CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS THE GIFT OF Leo Price, M.D. The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002617599 THE MODERN FACTORY SAFETY, SANITATION AND WELFARE BY GEORGE M. PRICE, M.D. Director, Joint Board of Sanitary Control in the Cloak, Suit and Skirt and the Dress and Waist Industries, Niw York City Foi-merly Director of Investigalkn,. Xini York State Factory Comiuissi \SHllt F1R8T EDITION SECOND THOUSAND NEW YOKK JOHN WILEY «fe SONS, Inc. London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited -- 1914 Copyright, 1914 BY GEORGE M. PRICE PRESS OF BRAUNWORTH & C(J. BOOK MANUFACTURERS BROOKLYN. N. V. TO IKarg !E- Srmr THE HEART AND SOUL OF THE NEW YORK STATE FACTORY COMMISSION THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED IN APPRECIATION AND RESPECT PJIEF^CE There were in the United States, according to the census of 1909, 268,491 industrial establishments in which there worked 6,615,046 persons. These figures do not include a great many smaller workshops in stores, separate parts of industrial estab- lishments and small domestic workshops. The modem factory is, therefore, a paramount economic force in the social and industrial life of the country and the nation. Factory and labor legislation, industrial ' relations between capital and labor, improvement of factory conditions and arneli- oration of the conditions of the large mass of American workers are the burning questions of the day and the most vital problems of the hour. The Federal goverimient, the legislatures of individual states and many private social organizations throughout the country vie with each other in numerous inquiries, conferences, inves- tigations, commissions, exhibits, etc., all bearing on the subject of industrial and factory conditions. The time is ripe for a treatise on the modern factory; for, in spite of all the intense interest in the subject of industrial and factory conditions, there is as yet no special book on this subject in the English language. An attempt is made in this book to give a comprehensive, although necessarily brief, review of the safety and sanitary con- ditions of factories and workshops as they are, and to indicate the methods of safety, sanitation, efficiency and welfare of fac- tories and workshops as they should be. As sanitary inspector of the New York Health Department for a number of years, as student and teacher of sanitary science, as practitioner for twenty years in the most crowded section of the East Side in New York City, as author of a number of books on general sanitation and hygiene, the writer has had special oppor- tunities for studying industrial workers and industrial conditions at first hand. VI PREFACE Since 1910 the author has been and still is the Director of the Joint Board of Sanitary Control in the Cloak, Suit and Skirt and the Dress and Waist Industries, this new experiment in the sani- tary control of an industry by those most interested in the indus- try itself: viz., organized employers, organized workmen and representatives of the public. In 1912 and 1913 the author was the Director of the investigations of the New York State Factory Commission, during which time he made extensive tours of inspec- tion throughout the state, visiting hundreds of establishments in this as well as in other states. During the summer of 1913 he made for the United States Department of Labor a study of factory inspection in England, France, Germany, Austria, Belgium and Switzerland, the result of which has been published in a report issued as Bulletin No. 142 of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Acknowledgment is due to the Honorable Robert F. Wagner, State Senator of New York and Chairman of the New York State Factory Commission, and to the Honorable Abram I. Elkus, Coun- sel for the Coromission, for permission to use many of the illustra- tions which have appeared previously in my official reports to the Commission. Thanks are also due to the many industrial cor- porations and private individuals who have kindly loaned me illustrations, full credit for which has been given in the text of the book. Grateful acknowledgments are due to the following gentle- men: Professor C.-E. A. Winslow for reading the chapter on "Ventilation"; Messrs. J. K. Freitag and H. F. J. Porter for reading the chapter on "Fire Protection"; Mr. William Newell of the New York Labor Department for reading the chapter on "Safety and Accident Prevention"; and Mr. Norman Macbeth for revising the chapter on " Light and Illumination." I cheerfully acknowledge my gratitude to Miss Violet Pike, my literary assistant and secretary, for her most efficient, faithful and industrious help in looking up literature, in reading manu- scripts and proofs, in gathering data and general help in the laborious work of writing and bringing the book to press. The book has been written and prepared for press within less than six months. It is inevitable that in such a hasty preparation there will be found a number of errors of omission and commission, for which indulgence is craved and which will be corrected in future editions if such are called for. 31 Union Square, New York. CONTENTS CHAPTER I THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE Industrial EvoLtrrioN: The Three Methods of Production. Domestic Production. Handi- craft Production. The Modern Factory System. Importance of the Place of Work 1 Industry, The Workplace and Their Influence in Ancient Times: Industry and the Workplace in Egypt. Industry in Greece. The Char- acter of the Workplace in Greece. The Opinion of Greek Philosophers and Physicians on the Influence of Industry and the Workplace upon Health. Associations of Wage Workers. Roman Guilds. Roman Workshops. The Condition of Slave Workers 3 Industry and the Workplace in the Middle Ages: The Guild System. The Beginning of the Decay of the Guilds. Large Workshops in the Middle Ages. The Character of the Work- shop in the Medieval Period. Description of Medieval Workshops. The Opinion of Physicians on the Influence of the Workplace upon Health. Ramazzini and His Work 7 The Modern Factory System: Its Birth and Rise. The Revolution in the Textile Industry. The Invention of Textile Machinery. Increase in Textile Production. The Beginning of Factory Production in the United States. Growth of Manufacture in the United States 17 The Industrial Revolution and its Influence: Expansion of Trade. Growth of Population. Concentration of Pop- ulation in Industrial Cities. Division of Labor. Creation of Classes. Causes of Poverty. Character of the First Workshops. Exploitation of Child Labor. Commissions of Inquiry into the Conditions of Child Labor. Evidence before such Commissions. Mortality and Morbidity Statistics. Etiological Factors of Occupational Mortality and Mor- bidity 24 Definitions of Factory and Workshop: Origin of the Word, " Factory." Definitions of " Mill," " Factory " and " Workshop." Definitions of " Factory " and " Workshop " in England. In Germany and other Countries. Definitions of " Factory," in New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and Minnesota ^^ ■rai viii CONTENTS Manitfacturinq Establishments THHOuGHOtJT the World: United States. England. France. Austria. Belgium. Prussia. Germany 36 CHAPTER II THE WORKPLACE Types: Changes in Types of Factories. The Domestic Workplace. Home Work in European Countries. Home Work in the United States. Evils of Home Work. The Workshop. Statistics of Small Work- shops. Sanitary Conditions of Workshops. Tenant Factories. Loft Multiple Workshops 39 Special Factories: Proportion of Industry Carried on in Special Factories. Census of Industrial Plants. Regulation of Building Construction. Diversity of Structure. Site. Surroundings. Frame Construction. Mill Con- struction. Reinforced Concrete. Height of Buildings. Walla. Floors. Floor Construction. Internal Arrangements 53 Model Factories: Conception. Definition. Early Model Factories. Robert Owen. Folirier. Model Factories Abroad and in the United States 66 CHAPTER III FACTORY FIRES AND THEIR PREVENTION I. Number and Extent of Factory Fires: The Wolf Factory Fire in Newark. Ash Building Fire, New York. The Freeman Binghamton Fire. Fire Loss in the United States and Europe. Comparative Table. Extent of Fire Loss. Loss of Life ... 72 II. Industrial Fires, Causes and Prevention: Analysis of Causes of Fires. Causes of Origin of Fires. Spontaneous Combustion. Lighting. Exposure. Incendiarism. Personal Neg- lect. Power. Heat. Light. Illumination. Materials. Processes 79 III. Spread of Fires: Density of Area and Crowding in Buildings. Lack of Horizontal and Vertical Isolation. Fire .Walls. Fire Construction. Materials of Construction. Mill Construction. Other Forms of Construction. Construction of Walls. Partitions. Doors. Stairways 87 IV. Control of Fires. Early Detection of Fires. Interior Alarms. Extinguishing of Fires. Water Buckets. Chemical Extinguishers. Stand-pipe and Hose. Automatic Sprinklers. Control of Fires 100 V. Loss OF Life in Industrial Fires: Difficulty of Estimate. Prevention of Overcrowding and Congestion. Egress Facilities from Floor. Windows. Doors. Aisles. Egress from Building. Fire Wall. Stairs. Insufficiency and Inadequacy of Stairs. Fire Escapes. Old and Modern. Panics. Causes. Pre- vention. Fire Drills 107 CONTENTS ix CHAPTER IV FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY I. Extent and Dangers: The Problem of Industrial Accidents. The Number of Accidents in United States and European Countries. Report of the Parliamentary- Committee on Accidents in Great Britain. German Statistics of Accidents. Austrian Accident Statistics. -Social Loss Involved. Attempts at the Solution of the Problem in European Countries. The Accident Insurance Law in Germany. Interest in the Subject in this Country. Decrease of Accidents Due to Efforts of Private Corpora- tions 129 II. The Personal Factor in Accident Causation and Prevention: Definition of " Accident." Classification of Causes of Accidents. The Role of the Worker in Accidents. Age as a Factor in Causation of Accidents. Sex in Relation to Accidents. Ignorance of Workers in Relation to Accidents. Testimony on this from the British Reports. From the Report of the N. Y. State Factory Commission. Physical Unfitness as a Cause of Accidents. "The Role of Carelessness in the Causation of Accidents. German Statistics on this Subject. Report of the English Parliamentary Committee on Accidents. Refusal of Work- ers to Use Safeguards. Accidents in Cleaning Machinery. Personal Care of the Employe. Prohibition of the Participation of Children in Industry as a Remedy for fhe Prevention of Accidents. Limitation and Restriction of Woman's Work. Prevention of Accidents Due to Ignorance. Continuation Schools. Instruction, etc. Medical Exam- ination of Employes as a' Prevention of Accidents. Rigid Supervision and Inspection. Proper Clothing, Dressing of Hair, Gloves, Shoes, etc. Eye Injuries. Number of Accidents. Prevention of These Accidents by Wearing Proper Eye-Glasses 138 III. The General. Causes op Accidents and Their Prevention: Defective Materials, Tools and Appliances. Weights and Falling Objects. Defective Stairs, Platforms, Ladders, etc. Overcrowding. Accidents Due to Monotony of Work. To Fatigue. To Speeding. To Prolonged Hours of Labor. Shortening of Hours of Labor Accord- ing to the Conditions in the Industry 156 IV. Prevention of Accidents Due to Transportation within the Factory: Transportation within the Factory. Prevention of Accidents Due to Transportation. Prevention of Accidents Due to Conveyors, Cranes, Winches, Tackle, etc. Hoistways and Elevators. Construction of Cage, Shaft, Door, Cables, etc. The Importance of the Operator. Safety Devices on Elevators and Hoistways 166 v. The Prevention of Accidents Due to Motive Power and Transmission Appakata. Machinery and Accidents. The Role of Mechanical Production in the Causation of Industrial Accidents. General Principles of Accident X CONTENTS Prevention and Safeguarding of Machinery. Motors and Flywheels. Gears, Set Screws, Driving Belts, Ropes, etc. Shafts and Their Safeguarding. Collars, Couplings and Screws. Belts, Chams, Ropes and Pulleys. Cleaning and Oiling of Machines, etc 177 VI. Machinery: Hammers, Presses and Punches. Their Dangers and Safeguards. Rolls, Calenders, etc. Grinders. Mixers. Centrifugal Machines. Emery Wlieels. Grindstones. Pohshers and Buffers. Saws 193 VII. General Methods op Accident Prevention in Special Industries: Accidents in Different Industries. The Metal Industry. Number of Accidents. Foundries. Bums. The Wood Industry. Jointers and Their Safeguarding. The Chemical Industry. Number of Accidents. Prevention of Accidents Due to Unguarded Vats, Pans and Caldrons. The Textile Industry. Note of Agreement between British Employers, Operators and Inspectors Concerning Safeguards in Cotton Weaving Factories 212 CHAPTER V LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES The Importance of Light in Factories. Inadequate Light in American and European Factories. The Relation of Factory Lighting to Clean- liness of Shop. Light and Efficiency Production. Relation of Adequate Light to Accident Prevention. Eye Strain, Eye Diseases and General Impairment of the Health of the Workers. What is Adequate and Proper Light? Quantity and Intensity of Light. Surface Brightness. Definition of a " Foot-Candle." German and Other European Stand- ards on Light. Definition of " Glare." Prevention of Glare. Daylight. The Factors upon which It Depends. Standards Adopted in Different Countries. The Importance of the Window and Its Proper Construc- tion. Artificial Illumination. Requirements for Efficient Illumina- tion. Color. Uniformity. Products of Combustion. Sources of Artificial Illumination. General Illumination. Localized Illumina- tion. Localized-general Illumination. Tungsten Lamps. Reflectors. Standards of the Wisconsin Industrial Commission 232 CHAPTER VI FACTORY SANITATION Classification of Factory Sanitation. General Cleanliness. Water Supply for Drinking Purposes.' Washing Facilities. Dressing-rooms. BathLug Facilities. Plumbing and Plumbing Fixtures. Toilet Accom- modations. Lunch-rooms. Sewage Disposal. Noises, Odors, Smoke Gases and Fumes. Disposal of Factory Wastes 259 CONTENTS xi CHAPTER VII EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 1. Extent, Definition, etc.: Confusion in the Conception of Welfaite Work. Limitation of the Term. Definition of the Term. Motives. Opposition on the Part of Employers. Opposition on the Part of Workers. Reasons for Such Opposition. Importance of Welfare Work. Classification of Welfare Work 287 II. Improving the Economic Conditions of the Workers: Security and Increase of Income. Tenure of Employment. Mimimum Wage. Profit Sharing. Increased Income for Increased Production. Bonuses and Premiums. Premiums for Years of Service. Scientific Management. Opposition to Scientific Management from Workers. From Sociologists. Reduction of Cost of Living. Cooperation in Ad- ministration. Suggestion Systems. Shop Committees. Accident and Sickness Insurance. Old Age Pensions 296 III. Improvement of the Physical, Intellectual and Social Status OP the Workers: Lessening of the Dangers of Work. Pauses. Vacations. Improved Food and Diet. Inspection of Food Articles. Improvement of WoVk- ing Conditions. Washing, Dressing and Bathing Facilities. Recrea- tion. The Care of Health. Rest and Emergency Rooms. First Aid Facilities. Dispensaries and Hospitals. Nursing Staff. General Medical Care and Supervision. Educational Work. Libraries. Ap- prenticeship Schools. General Educational Activities. Housing and Garden Cities 314 CHAPTER VIII AIR AND VENTILATION IN FACTORIES I. Confined Aib: Importance of the Problem of Ventilation. The Composition of Normal Air. Chemical and Physical Changes in Confined Air of Rooms. Diminution of Oxygen. Increase of Carbonic Acid. In- fluence of Diminution of Oxygen. Influence of Excessive Carbonic Acid. Presence of Organic Matter and Its Influence. Infectious Bacteria. Dust, Gases and Fumes. Temperature and Humidity. Definition of Absolute and Relative Humidity. Sources of Temperature and Humidity. Physiological Effects of High Temperature and of Relative Humidity. Opinion of Haldane. Opinions of Pembrey and CoUis. Opinion of Professor C.-E. A. Winslow. F. C. Lee. Summary 347 xii CONTENTS II. Principles and Methods of Ventilation: Definition of Ventilation. Spontaneous Ventilation. Quantity of Air Needed. Legal and Other Standards. Rate of Change. Porosity of Walls, etc. The Role of Windows in Ventilation. The Role of Doors in Ventilation. Special Openings Made for Ventilation. Spe- cial Tubes, Shafts and Openings 364 III. Mechanical Ventilation: Definition. Action of Wind in Ventilation. Action of Heat. Chim- neys. Methods of Mechanical Ventilation. The Three Methods of Mechanical Ventilation. The Vacuum System of Ventilation. General and Local. The Plenum System of Ventilation. Motive Power. Types of Fans. Action of Fans. Washing and FUteiing of Air. Artificial Humidification 374 rV. Examination and Testing op Aik: Testing of Relative Humidity. The Sling Psychrometer. Humidity Table. Tests for Carbonic Acid. Pettenkofer's Test. Wolpert's Test. Lunge-Zeckendorf Test. The Peterson and Palmquist Test 384 CHAPTER IX INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES I. DtrsT AND its Effect on Health: Extent and Character of Industrial Dusts. The Effect of Industrial Dusts upon Workers. Physiological Defenses of the Body. R^sumd of the Effects of Industrial Dusts. Dust and Disease. Dust and Tuberculosis. Dust and MortaUty .392 II. Dustt Trades: The Metal Trades. Foundry Workers. Metal Grinders and Polishers. Mineral Trades. Stone-workers. Workers with SUica. Vecbtable Dusts. Cotton-workers. Animal Dusts. Fur-workers. 411 III. Prevention and Protection: Prevention of Dust Formation. The Wet Process. The Auto- matic Process. Isolation and Separation of Dusty Processes. Removal of Dust. Kind of Dust. The Hoods. The Branch Pipes and Ducts. The Main Pipe or Duct. The Fans. The Motive Power. The Disposal of Dust. Protection of Wqrkehs. Cleanli- ness of Shop. Proper Clothing. Washing and Bathing. Respirators. Change of Work. Medical Examination. Medical Supervision. Education 420 CHAPTER X INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES I. The Poisons, Gases and Fumes and their Effects: Extent of Dangers. Classification. Harmful Substances and the Industries in which They Occur. Effect and Results of Industrial Poisons. Effect and Symptoms Of Lead Poisoning. Effect and CONTENTS xiii Symptoms of Arsenical Poisoning. Effect and Symptoms of Mercu- rial Poisoning. Effect and Symptoms oi' Phosphorus Poisoning. Effect and Symptoms of Chrome Poisoning. Effects of Various Gases, Fumes, Acids and Alkalies 438 II. Some of the Dangerous Trades: The Dangerous Lead Trades. Manufacture of White Lead. Other Lead Trades. Batteries, etc. The Painting Trade. The Printing Trade. Trades in which Workers are Exposed to Arsenical Poisoning. Mercury. Phosphorus Poisoning, The Manufacture of Commercial Acids. Manufacture of Alkalies. Bleach Works 450 III. Prevention and Protection: The Problem of Preventing Occupational Diseases 470 Legislative Protection: Investigation. Notification. Inspection. Special Rules. Licensing. Special Prohibitions 471 Social Protection: Hours of Labor. Industrial Control. Workmen's Compensation. Sickness and Social Insurance 475 Industrial Protection: Prohibition and Substitution of Harmless Materials for Dangerous Ones. Wet and Automatic Processes. Removal of Dust, Gases and Fumes. Sanitary Prevention and Protection 478 Medical Protection: Personal Hygiene. First Aid. Medical Supervision 483 CHAPTER XI FACTORY LEGISLATION I. Growth and Tendencies op Factory Legislatiqn: Early Factory Legislation in Europe. Early Factory Legislation in the United States. Factory Legislation Standards 486 II. Registration and Authorization of Industrial Establishments: Registration in the United States. Authorization and Licensing of Trades in England, Austria, Belgium and Switzerland 494 III. Construction, Fire Protection and Accident Prevention: The Laws on Fire Protection in Germany, France, England, London, New York State 497 IV. Light and Illumination and Ventilation and Heating: Standards for Light and Ventilation in European Countries. In the United States. Ventilation and Heating Standards in European Countries and the United States. General Orders on Ventilation and Heating in Wisconsin 504 V. Sanitary Care and Comforts: Standards in European Countries and the United States as to Clean- liness, Cuspidors, Washing FaciUties and Dressing-rooms, Drinking Water. Toilets, Lunch-rooms, Medical Applicances. Orders of Industrial Commission of Wisconsin on Sanitation 508 xiv CONTENTS CHAPTER XII FACTORY INSPECTION The Beginning of Factory Inspection in Europe and the United States. Factory Inspection in the United States. The Scope of the Work of Factory Inspection. Organization. Specialization. Methods of Selec- tion and Character of Factory Inspectors. Factory Inspectors in Europe. Salaries and Compensation. Methods of Supervision and Inspection 514 Civil Service Examinations for Factory Inspectors in England, France, Germany and New York State. Subjects for Examinations. Syllabus of Subjects. Civil Service Examinations and Questions 543 APPENDICES I. Selected Bibliography on Subjects covered in the Book 553 II. A List of the Most Important Investigating Commissions in England and the United States 555 III. Instructions on Fire Drills by the National Fire Underwriters' Asso- ciation 559 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS NUMBER p^g^ 1. A Medieval Bake-shop g 2. Dyeing and- Spinning Wool in the Eighteenth Century 10 3. The Master Shoemaker and His Journeymen — Sixteenth Century 12 4. A Printing Shop in the Sixteenth Century 14 5. Making Hats in the Eighteenth Century 16 6. Crompton's Mule-Jenny Ig 7. Hargreave's Spinning-Jenny 19 8. Arkwright's Spinning Machine 20 9. Mule Spinning about 1830 23 10. A Cotton Factory, Carding-room, in 1830 26 11. A Cotton Factory, Weaving-room, in 1830 28 12. An Early American Factory, in 1828 40 13. An English Cotton Factory — about 1830 41 14. A Home Work Shop — Picking Nuts for the Trade 43 15. A Home Work Shop — Wrapping Candy in a New York Tenement .... 45 16. A Rag Shop 47 17. A Cellar Bakery 49 18. Conditions in a Cellar Bakery " 51 19. A Cloak and Suit Shop — ^East Side, New York City 52 20. A Modern Loft Building 65 21. Entrance to Kodak Park Works 5g 22. The Adler Clothing Factory at Rochester 61 ■ 23. The Hammerbrot Werk 63 24. A Modern Factory 65 25. Factory of the United Shoe Machinery Company 68 26. The Beyer Chemical Company 70 27. Finishing-room in a Knitting Mill 77 28. Obstructed Exits from the Fire-escape 81 29. Fire Escape Balconies without Connecting Ladders 85 30. Drop Ladder Missing on Shop Building 88 31. A Dangerous Type of Stairway 94 32. Automatic Vertical Fire Door 97 33. Stairway Adjacent to Elevator Wall 99 34. Chemical Fire Extinguisher 103 35. Sanitary Fire Bucket 104 35. Safety Fire Bucket Tank 104 36. Sprinkler Heads 106 37. Graphic Chart Showing the Number of Persons Working above the Sixth Floor '. 108 XV XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS NUMBER PAGE 38. Metal Boxes for Clippings and Waste ^^^ 39. Window to Fire-escape Barred 40. A Bi-sectional Building ^^^ 41. Stairway Congestion 42. Capacity of Different Types of Fire-escapes ^^^ 43. Standard Double Run Fire-escape ^^^ 44. Tower Plan with Outside Balcony Entrance ^^^ 45. Standard Single Strainght Run Fire-escape ^-'^ 46. Philadelphia Tower Fire-escape ^^^ 47. Emergency Exit and Fire Wall 127 48. Narrow Aisles between Machines 130 49. Live Roll Gears Unprotected 135 50. Unguarded Opening to Elevator 137 51. Open Caustic Pot without Rail or Guard 139 52. Unprotected Transmission Belt 142 53. Unguarded Vats in a Wire Factory, 144 54. Chart of the Five Largest Groups of Accidents 147 55. German Factory Uniforms 151 56. French Factory Workers' Clothes 151 57. Face Mask 152 58. Safety Eye Glasses 154 59. Safety Eye Goggles 155 60. Ladder with Steel Points 157 61. Safety Oilers' Ladder 157 62. Dangerous Open Stairway 158 63. Stairway Equipped with Safety Tread 159 64. Time Card of a Woman who Worked 117J Hours in One Week 163 65. Self-acting Safety Catch 167 66. Methods of Lifting Barrels and Sacks 168 67. Overload Detector 169 68. Workers Carrying Crucible of Molten iletal 169 69. Tongues for Safe Carrying of Crucibles 170 70. Safety Wheelbarrows for Carrying Acids 170 71. A Safe Method of Lifting Barrels 171 72. Hatchway Safeguarded with Half Automatic Gate 172 73. Elevator with Hatch Covers 173 74. Side Post Freight Platform Enclosed 174 75. Full Automatic Gate 175 76. Semi-automatic Gate 176 77. Guard in Front of Fly Wheel 178 78. Guards Protecting Chain Drive 179 79. Metal Guard Protecting Reynold's Chain Drive ISO 80. Guards Covering Gear Chains and Worm Drives 181 81. Guards on Gears of Printing and Collaring Machine 182 82. Guard on Bleach House Machine 183 83. Protruding and Countersunk Set Screws 186 84. Safety Collars for Set Screws 186 85. Wooden Guards for Belting j^gg 86. Driving Belt in Aisles Boxed In Igg LIST OF ILLUSTRA'J'IOXK xvii «7. Guarded Countershaft Uoed in Driving a Lathe 189 8S. Pipe Itailint; arouml Hope Drive 190 89. Belt Shifters 191 90. Belt Placer , . ! ! 192 91 . Punch Press 193 92. Safety Guard on Press 194 93. Two-hand Safety Devii« , I95 94. Plate (jkss Guard on Punch Press 196 9.5. Guarded Htarnijinx Machine 197 96. Stamping Pr(;Hs (Juard 198 97. Corner CuttiiiK Machine 199 98. Calemler ItolLs witli Hafr;ty Clutch 200 99. Collar and < 'ufT Ironer Guarded 201 100. Calender Hand Safety Guard 202 101. Metal Kafi:ty Bar to Prevent Fingers from Getting into Kolls 202 102. Concave Safety Collars for Emery Wheels 20.3 10;j. Cross-section of Emery Wheel 204 104. Protected Grinfling Wheels 20.5 105. Safeguard on Grinder 206 106. Safeguarded Broken Grindstone 207 107. Safety Centrifuge 207 108. Splitter Adjusted to Large Saw 208 109. Circular Saw Guard 209 110. Combination of Splitter with Wood Protection 209 111. Splitter Guard for Circular Saw 210 112. Circular Saw Guard 210 113. Wire Head Guard 211 1 14. Iron Safety Clover and Feeder 211 116. fiuard on Tumbling Barrel 213 116. Old Style Square Buzz Planer 216 117. Safety Cylinder for liuzz Planer 216 118. Injuries Done with Both 216 119. Double Cut-off Saw Guard 217 120. Bent Saw Guard 218 121. Kib Saw Guard 219 122. German Fmger Guard 219 123. Soap Vat with Safety (Jrill— Opened and (Jlow;r] 223 124. A Safeguarded Roving Machine 224 125. Cotton Mill Hailing Machine 225 126. A Spinning Machine in a Cordage Factory 226 127. Unguarded Caustic Pots 227 128. Calender Pulley and Nip Guards 228 129. Localized Illumination for Each Table 236 130. Illumination in a Weaving Eoom ' 238 131. An Example of Localized General Illumination 240 132. General Illumination from Gas Arc Lamps 241 133. Local Lighting of Sewing Machines 242 134. Plan and Elevation Showing Relative Positions of Larnits arid Sewing Machines / ' 243 xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS NUMBEB '■*°^ 135. Glaring Light in the Eyes of the Workman ^^* 136. Improved Illumination with Properly Shaded Lamp 137. Localized Illumination at the Point of the Needle ° 138. Localized Lighting of a Buffing Machine in a Shoe Factory 247 139. Localized General Illumination of Cutters' Table in a Shoe Factory 248 140. Localized General Illumination 249 141. Localized General Illumination 250 142. Localized General Illumination for Sewing Machine Operators 251 143. Localized General Illumination of- a Machine Shop 252 144. Local Lighting for Engravers and Jewelry Manufacturing 253 145. General Illumination in a Composing Room 254 146. General Illumination for Hand Ironers in a Laundry 255 147. United States Printmg Office 262 148. Drinking Fountains 264 149. Bubbling Valve Drinking Fountain 265 150. A Factory Wash Sink 267 151. Dressing and Wash Room 269 162. Wash Room 270 153. Individual Lockers 272 154. Bathroom 273 155. Broken Plumbing 274 156. Broken Fixture 276 157. Toilet in a Tenant Factory 276 158. A Sanitary Urinal 279 159. A Well Arranged Sanitary Water-closet 280 160. Two-way Cafetaria 306 161. One-way Cafetaria 307 162. Rest-room 310 163. Swimming Pool 312 164. Bakery in Works 316 165. Dining-room 318 166. Dining Hall 319 167. Dining Hall 320 168. Reading Room 323 169. Reading Room 324 170. Play-ground and Swimming Pool 325 171. Tennis Court 328 172. Shooting Gallery and Bowling Alleys 329 173. Dance Hall 330 174. Medical Chest 332 175. First Aid Equipment 333 176. Emergency Hospital Room 335 177. Emergency Hospital Room 337 178. U. S. Printing Office Emergency Room 338 179. Industrial School 34I 180. Houses for Employes 343 181. Boarding House for Employes 345 182. Bleaching Furs with Ammonia 349 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix KUMBER PAGE] 183. The Filter-bag Wash-room in a Sugar Refinery 352 184. Manufacture of Felt Hats ^ ! ! ! . 357 185. Casting Yellow Brass 3g0 186. Casing-room in a Sausage Factory . . . > 363 187. Beating-up Machines in a Hat Factory 368 188. View of Forge and Hardening Departments, Showing Ventilating Plant . 370 189. First Process in Felt Hat Making; Excessive Humidity and Heat 372 190. Factory Equipped with Globe Ventilators 375 191. Base tan Set in Top of Window 376 193. Exhauster in Connection with System of Hoods and Piping for the Removal of Dust from Emery Wheels 378 194. Exhausting in Room 380 195. " Sirocco " Fan Blowing into Room 380 196. Double Inlet " Sirocco " Fan 381 197. Steel Pressure Blower in Foundry 382 198. Disk Fan in Laundry 383 199. Disk Fan in Engine Room ■ > 383 200. SUng Psychrometer 385 201. Paterson-Paknquist Apparatus 389 202. Wallace and Tiernan Pump 391 203. Dust Particles as seen under the Microscope 393 204. Dust Particles of Silk 394 205. Dust Particles of Hemp 394 206. Dust Particles of Jute 395 207. Dust Particles of Flax 395 208. Dust Particles of Cotton 396 209. Wheat Dust 396 210. Dust Particles of Felt 398 211. Dust Particles of Woodworking Machine 398 212. Dust Particles of Bonemeal 398 213. Dust Particles of Horsehair 398 214. Dust Particles of Carpet 400 215. Dust Particles of Horn 400 216. Dust Particles of Celluloid 400 217. Dust Particles of Mother of Pearl 400 218. Dust Particles of Lead 401 219. Dust Particles of Cast-iron Polishing 401 220. Dust Particles of Needle Polishing 402 221. Dust Particles of Brass Polishing 402 222. Dust Particles of Sandblast. . . . , 403 223. Dust Particles of Glass 403 224. Dust Particles of Cement 403 225. Dust Particles of Granite 403 226. Dust Particles of Sandstone 405 227. Dust Particles of Limestone 405 228. Interior of Machine Room of Cordage Factory 406 229. Girl Worker in Preparing Room of Cordage Factory 408 230. Polishing Shoes — The well-equipped Hood and Exhaust System Fur- nishes Practically Ideal Protection 412 XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS NCMBER PAGE 231. Workers in a Factory where Skins from Hares and Rabbits are Scraped off fdr Supplying Felt for Hats *15 232. Workers Carrying Skins Treated with Nitrate of Mercury 418 233. Sandblasting Exterior of Car. Worker Wears Respirator 419 234. Automatic Process of Manufacturing Chloride of Lime 422 235. Local Exhaust of Dye Dust in a Paper Factory 424 236. Local Dust Exhaust in a Carding Shop— Textile Mill 425 237. Sandblasting Casting in Open Shed 428 238. Packer of Bleach or Chloride of Lime— Wearing Several Thicknesses of White Flamlbl over his Mouth 432 239. Automatic Rubber Respirator - 435 240. Removing Lead from Oven into Metal Pan 446 241. Types of Wrist-drop among Hungarian Potters 448 242. Stripping the Corroding Beds in a White Lead Factory 451 243. An Unprotected Worker Stripping the Corroding Beds 452 244. Unsuccessful Attempts by Workers to Protect Themselves against Poisonous Dust 454 245. Filling Barrels with Litharge 455 246. Lead Refining 456 247. Lead Oxidizing Furnace 458 248. Lead Working in the Manufacture of Storage Batteries 459 249. Paris Green Factory — ^Automatic Packing Machine 461 250. Putting Paris Green into the Bolter 463 251. Filling a Barrel with Paris Green 464 252. Exposure to Fumes of Cyanide of Potassium 466 253. The Muzzles and Costumes Worn by Bleach Workers 469 254. Lead Fumes in a Lead Smelting Shop, Properly Carried away 473 255. A Linotype Room in a Newspaper 477 256. Removal of Fumes in an Electro-plating Shop 481 257. Removal of Fumes in an Electro-plating Shop 482 THE MODERN FACTORY CHAPTER I THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE Industrial Evolution. The world is a huge workshop, — a scene of intense industrial activity for the satisfaction of human needs. And so it was from time immemorial. For industry is as old as the human race. Perhaps older. In the vast maze of antiquity, ages before any recorded events, there must have existed immense industrial activity among prehistoric peoples, — activities of which at present we gain only a faint conception from the few records that remain, but which left their strong impress upon those ages and constituted the germ from which our industrial system has evolved. Industry being so necessary and so constant a factor in the life of man and in the development of the race, the methods of economic production and the stages of industrial evolution may therefore be viewed as the basis of the progressive development and history of civilization. Viewed in this light industrial production has, roughly speak- ing, passed through three stages of development. Each of these stages may be characterized by the prevailing method of indus- trial production. These three methods are domestic production, handicraft prodiiction and the modern factory system. "Domestic production is production in and for the house from raw materials furnished by the household itself. In its purest form it presupposes the absence of exchange and the ability of each household to satisfy by its own labor the wants of its mem- bers. All that it has, it owes to its own labor, and it is scarcely 2 THE MODERN FACTOEY possible to separate the operations of the household from those of production." * Handicraft production is that carried on within or outside of the house, usually by free workers, and is characterized by what we call "custom production." "The handicraft man always works for the consumer of his product; the region of the sale is local, namely, the town and its immediate neighborhood. . . . When- ever one line of handicraft threatens to become too large, other new handicrafts split from it." t The modern factory system presents an entirely different method of production. By this system the economic wants of large com- munities, groups of persons and whole nations are satisfied by wholesale production on a large scale in specially constructed plants by means of so-called free wage labor and by the help of machinery and motive power. It must be remembered, however, that this classification of the stages of industrial evolution simply indicates the prevaiUng method of production. At no time did one method exist to the exclusion of all others. To-day there exist side by side important variations from, the prevailing factory system; domestic production in many peasant communities; handicraft and house industries even in advanced industrial centers. " No single element of culture that has once entered into the life of man is lost. Even after the hour of its predominance has expired, it continues in some more modest position to co-operate in the realization of that great end in which we all believe, the helping of mankind towards more and more perfect forms of existence." f Whatever the system of production, the industrial factor is the predominating one. Its paramount influence is impressed upon all the forms of himian progress, and upon it moral, religious and intellectual evolution is necessarily based. Many of the forms of industrial activity depend upon climatic conditions, upon the nature of the soil and upon the character of the physical surroundings which determine the modes of procuring food and the manufacture of the necessities of life. The place of work itself is of great importance in all stages of industrial evolution. The character of the workplace naturally differs with the stages of industrial development and depends upon many factors, not the least of which are (1) the general progress in * Buecher, Industrial Evolution, p. 155. t Ibid., p. 170. t Ibid., p. 184. THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 3 housing conditions and (2) the stage of industrial production itself. In the, domestic system of production, for instance, the workplace is within the house, usually not separated from the general living quarters. Certain forms of activity must be carried on within the house, others may be performed outside of the house, especially! where climate permits. The construction and internal arrange- ment of the workplace will depend upon the state of housing progress., Industry, the Workplace and Their Influence in Ancient Times. From what is known of Egyptian civilization, it is evident that there was a high state of industrial organization during the periods of which we have historical traces. That Egyptian industry was founded on slave labor is evident not only from the monuments remaining but also from the biblical stories of Genesis which show that the ruling class made their slaves do most of the work. The hard labor imposed upon the slaves led to frequent revolts, a number of which are mentioned in very early days and the greatest of which is described in the story of the Exodus of the Hebrews. Little is known of the character of the workshops in Egypt. The fine pottery and utensils, some forms of which are still found in archaeological excavations, show that there was much domestic and handicraft production which must have been carried on in special places, for the most part out of doors, owing to the climatic conditions of the country. The wages of the workers were almost always paid in kind — in wheat, oil or wine. The foremen or taskmasters had for their emblem a whip. The Egyptian proverb ran, " Man has a back and will not obey until it is beaten." It was the whip that built the pyramids, dug the canals and carried through most of the monumental works, which remain until to-day in Egypt. The workers considered it a necessary evil; from Pharaoh's minister down to the lowest of the slaves, none might escape it. The man who had never in all his life been beaten was considered as honor- able as if he had obtained a decoration or special favor from the king. In the working districts of Egyptian cities each shop was separate from the rest of the house and was rented separately. It was a small square room, often only a niche, open to the street, closed at night with wooden shutters. A typical shop would be furnished with one or two mats, low tabourettes and shelves. Sometimes behind the shops were small rooms kept locked for precious wares. 4 THE MODEEN FACTOEY The merchants were also artisans; employed apprentices and worked themselves between the intervals of making sales. There are many bas-reliefs and ancient paintings which show the workers employed at their different crafts, from the shoemaker to the goldsmith.* Industry in early Greece was carried on by free men, and only later was it given over to slaves. " In the days of Homer and Hesiod work was considered not only necessary but honorable. Manual labor, in the time of Homer, was the employment of princes and nobles and it was an honor to be a good worker. For cattle raising, agriculture and manufacture only the greatest respect and admiration were expressed. These vocations were preservers of life, and their best form was as yet too new and attractive to be regarded with indifference and contempt." t The gods themselves set the mortals an example of industry. Hephaestus was a smith and served all the gods on Olympus; he made the arms of Achilles and the door for Hera's room. Athena wove her own peplum. Paris built his own house. Ulysses, before leaving Ithaca, made a wonderful bed adorned with silver and ivory. After the Doric invasions, with the multiplication of slaves as the result of military conquest, work came to be considered shame- ful. According to the philosophers, the ideal life was lived without labor and. spent in contemplation or service to the state. As most of the labor was done by slaves, handworkers were in the lowest grade, because, according to the accepted ideas of the time, " trade dulled the spirit and body and left no time to fulfil the duties of citizenship." Herodotus also remarks that " traders are hated by the Egyptians, Thracians, Scythians and Persians; " that he regards " handworkers as next to slaves if not below them, since while the slaves served one master, the handworkers served many." In spite of the large numb* of slaves, many hand-workers still existed who by the Solonic law were given the right to organize and form guilds and other organizations, most of them secret and some of them having large political interests. There is little data on the character of the workplace in Greece. There seems to have been small interest in this matter and only casual references to it are found. A leather workshop with nine or ten slave workers is mentioned by .iEschines. The father of Demosthenes was the owner of a large knife workshop in which * Maspero, G.. Au,.temps de Ramses et Assourbanipal. + Keller, Homeric Society, p. 85. THE FACTOEY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 6 thirty slaves were employed. The orator Lysias and his brother had, at the Piraeus, a shield workshop with one hundred and twenty slaves as workers. The construction of Greek workshops, like their dwellings, was simple, and suitable to an air-loving people. The rooms faced open courts or peristyles with blank walls outside. Houses were of one story; windows were absent; the doors opened on narrow streets. The workshops were open to all passersby. In cold weather many citizens entered to warm themselves at the craftsman's forge. Sometimes in the smithy the poor would sleep all night. The Greek craftsmen worked naked, and employers mingled with their workers and busied themselves with the same tasks. That many of the Greek philosophers and physicians recognized the influence of industry and the workshop upon health is certain, although their references to it are few and scattered. Aristotle mentions the diseases of the " runners " and prescribed certain diet for gladiators. Hippocrates remarks: " There are many handi- crafts and arts which cause those who exercise them certain pains and plagues." He speaks of the specific diseases of miners and burden carriers, of gardeners, riders, etc. Plato considered philosophy unfit for those " whose bodies are not only deformed by their arts and handicrafts, but whose souls are also in like manner confused and crushed by their life of labor. What sort of race must such as these produce? Must it not be bastardly and abject? " Little attention was paid to the influence of labor on health for the reason that the lives of the slaves were of no great considera- tion. Indeed, the increase in the number of slaves became an important state problem which the Spartans, for instance, tried to solve by exercising their youths in the art of killing off and slaugh- tering the innocent helots. In Rome associations of free wage-workers existed from the earhest times. Mommsen states that there were eight guilds of craftsmen in Rome under Numa Pompilius, one of the first rulers of whom we have an account. They were the following: — flute-blowers, coppersmiths, fullers, potters, goldsmiths, dyers, carpenters and shoemakers. Mommsen adds, however, that there is no aspect of the hfe of the Roman people respecting which information is so scant as that of the Roman trades. Later the law of Constantine gives thirty-five guilds existing at one time, including associations of builders, fishermen, gold-work- 6 THE MODERN FACTORY ers, fullers, armorers, cooks and waiters, basket-makers, weavers and clothing makers. These handicraft workers were all free. The inscriptions found among the ruins of Pompeii show that these organizations were much interested in politics and took part in the local elections. Little is known of the lives of these ancient workers. Those who belonged to the guilds undoubtedly had certain privileges and comparatively secure positions, but much of the lower kind of work was done by slaves and hirehngs. T. Pampa, quoted by Buecher, enumerates one hundred and forty-six differ- ent designations for the functions of slave laborers as well as for the free handworkers. These early craftsmen lived in special quarters in the city, and many of the streets were named after the industries carried on in them. The Roman workshops, even the largest, were situated within the houses belonging to the rich or in shops located in the poorer quarters. " With scarcely an exception, all houses of Pompeii were only one story in height. All the rooms were therefore on the ground floor; they all faced inwards and were lighted from the court or atrium and not from the outside. For with a people who had no glass with which to close their windows, it was impossible to enjoy security without excluding light and air, otherwise than by lighting rooms from the interior." * In most instances the outsiide of the better class of houses was given over to shops and smaller workplaces which opened on the streets, while residences were wholly hidden from view by them. Rome contained a dense population and the shops in the poor quarters must have been small, dark and imsanitary. A great num- ber of slaves were not housed at all, but spent their miserable lives in mines, on the galleys, in the cellars, or were exposed to the vicis- situdes of the climate. Thus, we find that an ancient tribune speaks of the Roman proletariat as follows: " The wild have holes and for everything there is some shelter, some retreat; but the poor who struggle and die for Italy, they have light and air and nothing more. Houseless and homeless they wander with their wives and little ones. The poor must struggle and die for the blustering drunkards and corrupted wealthy, called nobility, whom their labor creates and sustains." j At a later time there must have been great congestion of popu- lation in Rome and in the large cities of Italy. Houses were from * Ferguson's History of Architecture, t Plutarch's Lives, "The Gracchi. THE B'ACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 7 ten to twelve stories in the front and from twelve to fifteen stories in the rear. The height of ceilings from the floor was ten to twelve feet on the lower: stories, but this height decreased, so that in the upper stories, designed for poor tenants, the ceilings were less than five feet from the floor, and in Pompeii a house four feet and three inches high was found. The poorest class of workmen lived in the upper stories and also in cellars and sub-cellars, which were filled with paupers whose condition may be better imagined than described. Of course, with the contempt of the Romans for the lives of the slaves and manual workers, no attempt was made to better the conditions of the people or to study the influence of industry upon their health. That it was known admits no doubt. Pliny reports the dangers of workers with sulphur and zinc. The satirists Martial, Juvenal and Plautus speak of the " blear-eyed smith," " lame tailors," etc. Galen also makes observations on the diseases of certain workers. Great sufferings from want among the slaves of Italy are men- tioned in Pliny's Natural History. The slaves, who were not killed off directly by their masters, were condemned to early graves by plagues and epidemics which were then so frequent. The laborers were held to be the lowest in the rank of human beings next to the slaves, and the life of a laborer was considered a mean and unmanly occupation. The hordes of barbarians who fell prey to the arms of Rome and were then enslaved, performed most of the manual labor, and the frequent and desperate revolts of these slaves, as exemplified in some of the ancient insurrections like that of Spartacus, and the bloodthirsty way in which they were put doAvn, show how little slave-owners cared for the lives, health or comforts of their workers. Industry and Workplace in the Middle Ages. The overturn of ancient civilization by the Germanic invasions, the introduction of Christianity and the fall of Rome had a profound effect upon the system of industrial production of the ancient regime. In the frequent dynastic upheavals during the decline of the empire, the end of slave production became imminent. The rise of the new religion imbued the slaves with a new spirit. The breaking up of the empire led to economic isolation. Great markets disintegrated, and international trade came to an end. The barbarian invaders of the empire brought with them their primitive domestic economy as well as their political institutions, so well described by Tacitus. 8 THE MODERN FACTORY The industrial unit was the family, whether the simple grouping of parents and children or the larger households of manorial over- lords or monasteries, with their serfs and dependents. The transition from domestic production to the handicraft or guild system was gradual. The rise and growing economic impor- After Jnbst Amman A Mediaeval Bake-Shop tance of the mediaeval towns fostered the development of handi- crafts, and during the twelfth century, guilds, or associations of workers in similar crafts banded together for mutual protection, began to appear. Among the first craft guilds were those of the weavers and fullers of woolen cloth. These guilds were especi- ally protected by the cities and had practically a monopoly of THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 9 labor. No one could work at a craft without admission to the guild; the limitation was exacting and the rules were very severe. An apprenticeship of seven years was usually necessary before a worker could start for himself. The guilds, assumed the responsi- bility for the quantity and quality of production, and craftsmen deviating from these regulations were severely punished. There was no large class of wage-workers under the guild system: Each worker having passed through his years of apprenticeship could become a master of the craft, sometimes after having spent a few years as journeyman. The cloisters and monasteries were seats of great industrial activity. Trade was carried on in forti- fied cities by means of markets and fairs. The exchange of com- modities was limited to the city or to a group of cities and there was little inter-city communication and hardly any international com- munication until a much later period. It is to the guild system of production that we owe the wonderful cathedrals and abbeys of the middle ages, the stained glass, sculp- tures and carvings that adorn them, the taipestries, pottery and metal work that are the despair and admiration of modern craftsmen. But during the sixteenth century, the power of the guilds began to decay. Their decline foljowed the development of capital and the growth of trade, due to the improvement of the means of communication and the great discoveries of the fifteenth cientury explorers. The expansion of the market demanded increased pro- duction, which the guilds, with their restrictive regulations on the numbers of apprentices and quantity and quality of the product, were unable to supply. To meet this demand, extra-town and extra-guild production sprang up all over Europe, and the capitalist or entrepreneur began to make his appearance in industry. A form of production developed under which the master worker or merchant, who had accumulated some capital, bought the raw mate- rials and distributed them to the workers in the country and on the outskirts of the town, later collecting and selling the finished product either directly to the consumer or to the merchants in the towns. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and the early part of the eighteenth century, this method prevailed in the manufacture of staple commodities and became the forerunner of the modern factory system. It is sometimes called the cottage industry because of the industrial activity of the workers spread in so many cottages outside of the towns. 10 THE MODERN FACTORY Of course, in the latter part of the middle ages after the fifteenth century, there were a number of large industrial establishments in various countries, besides the small workshops in the cities or those shops attached to the great monasteries or baronial manors. As early as the beginning of the sixteenth centiuy, there is a THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE H description of a factory of an inaportant merchant, John 'Winch- combe, called Jack Newbury, whose manufacturing establishment seems to have been well known throughout England. The following quotation from Fuller's "Worthies," giving a glowing account of his plant, is of interest: " Within one room, being large and long, there stood two hundred looms full strong; two hundred men wrought in these looms in a row. By every one a pretty boy sat making quills with mickle joy. In another place hard by, one hundred women merrily were carding hard with joyful cheer, and in a chamber close beside, two hundred maidens did abide; and in another room seventy children picking wool^forty men in the dye works — twenty fullers — nearly a thousand workers in all." According to Wilhelm Stieda,* there was in 1573 a large sugar refinery in Augsburg; in 1592 a gold and silver place at Nuremburg; in 1593 a soap factory in Augsburg; in 1649 a blue-dye factory in Annaberg; in 1686 a " tuch fabrik " in Halle where fifty weavers and three hundred spinners were employed. Some time later a wool and silk factory was established in Magdeburg wher^ five hundred workers were employed. In 1710 a porcelain factory was established in Meisen; in 1718 a porcelain, factory was established in Beriin; in 1764 a linen factory was estabhshed in Tournai, Belgium, where eight hundred workers were employed; and a woolen factory was established in Mechlin employing four hundred and thirty-four workers. According to Stieda, there were in Germany before 1801 at least twenty factories, each employing between one hundred and five hundred persons. There must, therefore, have been some large estabUshments throughout European countries during the latter part of the middle ages just before the beginning of the factory era, but most of the work was dope either by artisans, who were members of the guilds, in little shops in their own houses, or by the house-workers, who lived on the outskirts of towns and in agricultural settlements and were commissioned by the large capitalist to do certain work, especially spinning and weaving. These people worked in their own houses, alternating this work with agriculture. It was only with the advent of the modern factory system that a great change took place in the construction and character of the workshop. * Article " Fabrik " in Conrad's HandwSrterbuch der Staata Wissenaobaften. 12 THE MODERN FACTORY The workshop of the craftsman in the mediaeval period was located on the first floor of the tall houses, in the narrow streets of mediaeval fortified cities. One who at the present time passes through some of the narrow streets of Cologne, Ghent, Nuremburg and other ancient towns may easily imagine the conditions of the houses and work- Alter Jobst Amman The Master Shoemaker and his Journeymen (16th century) shops, when every town was a fort and every city a citadel. In many of the cities the crafts were huddled together in special quarters and many streets took their names from the crafts which were carried on in them; such as the Rue de la Cordonnerie in Paris, where the shoemakers lived, and the Rue Pot de Fer, where the iron- workers lived. THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 13 The shops where the craftsman, his apprentices and journey- men worked were small and dark; the floor was of earth; the win- dows frequently of oiled paper, as glass was too expensive. The shops opened on narrow streets. There are still some old towns where typical mediaeval streets can be seen, the second story jutting over the first story and the third story again over the second, so that the passerby in the street or the workers in the rooms on the first story, were' as badly off for light as those living at the bottom of modern canyons formed by high buildings in twentieth century cities. The workshop served also as a salesroom and opened on to the street. Pigs, chickens and other animals could wander freely in and out. In rainy weather the mud and filth from the streets was tracked in the workshops. All refuse and sewage was of course emptied into the streets and the smells must have been inde- scribable. The fact that the houses were draughty and that unless the windows were opened there was very little light to work by, was probably the salvation of the workers of those early times. They had perforce to live a good d.eal in the air. With no sa,nitation and with the often very crowded condition prevailing even in small towns, it is no wonder that the ranks of the workers of the mid- die ages were frequently decimated by the plagues which swept over Europe from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries. Brizon gives the following description of some mediaeval work- shops:* " The bakeshop was a low room which opened on the street; at the back of the room was the black hole of the oven. Well in sight was a wooden sideboard on which bread and rolls were dis- played. Near the window was a pair of scales on which the bread for customers was weighed. Beside the scales were the tallies on which the baker marked bread sold on credit; .for credit had already become a custom. Here and there against the wall were baskets, rolUng pins, wooden mallets and great wooden shovels. Often the baker himself bolted his wheat with a bolting mill." " The pastry cookshops were ahnost always numerous and attractive. They were very much the fashion during the century of Gargantua. In Paris, these shops were the admiration of Lip- pomana, the Venetian Ambassador. ' If you want,' said^he, ' your food completely ready, cooked or baked, in less than one hour, the cooks and pastry cooks will prepare for you a dinner or a supper for fifteen, twenty or one hundred persons. The rotissier will give \ * Pierre Brizon, Histoire du Travail et des Travailleura, p. 69-73. 14 THE MODERN FACTORY you meats; the patissier, pastry, tarts, entrees and desserts; the cuisinier, jellies, sauces and ragouts.' " " In the rear of the shop of the pastry cook was the gaping mouth of the oven; in the front were windows of oiled paper. Within the shop were the implements of the trade and cooking utensils. These utensils were often of very fine materials. There rVA:^ >v<.J^2.»>-» A Printing Shop in the Sixteenth Century were boilers for fish, cake dishes and baking dishes of copper, all shining, and rolling pins, graters and moulds covered with silver. Near the window the cakes were displayed, while the pastry cook himself steod in front of the scales." " The workers who were occupied with the manufacture of clothes and clothing materials all worked seated. The noise of the weaver's loom would come from the cellar or from a room on THE FACTORY, ITS EISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 15 the ground floor or on the first story. The master workman worked alone or with his apprentices, often in the country in the homes of the peasants, who furnished him with wool. He might, however, pursue several trades either in his home or with his workers in a workshop. He seldom sold the material he wove directly to customers, but rather to merchants." " Herte is a picture of a hat maker who lived at Troyes on a bridge which crossed a branch of the Seine. His workshop was on the river in a little room where there was a copper boiler, steam casts, mortar, wooden mallets and a hundred and one different forms for making hats. There he made hats of felt or of wool which were afterwards dyed. He did not have many in stock, for when he died in 1693 there were only thirteen in his shop, valued at twenty livres." With the general neglect of sanitation and disregard of health peculiar to the middle ages, the study of the influence of occupations on the health of the serfs and villains, or even upon the lives of the free members of the guilds was naturally neglected, for the masters fared as badly as the apprentices and journeymen with whom they worked. There are, however, records left of the awakening of some physicians and scientists to the importance of health and sanitation during the latter part of the middle ages. During the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries a number of physicians began to recognize the effects of industry on health and from time to time gave expression to their knowledge in reports and monographs. In the transactions of the Royal Society of England of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries we occasion- ally come across references to the effects of coal and'-lead mining, the manufacturing of >mirrors, the detrimental influence of dust, etc. Not, however, before the end of the sixteenth century did the knowledge of industrial diseases and occupational influences become crystallized. This was done in the great work of the father of modern industrial hygiene, Bernardino Ramazzini. Ramazzini was born in Capri in 1633. In 1659 at the age of twenty-six years he received his doctor's diploma. That he must have practised among workers, and that he must have had great clinical experience, and been an original and deep thinker is shown by his works which were published from time to time, the first in 1685. His greatest work on industrial hygiene, written in 1690, was not published until 1700 and bears the following title: " De Morbis Artificium Diatriba," and is the first work on industrial hygiene based upon rich clinical experience, and deep knowledge and insight into human nature and industrial activity. 16 THE MODERN FACTORY The work consists of forty chapters, which were later supple- mented by twelve more chapters. In the introduction, Ramazzmi speaks of the importance of industrial hygiene and the need for the physician always to ask the occupation of the patient, especially among the manual workers. The work fully describes the pro- THE FACTOEY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 17 cesses of a great number of industries: — miners, mirror-makers, chemists, potters, glass-makers, painters, sofa-makers, smiths, lime- workers, fullers, tobacco workers, beer brewers, bakers, millers, starch-makers, laundry workers, etc. Each chapter describes a group of works, goes deeply into the industrial activities, the injurious influences of each activity, the character of the work itself and the workplace, and mentions the ills and diseases to which the workers are subject. In the supple- ment added in the second edition there are chapters on the typo- graphical workers, on textile workers, wood workers, polishers, brick workers, well diggers, marine workers, etc. During his fruitful life Ramazzini continued to work along the same lines and published numerous editions and papers on subjects of industrial hygiene. Ramazzini gave the first impetus to the study of the influences of industrial activities and the dis- eases of occupations. For nearly one hundred and fifty years the classic work of Ramazzini was the one chiefly Used throughout the civilized world. It was reprinted and republished in many tongues and countries, and has inspired a great number of his successors. This work was not surpassed until the works'of Thackrah of England, Layet of France and Hirt of Germany, at last put industrial hygiene upon a firm scientific basis. The Modem Factory System. The discovery of America and other new lands, the breaking down of inter-city barriers, the development of international and intercontinental communications, the expansion of commerce and trade, the creation and large imder- takings of the great commercial companies, all led to dissatisfaction with the guild system of production, which was no longer able to supply the rapidly increasing demands of trade and commerce. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it became more and more evident that industrial production by the means of handicrafts or cottage industries was inadequate, and that the burden of limitations imposed by the guild organizations upon industry was hindering the development of industrial organization. It is customary to date the birth and rise of the modern factory system from the middle or latter part of the eighteenth century. As a matter of fact, the germ of the new economic system could be found in much e^irlier methods of production, and the rise of capitalism in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries can be justly regarded as the forerunner of the modern factory system. During these centuries antedating the factory system the distribution of wealth, 18 THE MODEEN FACTOEY commercial enterprises and international trade were gradually modernized and concentrated in the hands of capitalists. Indus- trial production, although occasionally concentrated in large com- munities or even in large estabUshments, was still in the main carried on on a small scale, so that no great increase in the quantity of commodities was possible. This necessary increase in production and wealth could only be attained by the aid of the wonderful inventions and discoveries that were made during the eighteenth century. Among the multitude of human wants there is perhaps not one so closely interwoven with human progress as the production and From " The Industrial Evolution of the United States," by Carroll D. Wright, LL.D.; copyright, 189a, 1897. By permission of Charles Scrlbner's Sons. Crompton's Mule-Jenny (Specification Drawing) manufacture of clothing. The spinning of yarn from, cotton, flax, hemp, silk, etc., has been from time immemorial accomplished by the crude means of distaff and spindle, and later by the spinning wheel. That the quantity and quality of material produced by this elementary method could not be great, and that it required the work of many persons for long periods to satisfy increasing wants, is obvious. The fly shuttle was known for quite a long time and increased the possibility of weaving cloth without, however, increasing the amount of yarn that could be spun. During the early part of the eighteenth century, the weavers complained bitterly of having to remain idle through inability to obtain sufficient yarn from the spinners. This inequality was removed with the invention of the THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 19 spinning jenny, which was due to the genius of Thomas High, a Mr. Kay, and James Hargreaves. It is usual to give the credit for the invention of the spinning jenny to Hargreaves, who made the first machine in 1767 and patented it in 1770. It is a fact, ? however, that the clockmaker Kay, who afterwards was employed!^ by Arkwright, and Thomas High, a reed maker of Leigh, made the first machine and set it up in High's house. It was even named in honor of Jane, the daughter of Mr. High. The jenny was per- fected by Hargreaves, who failed at first to obtain a patent for it, but used it for his own purpose. So great was the production of yarn by this invention that the spinners resented its efficiency and a mob stormed his house and destroyed his first machine. From '• The Industrial Evolution of the United States," by Carroll D. Wrigbt, IiL.D.; copyright, 1895,1897. By permission ol Charles Scrlbner's Song. Hargreave's Spinning Jenny Nevertheless, the process of spinning by machinery was only really begun when the barber, Arkwright, saw the great promise of Kay's and High's invention and made or had made for him im- portant improvements resulting in his so-called water-frame, patented by him in 1771. Not only had Arkwright the ingenuity to adapt the invention of the spinning jenny, but he also had the daring to embark in large manufacturing, and with several partners estab- lished the first cotton spinning mill, which at first gave work only to about a dozen workers. The machinery of this mill was turned by horses. In his later factory at Cromford it was run by water power, and hence his spinning machine came to be called the water- frame. 20 THE MODERN FACTORY The invention of the spinning jenny and the water-frame had not completed the improvements for spinning yarn in large quantities and of good quality. This was made possible by the invention of Samuel Crompton, who constructed his mule in 1779, so called because in it the principles of High's jenny as well as Arkwright's water-frame were combined. These inventions made possible an enormous increase in the quantity and an improvement in the quality of spinning yarn; and it was now the process of weaving that lagged From " The Industrial Evolution of the United States," by Carroll D. Wright, LL.D.; copyright, 1895, 1S97. By permission ol Charles Scrlbner's Sons. Arkwright's Spinning Machine. From the original drawing behind until the invention of Edmund Cartwright's power loom, which he patented in 1785. Yet in spite of these inventions, as long as there was no possibility of utilizing any other power except horse or water power, large scale production was still an impos- sibility. It was only after the discovery by Watt of the steam engine and its application to factories in 1785 that the real revo- lution began in the method of cotton cloth production. Henceforth, an impetus was given to industry that could not be stopped, and the results of which could hardly be foreseen at that time. THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 21 The enormous increase in cotton production may be somewhat judged by the following: In 1775 the amount of raw cotton imported into England was only 5,000,000 pounds. It increased as follows: 1785 17,992,882 lbs. 1790 : 31,447,605" 1801 54,203,433 " 1811 90,309,668 " 1821 137,401,539 " 1831 273,249,653 " 1841 437,093,631 " 1849 775,469,008 "* The increase of production in the cotton industry was naturally- followed by increased production in many other industries. In 1701, England's woolen export amounted to 2,000,000 pounds; in 1770, to 14,000,000 pounds. The following table shows the increase in industrial production in the export of British cotton goods: 1741 £ 20,709 1751 45,986 1764 200,354 1780 355,060 1791 1,875,046 1833 18,486,400 t With increased production came also a great increase in the population under the factory system, especially in certain districts. In 1700, Lancashire numbered only 166,200 inhabitants; in 1750 the population was 297,400; in 1801 it had grown to 672,565; in 1831 to 1,336,854; being an increase of more than eightfold in one hundred and thirty years.J Not only in England but in other countries and also in the United States there Was great increase in industrial production. In 1775, the first spinning jenny ever seen in America was exhibited in Philadelphia. The first experiments, embodying the principles of Arkwright's inventions in the erection of a primitive cotton factory, were made in Massachusetts, but it was in Rhode Island that the first factory was started in which per- fected machinery, made after the English models, was practically employed. This was begun by Samuel Slater, the " father of * Innes, Arthur, D., England's Induatrial Development, p. 233. t Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, pp. Ill and 349. i Ibid., p. 360. 22 THE MODERN' FACTOBY American manufactures," who came over from En^and for the purpose, and started his mill with three cards and seventy-two bundles in 1790. A man in South Carolina (mentioned by a writer in the American Museum, for July, 1790) completed and had in opera- tion on the Santee, ginning ^ carding, and other machines driven by water; and ako s pinning machines with eighty-four spindles each. In 1814. the first power loom was set up at Waltham, ilass. This factory was the first in the world, as far as records show, in which all the processes inv INFLUENCE 23 24 THE MODEEN FACTORY The Industrial Revolution and its Influence. The Industrial Revolution, partly described above, itopressed itself upon all branches of human activity and producedvast changes in the econ- omic and pohtical as well as the intellectual development of man- kind. The first results of the Industrial Revolution were the enor- mous expansion in trade and commerce, and the great increase in the wealth of nations, the rise of capitalism and the capitalistic system of production, great expansion in commercial undertakings, the hunt for domestic and foreign markets, the increase in wealth and manufactiu-es, and tlie general increase in the wealth of nations. Some of the above statistics show the enormous development of production in England (imports and exports) as well as in the United States due to the changed mode of production. In 1793 the value of exports in England amounted'to £17,000,000: it was doubled in 1800, and more than trebled in 1815, reaching the sum of £58,000,000. In 1700, an estimated population of Eingland and Wales, based upon the parish registers, showed a total of 5,000,000. In 1750, the population increased to 6,000,000, and according to the first census in 1801 it had increased to 9,000,000. The population increased approximately twenty per cent the first 'half of the eighteenth century, and approximately fifty per cent during the last half. Dur- ing the nineteenth, century the population quadrupled itself. The first thirty years.; of the nineteenth century added more than the whole of the eighteenth century ; and the acceleration in the increase of the population appears to have set in in the latter part of the eighteenth century.* The foll9wing table shows the growth of capital and popula- tion in England and the property per head: PopulatioD. Property. Property per head. 1720 6,500,000 £ 370,000,000 £ 57 1750 7,000,000 500,000,000 71 1800 9,000,000 1,500,000,000 167 t It was also during this period that the great redistribution of population set in. It may be illustrated by noting that the north- ern and north midland counties, which- to-day contain one-half of the population of England, in 1700 .cont^iped less than one- * Innes, p. 225. t Porter, Progress of the Nation, p. 696. THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 25 quarter. It was mainly during tliat last quarter of the eighteenth century that the center of gravity was decisively shifted. Reference has already been made to the concentration of pop- ulation in industrial cities and in industrial centers, and a table was cited showing the increase of population in the Lancashire dis- trict. The invention of machinery necessitated the concentration of capital, construction of large factories and congregation of a large number of workers within , them. The utihzation of steam power made manufacture independent of watercourses and con- centrated industry near the coal fields and in large industrial cen- ters. The decrease in domestic production led to depopulation of the agricultural districts, the abandonment of the farm cottages, and the massing of a large working population in towns and around large establishments. It was due to the ecoiiomic expansion that foreign markets, colonization, and the conquest of new markets became so necessary. At the root of all the English wars during the last part of the eighteenth cientury and the beginning of the nineteenth century were economic causes. The wars were necessitated by England's endeavor to gain commercial supremacy of the world, after she had invented the means of supplying the world's markets to over- flowing. The Xmerican Revolution was brought about through attempts of the home govern^jient to keep the polonies as markets for English products and prevent development of colonial man- ufacture and tra,de with other countries. A wide cleft was made in the relations of employer and employ^. A new class, that of wage workers, was created. The whole indus- trial framework of society was changed. The means of produc- tion, formerly in the hands of each worker, through apphcation of steam power was taken away from him and concentrated in the hands of large capitahsts, dividing the industrial world into two sharply defined classes of employers and employes, with the class of employers possessing the means of production and the workers competing with each other and struggling for existence, forming s\/ new class whose numbers continually increased, as machinery and steam invaded one industry after another. The output of factories increased a hundred and thousand fold; manufactures grew with unheard of rapidity; but the modern factory system also supplanted the old amicable and personal rela- tions of master, journeyman and apprentice. It made it difiicult for the journeyman and apprentice to ever become a master; it 26 THE MODEKN FACTORY illiilblu^Wluiiiim uul^llilyii THE FACTORY, ITS EISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 27 compelled the worker to change his employment with the exigencies of industry and to run the risk of losing his trade with each new invention and discovery. With the advent of improved methods of spinning and weaving, the importance of the skilled craftsman declined, as the simplified machinery made it possible for an unskilled laborer, a woman or even a child to perform the simple operations necessary, and thus to supplant the skilled and adult laborer. The displacement of a large number of adult workers, their flocking to the industrial centers, made competition among them so great that wages fell to a minimum. The division of labor in factories made possible by improved machinery, made of the. worker. a simple appendage to the machine, who could be replaced at the whim and will of the employer. Aristotle dreamed that " if the weavers' shuttles were to weave of themselves there would be no need either of apprentices for the master worker or slaves for the overlords." One part of the dream came true. Weavers' shuttles almost wove of themselves and still the golden age was beyond the ken of man. The application of machinery to spinning and weaving created a greater and greater demand for apprentices and for the utilization of the youngest children in industry. While wgalth increased enormously, poverty increased by still greater strides. From 1760 to 1818 the poor rate grew from three shillings sevenpence per head to thirteen shillings threepence per head. As Carlyle expressed it, " England is full of wealth, yet England is dying of inanition." The golden age of the cotton trade marks the advent of the dark age of starvation and wage slavery. The changed form of manufacture introduced competition not only among the workers but also among employers. There ensued a fierce struggle between the factory owners to undersell each other, to cheapen production, to gain a foothold in the market. Success became dependent upon rigid economy in methods of production and in the manufacture of wares at a minimum cost. It was hardly possible for the manufacturer to economize much in the quaUty of the material, for the sale of his goods depended on this quality. He could not economize on machinery, for his output greatly depended upon the efiiciency of his machine. The line of least resistance was to economize at the expense of the workers, who, under this competitive system were so anxious for a job that they cared not where they worked or how they worked 28 THE MODERN rACTORY THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 29 so long as they did work. Economy therefore ruled in the construction of the factory, in the lack of provision for health and comfort, and in the wages paid to the workers. In fact, the employer considered the condition of the employes no affair of his. Radcliffe says that from 1788 to 1803, at the beginning of the" expansion in the cotton trade, "barns, cart houses and old buildings of all descriptions were repaired, windows broke through old blank walls and were fitted up for loom shops." The worker was drawn away from his peaceful cottage in the agricultural district, with his alternating work at the loom and in the fields, and was transplanted into the poisoned and foul air of the mill, with its whizzing machinery and maddening speed, which petrified his soul and atrophied the organs of his body, and shortened his days by the cruel haste of the machinery. But perhaps the greatest evil which followed the inception of the modern factory system was the terrible exploitation of child labor in the factories. Children have always participated in indus- try. Reference has already been made to the extensive employ- ment of children in some of the industrial establishments during the middle ages; but it remained for the modern factory system to exploit systematically the labor of children, to make it a neces- sity of manufacture and to use and abuse a large part of the grow- ing generation within the factory and mill. When the early mamifacturers could not get a sufficient number of children or free workers to feed their machines and tend their looms, they trafficked with the poor-law officials, who sold the children of paupers in a form not different from the methods of ancient and modern slave dealers. No one nowadays, even those who have read the lurid reports of some of the labor committees of the present day, can imagine the horrors which existed in England and other countries toward the end of the eighteenth century and in the first quarter of the nineteenth century with respect to child labor. Some of the accounts of the condition of the indus- trial population in England as well as in other countries may be found in the reports of the official committees, which began their work in 1776 in Manchester and continued their efforts practically throughout the course of the nineteenth century. In some of these reports are found accounts by eye-witnesses of conditions which spread' horror in the minds of all concerned, except those who directly profited by the labor of children. / 30 THE MODEEN FACTORY In Alfred's " History of the Factory Movement," volume i., pages 21 and 22, is the following summary: " In stench and heated rooms, amid the constant whirling of a thousand wheels, little fingers and little feet were kept in cease- less action, forced into unnatural activity by blows from the heavy hands and feet of the merciless overlooker, and the infliction of bodily pain by instruments of punishment. They were fed upon the coarsest food, often with the same as that served out to the pigs. They slept by turns and in relays in filthy beds which were never cooled. There was often no discrimination of sex, and disease, misery and vice grew as in a hotbed of contagion. Those who tried to run away had irons riveted to their ankles with long Unks reaching up to the hips and were compelled to work and sleep in these cjiains. Many died and were buried secretly at night and many committed suicide." ' Gibbins, in his " History of England," in discussing the early factory investigations, says: " Terrible evidence of overwork was given before the committee, but the grasp of Mammon was cruel and relentless, and now that social reformers were in earnest, the inevitable opposition of capital- istic greed rose up in all its power to block the path of humanity — ■ the surest block was delay. It is unnecessary to go further into a description of the abuses at the beginning of the present industrial system or to cite the complaints and inquiries which were made in England and other countries on the condition of the laboring class and of the children in the factories. Much of this data may be found in Engels' " Condition of the Laboring Class in England," in Chadwick's " Report on the Condition of the Laboring Class in England," and in the other reports named in the Appendix. It is sufficient to say here that the discovery and disclosure of the evils of child labor and other abuses of modern factory production led to popular demands for redress and improvement and for the curbing of the power of the capitalists by factory legislation, which will be described in a later chapter. The evidence adduced by the -reports of investigating committees in different countries, as to the effect of the modern factory system upon the health and the lives of the workers, and the industrial population, served to prove the contention of the earlier hygienists since Ramazzini, that intimate r«lations exist between occupation and health, and that industry and industrial mortahty are inter- dependent. The real proof, however, could only appear after vital THE FACTORY, ITS EISE, GEOWTH AND INFLUENCE 31 statistics became a science, when general vital registration was introduced in England and other countries, when mortality statistics were taken in connection with the occupations of the population, and when it became apparent that there was a great difference in the mortality rates between industrial and rural districts and between the inhabitants of one district and those of another. Until the beginning of the nineteenth century vital statistics were practically unknown in their present scientific form, and all calculations as to the number of population, death rate, disease rate, etc., were based simply upon guesswork. When, in 1801, the first census of population in England was made and statistics were gathered from the towns and outlying districts, when some order was brought into the registration of deaths and their causes, then only could some deductions be made from the figures thus obtained. Even so, it has only been within the last few decades of the nineteenth century that occupational statistics in relation to mortality have been gathered in such a form as to make their scientific use possible. ' Even now, however, mortality statistics are neither accurate nor definite and the pitfalls of those .who seek to base deductions upon the figures obtained are many. We have as yet no scientific classification of occupations, nor is there any imiversal uniform registration of deaths or classification of the causes of deaths. Occupational mortality statistics are therefore still full of errors and the deductions obtained from them still problematic. Aside from all these considerations, there are a number of added factors which make the value of occupational mortality statistics uncertain. The questions of the selection of a trade and occupa- tion by individuals, the shifting of population from one trade to another, the dropping * out of persons from especially hazardous and dangerous trades so that their deaths occur while pursuing an eritirely different trade from that in which they are engaged most of their fives, and similar factors, play a most important r61e in the uncertainty of occupational mortality statistics. Nevertheless, granting all the objections made to the de- ductions obtained from occupational mortality statistics, there is imdoubtedly much evidence in the statistics of a great many coun- tries, evidence which is practically the same in all countries in spite of the differences in climate and conditions, to prove, (1) that the mortality of persons living in industrial districts is much greater than the mortality of persons living in agricultural districts; (2) 32 THE MODERN FACTORY that the mortality of persons in certain general occupations, such as farmers, fishermen, clergymen, etc., is much lower in comparison to the mortality of persons pursuing industrial occupations; and (3) that the mortality of persons in certain occupations, is much lower than the mortality of persons who pursue occupations which contain elements of danger and are of an unhealthful character for one or more reasons. There is also abundant statistical data in the records of the sick benefit and insurance societies and especially in the records of the State Sickness Insm'ance Office in Germany from which the follow- ing conclusions may be drawn: (1) That the morbidity rates are greater in industrial popu- lations than among agricultural populations. (2) That the morbidity rates of persons in certain occupations are much higher than among persons in other occupations. (3) That persons working in certain dusty trades suffer from a higher tuberculosis morbidity rate than those who work in occupations where there is no dust. (4) That there are certain diseases of the nerves, skin, eyes and ears as well as infectious diseases which may be directly traced to the occupations of the workers suffering from these diseases. The health factors of occupations may be classified as follows: Gkoup I. Factoes Due to the Personality of the Wobker: (a) Initial health of the worker. (6) His susceptibility, vitahty and resistance. (c) Nutrition, personal hygiene, etc. (d) Temperament, education, etc. (e) Choice of vocation and trade. (/) Sex. ig) Age. Gboup II. Factors Due to Conditions of Wobk: (a) Character of work; active or sedentary. (6) Attitude and position. (c) Duration and pauses. (d) Fatigue, tension and responsibility. (e) Wages, compensation, etc. (/) Extremes of climate, temperature and humidity. THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 33 Ghoup III. Factors Due to the Materials and Processes: (o) Dusts. (6) Poisons. (c) Gases and fumes. (d) Infectious material. (e) Dangerous machinery and appliances. Group IV. Factors Due to the Place of Work: (a) Outdoor and indoor. (6) Construction of workplace. (c) Type of workplace. (d) Location of workplace. (e) Light and illumination. (/) Air and ventilation. ig) Sanitary care and comforts. (h) Fire protection. In studying the modem factory we shall give a detailed account of the industrial etiological factors, especially in Groups III. and IV., embracing important parts of industrial hygiene. Definitions of Factory, Workshop, etc. The conception of the words " factory " and " workshop " has somewhat changed from the meaning generally given them at the inception of the modern factory system. At the beginning the word " factory " meant a trading establishment in a distant country. It was defined by Wright and Webster as a " house or place where factors do reside; a house or district inhabited by traders in a distant coun- try." This meaning still survives in the case of the Hudson Bay Company, whose trading posts in the Canadian Northwest are still called factories by the older generation of traders. Such "factories" are stations for the Indians, trappers, guides, and other inhabitants of the Northwest, to which they bring their skins and other produce and exchange them for merchandise. The change in the meaning of the word "-factory " began with the eighteenth century. Baines, in his " History of the Cotton Manufacture," refers to the use of the latter term as a modern invention. Of course, the modern use of the term is justified by its derivation, but the word " factor" was in earlier times rendered " agent " in the sense of deputy or manager. The word " fabrika " is often mentioned in the middle ages and was applied to paper, glass, iron, copper, and other manufacture 34 THE MODERN FACTOEY done in cloisters and monasteries. In Adrian Beyer's " Algemeine Handlexicon," the word " fabrika " is defined as " fabrika, oflacina, namentlich, — eine Werkstatte, die eine gewisse Art vom aller hand Waaren verfertigt wird." Ure, in his " Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures," has no article on the word " factory." Carroll D. Wright's definition is often quoted as a classic. It is as follows: " A factory is an establishment where several workmen are collected for the purpose of obtaining greater and cheaper conven- iences for labor than they could procure individually at their homes, for producing results by their combined efforts which they could not accomphsh separately, and for preventing the loss occasioned by carrying articles from place to place during the several processes to complete their manufacture." * The etymological and general definitions of the word " fac- tory " are rarely taken into consideration in attempts at legal definition made in various countries with the beginnings of factory legislation. These definitions were made at different periods and were changed according to the exigencies of the times and to develop- ments in legislative control. The first Factory Act passed in England used the words " mill and factory " without definition, simply applying them to certain kinds of textile establishments. In the Act of 1844 the words " mill and factory " were defined as " all buildings and premises situated within any part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, wherein or within the close or curtilage of which, steam, water or any other machinery is employed in preparing, manufacturing or finishing; or in any process incident to the manu- facture of cotton, wool, hair, silk, flax, jute or tow, either separately or mixed with any other material or any fabric made thereof, were used." t At this time therefore the expression " factory " meant any place devoted to spinning or weaving fabrics by power. As indus- trial establishments came more and more under the control of the inspectors of factories, other works were added. In 1860 bleach works, in 1861 lace works and in 1864 a number of miscellaneous industries in no way connected with textiles or necessarily using power machinery were added to the definition of "factory and mill." In time the word " factory " had come to mean an extraordi- nary variety of things. It meant " not only every place wherein * Carroll D. Wright, Report on the Factory System of the United States, p. 533. t Cooke-Taylor, Introduction to a History of the Factory System, pp. 3-4. THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 35 power other than manual was in use in any process connected with the production of textile fabrics, together with bleach, print and dye works and a great variety of other products specially named under the Act of 1864 as well, but also" any premises, whether adjoin- ing or separate, in the same occupation, situated in the same city, town, parish or place and constituting one trade establishment, in, on or within the precincts of which fifty or more persons are employed in any manufacturing process," thus reintroducing the criterion of number of employes. * Until 1878, this remained as the legal definition of a factory in England, and all establishments with less than fifty persons were considered workshops and not factories. Other countries as well have attempted to define the word " factory " by the number of employes within the establishment. Thus, the French Law of 1841, the Austrian Industrial Code of 1859, the Italian Code of 1886 regarded a workshop as a place with more than ten workers therein. The Industrial Code of Saxony of 1861 regarded a factory as one employing more than twenty workers. In the German law the expression " Fabrik " is left out entirely and establishments of ten workers or more are considered only as " Fabrikmassig." A more scientific definition of factory and workshop was first established -in England by the Act of 1878, which, while not giving a specific definition of a factory, makes a distinction between a factory and a workshop based upon the fact that in the former machinery worked by steam, water or other mechanical power is used, while a workshop is a place where work is done with- out the help of motive power. There are some exceptions to this rule, and there are also special definitions for textile factories, non- textile factories, domestic factories, workshops, domestic work- shops, etc. The present New York Law gives the broadest definition of a factory and it has been judicially decided that for the purposes of protection of workers, it shall be construed to mean " any place where goods or products are manufactured or repaired, cleaned or sorted, in whole or in part, for sale or for wages." t The follow- ing is the definition given in the New York Law: " The term factory shall be construed to include any mill, work- shop, or any other manufacturing or business establishment^ and all buildings, sheds, structures or other places used for or in con- * Cooke-TayloT, Introduction to the History of the Factory System, p. 6. t Ritchie vs. People, 40 N. Y., pp. 454-455. 