^m fotk 
 
 H^tt QJoUege of Agriculture 
 
 At a^amtll InlaetBitg 
 Strata, Sf. 5. 
 
 Slibrarg 
 
LB1025.Ml'66"""''""'""-"'"^ 
 
 Jlje method of the recitation, 
 
 3 1924 013 067 529 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013067529 
 
THE METHOD OF THE 
 RECITATION 
 
JT^^ 
 
THE METHOD 
 
 OF 
 
 THE RECITATION 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES A. McMURRY, Ph.D. 
 
 DIRECTOR OF PRACTICE DEPARTMENT, NORTHERN ILLINOIS 
 NORMAL SCHOOL, DE KALB, ILLINOIS 
 
 FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING, TEACHERS 
 COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 WeSn gflrfs 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
 1916 
 
 Ail rights reurvei 
 
'COPVBIGHT, 1897, 
 
 Br. C. A. McMURRY and F. M. McMURRY. 
 
 Copyright, 1903, 
 By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
 Set up, electrotypcd, and published Januaiy, 1903. Reprinted 
 June, twice, September, 1903 : JantnTy,Febraaiyi I9a4i March, 
 June, 1905: March, July, 1906 ; April,October, Becember, 1908: 
 July, igog ; July, December, 1910 ; July, 1911 ; June, 19x3 ; 
 January, 1913 ; January, 1914: July, 1914; June, 1915: December, 
 19x6. 
 
Beticatet) to 
 JOHN W. COOK 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE NORTHERN ILLINOIS NORMAL SCHOOL 
 DE KALB, ILLINOIS 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The Method of the Recitation has sprung out of 
 school-room work, and is designed to be a practical 
 application of the principles of method to the various 
 problems of class-room instruction. It is an effort to 
 bring together and to organize the various principles 
 that control skilful teaching. 
 
 It is based fundamentally upon the inductive- 
 deductive thought movement in acquiring and using 
 knowledge. 
 
 This organized plan of laying out recitation work 
 was first projected by the thinkers of the Herbart 
 school in Germany. For more than thirty years 
 they have been developing and applying it under the 
 - title " The Formal Steps of Instruction " {Die forma- 
 len Stufen des Unterrichts). Formerly Dr. T. Ziller 
 at Leipzig was a leader in the movement, and more 
 recently Dr. W. Rein at Jena. They worked out 
 their theory and applied it with proficiency to a large 
 variety of topics in different studies, thus showing 
 the flexibility of leading principles under various 
 forms of application. 
 
 vii 
 
VIU PREFACE 
 
 The Method of the Recitation is based upon the 
 principles of teaching which were expounded and 
 illustrated in the work of Herbart, Ziller, and Rein. 
 At the same time, the authors hope to have shown 
 in the body of the work that we have to do here with 
 principles recognized by teachers in every land, and 
 that there is no thoughtless imitation of foreign 
 methods and devices. While our debt to German 
 thinkers for an organization of fundamental ideas is 
 great, the entire discussion, as here presented, springs 
 out of American conditions ; its illustrative materials 
 are drawn exclusively from lessons commonly taught 
 in our schools. In fact, the whole book, while 
 strongly influenced by Herbart's principles, is the 
 outgrowth of several years' continuous work with 
 classes of children in all the grades of the common 
 school. 
 
 The Method of the Recitation may be regarded as 
 Part II of the broad subject of Method of which the 
 "General Method," published earlier, is Part I. The 
 latter book is a discussion of the leading principles 
 of education as they bear on the school curriculum, 
 and is designed to be preliminary to the definite 
 treatment of recitation work. 
 
 The final test of the value of any such effort to 
 organize the recitation must be found in the worth 
 of the actual lessons worked out in accordance with 
 
PREFACE IX 
 
 its principles. Two chapters, II and XI, are given 
 up to such typical lessons. Each topic or lesson 
 unity treated requires several or even many recita- 
 tion periods for its completion. 
 
 The authors have divided the work nearly equally 
 between them, Chapters I, II, except the illustration 
 " In unity is strength," Chapters IX, X, XI, and 
 XIII, except the parable of the tares, being written 
 by C. A. McMurry. Chapters III, IV, V, VI, VII, 
 and VIII, Chapters XII and XIV by F. M. McMurry. 
 
 The present edition has been completely revised 
 and supplied with marginal topics for better use as 
 a text-book. Considerable additions have been made 
 to the original edition and some changes made in the 
 division and arrangement of chapters. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGS 
 
 I. Variety versus Uniformity in Methods of 
 
 Instruction i 
 
 II. Illustrative Lessons showing the Processes 
 
 of reaching General Truths . . -13 
 
 III. How Individual and General Notions are 
 
 distinguished from Each Other ... 42 
 
 IV. Why General Notions or Concepts are the 
 
 Goal of Instruction . . . . .51 
 V. Do Generalizations precede or follow Indi- 
 
 ■ viDUAL Notions ? 64 
 
 VI. How Individual Notions should be ap- 
 proached . 74 
 
 VII. How Individual Notions should be presented i 18 
 VIII. How proceed from Individual to General 
 
 Notions 185 
 
 IX. How should General Notions be applied? . 207 
 
 X. The Value of Types 236 
 
 XI. Illustrative Lessons 257 
 
 XII. Laws underlying Processes in Teaching . 288 
 
 XIII. Applications and Criticisms .... 297 
 
 XIV. Lesson Plans 329 
 
METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 VARIETY VERSUS UNIFORMITY IN METHODS OF 
 INSTRUCTION 
 
 There has been a long-standing dispute among 
 teachers whether or not the processes of instruction 
 must conform to any fixed and uniform regulatives. 
 Among scholars, and even among teachers, many 
 have been sceptical of anything like a definite science 
 of education. 
 
 At the first glance, the broad field of education Reasons foi 
 presents a medley, — many and varied studies, chil- 40^3^^^"" 
 dren of all ages and capacities, and teachers of science of 
 
 education, 
 
 nearly every quality and description. There are 
 many sorts of schools, and great diversity of purpose 
 and method even in schools of the same kind. In 
 high schools, for example, there are general and 
 business courses, classical and scientific courses, but 
 teachers are at variance as to the best methods of in- 
 struction even in the classical course, to say nothing 
 of the different standpoints of teachers of classics 
 and of natural science. What is still more discourag- 
 ing, the very sciences upon which pedagogy claims 
 
METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Universal 
 principles of 
 method the 
 basis of a 
 science of 
 education. 
 
 to be based, psychology and ethics, lie as much in 
 the field of controversy as pedagogy itself. In the 
 midst of this endless variety and fluctuation in the 
 theory and practice of teaching, it is not strange that 
 many educated people, even teachers, take a scepti- 
 cal attitude toward scientific method, and regard each 
 person as a law unto himself. 
 
 This tendency to discredit a science of education is 
 indicated by our use of the term method. There is 
 scarcely a more common word in the teaching pro- 
 fession, and it is frequently employed in the plural 
 form, a practical admission not of one and only one 
 right method, but that their number is legion, Also 
 some of the most common watchwords of our pro- 
 fession point in the same direction, "Freedom and 
 originality," " The teacher is born, not made," " Make 
 your own method." 
 
 Our pedagogy seems to have fallen into a condi- 
 tion similar to that in which philosophy found itself 
 in the time of the Sophists. Each man's judgment 
 was counted as good as another's. Each man was 
 the measure of all things, and though two men dif- 
 fered radically, both might be right in their judg- 
 ments. The Sophists were sceptical of any universal 
 standard of truth. 
 
 But Socrates, who followed the Sophists, sought in 
 the individual's thinking, when properly guided, a 
 universal principle of truth, so that all men when 
 they think logically and soundly must agree. He 
 
VARIETY VERSUS UNIFORMITY 3 
 
 was in search of a uniform mode of thinking which 
 would have universal validity. Pedagogy likewise is 
 in search of universal principles of method in learn- 
 ing, based not upon the subjective whim of the 
 teacher, but upon the common law of mental action 
 which is universal with children and students, in fact 
 with all human beings. And the extent to which 
 such universal principles of method are discovered, 
 determines the extent to which there is a science of 
 education. 
 
 The question is this : Is there any essential, natural 
 process upon which a uniform method of treating the 
 varied school subjects can be based ? As already 
 said, to outward appearance there seems to be no 
 such process; there seem to be no principles that 
 may serve as a guide for all persons in teaching all 
 subjects. But we should not be discouraged by ap- 
 pearances. The fact that even good teachers show 
 an infinite variety of individual and personal traits, 
 and that studies differ greatly in subject-matter, is no 
 proof that there is not a common mode of procedure 
 for instruction. We remember that everywhere in 
 nature and in society is variety and apparent con- 
 fusion; fundamental laws do not stand out so as to 
 be easily detected by careless observers. They lie 
 deep and must be searched out by patient examina- 
 tion and labor. In the study of trees and flowers no 
 scientist is -deceived by the multiplicity and variety 
 of forms. It is the habit of his mind to reduce all 
 
4 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 varieties to common structural forms and simple 
 classes. 
 
 Hence, while there is a large element in teaching 
 that is always variable, according to the branch of 
 study and the differing personality of teacher or 
 pupils, may there not be essential uniformity ; some 
 great underlying principles of method ? 
 Economy of Could these principles be discovered, no one would 
 prhicipies. deny their value ; we are not so enamoured of indi 
 vidual freedom as to refuse submission to rational, 
 regulated processes. 
 
 Definite and valuable principles of action, while 
 they check one's freedom along foolish lines, guide 
 effort into the channels of efficiency. Too much free- 
 dom becomes positively oppressive. Whether travel- 
 ling over a continent or through a field of thought, 
 erecting a mansion, or developing a high moral char- 
 acter, whoever would keep his bearings and work 
 forward to an important end, must have a guide. 
 Whether it be a compass, a model, or an ideal, he 
 must look to it continually for direction. Any one 
 engaged in a work so important and difficult as teach- 
 ing is much in need of fixed principles which outline 
 for him the ideal of method. If convinced that no 
 one method is right, that no ideal can be set up, he 
 is like a sea captain who is persuaded that whatever 
 course he may choose for his vessel is at least possi- 
 bly good. He acknowledges the possession of no 
 standard of excellence, and sees chiefly fog in his 
 
VARIETY VERSUS UNIFORMITY 5 
 
 chosen course. He is subject, therefore, to half- 
 hearted action, for energy and encouragement are 
 not born of uncertainty and confusion. 
 
 No one, therefore, will object to a search for the 
 unity that may underlie the variety of good methods 
 in teaching. 
 
 Our text-books supply us with a definite formula- The uniform, 
 tion of methods of teaching. They are generally j^teL^booL^ 
 constructed out of the experience of the better teach- 
 ers and in conformity with those traditional ideas and 
 practices which are common to the great body of in- 
 structors. The examination and comparison of our 
 most widely used text-books in grammar, arithmetic, 
 history, geography, reading, etc., will show a uniform- 
 ity in at least one very important respect. 
 
 It may be said that our text-books in English gram- 
 mar are built on a single plan. As surely as an ordi- 
 nary dwelUng has parlor, sitting room, and kitchen, 
 so grammar has orthography, etymology, and syntax. 
 This is one kind of uniformity ; namely, that of lead- 
 ing topics in the subject-matter. But, what is more 
 to our purpose, the general truths contained in these 
 materials are singled out as the central aim of study. 
 In grammar everything culminates in the definitions 
 and rules, whose complete mastery gives us the scien- 
 tific grasp of the structure and meaning of language. 
 In most books even the method of reaching the rules 
 and definitions is stereotyped. Definitions, examples, 
 and applications constitute the regular order in the 
 
6 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 treatment of every topic. Green's grammar is an 
 Dlustration. Some of the more recent books have 
 modified the order of topics and have adopted an in- 
 ductive method of treatment ; but under all changes 
 the definitions and principles expressing the functions 
 of the parts of speech and the syntactical relations 
 of the elements of the sentence have remained the 
 central aim of instruction. 
 
 An examination of a score of the best arithmetics 
 in use will show a striking uniformity in the series of 
 important topics treated. The following series is 
 very familiar : the four fundamental operations, fac- 
 toring, common fractions, decimals, compound num- 
 bers, percentage, ratio, proportion, involution, and 
 evolution. But this external uniformity of subject- 
 matter is only a sign of that deeper-lying uniformity 
 which aims at the development and use of funda- 
 mental principles. The elementary general truths of 
 arithmetic lie at the basis of all the important topics 
 handled. The solution, analysis, and explanation of 
 problems are simply means for bringing the impor- 
 tant principles clearly to light. When the principles 
 can be explicitly stated and intelligently applied, the 
 essential aim of arithmetic has been reached. In 
 most books even the method of procedure in mas- 
 tering the rule is the same, first one or two simple 
 problems worked out and explained, then the rule, 
 followed by a series of applications growing more 
 complex and difficult. 
 
VARIETY VERSUS UNIFORMITY 7 
 
 In algebra and geometry the essential principles 
 which constitute the framework of these studies are 
 still more strikingly prominent as the aim of study. 
 While the methods of approach to principles vary 
 somewhat, the definitions, theorems, and proposi- 
 tions, when finally reached, are formulated in nearly 
 the same language. 
 
 In mathematics, therefore, as in grammar, instruc- 
 tion centres in the principles to be understood and 
 applied. All variations in method, whether induc- 
 tive or deductive, are different modes of presenting 
 these generalizations. 
 
 A comparative study of the leading common- 
 school geographies will show a similar agreement 
 in aim. No study is richer in the abundance and 
 variety of concrete material than geography, but 
 the books follow a strong traditional tendency and 
 are really modelled on a single plan. Not only the 
 outline of leading topics is the same, such as mathe- 
 matical geography, physical features of the continents, 
 the political divisions and populations, the chief occu- 
 pations, as agriculture, commerce, mining, and manu- 
 facturing, but in these topics the chief purpose is to 
 give a distinct emphasis to the general truths which 
 underlie all the variety of geographical detail. 
 
 Some of these truths, for example, are the follow- 
 ing : soil comes from rock ; slopes are necessary for 
 drainage, and drainage for farming; mountains 
 greatly influence temperature and rainfall; the 
 
S METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 roads of a country are an index of its civiliza. 
 tion ; great cities owe their growth largely to the 
 advantages of their location for transpcittation ; coal 
 and iron ore are the two most important mineral prod- 
 ucts ; climate and occupation greatly affect the char, 
 acter of a people. The location of points, the fixing 
 of boundaries, etc., are of use, to be sure, but interest 
 in geography centres primarily in such truths as these. 
 
 In history every important event is typical or repre- 
 sentative in character, setting forth a truth common 
 to many other events, or reappearing in the lives of 
 many persons. In Hamilton's life and thinking as a 
 statesman the notion of a strong central power of 
 government was potent. This idea appears, also, in 
 other statesmen, as in Webster, Washington, and 
 Lincoln, and has gradually become an idea common 
 to all patriotic Americans. The building of the old 
 national road was a particular event, but it illustrated 
 the principle of the right of the federal government 
 under the constitution to make internal improve- 
 ments. So every event in history, that is worth 
 learning, helps point the way to a more general 
 truth. History, therefore, has a large number of 
 general truths in store, and it is the deeper, broader 
 meaning of these general ideas which we seek, through 
 particular events, to disclose. 
 
 This statement may be accepted without commit- 
 ting one's self in favor of a philosophy of history, such 
 as that presented in Hegel's noted work bearing that 
 
VARIETY VERSOS UNIFORMITY 9 
 
 title. One may properly believe that sufficient data 
 for the broadest, deepest truths concerning human 
 progress are wanting, so that history cannot reveal 
 such truths, even to advanced students ; but one may 
 still feel convinced that it is the purpose of history 
 to present general truths' of a lower order, as those 
 just suggested. 
 
 Beginning reading is a study in which the mastery 
 and use of arbitrary symbols play a very important 
 part; yet there is a small nucleus of generaliza- 
 tion upon which the study is organized. In good 
 reading final consonants are enunciated with distinct- 
 ness; soft tones are heard; and the voice is modu- 
 lated in accordance with the thoughts expressed. It 
 is such abstract statements as these that the learner 
 must comprehend and apply before he can read well. 
 
 Finally, even spelling contains its rules. But 
 these, you say, are partly useless because of their 
 numerous exceptions. True ; and that is one of the 
 reasons why spelling fails to receive the respect ac- 
 corded to other studies. Its want of reliable rules 
 deprives it of scientific content, and it is regarded by 
 many persons as an evil, though a very necessary 
 one. It is not a full study. 
 
 In these various studies, therefore, we find the ten- 
 dency predominant to concentrate effort upon the 
 mastery of essential general truths. What is the 
 reason for such uniformity ? Is it simply blind cus- 
 tom, or have we been working out, consciously or 
 
10 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 unconsciously, a fundamental principle in education ? 
 
 Is it not the latter ? Whether conscious of it or not, 
 
 text-book makers have been laboring for the nearest 
 
 approach to a scientific statement and arrangement 
 
 of general truths that each of the studies would per- 
 
 ^ mit. And while there has been much glib talk about 
 
 /freedom and originality in teaching, the text-books 
 
 ^have held the great majority of teachers in a well- 
 
 ^ defined routine ; have led them to do practically the 
 
 J same things, and in essentially the same way. 
 
 The striking similarity that marks each large class 
 of text-books is one of the most noticeable character- 
 istics of our education, and is in clear contrast to that 
 variety of methods discussed at the beginning of this 
 chapter. Education gravitates into these channels of 
 generalized knowledge as surely as rivers work their 
 way through the lowlands. Even in a democratic 
 country where each community is free to adopt its 
 own system and method of education, where no hie- 
 rarchy of learned men in any way officially directs the 
 educational policy, we see an almost universal ten- 
 dency toward uniformity, based upon the broad sci- 
 entific principles of any study. 
 General If now we find that the ground for this uniformity 
 
 Itarting-point ^^ really a scientific idea, not only widely recognized, 
 method™f'''° ^^^ ^^^*^ ^^ psychology, we may fix a starting-point 
 instruction, for a sound pedagogy. The mastery of the general 
 truths of a study must remain the direct purpose of 
 instruction in each branch of knowledge. These 
 
VARIETY VERSUS UNIFORMITY II 
 
 truths are what are known in psychology as general 
 notions or concepts. They are the centres around 
 which the knowledge of any subject is grouped and 
 classified. It is the mastery of these rules and prin- 
 ciples, and the ability to apply them, that are con- 
 stantly aimed at in all the best school work. From 
 an examination of the psychologies we detect that 
 the treatment of the precept and the concept (the 
 particular and the general notion) furnishes two lead- 
 ing chapters of mental science. The process of learn- "' 
 ing as explained by all the psychologies culminates'' 
 in the general notion or concept. Psychology sup-' 
 plies, therefore, a strong support to our conclusion 
 as to the basis of scientific method. 
 
 It would not be difficult to show that all the higher 
 studies, as history, science, language, medicine, law, 
 etc., become organized under general notions or prin- 
 ciples ; in fact, the definition of science is " general- 
 ized, classified knowledge." 
 
 In the history of philosophy also the general no- 
 tion plays a r61e not less important than in these 
 other subjects. From the days of Socrates and Plato 
 on, inductive and deductive reasoning have set the 
 general notion as the centre of all thinking — as the 
 thing aimed at in induction, and as the basis of all 
 true deduction. When Herbert Spencer, therefore, 
 calls his most fundamental book " First Principles," 
 he has in mind those general truths which he at the 
 basis of his entire system of thought. 
 
12 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 In conclusion, we find that the general notion is a 
 ''pivotal centre of discussion not only in elementary 
 ''' and higher studies of all sorts, but also in the great 
 ' fields of psychology and philosophy. 
 
 It is not claimed that the method by which general 
 notions have been worked out in our text-books is 
 uniformly correct and valid. This is a question that 
 we are not called upon to settle at this point. Whether 
 or not an inductive or deductive approach to general 
 truths is the correct one, we can leave for further 
 >/ consideration. But one leading aim of instruction in 
 . every important study is a mastery, in the full sense, 
 -■ of its general truths. Without this basis no method 
 of instruction has any validity. It may be that the 
 method by which this aim can be best realized has 
 been so thoroughly misinterpreted and misapplied 
 that we have approached a uniformity of error in our 
 methods of teaching. It may be that definitions and 
 abstract formulae have been set too much in the fore- 
 front of every lesson, and also that systematically 
 formulated knowledge has been forced prematurely 
 into lower grades. Yet it is a great step in the right 
 direction to have fixed clearly the aim of instruction, 
 to have determined the goal toward which all proper 
 mental movement tends. Assuming that our con- 
 clusions thus far are justified, we may move on to a 
 discussion of the essential steps in a correct method 
 of instruction. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS SHOWING THE PROCESSES OF 
 REACHING GENERAL TRUTHS 
 
 In the first chapter, having located the goal of in- 
 struction in general notions and in their proper use, 
 the question, how to reach them, now becomes para- 
 mount. In the present chapter a number of lessons 
 is worked out to illustrate the different processes in 
 vogue for mastering general truths. In each exam- 
 ple two different methods are presented : first, that 
 common to many of our text-books and to the usual 
 practice of teachers ; and second, the fuller inductive 
 and developing method now followed in some schools. 
 
 The purpose of this chapter is not only to show 
 the two ways of reaching a comprehension of such 
 truths, but also to suggest other important phases of 
 recitation work. In the discussions of recitation 
 method which follow, these lessons may be kept in 
 mind as illustrating the principles under treatment. 
 
 The lessons are taken from different studies, — 
 arithmetic, geography, literature, natural science, and 
 history. They recognize generalizations as the goal 
 of instruction, but leave open the question as to 
 
 >3 
 
14 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 whether or not any further principles of method 
 may be found in the treatment of these various 
 materials. 
 
 The Addition of Fractions 
 
 In first learning to add fractions, one method of the 
 arithmetics is fairly illustrated by the following: — 
 What is the sum of 3%, ^f , and \% ? 
 
 Process : /^ + M + it = ^F^ = f f = ^if • 
 What is the sum of \\, \%, ^|, and ^ ? 
 What is the sum of |, ^, and {^ ? 
 
 Since unlike fractional 
 units cannot be added, re- 
 
 fduce the fractions 4, A. a-nd 
 
 28 33 91 43 15^' *° ^ common denomi- 
 t7 + ¥t + f¥ = ft=it?- nator and then add the 
 
 resulting fractions. 
 
 After ten or a dozen problems the following rule 
 is given : — 
 
 " To add fractions, reduce the fractions to a com- 
 mon denominator, add the numerators of the new 
 fractions, and under the sum write the common 
 denominator." 
 
 The following more detailed process is suggested 
 for consideration : — 
 
 How shall we add fractions whose denominators 
 are unlike } 
 
 What fractions have you already learned to add } 
 Try these, \ and |. | and |. ^ and ^. Can you 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS I5 
 
 add \ and ^ ? What change is necessary before add- 
 ing them? Why not add them in the same way as 
 the others ? How can you add one bushel and one 
 peck ? Change the bushel to pecks. Add two yards 
 and one foot. What change was necessary in both 
 examples ? 
 
 Add J and f ^ = |. | + 1 = |. Illustrate this 
 with a square divided into fourths and eighths. Add 
 f and ^^. Add ^ and |. What was done in all these 
 cases before adding .■' How shall we add ^ and ^ ? 
 How can you change the two fractions so that they 
 will be alike, that is, have the same fractional unit.' 
 Change them to twelfths. One-third equals how 
 many twelfths .' One-fourth equals how many 
 twelfths ? i + i = -^ + A = 1^- Illustrate this with a 
 sheet of paper folded into thirds, fourths, and twelfths. 
 
 Add I and J. What is the common fractional unit? 
 Itis^. |4-|=-^V-h^ = ^. 
 
 |and^ = ? i + ^=U + ^ = U=-^^- 
 Notice, now, what was done in each of these prob- 
 lems : J + i, f + i and I -f 3^. The fractions in the 
 first were changed to twelfths, in the second to tenths, 
 and in the third to twentieths. Was the value of the 
 fractions changed? But in each example the frac- 
 tions were changed to a common fractional unit, or a 
 common denominator. What was done to the numer- 
 ators ? In each fraction they were changed to cor- 
 respond with the change in the denominator. Then, 
 in adding, the numerators were added. 
 
l6 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Make a rule for adding fractions that will cover all 
 the cases so far worked : — 
 
 "To add these fractions, change the fractions to 
 equivalent fractions having a common denominator. 
 Add the numerators for a new numerator and use 
 the common denominator for the new denominator." 
 
 To acquire skill and accuracy in this kind of addi- 
 tion : — 
 
 1. Add oral problems as follows : — 
 
 *+f l+f- A+f- i+is- 
 
 2. For written work add such as these : — 
 
 3. Add mixed numbers as follows : — 
 
 Trade Centre in the Northwest — Minneapolis as a Type 
 
 This topic may be treated in two ways, briefly, as 
 in the geographies, or in a fuller inductive manner. 
 One of our grammar school geographies says : — 
 
 " Minneapolis, which adjoins St. Paul, so that the 
 two are called the 'Twin Cities,' manufactures more 
 flour than any other city in the world, its capacity 
 being 40,000 barrels a day. The two cities have had 
 a remarkably rapid growth." 
 
 Tilden's " Commercial Geography," which is very 
 much fuller on this topic than the regular geogra- 
 phies, says: — 
 
 "Minneapolis, on the Mississippi at the Falls of 
 St. Anthony, is the greatest flour-milling city in the 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 1 7 
 
 world, and one of the greatest lumber markets and 
 lumber-manufacturing centres in America. The 
 yearly output of the flour mills is nearly 10,000,000 
 barrels. Of this about one-third is shipped to foreign 
 countries, constituting about one-fourth of the total 
 flour export of the United States. In manufactur- 
 ing this flour the Minneapolis mills grind about 
 45,000,000 bushels of wheat annually. The Pills- 
 bury ' A ' mill is the largest flour mill in the world, 
 having a daily capacity of 7500 barrels. The saw 
 and planing mills of Minneapolis have an annual 
 output of the value of ^10,000,000, and the lumber 
 is manufactured into barrels, boxes, cars, wagons, and 
 many other products, aggregating a value twice as 
 great. In the decade 1 880-1 890 the population of 
 Minneapolis increased nearly fourfold." 
 
 The following is a much fuller treatment of Min- 
 neapolis in its important relations to the Northwest, 
 such as would require several recitations : — 
 
 We will inquire into the causes which make Min- Minneapolis 
 neapoHs an important city. 
 
 Where is it and what have you heard about it.' 
 Why is it sometimes called the flour city .' What is 
 meant by the "Twin Cities".' Recall Hennepin's 
 trip on the upper Mississippi and what you know of 
 the Falls of St. Anthony. Can you tell something of 
 the wheat fields and pineries of Minnesota ? 
 
 St. Paul was an important trading-point and the 
 capital of the state before Minneapolis had a begin- 
 
l8 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 ning. Why should MinneapoUs spring up only ten 
 miles away and soon become larger even than St. 
 Paul? The great water-power of the Falls is the first 
 answer. How can water from a river be used to run 
 a mill ? Where have you seen a mill run by water- 
 power.? Describe the water-wheel, the dam, and 
 mill-race. At Minneapolis the water is carried by a 
 channel on the west side of the falls under the great 
 mills where it drops forty feet to the large turbine 
 wheels at the bottom, turning them and with them aU 
 the machinery of the mills. 
 Lumber. Along the upper Mississippi and its branches in 
 
 northern Minnesota are large pine forests. How 
 could the pine logs be brought to the sawmills at 
 Minneapolis? Some of the early settlers moved 
 northward into the pineries, cut down the trees in 
 winter and sent them floating down the streams to 
 the sawmills at Minneapolis. Soon large lumber 
 companies were formed with big sawmills at the 
 Falls, and owning extensive pine lands in the North. 
 In the winter time they sent scores of men to the log- 
 ging camps to get out the logs and float them down 
 in springtime to the mills. With the mills at Min- 
 neapolis came the families of the mill companies and 
 of the workmen, and thus a flourishing town sprang 
 up at the Falls. Great lumber yards with their stacks 
 of boards stretched along the river. 
 
