFT. 
 
 the top ; the sand goes down below the level of the rails, the depth of the 
 cutting being about i8 feet. 
 
 Farther west, and south of Summerfield, is a small patch of gravel in 
 which there is a large pit. Mr. Reid saw here, in 1882, 20 feet of coarse 
 gravel consisting almost entirely of chalk and flint stones, well rolled, and 
 resting upon Chalk. 
 
 About a mile N.N.W. of Summerfield is another patch of gravel associated 
 with a tract of Boulder Clay, and still farther north, near Thornham Ling, is 
 an oblong patch of gravel resting on Chalk. The following note by Mr. 
 Whitaker relates to this locality : — 
 
 An old pit in a field a little south-east of Thornham Ling was in very 
 irregular chalky gravel, with at one part what may be called a chalk-grit, 
 and at another part with chalky sand. At the clearest (western) part the 
 gravel was seen, in 1883, to contain many very large flints, more or less 
 rounded and pounded, and to be associated (? interbedded) with some buff 
 sandy Boulder Clay. There were a few small pieces of Red Chalk, and 
 a block of Neocomian sandstone with shells and phosphatic nodules 
 (?from Lincolnshire). At another part the Boulder Clay was seen to cut 
 obliquely over the gravel ; but other gravel may come on above. The whole 
 deposit looks Glacial. 
 
 Sedgeford. — The gravel which caps the hill east of Sedgeford was men- 
 tioned on p. 78 ; the following notes respecting it are by Mr. Whitaker. 
 At its western end about a mile E.N.E. of Sedgeford Church, and in a 
 narrow enclosure bordering the western side of the lane leading northward 
 wifs a small pit, some eight feet deep, in brown sandy irregular gravel con- 
 taining many large flints (some splintered into many fragments), pieces of 
 ferruginous stone from the Lower Greensand, and what seem to be som.e 
 small pieces of Red Chalk. At the farm to the east there was a pit, showing 
 over six feet of brown gravelly sand, just above the large pond to the north, 
 which is in Boulder Clay. This patch of gravel seems to rest partly on 
 Chalk and partly on Boulder Clay and loam. W. W. 
 
 In the valley south-east of Sedgeford a series of small patches of gravel 
 and sand have been mapped. One of these abuts against the chalk exposed 
 in the quarry, about 350 yards south-east of the church. It is described 
 by Mr. Cameron as consisting of sand and gravel partly coarse and partly 
 fine, with a wedge-shaped bed of sandy loam or brick-earth. The gravel 
 consists of chalk-pebbles, flints, lumps of Carstone, and a few of Red Chalk, 
 and appears to rest on a stony Boulder Clay the base of which was not 
 seen. 
 
 The last of this series of gravelly patches is one which extends from Fring 
 Wood to the ground on which Fring Church stands. Gravel is dug in Fring 
 Wood, and Mr. Cameron supplies the following note of the section : — The 
 sand and gravel are very irregularly interbedded, but the face exposed in 
 1883 may be described as showing coarse gravel including an irregular bed 
 of sand, the base of the gravel resting on a sloping surface of coarse, yellow 
 laminated sand. 
 
 Several patches of gravel have been mapped to the east of Sedgeford, but 
 no notes of any exposures have come into our hands. 
 
 Another small tract occurs on the slope of the hill near the farm called 
 Horsewell, north of Snettisham. Gravel was being dug from this in 1875, 
 and was seen by Mr. Jukes-Browne, who noted the material as coarse 
 gravel with irregular patches of sand, the stones were chiefly rolled flints and 
 chalk-pebbles, probably more than 50 per cent, being of chalk. 
 
 Syderstone and Cruake.—SevnaA patches of sand and gravel have been 
 mapped to the east and north of Syderstone, and others west of South 
 Creake, and these seem to be lenticular strips intercalated in the Boulder 
 Clay. (See p. 77.) 
 
 Biirnhain.—O-a Gallow Hill, south of Burnham Westgate, there are 
 several tracts of gravel. Half a mile south-west of the church are two pits 
 of which Mr. Cameron reports as follows :— The first pit is from 25 to 30 
 feet deep, and shows alternations of coarse and fine flint gravel in a sandy 
 matrix ; at the bottom the stones are large and well rounded, resembling 
 
GRAV-EL AND SAND. 85 
 
 cannon-shot. Another pit to the eastward shows similar gravel at the top, 
 but partially growif over ; underneath it and well exposed for 13 feet is clean 
 chalky marl, i.e., chalk churned up into a pasty marl that cannot be truly 
 called clay for it probably has 90 per cent, of carbonate of lime. The total 
 depth of the pit is about 25 feet. 
 
 Brancasler. — Gravel associated with chalky clay is again found on Barrow 
 Common, south of Brancaster. The following notes are by Mr. Cameron : — 
 A pit on the northern edge of the Common showed alternations of gravel and 
 sand, thus — 
 
 Feet. 
 Gravel ... ... ... 3 
 
 Coarse yellow sand ... 2 
 
 Gravel ... ... ... 2 
 
 Fine yellow sand ... 2 
 
 Another pit showed an equal depth of current-bedded gravel and sand, 
 rather ferruginous and made up chiefly of angular flints and pebbles of grey 
 and red sandstone. A. C. G. C. 
 
86 
 
 CHAPTER 8. GLACIAL DRIFT {Continued). 
 The Brown Boulder Clav and its Associated Deposits. 
 
 The Boulder Clay which borders the northern coast differs 
 from that which covers the chalk to the southward, and closely 
 resembles the upper brown Boulder Cla}' in Yorkshire and 
 Lincolnshire, which was called the Hessle Clay by MR. Searles 
 Wood, Junr. 
 
 This clay of the northern border is generally of a reddish- 
 brown colour with grey streaks and mottlings, and has fewer 
 stones than the ordinary grey chalky clay. It has much less 
 chalk in it, only small scattered pellets or pebbles of chalk, and 
 fewer flints ; the commonest stones after these being frag'ments 
 of basalt, of quartzite, and of red and yellow sandstones. In 
 some places it includes or passes into a brown sandy brick-earth. 
 There are also associated beds of gravel and sand. 
 
 Whether these brown clays and brick-earths are really a dis- 
 tinct formation of either earlier or later date than the inland 
 chalky Boulder Clay is a question which has not yet been 
 decided. MR. Woodward was unable to separate them in the 
 sheet to the east (68) from the clays and loams of the Contorted 
 Drift Series, but in Lincolnshire they have been regarded as more 
 recent than the chalky Boulder Clay. In this sheet (69) Mr. 
 Cameron has seen one case in which a reddi.sh clay over- 
 lies a whitish chalky clay (see p. 79) ; but, on the other hand, 
 Mr. Reid observed that on the foreshore near Brancaster the 
 red passed laterally into grey clay. 
 
 The following notes by Mr. Woodward relate to the country near Burn- 
 ham Overy on the eastern border of the map : — 
 
 The surface soil over much of the country between Holkham (Quarter 
 Slieet 68 N.W.') and Burnham Ovejy is a brown loam. In the Holkham 
 Brickyard the earth worked is a mottled brown and grey stony loam or 
 Boulder Clay with only a few stones. Before this pit was opened up bricks 
 for the Holkham Estate were manufactured at Burnham Norton. 
 
 Just east of Burnham Overy Watermill is a pit showing sand over brick- 
 earth. Farther east, brown loam was exposed in the ditches and in the 
 railway-cutting, and overlying this to the north were patches of gravel and 
 sand. The boundaries between the chalk and brick earth north and north- 
 east of Burnham Overy are vague, but the soil was so loamy that I could not 
 hesitate to show the brick-earth as occurring continuously to the Alluvium 
 east of Overy Staith. Bacon has remarked that " From Holkham Park 
 West Gate, right and left of the road to Burnham Market, the soil is deep 
 and of fine quality, upon which as much as eight quarters per acre of barley 
 have been grown."* 
 
 North of Pinkney Hall a small excavation by the Alluvium showed 
 about five feet of brown loam resting on three feet of stiff blue and pale 
 brown mottled clay. Farther north a brickyard has been opened in the 
 loamy soil on top of the Boulder Clay. H. B. W. 
 
 Associated with this brown Boulder Clay are several tracts of sand and 
 gravel. Mr. Woodward writes :— There aie deposits of sand and gravel 
 which stand out as prominent mounds or hills in the country round Burnham 
 
 ' Agriculture of Norfolk,' p. 15. 
 
BROWN BOULDER CLAY. ■■ 87 
 
 Overy. One of these, near Overy Staith, forms a tract about half a mile 
 long by a quarter of a mile wide, and a pit was opened in it south of the 
 Staith, but the gravel found was too sandy to be of much use. 
 
 East of Overy water-mill a pit was open in sand, and farther east a small 
 outlying hill like a barrow seems to be formed of loam covered by a slight 
 gravelly capping. H. B. W. 
 
 Referring to the Holkham brickyard, Mr. CAMERON remarks that 
 although the clay is sufficiently free of stones when washed to be used as 
 brick-earth, there are stones in it which have to be picked or washed out. 
 Judging from a heap of these in the yard, the bulk of them are subangular 
 fragments of limestone, small boulders of basalt, pebbles of sandstone, and 
 quartzites from Triassic deposits. 
 
 About half-way between Burnham Westgate and Burnham Deepdale 
 there is a deposit of brick-earth which was worked for a long time. Mr. 
 Cameron found three pits here in 1882 ; one showed reddish unstratified clay, 
 containing small stones and occasional seams or " flashes " of gravel. This 
 clay is 4 or 5 feet thick, and rests on a sand which is full of small pebbles 
 of chalk. The next pit (west of the first) was disused, but exposes about 
 9 feet of fine, brown, sandy loam, containing calcareous concretions which 
 are called " ginger " by the workmen. A third pit, south of the above, showed 
 the following succession : — 
 
 Feet. 
 Stony clay and gravel, with a variety of pebbles, 
 
 resting unevenly on the loam below ... from oto 3 
 Fine, clean, brown, sandy loam (brick-earth) „ 5 to 8 
 Fine gravel and sand, very chalky, base not seen 2 
 
 The loam or brick-earth which occurs in two of the pits is too " mild " for 
 use by itself, and is consequently mixed with the stronger red clay found in 
 the first pit. A. C. G. C. 
 
 These brickyards are now abandoned and obliterated. — G. W. L. 1898. 
 
 The section south of Burnham Deepdale, where red clay was seen over- 
 lying white chalky clay, has been mentioned on p. 79. 
 
 A long continuous tract of the reddish-brown Boulder Clay runs all the 
 way from Brancaster to Hunstanton, a distance of six miles. It forms a 
 sort of terrace between the marshlands of the coast and the slope of the 
 bare chalk-land above. This Boulder Clay extends under the marshland, 
 and is probably banked up against a steep slope or cliff of chalk on the 
 south, just as the brown Bouldef (i)ays of Lincolnshire are banked up against 
 the buried cliff-line of the Lincolnshire Wolds. 
 
 Mr. Reid noticed that in Brancaster Bay at low water of spring tides 
 the Boulder Clay was seen on the foreshore underlying the "submerged 
 forest." Most of the clay was of a brown colour, like that of Hunstanton, 
 but for a short distance this clay passed both laterally and vertically into 
 lead-coloured, very chalky Boulder Clay. 
 
 The eastern termination of this strip of clay is concealed by a superficial 
 deposit of gravel which stretches from Burnham Deepdale to Brancaster. 
 At Thornham and Holme the width of the clay strip is more than half a 
 mile on the average. It runs for a short distance up the valley of the little 
 stream at Old Hunstanton, and is also found on the western side of the 
 alluvium between the sand-dunes and the chalk-cliff. 
 
 This continuous strip of Boulder Clay resembles the Hessle Clay of 
 Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, not only in its colour and general characters, 
 but also in the geographical position which it occupies ; intervening as it 
 does between the sea-bord marshes on the one hand, and the higher Chalk- 
 land on the other. In the two more northern counties the Boulder Clays 
 appear to be banked up against an ancient coast-line, and the line of junction 
 often coincides with a concealed line of cliffs. The continuous boundary of 
 the Hessle Clay along the tract above mentioned and the abrupt termination 
 of the clay against the inland slope of Chalk, suggests that there is a similarly 
 concealed coast-line along the northern border of Norfolk, and that the 
 relative positions of Chalk, Boulder Clav, and Marshland are as represented 
 in Fig. 7. 
 
88 - GLACIAL DRIFT. 
 
 •J Sand By Chalk 
 
 Hills. Church. Pit. 
 
 Road. S 
 
 
 Figure, j. Section through Holme. (Jukes-Browne.) 
 
 Scale, 2 inches to one mile. 
 
 c = Chalk. "I = Marsh beds. 
 
 6 = Boulder Clay. ss = Sea-level. 
 
 Mr. Lamplugh supplies the following note on a section recently observed 
 by him at the north-eastern termination of the Chalk Cliff at Hunstanton : — 
 
 I noticed at this place, in 1895, that the Chalk ended abruptly in a low 
 cliff, against which chalky rubble was banked, reminding me somewhat of 
 the buried cliff at Sowerby in Yorkshire. 
 
 On re-examining the section, however, during my recent visit to Hun- 
 stanton (June, 1898), I found that the blown sand, which hides everything 
 beyond this point, had suffered further erosion, revealing a somewhat clearer 
 section. The Chalk ends off, as I had previously seen, in a steep cliff-like 
 slope about 18 feet high, but reappears 12 yards farther east, with a similar 
 slope facing in the opposite direction, only the lower part of which is at 
 present uncovered, consisting of red chalk, capped with the Sponge and 
 Inoceramus beds. The interval between the two opposite slopes is still 
 partly obscured by blown sand, but appears to be filled up entirely with 
 somewhat subangular chalky wash or rubble, in which the only extraneous 
 substance which I could detect was a small pebble of quartzite. We seem 
 here to have a section across a shallow valley in the Chalk, such as are 
 frequently revealed in the Flamborough Cliffs in Yorkshire. The course of 
 this valley can be traced inland by a slight depression of the surface ; it 
 runs southward, nearly parallel to the present cliff. A better section will, no 
 doubt, be afforded in the future, as the erosion of the dunes at this place is 
 still in progress. G. W. L. 
 
 By the road south of Old Hunstanton Qiurch is a small patch of Boulder 
 Clay, and to the east of it, behind the Hall Gardens, is a small pit in sand 
 and gravel in which Mr. Cameron found some shells — Astarte sp. and 
 Cyprina islandica {?). The relation of the sand and clay was not determin- 
 able. 
 
 Between Hunstanton and Ringstead there are several small patches of 
 gravel and sand which may belong to the Hessle Clay group, especially as 
 some of them contain marine shells. One of these patches occurs in the 
 Park about a quarter of a mile south of the Hall, and two others lie on the 
 S.E. border of the Park. Mr, Whitaker observed a curious "Esker'Mike 
 ridge which commences in the south-western part of the Park, and after 
 making two sharp serpentine bends, passes out of the Park in a southerly 
 direction, and then curves round toward Ringstead St. Peter, terminating 
 above the valley which runs westward from that place.* At the southern 
 end of this ridge there is a pit where Mr. Cameron noted sand and 
 gravel 6 feet, with 3 feet of sand beneath. The stones include many chalk- 
 pebbles, both of hard white and red Chalk, a few flints, and some angular 
 fragments of a dark-coloured igneous rock with garnets. Messrs. Whit- 
 aker and Reid found some fragments of shells at this place. 
 
 At the southern end of the Hunstanton cliff the Carstone is overlain by 
 a variable thickness (10 to 18 feet) of Hessle Beds, mostly reddish-brown 
 
 * This " Esker " was regarded by Carvill Lewis as portion of an old sea-beach. 
 Papers, fe'c, on Glacial Geology, 1894, p. 340. See also T. V, Holmes, Geol. Mag., 
 1883, p. 438- 
 
BROWN BOULDER CLAY. 
 
 89 
 
 Boulder Clay, but containing lenticular beds of sand, and having a gravelly 
 layer at the base, where it rests on the Carstone. 
 
 The earliest notice of this Drift seems to be that by Mr. Rose, in 1836,* 
 who says : — " Beyond the point where the incumbent red chalk crops out I 
 discovered traces of an ancient beach, composed of rounded fragments of 
 red and white chalk, immediately reposing upon the greensand, and covered 
 by 9I feet of sandy loam containing small angular fragments of flint." He 
 observed, too, that " it rises toward the east from Lynn Bay, consequently 
 it inclines in an opposite direction to the regular strata." t 
 
 In 1883, when the cliff gardens were being laid out, an excellent section 
 of these beds was exposed, and was seen by Messrs. Cameron and Jukes- 
 Browne. The following notes are by the latter : — Just above the newly- 
 excavated pond the cliff showed the section represented in Fig. 8. 
 
 Figure 8. Sectiott in the Cliff Gardens, Hunstanton. (Jukes-Browne.) 
 
 e. Surface Wash. 
 d. Sand. 
 
 c. Boulder Clay. 
 b. Gravelly layer. 
 
 a. Carstone. 
 
 Length of ground represented = 35 to 40 yards, 
 
 The measurements in the centre of this hollow were : — 
 
 Feet. 
 Gravelly soil and wash ... ... ... ... 2 
 
 Clean sand and hard loamy brown sand ... ... 8 
 
 Brown Boulder Clay, gravelly at base ... ... 8 
 
 Carstone, exposed for ... ... ... ... 6 
 
 At one point the sand and boulder clay were dovetailed into one another, 
 and a little south of this point a lenticular bed of sand occurred in the 
 boulder clay, having a maximum thickness of 2 feet. At the southern end 
 of this section the depth of the Drift was only 10 feet. The clay contains 
 angular fragments of basalt, porphyrite, and other igneous rocks, J^ut not 
 much chalk. 
 
 To the south of the place where the above section was seen the Boulder 
 Clay deepens again and descends to the level of the beach, becoming at the 
 same time more purple in colour. 
 
 A small tract of sand and gravel extends from a little north of Hunstanton 
 Station southward for about half a mile, and the beds are exposed in two pits 
 near the gasworks. Mr. Cameron describes them as consisting of strati- 
 fied and false-bedded sand and gravel, composed partly of flint ddbris and 
 quartz sand, with many pebbles of sandstone and of igneous rocks, and 
 streaks of coaly matter. 
 
 * Phil. Mag., 3rd ser., vol. viii., p. 34. 
 
 t Mr. Rose speaks of the deposit as an ancient beach, but it must not be con- 
 founded with the marine gravel near the gasworks, which is generally known as 
 the " raised beach " (see p. 90). 
 
90 GLACIAL DRIFT. 
 
 Prof. H. G. Seeley gave a good description of this deposit as seen in 
 1866, from which we quote the following account :—" South of the railway- 
 station a hill has been cut into for ballast, exhibiting ash-coloured sands and 
 gravels 30 feet thick without reaching the bottom. The cross stratification 
 is very marked, and the beds differ much in different parts of the pit. In 
 some of the bands the pebbles were almost as well rounded as on a pebble 
 shore like Dunwich. Shells occur in several distinct bands of gravel, and at 
 various heights, but are most numerous and best preserved in the coarse 
 layers. 
 
 " This deposit is remarkable for the absence of local fragments (the Red 
 Chalk occurs but rarely and then only in small pieces which may have come 
 from the north) ; for the included fragments comprise every kind of rock, 
 numerous granites, syenites, traps, Cambrian, Carboniferous, Lias, Middle 
 Oolites, Kimeridge Clay, Shanklin Sands [Carstone], Speeton Clay, chalk 
 and flint, and lignite, and these in such proportion that it can hardly be 
 called a flint-gravel. Besides these are numerous balls, rough and round, 
 formed of pieces of clay which had rolled on a shore and so acquired a 
 coating of pebbles. At the tffp is an earthy gravel with Ostrea cdulis, 
 Mytilus edulis, Cardiuin edule, &c., very recent, for the Mytilus still pre- 
 served its epidermis. The large shells were broken and all showed marks 
 of drifting in breakage, wear or separation of the valves."* 
 
 Prof. Seeley gave a list of 12 species of Mollusca which he had obtained 
 from these beds, and Mr. Skertchly, in his Fenland Memoir (p. 202), 
 gave a list of 16 species identified by Mr. F. W. Harmer from specimens 
 in his own collection, but four of those mentioned by Prof. Seeley do not 
 appear in Mr. Harmer's list. 
 
 The following list has been drawn up by Mr. G. Sharman from that 
 of Mr. Harmer, with some additions from specimens in the Museum at 
 Jermyn Street. 
 
 Buccinum undatum, Linn. 
 Dentalium entalis, Linn. 
 Littorina littorea, Linn. 
 Murex erinaceus, Linn. 
 Nassa nitida, Jeff. 
 
 „ reticulata, Linn. 
 Natica (fragment). 
 Purpura lapillus, Linn. 
 Turritella communis, Risso. 
 Artemis lincta, Pult. 
 Cardium edule, Linn. 
 
 Corbula gibba, Olivi. 
 Cyprina islandica, Linn. 
 Donax vittatus. Da Costa. 
 Mactra ovalis, /. Sow. (= M. 
 
 elliptica). 
 Mytilus edulis, Linn. 
 Nucula nucleus, Linn. 
 Ostrea edulis, Linn. 
 Scrobicularia piperata, Gmel. 
 Tapes pullastra, Mont. 
 Tellina balthica, Lin7t. 
 
