^ Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/cletails/cu31924022537298 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DIVISION OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY. BULLETiN 1. 696 P264 B27 ENGLISH SPAEEOW (PASSER DOMESTIC US) IN NORTH AMERICA, ESPECIALLY IN ITS RELATIONS TO AGRICULTURE. Prepared under the direction of Dr. 0. HART MEERIAM, Ornithologist, WALTER B. BARROWS, ASSISTANT OENITHOLOGIST. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.. 1889,. ai 5^7 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Department of Ageioulturb, Division of Economic Ornithology and MAMMAT.oaY, Washington, D. C, April 14, 1888. Sir : The investigations in economic ornithology and mammalogy ordered by Congress to be made under your direction consist of two separate inquiries, namely : (1) concerning the food habits of birds and mammals in their relation to agriculture ; and (2) concerning the migra- tion and geographical distribution of ISTorth American species. It has been deemed best to publish the results of these investigations in separate bulletins. In accordance with this decision I transmit here- with, as Bulletin 1 of the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mam- malogy, a report upon the English Sparrow in North America, by Wal- ter B. Barrows, assistant ornithologist. EespectfuUy, 0. Hart Mbrriam, Ornitliologist. Hon. NOEMAN J. Golman, Commissioner of Agriculture^ TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Letter of Transmittal 3 Table of Contents 5 Prefatory Letter 9 Introduction U Part I. Sdmmariks of Evidence — Reco.mmkndations — Spkcial Reports. Section First: Summaries of evidence 17-149 (A) Importation ; spread; increase; eheolss 17-40 1. Introduction of the Sparrow 17 2. Method of diffusion of the Sparrow 83 3. Rate of spread of the Sparrow and extent of area occupied at the close of the year 1886 26 4. Rate of increase of the Sparrow 27 5. Checks on the increase of the Sparrow - 31 (o) Natural enemies of the Sparrow 31 (6) Relation of climate and food to the increase and spread of the Sparrow 32 (c) Direct influence of man in checking the increase of the Sparrow 35 (1) Public opinion 35 (2) Effect of legislation 36 (3) Shooting, poisoning, trapping, nest-destroying 36 (4) Use of the Sparrow for food 38 (5) How the farmers of Great Britain regard the Sparrow. 39 (B) Injury to buds, blossoms, and foliage 40-48 1. Injury by filth 40 2. Destruction of buds and blossoms 42 (C) Injury to fruits, garden seeds, and vegetables 48-68 1. Injury to fruits 49 (a) Injury to grapes 49 (6) Injury to other small fruits 56 (c) Injury to apples, pears, peaches, and other fruits 57 2. Injury to garden vegetables 60 (a) Green vegetables 61 (1) Destruction of peas 61 (2) Destruction of garden corn 62 (3) Destruction of lettuce, cabbage, and other vegetables. 63 (6) Gardenseeus 64 (1) Destruction of seed of lettuce, cabbage, and turnip .. 65 (2) Destruction of sunflower seed 65 (3) Destruction of weed seed and grass seed 66 5 6 tABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Section Pikst: Summaries of evidence— Continned. (D) Injury to grain ^^'''^ 1. Injury to wheat 2. Injury tooats 3. Injury to rye and barley 4. Injury to field corn '^ 5. Injury to sorghum '° 6. Injury to rice ''" 7. Injury to buckwheat .- '' 8. Negative evidence '''^ (E) Relation of the Sparrow to other birds 78-98 1. List of native birds molested by the Sparrow .- 8" 2. Relation of the Sparrow to birds which nest principally in cavi- ties, natural or artificial, and often In boxes prepared by man 82 (a.) Sparrow versus Bluebird and Pnrple Martin 82 (b) Negative evidence 86 (c) Sparrow cersMS Wrens 87 3. Relation of the Sparrow to birds which usually nest in trees, or at least in places not especially prepared for them by man 88 (a) Sparrow versus Cliff Swallow and Barn.Swallow 88 (6) Sparrow ijersus Robin 90 (c) Sparrow rfraits Mockingbird 91 (d) Sparrow versus Vireos 92 4. Relation of the Sparrow to other birds, uuder such conditions that the question of nesting has no direct influence 92 (a) English Sparrow versus Chipping Sparrow 93 (6) The Sparrow "mobbing" other birds 93 5. Summary of the question of Sparrow versus native birds 95 (F) Relation of the Sparrow to insects 98-132 1. General summary of evidence 98 (o) Evidence derived from study of the contents of Sparrows' stomachs 100 (6) Evidence derived from observation of the bird, without subsequent examination of the stomach 101 (1) List of insects said to be eaten by the Sparrow 102 (c) Argument from all available data 103 (d) Seasonal variation in the insect food of the Sparrow 105 (e) Relation of the Sparrow to caterpillars 107 (1) Relation to the caterpillar of the Tussock Moth 107 (2) How the Sparrows protect the caterpillars 108 (3) Relation to Span-worms 109 2. Insectivorous habits of the English Sparrow, by Prof. C. V. Riley. Ill (o) Reportof material examined in 18&7 Ill (1) Stomach contents Ill (2) Habits of the insects concerned 1 115 (3) Summary from the foregoing statements 120 (J) Survey of work done in Europe 123 (c) Review of work done in North America 125 (G) Tables of food as shown by dissection 133-146 1. Examined at the Department of Agriculture 134 2. Examined at West Chester, Pa 144 (H) Miscellaneous injuries 146-149 f ABLBl OF CONfENTg. 1 Page. SmcllON Second: Eecommendations - 150-166 (A) Recommendations for legislation 150 1. Suggestions as to the repeal of old laws and the onaotment of new ones 150 2. Bounties 153 (a) Inexpediency of bounties in general 153 (6) Estimated cost of exterminating the Sparrows in Ohio hy means of bounties ■ 154 (o) Montana's bounty law on Erairie Dogs and Ground Squir- rels 161 {d) Michigan's bounty law on English Sparrows 162 (B) Recommendations to the people 164 1. General suggestions 164 2. Use of fire-arms, traps, and poison 164 3. Destruction of nests and disturbance at roosting places '. 165 4. Sparrow, clubs and shooting matches 166 5. The Sparrow as an article of food 166 Section Third : Legislation affecting the English Spariow in the United States 167-173 Section Fodrth : Destruction of the Sparrow by poisons, by Dr. A. K. Fisher -174-178 1. The poisons used in experiments, and the formulae for their prep- aration 174 2. Cost of poisoned grain 175 3. General suggestions 175 4. Precautions 175 5. Synopsis of experiments 176 (a) Experiments with strychnine 176 (6) Experiments with tincture of nux vomica 177 (c) Experiments with corrosive sublimate 177 (d) Experiments with white arsenic 177 (e) Experiments with arseniate of soda 177 (/) Experiments with Fowler's solution 177 (g) Experiments with London purple 177 (fe) Experiments with Paris green 178 Section Fifth : The trapping of Sparrows for sporting purposes, by W. T. Hill 178-191 1. History and details of the business 178 2. English Sparrow catching. Description of apparatus and methods employed. [Illustrated] 183 Section Sixth : History of the House Sparrow and the European Tree Sparrow (Paseer montanus) at Saint Louis, Mo., by Otto Wid- mann -.191-194 PART II. Evidence. Section First : Original testimony in detail (previously unpublished) 197-301 (A) Distribution by States 199 (B) Rate of increase ; checks, natural and artificial 232 (C) Injury to buds and foliage 240 (D) Inj ury to fruits, garden seeds, and vegetables 243 (E) Injury to grain crops 252 (F) Relation to other birds 260 (G) Relation to insects 283 8 tAble op COlfl^^NtS. Face. Section Second: Published testimony 301-357 (A) Outline of the history of the Sparrow question ^^'■ (B) Testimony relating mainly to the Sparrow in America •'"* 1. From the American Naturalist "**'' 2. From ;Science ^"^ 3. From Forest and Stream """* 4. From other periodicals ^^° 5. From other sources ■• ^2* (C) Relating mainly to the Sparrow in Europe 330 1. From the evidence submitted to the select com:nittee [of the British Parliament] on wild birds protection, 1873 330 2. Prom "The House Sparrow" (relating mainly to England) 341 Parti. By J. H. Guruey, jr 341 Part 2. By Col. C. Russell 346 3. From other sources ;..., • ; 347 (D) Relating mainly to the Sparrow in Australia 348 1. From the draft progress report of the board of investigation ap- pointed by the governor of South Australia in ld81 .. . 348 2. From the Adelaide Observer (South Australia) 353 3. From the Taranaki Herald (New Zealand) 357 Sbction Third : List of all persons whose testimony appears in the Bulletin .358-388 Index 389 Map at end of volume. PREFATORY LETTER. The English Sparrow question in North America has grown to be a serious problem in economic science, particularly so far as the agricult- ural interests of the country are concerned — and the term agriculture must be here understood in its broadest and most comprehensive sense as including the grain-growing industries, truck-gardening, fruit-grow- ing, the cultivation of flowers and ornamental shrubs and vines, and even forestry. It was deemed proper, therefore, that this question should be made the subject of the first bulletin of the newly established Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy. The information necessary to a complete understanding of the sub- ject has been collected with great care ; the evidence submitted has been honestly weighed, and the results impartially stated. The labor of collecting and arranging for publication the matter con- tained in Part II, together with the authorship of most of Part I, has fallen upon my assistant, Mr. Walter B. Barrows. Brief portions of Part I, including the tables relating to the increase and spread of the Sparrow, were prepared by myself and are here re- produced without quotation marks from my annual report for 1886. Section 2 of Part I, consisting of recommendations for legislation and recommendations to the people, has been written jointly by Mr. Barrows and myself. Prof. 0. V. liiley. Entomologist " of the Department, has kindly con- tributed a full and valuable report on the Insectivorous Habits of the English Sparrow, based chiefly on the examination of stomachs sub- mitted to him by this Division. Section 4, on the Destruction of Sparrows by Poisons, was prepared by Dr. A. K. Fisher, assistant ornithologist, by whom the experiments were conducted. Section 5, on Trapping the Sparrow, was contributed by Mr. W. T. Hill, who makes a business of trapping Sparrows in Indianapolis, Ind. The cuts illustrating Mr. Hill's article, together with the description of the apparatus used, were taken from the American Field of January U,188S. 9 1 tBEFATOS Y - LETTEfi. Section 6, treating of both the English Sparrow {Passer domesticus) and the European Tree Sparrow {Passer montanus)in Saint Louis, Missouri, was contributed by the well-known ornithologist, Mr. Otto Widmann. This article is particularly instructive inasmuch as it emphasizes the con- trast in disposition and habits of two closely related European birds which were brought to Saint Louis at about the same time. The present report, as a whole, is believed to be the most systematic, comprehensive, and important treatise ever published upon the economic relations of any bird. O. Haet Meeeiam. INTRODUCTION. Questions relating to theEnglisli Sparrow were contained in the first circular on economic ornithology issued by the Department of Agricult- ure (in July, 1885). Subsequentlj' these questions were amplified, and during the year 1886 a special circular and schedule were prepared, upwards of 5,000 copies of which have been distributed. It has been the aim of the Department, in collecting information on this question, to get as much direct, original, unpublished evidence as