36 THE MODERN FACTORY nection therewith,, where one or more persons are employed at labor, except power houses, barns, storage houses, sheds and other structures used in connection with railroad purposes, other than construction or repair shops, subject to the jurisdiction ef the Public Service Commission's law. Work shall be deemed to be done for a factory within the meaning of this chapter whenever it is done at any place, upon the work of a factory or upon any other materials entering into the product of the factory, whether under contract or arrangement with any persons in charge of, or connected with such factory directly or indirectly through the instrumentality of one or more contractors or other third person." The following are definitions of a factory in other states: Pennsylvania: A factory is a building, the main or principal design or use of which is a place to produce articles as products of labor.* Massachusetts: The term " factory " means any premises where steam, water or other mechanical power is used in aid of any manu- facture or printing process there carried on.f Minnesota: The term " factory " or " mill " means any prem- ises where steam, water or other mechanical power is used in aid of any manufacture or printing process there carried on. J The following tables show the number of industrial estabUsh- ments classified as factories and workshops in the United States, several large states, and in six European countries: MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS IN THE CHIEF INDUSTRIAL STATES, ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF WAGE- EARNERS. (U. S. Census, 1909.) " State. Population. No. Establishments. Wage-Earnera, Average Number. New York .... Pennsylvania. . Massachusetts . Illinois Ohio New Jersey . . . Michigan Connecticut. . . Indiana Wisconsin Missouri North Carolina California Rhode Island . . Maryland United States . . 9,113,614 7,665,111 3,366,416 5,638,591 4,767,121 2,537,167 2,810,173 1,114,756 2,700,876 2,333,860 3,293,335 2,206,287 2,377,549 542,610 1,295,346 91,972,266 44,935 27,563 11,684 18,026 15,138 8,817 9,159 4,251 7,969 9,721 8,375 4,931 7,659 1,951 4,837 268,491 1,003,981 877,543 584,559 465,764 446,934 326,223 231,499 210,792 186,984 182,583 152,993 121,473 115,296 113,538 107,921 6,615,046 * Franklin Fire Inaurance Co. vs. Brock, 57 Pa., pp. 74, 82. t Hev. Lawa Mass., 1902, p. 916. t Gon. St. Minn. 894, Par. 2264. THE FACTORY, ITS RISE, GROWTH AND INFLUENCE 37 Number of Industrial Establishments and Workers in Eng- land. According to the statistics gathered in 1907, found in Table III., p. 289, of the Annual Report of the Chief Inspector for Fac- tories in 1911, there were the following number of workers in British factories: Malea. Females. Total. England and Wales Scotland 2,736,214 423,392 125,262 1,500,836 236,664 114,741 4,227,050 660,056 240 003 Ireland Total in United Kingdom 3,274,868 1,852,241 5,127,109 According to the report of 1912 there were 117,275 factories and 155,697 workshops, 272,972 establishments in all. Niunber of Industrial Establishments and Workers in France. According to a census made in 1911 there were in France a total of 507,557 industrial establishments, classified as follows: No. of Peraons. No. of Establishments. Per Cent. Establishments having from 1 to 5 persons Estabhshments having from 6 to 20 persons .... Establishments having from 21 to 100 persons. . . Establishments having from 101 to 500 persons . Establishments having more than 500 persons. . . 402,186 74,567 24,763 5,433 608 79.25 14.68 4.88 1.07 0.12 The following table shows the age and sex of the 4,258,617 workers and employes in establishments subject to the supervision of the inspectors of labor: Males under 18 years 336,140 7.8 Females under 18 years 286,578 6.7 Females over 18 years 914,214 21 .4 Males over 18 years 2,721,785 64.1 Total 4,258,617 Number of Industrial Establishments and Workers in Austria. The industrial population of Austria was in 1901, 4,149,320. The total number of establishments was estimated at 1,000,000 in 1909, with a total working population of 2,351,446 in 1901. There were, however, only 151,903 industrial establishments subject 38 THE MODERN EACTORT to inspection in 1911, of which only 16,181 were designated as factories. Number of Industrial Establishments and Workers in Belgium. In Belgium there are about 80,000 industrial estabUshments with over 800,000 workers. Number of Industrial Establishments and Workers in Prussia. In Prussia there were 169,606 industrial establishments in 1912, with at least ten workers in each establishment. In these estab- lishments there were working 3,579,771 persons. Number of Industrial Establishments and Workers in Germany. According to a table of the International Labor Office, there were 264,431 factories and 93,871 workshops in the whole of Germany in 1909, with a working population of nearly five and one-half million persons. CHAPTER II THE WORKPLACE Types, Construction and Model Factories Types. A century and a half of the new economic system of production has passed and has inevitably brought about profound changes in the industrial and political development of the civilized world. During this period giant strides have been made in indus- trial expansion, and wonderful discoveries in the domain of the physical sciences. Invention has been followed by invention and greater economic progress made within this . comparatively short period than during the whole history of mankind. Methods of production have been completely revolutionized and industrial con- trol concentrated in the hands of a special class; while a large portion of the population has been converted into a great standing army of a new class — that of the industrial proletariat. Since the birth of the new era many changes have taken place in the character of industrial control, in the methods of competition, and in the very conception of industry and trade. Feverish activ- ity, fierce competition, the idea that the whole scheme of industrial activity was destined to pass like a nightmare, fear of state interfer- ence, and the philosophy of laissez faire have given way to a pro- found conviction that the new system has come to stay, that the largest, most concentrated and most efficient forms of industry are boimd to survive, and that industry may prosper ,and trade succeed quite as well under state control as without it. This changed attitude has been reflected in important changes in the character of the workplace itself, in the development of large industrial establishments, and different conceptions of th6 requirements of the modem factory and workshop. The petty stinting and miserly economy of the first factory owners are no longer considered indispensable to industrial success. The herding of workers in dingy, dark, dreary shops, in flimsy and 39 40 THE MODERN FACTORY THE WORKPLACE 41 g O o a > h "s-a S a a-g i s ■ s QJ m . fe Pi .a tj 1 • t^ .9'«'ii 2 ;z; t^ «1^"3 ? H "S ■- 0," 3 i " a g a Cj ■a'3 S "> •as""' pj (1^ p4 § «s*s H "S "« 5? ^ t», ■S ^ c3 Q CL ■a a ^ U (O . «« «8 >. S"? -S d ag „ .13 1 •M n g •^1: a 0,0 f^ p< ' >'A>TlOU. I N. Y. State Factory Commission. 124 THE MODERN FACTORY persons escaping jump into the opening and then slide downward around the tube until they come out at its end. It is claimed for this means of fire-escape that a large number of persons can come down Copyrighted by Carl M. Hansen. Reproduced by Permlaslon. Standard Single Straight Run Fire-escape. very quickly. It is made wide enough to permit two persons to come down side by side; and its capacity is estimated from 125 to 150 persons per minute when they enter at the top only. People cannot enter the lower doors when a stream is going down. Being made of steel, it is apt to rust and its use as a slide becomes affected in a short time. FACTORY FIRES AND THEIR PREVENTION 125 Panics. One of the great dangers in factory fires to which a large loss of life may be attributed, is the panic which is apt to spread among a mass of workers, especially women and girls, when the dreaded cry of fire is sounded in a factory or work- shop. More lives may be lost through a senseless panic by the Copyrighted by Carl M. Hansen. Reproduced by Permission. Philadelphia Tower Fire-escape. people treading each other down and jamming in tight places than by the fire itself. The prevention of panics is, of course, largely a matter of educa- tion. When workers are properly imbued with the idea of the possibilities of escape from a floor or from a building, when they know the dangers as well as the means of escape, when each worker knows the exits from the floor and from the building, when he is instructed, educated and trained to leave his place of work in a quiet, orderly manner at all times, and especially during unexpected 126 THE MODERN FACTORY alarms, when certain persons are appointed each of whom has charge of a number of employes and leads and directs them to certain exits, and when the whole working; force is properly organized, trained and drilled, then if the exit facilities are adequate there will, be no loss of life. Employers and those persons to whose care the safety and the lives of a large number of persons are entrusted, should be bound to take all these necessary precautions, to institute educational methods among the workers, to teach each one his proper place and his proper mode of exit in case of emergency, and to install and maintain fire drills in each workshop, so as to be prepared in times of safety for emergencies. Perhaps the severest arraignment made against our present system of ignoring methods of fire prevention was made by an editor of the New York World, Don C. Seitz, in an address to the Safety and Sanitation Conference in New York City. He said: " The study of human values can only be made in the light of mankind's regard for itself. This has been, in all times, all ages and all countries, the lightest of human considerations. My observations lead me to believe that mankind has not improved the treatment of itself. The human sacrifice is required just as much to-day as it ever was in the Temple of Baal or on the altars of the Aztecs. " The world has ample knowledge of its perils, natural and created, but it remedies only on the heels of disaster and safeguards only after sacrifice. Notorious conditions of danger are tolerated until blood is shed. We then remedy in spots and await the next calamity. It required the death of eleven of my fellow travelers in the Fourth Avenue Tunnel to create the Grand Central improvements. We have not yet had holocausts enough like the Asch Building disaster to produce real fire protection." It is true that not all floors of factory buildings nor all factory buildings may easily be emptied with or without fire drills. It is true that a great many buildings cannot be emptied within a short time, and it is also true that it is perhaps futile to endeavor to empty one floor when the workers upon other floors are not drilled and do not know how to act at the same .time in order to empty the whole building at once. It therefore follows that a fire drill in order to be a real protection to the workers can only be properly installed and maintained in an emptiable factory building, — in one where there are no obstructions to the exits and where the exits are of a sufficient number and capacity to empty the building in as short FACTORY FIRES AND THEIR PREVENTION 127 a time as possible. Nevertheless, taking all these facts into con- sideration, there should be no factory building, and no individual workshop, no matter how small or what part of a building it occupies, Courtesy Nemo Coraet Co. Emergency Exit in Fire-wall Leading to Fire-escape. in which some sort of fire drill is not installed and maintained. The introduction and maintenance of fire drills in factory buildings should at once be the subject not only of legislation, but of strict 128 THE MODEEN FACTORY and rigid enforcement. A number of state legislatures have already- passed fire drill laws, and a large number of factory owners have already endeavored to comply with these laws to the best of their ability. , Ex-Chief Croker, in his book on fire prevention, says: " I am willing to assert that ninety-nine of every one hundred lives that have been lost through fire in the last ten years, could have, been saved if proper methods of drill and of training and proper precautions in matters of building and means of escape had been the rule instead of the rare exception." The principles of the fire drill are simple. They are: (1) that each employe should be instructed in the number of exits which lead from the floor to the stairways or fire-escapes: (2) that a group of employes should be organized under a chief, whose duty it is to see that they act according to instructions and go to the exits which are assigned to each group; (3) that the workers of each floor should be divided according to the number of exits from the floor, and each group assigned to a regular exit, and to an alternate exit which it is to use in case the regular exit is cut off; (4) that a brigade should be organized by the employer or those in charge of the fire drills, to (a) extinguish small fires by means of the fire pails or extinguishers, (h) to notify by telephone or personally reach the nearest fire station, (c) to man and work a hose from standpipe when available, (d) to provide suflBcient guards stationed at each exit to prevent crowding and jamming of the outgoing stream of workers, and (e) to stop the machinery as soon as the alarm is sounded. The suggestions prepared by the National Fire Protection Asso- ciation for the organization and execution of fire drills in factories, etc., giving the details of this work, will be found in the Appendix. CHAPTER IV FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY I EXTENT AND DANGERS Every year thousands of workers are killed, tens of thousands are maimed and disabled, and hundreds of thousands are injured more or less severely. In every country innumerable lives are sacrificed on the altar of the modern system of production. Every industry and every industrial establishment exacts its toll of human life. So great are the risks of the trades that in comparison with the fatalities yearly occurring among the wage-earners, the number of victims in all the ruthless wars of the past fades into insignificance. It is impossible to state exactly or even to estimate the numbers who are injured in the course of their work. It is only in the last decade that some attempt has been made in the United States to count the injured and to report the accidents occurring in industry. Hoffman estimates the number of industrial accidents in the United States for one year at " 200,000 in manufacturing industries alone, and the fatalities among occupied males in 1908 at between thirty and thirty-five thousand.* The number of industrial accidents in factories for 1912 for six of the large industrial states, with a total population of 3,087,593, was, according to the latest factory inspectors' reports, 66,946, of which 810 were fatal. In New York State alone, with a working population of little over one million, there were in 1912 no less than 51,084 accidents. Nor are the reports from European countries more cheerful. In 1911 there were in Great Britain 156,232 accidents in the factories and workshops, of which 1260 were fatal. Belgium, with a factory population of 665,190, reports for the same year 87,261 accidents; * Frederick Hoffman, Industrial Accidents, Bulletin of Bureau of Labor, No. 78, p. 418. 129 130 THE MODEEN FACTOEY France reports for its 507,557 factories 474,396 accidents in 1911.* Germany had over 600,000 industrial accidents in the same year. Industrial accident data are at present gained from the reports of factory inspectors and from the reports of the insurance and workmen's compensation commission^. Such data have been gathered for a number of years in some of the European countries, notably in Germany. In the United States there are only twenty- one states where accident statistics are gathered, and these statistics are neither uniform nor complete. Narrow Aisles between Machines with Unguarded Belts and Pulleys. Not only is the occurrence of industrial accidents universal, but there seems to be evidence that industrial accidents are on the increase and that the number of victims is growing in many indus- tries from year to year. In New York State the number of industrial accidents has increased from 19,431 in 1907 to 51,804 in 1912.t The increase in the number of industrial accidents in British industries led in 1910 to the creation of a special commission, the appointment of which was the result of the following resolution: " That this House * Including commercial houses, state depts. and banks, also domestic service. t New York State Commission on Employer's Liability, 2d Report, p. 8, and Annual Re- port, Commissioner of Labor, New York State, 1912, p. 67. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 131 is of the opinion that the increase in fatal and non-fatal accidents in places under the Factory and Workshops Acts is of such char- acter as to demand immediate attention."* The report of this commission showed that the number of accidents in Great Britain had risen from 100,695 in 1905 to 124,325 in 1907, and since that time to 156,332 in 1912. The committee reported that it was impossible to get absolute proof of the increase of risk in industry; that some of the seeming increase of accidents was due to better reporting; that minor accidents increased at a greater rate than serious accidents; that the increase of accidents was largely due to the expansion of industry; that much of the increase of accidents was undoubtedly due to certain special causes such as increased speed and pressure at work, fatigue, increased use of machinery, etc. German statistics show that from 1901 to 1911 there was a decrease in accidents causing death, and partial or total permanent disability; but that there was a marked increase in accidents causing temporary disablement, lasting more than thirteen weeks. The increase of accidents is particularly due to the following causes; stricter control in regard to reporting accidents; employment of untrained and inexperienced workmen; more frequent prosecutions of claims by injured persons because of their better knowledge of the law; better knowledge of what is an industrial accident; increase of the cases in which the officials of the insurance system admitted a causal connection between existing malady or weakness and its aggravation by an accident; frequent granting of a transitory or accustoming pension, in cases where strictly speaking there was no longer a loss of earning power; and, finally, the frequency of changes in the personnel of the laboring forces of the plants. It was also conceded that accidents increased because of the more intense methods of the industry and by the extension of the use of machinery, t Austrian accident statistics also show that those accidents which cause disablement from which the workman recovers seem to have increased, while serious accidents causing permanent dis- ablement show a tendency to decrease.} Gruesome as is the evidence presented by international indus- trial accident statistics, it does not fully illustrate the extent of the risks and dangers of modern industry, nor does it permit one to * Report Departmental Committee on Accidents, 1911, p. 1. t Henry J. Harris, Increase in Industrial Accidents, Quarterly Statistics for March, 1912, pp. 12 and 13. i Ibid., p. 17. 132 THE MODEEN FACTORY o 05 rn i-H r-t a tD »^ H ■S t ■< hi) H m f3 H a o M s Q fe <.J J3 :] rt M Ph T3 PH ri M qj P ^ t^ n rCI efl Q ;z; ^ 0) p^ M 1^ O 53 >i h^%fA ^ o o 05 CO o » t^ CO IN Oi 1— t CO -* ■o t>- t>; 1> to to i !2 ■* lO w ■* s 00 >o IN •* CO 0) CO 1— I rH o 1^ to IN 00 to s 'Xi ■£ t £ •* ■<^ Tji Tl< CO CO CO CO (N (N % Q El, a OJ O =3 a C (N CO (N 1—1 1—1 o OS 00 t~ CO SS' K 1 I— 1 I— 1 T-i T-t r-( I— 1 o o o o t-'-ij 8 ^1 9) ^ to Tt< lO lO ■* OS 00 IN la 00 '5 "S t^ t> t^ t- t- t^ l> l> to to o V < o a ^ CO 1-1 OS o c» oi OS OS OS OS OS 00 00 I> &>.§»■ ' S.-S-S-^ o lO (N 00 t~ 00 00 M . CO c» ■^ r^ to 1—1 t^ t^ IN »o 5 t^ t^ t^ o ■^ iH CD -:t< to o iH CO 1 M (N CO CO CO -* Tf "^ ■* ■* 3 >. _^ »o t^ CO to ir3 OS OS to CO 00 ed lO ■S CU (N C4 CO CO CO CO CO IN IN N 1 Q a o d a Oj rt< OS 00 IN CO o Ttl "* l> CO a o, Cs OS lO ^ IM to »o IN I^ "o a 00 00 00 00 00 00 t^ to to u> £ 6 a 3 J5 J3 to ■^ o CO ^ 00 to CO 00 Is lO ^ l> CO lO s OS OS (N ^ l> t^ to 1—1 CO P w lO lO lO to to to to w to oa • to o OS t^ OS ■* iH IN S e 1—1 (M 00 o IS 00 CO CD ■2 -a o^ to cq_ to ■S 02_ s ■* CD_ S'S ^" ^" c^ t- t> l> 1> t- 125 r tcT to' (>f I— 1 CO ■* Q Tt< " t-" !>■" oo" oo" oo" 00 00 Os" :!- . -1 iH 1— t iH I-t r-i iH FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 133 easily comprehend the terrible sacrifice of human life under the modern factory system. It is only when we translate the figures into the more comprehensible economic terms that we are appalled by the great loss of life caused by industry. " A conservative estimate of the economic loss in this country through industrial accidents places it above a quarter of a billion dollars each year. This is more than two million workmen could earn in a twelvemonth at four dollars a day apiece, With the universal adoption of a well-developed pohcy it is easy to believe that fifty per cent of them might be avoided. This would be a saving in the United States each year of about 20,000 lives, the prevention each year of a full million of bodily injuries of varying degree, and a money saving of $125,000,000 annually."* According to Hoffman, " the thirty to thirty-five thousand fatal accidents and not less than two million non-fatal accidents not only involve a vast amount of human suffering and sorrow, but materially curtail the longevity among those exposed to the needless risk of industrial casualties. "f The social loss involved in 526 fatal work accidents occurring in 1908 in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, computed by averaging the net economic gain from the life of a male wage earner from his fifteenth to his sixty-fifth year (method of Hoffman) was found to result in a minimum economic loss to the community of $3,828,090. The loss through total, partial or temporary disability computed in a similar way amounted to $1,320,636; while the hospital charges were estimated at $80,000. Thus, the loss to society from one year's work accidents in Allegheny County amounted to $5,228,736.t A similar estimate of financial loss was made in New York State in the course of an investigation conducted by the Employer's Liability Commission in 1909. The loss in wages within one year through temporary disabiUty in 1297 work accidents in New York State amounted to more than $93,000. § On the same subject Mr. Carl M. Hansen, Secretary of the Department of Accident Prevention of the Workmen's Compensa- tion Service Bureau, said in his address to the National Association of Cotton Manufacturers in Atlantic City: * J. Kirby, Jr., President National Association of Manufacturers: Address before the First Cooperative Safety Congress, 1912. f United States Bulletin Bureau of Labor, No. 78. t Eastman: Work Accidents and the Law, p. 317. S Report of the New York State Commission on Employer's Liability, First Report, p. 215. 134 THE MODEEN FACTORY " How largely the matter of industrial accidents enters into the cause of our social ills, I am not prepared to state definitely, but with a record of from 40,000 to 45,000 killed wage-earners annually and with an additional 200,000 working days lost on account of non- fatal accidents among the rest of our working population, I make bold to opine that it constitutes one of the largest causes of poverty and consequent dependency. Translated into actual dollars and cents, taking the minimum of 40,000 killed at a value as producing members of society of $5000 each, and $2 as an average wage of the non-fatally injured, we have the economic loss sustained to the nation as a whole on account of industrial accidents represented by the very munificent sum of 31)600,000,000 annually. This does not include all the indirect losses accruing in the form of restricted opportunities suffered by the dependents left by those killed and crippled wage-earners. What that amounts to, no man can cal- culate or estimate. I believe, though, we may safely put down our industrial accidents as one of the great causes of our social ills and as one of our greatest national wastes."* We are therefore presented with the grave problem of the large number of fatal casualties in the modern factory, the great number of other accidents resulting in serious injury to the worker, often in total and permanent disability, and the ensuing misery and economic loss to the workers and to the community. Is there a solution to this problem? Are all the accidents incident to industrial life inevitable and unavoidable, or may all of them, or a part of them, or any of them, be avoided and prevented? This great problem and the methods of its solution have engaged the earnest attention of all those who are interested in industrial progress. The problem has been studied in all its aspects and serious efforts have been made in other countries to prevent the waste of human resources in modern industry and to make factories safer. For nearly half a century these efforts have been made by European govermnents and corporate interests. The first attempts at accident prevention were made as far back as in' the early part of the nineteenth century, when the number of accidents, especially those due to explosion of steam boilers, had attracted pubhc atten- tion. As a result, a boiler inspection service was instituted either by the governments or by private associations, to reduce the great number of fatalities. In 1867 one of the first associations, that of Mulhausen, was organized in Alsace, under the name of the " Asso- ciation pour Pr^venir les Accidents des Fabriques." Since that time numerous associations have been formed for the same purpose; * Safety Engineering, October, 1913, p. 250. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 135 such as the " Association des Industriels de France contre les Accidents du Travail," " Association Parisienne des Propri6taires d'Appareils k Vapeur," and many other similar associations in most of the European countries. "S a. i CS > The greatest impetus to accident prevention and organization was given by the Accident Insurance Law of Germany, which was introduced in 1884, and gradually expanded until it embraced practi- cally every industrial center and every worker in the country. During 1885 and 1886 no less than sixty-two trade associations 136 THE MODERN FACTORY of owners and manufacturers were organized in Germany. These associations did excellent work in the study and prevention of industrial accidents. Not only did they make thorough and com- prehensive studies of accident risks and causes, but they also adopted in practically every industry a rigid set of rules and regulations, which they enforced themselves by means of the insurance rates imposed upon each member of the association and by their inspectors, who assist the state industrial inspectors. The governments of the European countries have stood in the vanguard of accident prevention and have not only urged employers and corporations to go on with their accident prevention work, but have made the safeguarding of industry a function of a large factory inspection force. Special rules have been issued for each industry and group of industries, and valiant work has been done by the departments in charge of this branch of state work. In many European cities and industrial centers, collections of safety devices and museums of safety have been established, so that those who are interested may see and adopt the most modern protective devices. It is only within the last five years that serious attempts at lessen- ing the dangers of industrial accidents have been made in this country. From 1909 to 1913 no less than twenty-five legislative commissions were appointed in as many different states to investigate accident prevention and compensation for industrial accidents; while in three other states, commissions have been voluntarily appointed by their governors. The increase of interest in the subject is illustrated by the number of articles in current magazines on the subject of accidents in industry and employers' liability. In 1909 there appeared in the current magazines only five articles; in 1912 there were not less than fifty-two popular articles on these subjects. At present twenty-two states have adopted more or less com- prehensive workmen's compensation laws. It is to be hoped that while we in these United States have been tardy in grapphng with this great modern industrial problem, once we have taken the first step in its solution, we shall speedily overtake the most advanced nations. Large corporate interests, and large employers of labor have lately taken a great interest in the subject. As examples may be cited the great work accomplished within the last few years by the United States Steel Corporation, the International Harvester FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 137 Company, and others too numerous to mention, who have joined in the work of accident prevention. The American Association for Labor Legislation has done splendid work in preliminary agitation and the lately organized National Council for Industrial Safety and a number of safety congresses bear witness to the great interest taken in the subject. What has been the result of all the agitation for accident pre- vention, of all the social cooperation and state endeavors to briDg about a lessening of the hazards of industry? How much nearer are we to the solution of the problem stated before? One thing is clear Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Unguarded Opening to Elevator Hoistway. and certain. It has been demonstrated that a very large number of industrial accidents may and can be prevented and thus are un- necessary and inexcusable. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company has decreased the num- ber of serious accidents among its 33,242 shop employes by over 63 per cent through the installation of safety devices and instruc- tion of workmen in exercising due caution. The United States Steel Corporation states that it has reduced serious and fatal accidents in its various plants since 1906 by 42.3 per cent,* and similar claims are being made weekly and daily by a large number * J. Kirby, Jr., Address First Cooperative Safety Congress in Milwaukee, 1911. 138 THE MODEKN FACTORY of corporations which have within the last five years taken up the slogan of " safety first " and have done great work in accident prevention. The solution of the problem, therefore, must come from industry itself. Industry as such, is primarily responsible for many of the risks and dangers incident to it; and it is incumbent upon those who are at the head of each industry to render it as safe as possible, to install and introduce all possible safety appliances and to main- tain a campaign of education so as to reduce the number of indus- trial accidents to a minimum, and thus by prevention, inspection and education make industry less hazardous. Finally, since the progress of science has not advanced so far as to remove all the dangers of trades and to prevent all the risks of occupations, the industry and the employer should be made to bear the cost of the loss of hfe and the economic loss to the worker from injuries due to industrial accidents, by proper compensation and insurance for all accidents and injuries. II THE PERSONAL FACTOR IN ACCIDENT CAUSATION AND PREVENTION The definition of an industrial accident has aroused a great deal of legal controversy, and the word has been variously defined by judges and "courts at different times and places. In Great Britain an accident means " any unlocked for mishap or occurrence and includes not merely something external to the workman, as the bursting of a boiler or a mine explosion, but something internal as well, as rupture, straining of a muscle, etc. When an injury is caused gradually this is not an accident. Disease contracted while at work is not an injury by accident. Certain industrial diseases, however, are deemed to be accidents. Nervous shock through seeing an accident may be an accident."* Another definition of accident is the following: " An accident is anything which happens to an employe in the course of his or her work and causes immediate or remote physical pain or disease, whether incident to such employ- ment or not, not caused by the wilful carelessness of such an employe and not a necessary accompaniment of the work engaged in."t * Encyclopedia of Industrialism, p. 143. t Bamett; External Injuries of Worlcmen, p. 57.- FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 139 N. Y. State Factory Commission. Open Caustic Pot in Foreground without Rail or Guard. 140 THE MODERN FACTORY The German definition of the word accident as stated by jthe insurance office, is the following: " a sudden occurrence during work which injures the health and interferes with the earning ability of the worker." * '. ' The subject of prevention of industrial accidents must necessarily be based upon a thorough study of the causation of accidentsj in order to determine the means by which they may be avoided. The English classification of the causes of accidents takes into consideration the following main points: (1) accidents caused by machinery moved by mechanical power; (2) by machinery not moved by mechanical power; (3) struck by falling body; (4) persons falling; (5) struck by tools in use; (6) accidents caused by fire and other accidents. The German Insurance Office gives fourteen groups of caiises of accidents, as follows: (1) motors, transmission and machinery; (2) elevators and hoistways; (3) stearri boilers, steam pipes and boiling apparatus; (4) explosives; (5) fire, dangerous materials, gases and fumes; (6) falling of objects; (7) fall from ladders, stairs, in excavations, hatchways; (8) loading and unloading by hand, carrying and lifting; (9) conveyances; (10) steam railroad; (11) transportation;' (12) shipping; (13) tools and simple utensils; and (14) miseellanpous. Whatever the causes of accidents may be, it is evident that there are very few accidents indeed in which the personal factor does not play some r61e, direct or indirect, remote or near. •When we speak of the personal factor in the causation of acci- dents we do not speak in the legal sense or intend to indicate " per- sonal responsibihty " on the part of the person injured. The personal element in the causation of accidents is always present, whether it is due to the fault of the person injured or to other persons or to the fault of no one at all. If we therefore attempt to classify the causes of accidents which are directly or jndireptly due to the personal factor in industry, the following will have to be discussed: ,(o) age, (6) sex, (c) ignorance', (d) physical unfitness, (e) carelessness, and (/) improper personal equipment. Age is a very important factor as a cause of accidents. A child or minor is not able to take proper care of itself, and, it has been recognized by legislative enactments of practically all civilized countries that no child or minor under a certain age should be per- mitted to work in any place; and that minors under a certain age FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 141 should not be allowed to work near dangerous machinery or proc- esses. The report of the departmental committee on accidents in Great Britain referred to above, clearly showed that the accident risk of young persons is considerably higher than that of adults.* The report adds that the higher rate for young persons is accounted for by the greater inexperience of boys and girls and the greater recklessness of the boys.t Statistics of accidents of practically every country are to the same effect, viz., that children under fourteen years are entirely unable to take care of themselves, and if allowed to work become ready victims of the slightest mishap in the factory; and that even older children under twenty-one years have not the same stability of character, and sense of self-preservation which may be expected from adults. Statistics as well as practical experience have also proven that women as a class are more prone to industrial accidents than adult males, and that women especially do not take good care of them- selves when working near dangerous machinery. It is also claimed that women are more apt to be injured because of recurring periodi- cal weaknesses and pathological conditions, during which the female workers have not the same strength or ability to take care of them- selves in emergencies. Labor legislation in many countries has taken cognizance of this fact and has prohibited women from working in specially hazardous occupations, restricted their work with certain machinery, and limited the participation of female adult workers in general industry. Ignorance is a prolific cause of industrial accidents. By ignor- ance is meant ignorance of the trade, ignorance of the dangers of the trade, or ignorance of the language and manners of the place where the industry is located. It is obvious that in every industrial establishment it is only the one who is trained, who is skillful, who imderstands the trade, who knows the machinery which he handles and the tools with which he works, who can avoid the dangers and mishaps liable to occur while at work. It is also evident that it is not only unwise, but criminal on the part of employers, to entrust any work requiring skill or any dangerous part of the industry to those who are ignorant or unskillful, or who do not understand the tools or machinery which they are obliged to use. In a country where so many industries depend on foreign labor, * Report of the Departmental Commissittee on Accidents, p. 19. t Ibid., p. 20. 142 THE MODERN FACTORY many accidents happen through failure of the non-English speaking workmen to understand directions or to read the warning signals. In some industries the lives of " wops " or " hunkies " are held very cheap and their deaths are not even recorded. Out of 625 fatal accidents in Allegheny County, 132 were due to ignorance; 22 of the men killed were " green"; they had been in some cases only a few hours on the job; all had been on the job less than six months. Most of them were foreigners; thirteen of them were only boys from fourteen to eighteen years old.* Unprotected Transmission Belt Less than Six Feet from the Ground. The British report has the following to say about unskilled labor in industry: " The unskilled worker is more liable to accident than the trained mechanic. Thus, in ship building, we heard that accidents were more frequent amongst the laborers than amongst the skilled men. In the cotton trade we were told that in the boom years the intro- duction of new and unskilled workers increased the accident risk ... (It was testified before us that) the greater use made of unskilled labor during the introduction of automatic machinery in the brass trades was the cause of the increased accident risk; also that an increase in risk in engineering, ship building, iron * Eastman: Work Accidents and the Law, p. 87. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 143 smelting, general building and joinery is due to the decay of the apprenticeship system."* The increase of accidents among workers in the chemical indus- tries in New York State was proved by the New York State Factory Commission to be due to the large number of foreigners employed, especially in the western part of the State. The larger number of accidents among foreigners is certainly due not only to their lack of skill and ignorance of the trades, but also to their inabiUty to understand the orders of the foremen or the notices and signs which are supposed to teach them the dangers of their calling. The next most important factor in the causation of accidents due to the personal factor may be found in the physical unfitness of many of the workers, who have not the physical strength for the tasks allotted to them. The manufacturer who would not think for a moment of introducing into his factory an untested machine, the employer who will take all reasonable precautions to see that his tools and appliances are properly constructed and tested, will not hesitate to take into his employ a large number of workers of whose physical capacity and health he has no conception whatever, and who may be afflicted with diseases that make them a source of danger to the whole factory. A person suffering from epilepsy is not a proper person to carry a box full of dynamite, and yet very few employers inquire whether their workers who are entrusted with such important tasks are subject to this disease. A worker who suffers from disease of the eyes may become a victim to certain accidents which are easily avoided by a worker having good eyesight. A person suffering from hernia is not to be entrusted with carrying heavy weights; while a worker having cardiac disease is not the proper person for too hard labor. It is only natural that when workers are accepted without preliminary examination and without a test as to their fitness, that accidents will happen which would not have occurred had a preliminary test been made to find out the physically unfit. The accidents due to physical unfitness cannot be computed and do not appear in accident statistics, but there is no doubt what- ever that many industrial accidents are directly due to the inferior health and the physical unfitness of the workers. Whenever the causes of accidents are discussed with representar * Great Britain: Report of the Departmental Committee on Accidents, p. 19. 144 THE MODERN FACTORY FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 145 tives of employers, great stress is usually laid upon the large number of accidents due to the carelessness of the workers. The subject of carelessness, heedlessness, bravado, recklessness, is harped upon over and over again by employer, superintendent and foreman in every factory an inspector visits; so that one is sometimes com- pelled to conclude that in the opinion of employers and their representatives, from 90 to 95 per cent of industrial accidents are due to nothing else than the personal carelessness, negligence and recklessness of the workers themselves. That the carelessness of workers is very often a cause of accidents in factories cannot be denied. There is, however, no doubt in tl o minds of those who have studied the subject and those who are familiar with industry, that the importance of this factor has been greatly exaggerated. As one of those who has made a thorough study of the subject aptly says: " For heedless workers no defense is made; for the inattentive, we maintain that the human powers of attention are in every case further limited by the conditions under which work is done — long hours, heat, noise and intensity of speed. For the reckless ones we maintain that natural inclination is in every case encouraged and inevitably increased by an occupation involving constant risk; recklessness is part of the trade. . . . These two kinds of care- lessness cannot be fairly"called the faults of the workers."* In the steel industries or in the building of skyscrapers, the value of the worker is in his very recklessness and in his taking of chances which to an outsider seem foolhardy. In many of these industries the worker takes his life in his hands every minute, and it would be absurd to blame these workers, where such recklessness is a neces- sary corollary of their calling. German statistics attribute about 20 per cent of accidents to want of skill and carelessness on the part of the workers. But even among these accidents many cases may be deducted in which the seeming carelessness was necessitated by the c editions under which the industry was carried on. On this point the opinion of the EngUsh Departmental Committee on Accidents (p. 18) is of interest. The Committee was of the opinion that " There is a large class of accidents sometimes said to be due to carelessness; but often arising from the inevitable faUibility of the human machine. Such are cases of workers allowmg their hands ' * Eastman: Work Accidents and the Law, p. 95. 146 THE MODERN FACTORY to be drawn into rollers when foodiua; a niacliiue or putting their hands under an automatic press. 8ueh aeeideiits aiv to be expected, ospcciall\- \Yl\en workci-s arc constantly encased at one monotonous operation and the ultinuite deadening of the faculty of attention leads to the brain failins to cooperate with the hand or foot. Against all such accidei\ts it is necessary to take e\er\- possible precaution. It is impossible, as some emplo,\crs put it, to make factories fool proof; but on the other hand it is important to expect ami su-'ii'd against accidents due to momentary mattention and heedlessness, shps of hand or foot or other consequences of humau fallibility." A great many accidents that occur m industrial establishments are due to the removal b\- the workers of gviards inst^Uled on certain machines. Such removid is often made for tlie purpose of increas.ng speed, and leads to the nullifying of the safely devices instiUled hy employers. While in most cases the workers themselves are at fault, one must take into consideration the fact that many of these safeguards arc either improperly constructed or arc so attached as to make the work more difficult, and tl\e worker less able to earn his reasonable wages, especially when paid by the piece. The employer or his representatives .are often at fault in these cases through devising appliances which are easily rcmo\-able, or in fail- ing by proper supervision and frequent inspection to see that the safeguards are maintained in their proper plac;>s. .\notlier serious cause of accidents is the cleaning of iiiachiiw'y. In an analysis of accidents by the British Department ;d (\>nuuitteo on .Vccidents in Facluies, it w.as found that i'^'2~ acciilcnts occurred in one year while cleaning cotton spinning machinery alone. It is peculiar that one-sixth of the cases occurred on Satm'day, It is also noticeable that in the total of all accidents to fen\alcs in cotton sinnning from Monday to Kriday not less than 1227 occurred on I'liday, and that a j^radual increase took place from 120 to 124 from Monday to l''riday.* Mr, Bellhouse of the factory department testilied as follows: " In coi\sidering the accidents as a, whole, one is struck first of all by the large proportion that occur under this head. I have had the returns for this yi-ar carefully analyzed and it is found that more than lU) per C(>nt of the machinery accidents were to be attributed to this causo, and that they cover a large proportion of the accidents. "t * llt'piirt of Iho lli^psirtmoiitnl Coiun\iitoo ou .\oi'idtM\ta, D. ^M. v 1 WM.. p, M. "^ ^ FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 147 Women, minors and children are more apt to be injured while cleaning machinery in motion than male adults. .There is no doubt that cleaning machinery while in motion is one of the most prolific causes of factory accidents. There is one more factor in the [)crsonal equation of accident ^1 I'llllMol I'<'0|>1<3 liiiill Miirhiiic Ai'cicJoiito li. milling: I >ljjui:ls I7;i;ij!;i Wy^^fl.A llil ll.V Ohjcrl.rt All iilh'M- Acri.lcnln Comparative Chart of the Five Largest Groups of Accidents Reported during Eighteen Months (Industrial Commission of Wisoonsm). causation which is of importance, and which must be taken into consideration while discussinR the causes of accidents. This factor is the personal care which the employe takes of himself and his clothes. Many accidents are caused by the hair of women bemg 148 THE MODERN FACTORY drawn into machinery, by loosely worn clotiiing which is apt to be caught in gears, etc.; and by the failure to wear proper glasses and goggles to protect the eyes in industries where they are liable to be injured by flying chips, etc. Many fatal and serious accidents are due to these causes, and no discussion of the prevention of industrial accidents would be of value which did not take into con- sideration the proper way for workers to care for their persons. I shall here give a rapid review of the principles and methods of preventing accidents due to the personal factor. In almost all civilized countries, the principle of prohibiting the participation in industry of children under a certain age has already been adopted as a cardinal principle of the law. The age hmit differs in each country; in some states the age limit is as low as ten years, while in others it is as high as sixteen years. Prohibition is not only extended to general work in the factory but also to special industries, processes and appliances. Restriction is often graded according to the danger of the work. In some work, the age limit has been raised as high as twenty-one years; while in others the age limit ranges from fourteen to sixteen and eighteen years. The tendency of legislation is to a further raising of the age limit, although no ideal standard has yet been established. According to some, no person under the age of eighteen, and even under the age of twenty-one, should be at all employed in any industry; while others concede the reasonableness of the employment of minors between sixteen and twenty-one, but insist upon their restriction to certain kinds of work. There is less unanimity on the subject of women's work. There are a few radicals who claim that there is no place for women in the factory. Advanced labor legislation has succeeded in prohibiting the night work of women, in prohibiting the work of women in certain specially hazardous industries and withdrawing a large number of dangerous processes from women workers. That group of accidents due to ignorance, whether of the trade, dangerous elements of the trade, or of the language, may only be prevented by a system of education. Such a system of education must be thorough and comprehensive and should begin with child-1 hood and be continued through all the stages of growth and develop- ment, and not be cut off even within the factory. Too little atten- tion is paid at present in the public schools to industrial education. Very little attention is paid to vocational guidance and many per- * sons enter trades for which they are entirely unfit. FACTOEY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 149 Especially is there great need of apprentice schools and continua- tion schools, which have been established in some places to fit the graduate of the public school for his work in certain trades. It seems absurd to allow a chitd just out of school at the age of fourteen to select a trade for itself or to enter industrial establishments without preparation for the work it is to do. The period between fourteen and eighteen and perhaps twenty-one years should be spent partly within an industrial establishment and partly within an apprentice or continuation school. By such a method of indus- trial education it would be possible to train persons for industries to prepare them for the skillful trades, to make them realize the dangerous elements in each industry, and to prepare them for the handling of the tools, apparata and machinery of each trade. Nor should education be discontinued on entering the factory. It should be continued within industrial establishments for young and old, in order to fit them for their work and to constantly improve their skill, and increase their knowledge and chances of promotion. This principle has been recognized by a great many employers in the establishment of the so-called " corporation schools," in which every endeavor is made by the employers to educate their employes, to increase their skill and enable them to avoid the dangers and risks incident to the trades. Needless to add, no foreigner should be allowed to enter an establishment without receiving preliminary instruction in his own language in regard to the dangerous elements of the tools or machines he is to work with. In such cases the responsibility is placed squarely upon the employer and his representatives, and care must be taken by signs, by notices, by proper periods of instruction in the language understood by the worker to so train him that he understands all the elements of his work, and is able to take care of himself and to avoid those pitfalls and dangers which lurk on every step of the modern factory. Accidents due to the physical unfitness of workers may be pre- vented by physical examinations and rigid medical tests of every applicant for work, a practice already estabUshed in the army, navy, railroad and public service work. A person entering the military service or the navy or becoming an employe of a railroad or other public service corporation must undergo a thorough medical examina- tion. The federal government, the state, and the municipality will not accept a fireman, a policeman, a letter carrier or any other worker without a test of physical fitness. Why this system should not. 150 THE MODERN FACTORY be extended to all industries and should not be made a routine practice in every industrial establishment in" the country is difficult to comprehend. We spwik of efficiency and efficiently engineering, and yet neglect one of the most vital points in efficiency, viz., the physical fitness of the worker. The practice should be extended even further. Not only should there be a routine physical examination of every worker in every establishment before employment, but there (should be a periodical examination, not less than once in three months, by competent medical men, of every employe in the; (^wtiitilishmcnt, to determine his physical condition and his fitnews for iiis Mp(K!ial work. The medical supervisor in each factory is just as necessary a part of industrial life as is the engint^^r or the superintendent of a factory. Who can doubt that complete medical supcirvision of industrial life will prevent a great many of the accidents of modern industry, that it will remove a number of risks and dangers and alleviate untold pain and misery? Medical supervision of industry is already an estatilished fact in certain dangerous trades in European coun- tries. It is ticking at present introduced in many places in the United States and is surely destined to (extend until it will embrace our whole industrial life. There remain to be considered tlic^ industrial iiecidcnts due to the so-called carelessness of workers thems(^lves, to their neglect to use the guards constructed for their safety, to the cleaning of machinery during motion with or without the consent of the em- ployers and to the lack of personid cart;. Some of these; accidents, such as those due to the removal (jf guards, may ))e prevented by better construction of tii(;s(! guards, by introducing guards which are not (lasily r(;movable; while others, such as those; occurring from cleaning machinery in motion, may be ])i-(;ventcd by rigid super- vision and inspection, and (;('ntcring the hability for accidents upon the employ(;rs and ttieir .agents. Many of the accidents du(; to this sp(;ciid factor could be pre- ventefl by rigid supervision iind inspection, and by an attempt at cooperation of employers with employes in th(; work of accident prevention. The United States St(;(;l Corjjoration and many owners of large establishm(;rits have introduc(;(l systems of thorough super- vision by the; employers, })y special inspectors, by safety com- mittees, by the foremen and by th(; workers th(;ms(;lve8. " Safety first," at prc;s(;nt the slogan of so many industrial establishments, is sure to bring results and liecome a potent factor in accident ; H'AHTOUV A(HMI)ION'l'H AND SAFETY 161 prov(M\ti()n. Hi is only l)y ct»i>Hliuit Hiipci'visioii ihni the number of )ict'i(l(>u(.H (Uir to (•!in'li>sHM('HS, (o iniiomucc luul U\ lurk of iwrsoiial oim> may bo ItosimiihI. 'iUv tMhioiitiioii of workers und foroiiicii witli'm (rtn> i'8lubliHlim(M\ti is ii piirt. of Miis iiK'dliod of supervision uu(i is tl(i^ biisis of ill! iM'tM(l(>n(- pi'(U'(>ntiioii. luipro]u>r (iressiuji; of tiiii Imir liy womkmi workers iuis Ixhmi (,ho oausi* of a Kn>(ili number of aeei(l(iU'a('l.(>r. (liris witii liowinji; hair iKMniiun' uinler tlie innciiintis liavt" b(>en seaipeti liy liaving st.nuids of (Jieir liair eaunlit. in K''"i'iuK or sliafts. In all occupalious wliere such aeeiilents nia.\' occur, (.ho Muw^i' lie I'lvveiilioii ilcs AcciileiilH ilu TriiViiil el il'llvni^iie Iiuluslrit^llo. (ienniin Imu'Iovv Pi\ir(iniiM. l.etilliei' l,enK''is, Apron iiiul Wooileii Slioes wiini hy l'"roiu'li l''ouiulry Workers for I'lHiteclioti iiniii'if*' Meliil Uuriis. hair oushl to be llatly tlressed and timidly littiiiij; eaj)s should be worn. Thi> slet>ves of a. eoai or strinij;s of aprons or part of a, skird are t>asily ilrawii into movinj!; maeiiinery, eausiui!; severe and s>)n\etimes fatal injuries to tlie worker. S()eeia.l close liltinu; overalls should lie worn b\' all workers hjivinu; el\arij;*> of nuiehinery who pass near .shaftinjj; .and .ue.arinjj;. Certain occupations retpiire speci.al dn^ss: ilnis, boiler workers wear spivial overalls; .also tla)se wl») are working in fom\dries, in blea,eh eh.ainbers, in elxMnie.al works. i>te, Wlierevi^r work is done nt\ar pl.aees where splash(>s of acid or l.nmviixg liquids or sparks fn»n\ burninji; matter may drop ui)on the elotlies, the worker should 152 THE MODEEN FACTORY wear a leather apron or other protective clothing. Workers in sand- blasting chambers sometimes wear a closed helmet to protect them from the dust; such helmets are also worn in other specially dangerous occupations. Some of these helmets contain a supply of oxygen so as to allow the workers to breathe for a certain time without inhaling the air of the room in which they are working. Copyrighted by Carl M. Hansen, Heproduced by permission. Face-Mask. Sometimes it is important to have the feet protected. In foundries boots of a stout leather that will not burn easily and cover the foot well above the ankle should be worn. In certain chemical factories the shoes should be of a material that is not acted upon by the chemicals with which they may come in contact. FACTOEY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 153 Workers on explosive materials must not have any metal tacks attached to their shoes. Workers in electrical workshops are usually protected by rubber gloves, etc. Gloves are necessary in occupations where the workers must handle materials which are poisonous or liable to injure the skin of the hands. Complaint is made by employers and superintendents that the workers will not use the gloves and discard them as soon as they are out of sight of the foremen. In most of these cases the difficulty is due to the fact that the gloves are not furnished by the employer, but bought by the employes them- selves; and as these gloves tear very easily, it is not to be wondered at that a worker will try to save gloves which cost him from fifty to seventy-five cents a pair, and need to be changed every week or oftener. In this respect it is important to add that all special clothing, caps, overalls, shoes, gloves, etc., needed for special work in factories, should be provided by the employers and should be maintained, laundered and kept in good condition by them; and the foremen or special inspectors should see to it that the clothing is in good condition and is being worn when necessary. Eye Injuries and Eye Glasses. A large number of accidents resulting in injuries to the eyes of the workmen may be avoided by wearing protective glasses. The Wisconsin Industrial Com- mission cites a total of 366 eye accidents reported from September 1, 1911, to January 1, 1913.* In twenty-four cases the eyesight was lost completely; in seven cases eyesight was impaired perma- nently, and in the remaining 335 cases the injured persons were dis- abled for at least eight days or more. Approximately one out of every twenty-five accidents results in eye injury. In industries where a great deal of grinding and chipping is done, the percentage is much higher. The report continues as follows: " The most significant thing about these accidents is the ease with which they may be prevented. Of the total reported in this state it is safe to say that 70 per cent might have been prevented by the use of eye glasses or goggles. The American Steel Foundry has adopted a type of goggles for chippers shown in cut, and during the past three years has reduced eye injuries about 80 per cent.' There are many different kinds of protective eye goggles. In 1899 the Union of the German Trade Associations offered a prize for the best treatise on eye glasses and goggles for the protection * Bulletin of Industrial Commission of Wisconsin, Vol. II, No. 7, March 28, 1913, p. 171. 154 THE MODEEN EACTORY Hartmann'3 UnfaUverhiitungsteclmit, Safety Eye Glasses. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 155 of workers, and Hartmana and Villaret won the prize for their treatise on the subject. " General Requirements for a Proper Protection OF Eye Glasses for Workers 1. Glasses must be light and well framed. 2. They must be easily put on and comfortably fitted. Copyrighted by Carl M. Hansen, Reproduced by permission. Safety Goggles. 3. They should present as large a field of vision as possible. 4! The glasses must allow plenty of air circulation so that the eye should not be heated or dimmed by moisture. 5. The lenses in the goggles must be so fitted as to be easily exchanged. In dusty or smoke-filled rooms eye goggles must be thickly screened and adhere to the face with some soft stuff such as leather, linen or cotton, and the lenses must be made so that they may be 156 THE MODERN FACTORY easily cleaned. Workers in glaring light should wear glasses with colored lenses to reduce the glare. Ill THE GENERAL CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS AND THEIR PREVENTION In the previous section, accidents have been discussed which are due to the personal factor in industry. In this section I shall take up the general causes of industrial accidents, those mainly due to defective materials, appliances, defects in the construction of the factory, and certain economic and physical conditions, under which industry is conducted. I shall also discuss the large group of accidents which are due to falling objects, to falls from various defective appliances, to fatigue, to overspeed and to long hours of labor. Defective Materials, Tools and Appliances. The mmiber of accidents due to this cause is large. It is, of course, impossible to have all appliances, all tools, and all materials in a perfect con- dition at all times. But it is the fault of the management when a tool or an appliance within a factory becomes a source of injury to the workers. Handles made of iron or of other material, tools of the same character, if cracked or partly broken, are hable to cause great harm if the defect is not discovered in time. It is the duty of the owner and his representatives to thoroughly test all materials, tools and appliances which are used in his factory, and to subject them to frequent tests, so that slight imperfections may be repaired and more serious defects avoided. Weights and Falling Objects. Many injuries are caused by faUing objects within the factory. In the statistics of industrial accidents for the second quarter of 1913 of the New York State Labor Department, 3890 cases belonged to this group. The methods of preventing such accidents need not be gone into in detail. When the factory is well constructed and properly managed there is no reason for such accidents. Wherever temporary repairs are made on the ceilings or upper parts of the walls or on machinery, or other parts within the factory from which some object is liable to fall, solid platforms should be constructed under the places where the work is being done; or stout muslin covers stretched underneath, and signs put out to warn the workers against FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 157 coming under places where they may be injured by falling objects; or the dangerous areas may be railed off. Defective Floors, Stairs, Platforms, Ladders, Etc. In the same bulletin of the labor department it is stated that 1298 injuries occurred during the second quarter of 1913 as a result of falls from Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Triangular Ladder with Steel Points at Bottom, Courtesy Aetna Lite Insurance Co. Safety Oiler's Ladder. ladders, from scaffolds, from machinery, collapse of supports, falls from hoistways, stairs, falls by slipping, etc. In the British report for 1912 there were no less than 412 fatal cases and 18,728 non-fatal accidents due to persons falling. In the German statistics the accidents resulting from falls from ladders, stairs, etc., amounted to 1 .43 per thousand. 158 THE MODERN EACTORY Most of these accidents are due to defective or slippery floors, to stairs which are either not strong enough or have missing steps or rails, slippery or broken treads, insecure platforms, imrailed platforms, balconies, etc. A number are also caused by defective ladders or by ladders faUing down because of improper support and insecure position. The Wisconsin Commission gives in its Bulletin No. 4, a very detailed report on the character of these accidents.* A total of 393 accidents due to slipping, stumbling, slipping on walks Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Dangerous Open Stairway on Outside of Building. or passageways, etc., are given for a period of eighteen months from September 1, 1911, to March 1, 1913. For this period the report shows that 13.2 per cent of all accidents (of which there were 10,517) or nearly one-half as many as occurred on all machines were caused by the falls of workmen. Most of these accidents were of a very serious nature: 48 resulted in death, 425 in fractured bones, 30 in serious internal injuries. The actual loss in wages suffered by the injured amounted to almost $70,000. * Bulletin of Industrial Commission of Wisconsin, Vol. II, No. 10, June 20, 1913. FACTORY ACCIDENTS .AND SAFETY 159 The report continues: " In many cases these accidents might have been prevented by better shop.hghting and proper apphcation of safety appUances. Better instruction of men and great care on the part of the work- men would have prevented most of the accidents." Floo/s should always be in good condition. Floors must not be broken or chipped. Stone, concrete or cement floors must not have holes in them. Linoleum or other covering must be kept in good condition so as not to trip the worker through some imper- fection. Stairs must be solidly built and provided with proper steps at regular intervals; such steps should be well constructed and their treads should not be slippery. In factories where there Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Stairway Equipped with Safety Tread. is a great deal of moisture or where the materials worked with are such that they may cause moisture, the treads must be made of the type of so-called " safety-treads," which will hold the shoe and prevent it from slipping. All stairways should be provided with rails on both sides. If stairs are wide, a middle rail should be furnished. Platforms must always be guarded by rails or balconies and all openings, manholes in the floor, or any part of a factory should be properly guarded. All rails on stairways should be securely fitted and kept smooth and free from nails or splinters. Rubber mats or mats Oi other non-shppery substance should be nailed on the steps. Falls from ladders cause many accidents of a serious nature, Bome of them fatal. Ladders are often not strong enough for the 160 THE MODERN FACTOEY weight they have to support. Rungs are often missing or are weak and easily broken off. The Wisconsin report already mentioned shows that 141 accidents were due to falls from ladders, of which 68 were due to the ladders breaking. Proper inspection must be made of all ladders to assure the worker that these appliances are in good condition, and tests should be made to see whether they are able to stand the strain upon them. Ladders should be equipped at the top with safety hooks to prevent them from slipping sideways. It is best not to use portable ladders at all, but to construct permanent stairways where frequent access must be had to elevated points. Safety hooks on the top are a means of preventing the ladders from slipping, but the legs should also be secured so that the step-ladder cannot spread, and should be provided with steel points or other means to prevent them from slipping. Light and Ventilation. Many accidents are due to insufficient or improper lighting. According to John Calder,* " Insufficient lighting is the cause of numerous accidents, particularly serious and fatal falls?' Mr. Calder has observed that the maximum of accidents occurs toward the close and the beginriing of each year; that is, during November, December and January, — the months of minimum daylight. He says, " the influence of the duration and intensity of natural light in working hours in fatal and serious accidents is particularly noticeable in bridge building and ship building, engineering, steel and iron works, and other operations that have to be carried on within a large space, often entirely in the open air and not easily illuminated artificially to the exclusion of deep shadows." In the report of the New York State Factory Com- mission,t it was stated that in 24.5 per cent of all shops investigated light was defective. In the printing industry 48.4 per cent of the shops were poorly lighte'd; in the candy factories 49.2 per cent; and in laundries 36.7 per cent. The report on chemical trades draws attention to the large number (64.4 per cent) of the factories inspected where lighting was found inadequate. The report con- tinues: " In going through chemical establishments one often passes through dimly lighted passages where numbers of workers are engaged either in shoveling dangerous mixtures into wheel barrows, or packing toxic products into barrels, or working around vats, caldrons and tanks filled with dangerous liquids among clouds of * Journal of American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. XXXIII, Part I, p. 141. t New York State Factory Investigating Commission, 1913, Vol. II, p. 428. FACTOEY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 161 steam or chemical fumes. Any carelessness on the part of these workers resulting in a spurt of these liquids might mean a permanent injury. In one of the, electrolytic plants at Niagara Falls a worker was observed in a dark corner passing under an iron trough clumsily supported on wooden blocks and filled with hot liquid caustic acid, every drop of which, coming in contact with the body, would produce a painful and permanent injury. The only light was an incandescent bulb held by the workers to illuminate the ru nn ing of the caustic in the trough and the filling up of the iron drums with the liquid."* The danger of insufficient light in a factory crowded with machinery in motion is obvious. Lack of ventilation and bad air within the shop and factory often cause nausea, vertigo and insufficient oxygenation of the blood, and hence directly or indirectly may cause accidents. Overcrowding, etc. There is no condition so conducive to the occurrence of accidents as lack of space and overcrowding in a factory of machinery, benches, boxes, and materials. Especially is overcrowding dangerous near moving machinery, shafts, gearing, etc., where the clothing or parts of the body of persons passing may be drawn in. Too narrow aisles between machinery in textile factories have been a frequent cause of accidents. The remedy for this condition is simple and obvious. Roomier factories and the leaving of plenty of space around dangerous machin- ery pay in the reduction of accidents and in better general efficiency. Accidents Due to Monotony of Work, to Fatigue, to Speeding and Prolonged Hours of Labor. A large number of accidents are known to be due to fatigue caused by overwork, by prolonged hours of labor, and by other conditions which weaken the body and dull the brain of the worker. Monotony and overspeeding of machinery, long hours of labor, work during the night, work without sufficient rest, work in indus- tries where the twelve-hour shift is employed, work in continuous industries which employ their workers during seven days of the week, — all these cause over-fatigue of the body, muscles and nerves of the workers, leading directly or indirectly to a great number of industrial accidents in our factories and workshops. Long hours are especially dangerous in those industries where women work. Testimony was presented by the investigators in canneries that some women were working excessive hours, and several cases were found where women were working as long as 115 to 117| hours * New York State Factory Investigating CommiaBion, 1913, Vol. II, p. 465. 162 THE MODERN FACTORY per week.* A photographic copy of a pay card of one of the women workers is reproduced on next page. The report of the Pittsburgh Survey has shown that many accidents are due to the long hours or excessive speed with which the great steel industry is conducted. The seven-day week, the twelve-hour day, the twenty-four successive hours on duty of the men in the Pittsburgh Steel Mills have been found to be responsible for the enormous loss of life and limb within those mills. In the ceaseless drive and pressure of the factory something must give 5 way. More often than not it is the worker. The long factory day ,', results in fatigue for the worker, and fatigue brings death and injury in its train. The relationship between fatigue and accidents has beeii definitely established by investigations made in France, Ger- many, Italy and the United States. Briefly summarized, the results of all investigations show that the number of accidents increases with the number of hours worked, and the number of casualties occurring during the last hour of the forenoon and the last hour of the afternoon is almost double the number of those occurring during the first two hours of the day. In the report of the Bureau of Labor on the Condition of Women and Child Wage-earners in the United States, an account is given of accidents occurring in metal manufacture, in cotton mills, and in general manufacture, in the states of Indiana and Wisconsin. According to a table of accidents given in the report, the hours ^ between three and four in the afternoon show the heaviest accident rate; also the hours between ten and eleven and eleven and twelve. Of course, the accident rate is a complex product depending on a variety of factors, and deductions can not always be made from the figures. The Departmental Committee on Accidents of Great Britain also collected some figures, which indicate " that the most dangerous hours are from ten to eleven a.m. and three to four p.m."; while another table seems to indicate that the most dangerous hour for women in both morning and afternoon is an hour later than the most dangerous hour for men. As to speeding, the conclusion of the British Departmental Committee on Accidents was that: " On the whole we are of the opinion that there is increased speed and pressure in a large number of industries, and that is probably operating to produce an appreciable increase in accident risk." * Second Report of the New York State Factory Commission, Vol. II, p. 820. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 163 \ Plme Card. Fruit and Produce Dealers. J,^- ^^J^ -2-iJr ./..i9/ // Price,. w ; . ; ■^■. . .'. . ■ . . .cts. foV one hour. W'i^^ ) Monday Tuesday Weduesday Thursday Fi'idav ZL.-S*iiiM»y;_ Monda'^ Tuesday Wednesday Thursdaj)*' Friday Saturday ^m Mh l|^: \~\^^ 11 ''4. H .^.:!'j.f?i Total hours . ; cts= .■A ..■ Tirsv? Ci-rd 3hos-:;i>g, ho-nrs worked for It we8;k-S "by a woisan at; e fnilt canner;?. The first week the houjra are; 'lv:onttRy-----l? nrs. Thiirsday 19 hrs. ^!h;e.>day--^-20 " Fri da---- ---21-1/2 " TI?ednesdH7--21 " aaturday---- -£1 " ^ Total for week 117 1/^ hoi^s. She F.ot for this -vtrork 10 cents per hour. 164 THE MODEEN FACTORY The United States Government report, referred to previously, states that any increase of speed of operation, unless accompanied by some counteracting safeguard, may be expected to show a higher accident rate. That such increase of speed during part or all of the work period is the general practice, is the common opinion. The report continues: " There will be some tendency to minimize the factor of fatigue in the above process, because it is not a matter of acute sensation. We can recognize and measure with some accuracy the gradual increase of the fatigued condition before sensation begins to advise us of its presence. It is a steadily progressive process. The margin of safety in modern industry is small. It is measured too frequently by fractions of an inch. Reduce the alertness and the exactness with which the body responds to the necessities of its labor, and by just so much have you increased the liability that the hand will be misplaced that fraction, which means mutilation."* It is quite evident that if factory accidents are to be decreased, one of the first steps should be the reduction of working hours. Brief pauses during the middle of the forenoon and the middle of the afternoon would probably have some effect in reducing the num- ber of accidents. Until the hours of labor in industrial establish- ments where the strain of industry is great are materially reduced, we cannot hope for any considerable reduction of accidents in industry. In establishments where it is well known among the men that speed comes first and safety next, it is to be expected that the workers will take risks. When the accidents do occur their victims will be called foolhardy by the very men who would have praised their recklessness had the accidents not resulted. " There can be no doubt that the unrelaxing tension and speed in the American steel mill makes for danger. To go slow would be to go backward in industry, and that is more than can be expected of America; but by shortening the hours of work the dan- gers of speed can be lessened. The minds and bodies of the men can be kept up to the pace of the mill. Greater intensity of work necessitates longer periods of relaxation. If the strain of the work cannot be lessened, duration must be. No steel company can maintain that it has done everything to prevent accideiits until it has reduced the work hours of men in such responsible positions.": * Report on Condition of Women and Child Wage-earners in the United States, Vol. XI, p. 101. , t Crystal Eastmaii: Work Accidents and the Law, p. 73, 74. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 165 Efficiency engineers and practical manufacturers already know that a reasonable shortening of the daily hours of labor does not lead necessarily to a lessening of the output; but, on the contrary, often increases it. The human body, unlike the inanimate machine, has inherent power of self^recuperation, and the practice of working the body for all it is worth and then discarding it on the scrap heap, is wasteful and criminal. Hours of labor should be adjusted to the physical fitness of the worker, to his bodily strength, to the industry in which he is em- ployed, to the kind of work which he performs, and to the character of operations with which he is entrusted. Some of the larger states prohibit night work for women, and limit the weekly hours of work to fifty-four, and in some places to fifty hours. The eight-hour normal workday has been estabUshed in many industries, has been adopted by many enlightened employers, and is destined to become the general normal day's work. The three-shift system of eight hours each instead of the two shifts of twelve hours is being gradually introduced in the steel and other continuous industries, and will probably soon become a general practice in the United States. It is to be regretted that we have not introduced in the United States the custom prevalent abroad of allowing the workers a quarter- hour pause during the forenoon and afternoon. I have often watched the workers in the large factories in France, Belgium and Germany, and have seeahow they enjoyed the quarter-hour pauses at 10 a.m. and at 4 p.m., and how much more alert they seemed for work after- wards, and it seems to me it is a mistaken policy of the American manufacturers not to follow suit and introduce this procedure, which surely leads to greater efficiency and to the decrease of accidents. As to the prevention of accidents due to monotony and certain monotonous processes, experiments have already been made by some manufacturers in changing the workers from one process to another; and much may be done by scientifically arranging the work so as to lessen the monotony and give the worker an interest that will keep his mind alert and thus prevent some of the accidents due to this cause. There is one other consideration which as yet has received very little attention in this country except in one process, but which is destined to receive greater attention in the future. This is the adjustment of the hours of work to the danger of the trade, and the lessening of the hours of labor in specially dangerous trades. The 166 THE MODERN FACTORY only adjustment so far which has been made by legislation in this respect, is the considerable shortening of hours in caisson work, where the men labor in air with increased pressure. Doubtless, after proper study, a corresponding decrease will be made in other dangerous trades, so as to adjust and proportionate the hours of labor to the kind of work and the amount of danger in the processes and materials. IV THE PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS DUE TO TRANSPORTA- TION WITHIN THE FACTORY Much transportation is necessary within factories. Consign- ments of raw materials are constantly arriving which must be con- veyed to the different parts of the establishment, and transported from one place to another, imtil finally the finished product is sent out from the factory. There are a great many opportunities for accidental injuries to workmen participating in the process of trans- portation. Indeed, a large proportion of accidents within the factory are due to this cause. The methods of transportation within the factory differ with the character of the factory and the kind of materials and mechanical appliances used. A rough classification of all the methods of trans- portation within the factory would include the following groups: (a) hand carrying and lifting without tools; (&) use of tools; (c) hand-trucks, carts, wagons, etc.; (d) ropes, chains, and winches; (e) mechanical cranes for horizontal transportation, and (/) vertical lifts, hoistways and elevators. Transportation accidents may be prevented by (1) providing mechanical appliances wherever possible so as to take off the burden of transportation from the workers themselves; (2) prohibiting minors, women, and adults who are not physically fit, from participate ing in factory transportation; and (3) an intelligent supervision of the process of transportation so as to give no worker too heavy a task. A nimiber of tools and appUances are used to facilitate the work of transportation. Certain materials which workers are unable to handle are carried on poles or by means of tongs or other appli- ances which may sometimes slip or get out of order and thus injure the worker. In carrying carboys filled with acids great care should FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 167 be taken to prevent breaking of the carboys and the consequent possibility of injuring the workers with splashes of the acid, etc. Hartmftnn's Un/alloerhiitungstechnik Self-Aoting Safety Catch. Special means of carrying these carboys have been devised from time to time, and one of them is shown in the illustration on page 170. 168 THE MODERN FACTORY Boxes, carts, barrels, rail wagons, etc., are often used in trans- portation. Where cars are operated on rails, brakes should be provided. When cars are large it is necessary to prevent persons crossing the rails while the cars are in motion. In such cases some means are needed for warning persons from coming into the path of the car. Materials and objects are transported from one place to another by mechanical means, either by overhead steel cranes or mechanical conveyors. Conveyors are at present used in many factories for Hartmann's UnfaUverhutunsstechnilc. Methods of Lifting Barrels and Sacks. Overload Detector. mechanical and automatic shifting of materials. They are the cause of a great many accidents. It is important that conveyors should not move at too great a speed, that they should be constructed so as not to injure the hands of the workers and should also be provided : with handy stopping devices. Conveyors located near the floor should be well guarded and overcrowding of the factory should be avoided, as it may compel the workers to step on the conveyors, ani slip or fall. Cranes are used in transporting and handling large objects and are very dangerous appliances when improperly constructe(^; and operated without precaution and proper supervision. The FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 169 installation of cranes must be made under tiie supervision of com- petent engineers and they should be tested before installation and at frequent intervals while in use. Cranes should be operated by skilled persons and provided with warning gongs and signals. A simple and popular method of lifting certain objects within the factory is by the use of ropes, cables, or chains, which are put on pulleys and worked by winches operated by steam, compressed HartmaQD'3 UnJallrerhiUungstechnik. Frledrlch Krupp, A. G.,;E Workers in Asbestos Clothing Carrying Crucible of Molten Metal. air or electricity. The important parts in such transporting appli- ances are (1) the catching device or that part which first gets hold of the objects to be lifted and carried, (2) the ropes, cables or chains by which the objects are lifted, and (3) the mechanical appliances by which the rope is lifted up and made to carry the object to the point desired. There are a number of devices for the proper catching of objects and there are various forms of books, tongs, etc., so devised as not to slip. Some of these are shown in the illustrations on page 168. Where objects are sharp or angular it is best to wrap them up 170 THE MODERN FACTORY with some rags, or blankets, or to insert pieces of wood, etc., in different places so as to get a better hold upon the object. The ropes and cables must be tested and should be able to carry the necessary weights. They should also be so attached as to carry the weight in its center of gravity. It is important in lifting an / Museum of Safety, Charlottenburg, Berlin. Tongs for Safe Carrying of Crucibles. object to have someone to guide it so that it does not catch on projections. All chains should be annealed at least once every six months. Attention must also be given to the proper railing of the floor openings through which the object is carried, so as to Hartmann'a Unfallverhutunstechntt' Safety Wheel Barrows for Carrying Acids. prevent persons from falling through them. Warning must also be given to all persons standing near the place where the object is descending. It is also important to fix the maximum load which may be carried by the lifting apparatus and provide it with a good brake arrangement. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 171 The winches, tackle and mechanical apparatus for the winding of the ropes and chains must be properly constructed, all the gears guarded, and should be operated by a careful person. In a large industrial establishment of the Bayer Chemical Works I saw iron filings lifted by huge magnets carrying several tons at each ascension. Hoistways and Elevators. Hoistways and elevators are the best methods of transporting weights and objects as well as persons in a vertical direction from one floor to another, but are a frequent cause of accidents in factories. In an article on the " peril of vertical travel," Mr. Frazee says; " The number of persons injured and killed throughout the United States by preventable elevator accidents is appalling, and Museum ol Safety. Ctaarlottenbuig, Berlin. A Safe Method of Loading Barrels. is increasing constantly, owing to the never-ceasing erection of buildings within which countless elevators are installed, adding greatly to those already in use throughout the United States. It was estimated in 1912 that there were in that year between 7000 and 8000 fatal accidents on elevators, and about 10,000 persons injured. From 1908 to 1912 in New York City alone, upwards of 400 persons were killed on passenger and freight elevators, and a greater number were injured."* ' There is not much difference between the general construction of an elevator and a hoistway, except that the hoistway is, as a rule, not so well protected as an elevator and is used almost exclusively * Safety Engineering for November, 1913. 172 THE MODERN FACTORY for carrying freight, while an elevator is used for carrying persons as well as freight. The following are the most important parts of elevators: (a) the shaft, (b) the cage, (c) the cables, ropes, and chains, (d) the motive Courtesy Aetna Lite Insurance Co. Hatchway Safeguarded with Half Automatic Gate. power, (e) the gearing, machinery, etc., (/) the safety devices, and (ff) the operator. Some elevators have no permanent shaft or airwell within the building, but are provided with adjustable trap doors which close when the elevator is out of the way, and automatically open as soon as the elevator reaches them. The shaftwell is the most dangerous part of the elevator. It is open from the bottom to the top and is dangerous as a means of FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY ,173 spreading fire and because of the possibility of persons falling into it. The shaftway should be surrounded entirely with a fireproof enclosure either of wire glass on metal lath and metal frame or of solid plaster not less than two inches thick, or of brick, concrete or tile of sufficient thickness to give rigidity. The enclosure must extend to the top and include the pent house where the sheaves or machinery above the shaftway are located. All projections in Copyrighted by Carl M. Hansen. Reproduced by permlsston. Elevator with Hatch Covers. elevator shafts, such as floors, beams and sills, unless guarded against by the car enclosures, must be provided with smooth buffered guards fitted directly under them so as to push any such projection back of the car. The doors from the floors to the shaft are the most important part of the elevator enclosure. These doors must fill the entire opening to the shaft and should be constructed of solid metal, wire glass, or grill work with openings not less than If inches square and'^ If inches long by 1 inch wide. The doors must have sufficient!