 Some of this lumber would be used in building 
 up Minneapolis, but where would most of it be sent ? 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 1 9 
 
 The farmers were rapidly settling up the prairie 
 regions of the Northwest. Locate these prairies on 
 the map. In what directions from Minneapolis would 
 most of the lumber be sent ? For two or three hun- 
 dred miles to the west, southwest, and northwest from 
 Minneapolis the whole prairie land was rapidly taken 
 by settlers. How could this lumber be gotten best 
 to the new farms and villages } At first wagons were 
 used, but soon railroads were built across the prairies, 
 from St. Paul and Minneapolis, and car-loads of lum- 
 ber were sent out to the towns and distributed by 
 merchants to the farmers. As the lumber business 
 grew the whole upper Mississippi with its tributaries 
 became a network of streams and logging camps, 
 collecting logs for the mills at Minneapolis. Closely 
 connected with the sawmills were the planing mills 
 for preparing dressed lumber, sash, doors, moulding, 
 etc. Factories were also built for the manufacture 
 of furniture, barrels, wagons, and agricultural imple- 
 ments. All these products were distributed by the 
 railroads over the broad prairie regions of southern 
 and western Minnesota, Iowa, the Dakotas, and Ne- 
 braska. In short, Minneapolis, by reason of its favor- 
 able position on the river and its water-power, soon 
 became the chief centre of the lumber business of the 
 Northwest, collecting logs from the pine lands of the 
 North, working them up into lumber, furniture, etc., 
 and distributing them to the broad area of prairie states. 
 How would the prairie farmer pay for the lumber 
 
20 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 (Vheatand and other goods coming from St. Paul and Minnoi 
 °'^' apolis ? What is the leading crop of the Northwest ? 
 
 It was soon found that the prairies were well adapted 
 to the growth of wheat and other small grains. In a 
 few years the prairies, with the rich valley of the Red 
 River of the North, became one of the largest wheat- 
 producing districts in the world. How would the 
 farmers get their wheat and other grains to Minne- 
 apolis ? The water-power at the Falls was soon found 
 to be more valuable for flour mills than for sawmills. 
 In the lumber mills the sawdust supplied abundance 
 of fuel for the furnaces, so that they did not need the 
 water-power, and hence the latter was used for run- 
 ning the great flour mills that were now built at the 
 Falls. The same railroads which distributed lumber 
 to the prairies collected the wheat. In 1871 only 
 two car-loads of wheat were received in Minneapo- 
 lis. In 1887 the Great Western road alone brought 
 33,000,000 bushels of wheat to the elevators at Min- 
 neapolis. In 1896 250,000 barrels of flour were 
 ground here in a single week. In what directions 
 would this immense quantity of flour be shipped and 
 marketed .' What lake ports would receive much of 
 it for shipment by water ? Notice on a railroad map 
 the important railroad lines from the Twin Cities to 
 Duluth, Milwaukee, and especially to Chicago. Much 
 of this flour is shipped to Illinois, Ohio, etc., much to 
 Pennsylvania, New York, and New England, and 
 whole cargoes to Liverpool and Hamburg. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 21 
 
 Minneapolis has become a centre for the collec- 
 tion of enormous quantities of wheat from the wheat 
 regions of the Northwest, for its manufacture into 
 flour, and for its distribution by railways and water- 
 ways to the large populations of the Middle and 
 Eastern states and to Europe. The flour business, 
 like lumbering, has brought a large population and 
 increase of business to Minneapolis. 
 
 There is still a third line of business in Minne- whoiesais 
 apolis as important as the two already mentioned. 
 What goods from the Eastern states are shipped 
 into the two cities for sale and distribution over 
 the Northwest ? Dry-goods, wholesale groceries, ma- 
 chinery, drugs, china and porcelain, glass, hardware, 
 tools and instruments, books and paper, and hun- 
 dreds of other products of Eastern factories and mills, 
 as well as those from Europe, are shipped to the 
 Twin Cities to be distributed over the Northwest. 
 Sum up, in a single statement, the three important 
 lines of traffic which have given Minneapolis its 
 importance as a trade centre. 
 
 Passing down the Mississippi in a steamboat from similar cWes 
 St. Paul, we notice at Wabasha, Winona, and La theriver.°*° 
 Crosse, at Dubuque, Davenport, and Rock Island, 
 great sawmills and lumber yards even as far as St. 
 Louis. An inquiry into the causes will show that the 
 St. Croix, the Chippewa, and the Black rivers are 
 lumber streams, bringing from the pineries of Wis- 
 consin great numbers of log rafts to the mills of all 
 
22 MEtHOD OP RECITATION 
 
 these cities. The railroads extending westward into 
 Iowa, Minnesota, and other states carry the lumber 
 from these river cities to the prairies. Large flour 
 mills are also found at most of these cities where 
 wheat is received from the regions of the West, is 
 milled and sent eastward as flour. 
 
 Compare now these cities along the upper Mis- 
 sissippi from Minneapolis to St. Louis ; note how they 
 differ in size, location, and importance. Note also 
 whether they are alike. Compare them as (i) to 
 having sawmills, and as to where the logs come from. 
 (2) Compare them as to the manufacture of flour 
 and the sources of the wheat. (3) Compare them as 
 centres for the wholesale trade in goods manufac- 
 tured in the East, and (4) as to advantages for river 
 trade north and south, and railroad traffic east and 
 west. 
 
 As a result of this comparison sum up the char- 
 acter of all the cities of the upper Mississippi as 
 trade centres. Like Minneapolis, they are all centres 
 for the lumber business, receiving logs from the 
 pineries, working them up into lumber, and distribut- 
 ing them to the prairies. They collect wheat from 
 the West, mill it, and distribute it to the East. They 
 are also centres for the wholesale trade in manufac- 
 tured goods. In short, the whole upper Mississippi 
 River, with its cities, forms one great link of com- 
 munication between the pineries of the North and 
 the prairies of the West, and also, by means of rail- 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 23 
 
 roads and lakes, between the populations of the East 
 and of the Northwest. Minneapolis is the chief 
 representative and type of this whole series of cities 
 on the upper Mississippi River. 
 
 But let us inquire if there are other important other manu- 
 centres of the lumber trade besides the cities of the ^^"ntees^ 
 Mississippi. Locate such cities on the Great Lakes 
 as Chicago, Milwaukee, Saginaw, Detroit, Buffalo, 
 Cleveland. Show where they get lumber and in 
 what directions it is sold and delivered. The Great 
 Lakes are found to be in the midst of extensive 
 pineries, while the cities mentioned are the trading- 
 points for collecting and distributing lumber south- 
 ward to the large populations of the Middle states. 
 What advantages has the city of Albany, N.Y., for 
 the lumber trade ? Canals connect the upper Hud- 
 son at Albany with Lake Champlain, Lake Ontario, 
 and Lake Erie. What advantages do these canals 
 oflfer for the lumber trade.' What cities of Maine 
 and New Brunswick are noted for lumbering.' 
 Where do they get the logs, and how and whither 
 is the lumber distributed .' What other cities of the 
 United States are important for trade in wheat and 
 flour.' What other cities of the United States are 
 located, like St. Paul and Minneapolis, at the head 
 of steamboat navigation on important rivers? Are 
 any of them noted for their water-power.' What 
 raw products are collected at Pittsburg .' What are 
 its factories.' Compare Pittsburg and Allegheny 
 
24 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 with St. Paul and Minneapolis, in advantage of 
 location, as trade centres for great staple products, 
 in manufactures, and in population. 
 
 In future geographical study the city of Minne- 
 apolis and the group of cities on the upper Missis- 
 sippi, of which it is the special type, may serve as a 
 standard of comparison in measuring the commercial 
 importance of other large trade centres. 
 
 Wisdom better than Gold 
 
 In bringing moral and religious ideas to the at- 
 tention of children, many teachers begin with some 
 general statement or proverb which serves as a text 
 for the lesson. If the teacher's purpose is to bring 
 out the idea of a selfish love of money and its evil 
 effects, such a proverb as "How much better it is 
 to get wisdom than gold," or "The love of money 
 is the root of all evil," is selected. Remarks are 
 made upon the truth of the proverb, and simple illus- 
 trations of the evil effects of the excessive desire for 
 money are presented. According to the same 
 method we have a number of books designed for 
 moral instruction, which contain short treatises or 
 sermons on points of moral conduct. These are 
 read to the school, commented upon, and perhaps 
 further but briefly illustrated. This plan seems to 
 many persons a short and easy way of presenting 
 moral truths to children. 
 
 Quite a different process of getting at a moral 
 
ItLUSTRATlVE LESSONS 2$ 
 
 truth is illustrated by the use of the story of the 
 Golden Touch, in Hawthorne's "Wonder Book." Here 
 we have simply a story full of interesting personal 
 detail, with no prominence at first given to the moral. 
 Toward the end of the narrative the moral idea may 
 be keenly felt, though not expressly stated in words. 
 The contrast in these two methods of bringing out 
 a generalization is striking. The first method de- 
 .scribed above gives at the start dogmatic statement 
 and prominence to the moral truth, while the method 
 of the story gives only a hint at the beginning of 
 the moral involved, but allows it to be developed 
 incidentally in the course of the narrative. A few 
 questions at the end of the story will bring out the 
 moral idea with great clearness. This narrative is 
 in its nature inductive, and its presentation to chil- 
 dren might take place as follows : — 
 
 How a King loved Gold and what came of it 
 
 Having so many things, why should kings wish 
 for anything more ? If you were a king what would 
 you wish for most? What would you wish for now 
 if you had your choice } We shall see in this story 
 that a certain king was given his choice of the thing 
 he most desired and what came of it. 
 
 Tell the story as given in the "Wonder Book" 
 (pages 5 5-60), which narrates how Midas came into 
 possession of the Golden Touch. Let the children 
 ask questions. Let the teacher answer as well as 
 
26 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 she can and ask others to bring out the significant 
 thoughts. The children should tell the story again 
 till they acquire skill and ease in its reproduction. 
 
 The following questions are suggested : — 
 
 What opinion have you of Midas, in the dungeon, 
 counting over his money ? How might he have spent 
 his time better.' When Quicksilver gave him his 
 choice, did Midas stop to think whether his wish 
 was wise or not.' 
 
 Tell the story of Midas while he had the Golden 
 Touch (pages 60-70). 
 
 When Midas found that he had the Golden 
 Touch, how did he feel and act ? When did he first 
 discover that the Golden Touch was not entirely 
 pleasant.' How many times did he find out later 
 that it was a cause of trouble ? What were the 
 worst things that happened to him because of the 
 granting of his wish .' How did Midas feel when he 
 found out just what the magic touch meant .' Could 
 he help himself in any way ? Did he have exactly 
 what he had wished for? What had he that he 
 didn't wish for and had not counted on ? What ' 
 could he have wished for better than the Golden 
 Touch .' How did he come to make such a mistake .' 
 If Quicksilver understood Midas's mistake at the 
 first, why did he not tell him of his foolish choice ? 
 What would have happened if Midas had not been 
 able to get rid of the Golden Touch ? Was he really 
 anxious to get rid of it ? What reasons had he for 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 2/ 
 
 being mqre anxious to be rid of it than he was in 
 the first place to have it ? 
 
 Tell the last part of the story (pages 70-74). 
 
 Did Midas waste any time in waiting to rid him- 
 self of his gold ? How much gold did he throw 
 away ? When he had sprinkled his little Marigold 
 and the roses back into life, in what respect was he 
 worse off or better off than at the beginning of the 
 story ? Do you think he would spend much time 
 in the future in the dungeon counting over his 
 money ? What lesson had he learned ? He was 
 a much wiser man than before. 
 
 Have you read stories before in which persons 
 were given a choice of anything they might wish? 
 Recall the story of Baucis and Philemon. 
 
 If the children are familiar with this story, let 
 them compare the choice of Midas with that of Bau- 
 cis and Philemon, and give reasons for thinking their 
 choice a better one. 
 
 Why did they not choose gold as did Midas ? By 
 choosing wisely, what other good fortune did they 
 receive ? Recall also the story of Solomon and his 
 choice. What did Solomon get besides what he 
 asked for ? Why was his choice more sensible than 
 Midas's ? Did Solomon have any reason for regret- 
 ting his choice .■• How was it with Baucis and Phile- 
 mon ? Is it a good thing in choosing to prefer money 
 or wealth before other things ? What things are 
 more valuable than money ? In the stories referred 
 
28 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 to, what things prove most valuable in the end? 
 What least? Recall Proverbs xvi. i6, "How much 
 better it is to get wisdom than gold." 
 
 Do you know what a miser is ? Of what value is 
 money to such a person ? What are some of the 
 most valuable things that boys and girls may choose 
 to-day ? In the choice of friends and companions, is 
 there much danger of making a mistake? Should 
 wealth have much to do with it ? 
 
 The usual social life of the school offers many 
 opportunities for illustrating and applying such les- 
 sons as are found in the Golden Touch. The lessons 
 in reading and history may also supply good com- 
 parisons. 
 
 The Metamorphosis of Butterflies — The Milkweed 
 Butterfly as a Type 
 
 One of the older zoologies gives the following 
 description of the order Lepidoptera, to which the 
 butterfly belongs : — 
 
 "This well-known and most beautiful of all the 
 orders of insects comprises the butterflies and moths, 
 the former being active by day (diurnal) and the 
 latter mostly by twilight (crepuscular) or at night 
 (nocturnal). In all the Lepidoptera the mouth of the 
 adult insect is purely suctorial and is provided with a 
 spiral trunk fitted for imbibing the juices of flowers. 
 The wings are four in number, and are covered more 
 or less completely with modified hairs or scales, which 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 39 
 
 are pretty objects under the microscope, and from 
 which the wings derive their beautiful colors. The 
 larvae of the Lepidoptera are generally known as 
 caterpillars. They are wormlike, provided with mas- 
 ticatory organs, fitted for dividing solid substances, 
 possessing false legs in addition to the three pairs 
 proper to the adult, and having attached to the under 
 lip a tubular organ or spinneret, by which silken 
 threads can be manufactured." (Nicholson.) 
 
 In the above lesson we have a verbal description 
 of the whole class of butterflies to be studied and 
 learned by the student. 
 
 The following treatment of the milkweed butterfly 
 is based upon the idea of observation by the children, 
 questions, comparison of data, collections, and con- 
 clusions drawn from direct experience with the objects 
 studied. The method of question and discussion can 
 be indicated only in part : — 
 
 In your previous observations in the fields and 
 roads, tell of the habits of those butterflies which you 
 have seen, their peculiar flight, whether they have 
 been noticed on flowers or in damp places. What 
 butterflies are you most familiar with ? What is their 
 food .' Do you know what the butterflies come from .' 
 Have you seen the chrysalis of a butterfly and 
 watched its change ? What was its form before it 
 became a chrysalis ? Does it seem possible that a 
 butterfly could come from a caterpillar ? Have you 
 noticed that certain butterflies prefer a certain kind 
 
30 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 of plants, and what the caterpillars feed upon ? Do 
 caterpillars grow larger and change ? 
 
 For a closer understanding of the changes that 
 take place in a caterpillar and in other forms we 
 will follow the life and changes of the milkweed but- 
 terfly from the laying of the eggs to the full-sized 
 insect in its later life. (Samuel H. Scudder's " Life 
 of a Butterfly " will be very helpful to teachers in 
 telUng where and when to look and in explaining 
 many facts derived from fuller scientific studies, 
 published by Henry Holt & Co., New York.) The 
 principal facts, many of which can be observed by 
 teacher and children, are briefly told as follows : — 
 Stages. As early as April or later in summer the butterfly 
 
 deposits its eggs (shaped like a sugar loaf, one- 
 twentieth of an inch in height) on the under or pro- 
 tected side of the upper and tender leaves of the 
 milkweed. The eggs hatch out in from three to five 
 days, depending on the warmth of the weather. As 
 soon as the little caterpillar gets out of the egg it 
 turns and eats the shell, and then begins to feed on 
 the green leaf of the milkweed. It is a great eater, 
 and as its food is always at hand it spends most of its 
 time eating and resting, day and night. (Let the 
 children notice these facts as far as possible, and 
 observe whether it is careful to stay on one side of 
 the leaf.) In a day or two after hatching, the cater- 
 pillar makes its first moults or sheds its skin. It 
 grows so fast that its skin splits off and it comes out 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 3t 
 
 in a new, shining coat. Three other moults follow 
 before it reaches its full growth, lasting in all at least 
 eleven day^s, but usually longer. When full grown 
 "the caterpillars are striking objects, cylindrical, 
 plump, naked worms, growing to the length of nearly 
 two inches, with transverse bands of yellow and 
 black." (Scudder.) 
 
 " Then comes the change to the chrysalis, to seek 
 a good place for which the caterpillar usually leaves 
 the plant (though I have found the chrysalis hanging 
 pendant from the leaf) and seeks some such stable 
 place as the under side of a fence rail, or a jutting 
 rock, from which to suspend. Here it hangs for a 
 variable period — two to fourteen days, according to 
 ':he season and temperature, and perhaps the expos- 
 ure." "At last the golden spots (on the chrysalis) 
 begin to lose their brilliancy, and the beautiful green 
 disappears; the orange wings of the imprisoned 
 butterfly now become visible through its temporary 
 sarcophagus, which it bursts open on the following 
 day, and the liberated insect soon takes wing to join 
 its comrades, select its mate, and pass the happy 
 hours of a brief existence in revelling in the sweets 
 of the flowers among which it sprang into being." 
 (Peale, quoted by Scudder.) 
 
 The milkweed butterfly is one of the commonest 
 and most widely distributed of our butterflies. Col- 
 lect two or three specimens from the meadows, 
 noticing meanwhile their flight, places of lighting. 
 
organs. 
 
 32 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 size, and color. It measures four or five inches from 
 tip to tip of its wings. It has two pairs of large 
 orange-colored wings trimmed in black. But the 
 margins are dotted with white. The veins on the 
 wings and the body of the insect are black dotted 
 with white spots. " Of easy, quiet flight when undis- 
 turbed, often sailing smoothly with widespread 
 wings, yet ever ready to do battle with a tempestu- 
 ous wind, a reckless adventurer in its contrasted 
 livery of orange and black, it seems the very beau- 
 ideal of the contented, happy-go-lucky butterfly." 
 Special The organs of the butterfly worthy of special 
 
 study are the wings, the eyes, the tongue, the scales, 
 and the legs. A close examination of the delicately 
 formed and beautiful wings gives us a striking view 
 of nature's handiwork. An interesting question has 
 arisen whether the butterfly can see clearly, and 
 whether it does not direct its movements more by 
 smell and touch than by sight. The tongue, coiled 
 up like a delicate watchspring, is formed by fasten- 
 ing together two long, hairlike half-tubes. These, 
 when uncoiled and properly joined, form a long, 
 slender, tubelike tongue, with which the butterfly 
 reaches down into the cups of clover, milkweed, and 
 thistle blossom, and draws up honey for its food. The 
 scent scales are of peculiar importance, and the pro- 
 tective coloring of caterpillars, chrysalides, and butter- 
 flies, by which they manage to escape their enemies, 
 has been studied with much interest by entomologists. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 33 
 
 At all the three stages, of egg, caterpillar, and 
 chrysalis, the insect is in danger from open and se- 
 cret enemies. The great majority of eggs are proba- 
 bly eaten before hatching out, by spiders and large 
 insects, and by small parasites. The caterpillars are 
 in constant danger from spiders, crickets, and bugs, 
 from birds and reptiles, and from the parasitic flies 
 that lay their eggs in the grubs and destroy many. 
 
 The milkweed butterfly is found in summer as far 
 north as Hudson Bay, and throughout all parts of 
 the United States where the milkweed grows. It is 
 supposed to be properly a tropical insect. In sum- 
 mer it is believed to migrate northward with the sea- 
 son, and in some cases south of parallel thirty-one, 
 to come out again in the spring to lay eggs, while 
 many probably migrate southward to warmer regions 
 to continue their butterfly life. It is claimed that 
 the insect may pass the winter in the egg state, as a 
 caterpillar, a chrysalis, or as a full-grown butterfly. 
 
 During the same season what other butterflies do other 
 you see commonly along the roads and fields ? Find "*'* "' 
 in the garden some of the cabbage butterflies. Try 
 to find the eggs and caterpillars. Watch their devel- 
 opment and see if they go into the chrysalis state. 
 Watch any of the common caterpillars and notice the 
 plant on which they feed, the moulting, and the suc- 
 cessive changes till maturity is reached. See if differ- 
 ent butterflies get their food in the same way. 
 
 In comparing the different common caterpillars 
 
34 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 and butterflies observe the different plants and flow, 
 ers on which they feed, the varying localities in which 
 they are found, the differences in size, coloring, and 
 mode of flight. Compare the whole period of devel- 
 opment in one butterfly with the similar period in 
 another species. Can we mark distinct correspond- 
 ing stages in all the butterflies observed? Do we 
 find corresponding organs and modes of feeding in 
 the different caterpillars and also in the butterflies ? 
 
 What is the outcome of this comparison of the full 
 life history of different species of butterflies ? Briefly 
 stated, it is that four distinct stages are clearly marked 
 in the life of all the specimens observed and studied : — 
 
 I. The egg. 2. The caterpillar with its moultings. 
 3. The chrysalis or quiescent condition. 4. The full- 
 winged butterfly. The mode of life in each of the 
 two active stages is very similar in different cater- 
 pillars and butterflies. 
 
 We have examined, however, only a few different 
 species of butterflies. In your future excursions ob- 
 serve the caterpillars, chrysalides, and butterflies, 
 with their life habits and changes, and see if your 
 previous conclusions are correct. Notice also the life 
 and metamorphosis of other insects, as moths and 
 flies, and discover whether similar changes occur. 
 
 In Unity is Strength 
 
 This is one of the most important truths taught in 
 history. A deep conviction as to its value led to the 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 35 
 
 confederation of the colonies during the Revolution- 
 ary War, to the adoption of the Constitution soon after, 
 and to the Civil War. As a political doctrine it has 
 always been bitterly opposed by extremists in favor 
 of states' rights. But the future security of our gov- 
 ernment and the welfare of our people are so greatly 
 dependent upon its universal acceptance and practi- 
 cal realization in our laws, that it should be as care- 
 fully taught in history as are the laws of gravitation 
 in physics. The portion of our history that, by con- 
 trast, most forcibly teaches this proverb is the period 
 immediately following the peace of 1783. Barnes* 
 devotes to it not quite one page, under the head- 
 ing, "Weakness of the Government." He states that 
 under the Articles of Confederation Congress could 
 recommend, but not enforce; that bitter jealousies 
 existed among the several states; that there was a 
 popular desire to let each state remain independent ; 
 that a heavy debt had been contracted, which 
 Congress was unable to pay; that people rebelled 
 against payment of taxes ; and that in these 
 circumstances many of the best men of the land 
 felt the need of a stronger national government. 
 This is a typical text-book treatment of the mat- 
 ter. No direct reference is made to the above 
 proverb, but the same general truth is inferred 
 from a brief statement of several important 
 facts. 
 
 I « Brief History of United States," p. 142. 
 
36 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Following is the more detailed and more inductive 
 treatment of this idea of unity : — 
 
 Let us consider what prevented the union of the 
 thirteen colonies from breaking to pieces shortly af- 
 ter the close of the Revolutionary War. 
 
 What had caused their union in the first place? 
 How long had it lasted ? Was it effective ? In what 
 respects was it defective ? 
 
 Even during the Revolutionary War, when there 
 were the weightiest reasons for close union, the colo- 
 nists were not fully united. Congress had failed to 
 raise sufficient money, to levy sufficient troops, to act 
 with decision, etc. What was the cause of these de- 
 fects ? Congress was not endowed with large powers. 
 But why not? Because the individual states were 
 unwilling to surrender important rights to any cen- 
 tral authority. What reasons, then, can be given for 
 dissolving the Union at the close of the war ? The 
 war was finished on account of which the Union was 
 formed. Also, each state wished to seciure to itself 
 all power possible. 
 
 Let us see what facts changed this feeling : — 
 
 I. According to the conditions of the treaty the 
 states were to protect loyalists, restore to them prop- 
 erty confiscated, destroyed, etc. Who was to attend 
 to this ? Congress. But Congress did not have suffi- 
 cient power. What must have been the result ? The 
 conditions of the treaty would not be fulfilled. Would 
 England, then, be bound to observe the treaty ? What 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 3/ 
 
 effect would this weakness of Congress have upon 
 the general opinion entertained in foreign countries 
 in regard to our own country ? 
 
 2. At the close of the war most of the European 
 nations were anxious to enter into commercial agree- 
 ments with the United States. But when they saw 
 the weakness of Congress, what assurance could they 
 feel that such agreements would be fulfilled on our 
 part ? Effect ? 
 
 3. The states together had contracted a war debt 
 of about iJS 1 50,000,000. They were already poor, and 
 little inclined to levy taxes in order to pay it. Con- 
 gress, too, had no power to force payment from them. 
 What effect would that have upon our credit at home 
 and abroad .'' 
 
 4. When the Massachusetts legislature, in spite of 
 much opposition, attempted to levy taxes for the 
 general government, a serious rebellion was kindled, 
 known as Shays's Rebellion. Congress did not inter- 
 fere. Can you imagine the reason .' It was afraid 
 to. 
 
 5. American citizens were seized and sold into 
 slavery in the markets of Algiers and Tripoli with 
 little hope of energetic attempts at rescue by our 
 government. 
 
 6. Congress was even unable to defend itself against 
 violence. In 1 783 it was driven out of Philadelphia 
 by eighty mutinous and drunken soldiers. Did such 
 facts bring honor or dishonor to those persons who 
 
38 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 were unwilling to grant important powers to the 
 central government ? Why ? 
 
 7. Since there was no national coinage, what kind 
 of coins would be in use ? If English, French, Ger- 
 man, and Spanish coins of various and uncertain 
 values were the only coins in circulation, what would 
 be the effect upon trade? What would prevent 
 clipping and counterfeiting ? How would a cautious 
 merchant protect himself from deception ? 
 
 8. What authority would settle disputes that 
 might arise among the thirteen states ? If there 
 was no authority to do this, what might easily 
 result ? 
 
 («) There were such disputes in abundance. 
 The larger states wished to become rich at the 
 expense of their weaker neighbors. New York 
 levied tariff duties on firewood from Connecticut, 
 and upon butter, cheese, chickens, and vegetables 
 from New Jersey. The New Jersey legislature in 
 defence levied a tax of ;^i8oo a year on the light- 
 house off Sandy Hook, belonging to New York. 
 The Connecticut merchants pledged themselves to 
 suspend all commercial relations with New York 
 for twelve months. Pennsylvania discriminated 
 against Delaware. Thus fuel for war was being 
 collected. 
 
 {b) Differing policies in regard to importation of 
 European goods widened the breach between the 
 states. When the other New England states had 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 39 
 
 virtually closed their ports to British merchandise, 
 Connecticut, catching at an advantage, threw hers 
 wide open. 
 
 (c) There were territorial as well as commercial 
 disputes. 
 
 Connecticut and Pennsylvania had each claimed 
 the Wyoming valley. It had been adjudged to 
 Pennsylvania by a special federal court, although 
 largely settled by the hated Yankees. In 1784 
 great suffering was produced in the valley by 
 floods and cold. Then the Pennsylvanians, instead 
 of furnishing prompt assistance, sent militia into 
 the region, who plundered and burned the prop- 
 erty of the Yankees and drove them into the wil- 
 derness. War between Connecticut and Pennsylvania 
 was narrowly averted after some fighting had taken 
 place. 
 
 The territory now known as Vermont was claimed 
 by New York, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. 
 Troops were collected for the support of these claims, 
 but war was temporarily prevented through Washing- 
 ton's intervention. 
 
 From these data we see that our country was un- 
 able to command the respect of foreign nations, and 
 even of its own citizens ; Congress could not carry out 
 its agreements, pay its debts, protect its citizens, or 
 even itself ; trade was greatly hindered because there 
 was no central power with authority to control coin- 
 age. The jealousy among the states was leading to 
 
40 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 hostile legislation that threatened civil war ; civil wai 
 was further kindled by commercial and territorial 
 disputes. 
 