possible, and to this end the circulars sent out asked for " facts from personal observation." It was desired, furthermore, to obtain datte. from all parts of the country over which the Sparrow had spread, not only in order to map accurately its distribution, but to detect if possi- ble any differences in character or habits which might be due to varied climatic or other conditions. In addition, therefore, to the systematic distribution of circulars of inquiry among the agriculturists and nat- uralists of the country, requests for information were published in many agricultural and scientific periodicals, as well as in newspapers throughout the country, in the hope that many persons not otherwise reached might become, interested in the subject, and be led to detail their own experience. The result has been, in the main, very gratify- ing, and to date there have been received from all these sources replies from about 3,300 persons, nearly two-thirds of whom report the Spar- row already established in their immediate vicinity, and, with very few exceptions, steadily increasing in numbers. The remainder of these 3,300 reports, coming principally from post- masters in sections which the Sparrow has not yet reached, have been used mainly in mapping the limits of its distribution. lu addition to the material thus collected, the American Ornitholo- gists' Union has turned over to the Department of Agriculture the re- sults of its investigations, begun in 1883, on the eligibility or ineligibil- ity of the European House Sparrow in America. This material, com- prising full replies from about 110 persons, was collated and arranged by Dr. F. H. Hoadley, who, from interest in the subject, kindly volun- teered his services. Naturally, the discussion of this subject in America for several years past has led to the publication, in scientific and other periodicals, of a 11 12 INTRODUCTION. vast amount of valuable information besides that wMob has come di- rectly into the possession of the Department of Agriculture ; and when to this is added the voluminous and oftentimes valuable publications relating to the status of the Sparrow in other countries, it will be seen that the material available for a satisfactory investigation of the Spar- row problem is very full and measurably complete. The collation and comparison of such data have involved a large amount of care and patience, and in presenting the results of this investigation to the pub- lic it is believed that any one so disposed can find in the present, report facts enough to set at rest all doubts as to the economic status of this well known species. At the outset of the investigation the fact was recognized that doubt- ers on either side of the question would not be likely to abandon their positions on the simple presentation of any amount of mere opinion ; and it was therefore determined to print in detail all the evidence on which the conclusions were based, so that each reader might see for himself whether the facts had been fairly interpreted, and whether the verdict was just or unjust. In accordance with this plan, the present Bulletin will be found to consist of two very distinct parts, viz, evidence and deduction, the former far exceeding the latter in volume. Under the head of evidence will be found in its appropriate place every scrap of information rele- vant to the inquiry, under the name of the person contributing it, and accompanied, whenever possible, by the exact date and locality to which the information relates.* Most of the information contributed was received in reply to ques- tions contained in circulars of inquiry. Wherever possible these re- plies have been printed in the same form in which they were received, and when for any reason it has been found necessary to change the form of a reply, either in dismembering a statement relating to several subjects, or in condensing several statements relating to the same subject, the utmost care has been taken to preserve the exact meaning of the observer; while in all cases where the meaning has been obscure, the statements have been given verbatim. Perhaps it might have been better in such cases to omit the statement altogether, but the tact has been kept constantly in mind that all such omissions might be con- strued by some as evidence of partiality or prejudice. The deductions from this evidence, which constitute the larger por- tion of Part I of this Bulletin, are the result of careful study and com- parison, and have been made, it is believed, with perfect fairness to all ,* The amount of testimony thus arranged proved to be so large — more than treble the size of all the remainder of the Bulletin — that when submitted for publication it was found to be absolutely impossible to print it entire, and couseriuently it has been reduced very greatly. The utmost care has been taken, however, to preserve the im- partial character of the evidence as a vrhole, by retaining both favorable and un- favorable testimony as neaily as possible in the same proportions in which they ex- isted in the report as originally prepared. INTEODUCTIOHr. 13 sides of the question. Tlie history ot the Sparrow controversy in Amer- ica shows plainly, however, that it would be folly to expect all friends of the Sparrow to accept our conclusions as to its character and habits. There are some persons whose minds are so constituted that nothing is evidence to them except What is derived from their own observation, and as this unfortunate mental infirmity is commonly correlated with the total inability to observe anything which interferes with their theories, it makes little difference whether their opportunities have been good or bad, their position is unassailable. With this class of observers -we have nothing to do. No amount of evidence will change their opinion, and fortunately for the good of mankind it makes little difference what that opinion may be. But the mass of American agricalturists, me- chanics, and professional men are reasonable beings, willing to believe the reports of other men whose opportunities for observation have been better than their own, and it is believed that a majority of these men will be glad to examine the large amount of evidence presented, and settle for themselves the question of the Sparrow's character. For those who have not time to read the evidence in detail summaries of the evidence on each head have been prepared, Including tables show- ing the alleged injuries to each crop, and briefer summaries showing the numbers of favorable and unfavorable reports on each question. No doubt these tables are often misleading, for in them a simple yes or no from a man whose observation has been limited carries the same weight as the mature results of half a life-time of observation by an- other ; yet many facts are brought out strongly which might be over- looked otherwise, and the tendency to give undue weight to numbers alone is partly corrected by the samples of evidence submitted in con- nection with each summary. In regard to these " samples of evidence" it should be stated that it has been the endeavor to select those which would give a fair idea of the character of the evidence, not simply those which support any one view of the case. Undoubtedly objection will be made on the one hand to the selection of so few favorable reports, and on the other to the printing of any at all; but the aim has been to give each side of the question a representation proportionate to the weight of evidence, and when any deviation from this rule has been made it generally has been in a. direction favorable to the weaker side, that is, to the Sparrow. The selection of many examples of the same kind from any one section of the country has been avoided, as it seemed best in many cases to call attention to the similarity of the reports from widely separated locali- ties. Fj^RT I. SUMMARIES OF EVIDENCE; EECOMMENDATIONS; SPECIAL REPORTS, 15 ENGLISH SPAEEOW, PASSER DOMESTICUS. from Tarrell. 16 SECTION FIRST-SUMMARIES OF EVIDENCE. IMPORTATION i SPEEAD; INOEEASE; OHEOKS, INTRODUCTION OF THE SPARROW. The English Sparrow* was first brought to this country, so far as authentic information has reached the Department, in the fall of 1850, when the Hon. Nicolas Pike and other directors of the Brooklyn In- stitute imported eight pairs into Brooklyn, N. Y. As this first importation of Sparrows is of much interest, we give in full Mr. Pike's account of it and of the following importation a year or two later. He says : "It was not till 1850 that the first eight pairs were brought from England to the Brooklyn Institute, of which I was then a director. We built a large cage for tho.m, and cared for them during the winter months. Early in the spring of 1851 they were liberated, but they did not thrive. " In 1853 a committee of members of the Institute was chosen for the re-introduction of these birds, of which I was chairman. " Over $200 was subscribed for expenses. I went to Bngland in 1852, on my way to the consul-generalship of Portugal. On my arrival in Liverpool I gave the order for a large lot of Sparrows and song birds to be purchased at once. They were shipped on board the steam-ship Europa, it' I am not mistaken, in charge of an officer of the ship. Fifty Sparrows were let loose at the Narrows, according to instructions, and the rest on arrival were placed in the tower of Greenwood Cemetery chapel. They did not do well, so were removed to the house of Mr. John Hooper, one of the committee, who offered to take care of them during the winter. " In the spring of 1853 they were all let loose in the grounds of Green- wood Cemetery, and a man hired to watch them. They did well and multiplied, and I have original notes taken from time to time of their increase and colonization over our great country." *The true name of this bird is the "House Sparrow." The name "English Spar- row" is a misnomer, as the species is not ooufinod to England, but is native to nearly the whole of Europe. The fact that most of the birds brought to America came from England explains the origin of the misleading name by which it is now so widely known that any attempt to change it would be futile. 