 With respect to the age of this marine deposit it has been considered both 
 by Prof. Seeley and by Mr. Skertchly to be of the same age as the 
 gravels at March and Whittlesey in the B'enland and at least 14 species out 
 of the preceding list of 20 species occur in the March gravel. Moreover, its 
 elevation above the sea is about the same as that of the March gravel, i.e., 
 20 to 30 feet.t 
 
 Now the March and Whittlesey gravels occur on islands in the Fenland, 
 and are certainly older than the clays and silts of the Fenland, moreover 
 they contain the extinct species Cyrena fluminalis, and for this reason they 
 have been correlated by Mr. Searles Wood, Jun., with the gravel of 
 Kelsea Hill in Yorkshire. Mr. WOOD, indeed, in 1882, definitely expressed 
 the opinion that the Hunstanton gravel was of the same age as that of 
 Kelsea Hill, in spite of the non-occurrence of the Cyrena at the former 
 place.} But the Kflsea Hill deposit is distinctly overlain by the Hessle 
 Boulder Clay, and is therefore regarded by the Geological Survey as a 
 Glacial Gravel. 
 
 It is therefore a question whether the Hunstanton gravel .s not of the 
 same age as the Brown Boulder Clay which adjoins it. So long ago as 1879 
 I ventured to suggest that this gravel might possibly be ofthe same age as the 
 Hessle Beds,§ and as I now feel sure that Hessle Clay occurs at Hunstanton 
 
 * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxii. 
 
 + See Explanation of Sheet 65, Mem. Geol. Survey. 
 
 + Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxxviii. , p. 698. 
 
 { Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxxv., p. 415. 
 
BROWN BOULDER CLAY. 9 1 
 
 this suggestion acquires more weight. No evidence to connect them, how- 
 ever, was found by those of my colleagues who surveyed the ground, and it 
 was then thought safer to colour it on the map as a Post-Glacial Deposit. 
 It should be mentioned that Mr. B. B. Woodward wrote a " Note on the 
 Drift Deposits of Hunstanton" in 1883,* in which he describes both the 
 Glacial Drift in the cHff and the marine gravel near the gasworks. He found 
 from a hole dug in the floor of the pit that the gravel at the latter place rests 
 on abed of chalk-rubble ; a fact which was subsequently noted by Mr. H. B. 
 Woodward, who describes it as " a bed of chalk debris and broken flints 
 which had much the appearance of Chalky Boulder Clay." 
 
 Mr. Lamplugh has recently had an opportunity to re-examine this pit 
 (June, 1898), and reports some important changes in the section, the Carstone 
 having been reached at its eastern face and excavated to a depth of 3 or 4 
 feet. He supplies the following section of this part of the pit : — 
 
 Top soil, passing into — ' Feet. 
 
 -V 3 to 5 
 
 Sandy loam with scattered small pebbles of Flint, &c., ' tkif-tpr jn 
 not arranged in layers ; probably rain- wash ... ( _{),.„ narts 
 
 ) of the pit). 
 
 Clean-washed fine gravel with worn shells ; sand with) 
 
 small particles of shell below i 0105 
 
 Irregular streaks of red-brown clay, swelling in places \ 
 into a band 2 to 3 feet thick, and then containing I 
 scattered stones like a boulder clay. This rests on r o to 3 
 the flanks of a dome of the sands below, and passes | 
 into them in places ^ 
 
 Fine palish buff sand, with loamy layers, with cross- ) 
 bedding in part parallel to the dome-like upper > 3 to 10 
 surface j 
 
 Fine sandy damp loam, with an irregular streak of > 
 red clay containing a few small fragments of chalk j ^ 
 
 Rusty sand made up of Carstone debris, with gravelly \ 
 layers of subangular fragments of red and white J- 2 to 3 
 chalk ) 
 
 Wedges of hard clayey chalk-rubble, made up of \ 
 angular and subangular pieces of chalk and flint, I 
 with an occasional small pebble probably derived r o to 2| 
 from the Carstone : resting on, and in part wedged I 
 into, the upper surface of the Carstone -' 
 
 Carstone : firm chocolate-brown coarse sand ... 3^ 
 
 Mr. Lamplugh remarks that, although the beds are extremely variable 
 in different parts of the pit, the red-brown clay could be traced in most of 
 the sections, the shelly gravels occurring below as well as above it. A seam 
 of bouldery "cannon-shot" gravel, with stones afoot or more in diameter, 
 was exposed at the southern end of the pit, where the Carstone was not 
 reached. Flints were by far the commonest stones, but there were also 
 lumps of hard White Chalk bored by Cliona and Saxicava, Red Chalk, Car- 
 stone concretions, fossiliferous pebbly (Spilsby) Sandstone, large calcareous 
 nodules (probably Kimeridge) bored by Cliona, a well-striated boulder, 
 8 in. X 5 in. X 5 in. of reddish gritty (carboniferous?) limestone, and a few 
 other far-travelled blocks of Basalt, Gneiss, &c. 
 
 He concurs in the above-expressed opinion that the gravel is not Post- 
 Glacial, but is of the same age as the Brown Boulder Clay of the adjacent 
 coast-section, and of similar date and origin to the shelly gravels of Holder- 
 ness. • 
 
 From information obtained at the pit it appears that the human skeleton 
 recently found in itt lay at the base of the sandy loam, at the top of the 
 gravels. 
 
 * Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. viii., p. 97 (1885). 
 
 t SeeT.E. Newton, Proc. Geol, Assoc, \oh xv., p. 258 (1898). 
 
92 GLACIAL DRIFT. 
 
 What is probably a continuation of the bordering strip of reddish 
 Boulder Clay sets in again south of Hunstanton, running southward by 
 Heacham Railway Station and along the border of the marsh west of 
 Snettisham ; it terminates in a ridge or bank which juts out into this marsh 
 by Shepherd Port. The railway-cuttings north of Snettisham Lodge are cut 
 through this clay, but the only note of its colour or character that has come 
 into our hands is one by Mr. Whitaker, in which he remarks that the 
 pinkish-brown loam or Boulder Clay comes on above the Lower Greensand 
 in the cutting N.E. of the Lodge. 
 
 Reddish and purplish Boulder Clay of the Hessle type occurs again in the 
 north-western corner of the district, rismg up from beneath the Fen deposits 
 and forming two broad isolated banks or islands on which are situated the 
 villages of Sibsey and Stickney. These banks are probably the higher parts 
 of a ridge which passes-southward beneath the Fenland toward Boston, and 
 there seem to be traces of the same clay in the mottled brownish Boulder 
 Clay which was exposed in making the Docks at Boston in 1882- 1 884. 
 
 The following section was seen in the dock excavations in 1883, the 
 account being taken from Mr. JukeS-BrOWNE's paper on the Boulder Clays 
 of Lincolnshire* : — 
 
 Clay and silt ... ... ... ... 18 feet. 
 
 Peat ... ... ... ... ... I foot. 
 
 White and grey sands ... ... ... i „ 
 
 Reddish sand and gravel lying in pockets of the ^ 
 
 clay below ... ... ... > 6 feet. 
 
 Mottled bufif and grey Boulder Clay ... ) 
 
 In a deeper trench between the dock and the river a dark blue Boulder 
 Clay was exposed underneath the mottled clay which forms the base of the 
 dock section. The line of junction was not clear, but appeared to be sharp. 
 
 The following note by Mr. Whitaker confirms the above so far as 
 concerns the colour of the clay below the alluvial deposits : — 
 
 In January, 1882, I visited the works of the new Witham Outfall, at the 
 edge of The Wash below Boston. The long cutting showed Alluvium (silt) 
 from 10 to 15 feet thick, over Boulder Clay, the junction being even and 
 horizontal where seen ; but Mr. W. H. Wheeler, who kindly showed me the 
 section, says that it sinks slightly seaward, when the Boulder Clay is not 
 touched so soon. This clay was bluish-grey, mottled brown, firm and dry ; 
 only a few large stones have been found (up to 2 or 3 feet in length) 
 and no very large ones. We saw at one spot a little bright green sand, 
 derived from a Cretaceous bed, and many small nests of sand in the clay. 
 I was told that sometimes a little sand and gravel has been found between 
 the silt and the clay. W. W. 
 
 Gravels of Utpcertain Origin. 
 
 I. Brancaster and Burnham.—K tract of sand and gravel overlying 
 but possibly connected with the Brown Boulder Clay, occurs at Brancaster, 
 and a still longer tract of similar material underlies Brancaster Staith and 
 Burnham Deepdale. These patches have also been coloured as Post-Glacial 
 Gravels on the map, and no evidence was obtained by the Surveyors as to 
 whether they were marine, estuarine, or freshwater deposits. 
 
 The only note regarding them which has come into our hands is one by 
 Mr. Cameron to the following effect :— A belt of sand and gravel, but 
 prmcipally sand, and of considerable thickness, borders the chalk-land over- 
 looking the Brancaster and Burnham Marshes. 
 
 This gravel seems to extend into the valley which descends from Hawkei-'s 
 Hill, and in which there is also gravel, loam, and Boulder Clay belonging to 
 the Brown Clay group (see p. 87). 
 
 Woot/on.—lhe tract which borders the marshland by North and South 
 Wootton may be marine gravel and sand comparable with that at Hun- 
 stanton ; but as there are other tracts in a similar position farther south (in 
 Sheet 65), and these have been regarded as River Gravel, a note referring to 
 this patch wilLbe found under the head of Valley Gravel (see p. 94). 
 
 * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xli., p. 122, 
 
93 
 
 CHAPTER 9. VALLEY GRAVELS. 
 
 The streams which flow off the higher ground in the south- 
 eastern part of the area under description are bordered here and 
 there by strips of valley gravel ; and some of the valleys which 
 are not occupied by permanent watercourses also contain 
 deposits of sand and gravel washed into them during times of 
 heavy rainfall. 
 
 Congham and Roydon Valley. — A narrow strip of gravelly wash occupies 
 the bottom of this depression near the southern edge of the map west of 
 Great Massingham. Mr. Whitaker found a pit in this a little eastward of 
 Congham Common and about three miles west of Great Massingham 
 Church ; he observed that this showed a sort of chalk-wash to a depth of 
 12 feet or more, mostly in the form of fine calcareous sand or sandy marl, 
 which in parts contained broken shells of Byihinia tentacidata with loose 
 opercula of that Mollusc. The top part contained flints on the northern side 
 (by the roadway), and on the southern side was covered with sand washed 
 down from the ridge of Glacial Sand which almost reaches to the pit. 
 
 Part of Roydon, near Grimston Road Station, is underlain by sand and 
 gravel, forming part of a tract which passes south-west into the area of 
 Sheet 65. 
 
 Massingham and Babingley Valley. — The upper part of this valley is 
 usually dry, but the lower part is occupied by a stream which rises from 
 springs near Flitcham. Mr. Whitaker furnishes the following notes on 
 deposits in this valley : — 
 
 A pit south of the railway, about a quarter of a mile west of Massingham 
 Station, showed pale grey (almost white) marl, with lumps of Chalk in the 
 bottom part, and with broken land and freshwater shells, the opercula of 
 Bythinia being alone distinguishable. At the eastern side of the entrance 
 rubbly chalk was seen to rise up to the height of two feet. The rest of the 
 marl is not stony, but the bed contained an unctuous black peaty layer, from 
 three to six inches thick, which rose up irregularly north-westward, but on 
 the southern and highest side was nearly flat and some three feet from the 
 bottom : this layer seemed to thin eastward, where the very bottom of the 
 marl is of a darker grey (? from wet) and partly sandy. The marl was seen 
 to a depth of 10 feet, the top being hidden by soil, and it showed traces of 
 bedding. It has been dug to manure fields, and is clearly a Post-Glacial 
 deposit. 
 
 The northern side of the western end of the wee cutting on the railway 
 seems to be in like mail, and a small old pit farther west (on the south of 
 the railway about two thirds of a mile from the station) seems to show a 
 little of the marl underlain by whitish Boulder Clay, the two being alike in 
 tint. This pit is in a slight fall of the- ground. A deeper old pit on the 
 rise^ust west may also be in marl, judging from the growth of trees and of 
 bushes. 
 
 An old pit near the bottom of the valley, more than if miles W.N.W. of 
 Little Massingham Church, gave the following section : — 
 
 Brown clay and loam, with some flints, irregularly piped over the under- 
 lying, of the decalcification of which it is clearly the result to a 
 great extent. 
 
 Whitish and buff fine, sandy marl and loam, with some small pieces of 
 shell and opercula oi Bythinia up to 10 feet seen. 
 
 Near Hillington the valley opens out, and tracts of gravel come in on each 
 side of the'stream. One of these stretches from near Hillington Hall to 
 within a mile of Castle Rising. 
 
 H 
 
94 
 
 VALLEY GRAVELS. 
 
 A large gravel-pit in a field, rather over a mile west of Hillington Station, 
 was only open in part in 1 88 1, to a depth of nearly 12 feet. The gravel here 
 is chiefly composed of small pebbles of hard chalk; it is mostly stamed 
 yellow, but in the upper part is whiter and more chalky-looking. 
 
 An old pit just south (almost touching) was overgrown ; it had water m 
 the bottom, and some similar gravel was to be seen. 
 
 Babingley Farm stands on another tract of similar gravel, which is 
 surrounded on three sides by alluvium. W. W. 
 
 South of the entrance to the Babingley River a strip or terrace of gravel 
 and sand runs southward along the border of the marshland by North and 
 South Wootton. In the absence of evidence to the contrary this has been 
 coloured as river-gravel on the map, and it is, therefore, mentioned m the 
 present connection, though it may possibly be of marine origin, like the 
 sands and gravels which occur at about the same level elsewhere on the 
 borders of the Fenland. Most of it appears to be from 25 to 40 feet above 
 the sea-level. It rests partly on Boulder Clay and partly on Lower Green- 
 sand and Kimeridge Clay. No good exposures were noticed, but the follow- 
 ing note on one part of it is communicated by Mr. Whitaker : — 
 
 Just north of the road to Castle J^ising, nearly two thirds of a mile E.N.E. 
 of North Wootton Church, are old pits and ponds, showing beds that I 
 could not make out with any certainty. At one point, between two ponds, 
 there is sand up to nearly four feet thick, partly gravelly and underlain by 
 messy gravel, with bits of fissile clay and some peaty clay (? Kimeridge), 
 and partly itself clayey, with some pieces of sandy iron-ore (? from Lower 
 Greensand), and up to nearly three feet thick. Near the road (and south of 
 pond) there is some grey and brownish sandy clay. 
 
 I had originally mapped Boulder Clay here, but perhaps these beds would 
 be better classed with the clay or brick-earth, of which there is some sign 
 hereabouts. Can there be any of the clayey division of the Lower Green- 
 sand ? W. W. 
 
 Wensujn Valley. — In the south-eastern corner of the area are three rivulets 
 which form the head waters of the Wensum. The southernmost of these 
 commences at Lowe Farm, but its valley is continued westward into Kipton 
 Heath, and a narrow strip of gravelly wash has been mapped along this 
 portion of it. Mr. Woodward remarks, however, that it is not easy to 
 separate it from the older accumulation, though in places it is thick enough 
 to be worth working for gravel. 
 
 The following notes are also by Mr. Woodward : — The stream running 
 through Rudham is bordered by a shallow deposit of gravel lying on the 
 Chalk, and the latter is much disintegrated and stained in places. 
 
 Creake and BurtifiaDi Valley. — In the dry valley coming from the west to 
 North Creake there is a deposit of sand and gravel which has been washed 
 down the slopes. From North Creake to Burnham Thorpe another tract 
 of sand and sandy gravel extends along the western border of the Alluvium. 
 In a sand-pit opposite Creake Abbey Mr. Woodward saw about 10 feel of 
 fine calcareous sand, which he was disposed to regard as of Glacial age, till 
 the mapping appeared to connect it with undoubted Valley Gravel in a 
 northerly direction. 
 
 Burnham Westgate stands on gravel which has evidently been brought 
 down the valley,, which comes from the south-west. From Burnham Vlph 
 gravel borders the Alluvium of the main valley as far as the north end of 
 Norton Street. H. B. W. 
 
 Ringstead Ftj/Zgy.— -Passing to the north-western corner of the Chalk area, 
 the dry valley, which begins near Thornham Ling and runs by Ringstead 
 St. Peter, has a flooring of sand and gravel which extends for a distance of 
 more than two miles. As in so many other cases this is a deposit washed 
 from the neighbouring slopes by rain-floods into a valley where no perma- 
 nent stream exists to carry it onward to the sea, 
 
 A. J. J.-B. 
 
95 
 
 CHAPTER lo. THE FENLAND AND ALLUVIAL 
 DEPOSITS. 
 
 I. The Deposits of the Fenland. 
 
 All the eastern and south-eastern portions of the area included 
 in Sheet 69 belong to the Fenlands of Lincolnshire. The whole 
 area of the Fenland has been dealt with in a separate Memoir,* 
 but it is desirable to quote such portions of it as relate to the 
 districts now under description. 
 
 Before the publication of Mr. Skertchlv'S work the general 
 opinion regarding the deposits of the Fenland was that they 
 were chiefly of freshwater and estuarine origin, and that the 
 clays and peats of this series passed seaward beneath a marine 
 silt which was quite distinct from the " Buttery Clay " of the 
 Cambridgeshire Fens. Mr. Skertchly proved that this was 
 a mistake, that on the contrary the mass of the Fen deposits is 
 of marine origin, the Buttery Clay being as much marine as the 
 silt ; neither did he find that there was any definite order in the 
 succession of the beds of clay, silt, and peat. 
 
 The substratum of the deposits in the northern part of the 
 Fenland is either Boulder Clay, or Kimeridge Clay, or Oxford 
 Clay, and the surface of these clays is very uneven, so that the 
 depth of the Fenland deposits varies very much. Generally 
 speaking, however, it is greatest near the sea-bord, where the 
 beds are often about 40 feet deep. 
 
 The lowest bed or bottom deposit is generally a sand or 
 sandy gravel which often contains marine shells ; sometimes, 
 however, there is no sand or gravel, and then peat or clay rests 
 directly on the older formation. Dark-coloured clays and silts 
 are the principal components of the Fenland deposits, but inter- 
 bedded with these are beds of peat, sometimes two or three such 
 beds occurring one above another with intervening beds of clay. 
 In some places peat has been the last surface-growth, but over 
 the greater part of the area entering into this Sheet (69) marine 
 silt has been the latest deposit and forms the surface soil. 
 
 Just as The Wash is not an estuary, but a bay, so the Fenland 
 must be regarded as a silted-up bay or arm of the sea, the 
 deposits beneath it being essentially marine with only local 
 intercalations of freshwater beds and terrestrial growths. 
 
 The Clays and Silts. 
 
 These vary in character and colour ; some beds consist of a 
 fine sticky or " buttery" clay, generally dark blue or grey, but 
 there is every gradation from a clay to a fine silt or sandy warp, 
 such as is deposited by spring tides on the shores of The Wash 
 at the present time. 
 
 * "The (Jeology of the Fenland," by S. B.J. Skertchly., Metii. Geol. Sttivey, 
 1877. 
 
 H 2 
 
<j6 FENLAND. 
 
 Mr. Skertchly writes : This warp is an exceedingly fine 
 sandy deposit of a light reddish-brown colour, lying in fine 
 laminse which sparkle in the sun with fragments of mica and 
 comminuted shell. It is not so widely spread as the clay, but 
 forms most of the surface of the ground in the neighbourhood 
 of the sea, fills up old creeks, forms little hillocks, and ex- 
 tends far inland in some places. . . . The warp gives to 
 the surface of the ground a ruddy tint, very different from the 
 coaly peat surface, and it is not unusual to hear of " red fen " 
 and " black fen." It is very full of Foraminifera, hardly a square 
 inch being destitute of their remains. 
 
 The Fen Clays are generally dark blue or purplish-brown, 
 and are sometimes mottled blue and brown. When wet they 
 have a glistening, unctuous aspect. The blue clay often passes 
 into silty clay, and is always what the brickmakers call a 
 " light " clay, as distinguished from the " strong " Oxford or 
 Kimeridge Clays. Of these clays Mr. Skertchly says : They 
 often contain carbonaceous markings and fragments of wood, 
 and occasionally drifted trunks of sallow and willow. When 
 wood is plentiful the bright blue phosphate of iron ( Vivianite) 
 occurs in amorphous earthy lumps and streaks, varying in size 
 from fine specks to bits as large as a bean. 
 
 Of the marine shells occurring in the clays and silts the 
 commonest is Scrobicularia piperata, many as single valves, but 
 some with both valves in natural position. A few shells of 
 Tellina balthica occur, and in places dwarfed specimens of 
 Cardium edule, Mytiliis edulis, and Ostrea edtdis. In some few 
 places little Rissoce are plentiful. Here and there a few bones 
 of ox, pig, whale, seal, and grampus are exhumed, but very 
 sparingly. S. B. J. S. 
 
 The following are sections in brickyards seen and recorded by Mr. 
 Skertchly in the Memoir already quoted. They serve to illustrate the varia- 
 tions that occur in the beds' which compose the deposits of the Fenland : — 
 
 Cow Bridge Brickyard, north of Boston. 
 