® 174 THE MODERN FACTORY strength to withstand a level pressure in the center of not less than 250 pounds. The use of semi-automatic gates, especially on freight elevators, is preferable./ These gates can only be opened by the operator of the car, but close automatically when the car leaves the floor. Many of the new elevators are so constructed that Courtesy Aetna LUe Insurance Co. Side Post Freight Platform Enclosed. they cannot move either up or down until the door is locked. This is accomplished by mechanical devices or by electrical contact cir- cuits. There are a number of mechanical devices for automatically locking doors; most of them are very good and tend to prevent i numerous accidents. The next important part of the elevator is the cage in which the IS reight or persons are being carried. The cage or car should be made FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 175 entirely of metal or of grill work; and the platform of the car must, of course, have a certain factor of safety above and beyond its normal load. Cars should be entirely enclosed, as open platforms are dangerous even when railed off. The cars or cages should be provided with artificial light and have a light at the bottom of the cage near the door, so as to prevent persons from slipping or falling when the platform is not flush with the floor. Each car should also be provided with inside doors or gates which should always be closed while the car is in operation. The car or cage should be WITHH(T£RU!C.HI.'lS ATTaCKME'iTS RICHMONP SftftTYGATC CO SICHMONO mo C!ourtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Full-Automatic Gate, Op"en-at-will Type. roofed over and the roof made of solid material to prevent objects from falling into the car. Proper signals, gongs, etc., should be provided so that the operator of the car may conmiunicate with persons outside of the elevator shaft when necessary. The cables must never be single and must be strong enough to bear a much heavier load than usually necessary. Cables should be tested before installation and must be frequently inspected during operation. Most municipaUties compel elevators to be provided with pit and overhead clearances so that there is a pit not less than two feet in depth below the lowest landing and an overhead clearance 176 THE MODEEN TACTORY of not less than two feet above the highest landing. When elevators have a high speed, these pits and overhead clearances should be greater. Spring, rubber or oil buffers resting on substantial founda- tion in the pit should also be provided, and the car so constructed as to withstand the impact of the buffers. The cars should be pro- vided with counterweights which are usually located in the elevator shaftway and should be properly guarded top and bottom. The last, but not the least factor in elevator safety is the opera- Courtesy Aetna LUe Insurance Co. Semi-Automatic Gate for Elevator. Gate raised by hand at landing and held open by a pawl, which an arm on the car engages with a weight lock connected with the gate by means of a rope. As the elevator moves away from the landing, the pawl is released and the gate drops back into position by its own weight. tor. Many states prohibit persons under twenty-one years of age from operating elevators and hoistways. Elevator operators should be properly instructed and their knowledge and skill tested before being allowed to operate any elevator independently. They must know the rules as well as the technique of the operation of the machinery, and must always be careful to avoid accidents and possi- ble loss of life. The following rules of the Wisconsin Commission give an idea of the requirements imposed upon elevator operators: FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 177 " Always keep in mind that a large number of serious accidents are caused by carelessness. In stopping a steam elevator, be careful to center the hand rope and if the elevator creeps after it is stopped, report at once to the foreman. The brake requires adjusting. " Never allow anyone to scuffle or fool on your elevator. It is always dangerous. " Never start an elevator until the door or gate at the landing is closed, and do not open the door at the landing until you have brought the elevator to a full stop. If an elevator, when it is stopped, does not hold the load properly, report at once to the foreman. The brake needs adjusting. " All loose or tight ropes or any detected weakness or defect in the elevator should be at once reported to the engineer. " The elevator should not be loaded more than its safe loading capacity. " The speed of the elevator should be always adjusted and never be too great. " The elevator should be started and stopped gradually. A sudden start or stop may throw the cables off the sheaves and sub- ject the whole machinery to severe stress and serious accident." Elevators and hoistways should be provided with safety devices, such as clutches, brakes, speed governors, etc., intended to prevent the falling of the car in case certain parts of the cables break and to prevent other accidents which may happen in the operation of the cars. The accompanying illustrations shoW some of the safety devices which are used in modern elevator construction. The con- structors of elevators, as well as insurance companies maintain at present a very high class of inspectorial service to guard against accidents by frequent inspection and testing. It is therefore unnec- essary to go further into the technical details of elevator inspection. THE PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS DUE TO MOTIVE POWER AND TRANSMISSION APPARATUS Machinery and Accidents. The modern factory system is chiefly characterized by machine production and the use of motive power. The motive power used in modern factories has changed. At first steam power was substituted for water power; now electric- ity takes the place of steam. The r61e of mechanical production in the causation of industrial accidents is very great. While a number of accidents are due to 178 THE MODEEN FACTORY other causes, there is no doubt that the increase of industrial acci- dents is largely due to the increasing use of machinery. According to the report of the British Departmental Committee on Accidents: Courtesy Norton Co.. Worcester. Mass. Guard in Front of Fly Wheel. " About 28 per cent of the total number of accidents are caused by machinery, and of the accidents which are reported by certifying surgeons, 80 per cent are caused by power driven machinery. The use of electric motors and gas engines has made it more easy to obtain power; new inventions have enabled machinery to perform operations, and even for simple operations automatic machines are FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 179 constantly taking the place of hand work. The extent to which machinery is used is very much greater than it was. In steel mills there is "more automatic machinery; in ship building, more auto- matic machines are used, etc. We have come to the conclusion, there- fore, that the increased use of machinery considered as an isolated means is one of the causes operating to increase the accident risk." According to German statistics, for every thousand insured persons in factories using power-driven machinery 33 are injured; while there are 16 per thousand injured in all industries.* Courtesy Shreflded Wlieat Co. Wire Mesh and Sheet Iron Guards Protecting Chain Drive on Ceiling Drivins Wheat Elevator. In Switzerland, the amount of horse-power increased from 44.1 for every hundred workers in 1882 to 119.1 per hundred workers in 1901. At the same time accidents increased from 32.01 per thousand workers in 1888 to 48.35 per thousand in 1901 and 1902, and to 62.5 per thousand in 1910.* American statistics show the same proportionate increase of accidents accompanying the increased use of machinery. Of the total 18,806 accidents occurring in the factories in New York State in the second quarter of 1913, there were no less than 6317 accidents due to mechanical power, excluding those accidents due to electricity. * Barten: Notwendigkeit, Erfolge und Ziele der teohniaohen Unfallverhiitung, p. 33. 180 THE MODERN FACTORY Courtesy Shreddied ■Wheat Co. Double Guard: 1. Metal guard protecting Reynolds chain drive from motor to countershaft. 2. Wire guard ^^-inch wire, 1-inch mesh, iron frame, covering bevel gears and clutch. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 181 The causes of accidental injuries to workers due to machinery may be divided into three groups: prime movers, transmission apparatus and machinery proper. This is a convenient method of classification and will be followed in the following sections.* Reference has already been made to the fact that many accidents occurring in factories are preventable, provided certain methods of safeguarding are adopted. This is especially true of accidents due to machinery. In fact, there is no reason why such accidents Courtesy Stiredded Wheat Co. Sheet Metal and Cast Iron Guards Covering Gear Chain and Worm Drives on Triscuit Oven. should not be more easily prevented than others occurring in fac- tories, for the ingenuity and skill that creatfe intricate machines should also be capable of devising means of rendering them harmless to the workers. The general principles of accident prevention may be briefly stated here before giving the special methods of safeguarding machinery. The present tendency to substitute electric power for steam is a great step toward the prevention of accidents, because * Tn this and in the following sections no detailed mechanical appliances will be diacusaed =»= in tnis ana iii i^"c luiiw & :_ „:„i„„ 1 +Ua cnanial mi^fVinHn nf fLc.cifient nrevention. tricity, as these of'prevention would require too many technical explanations and details 182 THE MODERN FACTORY of the abolition of large motors, engines, flywheels, etc., and because of the possibility of producing the electric current outside of the factory, thus avoiding the many accidents caused in the primary production of power, in the boiler houses, etc. Another advantage of electric power driven machinery is the possibility of installing small motors in each part of the factory and practically for every machine; putting the stopping and starting of each machine within reach of the worker and thus preventing a great many accidents FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 183 Courtesy Joseph Bancroft & Sons, C3o., Wilmington, DeL Guard on Bleach House Machine. 184 THE MODERN FACTORY which are due to the difficulty of immediately stopping machinery in case of accident. A most important method of preventing accidents due to machinery is the safeguarding of each machine by its maker — a method already adopted by the great trade associations of Germany, and which ought to be adopted in all states. There is no reason why each machine should not be provided with proper safeguards in the estabhshment where it is manufactured. A method of accident prevention which is general to all industrial establishments is provision for the testing, supervision and inspec- tion of the machinery and its parts before installation, as wellas a periodical examination during maintenance. All factories where methods of efficiency have been adopted are at present making fre- quent inspections of the machinery, in order to discover defects and to repair them before they cause serious accidents. The next basic principle of accident prevention is to man each machine with competent persons having the necessary knowledge and skill. Another important precaution is the placing of all especially dangerous large machines in separate buildings or parts of buildings, and only permitting those entrusted with their care to come near them. The workers should be separated from the dangerous parts of machinery by fences, rails, barriers, bars or boards. Wherever such a separation is not practicable, the dangerous parts of the machinery should be covered with metal plates, wire mesh, etc. Motors, Fljnvheels, Etc. The location of prime movers depends upon their type and upon the character of the power used. Large motors and engines .are located in separate parts of buildings, usually the basements or cellars. When this is the case, the con- struction of the cellar or basement, or the separate building in which this part of the machinery is located must be solid and fire-resisting and effectively separated from all other parts of the industrial estab- lishment. The parts of the building in which the prime movers are located should have ample light and adequate ventilation, espe- cially where there is a large escape of steam which interferes with the proper light conditions and causes dripping upon floors and slipping and falling of persons. No overcrowding should be per- mitted in the engine room, and whenever engines, motors or parts of the machinery are located in pits, they should be fenced around and railed so as to prevent persons from falling into them. The engineer or the persons in charge of the motors should be able to FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 185 stop them quickly, and signals audible in all parts of the establish- ment should be made for the starting and stopping of the motors. All engines should be equipped with automatic speed limit stops and with devices for stopping the machinery in each department or floor when necessary. When parts of the machines or engines are overhead, stationary iron ladders or stairways should be provided for reaching them. Governor balls, pistqji rods, etc., whenever exposed, should be properly guarded. Flywheels should be locked for repairs and cleaning. Flywheels constitute the first stage by which power is trans- mitted from the motor to the other parts of the machinery. They should be railed off and fenced just as other parts of the motors, or safeguarded by being entirely covered with wire mesh. The danger of flywheels lies in their huge size, their rapid rotation and the draught they create, which is often strong enough to draw in the clothes of a worker passing near them. The accompanying illustrations show some of the methods of protecting workers against accidents from flywheels. Wherever driving belts, ropes, etc., are passed through floors they are very dangerous. Such driving belts, ropes and chains, whether going through the floor or running horizontally, should be properly safeguarded by rails, fences, bars, metal wire mesh or solid covers to prevent the persons working or passing near from being drawn into them. The danger of gears, cog wheels, sprocket wheels and other rotating, moving and turning parts of the machinery of transmission lies in their projections, in the speed which they usually attain and in the possibility of their drawing in the clothes and parts of the bodies of workers near them. The method of safeguarding such machinery is simple and consists in covering them with metal or wire mesh, as illustrated in the accompanying flgures. Perhaps there is no more dangerous part of the machinery than the rapidly moving shafts through which the power is transmitted from the motors. Their danger also consists in the possibiUty of persons being injured by being drawn into these shafts. The safe- guarding of a shaft is necessary whether it is located near the floor or near the ceiling, or in any part of the building where it is in the proximity of the workers, either at all times or at certain times, when the machinery is being cleaned, etc. Many accidents have happened through failure to safeguard shafts which were above the ordinary height of persons. 186 THE MODERN FACTOEY The safeguarding of shafts consists in covering them with fixed or adjustable covers, either of metal or of some other material, as illustrated in the accompanying figures. It is important to safeguard the ends of shafts, as many accidents happen when the passageway between them is too narrow. Very often hinged plate covers are Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Protruding Set Screw and Keyway. Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co- Countersunk Set Screw and Unprotected Shaft End. used on top of the shafts, or hinged aprons extending down from the outside edges of the plate to cover the shaft. These aprons are usually made of wire screen on steel frames. Wherever shafts are near the floor and are not covered, they should be boxed or railed' Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Safety Collars for Set Screws. off. Wherever shafts are overhead, solid and suitable platforms for the use of cleaners and oilers should be provided. On a motor- driven line of shafting, a safety switch must be placed on top of the ladder, accessible to anyone working on this shafting. Wherever FACTOEY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 187 railing is used for safeguarding machinery, motors, flywheels, etc., it should be smooth l|-inch angle iron or 1^-inch iron pipe, prop- erly fastened and solidly constructed. A dangerous part of transmission apparatus consists in the collars, coupUngs and screws with which shafts are fastened. Of the set-screws an authority says : " Insignificant as it looks, the protruding set-screw in collars on shafting is the cause of more accidents than any other part of the machinery, and " quite serious accidents leading to very bad injuries to workers. The danger of the set-screw is its rapid motion on the shafting and its catching and entangling loose sleeves, clothes or anything which comes in contact with it. It has often been the cause of a worker being caught and whirled around shafting and sometimes even fatally injured. There is absolutely no neces- sity for these dangerous protruding set-screws. Protruding set- screws should not be allowed to exist at all. They should either be countersunk so that- they will not project beyond the surface of the collar, or they may be made in hollow form flush with the collar; and in both cases may be worked with some sort of a key. Sometimes when set screws are already constructed, they maybe made safe by putting upon them a safety collar made of wood, in a hole of which the screw is placed. Safety collars are made in two parts and are screwed together on the shaft. The method of safe- guarding a protruding screw by winding some leather or rubber or waste around it is not a good method, as the material may often be unwound or get loose. The best collars perhaps are those safety collars which are fixed on the shafting without the aid of any set- screws at all." * Belts, Chains, Ropes, Pulleys, Etc. The transmission of power from the motors to machines, wheels, shafts, etc., is accompUshed by gears, ropes, chains and belts. Chains and ropes are infrequently used and only on special transmission apparatus. Belts are made of stout leather of a width corresponding to the width of the part of the machinery to be used and of a thickness and strength calculated to withstand the necessary strain. The danger points in belts are the possibility of sudden tearing or breaking while in motion, or catching the clothes or part of the body of a person in their prox- imity. A large number of accidents in every factory are caused by belts. Whenever belts are used they should be made of smooth leather without any projections, and great attention must be paid to their lacing and splicing, which are often faulty aiid cause many accidents. 188 THE MODERN FACTORY While inspecting factories one frequently sees belts being tied together with wire, which may protrude and become a source of dangerous injury to workers. In whatever position the belts are, Courtesy Norton Co., Worcester, Maas. Wooden Guards for Belting. whether upright, horizontal, overhead or near the floor, they should be covered and safeguarded by either wire mesh or other covers. Exposed belts should be boxed in or railed off where they are not covered, and when they run near where persons are working. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 189 Courtesy Aetna Llle Insuranre (. i Driving Belt in Aisle Boxed In. Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Guarded Countershaft Used in Driving a Lathte. 190 THE MODERN FACTORY A great many accidents due to belting are caused by hand shifting; and one of the cardinal principles of safety in a factory is the absolute prohibition of handling a belt without using proper shifters. Especially is it dangerous to attempt to shift an over- S o o g o -a 3 O PL, .a Pi 3 p. head belt which necessitates climbing over dangerous machin- ery. No belt should be carried directly on a shaft but should be placed on pulleys, of which there should be two — one a permanent pulley and the other a loose pulley, to which the belt may be shifted when it is not in use. Loose pulleys or idlers should be provided FACTOR'S ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 191 on all machinery, and the shifting apparatus should be so arranged that when the belt is moved to the loose pulley it will stay there and not creep back on the tight pulley and thus start the machinery (a) Using the Shifter. (6) Transmission Ladder. (c) Belt Shifter. ^3- (d) Belt Hanger. Hartmann's UnfaUverhutungstechntt, with which it is connected. The loose pulley should be indepen- dently mounted; and pulleys should be made somewhat wider than the width of the belt. In German factories hangers, are provided 192 THE MODEEN FACTOEY for the belts to be shifted upon, especially where shafts are near the ceiling. A great many attached and unattached belt shifters have been devised for the purpose of shifting the belt from one pulley to another without danger to the worker. Some of the illustrations show the principles upon which these are constructed. Where belts % \ Y il L ^ — - si < \ 1 Courtesy Aetna LUe Inaurauce Co. Belt Placer. This is a German device. It is hinged in two places and at the en4„is a fork which fits the shaft. At the first joint is a shoe on which the belt is placed to guide it on the pulley. The second jomt, or the one nearest the handle, permits the placer to run around the pulley until the shoe is released between the belt and the pulley. have to be frequently removed, the guards should be made on hinges or hooks. The cleaning, lubricating and oiling of engines, motors, shafts, gears, and other parts of machinery while in motion may be pre- vented by the provision of self-oilers and self-lubricating devices, of which there are a number on the market. FACTOEY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 193 VI MACHINERY Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co. Punch Press Showing Safety Guard in Operation. Clutch cannot be tripped unless the guard descends past the shear plane. It is difficult to make hard-and-fast rules for the safeguarding of machinery of all kinds and types. In most industrial establish- 194 THE MODERN FACTORY ments the machinery conforms to a limited number of types, such as: (1) hammers, presses and punches; (2) rolls and calenders; (3) grinders, mixers and centrifugal machines; (4) emery wheels, polishers and buffers; (5) saws. Hammers, Presses and Punches. There are many types of Corbln Cabinet Lock Co., New Britain, Conn. Safety Guard on Press. machines which have for their principle a downward movement of one part of the machine, for the purpose of hammering, pressing or punching various materials. Every industry has machines of this type. They are especially numerous in the metal, paper, textile, leather and similar trades. The construction, size and details of each machine differ according to the industry and kind of work. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 195 Some of them are worked by hand, others by foot power; while others are automatic and mechanical. Some of these machines are fed by hand, others are fed automatically by self-feeders or revolving feeding arrangements and conveyors. All of these types of machines are dangerous, in that the fingers and hands may be caught under the hammer, press or punch. This happens either because the operator stretches his hand too far while feeding the machine or tries to correct the position of the Courtesy Benjamin Electric Mfg. Co. Two-Hand Safety Device. die or the material inserted, or attempts to clean the die; or, finally, because of slipping and falling under the press. There are a number of methods by which machines of this type are safeguarded. The best method, of course, is that which pro- vides for automatic feeding of presses, hammers, and punches either by conveyors or revolving feeders, thus obviating the neces- sity of hand feeding. This has been accompUshed in beer bottling, cigarette making, box making, confectionery and other machines of this type, and has resulted in a great reduction of accidents. Insecure footing and consequent falling of persons upon the machine is prevented by properly constructed floors and by providing rubber or other non-slipping mats. Foot treadles may be constructed so as not to be easily operated 196 THE MODERN FACTORY except at certain intervals, by the conscious pressure of the foot. Presses may be equipped with a speed clutch which prevents them Courtesy Pullman Co. Plate Glass Guard (indicated by arrow) to Prevent Chips from Punch Lacerating the Eyeball of the Operator. from making more than one stroke with each depression of the treadle. This clutch is so made that it is impossible for the operator to repeat the press. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 197 For the purpose of preventing the hands of the operator from coming under the press, punch or hammer, there are several kinds of safeguards based upon different principles. One class of safe- guards provides for intermediate instruments or tools, by which the objects fed into the machine are handled. Such tools vary from a simple piece of wood by which the object is shoved under the press, to variously constructed tongs, forks, or other appliances which "''^^ralF^^^^^^'^W^^^^^^H ^^•"C w^M r***.^^^^^^ 1 ^ }^sk It" ■ ^j^'^-^^Bk ^^^^S^^SSMfl^ ^^^jy^jiii** Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Guarded Stamping Machine Used in Soap Factory. The operator must put his hand over one of the two arms attached to the shaft to put the soap in position on the die. When the punch descends, the arms rise automatically and force the operator's hands out of the way. prevent the hand from approaching the machine. Other safeguards are constructed upon the principle of the " two-hand system." This consists in making every movement of the press necessitate the handling of two levers simultaneously, which engages the hands of the operator while the press is in motion, and thus prevents them from getting under the machine. This is the best means of pre- venting accidents. The objection which is usually made against 198 THE MODERN FACTORY this method of safeguarding is the fact that the operator is compelled to adjust his die and material under the press first, and then take charge of the hand levers. This takes some time and the operation is consequently not so rapid. Another system of safeguarding this type of machine is by providing bars, plates or arms, each so constructed that with Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Stamping Press Guard. Operator's hands are pushed away by the guard. every descending movement of the press or punch, they auto- matically force the operator's hands out of the way. This is a device which may be easily constructed by any mechanic. Most of the existing safeguards are constructed according to one or other of the above named principles, and most of them are quite effective, easily constructed, and should be installed in every factory. (See illustrations for details of the safeguarding methods described.) FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 199 Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co. Corner Cutting Machine in Paper Box Department, Showing Adjustable Rods Forming a Protentive Stop for Operator's Hands and Fingers. 200 THE MODERN FACTORY Rolls, Calenders, Etc. These machines are of various types, sizes and construction and are found in almost every industry. Their principal action is to catch an object and then by passing it between several close rolls, to flatten, roll, knead, mix, break up Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co- Calender Rolls with Safety Clutch. Power may be instantly shut off by operator pressing on lever indicated by arrow. or press it. Sometimes these rolls are made in the form of knives with the same rolling action. Rolls and calenders are used in the metal industry for flattening and rolling bars and plates of metal, in all industries where certain masses are to be formed into flat or other shapes, in all industries where kneading, mixing and breaking FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 201 up is done, such as flour mills, and confectionery factories; also in textile and clothing trades where ironing or pressing is done. This type of machine is more dangerous than the press, punch and hammer previously described, for the reason that while in the former a hand or part of the body may be stamped upon and injured, in the rolls the whole body may be drawn in after the hand and arm, and fatal injury may result. Especially is this the case with heavy rolls such as are used in the metal industry. The principles of safeguarding these machines and preventing 2_v'' 'R'^^^ ' Courtesy Aetna Llle Insurance Co. Collar and Cuff Ironer Guarded. Shows guarding of gearing and protective bar in front of the feed rolls. accidents to workers operating them are not very different from those upon which are based the safeguards for presses and punches. The same precautions against insecure footing of the operator are to be taken; in fact, it is more important with these machines than with others. The devices alluded to before for the intermediate handling and feeding of the objects under the machine may be employed for this type of machine as well, although it is perhaps necessary to modify them in some respects. The feeding tools 202 THE MODEEN FACTOEY used should be thick enough to prevent their being caught between the rolls. It is not as easy to provide self-feeders and automatic conveyors ±iartmaan'8 UTifaUverhiitungstechnik. Calender Hand Safety Guard. Hartmann's U7lfaUverhutun3:,*echni\. Metal safety bar to prevent fingers from getting into the rolla. for rolls as for punches and presses; on the other hand, it is easier to provide some apparatus on which the object may be carried into the rolls without intermediate handling by the operator. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 203 An important safeguard on this type of machine is an apparatus by which the action of the rolls may be stopped and reversed in case of accident and thus disengage the caught part. An auxiliary wooden roller is often constructed at the intake in front of the feed rolls. Bars or strips of wood may be placed in front of certain feed rolls, especially in laundry machinery, so as to prevent the hand from being drawn in. Most ironing machines may be easily guarded by such bars or rods. Grinders, Mixers, Centrifugal Machines, Etc. This type of machine is used for grinding or mixing materials. These niachines Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Concave Safety Collars for Emery Wheel. are worked either by hand or by power-driven motors. A number of them are constructed on the principle of centrifugal action. The safeguarding of this type of machine consists first, in pro- viding secure footing for the operator; second, in using proper material in the construction of the machines; third, in the provision of brakes or other devices to permit the immediate stoppage of the machines in case of an accident; and finally, in the provision of suitable guards and covers so as to prevent the drawing in of the hands of the operator. (See illustration on page 207.) The princi- pal protection for this kind of machine is a mechanical or electrical device by which the cover is kept down as long as the machine is in action; and may only be raised and opened when the machine is at rest. 204 THE MODERN FACTORY FROTECTION s"! HOOD fe2il:C.-i--.4:v Courtesy Norton Co.. Worcester, Mass. Cross-section of Emery Wheel. FACTOEY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 205 Oourtes? NortoD Co. Closed T^e of Protection Hood on Grinding Wheel Floor Stand. Hoods connected with a dust exhaust syatem. 206 THE MODEEN FACTORY Museum 01 Salety, CharlottenburK. Berlin. Safeguard on Grinder; also Dust Remover. FACTOEY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 207 Museum of Safety, Caiarlottenburg, Berlin. Showing How Guards Kept the Broken Grindstone from Injuring the Workers. Museum of Safety. Charlottenburg, Berlin. Safety Centrifuge. (Cover cannot be opened as long as centrifuge is in motion.) 208 THE MODEEN FACTORY Emery Wheels, Grindstones, Polishers, Buffers, Etc. Emery and other wheels used for grinding and polishing are principally guarded by iron and steel covers which leave only a small space for the actufil operation, and cover all the rest of the wheel, so that in case of bursting of the wheel, injury to the operator and to those in the proximity of the machine is prevented. Much of the safety of a grinding wheel depends upon the material of which it is made, upon the character of its mounting, upon the proper oiling of its bearings, and upon a moderate speed which it should not exceed. Saws. There are many types, kinds and sizes of saws, most of which are used in the wood industry. The saws are named Courtesy Aetna Lite Insurance Go. Splitter Adjusted to Large Saw. according to their shape and functions: such as circular, band, rip, swing, equalizer, etc. The dangerous part of all saws is the sharp cutting edge which may come in contact with the hand or part of the body of the opera- tor. Accidents occur through the slipping of the hand which feeds the object to be sawed, through attempting to clean the saw while in motion, by the jumping back of the wood, by reaching the arm over the saw, by the under part of the saw coming in contact with part of the body, etc. Circular saws are more dangerous than others, although there is hardly a saw which is not dangerous. The general methods of preventing accidents due to saws do not differ much from those adopted in operating other machinery. These methods may be summarized as follows: (1) secure footing for the operator to avoid slipping or falhng on the saw; (2) a properly constructed working device to stop the runnii^ saw immediately either by throwing off the belt on a pulley or by FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 209 other means; (3) proper care in feeding the wood to be sawed; (4) the use of a guide or push-sticlc in feeding so as to prevent the hand from reaching the saw; (5) the wearing by the operator of suitable clothes; (6) the stoppage of outdoor sawing in very cold weather, Courtesy Lockhart-Jones Co., Inc., Buffalo. N. Y. Circular Saw Guard: Closed Front Hood. as the hands then become numb and accidents are more liable to occur; (7) the appointing of a worker (called an " off-bearer ") to take care of the finished material behind circular saws. The off- bearers must not use their han4s for withdrawing the sawed wood, ^^^^^B P*^*^^ ^m m Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Combination of Splitter with Light and Shallow Hood Protection for Top of Saw. but should use hooks or other tools; (8) proper inspection and fre- quent periodical tests of the saws so as to insure their proper con- dition; (9) frequent oiling and setting to prevent the saw from wobbling; (10) keeping the saws well sharpened and their speed regulated. 210 THE MODERN FACTOEY One of the indispensable safeguards of circular saws is the splitter. A splitter is a metal disc or arc that is firmly attached Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. SpEtter Guard for Circular Saw. Hood is adjustable and hinged so as to be always close down over saw, except when raised by material coming in contact with the split finger arrangement in front. behind a circular saw, and serves to spread the board or slab away from the log or plank from which it is being sawed, so that the saw Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Circular Saw Guard. Combination of splitter with a hood-like protection for top of the saw. Dog attached to splitter to aid in holding wood down. runs freely and the wood is prevented from pinching. The use of a splitter does away with the necessity for the operator to reach over the saw, or an off-bearer to try to catch hold of the board, FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 211 ^^^ L _ JBhL___^^s^ t'^mSmS^ /^^^^b^f ^f^P^BBSS2!*is*fc5s--''--"' /i^SA'TTr^T '.■V"r"7^~r^rSfiSrtEm&'flf/ "^' ■■ -t~ 7 ' / ^" " , ■ . Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Wire Hood Guard Supported by Bracket on Pedestal Curved to Permit Cross- cutting or Dadoing, and also prevents pinching and jumping back of caught pieces. Splitters should be made of the best steel, smooth and securely fastened. They are usually made curved and should be properly ad- justed to be in exact alignment with the saw and close behind it. German regulations of the Woodworking Trade Association give detailed and exact dimensions in millimeters for the location and position of the split- ter, its size, height, etc. A second very important part in the safeguarding of saws which is, .as a rule, applicable to all kinds and types of saws, is a cover or hood, usually made of wood, or metal, or wire mesh, which covers all the parts of the saw whether above or below the table, which are not actually necessary for the operation of the saw, and should also cover the Museum of Safety, Charlottenburg, Berlin. Saw Provided with Iron Safety Cover and Feeder; Cover not Connected with Feeder; so Arranged as to Allow ^Un- covering of Saw only so much as is Absolutely Needed, 212 THE MODERN FACTORY whole saw when it is not in use. These covers are made in different shapes and designs according to the character of the saw which they are to protect. They should always be properly fast- | ened so that their use is not within the option of the worker and should always be in position. Of course, these covers must not interfere with the proper feeding of the wood. Some of these covers in circular saws may be attached to sphtters or they may be hung from above. The accompanying illustrations show types of hoods and covers adaptable to various kinds of saws and are explained in the caption under each illustra- tion. Wherever it is possible to adopt feeding tables so as to obviate the necessity of a direct feeding by hand, it should be done; and this is possible in a great many cases and with a variety of saws. Other types of saws which are less dangerous than the circular saw also need to be protected. Some of the methods of protection are shown in the illustrations. VII GENERAL METHODS OF ACCIDENT PREVENTION IN SPECIAL INDUSTRIES Besides the dangers from accidents in factories due to the causes previously discussed, there are in each and every industry some special danger points which are peculiar to that industry alone. The grouping of industries differs, but there are general groups such as the metal trade, wood industry, textile trade, and che- mical industry, which are treated as industrial units in every country. The rate and character of the accidents differ in each of these groups. The accident rate per thousand employes in England is 21.6 in the nietal industry, and only 6 for the textile industry; while it is 21.7 in the wood industry, 8.26 in the chemical industry and 12.7 for all industries. This refers only to accidents caused by cer- tain specified dangerous appUances and reported by the certifying surgeons. The general rate of accidents other than those reported by the certifying surgeons is much larger. German statistics give only accidents involving disablement lasting longer than thirteen weeks; and, according to the German FACTOEY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 213 statistics, the wood industry shows the largest rate of accidents (12.28 per thousand employes), with a general rate of 9.44 per thousand in all industries, 3 per thousand in the textile industry, 7.73 per thousand in the metal industry, and 9.88 per thousand in the chemical industry. New York State statistics, as far as they can be obtained for 1910,' show a rate per thousand of 25.2 in all industries and 142 per thousand in the chemical industry. The figures for New York State are disproportionately large because they include trivial as well as serious accidents. Without going into details of the special processes in each of the Courtesy Aetna Llle Insurance Co. Pinion and Gear of Tumbling Barrel Protected by Sheet Metal Guard. several industries, certain general methods of accident prevention- will be briefly discussed here. The Metal Industry. The metal industry, in which metal is smelted and cast and metal articles manufactured, shows a large number of accidents, as is proved by various state reports. There are many danger points in this industry, some of which have already been discussed. The more serious accidents occurring in steel plants are due to transportation and to certain types of machines, which have been discussed above. During the process of smelting and casting, injuries may be caused by sparks, splashes of molten metal, slipping near red hot rails, etc. According to figures cited by the "Wisconsin Industrial Commission, the records of that state show that in 1912 "311 accidents were reported in which 214 THE MODEEN FACTOEY men were disabled for more than seven days because of serious burns from molten metal. In all, a total of 5,700 working days were lost by molders and molders' helpers due to this one cause. In one plant alone nearly 800 days were lost, which amounts to about one day during the year for every employe. Of the 311 accidents reported, 62 or 20 per cent occurred while metal was being poured into molds, 53 or 17 per cent while molten lead was being carried in hand ladles; 32 or 11 per cent because of stumbling in obstructed passageways; 30 or 10 per cent while ladles were being filled at the cupola. ■ Metal explosions caused 19 accidents; 18 were caused by metal running out of molds; in 12 cases the ladle was defective and the hot metal broke through. Other accidents were due to various causes. Men carrying ladles bumped each other; on tipping the cupola sparks of metal burned men standing near; ladles fell from tongs, splashing the contents in all directions; ladle trucks jumped the tracks, tipping over and spilling the metal, etc. In 70 per cent of these accidents, the injured persons had one or both feet seriously burned; 43 cases resulted in injured eyes, one of which caused permanent impairment of sight; 19 cases resulted in burns to the legs and 26 in burns to other parts of the body." * The above indicates some of the causes of accidents in metal shops resulting in burns. Besides burns, other injuries frequently occurring in metal shops are due to heavy metal objects falling on the feet and other parts of the body, and to gases and fumes engendered during the process of smelting and poxiring, where no methods are employed to remove them from the foundry. A recent investigation of foundry workers demonstrated that they are subject to many diseases, especially of the respiratory organs, 'caused by the extreme temperature to which they are exposed, and to the general lack of sanitation in ordinary foundries. The New York State Factory Commission, in its investigation in New York State, found that industrial insurance statistics show an excessive mortality rate from consumption among foundry workers, which becomes marked between the ages of twenty-five and thirty-four, a time when the workers are in the very prime of life. Among the recommendations of the Commission were the following: that all foundries should be properly hghted during working hours; that gangways should be so constructed and main- tained as to make their use reasonably safe, and that such gang- ways should not be obstructed in any way; and that flasks, * Bulletin Industrial Commission of Wisconsin, Vol. II, No. 8, p. 183. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 215 molding machines, ladles, cranes and apparatus for transporting molten metal in foundries should be maintained in proper con- dition and repair. The Commission also recommended provisions for washing facilities, for toilet accommodations and recommended the prohibition of the employment of women in core rooms, where such rooms were not separated from the ovens by solid partitions. There are, of course, many excellently constructed and model foundries throughout the country. The prevention of accidents from burns is accomplished by pro- viding sufficient light, by having the employes property clothed and supplied with stout congress shoes or special shoes manufactured for foundry workers; by protecting the eyes of the workers from glare, sparks and splashes with suitable goggles and glasses; by having the hand ladles equipped with hand shields; by the provision of tongs and better methods of handling and carrying molten metal in pots, etc.; by having all gangways in the foundry free from obstructions; and by a system of supervision and inspection that insures compliance with all the rules and regulations of the shop. The Wood Industry. Accidents occurring in the wood industry are due to the use of sharp cutting knives, saws, etc., which often come in contact with the hands of the workers, injuring them more or less severely. We have already spoken of the dangers of saws and the methods of safeguarding them. Perhaps the next most dangerous machines in the wood industry are the " jointers " or " buzz planers." As the Bulletin of the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin says: " Of all the hazards of the wood-working industry, none is so great as the old-fashioned square-head jointer or buzz planer. The aimual harvest of fingers and hands in this state alone is appalling. Four out of every one hundred accidents in this industry occur on jointers. No other machine on which any number of accidents occurred — with the exception of cornshredders and feed cutters — has caused so many permanent disabilities in proportion to the num- ber of accidents. Of the 77 accidents reported, 44, or 57 per cent, resulted in the loss of one or more fingers. In one case the operator had his entire hand removed. In all, a total of 71 fingers or parts of fingers, and one hand, were cut off by these machines. In four cases four fingers were cut off; in two cases, three fingers; in eleven cases, two fingers, and in twenty-seven cases, one finger. " All but two of these accidents occurred on the square-headed jointer. In the two instances reported, in which the machines were equipped with safety cyhnder heads, the injured person merely 216 THE MODERN FACTORY suffered a slight abrasion at the tips of his fingers. Germany has long since prohibited the use of this old type of ' head. Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Old Style Square Buzz Planer (Showing the position the hand ia liable to get into, and the almost certain consequences.) Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Safety Cylinder for Buzz Planer. Presents a regular surface and prevents thi fingers from getting down below the table top am thereby being cut oS or severely damaged. Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Done with Square Cylinder Planer. Courtesy Aetna Life Insurance Co. Done with Circular Cylinder Planer. The illustrations on this page show an old style square head, a safety circular cylinder and the character of the injuries caused by the square-head as compared with those caused by the circular cyhnders. The danger of the old style square-head, as one authority says, lies in the fact that : * Bulletin of Industrial Commission of Wisconsin, Vol. II, No. 4, February 20, 1913, FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 217 "Under ordinary circumstances the operator is dependent wholly upon his hands for control of his work. With them he pushes the stock over the knives and also keeps it firmly pressed to the tables so as to secure even cut. They are therefore brought fre- quently m close proximity to the danger point, the gap between the two tables m which the knife head is rapidly revolving. Any one of a number of causes is apt to throw a hand off the material and into the knives. A knot or change in grain may be struck, too heavy a cut may be taken, a piece of stock may be too small for such planmg, or the operator may be doing his work carelessly. Courtesy LockhartHodge Co.. Inc., Buffalo, N. Y. Double Cut-off Saw Guard. / Whatever the cause, the result is pretty sure to be a serious injm-y unless everything possible has been done to guard the machine. Some of the causes of accidents can be foreseen by the ope- rator and avoided; but others are beyond his control and on both accounts the jointer requires as complete protection as can be given it." * The safety cylinder is a most effective means for preventing accidents. The use of such a cylinder also prevents the kicking back of the material which is being planed. The guards which are * Van Schaack: Wood-Working Safeguards, Aetna Life Insurance Company, p. 101. 218 THE MODERN FACTORY being used on saws are illustrated in the accompanying figures. Some of these guards are adjusted vertically and horizontally and L'^ Courtesy Lockhart-Jones Co., Inc.. Buffalo, N. Y. Band Saw Guard. can be swung to one side. A number of these guards may be made by a mechanic within the shop, and most of them are effective in the prevention of accidents. There are several other machines in FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 219 use in the wood industry, such as shapers, sanders, lathes, planers, etc., all of which have serious danger points. They should be f-.r^: • f^^KI jm. ■Mil c f. * ■i'^' ^^. - -v.;"rMfeii ^^ i«te.; . ' :/ ■'■■" '"^^'^P^H #'■.:„■ 5?S« ^-^ /■ ■ ■ ^^^Hiymiy /\ b-A ■'" -■• /;. ;fe Kl: ■"•^ i^ *^^3 ^^^^wjf; _*^t.>-* ^^H ISni^r^. - Courtesy Aetna LlJe Insurance Co. Rip Saw Guard. When there is no piece being sawed, guard hangs down completely covering saw. When board is started, guard rises up &t-(A) as shown in (1), rising against springs (CC) and turning on the joints (DD) and (EE). equipped with guards or the workers should wear some kind of protectors in order to prevent contact with the knives. Courtesy Aetna Lire Insurance Co. German Finger Guard. Iron plate strips attached to strip extending along top of saw and oblique to the sawing direction. Strips lifted one by one by material fed and fall back into place after material has passed by. / The Chemical Industry. A report of the New York State factory commission for 1913 gives -the following summary of the 220 THE MODERN FACTOET investigations conducted in the chemical industry under my direction: " The workers in the chemical trades are subject to dangers peculiar to those industries. Chief among these are poisonous substances handled by the workers throughout the work-day; open and unfenced vats or pans containing acids or hot and corrosive HartmaDQ's Un/allterJiutungstechnit. Safe Method of Filling Acid Bottles. liquids; abnormal physical conditions such as great heat or cold, variable atmospheric pressure and humidity; dangerous processes, etc. Due to the dangers peculiar to the chemical trades, laws have been passed in the various European countries as well as in some of the states of the United States regulating the chemical Indus-- tries."* * Report of the Director, 2d Report of New York State Factory Investigating Commission, Vol. II, p. 611. FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 221 The number of fatal and permanent injuries per thousand work- ers in the chemical trades in New Yojrk State exceeds by far the number in England, Germany and France. A large number of the accidents can be eliminated by taking proper precautions; such as fencing of vats and pans, and carrying off dust and fumes. The prevention of accidents due to burns caused by the action of acids and alkalies is possible if the workers wear appropriate overalls, shoes, gloves, caps and goggles, and exercise care in oart- BelglSD Labor Report, 1912. (o) Safety Apparatus for Emptying Acid Bottles. ing, lifting and carrying carboys, flasks, etc., and in handUng danger- ous materials. Serious and painful accidents result from faUing into vats, pans, and caldrons, filled with chemicals and hot and dangerous hquids. It is astonishing to note that in some large factories where other- wise humane conditions prevail, it is not thought necessary to safe- guard vats filled with dangerous chemicals. Thus, I found in an otherwise well-managed estabUshment, pots filled with caustic 222 THE MODERN FACTORY potash, every spurt of which causes bad burns, entirely unpro- tected, with workmen standipg on top of these slippery vats, ladling out the boiling contents without any precaution taken for their safety. Indeed, I was told that two men had fallen into these caustic pots, instantly losing their lives. The photograph on page 227 which I had taken while inspecting factories in which ■■1 H ■' !! w ^yiBi ^^w '"'"*' ^,Bg^^^ ^^^ ) ''I^hHI^I |^int^miL|f^ / ' aKu I'j; ^ ^v%^^^^v)^^B9^PS^n4 ^^^Hj^^^''- -' f^fc 'J Belgian Labor Report, 1912. (6) Apparatus in Use. (Note: Not entirely safe; does not prevent spurting of acids into face.) these caustic pots were used, shows the dangerous conditions existing. There are three methods by which vats, pans, and caldrons may be effectively safeguarded: (1) by raising them above the floor to a height sufficiently great so as to .make it impossible for a person to fall into them; (2) by covering the vats with adjustable covers either of solid metal, wire mesh or other material; and (3) by railing or fencing them around so as to make it impossible for a person to fall into them. The Textile Industry. The number of accidents occurring to workers in the textile trade is large and is due to the complexity FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 223 Annual Report ot the Belgian Labor Ofdce, 1912. Soap Vat with Safety Grille: Grille lifted for the introduction of materials. Annual Report of the Belgian Labor Offlce, 1912. Same as above: Grille closed to prevent workman from falling in during the mixing. 224 THE MODERN FACTORY of the machinery as well as to the character of the persons, many of them women or minors, who operate the machines. A great many of the accidents are due to general causes as well as to the machines, transmission apparatus and other processes in the establishment, the dangers of which have already been discussed. Many of the accidents occurring in the textile industry may be prevented by proper precautions and by the installation of appro- A Safeguarded Roving Machine. priate safeguards. An interesting experiment was made by the Enghsh factory inspection department in calling special conferences of employers, operatives and inspectors to discuss the safeguards ItO be employed in special industries and to agree upon rules and regulations to be adopted. Several conferences have been held and reports issued covering conferences between employers, operatives and inspectors, regarding fencing of machinery and other safeguards FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 225 226 THE MODERN FACTOKY in the cotton spinning mills, in cotton weaving sheds and in woolen? and worsted mills. As an example of the results of such conferences, I believe it will o3 01 o o .9 as a 3 :';'- , 1 11 1^ 4?'^^/ 1 UaM ^ ^V^/: ^ 1 ■*' ''*/ '*rji^^ . l^^a^ :,: «5fmi^^ '^ ^H 1 ']^^S!!^H •* HV ' ^ ■ I ^'^^^ ■^":\«R:.., HHB"*'Tn*-/- '*■:'. ^^«fi ■,,i*flfif^-^ "'"■""'" Courtesy Joseph Bancrolt & Sods Co., WUmlngton, Del. Calender Pulley and Nip Guards. FACTOEY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 229 NOTES OP AGREEMENT BETWEEN EMPLOYERS, OPERATIVES AND INSPECTORS CONCERNING SAFEGUARDS IN COTTON WEAVING FACTORIES. Fencing and Safeguards. I. General Provisions: (a) On new machinery all projecting set-screws on con- tinuously revolving parts shall either be countersunk or be otherwise efficiently protected. Projecting set-screws on existing machinery shall be replaced wherever practicable by grub-screws. Where pro- jecting set-screws are placed inside box pulleys, they shall be deemed to be efficiently fenced. (6) On new. machinery the following wheels shall be plated: (1) Balance wheels on looms; these to be without perforations except near the rim of the wheel. (2) Flywheels on sectional warping machines, where the wheel is on the outside of machine. (c) Ladders, other than step-ladders, shall be fitted with . hooks or other non-skid device. (d) Heavy overhead main driving belts or ropes shall be guarded underneath in all cases where there is liability of persons having to pass under them. It is agreed that there may be instances where the principle of thi§ rule should be applied to counter- driving belts. (e) Metal fasteners shall not be used for overhead driving unless the belt itself be securely fenced^provided that this rule shall not apply to metal fasteners con- sisting of a continuous wire stitching held together by a peg, other than a metal peg. (/) Any woman or girl working about machinery shall have her hair put up, or otherwise confined in a net. (g) A supply of sterilized dressings shall be kept available for first aid for any operative who receives a cut or wound. (h) Floors, passages, and stairways are to be kept in good repair, and free from accumulations of dirt or size. Sand shall be provided for use on slippery floors. II. Fencing of Machinery and Other Safeguards: Winding Frames. Fencing shall be provided for: (1) Traverse motion and mangle motion wheels, when on the outside of the frame; also when inside the frame, if the frame has an open end and the wheels are placed near that end. 230 THE MODERN FACTOEY (2) Where there is a double tin roller, the toothed wheels and the rope drive at the end of the rollers. (3) Bevel wheels driving spindles of "Jumbo " cop winding frames. Warping Machines. All bevel wheels, and also tooth and pinion wheels on winding-on machines shall be fenced. Size Becks. The following shall be fenced : (1) Bevel wheels working dashers, unless otherwise safe by position. (2) Spur wheels at side of beck (if any). (3) Cogs on boihng pan, and also the shaft connected with the same, if the shaft is on the floor level — unless these be otherwise safe by position. Taping Machines : (0) On new machines the distance between the periphery of the smaller and larger cylinders shall not be less than six inches. (6) The following shall be fenced: (1) Set-screws and bevel wheels on side shaft. (2) Measuring motion wheels, unless safe by posi- tion. (3) Bevel wheels and upright shaft for driving colored or top box (to be encased). (4) Speed change wheels. (5) Gears working cylinder at end of dry taping machines. «. Looms : (1) Shuttle guards to be provided in all cases. Eod guards shall be fixed as low as possible. A space of not less than five-eighths of an inch must be left between the temple and the guard, provided that this part of this rule shall not apply to velvet looms or to looms of 60-inch reed space and over. Later- ally the guard shall extend to at least half the shuttle's length from the spindle stud bolt on over- pick looms, or the trash plate on underpick looms. (2) Except where the hammer head always extends over the breast beam, there shall be a space of not less than three-quarters of an inch between the hammer head and the beam. (3) Duck-bills on all loose reed looms shall be protected both above and below, unless they are of such construction, or in such a position as to be equally safe as if they were protected. (4) Tappet, twill motion and barrel motion wheels on all looms, whether placed underneath or at the side of looms, shall be fenced, unless they are safe by FACTORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY 231 position behind the balance wheel, with the ingather ing point on the side next the slay. (5) Overhead driving shaft on jacquard looms shall be fenced (6) On new looms finger-room (one inch) shall be provided between the set-screws on the heald shaft and the top of the loom. Note: Agreed to for old looms, also, where space can be provided by the adjustment of bracket and where the distance between the healds and the slay suffices. (7) There shall be a space of not less than one inch between the connecting rods driving the dobby and the framework of the loom, and between the stay and the picking-stick a space of not less than two inches. (8) No weight shall be suspended from the weight rope, or hooked on to the top of another weight, and levers shall not be allowed to project in such a way as to obstruct the alley. This rule shall only be deemed to apply to the bottom beam. Plaiting Machines: The spur wheels driving the bottom shaft shall be fenced. III. Spacing of Looms: In new sheds there shall be at the backs of the looms a space of at least a foot between the flanges of the beams, and in the alleys a space of not less than 2 feet 6 inches between slay and slay. Provided that in new sheds with looms over 72 inches in width, in which overhead trolleys for the beams are not provided, there shall be a space of 15 inches left between the flanges of the beams. IV. Cleaning Machinery: Women, young persons, and children shall not clean under- neath any loom while it is in motion. V. Lifting of Heavy Weights: » (1) Women, young persons, and children shall not be employed to lift, carry or move anything so heavy as to be likely to cause injury to them. (2) Women, young persons, and children shall not assist the overlooker in hfting beams into the looms. VI. Lighting of Dark Passages and Stairways: Passages and staircases shall be effectively lighted either by natural or artificial means. CHAPTER V LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES The Importance of Light in Factories. Light is an essential work- ing condition in all industrial establishments and is also of para- mount influence in the preservation of the health of the workers. There is no condition within industrial establishments to which so little attention is given as proper lighting and illumination. Especially is this the case in many of the factories in the United States. A prominent investigator who had extensive opportunities to make observations of industrial estabUshments in Europe as well as in America, states: "I have seen so many mills and other works miserably lighted that bad light is the most conspicuous and general defect of American factory premises. Germany and England are vastly more advanced in this respect than America."* My own investigations for the New York State Factory Com- mission support, this view. In these investigations it was found that 36.7 per cent of the laundries inspected, 49.2 per cent of the candy factories, 48.4 per cent of the printing places, 50 per cent of the ice cream plants and 64.8 per cent of the chemical estabUshments were inadequately lighted. There was hardly a trade investigated without finding a large number of inadequately lighted establish- ments. According to another report, one-third of the shops in the cloak and suit industry of New York City were found to be inadequately hghted and artificial illumination was needed during the day.f Inadequate and defective light is also complained of in practically every report of the factory inspectors in the different states. An inspection of a large number of establishments in European countries has convinced me that light conditions are very much superior in these countries than in the United States. However, it would be wrong to state that lighting conditions in most of the factories abroad are perfect. The factory inspectors of England frequently complain of the bad fighting of factories, a fact which led ♦Arthur Shadwell: Industrial tilfficiency, Vol. ll, p. 3. t First Report of The Joint Board of Sanitary Control. 232 LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES 233 the English factory department to make a special report on the illumination of factories and workshops, which showed that there was a great deal of room for improvement. The same complaint comes from the factory inspectors of France. A prominent authority on the subject remarks that " the shops in France are lighted just as much as is absolutely necessary for production^ not as much as is necessary for hygienic purposes; but how many factories are not even provided with sufficient hght for production itself? " * It is very difficult to determine just what percentage of in- dustrial estabhshments is properly lighted. As a rule, where factories and workshops are constructed in isolated places, where most of the establishments are in one -story buildings, and where there is no congestion, lighting conditions are much better. What are the consequences of defective lighting of industrial estabhshments? The consensus of opinion of all competent observers and investigators is that defective lighting of industrial establish- ments has an important bearing (1) on the cleanliness, cheerfulness and salubrity of the workplace, (2) on the efficiency of production, (3) on the number and character of accidents in industrial estabhsh- ments, (4) on the causation of eye strain, (5) on the causation of certain eye diseases, and (6) on the general impairment of the health of the workers. Cleanliness in a workshop is directly dependent upon the amount of light within the factory. As a rule, a dark shop is also a dirty shop; a light shop is usually a clean shop. Not only is a well lighted shop cleaner but it is also brighter and more cheerful. There is nothing so inimical to dirt as plenty of hght. Light, and especially sunhght, has a direct influence upon the destruction of various bacterial organisms, especially tubercle bacilh. Moreover, there is a certain psychological effect of plenty of hght in a factory upon the cheerfulness and well-being of the workers. As to the increase of efficiency in production in all well-lighted shops, there is the testimony of a great many investigators that improved illumination means " a sensible increase in production and an appreciable decrease in seconds and spoilage." t R- Thurston Kent demonstrated that good illumination has a very important bearing on the time taken by an industrial process.t " Summer- made cotton goods used to demand higher prices than winter goods, their quality being superior because of the better lighting conditions * Hygiene Industrielle, Bruardelle, p. 183. , t Traveler's Standard, Vol. I, November, 1913, p. 287 „„ ^ , ,„,„ .„„ J Report quoted in Illuminating Engmeer, London, No. 9, September, 191.i, p. 4J^. 234 THE MODERN FACTOEY under which they were made."* It is also reported that "the operatives prefer in some places to work by night, since by working on piece-work they could make more money than in the day time because of the better illumination." f The relation of inadequate factory lighting to the occurrence of accidents has been proven over and over again. In a statement issued by the Travelers' Insurance Company, the following assertion is made: "It is generally estimated that approximately twenty- five per cent of the avoidable accidents are due directly or indirectly to poor illumination." Many statements were made before the Departmental Committee on Accidents to the effect that " defective lighting is a prolific cause of accidents." In a recent discussion (of the Illuminating Section of the Safety and Sanitation Conference) the importance which good Hghting played in securing safety was emphasized by a quota- tion from the report on the iron and steel industry prepared under the direction of the Commissioner of Labor and submitted to the United States Senate, in which a comparison of the day and night accident rates for the six years included between 1905 and 1910 showed that in the mechanical dep'artments the night accidents exceeded those in the day by 118.3 per cent, and that the night accidents in the yards exceeded those during the day by 127.6 per cent. As all the conditions for night and day work were practically the same excepting the illumination, this great increase in accidents v/as ascribed by the Commissioner to poor illumination.t The International Harvester Company found that numerous accidents resulted from bad lighting, and hence a general standard was adopted. For general machine-shop lighting, j candle-power per square foot of floor area is the minimum, and in foundries where smoke and vapor absorb much of the light, i candle-power per square foot. Tungsten lamps (100 watt) in enaineled bowl-shaped reflectors hung lOj feet above the floor at intervals of 18 feet give the desired light. Wherever a more intense light is needed, as for example on a machine tool, an 8-candle-power lamp under an enameled cone shade is hung at the requisite angle. One of the advantages to the company has been the reduction of defective product. It is also claimed that the number of accidents has greatly decreased. § *■ Practical Considerations in Cotton Mill Illumination, National Association of Cotton Manufacturers Transactions, 1912, p. 285. t Quoted by F. 13. Ray, Industrial Engineer, Vol. II, p. 171. j Quoted by Lighting Journal, Vol II, .No. 1, .January, 1914. p. 19. § United States Department of Laljor Bulletin No. 123, p. 14. LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES 235 The relation of defective light to eye strain has been discussed by a number of observers. Their reports state that defective light during work undoubtedly causes eye strain. All prolonged work and close application involving constant use of the eyes cause fatigue of the muscles of accommodation. Even when work is performed with plenty and good light, the long hours of labor, the close application to the work and the concentration of the eyes of the worker on the material are bound to cause fatigue and eye strain. Especially is this the case where the light is either inadequate or improper. In the report of the medical factory inspector of the New York State labor department,* the inspector makes the following state- ment: " I have found that a large number of women and young workers, especially girls, are employed in basements and cellars where the illumination throughout the entire day is by artificial means. This has an important bearing not only upon the condition of the eyes of the worker, but also upon the health, being a frequent cause of anaemia. I have also observed that in many instances where natural Ught is used, machinery is so placed as to obstruct this hght, and thus the duties of the workers must be performed in semi-darkness which increases the number of accidents notwithstanding the guards." That eye strain is not only harmful to the eyes but also to the general health of workers, has been clearly proven by the investiga- tions of Dr. G. M. Gould and others who have traced the headaches, anaemia, backaches and the failing of general health of employes to eye strain caused by defective light. As to the influence of bad lighting conditions upon the eyesight of workers, upon the causation of myopia and other diseases, there is abundant evidence in the reports of various investigators. Ram- azzini, in 1700 a.d., remarked that many workers suffer from nearsightedness, especially those who do delicate work; such as type setters, watchmakers, jewelers, goldsmiths, embroiderers, draughtsmen, etc. In the investigations made by German scientists it was proved that certain workers, especially type setters and others, suffer from a high degree of myopia. According to FroeUch, 42 per cent of the type setters, according to Cohen, 51 per cent, according to Overweg, 48.9 per cent, accord- ing to Hazelberg, 48.8 per cent of type setters were myopicf Accord- * Tenth Annual Report, 1911, p. 71. t Walter: Augenkrankheiten in Weyl'a Haodbuch der Arbeiter-Krankheiten, p. 700. 236 THE MODERN FACTOEY ing to Overweg, 47.7 per cent of engravers, according to Cohen, 45 per cent of lithographers had myopia. According to Walter, 7.5 per cent of weavers had the same defect. According to Netolitzky, house weavers and needle workers are apt to have weak eyesight, myopia and cataract. Certain diseases, such as cataract, nystagmus and others are due either to defective or too glaring light. Thus, glass workers are Courtesy Royal Worcester Corset Co. Window and Reflected Light from Walls and Ceilings. Localized Illumination for Each Table. said to suffer from cataract. Formerly the injurious influences of glaring light were ascribed merely to the influence of light rays; now it is stated that they are due to the presence of ultra violet rays.* Workers at white goods, bleachers, engravers, polishers, tinsmiths, zinc molders, glass workers, steel makers, testers of arc lamps, etc., who work on materials reflecting glaring light very often suffer from retinitis, from other eye lesions and some- times from the formation of cataracts. * Walter, p. 680. LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES 237 According to Dr. Court, nystagmus, from which a grea,t many- miners suffer, is due to insufficient light or too much eye-strain. Intense light causes dazzling and glare which injuriously affects the conjunctiva of the eye. The physiological effects are fatigue, strain, tears, redness of conjunctiva, stone blindness, seeing red, ophthalmia, and, at times, cataract.* It is hardly necessary to cite any additional proof of the baneful influences of defective lighting in factories upon the workers and their health in order to prove the contention that industrial establish- ments should be adequately and properly lighted. What is adequate and proper light? This is an important ques- tion which, however, has not as yet been fully answered. Almost all industrial codes and labor laws contain a provision that every industrial establishment must be properly and suitably lighted. No definite standards, however, are set to explain just what suitable lighting in a factory means. To this lack of standards of lighting in factories is due much of the present defective lighting in such establishments. The reason for the absence of such standards is that many of the lighting and illuminating engineers themselves have not come to definite conclusions as to the proper standards for the various conditions found in industrial establishments. Of course, it is a matter of great difficulty to set definite standards for the conditions existing in industrial establishments in relation to light. There are so many factors which have to be taken into consideration, such as the personal factor, individual health of the operatives, condition of their eyes and eyesight, the construction of the workshop, its proximity to other buildings, the character of light, natural or artificial, the kind of work which is being done, the materials which are worked with, the duration of the work and a great number of other factors too numerous to mention. It is almost impossible, therefore, to set definite standards which would be applicable to all establishments or to all kinds of workshops. It is necessary to take into consideration local conditions in each workshop and set a standard for every industrial establishment; and, indeed, for every part of each industrial establishment. The standards would also vary according to the different kinds of light, such as daylight, artificial (direct, indirect and semi-indirect), and according to the various kinds of artificial lights, as well as to the different kinds of work and materials manipulated. *.Augenscliedigung duroh Intensieve Belichtung, Zeitschrifl fur Dnfallverhutung, etc. p. 61, 19H. 238 THE MODERN FACTOEY LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES 239 The quantity and intensity of light may be considered in relation to the special place of work and to the surface upon which the work is performed. The quantity of Ught will depend upon the source and the kind of light which is let into the factory, and the adequacy of light will also depend upon the kind of material upon which the work is performed. Mr. Wilson, who has made the Hght investiga- tions for the factory department of England, distinguishes two kinds of work, which he names respectively inspective and detective, according as the work entails continuous apphcation of the eye to one point or small area, or consists merely in keeping general watch over a given process, actual labor being demanded only when some fault occurs. " The making up of clothing, handkerchiefs and type settLt^," he says " belong to the inspective class; while cotton and flax spinning and preparing belong to the detective class." The work of a watchmaker, jeweler, or draughtsman requires very much more light than the work of clothing or any needle workers. The work of a hand type setter, for instance, may also be divided into several kinds. It requires more Ught to decipher some of the manuscripts which the type setters have to set up, and certainly much more light than that which is necessary on the type stick itself. Proof-reading may require more light than any of those mentioned. The surface brightness or the intrinsic brilliancy of a surface receiving light will depend not o^ly upon the source of the light but also upon the kind of surface. According to Wilson, in a linen weaving shed the illumination intensity on brown cloth was found to be 3.4 foot-candles; while the surface brightness was only 1.0 foot-candle. This means that the brightness of the brown cloth illuminated with 3.4 foot-candles was the same as that of white cloth illuminated by one foot-candle, showing the difference in the necessary intensity of Ught for different colored materials. lUumination is usually measured by photometers and is expressed in terms of a unit of iUiunination intensity and known as foot- candles. A foot-candle, or as it has been sometimes written a candle-foot, is the unit of illumination intensity, and is defined as " the direct illmnination given by a standard candle one foot from the object illuminated."* It is very difficult to give a popular idea of this unit, but it may perhaps be said that very roughly one foot-candle corresponds to the minimum iUumination intensity which aUows small print to be read for a time without fatigue, * Bell: Art of Illumination, p. 5. 240 THE MODEEN FACTORY 0.1 foot-candle corresponds to the minimum illumination of a well- lighted street and 0.01 foot-candle to that of a badly lighted street. Cohen states that ordinary writing and reading need 10 meter- candles (1 foot-candle). On cloudy days the daylight indoors varies from 12 to 19 meter-candles, and on clear days from 22 to 70 meter-candles. He recommends a minimum illumination in- tensity of 2.5 foot-candles for schools. In the investigation made by Wilson in various factories, the illumination intensity in foot- candles was in some places as low as 0.01; while many other establishments had an illumination intensity up to 36 or more foot-candles. Courtesy National Klectric Llgbt Assn. An Example of Localized General Illumination. 60-watt tungsten filament lamps with porcelain enameled reflectors located 7 feet, 6 inches above the floor. In Germany an illumination intensity of 10 meter-candles is considered sufficient to write and read by. For finer work 15 to 50 meter-candles are required. In Holland the law requires a minimum intensity of 10 bougie-meters (1 foot-candle) to be maintained and in some special industries such as sewing, embroidering, knit- ting, printing, etc., an intensity of 15 bougie-meters (IJ foot- candles) is required. One of the most common light defects is the presence of glare. LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES 241 Wilson defines glare as " the dazzling effect of a powerful light." According to Professor L. Weber of Kiel:* " A system of illumination may be described as glaring when it exceeds any of the limits specified in the following, namely : (a) If the ratio of the intrinsic brilliaucy of the source of light to that of the illuminated surroundings exceeds a certain limit. This ratio should not exceed a value of about 100. Courtesy United Cias Improvement Co., Phlla. General Illumination from Gas Arc Lamps with Opal Globes, and Local Light- ing over Sewing Machines with Reflex Incandescent Mantle Gas Lamps Equipped with Opal Cone. Reflectors. (6) If the absolute intrinsic brilliancy of the source exceeds a certain value. The briUiancy of the open candle flame (about 2.5 candles per square inch) might be taken as a safe limit. (c) If the angle between the direction of vision of the eye when applied to the work it is called upon to do (e.g., when gazing at a desk, blackboard or diagram on the wall, etc.), and the line from the eye to the source of light is * Quoted by Wilson. 242 THE MODERN FACTORY too small. This minimum angle may be provisionally assumed to be 30 degrees, (d) When the extent (apparent area) of the illuminating body is too large. The source should not subtend an angle of more than 5 degrees at the eye. Courtesy Royal Electric Co., Fhlladelplila. Local Lighting of Sewing Machines in a Shirt Waist Factory. (Aluminum finished metal reflectors with 40-watt Mazda lamps.) In order, therefore, that a hghting system should be free from glare, it is necessary that (1) No source of light of intrinsic brilliancy should be so located that it can readily be seen except at considerable distance. (2) No considerable amount of light even from a well diffused source should be allowed to enter the pupil of the eye directly when it is focussed on the work; this usually LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTOEIES 243 requires that no light source, unless remote, be visible when the head is inclined toward the working surface. (3) It is desirable that the area within the field of vision be uniformly illuminated; at least, the brightness of any por- tion of this area should not be materially greater than that of the object under observation. (4) Specular reflection should be guarded against so far as possible. Where the position of objects worked upon is fixed and the greater portion of the work is in one plane, lamps can be so placed as to avoid specular reflection in the direction of the eye. In the majority of operations in industrial plants, however, such conditions do not exist and one should direct his efforts toward producing conditions which will allow the operator to shift his posi- tion in such a manner that "direct reflection cannot reach the eye.* f^=ad=^ Courtesy Koyal Electric Co., Philadelphia. Plan and Elevation Showing Relative Positions of Lamps and Sewing Machines. Natural Light. Most of the work in factories is performed during daytime by the aid of natural light. This Ught comes from direct rays of the sun or is reflected from various surfaces and diffused throughout the interior of the factory buildings. The great value of natural Ught is in its disinfecting properties and its general beneficent influence upon the health of persons. Its color is also pleasant for the eyes. The illumination given by daylight is general, in that it is spread throughout the whole room. The only disadvantages of dayhght are that it is not always uniform, that its intensity depends upon the seasons, climate, time of the day and conditions of the weather, that it is difficult to increase the amount of light available for local conditions and on special materials where greater intensity of light is necessary, and, that the direct rays of the sun sometimes give too much glare. * Industrial Lighting, Bulletin Engineering Dept., National Lamp Works of General Electric Company, October, 1913, p. 14. 244 THE MODERN TACTORY Daylight is allowed to enter into buildings through openings specially made for that purpose, either on the top or side of the building. The amount of light which enters through an opening made at the top of a building or room is proportionately much greater than that which enters through an opening of the same size at the side of the building. This is due to the fact that when light comes from the top, a greater area of sky is effective, while when the light enters through windows on the side, the effective sky area is usually less and the angle such that direct light is Courtesy National Electric Llgbt Assn. Glaring light in the Eyes of the Workman. secured only at those locations close to the windows, diffused light reaching the other parts of the interior only as it may be reflected from the floor and other surfaces near the windows. Top light is possible only in buildings where the light is let through either skylights or saw-tooth roofs. Cotton and other weaving sheds and factories are usually built one story in height where space is not costly and have either skylights or the so-called saw-tooth roofs, which give northern exposure and diffuse a very pleasant abundant light. LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES 245 By far the greatest number of industrial establishments get their light by means of side windows. The amount of light which reaches the interior of buildings through windows depends upon a great many factors, such as the following: (a) height of adjoining buildings and the color of their walls; (6) the area of the window surfaces in comparison with the floor and other surfaces of the building which are to be lighted; (c) the size, depth and width of the building and rooms to be lighted; (d) the form and methods of construction of the window itself; (e) the surfaces within the factory; and (/) the story or place where. the light is to enter. Courtesy National Electric Light Asan. Improved Illumination with Properly Shaded Lamp. The amount of light entering the windows of an industrial estabhshment depends upon the character of the obstructions near the building. If buildings of great height are in close proximity to the factory, it is natural that a large amount of light will be intercepted and lost. This is especially the case in concentrated industrial centers in big cities where shops are located in buildings of ten, twelve and more stories in height, and where, therefore, the windows of many buildings are cut off from the light. The wider the space between the buildings and the lower the adjoining build- 246 THE MODEEN FACTOKY ing, the more light will naturally penetrate the windows. It is also natural that the lofts of the upper stories will get more light than the shops located in the lower stories of the building, especially those located on the first or second floors or in basements and cellars which may not have any direct sunlight at all. As most of the light which enters loft buildings in overcrowded cities is reflected hght, the color of the surfaces of these buildings is important, as there is more reflection from light than from dark surfaces. In all such buildings the surfaces of the outside walls should be light in color, painted or lime washed. Coxirtesy Adler Bros., Rochester. N. Y. Localized Illumination at the Point of the Needle. No less importance must be attached to the proportion of window surface to the size of the room to be illuminated. Various standards are set by the industrial codes of different countries prescribing the exact proportion of the window area to the size of the room and to its surface. In Germany the following standards have been adopted by factory inspectors: (1) 1 square meter of window area to every 30 cubic meters of room space LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES 247 (2) A square meter of window area to every 5 square meters of floor space. (3) From 0.25 to 0.5 square meter of window area for every workplace. (4) A ratio of windows to room area of 1 to 5 to 1 to 3. No standards as to the ratio of window area to the surface area of the room are set for industrial establishments in the United States. The New York State tenement law requires windows in tenements to be from one-eighth to one-tenth of the superficial Courtesy National Commercial Gas A^n. Localizing Lighting of a Buffing Machine in a Shoe Factory. (Reflex gas lamp with porcelain enameled angle metal reflector.) area of the room. In school buildings the window area is from one- fourth to one-sixth of the floor area. It is evident that industrial establishments ought to have as large a window area as possible, and it should not be less than one-sixth of the floor area of the room. Indeed, this is exceeded in many factories, where the walls are all windows with the exception of the steel supporting columns. The amount of light will also depend upon the height of the room and its width and depth. The rays of the light coming through 2d8 THE MODERN FACTORY the window fall at an angle and reach only to a certain distance from the window, and if the depth or width of the room is too great, a large part of the room will not be reached by the rays coming through the window, and may remain wholly or partly dark. The deeper the room, the less uniform the distribution of hght. The height of a room is also of importance because the higher the room is, the greater will be the quantity of light admitted, provided the top of the window is near the ceiling. Courtesy National Commercial Gas Assn. Localized-general Illumination of Cutters' Tables in a Shoe Factory. (Reflex gas lamps with deep heavy opal reflectors.) The form of the window and its construction contribute toward determining the amount of light entering it. The larger the panes, the fewer the columns between the panes, the higher the window is in the wall and the nearer it is to the ceihng, the greater will be the amount of light. Light coming from the southeast or south- west is the best; north hght is also good. Light coming from many sides is not so good as that coming from two sides opposite to each other. The kind of window glass is also of importance. The loss of hght in plain sheet glass is 4 per cent; double glass, 9 to 13 per LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES 249 cent; milk glass, 35 per cent; green or red glass, 80 to 90 per cent. The glass should also be kept clean, as about 30 per cent of light is lost through glass which is covered with dust and 72 per cent through glass which is very dirty.* Clear plate glass is the best. A larger amount of light is said to be gained- by using ribbed glass, because the rays of light instead of falling directly on the floor are refracted by the uneven, wavy surfaces of the glass and are directed more nearly horizontally Courtesy Welsbach Co., Gloucester, N. 3, Localized-jgeneral Illumination. (Reflex inverted gas lamps with Holophane glass reflectors, lamps arranged in rows over the center of machine tables.) further into the room, thus illuminating a larger area within the room than would be possible through the use of plain glass. Still more light may be secured with properly designed prism glass. Next in importance are the surfaces of the walls, ceilings and floors within the shop. A considerable amount of light is reflected from these surfaces depending upon their color and cleanliness. White and light colored surfaces reflect more light than brown and other colors and should be preferred in all factories. * Nussbaum: Leitfaden der Hygiene. 250 THE MODERN FACTORY Machines and appliances within a factory must be so located as not to interfere with the light. It is best to arrange the work benches and tools so that the light should if possible fall over the backs and heads of the workers instead of coming in front of their eyes. When the direct glare of sunlight is too great it may be modified by the use of shades, or curtains. In most factories some provision must be made for artificial illumination, for those Courtesy United Gas Improvement Co., Phlla. Localized-general 'illumination, Using One Reflex Gas Lamp with Holophane Prismatic Glass Reflector for Each Pair of Machines. seasons, periods and times of day when natural light fails. Con- sidering the importance of artificial lighting, the cost of labor, the materials of manufacture, and the relative high efficiency of the modern light sources, adequate illumination is to-day exceed- ingly inexpensive. The cost must be considered in conjunction with the factor of efficiency and the general cost of production. Artificial Illumination. The exigencies of industry demand the continuation of industrial activity not only during diaylight but also LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES 251 when there is no daylight, or when daylight is insufficient or inadequate. Artificial illumination has certain advantages over daylight. Its intensity may be graduated more easily than that of daylight and a greater uniformity, a better local light and improved distribution may also be gained. The requirements for efficient artificial illumination are (1) that it should be of the required intensity, (2) of a color as nearly as Courtesy National Commercial Oas Assn. Localized-general Illumination for Sewing Machine Operators on Gloves. (One reflex gas lamp with opal dome reflector to each two machines.) possible to daylight, (3) that it should be uniform and steady throughout the workshop, (4) that it should not cause glare, (5) that it should be so located as to avoid the casting of shadows upon the working plane, (6) that its installation should be safe, (7) that it should add as few impurities to the air as possible, and (8) that it should cost as little as possible. Reference has already been made to the varying requirements for intensity of illumination for certain industries, establishments 252 THE MODERN FACTORY and kinds of work. As to the color of artificial illumination, the nearer such color is to that of daylight the more hygienic it is con- sidered. Different kinds of illumination give a somewhat different color spectrum and at times have a predominance of one color. The white color of an electric arc light or of an incandescent mantle gas burner is nearer to daylight than other lights. A Cooper Hewitt mercury-vapor lamp does not contain red rays, but is rich in green, blue and violet rays. Red rays are accompanied with heat eman- ations and are largely predominating in most of our present light Courtesy Edison Lamp Works of General Electric Co. Localized-general Illumination in a Machine Shop. (Flat-dome enamelpd steel reflectors with 100-watt Mazda lamps hung 9 ft. above the floor for localized illumination and 11 ft. high for general illumination; over the benches. 60-watt lamps with enameled steel bowl-shaped reflectors spaced on 8-ft. centers, 3 ina. in from the forward edge of the bench and 5 ft. above the bench. sources, particularly the gas and petroleum flame burners. When too near the operative their heat may become oppressive. As to the Cooper Hewitt light, it is claimed that where discernment of detail is essential this light has many advantages. .Many workers, however, object to the ghastly effect of these mercury vapor lamps, due to the absence of red rays. In sugar refineries the blue-green fight is found necessary to enable the workers to find impurities in the white refined sugar, and I found no com- plaint against its use, although here and there among the work- ers I found the presence of a coniunctivitis. In a large film LIGHT And illumination in factories 253 factory where several hundred girls were working for eight or nine hours under red light which was necessary for the delicate film, no complaint was made by the employes and they all seemed to be in good health, and the firm claimed that an exami- nation made by an oculist disclosed no injurious effect upon the . eyes. The uniformity of artificial illumination depends upon the proper location of the lights. The absence of glare is provided for by the proper shading of lights and will be referred to later. The casting Courtesy National Commerclul Gas Assn. Local Lighting for Engravers and Jewelry Manufacturing. (Inverted incandescent mantle gas lamps with porcelain enameled reflectors suspended anti-vibrators.) of shadows by a light upon the work plane may be easily avoided by proper location of the Hght as well as by the arrangement of work benches. The safety of the installation for artificial illumination is provided for by various municipal and state fire regulations, as well as the fire underwriters, which regulations are usually well known to those called upon to make the installation. The means of artificial illumination in most modern factories at the present day are acetylene gas, illuminating gas and electricity. There are few modern factories which are lighted by petroleum oil, 254 THE MODEEN FACTOEY except perhaps some small workshops in the tenement-house dis- tricts of large industrial centers. Acetylene gas is made from calcum carbide in special generators which are placed usually outside of the establishment and the gas is piped through the build- ing in the same was as city gas. Acetylene gives an intense, briUiant white light which must be properly shaded in order to avoid glare. It is used in establishments in rural districts where neither illuminating gas nor electricity can be provided. Illuminating gas is used in a large number of factories. Open-flame burners are so inefficient and otherwise unsatisfactory that their use should ■ i ^v ■ :^^y^-v-;--. .,,^0l^g^'^ . ' ..i«iS^ _ ■;i^^^-" ;; _^^^^^*? •:■;■' ■ f^^^. 