8404— Bull. 1 2 17 18 THE ENGLISH SPARROW IN AMERICA. Col. William Rhodes, of Quebec, Canada, states tliatiii 1851 lie in- troduced EuglisU Sparrows at Portland, Jle. (Forest and Stream, Vol. VllI, p. 165). Others were introduced there iu 185S by I-Ii'- Thomas Amory Deblois, and about the same time Mr. Jos. Peace Hazard intro- duced them at Peace Dale, 11. I. These last birds came from Liver- pool, England, and some escaped in Boston where they were lauded. Nothing seems to have been heard of the escaped birds, however, and ten years later they were first regularly introduced into Boston Com- mon. In 1860, twelve birds were turned loose iu Madison Square, New York City; in 1864, they were introduced to Central Park, and two years later two hundred were set free in Union Park, New York City. About the same time they were first fully established in the city of Quebec, Canada, although one or two apparently unsuccessful at- tempts had been made previously. In 1867 forty pairs were imported at New Haven, Conn , and the same year a colony was established at Galveston, Tex. In 1868 about twenty Sparrows were liberated on Boston Common, followed by more the next year, while at the same time twenty were released iu Charlestown, Mass., only a mile or two away. This year (1869) wit- nessed the importation, in one lot, of a thousand Sparrows by the city government of Philadelphia ; and this probably Is the largest single im- portationof Sparrows ever made to this country. The same year twenty pairs were brought from Eurojjeto Cleveland, Ohio, and sixty-six pairs from New York to Cincinnati, Ohio. Within the next two or three years they were introduced at San Francisco, Cal. ; in 1873 a colony was imported and liberated at Salt Lake City, Utah; and about two years later they were introduced at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and at various points in Ohio, Michigan, and Wisconsin. In many of the cases thus far mentioned it is positively known that the Sparrows were brought to this country from the Old World, and mainly, if not entirely, from Great Britain and Germany. But no sooner had they become fairly numerous at any of these points than people began to take them thence to other places, sometimes in large numbers, but more often only a few pairs at a time. In most cases these few birds were carefully watched, protected, and fed, and so multiplied rapidly, forming new colonies from which the birds spread steadily without assistance, and more rapidly by successive transportations by man. This important factor in the rapid increase and wide distribution of the Sparrow in America has been too generally ignored, and it is only within the past year that we have come to realize something of the mag- nitude of the " craze" which led so many people to foster and distribute this serious pest. None of our circulars relating to the Sparrow asked distinctly for information about its importation or introduction, but only for the date of its first appearance. In most cases, therefore, cor- respondents have simply given the information asked, and only an oc- casional observer has alluded to the manner of its coming. DIEECT IMPORTATIONS FROM EUROPE. 19 Yefc from the occasional statements thus made, and from various re- liable iJiiblislied records, we liave been able to make a list of more than a hundred places in the United States and Canada to which Sparrows have been taken, either by direct importation from the Old World or by transportation from jilace to i)lace after their arrival in America. From the casual manner in which these data have been obtained it may be considered certain that they represent but a very small fraction of the number of points at which the Sparrow has been introduced ; but the early dates of many of the importations, as well as the great dis- tances separating many of the places, are very significant as affording a partial explanation for the unparalleled rapidity with which this bird has overspread the inhabited part of the continent. The following lists explain themselves : Table I. — Places where English Sparrowi have heen inlroduced directly from Euroi>e. Plaoe. Date. No. BrooklyD.N. T Portland, Me Peace Dale, E. I Ijostoii, Mass New York, N. Y Eoohester, N. Y Kew Haven, Coon Galveston, Tex Charlestown, Mass .- Cleveland, Ohio Pbiladelphia, Pa Salt Lake City, Utali Akron, Ohio Fort Howard, Wis Sheboygan, Wis Iowa City, Iowa * About, ]f51.™.l 1S52 , 18.')4 and IS:i8 100 IRfiS ; )S."iC, 1808, imd 18",1 ... ISUO, 1861, and iwili ... Between 1805 iui.l It'CO 1807 :,o 220 *Ulil to 1807 1809 20 1800 40 1^09 or earlier I, OLO 1873 or 1874 30 1875 1875 1875 G 1881 5 Table ll.^-Places, not included in Table I, where Enijlish Sparrows have l)ecn introduced. Place. • Date. Number. "Where obtained. Alabama; 1882 4 birds San Francisco. Now York City. Griffin, Ga. Do. Now York City. Evansville, Ind. Arkansas; Between 1876 and 1880. Califiimi^i: 1883 Colorado : 1877 pairs (subse- quently disap- peared). > Connocticut: Bi'tweenl8G5and 1870. Sbirds Distriut of Coluinbia : Georgia: AtlaDla (couQlry near) .. Macon (country near) 1876 1878 1881 or 1882 13 birds Ill'mois : 18G8 1870 Between 1872 and 1874. 1870 AWt 100 birds... Gpairs Qaincy 20 THE ENGLISH SPAEEOW IN AMEEICA. Table II.— Places, not included in Table I, where Ewjlish Sparrows have hcen intro- duced— ContiaueA. Place. Date. Number. Where obtained. Indiana. 1873 1871 and 1872 ... Several hundred. . New York City. La Faj'ette About 1874 Kicliuiond 1860 Pljilalclphia, Pa. Iowa: Davenport 1870 iy76 10 pairs Dubuquo 20 pairs , Kansas : 1876 or 1877 1874 18G5and 1870 New York City. Kentucky: Louisville Louisiaua; Between 1874 and 187G. Maine : 1874 12biid6 Massachusetts; 18^8 Cottaj^e City About 1S82 About 24 birds 1871 Boston (?). Michigan: Butwcon 1874 and 187G. 1876 Owosso Minnesota : Saint Paul , .. 1870 Misaisttippi : "West Point 1880 10 or 12 pairs Missouri : lirookliuld About 1883 1874 About 1876 Bellevillp Til Mexico 188;i Baiut Louis I8u0 . . A few pairs New York City. I'Liladcliiliia, Ta. Nebraska : Nebraska City New Jersey: T uckerton About 1873 New York : Pouglikeepsio About 1804 .. Noitb Carolina: Goldsborough 1879 or 1830 Wilson 187G or 1877 About 50 birds 66 pairs Oliio: Cincinnati 1869 Marietta About 1870 ITew York City. Stciubcnville 1880 or 1881 • Warren 1869 Several pairs 102 birds New Yorli City, riiiladclpliia, Ta. Pennsylvania : Erie Between 1871 and 1874. G-erraantown Milford New Yoi li Citj'. rUiladelpbia, Ta. Pennsylvania : Titus villo About 1871 Wasbinffton T874 12 birdg Pbilaildpbia, Pa. Do Waynesburgih. About 1871 Westchester About 1875 6biids Do. Khodo Island : Newport 1874 8 birds Providence New Yorlt City. South Carolina : Chester C.H 1872 or 1873 A few pairs Tennessee': Xnoxville 1874 New Yorlc City. Vermont : Saiot Johnsbury Between 1874 and 1876 Virginia : Washington, D. C ■ ^redericksburgh. - . . . About 1878 Lynohburgli.,. Norlblk-:.. Do. ' Between 1871 and 1874 1872 Eiclimond New York Citv. EARLY COLONIES IN AMERICA. 21 Table II.— P/occs, »ioi inoluded in Tallc I, where English Sparrows have l>een intro- duced —Continued. ridce. Date. ITumbLT. Wbere obtained. Yirginia; 1870 or 1871 Eichmoud, Ta (?) KiifFnllc 3874 Between 1870 anil 1878 1875 or 1876 1881 or 1882 1876 ■ Wiscoiiairi : 5 or 6 bircla Milwaakeo, Wis. ITartfnril Do. Hadison 1873 About 20 pail's Ifew Tork City. Sauk Oitv Between 1876 and 1878 1874 1880 biids Del roit, Mich. Canada : Hal i fay "N" S 1875 or 1876 About 1872 About 1876 1B74 New Tort City. Toronto Ont About 1875 1870 1804 Tablb Ill.—Flaces where English Sparrous are said io have appeared as early as 1870, and where ihey mat] have been introduced, although not so reported. Place. Date. riaco. Date.. Connecticiit : 1869-1872. 1870. 1870. 1867. 1865-1870. 1869-1870. About 1870. 1870 or beforQ. 1870. 18G3. t?] 1865-1870. 1809-1870. 18G8-18G9. 1868-1871. 1868. About 1805. 1870, 1870 or eai-KcT. 1869-1872. 1860. 1868. Xow Jerscv—Contmued. CilUlWL'Il 1870. About 1808 Ilackcnsack Goorffia: 1866 or earlier 'i'renton 1870. New York : Dobbs I'erry , I'redonia lUinoia : O'l''alloii Depot 1F66. About 1870 Peliiti , 1870 1872 1866. Syracuse 1863 1864 irtica 1861. Ohio. Da;^ ton 1867. About 1S68. Pcnns.ylvania: Lancaster : KentuclEy : Bloomfield 1808 or 18(i') Wrightsvillo 1867 or 1808 Cumberland i Virjiitiia: Williamsport AVaterlbrd 1870 or 1871 MassaclmsettH : Holyoke : lledtbrd Wi'sr. Virir'nia : 1866. Wiscousiu : De Pere Do A study of these tables sliows that eveu before 1875 tliere were many large Sparrow colonies throilghout the United States, east of tlie Mis- sissippi, as well as several in Canada, one or more in Utah, one at Gal- veston, Tex., and probably anotlicr'in San Francisco, Oal. There were small colonies also in eastern Iowa and in Missouri, Kansas, and Ne- braska. From this time to the present, the marvelous rapidity of the Sparrow's multiplication, the surpa.ssing swiftness of its exteusion, and the pro- 22 THE ENGLISH SPARROW IN AMERICA. digious size of tbe area it has overspread are without parallel in the history of any bird. Like a noxious weed transplanted to a fertile soil, it has taken root and become disseminated over half a continent before the significance of its presence has come to be understood. The expla- nation of this phenomenal invasion must be found in part in the direct assistance given by man in carrying it irom place to place intention- ally; in part in the peculiar impetus usually given prolific species when carried to a now country where the conditions for existence are in every way favorable ; and in part in its exceptional adaptability to a diversity of physical and climatic conditions. This adaptability has enabled it not only to endure alike the tropical heat of Australia and the frigid winter of Canada, but to thrive and become a burdensome pest in both of these widely separated lands. At first sight it seems diEBicult to understand why man should have taken so much interest in this bird, and aided in its rapid increase and spread ; but the consideration of a few poiuts bearing upon the matter will render the case more intelligible. A considerable part of our population, and especially that of the newer parts of the country, consisted of Europeans who naturally re- membered with pleasure many of the surroundings of their former homes and doubtless often longed for the familiar chirp of the Sparrow. They had no strong associations connected with our American birds, and our treeless cities and uncultivated prairies contrasted strongly with the thickly settled country — half garden, half city — which so many of them had left. So, as opportunity offered, small lots of Sparrows and other European birds were brought to this country ; or after the Spar- rows became abundant in our Eastern cities they were carried inland to a large number of different places. There is little doubt that if we could obtain the data relating to the introduction of Sparrows at all points where they are now found in the Mississippi Valley, we should find that by far tlie larger part of these introductions had been accom- plished by Enj-lisli, Gorman, and French citizens, inspired by the rec- ollections of the birds of their fatherland. In addition, the prevailing ignorance of the average American citizen with regard to our native birds, joined to the totally erroneous, or at least grossly exaggerated, reports of the benefits conferred by the Spar- rows in New York, Philadelphia, and other Eastern cities, tended to in- crease the interest which naturally attached to an imported bird, until many persons went to the expense of purchasing and shipping Spar- rows to considerable distances in the belief that they were insectivorous birds and must prove beneficial wherever they could be naturalized. In this way a veritable Sparrow "boom" was started, and the price of Sparrows in Ifew York went up to such a point that many people de- sirous of obtaining the birds found itchcaperto club together and im- port them direct from Europe; while in many cases tliis was doubtless done from the desire to obtain birds from the neighborhood of the im- METHOD OF DIFFUSION, 23 porter's native place, or through distrust of the kind of Sparrow already imported, which, unfortunately, was widely known from the first as the English Sparrow. We can never know how many separate impor- tations were thus made, nor how many thousands of individuals were introduced, but it is certain that the number of places thus supplied with birds is mnch greater than has been supposed, and considering this fact and the rapid rate at which the Sparrow breeds, we ought not to won- der that it has so completely overrun the country. METHOB OF DIFFUSION OP THE SPARROW. In the ninth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica the distinguished ornithologist. Prof. Alfred Newton, makes the following statement : The House Sparrow is far too well known to need any description of its appearance or habits, being found, whether in country or town, more attached to Imman dwell- ings than any other wild bird ; nay, more than that, one may safely assert that it is not known to thrive anywhere far away from the habitations or works of men, ex- • tending its range in such countries as Northern Scandinavia and many parts of the Russian Empire as new settlements are formed and land brought under cultivation. Thus questions arise as to whether it should not be considered a parasite through- out the greater portion of the area it now occupies, and as to what may have been its native country. Moreover, of late years it has been inconsiderately introduced to several of the large towns of North America and to many of the British colonies, in nearly all of which, as had been foreseen by ornithologists, it has multiplied to excess, and has become an intolerable nuisance, being unrestrained by the natural checks which partly restrict its increase in Europe and Asia. This statement of the Sparrow's relations to man is unquestionably true wherever the bird is known, and hence in America we should not expect to find it except in settled portions of the country. The manner, however, in which it overruns a new country to which it is introduced differs somewhat from the way in which it extends its range in older countries as the area of cultivation is extended. In America, the method by which the Sparrows spread without the direct aid ot man is peculiar. They first invade the larger cities, then the smaller cities and towns, then the villages and hamlets, and finally the populous farming districts. As the towns and villages become tilled to repletion the overflow moves off into the country, and the Sparrow's range is thus gradually extended. Occasionally, how- ever, It is suddenly transported to considerable distances by going to roost in empty box-cars and traveling hundreds of miles. When let out again it is quite as much at home as in its native town. In this way it reached St. John, New Brunswick, in 1883, on board the railroad trains from the west. In like manner another colony ar- rived March 1, 1884, in grain cars from Montreal. Similarly it has appeared at a number of towns in the United States. (Hoadloy MS. J The cities and towns first invaded by the Sparrow (of course exclud- ing those where they are actually carried by men) are in most cases railroad towns ; and especially in the West there is no doubt that the great railways along which vast quantities of grain are transported have been so many great highways along which the Sparrows have traveled slowly from place to place. More or less scattered grain is always to 24 THE ENGLISH SPAEEOW IN AMERICA. be found along: these railways, and the Sparrows naturally follow wherever food is found. To a lesser degree carriage roads have served the same purpose, the food furnished in the latter case being mainly the partially digested grain in horse droppings. This gradual spread may take place at any season of the year, bnt probably is most pronounced in late summer and autumn, for reasons which will at once appear. It has been repeatedly remarked that when Sparrows are first introduced to a new region it is impossible, without actual confinement, to keep them on a farm near a town or city. They soon abandon the country for the city, and, except at harvest time, sel- dom return to the farm where they were introduced 'until the city becomes crowded. This may mean until there is no longer an ample supply oi food for all the Sparrows, or, more commonly, it means until there are no longer enough convenient breeding places for all. In most cases it is the young which are thus crowded out, and consequently in mid- summer and early autumn flocks of young birds may be met with far out in the country, wherever food is abundant, and when this food fails, or the ground becomes covered with snow, they retreat to the nearest towns, villages, or even farmhouses, often at considerable distances from the places where they were rcai-ed. Eut, in most cities, a time arrives at last when more Sparrows collect in winter than can possibly find nesting places in spring. Then, when all desirable places have been occupied, the remaining birds are forced to go to other towns or villages, or to nest in the countrj'. In this way the country for miles about large cities becomes fairly crowded with Sparrows,, if the food conditions are favorable, and then the Sparrow shows his great power of adaptation by constrncting nests ibr himself in trees. Twenty years ago thei'c were few places in this country wiiere any such Sjiarrow nests could be found, but to day they are common almost every wliere, and frequently they are used as places of shelter and retreat in severe winter weather, as well as for breeding places in summer. At first, evergreen trees are preferred, and ;i bulky nest, hardly more than a large, irregular heap of straw and rubbish, is built; but as such trees become crowded, or as the Sparrows gain skill in building, other trees are used, and often the nests are smaller and more symmetrical. The nests of native birds also are often utilized as foundations, the rightful owners being driven off' first. In places where Sparrows find abundance of food and congenial surroundings, they in- crease to such an extent that these nests seriously disfigure the shade trees, and by their filth even injure them. Mr. Ridgway, of the £'mith- sonian Institution, says: Tho Euglibh Sparrow Las been in WheaUand, Ind., siuce 1S77, and is now very abundant. I recently counted twenty-one of its large nests ou cue oak tree by the roadside, a little distance outside of tlic village. (Washington, D. C, February 11, 1888.) It may seem superfluous to many readers to introduce tmy evidence showing that the Sparrow is not confined to cities, but so inany persons EXTENSION FKOM CITY TO COUNTKY. 25 who ought to bo well informed in sncli matters have made careless or iuaceurate statements in this connectioTi, that a few words may not be out of place hero. It is true, as Las been shown already, that Sparrows prefer towns or cities so long as their numbers are not excessive and food is abundant there; but it is equally true that where the conditions are favorable they eventually spread over the country as well as the towns, not only going out from the city to the wheat-iields in flocks, but taking up their residence at farm-houses, many miles from any large town, and remain- ing there throughout the year. The time which must necessarily elapse betwceu the first appeai'ance of Sparrows in a town and their occupa- tion of the surrounding country will vary very much according to cir- cumstances, and doubtless there are places in which, owing to certain peculiar conditions, such a state of affairs never will be reached, but, uevertheless, as a rule, such a result is only a matter of time. Mr. F.W. Giles, who first introduced the Sparrows in Kansas, in 1874, writes from Topeka, under date of October G, 1886: They do not go out into the country at all, but have gono to various towns, distant ao to 100 miles from Topelca. And Mr. Byron J. Peckham wrote from M'"esterly, R. I,, early in 1884: Thi^y do not extend their visits to farms and their produce, but prefer the cities and villages. Doubtless these statements are the results of actual observation in the localities named ; but the observations do not cover a sufficiently long period to justify any general conclusions of the same kind, or even to make it probable that the Sparrows will continue to be so restricted in those cities. For itis a matter of every day observation, in a multitude of localities, that the Sparrows sooner or later overflow the cities and towns, and spread over the surrounding country. From personal obser- vation in the neighborhood of New York, Washington, and other cities, as well as in thrc country about small towns, wo are able to state that Sparrows are abundant along the country roads for several miles beyond the suburbs. That the same thing is true in various parts of the coun- try appears from the following testimonials. Mr. H. J. Gaylord, of Binghamton, N. Y., writes: Ho is no longer a city resident, bni is finding his way to the small villages, and already is at the farmer's houses eight and nine miles in the country. He builds not only in crevices and holes he finds around buildings, bnt in evergreen trees and run- ning vines, on trellises; and he adapts himself to whatever conditionlie finds. Mr. Witmer Stone, of Germantown, Pa., writes: The Sparrow ia now found tlTroughout the villages, and about all the farm-houses in Chester and Lancaster Counties. It appeared in the villages of Lancaster County some years before it was common in Chester County, bnt it has now been common at (he farm- houses in the central parts of the latter county for three or four years. I find it has also made its appearance at all the vill.iges and farm-houses situated along tho Siisrinehanna River in Lancaster and Y'ork Counties, but as yet it is not abun- dant there. (November 9, 188f).) 26 THE ENGLISH SPARROW IN AMERICA. Dr. W. S. Strode, of Beniadotte, Fnlton County, 111.- writes: In tlio spring of 1885 I first noticed four or five pairs in our little town, making the oaves of tUe flouring mill their headquarters, aud here they brooded. By tfio nex. winter their number had incre.ised to a score or more, aud they staid with us. 1 be next season they had become numero as, nesting wherever they could fiud a suitable place in barns aud houses, no one molesting them or paying much attention to them. Ihis season by their increasing numbers they demanded attention aud commenced spread- ing out into the country to fiud nesting places. (September 7, 1887.) From L. K. Bonham, Oxford, Butler County, Ohio : p'arin one mile from village. The Sparrows are very abundant here, and are spread- ing from farm to farm in every direction. They appeared in the village about eight years ago. (November 29, 18S6.) From S. R. Eoss, Portsmouth, Scioto County, Ohio: The city is overrun with Sparrows, and they are also finding their way to the ad- joining farms and villages. (September 2, 188C. Present about twelve years.) From S. C. Prout, Prout, Erie County, Ohio : They are hero in large flocks on each farm, whether large or small. (January 7, 1887. Present about ten years.) From William IL Elgar, Platteville, Grant County, Wis. : There arc as many hero in the city now as ever, but it has extended into the coun- try more. (November 23, 1886. Present about five years.) HATE OF SPREAD OF THE SPARROW, AND EXTENT OF AREA OCCUPIED AT THE CLOSE OF THE YEAR 188G. In the year 1886 the English Sparrow was found to have established itself iu thirty-five States and five Territories. Of these it occupies the whole or large parts of the following thirty-three States and two Terri- tories : Alabamn, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Lou- isiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missis- sippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, ilhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin, and is found iu a few towns in Florida, Texas, Wyoming, Idaho, and virizona. Small, isolated colonies may exist in a few other Territories, but if so they have escaped the searching inquiry of the Department. In the United States the total area occupied at the close of the year 18SG is 885,000 square miles; in Canada it is not quite 148,000 square miles ; in all, 1,033,000 square miles. * Some idea of the alarming rapidity with which it is at the present mo- ment multiplying and extending its range may be had from the fact that in the United States alone it has spread during the i)ast fifteen years at the average rate of 59,000 square miles per year, and in the United States and Canada together at the rate of 09,000 square miles per year. But this average rate manifestly is misleading, so far as both * The data on which the computation of the Canadian area is based are insuffi- cient, consequently the size of the area here given umst bo regarded as approximate only, Tbe United States area, however, may bo looked upon as very nearly exact. RATE OF INCREASE. 