 Clay 
 
 Silty clay 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Peat resting on sand... 
 
 4 feet. 
 3 „ 
 6 „ 
 o\ foot. 
 
 
 13J feet 
 
 Baptist Cemetery Lane, Boston. 
 
 
 Blue clay ... 
 
 .. II feet. 
 
 Peat 
 
 .. I foot. 
 
 Gravel and sand 
 
 ... 3 feet. 
 
 Boulder Clay at base... 
 
 
 1 5 feet. 
 High Bridge Drain, near Boston (or Boston East Brickyard). On the east 
 side the succession was as follows. 
 
 Silt ••■ ••• ... ... ... 13 feet. 
 
 Peat with tree roots ... ... ... i to \ foot. 
 
 Sand and gravel... ... ... 6 inches to 6 feet! 
 
 Boulder Clay (a white sandy clay with chalk-stones) 
 
 Up to 20 feet. 
 
ALLUVIAL CLAYS AND SILTS. 97 
 
 On the western side the silt was entirely replaced by clay. The sand and 
 gravel evidently lay on a very uneven surface of Boulder Clay, compare the 
 section seen at the Boston Docks (p. 92). 
 
 Mr. W. H. Wheeler, of Boston, writing on the borings and excavations 
 made for the Boston Docks, says : "The brown clay which Hes below the 
 alluvial soil is a good brick-clay. The blue clay under this is a soft buttery 
 clay full of peaty matter or old rushes ; it burns \-ery badly, the peat 
 burning away leaving the ballast light. This (blue) clay is full of beds of 
 shells (cockles, mussels, &c.) quite perfect, and is in as good preservation 
 as if found in one of the creeks on the marshes at the present day. 
 
 " In the peat which usually runs from nine inches to a foot thick are the 
 remains of trees, some only stumps, others trunks lying on their sides. 
 They appear to be oak, poplar, and birch, and there is a great deal of birch 
 bark, bright and silvery as if just off the trees. The oak is black and as 
 bright as ebony." 
 
 Wyberton Chain Bridge, Boston. 
 
 Silt, setting in and replacing clay 
 
 ... to 3 feet. 
 
 Clay, thinning from 
 
 ... II to 8 „ 
 
 Peat ... 
 
 8 inches. 
 
 Sand and gravel 
 
 ... 2^ to 3 feet. 
 
 Boulder Clay, dug into for 
 
 •■• " 3 „ 
 
 About 17 feet. 
 
 Kirton Road Brickyard, in Wyberton Parish, between Boston and Kirton. 
 
 Silt ... ... ... ... 4 feet. 
 
 Clay ... ... ... ... II „ 
 
 Peat ... ... ... ... 3 inches to ij foot. 
 
 Clay and gravel mixed ... ... i „ 
 
 Boulder Clay below ... ... — 
 
 About 17 feet. 
 
 Mr. Skertchly states that the peat is sometimes wanting, and its place 
 taken by a bed of sand i foot 6 inches thick. He also gives a section taken 
 200 yards south of the above which showed : — 
 
 Feet. 
 Soil and Silt ... ... ... ... 3 
 
 Clay, turfy below ... ... ... ... 11 
 
 Peat ... ... ... ... ... I 
 
 Sand, not pierced, dug to ... ... ... 3 
 
 18 
 
 A brickyard at Fleet Low Gate, near Holbeach, showed 8 feet of silt and 
 clay on the east side, and 16 feet on the west side, the substratum throughout 
 being described [? by the workmen] as " sea-sand." Other sections and 
 wells near Holbeach and Gedney show from 5 to 7 feet of silt and clay, 
 with fine sand or sandy silt below, sometimes containing cockle-shells 
 (Skertchly, pp. 276, 277). 
 
 T/ie Peat Beds. 
 
 Beds of peat occur at so many levels in the mass of Fenland 
 clays and silts, that is to say, they vary so much in number and 
 in depth from the surface in different places as to make it im- 
 probable that any one of them is continuous over the whole area, 
 or even over any large part of it. Sections may be seen along 
 the banks of some of the waterways, which show peat beds 
 
98 tENLAND. 
 
 setting in at various horizons and thinning out again, sometimes 
 in very short distances. Borings and wells have proved the 
 existence sometimes of three or four separate layers of peat, 
 while in others not far away only one bed was found. 
 
 These and other facts convinced Mr. Skertchly : — 
 
 1. That throughout the whole "Fen Period" the climate 
 was favourable to the growth of peat which formed when- 
 ever the sea had no access to a given area. 
 
 2. That the alternations between marine and freshwater 
 conditions were very variable, being in some areas 
 frequent, and in others but seldom ; and consequently 
 that no classification, such as Upper Peat, Buttery Clay, 
 and Lower Peat can hold good. 
 
 The thickness of the subterranean peat beds also varies 
 greatly, from a few inches up to lo or 12 feet. Some of the peat 
 beds contain trunks of trees, and when these are numerous such 
 beds have been called "buried forests." Mr. Skertchly 
 observes that peat with trees is of more frequent occurrence near 
 the borders of the Fenland, or round islands in the Fen, as if the 
 forests of the adjacent higher lands had at certain periods of 
 desiccation spread outward over the borders of the Fens. 
 
 " Buried forests " have been found at two localities within the 
 area of Sheet 69 ; (i) in East Fen, near Stickney, in the north- 
 western part of the area ; (2) on the foreshore north-west of Old 
 Hunstanton and Holme. 
 
 The trees found in these beds are principally oaks, but elm, 
 birch, yew, willow, and sallow also occur. The roots are fre- 
 quently to be seen buried in the bed which underlies the peat. 
 Most of the trees are mere trunks, broken off at the bole and at 
 the fork. " The oaks are in all cases stained black ; the yews 
 retain their peculiar brown colour, and the timber of the firs is 
 as white and sound as if from living trees, the odour of turpen- 
 tine being distinctly perceptible in cutting the wood." 
 
 Mr. Skertchly also found that the lie of the tree trunks is 
 almost always in one direction, namely, south-west and north- 
 east, their heads being directed to the north-east. The following 
 is a quotation from Mr. Skertchly's Memoir (p. 162) : — 
 
 The direction of the trees in the Fenland agrees with that 
 observed in the mosses of England and Scotland, and, as was 
 first pointed out by Rennie in 1807, this is the direction of the 
 prevailing winds. " If," says he, " in any moss they (the trees) 
 lie in one direction, the probability is that they have been 
 overset by the wind." This opinion has been endorsed by 
 nearly all succeeding authors, and it is true in regard to the 
 buried forests of the Fenland. 
 
 Many of the dykes and droves are bordered by fine-orown 
 aspens, and they slope towards the north-east. When a long 
 line of these slender trees is seen thus bowed in one direction 
 the appearance is very striking. This north-easterly trend is 
 
PEAT. 
 
 99 
 
 towards the sea, but on the coast itself the sea breezes exercise 
 their influence, and the trees all bend away from the water, as 
 maybe seen to perfection at Hunstanton. In Fig. 9 a group 
 of trees sloping in the usual direction is represented ; it was 
 
 sketched in the neighbourhood of Holbeach 
 
 S. B. J. S. 
 
 
 '♦?*lrt 
 
 
 *«■■ 
 
 v.^ 
 
 Figure g. — Trees near Holbeach. (Skertchly.) 
 From Skertchly's "Geology of the Fenland," p. 162. 
 
 The only district in this part of the Fenland where peat forms 
 the surface soil at the present time is that known as East Fen 
 on the northern border of the map. Only a portion of the peat- 
 covered area comes within this sheet, the rest lying within the 
 limits of Sheet 84. Up to the beginning of this century this 
 fen was unenclosed, and Gough in his edition of Camden's 
 Britannia (1789) remarks of East Fen that "it is quite in a state 
 of nature and exhibits a specimen of what the country was 
 before the introduction of draining. It is a vast tract of morass, 
 intermixed with numbers of lakes, from half a mile to two or 
 three miles in circuit, communicating with each other by narrow 
 reedy straits. They are very shallow, none above four or five 
 feet deep, but abound with pike, perch, ruffs, bream, tench, dace, 
 eels, &c." 
 
 Mr. Skertchly gives the average thickness of the peat in 
 East Fen as six feet (Table, p. 156), but says it varies in depth, 
 " being always under ip- feet and often less than three feet." 
 
loo MARSHLANDS. 
 
 The abstraction of water in the process of drainage caused the 
 peat to shrink and the surface to sink two feet between the years 
 1806 and 1866. 
 
 2. The Marshlands of Norfolk. 
 
 The marslies which border the land on the eastern side of The 
 Wash are of the same character as the Fenland itself, and con- 
 sist mainly of sediment deposited by the waves of The Wash at 
 high tide. This marine alluvium has a very irregular border on 
 the land side, filling up the lower ends of its valleys and de- 
 pressions. 
 
 There is a brickyard half a mile north of Castle Rising where the clay of 
 the alluvial level is burnt into bricks. It is probably to this clay that the 
 Rev. G. B. Moxon refers in the following passage .■ — " At Castle Rising in 
 the Valley of the Ouse, the brick-earth is five feet thick upon turf 18 inches 
 deep ; underneath this is a bed of shingle." * 
 
 The following note by MR. Whitaker relates to the soil of the inlet 
 between Wolferton and Dersingham Common : — In 1882 a freshly-cut ditch 
 near and roughly parallel to the railway, some way northward of the seven- 
 mile post and about three quarters of a mile E.N.E. of Wolferton Station, 
 showed thin clayey or loamy alluvium over sand, the former sometimes 
 thickening suddenly and filling hollows in the latter. Many bits of flint were 
 turned out, so that some, if not all, of the. sand is either a bed belonging to 
 the alluvium or a Valley Drift. 
 
 From a point opposite Dersingham Common northward to the commence- 
 ment of Hunstanton Cliff the marshland is bordered on the seaward side 
 by a bank of shingle. 
 
 With respect to the tract of marshland which borders the 
 northern coast of Norfolk, the present writer thinks that it has 
 been fornled in the same way as that just described along the 
 western coast, and as that along the eastern coast of Lincolnshire. 
 It is, in fact, a miniature counterpart of the Lincolnshire Marsh- 
 land, for the Alluvium rests on and against the low-lying brown 
 Boulder Clay, and it is protected on the seaward side by a line of 
 sand-dunes or hills formed of blown sea-sand (see Fig. 7, p. 88). 
 There is another point of resemblance which links it both to the 
 Lincolnshire Marshland and to the Fenland; this is the existence 
 of a buried forest or layer of peat and trees, which underlies the 
 surface clay and crops out on the foreshore at about low-water 
 level in places between Hunstanton and Brancaster. 
 
 Mr. H. B. WooDWARD-j- has suggested that this marshland 
 is part ^f an old river valley, the northern border of which has 
 been destroyed by the sea, but there is no evidence for this 
 view beyond the fact that the tract in question looks like one 
 side of a valley filled with alluvium. It was natural that such 
 an idea should occur to one who had been surveying parts of 
 East Norfolk, but to anyone familiar with the marshlands 
 
 * Proc. Set. Soc. Land:, vol. ii., p. 64 (1840). 
 
 t " Geology of Fakenham, Wells, and Holt," Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 44. 
 
NORFOLK. lOI 
 
 round The Wash it seems equally natural to regard it as a 
 tract of marine alluvium, and this view has the advantage 
 of not requiring the hypothesis of high land to the north of 
 the existence of which no tradition exists. Moreover, if the 
 Alluvium had belonged to a valley descending from east to 
 west, or vice-versa, this Alluvium would not keep at the same 
 level. 
 
 The existence of the ancient forest-bed has been known for 
 a long time, and it has been described by several writers, but 
 it is only accessible by boat at times of the low spring-tides. 
 The following description of it is by the Rev. G. Mumford* : — 
 
 " This now submerged tract was once inhabited by herds of deer and 
 oxen, as is evident [?] ... from the remains of their horns and 
 bones which have occasionally been found there. The foot of man has also 
 trodden these now ruined wastes, for works of art have been met with 
 buried, with the forest, beneath the waves. It is difficult to reach this over- 
 whelmed forest from Hunstanton without the assistance of a boat. . . . 
 About two miles north of the cliff, and a mile and a half from high-water 
 mark, we arrived at the prostrate forest, consisting of numberless large 
 timber trees, trunks, and branches, many of them decomposed, and so soft 
 that they might easily be penetrated by a spade. These ... lie 
 in a black mass of vegetable matter, which seems to be composed of the 
 smaller branches, leaves, and plants of undergrowth, occupying altogether a 
 space of 500 or 600 acres. Many of these trees, however, are quite sound, 
 and . . . are sometimes used ... for posts and rails. But 
 the most extraordinary thing we met with in this expedition [1831] to 
 the submarine forest was a British flint celt or axe embedded in the trunk of 
 one of the decomposed trees, above an inch and a half of its cutting 
 edge." 
 
 Mr. Gunn mentioned at a meeting of the Norwich Geological Society on 
 November 21, 1871, that he had found remains of the Fallow Deer in this 
 submerged forest at Hunstanton. 
 
 Mr. Reid saw part of a similar submerged forest exposed at low-water 
 of spring-tides in Brancaster Bay (see p. 87). 
 
 It is not likely that the submerged forest beds of Norfolk and 
 Lincolnshire were ever continuous across The Wash, as Mr. 
 MUMFORD imagined when writing his account, although they 
 closely correspond in level, in character, and in contents. They 
 probably represent temporary and local extensions of a terres- 
 trial surface across the Marshland Plain, and were formed in 
 precisely the same way as the " buried forests " of the Fenland, 
 the formation and local characters of v^'hich have been discussed 
 by Mr. Skertchly (see also p. 98). 
 
 A glance at the Geological Survey map and the position of 
 the submerged forest-bed north of Hunstanton will show that 
 the northern Marshland must once have extended considerably 
 farther westward, and was then in all probability continuous 
 with the marsh which lies behind the shingle south of Hunstan- 
 ton. Hunstanton Cliff is the only place along this part of the 
 coast-line where the sea has eaten into the land which lies 
 behind the belt of marshland. It would seem that some change 
 
 * " Sandringham : Past and Present." By Mrs. Herbert Jo:<Es. With some 
 Historic Memorials of the Norfolk Coast. 8vo, Lotidon, 1883, pp. 193-195. 
 
r02 BLOWN SAND. 
 
 occurred in the set of the currents, and that the north-western 
 corner of the Marshland has been eaten away, as well as the 
 Boulder Clay low-land which lay at its back, so that the sea 
 now infringes upon the Chalk high-land which once overlooked 
 the lower ground, both to the north and west 
 
 Blown Sand.* 
 
 The coast-line from Gibraltar Point, E.S.E. of Wainfleet, and northwards 
 
 n Lincolnshire, is bordered by hillocks of Blown Sand. Again, along the 
 
 Norfolk coast, from Hunstanton to Burnham Harbour, the marshes are 
 
 fringed on the sea-margin by long lines of sand-dunes, accompanied at 
 
 Holme Scalp by shingle. 
 
 * See also Jukes-Brovvni;, " Memoir on Geology of East Lincolnshhe," p. in 
 and H. B. Woodwakd, " fJeology of Fakenham, Wells, and Holt," p. 43. 
 
I03 
 
 CHAPTER II. THE WASH: ITS PHYSICAL GEO- 
 GRAPHY, AND HOW IT IS SILTED UP. 
 
 It has been stated in the preceding chapter that the area now 
 occupied by the Fenland was once an arm of the sea, and that, 
 with the exception of the intercalated beds of peat, the Fenland 
 deposits are of marine origin, their materials having been brought 
 in from the sea, and having taken the place of so much sea-water. 
 
 The Wash is the only remaining portion of this great bay, 
 and the process of silting up has been going on up to the 
 present day, so that continual additions have been made to the 
 Fenland, and it can be shown that in some places a breadth of 
 three miles of land has accreted since the Roman occupation. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that in order to understand how the 
 great expanse of the Fenland has been formed, it is necessary to 
 study its present shores and inlets, and to watcli the process of 
 deposition which is now going on. This was done by Mr. 
 Skertchly, and the remainder of this chapter is entirely taken 
 from his Memoir on the Fenland ; two of his chapters have been 
 laid under contribution, some small corrections made, and some 
 tables omitted in order to make the whole more compact and 
 readable. 
 
 The Wash. 
 
 The Wash is the great bay into which the fen-rivers flow. It is the 
 Metaris jEstuarium of the Romans ; and, perhaps for no other reason, it is 
 still called an estuary. It is, however, no more the estuary of the fen- rivers 
 than the German Ocean is the estuary of the Ouse or of the Thames. An 
 estuary is the seaward continuation of a river-channel, a breach of the coast 
 from the land-side. A bay is an indentation of the land, a breach of the 
 coast from the sea-side. The Wash is of the latter character, that is, a true 
 bay and not an estuary. The estuaries of the fen-rivers are now enclosed 
 marshes ; and The Wash, whatever parts of its area may formerly have 
 been, holds no such relation to the rivers, nor are any of the fen-beds delta- 
 deposits. 
 
 The width of the mouth of The Wash from Hunstanton Light to Gibraltar 
 Point is 12 miles ; the length, from the centre of a line joining the 
 above points to Fleet Haven, is I4"8 miles ; the greatest length, from Hun- 
 stanton Light to Fosdyke Bridge, is 23 miles ; the greatest breadth, from near 
 South Wootton to the Witham outfall, is 18 miles, and the area is 250 square 
 miles, measured within the line drawn from Hunstanton Lighthouse to 
 Gibraltar Point. 
 
 The configuration of The Wash is peculiar. Roughly speaking it is a 
 shallow bay with an average depth of, say, five fathoms, but having a deep 
 hollow (Lynn Well) in the centre, ranging irom 15 to 26 fathoms. The 
 
I04 
 
 THE WASH. 
 
 eastern and western shores are fringed with sands, sloping very gently sea- 
 ward from high- water mark. The base (that portion lying between the Ouse 
 and Welland outfalls) is blocked with immense accumulations of sand, 
 broken by shallow channels and sending out spurs in a north-easterly 
 direction. 
 
 In describing The Wash, however, we must include much more than The 
 Wash proper as above defined. On the east a great shoal, called Burnham 
 Flats to the south, and Docking Shoal to the north, extends about 12 miles 
 north of the Norfolk coast. On the west a less perceptible shoal, broken by 
 Boston Deep, extends beyond Boston Bar and Long Sand. At the base 
 this shoal still continues and joins that first mentioned. The great shoal we 
 have described in three sections is bounded seaward by the five-fathom line, 
 and averages perhaps two fathoms in depth. Parts of it are dry at low 
 water ; such are the following, the figures referring to feet below low-water 
 springs : — 
 
 The Woolpack 
 Middle Bank 
 Sunk Sand 
 Doghead Sand 
 Outer Knock 
 Long Sand 
 Roger Sand 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 tog 
 
 3 to 8 
 
 2 to II 
 
 Hook Hill 2 to 8 
 
 Herring Sand ... ... 4 to 10 
 
 Mare Tail 2 to 8 
 
 Westmark Knock ... 7 to 10 
 
 Whiting Sand ... ... 5 
 
 Thief Sand 8 
 
 Seals Sand ... ... 6 to 11 
 
 The above sands are unconnected with the shore, the following directly 
 
 jom It : — 
 
 Stubborn Sand 
 
 Ferrier, Bulldog, and ^ 
 
 Vinegar Middle Sands 3 
 Daseley's or Pandora 
 
 Sand ... 
 
 I to 14 
 
 3 to II 
 
 Beaumaris Sand 
 Middle Bank 
 Breast Sand 
 Hull Sand 
 Cat Sand... 
 
 7 to 14 
 
 9 to II 
 6 to II 
 
 Between Long and Roger Sands and the flats outside the coast is the 
 channel known as Boston Deeps (a term, I believe, used only in The Wash), 
 at the entrance to which is a bar having only i^ fathoms of water at Low- 
 water springs. Inside the bar the soundings are 4-^, 5, 6, 7, 6, 5, and 45 
 fathoms as far south as Clayhole, where the water shoals again to i fathom. 
 Boston Deep is therefore a basin whose lip is i fathom below the Admiralty 
 datum ; but it is merely a score out of the great shoal. 
 
 Very different is the peculiar basin called Lynn Well. Lynn Deeps is the 
 name given to the deep water of the middle of The Wash (over five 
 fathoms), and Lynn Well lies in the seaward continuation of the Deeps. 
 The Well commences opposite the Long Sand, upon a line drawn from 
 Hunstanton Light and the southernmost Long Sand buoy in Boston Deeps, 
 and runs pretty evenly for eight miles and a half in a north-easterly direction, 
 with an average breadth of about three quarters of a mile. Within this area 
 soundings are never less than 1 5 fathoms, the greatest depth being towards 
 the southern end (26 fathoms or 156 feet, half a mile N.N.W. of the Well 
 Lightship). On all sides the water shoals very decidedly, but less so toward 
 the north-east. The Well is thus a decided basin and not merely the deepest 
 part of the bay, for the seaward lip is clearly discernible. Unlike Boston 
 Deeps, the Well lies entirely below the level of the great shoal. 
 