1 ^ 1- ^ fe ~~"" ''^J00f'^^^^'T^:;^^- „,.r^ '^^^t^^^^^W^'t *'*^' "■»*^--^=^***=™''^^-'^^^^^ =:'^ki'- "yi^!-?*^^^''' , -^fi^^a^ma^m SSMKKK- \-y ^^^^ ^""Ks. -m ^^§ ^^S ^KB^^aSSBSSS^! .7*: A i»J ..M ■ -f^^'TBHi li:fe.J.V«^-- ^^ ipni^aii -^ ^,-.| Comtesy National Electric LIglit Assn. General Illumination in Composing Room of a Modem Printing Office. be discontinued. Incandescent mantle burners in all sizes, with single -and multiple mantles, upright and inverted, have been on the market sufficiently long to prove their economic value. These mantles give a brilliant light and should be well shaded or used with opal or other light-diffusing glassware. Electricity is used in arc lamps, both of the flame carbon and older enclosed carbon types; the latter, however, are being used less frequently, due to their comparative inefficiency. Incandes- cent electric lamps are used more frequently; the older form, with the carbon filament, gave a light of low intensity, the sizes in use LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES 255 ranging from eight to thirty-two candle-power. These lamps are rapidly being replaced with the metal-filament incandescent lamps, the tungsten or Mazda lamps, by which higher intensities at about one-third the former cost may be secured. These lamps are avail- able in a wide range of sizes and while somewhat fragile when first introduced some years ago, they are now amply strong for factory use. Methods of artificial illumination in industrial plants may- be divided into three classes, according to the kinds and positions of the lamps used: general, localized, localized-general. Courcesy Lighting Journal, N. Y. General Illumination for Hand Ironers in a Laundry. (Deep-bowl metal reflectors with interior finish of aluminum paint with 150-watt Mazda lamps spaced on 20-ft, centers, 11 ft. above the floor.) General illumination in factories is gained by the use of com- paratively large units placed near the ceiling and gives illumina- tion throughout the whole workroom. The advantages of this system are that it costs comparatively little for installation as well as for maintenance and in many locations this system is economical and otherwise satisfactory. It is especially adapted for large, high, open workrooms where a general distribution of light is more necessary than a local centralization of light in special places. Indirect lighting fixtures are also used for general illumination. These are fixtures using opaque reflectors underneath the lamps 256 THE MODERN FACTORY which direct the light upon the ceiling from where it is reflected throughout the room. This system should be used only where the ceiling and wall surfaces are of a light color and can be kept clean. While indirect light is well diffused, much of the light is absorbed by the ceiling and wall surfaces and it is therefore not as economi- cal as direct lighting. Semi-indirect lighting is very similar to indirect lighting with the exception that in place of an opaque reflector, a translucent reflector of heavy opal or some such material is used. With these fixtures direct light is received from the enclosing bowl together with indirect light from the ceiling sur- face. In the past arc lamps, both gas and electric, were used for general llumination. The large tungsten unit? are at present being used in preference to arc lamps and, in many installations where color discrimination is not a factor, mercury-vapor lamps are rendering satisfactory service. The opposite of general illumination is localized lighting. It is provided for by lamps of low candle-power and intensity, which are placed directly above or near the work upon which the light is to be thrown. Such light is hardly ever used without some other illumination for the reason that local lighting alone leaves the general factory dark, and the difference between the intense local light and the general darkness throughout the room is not good for the eyes. Local lights may be used with benefit in certain work such as sewing on a machine or in other trades where close applicatien is needed. Small lamps with flexible stands may be then placed near the op- erative, or special, low candle-power incandescent bulbs may be installed near the machines, as shown in the several illustrations. Perhaps a better form of illumination is what is called localized- general illumination, which is gained by the uniform spacing of tungsten filament incandescent lamps or incandescent mantle burners of a desirable intensity. Various size lamps are used in different locations throughout the shop to increase the intensity of illumination for various machines or benches, or to reduce it in other locations where a high intensity is not desirable. This results in a very satisfactory arrangement. It is best when using such lamps to install them with permanent, well-constructed Ji fixtures, and arrange them so that the workers cannot handle them or adjust them according to their notions. The distribution of these lamps about eight or nine feet above the floor is best for general purposes in factories with ceilings not more than twelve to thirteen feet above the floor. LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION IN FACTORIES 257 The quantity of light from tungsten lamps varies with the size of the lamps, which range from 10 to 1000 watts. For general illumination the larger sizes are used, the 500- to 1000-watt lamps bemg adapted for high Ceilings. For local illumination, lamps from 15 to 40 watt's are used; while for localized-general illumina- tion lamps of 60 to 150 watts are used. Tungsten, or as they are most generally called, Mazda lamps are rated at an efficiency which will result in an average useful life of 1000 hours, at which point the light output should be about 80 per cent of the initial, beyond which point it is cheaper to substitute a new lamp. The average useful life of these lamps is more than twice that of the old carbon lamps. The light of the tungsten lamp is white or in color and is pleasant and agreeable to the eyes. These lamps give a brilliant light and are suitable to all kinds of rooms and buildings. The maximum intensity of hght emanating from tungsten lamps is at right angles to the filament. With the lamp hanging pendent, this maximum is in a horizontal direction and can be redirected with suitable reflec- tors downward on to the work bench or otherwise directed as may be desired for a general distribution of light over the whole floor space. It is an economical lamp, consuming from 0.6 watt in the larger sizes to 1.25 watts in the smaller sizes per mean horizontal candle-power and is made for use on all commercial lighting cir- cuits from 100 to 130 volts and 200 to 260 volts. Single lamps of large wattage are preferable to clusters of smaller lamps giving equal light. Almost all kinds of lamps must be provided with shades and reflectors to modify their intensity and protect the eyes of the operatives from the harmful brilUancy of the lamp filament or incandescent mantle and from glare. There is perhaps no worse form of illumination than that from an unshaded lamp at close range, covered only with the common wire basket or guard which is supposed to protect inflammable materials. Practically all of our modern light sources if in close proximity to the worker, are apt to result in too much glare and whether in general, local, or localized-general illumination, some form of shade or reflector should be used. The reflectors are also necessary to redirect the light rays and insure an installation of reasonable efliciency. Reflectors are made of various materials: glass, metal with porce- lain enamel and white enamel paint on the inner surfaces. The kind and shape of reflector to use depends upon the location and 258 THE MODERN FACTOEY iposition of the lamp and the manner in which the light is to be distrib- uted. Wherever reflectors are used, it is preferable from the stand- point of maintenance to use one type throughout the shop or room. Opal or prismatic glass reflectors have been used to a consider- able extent. These reflectors result in the illumination of the ceiling and walls as well as the work places. The common type of reflector used in many industrial estab^ lishments is one which evenly distributes the light over the working plane and for many locations the best reflectors are of steel with white porcelain enamel finish ; they do not corrode, are not affected much by gas and smoke and are strong enough for all purposes. The latest orders of the Wisconsin Industrial Commission in respect to shop lighting are of interest. They are as follows: Artificial Light Where no Gas or Smoke. Each place of employ- ment in which hand or machine operations are performed, must be supplied during the working hours, when daylight is not available, with artificial light equivalent in amount, for each 4 square feet of floor space, to not less than the light produced by a one candle- power lamp hung 10 feet from the floor. Artificial Light Where Gas and Smoke. In foundries, forge shops and other industries where there is smoke and gas which obstruct the light, sufficient artificial light must be supphed to over- come the obstruction and to furnish the standard amount on the ■ floor space specified above. Warehouses and Storage Places. Each place of employment in which hand or machine operations are not performed, such as warehouses, vat rooms and storage places, must be supphed during the working hours, when daylight is not available, with artificial light equivalent in amount for each 8 square feet of floor space, to not less than the light produced by a one candle-power lamp hung 10 feet from theHoor. In each place of employment where fine or close work is being done, such as fine lathe work, engraving, typesetting and drafting, and where the standard of light specified above is not sufficient to prevent injurious eye strain, sufficient light must be provided in every case to avoid unnecessary eye strain. Note. In many cases it is advisable to provide individual lights for each machine, bench or table. It is exceedingly important that these lights be equipped with proper reflectors which can be kept clean, and which so reflect the light that the eyes are not sub- jected to the glare of the fight, and eye strain is avoided. CHAPTER VI FACTORY SANITATION LivrNG as they do for nine, ten and more hours daily within the walls of the factoiy, workingmen are profoundly affected in their health, in their habits, and in their personal appearance, by the conditions under which they work in these factories. A sanitary shop is one in which the health of the workers is well conserved and which is cleanly, cheerful and efficient. The sanitary care of a factory and the provision of necessities and comforts for the use of employes are indispensable to industrial efficiency. The conception of factory sanitation includes all those measures, provisions and appliances in an industrial establishment which are needed for the preservation of the health of the workers and the prevention of disease. Practically, however, the scope of factory sanitation- is limited to provisions for drinking water, washing and dressing facilities, disposal of Refuse, sewage and wastes, and the preservation of general cleanliness. The following is a classification of those items of factory sanita- tion which will be discussed in this chapter: (1) General CleanUness. (a) Removal of dust from surfaces. (6) Removal of accmnulated dirt and rubbish from shop. (2) Provision of Certain Necessities and Comforts, (a) Drinking water. (6) Dressing rooms, (c) Washing facilities. (3) Disposal of Refuse, etc. (a) Disposal of sewage. (6) Disposal of odors, smoke, gases and fumes. (c) Disposal of factory wastes. General Cleanliness. In spite of the importance of cleanliness to the efficiency and health of the workers, this matter is much neglected by employers and employes. As one who has made official inspections of a great many thousand industrial establish- 259 260 THE MODERN FACTORY ments throughout the United States as well as in various countries abroad, I can testify that there is hardly a part of factory sanitation which is so much neglected as general cleanliness in a shop. This is true not only of one state or industry, but is general in the establish- ments in many different countries, except, perhaps, in Germany where the industrial establishments seem to me to be the cleanest ' of any I have seen. The walls, ceilings, floors, fixtures and machinery, are apt to be covered by much dust and dirt in every factory not having artificial or local ventilation. The layers of dust when covering lighting fixtures, reduce the amount of Hght in the factory and when deposited upon the walls and ceilings, greatly reduce the light reflected from the surfaces. The walls and ceilings are not only apt to be covered with dust, but are frequently marred by grime and dirt which adhere to them for a long time, and indicate that these surfaces are only cleaned at long intervals. In all labor codes and factory laws there are rules and regulations requiring the owner to clean the walls and ceihngs and to lime wash them at certain intervals and at the order of the factory inspectors. Owners of industrial establishments would find that it would pay them to have the surfaces of the walls and ceilings frequently cleaned and painted a light color, as this increases the light within the establishment and pays in increased production and efficiency. Of course, there are a number of large industrial establishments which endeavor to keep all the surfaces within the factory in a clean condition. This is accomplished by the hiring of a special cleaning • squad and putting the responsibility of the general cleanliness of the shop upon special persons. With motive power present in practically every workshop, there is no reason why a system of vacuum cleaning, which would do the work of cleaning efficiently, cannot be installed and maintained in every industrial plant. I beUeve this would pay for itself in a very short time. The cleaning of floors is usually much neglected in ordinary factories. The cleanhness of the floor depends a great deal upon the material of which it is constructed; but whatever the material may be, the difficulties of cleaning it are not insurmountable. Perhaps the best method of cleaning floors and also walls and ceilings is by means of a hose with water under pressure. Of course, this can be done only in places where the water will not injiue the machinery or the materials in the manufacturing plant. In plants where deleterious poisons such as lead are employed, the cleaning FACTORY SANITATION 261 of the floor should be done by means of hot water and scrubbing brush; where much organic matter is used, with some disinfectant, such as a solution of lysol, carbolic acid, etc. Floors should be free from cracks, crevices, ruts, etc., which must be repaired as soon as noticed. The dry sweeping of floors is objectionable, especially when done during working hours, as it raises dust which spreads upon materials and is inhaled by. the workers. In an investigation of 5124 workshops which was made by the New York State Factory Commission during 1911-12, the general cleanliness was considered good in only 41.9 per cent of the shops, poor In 34.2 per cent of the shops, and bad in 19.2 per cent of the shops. As to the industries in which the greatest percentage of unclean shops was found, 93.1 per cent of the shops in which human hair goods were made, were very dirty, 82.2 per cent of places where naineral water was manufactured were in the same condition, 80 per cent of the ice cream shops, 76.6 per cent of the candy and 50.8 per cent of the bread and bakery estabhsh- ments investigated were also in a bad sanitary condition. Of great importance to the general cleanhness of a shop is the prompt and efficient removal of all rubbish, sweepings, clippings, etc. Labor codes usually have regulations requiring the daily removal from buildings of all kinds of waste materials, and the provision of receptacles of fireproof material in which the rubbish, sweepings, chppings, etc., should be deposited in order not to litter the floors and other surfaces with this material. There are a num- ber of forms of receptacles which are available for this purpose. Incinerators and destructors may be easily installed in every plant and greatly facilitate the work of destroying all waste matter. Where chppings, or rubbish, may be of some value, they should be stored in proper receptacles or pressed into bales and removed daily. The habits of a great many workers are such that it is very difficult to induce them to deposit all rubbish in the receptacles provided, instead of throwing waste matter upon the floor. A sys- tem of education in sanitary matters is necessary in order to persuade employes to conform to the general rules of sanitation and to gain their cooperation in keeping the place clean. In view of the possible presence in every workshop of one or more employes who are victims of tuberculosis, the disposal of sputum and also the proper cleaning and disinfection of cuspidors should not be neglected. The mere prohibition of spitting is insuf- ficient, and the posting of notices and signs has not much effect. 262 THE MODERN FACTORY FACTORY SANITATION 263 Suitable cuspidors should be provided and it is necessary to have a sufficient number of them in order to prevent the employes from spitting upon the floors. I have seen some cuspidors in France made in the form of a porcelain or enamel iron bowl permanently attached to a waste pipe trapped and provided with a water-supplied faucet. Hard vitrified china is probably the best material because of the possibility of the use of bichloride of mercury or some other corrosive poison as a disinfectant. The cuspidors should be so designed as to permit easy cleaning and self-draining, should con- tain no angles to interfere with the cleaning process, and should have a wide neck so as to permit cleaning them with a hose if neces- sary. They should contain some disinfecting solution, as it has been found that it is difficult to clean these cuspidors properly if they contain no such solution. Cuspidors may also be filled with sawdust. In the United States Government Printing Office, Dr. Manning has devised a sanitary clutch which picks up the cuspidors, one above the other, in " nests " of five, without the hands of the cleaner in any manner coming in contact with the infected or soiled cus- pidors, thus entirely avoiding the irksome, repulsive features which characterize the methods of washing spittoons in vogue at present, and greatly minimizing the danger of infection. The vessels thus collected are carried by means of the clutch to specially designed wooden, zinc-lined box trucks with detachable sides. Each truck is capable of holding 175 cuspidors for transmission to the steriliz- ing chamber. After the trucks are filled they are transmitted from the respective floors to the basement on a freight elevator and wheeled directly into the sterilizing chamber. The contents of the cuspidors are emptied into a trough connecting with the sewer by means of short forceps which grasp the lip of the cuspidor. After the vessel has been made thoroughly clean and* steriUzed by immersion in boiling water, the operator, still grasping the forceps, presses the vessel into the steel spring clutch on the rack, where it drains and dries, as shown in the photograph. It is then washed with a solution of bichloride of mercury sufficient to kill the most resistant disease germs. Water Supply for Drinking Purposes. Every industrial estab- lishment needs an adequate supply of water for drinking purposes. The quantity of water needed must be sufficient for all seasons and conditions. The sources of supply do not depend upon the manu- facturer, when the industrial establishment is located in a city where 264 THE MODERN FACTORY water is received from the public supply system. In factories located in rural communities the question of the water supply is of great importance, as the ordinary sources, such as nearby rivers or lakes, are liable to be contaminated with sewage, factory waste, sludge, etc. In such cases it is necessary for the employer to get water from a carefully selected source, uncontaminated by sewage and organic matter. The supply of water is usually conducted through pipes, pumped to the highest part of the factory into tanks, ' ii p^ 1*?^* , DWNKIIiGraBiffliiK m m Courti^sy Eastman Kodak Co. Drinking Fountains. and supplied from those tanks td the various parts of the building. The tanks should be properly constructed, covered and guarded against contamination and frequently cleaned. The hardness or softness of the water is of importance for industrial as well as for drinking purposes. The hardness of the water depends upon the presence of carbonate of lime and of sulphates and chlorides. Temporary hardness, which may be driven off by boiling, is caused by carbonate of lime; permanent hardness depends upon the pres- ence of chlorides, sulphates, salts of magnesium, etc., and cannot be removed by boiling. FACTORY SANITATION 265 Water for drinking purposes should be purified, and the best methods are filtration and distillation. In filtration the water passes through a material which is capable of retaining some or all the impurities. The value of a water filter depends upon (1) the char- acter of the filtering medium and its ability to retain and remove from the water as many impurities as possible, (2) the rapidity and thoroughness of the filtering process, (3) the ready cleaning of the Courtesy Standard Sanilary Mte. Co.. Plttsburgli. Bubbling Valve Drinking Fountain. • filtering media, and (4) the simpUcity, cheapness and accessibility of the filter. In the Berkefeld filter, infusorial earth is the filtering medium. It is pressed in the form of hollow tubes. The water is forced up through the fine pores of the filter and flows out at the top. It is claimed for this filter that when new it will remove all organic matter and bacteria from the water. The filter is made in various forms and sizes, and may be attached to the house sink faucet. The filtering tube must be frequently removed, sometimes more than 266 THE MODERN FACTOEY once a day, and the dirt accumulated upon the surfaces washed off, otherwise the filtering process becomes slower and slower and stops when the pores of the tubes become clogged. In estabUshments where there is reason to suspect that the source of the water supply is contaminated, the best purification method is distillation. There are many distilling apparata for water which may be conveniently and cheaply installed in the factory. During the summer, it is necessary for the comfort of the employes to cool the water, and, in a great many of the better class factories, water coolers, in which water, is cooled by means of ice or by the ammonia process, are provided. In large industrial establishments, a water-cooling plant of the mechanical refrigeration type may be installed, and the cooled water supplied to the several floors through well-insulated pipes. A small rotary pump will keep the water in circulation, flow and return pipes being provided, so that cold water will be on tap as soon as a faucet is opened. In large plants occupying several buildings and spread over several acres of ground, the drinking fountains should be scattered over the premises so they will be avail- able without loss of time. Wherever a bubble fountain is set up under such conditions, a separate cooler will be necessary, as it would not be economical or practical to pump cooled water to all parts of the plant from a central station on account of the expense of insulation, or the alternative of great loss of cold. The most practical solution is to have a coil of tin pipe in an ice chest or cooler near each fountain, to cool the water used there. These cooling coils may be placed in any convenient place nearby, or in an ice cellar built in the ground alongside of the fountain and covered with an iron manhole cover.* Drinking water fixtures should be located on every floor, acces- sible to all employes and at not too great distance from any part of the room, so that the employes need not waste too much time in walking to and from the fixtures. The old method of providing a single cup for all the employes is condemned by all sanitarians. It has been proved that the com- mon drinking cup is a carrier of infectious disease, and its use is prohibited by many sanitary codes. The substitution of individual or paper cups for the common drinking cup is better, but it is not practicable in large industrial estabhshments. Drinking fountains so constructed that the water flows at all times, and drinking is * J. J. Cosgrove : "Factory Sanitation," Standard Sanitary Manufacturing Co., p. xx-Kxi. FACTORY SANITATION 267 CI ci f^ 268 THE MODEEN FACTOEY possible without contaminating any stationary fixture, are now re- garded as best from a sanitary standpoint. Sanitary drinking-water fountains sometimes called bubble- valve fountains must be so constructed that the person using them drinks from a stream or jet, and cannot put -his lips on the outlet for water. Every fountain must be so arranged that waste water will be carried away without slopping. Washing Facilities. There is much dust and dirt in every indus- trial establishment, and almost all work soils the hands and other exposed parts of the bodies of the workers. Some materials are injurious to health, and others, such as arsenic, are virulent poisons when absorbed by the body. It is therefore essential for general cleanhness as well as for the prevention of disease that ample provision be made in every industrial establishment for washing the hands and other exposed surfaces of the body. Very inadequate provision is commonly made for washing facilities in this country, and very little attention is paid to this im- portant sanitary subject by employers. In an investigation made by the New York State Factory Investigating Commission, the inspectors found washing facilities inadequate in 71.8 per cent of the shops. In a large nmnber of estabUshments the washing facil- ities were located in a distant part of the building, and it required considerable time for the employes to reach them. This inconve- nient, location of washing facilities shows general inefSciency in the management of the shop, and is a direct source of waste of time and energy. As Mr. Cosgrove well says: "The necessity for modern sanitation in the factory does' not rest entirely upon the value of sanitation for hygienic reasons, but is made imperative by the fact that money is saved, production cheapened, cost of maintenance lessened, better employes secured, and their efiiciencies -enhanced, by the proper number and dis- tribution of sanitary appliances. If, for instance, in a factory employing 500 men, each loses 3 minutes a day walking an unneces- sary distance to water-closet or urinal, or waiting in fine at the toilet convenience for their turns, it would mean a loss each year of over three working days for one man. Allowing an average wage of $2.00 per day and 300 working days in the year, then the loss from this cause alone would be $1800, annually, or an amount- sufficient to pay interest at 5 per cent on $36,000 for extra equip- ment." * It is absurd for employers to blame their employes for lack * J. J. Cosgrove: "Factory Sanitation," Standard Sanitary Manufacturing Co.,p. vij- FACTORY SANITATION 269 of cleanliness, if these employers do not provide proper washing facilities. In some of the factories I inspected, the washing facili- ties were so crude and antiquated, that no one could blame the em- ployes for refusing to use them. Whether the wash basins should be put in the shop or in sepa- rate wash-rooms is a matter which must be decided according to the needs of the establishment. Wherever there are a large num- Courtesy Adler Bros.. Rochester, N. Y. Dressing Room with Sanitary Washing Arrangements and Individual Lockers. ber of women, it is essential to provide separate wash-rooms prop- erly Ughted and ventilated and kept in a clean condition. The number of wash basins with faucets for the employes depends very much upon the character of the work, and in some industrial codes the ratio has been set at one faucet with wash basin for every 15 employes. It "is to be regretted that there are so few establishments where hot water is supplied in the wash-rooms or for the wash basins. New York and several other state industrial codes require hot water supplied in all estabUshments where lead or other poisons are 270 THE MODERN FACTORY being worked with. Hot water, however, should be suppUed in every establishment, for the reason that it is difficult to cleanse the hands without it, and many employes fail to use the washing faciUties because of the absence of hot water. In foundries and similar shops, common sink troughs with separate faucets for every ten-foot space may be used; but these sinks should be made of white enameled iron, or of earthenware. In other estabhshments Courtesy Pierce Arrow Motor Car Co. Indiviflual Wash Basins for Employes. it is best to have individual wash basins. Sinks and wash basins should be made of vitrified glazed earthenware or enameled iron. If there is not sufficient dayhght in the neighborhood of these fixtures, artificial illumination should be maintained. A supply of soap is a necessary adjunct, and the complaint of many employers that this is costly because employes misappropriate the pieces of soap, may be met by supplying tilting soap powder dishes or soft green soap which is very good for washing purposes. The common towel, especially the roller variety, is to be condemned, FACTORY SANITATION 271 and individual or paper towels should be furnished. Of equal importance with the provision of washing facilities is proper super- vision by the factory authorities fco make sure that they are used. There are very few factories where the washing up at noon is compulsory or supervised by foremen. This is absolutely neces- sary in some establishments, especially where injurious substances are employed. One of the reasons why plumbism is being eliminated in the Pulhnan car shops at Pullman, Illinois, is the stringent lavatory supervision at the noon hour. Ten minutes before the noon hour the bell is rung and all employes are compelled to go to the central wash-rooms, where they are furnished with individual nailbrushes, soap and towels, and where they spend five to ten minutes in the process of washing, this process being supervised by foremen. I was not surprised to learn that since the introduction of this " wash- up " system, the number of persons suffering from lead poisoning in the Pullman Company has been reduced from seventy-seven in July, 1911, to none in July, 1912. The mere provision of wash basins and water is not sufficient to insure the proper cleansing of the hands, which is so necessary to the health of the employes in certain trades. Dressing Rooms. Much of the work performed in industrial establishments soils the clothing* worn by the workers. It is there- fore necessary to provide places in which workers may take off their street clothes, don their overalls or other special clothes to be worn while at work, and change their clothes at the end of the working day. In establishments where there is much humidity, dampness or water, or where poisonous substances are being worked with, it is absolutely necessary to have special overalls, aprons, shoes and caps provided. There is hardly an establishment where a dressing room is not needed. In some establishments not only a dressing room but a laundry and drying room are also necessary. In this, as well as in other sanitary matters, there is a great difference in the attitude and practice of employers. While some manufacturers install and maintain splendid dressing rooms with proper light, ventilation and comforts for their employes, others consider this matter unimportant and cither make no provision whatever for this purpose, or locate the dressing rooms in cellars, basements or some dark nooks and corners unfit for any other purposes. Dressing rooms should be separate for males and females; 272 THE MODERN FACTORY should be, if possible, located in different parts of the floor and should be enclosed by solid partitions and walls extending at least to a height of seven feet. Dressing rooms should be separated from toilet and water-closet apartments by solid partitions extending to the ceiUng. Every dressing room should have at least one window of suitable size opening to the outer air, and should also be provided with artificial illumination. Dressing rooms must be always well ventilated, as it is neces- Courtesy N. Y. Telephone Co. Individual Lockers for Employes. sary to have plenty of air in such a room. Provision must also be made for the proper cleaning of all dressing rooms by employes specially designated for this purpose. Every dressing room should be kept heated in winter to a temperature not less than 50° F. The walls and ceilings should be painted a hght color and kept clean. Dressing rooms should be provided with separate clothes hooks for every person employed, or special clothes lockers for each employe. In a number of factories a steel locker is pro- vided for each employe, divided into two parts, one for the work- FACTORY SANITATION 273 ing clothes and the other for the street clothes. There are several such lockers on the market. Most of them are very good and comparatively cheap. In some industrial codes a standard is set for the size of the dressing rooms, especially those for the use of females. The size, however, of the dressing room is not of so much importance as its proper construction and the installation of lockers. Bathing Facilities. In some establishments, because of the Courtesy Utlip Drop Forge aDd Tool Co. Bathroom for Employes Finished in Glazed Brick. dust or dirt, injurious poisons, or penetrating colors used, bath- ing facilities for the employes to use after their work become neces- sary. The number of employers who provide bathing facilities in their establishments is small, even in those industries where such fixtures are absolutely needed. Some employers have installed fine shower or tub baths in their factories, others are satisfied with any makeshift fixture. I remember one large factory in Buffalo, N. Y., where aniline colors are made in which the owners were compelled to install bathing facilities because the street car com- 274 THE MODERN EAOTOEY panies refused to allow their employes to ride on the cars after their work without having bathed. In this plant, the bathing facilities provided for the three or four hundred workers were in the form of three huge tanks filled with dirty, shmy water. Each tank was used by one hundred or more employes, and the water was changed but once a week. The reluctance of the employes to use fixtures of this kind and their contempt for such so-called "welfare work" may be readily justified. The location of the bathrooms is of less importance than that of dressing rooms, and there is no reason why the basement of the fac- Courtesy Joint Board of Sanitary Control. Broken Plumbing and Darkness Create Conditions such as These. tory building should not be used for this purpose. The floors, walls and surfaces of bath rooms should be made of impervious material. Each fixture should be separated by partitions, as many employes object to using the common battery of bath-tubs located in one imdivided room. Most of the baths provided are of the shower form, which are cleaner than tubs. Shower baths also take up less space and can be more quickly and frequently used. Plumbing and Plumbing Fixtures. In all factories proper pro- vision should be made for a water carriage system of plumbing whether there are sewers located in the street or not. The instal- lation of plumbing fixtures in factories is usually under the super- vision of municipal authorities. All plumbing pipes, vertical as FACTOEY SANITATION 275 well as horizontal, should be made of extra heavy cast iron, but the usual plumbing pipes are too large for the purpose. Unless very- large quantities of water and waste are sent through the pipes, soil and waste pipes may be foiu- or five inches in diameter for all buildings under six or seven stories in height. My opinion is that in most places the soil and waste pipes may be conveniently merged into one, and only one pipe used for the waste and for the water- closets and urinals. The elimination of the vent system upon which most plumbing codes insist, would also reduce the expense, waste and the defective conditions at present existing. The one pipe system of plumbing is at present approved by eminent sani- tarians. The house drain should be made of extra heavy cast iron, six or eight inches in diameter, and it is best to have it exposed. The pitch of the house drain should not be less than one-half inch to the foot and the house drain should be provided with a main trap having a tide valve and a number of hand holes for cleaning pur- poses. Toilet Accommodations. No part of an industrial establish- ment is so neglected as the toilet accommodations. In many cases they are located outside of the factory, and sometimes quite a dis- tance from it, causing the loss of much time and also endangering the health of the employes. In the investigations made for th6 New York State Factory Commission, the toilets were located in yards in 186 of the estab- lishments inspected. In some chemical establishments I found the toilets 150 feet from the central part of the estabhshment. In 795 shops, the toilets were located in halls and usually kept in a grossly unsanitary condition. Many of the toilets were not separated for the sexes and were of an obsolete and crude type. In a large number of factories in rm;al communities the unsanitary privy is still being used, and in a large chemical factory in New Jersey the toilets consist of nothing but a ramshackle frame shed over a canal, with only a narrow board for a foot rest. School sinks and trough closets are still found in some factories, and in one of the largest sugar refineries old trough closets are still in use. In a shoddy mill in a city in Central New York Sta;te, the owner, a " member of the local health board," entirely neglected to provide any water- closet accommodations for his thirty or forty employes. His sub- stitute for proper toilet accommodation was a wooden barrel in a sub-cellar of his establishment. Where the toilet accommoda- 276 THE MODERN FACTORY tions are of a better type, they are so neglected that their condition is unspeakably dirty. The illustrations on pages 274-277 are from Courtesy .Tolnt Board of Sanitary Control. A Broken Fixture in Use in a Tenant Factory on the East Side of New York City. photographs taken of actual conditions in the garment industry in New York City. Even in European countries where there is usually more regard for factory laws, I found the condition of the toilet accommodations very bad, especially in France and Belgium. In many factories in FACTORY SANITATION 277 these countries the fixtures in use for toilet accommodations were simply openings in the floors connected with sewers, no seats or any fixtures at all being used above the floor. Privacy is very much neglected in these countries, and in many estabhshments I found toilet rooms used by both sexes. All industrial and sanitary codes demands separate water-closet compartments for the sexes in every factory where men and women are employed. All toilet rooms should be located within the factory building and be convenient and accessible to the persons using them. It is best to provide toilet rooms on every floor of the establishment; but in no case should the workers on more than .. ■ ,# ^' ' - * ^^ ^ISBoflKl M;w '^ fern I^B^^^HMfln^^^^^HMEr j!^i^^ Courtesy Joint Board of Sanitary Control. Toilet in a Tenant Factory on the East Side of New York tlity. two floors be allowed to use a toilet room on one floor. Toilets should invariably be located on a floor where a large number of employes are working. The location of toilet rooms in haUs is not recommended. Each toilet room should be properly screened and provided with a vesti- bule and the entrance should not open into the room where most of the workers are employed. It is best that toilet rooms for males and females should be in different parts of the building. Where they are placed together they should be separated by solid plas- tered or other sound proof partitions extending from floor to ceil- ing. The doors of every toilet room and of the water-closet compart- ments should be self-closing. The outside partitions must be air- tight and must extend to the ceiling. 278 THE MODEEN FACTOEY The floor of every toilet room and the side walls to a height of six feet should be constructed of material impervious to moisture and with a smooth surface. Such material may be asphalt, non- absorbent cement, tile, glazed brick or other water-proof material. Where more than one water-closet is installed in a toilet room, par- titions not less than six feet and not more than seven feet in height should be provided between each closet. A space of six to fourteen inches should be left between the floor and the bottom of such partitions. All toilet rooms should have a window or windows opening to the outer air. Where this is impossible, the toilet room should be ventilated by means of shafts of sufficient dimensions and height to carry away the foul air from the room. Each toilet room should be lighted by means of windows or artificial illumina- tion and properly heated. Walls and ceilings should be painted a fight color and frequently washed and cleaned. It, is best to employ a special caretaker for cleaning the water-closets. Sani- tary codes prohibit the use of trough water-closets, latrine or school sinks, and require individual water-closets with flush rim bowls made of vitrified glazed earthenware, set entirely free and open without any enclosing woodwork. Every water-closet should be installed with connections through the floor and should be set on a floor slab of slate or other material impervious to moisture, not less in size than the base of the water- closet set thereon. An evenly laid and sofidly tiled flooring on a strictly fireproof floor construction is better, provided a suitable template of slate or marble of the full size of the floor flange is in- taUed to furnish a solid bearing for the fixture. Every bowl installed must be so constructed that the space behind and below may be easily cleaned. The seat of every water-closet should be made of wood or other non-conducting material and finished with varnish or other substance which will make it impervious to mois- ture. Every water-closet or group of water-closets must be flushed from a separate water supply cistern, the water from which is used for no other purpose, connected so as to keep the water supjply free from contamination. Flushing cisterns usually have a capac- ity of at least eight gallons and are so constructed as to use not less than three gallons of water at each discharge. The discharge must be of sufficient force to clean the bowl at each flush. Long hopper closets, the so-called Philadelphia hopper type, as well as the pan, plunger and offset closets should not be used. There is much objection to the use of range closets, and it is best to provide FACTORY SANITATION 279 individual closets in all factories where this is possible. Where range closets must be used, separate bowls should be installed and not more than ten bowls supphed from every flush tank. The bowls should be separated by partitions and the range closets auto- matically flushed at intervals of not more than one hour with a flush sufficient to remove the entire contents. In some factories the flush is operated by the opening or closing of the door of each com- partment or by the raising of the seat of the closet. These con- Courtcsy Standard Sanitary MIg. Co.. Pittsburgh. A Sanitary Urinal. trivances are installed to obviate the results of neglect on the part of the worker to pull the chain or lever of the flushing tank. In a number of modem factories flushometers are installed and used- with good results. These flushometers are only of value when the water pressure in the pipes is more than twenty-five pounds; otherwise flushing tanks should be insisted upon. Urinals should be provided on every floor where a large number of male employes are at work. These fixtures should be made of a material which is non-corrosive and impervious to moisture. All urinals made of cast iron or galvanized iron or sheet metal should be discarded, and replaced by urinals made of porcelain or smooth 280 THE MODERN FACTOEY FACTORY SANITATION 281 earthenware material. The sides, back, base and floor of urinals should be impervious to moisture, and made- of slate or tile. Urinals should be flushed in the same manner as water-closet flush tanks. The number of urinals and water-closets which should be pro- vided in a factory is important. Most of the codes in European countries as well as in different states in this country provide for a ratio of twenty-five workers to one water-closet fixture. Some codes require one fixture for 20 males or 15 females, In view of the fact that a fixture is not used more than from three to four times a day by each employe, the above ratio seems to be ade- quate for all ordinary purposes; and there is no necessity for any larger proportion of fixtures, the more so that with every increase in the number of fixtures there is increased probability of their abuse and contamination. Of greater importance than the number of fixtures are pror visions for their cleanliness. In large establishments a special person should be engaged to supervise the cleaning of these rooms and fixtures. It would perhaps also be advisable to provide in every toilet room used for females, a supply of sanitary napkins and also a receptacle for these to be thrown into. A sufficient supply of paper should also be provided. Lunch Rooms. Most of the industrial codes require a pause of from forty-five to sixty minutes during noon hour, but no pro- vision is made for a place within the factory where the employes may eat their midday lunch. The consequence of this omission in the factory laws is that workers eat their lunch at the machine tables, very often with soiled hands, and often soil the materials with which they work, leaving crumbs and parts of vegetables, fruit and other organic matteir around tables, chairs, and work places. Where there is much dust or where poisonous materials are being worked with, the eating of lunch within the shop is inju- rious to health and may cause disease. Some industrial codes insist upon separate lunch rooms in certain dangerous trades. In a num- ber of establishments the employers have voluntarily provided lunch places, although the location of such places is often poor and the condition in which they are kept is at times very bad. In a large cordage mill in Central New York, belonging to a big cor- poration, I found the restaurant or lunch room located in a corner of a semi-dark basement. The firm complained that the lunch room was not appreciated and not used by their employes, and were 282 THE MODERN FACTORY rather indignant at my remark that I did not blame the workers for refusing to use such a lunch room. Sewage Disposal. Where there is no general sewage system, the problem of efficient disposal of sewage is often very diflScult of solution. As most factories estabhshed in such locaUties are constructed on a large scale, effective and efficient methods of sewage disposal should be installed at the same time that the factory is constructed. , No factory in which more than ten or fifteen workers are em- ployed should resort to the use of the old time privies and cesspools for sewage disposal. In its primitive and common form the privy- vault is nothing but a hole dug in the ground near or at some dis- tance from the house; the hole is but a few feet deep, with a plank or rough seat over it, and an improvised shed over that. The privy is filled with the excreta; the liquids drain into the adjacent ground, which becomes saturated and contaminates the nearest wells and water courses. The solid portion is left to accumulate until the hole is filled or the stench becomes unbearable, then the hole is either covered up and forgotten, or the excreta removed and the privy is used again. This is the privy system so often found near the cottages and mansions of our rural populace, and even in towns. The terrible ravages of the hook-worm disease in the South are mainly due to soil pollution from unsanitary privies. The principal parts of a privy are: the shed, the seat, and the receptacle into which the excreta is dropped. The shed in a san- itary privy should be made of tightly fitted boards with windows properly screened and doors well closed in order to prevent insects and flies from gaining access. The seat should be so arranged as to be convenient for use and should be free from the contamination of excreta. The receptacle, or the* place into which the sewage is dropped, should be made water-tight by being lined with cement or some other non-absorbent material. The sewage when dropped into this water-tight receptacle will remain there and must be removed from time to time. A still better method is to place in such water-tight receptacles a tight portable pail which is hung on a hook from the seat. The sewage is dropped directly into the pail, which may be removed as soon as it fills up, the sewage being cremated or disinfected and the pail cleansed, washed and disin- fected and returned to its place. For the purpose of removing these pails and cleaning the vault beneath the privy, each part of the privy should be provided with a sling cover so as to be accessible. FACTOEY SANITATION 283 Cesspools may be used when there are no sewers and the factory is provided with fixtures and pipes to carry the sewage outside to a point sufficiently distant from the factory. " Leeching " cess- pools wliich allow liquids to drain into the ground are open to the same objections as privy-vaults. When cesspools are water-tight they must be emptied at periodical intervals or provided with automatic ejectors and siphon apparatus to discharge the contents. It is much better for industrial establishments to discard the use of privy vaults and cesspools and to employ one of the modern methods of sewage disposal through chemical and biological treat- ment. The accimiulation of the sewage matter collected in cess- pools or tanks may be disposed of either by irrigation of nearby lands through a system of underground earthenware pipes or through chemical precipitation and filtering and separating the solid mat- ter, which is then either destroyed by burning, or is utilized for fertilizing purposes. The new bacterial treatment of sewage may also be resorted to, as it is at present being introduced into the sewage disposal systems in a great many towns and cities. Noises, Odors, Smoke, Gases and Fumes. Certain industrial plants frequently become a menace to the comfort and health of the neighborhood and are regarded in municipal and sanitary codes as " public nuisances." The nuisance caused by these factories is due either to excessive noise, or smoke or bad odors or to gases and fumes given off from their chimneys, which are sometimes harmful to health as well as injurious to the vegetation around the factories. There are some factories whose rumbling noise may be heard for half a mile. Boiler factories and other metal-working estabUsh- ments are especially noisy. The noisiest factory I ever visited was the cutlery factory of the famous Henkel Bros., in Solingen, Ger- many, an estabhshment which has been in existence for several centuries. The noise in one department of that factory was so terrific that it could be distinctly heard half a mile from the place, although the whole city of SoUngen is full of cutlery factories, and the general noise produced by them is great enough. I was told that every worker in this branch of the factory becomes deaf a short time after beginning to work there. The methods of lessening noise present a technical problem, which may be solved in many factories. Where excessive noise becomes a public nuisance, municipal regulations require plants causing it to be maintained outside of the city limits and at a dis- tance from human habitations. 284 THE MODEEN FACTOEY The black smoke belched from the chimneys of industrial plants using soft coal is apt to be injurious to the vegetation as well as to the inhabitants of nearby villages and cities. The composition of smoke as it leaves the chimney depends upon the character of the fuel burned as well as the methods of combustion. Black smoke consists of carbon mechanically suspended, and also of gases such as carbonic acid, carbonic oxide and hydrogen sulphide. Wood and bituminous coal give off very abundant black smoke. When furnaces are of adequate capacity, with grates having a large area, with coal spread in a thin continuous sheet, supplied with the re- quisite amount of air, the production of smoke is greatly diminished. Other remedies for preventing factory smoke are the construction of very tall chimneys, and the use of smoke-consmning devices. There are a number of patent smoke-consuming appliances, most of them based on the principle of a more thorough and complete combustion of all the particles of carbon in the fuel. The better the combustion within the furnace, the less will be the waste and smoke from the chimney. A number of manufacturing plants emit foul or offensive odors, which are at times harmful and at all times unpleasant and inter- fere with the comfort and health of the neighboring inhabitants. These odors are due either to decomposed organic matter or to chemical dust, gases and fumes, which may be still more unpleasant and harmful. Organic odors are perceptible in estabUshments where animal substances are utilized; such as slaughtering houses, fat rendering establishments, soap-making factories, tanning of hides, manufacture and utilization of animal substances, manufac- ture of vegetable substances, etc. In the manufacture of illumin- ating gas, alkalies, ammonia, bleaching powder, soda, glass, smelting, lead paint, drug manufacture, etc., odors, gases and vapors often escape and become offensive. To prevent the nuisance caused by such offensive trades a thorough study must be made of each separate process in each manufacturing plant. Methods of prevention may be summarized as follows: (1) general cleanliness; (2) removal of all noxious matter by either destroying or utilizing same; (3) storage of all offensive materials in closed and tight vessels; (4) substitution for offensive processes of less offensive ones; (5) the use of plenty of water to insure cleanhness and drainage; and (6) the destruction of all offensive odors, etc., by passage through condensers and thence into fire pits where they are consumed. FACTORY SANITATION 285 The prevention of gases and fumes may be accomplished by- some of these methods, or by dilution of the gases and fumes with air, condensation of the gases by passing them once or several times through condensers filled with water or through scrubbers filled with wet coke; and by absorption of all gases in fire pits where they are destroyed by the action of fire or by passing them through neutralizing substances which differ for each gas or fume. Disposal of Factory "Wastes. Besides the wastes which have already been referred to, there is, in many manufacturing estabfish- ments other industrial, waste either in soUd, semi-soUd or liquid form. When waste is in soUd form, its removal, destruction or utilization is not difficult when the means of transportation and utiUzation are at hand. It may also be burnt in special incinerators. A more difficult problem is presented by semi-solid and liquid industrial wastes. The cheapest and most common method of disposing of such wastes is by sludging them into nearby lakes, rivers and water courses. That such practice is very objectionable is attested by the protests which have been made by villages, towns and communities on or near the lakes, rivers or water courses, and by the appointment by various governments of commissions to investigate river pollution and to find remedies for the abatement of this nuisance. So great is the pollution of streams by manufac- turing waste, that practically every community prohibits the dis- posal of industrial wastes into water courses which are needed for bathing and drinking purposes. The pollution of rivers is especially objectionable in the case of factories which discharge organic matter and poisonous materials into the water courses. Among the industrial establishments which usually have offensive waste are woolen mill factories, tanning and fellmongering, brewing and distilling, bleaching and dying, paper making, aniline color works, dyeing estabUshments, general chemical works, etc. All these industrial estabfishments send out large vol- umes of foul and offensive waste, which contaminates and pollutes the waters of rivers and lakes. The proper disposal and treatment of factory wastes is a mechan- ical, chemical and biological problem which must be solved by differ- ent methods in each industrial establishment, according to the mate- rials used and wastes produced. The following are the principal methods used for this purpose: the liquid or semi-liquid wastes are reduced in volume by separation, sedimentation, settling, straining or filtering. The liquid wastes are separated from the semi-solid 286 THE MODERN FACTOEY and solid constituents, and if the liquid wastes have no deleterious matter in solution they may be discharged into nearby water courses. The semi-solid or solid wastes may be reduced in volmne by press- ing and may be destroyed by heat or utilized in some other form. It is possible also to treat waste chemically by neutralization. CHAPTER VII EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK This is an era of industrial welfare work. We hear of welfare work in every industry, in almost every factory, in every state and in every country. Employers boast of the welfare work in their shops, the workers discuss the forms of welfare activities carried on in the industrial estabUshments in which they work. The National Manufacturers' Association devotes a great part of its activities to the discussion of the benefits of welfare work. The National Civic Federation has a special department on welfare work. There have been many exhibitions of welfare work — national and international. There is as yet great confusion in regard to the conception and definition of welfare work. What is welfare work and what is it not? Where does it begin and where does it end? An employer who introduces some new system of wage payment by which he gives one peimy bonus for every ten cents additional work done by his employes, regards this as welfare work. As welfare work is also regarded the increase by another employer of the wages of more than ten thousand employes from an average of less than $2.50 per day to a flat rate of five dollars per day. Any improve- ment in the factory may be called welfare work from simple arrange- ments for light and cleanliness in the workrooms, which scarcely conform to the minimum required by law, up to the most elaborate systems for providing rest, food, shelter, education, insurance, old age pensions, etc., which in fact take charge of every waking and sleeping moment of the worker from the time he enters the factory until his death, and pursue him even afterwards in the shape of pensions, benefits and supervision of his family. In the multiphcity of forms in which welfare work appears and in the great extent of undertakings and institutions created for the improvenient of the condition of the workingmen and of the 287 288 THE MODERN FACTORY working class, there is urgent need of a criterion by which all these efforts for the industrial welfare of the worker may be judged and by which their forms and aspects may be clearly defined. In defining welfare work, it is necessary to exclude all those activities which are really outside its scope and real intention. Only employers' welfare work will be considered in this chapter. This excludes all improvements o^ working conditions undertaken by the state, ^ municipahties or by private social organizations, such as municipal housing, tenement inspection, parks, playgrounds and municipal bath houses which are provided for the whole population. We also exclude from welfare work any efforts made by the workers themselves for their own improvement. Such efforts, whether they appear in the simple form of libraries, or cooperative societies, etc., are clearly outside of the sphere of welfare work, which is done by the employers themselves. We also exclude all those forms of industrial improvement which the employers are compelled to introduce into their indus- trial establishments by the state or municipality or their own trade associations. Thus the minimum sanitary and industrial standards estabhshed by legislation cannot be included in the conception of employers' welfare work. Under this limitation what is termed welfare work in one state may not be welfare work in another state. For instance, the backing of chairs in a factory is regarded as wel- fare work in all those states and countries where this is not one of the provisions of the labor code; while it is merely a legal stand- ard where it is found on the statute books. The granting by the employer of an hour and a half pause during the day (an hour dur- ing noon and a quarter hour each in the forenoon and afternoon) is regarded as welfare work in the United States, but not in certain European countries 'where this is the legal standard for women and minors. I The next important hmitation of welfare work is its aim and purpose. We limit the definition of welfare work to that which is done for the sole purpose, or, at least, in a large measure, for the benefit of the workers themselves. We cannot, for instance, regard as welfare work the installation of a mechanical ventilating plant by a film factory in their film department, where this is done because of the necessity for excluding dust and not primarily for the benefit of the health of the employes; even though they may be benefited secondarily. That the installation was not for the EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 289 benefit of the workers, is shown by the fact that no mechanical ventilation of this kind was installed or maintained in the other departments of the factory. On the other hand, the mere fact that the installation of an industrial improvement results in benefit to the employer himself by increasing the efficiency or health of his workers, does not exclude certain activities from being regarded as welfare work. Thus, for instance, the fact that the eight-hour workday, when intro- duced in the Z^gs Works resulted in an increased output, does not exclude the eight-hour workday from the category of welfare work; nor will Ford's attempt to introduce an eight-hour shift fail to be regarded as welfare work because it has already shown an increase in the output in the factory and a greater efficiency in the works. The chief criterion in judging industrial improvements voluntarily introduced by employers should be whether the general purpose is the improvement of the condition of the workers rather than increase in production. Finally, the term welfare work must be limited to all such activities as are instituted by employers for their own workers and their immediate families; for it is evident that all work done by employers for workers of other estabhshments or for the general public is social welfare work and not employers' welfare work. The definition, therefore, of welfare work to which we shall limit ourselves is the following: All devices, appliances, activities, and institutions voluntarily created and maintained by employers for the purpose of improving the economic, physical, intellectual or social conditions of the workers in their industrial establishments. Why do employers voluntarily undertake welfare work? What are their motives? What are the principles by which employers are guided in their attempts at improving the conditions of the workers? Is the large increase of welfare work in modem industry due to the moral awakening of the rich, to the increase in the philan- thropic spirit of the class of employers, or is it due to the fear of a social upheaval, to the dread of organized labor, to the terror of the spectre of the coming social revolution? Are the motives back of welfare work pure philanthropy, or pure selfishness and desire for efficiency; or are they inspired by the recognition of the principles of industrial justice? The earliest examples of welfare work were simply an expression of the feeling of responsibility and kindhness of the employer toward his working people. It was an extension of the friendly relations 290 THE MODERN FACTOEY that existed in the small workshop between the master who worked with his hands as well as directed his workers. It was natural for some employers in the earlier factories to have intimate rela- tions with their workmen, to feel a deep interest in their welfare and to do everything possible to improve their conditions. Hence, from the time of Robert Owen, who was the first to introduce exten- sive economic, educational and general welfare work in his mills at New Lanark, down to the present time, much welfare work is due to this benevolent spirit of the employer. The philanthropic motive for welfare work was probably the dominating one at the beginning of the modern factory system dur- ing the period when the employing class as a whole strictly adhered to the laisser faire policy, but this motive gradually diminished in strength with the rise and growth of corporations, trusts and monop- olies, when the actual employers and owners hardly ever saw their factories or knew the workers in them. Undoubtedly, in the motives for welfare work, especially that done by large corporations, an element of /ear is present. The spread of labor unionism, the rise and growth of radical and socialistic political parties, the awakening of class consciousness among the working people, the bitter strikes, lockouts and labor wars so frequent within late years undoubtedly operate strongly for the introduction by large and powerful corporations of certain forms of industrial welfare activity. The third motive for industrial welfare work, is so-called " efiB- ciency." By this is meant the fact that most, if not all, of the improvements which are voluntarily made by employers for the benefit of their workers more than pay for themselves through increased efficiency of the workers and increased output. EfiSciency engineers and employers now assert that they undertake welfare work not through charity or fear, but because it pays. The general manager of the International Harvester Company, in speaking to his welfare board, said that he held them responsible | to the management " not for sentimental results or for actions outside of the scope of pure business, but for results inside the scope of pure business, which will make the company a leader among industrial corporations." Welfare work not only pays, but pays especially because it prevents labor disputes. Under the title " Welfare Work as a Way to Prevent Labor Disputes," a writer in the American Academy of Political Science discusses the part played by welfare work in EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 291 keeping the workers at the Winifrede Mine in the Kanawah district loyal to the employer when the rest of the miners in neighbor- ing districts went on strike. It is also said that the employes of the McCormick plant of the International Harvester Company refused to strike when the Operatives of the Deering works struck, because of the extensive welfare! work in the former plant. Many employers when writing or speaking of their welfare work to other employers of labor repeatedly assert that their welfare work pays because their workers do not usually join labor unions and are less wiUing to strike or make " trouble." Finally, the fourth motive for welfare work, that of " industrial justice," is at present gaining more and more ground and is spread- ing among the better class of employers. Many employers have come to the conclusion that the present wage system is unjust to the workers and results in much hardship, and that it is their duty as a class to do everything within their power to make some return to the workers and to improve their condition. This new policy of the " square deal," and industrial justice is already be- coming a basic principle in the platforms of great political parties and is probably destined in time to dominate all other motives for welfare work. The introduction and extension of employers' welfare work has not been accomplished without much opposition, some of it from political economists and philosophers, some from employers, and much from the workers and the leaders of labor organi- zations. It is but natural that the old time economists, who opposed state interference and paternal government, should object to all voluntary efforts by employers to give their employes anything to which they are not entitled by law or by economic deter- minism. Nor do all employers favor welfare work. Some are opposed to the efforts of neighboring employers because it sets a " bad example " to their own workers, and makes them demand things to which they are not entitled. Others express themselves as opposed; to the extension of welfare work because "we do not beUeve it helps the man to give him something for nothing, nor do we beUeve he wants it. The men rather resent it." " We believe in giving a man a chance to earn his own recreations," said one employer. " We have regulated our relations with our employes on the principle of doing what logically belongs to the relation of employer and 292 THE MODERN FACTOEY employe. We believe that there are few employers who can safely go into the private lives of their people." * Of greater consequence is the undoubted opposition to welfare work which is so prevalent among the working people themselves, and especially among the members of labor unions, and those engaged in sociahstic propaganda among the workmen. Indeed, the atti- tude of organized labor toward all welfare work is more than indif- ferent — it is largely hostile. What are the objections made by workers and their represent- atives to welfare work and upon what are they based? In the first place, their opposition is based upon the fact that most, if not all, welfare work is paternalistic, is given in the form of charity, is degrading- and tends to enslave the people. It is •that tendency of human nature to look the gift horse in the mouth and the one which is so well expressed in the proverb " timeo Danaos et dona ferentes " (though they bear gifts, yet do I fear the Greeks). The second objection which the> representatives of the working class have to welfare work is the motive which they think is behind it all. Rightly or wrongly, they assert that the usual motive of the employer in introducing welfare work in his shop is not the real benefit of his working people but is usually his own aggrandise- ment, the advertising which he receives because of his benevolence, the political preferment that a benevolent employer is apt' to obtain or even the very efficiency and increase in the profits which many of the employers themselves admit is one of their most fre- quent motives. Perhaps the most important point in the opposition of the workers to welfare work is the fact that its promoters seem to be opposed to labor organization, and seek to prevent combination, strikes and increase of unionism among workers. This view is justi- fied by the well known hostility to unionism of the great corpora- tions which are famous for their welfare work and their utter dis- regard of the principles of freedom of organization among their workers. Only two notable examples need be cited here. Perhaps the greatest activities in welfare work in Germany are performed by the Bayer Chemical Corporation at Elberfeld and Leverkussen. Here practically all forms of welfare work are done on an extensive scale, and the general condition of the workers is probably better than in any other industrial center in Germany; and yet I was * Tolman, W. H. : " Social EDgineering," pp. 360-361. EMPLOYERS' WELFAEE WORK 293 personally told by an official of this corporation while inspecting their factory, that they not only discourage unionism and labor organizations among their workers, but discharge every employe in their works who advocates unionism or attempts to organize his fellow workers. The other example is that of the Ford Automobile Company which, by its recent doubling of wages, has created so much discus- sion. In a magazine article the fact is noted that Ford is strenu- ously opposed to unionism among his workers, and that ninety men in one department who were reported to him, as attempting to organize were discharged.* The hostility to labor organizations of the United States Steel Corporation, the best recent exponent of welfare work in the United States, is also well known. The workers also claim that welfare work tends to lower wages and has a tendency to shackle labor with gratitude and diminish its freedom in the bargaining process. Organized labor holds that questions of hours and wages are of first importance and that much of welfare work with its emphasis on rest and recreational facili- ties, on libraries and lunch rooms, is beside the point. At any rate they are not willing to accept it as a substitute for trade union action leading to shorter hours and higher standards of wages. In many cases the workers, feel that welfare work of certain kinds has been undertaken at the expense of wages. This feeling is quite general among organized and unorganized workers. The workers in a certain collar factory in Troy assert that every improvement in sanitation or ventilation in the factory has been followed by a cut in wages. It is certain that wages in collar factories in Troy have been continually cut during the past eight years, and that at the same time, together with cuts in wages, much welfare work has been instituted. Of course, the workers regard this probable coin- cidence in the nature of cause and effect. Another objection against welfare work is that most of this work does not result in economic betterment but tends rather to sani- tary and so-called social and moral iniprovement. The workmen resent such activities because they feel that if they are given reason- able hours and decent wages and the minimum requirements for sanitary conditions in the factory, they can take care of the social, intellectual and moral' sides of their lives themselves. In a small manufacturing town in Pennsylvania dominated largely by a great industrial corporation, the management donated to the workers *Everybody'8 for April. 1914. 294 THE MODERN FACTORY a handsome library, well equipped, which cost about $20,000. The workers, instead of using this library, collected a fund of their own of $8,000 and established their own library. The same kind of opposition exists in regard to lunch and rest rooms, which are a feature of welfare work in many factories. In some of these places the workers claim that they get better food at their own homes and that they do not wish the owners to control their expenditures for lunch during their own midday hour. The author of " Betterment," a book written chieflj' in praise of the National Cash Register Company, says that he entered a restaurant provided by the firm in which free coffee was served to the employes, and began a conversation with a man who ate his lunch without the coffee. He asked the workman if he didn't like the coffee. The workniah*s8id' he Sid. " Then why don't you have some? " The man answered that he was afraid that if he took two cents' worth of coffee he would be expected to do seventeen cents' worth of work for it. All these objections on the part of the workers, whether justi- fied by actual conditions or not, form the basis of much of the opposition of the working class and their representatives to all forms of welfare activity. As to the value of employers' welfare work and actual results of such activity upon the improvement of the condition of the working class, there can be only one opinion — that all forms of employers' welfare activities, no matter what their real motives are, do benefit the workers and do improve their condition. All welfare work is important in the first place as a social experi- ment, as an example of what can and therefore ought to be done by enlightened employers. Welfare work is an incentive to improve legal sanitary standards. Such standards give only the minimum requirements, and it is Only when intelligent employers show the way and prove by exarhple that other improvements are possible and necessary, that the legal standards are raised. "Welfare work not ' only raises the economic, intellectual and social standards of the- workers, but it has an immense educational value in paving the way for the general improvement of the condition of the working class, and for the enlightening of the workers as to what may and can be done for them and, perhaps, by themselves. Employers' welfare work appears in a variety of forms, but may be broadly divided into two groups of activities: first, the raising of the economic standards of the workers, and second, the EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 295 improvement of their physical, intellectual and social conditions. The forms of welfare work which fall under the two groups are numerous, as may be seen from the following scheme: IMPROVING THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE WORKERS , I. Security and Increase of Income. (a) Tenure of employment. (b) Minimum wage. (c) Profit sharing. II. Increased Income for Increased Production. (a) Bonus and premium systems. (6) Premiums for long service, (c) Scientific management. III. Reduction of Cost of Living. (a) Cheap rent. (&) Company stores. IV. Cooperation in Administration. (a) Suggestion systems. (6) Shop committees. (c) Promotion and discipline committees. V. Special Provisions for Workers. (a) Old age pensions. (6) Death benefits. (c) Sickness benefits. (d) Accident and life insurance. II IMPROVEMENT OF THE PHYSICAL, INTELLECTUAL AND SOCIAL STATUS OF THE WORKERS. I. Lessening Dangers. (a) Shorter hours. (6) Pauses. (c) Less monotony. (d) Vacations. 296 THE MODERN FACTORY II. Improving Working Conditions. (a) Model factories. (b) Light, ventilation and heating. (c) Greater safety. (d) Washing, dressing and bathing. (e) Rest rooms. III. Improved Food and Diet. (a) Lunch rooms. (6) Restaurants, (c) Free food, (e) Anti-alcohol. IV. Recreation. (a) Place for recreation. (6) Music. (c) Clubs. (d) Athletics. (e) Outings. V. Care for Health. (o) First aid. (6) Emergency rooms. (c) Hospitals. (d) Physicians and nurses. (e) Medical supervision. VI. Education. (a) Libraries. (6) Apprenticeship. (c) Shop schools. (d) Corporation schools. VII. Social Improvement. (o) Improvfed housing. (6) Garden cities. II IMPROVING THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE WORKERS The relation of employer to employe is primarily an economic one, determined by prevailing industrial conditions. While the interests' of the employers and the working classes are close and interdependent, the improvement of the economic condition of the EMPLOYEES' WELFAEE WORK 297 workers is not primarily within the scope of the activities of employers. From the beginning of the factory era, however, we find an increas- ing number of employers making earnest endeavors to better the economic condition of their workers. These endeavors appear in a variety of forms, which may be arranged in two principal divisions. The first division includes all those forms of employers' wel- fare work which are based upon voluntary attempts by the employ- ers to improve the economic conditions of their workers. Such efforts usually react with benefit to the employers by improving their relations with their workers and by increasing the general efiiciency and productivity of the whole industrial establishment. In the second division of this group of welfare activities are included those efforts of employers which are made solely with the purpose of increasing the productivity of the industrial estab- lishment; and the increased benefits to the workers are usually but a partial restitution and payment for their extra efforts and accomplishments. In this division may be included bonus systems and so-called scientific management. These activities can hardly be included under welfare work, although usually regarded as such. Security and Increase of Income. Tenure of Employment. One of the great evils of the wage system is insecurity of employment. The wage worker cannot tell from day to day whether he will retain his employment or not. Some employers have felt the injustice of this insecurity and have endeavored to mitigate it by making long time contracts with their workers, and by giving them ade- quate compensation in case of dismissal for reasons for which they are not to blame. On the other hand, most employers do not realize the inequity of this arrangement at all. In many factories the worker is required to give a week or two weeks' notice to the employer before leaving; while the employer assumes the right to dismiss a man instantly if he feels so inclined. Moreover, to insure his week's or two weeks' notice, a corresponding part of the employe's wages are kept back by the firm. It was Ernst Abb6. the founder of the Karl Zeiss Stiftung (Jena, Germany), who first worked out in detail a scheme which meant for the workers practical security of employment; as, by the terms of the " Stiftung " dismissal of a worker becomes very costly. The firm of Freese in Berlin, also assures its workers security of employment in a similar way. While most thoughtful employers will admit that in unemploy- ment and insecurity of employment lies the greatest evil of the wage 298 THE MODERN FACTORY system, I know of few American employers who have taken steps to guarantee their workers permanency of employment, conditioned always, of course, on good behavior. Minimum Wages. Many employers have adopted a minimum weekly wage or a minimum hour rate, regardless of the kind of' work done or the skill of the worker. In other industries a certain minimum rate is attached to each different operation, this rate being sometimes arbitrarily determined by the management; and some- times where the workers are organized, by shop committees on which the workers and management are represented. It is in the former sense, however, that the term is most popularly employed. The Karl Zeiss Works at Jena have a minimum weekly rate for all workers. J. Crosfield & Sons in their soap factory at War- rington, England, have a minimum wage of twenty-one shillings for all male workers over twenty-one. The Cadbury Company at Bournville, Lever Bros., at Port Sunlight, and Rowntree's fac- tory at York are examples of English establishments which base their wage payments on a minimum wage. The most striking example of the establishment of a minimum wage is in the Ford Automobile Company of Detroit, which lately instituted a five dollar a day minimum wage for all male workers in its employ over twenty-one years of age. A minimum wage, however, is usually fixed at some very small sum and is chiefly used as a basis for the calculation of premiums, bonuses and piece-work. Profit Sharing. By profit sharing is meant the practice of some employers of adding to the daily, weekly, monthly or yearly wages and income of their workers a certain sum to which they are legally not entitled, but which is voluntarily given to them by em- ployers from their ordinary or extraordinary profits. Profit sharing is usually in the form of a gift, although it also recognizes the prin- ciple that the employes are a part of the machinery of the plant, having done their share in gaining the general results, and are therefore entitled to a certain share of the profits of the works outside of their regular wages. A number of employers have adopted some form of profit sharing. Of course, upon a close analysis, it simply means that the employers have beforehand deter- mined upon the distribution of a fixed percentage of the general profit among their employes. Lever Bros, do not believe in profit sharing. They state that it cannot exist where the worker cannot share the losses as well as the profits. They have a scheme called "prosperity sharing," EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 299 which consists in setting aside a certain sum of money from the earnings of any prosperous year, to be used as a substantial benefit for their employes, either by building additional houses for their workmen to be rented at low cost, or by providing some form of recreation or education. In the Van Marken Works at Delf, Holland, a scheme was instituted whereby the workers became the sole owners of the fac- tory. Fifty per cent of the profits were credited to the workmen in proportion to their wages. This sum was then paid into the bank and when it reached the amount of a share, that amount of stock was credited to the worker. At the end of twelve years t" e workers in the factory had become the sole owners of the capital stock. Such a scheme, which results in the elimination of the capitalist, has not often been copied. A form of profit sharing which has attracted much attention was first instituted by Sir George Livesey in the London Gas Works. This scheme of copartnership admitted the workmen, consumers and the share holders. The workmen were entitled to an annual bonus of one and one-half per cent on their wages for every penny at which gas was sold below a certain standard, which was arbi- trarily fixed at two shillings and eight pence per thousand feet. The men were required to inve^ one-half of this bonus in the Com- pany's stock. Responsibility in the management of the Company was then given the workers in proportion to the amount of stock jointly owned by them. American employers are somewhat divided in their opinion as to the value of profit sharing. One of the first firms to adopt it was Brewster & Company, who employed about one hundred men in their carriage factory. In 1869 they instituted a profit sharing scheme. The percentage of profits to be divided was to be deter- mined by committees elected by each department, to act jointly with the managers as a board of control, and also to control con- ditions of work in their respective departments. Two years after this scheme was instituted, the men struck together with the rest of the carriage makers in New York for an eight-hour day, and the partnership was dissolved. Many American employers are of the opinion of Mr. Lever, of the Lever Bros. Soap Works at Port Sunlight, that there can be no real profit sharing without a sharing of losses. Other firms share profits on the stipulation that a part of the profit accruing to each employe shall be used to purchase stock in the company. 300 THE MODERN FACTORY This is the case with the N. O. Nelson Company of Detroit, Mich. The workers are paid in proportion to their earnings on a time basis. Profit sharing dividends are allowed only to such employes as have saved ten per cent of their full time wages and invested it in the company's stock. Other firms allot a percentage of their profits to their employes in accordance with their behavior. In the Thomas G. Plant Company, employes are divided into three classes for the purpose of profit sharing. The employe's behavior, manners, punctuality, quality and quantity of work, neatness, etc., are all taken into account in determining the class to which he belongs. The Detroit Graphite Company sets aside a certain sura each year to be divided among its employes in proportion to their length of service in the firm. Employes who have worked five years or over with the company receive five per cent on their weekly wages; those who have been with the firm four years receive four per cent, and so on. The latest scheme of profit sharing is that which has been adopted by the Henry Ford Automobile Company. Mr. Ford, having found that at the end of 1913 he had a surplus of ten million dollars, decided to divide the surplus among his ten to fifteen thousand employes by practically doubling their wages for 1914, instead of cheapening the product to the consumers. As to the value of profit sharing, the following opinion of Frederick W. Taylor is of interest: " Profit sharing as ordinarily applied in competitive establish- ments practically throughout the world has been a failure. Dr. Elhot is right in saying that profit sharing has been a failure in nine out of ten cases in which it has been tried. The reason for the failure lies fundamentally in human nature; and until you have studied men,>-lived next to workmen, analyzed their motives, studied their methods of thought and know their outlook, you will fail to reafize why profit sharing is a failure. I am not saying that I do not favor profit sharing. I believe in it, but it cannot be the lazy man's profit sharing; it cannot be the ordinary kind of profit sharing. It is the easiest thing in the world to give away one-seventh of your earnings. That is the lazy man's way. There is nothing to it. You have got to get down to every single individual in your place. You cannot pro-rate wages at the end of the year and do justice to your men — ^you must share the profits with those men who have earned them and not let the fellow who has not earned them get a cent of the profits." * * Address before the Boston Efficiency Club Branch, Feb. 11, 1914, p. 25. Published in the Journal of the Efficiency Society, March, 1914. EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 301 In other words, Mr. Taylor claims that profit sharing in order to be just, should not be given indiscriminately to all employes, but only to those who deserve it; and then, of course, it is simply a bonus payment to those employes who by their extra efforts have earned higher wages, but do not get them and receive them in the form of profits divided among them at certain periods. Increased Income for Increased Production. As we have seen, the objections of the exponents of the efiiciency system to profit sharing are its indiscriminate use and the reward of those members of an industrial estabUshment who are really not deserv- ing of their share of increased income. The method of increasing the income of workers usually practiced by these employers is the giving of bonuses and premiums. Bonuses and Premiums. In addition to wages, many firms, especially those which conduct their business on a piecework basis,, offer bonuses or premiums to their workers. Employers state that the bonus system results in a very much larger output and con- sequent saving of expense. In the Santa F6 machine shops the bonus system consisted in paying a minimum rate of thirty cents an hour, and then allowing a twenty per cent bonus for performing the work within a standard time, which had been previously deter- mined. H. W. Jacobs, the assistant superintendent of the motive power division in the Sante Fe Railroad, says: " The payment of bonus is made on an efficiency basis. As previously stated, a bonus of twenty per cent of wages is paid for doing work in the standard time, which represents one hundred per cent efficiency. When more time is taken to do the work than allowed by the standard, the efficiency of the workman necessarily decreases, for which a less amount of bonus is paid, the workman receiving only his hourly pay for doing the work. If the work is performed in less than the standard time allowed, more than twenty per cent bonus is paid for the operation, depending on the reduction made in the time." This bonus system of the Sante F^ was part of an efficiency plan which was installed in the works, operated for two years and then discontinued. The bonus system aims at a large output. By its critics it is stated to be simply a method of speeding up the worker. There is no limit placed on the standard time, which can easily be shortened as the workers are speeded up to maximum production. Under the bonus system a worker might accomplish his job using only a few minutes more than the standard time; but 302 THE MODERN FACTOEY in this case he would receive no bonus, or, as Mr. Jacobs subtly says " a less amount of bonus, namely, only his hourly rate," which he would obtain whether he hustled for the bonus or not. Organized workers are opposed to the bonus system, whether in their own or other trades. Warren S. Stone, Presi|dent of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, states that his organization is opposed to the bonus system all along the Hne. His reasons are primarily the necessity for careful workmanship in the build- ing of locomotives and locomotive machinery. The bonus system with its emphasis on speed and output tends to the scamping of work and therefore results in faults or defects in machinery. Two hun- dred and ten members of the Brotherhood were killed in 1910 and many wrecks have resulted from invisible defects. " We don't want piece-work and we don't want the bonus system with its attendant incentive for some man to slight his job." * Payment of premiums is on a slightly different basis from the bonus system; but a time limit is assigned to every job in the same way. The worker accomplishing his task in less than this standard time receives an additional wage in proportion to the time saved. If he saves one-third of the time, he receives one-third of the money which would have been paid for that time, and has the extra hours in which to go on to another job. I Another method is to pay to each employe at the end of the year a percentage on all wages earned within the year. The Lbwney Chocolate Company pays a five per cent annual bonus on the wages earned by each employe. The Heinz Pickle Factory divides twice a year a small percentage with its best workers. Premiums for Years of Service. Many employers take some method for recognizing faithful and long continued service from their employes. TKe Van Marken Company in Holland gives a silver cross at the end of twelve and one-half years' service, and a gold cross after twenty-five years of work. The Villeroy & Bach Company give a silver medal to each employe after twenty-five years of service and a gold medal after fifty years of work. The SherwJn-Wilhams Paint Company present each faithful employe who has served them for twenty-five years with a gold watch. Cros- field & Sons pay £5 at the end of twenty-five years' service and £20 at the end of fifty years' service. The Menier Chocolate Com- pany gives extra pay for long service. A worker who has been * Human Engineering, January, 1911, p, 13. EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 303 in their employ for twenty years receives £8 for every subsequent year in addition to his regular earnings. Scientific Management. Not one of the exponents of • so-called scientific management in factories has ever claimed that the purpose of the introduction of this new system is the improvement of the economic or social conditions of the workers themselves. Hence, scientific management can scarcely be considered as a form of wel- fare work. By scientific management is understood the efforts of a factory management " to obtain the maximum prosperity as a result of the maximum productivity." " The greatest prosperity," says Fred- erick H. Taylor, " can exist only as a result of the greatest possible productivity of the men and the machines; that is, when each man and each machine is turning out the largest possible output. It follows that the most important object of both the workmen and the management should be the training and development of each individual in the establishment so that he can do at his fastest pace and with the maximum efficiency the highest class of work for which his natm-al abihties fit him.