27 extremes are conceiued, for species increase iu geometrical ratio. The rate for some time after 1870 was comparatively slow, while duriug tlie present decade it has progressed with astonishing rapidity, till in the year 1886 the new territory invaded must have reached the enormous number of 516,500 square miles, as may be seen from the following: Tablii showing aiyproximatehj the extension in square miles of the ISnglibh Sparrow, in periods of five years each, from 1870 till 1885, and its extension during the year 1886. Square miles. from 1870 to 1875 it spread over 500 From 1875 to 1880 it spread over 15,640 From 1880 to 1885 it spread over , 500,760 111 the year 1886 it spread over ,.. 516,500 This table of necessity is largely thoorolical, though the ratio of increase must be very nearly correct. Year by year much of the reproductive energy of the Sparrow is expended in fiUiug up the smaller towns aud villages of the area which, so far as the larger towns and cities are concerned, it covered some time previously. RATE OF INCREASE OF THE SPARROW. In asking for information as to the number of broods and young annu- ally reared by the Sparrow, we hoped to receive many statements of fact, but our expectations have been hardly realized, as most of the re- plies seem to be mere guesses, not based on actual observation. The fact that more or less nest-building goes on during every month of the year has led many people to supi)ose that the Sparrow breeds continuously, but such is not the case, at least in temperate climates. Enough material bearing on this point has been collected to show that Sparrows rarely or never raise more than six broods in a year, and the great majority probably do not raise more than four, at least in the lat- itude of New York. In Washington the first young out of the nests may be seen in April, but they are not abundant before the first week in May or after the last week iu August, though doubtless a few leave the nest in Septem- ber, or still more rarely in October. It is possible that a few eggs may be laid even in December and January, but it is extremely improbable that any young are reared at that time. In the latter part of February, iu some years, many Sparrows begin laying, and occasionally a young brood may leave the nest late in March, but such cases must be considered exceptional. Moreover, although nesting- boxes may be steadily occupied by Spar- rows with their young or eggs from the first of April to the first of Sep tember, it does not follow that such boxes are tenanted all this time by the same parent Sparrows, or that one brood follows another without any interval. On an average, about four weeks elapse from the laying of the first eggs to the time when the young brood leaves the nest. The number of eggs, in a set varies from four to seven, but is usually either five or six, and these ordinarily would be deposited in one week. Twelve or thirteen days are required to hatch them, and the young are 28 THE ENGLISH SPARROW IN AMERICA. fed in the nest for about a week, and then for several days (sometimes as many as ten) after leaving it. More eggs may bo laid in the same nest as soon as the young leave it, and in this way it. is possible ior a pair of Sparrows to rear one brood each month for five or six months, but it seems probable that generally the broods do not follow each other quite so rapidly. It has been claimed that Sparrows which are hatched in the early spring often pair and rear young during the ensuing summer or autumn, but although several of our correspondents state this to be the case, we have not received suflQcient evidence to justify us in supporting these views. Another theory which would account in part for the rapid increase of Sparrows is advanced in the following communications: Dr. W. H. Bergtold, of Buffalo, N. Y., writes: As regards tlie number of broods aucl young reared by a pair of Sparrows in a year, I wish to make a statement and put forth a theory that I have never seen advanced before. I have repeatedly examined nests of this bird containing nearly full-fledged young, two or three young in more or less advanced stages of development, and sev- eral eggs of various degrees of incubation, some being nearly fresh, while others were about to bi'i ak through. I gather from these facts that the Sparrow, at least in some cases, lays and continues to lay a succession of eggs so long as the weather is not too cold; and as the young atta,in a suiHcient amount of strength they are expelled from the nest. Assuming such to be the ease we can easily see how much of the incuba- tion work is taken from the parents and thrown on the young, who, by their bodily heat and proximity, readily take up such duties (quite unintentionally, I imagine), and also how much work can be given to the proiier maintenance of a generons food supply for both the old and young. This const.int stream of outpouring Sparrows accounts for the rapid manner in Which this species multiplies. (August 21, 1886.) J. B. Stockton, of Toronto, Kans., writes: The Sparrow had a nest under the eaves, rind all summer there seemed to be fresh or newly-hatched birds in the nest. There were eggs in the nest all the time, and the warmlh of the unfledged j'ouug, hatched the eggs, so thatthere was a continuous and uninterrupted stream of full-fledged birds coming from that same nest all the season, and unfledged ones of various degrees at the same lime remaining in the nest. I have never known or noticed anythiiigof the kind with any other bird. (OctoberC, 188(i.) Although such cases as the foregoing may occur with more or less frequency, they certainly are not the rule, as it is certain that in most cases all the eggs are laid before any are hatched, and all tlie young leave the nest at about the same time. Moreover,itisnot necessary to resort tosuch a_ theory to account fortho rai)idity with which the Sparrow increases. It is a hardy, prolific, and aggre.*sive bird, possessed of much intelligence and more than ordinary cunning. It is domestic and gregarious in habit and takes advantage ot the protection aflbrded by proximity to man, thus escaping nearly all llic enemies which check the increase of our native birds. Moreover, for many ycitrsit was looked upon with favor, and both food and shelter were provided for it. Its fecundity is aranzing,and from the testimony submitted itis evident that it is no unusual thing for a single pair, in the latitude of New York EAPIDITVr OF INCEEASE. 29 or further south, to rear twenty or thirty youug in the course of a year. Assuiniug the aunual product of a pair to be tweuty-four young, of which half are females and half males, and assuming further, for the sake of computation, that all live, together with their offspring, it will bo seen that in ten years the progeny of a single pair would be 275,710,- 983,698. This will appear in detail from the following table: Anrmal increade and total numier of liiiglish Sparroiis, the progen;/ of a single pair, in successivt seasons for ten years, assuming that all lived. Years. Krst.... Second. Third... Fourth . Fifth ... Sixth ... Seventh £i<;hth.. Ninth... Tenth .. Nuraher of pairs breodiu•^ 1 13 1G9 2,197 28, 561 cl71, ^93 4, 820, 800 62, 748, 617 815, 730, 721 10, 004, 499, 373 NuDiber of pairs of j-oang. 12 156 2,028 26, 304 342, 732 4,455,516 57, 921, 708 754, 982, 204 9, 788, 708, 052 127, 253, 992, 470 Total numbor of pairs. 13 109 2,197 28, 561 371,293 4, 820, 809 62, 748, 517 815, 730, 721 10,004,499,373 137, 858, 491, 849 Total nunibor of birds. 26 338 4,394 57, 122 742, 086 9,653,618 125, 497, 034 031,401,442 208,998,746 710,983,698 Of course, the actual increase of the Sparrow is but a small fraction of the total shown in this table, which is based on assumptions, some of which at least are not likely ever to be realized. But if we reduce the annual number of young per i)air to twelve, still assuming that half are males and half females, and allow that all live even five years, we shall have as the total increase of one pair in that time 33,614 birds. In some cases it would seem as if these figures had actually been reached, so rapid has been the increase at certain places, but it is probable that iu almost all cases the original stock in any town consists of several pairs, and these are usually increased from time to time by accessions from neighboring cities. It seems probable that the large colonies at Galveston, Tex., Salt Lake City, Utah, and San Francisco, Gal., have resulted wholly or in very large part from the few pairs originally in- troduced at those places, but it is impossible to say this of most other centers of abundance. The following examples of evidence will serve to give a slight idea of the rapidity with which the Sparrow increases. From ITorwood Giles, of Wilmington, IsT. C: They reai- four broods hero. They began nesting as early as Januaiy 22 this year. (NoremberlS, 1886.) From H. B. JBailey, of East Orange, N. J.: It rears five or sis broods yearly, with four to six young in a brood. (February 7, 1884.) From Thomas Chalmers, of Holyoke, Mass.: It usually rears five broods annually, and five birds to a- brood. I have known of six broods in a season from one pair cf birds. Its fecundity is astonishing; the num- ber of eggs that can be taken from a mature female ja something incredible. (March 6, 1884.) 30 THE ENGLISH SPARROW IN AMERICA. From William P. Lamb, of Holyokc, Mass.: A pair which Lave bred in a box near my wiudow for seven successive years, have reared three broods each year, averaging Jive youug to a brood. (February 29, 1864.) From Clarence L. Gate, of Spencer, Mass.: I know of one pair that raised six broods in 1884, and I believe that four or five is the number of broods regularly raised by a pair. (October, 1886.) From Elisha Slade, of Somerset, Mass.: Five broods are usually reared in a season, and the number of young in a brood varies from iive to eight ; the average is six or more. A single pair become the par- ents of thirty or more young in one season. They often have their first brood lalo in March or early in April, and nestlings are common in September and Octolier, and in every intervening month. Young birds hatched in April frequently pair and rear a brood in early autumn. (August 20, 1886.) From John F. T. Edwards, of Irouton, Mo. : The three or four birds -which ^ere here about two years ago Lave multiplied into one or two hundred. (November 15, 1S86.) From J. M. Fowlkes, of Memphis, Tenn. : In the fall of 1871 three pairs of Sparrows were introduced here by Col. C. J. Stl- den, and judging from the present crop they have thriven well. No other importation of these birds has been made, but the progeny of this .stock now infest the city and the suburbs for several miles. (November 13, 1886.) From W. T. Sledge, of Lawrenceville, Va. : Seven were first seen here (in 1876), but since that time they have miraculously in- creased. Two Sparrows have been known to hatch twenty-four young in one nest during the summer. (November 12, 1886.) From Walter B. Hull, of Milwaukee, Wis.: I have killed nearly live hundred, old and young, since January. I killed ton broods the first sitting, and more than twenty the second, but even now they are hatching. The 21st of this month I killed four broods aggregating fourteen young. (Augustas, 1886.) The following account of the introduction, increase, and spread of the English Sparrow in the neighborhood of Strathroy, Ontario, Can- ada, is furnished us by Mr. L. H. Smith, of that place. He writes : In March, 1874, I sent to a New York bird dealer, and he forwarded me per ex- press, twelve birds, six males and six females, at a cost to mo of $1 each. If all the Sparrows in our town are mine, and my neighbors all say they are, then I have at least plenty for my money. The six pairs of Sparrows I turned out in some farm buildings near town, where they stayed for a week or two. By andljy, by ones and twos, they moved to town, and, singular to say, one pair built a nest in the cornice of the house of the man who wrote mo in England, in 1873, to bring some out, and another pair built in the next house to my own. They are now in thousands in our town, and are plentiful in every town, city, and village in this part of Ontarjo. I do not think they all came from the six pairs of birds which I brought here in March, 1874, because I remember in the summer of 1873 seeing them as far west as Syracuse, and they might have been farther this way. Strathroy is 20 miles west of London, and 40 miles east of Port Huron Mich. It was only a few years after 1874 I noticed them at Toronto and London and otber places east of this. It is perhaps eight years since they si)read west of this. I have no proof that all did not come from my six pairs. For several years they increased NATURAL ENEMIES. 