 The configuration of Lynn Well is such that if it were hollowed out of hard 
 rock it would be called a lake-basin, and it lies in the united continuations 
 of the fen river-valleys, which is also a peculiarity of such basins. It is, how- 
 ever, scooped out of clay ; and, though this in itself is no reason why it 
 should not be a glacial lake-basin, it is very probably only a basin in the 
 Boulder Clay of East AngUa. The origin of this singular depression is to 
 be found in the anomalous set of the tides in The Wash, which we now pro- 
 ceed to describe. 
 
 The tide which fills the Wash runs southward through the German 
 Ocean, and, spreading across the mouth of the Wash, pours its water into 
 the bay sideways, the flood-tide running in a S.S.W. direction on the western 
 coast, and W.S.W. on the eastern side. The ebb tides run in nearly 
 
THE WASH. 105 
 
 opposite directions, or N.N.E. and E.S.E. Off the Knock and the Hook of 
 Long Sand it is high-water on full and change at 6h. ; springs run five miles 
 an hour, ebbs 2^ ; springs rise 23 feet, ebbs 14 feet. When the flood over- 
 flows Long Sand the tide runs strong from the east. Near the Woolpack 
 and Sunk Sand the flood runs W.S.W., and the ebb E.S.E. The tide thus 
 flows down the coasts of the Wash, so that it is high-water at Boston and 
 Lynn at about the same time, and about half-an-hour before high-water at 
 Wisbech. 
 
 It is clear that the tidal stream flowing down the two coasts in different 
 directions must complicate the tides in Lynn Deeps, and such we find to be 
 the case, and to it the formation of Lynn Well is due. In the Well the tide 
 is always flowing, and completely boxes the compass in the course of 12 
 hours, the current continually flowing at a rate of from i\ to 3 knots, and the 
 rise of spring-tides being 24 feet. 
 
 It appears then, that in the middle of The Wash the tidal currents 
 screw round and round, forming, if such an expression be admissible, a 
 slow whirlpool, whose obvious effect is, like a carpenter's centre-bit, to 
 bore a hole. In this way Lynn Well was formed ; and if the limit to which 
 the current acts is not reached (and it is to some extent a surface one), is 
 still in process of deepening. 
 
 Another important result of this tidal action is that the suspended matter 
 with which the waters are laden is not deposited in the bed of the Well, for 
 the matter accumulates only at slack-water, which never occurs there. The 
 only deposit which can take place in that locality is what is shoved along 
 the bottom ; accordingly we find the bottom to consist mostly of coarse 
 shingle. 
 
 Lynn Well affords an example of an apparent lake-basin, due entirely to 
 tidal action.* Many of the submerged basin-like hollows that occur off our 
 coasts, have the lips formed by bars, and these again need not be due to ice- 
 action. It is necessary, especially in little-known regions, carefully to 
 examine the nature of the lip of suspected lake-basins and the set of the tidal 
 currents, especially as such basins commonly occur in friths, where compli- 
 cated tides are most frequent. It by no means follows, however, that a basin 
 is not due to ice-action, even where complicated tides are shown to obtain ; 
 if the Well, for instance, were a submerged lake, the tides would still behave 
 as they do now. 
 
 Mr. Godwin-Austen long ago showed that the channels of some of our 
 rivers were continued out to sea. This is true of the united channels of 
 some of the Fen-rivers, for a glance at the Admiralty charts shows that a 
 channel bordered by the 10 fathom-line runs seaward for at least 24 miles 
 beyond the mouth of The Wash. The great bank, whose highest portions 
 are known, off the Norfolk coast, as the Dudgeon Shoal, Race Bank, 
 Docking Shoal, and Burnham Flats, forms a great submerged peninsula 
 24 miles long, and from 16 to 20 miles broad, which marks the extent of an 
 ancient coast-line. Similarly on the Lincolnshire coast a great shoal, 
 having the Inner Dowsing Sand, the Protector, and other overfalls, as its 
 highest parts, marks an old coast- line running almost due north from about 
 10 miles east of Ingoldmells, beyond the Humber, from whose mouth it is 
 distant 20 miles. Between these great shoals the submerged channel 
 above-mentioned runs. 
 
 Speaking generally, the bottom of The Wash is composed of fine and 
 coarse sand and shingle. The sand is white, brown, or grey, and in many 
 places full of black specks, some of which are ilmenite, but most of them 
 fragments of peat. Flat pebbles of hard peat, bored by Pholades, are also 
 found, and are not unfrequently cast up on the sands, chiefly on the 
 Lincolnshire coast, and most abundantly north of Wainfleet. These 
 peat-masses attest the former seaward extension of the peat. 
 
 The sands proper, or those which rise above low-water mark, consist of 
 
 * We are not sure that Mr. Skertchly's exi^Ianation of the origin of Lynn 
 Well is entirely correct, for it is not a hole such as might be formed by a whirl- 
 pool, but a long, narrow trough. This trough may be a portion of the ancient 
 valley of the united Fen-rivers, and the tidal action which he describes may have 
 kept it from being silted up. 
 
I06 THE WASH. 
 
 fine sand and gravel. The Gat Sand, for instance, near Batchelor's Brawn, 
 consists of fine sand, but in other places the sand is coarse, with scattered 
 pebbles, and at about nine inches below the surface the material is fine 
 gravel. The sand on the northern and southern sides of the Thief Sand 
 is fine, hard, and yellow ; but on the highest portions the material is very 
 fine, almost like silt, with patches of clay. Fragments of hard peat are 
 washed up on this sand, and specks of the same are abundant in the sand 
 itself in some places. Long Sand is composed of a fine hard sand, with 
 pellets of clay interspersed. In places the sand becomes coarser and full of 
 dead shells. This generally happens where the bank is lower than usual. 
 
 I do not believe that the Long and Roger Sands are merely banks of 
 sand and gravel, but look upon them as hills of clay (Kimeridge or Boulder 
 Clay) covered with those materials. If so, they are the modern counterparts 
 of such ancient islands as Whittlesey and Eastrey. 
 
 The coast from the mouth of the Witham northward is formed of very 
 fine silty sand or clay, and round the base of the bay only, at some distance 
 from the mainland, is good hard sand to be found. As we proceed north- 
 ward the coast gets sandier, till at Skegness a beautiful stretch of sandy 
 beach forms the pride of the watering-place. The silt above mentioned 
 is the only Wash-deposit besides sand and gravel. It is only found about 
 high-water mark, and consequently hugs the shore. 
 
 That the sands of the Wash are continually increasing has been known 
 as long as the bay has been navigated, and is attested by their great 
 present extent as compared vith their former area. But the sands not only 
 increase, they shift. The great masses, such as the Gat and Long Sands, 
 it is true, do not alter their position greatly, but the channels are so vari- 
 able that boats carry sounding-poles and use them daily. A fisherman 
 would not think of going down certain channels from which he had been 
 absent a week or two without sounding. 
 
 The deposit now forming in The Wash is almost entirely brought up by 
 the sea. The rivers bring only an inappreciable quantity of sediment from 
 the high-lands beyond the fen, even in times of flood. This is shown by the 
 fact that when the land is drowned by freshets the grass is never soiled, 
 although the flood may be out for weeks. The fact is, most of the sediment 
 is thrown down before the rivers enter the fen, and in this way are formed 
 the alluvial meadows for which the Ouse, the Nene, the Welland, and, to a 
 less extent, the Witham are renowned. If the rivers brought down sufficient 
 material to form deltas, these would be situated at the entrance to the fens, 
 and not at the true river-mouths. 
 
 The origin of the sea-borne detritus is not difficult of detection. The 
 water flows down the coasts of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, which are 
 rapidly wasting, and to this source we must look for the ceaseless supplies 
 of sand and silt which daily encroach upon the waters of The Wash. Most 
 of the material, especially the coarser gravel and sand, is almost certainly 
 carried along the bottom of the sea, and not rolled along the beach or 
 suspended in the water. The finest material, which forms silt, is chiefly 
 suspended in the water. I have taken samples of water across The Wash 
 from off Heacham to Wainfleet, and in every case have found traces of fine 
 sand or clay, or both. The specimens were taken from the bottom and at 
 half depth. Unfortunately, only one line of collection could be run, and 
 that under unfavourable circumstances. The smack was pitching so 
 heavily that we could only filter out the sediment and stow away the 
 filter-paper, a proceeding which prevented any precise determinations. 
 Still, although we cannot yet say how much sediment is brought in by the 
 tides, the fact was established that an appreciable quantity is so carried in 
 suspension. It may be useful to describe the method taken to obtain the 
 water samples. A fourteen-pound lead and lead-line were used in the 
 ordinary manner. After many trials a common soda-water bottle was hit 
 upon to hold the water. It was stropped and snaked like a buoy with a 
 loop left at the bottom for the line to be attached to. The stropping was 
 carried up to the neck of the bottle, and the ends left about four inches 
 above the neck. These ends were run through a sound cork and formed a 
 loop at its top. When the cork was in the bottle the strings of the stropping 
 were loose, when the cork was pulled out they held it fast. The line was 
 
THE WASH. 107 
 
 so attached to the bottle that in heaving no strain was on the cork. When 
 the lead grounded a smart jerk freed the cork, the bottle filled and was 
 drawn up. The jerk of the cork could be distinctly felt in 25 fathoms water 
 and the whole worked admirably. The cost of such an apparatus, including 
 everything, is about 3s. 6d. 
 
 The quantitative results obtained are unreliable in consequence of the 
 way the smack had on her at the time of heaving. It takes a minute or so 
 for the bottle to free itself of air, and unless the vessel is steady at the time 
 this cannot be had. Often the bottle came up, especially in shallow water, 
 only half full, and always the contents hissed and frothed with the im- 
 prisoned air like the delectable liquid the bottle was formed to contain. 
 Calm weather is all that is requisite to ensure success, and that I did not 
 get. 
 
 We have stated that the Fen-silt is derived from the sea, and that it is 
 still in process of formation. The coarser material, sand and gravel, is 
 deposited first, and the finer matter, silt, only in still water. On the coast 
 the deposition is slightly different from that in the estuaries. In the former 
 case the sand is deposited nearly up to high-water mark. The water which 
 overflows the bank is then only the end of the flood, the slack, and the 
 beginning of the ebb, consequently the current is never strong. During 
 the slack the flocculent matter which forms silt is deposited, and the slight 
 movement of the ebb and flood is not sufficient to disturb it. When the 
 bank is in this way raised a little higher the Glass wort {Salicornia herbacea), 
 locally known as Samphire, begins to grow. Its stems greatly facihtate the 
 deposition of silt, which now rapidly accumulates, until at length only very 
 high spring tides can overflow it. It has now become salt-marsh, and the 
 typical marsh-flora establishes itself The samphire-marsh is always 
 distinguished from that which, having become covered with verdure, is 
 called green marsh. They occupy determinate levels as under : — 
 
 Samphire Marsh, 8'6 feet above Ordnance Datum, or i8'54 above 
 
 low-water springs. 
 Green Marsh, ii'o feet above Ordnance Datum, or i9'86 above 
 
 low-water springs. 
 
 The present level of the highest part of the green marsh, just outside the 
 banks, near the Witham, is i3'25 feet above Ordnance Datum, and 23'i 1 feet 
 above low-water springs at Clayhole. 
 
 In the estuaries the silt is deposited over the entire bed at high-water 
 slack, and when the scour of the river is good most of this is cleared away 
 during the ebb ; but when the rainfall is defective and the river is low the 
 silt accumulates with disastrous certainty. 
 
 The surface of the warp laminas are often ripple-marked, but even where 
 this is not apparent to the naked eye, it can always be detected by the 
 microscope. As the ripple-marks are always broadside-on to the stream, 
 they afford a means of determining the set of the currents which have 
 deposited the silt in the interior of the Fenland. To accomplish this, 
 however, an immense number of specimens must be examined, and the 
 points of the compass marked on them before they are removed from the 
 grotmd. 
 
 The disengagement of air from the dry silt, on the rising of the tide, often 
 causes the surface to assume a pimply appearance, and flakes float away and 
 are carried to higher levels. Sometimes, when the water is still, its surface 
 is covered with floating fragments of silt, and a considerable quantity must 
 thus be removed in the course of years. 
 
 The accretion of land has been going on in some part of the Fenland 
 from the earliest times. In estimating the rate of this accretion, we must 
 remember that not thickness only, but horizontal extent, must be taken into 
 consideration. We have no data for estimating the rate of prehistoric 
 accretion, but the rate since the Roman occupation can be approximately 
 estimated. 
 
 The original position of the Roman banks, in reference to the sea, cannot 
 now be determined ; hence we are unable to say how much (if any) land was 
 reclaimed by them. The following are the approximate quantities reclaimed 
 during the subsequent periods ;— 
 
ro8 
 
 THE WASH. 
 
 Date in 
 Centuries. 
 
 2nd to 17th 
 i8th 
 
 19th 
 
 2nd to 19th 
 
 Acreage of 
 Enclosures. 
 
 35,000 
 19,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 64,000 
 
 Maximum 
 Breadth 
 in Miles. 
 
 4-5 
 17 
 
 I'o 
 5'o 
 
 Minimum 
 Breadth 
 in Miles. 
 
 2 '07 
 o'92 
 
 o'6o 
 
 Base 3'45 
 E. H. 0-44 
 
 Position. 
 
 Entirely along the base. 
 Base, and E. Holland 
 
 (in Lincolnshire). 
 Base, and E. Holland 
 
 (in Lincolnshire). 
 
 Base, and E. Holland. 
 
 Four points require consideration in this question : — First, that on each 
 side of a line, called the Axis of Accumulation, which runs from about Lynn 
 Knock to Whaplode Church, the accretion has been nearly equal, as is shown 
 by the area of the embanked lands, of the marsh, and of the barren sands ; 
 and that the watershed is roughly parallel with this axis. This fact 
 was pointed out and the term applied by Capt. Vetch in his Report on 
 the Norfolk Estuary Scheme, 1849. Second, that along the Norfolk coast 
 the accretion has been nil. Third, that along the base of the bay the 
 accretion has been most rapid. Fourth, that the accretion on the East 
 Holland coast has been small, and the inclosures, with the exception of. 
 about 1,200 acres south of Wainfleet, have been made in the present 
 century. 
 
 With respect to the Axis of Accumulation, we notice that the sands lie 
 closer to it on the Holland than the other coast, though the areas are equal. 
 Prof. Gordon remarks that, " On this axis of accumulation Herring Sand, 
 Hook Hill, Mare Tail, Roger Sand, and Long Sand are being gradually 
 shoved up to Holbeach, Moulton, Gedney, and Fossdyke sea-banks ; and, in 
 the course of time, after various temporary changes of direction, as it were, 
 struggles for independent existence, the sea-channels between Mare Tail 
 and the adjacent Hook Hill Sands have closed up, these sands being no 
 longer islands, but united to the main body of the sands on the Holbeach 
 shore. The exact movement of the sands since any remote period cannot 
 be ascertained, there having been only one accurate survey of them as a 
 whole ; but if we give the compilers of early charts credit for having laid 
 down only such channels and sands as existed, these charts afford strong 
 evidence that the movement of the sands referred to has taken place 
 gradually. The rate of this movement of the sands towards the sea-banks 
 within given periods depends mainly on the changes in the relative posi- 
 tions or advances of the sea-banks. Each successive advance is a cause of 
 acceleration — is a new impetus to the motion in question."* 
 
 It is here clearly pointed out that the effect of sea-banks is to facilitate 
 the accretion ; hence in estimating the rate of accretion by means of the 
 sea-banks it must be remembered that the results are greater than they 
 would be on an unwalled coast-line. 
 
 Taking the quantities given in the foregoing table, we obtain for the base 
 of The Wash the following rates of accumulation : — 
 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Mean 
 
 Dates. 
 
 Rate 
 
 Rate 
 
 Rate per 
 
 
 per Annum. 
 
 per Annum. 
 
 Annum. 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet, 
 
 Between 2nd and 17th centuries 
 
 15-84 
 
 1-76 
 
 7-29 
 
 During i8th century ... 
 
 89-76 
 
 21-12 
 
 48-65 
 
 „ 19th do. 
 
 70-41 
 
 13-20 
 
 31-68 
 
 Mean rates for 1,700 years 
 
 59-00 
 
 3-88 
 
 10-73 
 
 Report on Line, Estuary Bill, p, 6, 
 
THE WASH. 109 
 
 The mean I'ates in the above table are obtained by measuring the breadth 
 at every mile, and taking the average of these measurements. This is 
 obviously more correct than taking the mean of the greatest and least 
 breadths. The average rate of accretion for the base of the Wash, between 
 the rivers Welland and Ouse, is therefore 1073 feet per annum. The effect 
 of embanking green marsh in promoting the accretion of silt is shown 
 forcibly in the above table ; thus, between the 2nd and the end of the 17th 
 centuries, no new banks were raised ; whereas in the i8th century, when 
 embanking was actively pursued, the minimum rate was greater than the 
 maxitfium for the preceding 1,500 years, and the mean rate was more than 
 three times the maximum of the long antecedent period. These new lands, 
 be it remembered, are not enclosed till they have become green marsh, so 
 that the above rates show the actual increase of dry land, and not that which 
 has been reclaimed from the tide-way. Indeed, as yet, the only lands 
 enclosed are green marsh, and though at least two admirable schemes have 
 been brought forward to reclaim the banks below high-water mark, they 
 have fallen through, like most comprehensive fen-schemes, for want of 
 pecuniary support, and from short-sighted local opposition. 
 
 The accretion along the sides of The Wash has been very much slower. 
 Indeed, so far as the Norfolk coast is concerned, it may be regarded as nil, 
 for with the exception of the marshes at the mouth of Wolverton Creek, 
 inclosed in the i8th century (with additions in the latter part of the 19th), 
 no land has been embanked along that coast. At the present time a fringe 
 of green marsh extends from Hunstanton Station southwards to North 
 Wootton, with a minimum breadth of about two chains, a maximum by 
 Wolverton Creek of o'75 mile, and a mean of o"2i3 mile. As this coast is 
 protected by banks of Roman date, we have an average rate of accretion of 
 but o'66 feet per annum. 
 
 On the Lincolnshire (East Holland) coast the rate of accretion is somewhat 
 greater, and, with one exception, all the enclosures since the erection of the 
 Roman banks have taken place during the present century. The exception 
 consists of an enclosure, made last century south of the River Steefiing, of 
 about three miles in length by an average breadth of o'\ miles. The mean 
 breadth of accretion, including green marsh, along this coast is o'jg miles, 
 which is pretty evenly distributed, the maximum being less than one mile, 
 and the minimum than o"25 mile. This gives as the average rate of accre- 
 tion I '83 feet per annum. 
 
 The mean annual rates therefore stand as under ; — 
 
 Feet. 
 Base of Wash ... mean rate ... ... 1073 
 
 East Holland Coast do. ... ... r83 
 
 Norfolk Coast ... do. ... ... o'66 
 
 that is to say, the rate of accretion along the base of The Wash is nearly six 
 times as fast as on the East Holland coast, and more than 16 times as rapid 
 as on the Norfolk coast. The rate along the East Holland coast is nearly 
 three times as great as along the Norfolk coast. S. B. J. S. 
 
no 
 
 CHAPTER 12. ECONOMICS. 
 Building-stones. 
 
 The only good building-stone to be found in this area is the 
 brown sandstone which forms the upper part of the Lower 
 Greensand and is known locally under the name of Carstone. 
 This was formerly quarried at several localities, but Mr. 
 Whitaker, writing in 1882, says, at Snettisham only was the 
 Carstone worked in the form of dressed blocks for ashlar 
 masonry. It hardens on exposure, is known as gingerbread- 
 stone, and has a pleasing Took, especially in old buildings where 
 more or less covered by lichen. 
 
 The stone quarried at Snettisham has been largely used in 
 the construction of the buildings of the new town of Hunstan- 
 ton, and also for the stations on the railway between Lynn and 
 Hunstanton. Mr. Woodward remarks that many of 'the 
 buildings in this stone are erected without mortar, the blocks 
 being arranged in layers and held together by stone courses 
 at the corners which are cemented. 
 
 The hard beds of the Lower Chalk have been used in several 
 localities as a rough walling-stone and in the construction of 
 small sheds and outhouses. 
 
 Bricks. 
 
 There are five formations within the area of Sheet 6g which 
 yield material for brick-making : (i) the clay in the Lower Green- 
 sand ; (2) the Gault ; (3) brick-earth associated with the Chalky 
 Boulder Clay ; (4) the Brown Boulder Clays and loams ; (5) the 
 Fen-clays. 
 
 In the first there are brickyards at Snettisham and Heacham. 
 The second has not been utilised in this area, so far as we are 
 aware, though it has been so used in the district to the south- 
 ward (Sheet 65). The third material is employed for making 
 bricks near Anmer, Great Bircham, and Docking. The brown 
 clays are worked at the Hawkers Hill Brickyard, between 
 Burnham Westgate and Burnham Deepdale, and also at Holk- 
 ham Brickyard on the border of the adjoining sheet (69) to the 
 east. Mr. Cameron was informed that bricks had been made 
 of the same clay at Brancaster, though there is no brickyard 
 there now. 
 