* Under scientific management, bonuses and premiums have been largely adopted, chiefly in the industries where output and quan- tity are the chief consideration. Scientific management, so-called, has worked out systems of payment based on (1) a minimum time wage, (2) premiums or bonuses for the saving of time on a job, and (3) special prizes or awards paid to groups of workers, divided in proportion to their individual earnings. There is no doubt that under scientific management the output of the factory is greatly increased, the general prosperity of the works enhanced, the effi- ciency of the whole industrial establishment is at its highest, the profit of the employer the greatest, and incidentally the wages and income of the workers also increased to a greater or lesser degree. In so far as scientific management increases the general efficiency of industrial production and brings increased prosperity to the industrial classes, there can be very little objection to this system. The chief opposition to scientific management in factories comes from the workers themselves, from their representatives and from those social workers who dispassionately judge this new efficiency movement in industrial production. The opposition of the workers themselves is well expressed in * F. H. Taylor: " Principles of Scientific Management," pp. 9 and 12. [Italics mine.] 304 THE MODERN PACTOEY the criticism of scientific management by John P. Frey, editor of the International Holder's Journal, in an address delivered before the Western Economic Association. Mr. Frey's opposition is based upon the following contentions: (1) that so-called scientific manage- ment tends to speciahzation and converts the workers into frac- tional mechanics, whose knowledge of a trade or industry is con- fined to but a few simple operations; (2) that it does not provide an adequate system for education of apprentices; (3) that it does not provide for the advance of the workman in mechanical knowl- edge, but keeps him endlessly performing the same operation, dis- regarding the fact that this constant repetition, which in time be- comes semi-automatic on the part of the workmen, through its very monotony numbs the mind instead of inspiring it; (4) that if applied to all industries it would prevent development of com- petent mechanics and produce in their place fractional mechanics who could only work effectively under the groups of super-foremen ' provided for by the system; (5) that it is unsafe as well as unscien- tific, inasmuch as its tendency is toward the production of quan- tity rather than quality. The number of bricks which can be laid in a day is one thing; the strength and durability of the wall is an entirely different matter. The number of steel rails which can be run through the rolls in a day may be an interesting item in the matter of production, but of greater importance to the pub- lic is the ability of these rails to withstand the burden of traffic; (6) scientific management fails to adequately understand the human factor and the spirit of American institutions, for it makes of one man a taskmaster without the free consent of the other; (7) that while workmen do not object to experiments for the discovery of the greatest capacity of production by machinery, they strenuously object, and justly, to all efforts to experiment with them in the same way.* The eminent Enghsh sociologist, J. A. Hobson, makes the following objections to scientific management: "In so far as initiative, interest, variation, experiment and personal responsibility are factors of human value qualifying the human costs of labor, it seems evident that scientific management involves a loss or injury to "the workers." " The basic reason," says Mr. Hobson, for offering a bonus in scientifically managed concerns at the present day * American Federationist, April, 1913. EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 305 " is the necessity to overcome the disUke of the worker and to in- duce him to make the greater effort necessary under this system; but when all firms shall have adopted this system, the worker will have no choice; therefore, only that part of the bonus will continue to be paid which is necessary to replace muscular and nervous wear and tear of speeded up and more automatic work; that is, this bonus would be part of the cost of production and the laborer would get no higher payment for his increased productivity."* Mr. Hobson concludes his criticism with the following remarks: " Indeed, were the full rigor of scientific management to be applied throughout the staple industries, not only would the human costs of labor appear to be enhanced, but progress in the industrial arts itself would probably be damaged. For the whole strain of prog- ress would be thrown upon the scientific manager and the consulting psychologist. The large assistance given to technical invention by the observation and experiments of intelligerit workmen, the con- stant flow of suggestion for detailed improvements would cease. The elements of creative work still surviving in most routine labor would disappear. On the one hand, there would be small bodies of efficient taskmasters carefully administering the orders of expert managers; on the other, large masses of physically efficient but mentally inert executive machines. Though the productivity of existing industrial processes might be greatly increased by this economy, the future of industrial progress might be imperilled. For not only would the arts of invention and improvement be con- fined to the few, but the mechanization of the great mass of work- men would render them less capable of adapting their labor to any other method than that to which they had been drilled. Again, such automatism in the workers would react injuriously upon their character as consumers, damaging their capacity to.get full human gain out of any higher remuneration that they might obtain. It would also injure them as citizens, disabling them from taking an intelUgent part in the arts of political self-government. For indus- trial servitude is inimical to political liberty. It would become even more difficult than now for a majority of men, accustomed in their workday to mechanical obedience, to stand up in their capacity as citizens against their industrial rulers when, as often happens, upon critical occasions, political interests correspond with economic cleavages." t Reduction of Cost of Living. A. certain number of employers in order to improve the economic condition of their workers, endeavor to reduce the cost of living either by furnishing them with cheap rent, by building their own houses and making the rent at *J A.'RohsoiL: Sociological Review, luly, 1913. t Ibid. 306 THE MODERN FACTORY cost or below it, or by furnishing the workers with provisions, food, clothing, etc., at cost price or at a little above or below it.. Of course, many of these schemes were introduced not with a view to benefiting the workers, but either because of necessity, as, for in- stance, in lonely districts where there were no houses or stores, or when the furnishing of houses and food products was made not to benefit the employes but for profit, and became a means of exploiting - Courtesy National Lamp Works. Two-way Cafeteria. their helplessness. These were the activities which led in a great many states and countries to the enactment of the " truck " acts, forbidding the employers to run " company stores " or pay their employes by checks or in the form of rent or food. Cooperation in Administration. Capitalist industry is an aris- tocracy, an hierarchy. It is governed from the top by the employer, by the owner of the estabUshment without the consent of the gov- erned. The old time capitalist was very jealous of bis prerogatives and of his " vested interests and divine rights." One eminent- EMPLOYEES' WELFARE WORK 307 coal baron stated that the coal mines and fields were given to him by Divine Providence and that he could brook no interference of anyone with his personal management of his divine responsibilities. "One of the most poignant paradoxes of the present situation in industry," says Prof. Felix Adler, " is the contradiction between the democracy outside of the factory and the absolute monarchy within the factory. Is it natural for men to be taught that so far Courtesy National Lamp Works. One-way Cafeteria. as the government of the country is concerned, self respect demands their participation in the making of the laws which they are bound to obey, and, on the other hand to have it impressed upon them day by day in the factory that they are to take the orders of their superiors without any right on their part to assist in the making of the rules to which they are subordinated ? " It is only with the growth of the labor movement that an increased tendency to democratization of industry and to the participation, at least partial, of the mass of workers in the management of Indus- 308 THE MODERN FACTOEY trial establishments has become apparent. While owners and em- ployers have at last, though reluctantly, admitted the right of the state to interfere to some extent in the magagement of industrial establishments, they are still strenuously opposed to any admission of the right of the workers to any share in the government of the ■ establishments in which they work. It is only here and there that intelUgent and progressive employers seek to introduce some democratic system in their works, and so far as this has been suc- cessful, it may be considered a part of welfare work. Many experiments have been tried in admitting the wage earn- ers to some share in the management of industry. Some have been successful, while the results of others are admittedly doubtful. Some of the schemes remind their critics of the way in which small chil- dren are sometimes allowed to hold the ends of the reins while their father drives, with the illusion that they are really guiding the horse. Among these experiments may be included suggestion systems and shop committees. Suggestion Systems. The suggestion system has been adopted by many factories both large and small. It is an effort to utilize the practical ideas of employes in making the business more effective. In some establishments suggestions are solicited for every branch of the business; in others, only suggestions as to mechanical improve- ments or time-saving devices are desired. The Cadbury Cocoa Fac- tory at Bournville receives suggestions from its employes in regard to (1) comfort, safety or health; (2) means of preventing waste of materials; (3) saving of time and expense; (4) improvements in machinery; (5) introduction of new goods or ideas; (6) existing defects; (7) athletic and other clubs and societies; and (8) any- thing not included in this list. Prizes ranging from five shillings to ten pounds are awarded at the end of the year for the best sug- gestions, i In the Karl Zeiss Optical Works at Jena the suggestions of employes have resulted in many improvements and inventions. From sixty to seventy suggestions are adopted each year. The Acme White Lead Works and the Bausch & Lomb Optical Com- pany have employed a suggestion system for many years. The National Cash Register Company pays for suggestions in propor- tion to their value to the firm. It also gives educational trips as prizes to the authors of specially valuable suggestions. These trips are to Washington, New York or other commercial centers. EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 309 The Cleveland Hardware Company at one time put boxes in its factory, into which the employes were asked to drop any sug- gestions in regard to improvements in machinery, methods of work, economies, etc. At the end of six months a prize was to be given for the best suggestions. This scheme, however, had to be abandoned in favor of a promise to pay cash for all suggestions of value. The Chandler & Taylor Company of Indianapolis abandoned \ tvr. ■ ■"^^^^..^^^^ .,^^„ '-^s^ m .4 •^^^v ^^^.^ jpKf ■^^^^% ^ « "' ti #*^^ "'^■BkP.,. 1 1 , „^ |^_ -1 ^i 2 --> W Courtesy National Cash Register Co. Noon-hour Rest and Recreation. their system of giving prizes for suggestions because the best men would not compete, considering a prize inadequate where a great saving was effected. This feeling prevails among the workers in many factories in regard to suggestion systems where small prizes or payments are made for suggestions which may result in saving the firm thousands of dollars through the year. The only fair plan to the worker is to pay him a percentage of the saving effected. 310 THE MODERN FACTORY Shop Committees. Some of the large establishments have solicited the cooperation of their workers through committees of the men elected by them to represent their interests to the manage- ment. The National Cash Register Company conducts its whole business through a series of committees under the direction of the' president, vice-president and general manager. Each departmentJ Courtesy National Lamp Works. Rest Room. in the works from the business department down elects a com- mittee to administer the affairs of the department. In the Karl Zeiss Works, the men elect annually a committee to represent them in their dealings with the board of managers; while a sub-committee of seven members acts as an executive com- mittee for the larger body. All the transactions of the committees are posted in the work-rooms. These shop committees may, of course, be merely a decoration, and have no real authority or responsibihty. On the other hand, they sometimes — as in the Zeiss Works — really assist in the administration, and are in fact EMPLOYEES' WELFARE WORK 311 a necessary part of the machinery of management. Another type of shop committee is the grievance or promotion committee which exists in some factories. Special Provisions for Workers. Accident and Sickness Insur- ance. Side and death benefit associations are maintained in many factories. Their organization, methods of payment, and regu- lations are more or less similar. Where these associations have grown up among the workers and where the employer does not contribute to the funds, these associations are naturally not to be considered a part of welfare work, although in many instances, they have been started at the instigation of the employer, who often furnishes a round sum of money to start the organization and con- tributes from time to time to a greater or lesser degree. The membership in these associations is sometimes compul- sory; that is, all workers entering the factory must belong to this benefit organization. In such cases, the weekly 'or monthly dues are deducted from the pay envelopes by the firm. Should an employe leave, he may or may not be entitled to the money he has deposited in this way. This form of benefit association is productive of a good deal of friction and bad feeling by reason of its compulsory character. In the relief association of the Shredded Wheat Company, those whose weekly wages are less than $6.50 a week contribute two and one-half cents a week; those whose wages are more than $6.50 con- tribute five cents a week. Other relief associations charge a per- centage of the wages received by their employes. The firm often acts as custodian and the money of the members is deducted from their pay envelopes. The usual benefit is $5.00 a week in case of sickness, and $100.00 to $200.00 in case of death. Benefits are paid for a certain length of time and most of the organizations have a stipulation that sick benefits shall not be paid for more than a definite number of weeks or months per year, the usual term being thirteen weeks. In addition to the benefits provided by these associations, a num- ber of firms pay additional sickness and accident benefits. The International Harvester Company have had a plan of accident insurance in effect since 1910. The workers do not contribute any- thing towards this insurance, a definite sum having been set aside for this purpose by the corporation. In case of death, three years' average wages are paid, but the amount cannot be less than $1500 or more than $4000. One-fourth of the wages during the first 312 THE MODEKN FACTORY thirty days of disability are paid, and if the disability continues longer than thirty days, one-half wages are paid during that, period; but not for more than two years after the accident. Special bene- fits are paid for the loss of hand, foot or eye. Sick and accident benefits and death benefits are provided in industrial estabUshments in Germany and England in accordance with the requirements of the national insurance legislation which has developed in both countries. In addition, however, to the legal payments, many estabhshments pay further benefits. The EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK ^ 313 Karl Zeiss Works at Jena and the Freese Company at Berlin have both placed a large sick fund in the hands of the workers for dis- bursement, the managers having no voice in its direction. Old Age Pensions. Manufacturing establishments, both in Eng- land and on the continent, maintain pension schemes for their work- ers which give larger sums of money than those afforded by the national insurance acts. In the Zeiss Optical Works, every employe is legally assured a pension for infirmity or old age or for the benefit of his family in case of death, after five years of service. This pension is computed on the basis of a fixed minimum wage scale. The United States Steel Corporation recently set aside twelve milUon dollars as a pension fund for superannuated employes. The Western Electric Company, the Westinghouse Air Brake Company, the International Harvester Company, Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, the Talbot Woolen Mills, and the Gorham Man- ufacturing Company all have pension schemes which, while varying in detail are similar in outline. The Westinghouse Company retires all employes at the age of seventy years; while all who have been twenty years in the comi- pany's employ are pensioned. Employes between sixty-five and sixty-nine years old, who have worked twenty years for the com- pany and are incapacitated, may be retired and pensioned. Men who have been twenty-five years in the employ of the company may be retired at the discretion of the managers. Men sixty years old who have been in the company's employ for forty years are retired on a pension, and those who are sixty-five years old, if they have been in the employ of the company for thirty years. The International Harvester Company retires all male employes with pension after twenty years of service, on reaching sixty-five years of age. The Western Electric Company pensions employes who have worked for twenty years and are sixty years old. Any employe who has been with the company for thirty years may be retired at fifty-five. The Talbot Woolen Mills give pensions after fifteen years of service, on reaching the age of seventy years. The amounts are reckoned at one per cent for every year of service of the wages received by the worker, determined by averaging his pay for the ten years preceding retirement. The Western Electric Company, however, pays one per cent for every year of service, reckoned on the basis of the highest ten years' average earnings. Most compa- nies paying pensions to their retired workers stipulate that the pen- 314 , THE MODEEN FACTORY sion shall not be less or more than a certain amount. The Talbot Woolen Mills pension employes after thirty-five years in the ser- vice at half pay. The Westinghouse Air Brake Company pays no pension of less than twenty dollars or more than seventy dol- lars a month. The minimum pension paid by the International Harvester Company is eighteen dollars a month, the maximum, one hundred dollars a month. Ill IMPROVEMENT OF THE PHYSICAL, INTELLECTUAL AND SOCIAL STATUS OF THE WORKERS. Lessening the Dangers of Work. A most important function of employers' welfare work is the improvement of the physical condition of the workers by lessening the dangers of their work and by improving the working conditions in the industrial estab- lishments in which they are employed. Of all the methods of lessen- ing the dangers of work there is not one which is so beneficial to the health of the workers as shortening the hours of labor. The stren- ' uous activity characteristic of all modern factory work inevitably causes great fatigue and, if continued for long periods, is inevitably followed by serious injuries to the health of the workers. Hence, from the very beginning of the factory era, the workers and their advocates have fought for a reduction of the hours of labor and for the introduction of a normal day's work. While a shortening of the regular hours of labor in an industrial plant is not considered by many employers as a necessary part of their welfare work, those employers who have tried the experiment state that a shortening of the daily and weekly hours of labor has resulted in better workmanship and in an equal or increased output. The Karl Zeiss Works at Jena initiated an eight-hour day in 1902 upon a vote of their employes. Freese & Company of Berlin have been working on the eight-hour basis for over ten years. J. Cros- field & Sons, soap manufacturers of Warrington, Lancashire, con- duct their industry on the three shift system. Their hours are from 6 A.M. to 2 p.m. and from 2 p.m. to 10 p.m. and from 10 p.m. to 6 A.M. This reduction in hours from their former two shift sys- tem was accompanied by a temporary reduction in wages. The Solvay Process Company of Syracuse, N. Y., changed to EMPLOYERS' WELFAEE WORK 315 the eight-hour shift several years ago with the very best of results for their workers and their product. The Carhart Manufacturing Company of Detroit, employing seven hundred women workers, mostly foreigners, reduced the hours of work from ten to eight hours and found that their eight-hour output exceeded their ten- hour one. Their workers, of course, are all paid by the piece. This experience has been repeated by many other factories in America where the change of hours has actually meant an increase in the amount produced. Some employers who have established a forty- eight hour week have found that their workers prefer to work a Uttle longer five days in the week in order to have a Saturday half hoUday. This arrangement of hours is generally known as the Eng- lish week, since this custom is almost universal in England, where the Saturday half holiday is a national institution. Pauses. In factories where the work is very monotonous, especially where girls or women are employed, it has been found beneficial to the workers to allow brief pauses during the morning and afternoon work periods. There are provisions in the labor codes of all states and countries for midday pauses. The duration of these pauses is from thirty to sixty minutes. In England the law provides that women and minors must not remain at their place of work or in the rooms where they work during the midday pause. In most continental countries the law provides for a one- hour midday pause and for an additional half hour pause divided into a fifteen-minute forenoon pause, taken usually at 10 a.m., and a fifteen-minute afternoon pause, taken usually at 4 p.m. A num- ber of individual employers have adopted pauses somewhat longer than the ones required by law. The Shredded Wheat Company of Niagara Falls allows its women workefs twenty niinutes each day, ten minutes in the morn- ing and ten minutes in the afternoon, in which they must leave their work and can go to the rest room or library provided by the Company. The length of these rest periods is increased in some of the departments where the work is specially fatiguing. The National Biscuit Company also gives two rest periods during the forenoon and afternoon, extending from fifteen to forty minutes, according to the' character of the employe's work. The National Cash Register Company allows ten minutes morning and after- noon in which calisthenics are taught by a competent teacher. The Thomas Adams Company of Nottingham, a lace-making factory, allows a break at 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. for tea. 316 THE MODERN FACTORY A writer in the Iron Age (May 8, 1913), says that " In the newBst German railroad shops arrangements have been made for all mechanics above a certain age to rest. A room has been furnished with couches and the men are allowed one hour a day at the expense of the Company, divided into twenty minute periods, in which they must rest." Another means of decreasing the fatigue consequent on monot- onous work is to rotate the occupations. The National Biscuit Courtesy Plerce-Arrow Motor Car Co. Bakery in Works: All Bread and Pastry Served to Employes *s Baked Here. Company changes its woman workers from one kind of work to another where the operations are particularly exacting. This system is said to have worked successfully. In many shops, a practical rotation of employment is worked out by the employes themselves. Where the work is unskilled in character, they change about among each other without receiving directions from the management. Over-specialization of work has sometimes resulted in serious labor conflicts, as, when in the glove industry, certain employers with a view to increasing the output, determined to have the stitching of fingers and thumbs of gloves done by different EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 317 sets of workers instead of each girl performing the whole operation. The workers struck in this case for the right to keep some variety in their occupation. It was a rehef for them to be able to change from stitching fingers to stitching thumbs and back again. Vacations. The custom of allowing factory workers a holiday with pay is not at all general. In Germany, the Karl Zeiss Com- pany and the Freese Company allow their workers, after a year's service, six days holiday with pay, and if desired, six additional days leave of absence without pay. In England a similar system has been instituted by the Cadbury Cocoa Company and Crosfield & Sons. The latter company grants this holiday only to punctual workers. Workers who have been late more than three times dur- ing a year, unless they belong to a shift beginning at 6 a.m., are disqualified from receiving this vacation. In America, the Curtis Publishing Company in Philadelphia grants one week's holiday with full pay to all women factory work- ers. A number of department stores grant a vacation of one or two weeks to their women employees. Improved Food and Diet. Under certain circumstances the provision of lunch rooms for employes becomes a necessity. Such is the case in establishments where food products are manufactured. To have the workers eating their lunches in the work rooms would not be conducive to cleanliness; and so in most food factories separate lunch rooms are provided as a m^atter of course. Separate lunch rooms are also a necessity in lead, paint, pottery, match factories, or other establishments where dangerous materials are handled. Where the workers come from a distance and where there are no places near at hand for them to lunch, some kind of restaurant or cafeteria or supplementary provision by the firm of hot drinks or light refreshments becomes necessary. On the other hand, where factories are situated in towns in which the workers have their homes nearby, lunch rooms within the factory are unneces- sary. Lunch rooms are scarcely ever, for example, found in textile mills in the New England towns. As is customary in the textile trade, an hour and a half is usually allowed for the midday meal and the workers prefer to get dinner at their homes nearby. The provision of lunch .rooms for employes is one of the most popular branches of welfare work and is frequently undertaken in factories where no other welfare work is carried on. The most elementary method is simply to provide an empty room in the fac- tory or to partition off a part of the work room and set up tables 318 THE MODERN FACTORY and benches where the workers can take their lunches which they have brought from home and eat them apart from their work. All kinds and grades of luiich rooms come between this and the elaborate dining rooms which provide a square meal with two or three courses for all employes free or at merely nominal sums. The big industrial firms such as Friedrich Bayer & Company at Elberfeld, Freese & Company at Berhn, Krupp Bros., etc., all provide beautiful dining rooms where the workers can buy nourish- Courtesy New York Telepbone Co; Operators' Dining Room. ing food prepared in a scientific manner with wholesome materials, at cost or free to needy workers. In England, W. P. Hartley & Company in their jam factory at Aintree have a beautiful dining hall for their workers. At Port Sunlight in the Cadbury Cocoa Company similar provision is made. J,. Crosfield & Sons provide a very substantial midday dinner with meat and vegetables for sixpence, pudding a penny extra. The United Shoe Machinery Company at Beverly, Mass., has a separate restaurant for men and women workers where food EMPLOYERS' WELt'ARE WORK 319 is sold at a low cost. A similar plan is followed at the works of the Thomas G. Plant Company at Boston, Mass. The Shredded Wheat Company in their factory at Niagara Falls have a large lunch room for their women employes. The price of articles 320 THE MODERN FACTORY on the menu is stated and each employe is allowed food to the amount of fifteen cents free. The prices charged do not cover the cost of the food. The Pierce-Arrow Company maintains a dining room in connec- tion with which is a bakery and butcher shop. A- hot lunch is fur- nished for fifteen cents, consisting of meat or fish, potatoes, vege- table and pudding. The National Lamp Works maintains cafe- terias and lunch rooms in eighteen factories where soups, sandwiches Courtesy Royal Worcester Corset Co. Dining Hall for Employes. ■and hot and cold drinks prepared scientifically according to stand- ard recipes are supphed. On the other hand, some employers who have provided lunch rooms and restaurants for their workers have had to abandon them as they were not sufficiently used. This is the case with the National Cash Register Company, where the workers preferred to go to their homes for luncheon rather than use the company's restaurant. The Pratt & Letchworth Company also started a dininjg room EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 321 which' they were forced to abandon later as it was not used by the employes. Many factories do not provide lunch or dinner, but allow the workers to make tea or coffee on the premises or provide hot drinks at cost to their, employes in the noon hour. Some factory dining rooms in the large model establishments are really beautiful rooms, large, airy and charmingly decorated. The lunch room in the new building of the Curtis Publishing Company at Philadelphia, where women employes eat their lunch, has frescoes done by Maxfield Parrish. The dining room of the Lever Bros. Works at Port Sun- light looks more like the interior of a banqueting hall of the Middle Ages than an annex to a factory. The following rules which the Shredded Wheat Company has issued to its kitchen management show the care which some employ- ers take in the hygienic feeding of their employes: " All fruits and vegetables to be served raw shall be washed in sterilized water. Under no circumstances — even for the first washing — shall water be utilized unless same has been steri- lized." " Sterilized water must be procured from the appliance located in the office of the janitor." " Milk and cream shall be strained through a cheese cloth pre- vious to its being placed in the special refrigerator." " A sample weighing 100 grams shall be taken from every can of milk received daily, immediately upon its arrival, and same sent to the chief of the department." " A second sample of 100 grams shall be taken from every can of milk, and same placed in a glass container with 25 grams of bichromate of potash, and the following days of the week a like sample must be placed in the container without the addition of bichromate of potash, and this composite be submitted at the end of the week to the chief of the department. " " Fresh meats delivered to the kitchen shall be carefully examined by the chief and an immediate report be made when same is not in a perfect state." " Inspection of hams shall be made by partly splitting same and completely removing the bones so that the flesh is exposed." " Discolorations, bruises, wounds or cuts inflicted previous to the slaughter of the animal shall be sufficient cause for rejection of all fresh or salt meats." " The chef shall open and inspect upon arrival, all packages containing fresh fish. Should the package contain no ice and the flesh be otherwise than firm, and the eyes bright, the fish shall be declared unfit for use. The lack of sufficient ice pertains to the summer season only." 322 THE MODERN FACTORY " Only fresh green cabbage — not any that has been kept in storage or in the cellar — shall be used to be served raw, and only during the period of the year when such can be obtained; cabbage kept in the cellar, or having the outside leaves partially dried or decomposed, shall be utilized only after thorough cooking." " Canned fruit or vegetables shall be used only when the market does not offer sufficient variety of fresh articles." " When making use of canned fruit or vegetables, the chef shall' see that all cans are opened and not emptied until he has inspected the contents of each can." "It is strictly forbidden to utilize cold storage eggs for the making of any article in which the eggs are not thoroughly cooked. Cold storage eggs must not be used in the making of sherbets, Eng- lish creams, meringues or mayonaise." In this country as well as abroad, a great many employers make an attempt to combat the use of alcohol by their employes. I was very much interested to find that one of the largest brewing concerns in the world, that of Shulteis, Berlin, discom^aged the drinking of beer by their employes during meal time, and supplied them instead with tea and coffee free, a practice which has resulted in a decrease of more than fifty per cent in the consumption of alcoholic drinks. The same practice is followed in a great number of establishments in Germany. In certain factories where specially dangerous materials are handled, the employers furnish the workers with special drinks which are considered as prophylactic against the action of poisons. Thus, the Pullman Company at Pullman, Illinois, encourages the drinking of milk; and several wagon loads of milk are sold daily to the employes in the lead branches of the estabhshment. Improvement of Working Conditions. Industrial codes con- tain more or less detailed statements as to the working conditions required by law. Tliese laws contain provisions for safety and pre- vention of accidents in factories, for the construction of indus- trial estabhshments, for fire protection and fire prevention, for light, ventilation, heating, washing and other sanitary comforts within the factory. The provisions of the law give the minimum requirements, but many employers go much further and provide their workers with more comforts than required by legislation, and seek to improve their working conditions far beyond the require- ments of the statutes. In so far as these improvements represent a voluntary contribution on the part of the employers, they con- stitute real employers' welfare work. EMPLOYEES' WELFAEE WORK 323 Employers differ in the working conditions which they endeavor to improve. Some employers take pride in constructing model factories; others try to beautify the grounds and surroundings. Many employers make special provision for the absolute fire pro- tection of their workers. Other employers introduce artificial ventilation, special methods of heating, improved lighting, etc. At present many employers are paying great attention to the safety of employes. Some large corporations spend great sums annually on Courtesy Adler Bros.. Rochester, N, Y. Reading Room for Employes. this form of welfare work. Thus, for instance, the United States Steel Corporation spent during 1912 the enormous sum of $1,068,253.02 for sanitation and welfare work of all sorts; while if we include the expenditures for relief of men injured and killed, for accident prevention, for the pension fund, and other expenditures for improv- ing the condition of the workmen, the aggregate amount spent during 1912 reaches the enormous sum of $6,166,364.82. Improved washing, dressing and bathing facilities are a part of the welfare work in many establishments. In some of the factories, 324 THE MODERN FACTORY model wash rooms and dressing rooms with lockers for each employe are splendidly located, with plenty of light and ventilation, and so arranged that employes are encouraged to be clean and to keep so. In some establishments not only are washrooms and dressing rooms provided, but the workmen are properly supervised in the use of these sanitary facilities. Thus, at the Pullman Works in Pullman, Illinois, I found a splendid arrangement by which the washing of the hands of the employes during noon time was supervised by a Courtesy New York Telephone Co. Reading Room for Operators. foreman and several assistants who saw that the workmen used the individual soap, basins and towels supplied to them, and inspected the hands of the employes when they were on their way to the lunch room. This supervision is specially valuable for workers who handle poisonous materials. The extent of the bathing facilities afforded by any concern is partly conditioned by the kind of work done. Naturally, in large establishments producing food products on a large scale, tlie most EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 325 scrupulous care must be observed. In factories where the materials handled are dangerous to health, such as white lead, match or chem- ical factories, it is necessary to have more extensive arrangements for bathing than in places where the materials are harmless. The elaborate bathing facilities provided in such cases are not a part of welfare work, but rather meet the demand of the public that food stuffs shall be produced in a cleanly manner, and that industries involving special danger to the health of the workers shall take special precautions. 326 THE MODEEN FACTORY In England and on the continent, factories which use dangerous chemicals, white lead and phosphorous, are required to install baths for their workers. In the United States, there are no special legal requirements made and many employers who should be leaders in providing adequate bathing facilities for workers in dangerous trades have not yet realized the necessity. Apart from such industries, there are others where the bathing facilities provided may be considered as a part of the welfare work of the firm; that is to say, these additional arrangements are not necessitated by the character of the industry or by the legal requirements of the country, but are simply tindertaken by the employer for the purpose of adding to the wellbeing and enjoy- ment of his workers. Such are the arrangements at the Cadbury Cocoa Factory at Bournville, where there are large swimming baths for the men and women. Lever Bros., with their factory at Port Sunlight, provide free shower baths for the use of all their employes. At the factory of J. Crosfield & Sons, all the boys and girls are taught to swim when they have reached the age of sixteen years. The time lost and the cost of the swimming lessons are borne by the firm. In Germany, the Krupp Company provides shower baths at their mines at Hanover, and shower and plunge baths for their workers in their factory at Essen. The Karl Zeiss Foundation built public swimming baths in the town of Jena where the works are situated, and all employes have the right to fifty-two baths a year at half price. Of course, on the continent the workers are accustomed to pay for baths, and bathing facilities such as are com- mon in America are not found in working class homes abroad. The Badische Analin and Soda Fabrik at Ludwigshafen has 529 shower baths. The workers in their color department where lead paints are manufactured are compelled to bathe once a day. In this country, the Solvay Chemical Works provides plain and mineral baths free for all its workers. The provision of shower baths in large establishments is very common. The workers, however, do not always use them unless the company allows them time during working hours. This is done by the National Cash Register Company at Dayton, Ohio, which allows each employe twenty minutes twice a week during the summer on the company's time to take a plunge or shower bath. Pretty & Son, an English factory, allow their girls to bathe on the company's time during factory hours and charge one penny EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 327 a bath. The Weston Electrical Instrument Company provides individual wash basins with soap, mirror and locker for each worker. It also has a swimming tank and shower baths. A similar arrangement is made by the Pierce-Arrow Company of Buffalo, New York. Recreation. Another branch of welfare work which has devel- oped quite extensively consists in the provisions made for rest and recreation of employes both during and after working hours. This type of welfare work usually starts in factories where many women workers are employed by providing rest rooms to be used during lunch hour or during brief pauses in the morning or afternoon. Sometimes this rest room is simply a corner of a work room par- titioned off and provided with one or two comfortable chairs, a sofa and a few magazines. From this beginning, the idea has developed' with many ramifications until it reaches its height in the great in- dustrial plants which have built clubhouses with every facility for outdoor and indoor sports and games, great halls for entertainments and lectures, separa;te rooms within the factory building for music and dancing during the noon hour, separate rest rooms for men and women workers, and every provision for amusement, rest and change that ordinary mortals require. The Friedrich Bayer Coi^P^ny at Leverkussen have a beauti- ful clubhouse for the use of all their workers, with restaurants, cafes, rooms for billiards, a lecture hall and theatre, and small rooms for meetings of committees and societies of workers. All the social life of the workers centers in this hall and the entertainments pre- pared by the various clubs take place there. In the Karl Zeiss Works an opposite course is followed on prin- ciple. No workers' organizations of the employes for purposes of recreation and amusement have been formed except a football club and a singing society. For the rest, the workers (as was desired by the founder of the Stiftung) mingle in the social life of the town and develop their own pleasures according to their indi- vidual tastes. In England, J. Crosfield & Sons have a recreation club with grounds for tennis, cricket, football, hockey and bowling. The dues for this club are a penny a week. The management has also developed an operatic society of the workers which produces comic operas. Every Saturday a dance is held at the works with a six- penny admission fee. The proceeds of the dance go to local char- ities. 328 THE MODEEN FACTORY Similar clubs exist at the Cadbury Cocoa Works, Rowntree & Bros, at York, and at Lever Bros', factory at Port Sunlight. In America, most of the large industrial establishments provide rest rooms for their women workers and many of them provide some form of entertainment during part of the lunch hour. The United Shoe Machinery Company has separate rest and lounging rooms EMPLOYEES' WELFARE WORK 329 for the men and women workers, each furnished comfortably and having a piano and reading matter. A short distance outside of Beverly is a clubhouse, built and given to the workers by the management, which contains a theatre, auditorium, library and bowling alleys. In connection with the Employes' Athletic Asso- ciatioii is a gun club and arrangements are made for football, cricket and other games. The affairs of the clubhouse are administered Courtesy Utlca Drop Forge and Tool Co. Shooting Gallery (to left) and Bowling Alleys in Clubhouse for Employes. by an athletic association and seventy-five per cent of its members must be employes. The National Lamp Works provides rest rooms for its women workers in all of its eighteen faictories. The National Cash Register Company has a club house similar to the one at the United Shoe Machinery Company, where all recreational and athletic activities of the employes center. In addition, there are within this factory rest rooms and sitting rooms for the women workers. In the Weston Electrical Instrument Company the men workers are not neglected, for in one wing of the factory a room has, been fitted upas a recrea- 330 THE MODERN FACTORY tion hall with a pianola, biUiards and other games. Once a fort- night entertainments are held at this hall. The J. Bancroft Com- pany of Wilmington, Delaware, also provide recreation and smoking' rooms for the men workers. The International Harvester Company has handsome clubhouses in connection with its works, which are convenient centers for recreation. While many of these fjrovisions for rest and recreation are enjoyed and utihzed by the workers, in some cases they do not seem Courtesy Utica Drop Forge and Tool Co. Dange Hall, Clubhouse for Employes. to be desired. The Pocasset Worsted Company near Providence, R. I., built a handsome clubhouse at an expenditure of about twenty thousand dollars, containing reading rooms, billiard rooms, bowling alleys and a large auditorium; but the workers never used the clubhouse in sufficient numbers to justify the expenditure. Factories situated in large industrial centers do not find that elaborate provisions for recreation or entertainments of their workers meet with much response, since the workers usually prefer to find their own amusement and recreation in the town; but where EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 331 the factory is situated in the country or in a small town in which there are only limited opportunities for rest and recreation, such undertakings are apt to prove more successful. Most employers state that it is necessary to get the workers to undertake the man- agement of the clubs or recreation centers provided by the man- agement, and that it is a mistake to furnish too much without re- quiring the workers to pay for their privileges or to undertake responsibilities in connection with them. One of the first corporations to institute this form of welfare work was the United States Steel Company, which built a club near its works in Joliet at a cost of about $53,000. The manaie- ment thought that the improved social and intellectual conditions resulting among the employes would not only promote their wel- fare, but advance the interests of the company. The clubhouse building has a gymnasium, tennis courts, showers and swimming pool, an auditorium, a librar/ and a music room. The members pay 11.00 a year, which entitles them to all the benefits of the club. The management, however, admits that the membership of the club fluctuates. In 1893 the membership was 300, in 1895, 1200; in 1897, 500; in 1899, 650.* The use of music and singing during working hours as a means of stimulating the workers has developed in several factories where the character of the work has made this possible. In many small dressmaking or milUnery shops it has long been the custom for some one to read aloud during working hours; or the workers themselves burst into song. Henkel & Company in their works at Diissel- dorf impress upon their forewomen the importance of singing because " it prevents the girls from talking, the girls thus stick to their work and more is done than without the singing." The Care of Health. The improvement of the physical condi- tion of the workers is one of the most important aspects of em- ployers' welfare work. Most occupations have a certain element of danger in them and practically all industries demand good physique and health on the part of the employes. Good health is important not only to the workers, but to factory efficiency. Hence, all measures which tend to improve the health of the workers are of great benefit to the workers themselves, to the employers and to the industry. In certain trades special dangers exist, either because of the * Victor H. Olmstead: " Betterment of Industrial Conditions," Bulletin No. 31, Dept. of Labor, November, 1900, 332 THE MODERN FACTORY dangerous machinery, hazardous processes or materials employed. Moreover, in many industrial establishments there are women and minors whose health needs care and who are specially susceptible to the dangers and hazards of trades. The form of employers' welfare work which is usually installed for the purpose of improving the health of the workers consists in the provision of (a) rest and emergency rooms, (b) first aid Medical Chest in a Factory. facilities, (c) dispensaries and hospitals, (d) nursing staff, and (e) general medical care and supervision. In every industrial establishment some suitable place should be provided where an employe feeling suddenly ill may rest. At present nearly every large industrial establishment has a special rest or emergency room, where employes who suddenly faint or become temporarily ill, are given first aid treatment. Some of these rooms are splendidly lighted, ventilated and cheerful, and are equipped with beds and all first aid faciUties. EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 333 It is rather general to find some form of first aid equipment in the large American factories. The kind of equipment, its location and the methods of using it, differ very much. Sometimes the first aid equipment consists simply of a wooden box in which there is a miscellaneous collection of patent medicines, a roll of lint and some kind of disinfectant. The employes help themselves when injured as best they can. Sometimes the foreman of a department has charge Courtesy Norton Company, Worcester. Maas. First Aid Equipment. of the outfit, and if he has been instructed in his duties and under- stands the necessity for antiseptic care, he may meet emergencies successfully. First aid equipment, however, should not be left to chance, and should contain not only standard articles needed for all cases of possible injuries occurring within the shop, but also such additional articles as may be necessary for the special kind of fac- tory for which the equipment is intended, and competent persons should be appointed to handle the materials. 334 THE MODEEN FACTOKY In factories where severe injuries, such as cuts, amputations, fractures and dislocations occur, special provision must be made for stopping the flow of blood and temporary splints provided for such emergencies. In factories where electric or traumatic shock, sudden collapse, gassing or acute intoxication of workers may occur, arrangements must be made for resuscitation by pulmotors or other means. The puhnotor has proved itself to be a reUable instru- ment in certain cases of asphyxiation, and is probably the best mechanical means for producing artificial respiration. Where no such instrument is available, some one connected with the establish- ment should be instructed in the ordinary methods of first aid and artificial respiration. There are a number of standard outfits for first aid on the mar- ket, most of them more or less valuable. It is important, however, to bear in mind that it is hardly possible to devise a standard outfit to suit all establishments and locations, and that it is neces- sary to take into consideration the special conditions in each factory. A number of American industrial plants have already made more or less adequate provision for dispensaries and hospitals con- nected with their estabUshments. In these dispensaries, sudden injuries as well as more or less chronic ailments of the workers in the factory are treated by one or more physicians attached to these establishments. The location and equipment of some of these dispensaries and clinics leave much to be desired, although in a number of plants they are above reproach. Emergency hospitals with physicians in constant attendance are maintained by the General Electric Company, the • Westing- house Air Brake Company, the Westinghouse Electric Company, and many other industrial establishments. Physicians and medical assistants are often employed as a regular staff attached to the establishment. The Western Electric Company at Hawthorne, 111., has an emergency hospital with physicians and nurses in con- stant attendance. The National Cash Register Company has a hygiene department of four rooms in charge of a physician and nurse, and assistants are in constant attendance. The Jeffrey Manu- facturing Company at Columbus, O., has found that its emer- gency hospital with physicians and nurse in charge has saved a great deal of time which was formerly lost by its workers through sHght injuries which became infected through lack of immediate antiseptic treatment. EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 335 In some of the large industrial plants abroad I found splendid provision made for medical care and treatment of employes. Per- haps the most extensive work of this kind is carried on by the Friedrich Bayer Company at Elberfeld and Leverkussen. Here they maintain not only first aid rooms, emergency rooms, clinics, dispensaries, regular hospitals and convalescent homes, but they have also provided tuberculosis sanatoria and homes for special treatment of dehcate and defective workers and their offspring. Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co. Emergency Hospital Room for Employes. A similar supervision of the health of the workers is undertaken by the Chatillon Company of France. Dispensaries, clinics and free milk stations are maintained. The Company also maintains a creche for children from fifteen days to three years old, has a free midwife service, and maintains the necessary hospitals without charge. The government tobacco works in Austria have splendid hospitals and clinics attached to each factory. Male and female physicians are employed on full time and the health of the em- ployes is minutely supervised. 336 THE MODERN FACTORY The custom is developing in large factories of employing a nurse or a nursing staff who not only assist in the emergency room, first aid clinics and dispensaries, but also look after the health of the individual workers in the factory, visit absent workers in their homes and assist them in case of illness either of a worker or a mem- ber of his family. Indeed, a new class of factory nurses is develop- ing, whose work is extremely beneficial and is surely destined to extend its field. In an article on " Factory Nursing," in the Public Health Nurse Quarterly for April, 1913, an experienced nurse says: " The nurse in a mill will find herself called upon to care for bums and wounds of all sorts while the nurse in a " store " will have more cases of faintness, headache, indigestion, with occasional cuts and falls. To render immediate assistance in all such emer- gencies, to give after care, at the shop in case the patient is able to go on working, at the home in more serious cases, is the primary work of most factory nurses. Other curative work is also to be done, however, in the homes. A list of absent employes may be given her, that she may ascertain if the absence is caused by ill- ness either of the worker himself or in his family. Employes may be asked to call for her advice in case of any illness among their fam- ilies even though they are not kept at home by it themselves." ..." This service opens the door of opportunity for other and more important service of an educative type. The care that a nurse gives soon makes her the friend of her patient. As a friend she gains his confidence and can often persuade him to take advice which, coming from another, would fall on deaf ears. Unhygieitic living is at the bottom of many of the ills she finds." ..." With this great field of usefulness open to the factory nurse it must, however, be said that her best work can be done only under the best conditions. An employer who wants no preventive sug- gestions from her, a foreman who believes that ' all this antiseptic stuff is nonsense and a cud of tobaeco would be just as good a cure or better ' may render her work difficult or vain." In some of the large establishments located in cities or towns, special arrangements are made either with physicians living in the neighborhood or with hospitals and dispensaries situated nearby for taking care of injured and diseased employes. The care of the teeth of the workers is beginning to receive attention from employers who wish to be up to date in their wel- fare work. Rowntree Bros., in their factory at York, England, employ a dentist to attend to the teeth of their workers. Few American employers, however, have as yet introduced this inno- vation in welfare work. EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 337 Perhaps the most extensive provisions for first aid and rescue work are made by the United States Steel Corporation. All the companies of the Corporation have first aid and rescue crews made up of specially trained employes. It is purely voluntary, but before anyone is allowed to enter the work he must have a doctor's certi- ficate showing that he is physically fit to undertake it. The system varies a little in each company, but the general plan is the same. The organization consists of a first aid crew of from four to six men Coutesy National Cash Keglster Co., Dayton, O. Emergency Hcspital Room. who are trained by the company's doctor. Instructions are given to them by the physician, and the training of the men for the work goes on continually. Rescue crews of from five to eight men are also assigned to each first aid crew. In some of the companies they have also a special rescue crew and a special operating room with the necessary sterilizing equipment, and an ample supply of drugs and medicines. They are also instructed in the use of flash lights, the life line, pulmotors and resuscitating packs. The H. C. Frick Coke Company have a corps who are well trained and drilled in special rescue training stations. ) 338 THE MODEEN FACTOEY 1; EMPLOYEES' WELFAEE WORK 339 Not many industrial establishments have as yet a complete system of medical supervision of their workers. By such a system is meant one that embraces the following features; (1) preliminary compulsory examination of all apphcants and candidates for posi- tions in the estabhshment, and rejection of all candidates below a certain standard of physique or having physical defects; (2) periodical, monthly or semi-annual physical examination of all employes within the establishment; (3) complete care of the health of the workers including prophylactic as well as curative treatment for all injuries and ills discovered while the persors are in the employ of the establishment. It is evident that such a full medical supervision would be of the greatest benefit to the workers as well as to the establishments and there is no doubt that the tendency of modern industrial development is such that an extension of medical supervision of workers is bound to be accepted as a standard of industrial wel- fare work. The time is riot distant when every large industrial establishment will consider the employment of a competent physician at full time for the medical supervision of their employes as neces- sary as the employment of a superintendent of production, or efficiency engineer. At present some splendid examples of medical supervision are given by the Norton Company of Worcester, Mass., Sears, Roe- buck & Company, the International Harvester Company, Swift & Company, and many other large American concerns. Educational Work. Many employers rightly regard intellectual improvement as a great benefit to their working force. The workers begin to come into the factory at the age of from fourteen to six- teen, when their education has been very limited. The further development of these young workers as well as of those who are older is of great importance to the workers themselves as well as beneficial to the efficiency of the establishment. Many employers, therefore, have introduced continuation schools, apprenticeship education, corpora,tion schools, libraries, etc. Libraries. Industrial estabhsbments situated in cities or towns where there are many advantages do not provide educational facili- ties for their workers, such as are provided by employers whose factories are in lonely districts in the country. Railroad machine shops, construction camps, and works carried on in connection with mining and engineering operations, are apt to have considerable libraries for their employes. Some corporations have traveling 340 THE MODERN FACTORY libraries which are sent about from one factory to another. The success of a factory library depends upon well chosen books, and its accessibility. It was found in one large establishment that siAty per cent of the users of books were the workers in the administration building where the library was kept. As a result, the hbrary was divided up into sections which were exchanged between the differ- ent departments and buildings. The workers eagerly took advan- tage of this opportunity and the use of the library increased. The Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company of Providence, R. I., maintain a library for their workers who are skilled machinists and mechanics. The hbrary is in charge of the time keeping depart- ment, which all workers must pass at least once a day. Branch stations of the public library are located in some fac- tories, notably at the Deering Works in Chicago, the Sherwin-Wil- liams Company of Cleveland and the Shredded Wheat Company of Niagara Falls. Other factories have had libraries at some time or other which becariie unnecessary when public libraries or Car- negie libraries were started. ApprerUiceship Schools. The matter of securing trained workers for skilled trades is a serious problem and one that has been discussed and investigated in all countries. In Germany, a system of contin- uation schools towards which the employer partly contributes, has largely taken the place of schools established by. individual employers. At the same time, many large firms continue to hajv^e their own apprentice schools for purposes of technical education. In America, where scarcely any provision is made for indus- trial education by the public school system, many corporations have established apprenticeship schools. The Westinghouse Elec- tric Company support a night technical school with a four year course, which is followed by a two-year apprentice course of four hours per week with pay. TJie General Electric Company has folir hun- dred trade and electrical apprentices who receive four years of training. The Western Electric Company's apprentices are required to attend school for one hour a day; the remainder of the time they spend in the factory. The Brown & Sharpe Company's apprentices must take a four-year course and attend a special school for two hours every day. They are paid for their shop work, eight, ten, twelve, and fourteen cents an hour, according to the year of their apprenticeship. The United Shoe Machinery Company have equipped a separate department as an industrial school. Their apprentices spend one week at school and one week in the shop. EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 341 The school, however, is a public school and the company has no authority over it, though it cooperates with it and furnishes the material for the boys working in the shop. The Ludlow Textile School trains apprentices in branches of the textile trade. The boys work five hours a day and are transferred to different machines or operations every month. They spend three hours a day in school and the course covers four years. General Educational Activities. In skilled trades, the educational opportunities provided by employers take the form of technical Courtesy United Shoe Machinery Co., Beverly, Maas. Industrial School. courses or apprenticeship schools. In unskilled trades or in trades where numbers of women are employed, educational activities are more general in type and are planned to afford relaxation and mental stimulus rather than any special skill or technical abihty. The Cadbury Cocoa Company of Bournville has evening classes for its women workers in cooking, sewing, millinery and music. J. Crosfield & Sons insist on all boy and girl workers between four- teen and seventeen years old attending their evening school for three nights a week during the winter. Prizes are given for attend- 342 THE MODERN FACTORY ance and proficiency in the subjects taught. The H. J. Heinz Company of Pittsburgh conducts drawing, sewing and cooking classes for its women employes. The Friedrich Bayer Company with factories at Elberfeld and Leverkussen, Germany, have arts and crafts classes, garden schools, and domestic science classes of all kinds, chiefly for the children of their employes. The Solvay Process Company has several classes in dressmaking for the mothers and daughters of its workers. Cook- ing lessons, lessons in embroidering, dancing, housekeeping and sewing are all provided at very low prices. The National Cash Register Company in its employes' clubhouse at Rubicon con- ducts classes of all sorts. Especially successful are dancing and sewing classes for women workers. Housing. The amount of money spent by a worker on rent is a much larger item in his budget than in the budget of a middle class or well-to-do family. The housing problem is one that affects the worker and his family very nearly, and the difficulty of obtain- ing cheap and suitable habitations is very great. Many employ- ers have tried to meet this difficulty by providing homes for their workers in the neighborhood of the factory, or by building model villages or forming building and loan associations. This policy helps to attract workers to the neighborhood and also means a stead- ier working force, as a man who has a comfortable home at com- paratively low rent is likely to think twice before he goes elsewhesre. It is therefore advantageous for the employer to investigate the housing of his workers, especially when the factory is in the country or on the outskirts of a town. On the other hand, the provision by factory owners of houses for their workers has often led to strained relations between the employer and his employes. In times of strikes, company-owned houses have become a jveapon in the hands of the employer. Some employers are opposed to providing houses for their workers or for making any arrangements for their life outside of the factory. In- stead, they prefer to establish building or loan associations and make it easy for their workers to acquire property and build their own houses if they desire to do so. This is the pohcy f oho wed by the Karl Zeiss Works at Jena, the Joseph Fels Company near Phil- adelphia, and many other large corporations. There are many model villages in existence which have been built entirely by employers for their workers, the houses planned, the grounds laid out, the roads made, trees and shrubbery planted, EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORE 343 markets and stores established, and regulations for the government of the town laid down. Where the employes are consulted and allowed a voice in these undertakings, where they are permitted to purchase their own homes and to acquire an interest in the affairs of the town, these experiments have often been successful. On the other hand, there have been some disastrous failures, notably that of Pullman. Another method followed is that which has been developed at Bournville where an estate of 609 acres was transferred to a trust. Oourtesy Josepn Bancrolt & Sons Co., Wilmington. Del. Ivy Road: Houses for Employes. In the terms of the foundation certain stipulations were made. Each house was to have a garden and was to occupy no more than one-quarter of the area of land on which it was built. One-tenth of the land, exclusive of roads and gardens, was to be reserved for parks and recreation grounds. Many different types of houses have been built, and in 1911 there were 731 houses in the village. The houses are both small and large and many different plans have been used to suit the different tastes and requirements of the work- ers. Bungalows for single women were built. Many houses have bath-rooms and all of them have baths. Fruit trees and small 344 THE MODERN FACTORY fruit bushes were planted in all the gardens. The roads are wide and bordered with trees. Playgrounds have beta reserved here and there through the village. The only restriction made by the foundation is tnat alcohohc liquors cannot be sold except by the unanimous consent of the trustees. This foundation now is the property of the nation and is not in any way connected with the Cadbury Works. The fact that only forty-one per cent of the householders belong to the works shows the village has been as great a benefit to the workers of Birm- ingham as to the workers in the Cadbury factory. Other model villages in England which are used largely by the working force are Easwick, a town built by Rowntree Bros., on the outskirts of York; Port SunHght, a charming village belonging to Lever Bros.; and Aintree near Liverpool, which is the property of Hartley Bros. In Germany, there are several large scale housing schemes developed by employers for their employes, the most notable prob- ably being those of Messrs. Krupp and Friedrich Bayer at Lever- kussen and Elberfeld. No less than twelve colonies have been developed in connection with the Krupp Works. Their first experi- ments in housing were hideous barracks of corrugated iron. The later ones, such as Alfredshof and Friedrichshof, are model villages as far as the architecture, planning and finishing of houses and grounds are concerned. The Bayer colonies are also attractive and comfortable. There are a number of corporation villages in France. At Le Creusot Steel Mills there are approximately twelve hundred houses with gardens provided by the company, and the erection or pur- chase of houses is facilitated by building loans. The Menier Chocolate Factory at Noisiel-sur-Seine has built an attractive village with 312 semi-detached cottages, free schools, a restaurant and boarding house for single men and a pubUc laundry and bath- houses. They also provide almshouses for old employes. In America, company-owned houses have often resulted dis- astrously for both workers and employers during labor conflicts. Especially has this been true of the company owned houses in lonely districts in the neighborhood of mines. The wholesale evictions that take place in times of strikes have made the workers fight shy of such schemes. At the same time there are several housing schemes that have been very successful, notably Leclair, a town started for the employes of the Nelson Paint Works near St, Louis. At EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK 345 Leclair, the land is sold to the workers outright with the right of preemption to the company if the owner leaves. The workers erect their own houses and pay for them gradually, and in case of leaving the employ of the firm, all money and interest is repaid after an agreed sum is deducted for rent. The utmost freedom is allowed to the workers in their planning and building, and the town is gov- erned just as any other American. town would be with the single exception that no saloons are permitted. Vandergrift is a town for employes of the American Sheet Steel Courtesy Joseph Bancroft & Sons Co., Wlimlngoon, £>el. Boarding House for Employes. Company in Pennsylvania. Eighty per cent of the workers own their own homes and much is left to their individual enterprise. Other model villages are at South Manchester in connection with the Cheney Silk Mills, and at Ludlow, Mass., and at Hopedale. In most of these American workers' colonies, the employer has sim- ply made it possible for the workers to escape the operations of land speculators by buying the land and making building loans and arrangements for the erection of homes; in this way keeping rents and cost of homes down to a minimum. The only general regula- tion seems to be that prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquors. 346 THE MODERN FACTORY The policy of the Prussian State Mines towards the housing of their workers is to encourage the workers to build and own their own homes; but not to build houses for them. The government makes a present of from $185 to $225 to any workman proposing to build his own house and in addition lends him without interest enough to make up the cost. CHAPTEK Mn AIR AST) VEXTILATIOX IX rACTOKIES I COHFniED Am Fob a great many years phy^dans, samiariaas, and educator- have sought to impress upon the pullic the importance erf fr*~h air. For years tJiej- Jiave tried to instil a whdesome fear :iijcgerated statements of the effect o a "2 p. 3 ^ J 03 376 THE MODEEN FACTORY " A moving body of air sets in motion all the air in its vicinity. It drives air before it, and, at the same time, causes a pressure- vacuum on either side of its own path, toward which all the air in the vicinity flows at angles more or less approaching a right angle. In this way a small current moving at a high velocity will Courlpsy American Blower Co., Detroit. Base Fan Set in Top of Window. set in motion a large body of air. The wind, therefore, blowing over the tops of chimneys, causes a current at right angles to itself up the chimney, and the unequal draught it furnishes is owing in part to the variations in the velocity of the wind. Advantage, therefore, can be taken of the aspirating power of the wind to cause a movement of air up a tube." Based upon the aspirating power of the wind numerous devices AIR AND VENTILATION IN FACTORIES 377 have been patented in the form of cowls, and' other ventilators, which are usually placed upon chimneys and openings on the roof, and are said to facilitate the aspirating power of the wind, and are so arranged that they may adjust themselves' to the direction of the wind. A very popular device of this character used in this coun- try is the Globe ventilator, shown in the illustration on page 375. The wind being variable, cannot, however, be wholly depended upon as a means for ventilation where such is necessary at all times. Heat has been relied Upon as a means of ventilation in many living-rooms, although it is not so applicable to workshops and fp,c- tories. The ventilating qualities of open fireplaces are well known, "With an ordinary fire ten to fifteen thousand cubic feet of air are drawn by a chimney in an hour in an ordinary medium-size room. According to Notter and Firth, the best type of open fireplace causes 2600 cubic feet of air to pass up a flue per pound of coal consumed, or a total of 18,000 cubic feet of air per hour. Chimneys, even when fireplaces are not needed, and other shafts and ducts which are carried vertically throughout the whole building, may serve as a means of ventilation through artificial heating by gas jets within these chimneys or shafts. The heating causes a rise of tempera- ture, and the ascension of the air within the tubes thus causes an aspirating action and an exhaust of air from the rooms with which they are connected. Mechanical ventilation is carried on by means of devices which (a) stir up the air within the room, (b) take out, aspirate, and ex- haust the air from the room, (c) bring in, propel, shove in, air from the outside into the room, and (d) which combine one or two or all of the above methods. A simple stirring up of the air of a room and setting it in motion, while neither removing the impurities from the air nor changing its physical condition much, serves, however, to break up the stag- nation of air in ill -ventilated rooms and to increase the evaporation from the skin of the workers and afeo reduce the temperature. Hence, the action of electric or other fans within the room often reduces the temperature of the room and lowers its relative humid- ity, thereby increasing the comfort of the workers. The three methods of mechanical ventilation are the vacuum, plenum, and combined methods. In the vacuum method air is ex- hausted or aspirated from the room; in the plenum, air is brought into the room from the outside; and in the combined method, air 378 THE MODEEN FACTORY is taken out from the room and other air at the same time is brought into the room. The vacuum system of ventilation consists in drawing the air from a room by forcible means and aspiration, without making any provisions whatever for a supply of fresh air to be brought into the room. Reliance is placed upon the fact that when air is withdrawn from a room other air must necessarily enter, on the principle of nature abhorring a vacuum. The supply of air is usually supposed to come in through the windows, doors, transoms, and other openings, and also through the porosity of the walls and the cracks, crevices and imperfections in the building construc- Courtesy Amerlraa Blower Co.. Detroit. Exhauster in Connection with System of Hoods and Piping for the Removal of Dust from Emery Wheels. tion. It is evident that such a system of ventilation has a great disadvantage in not being able to make provision for a supply of fresh air; and sometimes it may happen that the air which comes in may not come from proper or clean sources. Neither can the quantity of air and the rate of change of ventilation be very well calculated, nor is it possible to modify or temper the incoming air. There are two types of the vacuum system of ventilation: the general and local. By general vacuum ventilation is meant that which withdraws the air from the room by means of fans through openings in the wall or window, without any tubes or ducts whatever. The fan is placed in an opening in the window or in the wall, and by its motion is made to withdraw the air from the room. The advan- tage of this method is the low initial cost and the comparatively AIR AND VENTILATION IN FACTORIES 379 low cost of maintenance. It is especially valuable in laundries, foundries, and all such plants, where there is much heat and where a lot of steam, gases, fumes, etc., are generated. The local system of vacuum ventilation is especially adapted to the exhaust of dust, gases and fumes at the place of production. This method needs hoods and ducts and will be discussed in a later chapter. In the plenum system of ventilation, air is forcibly driven and propelled into the room by means of fans. While by this method it is possible to choose the source of the air as well as to modify its quantity and quality, there is no provision made for the removal of the bad air from the room, which is simply diluted and mixed with the fesh air from the outside. The best system of ventilation is that which combines the two methods; which simultaneously exhausts or removes the air from the room, and replenishes it with a fresh supply from the outside. The selection of the appropriate method of ventilation depends very much upon individual circumstances in each industrial estab- lishment, on the power at hand, the number of persons in the estab- lishment, the character of production, and a number of other factors. The exhaust system is the simplest; but it is used chiefly either in places where local exhaust is necessary for dust, gases and fumes, or in large rooms which are not occupied by too many persons. The plenum system is usually installed in establishments where a large supply of air must be introduced from some remote source and where provision must be made for the modification of the incoming air either by cleaning, filtering or washing, or by tempering and humidifying. The motive power for all fans may be the same which is used for the driving of the other machinery within the building, or may be separate from the general motive power of the factory. The fans may be driven by belts or may have their individual motors. A large number and variety of fans are used for ventila- ting purposes. They may be divided into two principal types: the propeller type and the centrifugal fan. They are also called low-pressure and high-pressure fans. The propeller fan is the one which acts upon the principle of the ship-screw propeller turning the blades of the fan on its axis, thereby either removing air from the room or introducing air into the room, according to the shape of the blades. The propeller fan, of which " Blackman's air propeller " is an accepted and popular type, is used in places where there is low 380 THE MODERN FACTORY Courtesy American Blower Co., Detroit* Exhausting in Room. resistance, and where some provision is made against draughts caused by the blowing fan. This type of fan usually needs no special ducts, as the provision of ducts increases the resistance, and the low-pres- sure fan does not work well with an increased resistance of air. Centrifugal fans are used where there is considerable resistance to be overcome either for taking out or introducing air. They are usually run at a high velocity and speed and are used either for local exhaust of dust from grinding-wheels or machines by which consid- erable dust is created, or when narrow tubes and ducts must be installed andrun for long dis- tances, or where there is considerable resistance to the air which is introduced. In this type of fan the air-inlet is in the center of the fan, which is usually enclosed in a box or " housed." There is a variety of fans of both kinds, a large number of patents having been issued to different concerns, each claiming their pro- duction the best. Some of the illustrations show the type of fan most popular in this country, although there are many others perhaps equally good. With- out going into technical de- scriptions of the fans, ducts, and parts of the ventilating mechanism, it is necessary to say that the installation of a mechanical ventilating plant is a highly technical j)roblem in each separate shop and must be solved on the spot, taking all the individual factors into consideration. It is therefore necessary in each and every case to employ a mechanical and venti- lating expert to install a proper system of ventilation according to the exact needs and wants of each plant. It*hiust, however, be noted that as a rule, the ventilating plants which are found by inspectors in industrial establishments act in a very faulty manner, because either their installation has not been Courtesy American blower Co., Detroit. 'Sirocco" Fan Blowing into Room. AIR AND VENTILATION IN FACTORIES 381 properly done or because of faulty calculations of the diameters of the ducts in the process of their construction. The total area and diameter of the ducts must be calculated in relation to the strength and velocity of the fans and to the work to be performed. As a rule, ducts are too narrow and the high resistance of air there- fore increases the difficulty of the work of the fans and results either in too high a cost of ventilation or in an inadequate supply of air. Courtesy American Blower Co., Detroit. Double Inlet "Sirocco" Fan. Full Housed, Right Hand Top Horizontal Discharge. Pulley Drive. Inlet Side. The long distances which ducts are run and the bends, some of them at right angle, contribute largely to the nulUfication of the efficiency of the ventilating system. "The Sirocco fan (see illustrations) is a centrifugal fan comprised of a wheel constructed with numerous thin, elongated blades arranged in drum form. These blades are extended in an axial direction, so as to enclose within them a relatively large and unob- structed intake-chaniber, and in transverse section arranged, relatively to the axis and direction of rotation, to carry the fluid 382 THE MODERN FACTOEY with them rotatively and discharge it tangentially. The fan has sixty-four blades. This multipUcity of blades reduces the space for resulting eddy currents to a minimum, and, the blades being very narrow, there is no opportunity for a great difference in velocity due to their radial depth. Further, the blades being concave, with the inner edge practically perpendicular to the direction of the flow into the space between the blades, the outer edge presents a very much narrower space than the inner edge, resulting in the velocity of the air being increased as it passes between the blades, instead of being reduced as in the old steel-plate type. This fan also per- mits the use of a very large air-inlet." Courtesy American Blower Co., Detroit. Steel Pressure Blower in Foundry. In the vacuum methods of ventilation which are used for dust extraction special dust-separators, usually of the " cyclone " type; are provided where the dust is extracted, settled and collected, so that the air which is afterwards let out is free from dust. The ducts lead to the roof where the cyclone dust-separators are placed, although a downward direction of the ducts is also used when the dust-collection is done in the basement or cellar. At times, the dust, if of a combustible kind, may be directed into the furnace and utihzed for heating purposes. In the plenum system of ventilation the incoming air cannot always be admitted without being purified and modified in tem- perature and humidity. With present mechanical progress it is possible at not too high a cost to modify the temperature of the incom- AIR AND VENTILATION IN FACTORIES 383 Courtesy American Blower Co., Detroit. Disk Fan in Laundry. ing air, to regulate its humidity, and purify it by filtering and washing. There are objections against a combination of heating and ventilating plants, especially against the method of hot-air supply by furnaces, the objec- tions being that the air supplied is usually too hot, sometimes burnt, often contains much dust and other impur- ities. It is claimed, therefore, that it is best to separate the heating and ventilating plants and have a separate sys- tem for each purpose. The methods of mod- ifying the temperature of the air coming in through ducts differ. There are devices to cool the air as well as to heat it. In raising the temperature of the incoming air, care must be taken not to raise it too high. In winter the air must come in above a temperature of 60° F., and in summer it should be as cool as possible. There are a number of devices for the cleaning of air by filter- ing or washing. The fil- tering media are meshed materials intended to catch the dust particles in the air. The filtering process increases the re- sistance to the inflow of air, this resistance increas- ing with the closeness of the meshes of the filtering material. The washing of air is accompUshed by having the air pass horizontally through a closed chamber which the water enters in the form of raindrops, sprays, or a water-curtain. The water comes through perforations, or through a number of sprinklers, which form sprays and bring the air and water into intimate contact ®P ,.M— -J,.,^. WSm H| ■ M ^1 ;*: m ZLi tei M JJ: ^^m ^^^ra^p^ ^ W^ .A^ Courtesy American Blower Co., Detroit. Disk Fan in Engine Room. 384 THE MODERN FACTORY and clean the air of all suspended matter. Besides cleaning the air, this process of washing also cools it. The same water may be recir- culated and used over again. There are a number of patent air-washers, all of them more or less efficient, according to their method of use. It has been found that the water coming from the air-washers after washing a large volume of street air, has the appearance of sewage, and does not differ very much from it in composition. Artificial humidification of air is claimed to be necessary in certain textile processes, although this necessity is denied by some. The humidification is accomplished by sprays and special steam humidifiers. The art of industrial mechanical ventilation is as yet in its infancy, owing to the fact that comparatively few of the factories in the country deem it necessary to install mechanical ventilating plants. As the legal standards of ventilation increase, and industrial efiiciency comes into wider practice, there is no doubt that most, if not all, of the larger industrial establishments in the country will be compelled to install efficient mechanical ventilating plants, and by that time the science and art of the mechanical ventilating engineer will be ready for practice. IV EXAMINATION AND TESTING OF AIR Legal and other standards for ventilation prescribed in industrial codes, and the frequent investigations of air conditions in industrial estabfishments, make necessary a standardization of methods of testing air. The tests usually made are those for temperature, humidity, CO2 contents, for presence of dust, bacteria, and dele- terious gases, poisons, etc. The temperature is tested by the ordinary thermometer, the Fahrenheit instrument being used in this country. Special thermo- graphs are often used for automatic recording of the temperature of rooms, in order to have a complete, record of the variations in the temperature in the room during a certain period or at all times. The relative humidity of the air of a room is measured by a num- ber of instruments called hygrometers, psychrophores, etc. The instruments which are based upon the hygroscopic qualities of air are not very accurate, and practically the only instrument used for AIR AND VENTILATION IN FACTORIES 385 testing the humidity of a room is the sling thermometer. The instrument consists of two Fahrenheit thermometers fastened to an aluminum back, one of which extends beyond the aluminum case for two inches. Around the bulb of this thermometer is fastened a thin piece of silk cloth which when ready for use is soaked in r , distilled water. This is called the wet-bulb thermometer. A handle is fastened to the upper end of the aluminum by means of which the psychrometer is swung when making a test. A copper case is made to surround the instrument as a protection to the thermometer when not in use. The test for humidity is made by dipping the wet bulb in water and swinging the instrument sev- eral times, to prevent the for- mation of a saturated area around the bulb. Care must be taken not to wet the dry bulb.* The instrument of which an illustration is given on this page was the one used by Professors Winslow and Baskerville. It is long, measuring about 16 inches. In using this instrument I have often found that one or the other thermometer easily breaks, and therefore the use of the instrument Tycoa. becomes costly. A similar instru- Sling Psychrometer. ment which I saw being used by the Illinois Factory Inspection Department is much shorter, being about 4 or 5 inches long, and is said to do the same work without being put out of order so often. Dr. J. W. Schereschewskj'^, of the United States Public Health Service, uses the same dry- and wet-bulb thermometer fixed in a port- able box, in which are enclosed dry batteries working a small motor * Winslow and Baskerville; Report on School Ventilation, 386 THE MODERN FACTORY operating a blower upon the wet bulb, obviating the necessity of swinging the instrument. This box, however, is rather heavy, and is not convenient for carrying around. The wet-bulb thermometer is constructed on the theory that as the air in the room approaches the wet bulb it absorbs from the wet bulb sufficient moisture to raise its humidity to saturation point, at the same time it loses sufficient heat to cool it down to the tem- perature of the wet bulb. Hence, the quantity of heat lost by the air will be equal to the quantity of heat necessary to convert into steam a quantity of water sufficient to saturate that air. From this we get an equation establishing a relation between the difference of temperature of the wet and dry bulbs and the proportion of humidity in the air.