 The only remedy for the evil in each case was a 
 strong central authority; only through such an au- 
 thority could the individual states be forced to abide 
 by the conditions of the treaty; it only could levy 
 taxes, quell insurrection, pay the national debt, pro- 
 tect its citizens, and thus command general respect. 
 Only by means of this authority could the jealousy 
 among the states be kept within bounds, the com- 
 mercial and territorial disputes be properly adjusted, 
 and frequent civil war be avoided. 
 
 In consequence of these facts union became a 
 necessity ; wise men came more and more to feel the 
 force of the proverb that, " United we stand, divided 
 we fall," or " In unity is strength." 
 
 After long discussion by representatives from the 
 states and many exciting scenes in their convention, 
 the final outcome was the adoption of the Constitu- 
 tion, establishing a strong central government. 
 
 Que^tons 
 
 1. Why is the period immediately following the 
 Revolution called the critical period of American 
 History } 
 
 2. Is the union of our states permanently estab- 
 lished ? If so, when was it accomplished ? If not, 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 4I 
 
 when will it probably be accomplished? Give 
 proofs. 
 
 3. What great orations have been delivered bear- 
 ing upon this question ? What was the occasion of 
 their delivery ? 
 
 4. There are already three different governments 
 upon this continent, — Mexico, the United States, 
 and Canada. They are fairly prosperous and Hv- 
 ing in harmony. Would you risk being shot at 
 and killed in order to prevent the establishment 
 of a fourth government.' Why.? Have our citi- 
 zens ever had to answer that question in a practi- 
 cal way ? 
 
 5. On what other occasions has our Union been 
 threatened ? State the circumstances. 
 
 6. What European nations have suffered particu- 
 larly from lack of a strong central government.' 
 What was the nature of their suffering, and how 
 long did it last.' (Germany and Italy.) 
 
 7. What modem inventions have greatly aided in 
 making a close union of our states possible .' How .' 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 HOW INDIVIDUAL AND GENERAL NOTIONS ARE DIS- 
 TINGUISHED FROM EACH OTHER 
 
 All knowledge is built up from individual and 
 general realities, so that instruction is always occu- 
 pied with one or the other. It has been seen that 
 differences in method are due first of all to the order 
 in which these two are presented ; some teachers 
 would begin with the general notion or rule, and 
 furnish the individual instances later, as the rule 
 for the plural of nouns ending in s, x, sh, etc., while 
 others would take the opposite course. Since these 
 two kinds of notions are of vital importance, it is well 
 to have a clear understanding of the meaning of each. 
 Sources of The notions that are furnished apparently through 
 
 the senses alone are individual notions. For in- 
 stance, the images of the many things about us 
 gained through the sense of sight belong to this 
 class. I have an individual notion of the pen- 
 holder with which I am now writing, of the room 
 in which I am sitting, and of the meadow that I 
 see from my window. Touch, without the aid of 
 sight, gives a similar kind of notion ; blind men get 
 
 42 
 
 notions. 
 
HOW NOTIONS ARE DISTINGUISHED 43 
 
 definite mental pictures of the objects about them 
 by the use of their hands. It is an individual notion 
 that one receives when he perceives the color of a 
 flower, the odor of an apple, or the chirp of a bkd. 
 Thus each sense may be the source of individual 
 notions or percepts, without the aid of the others. 
 Usually, however, they work together, giving a com- 
 bined result, as when one determines through the 
 senses of sight, smell, touch, and taste that a certain 
 object is an apple. In this case the idea is certainly 
 very complex, but since it must be referred to one 
 definite object it is called an individual notion. 
 
 Further than that, individual facts and relation- 
 ships, as well as material things, are a source of 
 particular notions. For example, when we read 
 in history that Guy Fawkes attempted to blow up 
 the English Parliament with gunpowder in 1605, 
 we picture an individual fact or notion. Again, 
 when we say in grammar that the word Parliament 
 in this sentence is the direct object of the verb blow 
 up, and is, hence, in the objective case, we speak of 
 the individual relation existing between a particular 
 word and another expression ; in other words, we 
 have a fact in mind which is as individual or con- 
 crete in its nature as is the color of a particular 
 flower. 
 
 The nature of general notions is best seen by Onginand 
 directing attention to the way in which they arise. ^°^^° 
 If one has seen but one chair, he has, then, only an notions. 
 
44 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 individual notion of chair ; he has an object in mind 
 of a certain size, color, material, weight, shape, etc. 
 On seeing a second one, differing only in material 
 from the first, the material of which it is made be- 
 gins to be recognized as a subordinate matter. Let 
 a dozen different kinds be seen, and more of those 
 properties that are variable or individual come to be 
 recognized as such ; as, for instance, the color, weight, 
 shape, etc. But some characteristics remain ever the 
 same, though they be few in number. Each chair 
 would be found to have a back and to be intended 
 for a seat. If one hundred of them were perceived, 
 these common qualities would appear one hundred 
 times, while others would appear only once, or sev- 
 j eral times, but not all of the time. These common 
 yor general properties compose the general notion, so 
 ^ far as it has been found. There is one important 
 limitation, however. It could easily happen that each 
 of the hundred chairs seen has not three or five legs, 
 but just four. In that case, according to the state- 
 ment just made, the general notion chair might sig- 
 nify an object with a back and four legs, that was 
 intended for a seat. But although all chairs thus far 
 made were made with four legs, we know that it is 
 not a necessary or essential property of chairs ; they 
 can have a larger or smaller number. Hence the 
 word ckair should signify an object with a back and 
 intended for a seat. The idea expressed by this defi- 
 nition is what is meant by the general notion chair: 
 
HOW NOTIONS ARE DISTINGUISHED 4$ 
 
 it is the sum of those characteristics that are both 
 common and essential to chairs. 
 
 It is by no means easy to distinguish the essential Difficulty of 
 qualities of an object from those that are common accurate 
 or usually present, but accidental. Every individual g^".^'*' 
 thing has very many characteristics, most of which 
 are entirely peculiar to itself. But it requires much 
 study to determine whether some of the more com- 
 mon ones are essential or not. For example, is it a 
 necessary property of chairs that they be movable, 
 that they be intended for one person, and that they 
 approximate a certain size.' Webster's dictionary 
 includes the first two of these three limitations in the 
 first definition of chair; it states that a "chair is a 
 movable single seat with a back." Evidently the 
 third is not considered a necessary property. Owing 
 to the great difficulty in distinguishing what qualities 
 are absolutely essential to a given object, it is seldom 
 that really correct general notions even about com- 
 mon things are reached. Few educated men can 
 correctly define table or knife, or house on the spur 
 of the moment, or even after reflection. Likewise, 
 their conceptions of trade-centres and of social laws 
 presented through literature and history (as suggested 
 in the preceding chapter) are often quite undefined. 
 
 Still, children have a vague general notion of these 
 things. Wherein, then, are their generalizations dif- 
 ferent from those of educated people.' The difference ^ 
 lies in the degree to which accidental qualities are ^ 
 
46 
 
 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Psychical 
 and logical 
 general 
 notions. 
 
 ■^distinguished from essential ones. For a clear under 
 •J standing of general notions it is necessary to realize 
 >/ that there are two kinds ; namely, the crude and the 
 ^pure. 
 
 As soon as children begin to use the plural num- 
 ber, to say even two intelligently, they are beginning 
 to generalize. Of course, the individual character- 
 istics of things are entirely confused with those that 
 are common and necessary, and this confused state 
 of mind exists throughout childhood. It is the only 
 state reached by uneducated people in regard to 
 most things. Such crude concepts are technically 
 named psychical notions. 
 
 As already- stated, even carefully educated men 
 do not entirely escape this confusion. But their 
 concepts are so much more nearly correct that they 
 are often given a separate name, i.e. logical no^ons. 
 A really logical notion is one that is absolutely cor- 
 rect, or one that is entirely free from accidental 
 properties ; it is, therefore, a pure notion, in distinc- 
 tion from the crude (or mixed) ones held by the 
 uneducated. It is rather the ideal toward which peo- 
 ple work than the goal which they actually attain, 
 although in certain studies, as mathematics and gram- 
 " mar, logical notions are probably reached. It is one 
 ' of the chief aims of instruction to develop psychical 
 ■^into logical notions; progress in education means a 
 ^clearing up of crude notions. Children should be 
 gradually led to set aside, as unimportant, many of 
 
HOW NOTIONS ARE DISTINGUISHED 47 
 
 the qualities of things that they have been accus- 
 tomed to consider as essential, and to recognize as 
 necessary some that they have heretofore overlooked, 
 so that they may perceive the general notion or law 
 involved. It is very important to realize that, though 
 logical notions can never be fully reached, instruction 
 is always striving to attain them as riearly as possi- 
 ble ; they are really the goal of instruction. A gen- 
 eral notion, as its name implies, does not refer to one Distinguish- 
 particular object and to no other, but to many of the Inlirtdua' °* 
 same sort, as the word river to a whole class of ob- ^nd general 
 
 T iTr r . -i. . 1 notions, 
 
 jects. It ditiers frorn individual notions just as com- 
 mon nouns differ from proper names. The latter 
 apply, in each case, to only one certain object, as 
 Illinois to one of the Central states, while the former 
 refer to any one of a class, as child to any one of 
 millions of persons. Proper names compose a rela-/* 
 tively small class of words; almost all other words' 
 stand for generalizations; for instance, the verb run<^ 
 signifies a certain class of actions ; sweet, a quality 
 common to a great number of objects; the preposition 
 underneath, a kind of relationship that may frequently 
 exist between objects. Each of these notions, instead 
 of applying to a single case and to no other, covers a 
 multitude of individual cases or classes. 
 
 Knowing now the nature of individual and general 
 notions, it is comparatively easy to recognize each in 
 its various forms. Numerous examples of the former 
 have been given. As to the latter, not only do al- 
 
48 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 most all words signify generalizations, but the rules 
 of grammar and arithmetic do the same. The defini- 
 tions of mathematics, as of triangle, plane, etc. ; the 
 laws of physics, as the laws of pulleys and of gravi- 
 tation; the principles of science, as the economical 
 principle that man is by nature lazy, and moral max- 
 ims, as that we should do unto others as we would 
 have them do unto us, are all general notions : they 
 are all reached by the same process, by the separa- 
 tion of non-essential characteristics from those that 
 >/ are essential. Definitions, rules, laws, proverbs, prin- 
 " ciples, and maxims are general truths or notions : the 
 ^individual instances illustrating them are individual 
 1^ truths or notions. In the second place, general no- 
 •^ tions distinguish themselves from individuals by the 
 ' fact that the latter can be imaged or pictured con- 
 "^cretely, while the former cannot. 
 
 Any particular chair presents a certain appear- 
 ance; it has definite form, weight, color, etc., and 
 the mental picture of it contains these particular 
 characteristics. Any historical event has a peculiar 
 setting; it was performed at a certain time and 
 place, by a certain person or persons, under particu- 
 lar conditions, in a definite manner, etc. When it 
 is reproduced mentally it must be accompanied with 
 its peculiar environment. Objects and events that 
 have never been actually witnessed, but only imag- 
 ined, must also be pictured in detail in the same 
 way. But general notions and laws cannot be thus 
 
HOW NOTIONS ARE DISTINGUISHED 49 
 
 clearly imaged or seen concretely. They do not 
 apply to just one object, event, or relation, but to 
 any and all of a class ; in fact, they have no exter- 
 nal objective existence, hence they cannot be limited 
 to any certain form, color, time, place, setting, etc. 
 The word chair signifies the common essential char- 
 acteristics of chair without reference to any particular 
 example; the preposition underneath, a relationship 
 that may frequently exist between nouns or pronouns 
 and other words without naming any specific case; 
 the moral maxim, honesty is the best policy, calls to 
 mind a general truth without mentioning any in- 
 stances that illustrate it. Frequently, however, these 
 instances are so close at hand that, when the general 
 notion is presented, one or more of the individuals 
 that fall under it come immediately to consciousness. 
 When we think horse, it is impossible not to call some 
 favorite horse into mind. 
 
 The last statement indicates the relationship prop- 
 erly existing between individual and general notions. 
 The latter are not creations entirely separated from 
 the former, but are intimately associated with them. 
 
 ^ " The general notion is not a new mental product Relationship 
 existing apart from and outside of the concrete no- ufdj^duai 
 tions, but it is thought out each time, inasmuch as a and general 
 
 ' ° notions. 
 
 person from among the numerous ideas of the same 
 kind (or also from only one idea) lifts exclusively the 
 essential characteristics into the centre of conscious- 
 
 ' Lange's " Apperception," p. 84. 
 
50 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 ness, and endeavors to isolate them from the others, 
 which recede or withdraw (an attempt that is always, 
 •'of course, only partially successful). It is like a 
 j' melody that can be easily distinguished in a piece 
 J of music of several parts on account of special em- 
 " phasis or peculiar registering, while, however, it 
 ^ never ceases to form a constituent part of the sepa- 
 ^ rate accords. It happens to us regularly, when we 
 attempt really to think a concept and not simply to 
 repeat the words of the definition, that we involun- 
 tarily glide down among its individual notions; that 
 we hasten through these quickly and emphasize what 
 is common and essential, rejecting the non-essential. 
 • The general is not really separated from the par- 
 ticular, but only distinguished from it ; for deep 
 down in consciousness it is always united with what 
 " is concrete." 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 WHY GENERAL NOTIONS OR CONCEPTS ARE THE GOAL 
 OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 The declaration that logical notions are the goal 
 of all instruction is so far-reaching in its bearings 
 that it deserves further consideration. Pestalozzi 
 called the attention of teachers emphatically to 
 this truth, but he failed signally to apply it to his 
 own teaching. Since his time men have commonly 
 accepted his assertion as true, but, like him, have 
 expended little effort in applying it to school in- 
 struction. In consequence, one of the weightiest 
 thoughts in education has been largely overlooked 
 by educators. How effect reform in this direction .' 
 It is certain that teachers will not labor persistently 
 to reach after and apply generalizations in the class- 
 room until they have learned both to distinguish 
 between individual and general notions, and to ap- 
 preciate the great value of the latter. The preced- 
 ing chapter treated of the first of these two points 
 — attempting to explain the difference between the 
 two kinds of notions ; the pre,'"=^nt chapter takes up 
 iie second point and aims to show why instruction 
 culminates in generalizations. 
 
52 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Particular Throughout this discussion it should be borne in 
 
 aiwajl^\he ^^^'^ that the value of individual or concrete facts 
 raw material a,s the basis of all knowledge is by no means ques- 
 
 ofknowl- . . , , , 
 
 edge. •' tioned. Undoubtedly the senses furnish the ele- 
 
 ^ ments of all thought; it is only through individual 
 ^ notions, or percepts, that the higher notions, or con- 
 ^cepts, can ever be reached. Modern philosophers, 
 scientists, and teachers have demonstrated this prin- 
 ciple so completely that it needs no further proof. 
 Object lessons, excursions, pictures in class, etc., 
 have been advocated so that learners might, through 
 them, secure vivid concrete notions. Much of the 
 recent reform in education has been along this line. 
 Nevertheless the percepts thus obtained do not 
 constitute the whole of knowledge ; they are only 
 its foundation ; or, using another figure, they are the 
 raw material out of which important thoughts are 
 produced. But if instruction simply presented these 
 facts and then ceased, it would be like the archi- 
 tect stopping when his foundation walls were 
 finished, or the manufacturer ceasing work as soon 
 as the wool was collected out of which cloth might 
 ' be made. Such work by itself is useless ; it must be 
 ' followed by something more. So in education, per- 
 cepts are not, in and by themselves, of vital impor- 
 tance to human beings ; their worth consists not in 
 themselves but in what they lead to or suggest beyond 
 themselves ; namely, concepts. 
 
 Some of the facts of instruction are often felt to 
 
THE GOAL OF INSTRUCTION 53 
 
 be too trivial for study. For example, who cares How to 
 what the name of the man was who assassinated betweer'' 
 William of Orange? Even if one knew it to be "seMand 
 
 useless 
 
 Balthazar Gerard, what worth is there in the knowl- particular 
 edge ? Pestalozzi is said to have observed with care "°"°°^- 
 the cracks and the knot holes in the schoolroom wall 
 with his pupils. But suppose that there are just 
 twenty-eight cracks in the plastering of any room, 
 you would smile at one's stating the fact, and would 
 remark, " What of it ? " On the other hand, any inci- 
 dents in the boyhood of George Wasljington are 
 highly treasured ; the details of his conduct at Brad- 
 dock's defeat, at Valley Forge, during his terms of 
 office as President, and in his family, are preserved 
 for all future generations. But why any concern 
 about such events ? Washington is dead, his age 
 is past, most of his actions are not directly related 
 to us. Why preserve them so carefully ? Or what 
 difference does it now make whether or not a certain 
 man named Guy Fawkes did attempt to blow up the 
 English Parliament with gunpowder in the year a.d. 
 1605 ? That was a long time ago, and our interests 
 have shifted to very different scenes. Knowledge of 
 that fact and its circumstances may happily prevent 
 the appearance of ignorance at some critical moment, 
 or help one to pass an examination creditably ; but of 
 what real use is it beyond that point .' 
 
 The reason for this difference in the value of de- 
 tails is suggested by an analogy, f\e. the history of 
 
54 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 the attention given to falling apples. Probably apples 
 have been dropping from trees ever since Adam and 
 Eve tasted of the forbidden fruit; but such Uttle 
 events have elicited no special interest until they 
 gave hints to a philosopher of the wonderful law 
 of gravitation. Their value, therefore, consists not 
 in themselves, but in what they suggest. The same 
 is true of Franklin's experiment with the kite and 
 J electricity. It would be ridiculous to preserve all 
 ' the details of that incident if there were no uni- 
 ^ versal truth involved in it ; but since it led to the 
 discovery of another great natural law, it is justly 
 famous. Likewise, the daring deed of Guy Fawkes 
 is in itself without value; but if it is the means of 
 revealing a general truth, it becomes important. In 
 this historical event are revealed the boldness and 
 wickedness of a few human beings, and the hos- 
 tility that once threatened a strong government.x 
 Such facts indicate the possible wickedness of 
 other human beings and the occasional hostility 
 that governments must encounter. These gener- 
 alizations act as warnings, and influence present 
 action. As far as Washington's character is con- 
 cerned, it would make little or no difference to us 
 if he did struggle with almost superhuman power 
 at Valley Forge, were not the qualities that he 
 there exhibited recognized as being in universal 
 demand. Seeing how he acted under adverse cir- 
 cumstances, we are reminded of the way in which 
 
THE GOAL OF INSTRUCTION 55 
 
 all men should act. We forget that his was an in- 
 dividual character, and we idealize and universalize 
 it. Then, by comparison of our own lives with this 
 ideal, we recognize the demand made upon us for 
 nobler hving. Thus, the Washington of one cen- 
 tury ago touches the men of to-day through the uni- 
 versal qualities of character that he presents. His 
 life bears no immediate relation to our own, but it 
 suggests rules of conduct which, being general or 
 universal, are binding upon all individuals alike. The 
 motives that controlled his actions could scarcely be 
 even matters of curiosity now, did they not seem 
 sufficiently admirable to possess this universal worth. 
 On the other hand, since the exact number of cracks 
 in a wall hint at no rule, it is worthless knowl- 
 edge. Likewise, the learning of names of capes inv' 
 geography, of margins of leaves, of dates, is likely ■' 
 to prove valueless, because such facts usually hint^ 
 at nothing beyond, suggest no general truth or law. 
 If this standard for the worth of details were more 
 generally carried in mind, many facts ordinarily 
 taught would be omitted, and often others would 
 take their place. 
 
 The study of past events is valuable, therefore, to One peculiar 
 
 , . , ,. worth of 
 
 the extent that they suggest laws which are appuca- general 
 ble at other times and in other places. Concrete facts ^ "„°j"i„\e 
 in all subjects of study are at least comparatively breadth of 
 worthless, unless they are recognized as instances application. 
 of general truths. Examples in arithmetic are or- 
 
56 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 dinarily worked, not primarily for their own sake, 
 but in order to reveal the law governing the pro- 
 cess involved. 
 
 Everywhere general notions are of especial value 
 because they find a broader application than indi- 
 vidual notions; they possess universality. This 
 thought has been tersely stated by Kant in his asser- 
 tion that, " Anschauungen ohne Begriffe sind blind" 
 or. Concrete notions without generalizations arc 
 blind; they reveal nothing, they apply to nothing. 
 Hence we conclude that the first great use of gen- 
 eralizations is in securing unlimited application or 
 universality to knowledge. It is probably incorrect 
 to say that they are more important than individual 
 notions, for both are indispensable. One would 
 scarcely say that the light in a lighthouse is more 
 important than the lighthouse itself, for the latter is 
 the condition of the former ; yet the tower was con- 
 structed in order that it might contain the light, and 
 it would be worthless without it; hence it finds its 
 value in the light that it carries. The final object of 
 the entire structure is to furnish light. So the final 
 object, the goal of instruction, is the generalization, 
 although individual notions are indispensable in 
 attaining it. 
 
 |, How gener- ° 
 
 aiizations are ■' Sccond, generalizations are a necessary .condition 
 thinking°and-'both for thinking and for the expression of thought, 
 'et'ression of ^^o^^-^^y "^ery little thinking takes place without the 
 thought. help of words, or symbols that are equivalent to 
 
■THE GOAL OP iNSTRUCtlOif 57 
 
 words ; they are the only track upon which thought 
 glides along smoothly. That being the case, it is 
 evident that if all words signified individuals, as 
 do proper nouns, thought would be very much 
 Hmited. Without general terms, i.e. without com- 
 mon nouns and the other seven parts of speech, all 
 general notions, rules, maxims, laws, etc., would fail 
 us. Argument would be impossible, and logical con- 
 clusions could not be drawn. But when general 
 terms are allowed, and when the concepts for which 
 they stand are abundant, thought becomes free. Not 
 only that, but when concepts are well developed, a 
 great impetus is given to thought. For example, if 
 the general truths are well established in one's mind 
 that heat expands and cold contracts, or that every- 
 thing that happens has an adequate cause, one is 
 prompted to make many applications of this law to 
 practical affairs. Philosophers, scientists, etc., who 
 have reached a large number of such generalizations, 
 are continually occupied in using them as the basis 
 for new hypotheses. Thus great mental activity is 
 secured and valuable conclusions are reached. 
 
 The free expression of thought to others is also 
 involved in the existence of concepts. If two per- 
 sons were continually seeing different objects and 
 having different experiences, while general terms 
 were wanting, there would be no way for one to 
 communicate his ideas to the other. Any word em- 
 ployed would signify only the particular experience 
 
58 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 of a certain individual. . But with an abundance of 
 concepts and terms for the same, thoughts can be 
 readily communicated ; then, even though people be 
 not acquainted with the same individual objects, the 
 common use of the same terms allows any word to 
 signify essentially the same thing to each mind. 
 How general ,/ A third important consideration is that the pos- 
 reiated to the ''session of carefully developed generalizations signi- 
 °fk*""T'°" ''^^^ ^ good classification of one's knowledge. In 
 edge. order to be of practical use the books in a library 
 
 must be carefully classified or arranged in groups, 
 those of a kind being placed together. This is a 
 matter of so much importance that in any large 
 Hbrary several men devote all of their time to this 
 work. Without such care books are forgotten or can- 
 not be found, and hence they prove useless. The 
 mind is practically a great library in which ideas 
 need Ukewise to be carefully grouped. It is of little 
 value for a man to collect a large number of precious 
 experiences if they cannot be found when wanted. 
 Chaos is as utterly opposed to utility in the case of 
 ideas as in the case of household furniture, toilet 
 articles, books, etc. 
 
 As already seen, nature compels some degree of 
 classification of our notions, for the essential charac- 
 teristics of an object are presented to us in each 
 individual of a class, while the non-essentials are 
 Ukely to appear only once, or a few times. Conse- 
 quently the class notions are especially impressed 
 
THE GOAL OF INSTRUCTION 59 
 
 upon the mind. But this help of nature, or this 
 natural tendency to classify, is not sufficient. Special 
 effort must be made to harmonize and rightly group 
 our ideas ; otherwise they will be often contradictory 
 to one another, or poorly defined ; and those which 
 are quite unrelated will be found in the same group, 
 just as books under widely varying titles may by 
 accident be placed together. 
 
 But proper classification involves more than the , 
 careful separation of experiences into groups ; it"- 
 involves the ranking of the same according to their " 
 relative worth. Some facts are of far more value ' 
 than others, just as the officers of an army are far 
 more important than an equal number of common 
 soldiers. Unless one's generalizations have been 
 carefully developed, one is likely to overlook this 
 matter of relative worth and to neglect the higher 
 and especially important notions. Teachers who 
 have had no professional training show this ten- 
 dency plainly. Their minds are so occupied with 
 the details of teaching that they fail to distinguish 
 more important from less important matters, and the 
 idea of supreme importance, namely, the chief aim 
 of instruction, is the one most neglected in their 
 daily thought. 
 
 It is, on the whole, the organization of knowledge 
 that is here involved. In this age of unbounded 
 faith in the efficiency of organization in all fields, 
 the organization of thoughts should not be neglected. 
 
60 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 It is the most economical means of caring for one's 
 knowledge. Ideas that exist in a chaotic state are 
 wasted; the more valuable the collection of them, 
 the greater the waste. Until they are assorted ac- 
 cording to their essential characteristics, and ranked 
 according to their worth, it is impossible to retain 
 them in memory, to survey them easily, and to find 
 them at the moment of need. Since to generalize 
 means to sort and rank notions, the reason is plain 
 why instruction should culminate in generalizations. 
 How general There is a fourth reason for regarding generaliza- 
 
 notions aid i- r • ^ 'r'l. j.i_ 
 
 the acquisi- tions of Supreme importance. They are the means 
 tion of Qf apperceiving new experiences of any kind. It is 
 
 knowledge. x x t. i 
 
 through them that it becomes possible to acquire 
 knowledge quickly and easily. Just as a new book 
 readily finds its proper place in a well-classified 
 library, so strange ideas readily find classification in 
 a mind whose contents have been carefully arranged. 
 This is seen in the reading of books on education. 
 One who approaches a pedagogical work with an or- 
 ganized or systematized body of educational thought 
 has a framework into which to place the ideas. 
 He knows quickly where each idea belongs, so 
 that even if the arrangement of points in the book 
 is poor, it need not be poor in the mind of the 
 reader. Also, as in an army the relative rank of 
 men can be quickly determined, so the relative 
 worth of the many thoughts can be recognized. 
 The system of thought (or the organized generali< 
 
THE GOAL OF INSTRUCTION 6l 
 
 zations) already at hand is both the framework in 
 which all ideas can be pigeonholed, and also the 
 standard according to which their value can be 
 measured. Thus, the profit from reading, from ^' 
 sight-seeing, and from conversation is directly de- -' 
 pendent upon the extent to which one's ideas are -^ 
 brought into order and ranked. It is only through^ 
 classification that much confusion and loss of time 
 in the acquisition of knowledge can be avoided. 
 Generalizations are, then, to the thinker what the 
 compass is to the seaman : they enable him to keep 
 his bearings, to remain free from confusion in new 
 regions. 
 
 That generalizations play such an important part 
 in the acquisition and organization of knowledge, sug- 
 gests an important requirement bearing on the selec- 
 tion of leading topics in each study of the school 
 course. 
 
 We are getting into the way of thinking out large How gener- 
 topics as units of instruction in many of the school rtiebasis'for 
 studies. In reading and literature we treat whole division of 
 
 studies into 
 
 poems, stories, and even the longer masterpieces as large topics, 
 units of thought. In history we select biographical 
 stories and commanding topics, like the Puritan emi- 
 gration or the growth of our territory, or internal 
 improvements as units of instruction. The study of 
 geography and natural science by types is also a 
 distinct movement toward the use of large units 
 of study. 
 
62 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Now general notions afford an excellent basis for 
 division of subject-matter into large topics, as is shown 
 in our two chapters of illustrative lessons in this book. 
 In each of those examples the general truth is what 
 gives connectedness and unity to the whole. For in- 
 stance, the general truth, " In unity is strength," es- 
 tablishes a close relation, or sequence, among a large 
 number of particular facts, and thus groups them into 
 one large topic. Likewise in the Metamorphosis of 
 the Milkweed Butterfly, in the Golden Touch, in Min- 
 neapolis as a Trade Centre, and in the Addition of 
 Fractions there is the same organization of materials 
 into one large unit. So, in every study, the entire 
 subject-matter should be arranged in these large 
 topics ; that is, the teacher should determine be- 
 forehand the general truths to be taught, and should 
 collect and arrange the details in each case which 
 lead to them. Fortunately, in arithmetic this has 
 already been done completely, and each lesson con- 
 tributes to some rule, apparent even to the children. 
 