 The clays of the Fenland have been described on p. 95. 
 Many brickyards exist, especially near Boston and Holbeach ; 
 great numbers of bricks are made, but they are not of first-class 
 quality. Mr, Skertchly observes that " the bricks are very 
 poor, being soft, friable, and often ill-shaped and cracked. 
 They are generally burnt in kilns, but often when farm-buildings 
 are about to be erected the clay is dug on the spot, and the 
 bricks are fired in clamps. . . . The clay is always mixed 
 with sand or warp for brick-making, but even then shrinks 
 
SPRINGS. i 1 1 
 
 greatly [in the burning]. The following examples will show 
 this :— 
 
 I. Boston East Brickyard, High Bridge Drain. 
 
 Size of mould... ... ... lo x 5 x 3J inches. 
 
 Size of burnt brick ... ... 8J x 4J x 2f inches. 
 
 Shrinkage of mass ... ... 277 per cent. 
 
 2. Cow Bridge Brickyard, Boston. 
 Size of mould... ... ... 10 x 5 x 3j. 
 
 Size of burnt brick ... ... 9 x 4J x 3. 
 
 Shrinkage of mass ... ... 25 '2 per cent. 
 
 3. A Brickyard close to the last. 
 Size of mould... ... ... 10 x 4^ x 3j. 
 
 Size of burnt brick ... ... 9 x 3f x 3, 
 
 Shrinkage ofmass ... ... 37'2 per cent. 
 
 Marl. 
 
 The Chalky Boulder Clay which covers so much of the higher 
 ground is generally too calcareous to be burnt into bricks, but 
 has been dug very largely for marl to spread on the land (see 
 
 p. 74)- 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Massingham it was customary in 
 the middle of last century to spread about 70 loads of marl 
 over an acre of ground. Some farmers, according to YoUNG,* 
 tried 30 loads more, but without success. In certain cases it 
 was found beneficial to lay on 35 to 40 loads first, and in three 
 or four years time to add as much more, by which means the 
 marl became better incorporated with the soil. 
 
 Springs. 
 
 The most copious springs in the district under description are 
 those which are thrown out at or near the base of the Chalk. 
 
 The springs at Grimston, just beyond the southern border of Sheet 69 
 have been mentioned in the Memoir on Sheet 65. 
 
 Mr. Whitaker contributes the following remarks on the Babingley 
 River ; — The main springs in this valley rise about half a mile above 
 Flitcham Abbey. Above this point the stream is a nailbourne, and water 
 only runs continuously when heavy rains have raised the underground water- 
 level. In February, 1883, there were detached sheets of water above the 
 Flitcham springs, higher up the run was more or less continuous, but at last 
 broken up again and ending in a pool and wet ground below Massingham 
 Station. There was also water up the side-valley to the north. 
 
 Appleton. — Strong springs rise from the base of the chalk in Denbeck 
 Wood, east of Appleton, and are utilised for the supply of Sandringham 
 House, the waterworks being at Appleton. Mr. F. R. Beck, writing to Mr. 
 Whitaker in 1894, stated that the water from these springs is excellent, 
 and the supply never failed till 1893, when the quantity decreased seriously 
 in August and failed altogether at the end of October. The water began to 
 flow again at the beginning of December, and the estate was wholly supplied 
 again on December 14th. The deficiency in 1893 was overcome by pumping 
 water from a shallow spring at the north end of Sandringham House. 
 
 Shembome. — A strong spring issues from the Chalk at Shernborne, the 
 water being doubtless held up by the thin layer of clay which represents 
 the Gault in this neighbourhood. 
 
 At Barrett Ringstead, about a mile south-east of Hunstanton Station, 
 there is a chalybeate spring which rises from the middle of the Lower Chalk 
 
 * Young's " Agriculture of Norfolk," p. 402. ' 
 
 I 2 
 
112 ECONOMICS. 
 
 probably about 20 feet above its base. The existence of such a spring in 
 Chalk is unusual, and is probably in this case to be explained by the 
 occurrence of a fissure traversing the Chalk and the Red Rock below so that 
 there is a communication with the underlying Carstone. The ferruginoiis 
 sandstone is probably saturated with water, and a local fissure may allow this 
 water to escape upward and mix with that which percolates down the valley 
 in the Chalk. 
 
 In the eastern part of the Chalk area the position of springs in the valleys 
 varies with the wetness of the season. On this subject Mr. WOODWARD 
 contributes the following observations : — In wet weather the Wensum, which 
 is said to take its rise at Wickend Pond north of Tatterset, rises at higher 
 and higher levels towards Barmer, according to the amount of the rainfall 
 and the consequent saturation of the Chalk ; at such times numerous small 
 sheets of water or meres occur here and there in the valley. 
 
 The valley along which the railway runs from Stanhoe Station to Burn- 
 ham Westgate is always dry in the summer, but during the winter months a 
 stream rises in it and flows through Burnham, commencing to run after the 
 autumnal rains and continuing above ground generally until May. 
 
 Of the spring about half a mile west of Bircham Newton Mr. Reid 
 writes. :^Froni the character of the channel and the abundance of water- 
 plants the stream is evidently perennial. About 10 chains to the south there 
 IS a pond overgrown with sedges evidently on the site of an occasional 
 spring-head. Lower down the valley at Fring more springs occur. 
 
 Mr. Barrow found that at the village of Bagthorpe water is from 15 to 
 20 feet below the surface, while a little northward it often comes to within a 
 few feet of the surface. Between Bagthorpe and Syderstone the water used 
 to issue from the Chalk in a strong spring, which was built over, but for 
 some years past it has either ceased entirely or runs with a small flow. 
 
113 
 
 APPENDIX I. WELL-SECTIONS. 
 
 Wells and Borings in the Area of Sheet 69. 
 
 Lincolnshire. 
 
 Boston. 
 
 Market Place, 1828 (May 3rd to August 3rd). 
 From Thomson's " History of Boston." 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Loose earth 
 
 „ „ mixed with silt 
 
 Very hard earth, mixed with stone 
 
 Very strongearth, mixed with clay 
 
 Clay and shells ... 
 
 Dark clay and large flints 
 
 Clay, stones, and shells ... 
 
 Clay and large stones 
 
 Very dark clay and stones 
 
 Clay and stones ... 
 
 Very dark clay and shells 
 
 Dark clay 
 
 Light slate-coloured clay, with large shells ... 
 
 Dark clay and shells 
 
 Dark clay 
 
 Clay, with great quantity of shells ... 
 
 Shells, shingle, dark clay, and sharp sand ... 
 
 Remarkably fine sharp sand 
 
 Ditto and dark clay 
 
 Clay and very large shells 
 
 Shingle, flints, and shells 
 
 Rock. Messrs. Tuxford, who sank the well, say :— 
 " It is supposed possible that some hard substance 
 may have fallen in, causing the appearance of ' rock ' 
 at these depths " 
 
 Stones, mixed with clay ... 
 
 Clay, shells, and flint 
 
 Stone, shells, and rock 
 
 Very dark clay ... 
 
 Very fine white sand 
 
 A dark umber-like earth, soft and hard by turns 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 12 o 
 12 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 45 
 
 35 
 
 20 o 
 
 16 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 II 
 
 no 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 65 
 38 
 
 31 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 9 
 7 
 3 
 
 2 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 II 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 50 
 
 95 
 130 o 
 150 o 
 166 
 179 
 190 
 300 
 328 
 350 
 415 o 
 
 453 o 
 
 484 o 
 
 486 o 
 
 489 o 
 
 498 o 
 
 505 o 
 
 508 5 
 
 510 6 
 522 10 
 529 10 
 548 o 
 555 o 
 566 o 
 572 o 
 
 In the Fenland Memoir (pp. 211,279) Mr. Skertchly classified the beds 
 as follows, but with some error in the figures on the latter page : — 
 
 Fen-beds, 24. 
 
 Boulder Clay, 460 (or Glacial Beds, 420). 
 
 Pre- or inter-Glacial beds, 88 (or 87). 
 
 There is also some error in speaking of the record of '' clay, shells, and 
 flint " at the " depth of 583 feet," as this is more than the depth of the boring. 
 The lowest bed of that character is at about 530 feet. 
 
 Mr. Skertchly regarded the whole of the section of 572 feet to be in 
 Quarternary beds, 
 
114 WELL SECTIONS. 
 
 This boring was subsequently discussed by Mr. Jukes-BrownE,* from 
 whose remarks the following are quoted : — 
 
 " Depending on this record and mainly on the fact that between the 
 depths of 523 and 530 feet 'clay, shells, and. flints' are said to have occurred, 
 Mr. Skertchly regards the section as giving evidence of the extension of 
 the Glacial series to the enormous depth of nearly 600 feet below Boston. 
 
 " I cannot but think, however, that the evidence on which this supposition 
 rests is too weak and uncertain to support so startling a conclusion. The 
 description of the beds said to have occurred in the last 80 feet is certainly 
 extraordinary, but [unless samples have been preserved] a boring can never 
 be regarded as of the same evidential value as a section which has been open 
 to observation, and this boring is^ 50 years old, so that no questions can be 
 asked of the well-sinker. Everyone who is accustomed to the reports of 
 such persons is aware of the extraordinary terms they sometimes use, of the 
 necessity there is for personal cross-examination, and of the liability to 
 error arising from stones and other substances falling into the bore ; this 
 error is particularly difficult to eliminate, and it may account for some of 
 the appearances in the present case. 
 
 " Furthermore it is always necessary to translate such accounts into 
 geological language, and it is not always safe to accept the well -sinker's 
 terms in a literal sense. Now in this particular record frequent mention is 
 made oi shells, shingle, and flint, and Mr. Skertchly lays great stress on 
 the last of these because he thinks ' this substance can hardly have been 
 mistaken for any other material.' In Cambridgeshire, however, the term 
 'flint' is said to be sometimes appHed to hard beds and concretions in the 
 Jurassic Clays. Speaking of a rocky band- in the Oxford Clay, Prof. H. G. 
 SEELEYsays 'the workmen call \l flint, a name I have also found given in 
 the surrounding district to the septarious- concretions in the clays.'t 
 
 " It is quite possible, not to say probable, that the greater part of this 
 boring lies in the Kimeridge and Oxford Clays ; especially as in the only 
 other deep boring near Boston the base of the Boulder Clay was found at a 
 depth of i66| feet. Beds of rock and sandstone are known to occur in and 
 between these clays not far to the southward, and the isolated reef at Up ware 
 attests the local and occasional development of the Coral Rag. ... 
 
 " Now assuming that the lower part of the boring is in the Oolitic Series, 
 it becomes important to determine, if possible, the base of the Boulder 
 Clay ; and in the first place it may be noted that the boring at Fossdyke 
 (only seven miles south of Boston) reached the bottom of this clay at a 
 depth of 166^ feet, passing immediately into Kimeridge Clay with septarian 
 bands which was bored to a further depth of 159J feet. If we examine the 
 account of the Boston well we find that stones are repeatedly mentioned as 
 occurring in the clay down to a depth of 190 feet, but that below this [level] 
 there is no recorded occurrence of stones throughout a thickness of 
 294 feet. All this portion of the section is described as ' dark clay with 
 shells,' except a band in the middle, 22 feet thick, of ' light slate-coloured 
 clay with large shells.' Such a description applies far better to the 
 Kimeridge or Oxford Clay than to Boulder Clay, for it would be surprising 
 that no stones should have been met with in boring through a thickness of 
 nearly 300 feet of Boulder Clay. Moreover, if we place the base of the 
 Boulder Clay at 190 feet the section then agrees very fairly with the more 
 recent and more accurately described boring at Fossdyke " 
 
 It was then pointed out that the real difficulty lay in the interpretation of 
 the lower 88 feet of the boring, which is stated to have passed through a 
 varied series of sands, clays, and rock-beds ; and I suggested that these 
 might be a local development of Corallian Beds between the Oxford and 
 Kimeridge Clays. A reconsideration of the matter has, however, induced me 
 to alter my opinion. The thickness of Oxford Clay which comes in Won H 
 the western border of the Fenland in Sheet 70 is vJry small -ks easterly dip 
 IS also so small as to be inappreciable in the brickyard exposures, and in all 
 probability it becomes really nil under the central part of the Fenland 
 
 * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxxv., p. 418 (1870) 
 t Ann. andHIag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. x., p. 104, 
 
LINCOLNSHIRE. 
 
 115 
 
 Now Boston is only about 1 5 miles from the outcrop of the Kellaways 
 Beds near Sleaford, and if we allow a dip of half a degree throughout the 
 whole distance (which is probably an excessive estimate) the thickness of 
 beds brought in below Boston will be only 630 feet, which is only 58 feet 
 more than the 572 feet proved. Moreover, the Kellaways Beds do consist 
 of alternations of white sand, clay, and sandy rock with fossils. 
 
 Consequently I am now inclined to believe that this boring traversed the 
 whole of the Oxford Clay and the Kellaways Beds, and may possibly even 
 have entered the Great Oolite clay. The succession of formations pierced 
 by this boring may therefore be summarised as follows :— 
 
 Fen Beds 
 Boulder Clays 
 
 166 feet. 
 
 Kimeridge and 
 
 Oxford Clays 
 
 294 feet. 
 
 Beds at and below 
 
 base of Oxford 
 
 Clay, 88 feet. 
 
 Loose earth and silt 
 
 Hard earth with stones 
 
 Clay with stones, flints, and shells 
 
 Dark clay with shells 
 
 Light-coloured clay with shells 
 
 Dark clays with shells 
 
 Fine sand and clay 
 
 Stones and rock ... 
 
 Clay with stones and shells 
 
 Stone, shells, and rock 
 
 Dark clay 
 
 White sand 
 
 Brown earth 
 
 Boston. 
 
 J. Farev, in a letter to Sir J. Banks, 1808, refers to a deep boring here, 
 and doubts the chalk, small pebbles, and flints said to have been got deep 
 down, thinking that they have fallen down from above. The section is given 
 as follows : — 
 
 Alluvial silt, clay, sand, and gravel 
 Clunch (? clay) 
 
 Feet. 
 
 37i 
 441 
 
 Boston, 1746. ? Sunk by T. Partridge. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Sand ... 
 
 Made earth (old surface) ... 
 
 Stones and gravel 
 
 Clay 
 
 Stones, rubble, sort of chalk 
 
 Clay with very small handstones not pierced 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 3 
 5 
 3 
 5 
 3 
 173 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 II 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 192 
 
 It may here be stated that no fewer than four deep borings have been 
 made at Boston in search of water. The dates of these are as follows : — 
 
 Date. Maker. Depth. Reference. 
 
 1746 ... T. Partridge ... 192 ... Gent. Soc. Spalding. 
 
 1783 ... G. Naylor ... 478 ... Phil. Trans. 
 
 1826 ... T. Wilks ... 560 ... Histoiy of Boston, 
 
 1828 „. Tuxford ... 572 ... Ihid, 
 
ii6 
 
 WELL SECTIONS. 
 
 Skirbeck Quarter, Boston. 
 2 1 '9 feet above low-water in Boston Deeps. 
 From Mr. W. H. Wheeler. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 
 rSilty clay 
 
 5 6 
 
 5 6 
 
 r Clay 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 3 6 
 
 9 
 
 
 and 
 
 -^ Silty clay 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 
 Silt 
 
 Soft buttery clay, more moist ... 
 
 2 10 
 
 17 10 
 
 Allu- 
 
 
 (Silty clay 
 
 5 
 
 18 3 
 
 Peat, sandy at bottom ... 
 
 I 4 
 
 19 7 
 
 
 
 ■ Sharp sand, especially last 4 mches 
 Sharp sand, greyish yellow ; water 
 
 9 
 
 20 4 
 
 
 I Sand 
 
 rose 
 Sharp sand ... 
 
 11 
 11 
 
 21 3 
 
 22 2 
 
 
 1 Sand, clay, and small stones 
 
 6 
 
 22 8 
 
 
 LSharp sand ... 
 
 2 10 
 
 25 6 
 
 
 Boulder Clay — Clay with chalk-stones 
 
 4 
 
 25 10 
 
 Boston. 
 Nearer the road than the above. 
 Communicated by Mr. W. H. Wheeler. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 rClay and silt... 
 Fen Beds] Peat 
 
 ( Sand 
 Boulder clay 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 17 9 
 I 6 
 
 4 9 
 6 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 17 9 
 
 19 3 
 24 
 24 6 
 
 Boston. 
 Boring at the Grand Sluice on the River Witham, ij miles above the 
 Docks. 
 Communicated by Mr. W. H. Wheeler. 
 
 Thickness. JJepth 
 
 Fen Beds 
 
 Glacial Beds 
 
 ^Alluvial Soil 
 
 Clay ;;; 
 
 Soft clay... ... .f. 
 
 Soft black clay, with cockle shells ... 
 
 Very soft clay 
 
 Peat ... ... ... ,,[ 
 
 Sand 
 
 Hard clay 
 Sand 
 
 Boulder Clay of a black colour, with 
 small chalk-stones, bored for 
 
 Feet. 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 Feet. 
 
 10 
 12 
 13 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 
 39 
 
 N.B.— The Boulder Clay here is much blacker in colour than at the Docks 
 and has less chalk m it, " *^^j^ti» 
 
LINCOLNSHIRE., 
 Boston. 
 
 117 
 
 Borings made to test the ground before the construction of Boston Docks. 
 Communicated by Mr. W. H. Wheeler. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Soil and rubbish 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 ("Loamy clay 
 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 
 Brown clay (a good brick clay) 
 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 ~ 
 
 Loam and silt 
 
 
 I 
 
 IO 
 
 Fen Beds ...i 
 
 Brown clay 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 
 Clay with specks of peat 
 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 
 Clay and peat 
 
 
 I 
 
 15 
 
 (.Peat and sand 
 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 ni • 1 Tj^j^C Sand and yellow clay 
 Glacial Beds ^g^^l^g^(,=[^y _/ 
 
 
 I 
 4 
 
 19 
 23 
 
 Boston. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Brown clay 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Clay with specs of peat ... 
 
 Clay and shells ... 
 
 Sand and peat ... 
 
 Boulder Clay ... 
 
 Feet. 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 4 
 3 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 Feet. 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 II 
 
 15 
 18 
 
 19 
 23 
 
 Boston. 
 
 Borings at the Witham Outfall Works near Clayhole. 
 Communicated by Mr. W. H. Wheeler. 
 
 No. I on the 
 Enclosed Land. 
 
 No. 2 on the 
 Foreshore. 
 
 No. 3 at 
 Low -Water Mark. 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Alluvial soil 
 Brown clay 
 Blue clay 
 Peat ... 
 Sand ... 
 Boulder Clay 
 
 ... 5f 
 ••■ 3 
 
 Sand and silt 
 Brown clay 
 Blue clay 
 Peat ... 
 Sand ... 
 Boulder Clay 
 
 - 3 
 
 - 3 
 
 - 3 
 ... I 
 
 ... oJ 
 
 Blue clay 
 Peat 
 Sand 
 Boulder Clay 
 
 ... 6 
 ... I 
 ... I 
 
ii8 
 
 WELL SECTIONS. 
 
 Lade Bank Engines. East Fen, north of Boston. 
 
 From Mr. W. H. Wheeler (see " Geology of the Fenland " p. 280) ? a well 
 or a boring. 
 
 Fen Beds 
 
 ^Clay ... 
 \ Peat 
 
 i Soft blue clay 
 (. Peat with pieces of trees ... 
 Boulder Clay— Hard clay with chalk-stones 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 4 o 
 o 6 
 
 3 ° 
 
 ? 6 
 
 22 o 
 
 30 o 
 
 HOLBEACH. The Eight-sailed Mill. 
 
 From " The Geology of the Fenland," probably from information obtained 
 by Mr. Skertchly. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 3 
 
 T, o J N Silt ... ... ... ... ..• 2 
 
 Fen Beds i c„„j ... 6 
 
 ... 19 
 
 •Soil 
 
 Silt 
 
 Sand 
 . Clay with shells, full of salt-water 
 
 30 
 
 FOSSDYKE. Coast Guard Station, 1875 (? abandoned). 
 Made and communicated by MESSRS. S. F. BAKER & SONS. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Depth of well (the rest bored), partly in sand and 
 
 gravel ... 
 
 Sand and gravel 
 
 Yellow sandy clay [? Boulder Clay] 
 [Boulder] Clay, light blue, with chalk-stones 
 Dark [Kimeridge] Clay, with septarian bands 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 57 
 
 37 
 
 51 6 
 
 159 6 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 21 
 
 78 
 
 115 
 
 166 6 
 
 326 
 
 Sutton. Thompson's " History of Boston.'' 
 
 From Mr. W. H. WHEELER and from Mr. C. B.. ROSE, Geologist, 1843, 
 P-77. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 
 I Clayey warp ... 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 Fen Beds ... 
 
 1 Moor or peat ... 
 
 1 Soft moor, mixed with shells and 
 
 3 to 4 
 
 20 
 
 
 ' silt 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 
 ^ Marly clay 
 
 ) Chalk rock ... 
 
 ^ Clay mixed with chalk-stones, 
 
 ^ gravel, and water 
 
 I 
 
 41 
 
 Boulder Clay 
 
 I to 2 
 
 ?42 
 
 
 93 
 
 135 
 
NORFOLK. 1 19 
 
 Stickney. 
 