* The relative humidity of the air is calculated according to Glaisher's table, which gives the grains of moisture in the air and the percentage of relative humidity according to the difference between the dry- and wet-bulb thermometer. The following humidity table, which was established by the Departmental Com- mittee on Humidity and Ventilation in Cotton-Weaving Sheds, gives the limits of temperature and the maximum limits of hmnidity in the atmosphere permitted in cotton-cloth factories during the introduction of humidity by artificial means, and shows also the relative humidity based upon the difference between the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers. (See next page.) Carbonic Acid. Pettenkoffer and his followers insisted so much upon the great importance of the CO2 contents in the air that for many years the CO2 test of air was the one most frequently used. A whole Hterature has been created on the subject and many ingenious tests have been devised for the examination of air for CO2. Of the large number of tests which are used, only a few may be mentioned here, and only the one w}iich is ordinarily used in this country will be described in greater detail. Pettenkoffer' s Test. Barium hydrate mixed with carbonic acid produces, besides water, an insoluble salt — barium carbonate. If we then mix a known amount of barium hydrate in solution with a known amount of air, part of the barium hydrate will go to form the barium carbonate with the carbonic acid in the air and part will be left undissolved. We can then calculate the difference in the amount of the barium hydrate in the solution before its mixture with the air and after, which difference will indicate the amount * Departmental Committee on Humidity and Ventilation, p. 30. AIE AND VENTILATION IN FACTORIES 387 HUMIDITY TABLE Limits op Temperature and Maximum Limits of Humidity of Atmosphere Permitted in Cotton-Cloth Factories during the Introduction of Humidity by Artificial Means Readings of Thermometers, in Degrees Grains of Vapor Per Cubic Foot of Air. Fahrenheit. Percentage of Humid- ity (Saturation =100). Dry Bulb. Wet Bulb. 3.5 50 48 86 3.6 51 49 86 3.8 52 50 86 3.9 53 51 86 4.1 54 52 86 4.2 55 53 87 4.4 56 54 87 4.5 57 55 87 4.7 58 56 87 4,9 59 57 88 5.1 60 58 88 5.2 61 59 88 5.4 62 60 88 5.6 63 61 88 5.8 64 62 88 6.0 65 63 88 6.2 66 64 88 6.4 67 65 88 6.6 68 66 88 6.9 69 67 88 7.1 70 68 88 7.1 71 68.5 85.5 7.1 72 69 84 7.4 73 70 84 7.4 74 70.5 81.5 7.65 75 71.5 81.5 7.7 76 72 79 8.0 77 73 79 8.0 78 73.5 77 8.25 (etc.) 79 (etc.) 74.5 (etc.) 77.5 (etc.) of carbonic acid in the examined air. The amount of barium hydrate is determined by a standard solution of oxaUc acid. The tests must be made at a temperature of 32° F. and barometric pressure from 30 inches of mercury, or corrections must be made as to this tem- perature and barometric pressure. The test is very complicated, and requires special apparatus and great skill. Wolpert's Test. In this test a solution of carbonate of soda colored red by phenolphthalein is used to mix with a given volume 388 THE MODERN FACTORY of air to be examined. When mixed with the examined air, part of the carbonate of soda unites with the carbonic acid and forms bicarbonate of soda, thus lessening the alkaUnity and also the red color of the solution. The more carbonic acid in the examined air the quicker the disappearance of the red color. The apparatus is furnished with a scale so that the approximate amount of carbonic acid is determined. Lunge-Zeckendorf Test. A very small portable and convenient apparatus is that which bears the name of Lunge-Zeckendorf, and which is very widely used in Germany and Switzerland. Professor Roth of Zurich tells me that he has made thousands of tests in factories with this instrument and, as a rule, found it accurate and very convenient. This test is based upon the same principle as that of Wolpert's: the discoloration of an alkaline solution colored by phenolphthalein by carbonic acid in air. The instrument consists of a jar in which is inserted a glass tube attached by a rubber pipe to a rubber bulb of a standard capacity. The jar or flask is filled with a normal solution of one-tenth per cent of bicarbonate of soda colored with phenolphthalein. The test is baaed upon the fact that with every pressing of the rubber bulb air is introduced from the outside and the CO2 in the air when in a sufficient quantity lessens the alkalinity of the solution and discolors the phenolphthalein. The greater the contents of the CO2 in the air the less times it is necessary to press the bulb in order to discolor the contents. The capacity of the bulb, etc., is so arranged that with a four-per-ten-thouaand volumes of CO2 contents in the air it is necessary to press the bulb 35 times. It takes only 27 times to discolor the solution with a five-per-ten- thousand CO2 contents, 21 with a six-per-ten-thousand CO2 con- tents, 17 with a seven-per-ten-thousand CO2 contents, 13 with an eight-per-ten-thousand CO2 contents, 10 with a nine-per-ten-thou- sand, G()2 contents, and only 9 pressings of the bulb for a one to a thousand, etc. This test has the disadvantage that it is only appli- cable where there is considerable CO2 contents in the air. The Peterson and Palmquist Test. This test has been used for some time by the Labor Department of New York State, and was also employed by Professors Winslow and Baskerville in their inves- tigations of ventilation in the public schools of New York City. The instrument (see illustration on next page) has been modified somewhat by Professors Winslow and Baskerville, and consists of the following parts: AIR AND VENTILATION IN FACTORIES 389 A 25 cc. pipette, graduated on its lower branch, is divided at the top at right angles into three branches. One is the air-intake, another leads to the KOH reservoir, and the third, which is a con- tinuation of the pipette stem, opens into the horizontal gauge at the top of the instrument. Each branch may be opened or closed by stop-cocks. The gauge or tube holding the meniscus of red kerosene is bent up at both ends and provided with stop-cocks. As stated Back View Courtesy Profa. Wlnslow and BaakervUle. Peterson-Palmquist Apparatus Used by Profs. C.-B. A. Winslow and Ch. BaskerviUe. above, one branch of the pipette opens into one end of the gauge below the stop-cock. Similarly, at the other end there enters a tube from a closed vessel which acts as an equalizing chamber. The pipette, equalizing vessel, and KOH reservoir are immersed in the water held in a glass jar. Into this runs a glass tube through which air is forced by means of a rubber bulb connected with it at the upper end. The lower branch of the pipette runs down the center of a 1-inch glass tube connected with the water-jar and com- municates with the mercury reservoir by means of rubber tubing. 390 THE MODEEN FACTORY A stop-cock and a pressure screw are in this circuit. The whole apparatus is mounted on a wooden stand. N. B. — 50 per cent KOH (Potassium Hydroxide) is used. The instrument is lised as follows: Assuming that all stop-cocks are closed, except the one on the branch from the meniscus tube to the equalizing chamber, open that one on the meniscus tube which is near the tube leadirlg to the equaliz- ing chamber. Next open the corresponding cock on the other end. Ihe meniscus may now be moved to any desired position on the scale by simply tipping the apparatus. Close both stop-cocks. Open the air-intake. Lower the mercury reservoir slowly until the top of the mercury column is at zero. Close the stop-cock which regulates the flow of mercury. Close the air-intake. Open the stop-cock on the vertical branch of the pipette. Force air through the water by means of the rubber bulb until the meniscus comes to rest. Record the reading. Close the stop-cock on the vertical branch of the pipette. Open the stop-cock to the KOH reservoir. Open the cock from the mercury reservoir and allow the pipette to fill. Let the mercury flow back into its reservoir until the level of the KOH is at the point shown on the KOH reservoir. Close the stop- cock from the mercury reservoir. Close the stop-cock to the KOH reservoir. Open the stop-cock on the vertical branch of the pipette. Bubble air through the water until the meniscus comes to rest. By means of the pressure ;screw force the mercury up into the pipette until the meniscus is at its former reading. Read the level of the mercury on the lower branch of the pipette. The result is the number of parts of CO2 per 10,000. The following precautions must be taken while using this instrument : (1) Never close the stop-cock on the tube leading from the equalizing chamber to „the meniscus tube. (2) Always open the stop-cock on the meniscus tube, whicli is near the tube leading from the equaHzing chamber before opening the corresponding one on the other side. (3) Never leave the stop-cock controlling the flow of mercury and the one in the vertical branch of the pipette open at the same time. (4) Care should always be taken when the stop-cock to the KOH reservoir is open, not to force the mercury over into the KOH or suck the KOH over into the mercury. (5) The operator should take care not to breathe into the air- intake or allow others to do so. AIR AND VENTILATION IN FACTORIES 391 Courtesy Profs. Wlns'.ow and Baskervlue. Wallace and Tiernan Pump Used by Professors C.-E. A. Winslow and Ch. Baskerville in Collecting Samples for Enumeration of Dust and Bacteria in the Air of Schools. CHAPTER IX INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES I DUST AND ITS EFFECT ON HEALTH Extent and Character of Industrial Dusts. Dust consists of fine particles of matter. It is ubiquitous. There is no air which is free from it. There is no place where it is not present. Ordinary air counts its dust particles by the thousands and hundreds of thousands per cubic foot. At the fifty-seventh story in the air outside of the Woolworth Building, 27,000 dust particles were counted in a cubic foot; at the thirtieth stor}% 70,000; at the tenth story, 85,000; and at the street level 221,000. Even on the top of the Rigi, Aitken counted dust particles from 210 to over 2000 per cubic centimeter. On the Eiffel Tower the number varied from 226 to 104,000 per cubic centimeter. Nor is the air over the sea free from particles of dust. Mr. E. D. Friedlander found 2000 to 4000 particles per cubic centimeter in the air over some parts of the Western Atlantic; 280 to 2125 per cubic centimeter over the Pacific Ocean; and 875 to 2500 over the Mediterranean.* The extent of dust is still greater in the air of rooms. Aitken found 275,000 particles of dust in a meeting-room at Edinburgh, and 3,000,000 to 3,500,000 some time after the meeting was over. In another room he found as many as 5,420,000 particles.! Dust in air comes from the pulverized particles of matter, from various materials and processes. Numerous as are the particles of dust in outside air, and in the air of ordinary rooms, they are still more numerous in the air of factories and workshops. During the processes of industry, clouds of dust, invisible and visible, are given off and fill the air of the establishment. * R. C. Macfie: Air and Health, p. 164. t Ibid. 392 INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 393 Hesse, Arens, Rogers, and others have made determinations of dust particles in industrial establishments, and have fovmd the con- tents are very large. According to Hesse, a person working ten hours a day would inhale the following amounts of dust in grams.* Horse-hair Works 0.05 grams per day; 15 grams per year (300 days). Saw Mills 0.09 grams per day; 27 grams per year. Wool Mills 0.10 grams per day; 30 grams per year. Flour Mills 0.12 grams per day; 36 grams per year. Iron Foundries . .0.14 grams per day; 42 grams per year. Snuff-tobacco Works 0.36 grams per day; 108 grams per year. Cement Works 1.12 grams per day; 336 grams per year. . Courtesy Profs. Wlnslow and Baskerrllle. Lighter Particles Floating on Surface. Heavier Particles Settling to Bottom. Dust Particles as Seen Under the Microscope. 50 times natural size. According to Arens, there were in cement-making works 130 milligrams of dust in one cubic meter of air when work was not being done, and 244 milligrams during work. He also found 175 milligrams of dust in one cubic meter of the air in a felt-shoe factory, f Rogers found on an analysis of samples of air, secured in shops where skirts are made, 70 grams of dust per miUion litres of air; and as much in pearl-button factories. Samples of air secured in a brass foundry showed 75.2 grams per million litres of air.f These figures, gathered from analyses by scientists, are inter- esting in showing the amount of dust in the air of industrial estab- lishments and the extent of dust production in factories and work- shops. But to one who goes through factories in different industries * Rambousek: " Luftverunreinigung und Ventilation," p. 103. t Ibid. t Report of New York State Department of Labor. 394 THE MODERN FACTORY day by day, these figures are unnecessary, as one cannot help but see in almost every industrial establishment clouds of dust in which the workers are employed, and which are produced by the materials and processes of the industry. In cotton and other textile mills, in carding-rooms and preparing-rooms, in the sorting, and manu- facturing of shoddy, rags, and similar waste products, in the manu- facture of all kinds of clothing, in the milling of flour, in the grinding of stones, in the prodoction of minerals, in the polishing and buffing of metals, etc., no count of dust particles is needed to convince every observer of the large amount found in the air of the work- shops, which is inhaled hourly and daily by the workers. In coal. Silk. Hemp. metal and mineral mining, in the manufacture of carborundum, graphite, carbide, and other materials, the dust in the air where workers are employed is so thick that one is hardly able to see through the mists and clouds of the rising and floating dust particles. Dust is classified by its sources, by its physical qualities, shape, size, etc., and by its chemical characteristics. As to the sources, dust is classified in four large groups — metal, mineral, vegetable, and animal. Dust varies in size and shape, from the finest, which has very penetrating quahties, to the coarsest; and from dust which is smooth and has all its edges rounded, to dust which has very sharp edges. Chemically, dust is divided into organic and inorganic, soluble and insoluble. INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 395 Hoffman gives a rough classification of forty-two industries according to the sources of their dusts.* These groups, of course, do not embrace all dusty industries. They are as follows: Group 1 : Exposure to metallic dxist: Group 2: Exposure to mineral (1) Grinders (11) Stone-workers. (2) Polishers. (12) Marble-workers. (3) Tool- and instrument-makers . (13) Glass-blowers. (4) Jewelers. (14) Glass-cutters. (5) Gold-leaf manufacture. (15) Diamond-cutters. (6) Brass-workers. (16) Potters. (7) Printers. (17) Cement-workers. (8) Compositors. (18) Plasterers. (9) Pressmen. (19) Paper-hangers. (10) Engravers. (20) Holders. (21) Core-makers. (22) Lithographers. Jute Flax Group 3 : Exposure to vegetable fiber dust: (23) Cotton-ginning. (24) Cotton textile manufacture. (25) Spinners. (26) Weavers. (27) Hosiery- and knitting-mills. (28) Lace-making. (29) Flax and linen manufacture. ♦United. States Department of Labor, Bulletin No. 79, Dusty Trades. (30) Hemp and cordage manu- facture. (31) Manufacture of jute and jute goods. (32) Paper manufacture. (33) Cabinet-makers. (34) Wood-turners and carvers. Mortality from CoDsumption in 396 THE MODERN FACTORY (35) (36) (37) (38) Group 4: Exposure to animal and mixed fiber dwsi; Furriers and taxidermists. (39) Carpet and rug manufac- ture. (40) Shoddy manufacture. (41) Rag industry. (42) Upholstery and hair-mat- tress-makers. Hatters. Silk manufacture. Woolen and worsted manu facture. To these may be added, in the metal group, miners of and workers in metals; to the mineral group may be added coal-miners, coal-heavers, stokers, carborundum, graphite, carbide, and other workers; and a number of others to these and other groups. The size, shape and appearance of the dust particles differ accord- Cotton. Wheat Dust. ing to their sources. The microphotographs presented in the illustrations are by Dr. F. Migerka of Vienna and are reproduced from his book on " The Kinds of Dust in Industrial Establishments," published by the Museum of Industrial Hygiene in Vienna. Effect of Industrial Dusts upon Workers. The baneful effects of industrial dust and its relations to occupational disease was recognized even before Ramazzini. From Ramazzini to the present day all authorities agree that prolonged inhalations of large quan- tities of dust or continuous sojourn in a dusty atmosphere is harm- ful to health and causes certain diseases. " Few, indeed," says Arlidge, " are the occupations in which dust is not given off. In none can it be absolutely harmless. Its disabling action is very slow, but is ever progressive, and until it INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 397 has already worked its baneful results upon the smaller bronchial tubes and air-cells, and caused difficulty of breathing with cough- ing and spitting, it is let pass as a matter of indifference and inconvenience of the trade."* Arlidge shows how bronchitis, asthma, and tubercular and fibroid consumption are due to dust inhalations, and concludes that persons predisposed to respiratory diseases and phthisis ought not to engage in dusty occupations. Sir Thomas Oliver begins his article on dust in hig " Diseases of Occupation " with the following sentences: " Dust is the enemy of the workman. Much ill health and many of the industrial diseases are caused by the inhalation of dust or by the work-pepple swallow- ing it along with their food." In another placet he says, " Were it not for dust, fumes or gas, there would be little or no disease due to occupation, except such as might be caused by infection, by breathing of air poisoned by the emanations of fellow-workers, and exposure to cold after working in overheated rooms." Professor W. Oilman Thompson says: " Although dust of every kind is a menace to health, it is in its relationship to tuberculosis that dust in general produces the greatest harm." w Indeed, the general consensus of opinion of all authorities on industrial hygiene seems to be unanimous in the recognition of the harmful effect of (Just upon the human organism. Physiological pefences of the Body. The body is equipped with physiological defensive organs that render harmless ordinary invasion of mechanical, chemical or bacterial foes. It is only when the foes attacking the bpdy are too numerous and their attack unduly pro- longed, or when the body, for some reason or other, is bereft of its normal physiological defensive properties, that pathological condi- tions ensue. The physiological defences of the body against the effects of inhalation of dust and other solid impurities in the air consist in the mucous lining of the respiratory passages: the nose, mouth, throat, and bronchi, and in the hairs which are abundant in the nasal passages. These hairs catch, sift, and expel a large quantity of the dust which is inhaled through the nose. The dust coming in through the respiratory passages adheres to the mucous mem- brane, and by the action of the ciliated epithelia, with which this mucous membrane is lined, the dust particles adhering to the moist membrane are removed. If the dust accumulates in larger quan- * J. T. Arlidge: " Hygiene, Diseases and Mortality of Occupations," p. 244. t Sir Thomas Oliver: " Dangerous Trades." 398 THE MODERN FACTORY titles, its irritant effects upon the nerves in the delicate mucous membrane cause coughing and sneezing, by which a large amount of the dust with mucous fluid is discharged. Felt. Woodworking Machine. Dr. Gfrorer, in a study of the absorption of lead-dust through the respiratory passages, found that more than 50 per cent of the dust inhaled was caught in the nasal passages. The mouth showed a maximum of only 15 per cent of the dust inhaled. The lungs. Bonemeal. Horsehair. when inhalation is through nasal passages, get about 38 per cent of the dust. When inhalation is not through the nose, the lungs absorb about 80 per cent.* * Dr. Gfrorer: Inaugural Diasertation: *' Orientierende Versuche uber quantitative Staub- absorption durch den Menschen aus ataubreicher Luft," Wurzburg, 1912, p. 22. INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 399 When the upper respiratory passages are intact and in normal condition, even the finest dust does not ordinarily pass very far into these passages. Heim and Hebert show in their study of the hygiene of the plaster of Pairis industry that in the case of rabbits and dogs but few particles of that fine dust pass beyond the vocal chords. Below the larynx, the moisture of the air-passages forms a trap for dust, which, by ciliary action is then removed.* Dr. Collis says that dust must pass through the upper air-pas- sages, escape entanglement in the bronchi, and finallyreach the alveoli of the lungs before it reaches a situation whence it can be carried into the substance of the lungs. In ordinary breathing, aeration of the blood is carried on by diffusion of the gas between the residual air of the alveoli and the inspired air, and dust particles can hardly be carried to the alveoli by such diffusion, f As long, therefore, as the mucous membrane of the upper respira- tory passages- is healthy, not much liarm can be done by ordinary dust inhalation, even in dusty factories and workshops; but if the dust inhalation is continued for a long period, and if the dust comes in very large quantities, or if, because of catarrhs, colds, or other disease, the respiratory passages become diseased, and thereby denuded of their healthy mucous membrane, then, the defensive qualities of the body being absent, the attacking force of the dust becomes injurious and dangerous to health by producing certain diseases. It is well known that a great many workers, especially those engaged in dusty trades, very often suffer from diseases of the upper respiratory passages. Dr. Otto Glogau,t on examining a number of workers in a jute- rope mill and in artificial flower and feather shops, came to the conclusion, " that the upper respiratory tract is undoubtedly damaged by the dust that contains minute particles of feathers, fur and cordage material; that the nose was entirely filled with dust, while in others only the septum or the turbinates were affected. In 119 of the 165 workers examined, particles of working material were found in the nose; in .91 cases such particles were lodged in the throat. When minute particles of dust irritate the nasal mucous lining for any length of time, the respiratory organs within the nose, the so-called tur- binates, are damaged. T^e turbinates consist of spongy tissue; '■% V . . * Quoted by E. L. Collis: " Effecfs of Dust in Producing Diseases of the Lungs." A Lecture before the 17th International Congress of Medicine, London, 1913, p. 21. t Ibid, t Report to the New York State Factory Commission, Second Report, vol. ii, p. 537. 400 THE MODERN B*A.CTORY their function is to filtrate, warm and moisten the air. The path- ological changes of the tiu-binates brought about by the irritation of the workshop dust consist of hyperthrophies or degenerative Carpet. Celluloid. processes with either the formation of polypi or complete atrophy. By any of these conditions the function of the turbinates is inter- fered with and the breathing space within the nose is reduced to a minimum. A chronic inflammation of the mucuous Uning of the Horn. Mother of PearL nose, rhinitis, was noticed in 128 cases, and a chronic inflammation of the mucous Uning of the throat, pharyngitis, was detected in 115 cases." INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 401 Workers are also subject to frequent colds, because of excessive heat and the sudden changes from high to low temperatures which are followed by bronchial catarrh. Diseases of the respiratory- passages, so frequent among workers, break down the defensive physi- ological forces of the body and render the workmen a prey to the effects of industrial dust. Arnold experimented on animals by placing them in atmospheres filled with smoke, ultramarine, and sandstone dust. Smoke, which is pure coal dust, was found to reach the lung easily, and was found not only in the bronchi but also in the alveoli and lung-cells. The same was true of ultramarine and fine sandstone dust.* ifflfe Lead. Cast-iron Polishing. Anyone who has visited the museums of safety in European capitals, or the anatomical museums and exhibitions in this country, may see for himself the effect of dust-inhalation upon the lungs of the workers. There he will see before him specimens of the coal- miner's lung, black with coal dust, the lungs of the stone-cutter, and of other workers, showing distinctly the amount of the dust lodged within the parynchema of the lung, which dust remains there until death. Not all dusts have the same effects, nor are all dusts equally harmful. The effect of dusts depends upon the size, shape and mechanical action of their particles, upon their chemical character and their toxicity. Outside of poisonous dusts, those containing siUca are said to * Dr. Aacher: " Dammer'B Handbuch der Arbeiter Wohlfahrt," p. 410. 402 THE MODERN FACTORY be the most harmful. Dust particles of large size with sharp and cutting edges are harmful because of the scratches and wounds which they make in the delicate mucous lining of the respiratory mem- branes, thereby opening the way for infectious bacteria. Dusts of metallic or mineral origin have different effects than dusts of organic, vegetable, or animal origin. Dust may act as a mechanical irritant and thus produce harmful effects, especially dust of emery, glass, granite, gritstone, etc. The chemical character of dust has an important bearing upon its influence and effect. Certain dusts which are soluble and non- toxic may be innocuous; other dusts may either act as irritants or '^Om Needle Polishing. Brass Polishing. may injure the body by their toxic character. A great many dusts come from poisonous materials. Reference has been made to the large inhalation of dust in lead trades and in all dangerous trades where poisonous materials are employed. These poisonous dusts may be either absorbed, and exert toxic influences upon the whole organism through the blood, or they may act locally, as for instance chrome dust which produces chrome sores; paraffine, coal-tar, and other dusts, which produce various skin lesions, from plain inflamma- tions to deadly cancers. Investigations by Dr. Collis seem to indicate that a large pro- portion of silica is the most important factor in the injurious effects of dust, especially in causing pulmonary tuberculosis. Dr. Collis' conclusions on the effects of dust and its relation to disease are the following: Inhalation of all forms of dust is accompanied by dimin- INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 403 ished power of chest expansion. Diminished power of chest expan- sion, so produced, is accompanied by high blood-pressure. Animal dusts, apart from the presence in them of pathogenic micro-organisms, WT: Sandblast. Glass. when inhaled produce less effects than do vegetable and mineral dusts. Vegetable dusts when inhaled tend to produce a type of chest affection best described as asthmatic. Of mineral dusts, those composed of calcium, salts are least injurious; inhalation of f-> ->. j- Cement. Granite. mineral dusts which do not contain free silica tends to produce irritation of the upper air-passages and respiratory diseases other than phthisis; inhalation of mineral dusts which contain free silica is associated with an excess of phthisis, an excess which bears a 404 THE MODERN FACTOEY direct relation to the amount of free silica present. In general, dusts appear to be more injurious as their chemical composition differs from that of the human body or from the elements of which the body is normally composed.* We may summarize the effects of industrial dusts upon the workmen in factories and workshops as follows: (1) Dust acts as a mechanical obstruction as well as irritant in the upper respiratory passages. (2) Dust may cut and wound the deUcate mucous membrane lining the organs of the upper respiratory passages. (3) Dust may carry infectious germs into the respiratory tract. (4) Dust may carry infectious germs to the lacerations and wounds caused by it, or to any openings or wounds on the skin or the body of the worker. (5) Dust acts as a direct irritant to the skin, to the eyes, to the ears. (6) Dust of a toxic character may be carried into the body by the digestive system, by the Ij-mphatic vessels, and by the blood. (7) Inhalation of dust may give rise to fibroid changes in lungs and to fibroid phthisis. (8) Dust in the lungs is a predisposing cause to pulmonarj- tuberculosis. (9) Industrial dust has an important bearing upon the general morbidity of industrial workers, especially from tuberculosis. (10) Industrial dust has a direct bearing upon the mortality rate of the industrial population. Dust and Disease. Before proceeding with a brief discussion of the relation of dust to disease, mention must be rnade of the dangers of industrial dusts in so far as fires and explosions are concerned. Certain dusts, such as cotton, flour, etc., may cause explosions and fires. Only recently there occurred in the Husted Mill in Buffalo, New York, an explosion which cost a number of lives and which was found to have been due to the explosion of dust. Although it was difficult to determine how the explosion came about, the samples of grain and dust which were examined were found to con- tain highly explosive properties. Reference has already been made to the action of dust as a mechanical irritant, as an obstruction to the respiratory passages, and as a means of lacerating the delicate mucous membrane of the *E. L. Collis: ** Effects of Dust in Producing Diseases of the Lungs." A Lecture before the 17th International Congress of Medicine. London. 1913. INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 405 nose and throat, and also of its possible acti6n in carrying infectious germs to the respiratory tract, infecting wounds, etc. The action of dust upon the skin is either mechanical or chem- ical, toxic or infectious, depending upon the source and kind of dust. The skin of the body comes in close contact with various kinds of industrial dust, which penetrate the clothes. The face and hands are especially exposed to its action. Dust clogs up pores, it acts as a chronic irritant and, if it has poisonous qualities, it may be absorbed through the skin. This is especially the, case with dusts such as lead and arsenic, and with specially irritant stuffs like aniline dyes, coal-tar dyes, etc., etc. Dust may carry infectious germs to open wounds or sores and >r Sandstone cause inflammations, furunculosis, and other infections. Acute erythematus irritations are caused by certain coal-tar products, such as aniline dyes; these, as well as other irritant materials, cause acute dermatitis, chronic eczema, and various other inflammations of the skin, acute or chronic. Workers have special names for the skin affections due to indus- trial dusts. Thus, there is the " cement-workers' itch," the " bakers' itch," and other skin diseases affecting flax and other spinners, furriers, painters, tobacco-workers, etc. Polishers, grind- ers and metal-workers suffer from a form of acne, while bleach- workers, and those who work in soda works or with calcium carbide, suffer from a special disease of swelling of the palms and hyper- 406 THE MODERN FACTORY INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 407 dyrosis, or excessive sweating of the inflamed surfaces which shed drops of sweat. Prolonged exposure to certain kinds of dust leads at times to more serious affections, such as cancer. Paraffin-workers' and chimney-sweeps' cancer are well-known forms, due to industrial dusts. Cancer is also frequent in other dusty trades. The eye affections which are due to industrial dusts are either wounds directly caused by large particles of dust entering the eye, or chronic irritation brought about by the finer dusts. Thousands of workers are injured by particles of dust lodging in the eyes and also through amateur attempts of their fellow-workers to extract these particles. Their unskillful handling often results in injuring the delicate eye-membrane. Chronic irritation of the eye by mechan- ically or chemically irritant dusts is seen in the various affections of the eye, such as conjunctivitis, blepharitis, and ulcerations of the cornea. More important than the effects of dust upon the skin, eyes, and upper respiratory passages is the direct effect of prolonged exposure to industrial dusts on the lung-tissue itself. The two diseases which are caused by dust-inhalation are fibroid and tuber- cular phthisis, although the lesser affections, such as bronchitis, acute and chronic, emphysema, and asthma have also been proven to be due to action of dust^. Indeed, bronchitis is usually a fore- runner of more serious lung affections, as are all the catarrhs of the respiratory passages. Only after a chronic inflammation of these passages can the dust gain access to the lung-tissue and produce more serious affections, either in fibrosis of the lung or in tubercular affection. The chronic irritation of all dusts, and especially of certain kinds of dusts, causes infiltration and inflammation of the connective tissue of the cells of the lung, the dust particles become encapsulated, and part of the lung-tissue undergoes what is called fibroid changes. The cells of the lung lose their elasticity and various symptoms and pathological changes result from this fibrosis. The fibroid changes in the lungs caused by dusts are called by the general name " pneumokoniosis," and the resulting diseases are designated according to the source of the dust; thus, " anthra- cosis," coal-miner's lung; " siderosis," the lungs of metal-grinders, etc.; " chalicosis," of the stone-workers, etc. Lung diseases of workers are also kriown as " potter's rot," " coal-miner's phthisis," " stone-cutter's rot," " furrier's asthma," etc. 408 THE MODERN FACTORY New York State Factory Commlaalon. Girl Worker in a Preparing Room of a Cordage Factory. A very Dusty Occupation. INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 409 I Fibroid phthisis usually comes on very slowly and its symp- toms are at first masked, but with the progress of the disease they become more marked and last for a great many years, unless the disease becomes complicated with a tubercular affection. Coughs, shortness of breath, diminution of chest expansion, difficulty of breathing, fatigue on exertion, anaemia, and general weakness of the body usually go hand in hand with the development of fibrosis of the lungs, although the worker, while decreasing in his industrial efficiency, may go on with his work for a great many years. If he leaves his work, the disease may be arrested and the worker recover from his affection. Not all cases of fibroid phthisis remain uncom- plicated or present the same pathological picture. Many of them become affected with tuberculosis; some of them suffer from emphy- sema; and many of them drop out from their industry and take up other less dusty trades. The relation of dust-inhalation to tuberculosis of the lungs of workers is well known. Workers suffering from chronic inflamma- tions of the upper respiratory passages, from chronic bronchitis, and from impairment of the action of the lungs through dust-inhalations fall ready prey to the effects of the tubercular bacilli which are so ubiquitous and may be found in every industrial plant, due to dry sputum and excretions from tuberculous workers. Such workers have not the necessary resistance to withstand the attack of tuber- cular germs and tuberculous phthisis easily develops and counts its victims by the thousands and tens of thousands. The role of pulmonary phthisis in general morbidity and mortality of workers has been abundantly proven by statistical data gained from the census reports of the Registrar General of England, and from the careful statistics of the sick-benefit societies and state insurance of Germany and other countries. The classic table of John Tatham has been cited many times and gives a graphic view of the relation of dusty trades to consump- tion.* That table is as follows: i * Oliver; " Dangerous Trades,'' p. 135. 410 THE MODERN FACTORY Occupation. Comparative Mortality Figures (All Causes). Mortality Figures. Phthisis. Diseases of the Respiratory Organs. Agriculturist Pottery: Earthenware Manufacture. Cutler _ File-maker ' Glass-maker Copper-worker Iron and Steel Manufacture Stone Quarries Brass- worker Chimney-sweep Lead-worker Cotton Manufacture 602 1706 1516 1810 1487 1381 1301 1176 1088 1311 1783 1141 106 333 382 402 295 294 195 269 279 260 148 202 115 668 518 423 445 406 450 307 273 291 397 338 Sommerfeld's statistics also show the following changes in the pulmonary phthisis rate between workers in occupations without dust and workers in occupations with various kinds of dust.* Occupation. Number of Deaths Due to Phthisis Per Thousand. Percentage of Deaths Due to Phthisis Per Thousand. Occupations without Dust. MortaUty in Dusty Trades Metallic Dusts Mineral Dusts Organic Dusts 381.0 480.0 470.6 403.4 537.04 39 42 84 42 64 Hoffman, in his statistics, based upon the experience of an indus- trial-insurance company, has shown the following mortality rate due to consumption, according to ages, in the various groups of dusty trades, t Occupation. Percentage of Deaths Dw» to Con- sumption in Each Age Group. 25 to 34 45 to 54. Occupations with Exposure to Metallic Dusts Mineral Dusts Vegetable Fibre Dusts Animal and Mixed Fibre Dusts 57.2 47.6 53.9 53.3 42.4 36.3 43.0 48.3 23.4 27.9 23.3 25.3 * Sommerfeld: " Die Schwindsucht der Arbeiter." t " Mortality from Conaumption in Dusty Trades," Bulletin, Bureau of Labor, No. 79, p. S57. INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 4H II DUSTY TRADES Attempts at classifying the dusty trades have been made ac- cording to source, character, kind and toxicity of the dust. To one, however, who daily visits all kinds of industrial estabhsh- ments it seems that no classification is possible, that there are no dusty trades, for the reason that all trades are dusty. If the trade itself has no special dust, the estabhshment where the trade is housed has some dusty process or condition in some part of the estabhsh- ment. One often goes through a factory finding all conditions safe and sanitary until he reaches the boiler-room, where half a dozen men are shovelling' soft coal into the boilers and raising clouds of dust, part of which is disseminated to other parts of the building. In an inspection of a sugar refinery, where one would not usually expect to find much dust, one suddenly enters a room where the air is full of charcoal dust, where working hours are from eight to twelve per day, and where the dust is so thick that one cannot see two to three feet away. It is this ubiquity of dust in industry that makes a classification of the^ dusty trades so difficult. Metal Trades. All metals are used in industry. Iron, copper, zinc, lead, tin are used either in their pure state or as compounds, alloys, salts, etc. A number of trades are designated according to the principal metal used — thus, iron-workers, brass-workers, tin- smiths, lead-workers, etc. A greater number of trades, however, are designated by the character and kind of work performed, no matter what metal is used. Thus, we have miners, smelters, refiners, foundrymen, grinders, polishers, buffers, and makers of all kinds of objects, utensils, tools, and appliances of various kinds of metals, each designated by the work they are doing. Most metal workers are exposed to the action of metal dust, depending upon the character of the work performed. After a statistical study of the mortality of workers in metal trades, Hoffman came to the conclusion " that the injurious effects of exposure to metal dusts are reflected in (1) a comparatively small proportion of persons of advanced years in industry,. (2) a high general death rate, and (3) a very high specific rate from consumption and other respiratory diseases."* * Mortality from Consumption in Duaty Trades, U S. Dept. Labor, Bulletin No. 79, p. 681. 412 THE MODERN FACTORY Foundries are places where iron or other metals are melted and cast in cores and forms of all kinds. Mineral dust is produced during the formation and baking of the cores, metal dust in the grind- ing off of the rough edges of cast articles, and a mixture of mineral INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TEADES 413 and metal dust in the sand-blasting processes, by which the rough edges and parts of cast articles are polished off. The greatest amount of dust occurs in the sand-blasting process, which is carried on in some nook or corner of the factory, and is at times not separated from other processes. I have seen sand- blasting done in an iron foundry in the middle of the estabUshment, with no protection whatever to the rest of the place. The dust which was raised spread all through the room in which the sand- blasting was done and to adjacent rooms. The only protection the worker had was a rough helmet, poorly devised, and which allowed dust to come in. Sand-blasting as it is done in the open air, as shown in the illustra- tion on page 419, is less harmful, although it raises no less dust and the worker needs the protection of special clothes and respirators. In Belgium and Germany I saw sand-blasting processes carried on in special separate rooms which were well ventilated and supplied with air-exhaust. The worker was not allowed to go into the room, but carried on the process from the outside of the room, manipulat- ing the tools through openings in the glass doors. The process of sand-blasting is only an occasional one, and foun- dry workers are compelled to do it only for a short time on certain days of the week. Foundry workers say that if they were com- pelled to do sand-blasting every day of the week they could not live for more than a year. The great morbidity of foundry workers which has been reported by the New York State Factory Com- mission was due also to the other unhealthy conditions prevalent in foundries, such as exposure to extreme heat, and sudden change from heat to cold. The foundry workers demanded and received in New York State special legislation guarding them against dust, heat, etc. In the processes of grinding, poHshing, and buffing metal objects and articles, abundant dust, partly metaUic and partly mineral, is given off. Metal-grinding is proverbially an unhealthy occupation, and all writers on the subject have by figures, facts, and statistics endeavored to prove the high mortality and great morbidity of workers in this trade. Greenhow, Hall, Roepke, and a host of others have shown that the average age of steel-grinders was only twenty-nine years, that the mortality from pulmonary phthisis was 345 out of a thousand, that 458 grinders in a thousand died between the ages of forty-five and fifty-five, etc. The same is true of metal-polishers. A writer 414 THE MODERN FACTOEY says : " Metal-polishers who have reached the age of forty often look like old men. There can hardly be found a trade more dele- terious to health. Among the harmful conditions may be men- tioned the amount of dust which gets into the lungs of the workmen; such dust is composed of metal, minerals, and cotton fiber."* Polish- ing of metals on a lathe, which turns at times at the rate of 2500 revo- lutions per minute, raises a cloud of dust, and "has wrecked many constitutions." In some estabUshments the work of grinding and polishing has become a comparatively harmless process, thanks to modern dust- removal devices. I shall never forget the spectacle presented by one of the largest grinding- and polishing-rooms I have seen here or abroad; viz., the polishing-room of a cutlery establishment at Solingen, near Diisseldorf, Germany, an establishment several centuries old. In spite of the fact that nearly 800 workers were at work at the different benches, grinding and polishing knives, forks, etc., there was hardly any dust in the room, so well was each table and each polishing- and buffing-wheel and lathe protected with local exhausts. Dr. Roepke of Solingen cites the difference in the sickness and death rates of the workers in Solingen before the introduction of local exhausts and strict state supervision and after such introduc- tion. According to Roepke and Moritz, who examined 1230 grinders, they found 9.04 per cent suffering from diseases of the lungs and 48.1 per cent suffering from- diseases of the pharynx and larynx. They also found no grinder over forty-five years who was healthy. The latest reports of Dr. Roepke are that there is a remarkable improvement in the mortality and morbidity of Solingen workers, due to rigorous state supervision and to the introduction of dust- removal appliances. There is considerable metal dust generated in the brass, copper, and lead industries, and these dusts are more dangerous because of their poisonous character. The number of industries and industrial establishments in which dust of a poisonous character is evolved is very great. This subject will be discussed in the next chapter. Mineral Trades. The industries in which dusts are abundant are very numerous. Mineral dust is found not only in trades where minerals are being worked with, but also in other trades; for instance, wherever grinding and polishing of metals is done upon mineral stones, lathes, etc. Quarrymen, cutters and workers with all kinds * G. Willett^, quoted by Hoffman: Bulletin No. 79, U. S. Department of Labor. INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 415 of stone, glass-workers, glass-cutters, diamond-cutters and polishers, potters, cement-workers, plasterers, marble-workers, carborundum, graphite, emery, calcium carbide, and many other workers are all exposed to mineral dust. The general effect of inhalation of mineral dust is about the same as that of the inhalation of metal and other dusts, and Hoff- man found after a statistical study of a representative number of N. Y. State Factory Commission. Workers in a Factory where the Skins from Hares and Rabbits are Scraped off for Supplying Felt for Hats. The skins are "canotted" or treated with a solution of nitrate of mercury. Workers subject to dust inhalation and to mercurial poison. employments necessitating exposure to mineral dust that the " health-injurious effects of such exposure revealed themselves in the high general death rate, especially at the age of thirty-five Or over, and with a correspondingly high specific death rate from consump- tion and from other respiratory diseases at ages between 35 and over, by which time the dust inhaled began to show its effect."* In a report by Dr. Sidney Barwise, Medical Officer of Derby- shire, the statement is made that the death rate from phthisis among * " Mortality from Consumption in Dusty Trades," Bulletin No. 79, p. 726. 416 THE MODERN FACTORY gritstone-workers is twenty times greater than in the same social class employed in agriculture, and seventeen times greater than in other workers; that the death rate from phthisis of workers employed in hmestone is twice as great as that of other workers; that the rate among coal-miners is about the same as among those engaged in agriculture, and less than the average of other workers; that the death rate from phthisis among gritstone-workers is so high that it accounts for the death rate of the general population on the grit- stone areas being above the average of England and Wales; that among gritstone-workers 45 per cent of all the deaths of workers above fifteen years of age are from phthisis, while 12 per cent of the limestone-workers and 7.4 per cent of coal-miners die from this cause.* It seems, therefore, that phthisis is more frequent among these workers with a large amount of- silica than among the Sheffield workers suffering from " grinder's rot," or those who suffer from " stone-cutter's phthisis," and other workers exposed to ordinary mineral dust. The analysis of the gritstone worked by these men has shown 96.4 per cent of silica. In a table given by Dr. CoUis in his paper read before the Inter- national Congress of Medicine at London, 1913, detailed data are given as to the frequency of tuberculosis among workers in dif- ferent dusty mineral trades, and the figures show that danger from phthisis is in proportion to the silica contents of the mineral dust. Other workers subject to a great deal of mineral dust are the glass, diamond, pottery, cement-workers, plasterers, house-wreckers, core-makers, lithographers, etc. In potteries the dust evolved is excessive in certain parts of the establishment. In modern cement mills the process is nearly automatic, and very little dust is allowed to escape. Much dust is inhaled by all workers on emery-wheels and on carborundum, alundum, and other materials used for grinding purposes. Painters who have to sandpaper and sandrub walls must very often inhale large quantities of mineral dusts, as well as lead-paint dust. The dustiest establishments I have seen are the carborundum, graphite, calcium carbide, and alundum works at Niagara Falls, New York. These huge electro-thermal establishments, working as they do with mineral substances, cannot be compared with any other factories; for while other estabhshments may be dusty at certain times and places, these large works are dusty everywhere * Report on the Prevalence of Phthisis among Quarry- Workers and Miners, Derbyshire County Council. INDUSTEIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 417 and at all the times. The crude minerals are brought in cars to the factory and shovelled by men working without any protec- tion whatever, taken to the electric furnaces, and there subjected to a high degree of electric heat, which transforms them into the new substances, which then have to be cut, broken up or pulverized. In all processes from the first to the last, clouds of dust are evolved which there seems to be no way of preventing and which is constantly inhaled by the workers, of whom there are from several hundreds to several thousands in each establishment.- Investigations made by the New York State Factory Commission into the conditions in these establishments showed that a large number of workers were tuberculous, and that pneumonia was very prevalent among them. At the time of the investigation by the Commission, very little was being done by the employers to remove or prevent the dust or to protect the workers against the consequence of dust-exposure and inhalation. Vegetable Dusts. The factories in which large amounts of vegetable dusts may be found are numerous. The industries con- taining such dust are many. Vegetable dust is found in cotton, hemp, jute, flax, textile mills, in establishments where wood is being worked with and wooden objects manufactured, in the large industry of making and manufacturing cotton clothing, in tobacco manu- facture, in the making of buttons from vegetable ivory, and in many other similar trades. In the cotton industry, much dust is produced during the gin- ning, preparing and carding processes, and in lesser quantities during the other stages of manufacture. The same is true in hemp, jute, flax, and other mills. The illustration on page 408, is from a large cordage mill at Auburn, New York, and shows a woman worker surrounded by hemp material raising clouds of dust. Hundreds of bales of hemp were being opened in the same establishment, prepared and carded without any provision for ventilation what- ever, and only after the visit of the C omniission and the consequent publicity given to working conditions in this factory was a ventilat- ing plant installed, which mitigated the former ,dusty conditions. In the large industry at Rochester, New York, of making but - tons from vegetable ivory I found the dust in the factories excessive, although in some of the better class of establishments attempts have been made to remedy the evil. Hoffman came to the con- clusion that " exposure to vegetable-fiber dust is decidedly injurious to health, and that the mortality from consumption among employes 418 THE MODERN FACTORY in this field of occupations is very much higher at all ages than would be expected." One fact especially must be emphasized in relation to vegetable dusts — that in industries in which such dust is evolved there is a specially large proportion of women and minors at work. This is notably the case in textile mills and in tobacco factories, where a large number of young children and females are at work, especially N. Y. State Factory Commission. Workers Carrying Skins Treated with Nitrate of Mercury. They are subject ■ to the dust, as well as to action of mercurial poison. in states where the legal working age is very low and where state supervision is perfunctory. Animal Dust. There are a number of industries in which there is much animal dust present, and the exposure to this dust has been found no less dangerous than exposure to other kinds of dusts. Such industries are the manufacture of silk and wool, rags and shoddy, boots and shoes, human hair, feathers, mattresses, etc., etc. In silk, wool, rag, and shoddy mills the carding, preparing and sorting rooms are full of dust, while the other parts of the establish- ment are not entirely free from it. In the manufacture of hair. INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 419 feathers, mattresses, etc., large amounts of dust are given off, cover- ing the whole body of the worker and causing him to inhale large 1 Pullman Car Co. Sand-blasting Exterior of Car. Worker wears respirator. amounts of these materials. Most of these animal dusts are verj-- irritating. Some dusts, such as those from shoddy, may cause a special train of symptoms called " shoddy fever," while the inhalation 420 THE MODERN FACTORY of other animal dUsts may cause many ills and injuries to various parts of the body, as already noted. The handling of animal objects in manufacture and inhaling of dusts from these objects often causes disease by the presence of infectious bacteria. This is notably the case with " wool-sorter's disease," and " anthrax," which occurs among those working on animal hides and skins. In the shoe industry there is considerable dust in various proc- esses, as has been described in detail in Dr. WiUiam C. Hanson's " Dangers to Workers from Dusts and Fumes, and Methods of Protection," United States Department of Labor, Bulletin No. 127. According to Dr. Hanson, the most dusty processes in the making-department of boot and shoe factories are trimming, shav- ing, scouring, polishing, finishing and cleaning parts of the shoe. The dust generated includes leather, fine lint, fiber, bristles, dry blacking, sand, emery, and carborundum. Fur-workers are exposed to irritating dust from skins of all kinds of animals, and often suffer from " furrier's asthma." Furriers also show a very large percentage of tuberculosis. In an examina- tion of a limited number (100) of furriers in New York City, I found that 6 per' cent of them suffered from pulmonary tuberculosis, over 30 per cent from chronic bronchitis; and 13 per cent from asthma and emphysema. Furriers are also subject to acute and chronic inflammatory conditions of the skin of the hands, due, it is said, to the irritant action of the dyes used on furs, III PREVENTION AND PROTECTION Much of the dust produced in industry is not necessary, and a great many of the injurious effects of dust may bo prevented. The criorraous waste of human life in industry du(! to dust is a problem the solution of which is not difficult, if proper spirit is shown by employers, if adequate provisions are made by manufacturers, if lliese provisions are properly supervised by the state authorities, and if the workers are educated in the methods of prevention and know how to protect themselves against the baneful effects of dust inhalation. Industrial efficiency demands the prevention of dust. Industrial economy is based upon the prevention of dust and its utilization INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 421 whenever possible. .Industrial hygiene teaches that there is ample provision for the protection of workers in dusty occupations. There are four principal methods of prevention of dust and pro- tection of workers in dusty trades : (1) Prevention of the formation of dust; (2) Isolation of the dusty process; (3) Removal of dust at its point of origin; (4) Personal protection of the worker. Prevention of Dust-formation. There are two methods by which the formation of dust may be prevented. The first is the wet method; the second is the automatic and closed-machinery method. Wet processes in industry are as old as industry itself. They are employed in a great many trades and industrial estabUshments and there is no reason why they should not be employed in a great many more. Wherever material is broken up, ground, milled, pohshed, powdered, comminuted, or worked over in whatsoever manner, there dust can be prevented from forming by the simple addition of water, oil, or other appropriate liquid. The water-spout over a grinding-wheel is an example of the wet process of grind- ing; the mixing of lead-dust with oil has greatly obviated dust-for- mation in lead factories; glass-cutting and polishing by the wet process has removed a great many dangers. In a general way, it should be the cardinal principle of industry, wherever possible, to adapt this method which prevents the formation of dust and thereby protects the worker. The second method by which dust-formation is prevented is the adoption of closed automatic devices. A great many industrial processes are at present so constructed as to present a consecutive automatic series of processes, which are automatically performed, in closed chambers, or drums, necessitating human supervision only. These automatic processes are especially useful in industries where grinding, powdering, sifting, and mixing of special valuable stuffs is done, and where the open process would result in eco- nomic loss. An illustration of automatic processes is presented in the modern flour-mill. The milling of flour, which formerly was so dusty and involved a great loss of valuable material, is at present almost wholly automatic, from grinding to sifting, polishing, and filtering, through- out all the processes from one drum or hopper to another, until the final stage when the flour is sent to be packed into barrels or 422 THE MODEEN FACTORY sacks. As a result of the automatic process, the flour-mill is at present a comparatively dustless establishment. The same may be said of modern cement works which use auto- matic processes, closed vessels, and cylinders, so that a comparatively small amount of dust is formed. A dusty operation and, at the same time, a very dangerous one to health, is that of packing bleach powder in bleach chambers. A description of the process and its dangers will be given in the next chapter. As at present carried Automatic Prqcess of Manufactviring Chloride of Lime. Prom "Gewerbllclie VersUtuugen," by Dr. J. Rambausek. on in the United States, the powdered dry lime is spread and impreg- nated with chlorine gas in the bleach chambers, which the workers are obliged to enter in order to rake it up, and shovel it through chutes into packing barrels. The illustration on this page shows how this process of bleach-packing has been revolutionized in an industrial • establishment which I saw at Brussels, where the whole process of getting the lime into the hoppers, the impregnat- ing of the lime with chlorine gas, the mixing of the powder with the INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 423 gas, and the final packing of the lime into barrels, is all done in her- metically-closed automatic machinerj^ which prevents the forma- tion of all dust and protects the worker from its injurious effects. As I have said in another place, " If an infinitesimal part of the ingenuity, intelligence and thought which has been and is at the present time devoted to the improvement of machinery, the inven- tion of mechanical devices, and discovery of chemical secrets were devoted to inventions for the protection of the worker and for the preservation of his life and health, the danger from industrial dust, disease and accidents would become altogether negligible."* I have no doubt that automatic machinery can be invented which would make a great many of the dusty trades dustless ones, and which would make the pursuit of industry a healthy exercise and a blessing instead of a danger and a curse. Dust can also be prevented by using tight and closed vessels. Especially is this the case in the transportation and packing of dusty materials. The common method of shovelling such materials into boxes, barrels or sacks, or throwing them from heights into these receptacles is more than ludicrous. I remember inspecting a large biscuit factory where all the latest modern automatic devices were employed, but where in one place I came upon half a do^en workers standing under a big spout, through which thousands of pounds of flour came down in an uninterrupted current, filling up and tying sacks of flour, while the whole room was full of flour-dust, presenting a waste of material as well as danger to the health of the workers. I wonder if they knew in this factory that it is possible to fill barrels and sacks automatically by closed and adjustable fillers attached to the place where the powdered material comes from, and also to the barrel or sack to be filled. Isolation and Separation of Dusty Processes. Wherever the formation of dust cannot be prevented, or where dust is formed only by one special process or in one special part or room of an industrial establishment, there is no need to fill all the rooms and the whole establishment with dust. The dusty process or the dusty room may and should be entirely isolated and separated from other processes and other parts of the building by dust-tight walls, par- titions and doors. This is an important method of prophylaxis in view of the fact that there are so many industrial establishments where dust is formed only in part of the building, or is only con- * Report of the Director on Chemical Trades, New York State Factory Commission, Second Report, p. 481. 424 THE MODERN FACTOEY fined to one process. Thus, for instance, in textile mills the prepar- ing- and carding-room is the most dusty place, and there is no reason why it should not be entirely separated and isolated from other parts of the building, and the dust kept there and not let fill the other parts which are ordinarily free from dust. This is also true of a great many other estabhshments where similar conditions prevail. In a lead factory in Germany, which I inspected, the whole process of manufacture of lead carbonate was conducted by the wet process, Danueberge and Quand, Berlin. Local Exhaust of Dye Dust in a Paper Factory. and there was no dust in the entire building. A small amount of dry lead was also manufactured in this establishment. This part of the process was carried on in an entirely separate building, and thus the lead-dust could do no harm to the workers in the other buildings. Instead of separating the dusty process from the workers it is sometimes possible to separate the workers from the dusty process by glass partitions through which their work is carried on. This is accompUshed by enclosing the dusty process in one room, placing the workers outside of the room, and making openings in the glass INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TEADES 425 partitions through which, by means of long-handled ladles or rakes, the workers mix and stir the dusty materials. The dust rising in the room is kept within it and the glass partitions prevent dust inhalation. Removal of Dust. All industrial dusts may, can, and should be removed. The removal should be accomphshed at the point of origin by a system of local exhaust-ventilation. The proper installation of an efficient system of local exhaust-ventilation for dust-removal is an important and very complicated engineering problem. The A. Kiindlg, ziirlcta. Local Dust Exhaust in a Carding Shop. Textile MiU. solution of this problem, with the theoretical calculations and practical mechanical installations, should be given into the hands of competent scientifically trained industrial ventilating engineers. It is to be regretted that as yet there is no very large contingent of such engineers in this country, although there are already a number of companies which make local dust-extraction their specialty. Abroad, this branch of engineering is greatly developed and there are thousands of engineers in this specialty, and a large number of firms confine their work to the installation and maintenance of dust-removing apparata. 426 THE MODERN FACTORY A brief discussion will suffice to illustrate the methods of this important work. The factors to be considered are: (1) kind, char- acter, value, and specific gravity of the dust to be removed; (2) the hoods; (3) the branch pipes and ducts; (4) the main pipe or duct; (5) the fans; (6) the motive power; (7) the disposal of the dust. In all systems of dust-removal the size of the particles and the specific gravity of the dust must be known in order to determine the power necessary for its removal. It is also necessary to know whether the dust is -constant or intermittent and whether it is pro- duced in large or small quantities. The value of the dust is also of importance, in order to determine whether the dust should be col- lected and utilized, or otherwise disposed of. Some dusts are extremely valuable, and must be collected immediately at the point of origin; other dusts may be collected at the distal end of the dust- removal system. The collection of the dust at its point of origin is not always a simple matter. Machines and processes are of such great variety that it is not always possible to adjust the primary collection appara- tus of the dust-removal system. For the ordinary dusty processes or machines, hoods are constructed of wood or sheet metal, usually of the latter. The hood encloses or boxes-in the point where the dust originates, and the dust is then drawn into this hood through systems of pipes by fans operated by motive power. The proper construc- tion and adjustment of the hoods is a science by itself. It is desir- able that their construction shall not be too costly or too cumbrous; but it is necessary at the same time to have them envelope all dust- producing apparata and come in close contact with all places where dust originates. Wherever possible, dust-producing machines or processes should be entirely enclosed. With smaller machines this is not difficult. Thus, in grinding-machines it is a comparatively easy matter to enclose them and leave only a small part of the grind- ing-wheel exposed. This can also be done with other poUshing- and buffing-wheels. It is more difficult with carding-machines in tex- tile mills and with other machines of a large size. Wherever the dust-producing machine or process is either so big that its enclosure would be too costly, too cumbersome, or other- wise impossible, or where the nature of the process is such that its hooding or enveloping is inconvenient or impossible, other means may be used for the first step in the local dust-removal. Thus, in rolls and calenders where dust is only produced at a certain point, INDUSTEIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 427 it may not be necessary to enclose the whole roll or calender with a hood; but a suction pipe may be attached to the place on the out- side of the rolls where the dust is being produced. In rag-sorting, wool-sorting, shoddy-sorting, etc., it is often possible to place the materials upon a wire-mesh grating under which the exhaust system works, and thus draws in the dust, without any special hood or cover. In factories manufacturing drugs, colors and dyes, notably in the Beyer Chemical Works at Leverkussen, Germany, and in many other chemical factories in this country, I have seen girls weighing and mixing colors and chemicals sitting before a glass-covered table partitioned off for each worker, there being an opening into a pipe at the distal end of the table through which air is exhausted. Attempts have also been made to protect workers in front of dusty machines by having a powerful blast of air blown against the dust- forming part of the machine, thus directing the dust into the exhaust system. The shape of the hood also depends upon whether the exhaust is upward or downward. It must always be shaped so that the refuse and dust is thrown directly to a point where, it may be caught by the highest velocity of the air. The branch ducts or pipes, usually made of sheet metal, which are attached to the hoods and conduct the dust into the main exhaust dust-pipe, are of importance as to construction, maintenance, size, diameter, internal surface, etc., etc. Pipes of large diameter and size are costly but present less friction and need less motive power for the exhaust of air and dust through them. Branch ducts should not be too small, however, because they then unduly increase the resistance and the cost of the motive power and impair efficiency of the exhaust system. Pipes should not be too long, for increase in length increases the resistance too and also the road by which the dust travels. It is best that pipes should be straight, without bends or angles, for nothing increases the resistance for air as such bends and angles. If bends are necessary, they should be not more than at angles between thirty and forty-five degrees. The^ inner surface of the duct should be smooth, so that the dust will not adhere to the sides and surfaces and clog up the pipe. At certain intervals traps and handholes should be made in the pipes. The traps are made to catch the heavier dust which at times is not exhausted; while the handholes, which are covered, are for the purpose of permitting the cleaning of the pipes. Engineers have a rule that " the sum of the area of the branch 428 THE MODERN FACTOEY Courtesy Wm. C. Hanson u. S. Dept. Labor, Bulletin 127. Sand-blasting Castings in Open Shed. The helmet shown does not prevent the inhalation of fine steel, iron and brass dust. INDUSTEIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 429 pipes must not be greater than the area of the main pipe." Wherever installations are made for a local exhaust system, the probable additions to the machines which may be needed to be exhausted should be taken into consideration. It often happens in a machine- shop that only twenty or twenty-five machines are provided for with branch exhaust pipes, and the main pipe is constructed with a view to carry the amount of dust exhausted through these twenty- five branch pipes. When, however, ten, fifteen, or more, new machines are added, and each provided with branch pipes, the main pipe gets overloaded and the whole efficiency of the ventilat- ing system is in peril. The size and length of the branch pipes, as well as of the main pipe, is an engineering problem which must be con- sidered with every case. The following rules as to the installation of pipes, etc., by proper ventilating exhausts are of interest: " Never attach a branch at right angles to the main. Two branches should never enter the main directly opposite one another; also avoid the use of Y-branches, as the two currents in conflict retard the flow, sometimes causing the pipes to clog. Elbows should have a radius in the throat twice the diameter of the pipe. For example, a 6-inch pipe should have a radius of 12 inches in the throat. There is no advantage in making the radius more than twice the diameter. A right-angle elbow in a 6-inch pipe offers as much resistance as a straight pipe of the same diameter 44 feet long. With a radius of half the diameter, it is equal to a straight pipe 15 feet long. With a radius of one diameter, it is equal to a straight pipe 5| feet long. With a radius of two diameters, it is equal to a straight pipe 2j feet long. By making the radius more than twice, the resistance begins to increase again until at six diameters it is equal to a straight pipe 3 feet long. This is due to the greater distance the air is under compression on one side of the pipe while making the tifrn. Friction of the air traveling through the pipes is another and very essential point for consideration, and it must be determined in order to know the minimum speed at which the fan can be run. Careful experiments have shown that a length of round pipe from 62 to 72 times its diameter will produce friction equivalent to the velocity head, the shorter length applying to small pipes, because of the relatively greater resistance the roughness of the surface presents per unit of volume. In actual practice, it is cus- tomary to allow about 40 diameters, to compensate for branch tees, reducers, dents, etc. The refuse carried along by the air also increases the resistance somewhat." * * F R Still: " Removal of Refuse and Waste by Fans and Blowers." Read at Semi- Annuai Meeting, 1912, American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers. 430 THE MODERN FACTOBY The type of fan which is used for exhausting dust differs accord- ing to the work to be done. Only in comparatively small establish- ments with large pipes and with not too great amounts of dust may the propeller type of fan be used. As a rule, the resistance is too great for this type of fan and centrifugal fans are used almost exclusively. The type and size are of great importance, as is also the velocity of the revolutions of the fan. These matters must be calculated according to many factors which vary with each estabUsh- ment. If a series of exhaust pipes are connected with one fan, it is of great importance that the strength and velocity of the air-exhaust should be equal in all pipes; as it sometimes happens when the velocity is too great in one series or branch of pipes that the others will be left with an insufficient power to draw off all the dust. There are a number of more or less ingenious methods of testing the velocity of the flow of air in the pipes, these devices ranging from anemometers to a simple smoke test. This latter is accom- plished by burning paper and noticing the force of the drawing-in of the smoke from the burning paper into the opening of the pipe. The motive power used for driving fans may be taken from the general motive power of the factory. Some manufacturers prefer to install special motors for the ventilating exhaust system, in order to determine the horse-power needed and the amount of power used up during a certain time, so as to be able to calculate the cost of the running of the ventilating system. The method of disposal of the dust gathered through an exhaust ventilating system depends largely upon the character of the dust. Dust which may be utilized for burning purposes, such as wood dust, may be sent direct through the exhaust system into the fur- naces. Dust may also be wetted and sprayed. When a factory is situated in isolated 'localities the dust may be sent through tall chimneys; while in thickly inhabited places the dust must be sep- arated by various devices constructed for this purpose and then subjected to treatment, collected, and otherwise disposed of. Most separators use centrifugal force. The " cyclone " separator is an efficient means for collecting dust, and is used in a great number of industrial establishments. It is sometimes necessary to have local removal of dust by portable apparatus without the installation of hoods, pipes, fans, etc. This is notably the case in cleaning type-cases in printing places, in removing dust from places for which it is difficult to pro- INDUSTEIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 431 vide a permanent local exhaust and in freeing machinery from accumulated dust. The cleaning of such d.usty places by blowers, or by dry rags, brushes, and feather dusters is very harmful to health. There are at present a number of portable vacuum cleaning apparata, with instruments fitted for every special kind of cleaning. Wherever an efficient local exhaust system of ventilation is installed, some means should also be provided for the incoming of a large amount of air; otherwise the exhaust of the air through the ventilating pipes will encounter a great deal of resistance, espe- cially when the doors and windows of the room are tightly closed. It is also necessary in every large plant where there is a system of exhaust ventilation to appoint an inspector or supervisor, so that the whole plant, the hoods, pipes, fans, blowers, and dust- separators, etc., should be frequently inspected and defects speedily remedied. Protection of Workers. In spite of all the methods of prevent- ing the formation of dust, of the separation of the dusty processes from the workers, and the best methods qf local exhaust ventilation, there will be a certain amount of industrial dust, which is very dif- ficult to prevent or remove. Whether there are any general pre- ventive measures adopted or not, the workers should always be pro- tected as much as possible against the action of dust. The protection of workfers against dust may be accomphshed by the following measures: (1) cleanliness of the shop; (2) proper clothing; (3) faciUties for washing and bathing; (4) respirators; (5) change of work; (6) medical examination; (7) medical super- vision; (8) education. It is unnecessary to dwell here upon the necessity for proper removal of dust and dirt from shops and factories and for an efficient system of cleaning of the walls, ceilings, floors, and other surfaces within the shop. This matter has already been referred to in previous chapters. Much depends upon the proper construction of the fac- tories; still much more upon proper supervision by owners. In every large industrial establishment special persons should be designated for cleaning purposes. In all shops where a great deal of dust is deposited upon walls, girders, and other surfaces, this dust should be removed by the wet process, by the hose, if possible, or by portable vacuum cleaners. There is no sense in providing a local exhaust system of ventilation in an industrial plant for remov- ing the dust from the machines and dusty processes, and at the same time leaving inches of dust upon girders, walls, floors, etc. 432 THE MODERN FACTORY Workers in all dusty trades and processes should not wear their clothing which they bring from home, but should be provided by the owners of the establishment with clothing specially appropriate for their work. Different workers require some variation in the material and in the kind of the clothing worn. Wherever dry dust in abundance is producerf^ a smooth tight-meshed cotton cloth should be used for "overalls. At times it is advantageous to have the surfaces treated with some material which makes them smooth and easily wiped off, so that the dust does not adhere, or if it does adhere, it can easily be washed off from the cloth- ing. Overalls and clothing to be worn in dusty places should be well-fitting and cover the whole body. Attention must be paid especially to the head- covering, as the dust which falls upon the hair and head is difficult to clean. Tight-fitting caps are often worn by men and women, and one who takes one of these caps and shakes it may readily see the amount of dust which accumulates upon it during a day's work. Wherever the dust is of an irritating character, gloves should be provided by the employer and worn by the employe. The mere provision of gloves does not always mean that they are being worn by the workers. The gloves which are usually provided are too large and fit so badly that workers are loth to wear them. They also claim that the wearing of gloves interferes much with their dexterity and the amount of work they can do. Owners should New York State Factory Commission. Packer of Bleach or Chloride of Lime. Wears several thicknesses of moistened white flannel over his mouth and draws breath only through this. INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 433 especially insist that gloves be worn in all dusty processes where dust is of a poisonous or irritating character. A great many indus- tries have their own peculiar uniforms and clothing which their workers habitually wear, and which were found by them after years of experience and practice to be the best fitted for the purpose. Thus, we find special uniforms worn by foundry workers, by chim- ney-sweeps, and many other groups of workers. Reference has been made in a previous chapter to the necessity of wearing special- fitting shoes and boots in foundries. This is also necessary in other trades where it is important to prevent dust from penetrating to the skin of the workers. The necessity for providing washing facilities in all factories and workshops is especially patent in factories where much dust is produced, particularly dust of an irritating and poisonous char- acter. Mention has already been made of the need of proper wash-basins, supplied with warm water, of a supply of soap and towels, and also of the necessity for providing bathing facilities either in the form of shower-baths or tub-baths in such factories. More necessary even than the provision of fixtures for wash- ing and bathing is an intelligent supervision of the washing and bathing arrangements. I have already more than once referred to the excellent practice of one Jarge company in granting their employes from five to ten minutes extra time at the noon hour for washing up purposes, in providing a separate wash-room with a large number of wash-basins supplied with hot and cold water, soap, towels, and locker-rooms; and arranging for one or two of the foremen to supervise the washing arrangements and stand at the door of the wash-room to examine the hands of all those who are through with their ablutions, thus assuring a proper performance of this most necessary function. Washing and bathing are good means of preventing many skin and other diseases which are due to irritation and penetration of dust particles. The problem of preventing dust from entering the nose and mouth is a most difficult one. There are trades and processes in which it seems to be impossible in the present state of science to prevent a large quantity of dust from being inhaled through the nose and mouth. There are processes, like sandpapering walls and sand-blast- ing, in which it has been impossible to invent an adequate method of removing the dust and preventing the workers from inhaling it. In such, and similar cases, it is absolutely necessary for the worker to wear some kind of apparatus which, while permitting him to 434 THE MODERN FACTORY freely inspire and expire, would at the same time catch, filter, and make harmless the dust in which he works. The number of respirators which have been devised for this purpose cannot be counted. Every one who studies the subject and every manager and foreman in a shop has his own invention. As a result, there are hundreds of different kinds of respirators, who^e inventors insist that theirs is the best on the market. I have seen in the Charlottenburg Museum of Safety, in Berlin, all kinds of respirators, some of them as Ught as feathers, others weighing from twenty to thirty pounds. Besides respirators, head-gears and oxygen-helmets are fre- quently used. Some of these arrangements look Uke divers' uniforms, and all of them are heavy, unsightly, and uncom- fortable. Workers, as a rule, strenuously object to the wearing of respirators. Their objections are that these respirators are unsightly, that they are uncomfortable, that they become instruments of tor- ture, that they interfere with work, and especially that they interfere with comfortable breathing. One who sees a worker with a respira- tor cannot blame him for objecting to wearing it. All respirators are uncomfortable, because they obstruct expiration and inspiration, increase the amount of heat and moisture around the nose and mouth, dim eyeglasses, heat the surfaces around the nose, mouth, and chin, chafe the skin by the bands with which they are fastened, prevent the workers from speaking, giving orders, or answering the foremen, and generally are an unnatural and abnormal method of wearing what the workers call a " muzzle." In some trades the workers cannot do without some kind of respirator, and at times they improvise their own, which they claim are better than those given to them by the employers. Thus, the bleach-workers (see page 432) usually wear when they go into the bleach chambers a " muzzle " of six or seven folds of flannel, through which they inspire, leaving expiration free. The bleach- workers claim that it takes a long time for a man to become habit- uated to the wearing of a muzzle and to be able to expire properly through the nose, while inspiring through the mouth. These muzzles are only worn from ten to fifteen minutes when within the bleach chambers. It is doubtful whether such muzzles could be worn for longer periods. In sand-blasting and sandpapering of painted surfaces at the Pullman Works in lUinois, all workers are compelled to use respirators, as per illustration, this order being INDUSTEIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TEADES 435 very strict. I was told that a foreman who was found working without his respirator had been discharged. The principal part of a respirator is the filtering material, which is designed to catch the dust and prevent it from being inhaled. Such filtering material is usually made of tight-meshed cotton, or other material; and the smaller the meshes are the better the respira- tor is for the purpose of catching dust, but the more difficult for breathing purposes. There are as yet very few respirators on the market which are free from all objections. Cover's automatic rubber respirator is claimed to have excellent advantages for use in dusty trades, especially where poisonous gases and dusts are produced. It is provided with a closed and protected automatic ventilating valve which operates under all conditions, thus securing proper ventilation of the respirator and preventing breathing over and over again of the inhaled air. The filtering material and its arrangement in the respirator should be such that the air will be purified while passing through it. A fine damp sponge or a wet silk cloth are among the best known filtering materials for separating impurities from the air, and when these two valuable filtering materials are combined in their action, as they are in Cover's combination filter, it is claimed that it is a difficult matter for smoke, fumes, and gases to pass the silk cloth in contact with the wet sponge. The respirator is simple and is small in size. Some workers object to the irritation of the skin by the rubber adhering to the face and the metallic click of the valve. Change of Work. The human body has remarkable powers of recuperation and of self -protection. Only when the action of harm- ful influences is constant and very prolonged does the body succumb to them. Whenever there are trades or processes in which very much dust is produced, and which cannot be prevented for one or more reasons, it should be the cardinal principle of intelligent employers to make frequent changes in the work of their employes, to give them frequent rest periods, to take the workers away from the dusty trades for some time in the free air, so that the action of the dust is not too constant and the body can have a chance to readjust itself and recover from the injurious influences. 436 THE MODEEN FACTOEY Physical Examination. The reason why so many workers suc- cumb to the injurious effects of dust in the dusty trades, and why the percentage of fibroid and tubercular phthisis is so great, is because a number of workers enter these trades with a physical constitution already undermined by disease or bad habits, and are unfit to withstand the harmful influences in dusty trades. No one but robust, physically fit, and perfectly healthy persons should be allowed to take up any dangerous trade. In order to prevent the influx of weak persons into dusty trades it is necessary to provide for a preliminary medical examination in all dusty establishments. Industrial efficiency is not an engineer- ing problem alone; it is also a medical problem. The industrial establishment is badly equipped if it only consists of the technical engineer, mechanic, and superintendent. The human factor in an industrial establishment is of far greater importance than the machinery and the mechanical devices within the establishment. More important even than the testing of all machinery coming into the factory by the engineer and technical expert is the compulsory examination of all the human machines by properly qualified medical practitioners. A rigid physical examination of all employes should be a sine qua non in every industrial establishment. Only by such examination would the weak and physically unfit, the human dereUcts, be excluded from industrial life. Only by such a practice would work in dusty trades become less dangerous and deadly, and the percentage of disease, especially of tuberculosis and occupational mortality, be reduced. Physical examination of workers before entering the estabHsh- ment is not sufficient. It is only the first step. The human machine as well as the mechanical engine needs not only to be tested when it comes into the estabUshment, but should be subjected to peri- odical tests and examinations. For this, a medical supervision of industry is necessary. The time is surely not distant when every factory and workshop, no matter how large or small, will count among its superintendents not only mechanically and technically trained men, but also educated physicians. Workers, especially in dusty trades, should be sub- jected to periodical examinations every three months at least, if not oftener, their condition of health carefully noted, all the symp- toms of incipient disease marked, and preventive measures taken to remove them from work which seems to be injurious, and to treat the initial symptoms in order to prevent further inroads of disease. INDUSTRIAL DUSTS AND DUSTY TRADES 437 Medical supiervision should not limit itself only to the preliminary and periodical medical examination of the employe, but should go further. It should be properly equipped for acting in an educa- tional capacity, for supervising not only the worker's health but also his habits, his mode of nutrition, his clothing, and for prevent- ing the influences of improper home surroundings. Medical super- vision should also take over the function of educating the worker in the dangers of his trade, of instructing him in the risks of his occupation, and of teaching him all modes and methods of prevention. CHAPTER X INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES The risks of industrial life and the hazards of occupations described in the previous chapters are only a part of the dangers of trades. The accidents and the injuries arising from faulty construction, defective Ught and illumination, poor sanitation and ventilation, improper safeguarding of machinery and indus- trial dusts are, at least in the majority of cases, not inherent to all industry. There are many occupations, however, which have their specific dangers which at present seem to be unavoidable. These dangers cause injuries and lesions which are embraced under the general name of occupational diseases. By occupational diseases are meant such groups of symptoms and pathological changes in the body as are due more or less directly to the occupation in which the worker is engaged. Some of the occupational diseases and their causes are outside of the scope of this work. Among the diseases which will not be discussed are those caused by extreme variations in air pressure, such as caisson disease; those caused by over-fatigue, such as neuritis, "telegrapher's cramp," "shoemaker's spasm," etc.; those caused by specific infectious bacteria in industry, such as anthrax of the wool-sorters and hair-, bristle-, hide- and skin-work- ers; ankylostomiasis of miners and tunnel-workers; tetanus occur- ring among jute and other workers; glanders of those who attend horses, etc.; and many other industrial diseases. Only a hmited number of occupational diseases and but a few of the dangerous trades will be discussed in this chapter. I THE POISONS, GASES AND FUMES AND THEIR EFFECTS Extent of Dangers. Certain industries, trades and industrial estabUshme.nts employ materials or processes which evolve toxic elements either in the form of dust or in the form of gases and fumes, 438 INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 439 The industries and trades in which some dangerous elements are present are numerous. Poisonous materials are employed, or deleterious gases and fumes are evolved in most of the chemical trades, in the majority of the metal industries, in the textile indus- try and in many other trades. The extent of occupational diseases cannot be determined for the reason that statistical data are very incomplete and that compulsory reporting of industrial poisoning and occupational diseases has only been recently enacted in a few states. The First National Conference on Industrial Diseases held in Chicago in 1910 attempted to estimate the probable extent of industrial diseases in the United States. The estimate was that there were in 1910 approximately 13,400,000 cases of sickness due to industrial diseases, with a total of 284,750,000 days of sickness and a loss in wages of $366,107,145.