 But where this is not done, miscellaneous collec- 
 tions of facts are made and committed to memory, as 
 when children in beginning the geography of New 
 England are asked to learn a list of products, as fol- 
 lows : boots and shoes, granite, cotton goods, lumber, 
 firearms, fish, paper, ships, wooden ware, maple 
 sugar, etc. This means disorder and confusion. 
 
 The prime defect in such cases lies in the original 
 selection and arrangement of the subject-matter with- 
 
THE GOAL OF INSTRUCTION 63 
 
 out much regard to controlling principles. A study 
 is looked upon as a large accumulation of single 
 facts, when it should be considered as a series of 
 large topics, each containing a general truth. 
 
 If we can once get this idea of large units of in- 
 struction, each determined and organized by a cen- 
 tral truth, we can more easily understand and apply 
 a rational method of deahng with such units. The 
 following chapters endeavor to bring this truth out 
 more fully. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 DO GENERALIZATIONS PRECEDE OR FOLLOW INDI- 
 VIDUAL NOTIONS ? 
 
 It has been shown that general truths are the cen- 
 tral objects of interest in instruction. The process 
 of acquiring knowledge consists in securing an in- 
 sight into them and the ability to apply them easily 
 in all possible directions. For instance, one has 
 ^added much to his knowledge when he has come 
 I to see clearly the single general truth that the pres- 
 V ence of a definite aim is the condition of effective 
 v/work in any line; the teacher may apply this gen- 
 eralization first of all to the school, seeking out the 
 great purpose of instruction; then to each branch 
 of study, and to each recitation; finally, he may 
 apply it to other spheres of activity, as to that of the 
 lawyer, of the minister, and even to human life as a 
 whole ; one may never finish the application of such 
 a broad truth, but knowledge grows as insight into it 
 and ability to apply it are increased. 
 
 The inquiry next in place touches the manner in 
 which generalizations should be reached. Should 
 they precede or follow the study of individual no- 
 
 64 
 
ORDER OF GENERAL AND INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 6$ 
 
 tions ? The first distinction between good and bad 
 method, or the first test of method, is found in the 
 answer to this question. 
 
 It is scarcely possible to conceive that primitive Howtherac 
 man began work with an outfit of general notions. acqu"re° 
 On the contrary, he certainly had to discover the knowledge, 
 simplest facts for himself. 
 
 By experiment in its childhood the race learned 
 that flint makes good arrowheads, that meat spoils 
 quickly in warm weather, that the deer has certam 
 habits. Higher truths have been reached by more 
 developed peoples, but by the same route. Very 
 slowly have the laws been attained that pertain to 
 falling bodies, to the properties of gases, the pres- 
 sure of air, etc. The data for the same have been 
 recorded one after another, and often centuries have 
 elapsed between the time when the data for a great 
 law were recorded and the time when the latter was 
 really brought to light. In other words, the prog- 
 ress of the race has been necessarily experimental 
 and inductive ; it has reached the abstract or general 
 through the concrete or individual. 
 
 In many respects the child is an imitator of the How the 
 race. It is asserted by numerous eminent authori- begin. 
 ties that the chief stages in his development corre- 
 spond in a large way with those of the race. If 
 he passes through the same great culture epochs 
 as his ancestors, it is quite possible, then, that his 
 approach to general truths is the same as theirs. 
 
66 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Herbert Spencer is of the opinion that this is the case. 
 He says, in substance, that the mind of humanity, 
 placed in the midst of phenomena and striving to 
 comprehend them, has, after endless comparisons, 
 speculations, experiments, and theories, reached its 
 present knowledge of each subject by a specific 
 route ; that the relationship between mind and phe- 
 nomena, it may rationally be inferred, is such as to 
 prevent this knowledge from being reached by any 
 other route; and that, as each child's mind stands 
 in the same relationship to phenomena as that of 
 humanity, they can be accessible to it only through 
 the same route.^ 
 
 Aside from this argument, the proper answer to 
 the question whether the statement of generaliza- 
 tions should precede or follow the study of individ- 
 ual notions, seems almost self-evident from the 
 discussion in the previous chapter. 
 Another Since concepts or general truths can be drawn 
 
 reason why , . .,..,,. 
 
 concepts Only from percepts or mdividual instances, it seems 
 should follow necessary that these latter should be presented and 
 
 percepts. _ ■' ^ 
 
 discussed before the former are deduced and worded. 
 J Just as the acorn must be present before the oak 
 . can be produced, so the concrete example must pre- 
 j cede the abstract rule ; in both cases growth is in- 
 > volved : in the one instance it is a material growth, 
 "in the other a psychological one. One might as 
 
 well expect noise without vibrations as generaliza- 
 I " Education," Chapter 11. 
 
ORDER OF GENERAL AND INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 67 
 
 tions without particulars. And the order in which 
 individual and general notions are produced should 
 fully determine the order in which they should be 
 studied by children. To think them out clearly 
 means indeed to produce them. 
 
 General truths are not a finished product that can 
 be handed about from person to person, examined 
 and traced back to their origin. Each man, in order 
 to have them really, must give birth to them within 
 his own mind, and they must be born out of the indi- 
 vidual notions that are already there present. " The 
 general notion is not a new mental product existing 
 apart from and outside of the concrete notions, but 
 it is thought out each time, inasmuch as a person 
 from among the numerous ideas of the same kind 
 . . . lifts exclusively the essential characteristics 
 into the centre of consciousness and endeavors to 
 isolate them from the others which recede or with- 
 draw." It is not, therefore, the business of the 
 teacher to retail ready-made general notions. Gett-y 
 eral truths should be taught after individuals ; that is*' 
 the proper sequence. 
 
 Yet the world has for ages allowed the other why general 
 order, and probably to-day the great majority of often pre- 
 teachers present first the rule, then the example. sentedBrst. 
 Almost all text-books were modelled after this plan 
 until very recent years ; gradually, now, books fol- 
 lowing the inductive method are being introduced 
 into the schools. One explanation of this error is 
 
68 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 that it seems to the instructor much easier to teach 
 in this way. It requires great energy to collect a 
 large number of facts, and then so to' arrange and 
 compare them as to lead to an important law or 
 truth. And especially does it require great energy 
 to keep this course up. No wonder, then, that it 
 has not been usually done. If we want children to 
 comprehend and learn important principles, why not 
 give them these latter outright .? Or, still better, why 
 not give them these together with a few examples — 
 then the result is assured. So teachers reason, and 
 so they act, thus obeying the universal desire to 
 avoid work. Another reason for this short-sighted- 
 ness is found in the desire to save time. It is a very 
 slow process to approach broad truths inductively. 
 It seems a much shorter, simpler route to learning to 
 offer rules outright and have them committed to 
 memory with a few illustrations. 
 Butiaborand Howevcr, this inverted order means a loss rather 
 time are os . ^^^ ^ Saving of time and labor. For instance, when 
 children begin mode in grammar by learning that it is 
 "the manner in which the action, being, or state ex- 
 pressed by the verb is stated or conceived," time is 
 lost, because these are mere empty words until the 
 pupils have been made conscious, through numerous 
 examples, that there are several ways of conceiving 
 action, being, and state. Usually, although children 
 have been comprehsnding and speaking their mother- 
 tongue for many years before this definition is 
 
ORDER OF GENERAL AND INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 69 
 
 reached in school, they have reflected so little upon 
 their own speech that they are ignorant of the exist- 
 ence of several modes. It would require considerable 
 time to reach back into their experiences and collect 
 enough instances in which action, being, and state 
 have been differently conceived, to convince them 
 that this definition pertained to their own lives or 
 had any worth for them. Consequently, when they 
 learn it first, they get empty words and not a thought. 
 — The same thing is true in geography when defini- 
 tions of mountain, plateau, etc., are given before par- 
 ticular mountains, plateaus, etc., have been studied. 
 The emphasis now laid upon home geography is 
 partly caused by belief in inductive work. One can- 
 not always visit a mountain, plateau, etc., but he can 
 study one or several of these objects in detail before 
 receiving a definition of the same. — No time is saved 
 by presenting the rule for division of fractions, or the 
 definition of specific gravity, before numerous con- 
 crete examples have been carefully examined. In all 
 cases, whatever, labor and time are spent in pretend- 
 ing to uuderstand what one does not and, from the 
 nature of the case, cannot understand, are entirely 
 
 lost. 
 
 But there is more than a loss of labor and time in Also danger 
 
 , .,, <.u of distaste 
 
 giving the generalization first, for children are there- fo^ subject, 
 by forced to approach a subject from the least attrac- 
 tive side. They are called upon to master the words 
 for a thought that is not expected to be understood 
 
70 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 till later. Just as it is injudicious for men and 
 women to present their least agreeable side to 
 strangers, so it is unpedagogical to introduce chil- 
 dren to topics in a way that least appeals to their 
 past experiences and interests. When the rule is 
 placed in front they are necessarily reminded of 
 their weakness rather than of their strength, and an 
 unfriendly feeling is engendered toward the subject 
 in hand. Consequently not only are labor and time 
 lost, but children are repelled by such instruction. 
 An apparent But many eminent men have been educated in just 
 e^Sned. ^^^^ ^^7' ^^^ ^* often happens that general truths are 
 immediately comprehended on presentation. Is it 
 entirely in vain, therefore, that rules are offered di- 
 rectly, with the hope of abridging the process of 
 acquiring knowledge? 
 
 If it be true, as was asserted, that generalizations 
 arise in only a single way, that they have their origin 
 •solely in individual notions, then there is only one 
 possible way of approaching them. The fact that 
 they are at times fully understood as soon as heard, 
 is no exception to this rule. In such cases past life 
 has happened to furnish enough individual experi- 
 ences, and these are sufficiently present in conscious- 
 ness to give a meaning to the words that are heard. 
 The reason that the words are comprehended is that 
 the truth has already been reached inductively, and 
 it is now simply being worded. Now and then, too, 
 where past experience bears apparently little relation 
 
ORDER OF GENERAL AND INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS "JY 
 
 to some general statement, a person shows strange 
 power to reproduce and mass data that can explain it. 
 But that is the privilege of only an unusually quick 
 mind, and is no exception to the psychological law. 
 Even in such cases, unless the supposed generaliza- 
 tions are merely reviews or applications of truths 
 developed in the past, they are still in reality ap- 
 proached inductively : the words are empty, or carry 
 only a doubtful meaning, until facts are called to mind 
 which form a basis for drawing the desired conclu- 
 sion; light is then shed upon them, or they are given a 
 content. The statement of the general truth first is, 
 therefore, merely a challenge to hunt up the data that 
 prove the truth. With trained adults acquainted with 
 the subject, and with very bright minds, the challenge 
 is received joyfully, and activity follows that results 
 in clear insight. 
 
 But that does not happen in ordinary instruction. 
 Usually the generalizations that the school should 
 teach are too far in advance of the child's or youth's 
 knowledge to be understood at a glance ; or even if 
 his past experience actually contains all of the con- 
 crete facts required, they are so scattered and so far 
 removed from consciousness when needed that they 
 are practically wanting. Then this pleasant chal- 
 lenge is converted into a disagreeable command; it 
 is a circumlocution in method that causes loss of time 
 and destruction of interest. 
 
 The conclusion is therefore reached, that the only 
 
72 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 wise course is to bring together or present concrete 
 notions in advance of the rules which they would 
 teach. Accordingly, the statement of the rule for 
 addition of fractions should follow the solution of 
 several examples involving addition ; the law for the 
 metamorphosis of insects should follow the study in 
 detail of one or more types of insects ; likewise the 
 definition of trade-centre, the underlying truth in the 
 Golden Touch, and the proverb in regard to unity 
 should all come after the concrete data. The second 
 presentation of each of these general truths, as out- 
 lined in Chapter II, illustrates how this might be 
 planned. 
 Outline of With this important conclusion established, it is 
 
 possible to distinguish the outline of method. There 
 are three great topics to be kept in mind; namely, 
 individual notions, general notions, and the applica- 
 tion of general notions. There are no others, because 
 these three cover the entire circuit; there is no part 
 of instruction that can fall outside of them. 
 
 From what has immediately preceded, these three 
 topics must be treated in the order mentioned; i.e. 
 first, individual notions must be taught, then progress 
 should be made from the individuals to the generals, 
 then these latter should be applied. This necessary 
 order constitutes the first great law of method. 
 
 And since all mistakes in method of teaching can 
 be made only in one of these three fields, there are 
 naturally three leading questions in method : — 
 
ORDER OF GENERAL AND INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 73 
 
 1. How should individual notions be acquired ? 
 
 2. How should progress be made from individual 
 to general notions ? 
 
 3. How should general notions be applied ? 
 
 If there is a necessary way of acquiring individual 
 notions, and also of passing from individuals to gen- 
 erals, then, besides the great law of method already 
 mentioned, i.e. induction, other laws may be estab- 
 lished which will prove of great value. 
 
 It is our next duty to discuss the first of these 
 three questions. And as the acquisition of individ- 
 ual notions requires the consideration of a large num- 
 ber of topics, the problem will be divided into two 
 parts or chapters : first, how individual notions should 
 be prepared for or approached ; second, how they 
 should \)& presented. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 TOW INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS SHOULD BE APPROACHED 
 
 We have already discussed the nature of individ- 
 ual notions in distinguishing them from general no- 
 tions, and have seen that they are identical with 
 Abundance percepts or concrete notions. A large number of such 
 experiencfc^^ notions are acquired during the first years of life by 
 direct contact with individual things. Children see, 
 handle, taste, smell, etc., and thus receive their first 
 impressions. They also perceive individual events 
 and relationships. The birds in their neighborhood 
 build their nests and rear their young ; their favorite 
 trees blossom and bear fruit; the seeds of certain 
 flowers are found to be transported in all directions 
 by the wind and often by animals ; the cold weather 
 causes the village pond to freeze over, and certain 
 vessels containing water to burst. The intercourse of 
 men with one another is likewise noted ; one speaks 
 angrily with another ; two are observed to be united 
 by the bond of friendship ; some perform many kind 
 acts, while others seem to be guided by certain ig- 
 noble motives, etc. All such things and many more 
 are perceived, and leave impressions called individual 
 notions. 
 
 74 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 75 
 
 This process of learning by direct experience con- 
 tinues throughout life. But if a person is left en- 
 tirely to himself in acquiring knowledge, he is likely 
 to make serious mistakes in even the simplest obser- 
 vations, and to be very superficial. One sees birds Extent of 
 daily, but it is rarely the case that he can describe s^se'"*"'^ 
 common birds accurately ; favorite shade trees that experience. 
 line our streets, as the elm and the maple, are scarcely 
 seen, although we almost touch them every day ; few 
 can tell when they bear flowers and seeds, or whether 
 they bear them at all, or not. Many persons cannot 
 even tell the color of the eyes of their friends and 
 daily companions. Carelessness in the observation 
 of common events is just as striking : we fail to note 
 the direction of the wind and the habits of animals ; 
 few can tell how a cow lies down or how a horse gets 
 up. This inability to see correctly, or to see at all, 
 is shown in a practical way in the courtroom by the 
 failure of eye-witnesses of objects and events to agree 
 as to what was seen. 
 
 It is the mission of the school, so far as it can, to How the 
 
 school sup- 
 correct and widen such observation. But there are piementstWs 
 
 many individual objects of study that cannot be e^="«''<=« 
 brought before the senses of children, and instruction 
 must deal with these also as best it can. For exam- 
 ple, many geographical and historical objects which 
 are distant in place or time still need to be sharply 
 grasped by the children. Famous scenes in history, 
 interesting and picturesque places in geography, need 
 
76 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 to be presented definitely to the mind. Pictures, 
 drawings, famous paintings, photographic views of 
 notable buildings, churches, monuments, etc., are in- 
 dispensable for giving correct notions of individual 
 things. The teacher may also use diagrams, and 
 simple plans and sketches on the blackboard, not 
 only to explain forts, cities, battles, journeys, cam- 
 paigns, voyages, etc., but also to make plain particular 
 processes in the industries, machines, and inventions, 
 devices for overcoming difficulties, experiments in 
 natural science, the movements of planets in the 
 solar system, and many similar particulars. The 
 children also should use these same graphic means 
 of expressing their thought, and thus become more 
 clearly acquainted with the facts. 
 
 Even in natural science, which is primarily a study 
 of things present to the senses, there are many 
 objects and particulars, at home and abroad, which 
 can best be shown by skilful devices and graphic 
 diagram : such as the circulation of the blood, life 
 processes in plant and animal, chemical and physical 
 changes and forces, microscopic life and changes as 
 touched upon in grammar grades, geological strata, 
 mathematical geography, and many other examplet 
 in science. A large portion of the time given to 
 elementary branches must be devoted to the study of 
 these objects of sense, either present or absent. 
 Defects in But it is evident that instruction which deals with 
 
 tnis 
 
 instruction, these distant objects is subject to even more frequent 
 
with 
 suspicion. 
 
 THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS ^^ 
 
 errors than is the study of objects present to the 
 senses. The first great source of error, therefore, is 
 found in the faultiness of this original raw material 
 of knowledge, the sense-percepts. 
 
 The second and perhaps still more troublesome why the 
 
 r • r 1 • ii r -.1 1 • 1 teacher must 
 
 source of error is found in the language with which regard words 
 we try to express or convey knowledge. Language is 
 indispensable to thought, and yet when carelessly 
 used it is a prolific source of confusion. For words 
 are but the arbitrary symbols of knowledge and in 
 themselves mean nothing. The words that we see 
 or hear sometimes mean little or nothing to us, some- 
 times they suggest a wrong notion or one different 
 from that intended by the speaker or writer. Seldom 
 does a word mean exactly the same to two different 
 persons. And yet, since not only the geographical 
 and historical events, but even the objects studied, 
 cannot usually be present to the senses, instruction 
 must depend mainly upon these faulty instruments 
 to build up new and correct mental images. What 
 a wide door is here opened for misconception and 
 error in the use of language ! 
 
 Now instead of sharply noticing the sources of 
 error in the use of words and of pressing back of 
 them to the original objects and facts themselves, 
 teachers have often made the surprising mistake of 
 thinking that bare words have a peculiar power for 
 directly conveying knowledge, that a mere word is 
 the equivalent of an idea, and that verbal descriptions 
 
78 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 of objects and events can build up in children's 
 minds vivid and correct mental pictures. This view 
 of teaching made instruction an apparently simple 
 and easy matter. Any one could teach who could 
 govern a school, who possessed the necessary knowl- 
 edge, and who had a good command of language. 
 But the modern understanding declares teaching to 
 be by no means so easy or mechanical; there are sev- 
 eral important conditions to be fulfilled before facts 
 communicated by words can result in real knowledge, 
 and it is the observance of these that makes teaching 
 a difficult process. 
 Proof from One of these conditions that is essential is sug- 
 
 experience! gested by a story that Rousseau relates in his " Emile." 
 He had accepted an invitation to spend a few days 
 at the country home of a woman of rank who was 
 much interested in the education of her children, 
 and he happened one morning to be present in a 
 history recitation conducted by a private tutor with 
 the eldest boy. The topic under discussion was the 
 well-known story of Alexander and his physician, 
 Philip. It was related how the former was warned 
 by friends that Philip was untrue to him and was 
 awaiting an opportunity to give him poison; and 
 that, nevertheless, when in need of medicine, Alex- 
 ander took the proffered goblet and drank its con- 
 tents without hesitation. At dinner the child was 
 called upon to relate the narrative, and did so, amidst 
 much applause. There then followed some discus- 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 79 
 
 sion of its merits. The majority of the guests 
 present agreed that Alexander was very rash, while 
 some, among whom were the tutor and the boy, 
 greatly admired his bravery. This was enough to 
 convince Rousseau that none of them had a proper 
 appreciation of the real greatness of Alexander's 
 act. It was to him first of all a profession of faith 
 in mankind. Alexander believed in human virtue; 
 he had faith in his friends, even to the extent of 
 putting his life in their hands. 
 
 But the great educator was particularly interested 
 in the interpretation which the boy might put upon 
 the story ; accordingly, at the first opportunity after 
 dinner, the two took a stroll together through the 
 park. Rousseau had already come to suspect, from 
 several signs, that the boy had no correct compre- 
 hension of the story which he had related so beauti- 
 fully. He therefore questioned him at his ease 
 and found that he, more even than his instructor or 
 any of the guests, was an admirer of the courage 
 that Alexander had displayed. " But," proceeds 
 Rousseau, " do you know wherein he saw this cour- 
 age ? Solely in the act of swallowing a bitter-tast- 
 ing potion without hesitation and without showing 
 the least repugnance. The poor child who, less 
 than two weeks before, had been required to take 
 some medicine and had found it extremely difficult, 
 had still the after-taste of medicine in his mouth. 
 To him death and poisoning meant only disagreeable 
 
80 METHOD OP RECITATION 
 
 sensations, and he could conceive of no poison more 
 disagreeable than his own drug. However, I must 
 confess that the courage of this hero had made a 
 deep impression upon his young mind, and he had 
 firmly resolved to be brave like Alexander the next 
 time it might be necessary for him to swallow such 
 a draught." 
 
 Here we have a simple narrative interpreted in 
 four different ways, and it is easy to determine the 
 cause. The taking of medicine being an important 
 incident in the anecdote, and the boy's experiences 
 along this line being recent and vivid, he made out 
 its meaning through their help. The tutor, also, 
 saw bravery in Alexander's act, but of a different, 
 more soldier-like quality. 
 
 The majority of the guests considered Alexander 
 very rash, because they called to mind, in interpreting 
 the deed, past experiences that were only superficially 
 related to it, while Rousseau, being a man who had 
 learned to appreciate the beautiful and noble, had 
 apperceiving feelings which led him to class this 
 among the noblest acts of man. This is proof that 
 the mere recital of words gives no guarantee of a 
 The most correct interpretation. Further than that, we see 
 
 important iV ^ ■<. • i. 
 
 principle of ins-t It IS the past that conditions the present ; it is 
 
 su^ited."^ °^^ P^^* i^^^S' feelings, habits, etc., that interpret 
 
 the new experiences which are offered us. This 
 
 fact is seen in the varying impressions that the 
 
 members of an audience carry away from a lecture 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 8 1 
 
 which all have had an equal opportunity to hear. 
 It is seldom that a simple announcement to the sev- 
 eral hundred students in a normal school is under- 
 stood in the same way by all present. In such cases 
 the difference in interpretation cannot be due to a 
 difference in what is heard, for all hear exactly the 
 same words ; it must be due, therefore, to differences 
 in those that listen; according to the thoughts that 
 are uppermost in their minds they get meaning from 
 the words that are uttered. It is clear, then, that 
 we "proceed from the known to the unknown" in 
 learning, or that we "get out of a thing what we 
 put into it." This is probably the most important 
 of all the principles of teaching, and is commonly 
 called the principle of apperception. 
 
 There are two considerations which must be con- 
 tinually kept in mind if this great law shall be suc- 
 cessfully applied by the teacher : — 
 
 First, any new knowledge offered to a child must First condi- 
 be met by old ideas closely related to it if it is to be appHcSor' 
 well comprehended and appreciated. A child who °[p""^'^^'p^^_ 
 has been blind from birth, and whose sole means tion. 
 of discovering the presence and quality of objects is 
 through the sense of touch, cannot comprehend how 
 an ordinary person can know that there is a horse 
 down the street; it is necessary for the blind. child 
 to go and place his hands upon the animal to de- 
 termine where and what it is. Also, having no ap- 
 preciation of color, he is unable to distinguish what 
 
82 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 things have that characteristic, or to see anything 
 inappropriate in the question, What is the color of 
 the days of the week? One child to whom this 
 query was put, very naturally replied that they 
 were probably blue, for he had heard people speak 
 of " blue Monday " ; another likened red to the 
 sound of a trumpet. Thus the absence of a cer- 
 tain class of experiences prevents the possibility of 
 interpreting ideas belonging to that class. 
 
 The majority of men would learn almost as little 
 from a lecture on calculus as the blind boy from one 
 on color. But as things begin to come within our 
 range of knowledge and interests, they begin to 
 carry meaning. The wild Indian on the western 
 plains would appreciate the sight of a man climb- 
 ing a telegraph pole in modern fashion, for he does 
 enough climbing himself to realize that it is no easy 
 task to go up a smooth pole. Still, there is such a 
 wide chasm between his daily thoughts and most 
 modern inventions, that he would be unlikely to 
 have much regard for a steam-engine. The school- 
 boy who reads about the threefold division of so- 
 ciety in European countries is confronted by much 
 the same difficulty; his environment being usually 
 his sole source of help, he attempts to divide his 
 own little community into three strata, according 
 to the description. In this country the attempt 
 necessarily meets with failure, and consequently the 
 thought has little force. Thus, in applying the law 
 
condition, 
 
 THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 83 
 
 that new knowledge can be acqviired solely through 
 the old, it must be remembered that the relationship 
 between the new and the old must be very close, if 
 the former is to be well comprehended and ap- 
 preciated. 
 
 The second consideration is just as important as A second 
 the first in influencing the method of teaching ; it is 
 that any one must be fully conscious of this close con- 
 nection between the known and that which is yet to 
 be learned. If this consciousness is lacking, the 
 two are practically disconnected, no matter how 
 close their real kinship may be. We often meet 
 old friends and regard them as strangers, and this 
 happened so regularly in the schoolroom that it 
 would be difficult to accompUsh it more cer- 
 tainly. 
 
 For instance, children are not expected to dis- 
 tinguish the grammatical subject and predicate of sen- 
 tences before the eleventh year of age. But they 
 have been speaking English nine or ten years, and 
 understanding it fully as long. Of course, then, they 
 know "what they are speaking about" when they 
 utter their thoughts, and they know well, too, what 
 they say about their topics of conversation. They 
 understand their mothers and their friends just as 
 well as themselves. Any child, then, has had daily 
 practice for ten years in distinguishing "subject" 
 and "predicate," and has become quite an adept 
 at it before he is required to study such matter in 
 
84 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 school. What teachers need to do is to remind him 
 of this abundant experience and show him that, while 
 he knows a great deal about this topic, there are 
 many things yet to learn ; he is then ready for work. 
 But, alas ! What is usually done .' Without refer- 
 ence to the past, words are repeated and drilled upon 
 until children are fully convinced that subjects and 
 predicates are far from their daily needs, and in de- 
 spair they declare prepositions, adjectives, conjunc- 
 tions, etc., to be subject or predicate, according as 
 they think they can best please their instructors. 
 Mode is surrounded with the same strange atmos- 
 phere. In spite of the fact that children are actu- 
 ally using all of the modes continually; in spite 
 of the fact that they have already been introduced 
 to two of them in the primary ; namely, the indicative 
 and imperative, under the guise of telling and com- 
 manding sentences ; and in spite of the fact that they 
 are already acquainted with both words, mode and 
 mood {3iS in fashion journals, "mode" of doing this 
 and that, " pleasant mood," etc.), the topic is so taught 
 that both the words and ideas seem never to have 
 been heard before, or to have no bearing upon daily 
 living. 
 
 Many a teacher of Homer or Virgil confuses his 
 pupils for weeks by talk about scansion, quantity, 
 feet, and accent. High school students may become 
 fully lost in such work, notwithstanding the fact that, 
 even as babes, they greatly enjoyed the rhythm of 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 85 
 
 Mother Goose, and the regularity of accent found 
 later in poetry for children. If high school profes- 
 sors would only establish the conviction in the minds 
 of their students that this subject of scansion is a 
 very familiar one, and even that a principal difficulty 
 in reading in the primary grades is the tendency to 
 scan or sing the poetry read, this whole subject would 
 be greatly simplified. 
 