31 very slowly and gradually here, only one small colony the first year, two or three the next, and so on, till in a, few j'ears almost all suitable promises had colonies of them. There are none yet, so far as I know, in far northern and western Ontario. No spe- cial protection was given them in our town, save that the general feeling amongst our citizens was to protect them, and they were not molested. (Ootoher 11, 1886.) CHECKS ON TUE INOKEASE OF THE SPAEKOW. The checks which have operated in the past to limit the increase and spread of the Sparrow may be roughly classed under two heads, (a) natural, (6) artificial; including under the latter head all those hostile influences due solely to man, and under the former all others. Amoug the natural checks may be mentioned climate, food, natural enemies (sucl). as cats, hawks, jays, etc.), and disease. It is a general rule in the animal kingdom that excessive multiplica tiou tends to disease, and nearly all animals are subject to epidemics and parasites which tend to reduce their numbers when they become extremely abuudant. But nothing of this kind is known amoug Spar- rows, and they seem to be among the hardiest and healthiest of birds. It is true that albinism is quite common, specimens which are more or less white being frequently seen ou the streets of most large towns, but this can hardly be considered An indication of weakness or disease iu the species, although it probably does result from living under more or less unnatural conditions. NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE SPAKKOW. As regards natural enemies the Sparrow is remarkably favored, for, from its constant association with man, it escapes nearly all the perils which restrict the increase of native birds. It is generally supposed that cats must catch many Sparrows, but in point of fact it is rare for an adult Sparrow to fall into the clutches of this enemy, and even the young are not often caught. The centuries of experience which have developed this bird into a i)arasite upon man have taught it how to avoid the other semi-domesticated animals sur- rounding him, and it is safe to say that cats have far better success in catching the wariest of our native birds than iu catching the Sparrow. A few of our native birds kill Sparrows or eat their eggs and young, but the number of species is very limited, and, except in rare cases, the number destroyed is insigniiicant. Probably the most useful bird in this res,pect is the northern shrike (Lanius horealis), which visits most of our Northern cities in winter and feeds freely on the Sparrow. At one time this shrike became so abun- dant on the common and public gardens in Boston that it threatened to destroy all the Sparrows, but the shortsighted authorities kept a man busy in shooting the shrikes until several dozen had been killed, and the useless Sparrows were considered safe. In many cities and towns of the Mississippi valley the bluejay [Gyano- ciita oristata) is said to lessen the number of Sparrows somewhat by 32 THE ENGLISH SPAKROW IN AMEEICA. eating their eggs and young, but in most of the Eastern States tbisbird is rarely seen in towns and villages in summer, and so lias little effect on the Sparrow. The crow-blackbird or purple grackle (Quisoalus qidscula) also kills some Sparrows. Mr. liobert Eidgway states that he once saw it en- gaged in eating the young on the Smithsonian grounds; and Mr. Will- iam Brewster, of Cambridge, Mass,, states that in one case be saw a grackle follow and kill a Sparrow which had been slightly wounded, and it at once began to eat its victim. Mr. Brewster also states that in Cambridge the grackles have steadily increased in numbers, while the Sparrows at present do not seem to be increasing at all; and he suggests that the two facts may be correlated in some way. The sparrow-hawk (FaJco sparverius) and the screech owl [Megascops asio) prey upon Sparrows, and their presence in our parks and about our houses should be encouraged so long as the Sparrows are abundant. Both these birds ijat large numbers of insects, and rarely attack native birds. Several other predatory birds, such as the sharp-shinned and Cooper's hawks {Accipiter velox and cooperi) and the pigeon-hawk [Falco columbarius), sometimes feed largely on the Sparrow ; but, as they also destroy many native birds, their protection can not bo advised, except under peculiar conditions, THE EELATI0:N of climate and food to TUE INCIIEASE AND SPKEAP OF THE SPARROW. Sparrows thrive at Montreal, Canada, and at Galveston, Tex., but it is nevertheless true that they do not increase as rapidly or as steadily in cold climates as in temperate ones. Scores of observers testify to the fact that Sparrows die in large numbers during very severe win- ' ters, and this mortality is usually attributed to cold. This, however, is a mistake, for a healthy, well-fed Sparrow can resist, without serious inconvenience, the lowest temperatures ever experienced iu the United States. Sparrows are "winter killed" usually because their customary food is covered by snow, or frozen hard, and they are thus starved to death ratber than frozen. This is proved by tbe ftvct that small numbers of Sparrows, which bave been regularly fed, but not otherwise cared for, have repeatedly survived the severe winters of Minnesota, while hun- dreds of Sparrows have died in places which were much warmer, be- cause they were not fed by man and could not get enough food by their own efforts. No doubt Sparrows thrive best in temperate climates, where the ground is seldom covered by snow for any length of time; yet, if provided with a good supply of food, they may survive long pe- riods of deep snow and low temperature. It will be shown later that the principal source of food supply for city Sparrows is the droppings of grain-fed horses, and this supply is usually as abnnda,nt and accessible in winter as in summer. It will be Been at once, however, that with a temperatave many degrees below KFFKCTS OP CLIMATE AND FOOD. 33 zero this ofl'al is frozen so quickly and thoroughly as to cut off almost completely the Sparrows' main reliance.* Sparrows were introduced at Saint Paul, Minn., as early as the fall of 1S76; yet at the present time there are so few that they are seldom noticed. The following statement by an observant resident of that place, Mr. Morton Barrows, shows at least one cause, and that undoubt- edly the principal one, for this state of things. He says : Our streets are not cleaned in winter, sleds being used universally. Moreover, we have no tlnaws, and everything remains frozen solid until spring. At 30 degrees below zero horse droppings freeze almost instantly, and are generally covered with the loose, fine snow of the streets as they fall, that is, it is so cold that there is always a fine, loose surface snow, from 1 to 5 inches deep, even in the most used streets, and any- thing falling into that is quickly bnricd hy passing teams. Not much grain is moved here in any weather, especially not in winter. The ground is generally covered deep with snow from the middle of November until April, and I do not see what Sparrows can find to feed on. Again, we have more or less deposit each day, even in clear weather. When it is intensely cold spicnla; fall in large quantities, generally in the morning, while snow-storms are very frequent. All manner of refuse is thns quiclily covered. The same check on the increase of the Sparrow has doubtless been felt in many other Northern cities, and it is possible that this alone will suffice to render the bird harmless near the northern limit of its range. At first sight it may seem that the abundance of Sparrows in some Canadian cities would be fatal to this theory; but we must remember that the climate of Minnesota is much more severe than that of OntariOj and also that Sparrows were originally introduced at m^ny points in Canada; that they have been there much longer than iu Minnesota; and, finally, that they have been cared for much more generally in Cana- dian towns than in those of Minnesota. There is abundant evidence that Sparrows are killed sometimes in liirgc numbers in summer as well as in winter. Severe thunder-storms, with or without hail, but accompanied by high wind, have proved veri- table catastrophes to many Sparrow communities, especially where the storms come on at night or after the Sparrows have assembled in large numbers at their roosting places. The details of such Sparrow calam- ities, which occurred at liockford, HI., Baltimore, Md., Jersey City, N. J., and Washington, D. C, will be found in the evidence on this sub- ject, and we have records of similar cases at Eochestcr, K Y., and Media, Pa. In some instances thousands- of Sparrows have been killed at a single locality by a single storm, the deaths resulting ap- *The great "blizzard" of March, 1858, doubtless killed vast numbers of Sparrows •thronifhout the area in wlr'ch it was most severe. In New York and. Pennsylvania not only were hundreds found dead as the snovs- melted away, but their scarcity dur- ing the spring months was generally remarked. Although this storm Wiis accompa- nied, or followed, by severe cold iu many plaeos, it was more remarkable for very heavy snow-falls and high winds; moreover, it lasted two or three days, audiu many places all out-door traffic was suspended for several more. Thus, doubtless, number- less Sparrows survived the violence of the storm only to find all ordinary sources of food sujiply exit oflf, leaving thorn to die of starvation. 