* In the memorial of this conference, the paucity of data on the subject of mortaUty and morbidity from occupational diseases is deplored and comparison is made with the better statistical data to be found in other countries, especially in Germany. Refer- ence is also made in the memorial to the striking death rate from pulmonary tuberculosis among certain workers in the United States. The figures of the United States Census for 1908 are quoted which show that the proportion of deaths from tuberculosis of the lungs, among workers between the ages of 25 to 34, was, for printers and compositors 49.2 per cent, glass-workers 40.5 per cent, hatters 56.9 per cent, lead-workers, 52.2 per cent, marble- and stone- workers 41.1 per cent, and textile-workers 39.8 per cent.f Without a system of state sickness insurance and with faulty methods of occupational designations and statistics, it is impos- sible to even guess at the extent of occupational diseases due to industrial poisons, gases and fumes in American industries. There is one group, however, the so-called chemical industries, from which some figures may be obtained. The range of the chemical industry is very wide and includes among its manufactures the making of acids, alkalies, drugs, dyes and related compounds. It also includes technically the smelting and refining of metals, manufacture of coke, glass, cement, rubber, glucose, chemical pulp fibre, fermented and distilled hquors, starch and sugar, finish- ing of textiles, tanning of leather, and many other processes of indus- trial activity. * Memorial on Occupational Diseases, p. 3. t Ibid., p. 13. 440 THE MODERN FACTORY The United States Census of Manufactures for 1910 includes under the heading of chemical and allied products some 25 or 26 separate industries, from the manufacture of axle grease, baking and yeast powders, explosives and fertilizers, to the manufacture of soap, salt, starch and wood distillates. The Census gives the growth of the chemical industry in the United States as follows: In 1900 there were 8820 establishments with 185,515 wage- earners; in 1910 there were 11,863 estabhshments with 242,961 wage-earners. The capital invested had increased for the ten years from $1,180,000 to $2,053,000, and the value of products had also doubled.* The large increase in the chemical industry has also been fol- lowed by a very large increase in the extent of occupational dis- eases produced by this industry and in the increased number of persons suffering from industrial poisons, gases and fumes. This is true of the chemical industry abroad as well as in the United States. Leymann found in one chemical establishment of 1000 workers, 285 cases of poisoning in a period of less than twenty-three years. Grandhomme found 122 cases of industrial poisoning in three years, t Schneider | cites statistics from Austria in which the cases of occupational disease in the chemical industries exceeds all others by 137 per cent at certain age periods and at others by 50 to 91 per cent. He also quotes Weyl, who has shown an increase in cases of diseases in the chemical industry over all other industries of more than 120 per cent. In certain white-lead factories, out of 580 persons insured there were 76.63 cases of sickness and 1430 days of sickness per hundred persons. In aniline dye factories the cases of sickness were 70.63 per cent with 1212 days of sickness for every hundred persons. § There were reported in Great Britain in 1911, 755 cases of industrial poisoning besides 263 cases of lead poisoning which were separately reported among house painters and plumbers. Of these, 669 were cases of lead poisoning, 12 were due to mercury, none to phosphorus, 10 to arsenic and 64 to anthrax, an infec- tious disease. In 1912 there was a total of 656 cases reported besides 256 cases of lead poisoning reported under painters and * Report of Director, Second Report of the N. Y. S. Factory Comm., p. 460. t Rambousek, Gewerbliche Vergiftungen, p. 2. t Gefahren der Arbeit in der cbemischen Induatrie, p. 13. § Ibid, p. 19. INDUSTEIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 441 plumbers. Of these 587 were due to lead poisoning, 17 to mercury, and 5 to arsenic. In the United States only seven states have established laws for reporting of industrial poisons, and only very few poisons are reported. During the twelvemonth ending in 1913, 121 cases of industrial poisoning, including 21 fatal cases, were reported to the Labor Department of New York State. In the same period for the year previous 162 cases were reported with 11 fatal cases. Of the fatal cases 25 were from chronic lead poison- ing, 5 from other lead poisoning. * Classification. Many attempts have been made to enumerate and classify the various harmful substances used in modern indus- try. Such attempts, however, have invariably failed because of the multipUcity of the morbific agents and of the rapid changes in industrial life, especially in the development of chemical industries. Enormous strides have been made within the last ten or twenty years in all chemical processes, great secrets have been wrested from nature, innumerable inventions and discoveries have been made which have changed entire industrial processes; and new materials, products and processes are daily cropping out whose dangers and hazards it is difficult to estimate. Nor is the classification of the. various harmful substances an easy matter. Some of theni are at times found in the form of dust and at other times in the form of gases or fumes. There is no distinct line of demarkation between poisons and gases. Some substances belong to several different chemical groups and a scientific classification either by the nature of the material, or by its form, or hy the industry, or chemical group to which it belongs is extremely difficult. The committee of experts of the International Association for Labor Legislation which was to make a classification of indus- trial poisons, confessed its inability to present a classification according to the harmfulness of the substances or to the branches of industry in which they are used. In their list of poisons which was prepared and later issued by the Department of Commerce and Labor, the enumeration and classification of the industrial poisons is according to alphabetical arrangement. The following is a selection from the enumeration of the sub- stances which is included in the list of industrial poisons, f * Report of the Commissioner of Labor, New York State, 1913, p. 59. t List of Industrial Poisons, Bulletin of Bureau of Labor, No. 100. 442 THE MODEEN FACTORY Substances Ammonia Aniline and Aniline Colors Antimony and Compounds Arsenic and Compounds Benzine and Benzol Brass and its Compounds Carbon Monoxide Industries in which They Occur Ovens, mirror-silvering industry, coating iron plate with tin zinc, manufacture of solidified am- monia, sulphide and chloride of ammonia, sal-ammoniac, manu- facture of carbonate of soda, dyeing industry, manufacture of bone-black, varnish and lac- quer manufacture, tanning, manufacture of ice and refrig- eration plants. Manufacture of aniline and its de- rivatives as well as of aniline dyes, manufacture of photo- graphic materials, aniline dye factories, dye houses, manu- facture of explosives, etc. Preparation of tyjie and white metal, fireworks, paints, pot- tery glazes, red rubber, tartar emetic, burnishing of rifle barrels and steel ware, manufacture of antimony wares, stereotype metal, ammunition factories, remelting of old and scrap metal, paint making, etc. Mining, manufacture of glass, colored chalks, aniline and other dyes, wall paper, oil cloth, arti- ficial flowers, tanning, fur cur- ing, felt-hat making, pottery glazing, making artificial stones, paints, taxidermy, preparation of organic dye stuffs, etc. Benzine distillation, chemical cleaning plants, removal of fat from bones, for solvents, lac- quer, varnish and India rub- ber industries, waterproof mate- rials, dye works, illuminating- and water-gas factories, etc. In bronze, bronzing and allied industries. In illuminating gas, water-gas and producing-gas manufacture, coal mines, blast furnaces, coke ovens, smelting furnaces, gas machines, foundries and where- INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 443 Substances Carbon Bisxjlphidb Chlorine Chromium Hydrochloric Acid Lead, alloys, compounds, etc. Mercury Methyl Alcohol Industries in which They Occur ever illuminating gas is used, or heating with coal is done with- out special precautions. Extraction of fats and oils, sulphur from gas-washing .materials, vulcanization of rubber, prepa- ration of chlorine compounds, dissolving of fats and treating rags, bones and raw materials, oil factories, etc. Manufacture of chlorine, chloride of lime, organic chlorine, bleach- eries, paper mills, laundries, ironing, manufacture of chlorine disinfectants, chloroform, etc. Manufacture of chrome steel, min- eral tanning, bleaching, chrome colors, oxidizing agent in the card-color industry, manufac- ture of Swedish matches, bleach- ing, fats, oil and wax, staining of wood, etc. Potteries, enameling, manufac- ture of acid, glass factories, manufacture of chloride, arti- ficial fertihzers, bleaching, cot- ton-print works, India rubber, etc. In lead mining, manufacture of various lead products, in prepa- ration of lead pigments, in pot- tery glazing, painting, varnish- ing and in hundreds of different processes in which lead or its compounds are used in one form or another. Mining, smelting, extraction of gold and silver, making of mir- rors, thermometers, barometers and other scientific instruments, photography, taxidermy, arti- ficial flowers, antiseptics, rub- ber industry, etc. In distillation of wood and refining, in varnishes, lacquers, polishes, perfumes, in denatured alcohol, in the production of coal tar colors and pharmaceutical prep- 444 THE MODERN FACTORY Substances Industries in which They Occur arations, in electroplating, pol- ishing and many other proc- esses. Nitho-Benzol In coal-tar color industry, per- fumery, soap factories, pharma- ceutical laboratories, etc. NiTBO-GLYCERiNE Manufacture of explosives, use of dynamite. Nitrous Gases In manufacture of nitric acid, in electroplating, in metal etching and refining, manufacture of celluloid, sulphuric acid, aniline colors, etc. Phosphorus In manufacture of phosphorus, and matches. Sulphur, Sulphur Chloride, In manufacture of sulphur, in Sulphur Dioxide, Sulphur roasting of sulphur-bearing ores. Hydrogen, Sulphuric Acid in manufacture of sulphuric acid, and in many industries where one or more of these materials are used. For a fuller list see Bulletin 100, U. S. Dept. Labor, or Dr. W. G. Thompson's book on " Occupational Diseases." The Effects and Results of Industrial Poisons. Of the many workers exposed to the action of industrial poisons, gases and fumes, not all are affected alike by these toxic agents. A great number of the Workers in these trades seem to be entirely immune and do not suffer at all. Other workers succumb to the effects of these toxic agents after but a brief exposure. A prolonged exposure to the action of the poisons seems to be necessary before other workers are affected, if at all. Observation and experience have demonstrated that there are workers who are extremely susceptible to industrial poisons, and, on the other hand, that many of them seem to be very tolerant to their effects. Numerous examples are cited of persons working daily for many years in places where they are at all times exposed to lead poison who have entirely escaped the effect of this poison. At a hearing of the New York State Factory Commission at Niagara Falls, one of the companies, in whose plant many cases of lead poisoning were found by the agents of the Commission, tried to disprove the evidence by presenting affidavits made by employes who claimed that they had worked for over thirty years in the establishment and never had an attack of lead poisoning. On INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 445 inspection of various establishments in the dangerous trades one often meets workers who have been exposed to the dangers of poisons, gases and fumes for from ten to twenty and more years, and who deny to have ever been affected by their work. In a fac- tory where workers were packing Paris green without any precau- tions whatever and where the air was full of arsenical dust, I found a worker who has worked at this process for ten years without any seeming effect upon his health. Another man who came into the factory and worked for only two hours had an attack of acute arsenic poisoning from which he died within a week. Legge and Goadby cite the case of two brothers working in one shift of men, who developed lead poisoning, although no other persons in the shift showed any signs of it. In another factory three sons, two daughters and a father, suffered from lead poison- ing within a period of four years. Italians show considerably less susceptibility to lead poisoning than English workers as long as they adhere to their own national diet; but as soon as they become addicted to alcohol, the resistance to lead poisoning rapidly diminishes.* These and many other cases which could be cited demonstrate the fact of tolerance existing among workers to poisons and also of the extreme susceptibility of other workers. Certain factors such as age, sex, etc., have an important bearing upon the relative tolerance and susceptibility of persons to the effect of poisons. Undoubtedly children and minors are more liable to industrial poisoning than adults. Hence, the unanimity in the legislation of various countries in prohibiting the work of young persons in all factories where certain industrial poisons are employed. Women are also said to be more susceptible to the effects of industrial poisons than males. According to Legge and Goadby, t females are, at least twice, and probably three times, as susceptible to lead poisoning as males. The hability of women working in lead factories to abortions and miscarriages is con- ceded by all writers on the subject. Other persons who are extremely susceptible to the effect of industrial poisons are those suffering from anaemia, from dis- eases of the excretory organs, from constipation, from nephritis, enteroptosis, general weakness of the constitution, digestive dis- eases, tuberculosis, cardiac trouble, neurasthenia, epilepsy and * Lead Poisoning and Lead Absorption, p. 30. ^ t Ibid, p. 42. 446 THE MODERN FACTOKY INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 447 nervous diseases. Alcoholics are especially susceptible to lead poisoning.* The mode of entrance into the system of an industrial poison differs with the character of the poison as well as the form in which it appears, i.e., whether as a dust or gas or fume. Some poisons are absorbed through the unbroken skin; most of them are absorbed through the digestive organs either by swallowing the poisonous dust or by getting the poisonous dust and particles through food contaminated with poisonous materials and dusts. Others affect the organism by inhalation of the gases and fumes. Accord- ing to Teleky, Kurschmann and other German scientists, lead is never absorbed through the unbroken skin. On the other hand, it has been shown that certain drugs applied to the skin produced the effect of these poisons. This is especially the case with mer- cury and other drugs. The mode of entrance may differ not only according to each poisonous element, but also according to the individual susceptibility of the worker. The season of the year is also said to have an influence upon the effect of lead; and lead poisoning is said to be more serious in winter than in summer. Professor Thompson quotes Laureck, who claims that 71 per cent of cases arise in winter and 29 per cent in summer in Austria. On the other hand, he cites several French authors, who claim that in France lead poisoning is twice as com- mon in summer as in the other seasons. The claim is also made that chewing tobacco leads to lead poisoning because of its Uability to be contaminated with lead.f Rambousek classifies industrial poisons according to their effects as follows: (1) Poisons which act superficially. They are the poisons which cause in the organs which they reach gross anatomical lesions, irritations, corrosions, etc. To this class belong irritant and corrosive poisons. (2) Blood poisons. Those poisons which are absorbed by the blood and which produce important changes in it. (3) Poisons with definite internal action — so-called remote or specific effect. To this class belong the poisons which after being absorbed into the system act upon the definite organs and tissues in a specific manner. (Nerve poisons, heart poisons, etc.)t * jj, Teleky: Die Aerztliche Ueberwachung und Begutachtung der in Bleibtreiben beschSft- igten Arbeiter, p. 22. „, ^ ^. , t^- „,^ t W. Gilman Thompson: The Occupational Diseases, p. 217. t J. Rambousek: Industrial Poisoning, p. 158. 448 THE MODEEN FAC'J'ORY Effects and Symptoms of Lead Poisoning. Lead toxaemias are either acute or chronic. The initial symptoms are pallor of the skin, general lassitude, loss of appetite, nausea, constipation, or constipation alternating with diarrhoea. Anaemia, less than 90 per cent hemoglobin on the Talquist instrument, a wasting of the subcutaneous fat, first noticed in the infra-orbital region, are some of the early manifestations of lead poisoning. Another mani- festation which may not appear early in the history is the so-called blue line on the gums which appears as a dark, blackish incrusta- J. Rambousek," Gewerbllc'ae Vergutungen." Various Types of Wrist-drop among Hungarian Potters. tion on the edges of the gums, especially in persons who suffer from ne^ected and bad teeth. Abdominal colic, radiating from the navel to the sides, pains in the joints, muscles arid in the back, general nervousness, persistent headaches, dull mentality, appear either early or later in the history of the case. Arthritis, paralysis of certain muscles, wrist drop and other paralyses appear later, as well as evidence of effects upon the secretory, nervous, vascular systems of the body. Loss of weight is usually present in many cases of lead poisoning, at times also fever. Chronic lead poisoning manifests itself in severe recurrent INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 449 headaches, in defective vision, in peripheral neuritis, in the various lead palsies and, sometimes, in temporary or permanent blindness. Effects and Symptoms of Arsenic Poisoning. Arsenical poison- ing by ingestion or through inhalation of arsenical fumes has been known to cause acute poisoning and death. The effects of chronic arsenical poisoning are shown at first upon the gastro-intestinal organs and later upon the nervous system. The first symptoms are nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite and disrrhea. General gastro- intestinal disturbances may also be accompanied by local affec- tions of the eyes, also by ulcers of the nose, mouth, hands and feet. The later effects on the nervous system show themselves in multiple neuritis and paralysis in the extremities. Effects and Symptoms of Mercurial Poisoning. Mercurial poisoning is shown at first by extreme paleness, loss of weight, general weakness, headache, loss of muscular power; muscular pains, sleeplessness, a sallow complexion, metallic taste in the mouth, fetid breath, at times vomiting and diarrhea, inflammation of the glims, " stomatitis " and salivation, and later in muscular tremor of the limbs and facial muscles, rolling of the eyes from side to side, in tremors, a staggering and drunken gait, and a general loss of mental and muscular energy. Effects and Symptoms of Phosphorus Poisoning. The symptoms of chronic phosphorus poisoning are loss of appetite, pallor of the skin, diarrhea, bronchitis and • gastric disorders. The most important effect of phosphorus poisoning is a painful subacute and chronic inflammation of the bones of the jaw, which usually starts with the roots of decayed teeth and results in final necrosis of parts or the whole of the jaw and may sometimes result in totui loss of the lower or upper jaw. Effects and Symptoms of Chrome Poisoning. The principal effects of chronic chrome poisoning are observed upon the skin in the for- mation of chrome ulcers in the nose and upon various parts of the skin. The ulcers are rarely superficial, but are usually perforating and may be seen in the nose of chrome-workers not at great dis- tance from the nostrils. Some inflammation may also be seen upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and throat. All chrome- workers suffer from nasal catarrh, a great many from ulceration and a large niunber from perforation. Out of 176 chrome-work- ers, 126 were found to be suffering from perforation of the nasal septum, 20 with ulceration, and only 30 had a normal septum.* * Thompson: Occupational Diseases, p. 184. 450 THE MODEEN FACTORY Effects of Various Gases, Fumes, Adds and Alkalies. The effects of working in industrial establishments where chemical acids are being manufactured or worked with, or where alkali compounds are manufactured, and in all places where poisonous gases or fumes such as ammonia, carbon monoxide, chlorine gas, bromine, hydro- cyanic gas or benzine are produced, vary according to the nature of the agent, the quantity absorbed and to various other factors. Some of these deleterious agents act simply as corrosives or irri- tants upon the skin, cause burns, sores and erosions, or injure the dehcate mucous membrane of the eyes, nose and throat with which they come in contact. Others affect the worker upon being inhaled; A number of the gases and fumes may also be absorbed by the blood and cause acute or chronic intoxications, some of which may result in death. II SOME OF THE DANGEROUS TRADES Of the large number of so-called dangerous trades, I shall discuss here only one or two of the more dangerous lead trades, several trades in which arsenic and mercury occur, and establishments in which alkalies and chemical acids are manufactured. The Dangerous Lead Trades. Lead poisoning occurs in so many trades that it is difficult to even enumerate all of them. Layet gives a list of 111 processes in which lead or its salts are being employed in France. Sir Thomas Oliver states that lead is used in not less than 138 industries. Professor W. Oilman Thompson gives in his list of important lead trades 86 industries in which lead is used. From the list of the reported cases of industrial poisoning in variouiis countries, it appears that by far the largest number are due to lead. Indeed, they represent from 85 to 90 per cent of all the cases of industrial poisoning. With the present lack of diagnostic skill among general medical practitioners, with the laxity of the reporting laws, and the absence of such laws in many states the number of lead-poisoning cases must be much greater and cannot be definitely determined. In Great Britain there were about 7000 cases of lead poisoning reported in eighteen industries in the course of ten years from 1900 to 1910. When Dr. E. E. Pratt began to make an examination for the New York State Factory INDUSTEIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 451 .Commission in 1911, he found no less than 376 cases of lead poison- ing recorded in New York City alone in the years between 1909 and 1911. The Illinois Commission on Industrial Diseases found 640 cases of plumbism in that state in 1910. In an investigation of lead poisoning in Perth Amboy in 1910, records of 94 cases were supplied by a single physician. Dr. Hamilton reports that she found lead poisoning in 33 out of 56 factories in the State of Illinois.* Manufacture of White Lead. A large number of cases of lead Tftew York'State Factory Commission. Stripping the Corroding Beds in a White-lead Factory. A Very Dusty and Dangerous Operation. Workmen not Protected by Respirators. poisoning is found in the manufacture of white lead used for paints. There are several processes of manufacture of white lead. The Dutch process, which is the oldest process in use, is mostly employed in the United States and in England. The chamber process is used extensively in Germany. There are also several quick or " pre- cipitate " methods of manufacturing carbonate of lead, which are employed in a limited number of factories in the United States and abroad. * The Occupational Diseases, Dr. W. Gilman Thompson, p. 204. 452 THE MODERN FACTOEY The first process of manufacturing white lead is that of cast- ing buckles or transforming the pig lead arriving into the plants into small thin disks of various shapes. In this country this is done by machinery and the buckles are semicircular and perforated. In England, I have seen the same process done by hand instead of machinery, and instead of small buckles there are cast flat plates about 4 by 12 inches with one-half dozen holes punched through them. New York State Factory Commt93lon. An Unprotected Worker Stripping the Corroding Beds. In the Dutch procqgs the transformation of the lead buckles- into white lead is done in a so-called corroding bed. These beds are housed in a large structure tightly enclosed on all sides, with only a few small windows near the roof. The floor of a bed is about 20 by 20 and is covered with a layer of tan bark to a thick- ness of about 14 inches. On this are placed, as closely as possible, earthenware jars containing about 2 J per cent of acetic acid solu- tion. The jars are made so that the upper part is much wider than the lower part, and the lead buckles are placed in these jars above the acetic acid, so that they cannot enter the acid. Boards are placed upon the jars which are covered with a layer of tan INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 453 bark and the same process is repeated until the bed is filled to a height of about twenty feet. Here the lead buckles remain for about from ninety to one hundred days. The temperature within the sheds reaches from 150 to 180' F. When it is thought that the lead has been corroded and transformed into lead carbonate the beds are " stripped "; that is, the workers take off the layers of board from the top, remove the tan bark and expose the parts full of the lead buckles, which by this time have become corroded and present a brittle white appearance. The men take out the brittle buckles, load them into barrels or baskets and send them to be further acted upon in the other parts of the establishment, where the fully corroded buckles are separated from those in which metallic lead still remains, and where the carbonate of lead is sub- jected to further action. In the chamber process, which is practically the only process used in Germany, and which is said also to be used in one factory in England, the lead is cast into long, thin strips which then are hung upon bars in a large chamber, under which are placed tubs, producing carbonic acid gas and acetic acid vapor, which corrodes the lead strips, transforming them into lead carbonate. This process takes from eight to ten week-. Most of the metal strips, after full corrosion, fall down to the floors. In order to remove the corroded and partly corroded strips the workers enter the chambers, which are close and dark and full of lead dust in spite of their wetting with streams of water. There are a number of patented quick, or " precipitate " processes for the manufacture of white lead. In a factory Which I inspected near Frankfort a.M., belonging to Dr. Kalkoff, the metallic lead was cast and passed through a very fine meshed sieve, the lead coming out in long, thin threads, which were then put into drums and cylinders, where they were exposed to the action of acetic acid and carbonic acid gas. By this process the metallic lead was transformed into lead carbonate within a very short time — less than forty-eight hours. The carbonate of lead is taken out from the cylinder in a moist state and is packed into barrels without danger to the workers. In the further work of separating, grinding and mixing the white lead which is received from the stripping beds, there are several processes which are extremely dusty. In all of these the workers come in close contact with the lead, which is deposited upon their clothes, hands and other body surfaces. 454 THE MODERN FACTORY Other Lead Trades. Other important trades in which there is much danger from lead poisoning are potteries, tile works, manu- facture of porcelain enameled sanitary ware, and the painting and printing trades. Dr. Alice Hamilton has shown that compared with British potteries, American potteries with less than one-half the work- people show almost twice as many cases of lead poisoning. Among 796 men in the white-ware potteries, 60 cases of lead poisoning Hew York Stute Factory Commission. Unsuccessful Attempts by the Workers to Protect Themselves against Foisonoua Dust while Stripping the Corroding Beds in a White-lead Factory. were found to have occurred during the two years 1910-1911, 39 of which occurred during the latter year. Among the 150 women workers there were 43 cases, 29 occurring during 1911. A single local of the Dipper's Union which gave accurate records of 85 men for one year showed that 13 had acute lead poisoning during that year. Taking all the men and women employed in these three industries, viz., white-ware, potteries, and tile works, it was found that among 1100 men there were 87 cases of lead poisoning in a single year, or one for every 12 or 13 employed, and among the 393 women 57 cases, or one for every 7 women employed. In the INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 455 fourth industry, the porcelain enameling of iron hollow ware, 309 cases of lead poisoning were found to have occurred in ten factories studied within two years' time.* The causes of lead poisoning in the pottery trades are the lead ingredients, of which the glazes are partly composed. The most dangerous process is that of mixing the glaze, applying it to the wan^ and then removing the excess of the glaze from the ware, handling the ware while the glaze is still wet, decorating and paint- Now York Stato Factory Commission. Filling Barrels with Lead Litharge. ing the ware and also sweeping the rooms in which the glaze has been handled. Much of the glaze is without lead and is harmless. In a large percentage, however, of the various pottery wares lead glazes are used. According to Dr. Hamilton, in most of the glazes the amount of lead used is under 20 per cent, and only in very few of the factories she investigated did the percentage of lead exceed 20. In certain tile works, the percentage of lead in the glaze ranges from 40 to 60. t • AUoB Hamilton; Load Poisoning in Potteries, Til« Works, Porcelain Enameled Sanitary Ware Faotories, Bull. U. S. Bur. of Labor, No. 104, pp. 8-9. t Ibid, p. 13. 456 THE MODERN FACTORY In these industries the workmen, besides being exposed to lead poisoning, also inhale much mineral dust and suffer from the effect of great heat in the firing of the enamels. Painting Trade. A large amount of lead poisoning is found among workers painting the inside and outside of buildings, coaches, automobiles, tanks, furniture, etc. Prof. Teleky found in one firm employing 114 painters no less than 56 cases of lead poisoning, or 49.12 per cent, and his figures show that the percentage of lead poisoning among painters in Vienna is about the same through- Wew York State Faciory uommlsslon. Lead Refining. Pot of Lead Drawn from the " Sweater " from which the Caster is Ladling Molten Lead. out the city. He has also shown that since the prohibition in Vienna of using lead paint for interior work, the number of cases of lead poisoning among the painters has greatly decreased.* According to statistics published by the Prudential Insurance Co., the mortality from lead poisoning among painters is very low — 42 out of 2743 cases. According to the figures of the Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases, of the 587 cases of indus- trial lead poisoning occurring between 1908 and 1910 exclusive, 27 per cent were among painters. Out of 119 cases of industrial * Bericht iiber die Bleivergiftung unter den AnatreicherD, Lackierern und Malern in Wien, Dr. T.udwig Teleky. INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 457 poisoning found by Dr. E. Pratt in 1912, in N. Y. City, 42 were among painters. Dr. Hayhurst made an examination of 100 painters for evidence of lead poisoning and the result of this exam- ination is published in Dr. Hamilton's report on the hygiene of the painters' trade.* According to this report there were no cases of ac'ute plumbism, but there were indications of chronic plumbism in at least 59 cases. It is probable that only very few cases of the lead poisoning among painters came to note in hospital records and in the reports of the Labor Department. Some of the symptoms of lead pois- oning among painters, especially such as colic, are not attended to by the employes, or are not properly diagnosed by practitioners to whom the painters apply for treatment. Lead poisoning in the painting trade is caused by handUng paints in which there is a certain amount of white lead or other pigments which contain lead. In the mixing of the dry lead, the grinding of lead with linseed oil, considerable dust is inhaled by the worker. Much more dangerous, however, is the process of sandpapering of painted surfaces, during which process a great deal of dried lead paint is being inhaled by the worker. This is probably the most dangerous part of the painter's work. Of the various lead salts which are used in paints, red lead is said to be more dangerous "than white lead in a dry state. In other forms, white lead is said to be more dangerous than red lead. Lead sulphate when used as a substitute for carbonate is also said to be quite dangerous. Printing Trade. The dangers of lead poisoning in the printing trade among compositors and stereotypers have been described in many monographs and reports in this and other countries. Hand compositors handle the lead types. There is a great deal of dust in the cleaning of the lead type cases, and linotype-machine opera- tors also handle much of the lead. Monotype operators in the cast- ing room are also subject to lead fumes. The diseases to which printers are specially subject are plumbism and piilmonary tuberculosis. According to Sommerfeld, " We but rarely meet acute lead poisoning among printers. As a rule, the intoxication is very gradual and insidious. The disease never begins with distinct diagnostic signs, but rather with general reduction in health, especially disturbances of the digestion." The substitution of machine for hand composition does not seem * Bull. Bureau of Labor Stat, No. 120, p. 51. 458 THE MODERN FACTORY to have improved the health conditions of the workers, and as Ducrot says, " The suppression of hand composition and its replacement by machine composition has not reduced the danger; while in Hol- land they have come to the conclusion that the type-setting machine has increased the dangers of lead poisoning.* There is very much dust in all printing shops and the lead contents of this dust are quite considerable. Professor Steingrabe analyzed the dust in a printing shop and,found it contained in some places 43.16 per cent of lead.f New York State Factory Commission. Lead Oxidizing Furnace. Mechanical Type; Discharging the Furnace. Trades in which Workers are Exposed to Arsenical Poisoning. Arsenic is used in a great many trades and arts and a large num- ber of workers are exposed to the effects of this virulent poison. Dr. Rogers in his report to the New York State Factory Commission states that there is danger to the worker from arsenical poisoning in the following occupations: furriers, manufacture of candles and wax, ornaments, manufacture of japanned goods, manufacture of carpets, fancy bookbinding, preservation of wood, manufacture * Beyer: Die Volkawirthschaftliche und Sozialpolitache Bedeutung der Einftihrung der Set2- macliine im Buchdruckgewerbe, p. 134. I Oliver: Bulletin Bureau of Labor, p. 63. INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 459 Courtesy Wm. C. Hanson, U. S. Dept. of Labor. BulJetln No. 12. Lead Working in the Manufacture of Storage Batteries. In Mixing Red Oxide of Lead and Litharge, Employes are Exposed to Lead Poisoning. The Employe Shown was Wearing a Respirator, but was not Willing to wear Long Otloves. 460 THE MODERN FACTORY of gloves, manufacture of sheep dip, electroplating, lithographing and bronzing, manufacture of artificial leather, manufacture of oil cloth and linoleum, manufacture of cut glass, manufacture of hat linings, manufacture of beer, soaking of silk cocoon, and enameling. The results of their investigations were summarized by Rogers and Vogt as follows: " Arsenic and its compounds are powerful poisons, and their use in the industries is attended with danger to health of workers exposed to them. " Poisoning may occur accidentally through the use of material which, unknown to the worker, contains arsenic as an impurity. " Poisoning may occur through the handling of, or exposure to the dust of arsenic or its compounds. "The form of poisoning "most seen is that limited to local lesions of the exposed portions of the body (hands and face), and to the mucous membranes of the nose. " The greatest danger exists in industries devoted to the man- ufacture of Paris green and Vienna green. " Danger exists in the following industries! Paint works; plant vermin exterminator; glass works, other than bottle and window glass; artificial leather and oilcloth; electroplating; taxidermy; rubber goods, other than for insulating purposes. " In a number of industries there is danger of a mixed poisoning, which is liable to render a proper diagnosis difii- cult. " The majority of the workers are unaware of the poisonous nature of the material handled, and where precautions are taken it is only because lead compounds are also used." * In my investigations of chemical factories in the United States I have come across several places where arsenic was used in the manufacture of Paris green in which no protection whatever was given the workers in the process of grinding, mixing; weighing and packing of the product in small paper packages. Foreign labor was exclusively used in one of the factories and there were records of several cases of sudden death and of numerous cases of chronic arsenical poisoning which caused temporary or permanent disability. The same kind of factories investigated abroad in several places in Germany were found to use very great precautions. The workers were protected by special clothing and were obliged to wear respirators; the processes of mixing, drying and weighing * Second Report of the Factory Investigating Commission, 1913, Vol. II, p. 1161. INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 461 were practically automatic and there was very little dust or chance for the worker to be contaminated by it. Mercmy. In addition to miners of quicksilver the danger of mercury poisoning is great in the following industries: the silver- ing of mirrors, making of barometers, thermometers and other instruments where mercury is employed, making of electric light bulbs in which a vacuum is produced by mercurial pumps, making electric meters, antiseptics, corrosive sublimate, rubber manufac- IV ew York Stale Factory Commission. Paris Green Factory : Automatic Packing Machines for Filling Small Packages with Paris Green. ture, hair dyes and cosmetics, bronzing, sole stitching of shoes by the Blake machine, the manufacture of felt hats, and the man- ufacture of felt from skins. The illustrations on pages 415 and 418 are from a factory which I inspected, in which the hair is scraped from the skins of hares and rabbits imported from abroad, manufactured into felt and sold to hat manufacturers. . In this factory, the bundles of skins from rabbits, nutria, hares, etc., are opened, sorted and the hair is then clipped by machine. The fur is then brushed over with a solution of silver nitrate from 10 to 20 per cent, this process being called 462 THE MODERN rACTOEY carotting. The skins are then dried on trays in ovens at a high temperature and then are cut by machines to rip off the skins. The 30 to 40 worlcers at " carotting " were all Greeks. They stand all day at their benches and dip their brushes in the solution of nitrate of mercury. The temperature in the room must be not less than 70° F. and there is considerable volatilisiation of the mercury, especially near the drying room and when the workers carry the pelts from the drying-room to the other rooms in the factory. The industries where workers are exposed to mercury were studied by Mrs. Lindon W. Bates and pubhshed in her report issued in 1912. In several factories manufacturing mirrors in New York State no mercury was used in the process of silvering mirrors, silver nitrate being used instead, which is said to give just as good results. Professor Thompson quotes Dr. Tylecote of England, who reported 20 cases of industrial mercurial poisoning, chiefly among hatters, who presented tremor of the hands and arms and blackening of the teeth with gingivitis.* The investigations of Mrs. Bates and of Dr. Rogers in 1911-1912 cover a study of 122 cases of mercurial poisoning in the felt hat manufacture. Phosphorus Poisoning. Since the practical prohibition by the United States of the use of white or yellow phosphorus in the manufacture of matches, the subject of poisoning among phos- phorus-workers has lost the great importance which it had until then. As a matter of fact, only a comparatively small number of workers were exposed to danger from this industrial poison, and it is expected that the international prohibition of the use of poisonous phosphorus in matches will ehminate this poison from industry. In a factory manufacturing phosphorus which I inspected in Niag- ara Falls I was struck with the very careless way the workers were handUng this dangerous product, showing how familiarity with the materials produced contempt for their dangers. The workers in this factory were handling with seeming indifference solid phos- phorus sticks which were fuming and burning their fingers. The inspection was made just prior to the going into effect of the law taxing white phosphorus out of manufacture. The Manufacture of Acids and Alkalies. There is considerable danger to workers in the branches of the chemical industry in which commercial acids such as sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric, acetic * Occupational Diseases, Thompson, p. 289. INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 463 and hydrofluoric, and also alkalies, such as sodium, potassium and their products and by-products, caustic soda, caustic potash, bleach powders, etc., are manufactured. The dangers which arise in the manufacture of these products come from the gases and fumes evolved in the various proc4sses, such gases and fumes being given off at times in such quantities that workers are sometimes killed by their inhalation or absorp- tion. Besides the possible fatal effect of concentrated doses of these gases and fumes, the workers may be affected with chronic blood New York State Factory Commission. Putting Paris Green into the Bolter. or other diseases, are exposed to the irritant action of many of these elements upon the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract, and are also frequently subjected to acid burns which are apt to result in per- manent disfigurement and disability. During the summer of 1912, while directing the general investi- gations of the New York State Factory Commission, I made an inspectorial tour through New York and other states accompanied by Dr. Charles F. McKenna, and inspected a large number of chemical factories, especially those where commercial acids and alkalies were manufactured. The results of the investigations 464 THE MODERN FACTOEY have been embodied in my report on the chemical trades and in the report of Dr. McKenna on the manufacture and use of commercial acids. The impression which remained with us after a study of the conditions was that very little was being done by the owners and manufacturers to remove the dangers to workers which are so prevalent in these industries. The general conditions of manufacture of commercial acids and alkalies were found defective in many respects. The build- New York State Factory Commission. Filling a Barrel with Paris Green. Workera Wear Special Overalls, Gloves, Goggles and Linen Cloths Covering Nose, Mouth and Ihroat. ings were mostly wooden structures, of flimsy construction, and often entirely unfit for the purposes for which they were used. Serious defects were found in the ma;tter of Ughting, illumination, ventilation aiid sanitation of these factories, as have been described in detail in the reports mentioned. What interested us most, however, was the absence of any safeguards against specific dangers to workers in these industries, such as dust-removing apparata, or arrangements for removing the deadly gases and fumes evolved in many of the processes; INDUSTEIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 465 the neglect to provide the workers with means of protection; the large number of foreigners and unskilled workers in these indus- tries, and the total ignorance of the workers as to the risks and dangers which they met daily, and their extreme carelessness to their dangerous surroundings. In very few shops did we find any precautions taken during the firing and tending of the furnaces in which ores were being burned and from which gases and fumes were allowed to escape, in the mixing of dangerous materials and ingredients, in the large amounts of dust which were allowed to fill the air of the rooms, in the careless handling of acids and other dangerous liquids, in the carelessness with which workers tended the unprotected caustic pots and caldrons, in the absolute lack of protection to work- ers in dipping metals into strong solutions of nitric and sulphuric acid, and other unprotected processes, which fully explained the large number of accidents reported in the chemical industry. In the manufacture of sulphuric acid, either by the chamber or by the contact processes, there was considerable danger from the sulphurous acid; from roas ers and brimstone burners; from nitrous gases from the pots or from the nitric acid supply; from sulphuric acid; from the interior of towers; from the concentrators, or the fumes from this acid encountered in the repair of the chambers. In the manufacture of nitric acid, leakages have often been found in the apparata and much nitrous gas was liberated in these factories. In the inspection of the electroplating processes in a large number of metal trades where metal articles were dipped into a solution of nitric and sulphuric acid, dense and voluminous clouds of red fumes were often seen, and as there was very little effort made to convey or to remove these gases, there was no pro- tection for the workers from breathing these dangerous fumes. In the manufacture of hydrochloric acid, whether by the Le Blanc or by the electrolytic process, much hydrochloric acid is liberated and many of the workers had their teeth rotted and cor- roded and also showed evidences of frequent burns. One of the characteristics of the chemical industry is that in one industrial plant or factory there may be a number of various processes housed in the same plant. Thus, factories which man- ufacture commercial acids manufacture also various alkalies. This is notably the case with the Solvay and electrolytic processes of manufacture of acids, soda and potash where, in these plants, sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid are also manufactured, ■ and 466 THE MODERN FACTORY INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 467 where caustic soda or potash and bleach powders are often manu- factured at the same place. Reference has already been made to the unprotected condi- tion in several factories in New York State, of the big caldrons 15 feet in diameter filled with burning cuastic soda and potash and to the accidents which often occur in these places. Bleach Works. In the manufacture of bleach powders, several plants of which I inspected at Niagara Falls, New York, I was greatly impressed with the dangers in these factories, and also with the lack of protective devices and appHances. A description of thesd factories and their dangers may be of interest. The electrolytic process of manufacturing chlorine gas is used in these plants; the bleach chambers, however, are such as were used in the old Weldon process. These bleach chambers consist of large rooms approximately 25 by 100 feet in size and 7 feet high. The lime is spread on the floors several inches thick and harrowed into narrow furrows; then the chlorine gas is let into these chambers until the lime absorbs a sufficient -quantity of the gas, when the chambers are opened and fresh air is let in. The workers then go into the chambers and rake up the lime saturated with the chlorine gas and pass it down the chutes through traps in the chamber floor. In spite of the opening of the door and of a window opposite the door, considerable gas is left in the chambers and much is set free during the raking up of the bleach powder. This process raises clouds of dust, and the chlorine gas in the air of the chamber is so overpowering that it is impossible for one to stay in the chamber for even a short time without some protection. The work must be done with great speed in order not to waste the chlorine gas; the heat in the chambers is excessive, and the conditions are such as to make this work more trying and exhausting than almost any other process whatsoever. The workers wear special clothes, caps and gloves, for the bleach powder is very irritating and destructive, sores resulting when it comes in contact with the bare skin. The eyes are pro- tected by goggles, the head is covered, the mouth is covered by six or seven folds of heavy flannel through which the man must inspire, while expiration takes place through the nostrils, which are in close contact with the flannel. The apparatus is called by the men a " muzzle." It requires much experience for a man to be able to use it properly. Only those who are able to wear such muzzles are allowed to work in the bleach chambers. Even 468 THE MODERN FACTORY to those accustomed to wearing them they cause considerable difficulty in breathing, and they cannot be worn for a long period. When the muzzle is worn in a gassy bleach chamber, with the dust, heat and gas, and with the speed required for the work, the time that the workers may remain in the chamber with comparative comfort is very short, ranging from ten to thirty minutes. The men coming out from the chambers present a pitiful appearance. They are all covered with bleach dust; their eyebrows and exposed parts are permanently whitened by the action of the bleach; per- spiration is profuse and runs down the face; the breath is labored and hurried; the pulse is high, ranging, in my examination of several workers, from 96 to 110 beats per minute. The workers in this exhausted condition quickly throw off their " muzzles " and rush for the open windows, gasping for breath. My inspection was made in the summer when the windows were open, and the ghastly faces of the exhausted chamber workers as they thrust their heads through the windows into the outer air made a gravely impressive- picture. Whether the windows are open in the bleach chambers during the winter time could not be definitely ascertained, as the testimony of the different workers varied in regard to this. It frequently happened that the workers are " gassed," i.e., overcome by the chlorine gas. This produces nausea, fainting, vomiting, and occasionally, unconsciousness. Sneezing and coughing are always attendant upon work in the bleach chambers. Most of the men are robust and strong, for only such are able to do the work; there is, however, no physical examination of applicants for this work. Those who were found working were generally between the ages of twenty and thirty, although much older in appearance; in fact, they seem quite aged at thirty. The work in the bleach chamber is done by gangs of four or five, and consists not only in removing the bleach from the chambers, but also in preparing the lime in the chambers and in the general care of these rooms. Their work inside the chambers is fortunately not continuous; while one gang goes in for fifteen to thirty minutes, the other gang is preparing the lime in another part of the plant, thus alternating the work. The system of compensation for the work is based on a ton of product and is considered quite high; at least, it is known that these workers are the most highly paid in the plant outside of the skilled workers. Their earnings range from $12 for beginners to $25 per week, the largest number of INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 469 New York State Faciory Commission. The " Muzzles " and Costumes Worn by Bleach Workers. 470 THE MODERN FACTOEY bleachers making between $18 and $25 per week. Comparatively few of these bleach-chamber operatives had been long at this work, only ten or twelve among them having worked over five years. Out of the 59 bleach-chamber workers whose individual histories were taken, there were only 16 who did not complain of some affec- tion of the nose, throat, eyes, or who did not suffer from a cou;h, nausea, headache or other ailment. The gangs work in shifts, in some plants there being two, in others three shifts. Of the 59 workers, 2- were found to work forty hours per week, 17 worked forty-eight to fifty-two hours per week, 12 worked sixty per week and 3 worked sixty-six to seventy-two hours per week. Out of the 59 bleach-workers whose histories were taken, 46 claimed to have knowledge of the dangerous character of their work and 37 said that instructions were given to them how to take care of themselves.* In an illustration on page 422 the Hasenclever method of manu- facture of chloride of lime is shown as used in Germany and in a chemical estabUshment in Brussels, Belgium, which I inspected in 1913. By using this method the necessity for " bleach-workers " is obviated, and the process becomes harmless. Ill PREVENTION AND PROTECTION The problem of eliminating occupational diseases and preventing human waste caused by industrial poisons, gases and fumes is one of the most important tasks of the age, atid is closely inter- woven with the general subject of the conservation of human resources. The crux of the problem is not whether we shall have industry with disease and poisons, or no industry at all. It is rather whether we shall allow industry to take its annual toll of human life by permitting the captains of industry to decimate the indus- trial ranks by poison and disease, or whether we shall insist that industry must be free from all dangers, hazards and risks and sub- ordinate production and output to the weal of the human factor in industry. Just as theoretical considerations and experience have demon- strated that our industrial accidents are wasteful and unnecessary * General Report of the Director of laveatigation, New York State Factory Commission, pp. 470-472. INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 471 to industrial efficiency, and, that many, if not most of them, may be prevented, just so has it been proved that many of the effects of industrial poisons, gases and fumes are not a necessary concomitant of industrial life, that many occupational diseases may be prevented and the fearful waste of human life due to these causes avoided. The general principles of prevention and protection of workers in dangerous trades do not differ much from the methods of pro- tection and prevention that have been discussed in the other chapters, notably those on accident prevention and industrial dusts. In order to present the various methods of prevention and protec- tion in logical sequence, I shall here give a scheme of the principal and subordinate methods which are being introduced in different countries to protect the workers in dangerous trades from occupa- tional diseases. - I. Legislative Protection (1) Investigation.- (2) Notification. (3) Inspection. (4) Special rules. (5) Licensing. (6) Special prohibitions. II. Social Protection (1) Hours of labor. (2) Industrial control. (3) Workmen's compensation. (4) Sickness and social insurance. III. Industrial Protection (1) Substitution of harmless (2) Wet and automatic proces:es. materials for dangerous ones. (3) Removal of dust, gases and (4) Sanitary protection. fumes. IV. Medical Protection (1) Personal hygiene. (2) First aid. (3) Medical supervision. Legislative Protection. Since the breaking down of the laissez faire policy, the principle of state regulation of industry has been accepted by all legislatures of the civiHzed world. The extension of legislative protection is progressing in all countries in about the same direction. At first, protection is given by the state only to children and women in industry. The protection is then extended 472 THE MODERN FACTORY to all adults and embraces regulation of industrial conditions, provisions for sanitation of factories and the safeguarding of work- ers against the dangers of accidents. After these steps have been taken attempts are then made to control and regulate the special hazards specific to dangerous trades. Investigation. The first natural step toward any regulation of dangerous trades is to study these trades, investigate occupa- tional diseases and the hazards specific to certain industries. Hence, we find almost in all countries that prehminary to enact- ing laws on dangerous trades, general or special investigations more or less thorough are ordered by the state and given over to competent . scientific authorities, upon whose investigations and report the restrictive legislation is then based. Thus we find, for instance, in England, all the provisions of the factory acts rela- tive to specially dangerous trades have followed the report of the Departmental Committee on Dangerous Trades, which was sitting for several years in the nineties. All the extensions of the factory acts to other dangerous trades since then have been made after special investigations ordered by Parliament. Restrictive legislation on dangerous trades in Illinois followed the report of the Occupational Diseases Committee and the same has been the case in New York and other states. Such procedure is especially necessary in dealing with occupational diseases, which are only known to specially trained scientists. Hence, investiga- tion is the first step in legislative protection in dangerous trades. Notification. The second step in legislative protection is the compulsory reporting of certain occupational diseases and cases of industrial poisoning. Unless such data are gathered and unless all the cases of disease due to occupation and industrial poisons are known, the extent of protection needed in the dangerous trades cannot be known; and therefore many countries and states have already enacted laws compelling physicians and employers to report cases of certain occupational diseases and industrial poisoning. The results of this reporting and notification are not yet of much value, because of a lack of proper medical supervision; but this is undoubtedly a very important and beneficent step in industrial protection. Inspection. Another corollary of the attempt at legislative protection is the extension of state inspectorial service to dangerous trades. This means not only more frequent visits by inspectors to industrial estabhshments in which poisons, gases and fumes INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 473 are found, but also the inclusion by the state factory inspection departments of competent scientists and specially trained phys- sicians, engineers and chemists in their inspectorial service so that state inspection of dangerous trades may be a real force and service instead of a farce. In European countries, factory inspectors are a highly technically trained corps of men, and in several of the countries special divisions in the inspectorial department have been created to take care of the dangerous trades and establish- Sanneberg & Quand, Berlin. Showing how the Lead Fumes in a Lead Smelting Shop are Properly Carried Away by a Local Exhaust Ventilating System Devised by a Famous Firm jn Germany, making a Specialty of Ventilating Apparata for Dangerous Trades. ments. The same tendency is also manifest in this country, as several of the large states have appointed a number of special technically trained inspectors to take care of this work. Special Rules. Legislative protection in dangerous trades begins first with investigation, then notification and reporting, and is followed by a more thorough and special inspectorial service. The next step is the issue of special rules and regulations adapted 474 THE MODERN FACTORY to specially dangerous industries and processes. The more the question of industrial hygiene is studied, the more it becomes apparent that legislative protection does not lie in the enactment of general laws covering all industrial conditions, but in the pos- sibility of issuing from time to time according to necessity rules and regulations appUcable only to certain industries or processes, or even to individual establishments where specific dangers are hkely to be found. Hence, in almost all countries and states, provision is made for some authority after proper investigation and study, to issue such rules and regulations. In most of the European countries the ministers of commerce and labor (or how- ever they are designated), are the usual authorities who, together with the specially trained higher inspectors, have the right to make such rules and regulations. In the United States, this matter has only recently been brought to our attention and several states have made attempts to solve the problem, each in its own way. In Wisconsin, the right of making special rules and regulations has been given to the Industrial Commission; while the same right, perhaps more restricted, has been given to the Industrial Boards in the States of New York, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Those who make a study of the large number of special rules and regulations which have been issued abroad covering so many industrial processes and conditions, cannot help but admire the thoroughness with which this work has been done, the utiUty of such special rules and regulations, and the benefit that has accrued to the workers in dangerous trades. Licensing. A further extension of legislative protection of the worker in dangerous trades is found in the system of licensing such trades. It is not suSicient to make special rules and regu- lations guarding the workers in establishments already erected and existing. It is always easier to prevent than to cure. The protection in dangerous trades should extend to establishments before they are erected. It is then possible to prevent certain conditions which it may be too late to amend later on; hence the practice of legislatures of different countries of compelling the owners of establishments in certain trades to apply for an author- ization and to receive a license from the state inspection and indus- trial service after a thorough investigation of the plans and speci- fications. Such licensing is a very efficient method of legislative prot3ction and is destined to be extended to all dangerous trades and to be accepted by all states in this country. INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES' AND FUMES 475 Special Prohibitions. The right of the state to protect the workers in dangerous trades goes even further. Not only does a state make special rules and regulations which must be followed in these establishments, not only are such trades often required to be licensed, but the legislatures also enact laws prohibiting certain classes of persons from participating in any dangerous trade. Many laws have been enacted by the legislatures of dif- ferent countries and states, by which children under a certain age and sometimes all children and minors, and all women or only women of a certain age, etc., are prohibited from participating in any work which is specially dangerous or from working in estab- lishments where certain poisons, gases and fumes are being used. Social Protection. By social protection o' workers in danger- ous trades is meant the protection given not only by legislative action, but by a general combined social effort to raise the economic, social or health standard of the workers either by legislative enact- ments or by general combined efforts of states, industries and social institutions. Hours of Labor. An important protection to workers in dan- gerous trades is the hmitation of the hours of labor of workers in these trades. The principle of decreasing the hours of labor a:cording to the extent of the danger in the industry has been ac- cepted as a legislative standard in only a few instances. This is notably the case with the law restricting the hours of workers in caissons. The New York State Law has limited such work from two to four or six hours according to the air pressure in the cais- sons. It is probable that a limitation of hours of labor in other dangerous trades would be a great step in the protection of the work- ers, as it has been proved beyond doubt that in trades where there is no possibility of eliminating certain dangerous elements, the less hours a person works therein, the less he is liable to be affected. Industrial Control. Another significant tendency in the pro- tection of workers in dangerous trades is the extension of indus- trial control by industries to the organized heads of all the estab- hshments in such industries. The owners of establishments in one industry have at last come to the conclusion that while individually they may compete with each other as to output and commercial undertakings, their interests as far as the human factor in industry is concerned are almost identical. It is to the benefit of their indus- try and to industrial efficiency in general to take proper care of their workers and common cooperative attempts have been made 476 THE MODEEN FACTORY by whole industries or groups of industries to this end. This has been done especially in Germany, where Trade Associations have been formed in sixty-six various industries. Each Trade Asso- ciation has been given the right by the government to issue special rules and regulations which are binding for their respective industries, and also to appoint a special inspectorial corps who have the right to make frequent inspections in the various estab- lishments, and even to fine the members of each Association in case they do not comply with the rules and regulations of. the Association. A further tendency in the same direction is seen in the attempts made by either large corporations or by organized manufacturers in certain industries to better the conditions of the workers in the whole industry. Reference has already been made to the great work done in this direction by the United States Steel Trust, by the International Harvester Company and by a great many other corporations in the United States. Attention must also be drawn to the latest example of industrial control of an indus- try by the industry itself in the two large, industries in New York City, viz., the Cloak, Suit, and Skirt and the Dress and Waist Industries, in which there are in New York City alone 2500 fac- tories and workshops, and which have created a Joint Board of Sani- tary Control to take special care of the sanitary conditions of the workshops in these industries and also of the health conditions o the workers. Compensation. An extension of the principle of industrial control is the enactment of workmen's compensation. If there are certain dangers and hazards inherent in a certain industry, the industry as a whole should be responsible for them and should also be -made to pay the cost of the injuries, diseases and death due to the industrial hazards. The manufacturer and the capital- ist recognize that a certain breakage of materials, machinerj' and appliances is inevitable. They all compute a certain amount annually for depreciation in the structure and in the physical prop- erties of their plant. They include in their calculations possible loss by fire, accident and bankruptcy. If there are certain inher- ent dangers to the life and health of the human factor in industrial estabhshments.one cannot see why this element should not also fall as a toll upon the industry and be taken into consideration by the manufacturer and capitalist. There is no reason why the ills and injuries to which the worker is liable in the industrial plant should all fall upon himself and his nearest kin. There is every INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 477 reason why these burdens should be shifted upon the industry itself. Workmen's compensation, which is an established fact in a number of countries abroad, has only been lately accepted as a cardinal principle of industrial justice in the United States and has been enacted by legislatures of many states, and will doubtless be ejftended to all states of the Union and to the Federal Govern- ment. The enactment of workmen's compensation laws will Danneberg & Qiiand, Berlin. A Linotype Room of a Daily Newspaper in Berlin, Germany. Each Machine is Connected with an Efficient Exhaust System. not only lead to a curative effect by compensating the workers for their injuries in industrial establishments and for certain occupa- tional diseases, but will also act as a powerful force in the preven- tion of occupational diseases and the effects of industrial poisonings. For, as soon as the industry becomes cognizant of the fact that every injury, impairment of health, or death of the worker in industry must be compensated, it will then become apparent that it is per- haps cheaper for the industry to eliminate the dangerous elements. Sickness and General Social Insurance. The social protection extended by state and society to all industrial workers is bound 478 THE MODERN FACTORY to go still further. For thirty years Germany has had a social insurance law which is a model of its kind, and has been copied by other states in Europe. In that law provision has been made for a general insurance of workers in case of sickness, invalidity, disablement from disease and old age, and in case of death. Aus- tria, Switzerland and, lately, England have followed the example of Germany and have enacted extensive social insurance- laws protecting the whole industrial population against disease, invalidity and old age. Social insurance is now a live, burning question in the United States. It is an inevitable step following the enact- ment of workmen's compensation laws. No one can prophesy how soon social insurance may become a living fact in the United States; but no one can doubt that it will come. Industrial Protection. The general methods of prevention of industrial diseases by legislative and social protection are but a part of the scheme to put industry on a healthy basis, to avoid all preventable diseases, and give proper protection to the working class in industry. The important prophylactic measures are those which may be designated as industrial protection. They are imposed upon industry and upon employers in the endeavor to free work from its concomitant dangers and hazards. Prohibition and Substitution. Many of the poisonous materials used in industry and art are not absolutely indispensable. They are valuable; they seem to be necessary; they are conveniept and commonly used. It is possible, however, to replace some of them by harmless materials. Even when the poisonous materials cannot be replaced, it has been determined judicially that a state has a right to prohibit their use in the interest of pubhc health. Such prohibition, however, is not always necessary, as experience has shown that a great many of the most harmful substances may be and are being replaced by non-poisonous or less poisonous materials. Perhaps the best example of a poisonous substance being legislated out of industry is the history of the international agree- ment to eliminate white or yellow phosphorus in the. match indus- try. For years phosphorus poisoning and horrible necrosis of the jaw were rampant among the workers in phosphorus match fac- tories. Due to agitation and to the vigorous protests against the baneful results of the poisonous phosphorus, a non-poisonous substance, the sesquisulphid of phosphorus, was discovered and successfully applied in the match industry, thus, with one stroke, freeing the whole industry from a terrible burden. INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 479 Strenuous attempts are being made in a number of countries to lessen the dangers of lead poisoning, the most prolific cause of industrial poisoning, by finding some substitute for the dangerous lead. White lead has been successfully replaced by zinc white in both exterior and interior painting, though the painting trade still clamors for white lead, claiming certain superiorities for its use, especially for exterior decoration. It has been found, however, that zinc white serves the purpose nearly as well, that the cost of the two products is about the same, and that for interior painting white zinc is superior to lead because it does not turn yellow. For exterior surfaces, white zinc has proved excellent when used in the proper manner. Experiments have been made by the Society of Public Medicine and Sanitation in concert with the Society of Painters and Contractors of the City of Paris in regard to the com- parative merits of white lead and white zinc paint, both on the exterior and interior of the annex of the Pasteur Institute. The result of these experiments showed that white zinc was entirely or very nearly equivalent to lead under many different conditions.* In France, the use of all white lead in painting has been prohibited by law, the prohibition to take effect on January 1, 1915. In Swit- zerland, white lead cannot be used on any government work. There are also other zinc preparations which may be substi- tuted for white lead in painting. Red lead paint, which is used on metals, can be replaced by gray zincs, which are composed of pulverized zinc. Zinc white or barium white and manganese dryers may be used in place of white lead and lead dryers in lacquer and ebony work. Zinc oxide, sulphate of barium or talc are gen- erally used nowadays in place of lead by designers of embroideries or laces. Zinc white and sulphate of barium have been substituted for lead in making the foundation, the mordants, the colors and the porcelain glazes used in the paper industry. It can also be used for various papers colored in yellows or greens by chrome yellow, which is lead chromate. Zinc chromates have been substituted for lead chromates. In all pottery work and enamels a large proportion of white or colored lead is used. In some of the pottery work the proportion of lead is less than 20 per cent, but some potteries use a larger per- centage. This matter has been given much attention especially in England and France. It has been demonstrated by many experi- * Courtois-Suffit et Levi-Sirugue; Hygiene Industrielle, p. 414. 480 THE MODERN FACTORY ments that it is practicable to make pottery glazes without lead ingredients, that it is possible to diminish the use of lead glaze for certain colors, and that a leadless glaze has been and is being widely used. There are a number of formulas for leadless glazes as well as leadless enamels. In the pohshing of glass a lead powder was formerly and is still widely used. This, however, has been successfully replaced by an iron oxide rouge which is extensively used in this country for all glass polishing. In the manufacture of certain colors, a mixture of Prussian blue and zinc yellow is often substituted for arsenic green; and in dyeing materials it is possible to avoid the use of poisonous green dyes by suitable substitutes. Nitrate of silver is at present widely used instead of mercury in coating mirrors. It is replaced by glycerine in the manufacture of air pumps, and substitutes have been found for mercury in a number of other industries. In the manufacture of incandescent lamps the danger of mercurial poisoning has been done away with by using vacuum pumps without mercury. Tetrachloride of carbon, which is non-toxic and the vapors of which are not inflammable, has been successfully substituted for benzine and other poisonous solvents used for fatty materials, rub- ber, resins, etc. It is manifest, therefore, that with industrial and hygienic progress, it is possible to eliminate a great many of tha toxic mate- rials by substituting for harmful substances less harmful or non- harmful ones. It is, however, necessary for the state or society to accelerate industrial and hygienic progress by legislative enact- ments, without the incentive of which the captains of industry do not seem to be anxious to prevent many of the industrial diseases. I Wet and Automatie Processes. Where poisonous materials are dangerous because of the dust created, the adoption of wet processes or of automatic machinery eliminates the danger. This matter has been fully discussed in the chapter on dusts. I have seen a number of white-lead factories where no dry grinding of lead was done, which were entirely free from lead dust. The wet process should be extended to all poisonous materials wherever possible. In processes where the wet method cannot be adopted it is often possible to use automatic machinery which would eliminate poison- ous dust. I have already referred to the example of the manu- facture of bleach powders. This work, which is extremely danger- INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 481 ous, has become innocuous with the adoption of the Hasenclever method, an illustration of which is given on page 422. There is no doubt that automatic methods and machinery may be invented in many other dusty and poisonous processes, which would decrease the dangers of industrial poisons. Removal of Dust, Gases and Fumes. Wherever poisonous dust, gases or fumes are evolved in industry the principle of their imme- diate removal at their place of origin should be applied. Such Danneberg & Uuaud, Berlin. An Electro-plating Shop of a Metal Pipe Factory in Germany, Showing an Efficient Removal of Fumes and Proper Protection of Workers. removal is feasible and is successfully accomplished in a large number of factories. The removal of poisons by exhausts, fans, etc., does not differ from the methods described in the removal of dust. When dealing with gases and fumes, modifications in the hoods, tubes and methods of removal must, of course, be made with regard to the substance which is to be removed. The illustrations on this and next page show some of the methods used in Germany for the removal of gases and fumes in electroplating establishments. Much attention is paid to this matter in the Charlottenburg Museum of Safety, where 482 THE MODERN FACTORY special investigations and studies are being pursued all the time foT the discovery of the best methods of removal of gases and fumes. Some of these methods, if adopted, would certainly elimi- nate much of the danger of inhalation of various gases and fumes in industry. Sanitary Protection and Prevention. It is unnecessary to enter in detail into the general sanitary prophylactic measures to be ferdlnanil Baume N uremberp. Another, Method of Local Ventilation to Remove the Fumes in an Electro- plating Shop in Nuremberg, Germany. used in industrial establishments where poisonous dusts, gases and fumes are found. The sanitary precautions are those which have been described in previous chapters and relate to proper construction of walls, ceilings and floors, to the safeguarding of machinery, to the provision for adequate lighting and ventilation, INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 483 and to the installation of sufficient drinking, washing and other sanitary facilities. The sanitation of factories in dangerous trades is an even more important matter than the general sanitation of industrial establishments. Medical Protection. Personal Hygiene. Work in dangerous trades demands .extra precautions for individual health. The worker must be instructed in the principles of hygiene and incul- cated with habits of personal cleanliness and care. A worker who knows the risks and dangers of his calling and who practices all the precepts of personal hygiene will not fall a prey to indus- trial poisons, gases and fumes as easily as the careless, slovenly and uncleanly worker. The matter of proper washing of the hands, face, etc., the cleaning of the teeth and washing of the mouth, fre- quent bathing, wearing of proper clothes outside and inside of the factory, the use of nourishing and simple foods, the taking of frequent exercise and wise use of the time for recreation — all play an important part in the health of the worker. In some of the factories in Germany, factory owners and medical supervisors have not only instructed the worker in general hygiene and in special prevention of the dangers of his calling, but have attempted to give a daily schedule of the life of the worker in the factory. One such schedule is cited by Blum in a hygienic plan for lead-workers.* The schedule is as follows: (1) Breakfast at home, vegetable soup, etc. (2) On arriving at factory, removal of street clothes and donning overalls, etc. (3) Work for IJ to 2 hours. (4) Pause of i hour, j hour of which is for removing overalls, scrubbing of hands for one minute with a 0.1 per cent solution of sodium sulphide, afterwards scrubbing hands with sand soap, water and brush; washing face and using mouth wash containing 0.1 per cent of solution of sodium sulphide, then | hour pause. (5) Change clothes and work for 1| hours. (6) Noon-day pause. Before pause J hour to be used for the purposes of dressing and washing according to same routine. (7) Work from 1| to 2 hours. (8) J-hour pause and J hour for cleaning and washing as before. (9) Work for IJ or more hours. (10) i hour before stopping work for dressing and washing before leaving the factory. • / * DAinmer: Handbuch der Axbeiterwohlfahrt. 484 THE MODERN FACTOR'* Under such a regime, the worker would have to use about one hour a day for washing and dressing purposes alone, and about I5 hours during the day for pauses. This is probably more than American employers would permit unless such a daily routine is made compulsory by law. First Aid. The need of an organization for first aid in every factory is self-evident. In all factories the workers are subject to various accidental injuries and diseases, and in every industrial plant there should be some means for treating such cases. The medical and surgical cases which may need treatment in a factory are burns, wounds, amputations, fractures, dislocations, hemorrhages, acute poisoning, acute gassing, or loss of conscious- ness due to various causes, such as shock, heat, epilepsy, gassing, etc. In all such cases time is very precious and life may often be saved by prompt attendance and treatment. This is possible only when there is some organization for first aid in each factory. The organization for first aid implies {a) proper place, (6) proper personnel, (c) adequate instruction and education of the personnel, (d) sufficient and proper appliances, (e) materials, drugs, etc., which may be necessary and are to be used. Many factories have special dispensaries or clinics where first aid is given to injured employes. In some factories the foremen or superintendents are the persons who administer the first aid. In larger factories and in some large corporations special crews or corps have been specially trained for this purpose, and nurses and physicians are drawn into the service of the first-aid organization. In a great many establishments notices are posted as to various methods of first aid, as to proper treatment of burns, loss of con- sciousness, etc. These notices, however, are of very little value unless there are persons instructed in the work whose duty it is to administer the first aid. Among the appliances especially needed in large establish- ments are stretchers, pulmotors, oxygen tanks, and various other apphances and devices for resuscitation and treatment. Among the materials and drugs which are found in a great many factories besides cotton, gauze and splints, are also various disinfectants and neutralizing agents according to the character of the material which is used in the industrial establishment. Medical Supervision. An important phase of protection in dangerous trades is a complete system of medical supervision. INDUSTRIAL POISONS, GASES AND FUMES 485 Such a system embraces the following: (1) prehminary examina- tion, (2) periodical reexamination, (3) dispensary and clinic treat- ment, (4) sanitary supervision of the plant, (5) supervision of the personal hygiene of the workers, (6) medical and hygienic instruc- tion and education of the workers, and (7) general medical care of the workers and their families. It is unnecessary to enter into the detail of the items belonging to a general scheme of medical supervision in factories in danger- ous trades. Reference has been made to this subject in various parts of the book. The need of medical supervision in industrial plants has been emphasized over and over again. The importance of preliminary examination of workers is self-evident in all work in dangerous trades where the health of the candidate for work must be perfect in order to prevent industrial poisoning. A periodical reexamina- tion of workers in dangerous trades is also necessary in order to detect incipient symptoms of poisoning and to take the proper precautions to prevent further inroads of disease. Daily treat- ment in dispensaries and cUnics is necessary to prevent the spread of industrial disease and to cure incipient cases. The medical supervisor in a factory in a dangerous trade should exercise general sanitary supervision over the plant, so as to be sure that the general sanitary cleanliness, light and ventilation receive proper attention. The medical supervisor of such a plant should also take special care of the personal hygiene of the work- ers, especially in regard to sanitary and hygienic instructions to foremen and workers in teaching them the dangers of their trade and the risks of their caUing, and instructing th m in the methods of prevention and personal care. He must also supsrvise the wearing by the workers of special clothing, gloves, goggles, and respirators which are necessary in the dangerous trades. The proper organization of this work impUes also an intimate influence of the medical supervisor not only upon the workers within the factory, but also upon their home relations and sur- roundings. Only by such a comprehensive scheme of medical supervision ■ of work and workers in dangerous trades can we hope to eliminate the dangers of industrial poisoning, and to prevent many of the occupational diseases to which such a large number of workers succumb. CHAPTER XI FACTORY LEGISLATION I GROWTH AND TENDENCIES OF FACTORY LEGISLATION All labor legislation began with the protection of children. This protection was gradually extended to women and finally to all adults. Only after a considerable period of such general legislation were any attempts made to improve working conditions in factories and workshops. From the beginning of the modern factory system there was strenuous opposition on the part of manufacturers and employers to any restrictive legislation. While this opposition was chiefly directed against any limitations imposed on the labor of women or children, all state interference with working conditions in the factory was bitterly fought by the manufacturers, who claimed that the state had no right to interfere in contracts between employers and employes or to supervise the conditions under which work was carried on. It was only when the principle of state regulation of industry had been firmly established that factory legislation, meaning by this legislation for the improvement of working conditions within the factory, became an integral part of general labor legislation. Early Factory Legislation in Europe. The first labor legislation in England, and in the whole world, was the Factory Act of 1802, which appUed only to cotton factories with more than .three appren- tices or with twenty other persons at work and which, as its name indicated, "The Health and Morals of Apprentices Act," was promulgated chiefly for the protection of apprentice children in factories, whose exploitation and abuse was so vividly described in the reports of Parliamentary Commissions. This first act already contained embryonic sanitary provisions in a clause calhng for the whitewashing of mills and factories twice a year. The subsequent Acts of 1819, 1825, and 1831 contained numerous provisions restrict- FAOTOEY LEGISLATION 487 ing the work of children and young persons, but added little to the sanitary provisions of the first law. Indeed, the sole sanitary pro- vision existing was greatly attenuated by decreasing the required number of whitewashings from twice a year to once in twelve months. The chief importance of the next Act of 1844 lies in the fact that this Act was the first to include women amon'5 protected per- sons. They were placed in the same class as youa^ persons from twelve to fourteen years, whose hours of labor were limited to twelve daily and to sixty-nine weekly. This Act also contained the first provision for accident prevention. It prohibited the cleaning of machinery while in motion, and required the fencing of flywheels and the safeguarding of dangerous parts of machinery. Provision was also made to protect working people from excessive damp- ness in the process of wet spinning. The one sanitary requirement of the former laws was still further weakened by making white- washing in factories obligatory only once in fourteen months, and painting only once in seven years. The Acts after 1844 and up to 1878, when all the factory laws were consolidated, are significant in that they mark the steady extension of the scope of factory legislation and the further limita- tion and restriction of the work and hours of labor of women, young persons, and children, and the extension of all provisions of the law to all industries. During this time occurred the battle of manu- facturers organized in the National Factory Owners' Association against accident-prevention provisions of the law, especially against the fencing-in of horizontal shafts more than 7 feet from the floor. By the consolidated Factory Act of 1878, labor and factory legisla- tion was established on a firm basis and state regulation was gradually extended until it embraced all working conditions within the factory. No serious attempt at factory legislation was made in France until late in the second half of the nineteenth century, although a number of attempts were previously made to protect children in industries; and the first Act of 1813 prohibited the work of children under ten years in mines, and made other protective provisions in this industry. The Law of 1841, and the subsequent Laws of 1848, while giving some protection to children and women, contained no provisions for the supervision of industrial conditions within the factory. Very little progress was made until 1874, when a special inspection service was organised and some standards set for the improvement of sanitary conditions in the workshops. Since that 488 THE MODERN FAOTOEY time, by the labor Laws of 1882, 1883, 1892, etc., the extent of protection given to certain persons was increased and in 1893 the Hygiene and ecarity aw was passed, n which detailed provision was made for sanitary conditions in industrial establishments. In Germany the first act to regulate the employment of young persons in factories was passed in 1839; but not until 1869 was the Industrial Code for the North German Union promulgated and an attempt made to regulate working conditions in factories by Article 107, which contained a general provison that every manu- facturer should, at his own cost, establish and maintain all necessary appliances for safeguarding employes against dangers to health and life. This provision was e itended by Article 120 of the Industrial Code of 1891, which is at present the basis of all factory legislation in Germany. The provisons of the Act are general in character; but the inspectors and the local authorities have power to define exactly the provisions of this Article. The essence of Article 120, upon which all factory legislation is based, reads as follows: " Employers are to estabhsh and maintain their establishments, their workrooms, machines and utensils so as to protect workers, as far as the nature of the industry permits, against dangers to life and health. Especially are the.y to provide for sufficient light, adequate air space and air change, removal of gases, dust and fumes arising in the process of the industry. They are also to pro- vide such devices as are necessary for the protection of the workers against dangerous machinery or parts of machines, or against any other dangers which are to be found in the nature of industrial pro- cesses; also those dangers which arise from factory fires. In estab- lishments where, because of the nature of the process it is necessary for the workers to undress and to cleanse themselves after work, special washing- and dressing-rooms must be established." In other countries,^ factory legislation began much later than in the countries named. Labor legislation in Austria began with the Law of 1852, and was foUowed by the Industrial Code of 1859, and the revised Industrial Code of 1885, although there was some legislation for the protection of children prior to the first act. Only after the Law of 1883, when a factory inspection department was established, was recognition given to the importance of sanitary conditions within the factory, and inspectors given the right to investigate and make recommendations for their improvement. The present Industrial Code of Austria contains in Article 74 a gen- eral provision for the improving of factory conditions which closely FACTORY LEGISLATION 489 follows the wording of the German Article 120 of the Code. It reads as follows: " Every employer is obliged to establish and maintain at his own cost all such sanitary appliances and devices, and to furnish all safeguards as, according to the nature of the industries and pro- cesses, may be needed for the protection of the health and life of the employes. He must take care that all machines, their parts and all their appliances should be so arranged that injuries to workers may not easily be possible. He must also make provisions for proper light, cleanliness, and freedom from dust in the workrooms, for the needed artificial illumination, for change of air in the rooms corresponding to the number of workers, for prevention of injurious gases and f^mes, and for the conduct of industry and its processes in such a manner as to protect the health of the employes." Upon these provisions are based the detailed rules and regula- tions issued by the ministers and other industrial authorities. Early Factory Legislation in the United States. Early factory legislation in the United States, as in Great Britain, began first with laws protecting child-workers in cotton factories and mills. The. first cotton mill in America was established in Rhode Island, in 1790, and began to work with four spinners and carders; but five children were soon added, whose ages ranged from seven to twelve years. The number of children in the industry rapidly increased. In a letter written by Samuel Slater, the founder of the American Cotton Industry, in 1827, he says: "Wool business requires more man-labor, and this we study to avoid." So successfully did Slater and his fellow-employers avoid man-labor that in 1831 the number of children working in the cotton mills in Rhode Island was almost half of the total number of employes. It took some time before public opinion in America was aroused on the subject of child-labor. Our forefathers were accustomed to see children busily occupied about the house and on the farm, and they had no experience to enable them to see the difference between such occupations and factory work, with its long, confining hours and bad effects upon the physique and character of the chil- dren. Indeed, the cotton manufacturers were considered great benefactors of the 'community in so far as they employed women and children in mills. Massachusetts took the first steps in factory legislation. Char- acteristically, it was concern lest the education of the children should be neglected, which led to the passage of the first law pro- 490 THE MODERN FACTORY tecting child-workers in factories. This Act of 1836 provided that " no child under fifteen years shall be employed to labor in manu- facturing establishments unless such child shall have attended school at least three months out of the twelve next preceding any and every year in which such child shall be so employed." In 1842 this Act was amended to provide a ten-hour working day for chil- dren under twelve years of age. In 1842, Connecticut, following the example of Massachusetts, passed a law requiring three months' schooling per year for every child under fifteen working in factories in the state, and a ten-hour day for children under fourteen years. In 1847, the legislature of Maine passed a law requiring three months of schooling in each year for every child under fifteen years, and four months' schooling for every child 'under fifteen working in the factories in the state. As in Massachusetts, the school committees were to enforce this law and could impose a fine of fifty dollars upon every manufacturer not complying with its requirements. As early as 1827, Pennsylvania legislators were interested in the problems connected with child-labor in the cotton mills in the state. A bill was introduced in that year which provided that no minor between twelve and eighteen should be employed ii^ cotton or wool manufacture unless producing a certificate signed by the school master or two citizens that the minor could read and write English, German, or some modern language, or unless the manu- facturer should provide for instruction of said minor. The enforce- ment of the law was left to the tax assessors. The penalty was fixed at five dollars. The bill was passed by the House but thrown out by the Senate, and no more attempts were made to protect children in the mills until 1837, when the Senate appointed a com- mittee to investigate child-labor. This committee found that one- fifth of the whole number of workerj employed in cotton mills in the state were under twelve years of age; the working time ranged from eleven to fourteen hours and their average working week was seventy-two hours. This committee also reported that only one- third of the cotton mill workers under eighteen could read or write. No action, ho i ever, was taken by the legislature to remedy these evils until ten years later when, in 1848, a bill was passed which for- bade the employment of minors in any cotton, woolen, silk or flax factory. The bill provided a legal working day of ten hours in all such factories, with a proviso that minors above the age of four- teen might be employed more than ten hours by special contract FACTORY LEGISLATION 49I with parents or guardians. In 1849 the minimum age was raised to thirteen years and the protection of the law was extended to paper and bagging industries. Labor legislation in the United States, therefore, as in other countries, began with the protection of children; and only very much later was any attention paid to the improvement of working conditions in the factory. In Massachusetts the first provisions as to protection of steam-machines were passed in 1852, and the super- vision of boilers was provided for in 1870. In 1877 the first require- ments for dust removal were made. In New York the first school lawwas established in 1852, and only in 1874 was the first compulsory schoohng of fourteen weeks' duration made a law. In 1886 the first factory law to regulate employment of women and children in manu- facturing establishments was passed, and only in 1887 was cleaning of machinery while in motion prohibited and washing and toilet rooms required. In 1892 provisions were made for ventilation and overcrowding, and the law was extended to apply to all establish- ments where persons were at work. In Illinois, an Act to prevent and punish wrongs to children was the first attempt made to restrict child-labor; and only in 1893 was a law enacted creating the Department of Factories and Work- shops and regulating factory conditions. Since that time, by the Acts of 1897, 1901, 1903, and subsequent acts, Illinois has rapidly gained foremost rank in the galaxy of states which are providing progressive factory legislation. Factory Legislation Standards. In legislation regulating hours of labor, wages, night work, etc., it has been customary for legis- latures to state the provisions of the law and to promulgate definite rules, regulations, and standards for its enforcement. Provisions for a normal day's work, for prohibition of night work, for a minimum age for child-workers, for the limitation of the working week, for payment of wages in cash, etc., easily lend themselves to standardization. Not so with provisions regarding working conditions within the factory. Factory legislation, meaning by this term legislative enactments for the prevention of industrial accidents and occupational diseases, for the promotion and preserva- tion of the health of the workers, cannot be so readily standardized. Hence, in all countries and states provisions as to construction, fire-protection, light, ventilation, safeguarding of machinery, and general sanitation of factories, have always been, and still are, indefinite and unstandardized. 