 From Mr. Skertchly's " Geology of the Fenland," p. 276. 
 
 Actual site not specified, probably a boring at some spot west of the 
 
 village. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 ^ Clayey silt ... ... ... 4 o 
 
 -c Tj„ i„ J Peat with trees ... ... o to o 6 
 
 i'en iJecls ■{ ,,,,•. , 
 
 J White sand ... ... ... 3 o 
 
 ■ Dark gravel mixed with clayand sand 6 o 
 
 Kimeridge(,^^'''^""«<^l^y . 
 Clav ) Very large septana 
 ^' ^ Dark blue clay ... 
 
 32 o 
 
 Over 46 6 
 
 Long Sutton. 
 
 A boring. Information from Mr. William Skelton. 
 
 Feet. 
 J, T. J ( Silt and fine sand ... ... ... 47 
 
 i^enueas ^ Gravel and sea-shingle 10 
 
 Boulder ( Blue clay with small pieces of chalk 
 Clay. I and occasionally flints, about ... 100 
 
 ^"ci"'^^^ I ^'"'^ '^^'^y without chalk-stones, about... 1 16 
 
 273 
 
 This was the depth of the boring in 1885 when it was stopped as no water 
 was obtained. We are informed by Mr. W. H. WOODCOCK, of Long Sutton, 
 under date October 20th, 1897, that the boring was not continued, and that 
 the tube still remains in the ground as it was left in 1885. 
 
 Norfolk. 
 
 BuRNHAM Market, or Burnham Westgate. 
 
 Information obtained by Mr. Cameron and Mr. G. Barrow. 
 
 1. House facing Norton Road. 
 
 Sand and gravel 16 feef) 
 Hard chalk ... 24 „ i '*° 
 
 2. Cobbler's Hill Farm. Chalk 134 feet. Mr. G. Barrow notes a 
 
 well at Cobbler's Hill Plantation as 130 feet to water, the level 
 of which varies, though the well is never dry. 
 
 3. Sussex Farm, in the valley about i| miles west of the town. Chalk, 
 
 100 feet, the upper part marly, and with a thin covering of gravel. 
 
 4. Friar Thorn Farm, on the main road to Docking about i^mile from 
 
 the church. 
 
 Boulder Clay 3ofeet).o r .. 
 
 Chalk ... 150 „ 3 
 
 Depth of water in April, 1883, 40 feet. 
 
 5. Cradle Hall, south-west of the last. Well said to be 200 feet deep, 
 
 but probably not so much, as it went dry once in a dry summer. 
 Depth of water in April, 1883, 30 feet, 
 
I20 WELL SECTIONS. 
 
 Castle Rising. 
 
 Rising Lodge Farm, on the high-road, a mile south of Castle Rising. 
 Sunk and communicated by J. Fake, of Norwich, 1881. 
 
 Gravel and Sand [Lower Greensand] 105 feet. 
 
 Another well sunk about 100 yards east of the above is said to be about 
 1 1 3 feet deep. 
 
 Castle Rising. 
 
 Cottage at foot of hill, three quarters of a mile east of South Wooton. 
 Sunk and communicated by J. Fake, of Norwich. 
 Water rose 30 feet 
 
 Brick-earth ... ... ... about 7 feet. 
 
 Red clay ... .;. ... ... „ 2 or 3 „ 
 
 Blue clay ... ... ... ... „ 29 „ 
 
 To sand [Lower Greensand] ... 39 „ 
 
 Docking. 
 
 Town well. Information obtained by Mr. G. Barrow. 
 
 Boulder Clay (known as brick-earth) ... 30 to 40 feet. 
 
 Gravel ... ... ... ... 30 to 40 „ -^ 
 
 Fine sand • ... ... ... ... 70 „ 
 
 Rock (very hard chalk)... ... ... 50 „ 
 
 The total depth being 190 
 
 The depth of clay and gravel together was said to be about 70 feet. The 
 well having gone dry some years ago was deepened, and on sinking 10 feet 
 more they came on tabular flint, which crossed the entire bottom of the 
 shaft. On breaking through this water came in and rose very rapidly, and 
 the well has never been dry since. In April, 1883, there was 40 feet of 
 water. 
 
 Another account obtained by Mr. C. Reid says that the well is bricked 
 for 60 feet, and that the rest is in chalk with flints to 216 feet. This, how- 
 ever, may refer to another well, as there are said to be two deep wells in 
 Docking. 
 
 East Rudham. 
 Information obtained by Mr. H. B. Woodward. 
 
 1. At Railway Station. Boulder-clay and chalk 34 feet, 
 
 2. At Inn by the Station. „ „ 29 „ 
 
 The water stands about 4 feet deep. 
 
 Little Massingham. 
 
 Brickyard, south of the church, made in 1882, and communicated by 
 Mr. J Seaman, of Great Massingham. 
 
 Clay, light-coloured at top, the rest blue [Loam 
 
 and Boulder Clay] ... ... ... 100 feet. 
 
 Clialk 30 „ 
 
NORFOLK. 
 
 121 
 
 Sandringham. 
 
 Trial bore, 1885, made and communicated by Messrs. T. Tilley & 
 Son. Plent/of good, but rather hard, water. 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 tHICKNESS. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Made ground 
 
 ... 
 
 >*• ■•■ •.. 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 Upper Division 
 
 — Sand 
 
 
 6 6 
 
 13 6 
 
 
 Middle Division 
 
 f Coloured Clay 
 i Blue Clay 
 
 
 2 
 12 
 
 15 6 
 27 6 
 
 Lower ) 
 
 
 ("Black sand, hard ... 
 
 
 8 6 
 
 36 
 
 Greensand 
 
 
 White sand, hard... 
 
 
 12 
 
 48 
 
 
 Lower Division 
 
 -I Grey sand 
 
 
 14 6 
 
 62 6 
 
 
 
 Hard Rock 
 
 
 4 
 
 62 10 
 
 
 
 Grey sand to rock... 
 
 
 7 
 
 ' 69 10 
 
 An account of a boring (at a dififerent site) made in .1872, given by Mr. 
 Mansergh (to Prof. T. R. Jones, who supplies notes in brackets from 
 specimens), differs considerably, being as follows : — 
 
 I i8i feet above Ordnance Datum. 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Red Chalk 
 
 ... 
 
 ... ... ... •** 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Carstone ... 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 1 Greensand (brownish-green 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 \ sand) ... 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 
 Upper 
 
 1 Stone, with mineral... 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 
 Division 
 
 1 Greensand (greenish-brown 
 1 sand, with nodule's of pyrites 
 [ at top, then sand stained 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 green) ... 
 
 i5i 
 
 47 
 
 Lower 
 Greensand 
 
 Middle 
 Division 
 
 ■ Stiff blue clay (sandy clay) ... 
 1 Blue stone (light brown clayey 
 
 5 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 1 sand) 
 
 16 
 
 68 
 
 
 ? Lower 
 Division 
 
 (Black clayey sand) -^jl,i^^„gg3 
 ^";fngc7ay) ^^^otgiven 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \? Boring left off at... 
 
 
 100 
 
 Snettisham. 
 Information from Mr. Chilvers (who made the wells). 
 
 I Cottages by brickyard ; well about 20 feet deep in sand. 
 
 2. At Grammar School, on rising ground north-east of the Hall ; 
 well about 50 feet deep, with 4 feet of water. The top 6 feet 
 black earth or silt [clayey beds of the Lower Greensand], the 
 rest sand. 
 
122 WELL SECTIONS. 
 
 Stanhoe. 
 Information about several wells obtained by Mr. G. Barrow. 
 
 1. The village well was 170 feet deep but has been deepened by 10 feet 
 
 as it failed in summer. Now 180 feet, of which rather more than 
 30 feet is clay, the rest is chalk. 
 
 2. Great Barwick well, said to be a hundred feet deep or rather more. 
 
 In winter and spring the water rises to within 30 or 40 feet of the 
 surface, but in the summer it sinks at least 20 feet and sometimes 
 more. 
 
 3. Well at cottage close to the railway-station. This is 60 feet deep, 
 
 10 feet through marl and 50 feet through hard chalk. The water 
 varies in level ; in April, 1883, it was about 30 feet from the 
 surface. 
 
 Tatterset. 
 
 Well by brickyard north of Pinkney Hall. 
 
 Communicated by Mr. Massingham to Mr. H. B. Woodward. 
 
 Feet. 
 /■ [Loamy top] Brick-earth ... ... 5 
 
 Boulder J [Marl] White earth ... ... ... 25 
 
 Clay ) Blue Clay with " golt '' of sand that gives 
 
 ^ springs ... ... ... ... 14 
 
 44 
 
123 
 
 Supplementary Record of Wells and Borings in 
 OTHER Parts of Norfolk and Lincolnshire. 
 
 Lincolnshire. 
 
 Allington Hall (Mr. J. E. Welby). • 
 
 About 4J miles north-west of Grantham (Sheet 70). 
 
 Made and communicated by Messrs. Legrand and Sutcliff (1877). 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Dug pit (the rest bored) ... 
 
 — 
 
 
 3 6 
 
 / Dark blue clay 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 26 6 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 71 6 
 
 Dry blue clay 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 83 6 
 
 Blue shale and rock 
 
 
 
 '> 
 
 6 
 
 86 
 
 Blue rock 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 90 6 
 
 Black shale and rock 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 112 
 
 Lo-L- ^£?,-\,,,,-,i. 
 
 
 
 3 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 
 115 6 
 143 6 
 
 
 Black shale 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 147 6 
 
 
 Black shale and blue rock 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 155 9 
 
 
 Black shale 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Q 
 
 160 6 
 
 
 Black shale and rock 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 174 6 
 
 Blue stone 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 177 
 
 ' Blue stone and shale 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 181 
 
 Bourn. (Sheet 64.) 
 
 Boring at Tongue End Farm, about 5 miles E.S.E. of Bourn. 
 
 Communicated by Mr. Edward Easton, C.E., 1894. 
 
 Water found at a depth of 190 feet and rose to 60 feet above surface. 
 
 Alluvium and ( Blue clay 
 
 Oxford Clay. i[ Hard brown clay 
 
 v-„ii„ „„.. Ti„j.. f Hard sandstone 
 KellawaysBeds. ^gj^^^j^y 
 
 Cornbrash. —Hard stone 
 Great Oolite Clay. — Cfay 
 Great Oolite ) tt j . 
 Limestone. j ^^'^ ^*°"« 
 /-Clay 
 Upper Estuarine ) Stone 
 
 Series. ) Hard brown clay 
 
 V. Clay stones and a bed of shells 
 Lincolnshire > it j . ,1 
 Limestone. ] "^"^^ ''°"^ ^'^^ &'^*""^ 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 SO 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 50 o 
 
 96 o 
 
 106 o 
 
 116 o 
 
 123 6 
 
 140 6 
 
 154 
 
 165 
 166 
 
 173 
 ■83 
 198 
 
124 
 
 WELL SECTIONS. 
 
 Bourn. (Sheet 70.) 
 
 Top of West Street. For the Waterworks, 1888. 
 
 Communicated oy Messrs. Easton & Anderson. Bored throughout, 
 and tubed to the depth of 89^ feet. Water flowed 4 feet above the surface. 
 Yield, about 300,000 gallons in 24 hours. Subsequently deepened to i2oleet, 
 and gave 864,000 gallons a day. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Soil ... 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Drift... 
 
 Silty sand 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Oxford Clay . 
 
 . Clay 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 Cornbrash, 
 
 ( Blue sandstone 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 9ft. 
 
 i. Limestone rock 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 25 7 
 
 
 1 Dark clay 
 
 1 Green marlstone 
 
 1 Green marl ... 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 Great Oolite 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 Clays, 
 
 Clay 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 19ft. yin. 
 
 1 Clay and shells 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 f Clay and silty sand ■ ... 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 36 7 
 
 
 \Clay 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 42 7 
 
 Great Oolite 
 
 Limestone, 
 
 14ft. 5 in. 
 
 /- Rock and shells, very hard 
 S Light blue clay 
 i Green clay ... 
 
 9 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 51 7 
 53 
 56 
 
 (. Green marlstone, with water 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 
 •Dark blue clay 
 
 I 
 
 iO 
 
 58 
 
 
 1 Dark brown clay 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 
 I Dark blue clay and shells ... 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 Upper 
 
 Estuarine 
 
 Series, 
 
 29ft. 
 
 1 Blue soft rock. Water (rose 54 feet) 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 1 Light-coloured clay and shells .. 
 ('Brown clay ... 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 
 65 4 
 
 66 4 
 
 Dark brown clay 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 70 
 
 Brown clay ... 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 
 Dark green clay and silty sand ... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 
 Dark brown clay 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 
 Grey clay or pipe-clay ... 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 
 J' Sandstone, with water... 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 Lincolnshire 
 
 \ Blue clay and chalk [calcareous 
 
 
 
 
 Limestone. 
 
 1 matter] 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 
 C Sandstone rock, with water 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 99 
 
 Mr. F. S. Courtney (of Messrs. Easton & Anderson's) writes as 
 follows : — " The water tapped in this district, at a depth of about 98 feet, is 
 very plentiful, and the standing level is in many cases as much as 20 feet 
 above the surface. There are several borings in the neighbourhood, but I 
 do not know of any of the former ones, which were tight : in every boring I 
 have examined, a large proportion of the supply finds its way up the outside 
 of the bore-pipe, and, meeting with some of the more friable strata at a 
 higher level, escapes. In this boring a double lining has been provided 
 (10 inches in diameter to a depth of 44^ feet, the rest 5 inches in diameter 
 and reaching nearly to the surface), a sound joint having been made between 
 the two. The boring is, I believe, quite tight. Two borings, made in rfi(;ent 
 years, within a mile of this boring, for the Spalding Water Company, in 
 : which no special care was taken, are unsatisfactory." 
 
 According to TAe Engineer, vol. Ixv., p. 181 (1888), " this town is the only 
 one in the United Kingdom which gets its supply direct from the source 
 without pumping," referring, of course, to well-supplies only. 
 
LINCOLNSHIRE. 
 
 125 
 
 Bourn. Spalding Waterworks.* 
 
 Made and communicated by Messrs. C. Isler & Co., 1893. 
 
 ? 78 feet above Ordnance Datum. 
 
 Pit 6 feet, the rest a boring of 13 inches diameter. 
 
 Water rises 34 feet above the ground. 
 
 Chalybeate water was found at the depth of 65^^ feet and was shut out. 
 The main springs were tapped at 78J feet, the water then rising very slowly 
 and taking 24 hours to overflow. Deeper the volume increased rapidly and 
 the overflow was 1,872,000 gallons a day at the depth of 100 feet, 2,592,000 
 at 120, and over 5,000,000 at 134. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Made ground ... 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 • 2 
 
 
 
 
 (•Clay'" "'. ;;; ;;; 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Drift. 
 
 ) Gravel 
 
 I Clay 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 
 ^ Loamy clay ... 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 Cornbrash, 
 
 f Rock and shells 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 Si feet. 
 
 i Limestone 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 l-Hard blue clay 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 Mottled clay ... 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 Great Oolite Clay, 
 
 Shaly clay, dark blue and green... 
 Luminous hard blue rock 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 20 feet. 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 Dark blue soft rock with shells ... 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 Hard blue clay 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 Great Oolite 
 
 r Hard blue rock limestone 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 Limestone, 
 
 j Hard blue rock, lighter colour ... 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 12 feet. 
 
 (. Harder blue rock, dark green ... 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 |- Dark green clay 
 Hard blue rock 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 Upper Estuarine 
 
 Dark and light green clay 
 Hard rock 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 Series, 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 65 
 
 10 
 
 28 feet. 
 
 Light green sandy clay .. . 
 ^Black clay ^peat) [lignite] 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 75 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 76 
 
 
 
 
 Greyporous rock (oolite limestone) 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 77 
 
 6 
 
 Lincolnshire 
 Limestone. 
 
 Hard oolite limestone ... 
 Very hard rock 
 
 33 
 5 
 
 
 6 
 
 110 
 116 
 
 6 
 
 
 Hard limestone 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 121 
 
 6 
 
 
 Hard oolite limestone ... 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 134 
 
 
 
 Messrs. Isler remark that there are no published records of springs 
 being tapped by boring that yield a larger quantity than in this case. 
 
 * See also II. B. Woodward's 
 505, and vol. v., p. 334. 
 
 Memoir on Jurassic Rocks of Britain," vol. iv., 
 
 K 
 
126 
 
 WELL SECTIONS. 
 
 Bourn. Great Northern Railway Station. (Sheet 64.) 
 
 Made and communicated by Messrs. C. Isler & Co. 
 Good supply of water, rising 19 feet above the surface. 
 
 Dug well (the rest 
 
 Kellaways Beds. 
 
 Cornbrash. 
 Great Oolite Clay 
 
 Great Oolite 
 Limestone. 
 
 Upper*Estuarine 
 Series. 
 
 Lincolnshire 
 Limestone. 
 
 Dei'th. 
 
 bored)... 
 
 ( Hard sandy clay 
 5 Sandstone 
 
 (. Hard black sandy clay... 
 — Hard blue limestone ... 
 C Hard mottled clay 
 ■ ^ Hard clay 
 r Rock and shell 
 5 Hard rock 
 
 v. Very hard limestone ... 
 C Hard green sandy clay 
 < Hard marly clay 
 (. Hard chocolate[-coloured] clay 
 C Oolite limestone 
 (Hard rock 
 
 Deeping, St. James. (Sheet 64.) 
 
 Boring on Marquis of Exeter's Estate, 1896. 
 Communicated by Mr. H. Sykes, 66, Bankside, London. 
 Water rises 31 feet above ground. 
 Level of ground about 10 feet above O. D. 
 
 Drift. 
 
 Kellaways Beds. - 
 
 V 
 
 C Clay and gravel 
 I Clay and sand 
 Shaly rock 
 Blue clay 
 Cornbrash. — Hard granite rock 
 Sandy clay 
 
 Shaly rock with shells 
 Hard mottled clay 
 Shaly rock 
 Hard brown clay 
 Clay and shells 
 Great Oolite ) ,, i_ j , , 
 Limestone. j ^^''^ ^^^rd shaly rock 
 Upper Estuarine ) , 
 Series. j ' 
 
 Lincolnshire ") 
 
 T ■ ' ' 
 
 Limestone. > 
 
 Great Oolite Clay. 
 
 Shelly clay 
 Oolite rock 
 
 Depth. 
 
LINCOLNSHIRE. 
 
 127 
 
 DORRINGTON Fen. (Sheet 70.) 
 Boring at Fox's Farm, 5 miles N.N.E. of Sleaford, made in 1896. 
 Communicated by Mr. Jesse Clare, C.E., of Sleaford. 
 Water came in at 1 50 feet and rose above surface. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Oxford^Clay ^ S [soft shal7 clay] ::: ii: 
 
 26 
 29 
 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 55 6 
 
 Kellaways Beds. '( gj^^ ^"'^ ^'" ;;; ;;; ;;; 
 
 4 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 60 
 67 
 
 (Rock 
 
 Cornbrash. 1 Clay 
 
 (^Rock 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 69 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 72 4 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 75 
 
 Great Oolite Clay.— Clay 
 
 26 
 
 I 
 
 lOI I 
 
 Great Oolite f S°=^ Tif *\^ ^ k'' ^ 
 
 T :,^<.^t«^= ) Rock with clay bands ... 
 Lmiestone. ( Rock with clay bands 
 
 9 
 2 
 2 
 
 8i 
 
 
 2i 
 
 no gh 
 112 9I 
 115 
 
 (•Clay 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 Upper Estuarine ; Rock, very hard 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 121 9 
 
 Series. 1 Clay 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 133 8 
 
 ^ Clay and dice 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 •139 II 
 
 Lincolnshire f Soft rock 
 Limestone. (. Hard rock 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 144 I 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 153 9 
 
 Heckington. (Sheet 70.) 
 Boring at the west end of the village, made in 1896. 
 Communicated by Mr. Jesse Cl.ivre, C.E., of Sleaford. 
 Water overflows at rate of about 6 gallons a minute. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Drift. 
 
 — Soil and gravel 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 fClay 
 
 ... 
 
 221 
 
 
 
 231 
 
 Oxford Clay 
 
 Rock 
 
 ... 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 235 
 
 and 
 
 -1 Clay 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 238 
 
 Kellaways Beds. 
 
 Sandy rock ... 
 '-Clay 
 
 ... 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 246 
 
 
 ... 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 25s 
 
 Cornbrash. 
 
 —Rock 
 
 ... 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 262 
 
 
 fClay 
 
 ... 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 273 
 
 Great Oolite Clay, 
 22 feet. 
 
 Rock 
 Clay 
 Rock 
 
 ::: ::: 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 274 
 276 6 
 281 
 
 
 l-Clay 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 284 
 
 Great Oolite 
 
 Limestone, 
 
 17 feet. 
 
 (•Rock 
 
 ; Clay band 
 
 y Rock, very hard 
 
 ::: ::; 
 
 9 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 293 
 293 6 
 295 
 
 ^ Rock, softer ... 
 
 ... ... 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 301 
 
 Upper Estuarine, 
 24 feet. 
 