 It is strange how topics that have been thoroughly 
 and even easily mastered in one study may appear 
 difficult when broached in a very different study. 
 The matter of exponents is an example in point. In 
 arithmetic, without any special effort, children com- 
 prehend that the square of two, multiplied by the 
 cube of two, equals the fifth power of two, and that 
 the cube of three, multiplied by the cube of three, 
 equals the sixth power of three. It could not be 
 otherwise. Examples are frequently given by the 
 teacher bearing upon this point, and seldom or never 
 do pupils trip upon it. But how different in algebra ! 
 Exponents are there the bane of the student. In 
 spite of the fact that high school classes are drilled 
 continually upon the rules pertaining to this subject, 
 and are given abundant practice in application, from 
 my own experience in examining twenty-five high 
 schools in Illinois three out of five students will 
 declare that the square of A, muMpUed by the cube 
 of A, equals the sixth power of A. What a quantity 
 of effort might be saved if, in approaching this topic 
 
86 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 the first time, the related facts in arithmetic were 
 called to mind and made the basis for the study of 
 exponents. 
 
 The fact should be emphasized that, though chil- 
 dren are familiar with a certain object and have seen 
 it often, yet if they believe the contrary, the con- 
 trary might as well be true, so far as the acquisition 
 of knowledge is concerned. For instance, I once 
 knew of a room of forty fourth-grade and fifth-grade 
 children in which nearly all asserted that they had 
 never seen a valley. Of course, under those circum- 
 stances, they could not be expected to feel at home 
 in the study of valleys. Yet it was soon discovered 
 that every child Jiad travelled upon the railroad; that 
 he remembered having crossed several bridges ; that 
 water was seen underneath. There was even a small 
 stream in that town which the children had often 
 crossed on a bridge. Of course, then, they had seen 
 valleys ; and those which they had seen should cer- 
 tainly have formed the introduction to the discussion 
 of this subject. 
 Feelings also The principle here involved applies as much to the 
 by similar appreciation oi feelings as to the appreciation of ideas. 
 feeUngs. Take, for example, the first three stanzas of Gray's 
 * Elegy in a Country Churchyard " : — 
 
 " The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ; 
 The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea ; 
 The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 87 
 
 " Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 
 And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 
 Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, 
 And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds ; 
 
 " Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower 
 
 The moping owl does to the moon complain 
 Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, 
 Molest her ancient, solitary reign." 
 
 The thought here is so simple that it can be easily 
 comprehended and still leave little trace of itself in 
 the minds or hearts of pupils. This poetry is first of 
 all an appeal to the emotions, and certain past feel- 
 ings must be present in consciousness before it can 
 be properly appreciated. As one recalls his pensive 
 attitude on some well-remembered summer evening 
 when, in the gloaming, he observed the cattle and 
 the workmen winding their ways homeward, when 
 darkness gradually shut away the outer world and 
 produced a feeling of loneliness, when the noisy 
 world grew quiet and only the buzzing of insects and 
 the tinkling of bells could be occasionally heard, then, 
 as these pictures and the accompanying feelings are 
 vividly reproduced, is one in the right frame of mind 
 for such a poem. Boys and girls must recall definite 
 times in their lives when they enjoyed such reflec- 
 tions as these, and their feelings on those occasions 
 must be reproduced before they will be able to enter 
 into the spirit of these stanzas. 
 
 This poem is a type of many subjects of instruc- 
 
88 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 tion. In Sunday-school work, in prose literature, in 
 history, in nature study, and in art, real appreciation 
 often involves much more than the mere comprehen- 
 sion of the facts or statements ; new feelings are to 
 be aroused, and in that case the past related emo- 
 tions should be recalled and renewed before a proper 
 means for arousing new emotions can be considered 
 to be at hand. We state the same general thought 
 in other words when we say that feelings or moods 
 are a great factor in education. The business man 
 appreciates them. Like the teacher, he is attempt- 
 ing to influence customers by the ideas he presents, 
 and, if he is skilful, he is very careful to broach a 
 matter " at the proper time," i.e. when his listener is 
 in the mood for it. If the right mood is not present, 
 he postpones his business discussion until a more 
 fitting time, or seeks to bring it about by introducing 
 other topics of conversation for a period. 
 
 The child recognizes the same important principles 
 of action in dealing with his parents. Even the 
 infant is often too wise to ask a favor abruptly of 
 his mother if he suspects it is likely to be refused ; 
 he cajoles her rather, until he thinks she is in the 
 humor to grant his request, then he presents it. 
 Children in school often exhibit the same tact toward 
 their teachers ; they study the latter closely and vary 
 their words and conduct according to the mood that 
 prevails at the time. If instinct teaches business 
 men and children to regard moods as highly impor- 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 89 
 
 tant in all attempts to influence other people, why 
 should not teachers obey the same impulse and be at 
 least as pedagogical as these uninitiated ones? If 
 they did so, they would feel their way cautiously into 
 many a subject where now they rush upon it abruptly. 
 
 From the preceding facts it follows that new feel- 
 ings are dependent upon old feelings for interpreta- 
 tion and appreciation, just as new facts upon old 
 ones : the law of going from the known to the un- 
 known is evidently capable of wide application. 
 There are two factors to be kept in mind in its appli- 
 cation : not only must there be old knowledge and 
 emotions closely related to the new, but the learner 
 must be conscious of this close relationship. 
 
 The two great facts just mentioned suggest some 
 important conclusions : — 
 
 I. Good teaching deals primarily with ideas and Conclusions 
 feelings rather than with words, and it consists in p^dpieof" 
 fitting or dovetailing new thoughts and emotions apper<=ep- 
 with those already in the pupil's possession ; it is a 
 process of adjusting the new to the old; and the 
 extent to which a close adjustment is secured deter- 
 mines the effectiveness of the instruction imparted. 
 Real skill is required to do this; hence teaching is 
 not a merely mechanical work that any one can do. 
 Not every one can teach ; even those who know the 
 subject-matter of instruction thoroughly may make 
 an utter failure of it. In order to fit new knowledge 
 to what the child already knows, it is necessary not 
 
go METHOD OF RECITATIOK 
 
 only to be acquainted with the facts to be offered, 
 but also with the child to whom they are to be 
 offered; the latter is a more difficult task, yet the 
 pupil must be thoroughly understood before deftness 
 can be shown in the matching process. 
 
 But while teaching is difficult, there is comfort in 
 the fact that it is a kind of work in which skill can 
 be acquired. It is not true that " teachers are 
 born, not made." The average person can become, 
 or be made, a teacher, provided he will study the 
 child and the laws of influencing him with the same 
 care that he studies the subjects to be offered. , 
 
 2. Words have no magic power ; they are a sub- 
 ordinate instrument in the acquisition of knowledge,, 
 being mere symbols by which experiences are called 
 to mind. If these latter are wanting, there is no 
 effect. The eloquence of Cicero could not explain 
 to a deaf man what music is, or to a blind man what 
 scarlet is, if the defect in hearing or sight dated 
 from birth. 
 
 Even the fact that pupils remember the words of 
 the teacher, or of the book, and can repeat them 
 promptly, gives no sufficient proof of knowledge ; it 
 gives proof only of a good verbal memory. Very 
 often the ability to reproduce exact words of defini- 
 tions, etc., is only a cloak or mask behind which 
 ignorance is concealed. For instance, exceedingly 
 few English speaking people ever reach any real 
 appreciation of case in grammar, although they can 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 9I 
 
 give the definition and some examples very readily. 
 Few teachers of case ever have any warm feeling 
 for that subject, which is evidence that they have 
 not yet made it their own. Much verbatim memori^ 
 ing is merely practice in unconscious deception, for 
 thereby both teachers and students are persuaded 
 that knowledge is acquired, when, in fact, it is only 
 the symbols for ideas rather than the ideas them 
 selves that are mastered. 
 
 3. The mind is not a passive recipient of knowl- 
 edge, like a vessel for water, or a storehouse for 
 grain. It is active in choosing; it applies the 
 severe test of kinship to all that is presented to it, 
 ignoring whatever seems foreign, and giving a warm 
 reception to whatever appears closely related to its 
 needs. 
 
 The past is, therefore, the foundation for all 
 future learning. This is true of any kind of knowl- 
 edge, and applies fully to the acquisition of indi- 
 vidual notions. There is no short cut to learning 
 by merely " handing over " ideas from one person 
 to another; whatever is received is accepted solely 
 on the condition that it find a foundation suited to 
 it ; all else is discarded. 
 
 It is the first duty of the teacher, then, to direct Meaning of 
 attention to the past related experiences. The step;^^'^^*"'' 
 architect provides first for the foundation of his 
 building, and the stronger the superstructure is to 
 be, the deeper he digs into the earth for the base. 
 
92 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 This takes time and costs much money, but it is 
 manifest folly to omit it. The same is true of the 
 instructor; the sole condition under which a sure 
 reception can be found for what he offers, is that 
 he direct attention very carefully to the old ideas 
 as the groundwork. 
 
 This first duty, or first step, in the series of move- 
 ments for the mastery of a generalization is well 
 called the step of preparation (of the learner's mind), 
 and the need of it explains the reason for the 
 peculiar title of the present chapter. 
 Serious risks In ordinary practice this part of method is omitted, 
 ttestep!'""^ For instance, in beginning England, in a geography 
 lesson, no time is occupied solely with recalling, 
 collecting, and arranging old ideas as a foundation 
 upon which the new must rest; it is rather the 
 custom to plunge into the new immediately. Even 
 in literature, where the new selection is often intro- 
 duced with remarks about the author, about charac- 
 ters in the play, etc., this step is largely overlooked. 
 But, if children are fairly well prepared for the 
 studies which they are perusing, many related ideas 
 will spring up of their own accord, whenever any 
 topic is presented. Why, then, occupy time in 
 recalling thoughts of the past, when they are likely 
 to come without it .' 
 
 The reasons are the following : — 
 
 First, there is the danger of no understanding of 
 the subject presented. For instance, many a child 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 93 
 
 has committed to memory the poem " Excelsior," won- 
 dering the while what it meant. The subject of 
 scansion, already referred to, is another example of 
 the same kind. Percentage is still another. Chil- 
 dren are often mystified by the fact that, while 
 there are so many fractions, those of a certain de- 
 nomination called hundredths are singled out and 
 greatly emphasized. The text-book, too, increases 
 their perplexity by introducing the subject in a new 
 chapter, as though it were quite different from what 
 had preceded. As a result, they feel strangers to 
 percentage and sometimes fail to find their bearings 
 for a long period. 
 
 Second, there is the danger that, even if children 
 understand the ideas presented, they may feel indif- 
 ference toward them. This is perhaps a more serious 
 danger than the preceding. " Gray's Elegy," already 
 referred to, furnishes an example. That poem is 
 frequently finished before it is begun. That is, 
 every stanza is understood by the child, and it is 
 laid aside as completed work, without his ever hav- 
 ing begun to enter into its spirit. Likewise, civil 
 government, English gram^mar, and beginning Latin 
 are often taught and finished without any good effect 
 further than the possession of a certain quantity of 
 knowledge. This is not true teaching. To the 
 true teacher the child's sympathy with the subject- 
 matter taught is an absolutely necessary condition 
 for success. The pupil should always be able to give 
 
94 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 a satisfactory answer to the question, " What is this 
 subject to me ? " A genuine glow of feeling must ac- 
 company facts that are to prove of permanent worth. 
 A universal law is here involved. Though one 
 come to understand a subject fairly well, he may fail 
 entirely to appreciate it sympathetically ; but unless 
 knowledge is really appreciated, it is not perma- 
 nently valuable. In time past the great majority 
 of teachers have acted as though the possession of 
 knowledge and its appreciation were identical. The 
 Sunday-school teacher, for instance, has taken for 
 granted that, if she could impart a few Bible facts 
 to her class, the children would be made more 
 religious. Likewise, Shakespeare's dramas have 
 been often taught with the presupposition on the 
 part of the instructor that, if each word and each 
 sentence were clearly comprehended, a love for 
 Shakespeare and for literature would be engen- 
 dered. There are few errors more serious. While 
 one is learning to comprehend the BiblCj or literary 
 productions, or history, etc., an unfriendly feeling 
 may be growing up which may result in dislike of 
 the subject. And this is the feeling that is being 
 aroused towards many subjects that are fairly well 
 comprehended. That attitude of mind precludes 
 the possibility of good. Both Froebel and Herbart, 
 the two great educators of this century, urge the 
 necessity of interest in the studies taught, and the 
 importance of the development of tastes. If they 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 9$ 
 
 are right, interest must be substituted for indiffer- 
 ence or aversion. It can be developed through the 
 establishment of a feeling of kinship each time 
 for what is offered. And since this feeling of kin- 
 ship is dependent, as has already been shown, upon 
 consciousness of the close relation between the old 
 ideas and those newly offered, it can be aroused by 
 careful attention to past related experience. A few 
 examples will make this matter clear. 
 
 Let it be the aim of a recitation to study the most 
 beautiful part of the Rhine River. If, without any 
 preparatory step, we begin a description of the 
 Rhine itself, serious difficulties may easily arise. 
 The conversation soon turns to valleys and beauti- 
 ful views ; it is this valley that is so beautiful. But 
 children often do not remember having seen a val- 
 ley, or, if they do, they recall nothing about it 
 especially attractive. This may be true of teachers 
 as well as of children. I was once instructor in a 
 county institute where eighty teachers were present. 
 Seventy of them declared that they could not recall 
 ever having enjoyed a beautiful view. But the 
 fact was that in the town where the institute was 
 held there were several beautiful views, one of the 
 principal avenues being entirely arched over with 
 elms. Of course in both cases they had all seen 
 the object talked about, and not being made con- 
 scious of the fact, they had nothing to build upon. 
 They felt no kinship for the subject in hand, and 
 
96 MEtHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 hence a discussion of it could not appeal to them. 
 As far as the Rhine River is concerned, most of 
 those who are prepared for its study, both children 
 and teachers, have not only seen valleys and streams 
 and beautiful views, but they have heard of Bishop 
 Hatto and the Mouse Tower, Bingen on the Rhine, 
 the Lorelei, and perhaps they have even read " Seven 
 Little Sisters." If these ideas were all called up as 
 an introduction to the Rhine, they would create a 
 feeling of kinship which would mean a live interest 
 from the beginning. 
 
 Again, suppose that we are to study that country 
 in Europe in which William Tell is said to have 
 lived. If the advance work is begun immediately, 
 even though it can be comprehended fairly well, 
 there is serious danger of comparative indifference 
 on the part of pupils. But this danger is easily 
 overcome by recalling what one has heard or read 
 about avalanches and snow storms among the Alps, 
 about Tell and other adventures, St. Bernard dogs, 
 Swiss lakes and scenery, the experiences of Jean- 
 nette in " Seven Little Sisters," etc. 
 
 The third danger threatened by the omission of 
 this preparatory step is that the subject under con- 
 sideration may be only partially understood, or even 
 misunderstood. Rousseau's story, related above, is 
 a good illustration. It is not an uncommon occur- 
 rence for auditors of a lecture to contradict one 
 another flatly as to the purport of the lecturer's 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 97 
 
 thoughts. People approach whatever is offered them 
 with the interests, preconceptions, prejudices, etc., 
 that are pecuUar to them. Each one, viewing what 
 is presented from his own point of view, naturally 
 puts his individual interpretation upon it. It is 
 necessary, then, that misunderstandings arise ; and 
 school examination papers prove that they arise in 
 abundance. Very few students are so accurate in 
 all their observations and thinking that their past 
 conceptions are a correct basis from which to inter- 
 pret new ideas, and yet past experiences are the 
 sole means for such interpretation. Therefore, it is 
 plainly advisable for the teacher, in order to avoid 
 mistakes, to call up, examine, and, when necessary, 
 correct past related experiences before advancing 
 into new subject-matter. 
 
 From this discussion it follows that there is dan- 
 ger at all times of poor instruction, when a distinct 
 period is not set aside for preparing the child's mind 
 to receive the new knowledge that is offered. There 
 may be either no understanding of the subject in 
 hand, an indifference or aversion toward it, or a mis- 
 understanding of it. The only safe course to follow 
 is to anticipate such difficulties by careful prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 Many teachers, no doubt, would agree to the state- 
 ments up to this point, but would object to this con- 
 clusion. Instead of anticipating such difficulties, 
 they would plunge into the new subject-matter 
 
98 
 
 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 But why not, 
 at least, delay 
 considera-. 
 tion of past 
 related ex- 
 periences 
 until it has 
 been found 
 necessary? 
 
 immediately; then if any of the evils mentioned 
 manifested themselves, they would correct them by 
 turning back and recalling the necessary past ex- 
 periences. This is the usual plan followed, and it is 
 popular because it seems to save much time. 
 
 But if related past experiences are to be called 
 to mind at all, no time is saved by doing it late 
 rather than early. Also, if such experiences are the 
 sole basis for new knowledge, — as has been shown, 
 — the latter has nothing on which to rest, until the 
 former are present in consciousness. Consequently 
 time is lost by the omission of the preparatory step. 
 However, there is more than a loss of time involved. 
 If children read " Excelsior " without interpreting it 
 through many old and familiar thoughts, i.e. without 
 interpreting it at all, they have not only sacrificed 
 their time, but they have lost some of their zest for 
 study. That kind of instruction dulls mental life 
 and ambition. The injury is of the same nature if 
 the given topic, as Gray's " Elegy," is comprehended, 
 but is pursued with indifference or disUke. Finally, 
 the situation is not improved when the subject 
 taught is misunderstood, so that corrections are 
 necessary. In each of these three cases the first 
 impressions received are either unfavorable or wrong ; 
 they must be erased and the work attempted again 
 in a better way before good can result. 
 
 Men and women in their contact with one another 
 learned long ago the supreme importance of favorable 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS 99 
 
 and correct first impressions, and they consequently 
 approach one another with the greatest care. When 
 one man conceives a prejudice against another at 
 their first meeting, a strong barrier to their friendship 
 is surely raised. The proverb that " first impressions 
 are most lasting" is accepted as a grave truth by 
 the world of society and business, and teachers 
 have abundant reason for reaching the same con- 
 viction. The child who has gotten linear, square, 
 and cubic measure well confused in his mind, is apt 
 to be permanently weak on that topic. The high 
 school student who has decided that he cannot 
 understand specific gravity, is not Ukely ever to 
 understand it fully. It may not be difficult to 
 rescue such persons from their state of ignorance 
 for a time, but the difficulty consists in making the 
 rescue permanent. All these facts being so well 
 established, it is astonishing how willingly teachers 
 fairly tumble into subjects, leaving first impressions 
 to mere accident. It is true that " it is easy to tear 
 down," but the truth applies to the corrections that 
 one attempts to make, and not so much to the first 
 impressions themselves. Progressive teachers are 
 rightly throwing great emphasis upon a cautious 
 approach to all topics of study. 
 
 We have reached the two conclusions that new 
 knowledge is interpreted through the old, and that, 
 in order that this interpretation may be correct 
 and effective, it is necessary to recall, collect, and 
 
lOO METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 arrange the past experiences bearing upon the topic 
 under treatment. The dangers threatened by the 
 omission of this step are so serious that it must con- 
 stitute a part of the regular instruction. Now, in 
 planning it, there are a few considerations that 
 should have much weight : — 
 Precaution First, the teacher should endeavor to call up as 
 
 the prepara- many related ideas as possible, especially those which 
 torystep. ^^g closely welded to the personality of the child. 
 These latter are the strongest apperceiving notions. 
 Being the ones that are most vivid and active, they 
 can best establish a feeling of kinship toward what 
 is studied. 
 
 It is surprising how little value book knowledge 
 may possess for this purpose. One may have read 
 or committed to memory a vast number of facts and 
 still be stupid in his capacity for receiving or ap- 
 perceiving new thoughts through them. Ordina- 
 rily experiences that have occurred outside of the 
 schoolroom are a surer apperceiving basis than 
 those within the schoolroom — a proof that much 
 school instruction is radically wrong. Arithmetic 
 illustrates this truth. Although that branch is 
 studied so much, the subject-matter is so taught 
 that it often fails to become welded to the person- 
 ality of the child, and hence it cannot act as a firm 
 apperceiving basis for the comprehension and solu- 
 tion of the ordinary arithmetical problems that life 
 presents. 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS lOI 
 
 Even knowledge drilled into pupils at school by- 
 frequent repetition may give very little apperceiving 
 power. The reason for this can be easily seen by 
 recalling the definition of teaching ; namely, the care- 
 ful fitting of new thoughts to past experiences. 
 Frequent drill upon a point, or constant verbatim 
 repetition, makes no provision for this process of 
 fitting some ideas to others. Such repetition is 
 based upon a different conception of teaching; 
 namely, that the connection between the old and 
 the new, if necessary, is established by mere force, 
 by frequent pounding. But daily repetition of the 
 Lord's Prayer, while it familiarizes us thoroughly 
 with a certain order of words, does not necessarily 
 bring the meaning of the prayer any nearer to us. 
 Many a man would be greatly surprised if his atten- 
 tion were called to the real significance of the first 
 words, " Our Father," for he has never stopped to 
 reflect upon them. The teacher, therefore, in plan- 
 ning for full apperception, cannot expect to find 
 strong support in many of those subjects which 
 have been verbally memorized and frequently re- 
 peated. Her strongest support will be found usually 
 in the home experiences of the pupil, in the occupa- 
 tion of the parents, in the subjects of conversation 
 among them and the children, in the games among 
 the latter, in books of travel, and in fact in any 
 books that children have read of their own accord. 
 All of these furnish ideas which become so thor 
 
I02 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 oughly a part of the child's life that they are the surest 
 foundation upon which new knowledge may rest. 
 
 It is evident that success in this step of instruction 
 involves an extensive knowledge of the child's home 
 relations and of his individual nature ; that is, his 
 preferences, peculiarities, and feelings. From among 
 these home experiences, and those of the school also, 
 in as far as the instruction there has been good, 
 many facts should be drawn which bear directly 
 upon the advance instruction to be given. By call- 
 ing up as many vivid experiences as possible, the 
 feeling of relationship to the topic in advance will 
 be closer, and therefore the teaching will prove 
 more effective. For instance, children will be at- 
 tracted to England after they recall facts such as 
 the following: that the Pilgrim Fathers, John 
 Smith, WiUiam Penn, came from England; that 
 Charles Dickens, the author of so many good stories, 
 Uved there; that sometimes their pocket knives, 
 and very often the table knives, have "Sheffield" 
 marked upon them ; that many of our names are Eng- 
 lish, with New-prefixed, as New England, New York, 
 New Jersey, New Hampshire, New Bedford ; thatsome 
 in the class have relatives or friends who have visited 
 that country, and who have related certain incidents, 
 etc. That is the skilful teacher who can designate be- 
 forehand just how many things each child has known 
 pertaining to a given subject, so that in a few minutes 
 they may all be recalled. 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS IO3 
 
 The second precaution to be taken is, that no ad- 
 vance work should be attempted during this prepar- 
 atory step. One cannot well prepare for new knowl- 
 edge by presenting what is new, just as he cannot 
 erect a building while laying the foundation. There 
 is always a temptation to move forward, and to offer 
 new thoughts in the midst of the discussion of old 
 ones. But the kind of mental activity required in 
 this preparatory step is different from that required 
 in the advance. In the case of England just referred 
 to, the recalling of such thoughts taxes the memory 
 rather than the ability to comprehend. One is called 
 upon to survey his experiences in order to choose out 
 those which bear upon a given subject. That kind 
 of work must be done by itself. If, in the midst of 
 it, new facts are frequently offered, they are a serious 
 interruption. — Further than this, there would be dan- 
 ger that the new and the old may become somewhat 
 mixed in passing frequently from the one to the other. 
 For instance, if children were collecting all the facts 
 they knew about London, and the teacher were to 
 allow some advance instruction in the midst of this 
 work, there would be a temptation on her part to 
 handle this latter as briefly as the former. Review 
 points are naturally covered more rapidly than ad- 
 vance, and there would be a tendency to the same 
 rate of speed in the latter. It is always important 
 for both teachers and pupils to know definitely 
 whether they are reviewing or advancing, because 
 
104 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 only in that case do they exercise a proper amount 
 of caution in regard to speed. 
 
 Another object of this separation is to fix clearly 
 the limits of the pupils' knowledge upon the topic in 
 hand. Whenever one sees definitely where his knowl- 
 edge leaves off, a feeling of need arises, an appetite 
 is generated for more ; that is, a receptive frame of 
 mind is produced, and one knows where new instruc- 
 tion should begin. It is a serious fault with people 
 that they are not sufficiently aware of what they 
 know, and of what they do not know. The limits 
 between the two are so hidden that often, although 
 they know little they take it for granted that they 
 know much. In consequence, they do not feel a need 
 for instruction ; or the feeling of need, if present, is 
 not specific, and hence it is difficult to know where 
 to begin. No educator has ever been so keen as 
 Socrates in appreciating the importance of fixing the 
 exact limits of a pupil's knowledge as the condition 
 under which he will be in a receptive frame of mind ;' 
 but the teacher also is benefited by knowing this 
 limit for he knows then where his instruction ought 
 to commence — a very important matter. 
 
 Queries will often arise while pupils are recalling 
 their knowledge about a certain matter, and they will 
 often even fall into friendly disputes over it. For 
 example, a room full of fourth-grade children in 
 Chicago once became excited in discussing how the 
 water reached the city from the lake, and what was 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS IO5 
 
 the purpose of the water tower and engine. The 
 chief result of the recitation consisted in the discov- 
 ery, both on the part of the teacher and the children, 
 that the latter did not know the things which they 
 had supposed they knew, and the disputes that arose 
 gave point to several advance lessons which were in 
 prospect. The children were anxious to find out who 
 were right in the sides taken, and these recitations 
 were looked forward to as the answers to the prob- 
 lems presented. Such disputes, therefore, are de- 
 cidedly welcome. 
 
 More than that, children may often run forward in 
 thought and anticipate facts which will be presented 
 later. That is quite desirable. , Some anticipation of 
 what is coming is one of the surest signs of good 
 teaching, for it proves that children are in the spirit 
 of the instruction given. Whether their expectations 
 are realized or not makes little difference. Their minds 
 are on the alert, and the outcome will be awaited 
 with interest. Thus lasting impressions are assured. 
 
 The third precaution in this step is fully as impor- 
 tant as either of the other two and, in fact, conditions 
 the success of both ; it requires the statement of the aim. 
 
 The attention of pupils must be centred quickly 
 and fully on the work undertaken. They enter the 
 class room with scattered thoughts, or occupied, with 
 the subject-matter of the recitation immediately pre- 
 ceding. Unless skill is manifested by the instructor 
 in calling up the ideas that are desirable and in 
 
I06 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 excluding all others, the recitation is lame from the 
 beginning. Commands will not accomplish this ob- 
 ject. Even adults possess little ability through mere 
 action of will alone to rivet their attention upon a 
 certain topic to the exclusion of all else. Much 
 less do children have this power. At the best the 
 latter are able through the force of will to turn their 
 attention to a given object for only a moment. If, 
 then, the subject-matter itself does not continue to 
 attract them, their thoughts quickly wander. But 
 much teaching fails to secure this initial act of the 
 will. Even though children sit bolt upright and 
 direct their eyes to the teacher, their minds, like 
 those of adults in listening to sermons, are often 
 filled with matters wholly irrelevant to the topic im- 
 mediately under discussion. Only as the recitation 
 proceeds is the attention of one child after another 
 caught and held by the facts presented, and only 
 during the latter part of the hour is much momentum 
 of thought attained. It would certainly be a great 
 gain if closer attention and greater speed in thinking 
 could be secured earlier, or even at the beginning of 
 the recitation period. A proper statement of the aim 
 of the recitation, worded from the children's point 
 of view, can do much toward the accomplishment of 
 this purpose. In acquiring knowledge, as in other 
 occupations, the degree of attention given and the 
 quantity of effort put forth are much influenced by the 
 clearness and zest with which the aim is conceived. 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS I07 
 
 It is taken for granted that the teacher has a defi- 
 nite object in view in each recitation ; the contention 
 now is that the pupils also shall aim at something 
 definite. The preparatory step which has been dis- 
 cussed requires that they select all facts in their pos- 
 session that bear on a given topic, and reject all else. 
 They must do most of this work themselves; the 
 teacher can merely offer them suggestions. But 
 unless they know in some way what the recitation is 
 aiming to accompUsh, they are ignorant as to what 
 they should search for out' of their past experience; 
 of course, then, they are helpless and must be led 
 along blindly. 
 