8404— Bull. 1 3 34 THE ENGLISH SPARROW IN AMERICA. parently from a thorough tlrenching, followed by chill, and in soine cases doubtless hastened by exhaustion. Although, as already seen, climate may play au important part in aid- lug or preventing the increase aud spread of the Sparrow, it is certain that the abundance or scarcity of food is even more important. Wher- ever Sparrows have been introduced by man they have been fed and housed to a certain extent, at all events at first. But soon they have been left to shift for themselves, which is usually the case when they spread unaided from town to town. Grain-eaters by nature and by preference, we have seen how they follow railroads and carriage roads from place to place, living by the way on good or refuse grain, and always tarrying longest in places where such food is most abundant. At harvest time they go out by day into the wheat fields near town, often coming back at night to roost; and when the grain fields arc cleared or when snow covers them the Sparrows turn to the city streets with the certainty that a large amount of their favorite food will be found there. Wherever in civilized countries horses are used, more or less grain is necessary to keep them in working order. It may be wheat, rye, oats, barley, or corn, and they may eat much or little, crushed or whole, yet a certain proportion always remains more or less undigested, and much of this eventually becomes accessible to the Sparrows. The most casual observer can not have failed to notice the eagerness with which the bird appropriates such food, and there is no reason to doubt that this food, more than all other attractions combined, has made the Sparrow what he is— primarily a bird of the street. Under ordinary circumstances this partly digested grain from horse-droppings doubtless forms at least 00 per cent, of the town Sparrow's food, and is not only an abundant and excellent food for the adults, but by virtue of its partial digestion is most admirably fitted for the first food of the young. The practical bearing of this important fact is obvious: Sparrows in- troduced to any town at once find themselves provided with an abun- dance of nutritious food such as they have always preferred. The nooks and crannies about buildings furnish all necessary shelter and the best possible nesting places; proximity to man insures partial protection from the ordinary bird enemies; and so for a dozen generations their in. crease is rapid and steady. As they increase in numbers the first check is likely to come from an insuflQcient number of good nesting places, and in case this want is met, the supply of food may at last become inadequate. Then follows a natural and gradual extension into the surrounding country, or along the roads to neighboring towns and cities. If these towns belong to grain-growing districts the increase may continue indefinitely, or until public apprehension is excited and nveasures are taken to suppress the threatened scourge. If the grain fails, or some other food becomes su- CHANGE OF PUBLIC OPINION, 35 perabuiulaut, the Sparrows readily adapt themselves to circumstances, and, -as they are always tasting of everything eatable, they fr-equcntly acquire a strong liking for some particular fruit or vegetable previously unnoticed. There is scarcely a vegetable product grown by farmer or gardener which the Sparrow can not eat, and there are very many to which it is disastrously partial. Even the most superficial examina- tion of the evidence printed in this volume will satisfy any candid man of the truth of the statement. And this brings us to the consideration of those checks to the Spar- row's increase which are due solely to the influence of man, and which may be denominated artilicial. DIRECT lyrLHESCK OF MAN INf CHECKING TUB IXCBEASI! OF THE- SPARROW. Public opinion. — During the first fifteen years of the Sparrow's col- onization of America, say from 1855 to 1870, the liostile influence of man was practically nothing. A few protests from intelligent natural- ists who opposed its introduction ; a few warnings from naturalized . citizens who had spent many years fighting the bird in their native land — this was all. On the other hand, scores of enthusiastic "bene- factors" of the country were urging its introduction in increased num- bers, and aiding and protecting those already brought, by every possible means, even to the enactment of city ordinances and police regulations. During the next decade, however, more opposition was developed, and although Sparrow enthusiasts were still providing nesting boxes by the thousand and food by the barrel in many cities where' Sparrows were few, still there was no little retrenchment in some of the cities where they had become abundant, and the disposition among iiractical citi- zens to let the invaders shift for themselves steadily increased. Toward the latter part of this period a few laws which had especially protected them were repealed, but in very few places were active measures adopted looking to the limitation or suppression of their increase. It is impossible to mark the precise date at which the tide of jmblic opinion turned against the Sparrow. There lias beenno sudden change, but a gradual falling away in the number of Sparrow adherents. One after another of its loudest advocates has become silent, and a few have uonestly admitted their change of opinion. In most cases such change of views has not been the direct result of ;iiiy one argument, oral or written, but of the gradual accumulation of such an amount of evidence that at last it became irresistible. A man wlio has seen thousands of Sparrows at work on his own wheat-fields is convinced that the bird is not altogether harmless, whatever may liave been his previous theories on the subject. If he subsequently suffers from its attacks upon his fruit, his preconceived notions of Sparrow habits are still further modified; and when he finds that native birds decrease as the Sparrows increase, he is constrained to believe that possibly some of thosa who have testified to similar experiences '66 THE ENGLISH SPAEKOW IN AMERICA. were ueitber fools nor knaves. This leads to a reexamination of the facts on which he based his theories originally, and the result is ihat his former conclusions are reversed. Unfortunately, the men whose experience thus qualifies them to speak authoritatively on the subject are not often the men who can and will publish widely their observations and conclusions. JSTevertheless, such experiences have become so frequent in all parts of the country during the last few years that the weight of public opinion, especially among agriculturists, is very decidedly against the Sparrow. Since 1880 this change of sentiment has been marked. Uffect of legislation.— Little or no protective legislation has been enacted ; many of the laws formerly protecting the Sparrow have been repealed ; and in most cases such city regulations as have not been modified have become practically dead-letters. Moreover, bounties have been offered by some towns and counties, and by one State (Michigan), which now pays a bounty of 1 cent per head on English Sparrows. The question of the expediency of bounties is discussed elsewhere, and it is sufficient here to remark that as a rule they do not give satisfactory results. The repeal of protective acts, however, certainly has done much to check the increase of the Sparrow, since it allows persons so disposed to wage open warfare on the bird. So long as it was protected by law little effective action could be taken toward its destruction, though much was done to prevent its increase. SJiooting, poisoning, trapping, nest destroying. — The filthy habits of the Sparrow about buildings everywhere, early led to the use of wire netting or some other protective device about cornices, window casings, etc., while all openings in which it could nest were carefully closed up. Later, these points were kept in mind when planning new buildings, and no available cavities were left. Many people removed the boxes originally put up for the Sparrow as soon as they became familiar with its habits and saw the danger to be expected from its increase. For the same reason food which was lavishly furnished at first was afterward with- held, and the birds were comijelled to shift for themselves. Where oruamenlal vines were disflgui'ed by filth and nesting rubbish the nests were sometimes torn down or the birds driven away by disturbing them repeatedly at night, though there is no doubt that in many cases they remained undisturbed in such places owing to the belief that any other course would be at tlie risk of prosecution by the town or city authori- ties. Such frequent interruption in its domestic affairs naturally did much to prevent the most rapid increase of the Sparrow, but as such efforts were mainly isolated, and affected only certain restricted localities, they had little permanent effect. A Sparrow's preferences are one thing and its necessities another, and when persecuted in one place it has always KESTKICTION BY TRAP AND GUN. 37 been easy to tind anotber ■where, for a time at least, it could rest un- disturbed. In towns and cities where no direct protective legislation existed other methods of limitation, such as trapping, shooting, and poisoning, were possible, but in most cases these methods were limited practically by such city ordinances as forbid the iise of fire-arms within city limits, or the use of poisons without special permission. Trapping can be success- fully practiced only by a few persons who have the requisite knowledge and appliances, and there is little evidence that the numbers of Sparrows have been much lessened in this way. Much interesting information as to the best methods of trapping Sparrows will be found in the report of Mr. W. T. Hill on this subject. In spite of the fact that during the two years ending October 1, 1887, Mr. Hill trapped upwards of 40,000 Spar- rows in Indianapolis, Ind., they are still superabundant there, though said to be considerably less numerous than formerly, especially about the grain elevators, warehouses, etc., his particular field of operations. The birds thus trapped have been used for the most part in shooting matches. We know of instances in which a single garden or estate has been kept fairly free from Sparrows by continual shooting and the system- atic destructiou of nests and eggs. Thus Mr. Albert H. Phelps, of West Pawlet, Vt., wrote in 1881 : On this farm they have beeu destroyed by breaking up the uosts and by shooting for two successive years, and now they do not come here. They are abundant, however, on neighboring farms where they have been undisturbed. So long as they are destroyed only in a few places they must be fol- lowed up every year and not allowed to regain a foothold or they will soon become as numerous as ever. In September, 1886, Mr-, William Kaucher, of Oregon, Mo., wrote: They are all shot every spring, but others come in to take their places later. Sev- enty-five or eighty were thus killed in our court-house park last spring. About a year later (November 14, 1887) Mr. Kaucher wrote : A war of extermination was waged by our citizens against the Sparrows, beginning early in the spring and extending into .June, when they were all killed. They are coming in now from other places, but the same course will be followed next year in regard to them. Now, if communities around us could be induced to do the same tiling, they could he kept in subjection, if not altogether destroyed. Under date of March 2, 1888, Mr. Kaucher again wrote to the Com- missioner of Agriculture as follows : Our city council lately made au appropriation for the purchase of powder for tho purpose of killing sparrows. Our sportsmen availed themselves of the opportunity thus afforded, and within the past ten days have killed nearly all that could bo found. Something of this kind seems better than the use of poisoned grain. Similar testimony lias been received from a few other places, while individual efforts to exterminate the birds have