492 THE MODERN FACTORY The German Industrial Code, in Article 120, quoted above, states that employers are obliged to provide such appliances as are necessary to prevent dangers and risks to health and life of the employes. Similar provisions exist in the factory acts of other countries. The same conditions prevail in the United States. Our factory legislation abounds with general provisions, with vague and indefinite rules and regulations, with terms such as " proper," " adequate," " suitable," " sufficient," " sufficiently guarded," " if practicable," " whenever necessary," " in the discretion of the commissioner," etc. There is hardly a paragraph in the state factory laws which does not contain these general terms, which leave so much to the imagination and interpretation of the employer and manufacturer and so little power of determination of what is to be done to the inspector or commissioner. The results of this lack of definition are that manufacturers and employers have no specific standards which they can foUow and are in doubt as to the exact meaning of the law; that inspectors are unable to enforce the vague provisions without arbitrarily setting up their own standards; that discretion must necessarily be given to the commissioner to interpret the law; that different interpreta- tions are made by individual inspectors and officials, and that real enforcement of the law becomes impossible. The chief reasons for the lack of standardization of factory legisla- tion is, that there is an absence of such standards among the scientists themselves. Hence, legislators cannot be blamed for .their failure to embody in factory legislation standards which do not as j-et exist. But even if such standards could be scientifically determined, it would be unjust and impracticable to have these standards embrace all groups of industries, all kinds of industrial processes, and all sorts of industrial establishments. Industrial conditions differ so much from place to place and from time to time that no single standard made by any scientific body can possibly apply to all cases. If standards are to be set, if provisions are to be made and rules pro- mulgated, they must be issued so as to cover definite conditions, separate industries, and, at times, separate industrial estab- lishments. This diflSculty is overcome somewhat differently in European countries and in the United States. In Europe the problem is solved in two ways. One is to. give the Secretary of State or the Ministers having charge of enforcement of labor and factory laws power to issue from time to time special rules and regulations, to FAOTOEY LEGISLATION 493 set standards, and to make such provisions for groups of industries or for special trades and industrial establishments as to insure the proper enforcement of the law. This method allows the inspec- tors no discretionary powers to set up their own standards and to differ in their modes of application of the law. This is the practice in England, in France, in Austria, and in other countries. On the other hand, Germany tries to solve the same problem not by allowing the industrial authorities to make special rules and regulations, but by selecting for inspectors such highly trained experts in industrial hygiene and safety that there is no need for the setting of special standards or for the promulgation of special rules, leaving the application of the general provisions of the law to the sound judgment and ripe experience of the industrial inspectors. This, of course, may be done only in a country like Germany, where the general standard of industrial hygiene is very high, where there are so many museums of safety and chairs of industrial hygiene in the universities, and where industrial inspectors are recruited from a most highly technically trained body in any country. In the United States, legislators continue to experiment and annually tinker with factory laws, and neither employers nor factory inspectors are able to enforce the law properly. The remedy which is applied in some states is the creation of industrial com- missions and boards. The Wisconsin Industrial Commission was created by the adoption of a general provision " that the Commis- sion take charge of the safety of the workers," leaving the defini- tion of safety and the making of rules to the Commission, permitting it to " make such rules and regulations and set up such provisions and standards as, after proper investigation, it may deem fitting." With the high character of the personnel of the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin, the remedy seems to have been the right one and has worked well so far. In New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts, Industrial Boards have been created with no executive power but the right to investigate industrial conditions and, after proper investigation and conferences with those interested in the matter, to promulgate an industrial code and set special provisions and standards for groups of industries or industrial establishments. One cannot as yet judge what the results of this departure in fac- tory legislation will be. It is to be hoped, however, that some order will be established by these boards in the anarchy and chaos hitherto reigning in existing factory legislation. 494 THE MODERN FACTORY II REGISTRATION AND AUTHORIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL ESTABLISHMENTS No proper enforcement of the provisions of factory legislation is possible without a knowledge of the location of industrial estabhsh- ments in which the law is to be administered. All reports on factory legislation and factory inspection have urged the necessity for a system of general registration of all industrial establishments which come under the law. The Massachusetts Commission on Inspection of Factories, etc., came to the conclusion that the registration of all industrial establishments subject to inspection should be enforced by law. " The lack of authoritative information regarding the number and location of factories, workshops and mercantile establishments leaves many loopholes for the evasion of labor laws." * " It would seem that the first task of a board entrusted with the administration of these laws would be to inform itself concerning the exact extent of the field in which its work hes, and this task involves registration of all industrial establishments under its jurisdiction." The New York State Factory Commission also came to the con- clusion that a general registration of industrial establishments was necessary; and a law recommended by this Commission became part of the new state law of 1913. The law reads as follows: " The owner of every factory shall register such factory with the state department of labor, giving the name of the owner, his home address, the address of his business, the name under which it is car- ried on, the number of employes and such other data as the commis- sioner of labor may require. Such registration of existing factories shall be made within' six months after this section takes effect. Factories hereafter established shall be so registered within thirty days after the commencement of business. Within thirty days after a change in the location of a factory the owner thereof shall file with the commissioner of labor the new address of the business, together with such other information as the commissioner of labor may require." Outside of New York State there is, however, no state that has as yet introduced compulsory registration of factories; although * Massachusetts: Report of the Commission to Investigate the Inspection of Factories, etc,, p. 76. FACTORY LEGISLATION 495 the principle that the state has a right to insist upon a license or authorization for certain industrial undertakings is well established. Certain trades, such as plumbing, which have important bearing upon public health, must be licensed; and in certain states bakeries, dairies, slaughter-houses, etc., must apply for a license for each establishment. In European countries not only registration but authorization and licensing of trades is a firmly established principle, and has been accepted by many legislatures. The English provision for registra- tion reads that " every person within one month from the begin- ning of occupation in a factory or workshop is required to serve a written notice on the district inspector stating the name of the factory or workshop, its location, business address, nature and amount of motive power of factory, nature of work, and name of the firm. The district inspector is required to forward this notice to the dis- trict council in the district in which this workshop is situated." In continental countries the law goes much further. Accord- ing to Article 16 of the Industrial Code of Germany, authorization is demanded from the proper authorities for the establishment of such plants which, because of their location or because of the nature of the operations within them, may cause considerable dangers, injuries or nuisance to the inhabitants of the neighboring places or to the general public. The Code gives a list of 26 various plants and groups of plants which need authorization and which may be added to or changed by special resolutions of the Federal Council with the sanction of the Reichstag. The application for authorization must contain a description of the proposed plant, a plan of location, and a construction plan. Plans and description must cover the following points: (a) The size of the plot. (6) A map of the surrounding property and the names of its owners. (c) The distance between the proposed establishment and the adjacent buildings, estabhshments, and pubHc highways. (d) The height and form of construction of the adjacent buildings. (e) The location, extension and form of construction of the proposed establishment. (/) The designation of each room and its general arrange- ment. 496 THE MODEEN FACTORY (g) The object of the establishment. (h) Principles of the various processes and of the apparata utilized. (i) The expected extensions of the establishment. (j) The gases formed and the devices used to prevent the formation of the gases. (fc) The character of the fluid and solid waste products, also the methods of their disposal. A commission of experts then reports upon the authorization, and public hearings are held in case objections are made to any of the details of the proposed establishment. The members of the commission are usually tha district physician, chemist, architect, industrial inspectors, and others.. Appeals may be taken from the decision of the district commission to the higher industrial authorities. In Austria all trades must be registered, and the Code requires that one desiring to enter any trade or establish any plant must give due notice to the proper authorities. A tax varying accord- ing to the location, is levied, and objections may be entered against the conduct of such establishment. Aside from this general registra- tion of free trades, there is a list of thirty-one trades, industries and groups of trades for which a special hcense is required. A license is also required in every establishment where, because of furnaces, steam-machines, motors or water works, or because of influences injurious to health or safety, or because of foul odors, or excessive noise, it may injure or become a nuisance to the neigh- borhood. Provisions are made for the forms of application, for the hearings before the various authorities, and for appeals, etc., upon these applications. Belgium requires authorization for certain classes of establish- ments having special dangers or those which are unsafe, unhealthy or unsuitable. The scope of the classification of such establishments requiring authorization is so wide that it includes nearly every type of factory. The application for authorization must set forth the nature of the establishment, the objects of manufacture, the apparata and processes to be used, as well as the approximate quantities that are to be manufactured or stored. The employer must in addi- tion state the measures which he has in mind for diminishing the inconveniences connected with the establishment, as well for the workers employed as for the neighbors and the public. Every demand for authorization must be accompanied by two plans, one FACTORY LEGISLATION 497 showing the interior arrangement of the factory, such as the loca- tion of the workrooms, storerooms and machinery; the other the situation of the factory in relation to other buildings, roads, rail- roads, water-courses, etc., within a radius of 200 metere. Establish- ments of the first class must also state the approximate number of workers to be employed, age, sex, length of work-day, and length of daily and weekly rest periods. In addition, the apphcation mupt state the methods of heating, lighting and ventilation to be employed,; the arrangements for cleanliness in the factory and on the part of the workers; the cubic air space allowed for each worker; the provisions made for medical and surgical care in case of accident; provisions for securing workers against dangers of explosions or fire, escape of vapors, gas or dust, breaking of machinery and pul- leys. Lastly, the application must state the various measures to be taken to assure sanitary conditions in the workshop, such as alternation of work, provisions for meals, bathing facilities, toilet facilities, use of disinfectants, etc. In Switzerland the law requires anyone proposing to construct a new factory or any industrial establishment, or to reconstruct or to add to already existing industrial establishments, to obtain an authorization from the cantonal government. Ill CONSTRUCTION, FIRE-PROTECTION AND ACCIDENT- PREVENTION The construction- of factories, as far as the materials of build- ings, plans, forms of construction, thickness of walls, etc., are con- cerned, is usually imder the jurisdiction of municipal authorities, subject to local building laws, rules and regulations. These build- ing laws are not uniform throughout the state, with the result that there is a difference in the standards of factory construction in different cities and localities. In a few European countries there is some special legislation on the subject. Thus, in Switzerland, the construction of all new factories is regulated in detail. No cellar is permitted to be used as a workplace except by special permission and on condition that it is well lighted and protected against dampness. The height and cubic air space of workrooms, the size of the windows, the methods of lighting, ventilation and heating, are all prescribed. 498 THE MODERN FACTOEY The law gives details as to construction of stairways, number and size of exits, doors and elevators, and contains provisions for insur- ing the safety of the persons using them. In England the construction of factories is under the jurisdic- tion of local and municipal authorities. In countries where certain trades are required to obtain an authorization or license, there is usually a very strict supervision of the plans of new buildings, and the form of construction as well as the arrangements in the factories in trades for which authorization or license is required. It would be a great advance in factory legislation if states and countries would require all new industrial establishments to file their plans before construction and to have the state authorities supervise and control the methods of construction and proper hygienic arrangement of the future factories. It would obviate a great deal of the later need for correction of evils due to faulty construction. Fire Protection. All states set some standard for fire-protection and prevention in factories. These standards usually cover the character. and construction and materials of windows, doors, walls and floors, methods and form of construction of stairways, elevators, exits and fire-escapes. In general, Europe is far ahead of the United States in fire -protection and fire -prevention. German regulations are probably the most thoroughgoing and drastic. In all buildings of more than one story in height the following specifications are ordered as a means of minimizing the dangers of fire. (1) The outside walls and partitions must be made of fire-resist- ing materials. (2) The ceilings and floors must be fire-resisting. If openings cannot be avoided, precautions must be taken to pre- vent the spread of fire. (3) Large, many-storied buildings should be divided by fire- walls. (4) The stairways must be in specially constructed stair-towers. The latter, as well as the stairways, should be constructed of fire- proof materials. (5) In all buildings of three and more stories there should be at least two stairways remote from each other when the number of persons on upper floors shall be more than forty, or the length of the building more than fifty meters. FACTOEY LEGISLATION 499 (6) The windows of the upper stories must be arranged so that a full-grown person can get through the window into the air. The following regulations must be complied with in every work- room: Factories and workshops in which more than twenty workers are employed, or in which light inflammable materials are manu- factured, must be provided with two fire-proof stairways. At least two such stairways must lead to every workroom in the upper stories, except in such factories where stairways are on opposite sides of the building and enclosed in fire-proof walls on all sides. In buildings already existing iron steps are permitted which are fireproof above and below and are easily reached. Direct communication of the workrooms with the stair-towers is to be avoided. An indirect connection between the workrooms and the fire-towers by means of iron galleries is preferable. These iron galleries must be closed on all sides in order that the smoke from the workrooms may not enter the stair-towers. In the same way the doors leading to the stairways must be fire-proof, must open into the stair-tower and be self-closing. The doors of the workrooms, especially those in boiler-houses, must be so arranged that they open outwards. The same holds good for windows which in case of fire must be used as a means of exit. Shed workshops must have a sufficient number of exits on all sides. Storerooms for light inflammable materials must be only placed at the side of workrooms, and not in any case beneath them, and must be shut off from them by fire -proof walls. In France the Labor Code requires the doors of all workshops where more than ten workers are employed, and all places, regard- less of the number of workers, where inflammable materials are manipulated, to open from within out. The stairways, in addi- tion to being constructed of incombustible material, where they must serve for the simultaneous exit of twenty or more persons, must have a minimum width of 1 meter, which must be increased by 15i centimeters for each new group of employees from 1 to 50. Municipal regulations in France forbid the construction of build- ings more than seven stories in height. Other provisions of the Code insure the safety of establishments in which combustible materials are used or inflammable Uquids or gases are employed for lighting or heating. The French Law requires periodical fire-drills. 500 THE MODEEN FACTOEY The English Factory Law makes a distinction between old and new buildings: Every factory erected since Jan. 1, 1892, and every workshop erected since Jan. 1, 1896, in which more than forty persons are employed, must be furnished with a certificate from the District Council (in London from the County Council) that reasonable pro- vision has been made for the escape, in case of fire, of all persons employed. The certificate must specify in detail the means of escape provided. It is the duty of the district council (or county council) to examine every such factory and workshop, and to supply the certificate if they are satisfied that reasonable provision has been made. In every factory or workshop erected after Jan. 1, 1896, the doors of each room in which more than ten persons are employed must, except in the case of sliding doors, be constructed so as to open outwards. With regard to every factory erected before 1892,. in which more than forty persons are employed, and every workshop erected before 1896,' in which more than forty persons are employed, it is the duty of the District Council (in London of the County Council) to ascertain whether the factory or workshop is provided with reason- able means of escape, in case of fire, for all persons employed. While any person is within a factory or workshop for the pur- pose of employment OT meals, neither the external doors, nor the door of any room in which any such person is, may be locked, bolted, or fastened in such a manner as not to be easily opened from the inside. The means of escape must be maintained in good condition and free from obstruction. In the case of a tenement factory or workshop the owner is responsible instead of the occupier, and the whole tenement factory or workshop is to be taken as one factory or workshop. District councils are given powers, in addition to those they possess, to make bye-laws providing for means of escape from fire. And the existing powers of the London County Council to make bye-laws on this subject with respect to buildings over 60 feet in height are extended to all factories and workshops of whatever height. I In London, under the London Building Acts (Amendment) Act, 1905, the following additional requirements apply: ' (1) Means of escape in case of fire must be provided in " high FACTORY LEGISLATION 501 buildings" and in factories and workshops in which more than twenty persons are employed, with two exceptions: (a) If the whole of the building is a factory or workshop within the meaning of Section 14, of the Factory Act of 1901. (6) If the building while used in part as a factory or work- shop has been so provided in comphance with the Factory Act of 1901 between the 11th August, 1902, and the 11th August, 1905. (2) In the case of " new buildings " to which the above require- ments apply plans must be submitted to the London County Council showing the means of escape it is proposed to provide. (3) Precautions are also required in the case of workshops or wor rooms connected with premises used for the storage of inflam- mable liquid. In America, New York State has the most rigid and detailed fire standards. The following is a summary of the New York State Law, which will probably serve as a model for similar fire laws in other states, although many of the New York requirements are necessitated by special conditions prevailing in New York City, which would not exist in many of the other states. The New York Law makes a distinction between buildings to be erected in the future and already existing buildings. All buildings to be erected in the future, which are over four stories high, must be of fire-proof construction and have roofs covered with incombustible material. All exterior walls within 25 feet of any non-fire-proof building must be not less than 8 inches thick and extend 3 feet above the roof. Two means of exit remote from each other are required from every space between fire-walls. One of these exits must be an interior enclosed fire-proof stairway; the other may be a similar or horizontal exit. No point in any floor area is to be more than 100 feet distant from one of these exits. An additional means of exit is required for every 5000 square feet in addition to the first 5000 square feet of floor area. Stairways must be of incombustible material, 44 inches wide, and they must not be more than 12 feet, 6 inches, in height between landings. Winder stairways are not permitted. The width of the treads and the height of their rise is prescribed. All doors and doorways must open out, and their width must not be less than the aggregate width of all the stairways leading to 502 THE MODERN FACTORY them. The width of the doors leading to stairways must not be less than 44 inches. All partitions must be oNncombustible material. All elevators, shafts, hoistways, etc., must be enclosed with fire-proof material and must extend 3 feet above the roof. REQUIREMENTS FOR EXISTING>UILDINGS (1) Required Exits. Every building over two stories must have on every floor at least two exits remote from each other; one exit to open on interior stairway. Such stairways must be enclosed with fire-proof partitions extending from basement to three feet above the roof; all openings in these partitions to be provided with self-closing fire-proof doors. The other means of exit may lead to a similar stairway to a hor- izontal exit or to an exterior screened stairway or to fire-escapes On the outside of the building (at the discretion of the Industrial Board). No point in any floor is to be more than 100 feet distant from an exit. Stairways must lead to the street or to unobstructed passageway, affording safe passage to street (Industrial Board has discretion over character of stairway enclosures). (2) Doors. All doors to open outwardly or be double-swinging doors in all factories where five or more persons are employed. (3) Fire-escapes. Fire-escapes must be constructed of wrought- iron or steel and safely sustain a live load of not less than 90 pounds per square foot, with a factor of safety of four; continuous stairway to be used wherever practicable. Exits leading to fire-escapes to be 2 feet wide and at least 6 feet high and must extend to floor level and within 6 inches of floor level. Exits leading to fire-escapes must be fire-proof; windows opening on fire-escapes must be fire-proof. Fire-escape balconies must be 4 feet wide. They must have a landing 24 inches square at the head of each stairway; passage- way, between stairway opening and side of building must be at least 18 inches wide; stairway opening to be guarded by iron railing 3 feet high; balconies to be surrounded by iron railings 3 feet high. Stairways must be 22 inches wide and have an incline of not more than 45 degrees,- with 8-inch treads, and not over an 8-inch rise, and must be provided with hand-rail 3 feet high. Stairway from lowest balcony to landing must remain down permanently or be arranged to swing up and down automatically Isy counterbalancing weights. Exceptions to operation of this provision are made for certain factories. Additional Requirements (4) Stairways. Stairways must be provided with substantial hand-rails and must all -extend to roof. (5) Doors and Windows. Doors and windows must be unob- structed by metal bars, grating or wire mesh, unless readily remov- FACTORY LEGISLATION 503 able. Doorways opening on stairways must not obstruct passage- way. Exits must be plainly marked. , /^) .^^f ®® '° ■®^^^^- ^here must be passageways on each floor at least 3 teet wide throughout leading to every exit, including out- side fire-escapes. Such passageways must be unobstructed. No doors may* be locked, bolted or fastened during working hours. Industrial Board has power to adopt rules, establish standards, etc. (7) Limitation of Number of Occupants. In buildings hereafter erected 14 persons only permitted to work on any floor for every 22 inches in width of stairway. In existing buildings no more than 14 persons can work on any floor for every 18 inches in width of stairway. Industrial Board has discretion in enforcing this regulation. For every additional 16 inches over 10 feet in height between two floors, one additional person may be em^ployed. On the upper of such floors one for every 18 inches in width of stairway in exist- ing buildings, and one for every 22 inches in width of stairway in future buildings. If winder stairways are used a deduction of 10 per cent is to be made in counting capacity of the stairway. In a fire-proof building, approved by the superintendent of build- ings, as many additional persons may be employed on any floor as can occupy the enclosed stairhall on that floor, allowing five square feet of unobstructed floor space per person. Where horizontal exit is provided on any floor, as many addi- tional persons may work therein as .can occupy the smaller of the two spaces on either side of the fireproof partitions; or as can occupy floor of a nearby building connected with this floor, allow- ing 5 square feet of unobstructed floor space per person, provided that such horizontal exits shall have doorways wide enough to allow 18 inches for each 50 persons or fraction thereof ejnployed on each floor in the case of horizontal exits in the existing buildings and 22 inches in the case of horizontal exits in future buildings. When a floor is sub-divided by partitions of brick, terra-cotta or concrete, not less than 4 inches thick, with all openings protected by fire-proof doors not less than 44 inches or more than 66 inches wide, as many persons may be employed on each floor as can occupy the smaller of the two spaces on either side of the partition, allowing 5 square feet of floor space per person, provided there be on each side at least one fire-proof stairway. The number of persons employed on any^ one floor may be increased 50 per cent where an automatic sprinkler system is installed. The number of persons employed on any floor shall never exceed the number that can occupy the floor, allowing 36 square feet floor space per person, if the building is not of fire-proof construction, and 32 square feet per person if the building is fire-proof. The Industrial Board has the power to make further rules and regulations in respect to fire-protection as well as in respect to other parts of the Labor Law. 504 THE MODEEN FACTORY The legislation in relation to accident-prevention and safeguard- ing of machinery has been partly discussed in the chapter on safety and accident-prevention. Legislation for this purpose is usually too general, as it is not feasible to encumber statute books with detailed provisions about the methods of safeguarding machinery, transmission apparata, or other devices and appliances which are of such great variety in every industrial establishment. Standards for safety and accident-prevention are made by accident insurance companies and by trade associations. Factory laws usually set down general principles of safety which are then applied according to the needs in each case. IV LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION, AND VENTILATION AND HEATING There are very few definite standards in factory legislation as to the quantity and quality of light and illumination. This is natural when we consider that the science of illumination has not as yet progressed sufficiently to give definite solutions to the problems which confront the engineer in the illumination of different parts of industrial establishments. The legislation found in different countries and states may be summarized in the following excerpts ' from the provisions on the various statute books. The English law contains no provision or standards for light and illumination of factories and workshops. Recommendations made on this subject have been in relation to special industries only. France, Belgium and Switzerland require only "sufficient " natural or artificial light in workrooms, on staircases, in wash-rooms, toilets, etc. Switzerland requires in addition the installation of a sufficient number of safety lamps. The German Industrial Code gives no standards for dayfight or artificial light, but standards have been set by industrial inspectors according to the demands of the Federal Health Council, as follows: Provisions for Natural Light. (a) Minimum window area for each work-place from 0.25 to 0.05 square meters. (6) Minimum window area of 1 square meter for each 30 meters of room space, (c) Minimum window area of 1 square meter for every 5 square meters of floor space. FACTORY LEGISLATION 505 Provisions for Artificial Light. 1 to 2 incandescent lamps from 16 to 32 N.K. power must be provided." In Holland the royal decree of Jan. 31, 1897, relating to the conditions of working of female and young employes under unhealthy or jdangerous conditions does not allow the persons protected to be employed on premises where, between nine in the morning and three in the afternoon, artificial means have to be resorted to in order to secure suflBicient illumination (save only in exceptional cases when the condition of the atmosphere renders artificial light essential). Moreover, the intensity of illumination must conform to certain definite requirements. In the case of the following trades — embroidery, working in precious stones, gold, and silver, engraving metals or wood, the manufacture of instruments, printing, mechan- ical knitting and quilting, sewing, draughtsmanship, the repairing of clocks and watches — an intensity of at least fifteen bougie-meters is prescribed. In the case of other works requiring good lighting an intensity of ten bougie-meters is necessary. Requirements for light and illumination of the different American states are for the most part general in character, requiring only that factories, workrooms and dependencies shall be properly and suf- ficiently lighted. The Connecticut law requires colored and cor- rugated windows to be removed if they are injurious to the eyes. Illinois requires a light to be kept burning in passageways, on staircases, in front of elevator shafts, etc., except in cases where natural light is sufficient. Wisconsin alone attempts to set a standard of illumination, requiring every place of employment in which hand or machine operations are performed to be supplied during working hours, when daylight is not available, with artificial light equivalent in amount, for each 4 square feet of floor space, to not less than the light produced by a one-candle-power lamp hung ten feet from the floor. Ventilation and Heating. The same reasons which have com- pelled legislators to make vague and indefinite provisions for fight and illumination in factories have also been potent in the matter of setting standards for ventilation and heating. Ventilation engineers are not as yet agreed on the proper methods of ventilation and the qualitative and quantitative needs of different industrial estabhsh- ments. Owing to this indefiniteness, the enforcement of the laws is also very difficult. The present legal standards for ventilation and heating may be summarized as follows : 506 THE MODERN rACTORY The English Factory Acts stipulate for 250 cubic feet of air- space per person during regular working hours, and 500 cubic feet per person during overtime work. The French' Code requires 7 cubic meters of air-space per person, which must be increased to 10 cubic meters in laboratories and kitchens, and in shops, stores and offices which are open to the public. The wind,ows must be sufficient to prevent excessive rise in temperature. The air of workrooms must be renewed when necessary for the health of the workers. Belgium requires 10 cubic meters of air-space per worker. The height of work-place must be at least 2.51 meters and arrange- ments must be made to introduce new air and let out vitiated air at the rate of 30 cubic meters per hour per worker. The air must be renewed during work-pauses by draughts when circumstances permit. Work-places must be sufficiently heated in winter, and workers must be protected from excessive radiation from heating apparatus, furnaces, etc. Germany requires the same number of cubic meters of air-space per worker as Belgium, but German work- rooms must be at least 3.5 meters high and under special circum- stances 4 meters high. The temperature of workrooms must be uniform, between 12 and 18° C. In America the legal standards for ventilation in most states are general and indefinite. " Factories must be ventilated," or " Work- places must be ventilated so as not to be injurious to health," are usually the only allusions to this subject in the labor laws. Six states only require a definite amount of air-space per employe, varying from 250 cubic feet in Pennsylvania to 500 cubic feet in Illinois. Indiana and New Jersey require 250 cubic feet of air-space per employe from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., and 400 cubic feet of air-space from 6 P.M. to 6 a.m. Illinois requires fresh air to be supplied in such a manner as not to cause injurious drops of temperature. The air-supply must not be taken from the cellar or basement. Where the lights do not consume oxygen, 250 cubic feet are considered sufficient. Rooms with 200 cubic feet per employe and outside window and door area one-eighth of floor space, do not require artificial ventilation, but must be properly aired before beginning work and at noon hour. Rooms with 500 to 2000 cubic feet of air-space per employe with outside windows and doors one-eighth of floor space, must have arti- ficial ventilation when weather requires windows closed, supplying 1500 cubic feet of fresh air to each employe. Rooms with less than 500 cubic feet per employe rooms without outside windows FACTOEY LEGISLATION 507 or doors, rooms with less than 2000 cubic feet per employe and outside windows and door area less than one-eighth of floor space, must have artificial ventilation supplying 1800 cubic feet of fresh air per employe each working hour. The general orders on sanitation of the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin contain the following general standards for ventilation of workrooms : Rooms with Less than 900 Cubic Feet of Air-space Ventilation. All rooms in places of employment where there is less than 900 and more than 300 cubic feet of air-space per person, and in which there is no smoke, gas, fumes, dust, vapors, or fires consuming oxygen, must be provided with a ventilating system which will furnish 1800 cubic feet of fresh air per hour to each person. In all rooms specified above where there are lights or fires which consume oxygen, an additional amount of air must be supplied to make up the loss of oxygen. Rooms with 900 Cubic Feet of Air-space Ventilation. All rooms in places of employment where there is 900 cubic feet of air-space per employe, and in which there is no smoke, gas, fumes, dust, vapors, or fires which consume oxygen, must be provided with a ventilating system which will change the air in the room not less than twice each hour. Such system must be so designed as not to produce injurious drafts or reduce the temperature materially below the average temperature maintained. (a) Standard Secured by Window Ventilation. The above stand- ard of ventilation can be secured in rooms in which there is sufficient window-space if the windows are opened at top and bottom, and a board is placed at the bottom to prevent drafts. This holds true in winter as well as in summer. (b) Temperature for Health. It has been found that in rooms where the employes are engaged in active work, a temperature of 60 to 65 degrees is the best standard to maintain. In this tem- perature the men are invigorated and are less liable to catch cold when they go out of doors. In rooms where the employes are engaged in sedentary occupations, it has been found that a maximum temperature of 68 degrees is advisable. Minimum Cubic Feet of Air-space. In all places of employment not less than 300 cubic feet of air-space must be provided for each person. 508 THE MODEEN FACTORY SANITARY CARE AND COMFORTS It is more feasible to make definite provisions as to standards for installations for the sanitary care and comforts of the workers in industrial establishments. Hence, factory legislation on this subject has been more extensive, although not always satisfactory. Factory laws make either general or definite provisions as to the provision for drinking-water, washing-facilities, cleanliness in shops, lunch-rooms, bathing, rest-rooms, etc. A resume of the standards of the various countries and states is given below. Cleanliness. The English law, in addition to a general provision requiring cleanliness and freedom from effluvia from drains in factories, calls for whitewashing of walls and ceilings of workrooms, halls and stairways once every 14 months, or a painting with oil and varnish once every seven years. In the latter case, they must be washed with hot water and soap every fourteen months. France requires factory floors to be cleaned at least once a day outside of working hours and scoured at least once a year. Walls and ceilings must be kept clean and painted or plastered whenever necessary. Organic matter must be removed immediately from the workrooms unless kept in hermetically sealed receptacles. Belgium has only general provisions for cleanliness in factories, but requires all organic waste to be removed daily. Most American states have only the most indefinite legal pro- visions for general cleanliness, such as "must be kept clean," "clean as nature of. business permits," etc. Indiana and New York require factories to be hmewashed when conducive to health or cleanhness. Illinois requires removal of rubbish and waste at least once a day, and all cleaning, as far as possible, to be done outside of working hours. The general orders issued by the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin in regard to cleanliness are as follows : " In all places of employment the floors and walls of the rooms, and the machines, benches, vessels, and other things in the room, must be kept as clean and sanitary as the nature of the industry will permit. Where wet processes are used, the floors must be so drained that there is no measurable depth of water in which the operators must stand while working. Where practicable, dry FACTORY LEGISLATION 509 standing-room must be provided for employes. All waste, sweep- ings and decomposed matter must be removed from the workrooms each day, and their removal must be made in such a way as to avoid the raising of unnecessary dust or noxious odors. When possible, the sweeping and the removal of waste should be done outside of working hours. Cus'pidors. The doctors who have had the widest experience in the treatment of consumption (tuberculosis) state that spitting on the floor spreads this dread disease more than any other one cause. The commission wishes strongly to urge every employer to provide cuspidors for his employes. These cuspidors should be made of paper, which can be burnt, or of some impervious material which can be easily cleaned and kept in a sanitary condition. The cus- pidors should be filled with a solution of borax, boracic acid or some other odorless disinfectant solution which will prevent the germs in the sputum from becoming dry and floating in the air." Washing-facilities and Dressing-rooms. French and Belgian codes require employers to provide dressing-rooms with wash-basins for their employes. Germany requires one wash-place with running water for every five persons, and separate dressing-rooms for each sex must be provided in industries where workers need to change their clothing. Arrangements must also be made to dry wet clothes. Only seven American states make any provisions for washing- or dressing-rooms. Five states require separate wash- and dressing- rooms for the sexes. Illinois requires one wash-basin for every thirty employes and separate wash-rooms" for workers in specially dusty or dirty trades, provided with hot and cold water. New York State requires separate wash-rooms provided with running water in every factory, and separate dressing-rooms in factories where more than ten women are employed. Wisconsin prohibits the use of the common towel. Drinking-water. Switzerland and France require the employer to provide good drinking-water for his employes. Where good drinking-water is lacking, the Belgian law requires the employer to provide a hygienic infusion. German factories must have pure drink- ing-water on every floor. No drinking-water faucets are allowed in toilet-rooms, and where water is objectionable it must be filtered. Massachusetts and Rhode Island require fresh and pure drinking- water to be provided during working hours. New York requires a sufficient supply of clean and pure drinking-water to be provided at all times for the use of employes. It must be supplied through 510 THE MODERN FACTORY proper pipe connections with water mains used for domestic purposes or from spring, well, or body of pure water. If the water is placed in receptacles in the factory, these must be properly covered to prevent contamination and be thoroughly cleaned at frequent intervals. The Wisconsin Industrial Commission requires each place of employment to be supplied with sufficient pure drinking-water, and the faucets or outlets for same to be placed convenient to the employes. Common drinking-cups are prohibited. Individual cups must be used or sanitary drinking-fountains must be installed. Toilets. All European countries require separate toilet-rooms for the sexes. Switzerland, England and Belgium require one toilet for every twenty-five persons. England, however, modifies this requirement for large establishments, requiring one toilet for every twenty-five males up to one hundred, and one for every forty over that number. Where the number of males exceieds 500, one sanitary convenience for every sixty males is deemed sufficient, in addition to proper urinal accommodation. France requires one toilet for each fifty persons. Germany requires one for every twenty males and for every fifteen females. The German Code requires all toilets to be located within a rea- sonable distance from the workers, but never in direct connection with the workrooms. The toilet-rooms must be arranged so as to be easily cleaned. The wall surfaces must be smooth and covered with a washable material up to 1.5 meters in height. Floors must be of non-absorbent material. Each toilet must be properly hghted and ventilated and heated during winter. Each toilet seat must be separated from the others by sound-proof partitions at least 2 nieters in height and provided with doors. Each toilet compartment must have not less than 75 cubic meters capacity. Most states in America require separate toilets and wash-rooms in factories where men and women are employed. The usual stipulation is for a " sufficient number." In Tennessee, separate water-closets for the sexes are not required unless there are fifteen or more employes. Six states require a definite number of toilets in proportion to the number of employes. Illinois requires one for every thirty males and twenty-five females; Michigan, Indiana and New York require one for every twenty-five persons; Wiscondn requires a separate toilet for each twenty persons or fraction. The orders of the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin in regard to toilet-rooms are the most detailed of any state, and as they are FACTOEY LEGISLATION 511 being used as a model for similar orders in other states, they are given in detail as follows: " Toilet-rooms Required. Every place of employment must be equipped with adequate toilet-rooms which must be distinct and separate from the other parts of the building and must be so con- structed as to insure privacy. "Where the two sexes are employed, separate toilet-rooms must be maintained. Toilet-rooms for the two sexes, when adjoining, must be separated by a partition made of material which is sound- proof and which cannot be easily cut or defaced. "Sex Designated. Each toilet-room mugt be distinctly marked with regard to the sex which uses it, and no person shall be allowed to use the toilet-room assigned to the opposite sex. "Indecent Pictures. Indecent or suggestive marks, pictures, or words are forbidden in toilet-rooms, and such defacement when found by the employer must be at once removed. "Cleanliness. Every toilet-room, and every part thereof, includ- ing walls, floors, and ceiling, and all fixtures therein, must be kept in a clean condition. In each toilet-room sufficient toilet-paper must be provided, and it must be made of material which will not obstruct the fixtures in each toilet-room. "Construction of Toilet-rooms. In each toilet-room hereafter installed the floor must be constructed of material other than wood which does not readily absorb moisture and which can be easily cleaned. "In toilet-rooms at present installed the walls must not be covered with paper. If the walls and ceilings are constructed of wood, they must be covered with a non-absorbent paint. "In each toilet-room hereafter installed the walls and ceiUng must be made of smooth cement, plaster, porcelain, glazed brick, metal tiling, or other smooth, non-absorbent material. "Location, Light, Ventilation. Each toilet-room hereafter installed in a place of employment must be so located as to open to outside light and air. The minimum amount of window-space for a toilet containing one fixture must be 4 square feet, and for each additional fixture an addition of 2 square feet of window-space must be made. These windows must be so constructed that they can be opened to give adequate ventilation to the room. "Each toilet-room hereafter installed must have not less than 10 square feet of floor space, and not less than 100 cubic feet of air- space for each fixture installed. "In each toilet-room heretofore installed, and which is so located that it is impossible to secure light and air directly from the outside, a flue or mechanical ventilating system must be installed which will provide adequate ventilation. "Each toilet-room which is not open to adequate outside light must be artificially lighted during the hours of employment, so that all parts of the room are easily visible. 512 THE MODEEN FACTORY "Each toilet-room must be furnished with adequate' artificial light during the working hours when natural light is not available. "Within five years after the date upon which these orders become effective, all toilet-rooms at present installed which are not open to outside fight and air must be moved and so located that they are open to outside light and air. "Water-closets Hereafter Installed. In each toilet-room fiereafter constructed, individual water-closets made of porcelain or vitreous chinaware must be installed. These closets must be equipped with properly vented traps located above the floor, and with an adequate flushing device which uses not less than three gallons of water for each flush. "Each water-closet must be set upon a solid base, and its con- nection to the soil-pipe or fitting must be constructed in such a manner as to be gas- and water-tight. "Water-closets at Present Installed. Each water-closet at present installed must be provided with a flushiug appfiance, which will be as effective in its operation as the type of closet requires. "Each water-closet must be kept in good repair, and obstructions must be removed at once. "Sewer Systems. Each water-closet, urinal, lavatory, or slop-sink located in a toilet-room must be connected with a sewer system;, where a sewer system is available. "There must be a proper connection between the pumping system and the sewer, and such connection must be kept in good repair. "Seats for Water-closets. The seat of each water-closet hereafter installed must be made of wood or other non-heat-absorbing material, and finished with varnish or other substance which will make it impervious to water. Under no circumstances will, seats made of enameled ironware, porcelain, or similar heat-absorbing substance be allowed. "Number of Water-closets and Urinals Required. Water-closets must be provided in places of employment in the following propor- tion: When the nxmiber employed is more than 20 of either sex, there shall be provided an additional closet for each sex, up to the number of 40, and above that number in the same ratio. "Where males are employed, urinals must be provided in the proportion of 1 to every 40 employed. Where trough urinals are used, each 2 feet of trough shall constitute one urinal. "Urinals, Construction. Each urinal must be made of impervious material and must be properly flushed and kept in clean condition. If iron is used in the construction of urinals, it must be enameled on the inside of the trough or bowl. "Partitions for Water-closets and Urinals. Each water-closet or seat of range closet must be separated by a partition not less than 5 feet in height. Each individual urinal or urinal trough must be provided with a partition at each end and at the back, to give privacy. Where individual urinals are arranged in batteries, a partition must be placed at each end and at the back of the battery. FACTORY LEGISLATION 513 "In new installations the partitions between water-closets and urinals must be made of material other than wood, which does not readily absorb moisture. "Traps for Toilet-room Fixtures. Each water-closet, urinal, lavatory, or slop-sink hereafter installed in a place of employment must have a trap. This trap must be equipped with a vent so constructed that adequate circulation of air will be secured in the waste-pipp; and so constructed that no siphonage will be possible, and the vent will not serve as a waste-pipe in case of obstruction. "In installations where individual lavatory bowls are arranged in a battery, one trap may be used for six bowls. "Each lavatory and slop-sink at present installed must be equipped with a trap properly vented. A mechanical trap may be installed where it is impractical to install a vented trap. "On old installations each water-closet and urinal must be equipped with a trap, and where there are two or more water-closets or urinals on one sewer connection, the trap must be properly vented." Lunch-rooms. Workers in French factories are forbidden to eat lunch in the workrooms, although permission to do so may be granted in case of need by the division inspector, under the condi- tion that no toxic materials are employed, that no disagreeable or poisonous gas or dust is given off, and that other hygienic condi- tions are satisfactory. The Belgian Code forbids workers to eat lunch in work-places where poisonous substances are used. In all factories in Germany well-lighted lunch-rooms, separate for each sex, and heated during winter, and containing the necessary number of tables and chairs must be provided for workers who do not leave the factory during the midday pause. In America, three states — Illinois, New York and Missouri — forbid employes to eat food in any room where white-lead, arsenic, poisonous substances, injurious fumes, dust or gases are present. A notice to this effect must be posted in such rooms, and the employes are not allowed to remain in these rooms during meal hours. The employer must make suitable provision whenever practicable for meals elsewhere in the establishment. Medical Appliances. Two states in the Union, namely Massa- chusetts and California, require every factory where machinery is used to install a medical or surgical chest, maintained free of cost, for the use of employes. In Massachusetts the requirements for articles in the chest are made by the local boards of health. Cali- fornia requires a specified hst ofs medicines and appliances costing not less than six dollars. CHAPTER XII FACTORY INSPECTION The Beginning of Factory Inspection in Europe and in the United States. The extent of legal protection given to workers is determined not by the number of factory laws upon the statute books, but by the number of such laws as are properly administered and by the extent to which their provisions are actually enforced. The promulgation of laws protecting workers against risks and dangers within the factory has always preceded by considerable periods the creation of administrative institutions for their enforce- ment. In Europe, as well as in the United States, factory inspec- tion was practically thrust upon the governments and states because of the accumulated evidence that legislative enactments were futile without provisions for their administration and enforce- ment. The first factory inspection department was organized in England in 1833. In the parliamentary debates preceding the enactment of the Law of 1833, it was conceded by all that the provisions of the Acts of 1802, 1819, 1825, and 1831 were never properly enforced and that those acts failed to give needed protection to factory workers. From the time of the enactment of the first factory law in 1802, the manufacturing interests bitterly opposed all endeavors to create special machinery for the enforcement of labor laws which they knew would remain ineffectual, so long as there was no special department for their enforcement. The importance of the Act of 1833, which created the first fac- tory inspection department, lay therefore in the recognition of the necessity of a special administrative body for the enforcement of labor laws. The history of factory inspection in England since that date shows the steady progress of this great social institution which was later adopted, copied and followed by other countries and states. In 1834, the Factory Inspection Department of England began with four inspectors having jurisdiction over 2094 factories. From this small begirming it has grown and developed until it has a per- 514 FACTORY INSPECTION 515 sonnel of 224 inspectors having jurisdiction over no less than 117,275 factories and 155,697 workshops (1913), a total of 272,972 indus- trial establishments. In France, the Labor Inspection Department was not established until 1874, although there had been considerable factory legislation, beginning with the ordinance of 1806 and followed by numerous acts since that date. Between 1874 and 1892, the inspectorial service of France was not compulsory for all the departments. Only in 1892 was it established on a firm basis and reorganized in its present form. In Prussia and in the German states, administrative depart- ments for the enforcement of labor laws were not established until 1878, although factory legislation began with the Regulativ of 1839 and was followed by the Laws of 1845 and 1853 and by the promulgation of the " Industrial Code " of the North German Union in 1869. As in France, the first inspection department created in 1878 was experimental and not compulsory for all states; and only in 1891 was the whole service reorganized. Since that time the progress of the department has been steady. In Austria, as in the other countries, there were attempts at factory legislation from the beginning of the nineteenth century, and in 1859 a complete industrial code was promulgated; but not until 1883 was industrial inspection organized and estabUshed. The same conditions prevailed in other countries. Laws were enacted and put on the statute books, but were not enforced because administrative provisions were lacking. Only when their failure to protect the workers had been demonstrated was an endeavor made to estabhsh a system of factory inspection. The following is a chronological table of the beginning of factory inspection in the various European countries: Great Britain, 1833; Denmark, 1873; France, 1874; Switzeriand (Federal), 1877; Germany, 1878; Russia, 1882; Austria, 1883; Belgium, 1889; Netheriands, 1889; Sweden, 1889; Portugal, 1893; Hungary, 1893; Italy, 1906; Spain, 1907.* Factory Inspection in the United States. As was the case in European countries, factory inspection in the United States lagged behind factory legislation and years elapsed before it dawned upon legislators that not only factory laws but provisions for their administration and enforcement were needed. * The data on European factory inspection ig taken from the report which I made to the U. S. Dept. of Labor, and which has been published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1914 as Bulletin No. 142. 516 THE MODERN FACTORY The first attempt at factory inspection was made in Massa- chusetts in 1886. Prior to that year, since 1842, the local school authorities and truant officers were the enforcing agents of the several laws which were passed, beginning with the Child Labor Law of 1836. In 1866 a single deputy was detailed by the police department to enforce the Child Labor and Compulsory Education Laws, and only in 1877 was the right of entry into factories granted . to this inspector. By the Act of 1879, the governor was empowered to appoint two or more members of the district police to act as inspectors of factories and public buildings. Immediately upon the passage of this act the governor appointed Rufus R. Wade, John T. White and Joseph M. Dyson. The duties of these inspec- tors were (1) the enforcement of laws regulating the hours of labor in manufacturing establishments, (2) laws relating to employment of children, and (3) inspection of factories and public buildings. In the first report of the chief of the district police, who was also one of the inspectors appointed by the governor, the question of fire hazards in factories was considered at some length. This section of the report might have been taken from a report of any one of the recent legislative commissions investigating industrial conditions, risks and hazards. " In the matter of providing for speedy and safe egress in case of fire or panic, a large number of manufacturing establishments were found deficient. The horrors of Holyoke and Granite Mill at Fall River and other disasters that have occurred by reason of neglect to provide safe means of egress in case of fire or panic should not, through negligence or thoughtlessness of manufacturers or owners of public buildings, be repeated." * This first report also states that the laws providing for educa- tion of working children were not enforced and that many chil- dren were employed bglow the legal age. In one mill the inspectors found thirty boys and girls working, the youngest being only nine years old. The two inspectors found their task a heavy one, as can readily be imagined, since they were supposed to inspect not only all the manufacturing estabUshments, but also all pubUc buildings, such as schools, churches, hotels, boarding and lodging houses, etc. The quote from the report again: " The task of inspection of factories is of sufiicient magnitude and importance to justify making it a distinct branch of the service." * Report of Rufus R. Wade, Chief of District Police for 1879, p. 8. FACTOEY INSPECTION 5I7 The report also asked that two assistants be appointed. The following year, 1880, the governor's message recommended that factory inspection be made a separate department; but not until 1888 was this estabhshed. In discussing the work of these early inspectors. Miss Whittlesey, in her book on Massachusetts Labor Legislation, says: "It is curious to note the attitude of employers towards these labor laws. Invariably offering persistent opposition to the enactment of each new measure, they nevertheless fall one after another into line and obedience. The inspectors constantly attest their cheerful spirit of comphance and their general courteous treatment." * In 1891 two women inspectors were added. In 1893 a separ- ate boiler inspection division with ten inspectors was created. In 1907, a reorganization of factory inspection was made, by which a number of state health inspectors were appointed, who were given discretion to look after the health conditions in their districts, and who took over a considerable part of the functions of factory inspectors. The chief work of the health inspectors consisted in collecting data relating to industrial hygiene or occupational dis- eases. The division of functions of factory inspection between the district police and the State Board of Health created much dissatisfaction, and in 1910, a commission was appointed to investi- gate the matter and report upon conditions. The commission found that " neither the inspection department of the district police, nor that of the State Board of Health had a force of men in the field exclusively engaged in the inspection of factories, workshops and mercantile establishments specially qualified and selected for their work. In short, the Commonwealth had no specialized industrial inspectors at the time, and the commission therefore recommended the establishment of a separate department of industrial inspection." f In 1913, the inspection department of Massachusetts was reor- ganized, an Industrial Board established and a larger force of inspec- tors engaged. In New York, there existed a number of legislative enactments for the protection of women and children in manufacturing estab- lishments; but only in 1886 was an act passed to provide for the appointment of inspectors to enforce the same. The act called for the appointment by the governor of a factory inspector at a salary of $2000 per year and an assistant at a salary of $1500 per year, * S. S. Whittlesey: Massachusetts Labor Legislation, p. 28. t Report of the Commission of Massachusetts to Investigate Inspection of Factories, Workshops and Mercantile Establishments and Other Buildings, June, 1911, p. 16. 518 THE MODEEN FACTOEY the inspectors to hold office for three years. James Connelly was appointed as inspector and John T. Franey as assistant. In their first report issued in 1887, the inspectors gave a record of three months' work. They complained of the ignorance of the children working in the mills an'd factories and stated that compul- sory education was a dead letter. The inspectors seem to have worked hard and to have been anxious to fulfill their duties as best they could. They visited 857 factories in twenty-one counties in four months, and as a result of this first inspection they made a number of recommendations to the legislature, which read very much as though they were written just lately. Among the recommen- dations were a compulsory education law, prohibition of children under fourteen years from working in manufacturing establishments, screening of staircases, prohibition of cleaning machinery while in motion by women and minors under eighteen years, a ten-hour workday for women and minors under eighteen years, a three- quarter hour midday pause, proper construction of elevators and hoistways, provision for proper fire-escapes and stairways, physi- cian's certificate for children under sixteen years, increase of air space for employes, screening and separation of water-closets, con- struction of all doors to open outward, and other provisions which even at present have not yet been all put on the statute books. The growth of the factory inspection department in New York State was at first very slow. In 1887, eight male inspectors were added to the two previously appointed. In 1901, the Bureaus of Statistics, Inspection, Mediation and Arbitration were combined under one head and a labor department was formed. Since the creation of this Department its progress has been rapid and very great, until at present it has the largest mmiber of inspectors of any state and has an annual budget of nearly $700,000. Between 1870 and. 1890 Illinois reached the rank of third state in the Union in the value of its annual manufactured product. But because this growth had been sudden, the state up to that time had done nothing to ameliorate the conditions of the workers by legislation, such as had been passed in the other manufacturing states. The Illinois Child Labor Act of June 17, 1891 carried with it no provisions for enforcement. By the Act of June 17, 1893, the Department of Factories and Workshops was estabUshed with one chief and an assistant chief, five male and five female inspectors. An appropriation of 120,000 for two years was made for salaries and $8000 for traveling and other expenses. The report of the FACTORY INSPECTION 519 factory inspectors at the close of the first year showed that 2363 places were inspected in which 76,224 persons were employed. Of these, 6456 or 8.5 per cent were children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen.* In Pennsylvania, the enforcement of the labor laws, some of which were enacted as early as 1827, was left to tax assessors; and it was not until 1889 that any real provision was made for inspection of factories. The first inspection department consisted of one chief and six district inspectors. In 1901, there were already forty-one inspec- tors. In 1913, Pennsylvania factory inspection was considerably reformed, reorganized and an Industrial Board appointed. . In 1883, a law was passed in Wisconsin requiring the appoint- ment of a commissioner who was to constitute a bureau of labor statistics. This commissioner was to collect statistics in regard to wholesale and retail prices, the cost of agricultural products, wages of skilled and unskilled laborers of the state, hours of labor, number of workers in the different industries, etc. In addition to collecting these statistics, he was required to visit all the factories in the state and see that the laws were enforced. The commis- sioner was to receive $1500 a year, and no provision was made for an assistant or clerk. He was only allowed $500 for traveling expenses; and in his first report the commissioner stated that he had found it an impossibility to properly perform the work of inspection of factories with the small sum of money and with the limited time he had left from his other duties. In 1887, in response to repeated requests of the commissioner for assistants, two inspec- tors were appointed and penalties were attached to the laws which made it possible to enforce them. In addition to factories, these inspectors were required to visit hotels, lodging houses, churches and schools for the purposes of seeing that these buildings were safe from fire hazards, f The first factory inspector in Maine was appointed in 1887, and in 1907 one female assistant was added. In Ohio, the first inspectors were appointed in 1884 and in 1904 there were thirteen inspectors. In New Jersey, factory inspection began in 1883, and in 1889 six inspectors were appointed. In 1904 a separate department of factory inspection with eleven inspectors was estabUshed. * Bulletin, State of Illinois, Department of Factory Inspection, JVol. I, No. 2, Chicago, t Eeports of the Bureau of Labor Statistics of Wisconsin, 1883 and 1887 520 THE MODERN FACTORY In Rhode Island, factory inspection began in 1894 with two inspectors, one of whom was a woman. In Indiana, factory inspection began in 1887 with one chief and five inspectors. In Tennessee, factory inspection started in 1895, in Delaware, in 1897 (with one female inspector) and in Missouri in 1901. In 1887, the first convention of factory inspectors was held in Boston. At this date, five states had factory inspection depart- ments, Massachusetts being the first. The others were New Jersey, Ohio, New York and Wisconsin. Scope and Work of Factory Inspection. There is great diversity in the number, scope and extent of the laws to be enforced by factory inspection departments as well as in the kind and cliarg,c- ter of the industrial establishments which are under their juris- diction. In some states the scope of the laws to be enforced by the inspec- tion departments is very wide and includes child and woman's work, hours of labor, factory construction, fire protection, pre- vention of accidents, workmen's compensation, wage payment, arbitration and mediation, etc. In other states the labor laws to be enforced by the factory inspection departments chiefly consist in the protection of child and women workers and the maintaining of certain working conditions within the factory. In some states the number of industrial establishments under the jurisdiction of the inspection departments is limited by legal definitions of factory or workshop which confine the application of the law either to establishments employing a certain number of persons or to establishments of a certain character. In other states every place where work is being done is considered a work- shop and is under the jurisdiction of the factory inspection depart- ment. There is also much diversity in the number and character of the administrative bodies or institutions which are empowered to administer the labor laws and to enforce factory acts. In some countries, notably in France and Belgium, the whole work is cen- tered in the labor inspection departments, and the only assistance from outside bodies that these departments receive is from the regular prosecuting and judicial functionaries. In other countries, for instance in England, the local authorities are a coexisting administrative institution, having jurisdiction over the enforcement of all sanitary provisions in workshops. This FACTORY INSPECTION 521 division of authority between the factory inspection department and the local government is the result of certain historical develop- ments of administrative institutions in England. In Germany, there are three great bodies in charge of the admin- istration of factory laws: first, the industrial inspectors who inspect factories and workshops in relation to sanitation, safety and gen- eral industrial conditions; second, the inspectors of the trade asso- ciations who are charged with prevention of accidents; and third, the police authorities who do a great deal of inspection and rein- spection work, gathering statistical data and having sole jurisdic- tion over actual enforcement by judicial and administrative pro- cedures. In Austria, there is considerable division of labor between the industrial inspectors and the local industrial authorities who have charge of the prosecution and the general administration of the laws. In Switzerland, there is division of jurisdiction between the Federal factory inspectors and the cantonal inspectors, and the enforcement of the law is entirely in the hands of the local police and cantonal authorities. Diversity of jurisdiction in the enforcement of labor laws is some- times advantageous, because it gives much less work to the labor or factory inspection department and makes it possible for more industrial establishments to be inspected. On the other hand, it carries disadvantages in the division of authority between the en- forcing institutions, in the lack of uniformity in standards of inspec- tion,, and in the inevitable friction resulting therefrom. In the United States, labor laws are also enforced by different departments, boards and groups of officials. In New York, labor laws are enforced by the Department of Labor, by the Public Service Commission, by the State Fire Marshal, by the Workmen's Com- pensation Commission, by the local building construction officials, by local Boards of Health, etc. In the State of New Jersey the Department of Labor, the Bureau of Statistics of Labor and Indus- tries, the Board of Health, the Boards of PubUc Utilities, the local school authorities, etc., each have various duties in respect to the enforcement of labor legislation. In Massachusetts, the provisions of the labor laws are enforced by the Board of Labor and Indus^ tries, the Bureau of Statistics, the Board of District Police, the Board of Railroad Commissioners, the Industrial Accident Board, ■ the Board of Conciliation and Arbitration, the Minimum Wage 522 THE MODERN FACTORY Commission, the local building inspector, the local Boards of Health, the local school authorities, etc., etc. Similar conditions prevail in other states where the enforcement of labor laws is shared by various departments.* There is also great diversity in the designation of the institu- tions which are in charge of factory inspection. This is less so in Europe than in the United States. In eight American states factory inspection is under the jurisdiction of the the so-called " Bureaus of Labor Statistics." The next most frequent titles are " Department of Labor," which occms four times; " Department of Labor and Industry," which occurs three times; " Bureau of Labor," which occurs three times; " Bureau of Labor and Indus- trial Statistics," which occurs in two states; and " Factory Inspec- tion Department," " Department of Factory Inspection " and Bureau of Emigration, Labor and Statistics." " Industrial Com- mission " also occm-s twice, and then follow twenty-two titles, no two of which are aUke, making a total of thirty-one titles for oflBicers doing practically the same kind of work.f In most countries in Europe there are several methods by which special administrative provisions having the force of law may be issued for the guidance of factory inspectors. In England, the Secretary of State is empowered to make rules and regulations for certain industries after special investigation. Appeal may be taken against the decisions, but the principle is well established and the Secretary of State thus has considerable legis- lative power. In other European countries, the Ministers of Industry, Labor or Commerce who have jurisdiction over the factory inspection department, have considerable legislative and administrative power and have power to issue rules and orders interpreting and extending the industrial code. In the United States, until lately, the factory inspection depart- ments were simply the executive agencies of the state and had no power to make administrative rules and regulations or to add to the provisions of the industrial code. Only lately, in Wisconsin, and then in New York, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania were indus- trial commissions and boards created with power to issue rules and regulations and to adopt an industrial code without waiting for acts of legislatures. * Administration of Labor Laws, Vol. Ill, No. 4, Publication 23 of the American Labor Legislative Review, Published by American Association for Labor Legislation. ' t Ibid. FACTORY INSPECTION 523 Almost all factory legislation provides penalties for violations of laws. These penalties are usually small, although at times they may reach hundreds of dollars. The department reports state the amount of fines which were recovered through the action of their inspectors; these fines sometimes reach very respectable sums. In most of the states or countries the prosecution of offenders against the factory laws is carried on either by the state or local prosecuting officers or by special prosecutors, attorneys, corpor- ation counsels, etc., who are assigned to the factory inspection department. In England the factory inspectors themselves act as prosecuting officers. On the other hand, Germany is an example of an entirely opposite attitude toward the functions of factory inspectors. There, industrial inspectors have nothing whatever to do with enforcing the law or prosecuting offenders. They are simply technical experts, who give their advice and opinion as to conditions in fac- tories and industrial establishments. Violations, wherever found, are referred to police authorities; and all work of prosecution and subsequent enforcement and penalization is in their hands. It is interesting to note the opinion of German legislators as to this special character of their industrial inspectors. The following quotation is from a speech made in 1887, during the discussion, of the relations of factory inspectors to police authorities, by Minister Von Boetticher. He says, " The factory inspector is not intended to become a police executive. The factory inspector is an official who, because of his technical knowledge is, on the one hand an adviser to the authori- ties in the establishment of various regulations for the safety of industrial estabhshments; and, on the other hand, is an adviser of the industry and of the workers in the sphere which is given to him. The real -police tasks of factory inspection should not be within the sphere of the activities of the inspectors. For this the factory inspector is much too high. This function may be left to the gendarmes." In the United States, factory inspectors are usually called as witnesses in court cases; but the prosecution is in the hands of attorneys who are specially designated for this purpose and attached to the factory inspection department, or are regular prosecuting attorneys of the county or the municipality in which the offense occurs. 524 THE MODERN FAOTOEY The duties of factory inspectors differ according to the scope of factory legislation in each state or country; but in most countries they consist in enforcing the provisions of the labor and factory acts, inspecting the various industrial estabUshments under their jurisdiction, detecting violations of the law, advising employers of such improvements in their estabhshments as would tend to pre- vent industrial accidents and occupational diseases, and in efforts to improve conditions of work in the factories. The inspectors are endowed with certain powers, the most important of which is the right of entry. Next to this is the right to take evidence, to require the production of documents and to enforce compliance with the requirements of the law. There is hardly any inspection department or administrative body for the enforcement of factory laws in which there is no pro- vision made for the right of entry of the inspectors at all times to all industrial estabhshments under their jurisdiction. Indeed, inspection would be a farce if such right of entry were not granted. There is some divergence, however, in the provisions as to right of entry during the night time or when no work is being performed. In some countries, inspectors have no such right during the night or at times when the industrial establishment is not in activity. The right of entry is usually granted to all the officers of factory inspec- tion departments. Inspectors show their authority by special " cards of legitimacy " which, in some European countries bear the photograph of the inspector. In the United States, inspectors usually wear official badges. In Germany, the right of entry gives the inspectors all the powers of the local police authorities and in particular the right to visit work places at any hour of the day or night. The right of entry is extended in Austria to workmen's dwellings, which are under the labor law; in Belgium to premises where wages are paid, and in England to schools where children employed in workshops and factories are educated. In Italy and Russia, the inspectors have the right of entry to bedrooms, messrooms, creches and all places appertaining to the factory. In' France and Luxemburg, all such schools are subject to inspection even if the education given is of an industrial nature or if they are charitable institutions. On the other hand, in Holland, schools and institutions of this kind belong- ing to the state are not subject to inspection. In the United States, the right of entry is given to all inspectors in all states. The right of taking evidence and compelling the giving FACTORY INSPECTION 525 of information by employers and workers is granted in most states where factory inspection departments have been estabUshed for some time, as it has been shown that this right is of great importance to the proper enforcement of factory laws. Organization. All European countries have a system of factory or industrial inspection. In the United States, of the forty-eight states in the Union, only thirty-nine have provisions for factory inspection. The six states which have no such provisions are Ari- zona, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico, South Dakota and Wyoming. Idaho and North Dakota have no factory inspection, but only Bureaus of Statistics. In North Carohna, there is no enforcement of laws over factories but only over mines. In seven of the thirty-nine states, viz., Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Massa- chusetts, Missouri, New Jersey and Rhode Island, there are separ- ate Bureaus of Factory Inspection and Collection and Publication of Labor Statistics.* ■; The centrahzed form of organization predominates among all factory inspection departments and is typified by the oldest factory inspection department, that of England. Factory inspection in England is a separate department of the Home Office, presided over by a chief inspector who is responsible for all the work of the depart- ment and who has full authority over the department; and the whole machinery of the organization is then divided and subdivided, classified and graded so as to form one compact, highly centralized and highly specialized body. The Industrial Inspection Department of Austria has an organ- ization somewhat similar to that of England, but is not so highly centralized and gives more authority and independence to the inspec- tors and to the industrial authorities under whom the inspectors serve. The same form of organization is also found in Belgium, except that there the organization is still less cohesive and the district inspectors have much independent authority. All inspection bureaus and departments of the United States have a strictly centralized organization. They are all presided over by a chief inspector or commissioner, who is responsible for the whole department or bureau, and who usually has full authority to organize his department according to the law and in most cases has great powers in the appointment of inspectors. The chief * Administration of Labor Laws, American Labor Legislation Review, Vol. Ill, Publica- tion 23. 526 THE MODERN FACTORY inspector has also full authority to assign inspectors to various functions. The Prussian Industrial Inspection Ser\'ice presents an antithesis to the centraUzed government of England and the United States. In Prussia, the department has no chief inspector, the organization of enforcement being left entireh' to the different states and dis- trict governments. Each district is presided over by a special indus- trial councilor, between whom and the district inspectors there are no very close relations, each inspector of a district having supreme authority over his district and his work. Between this extreme decentraUzed form of organization and the highly centralized organ- ization of England, there are a number of gradations, such as those presented by the inspection departments in some of the lesser Ger- manic states. A unique form of organization is that adopted in the State of Wisconsin where the Industrial Commission was created in 1911. This Commission consists of three members who have sole juris- diction over factorj' inspection, labor law enforcement, gathering of publications and statistics, workmen's compensation, employ- ment offices, accident prevention and everything which " makes the work place safe," safety being defined by the law as " such freedom from danger to life, health or safety as the nature of the employment wiU reasonably permit." This Commission has, besides executive powers, considerable legislative and administra- tive functions and has been enabled by the legislature to issue spe- cial rules and regulations, set standards and issue an industrial code which is binding on all concerned. Owing to the high character and ability of the first appointed commissioners, the Wisconsin idea has worked very well indeed, and its extension and acceptance by other states has been mrged by a great many social workers and those interested in industrial matters. "\^Tiether the Wisconsin form of organization would have been as successful vnth a personnel of commissioners of the type usually appointed in other states, is doubtful. At any rate, the Wisconsin precedent has not been followed in New York, Massa- chusetts, Pennsylvania, Cahfornia and Ohio, where industrial boards have been appointed with considerable legislative but without any executive power, this being left, as before, with the Labor Com- missioner. In the organization of all inspection departments, the personnel consists mainly of the inspectors, upon whom devolves the chief FACTORY lNSriO(;TI()N * 627 function and work f)f Uic dcpurUnunt,, 1,lm.i of innpf^ction. ^'iKin; are different clasmficationH and KradinnH of inHfjcctorH and there is con- siderable diffdrcftioc in Uic df^HiKiiiitJon and grading? of the supervising force,- Hiic-li as (^hicf inspectors, d(^r>iity chief inspectors, central iriHf)(!cl,orH, (!oiriiniHHi(jncr, d('i)uty cofiiinisHioncrH, cic. The hiidKcfs for inH[)c(tlioti work in (^itch Htuic or country differ according to th(! tiumlxu' of (•rnt)lo.ycH, to the riuinher of industrial ('istal)lishincnts and to the churiicfcr and (txt(^nt of the functions of the iiiHf)e