 A properly stated aim must fulfil several impor- Character- 
 tant requirements. In the first place, it must be con- pupUs°aim. 
 Crete and not abstract. Enough has been said about 
 abstractions or generalizations in previous chapters 
 to show that they follow rather than precede individ- 
 ual notions. They are empty and repellent untU one 
 has the concrete data upon which they depend. Con- 
 sequently, the children should not be told that a 
 recitation is aiming to explain some general truth. — 
 However, this does not signify by any means that the 
 teacher shall have no such aim in her own mind. 
 As has been already stated, instruction culminates in 
 generalizations, and the teacher must keep these in 
 mind; but her purpose is a thing entirely separate 
 from the aim which should be stated before the 
 children. 
 
I08 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 A Sunday-school teacher, in telling about Daniel 
 in the lions' den, would hope ultimately to impress 
 upon her pupils the general truth that God protects 
 those who trust in Him ; but the object of the recita- 
 tion which she would give to the class might well be 
 " to find out how it happened that Daniel was thrown 
 into a den of lions, and what came of it." This is a 
 concrete statement and would naturally arouse the in- 
 terest of children. Instead of saying that "we will find 
 out to-day what per cent one number is of another," 
 we could better give this problem, "A camel lives 
 forty years and an elephant one hundred and ten 
 years ; the age of the former is what per cent of that 
 of the latter .■' " Also, instead of the question, " What 
 are pronouns .' " which is abstract, aiming at a defini- 
 tion, it would be better to set up the following object, 
 " Let us see what words are used to take the place 
 of Columbus in the composition you have written 
 about him." In place of the question, " How do 
 cities obtain their water .' " it would be better to ask 
 (if one lived in Chicago), " Where does Chicago get 
 its water, and how is it brought to the city.'" In 
 teaching the fable about the Lion and the Mouse, the 
 teacher may properly aim to show to her pupils that 
 little things may be of much help ; but her concrete 
 statement might be, " Let us hear a story about how 
 a mouse once saved the life of a lion." Thus the 
 first requirement of a good aim is fulfilled by making 
 it concrete. 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS IO9 
 
 The second important requirement is that the aim 
 be definite. Little is accomplished by announcing 
 " a continuation of the same subject." And a teacher 
 fixes a very imperfect purpose before her class when 
 she states they will study "About Bunker Hill," or 
 " About leaves," or " About Spain," or " About the 
 union of our states." The following aims are much 
 more desirable : " How the Americans outwitted the 
 British and drove them out of Boston," " Where 
 leaves grow ; why they are so thin ; why they fall," 
 etc., "Why nearly all the large cities in Spain are 
 on the coast," " What prevented the union of our colo- 
 nies from breaking to pieces at the close of the Revo- 
 lutionary War." The advantages of the latter consist 
 in the fact that they are definite enough to concen- 
 trate attention upon a particular point. 
 
 As far as possible one should state an object which 
 can be accomplished within one recitation period, and 
 consequently some of the aims just stated might need 
 to be divided somewhat. For example, the one in re- 
 gard to Bunker Hill might be stated thus: first, "Let 
 us study the plan that the Americans adopted to out- 
 wit the British and drive them out of Boston " ; second, 
 " Let us see how this plan was executed." In each 
 case the class would be expected to review the situa- 
 tion in which each army was placed, etc., before the 
 advance instruction begins : this would constitute the 
 preparatory step. 
 
 The third requirement is that the aim be short. 
 
no METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 simple, and attractive. Strange words would not be 
 acceptable. Hence, with children, it would be better 
 to ask, " How do leaves help the tree ? " than " What 
 is the function of leaves ? " Also, " What changes 
 does the caterpillar pass through ? " rather than 
 " What are the metamorphoses of the caterpillar ? " 
 Of course the simpler the statement, the more easily 
 it is understood ; and the shorter it is, the more easily 
 it is reproduced. It is usually desirable that the chil- 
 dren reproduce it at least once at the beginning of 
 the recitation in order to make sure that it is under- 
 stood. The attractiveness of the aims stated will 
 depend upon the happy combination of what is famil- 
 iar and what is new to the child. Here is a great 
 opportunity for skill on the part of the teacher. The 
 wording should be such that the class will feel at 
 least partially acquainted with the topic and still 
 strangers to such an extent that they will be desirous 
 of learning more in regard to it. That aim is weak 
 which does not awaken a feeling of need in the child 
 for more knowledge. 
 
 The several requirements of the aim, therefore, 
 are as follows : it should be concrete, definite, sim- 
 ple, short, and attractive. The fact may be well 
 emphasized once more, that these are the require- 
 ments of the aim which is to be given to the chil- 
 dren at the beginning of the recitation. — Such a 
 statement does not mean the giving of the rule first ; 
 the rule is abstract, while the aim recommended is 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS III 
 
 concrete. The teacher keeps the rule in mind, since 
 the instruction should finally arrive at this result; 
 but it would be unpedagogical for her to say any- 
 thing about it beforehand to the children. — The 
 form of the statement may vary, being either a dec- 
 laration or a question or a problem. But whatever 
 form it assumes, it should not reveal new facts in 
 duch a way as to deprive advance instruction of its 
 interest. One can easily tell too much. For instance, 
 in regard to the water supply of Chicago, he might 
 declare it to be his aim, " to see how a tunnel brings 
 water to the city and an engine pumps it into the 
 tower ; " or, the object might be, " to see how un- 
 productive the interior of Spain is because most of 
 the rain falls on the edge of the great plateau," or, 
 "how we add fractions by making them alike." 
 These statements contain facts that should be re- 
 vealed in the later instruction ; if stated at the be- 
 ginning, they weaken the instruction which is to 
 follow, just as the inadvertent telling of the point 
 of a joke weakens the narration of the joke itself. 
 The advantages of an aim that fulfils these condi- 
 tions are manifest. It renders a recitation easy to 
 conduct, because it furnishes a strong motive for 
 work upon a particular subject. Children become 
 eager to collect and present their related ideas. 
 
 But there is scarcely a more difficult task in all MHiyaprop. 
 teaching than the preparation of an aim that fulfils pupirTaimis 
 the few requirements named. difficult. 
 
112 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 1. The teacher must comprehend clearly the studj' 
 that she is teaching; also, in planning each lesson, 
 she must distinguish the essential facts from those 
 that are comparatively trivial. The aim that is 
 stated should direct attention to the central idea in 
 a concrete way; such an aim cannot be conceived 
 until the relative value of thoughts is determined 
 and the real gist of the lesson perceived. 
 
 2. The teacher must know the contents of her 
 pupils' minds, their emotions, and so forth, before 
 she can frame a statement that will appear to them 
 definite, short, simple, and attractive. 
 
 Advantages A good aim bccomes a standard both to the chil- 
 aim.*'"" ^'^s.xi and to the teacher for judging the worth of 
 contributions by the former. Since this first step 
 is necessarily conversational, there is always danger 
 that the discussion will degenerate into a conversa- 
 tion that aims at nothing and accomplishes nothing. 
 But when all are conscious of a fixed aim, reference 
 to it by the teacher or pupils will determine whether 
 or not a certain thought is worth their attention. 
 For example, if the class sets out to show how 
 water reaches houses from the lake (in Chicago), 
 the child who is eager to tell about the bursting of 
 the water pipes in his home on a certain cold night 
 may be immediately ruled out. This measuring of 
 the relevancy of thoughts is an exceedingly valuable 
 exercise for children ; it calls judgment into play. 
 Also, the development of will is intimately involved 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS II 3 
 
 in the fixing and attainment of an aim in each reci- 
 tation. "Without aim, no will," is an important 
 dictum of the Germans. That is, when one fails to 
 see clearly what is at issue, he feels little incentive 
 to exert himself. This thought was in mind in the 
 assertion that a definite aim furnishes a motive for 
 effort. But, further than that, if one daily sets up 
 objects to be accomplished and is successful in 
 reaching them, he falls into the habit of succeeding. 
 The energy and perseverance that we show in over- 
 coming new obstacles are greatly conditioned by 
 such a habit. If, as we look backward in time, we 
 recall the fact that it has usually been our lot to 
 fail, courage evaporates. But if we see our past 
 efforts crowned with success, self-confidence is great 
 and energy is increased. Thus the past influences 
 the anticipations and the results of the future. That 
 instructor who daily leads her pupils to attain cer- 
 tain ends agreed upon, is accustoming them to suc- 
 cess ; . she is developing in them a belief in themselves 
 which will cause their will action to be energetic and 
 persistent. 
 
 We see the special importance, therefore, of re- 
 peating the aim until it is clearly fixed as a purpose 
 in the pupils' minds ; and at the close of the recitation 
 it is important to compare the work accomplished 
 with that aim. 
 
 Omitting further discussion of the aim in partic- 
 ular, one merit of this preparatory step deserves 
 
114 
 
 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Relation of 
 preparatory 
 step to re- 
 views. 
 
 still to be noted ; namely, it affords opportunity fot 
 frequent reviews of the best possible kind. It is 
 all important that children recall frequently any 
 knowledge already acquired; otherwise it is likely 
 to escape them. For this purpose reviews are often 
 held at the end of a term, occupying one, two, or 
 three weeks ; or, if not then, they come during the 
 term whenever any subject is completed. But in 
 such reviews progress is so rapid that the work is 
 less thorough than when the topics were studied the 
 first time; their avowed object is not greater thor- 
 oughness of knowledge, but merely the refreshing 
 of the memory in regard to it. Such work is an 
 injury. Any review that takes place merely for 
 the sake of review, and that does not require new 
 thought, tends to check mental life : mere repetition 
 for repetition's sake has a deadening effect. But 
 how can this evil be remedied, since reviews are 
 essential? This step of preparation is a partial 
 remedy, for it furnishes abundant opportunity for 
 incidental reviews. In approaching any new sub- 
 ject, as England, or the union of our country, or 
 changes in insect life, or the battle of Bunker Hill, 
 those familiar facts are recalled that bear upon it 
 They are not reviewed merely for the sake of review, 
 i.e. without a motive on the part of the pupil, but 
 because they are a valuable preparation for what is 
 to come. Such work is full of interest. Children 
 feel their strength when recalling an abundance of 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS IIS 
 
 experiences preparatory to later instruction; their 
 minds are on the alert. Any ideas that are closely 
 akin to the subject are at a premium, whether they 
 come from the study immediately under considera- 
 tion, or from other branches in school, or from home 
 experiences, from reading, from travel, etc. This 
 careful scrutiny of one's stock of ideas with the pur- 
 pose of selecting only a certain relevant kind means 
 a review of the old from a new standpoint, with a 
 new element in it that arouses interest; this is the 
 only kind of review that should be tolerated; as it 
 is the kind that this preparatory step is continually 
 bringing about, the latter should, for this particular 
 reason, be highly valued. 
 
 Since there is only one way to acquire knowledge, 
 i.e. since all new facts can be interpreted solely by 
 those already in our possession, it is evident that, 
 in insisting upon this preparatory step, we are only 
 demanding that a universal law of learning be ap- 
 plied. If it is ignored, children will encounter much 
 friction and hence will learn slowly and with little 
 effect; if it is carefully applied, many of the artifi- 
 cial barriers to their progress are removed, so that 
 they advance thoroughly and rapidly. 
 
 The amount of time that this step requires de- Timere- 
 pends upon circumstances. In beginning the study preparatory 
 of Spain it might not take more than five minutes =*^P- 
 to recall the facts that Columbus sailed from Palos, 
 Malaga grapes come from southern Spain, bull- 
 
Il6 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 fighting is the national sport, we were recently at 
 war with Spain, etc. The time taken is dependent 
 upon the number of things the pupils know. The 
 introduction into England might easily occupy thirty 
 minutes. Sometimes it will take even more time 
 than that to collect what the class knows and to 
 mark the limits distinctly between what they are 
 certain of and what they are doubtful about. As a 
 rule, the aim for any single recitation will cover 
 both review and advance work, and the latter will 
 begin as soon as the former is finished — as in the 
 preceding examples. If a class were to set out to 
 learn the products of Ireland, it might require fifteen 
 minutes to collect the few familiar facts, i.e. that 
 this is called the Emerald Isle, that Irish linens are 
 famous, etc. ; then a fuller investigation of the rea- 
 sons why this is so green an island, or why so much 
 linen is manufactured here, would begin immediately 
 and constitute the advance work. 
 
 Now and then, as in literature, history, and, in 
 fact, in most studies, the desired related experiences 
 of the past come so easily and quickly into the con- 
 sciousness of the children that the advance lesson 
 may begin immediately. But when we recollect that 
 they must pass very frequently from one study to 
 another, and that, in so doing, they are required to 
 direct their attention suddenly to a different sub- 
 ject, we can appreciate the difficulty they find in 
 collecting the desired facts and in entering into the 
 
THE APPROACH TO INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS II 7 
 
 spirit of the lesson at once. On the whole, it is 
 very unsafe to take for granted that the necessary 
 ideas are present ; it is ever wiser to take at least a 
 glance at the foundation, and in most cases to ex- 
 amine it closely, before proceeding to build upon it. 
 
 The method here is entirely conversational; it Method con- 
 could not be otherwise, since each child is merely 
 offering whatever he can bring to bear. It is well 
 to arrange the thoughts given under headings, and 
 frequently at the close of the step to recapitulate, 
 in order that the exact amount accomplished may 
 stand out and the pupils may thus keep their bear- 
 ings. 
 
 This is often called the step of analysis as well as 
 the first or the preparatory step. It is plain that 
 this other name is in place, since in it the children 
 are required to analyze the contents of their minds, 
 or to separate a certain few ideas that bear on a 
 special point from the many others which are in 
 their possession. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 HOW INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS SHOULD BE PRESENTED 
 
 The first step prepares the foundation ; this second 
 adds a portion of the superstructure. In the first, 
 those thoughts that bear on a certain topic are sepa^ 
 rated from the other contents of the mind, hence 
 that is called the step of analysis : in this second 
 the new thoughts are united with the old, hence it 
 is called the step of synthesis. If the former has been 
 successful, the latter will show the effects speedily. 
 How prepar- Judged by common practice in teaching, the first 
 saves time ^^^P involves great loss of time, for instruction usually 
 ^^^- commences with the second. But as soon as one 
 
 begins presenting the new concrete facts, the effect 
 of a good preparatory step shows itself by allowing 
 much more rapid progress than is otherwise possible. 
 The children, being able to comprehend the topic in 
 hand, and being also interested in it, are much more 
 on the alert than otherwise, and can digest more 
 rapidly whatever is offered. Also it is unnecessary 
 to interrupt the instruction by long explanations, and 
 by detours to hunt up related experiences ; conse- 
 quently the time is occupied more completely by the 
 advance instruction. 
 
 ii8 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 1 19 
 
 The same reasons hold for the statement of an aim Necessity of 
 
 ATI Aim 
 
 in this step as in the step of preparation. That is, 
 an aim will concentrate attention and furnish a mo- 
 tive for active thinking. The fact that it makes the 
 child conscious of the course he is pursuing, and 
 thus prevents unexpected discoveries, is greatly in its 
 favor. While it is an excellent thing to make dis- 
 coveries, it is much better that they be dimly antici- 
 pated than tha,t they be entire surprises. Students 
 of all ages should realize which way they are bound, 
 and if they comprehend the situation so well that 
 they foresee what is likely to come, it is a very 
 encouraging sign. In fixing the aim the same pre- 
 cautions should be observed as have been discussed. 
 
 The form of presentation, that is, the way of get- Form of 
 ting at the facts, may vary greatly. The children P''*=™'^"°"' 
 may hear a story and discuss it; they may read a 
 selection, study a map, or a geography lesson, in the 
 book ; they may examine and sketch a flower ; they 
 may interpret and work out a set of problems in 
 arithmetic, or perform a suggested experiment, or 
 study the conjugation of a verb, or examine and 
 discuss the objects of a science lesson freely with the 
 teacher. So long, however, as the class is engaged 
 in acquiring new and concrete subject-matter, it is 
 always the second step of instruction. 
 
 But while there is so much variety in the form of 
 recitation, it is due rather to variety in the subject- 
 matter taught than to difference in the methods 
 
120 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 employed. In the main, most subjects are treated 
 according to one of three methods ; namely, accord- 
 ing to the lecture, the text-book, or the developing 
 method. 
 
 1. The lecture method is followed extensively in 
 college and university work, and to some extent in 
 high schools. According to that plan, the teacher 
 imparts knowledge directly, or tells the facts which 
 the students are expected to learn. When it is re- 
 membered that lecturing is synonymous with telling, 
 it is evident that the method is not wholly unknown 
 even to teachers of small children. They very often 
 spend five, ten, fifteen, or twenty minutes telling 
 thoughts from a Sunday-school lesson, or facts in 
 geography, history, etc. 
 
 2. Text-books have long been in vogue and are 
 probably as popular to-day as ever. Recent years, 
 however, have brought very great improvement in 
 their use. There was a time when it was customary 
 for children to learn verbatim the text in grammar and 
 geography. It is needless to say that that work was 
 destructive of the best qualities of mind. Subject 
 matter was often committed to memory that failed 
 entirely to be understood, although a pretence to the 
 contrary was made. In the main, it was the memory 
 that was appealed to, rather than the ability to under 
 stand and appreciate. 
 
 In more recent years a better class of teachers has 
 required pupils to memorize only the substance of the 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS f RESENTED 121 
 
 thought, neglecting the form of expression in the 
 book. They have often even discouraged similarity 
 between the language of the child and that of the 
 book, hoping thus to throw the chief emphasis upon 
 the thought itself. 
 
 A third class of teachers also require only the gist 
 of the lesson, but instead of employing the recitation 
 period for a mere reproduction of the thought, they 
 occupy a good part of that time with discussion, so 
 that the ideas presented in the book may be compre- 
 hended and appreciated ; for example, after an out- 
 line of facts in connection with the battle of Bunker 
 Hill has been committed to memory, the events 
 are discussed in detail in class until an accurate and 
 vivid picture of the whole is constructed. Likewise, 
 after the definition of the subject of the sentence, as 
 presented in the grammar, has been carefully studied, 
 numerous sentences are offered by the children and 
 discussed until a fair understanding of the matter is 
 reached. 
 
 It is evident that this way of using text-books is 
 much better than either of the other two mentioned; by 
 it a greater interest is awakened, misconceptions are 
 corrected, and more effective knowledge is acquired. 
 
 3. The developing plan of teaching is one radically 
 different from the lecture and the text-book methods. 
 The teacher who employs it lectures but little to her 
 class, although it is important to remember that she 
 does tell some things outright ; neither does she 
 
122 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 allow the facts that are to be learned to be first 
 presented through a text-book ; she prefers to de- 
 velop facts and conclusions by conversation with the 
 pupils. The nature of this method and its difference 
 from the text-book plan were suggested in Chapter 
 II on illustrative lessons ; other examples will reveal 
 its characteristics more clearly still. Frye's " Primary 
 Geography," page io8, states the following facts in 
 regard to the British Isles : — 
 
 "In the British Isles there are vast beds of coal 
 and iron. Near these many great workshops have 
 been built. People of the British Isles weave into 
 cloth fully one-third of the raw cotton and wool raised 
 in the world. They also produce one-third of the 
 iron and steel. Their ships carry on one-third of the 
 commerce. To the British Isles the United States 
 sends cotton, grain, meat, tobacco, copper, and many 
 other products. Which of these are needed for the 
 workshops ? Which are used for food ? The British 
 Isles send to the United States iron and steel goods, 
 cotton, wool, and cloth, silk, and many other articles 
 from the workshop. London, on the Thames River, is 
 the chief seaport and railroad centre of the British 
 Isles. It is the largest city in the world. The greater 
 part of the trade of the United States is by way of 
 Liverpool, a city near the west coast. Scotland is 
 noted for its iron and steel ships. They are built on 
 the Clyde River near Glasgow." 
 
 The text-book method allows these statements 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 1 23 
 
 to be studied before the recitation period begins, 
 and then to be talked over in class until they are 
 sufficiently well understood and impressed upon the 
 mind. In the developing plan the book would not 
 be used at first; the following might be the nature 
 of the conversation that takes place in the class, 
 the teacher beginning thus : — 
 
 Many years ago it was discovered that there was 
 an abundance of iron ore in England (showing 
 where). Also a great quantity of coal was found in 
 certain places (use map). So much being true, what 
 might follow ? When people have plenty of iron ore 
 and coal, they can make pig-iron and all sorts of things 
 from which iron is made ; for instance, nails, screws, 
 hatchets, axes, ploughs, rails, locomotives, all sorts of 
 machinery, cutlery, iron ships, etc. What effect 
 would that have upon the number of people to be 
 found in the region where these manufactories exist ? 
 Large cities would spring up. Thus Manchester, 
 Leeds, Sheffield, Birmingham, Nottingham, and 
 Glasgow, which you will find on the map. 
 
 Since so many people are engaged in manufactur- 
 ing, what would be done with the articles that they 
 make ? They cannot use them all at home. Then 
 what will be done with them ? Some of them must 
 be sent away to other countries. What, then, will 
 be some of the exports of England ? Rails, engines, 
 etc. Through what ports would they be likely to 
 leave England.' (Examine map frequently.) It 
 
124 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 would depend upon the direction in which thej 
 were to be sent. If to Europe, they would go by 
 way of Hull or London ; if to America, by way of 
 Liverpool, or possibly Bristol. What effect would 
 this commerce have upon the size of these ports.' 
 
 If so many of the English people are engaged in 
 manufacturing, and they send so many things abroad 
 to America, for instance, what are some of the things 
 that they are likely to need from us ? Food. What, 
 therefore, would be some of their imports.' Grain, 
 meat, tobacco, etc. 
 
 But England is an excellent country for grass. 
 Can you tell why.? Because of the moist atmos- 
 phere and frequent rains. A considerable part of 
 the country, too, cannot well be cultivated ; can you 
 tell why, from the map .' It is too hilly and rough 
 in the west. Yes, also in places it is too swampy. 
 In many of these regions sheep are raised. What 
 is likely to follow from that fact ? Much wool, much 
 manufacture of clothing, since coal is abundant. 
 Hence, increase in size of cities, in importance of 
 ports, etc. ; clothing is one of the exports, etc. 
 
 All of this conversation could best take place 
 before the paragraph in the book is assigned as a 
 lesson. 
 
 Take an example from literature ; namely, from 
 the story of Robinson Crusoe. Suppose that a 
 point in the story has been reached where Rob- 
 inson has been shipwrecked and is lying senseless 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 125 
 
 upon the island near the water's edge. If the reci- 
 tation begins at that point, it might proceed as 
 follows : — 
 
 When Robinson came to his senses, he stood up 
 and looked about. What do you suppose he said 
 to himself ? " Where am I ? " What would he do 
 then.' Recall what had happened. And further? 
 Hunt for his companions. How would he hunt for 
 them ? Look for them. And ? Walk up and down 
 the shore. More than that ? Shout for them. Yes, 
 but he did not find them. What conclusion would 
 he reach .' That they were all drowned. How do 
 you suppose he felt .-" Very sad. Had he any rea- 
 son for feeling glad? Yes. What? His life had 
 been saved. How might he show that he was glad ? 
 By kneeling down and offering a prayer of thanks- 
 giving. And that is what he did. Then what would 
 he do ? He would hunt for other people, houses, 
 etc. He did so, but he found none. As time passed, 
 what else would he begin to think about? Something 
 to eat and drink. What could he hope for if there 
 were no people? Some wild berries, apples, etc. 
 Where would he find them ? Growing in the woods, 
 etc. But he found nothing. Finally, as night was 
 coming on, what would he begin to think about? 
 Where he might stay during the night. And where 
 could it be? He might sleep on the ground. But 
 there was some .objection to that. What ? He was 
 afraid some wild animals might find him. What else 
 
126 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 could he do ? Build a hut ; go into a cave ; sleep in 
 a tree, etc. Yes, the last is what he did. What kind 
 of a tree would he search for, etc. ? 
 
 Thus the story may be taught from day to day, 
 the children telling what might reasonably follow 
 from a given situation. In this case the teacher 
 needs to do very little except to put skilful ques- 
 tions based upon a few given facts. 
 
 Let another example be taken from history; 
 namely, the battle of Bunker Hill. Suppose that 
 the class understands that the British are shut up 
 within the city of Boston. The aim might be to see 
 how the Americans outwitted the British and nearly 
 succeeded in driving them out of the city. We 
 recall the situation of Boston harbor, the Boston and 
 the Charlestown peninsulas, etc. The teacher then 
 tells the class that there was a hill over on Charles- 
 town peninsula which overlooked the city. The 
 conversation might continue as follows : a brilliant 
 thought occurred to the Americans in connection 
 with this hill ; what could it be .■' That they would 
 seize it. Why .' Because if they had possession of 
 it, they could drive out the British. How.' They 
 could fire down onto Boston. But would they destroy 
 their own houses.' — remember they built Boston. 
 Yes, they would, if it were necessary in order to 
 drive out the British. How would they go to work 
 to carry out their idea .' They would take possession 
 of the hill quietly. When.' By night. Describe 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 127 
 
 how. What would they do after reaching the hill ? 
 They would throw up earthworks. Describe the 
 earthworks. What question have you to put in 
 regard to the British when it came morning .' " How 
 would the British feel when they looked up and saw 
 the fortification there?" They would be greatly 
 surprised and excited. What could they do.? One 
 of two things : abandon Boston, or capture the 
 fortification. They decided to do the latter: how 
 would they do it ? Send a body of soldiers over to 
 march up against the fortification. This was done. 
 As the British marched up the hill, would they go 
 slowly or rapidly, and why .-• What do you suppose 
 the people over in Boston were doing .' Probably as 
 many as possible were up on the tops of the houses 
 to see what was going on. The British stormed the 
 fortification, but were repulsed. How do you sup- 
 pose the people in Boston acted when they saw 
 that ? A second repulse followed. But on the 
 third charge the Americans' powder gave out. What 
 would follow.? Who had won a victory? Why? 
 
 This latter method is often employed in such a 
 subject as language work. For instance, the chil- 
 dren desire to write a composition, and some of them 
 are inclined to omit the title or put it in the wrong 
 place, etc. When this is the case, the following con- 
 versation might take place : — 
 
 Ought you to write any title for your composition, 
 or not? Yes. Why? Because we want any one 
 
128 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 who reads the composition to know what it is written 
 about. Where would you put the title ? At the 
 beginning. Good; just where would you place it) 
 Place it out by itself. Why ? So that it can easily 
 be seen. Good ; what kind of letters would you use 
 in writing it .-' Large letters. Why ? Because they 
 are plainer and can be more easily read, and so on. 
 Good. 
 
 Facts in regard to paragraphing and use of capi- 
 tals, periods, margins, etc., can be easily developed 
 in the same way. 
 How meas- The developing plan has now been illustrated by 
 tive worth* examples from geography, literature, history, and 
 °f *^^® language work. Several other examples are suggested 
 later in Chapter XI. Before judging the relative 
 merits of these three methods of teaching ; namely, 
 the lecture, the text-book, and the developing methods, 
 it is necessary to determine a standard according to 
 which the worth of each may be- measured. Happily 
 this standard is easily obtained from suggestions in 
 the preceding pages. Since teaching consists in fit- 
 ting new ideas, feeUngs, etc., to those that are already 
 at hand, or since it consists in dovetaiUng the new 
 with the old, or adjusting what the teacher has to 
 give to what is already in the child's mind, that 
 method will prove the most worthy which secures 
 this desired adjustment in the highest degree. 
 
 It should be remembered that, if the adjustment 
 has taken place in the proper manner, the good 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 1 29 
 
 effects must show themselves, i.e. interest is zxo\xse.A, 
 the minds of the pupils are active, in producing 
 thought, they themselves even have questions to ask 
 in class, and in expressing thought they use their 
 own words rather than those of the teacher or of the 
 text-book. 
 
 Having now this standard of values, let us turn to This stand- 
 the three methods presented. Lecturing ordinarily tothTfet*^ 
 consists simply in offering or telling. The instructor two methods 
 regards the mind as a granary or storehouse, and 
 pours into it the desired knowledge. The learner is 
 not the central thought of the teacher, but the latter 
 directs his attention primarily to the knowledge that 
 he is imparting. Consequently there is little ten- 
 dency to adjust the new knowledge to what is already 
 present in the pupils' minds. Past experiences count 
 for little. Hence this method does not arouse a high 
 degree of interest nor lead to mental life. Teachers 
 who adopt it and fall into the habit of " telling " 
 most of the facts that they desire to be learned, are 
 a source of little inspiration. It is being abandoned 
 to some extent even in our co%ges. 
 