 (■ Clay and stones ( 
 
 ] Rock 
 
 (ciay 
 
 3r shells) 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 304 
 307 
 323 
 
 
 (-Rock 
 
 ... 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 238 
 
 Lincolnshire 
 Limestone. 
 
 Rock, hard white, 
 - Clay and shale 
 Hard rock with 
 
 with water ... 
 a soft vein at 
 
 38 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 376 
 
 377 
 
 
 ^ 385 feet ... 
 
 ... 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 K 2 
 
128 
 
 WELL SECTIONS. 
 
 LiTTLEWORTH OR DEEPING ST. NICHOLAS. (Sheet 64.) 
 
 Sunk 5 feet 6 inches, the rest bored. Completed November 26th, 1894. 
 Communicated by Mr. Henry Sykes, 66, Bankside, London. 
 The yield of water at 2 feet above ground is 20 gallons per minute. 
 
 Alluvial Deposits. 
 
 Oxford Clay 
 
 and 
 
 Kellaways Beds. 
 
 Cornbrash. 
 
 Great Oolite Clay 
 
 and 
 
 Limestone. 
 
 Upper Estuarine 
 Series. 
 
 Lincolnshire 
 Limestone. 
 
 Clay and silty sand 
 
 Peat 
 
 Brovi'n clay ... 
 
 Peat 
 
 Gravel 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 Clay and shells 
 
 Shaly rock 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 •Hard sandstone [limestone] 
 
 Mottled clay and shells 
 
 Hard blue rock with a little water 
 
 Brown clay ... 
 
 Sandstone rock 
 
 Clay and shells 
 
 Freestone rock : Water struck at 
 
 286 and 308 feet 
 Pipe-clay 
 Soft sandstone rock : More water 
 
 at 332 
 Sandy clay 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 130 
 
 
 
 5° 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 153 
 203 
 210 o 
 226 o 
 
 233 
 243 
 253 
 
 260 
 263 
 
 285 
 
 327 o 
 
 328 o 
 
 348 o 
 
 350 o 
 
 In this account it is not easy to separate the Great Oolite Beds into a clay 
 and a limestone group, and the two together are rather thinner than usual 
 (only 30 feet). 
 
LINCOLNSHIRIi). 
 
 129 
 
 OSBOURNBY. (Sheet 70.) 
 
 Boring made in 1884-5. 
 
 Communicated by Mr. Jesse Clare, C.E., of Sleaford. 
 
 Water rises above surface during part of the year. 
 
 Thickness. Depth 
 
 Soil. 
 Oxford Clay. 
 
 Cornbrash. 
 
 Great Oolite Clay. 
 
 Great Oolite 
 Limestone. 
 
 Upper Estuarine 
 Series. 
 
 Lincolnshire 
 Limestone. 
 
 -Loose stones and soil ... 
 
 Yellow clay ... 
 
 Dark blue clay 
 ' Cornbrash rock 
 
 Dark clay parting 
 
 Hard blue rock 
 
 Dark clay parting 
 I Hard blue rock 
 ;• Soft dark brashy clay ... 
 1^ Strong dark blue clay and fossils 
 ' Hard grey rock 
 j Strong dark blue clay ... 
 , Very hard blue rock ... 
 I- Blue mottled clay 
 j Hard blue rock 
 I Light blue clay 
 
 Very hard blue rock ... 
 I Strong blue clay with fossils 
 ' Very hard limestone ... 
 ) Rock band parting 
 ) Very hard limestone ... 
 ^ Limestone with thin partings 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 I 
 3 
 
 2 
 o 
 
 6 
 o 
 6 
 o 
 2 
 
 2 10 
 o 4 
 o 10 
 
 3 o 
 21 o 
 
 o 10 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 I 
 O 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 19 
 
 7 
 o 
 
 ■ 30 
 20 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 I 6 
 
 4 6 
 
 19 o 
 
 21 o 
 
 21 2 
 
 24 o 
 
 24 4 
 
 25 2 
 28 2 
 
 49 
 50 
 5' 
 63 
 
 65 
 71 
 73 
 92 
 
 99 
 
 99 II 
 
 130 4 
 
 150 10 
 
 QUARRINGTON. (Sheet 70.) 
 
 Boring on west side of parish near Rauceby Station, G.N.R., for new 
 asylum. Completed June 21st, 1898. 100 feet above O.D. 
 Communicated by MR. JESSE Clare, C.E., of Sleaford. 
 Abundant supply of water which rises to within 42 feet of the surface. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Great Oolite Clay. 
 
 f Light clay ... 
 (Blue clay ... 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 2 6 
 28 
 
 Great Oolite 
 Limestone. 
 
 f Hard blue rock 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 Upper Estuarine 
 Series. 
 
 1 Blue clay ... 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 
 Light soft rock 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 
 Hard limestone 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 < White limestone 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 Lincolnshire 
 
 ,' Blue rock ... 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 Limestone. 
 
 I White hmestone 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 98 
 
 
 1 Grey limestone 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 109 
 
 
 1 Blue rock ... 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 115 
 
 
 ' Grey limestone 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 120 
 
13° 
 
 WELL SECTIONS. 
 
 SCREDINGTON, 3^ miles S.S.E. of Sleaford. (Sheet 70.) 
 
 Boring by side of roadway in village, 35 feet above O.D. Water over- 
 flowed surface. 
 Communicated by Messrs. Tilley, July, 1897. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 
 fClay 
 
 97 
 
 
 
 97 
 
 
 Rock 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 99 
 
 Oxford Clay 
 
 Clay 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 and 
 
 Hard sandy clay 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 Kellaways Beds. 
 
 Clay 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 107 
 
 
 Loamy sand ... 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 121 
 
 
 l^Clay 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 123 6 
 
 Cornbrash. —Rock 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 128 6 
 
 f' Dark clay 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 130 
 
 Great Oolite Clay . j Coloured clay. . . 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 137 
 
 (.Dark clay 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 151 6 
 
 Great Oolite ] j, , 
 Limestone. j '^"^'^ 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 163 6 
 
 
 Mixed clay ... 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 167 6 
 
 
 Dark clay 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 170 
 
 Upper Estuarine 
 Series. 
 32 feet. 
 
 Mixed clay ... 
 
 Rock 
 
 Green clay 
 
 4 
 3 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 174 
 177 
 180 
 
 Dark clay 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 186 
 
 
 Slate-coloured clay 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 193 
 
 
 ..Dark clay 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 196 
 
 Lincolnshire ) r> 1 
 Limestone. 1^°"^ 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 219 
 
LINCOLNSHIRE. 
 
 131 
 
 Silk Willougey, 2 miles S.S.W. ofSleaford. (Sheet 70.) 
 
 A boring on land in occupation of Mr. Doncaster on the property of 
 the Earl of Dysart. 
 Communicated by MESSRS. Wadsley & Son, of Horbling, 1891. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. In, 
 
 Clay and soil ... 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Cornbrash. — Rock 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 Great Oolite Clay.— Blue clay 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 Great Oolite ] j, , 
 Limestone. j '^°'''' 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 r Kale \i.e. hard shale] ... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 Upper Estuarine ) Soft rock 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 Series. 1 Clay 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 C White kale ... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 LreSr ] Lincolnshire Oolite 
 
 104 
 
 
 
 178 
 
 Lower Estuarine l « » - „ 
 Series. 3 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 198 
 
 Ironstone. — Blue rock 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 215 9 
 
 Sleaford. (Sheet 70.) 
 
 Boring at the Great Northern Railway Station. 
 Communicated by Messrs. Legrand and Sutcliff. 
 The water rose to 6|- feet above the surface and overflows at the rate of 
 20,000 gallons a minute. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 -Clay 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 I 6 
 
 River Drift. 
 
 fSand 
 
 I Ballast 
 
 2 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 3 6 
 15 6 
 
 Great Oolite 
 
 f Soft stone 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 Limestone. 
 
 I Hard stone ... 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 Upper Estuarine 
 Series. 
 
 ^r Hard clay 
 '\ Stone 
 ( Hard clay 
 
 , Stone rock (a sample sent is a 
 grey oolitic limestone) 
 Rock and layers of clay 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 16 
 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 31 6 
 48 
 
 
 38 
 
 6 
 
 86 6 
 
 Lincolnshire 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 89 
 
 Limestone. 
 
 1 Rock oohtic ... 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 113 
 
 
 i Rock and thin layers of clay 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 117 
 
 
 l-Rock 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 151 
 
132 
 
 WELL SECTIONS. 
 
 Sleaford. (Sheet 70,) 
 
 Borin? at Mkssrs. Bass & Co.'S Mailings. 
 
 Communicated by, with further information from, MESSRS. Legrand and 
 SUTCLIFF, who deepened the boring from 113 feet. .,, ^ 
 
 Good spring at 1 56 feet which rose i si feet above the surface, with a flow 
 of over 12,000 gallons an hour. On being deepened to 177 feet the bore 
 yielded 30,000 gallons per hour. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Surface Soil. — Soil 
 
 ... 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 I 6 
 
 Valley Gravel. — Gravel and sand 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 13 6 
 
 Kellaways Beds.— Clay 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 14 6 
 
 Cornbrash. — Rock 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 24 6 
 
 Great Oolite Clay.— Clay 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 48 6 
 
 Great Oolite ■) tj„^i. 
 Limestone. j '^°'''^ 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 60 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 (-Clay 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 67 6 
 
 Upper Estuarine \ Rock 
 
 
 2 
 
 b 
 
 70 
 
 Series. i Green clay 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 ( Dark clay 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 ^ Rock 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 Lincolnshire S Clay 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 92 9 
 
 Limestone. i Hard grey rock 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 145 9 
 
 (. Grey shelly 
 
 rock 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 177 9 
 
 Sleaford. (Sheet 70.) 
 
 Well in the Cross Keys Yard. 
 
 Communicated by Mr. Jesse Clare, C.E., of Sleaford. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Deeth. 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 f Made ground... 
 Surface Deposits, j Black peat 
 
 V. Gravel and running sand 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 II 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 
 2 6 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 Great Oolite Clay. } ^^,^l,i;%,;^ ,,^ ,„ -^ Z 
 ^i:SL?ot.^ 1 Blue rock 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 
 
 18 6 
 23 
 
 34 
 
 Upper Estuarine C^'^y 
 
 beries. (^^^^^ 
 
 Lincolnshire f Rock with water 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 45 ° 
 70 
 
 77 
 
 Limestone. ^ Rock with more water ... 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 81 6 
 
LINCOLNSHIRE. 
 
 133 
 
 SwATON. (Sheet 70.) 
 
 Boring near Mr. Yarrad's premises, 1884-5. 
 Communicated by Mr. Jesse Clare, C.E., of Sleaford. 
 Water overflows all the year round, and is distributed through the village 
 by gravitation. 
 
 
 Fhickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Soil. — 
 
 Surface soil ... 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 c 
 
 Yellow clay ... 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 6 
 
 Fen Gravel. i 
 
 Wet gravel ... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 6 6 
 
 L 
 
 Wet running sand 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 T> ^A^ r\„,r (Dark blue clay with flint stones... 
 Boulder Clay. ^ p^^,^ grey rock band (? a stone) ... 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 42 2 
 
 Oxford Clay r 
 
 Light dry blue clay 
 
 57 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 and ] 
 
 Hard blue rock 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 Kellaways Beds. (. 
 
 Clay parting ... 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 102 6 
 
 ? Cornbrash, \ 
 12^ feet. ^ 
 
 Hard rock 
 Clay parting ... 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 109 6 
 109 lO 
 
 Hard rock 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 114 10 
 
 f 
 
 Strong clay ... 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 118 10 
 
 
 Very hard rock 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 119 4 
 
 
 Strong clay ... 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 122 4 
 
 Great Oolite Clay, 
 28i feet. 
 
 Very hard blue clay 
 Strong band ... 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 126 10 
 
 127 
 
 Hard rock 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 130 6 
 
 
 Strong band ... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 132 6 
 
 
 Rock 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 133 4 
 
 
 Strong clay bands 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 143 4 
 
 Great Oolite ( 
 Limestone, 
 21^ feet. ( 
 
 Rock with clay partings 
 Hard rock 
 Clay parting ... 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 148 8 
 
 155 4 
 155 7 
 
 - Very hard rock 
 
 9 
 
 I 
 
 164 8 
 
 
 'Blue clay 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 166 2 
 
 
 Rock 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 167 2 
 
 
 Blue clay 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 171 8 
 
 Upper Estuarine 
 
 Rock 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 173 8 
 
 Series, 
 
 Dark bands ... 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 181 2 
 
 27 feet. 
 
 Rock 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 182 2 
 
 
 Dark rock bands [? clay bands] ... 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 186 8 
 
 
 Rock 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 187 2 
 
 
 ^ Strong rock bands [? clay bands] 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 191 8 
 
 
 ,Very hard blue rock ... 
 Blue clay parting 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 209 2 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 209 8 
 
 Lincolnshire 
 Limestone. " 
 
 Very hard blue rock ... 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 240 2 
 
 White rock ... 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 241 2 
 
 
 Light grey rock parting 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 241 5 
 
 
 *- Very hard rock 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 250 8 
 
134 
 
 WELL SECTIONS. 
 
 Norfolk. 
 
 Fakenham. (Sheet 68.) 
 
 At Miss H. Rudge's, Wells Road, 1894. 
 Shaft 18 feet, the rest bored. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Made soil 
 
 C Grey sand 
 Glacial Drift, j Quick sand ... 
 
 C Gravel 
 Chalk and flints 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 3 
 
 '1 ° 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 3 
 18, 
 26 
 
 44 
 69 
 
 Saham Toney. (Sheet 66, S.W.) 
 
 Boring at Broomley Hall, made by Messrs. Adcock, and communicated 
 by Mr. F. W. Harmer, 1898. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Glacial Gravel 
 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 /"Blue clay 
 
 80 
 
 100^ 
 
 Boulder 
 
 Clay. 
 
 3 Hard flints with clay 
 
 J Chalk and chalk marl 
 
 10 
 2 
 
 ilo 
 112 
 
 
 
 '^Clay 
 
 35 
 
 147 
 
 Chalk. 
 
 
 
 
 
135 
 
 APPENDIX II. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Supplementary Geological Bibliography of Norfolk. 
 
 This Bibliography is supplementary to that by W. Whitaker and 
 H. B. Woodward, published in the Geology of the Country around 
 Norwich, p. 171, 1881. 
 
 Geological Survey Publications. 
 Maps. 
 
 Sheet 50, N.W. Northern part. Diss. By F. J. Bennett and S. B. J. 
 Skertchly. 1882. 
 
 Sheet 50, N.E. North-western Corner ; Harleston. By W. H. Dalton 
 and F. J. Bennett. 1884. 
 
 Sheet 5 1, N.E. Small part of North-eastern Corner ; Thetford. By F. J. 
 Bennett. 1883. 
 
 Sheet 65. Greater Part ; Downham Market, Lynn, Stoke Ferry, Swaff- 
 ham. By W. Whitaker, H. B. Woodward, F. J. Bennett, A. G. 
 Cameron, S. B. J. Skertchly, C. E. Hawkins, C. REiD,and G. Barrow. 
 1886. 
 
 Sheet 66, S.W. Attleborough, East Harling, Hingham, Walton, 
 Wymondham. By F. J. Bennett. 1884. 
 
 Sheet 66, S.E. AH but the South-eastern Corner ; Loddon, Long Stratton. 
 By H. B. Woodward and F. J. Bennett. 1881. 
 
 Sheet 66, N.W. East Dereham, Litcham, Reepham. By H. B. Wood- 
 ward, F. J. Bennett, and (chiefly) J. H. Blake. 1884. 
 
 Sheet 66, N.E. Norwich. By H. B. Woodward (chiefly), J. H. Blake, 
 and C. Reid. 1882. 
 
 Sheet 67, S. Smaller part. By J. H. Blake. 1882. 
 
 Sheet 67, N. Nearly all. Yarmouth. By J. H. Blake. 1881. 
 
 Sheet 68, S.W. Cawston, Fakenham, Foulsham, Holt, New Walsing- 
 ham. By H. B. Woodward (chiefly) and C. Reid. 1884. 
 
 Sheet 68, E. Aylsham, Cromer, North Walsham. By H. B. Wood- 
 ward and (chiefly) C. Reid. 1883. 
 
 Sheet 68, N.W. Wells. By H . B. Woodward and C. Reid. 1883. 
 
 Sheet 69. Eastern part. Burnham, Castle Rising. By W. Whitaker, 
 H. B. Woodward, A. G. Cameron, S. B. J. Skertchly, C. Reid, and G. 
 Barrow. 1886. 
 
 Section. 
 
 Horizontal Section. Sheet 127. Section of the Norfolk Cliffs from 
 Happisburgh, through Barton, Mundesley, Trimmingham, Sidestrand, Over- 
 strand, Cromer, Run ton, Beeston, and Sherringham, to Weybourn. (With 
 " Explanation," 4 pages, 8vo.) By C. Reid. 1882. 
 
 Memoirs. 
 
 The Geology of the Fenland. By S. B. J. Skertchly. 1877. 
 
 On the Manufacture of Gun-flints, the Methods of Excavating for Flint, 
 the Age of Palaeolithic Man . . . &c. By S. B. J. Skertchly. 1879. 
 
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 Salter, A. E. "Pebbly Gravel" from Goring Gap to the Norfolk 
 Coast. Proc Geol. Assoc, vol. xiv., pp. 389 — 404. 
 
 Wardle, Thomas. On the Geology of the Neighbourhood of Cromer. 
 Trans. N. Staffordshire Nat. Field Club. 
 
 Wheeler, W. H. Littoral Drift. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., vol. cxxv., 
 pp. 2—32. 
 
 Woods, Henry. The Mollusca of the Chalk Rock. Quart. Journ. Geol. 
 Soc, vol. Iii., pp. 68 — 98, 377 — 403. 
 
 Abbott, W. J. Lewis. Worked Flints from the Cromer Forest Bed. 
 Nat. Science, vol. x., pp. 89—96. 
 
 Harmer, F. W. An Enquiry into the Relation of the Different Pliocene 
 Deposits of the Anglo-Belgian Basin, and the Geographical Conditions 
 under which they were deposited. Report of Proc. Science Gossip Club 
 Norwich, pp. 30 — 39. ' 
 
 Harrison, W. J. A Bibliography of Norfolk Glaciology, including the 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. I43 
 
 Cromer Cliffs, with the Forest Bed Series. Glacialists' Mag., vol. vi., pt. 4, 
 pp. 141 — 185, and plate (Chalk Boulder). 
 
 HowORTH, Sir H. H. Ice-sheets and Scandinavian Boulders. Glacialists' 
 Mag., pp. 95—110. 
 
 HowORTH, Sir H. H. On the Erratic Boulders and Foreign Stones in 
 the Drift Deposits of Eastern England, and their Lessons. Geol. Mag., 
 dec. iv., vol. iv., pp. 123 — 130, 153 — 159. 
 
 HOWORTH, Sir H. H. Water versus Ice as an Explanation 'of the Surface 
 Beds of Eastern England. Geol. Mag., dec. iv., vol. iv., pp. 213 — 225. 
 
 Newton, E. T. The Evidence for the Existence of Man in the Tertiary, 
 period. Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. xv., pp. 63 — 82. 
 
 Reed, F. R. C. A Handbook to the Geology of Cambridgeshire. 8vo, 
 Cambridge. 
 
 Reid, C. Paradoxocarpus carinatus, Nehring. Trans. Norfolk Nat. Soc, 
 vol. vi., p. 328. 
 
 Woodward, H. B. The Chalky Boulder Clay and the Glacial Phenomena 
 of the Western-Midland Counties of England. Geol. Mag., dec. iv., vol. iv., 
 pp. 485-497. 
 
 1898. 
 
 Harmer, S. F. On some Bones of a Pelican from the Cambridgeshire 
 Fens. [Feltwell Fen, Norfolk, &c.]. Trans. Norfolk Nat. Soc, vol. vi., pp. 
 
 363, 364- 
 
 Hicks, Dr. H. On the Evidences of the Antiquity of Man furnished by 
 Ossiferous Caverns in Glaciated Districts in Britain. (Refers to Norfolk, 
 pp. xcviii. — c.) Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. liv. 
 
 Newton, E. T. Pateolithic Man. Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. xv., pp. 
 246—263. (Norfolk, p. 258.) 
 
 Reid, C. Further Contributions to the Geological History of the British 
 Flora. Ann. Bot., vol. xii., pp. 243 — 250. 
 
 Woodward, H. B. Boulders of Spilsby Sandstone. Geol. Mag., dec. 
 iv., vol. v., pp. 334—335- 
 
 Corrections to List in the Memoir on the Geology of the Country around 
 Norwich. 
 
 1804. Grisenthwaite. Should not have been entered, not being 
 geological. 
 
 1 830- 1 833. Sedgwick. Should have gone under 1826. 
 
 1839-40. Wood. Should have been entered under 1840. 
 
 1858. Trimmer. Should not have been entered. Gorleston is in Suffolk. 
 
 1859. Charlesworth. Should not have been entered. Not Norfolk. 
 1862. Rose. Should not have been entered. Refers to Suffolk, not to 
 
 Norfolk. 
 