been quite common, but from the nature of the case only temporarily successful. In places where the first few pairs of Sparrows have been shot or driven away on 38 TUE ENGLISH SPARROW IN AMERICA. tbcir apiiearance, it seems to have been compaiatively easy to keep otliers away as they came, for the Sparrow is naturally observant and suspicions, and only grows bold and aggressive as its nambers become formidable or its position assured. To judge from the reports of our correspondents, poison has not been used very generally, and when used it has not always given satisfac- tory results. vStill, undoubtedly it has had some effect in restricting the pest, and oftentimes the apparent failure of an experiment has been due to the imperfect methods of administering the poison. This sub- ject is discussed in another place, and it need only be remarked hero that the judicious use of poison in winter, especially in Ndrthern cities, will probably afford one of the simplest solutions of the Sparrow prob- lem. The following exami)les of tefetimony serve to show that Sparrows are kept more or less in check in some i)laces through the efforts of in- dividuals, and mainly by the use of the gun. From T. D. Barron, Saint Clair, Mich. : I liave kno-wn of almost entire flocks teing killed by persistent shooting in the winter, when they are driven to the barn-yards for food. (October 7, 1886.) From H. F. Barrell, New Providence, K". J. : I shoot all I see on my premises in the spring ; consequently I have very few. (Au- gust, 1886. From A. H. Wood, Painted Post, N. T.: Some are shot, a few poisoned by strychnine, but the increase is principally re- stricted by destroying the nests. (August 10, 1886.) From Adolph Leue, Cincinnati, Ohio : I have shot a great many, but it seemed to do no good. (October 12, 1886.) From Dr, H. D. Moore, New Lexington, Somerset County, Pa.: The shotgun has been our only remedy for them. By shooting a part the remain- der become shy, and sometimes all leave for weeks at a time. (December, 1885.) From J. F. C. DuPre, Abbeville C. H., South Carolina : On ray own place within twelve mouths I have killed over five hundred Sparrows by shooting them with shot cartridges from a 32-caliber rifle. This makes a small re- port iind does not frighten the birds, but it is expensive. (August 30, 1887.) From Eev. Henry Fairbanks, Saint Johnsbury, Yt.: A few hundred were shot last summer, but only a private bounty has been paid for their destruction. (February 5, 1884.) From W. W. Gilman, Stoughtou, Dane County, Wis.: For two or three years past people have been allowed to shoot them inside the city limits for a period of ten to fourteen days during the brooding season, and this sum- mer they turued the hose on their nests and washed them out. (August 30, 1886.) Use of Ihe Sparrow for food. — During the last half dozen years Sparrows have been used as an article of food in many places in this country, as they have been in Europe for centuries, and the demand for them for this purpose has doubtless lessened their numbers somewhat BRITISH FARMERS ASTONISHED. 39 in and about a few cities. The following examples of testimony illus- trate this point. From J. Percy Moore, Philadelphia, Pa.: Imraenso numbers are killed in the autumn, when feeding on the seeds of reeds in the marshes, and prepared and sold as reed-birds by the restaurants. (September 27, 1886.) In Albany, N. Y., Sparrows were regularly quoted in the market re- ports during tlio fall of 1887, bringing $1 per hundred, or 25 cents per dozen. The following extracts from tbe Albany Express show that the birds are appreciated there : Sparrows are still a feature of the market, and oue Albany lad, Charles Lambert by name, shot one hundred and thirty-five of the little pests Saturday, out of a single flock of about five hundred, on the outskirts of the city. A well-known game and poultry dealer took in one thousand seven hundred of them last week and sold about all. Yesterday the same man disposed of two hundred. (November 7, 1«87. ) The Albany youth are still waging war on the Sparrows, and they are all gradually being driven from the city. Oue game and poultry dealer in town has thus far bought and then sold to others about three thousand eight hundred of the little pests. They make excellent pot-pie and are regarded as excellent eating by those who have made the trial. The flavor is said to be somewhat like that of reed-birds and much superior to quail. (November 18, 1887.) It will appear from the foregoing statements, and still more forcibly from an examination of the testimony on which they are based, that although man originally did much to aid in the increase and spread of the Sparrow, he has done comparatively little as yet to restrain this increase and lessen or prevent the evil which his ignorance and thought- lessness have caused. How the farmers of Great Britain regard the Sparroxc. — The very fact that in Europe the good and bad characteristics of the Sparrow had been discussed for centuries without any absolute settlement of the question should have made us cautious in iutroducing it to America; and when, later, the calamitous results of its introduction to Australia and New Zealand became evident, steps should have been taken at once to prevent its further spread in this country. The following state- ment of Mr. Jabez Webster, a practical nurseryman and fruit-grower, serves to show how much trouble might have been ijrevented by a little intelligent inquiry among the farmers of the Sparrow's native land, be- fore bringing the bird to our shores. Mr. Webster writes: After twenty-two years' residence in the United States I visited England, Scotland, and Wales, traveling and observing in most of the counties of England and sister countries. I found that intelligent agriculturists and horticulturists everywhere I went were astonished that the American people should have introduced so destructive and worthless a bird into their country. Oue gentleman in the county of Norfolk said that in that county they had been spending money to destroy Sparrows for fifty years, and still had to spend money. I found the same opinion prevailed among well- informed persons in country and town in Bedfordshire, Huntington, Stafford, War- 40 THE ENGLISH SPARROW IN AMERICA. wiokshirc, Yorkshire, Lauoaaliire, in Scotland and Wales, and in tlio great small- fruit counties of Surrey and Kent. (Ceutralia, 111., December 21, 188C.) There cau be no question that a thoasancl times as much energy and money have been spent already in fighting Sparrows in America as were expended in introducing and caring for them at first, but the results of the efforts in the two cases are painfully disproportionate. The magnitude of the evil and the absolute necessity of taking active and comprehensive measures for its abatement will be better understood after an examination of the following seven sections which precede the recommendations which we hope may lead finally to the extermination of the European House Sparrow in America. INJUEY TO BUDS, BLOSSOMS, AND FOLIAGE, The direct evidence as to the alleged injury to buds, blossoms, and foli- age by the Sparrow comes from 31 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and consists of reports from 584 observers. Of these, 265 al- lege positive damage of varying kind and degree; 12 are indeterminate; and the remaining 307 are favorable to the Sparrow, at least negatively, inasmuch as they report no damage of this kind observed. By far the greater part (294) of these negative reports, however, have little weight, being brief, often monosyllabic, negatives written in reply to the schedule questions, without anything to indicate the extent or closeness of the writer's observation. Less than one twentieth — scarcely more than a dozen reports, in fact — indicate that, in spite of good ogportunities and careful observation, no injury to buds or foliage has been noted. Ninety observers report injuries to foliage of vines, shrubs, and trees through the Sparrow's roosting or nesting in them in large numbers. One hun- dred and twelve report injuries from the eating or wanton destruction of buds and blossoms of fruit trees. Forty-six report injuries to buds of other kinds; and thirty- four report injuries to trees or vines without specifying the nature or extent of the damage. INJURY BY FILTH. The question of injury by filth can hardly be called a question at all, as it is one of the points against the bird which is universally conceded, even by its stanchest friends. It is perfectly safe to say that in every town or city in the Union where Sparrows are really abundant very many ornamental trees and vines are annually injured from this cause alonej and the statement that such damage is not known at any point may be taken as conclusive evidence that the Sparrow is by no means abundant there. A few scores of Sparrows may roost constantly in a large vine or group of trees without doing material injury, but when, as is frequently the case, several hundreds or even thousands roost together, so that the vines or branches are actually crowded with them, the beauty of the foliage is seriously marred or altogether destroyed and the life of the trees or vines is endangered. VEGETATION INJURED BY FILTH. 41 A few examples will suffice to illustrate this statement. Mr. Eobert Eidgway, Ornithologist of the Smithsonian Institution, says: It is injurious to oruamental vines, etc., by the chemical action of its excrement. The luxuriant English ivy which once obvoreil portions of the Smithsonian building was thus totally destroyed. Dr. Prank H. Braymer, of West Pawlet, Vt., under date of August 31, 1886, writes: All evergreen trees and hedges are injured by thebirds roosting in them. Theleaves drop oif and in many instances largo sections of a hedge die. Ernest D. Wintlo, of Montreal, Canada, writes: They build their nests in the vines that are trained against walls of houses here, and tho vines are killed by the large quantity of nesting material and by the excrc- racnt from the birds. (September 20, 18S6.) Other reports are : From Fred. &. Odle, Lapeer, Mich.: There arc two largo maplo trees in our town which are particular haunts of tho Spprrow, and which they have nearly ruined. From L. M. Mottweiler, Georgetown, Ind.: It injures trees and vines by roosting iu them. I had to cut away my ornamental trees on account of (ho number of Sparrows near tho house. They now roost in my grape-viues. From Charles H. Lawton and John J. Peckham, Newport, K.. I.: It i'jjnros hardy ivies on buildings, also pine trees. Wo know of parties who have had to cut down trees on account of the Sparrows. From William Saunders, superintendent of garden and grounds of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C: They seriously disfigure ornamental vines by their nests and droppings. Ampelop- sis Veitehii affords them one of tho best nesting and roosting places, and smflfers cor- respondingly. The damage occasioned to vines iu which large numbers of Sparrows nest is too well known to require comment, but the following statement will give some idea of the numbers which nest in such vines when fa- vorably situated. Eli W. Blake, 3d, of Providence, E. I., says : During iho season of 1884, from April 22 to June 27, inclusive, I took, in com- pauy with a friend, 995 Sparrows' eggs from the ivy covering the walls of St. Stephen's Church, on George street, in this city. I did not count the nests, but estimate the num- ber at about fifty-five or sixty » • * I have I'cason (o suppose that eggs were occasionally taken during this period with- out my know]e