 The text-book plan is essentially hke the preced- 
 ing. The difference lies in the fact that books 
 appeal to t^e eye by the printed page, while the 
 lecturer, or thf one who tells, appeals to the ear. So 
 far as the adjsifitment of the new to the old is con- 
 qerned, there is'less of it in the text-book than in the 
 lecture. The lecturer, as he stands before his class, 
 
130 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 necessarily adapts his thoughts somewhat to his 
 individual audience. But the text-book is intended, 
 for no individual audience. Any author of a com- 
 mon school geography writes for the average child 
 in the United States. He is as far from preparing 
 the text for a certain child, or for the children in a 
 certain community, as he can possibly be. 
 
 Nevertheless, the third method of using the book, 
 according to which the substance of the text is 
 studied, and then carefully discussed in class, greatly 
 remedies this defect; conversation affords opportu- 
 nity for calling up related past experiences, correct- 
 ing misconceptions, etc., and thus the new becomes 
 adjusted to the old. For instance, pupils studying 
 Barnes's description of the battle of Bunker Hill, can 
 discuss it in class until they see a vivid picture, or 
 they can enlarge upon his brief statement of the 
 causes of the permanent union of our states until 
 they have really entered into the spirit of the situa- 
 tion. 
 
 Hence, this method can excite interest and mental 
 
 life, leading to much freedom on the part of the 
 
 children or students in conceiving questions, and in 
 
 using their own language in the expression of thought. 
 
 Fuller rfiean- But the real question under consideration is, What 
 
 standar/as ^^ ^hc best method of instruction ? While this use of 
 
 rfrT"* '''' "^^ text-book accomplishes much good, it may not 
 
 be the best method there is. Indeed, that it is not 
 
 ideal, is apparent when viewed in the light of facts 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED I3I 
 
 that are generally accepted in the teaching of mathe- 
 matics. In arithmetic, for example, there are two 
 parts to each problem, i.e. the answer, and the pro- 
 cess by which the answer is reached. Answers in 
 themselves — it is claimed — have little value; the 
 worth of the study lies, first of all, in the process by 
 which they are obtained. Further than that, the 
 thinking necessary for the discovery of the right 
 process, must be done, as far as possible, by the 
 pupil. It is a serious violation of the law of self- 
 activity to tell a child how to solve a problem ; he 
 must solve it himself if he is to be much benefited. 
 
 Is the case different when we come to geography, 
 literature, history, etc. ? That these branches of 
 knowledge likewise consist of problems and their 
 answers, cannot be doubted. For instance, the para- 
 graph on the British Isles, quoted above, suggests 
 several important ones, such as the following : — 
 
 How would the presence of an abundance of iron 
 ore and coal be likely to affect the occupation of the 
 English people, and also the population of England } 
 What are some of the exports likely to be in con- 
 sequence } What the imports .'' Why should England 
 be a wool-producing country "i 
 
 In the part of the story of Robinson Crusoe that 
 has been presented, the text offers the answers to the 
 several questions : — 
 
 What would Robinson first say to himself when he 
 came to his senses 'i What would he then do .' What 
 
132 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 conclusion would he reach in regard to his friends ? 
 How would he feel ? Where would he hunt for food ? 
 How would he spend the night ? etc. 
 
 The text in the history discribing the battle of 
 Bunker Hill likewise answers a series of definite 
 questions : — 
 
 What plan to outwit the British might well come 
 into the minds of the Americans when they, began to 
 reflect about Bunker Hill ? How would they execute 
 that plan ? etc. 
 
 Much of the text in ordinary school books presents 
 answers to questions, just as the key to an arithmetic 
 presents the answers to problems. Further than that, 
 the answers to such questions are as easy of solution 
 on the part of children as ordinary examples in arith- 
 metic. Why, then, should the value of arithmetic be 
 found in the solution of problems, while that of these 
 studies is confined to learning the answers to problems? 
 Weakness of But the Ordinary text-book method, even where 
 method re- thorough discussion is permitted, does not allow such 
 veaied by liberty to the pupil. Instead of permitting him to 
 
 this standard. ] r c r & 
 
 weigh problems and suggest reasonable solutions for 
 them, it offers the latter to him outright with the 
 expectation that they be comprehended and learned. 
 One result of this defect is that the knowledge 
 lacks thoroughness because the problems themselves 
 are largely omitted frora thought. It is a very easy 
 matter to overlook the chief questions involved in a 
 given text. For instance, the author recently con- 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 133 
 
 ducted a class through Herbert Spencer's " Education." Result of *'= 
 
 weakness. 
 
 When the first chapter discussing " What knowledge 
 is of most worth " was finished, the students were 
 asked to state the important questions answered. 
 One of the most prominent thoughts in the text is that, 
 since science is the most useful kind of knowledge, it 
 should constitute the curriculum. This seems at first 
 sight a strange and narrow conception on the part of 
 Spencer, and has aroused much opposition. But when 
 we understand that he includes very nearly all the 
 school studies under the term science, the situation is 
 not so bad. Undoubtedly one of the first questions 
 to ask in this case is. What does Spencer mean by 
 science } Without conceiving this question clearly, one 
 can scarcely realize that he has received its answer, i.e. 
 he does not comprehend what is said. Yet in a class 
 of eight persons who average ten years of experience 
 in teaching, only one seemed to have grasped it. 
 
 Children and adults are alike in this matter ; they 
 both easily omit from thought the questions whose 
 answers they are supposed to be receiving. But they 
 should see each problem, and they should even pon- 
 der its solution for a while without aid, in order the 
 more fully to realize what the question is, as well as 
 their own weakness or need in disposing of it. Then 
 they are ready for, real appreciation of the answer. 
 For example, in addition of fractions, children should 
 for some time face the questions, Why make the 
 fractions alike ? and How do it .' before answers are 
 
134 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 decided upon ; otherwise they are too likely to learn 
 the steps involved in the method without being much 
 impressed with the essential thought at issue. So, 
 after learning that England produces a great quantity 
 of iron ore, it is well to allow the class a certain time 
 to consider what should accompany this ore, i.e. coal, 
 in order that it may be utilized ; likewise they should 
 be given time to reflect upon the products following 
 from iron and coal. If, before they have had time to 
 think, they are told that iron ore cannot be worked 
 without coal, and that the two used together can pro- 
 duce steel, hatchets, engines, etc., they are in danger 
 of accepting the facts without realizing the vital 
 relationship between them ; in that case they omit the 
 best part of the thought. In brief, if we want to make 
 sure of real appreciation of knowledge, the facts offered 
 must come as answers to questions that have been con- 
 sciously felt ; only in this way can a close adjustment 
 of the new to the old be assured. 
 This weak- But there is a more fundamental fault still in the 
 feise concept Ordinary use of texts. When a lesson is assigned in 
 tion of child ^ book and then carefully discussed in class, the 
 
 nature. 
 
 tacit assumption is that the work of the pupil is to 
 receive. He gets what he can by his own study of 
 the text, then the instructor quizzes him in regard 
 to it to make sure that he receives it correctly and 
 that he receives all of it. Now, is it true that the 
 one who is being educated is chiefly a receiver .' Is 
 that a high conception of education .' Is not the 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 1 35 
 
 child normally also a discoverer, a producer ? And 
 should not the best method make abundant provision 
 for self-expression, for outgoing, originating activity, 
 as well as for passive impression ? 
 
 Certainly before he enters school the child is 
 exceedingly active as a thinker; he conceives an 
 abundance of questions and as many answers ; it 
 often seems, at least, that he divides his time about 
 equally between questions and answers. To be sure, 
 he receives suggestions of all sorts from persons 
 about him, but this help is a minor factor in his 
 mental life ; he is primarily a producer of thought. 
 The kindergarten is based upon this truth, and the 
 mission of the instructor there is not to tell the child 
 facts, so much as to prompt him to produce thoughts 
 that are facts. Thus we see one's employment before 
 he enters school proper. 
 
 After one leaves school and enters upon adult life, 
 the situation is not changed. No matter what the 
 position may be that he takes, he is still not mainly 
 a receiver. Whether he becomes a teacher or a 
 manufacturer or something else, his first duty is to 
 conceive clearly what the problems are that confront 
 him. Much of the time must still be occupied in 
 thinking questions. The teacher must ask himself 
 what his duties are toward the parents of his chil- 
 dren, toward the children themselves outside of 
 school, toward religious work in his community. 
 He must ask himself if he intends to be a real 
 
136 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 student, and, if so, how he can best arrange to carry 
 on study, etc The manufacturer must go over his 
 field in the same way, mapping out the problems. 
 No one is on hand to tell either of them just what 
 questions are involved in his peculiar situation. He 
 may receive help on particular points from various 
 quarters. Now and then an angry parent brings 
 unexpected light as to a teacher's duty in a certain 
 direction. But, in the main, each individual must 
 depend upon himself to know when he has covered 
 the field and has seen all of the important problems 
 involved in his work. If some of them are omitted, 
 he must suffer in consequence. Many a business 
 man discovers too late that he did not ask himself 
 questions enough in regard to a proposed project; he 
 did not see all sides of it. 
 
 After the problems have thus been marked out 
 in thought, the solution of the same must be reached. 
 Again, each one must depend upon himself ; he may 
 receive help and advice, but he himself must decide 
 whether the advice is good or not ; he must do his 
 own thinking all the time, and his success is depend- 
 ent upon the care and completeness with which it is 
 done. 
 
 So far, then, as the thought side of adult life is 
 concerned, it is not essentially different from that 
 of the child : each spends his time upon problems 
 and their answers ; each, though he receives valuable 
 facts from many sources, must conceive his own 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENtED 1 37 
 
 problems and his own answers. We find, then, that 
 originality is natural to childhood and a necessity in 
 adult life ; each human being is by nature, and also 
 must be, a discoverer, a producer of thought. 
 
 Now, proper preparation for life requires that those 
 good qualities, that are natural and necessary, be en- 
 couraged by training. Does the school now lead chil- 
 dren to conceive questions and answers abundantly ? 
 And, if not, how should it improve its methods .? 
 
 Suppose that a boy has passed through many text- 
 books in the grades, the high school, and college. 
 Suppose, even, that thorough discussion followed 
 the study of the texts. Has he received abundant 
 practice in mapping out the chief problems neces- 
 sary to a certain topic .' Has he had the same 
 practice in reaching their solutions .'' And is he, in 
 consequence, an independent thinker .' Ordinarily 
 the answer must be, No! Books are not planned 
 with reference to this thought. The ordinary con- 
 ception is that if one knows plenty of facts, he will 
 naturally do the thinking necessary to their proper 
 use ; hence, the books offer these facts. But the 
 result is that the learner occupies his time in accept- 
 ing ideas of other people rather than in giving forth 
 ideas that have originated with himself. In that 
 way education, viewed from the teacher's side, comes 
 to mean putting in, pouring in, while the derivation 
 of the word, e and ducere, means to draw forth, draw 
 out. The learner, then, becoming a receiver, is 
 
138 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 made relatively passive, while his nature and the 
 needs of life require that he be intensely active. 
 
 A hint as to a better method is given by the chil- 
 dren themselves. When they are taken to a museum 
 to see Indian relics, or when they are allowed to wit- 
 ness simple experiments in physics, they dislike hav- 
 ing to stand back and merely look on j they have an 
 insatiable desire to touch and handle the relics, to 
 help arrange the apparatus. They are so consti- 
 tuted that they can learn better if they are allowed 
 this activity. — They show the same attitude toward 
 thought materials. That is, when there are no relics 
 or apparatus present, and when they are dealing only 
 with thoughts in the presence of their teacher, it is 
 still unnatural for them to stand back and merely 
 behold the thoughts that she or the book presents ; 
 they want to join in and help in the production of 
 thought, and if this liberty is denied them, while they 
 may learn a great deal, the amount is not what it 
 might be, and is not welded to their personalities 
 as it should be. 
 
 Hence the conclusion is reached that even the text 
 book method that provides for much discussion is 
 seriously at fault ; it contains mainly answers, thereby 
 largely omitting questions. And these answers, many 
 of which the child could discover for himself, arc 
 furnished to him before he has been allowed time to 
 think them out himself ; it is, therefore, a systematic 
 violation of the law of self-activity. But in order to 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 1 39 
 
 comprehend thoughts, or to adjust the new to the old 
 properly, one must conceive clearly the problems in- 
 volved, and m ust reach these problems and their answers 
 largely through his own effort, i.e. through his own 
 self-activity. Inasmuch as the text-book method does 
 not fulfil these requirements, it does not secure a high 
 degree of adjustment of the new to the old. 
 
 The third method under discussion, that of devel- The standard 
 opment, avoids these errors. It makes both problems development^ 
 and answers prominent, and it puts the questions to ™«*°<i- 
 the child before their answers have been presented. 
 More than that, the child is expected to conceive these 
 answers himself; he is systematically required to make 
 discoveries, to judge what might reasonably follow 
 from a given situation, to put two and two together 
 and declare the result. Often, too, he finds it pos- 
 sible to discover the leading questions involved, as well 
 as their answers ; he must often state what should be 
 the next question to be considered, and by practice in 
 such thinking he becomes skilled in conceiving both 
 problems and their solutions. Thus provision is made 
 for adjustment of the new to the old by the large 
 amount of self-activity allowed. 
 
 Another valuable feature of the developing method 
 is the fact that it provides for a close sequence of 
 thought. Text-books ordinarily omit many of the 
 necessary connecting links of thought. For instance, 
 most text-books in United States history do not state 
 clearly why the Americans wanted possession of 
 
140 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Bunker Hill. In the latter part of the Revolutionary 
 War the fighting was removed to the South, but books 
 often state the fact of removal without going into 
 details and reasons. So it is usually : the text con- 
 tains an outline of events or leading thoughts ; it is 
 merely a text, i.e. it presents the chief topics with- 
 out building the connections between them. It lacks 
 space to do otherwise. The developing plan, how- 
 ever, provides for short, connected steps in thought; 
 the children themselves are expected to take the steps, 
 and hence there cannot be broad chasms between 
 them. The result is that close series or chains of 
 thought are established, and because they are thus so 
 closely connected they are brought into intimate rela- 
 tion with the child's way of thinking, i.e. the new is 
 closely adjusted to the old. 
 
 It should be remembered that the basis for the 
 many judgments passed by pupils is their past expe- 
 rience. Past knowledge furnishes the premises from 
 which new conclusions are drawn, hence the relation 
 of the new to the old is close indeed. We see really 
 the spirit of the first or preparatory step carried into 
 the second ; the developing or conversational method 
 reveals the learner's doubts and thus makes constant 
 provision for adjusting the new to what is already 
 present. Of course, it is often difficult for pupils to 
 enter into the spirit of a situation, and then they 
 make ridiculous blunders. One little girl, when 
 asked how Robinson Crusoe might secure more cloth- 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED I4I 
 
 ing, suggested that he would telegraph home. But 
 the fact that the other children laughed, threw the 
 desired emphasis upon the constant exercise of good 
 judgment or good sense. But when pupils do enter 
 into the situation, they not only conceive reasonable 
 answers to questions, but, as said above, they antici- 
 pate the questions themselves. For instance, in the 
 story of Crusoe, thoughtful pupils will name many of 
 the chief topics that must be considered long before 
 they are reached in the actual instruction. They 
 must have entered into the spirit of the story to do 
 this, and to be in the spirit of any subject means real 
 apperception. 
 
 Experience shows that the developing method can 
 excite much interest and thoughtfulness, and secure 
 from the pupil a frank expression of his opinions and 
 doubts. Indeed, his teachableness, or desire to reach 
 the truth without thought of self -exposure and artificial 
 rewards, is admirable. 
 
 Of the three methods of teaching under discussion. The best of 
 this last is undoubtedly the one by which the closest 
 adjustment of the new to the old with the accompany- 
 ing benefits is secured ; it is consequently the best. 
 This is the method that was employed by Socrates. 
 He was convinced that the human mind could dis- 
 cover much truth through its own energies, provided 
 the instructor knew how to guide it properly ; accord- 
 ingly, teaching meant to him not the telling of what 
 the instructor knows, but rather the asking of such 
 
 the three 
 methods. 
 
142 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 questions as will call up previous experience, guide 
 the thought of the student, and draw him out (edu- 
 cate) to a free expression of his own ideas. The new 
 conclusions reached in the course of the conversation 
 constituted the knowledge acquired. 
 
 Notwithstanding the superiority of the develop- 
 ing method, some facts advise strongly against any 
 attempt to make exclusive use of it. 
 Umitations In the first place, not everything can be developed. 
 Beyond doubt there are many facts in every study 
 that should be reached through discussion rather 
 than told outright. But there are also many in 
 some studies that could not possibly be so reached ; 
 and there are others that, although they could be 
 developed by considerable ingenuity, are better told 
 outright. Hence, any one who makes exclusive use 
 of this method has become an extremist. 
 
 In the second place, this is an extremely difficult 
 method to follow. Just as the sharpest tools must 
 be handled with the greatest care, so this plan of 
 teaching must be skilfully applied, otherwise aston- 
 ishingly meagre results or even serious injury may 
 follow. On that account inexperienced teachers 
 should not attempt to make use of it exclusively, 
 or even mainly ; they should accustom themselves 
 to it slowly, making trial of their strength here and 
 there as opportunity offers. 
 
 Thirdly, the intellectual treasures of the past lie 
 locked up in books. Proper school training unlocks 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED I43 
 
 this storehouse by accustoming one to their intelli- 
 gent use. Hence, books must be in constant use 
 in the schoolroom, and even text-books must occupy 
 a prominent place there. It follows from these facts 
 that neither the text-book nor the developing plan is 
 worthy of exclusive adoption, but that each should be 
 accepted to some extent. The former is especially 
 necessary to primary and intermediate grades. For, 
 if children in these early years learn how to think 
 through oral instruction, they can carry this thinking 
 power over into books. But the method of discus- 
 sion is also greatly needed in grammar grades, and, 
 in fact, throughout later education. 
 
 A careful examination of the developing method How the text 
 convinces us that the right kind of conversation is development 
 the best means of thoroughly welding new thoughts methodsma> 
 and feelings to those already in the child's posses- 
 sion, and an examination of text-books shows that 
 they tell many things that could far better be dis- 
 covered by the children without the aid of any book. 
 Hence, conversation for the sake of developing facts 
 should be prominent in all school instruction; and 
 since text-books, if used to introduce the topics, 
 would often deprive this conversation of its point, 
 their perusal should in such cases follow rather than 
 precede the discussion itself. The last statement is 
 a very important one indeed. It is a mistake for a 
 history text to introduce a class to the French and 
 Indian War by naming the "five objective points," 
 
144 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 when the class itself, by taking thought, could locate 
 approximately the chief points where fighting would 
 take place. Further, if children are prepared for 
 their work, they know that fractions must be alike 
 before they can be added ; they can anticipate some 
 of the dangers accompanying Midas's golden touch ; 
 they can state many of the evil consequences of our 
 lack of a national coinage system. In such cases it 
 is well to pause in the use of the book in order to 
 give them time to conceive their own thoughts first, 
 and thus do original thinking. In some studies reci- 
 tation after recitation can well employ only the de- 
 veloping method ; this is notably the case with Crusoe 
 in the second or third grade, with much of the nature 
 study throughout the grades, with pedagogy in the 
 university, etc. In other subjects, as in history, 
 geography, arithmetic, etc., where text-books are 
 necessary, discussion can both precede and follow 
 the study of the text on a given point; in either 
 case it might occupy only a fevK43jinutes, or a whole 
 recitation period, or even more, accotding to the na- 
 ture of the subject-matter and the ability of the chil- 
 dren and of the teacher. When a whole chapter has 
 been practically developed in class, it is still well to 
 turn to the book in order to review and summarize 
 what has been accomplished; hence the book is of 
 great value even where most of the time is given to 
 development. '' 
 
 From these remarks it is clear that we do not 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 145 
 
 advocate using the book entirely or giving it up 
 entirely ; on the contrary, the text-book and the de- 
 veloping method can be employed together and 
 alternate with each other as occasion demands. 
 School instruction should certainly culminate in 
 the ability to use books properly, but that does not 
 necessitate abundant use of text-books, especially 
 early in school life, or even exclusively at any time. 
 
 One defect with many people is due to the fact How the use 
 that they began text-books so early in school and fol- prove°injm^' 
 lowed them so closely that they never learned to dis- °"=- 
 tinguish their own thoughts and opinions from those 
 of books ; in fact, they are scarcely aware that they 
 have opinions of their own. Yet one of the prime 
 requisites in judging the worth of books is a con- 
 sciousness of, and belief in, one's own opinions. 
 Even a child must possess the intellectual self-confi- 
 dence of a critic in order to comprehend and weigh 
 a text, and this requires an extensive development of 
 the self. Nothing is more striking in the young child 
 than this native self-respect. He rejects whatever 
 fails to appeal to his own good sense, though he 
 readily submits to all legitimate authority. Instead 
 of encouraging this natural robustness, which is 
 later essential to true scholarship, the school often 
 almost extinguishes it by the weight of imposed in- 
 formation through books. Many persons would be 
 much stronger if they had been often entirely freed 
 from books and had had much daily exercise in 
 
146 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 expressing their own thought entirely untrammelled 
 by remembrance of any text. With children espe- 
 cially there is always the danger that an extensive use 
 of text-books in school may result in slavery to books 
 or loss of independence in thought, rather than in a 
 mastery of books and ability to use them properly. 
 
 The above considerations are particularly important 
 here because they affect one's attitude toward discus- 
 sion as a means of teaching. Books must be provided 
 for ; they may be used to review ground covered in 
 conversation, to continue investigation of topics that 
 have been already introduced and partially treated, 
 or finally, among older pupils, to further information 
 and increase culture generally. But from what has 
 been said, discussion should be prominent in all good 
 teaching, from the kindergarten through the uni- 
 versity, for it is essential to the preservation of inde- 
 pendence and originality. With the understanding, 
 then, that the developing and the text-book methods 
 are to be combined, but that discussion is always to 
 be prominent, we proceed to consider how the latter 
 might be conducted. 
 Safeguards Since, as declared above, it is by no means 
 wandering in ^^^^ *° ^^^^ ^ discussion properly, some of the 
 discussion, general rules that would keep it within bounds and 
 render it effective are necessary. The most seri- 
 ous danger is that conversation may wander, so that 
 pupils will feel lost and nothing definite will be 
 learned. But there are several important safeguards 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 1 47 
 
 against this danger. 1\\& first is a clearly defined aim 
 stated to the class. If both teacher and pupils set 
 out to reach an end definitely fixed, they are able to 
 measure by it the relevancy of any thoughts sug- 
 gested. Quite often the teacher can protect herself, 
 when a child makes a suggestion without reference 
 to the topic under treatment, by asking the class, 
 "What did we set out to accomplish? Will the 
 suggestion just given help toward that end .? " If 
 the class reply, " No," the difficulty is immediately 
 overcome. Such treatment of wandering thoughts 
 is very valuable, too, for thereby all the pupils are 
 drilled in measuring the relevancy of their ideas. 
 They are trained to select with care the suggestions 
 that may prove helpful ^ — -thus their judgment is 
 exercised by a study of relative values ; hence a 
 clearly stated aim is of worth whether we wish to 
 occupy only ten minutes or a whole recitation period 
 in developing one or more thoughts. 
 
 Aside from an aim, the teacher will also be greatly 
 aided by a clear outline of her pivotal questions. If 
 she realizes what her two or three or four main prob- 
 lems are for a thirty-minute period, she has practically 
 three or four sub-aims in mind, and they will keep her 
 upon the right road in the subdivisions of the recita- 
 tion, just as the large aim for the entire period guides 
 her for the whole recitation. A clear statement of 
 the leading questions on a given subject is essential 
 to the fullest preparation for teaching it. Very often 
 
148 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 good instructors prepare for class work by arranging 
 their subject-matter in topics and designating each 
 by an appropriate heading. But a great amount of 
 indefiniteness may be concealed under mere headings. 
 The division of a subject into topics, with a suitable 
 name for each, can be made by one who possesses no 
 skill whatever as a teacher ; but the proper wording 
 of the corresponding questions that would actually be 
 put in class cannot be given by such a person — that 
 requires an intimate knowledge of children's interests, 
 of their vocabulary, etc. This means that the method 
 of treating a subject has not yet been determined 
 when one has decided only upon his topics. Training 
 teachers in the model departments of normal schools 
 receive remarkably little information about the actual 
 method to be employed by student teachers, when 
 the latter present to them only a careful outline of 
 the subject-matter to be taught. The difficulty here 
 involved has been already suggested in the discussion 
 of the aim of the recitation. In that connection it 
 was stated that the aim might often take the form of 
 a question or problem, and it was shown by example 
 how difficult it was to find a suitable wording for it. 
 But, as in the case of the aim, so here, the rightly 
 worded question plants a topic within reach of the 
 children, within their experience and interest. Here 
 we see again how adjustment of the new to the old is 
 secured. 
 
 An example may make the matter clearer. In 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED I49 
 
 the study of the sugar maple the chief headings 
 might be shape of tree, root, stem, leaves, etc. Some 
 of the minor ones might be the color and form of 
 the leaves, the density of shade, the superiority of 
 the hard maple over the soft maple, etc. But with 
 such headings little preparation has been made for 
 actual teaching, for no suggestion is given thus far 
 as to how these matters will be broached in the pres- 
 ence of the children. Since the facts cannot best be 
 told to them outright, some question must be con- 
 ceived which will be broad enough to include several 
 facts and sufficiently suggestive to provoke thought. 
 Let this be the one : What reasons can you give why 
 the hard maple, or sugar tree, is so well liked by us 
 all .' The replies will come that it is beautiful, the 
 color of the leaves is so green ; also, that the shape 
 of the tree is pretty, it is so regular, or symmetrical. 
 Further than that, on hot summer days it gives an 
 excellent shade, denser than that of many trees, for 
 instance, the soft maple. This is partly because the 
 leaves grow on the stems in the middle of the tree, 
 as well as outside where the sun can easily reach 
 them. Also, the tree can endure more than many 
 other trees. The wood is harder than that of the 
 soft maple, hence the name hard maple; and the 
 tree branches differently from the soft maple, so 
 that heavy winds, sleet, etc., are less likely to break 
 and tear it to pieces. 
 If this part of the recitation proves especially in- 
 
150 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 teresting and profitable, it is to a great degree because 
 the leading question is broad enough to include sev- 
 eral answers under it, and is so stated as to elicit 
 much thinking. 
 
 Further questions might be the following : Where 
 does the tree get its food ? What part of the roots 
 acts as mouths for receiving the food ? If the little 
 hairs are so important, what suggestion would you 
 make about transplanting the trees ? Where, then, 
 could the water be best poured for watering trees ? 
 Why are these roots and rootlets so knotty and 
 irregular ? Where does this water go that enters 
 the roots ? Through what part of the trunk does it 
 pass ? Why are the leaves so thin and broad ? How 
 can the leaves prevent too much evaporation ? Why 
 are the petioles of different lengths ? 
 
 The fact that it requires very careful thinking to 
 word such questions as these, even after one is well 
 acquainted with his subject-matter, is proof that they 
 are an important advance upon the arrangement of 
 a subject by mere headings. But the teacher who 
 aproaches her class with that preparation, i.e. with 
 her questions clearly marked out, is partly protected 
 from wandering. A proper question requires a defi- 
 nite answer, while both the amount of matter included 
 under a heading and its nature are uncertain. Con- 
 sequently both teacher and pupil are more Hkely in 
 the former than in the latter case to know when they 
 are on the right track and when they have finished. 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 151 
 
 A third important safeguard against wandering is 
 closely connected with this one. If the prominent 
 questions that compose the outline form a necessary 
 sequence, a teacher is much more likely to be re- 
 minded at the right time of what ought to come next 
 than would otherwise be the case. A great law of 
 teaching is here involved. Applied to the single rec- 
 itation, it is often referred to as the law of sequence. 
 According to it, a lesson is by no means fully pre- 
 pared when the teacher has fixed in mind several 
 topics that she wishes to cover ; she may even have 
 stated these topics in the form of definite questions ; 
 but preparation is still very defective unless these 
 questions are brought into a very close sequence, 
 either logical, or causal, or at least natural. In fol- 
 lowing the topical method in United States history, 
 teachers often take the events of an administration 
 as the chief points to be considered ; but it happens 
 not seldom that there is no close sequence between 
 these points, and hence the law of sequence is violated. 
 In the preceding examples of the developing plan of 
 teaching, the leading questions in regard to England, 
 and in regard to the sugar tree, were arranged, so 
 far 2£, possible, with reference to this principle. 
 