 1865. Wood. Second entry. Should not have been entered. Only 
 abstract of paper entered above (and the map is not entered). 
 
 1866. GuNN. First entry. Should have tjeen under 1867. 
 
 1867. GUNN. Tenth entry. Should not have been entered. Corton 
 and Hopton are in Suffolk. 
 
 1868. Charlesworth. First two entries. Should not have been 
 entered. Refer to Suffolk, not to Norfolk. 
 
 1868. Crowfoot. Refer to Suffolk, not to Norfolk. 
 1868. GUNN. Fifth entry. Refer to Suffolk, not to Norfolk. 
 1873. GuNN. First entry. Refer to Suffolk, not to Norfolk. 
 1876. GUNN. Third entry. Refer to Suffolk, not to Norfolk. 
 
 1876. Norton. Refer to Suffolk, not to Norfolk. 
 
 1877. Blake. Refer to Suffolk, not to Norfolk. 
 
 1878. Blake. Refer to Suffolk, not to Norfolk. 
 
 1878. Spalding. Not geological. Should not have been entered. 
 
 1879. Crowfoot. Should not have been entered. Beccles is in 
 Suffolk. 
 
 1879. Skertchly. First and last entries the same. 
 
 1880. Harmer. Should not have been entered. Corton is in Suffolk. 
 
 1 88 1. Prestwich. First entry. Pubhshed in 1882. 
 1 88 1. Prigg. Published in 1882. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Accretion of land, lo8 
 
 Allington Hall, 123 
 
 Alluvial deposits, 95, 100 
 
 Alluvium, 2, 93, 94, 100 
 
 Analyses of tiault, 31 ; of Red Chalk, 
 
 38, 39 ; of Lower Chalk, 47 
 Anmer, 75, 76, no 
 Appleton, 5, 9, 14, 33. Ill 
 Atherfield Clay, 21, 22 
 
 Babingley, 10, 81, 94 
 
 Babingley River, I ; valley, 6, 8, 94 
 
 Bagthorpe, 68, 112 
 
 Bailey, Mr., 41 
 
 Baker & Sons, S. F., 118 
 
 Banks, Sir J., iij 
 
 Banks, Roman, 107 
 
 Barmer, 70, 77, 112 
 
 Barrett Ringstead, 65, III 
 
 Barrois, Dr. C, 46, 51, 56, 63, 64-66, 
 
 68, 69, 71 
 Barrow, G., 70, 71, 77. 83, 112, 120, 
 
 122 
 Barrow Common, 85 
 Beck, F. R., Ill 
 
 Belemnites of the Snettisham Beds, 23 
 Bibliography, 135 
 Bircham, Great, 68, 77, 83, no 
 Bircham Newton, 68, 77, 83, 1 12 
 Bircham Tofts, 68 
 Blown Sand, 100, 102 
 Borings, 113 
 
 Boston, I, 92, 96, 97, n3-li7 
 Boston Deeps, 104 
 Boulders, 75 
 
 Boulder Clay, 4, 73, 80, 86, ill 
 Bourn, 123-126 
 
 Brancaster, 85, 86, 87, 92, no 
 Brancaster Common, 78, 85 
 Bricks, no 
 Brick-clays, 96, in 
 Brown Boulder Clay, 73, 86 
 Building-stones, no 
 Buried forests, 98, lOi 
 Burnhara Deepdale, 78, 79, 87, 92, no 
 Burnham Harbour, 2, 102 
 Burnham Overy, 71, 72, 86 
 Burnham Sutton, 79 
 Burnham Thorpe, 71 
 Burnham Ulph, 94 
 Burnham Westgate, 84, 87, 94, no, in, 
 
 119 
 Burrows, Mr., 41 
 Buttery clay, 95 
 
 Cameron, A. C. G., 78, 79, 84-89, 92, 
 
 no 
 Carstone, 5, n, 12, 15, 17, 20, no 
 Castle Rising, 7, 34, 75, 80, 100, 120 
 Chalk, 3, IS, 46, 63, 69 
 Chalk Marl, 46, 52, 54, 62 
 Chalky Boulder Clay, 74, in 
 
 Chapman, Mr. F., 41, 47 
 
 Chilvers, Mr., 121 
 
 Choselev, 75 
 
 Church,' Prof. A. H., 38, 39 
 
 Clapham, R. C, 38 
 
 Clare, Jesse, 127, 129, 132, 133 
 
 Clays, see Fenland, Boulder, Gault, and 
 
 Sandringham 
 Concretions, see nodules and ironstone 
 Congham, 30, 32, 33, 64, 75, 81, 93 
 Courtney, F. S., 124 
 Creake, see North and South 
 
 Deeping St. James, 126 
 Deeping St. Nicholas, 128 
 Dersingham, 9, 10, n, 14, 16, 34, 51, 
 
 100 
 Docking, 68, 77, 78, 83, no, 120 
 Dorrington Fen, 127 
 Downham Market, 17 
 Drift, see Glacial and Valley 
 Dunes of Sand, 100, 102 
 
 East Fen, 98, 99 
 
 East Holland, 108, 109 
 
 Easton, E., 123 
 
 Easton and Anderson, Messrs., 124 
 
 Esker-like ridge, 88 
 
 Etheridge, R., 13 
 
 Fake, J., 120 
 
 Fakenham, 134 
 
 Farey, J., 115 
 
 Features, Physical, 4 
 
 Fenland, 4, 95 
 
 Fenland deposits, 95 
 
 Fen Clays, 96 
 
 Fitton, Dr. W. H., 9, n, 28 
 
 Flints, 63 
 
 Fhtcham, 33, 66, 76, III 
 
 Fordham, H. G., 62 
 
 Forests, Buried or Submerged, 98, lOl 
 
 Formations, Table of, 2 
 
 Fossils of Lower Greensand, 21 ; of 
 Gault, 28 ; of Glacial Gravel, 90 ; of 
 Lower Chalk, 56; of Middle Chalk, 
 69 ; of Red Chalk, 41 
 
 Fossdyke, 118 
 
 Freshwater deposits, 93, 98 
 
 Fring, 66, 84 
 
 Fuller's Earth, II 
 
 Gallow Hill, 84 
 
 Gault, 3, 28, 30 
 
 Gibraltar Point, 102 
 
 Glacial Drift, 4, 73, 80, 86 
 
 Glasswort, 107 
 
 Godwin-Austen, R. A. C, 105 
 
 Gravels, Glacial, 80, 86 ; Valley, 93 
 
 Green-coated nodules, 46, 50, 51, 52, 54 
 
 Green Marsh, 107 
 
 Grey Chalk, 47, 50, 52, 54 
 
JNDEX. 
 
 I4S 
 
 Grimston, 32, 93 
 Grimston Common, 17 
 Gunn, J., 12, 29, loi 
 
 Ilarmer, F. W., 6, 90, 134 
 
 Harpley, 67, 76, 82 
 
 Heacham, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 18, 35, 53, 
 
 6S>.92 
 Heckington, 127 
 Hessle Clay, 86, 88 
 Hill, W., 30, 36, 37, 40, 46, 49, 51, 63, 
 
 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72 
 Hillington, 51, 64, 66, 75, 81, 93, 94 
 Hinde, Dr. G. J., 62 
 Holbeach, I, 97, 99, 118 
 Holme, 66, 87, 88, 98 
 Holmes, T. V., 88 
 Holkham, 86, 87, no 
 Holkham Hall, Boring at, 3 
 Houghton, 67, 68, 70, 82 
 Horsewell, 84 
 
 Hughes, Prof. T. McK., 36, 47, 55 
 Hunstanton, 5, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 35, 
 
 48, 53, 54. 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 98, loi, 
 
 102, no 
 
 Ingoldisthorpe, II, 14, 53 
 luoceramus-bed, 46, 48, 49, 50 
 Ironiitone, 5, 7, 10, 11, 17, 19, 20 
 Ironstone-nodules, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17 
 Isler & Co., Messrs., 125, 126 
 
 Johnstone, Dr. W., 31,^9, 47 
 Jones, Prof. T. R., 121 
 
 Keeping, W., 12 
 Kelsea gravels, 90 
 Kimeridge Clay, 3, 6, 114 
 Kipton Heath, 82, 94 
 
 Lade Bank, 118 
 
 Lamplugh, G. W., 6, 7, 10-12, 16-25, 88, 
 
 91 
 
 Land, Reclamation of, 108 
 
 Legrand and Sutcliffe, Messrs., 123, 
 
 131, 132 
 Lewis, Prof. H. C, 88 
 Lincolnshire well-sections, 113, 123 
 Littleworth, 128 
 Lodge Hill, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20 
 Long Sutton, 119 
 Lowe, Dr. J., 8 
 Lower Chalk, 46 
 Lower Greensand, 3, 5 
 Lupton, W. M., 38 
 Lynn Well, 104 
 
 Mansergh, J., 121 
 
 Marine clays, 96 
 
 Marine gravels, 88, 90, 92 
 
 Marl, see Chalk 
 
 Marl and marling land, 74, in 
 
 Marl with freshwater shells, 93 
 
 March gravels, 90 
 
 Marshlands, 100 
 
 Massingham, Mr., 122 
 
 Massingham, Great, 75, 76, 93, in, 120 
 
 Massingham, Little, 67, 76, 82, 93 
 
 Melbourn Rock, 64 
 
 Middle Chalk, 63 
 Moxon, Rev. G. B., 100 
 Mumford, Rev. G., loi 
 
 Nene River, i 
 
 Newton, E. T., 21, 56 
 
 Newton, see West 
 
 Nodules, green-coated, 46, 50, 51, 52, 
 54,56; of ironstone, 10, 11, 12, 16, 
 17 ; phosphatic, 7, 10, 13, 35, 50-52, 
 54, 56 
 
 Norfolk well-sections, 119, 134 
 
 North Creake, 94 
 
 North Wootton, 3, 7, 92, 94 
 
 Osbournby, 129 
 Ouse, River, i, 2, 4 
 Overy Staith, 87 
 Oxford Clay, 2, 1 14 
 
 Partridge, T., 115 
 Pavlow, Prof. A., 22 
 Peat Beds, 97 
 Physical features, 4 
 
 Phosphatic nodules, 7, 10, 13, 35, 50-52, 
 54, 56 
 
 Quarrington, 129 
 
 Reclamation of land, 108 
 Red Chalk, 3, 15, 28, 35 
 Reid, C, 28, 68, 75, 78, 86, 87, 88, loi, 
 
 120 
 Rennie, Mr., 98 
 Rhodes, J., 21, 65, 66, 71 
 Rickard, Mr., 38 
 Ringstead, 66, 88, 94 
 Rising Lodge, 7 
 Rivers, i 
 
 Roman banks, 107 
 Rose, C. B., 5, 7, 9, 15, 28, 89 
 Roydon, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, 48, 49, 50, 
 
 56, 75, 93 
 Roydon Common, 7, 8, 17 
 Rudham, 71, 76, 94, 120 
 
 Saham Toney, 134 
 
 Samphire Marsh, 107 
 
 Sand-dunes, 100, 102 
 
 .Sand, Glacial, 80 
 
 .Sandstone, see Carstone 
 
 Sandringham, 9, 10, 14, 17, 20, 33, 121 
 
 .Sandringham Sands, 6, 8, 12, i6, 17, 
 
 24, 51 
 Scredington, 130 
 Seaman, J., 120 
 Seeley, Prof. H. G., 29, 90 
 Sedgeford, 64, 66, 78, 84 
 Severn, W. D., 31 
 Sharman, G., 28, 90 
 Sherborn, C. D., 41 
 Shernborne, 64, 65, in 
 Shrinkage of peat, 100 ; of brick-clays, 
 
 III 
 Sibsey, 92 
 
 Silk Willoughby, 131 
 Silts of the Fenland, 95 
 Silting up of the Wash, 103 
 Skelton, W., 119 
 
146 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Skertchly, S. B. J., 11, 90, 95-101, 
 
 103-110, 113, 114, 119 
 Skirbeck, Ii6 
 Sleaford, 131, 132 
 Smith, W., 28 
 Snettisham, 9, 11, 14, 17, 19, 21, 53, 
 
 92, no, 121 
 Snettisham Clay or Beds, 6, 9, 17, 20 
 South Creake, 2, 71 
 South Wootton, 3, 7, 92, 94 
 Spalding water-works, 125 
 Spilsby Sandstone, 24 
 Sponge Bed, 46, 49, 54 
 Springs, in 
 Stanhoe, 70, 78, 122 
 Steeping, River, i 
 Sticliney, 92, 98, 119 
 Strahan, A., 6 
 Submerged forest, loi 
 Summerfield, 84 
 Sutton, F., 38, 47 
 Sutton St. Mary, i, 118 
 Swaton, 133 
 Syderstone, 70, 77, 82, 83, 84 
 
 Tatterset, 82, 122 
 
 Teall, J. J. H., 5, lo, 11, 18 
 
 Tealby Beds, 6, 19, 22 
 
 Thames, River, 2, 4 
 
 Thornham, 66, 87 
 
 Thornham Ling, 84 
 
 Tilley cS; Son, Messrs., 121, 130 
 
 Titchwell, 68 
 
 Tongue End Farm, 123 
 
 Totternhoe Stone, 46, 50, 53, 55 
 
 Trees in peat, 98 
 
 Tuxford, Messrs., 113 
 
 Upper Chalk, 69 
 
 Upware nodule-bed, 13 
 
 Valleys, i, 4, 93 
 Valley gravels, 93 
 Vetch, Capt., 108 
 
 Wadsley & Son, Messrs., 131 
 
 Wainfleet, I 
 
 Warp, 96 
 
 Wash, The, 1, 103 
 
 Wash Meres, 83 
 
 Welland, River, I 
 
 Well-sections, 113 
 
 Wensum, River, 94, 112 
 
 West Newton, 10, 14, 28, 51, 81 
 
 Westmoreland, Mr., 15 
 
 Wheeler, W. H., 92, 97, 116, 117, 118 
 
 Wiltshire, Rev. T., 13, 15 
 
 Witham, River, I, 92 
 
 Wolferton, 8, 10, 100 
 
 Wood, Searles V., Jun., 86, 90 
 
 Woods, H,, 21 
 
 Woodward, B. B., 91 
 
 Woodward, H. B., 15, 67, 68, 70, 71, 74, 
 
 77, 82, 83, 86, 87, 94, 100, no, 112, 
 
 120, 122 
 Wootton, see North and South 
 Wootton Warren, 7. 
 Wyberton, 97 
 
 Zone of Am. varians, 46, 52 
 
 Zone of Bel. \Acti7iocamax'\ plena^ 47 
 
 Zone of Bel. bruusviceiisis, 23 
 
 Zone of Holaster suhglobostts^ 46 
 
 Zone of Holaster planus, 63, 67 
 
 Zone oi Micraster corangiiinum, 71 
 
 Zone of Micr. caries tudinaruim, 63, 69, 
 
 70 
 Zone of Terebraltilina gracilis, 63, 65 
 Zone of Rhynclwnella Cuvieri, 64 
 
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 86 - - N. LINCOLNSHIRE and S. YORKSHIRE. By W. A. E. USBHBR [and Others). 
 
 87 NW - WAKEFIELD and PONTEFRACT. By A. H. GEEEN. ed. 
 
 87 SW - BARNSLEY. By A. H. GREEN. M. 
 
 88 SW - OLDHAM. By E. HnLL. 2s. 
 
 88 SE - PART ot Hie YORKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. By A. H. GEEEN, J. R. Dakyns and J. C. WAED. Is. 
 
 88 NE - DEWSBURY, &a. By A. H. GREEN, J. R. DAKYNS, J. C. WAED, and R. RUSSELL. 6rf. 
 
 89 SE - BOLTON, LANCASHIRE. By E. HCLL. 2s. 
 
 89 SW - WIGAN. By Edwaed Hull. (2nd Ed.) Is. (O.PO 
 
 30 SE - The COUNTRY between LIVERPOOL and SOUTHPORT. By C. E. De Rahob. 3d. (O.P.) 
 
 90 NE - SOUTHPORT, LYTHAM, and SOUTH SHORE. By C. E. DB RANCB. 6(i. 
 
 91 SW - The COUNTRY between BLACKPOOL and FLEETWOOD. By C. E. DB Range. 6d!. 
 
 91 NW - SOUTHERN PART ot tlie FURNESS DISTRICT in N. LANCASHIRE. By W. T. AVELINB. U. 
 
 92 SB • BRADFORD and SKIPTON. By J. R. Dakyns, C. Fox-Steansways, R. RUSSELL, and W. H. Dalton. 6(f. 
 
 93 NW - NORTH and EAST of HARROGATE. By C. FOX-STRANSWAYS. 6d. 
 
 93 NE - The COUNTRY between YORK and MALTON. By C. Fox-STRANGWAYS. Is. 6d. 
 
 93 NW - - N. and E. of LEEDS, and near TADCASTER. By. W. T. AVELINE, A. H. Green (and others). (O.P.) 
 
 93 SB, 94 W - COUNTRY between YORK & HULL. By J. R. DAKYNS, C. FOX-STEANGWAYS, and A. G. CAMEEON. Is. 
 
 94 NW - - DRIFFIELD. By J. R. DakynS and C. FOX-SIEANGWAYS. 9d. 
 
 94 NB - BRIDLINGTON BAY. By J. R. DAKYNS an4 C. Fox-STEANGWAYS; Is. 
 
 95 6W, SE - SCARBOROUGH and FLAMBOROUGH HEAD. By C. Fox-STEANOWAYS. Is." 
 
 95 NW - WHITBY and SCARBOROUGH. By C. Fox-STRANGWAYS and G. BAREOW, Is. 6(J. 
 
 96 SE - NEW MALTON, PICKERING, and HELMSLEY. By C. Fox-SIRANOWAYS. Is. 
 
 98 NE - ESKDALB, ROSEDALE, &0. By C. Fox-Steangways, C. Reid, and G. BAEROW. Is. 6(f. 
 
 96 NW, SW - NORTHALLERTON and THIRSK. Bj C. Fox-STKANGWAYS, A. G. Cameron, and G. BAEROW. Is; U. 
 
 97 SW - INGLEBOROUGH. By J. R. DAKYNS, R. H. Tiddeman, W. Gunn, and A. STRAHAH. 2». 
 
 97 NW - - MALLERSTANG. By J. R. Dakyns, R. H. Tiddbman (and others). 38. 6<2. 
 
 98 SB - KIREBY LONSDALE and KENDAL. • By W. T. AVELINE, T. MO K. HUGHES, and R. H. TIDDEMAN. 2s. 
 98 NE -KENDAL. By W. T. AVELINE and T. Mo K. HUGHES. 2nd Ed. by A. Strahan. Ss. 
 
 101 SE - - NORTHERN PART of the ENGLISH LAKE DISTRICT. By J. C. WARD. 9». 
 
 102 SW • - APPLEBY, ULLSWATER, and HAWESWATER. By J. R. DAKYNS, R. H. TIDDEMAN, and J. G. GOODCHILD. 
 
 Is. 6(!. 
 104 SW, SB - NORTH CLEVELAND. By G. BAEROW. Is. 6d. 
 108 SE - - OTTBRBUEN and ELSDON. By HUGH MILLER. 2s. 6«!. 
 IDS NE - - CHEVIOT HILLS. By C. T. Clough. Is. 6ii. 
 108 SW - - PLASHETTS and KIELDER. By C. T. CLOUGH. . Is. 
 110 SW- - WOOLER and COLDSTREAM. By W. GUNN and C. T. CLOUGH. Is. 6rf., 
 100 NW - NORHAM and TWEEDMOUTH. By W. GUNN. M. . 
 UO NE - - COAST south of BERWICK-ON-TWEED. By W. GUNN. 9d. 
 329 (New Series) BOURNEMOUTH. By C. Reid. 4S. 
 332 ( '„ )BOGNOK. By C. REID. 6(i. 
 334 ( „ ) EASTBOURNE. By C. REID. m. 
 
 COAL-FIELDS AND OTHER MINERAL DISTRIOTS.-Soale, sixlnches to amUe. ^ 
 
 The Coal-fields and otlier mineral districts of the N. of England are in part published on a scale ot six inches to a mile, ; 
 at 4s. to 6s. each. M.S. Coloured Copies of other bix-inch maps, not intended for publication, are deposited for reference in • 
 tlie Geological Stu'vey OiHoe, 28, Jerrayn Street, London. \ 
 
 MINERAL STATISTICS. 
 
 The produce of Coals, Metallic Ores, and other Minerals. By R. HUNT. From 1853 to 1866, Inclusive, Is. M. each. 
 1858. Part I., Is. m. ; Pm-t II., 5s. 1859, Is. m. 1860, 3s. 6(J. 1861, 2s. ; and Appendix, Is. 1862, 2s. 6d. 1888, 2s. U. 
 1864, 2!. 1866, 2s. 6fl. 1866 to 1874, and 1876 to 1880, ,2s. each. (These Statistics are now published by the HmM Ogee.) 
 
 THE IRON ORES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Part I. The North and North Midland Counties o^ England (Out of prmt). Part II. South Staffordshire. Price Is. 
 Part III. South Wales. Price Is. 3<J. Part IV. The Shropshire Coal-fleld and North-Staffordshira. Is.'sd.