 Let another instance illustrate this point further. 
 Suppose the fifth grade in geography has learned 
 that a very large part of Spain consists of a plateau 
 with low land around the edges ; the series of ques- 
 tions following may form a close sequence. If the 
 
152 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 plateau is so high, what must be the effect upon the 
 moisture-laden winds that rise over the edge of the 
 plateau ? Since a large portion of the fain will fall 
 upon the edge of the plateau, what about the interior 
 of this highland ? If little rain falls upon the interior, 
 what about the size of the rivers, the abundance of 
 grass, of woods ? If the rivers are small, etc., what 
 about the population of the interior ? It is plain how 
 such a closely connected series prevents wandering ; 
 for, when it is once begun, it is very easy to proceed ; 
 each question reminds the teacher, and often the 
 children, of the thought that should be next consid- 
 ered, and hence there is little temptation to wander. 
 Thus far three safeguards have been suggested to 
 prevent the danger of wandering, i.e. a clearly fixed 
 aim, an outline of topics in form of questions, and a 
 close sequence among the questions. The presence of 
 this aim and of such questions in sequence invites 
 both teacher and pupils to measure the worth of all 
 contributions from the latter and to reject what is ir- 
 relevant. 
 How reviews In addition to these three means of protection it is 
 wTnde'ing advisable to require frequent detailed reviews and 
 summaries. The reviews might take place every 
 ten or fifteen minutes, according to the ability of the 
 class in this direction, and the summaries would come 
 less often. Reviews and summaries call for reflec- 
 tion in regard to the ground that has been covered ; 
 and, if the conversation has been wandering, the 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 153 
 
 participants are likely to be made conscious of the 
 fact. The instructor, at least, will be placed upon 
 her guard. They are made very easy, too, if, as im- 
 portant thoughts were presented, brief headings for 
 the same were placed upon the board. Some of the 
 better scholars should first be called upon to repro- 
 duce all that they can without interruption. Then, 
 after necessary corrections are made, others should 
 follow : thus the demands made upon each are tem- 
 pered according to his strength. 
 
 A very important principle of teaching is involved Why sum- 
 in such summaries, and it applies as much to text- ^pedau" 
 book instruction as to the developing method. In '™portant. 
 each there is a tendency to become so immersed in 
 details that general bearings and larger issues are 
 lost. This is seen in history classes that take " seven 
 pages in advance and seven in review," but never 
 find time to do more than memorize each day's 
 lesson ; it is seen in all studies where the advance is 
 so constant that students do not halt to breathe and 
 look about them to see the main steps that they have 
 taken. This principle is sometimes known as the 
 law of absorption and reflection. According to that 
 law there are two kinds of mental activity required 
 in study. The student employs the first when he 
 becomes absorbed in the study of individual facts. 
 He gives himself to certain details to such an extent 
 that attention is entirely withdrawn from other groups 
 of ideas. He employs the second when he withdraws 
 
154 METHOD OP RECITATION 
 
 his attention from this one series of facts and directs 
 it to a much wider range of thought ; when he rises 
 high enough to take a broad survey of the field that 
 he is studying and to see the relationship of principal 
 topics to one another. 
 
 In travelling one often crosses a valley, then ascends 
 a hill ; one crosses another valley, and then ascends a 
 mountain, etc. There are heights and depths in study 
 as well as in travel. The student should plunge into 
 details, and he should rise again to a point where he 
 can see the ground that he has covered, both that of 
 the day, and often that of the preceding week, or 
 month, or term ; that is, he should viise to a point 
 where he can secure a broad view. In other words, 
 he should have periods of absorption and of reflec- 
 tion, and these two should alternate just as do hills 
 and valleys. In any recitation period provision 
 should be made for this variety of thinking, so that 
 after a very careful study of details a general survey 
 of the whole may be secured. Summaries should 
 be planned in accordance with this demand. If the 
 class is making rapid progress, there could well be 
 two or three summaries within thirty minutes as the 
 outcome of more detailed reviews. By that means 
 children obtain a frequent view of a long stretch of 
 the road that they are pursuing, and thus keep in 
 mind both the general direction in which they are 
 travelling and the principal points passed. 
 
 This law of absorption and reflection is sometimes 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED IS5 
 
 called the law of mental respiration. Just as we alter- 
 nately inspire air and then expel it, so absorption in 
 details and reflection in regard to them should alter- 
 nate. The perspective thus secured affords valuable 
 aid in the proper classification of one's knowledge. 
 If, after having studied for fifteen minutes, a pupil is 
 required to give a heading for the matter covered 
 and to recall the gist of the thought ; and if the same 
 thing is done for the work of the hour as a whole, for 
 that of the week, month, etc., — if this is done, he is 
 allowed to withdraw far enough from particular facts 
 to distinguish which are relatively unimportant and 
 which are of the greatest value. Ordinarily in the 
 progress of the study of details there is not sufficient 
 opportunity given to distinguish their relative values. 
 Children are too immediately occupied with them, 
 that is, they are too close to them. But when at fre- 
 quent intervals pupils look over the territory travelled, 
 they have an excellent opportunity to view the differ- 
 ent points in the right proportion. Thus we see that 
 the classification of knowledge is secured and the 
 danger of wandering avoided by the appUcation of 
 this law of absorption and reflection. 
 
 But in all teaching where attempts are made to Danger of 
 dispense, to a considerable degree, with textbooks, fn"the^' 
 there is danger of trying to develop things that can remedy, 
 never be developed. For instance, suppose that a 
 teacher remarks to a class, " Let us talk about a cer- 
 tain bird. Can you tell me what one I have in 
 
156 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 mind ? " In that case she is putting to the children 
 a question that they have no means of answering. 
 They may name all the birds they know and finally 
 hit the right one ; but it is not instruction in which 
 anything is unfolded or developed ; it is no real 
 instruction at all, but only an injurious exercise in 
 guessing. But the conversational plan of teaching 
 aims to develop the judgment of pupils ; hence the 
 questions asked must be of such a nature that they 
 may reasonably be expected to answer them. If the 
 teacher asks the third grade in what manner Crusoe 
 might salt the rabbit that he caught, she should do 
 so with the belief that a reasonable amount of think- 
 ing on their part will produce a certain reasonable 
 reply. To be sure, they know nothing about any salt 
 mine on the island, but they know that the sea is salt, 
 and if some one replies, as was the case in one class, 
 that Robinson would dip his meat into the salt sea, 
 or that he would allow some sea water to evaporate 
 and use the salt left, the answers should not be unex- 
 pected by the instructor. But when pupils lack data 
 from which to draw a reasonable answer, the ques- 
 tion should not be given. As a rule, no answer should 
 be tolerated for which a fairly good reason cannot be 
 offered. We see, then, that the developing plan is 
 dangerous in that it very easily encourages the ten- 
 dency to guess, and thereby encourages thoughtless- 
 ness instead of good sense. Where teachers are in 
 much doubt as to the possibility of developing a 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 157 
 
 thought, the safer plan by far is to tell it frankly or 
 approach it through a lesson assigned in a book. 
 
 A careful study of children will gradually reveal Precaution 
 to the teacher what is probably capable of develop- attempting to 
 ment. In times past teachers have undoubtedly erred develop too 
 
 much. 
 
 in supposing that almost everything new must be 
 given to the child in order to be comprehended and 
 learned; hence their immediate resort to "telling" 
 and to text-books. It has been the intention in the 
 numerous examples given above to show that much 
 can be unfolded through conversation, but not all. 
 In connection with England the fact was given 
 that an abundance of coal and iron ore was found 
 in that country. That being the case, it was asked 
 what might follow. The children, knowing that 
 Crusoe had been shipwrecked and lay senseless 
 upon an island, were asked what he would be likely 
 to say and do when he came to his senses and stood 
 upon his feet. It was told to the class that a hill 
 unoccupied by either the British 'or the Americans 
 overlooked the city of Boston, and the children were 
 asked to suggest the plan that might occur to the 
 Americans in regard to it. Thus, even in these 
 instances, although many things can be developed, 
 some must be told. In other topics it is often nec- 
 essary to tell much more or to make much use of the 
 text-book. In all studies the teacher must see that 
 the children are brought into possession of the neces- 
 sary facts, before they are required to put these facts 
 
158 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 together in order to work out a solution. It is a 
 shrewd teacher who can discriminate between those 
 truths that are necessarily preliminary to the prob- 
 lem, and those that can be reasoned out. But he who 
 disregards this distinction is in danger of making a 
 farce of development work. Aside from all this, it 
 is well to remember that some subjects, such as 
 beginning reading, writing, and spelling, are arbi- 
 trary or conventional in nature, and on that account 
 allow only a small amount of development. 
 
 Although it is often declared that the world has 
 made its progress by passing from one extreme to 
 another, yet we should guard against going from the 
 old plan of telling all to the new plan of developing 
 all. This precaution is all the more important when 
 the fact is recalled that the new convert to the devel- 
 opment method usually makes too much use of it. 
 Is this Some teachers oppose the conversational method, 
 
 dow?"^ '°° ^^ whole or in part, because it consumes a great deal 
 of time, or ts too slow. They argue that so short a 
 time is spent in school that it is necessary to cover 
 ground much more rapidly. But let us see what 
 are the causes of this slowness. In the /;'j^ place, 
 as we have seen, the children themselves are to con- 
 ceive some of the problems from day to day in each 
 study, and they are to find solutions for a large 
 number of them. The law of self-activity requires 
 that they do this work rather than have it done for 
 them. Hence, although it occupies much time, it can- 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 1 59 
 
 not properly be omitted. — Second, the develop- 
 ing plan of teaching allows the expression of any 
 doubts, misconceptions, objections, etc., on the part of 
 the children or students. These need to be satisfied, 
 or shown to be false. That also takes time, but the 
 law of apperception requires time for such things, 
 in order that the new may really be welded to the old 
 in a proper way. The destruction of wrong notions 
 is just as necessary a part of good instruction as the 
 presentation of correct ones, although the former is 
 not usually summed up among the positive benefits 
 of a recitation. Hence, while such discussion occu- 
 pies much time, it also cannot properly be omitted. 
 — Third, the developing plan requires that many 
 links be inserted in the chain of thought that would 
 be ordinarily presented, so that there may not be 
 any broad chasm between any two points. The law 
 of close connection or close sequence in thought re- 
 quires the insertion of many facts, so as to present 
 a situation that is fully and easily comprehended. 
 Hence, although this also requires much time, it can- 
 not properly be omitted. 
 
 We see, then, why the developing plan of teaching 
 requires much time, for these points mentioned cover 
 the chief characteristics of that method. But which 
 one of them ought to be omitted in order to save 
 time and cover ground more rapidly.' If no omis- 
 sions are in place, then the method is not too slow. 
 
 To be sure, compared with the progress ordinarily 
 
it. 
 
 1 60 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Whatthor- made by the text-book method, this other way is 
 m'^n^^Mid extremely slow. But any one will admit that ordi- 
 howtosecure narily we pass over subject-matter altogether too 
 rapidly, and we should bear in mind that real prog- 
 ress is to be measured not by the ground appar- 
 ently covered, but rather by what the child actually 
 gets in such a way as to make it his own. Teachers 
 are too often inclined to hurry, measuring their prog- 
 ress by the amount covered ; but if the rate of 
 progress were determined by what the child really 
 digests, we should necessarily proceed very much 
 slower, for it takes a large amount of time properly 
 to digest a single important thought. This can be 
 seen from the fact that there are several stages in 
 the assimilation of a thought. First, it must be seen 
 clearly from a single side, then it can be recalled by 
 the memory with some effort. After it has been 
 seen from several sides, however, one really begins 
 to feel the force of it ; then it can be recalled by the 
 memory with some ease. Only after it has been 
 seen from many sides are we able to recall it with 
 such ease and feel its force to such a degree that we 
 can begin to use it, and it is even some time after 
 that before we begin to use it with ease and feel that 
 it is fully our own. Now, much instruction consists 
 in giving a single view of an important thought. 
 That is seen in lectures. A lecturer often presents a 
 thought clearly in a few sentences, and then moves 
 on. An attentive audience sees the thought clearly 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED l6l 
 
 for an instant, and then something else takes its 
 place, and the great danger is that even in an 
 excellent lecture one will be given only glimpses of 
 fine things. But the only condition under which any 
 topic is really digested is that the mind dwell upon it 
 for a long time. It must be looked at from one side, 
 and then another, and then another. It must be 
 reflected upon at length, in order that one may be- 
 come saturated with it so that it seems a part of him. 
 The developing plan of teaching, , by allowing 
 different persons to be heard from and to express 
 their thoughts from different points of view, provides 
 the necessary time for the mind to dwell upon a 
 matter and see it in various lights ; in other words, it 
 provides for real digestion of thoughts. When we 
 reflect that probably nine-tenths of the information 
 acquired in school is forgotten, and that only a por- 
 tion of the remaining one-tenth has really been di- 
 gested in such a way as to be a power within us, the 
 need of a slower method of instruction becomes 
 apparent. If we were to cover ground one-half as 
 fast, and spend twice as much thought upon a topic, 
 we should learn much more effectively than we do at 
 present. Enlightened teachers generally admit this 
 statement as a fact, but they are controlled by the 
 habits of the past when it comes to actual instruction. 
 It must be acknowledged that the developing method 
 is slow, but that is the kind of method that both 
 children and teachers need. Since the ordinary 
 
l62 
 
 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Final advice 
 in regard to 
 use of devel< 
 opment 
 method. 
 
 tendency is to cover ground altogether too rapidly 
 any method which puts a check upon teachers and 
 secures greater thoroughness is to be welcomed. 
 
 The main objections that have been stated to an 
 abundance of discussion in classes of all ages are three, 
 i.e. the tendencies to wander, to guess, and to progress 
 too slowly. Although there are means of overcomingii 
 them, the objections are sufficiently weighty to pre- 
 vent the majority of teachers from depending mainly 
 upon conversation as a means of reaching new knowl- 
 edge. 
 
 A few instructors can limit themselves almost 
 wholly to that method, at least in some subjects, and 
 make their nearest approach to ideal teaching. But 
 such effective work is the result of much native 
 ability and extensive experience, as said before. It 
 is wise for the majority to depend in large measure 
 upon text-books in most studies. But in no branch 
 should a text be so closely followed that the recitation 
 period is spent simply in reproducing the contents of 
 a book ; that is slavish work, taxing chiefly the mem- 
 ory and giving no guarantee of real assimilation. 
 Even where the book is in regular use, some of its 
 statements can well be anticipated and developed by 
 conversation before they are assigned in the book 
 itself. This can often be done in the assignment of 
 the lesson. Many other statements need to be fol- 
 lowed out in detail far beyond the meagre account in 
 the text. Hence, even where the book is used, the 
 
put. 
 
 INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 163 
 
 recitation period should be occupied, not with cate- 
 chetical questions on the text, but with discussions 
 either of problems whose solution will be found in 
 the text later, or of statements already met there, 
 but needing much amplification in order to be ap- 
 preciated. 
 
 Since discussion is to play so prominent a part in Kindofques 
 all good teaching, it is well to realize that the skill '°°^ ° 
 required in conducting it is shown first of all in the 
 value of the questions asked. It is necessary, there- 
 fore, for the ambitious teacher to become a careful 
 student of the art of questioning. Especially must 
 she consider the purpose of the questions. Ordina- 
 rily they aim merely to test the presence of knowl- 
 edge supposed to be already acquired in the lesson 
 assigned, as map questions in geography. But those 
 necessary in the developing method cannot aim pri- 
 marily to test memory in this way ; they must pro- 
 voke thought first of all. Hence, instead of catechetical 
 questions, or others that can be fully answered by a 
 yes or a no, or by memorized statements in the book, 
 those are to be put which are suggestive enough to 
 arouse thought and broad enough to call for even a 
 series of thoughts. The preceding pages offer nu- 
 merous examples of this kind. One of their merits is 
 that, while they provoke or stimulate thought, they 
 at the same time test the presence of knowledge. 
 Socrates resorts continually to questions that fulfil 
 this double function. In his conversations with young 
 
them. 
 
 164 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 men he tests what they know while spurring them on 
 
 to the most careful thinking. 
 Vivid mental Throughout this chapter we have been consider- 
 pictures and j ^^ method of presenting new individual notions 
 
 one means of ' & - ~ r o 
 
 securing or Concrete facts. One object is to offer them in 
 such a manner that a vivid picture will be produced 
 and a deep interest be aroused. This demand for 
 vividness should ever be borne in mind by the 
 teacher. Children should practically see Minneapolis 
 with its waterfall and flour mills, with its wheat fields 
 to the west, and its farm products of all kinds com- 
 ing and going. Likewise Midas, and his little daugh- 
 ter coming to kiss him in the early morning, should 
 stand out distinctly before them; so the different 
 stages in the lives of certain insects should be accu- 
 rately pictured ; and the several colonies quarrelling 
 and fighting with one another after the Revolution, 
 should appear almost as clearly as disagreements on 
 the playground are recalled. The developing method, 
 with its searching, thought-provoking questions, is to 
 be applied to this end. But other means, also, are 
 to be kept in mind. One of them has already re- 
 ceived emphasis; namely, the past related experiences. 
 Indeed, the developing method is made possible only 
 through these. 
 
 In addition to these means it is important to pro- 
 duce in class, so far as possible, tke object talked about. 
 It has taken centuries of progress to realize this 
 need. During many generations following Colum 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 165 
 
 bus's discovery of America people had an unlimited 
 faith in the power of words, whether the words 
 represented familiar ideas or not. They were as 
 far removed from the use of objects as they could 
 possibly be. They even ignored the mother-tongue 
 in approaching a foreign language, learning Latin 
 through a grammar that was entirely in the Latin 
 language. Finally Comenius advocated pictures illus- 
 trating the idea symbolized by the word, and in con- 
 sequence his " Orbus Pictus," or picture book, issued 
 in 1657, became one of the most noted school books 
 ever published. By the help of such illustrations 
 one could get some notion of the object mentioned, 
 even though he had never seen it. 
 
 Another century passed before Pestalozzi was born, 
 who partially convinced the world that even pictures 
 were inadequate and that teachers must make it their 
 practice either to bring things into the schoolroom 
 to be studied, or to take the children out to see them. 
 The lesson is not yet half learned, but here and there 
 are instructors who do regularly bring insects and 
 flowers into the school, who visit museums with their 
 classes, and even go on lengthy excursions with 
 them. They aim to make not only their nature study 
 but other studies concrete thereby ; they visit museums 
 to see historical relics ; they make excursions to see 
 actual valleys ; they use objects to show how real frac- 
 tional units can be added ; they do all this in order to 
 secure living pictures of what is studied. There is 
 
1 66 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 as much difference between seeing a thing and merely 
 hearing about it, as there is between visiting Paris 
 and listening to a description of it. 
 Substitutes But unfortunately it is often impossible to see and 
 
 objlc"**' handle the objects themselves. In that case there 
 are several partial substitutes; among them are 
 models, maps, photographs, and lantern slides. Any 
 school could make a valuable collection of pictures 
 by simply cutting them out of newspapers and 
 magazines; thus water-falls, industries, beautiful 
 views, etc., could be presented in concrete form. 
 
 But there is another substitute for the real object 
 that is especially worthy of mention ; it is an abun- 
 dance of details. To be sure, there is often a strong 
 objection to them, for there is a kind of details that 
 is a useless burden : the dates of most battles, the 
 number of men engaged in them, the bends in a 
 river, the exact height of mountains, the several 
 uses of the present active participle, the number of 
 seeds in an apple, the degree of longitude in which 
 most towns on the earth are situated, are fair exam- 
 ples. These are not the kind meant. There is 
 another kind that is really essential, and it is illus' 
 trated in the story of Crusoe, where little incidents 
 are related without number in order to build up a 
 vivid picture ; they are necessary to the comprehen- 
 sion of Minneapolis as a trade centre, for one must 
 know the kinds of grain shipped into the city, the 
 many railroads carrying it, the numerous flour mills 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 16/ 
 
 with their capacity, etc., before he begins to see 
 what is meant by trade centre. Many detailed events 
 in the life of the milkweed butterfly are likewise nec- 
 essary before one can get a right conception of its 
 metamorphosis. 
 
 In tracing the origin of our constitution it is in- Need of well 
 sufficient to read that New York, New Jersey, and jg^" 
 Connecticut fell into disputes and threatened war. 
 We want to know what they quarrelled about. So 
 it is not enough to call attention merely to the fact 
 that there was no national coinage, and hence^that 
 trade was hindered ; we should like to see in detail 
 some of the ways in which it was hindered. Only by 
 the help of abundant little facts are we likely to enter 
 into the spirit of such situations and understand them 
 properly. These details are trivial in themselves, to 
 be sure ; but it is through them that the child becomes 
 so absorbed in a subject that he fails to hear you when 
 you speak to him; it is through them that he ap- 
 proaches perfection of understanding and interest. 
 The point to be emphasized is the selection of the 
 right kind. Those should be chosen that are es- 
 sential to a clear, attractive, and correct picture. 
 Those that are irrelevant to this end should be cast 
 aside. The biographer omits many incidents in the 
 life of his hero, because they contribute little to any 
 important purpose, but he depends upon others to 
 make important characteristics clear and to render 
 the biography attractive. The popularity of Fiske's 
 
i68 
 
 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Motor 
 activity as a 
 means of 
 securing 
 vivid impres- 
 sions. 
 
 " Critical Period in American History " is due largely 
 to its exciting details. As said, then, Hat. first precaur- 
 tion to exercise is to select the details with care. This 
 being recognized, the next should be to provide an 
 abundance of them. Meagre data can never produce 
 a complete notion, but a great number of them, well 
 chosen, can make permanent impressions. 
 
 The vividness of mental pictures is dependent 
 finally upon the extent to which thoughts are allowed 
 to find expression m physical action. During the first 
 six years of life the child acquires a large share of his 
 education. Each year he probably learns more than 
 he does during any later year of life, not excepting 
 his college course. What are the means by which 
 this great result is brought about.' Two character- 
 istics of these six years are especially noticeable. One 
 is that he is almost constantly employing his mind. 
 He propounds questions, finds their solution, makes 
 observations of various kinds, etc. But during all 
 this time his motor activity is as striking as his mental 
 life. He is using his back, neck, legs, arms, hands, 
 etc., as freely as his mind. Undoubtedly it is natural 
 for him to do so. He is so constituted that if he did 
 not exercise he would scarcely be able to contain him- 
 self. Hence such physical action may be considered 
 restful. But it is more than that. It is not a waste- 
 ful activity that merely accompanies mental action, in 
 an unrelated way, but it aids this action, it helps to- 
 ward clearness of ideas. By dramatizing the scenes 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 169 
 
 that he pictures, by doing and making the things that 
 he imagines, he uses two means of expression rather 
 than one ; namely, words and actions, and he experi- 
 ences a richer spiritual life in consequence. 
 
 All this being true, when the six-year-old boy enters 
 school, what conception should be entertained of 
 his work there? Is it to be his occupation to sit 
 still and think? Or at best, does learning consist 
 for him in thinking, in free exercise of the muscles 
 of the tongue, and of those of the hand and arm in 
 writing and figuring? If an abundance of physical 
 activity was characteristic of those years when he 
 learned so much, and if it was a necessary means to 
 that end, why should not provision be made for it 
 in the school? Why should not the method of 
 teaching, throughout the grades, provide for plenty 
 of motor activity, whose immediate purpose shall 
 be to contribute to vivid imaging and to mental 
 growth ? 
 
 But how can this arrangement be effected ? In the 
 first place, one can plan to employ the hand in many 
 kinds of subjects. For instance, if drawing is begun 
 with school life, children can learn to express their 
 thoughts as freely with chalk as with words; they 
 will illustrate Hiawatha's fight with the sturgeon, or 
 the interior of a coal mine, without the slightest 
 hesitation. They not only can be made willing to 
 step to the board when asked, but if they happen to 
 be near the board they will step to it unconsciously 
 
170 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 when words seem to be inadequate to express the 
 idea. This result, too, can be brought about not by 
 skilled instruction in technical drawing, but merely 
 by daily practice from the beginning in expressing 
 all kinds of thoughts with chalk as well as with 
 words. 
 
 Schools are already somewhat numerous in which 
 this kind of work is done, and their number can be 
 multiplied. The hands can be further employed in 
 shaping clay to represent such objects as an Eskimo 
 hut, or in using sand in geography work, or in paint- 
 ing a beautiful sunset, or in making objects out of 
 paper or pasteboard or wood. The thoughts repre- 
 sented by such objects can, of course, be expressed 
 in words, but if in addition to that they are told 
 through the work of the hand, clearer perceptions 
 are obtained. 
 
 In the second place it is often just as easy to 
 employ the whole body as the hand in this expressive 
 action. For instance, it is well in geography for a 
 pupil, instead of saying simply that London is north- 
 east of New York, to point toward it, or, better still, 
 to walk toward it. It would be in place occasionally 
 to have a walking exercise in the geography with 
 such questions as the following : Let us now suppose 
 ourselves in Paris, will you walk toward London.' 
 Walk toward St. Louis. Toward Rome. Again, 
 we are now in St. Petersburg, will you walk toward 
 Buffalo ? Toward London, etc. ? The entire class 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 171 
 
 may be asked to face St. Louis, to face Duluth, 
 Cincinnati, etc. During this exercise there is no 
 need of words on the part of the pupils, they can 
 answer the questions by their physical actions. Thus 
 a pleasant variety is brought into the work, and it 
 is a more thorough way of answering the questions 
 put than the ordinary way. The author has often 
 found that both children and teachers who know 
 the directions in their locality and who can tell the 
 direction of Philadelphia from their home, must 
 hesitate before they can walk toward Philadelphia. 
 Without doubt this is due partly to the novelty of 
 the request, but it is also due to the fact that a fuller 
 realization of the direction is required in order to 
 walk toward a point, and many people are not ac- 
 customed to mental imaging vivid enough to meet 
 the demand immediately. 
 
 In primary reading there is no reason why a child 
 should always show that he comprehends a thought 
 by expressing it in words. If he has just read the 
 sentence, "The door was opened," he can himself 
 quietly perform that action ; many good teachers 
 adopt this device. In several studies it is possible 
 to act out scenes in some detail. This is especially 
 true of literature and history. In studying the life 
 of Columbus, young people can represent how Co- 
 lumbus appeared before Queen Isabella, and repro- 
 duce the supposed conversation between him and the 
 wise men of Spain. To do this is plainly an addi- 
 
172 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 tional requirement beyond recalling the narrative 
 from memory, but it is done in some schools, and 
 where it is done properly, vivid picturing is secured. 
 The author is acquainted with a third grade that had 
 an interesting experience of this kind in the story of 
 Robinson Crusoe. When the point was reached in 
 the narrative where Robinson was to teach Friday 
 the English language, Margaret was asked to repre- 
 sent Robinson, and Richard, Friday. They stepped 
 out before the class, and after a moment's hesitation, 
 Margaret began beating herself on the breast and 
 shouting to Friday, " I, I am Robinson, Robinson," 
 then she pointed to Friday and said, " You, Friday ; 
 you, Friday." This was done several times, but 
 Friday understood his r61e sufficiently well to grin 
 discouragingly and make a grunting noise. Mar- 
 garet then saw that her plan was not succeeding and 
 concluded to try another. Casting her eyes about 
 her, she spied the sand table near by, and seizing 
 Friday by the hand she hurried him to it, plunged 
 her hand into the sand and shouted, " Sand, sand," 
 making motions. She forced him also to take some 
 sand into his hand, and speaking the word herself, 
 she required him to make the same sound. He 
 attempted it and succeeded fairly well. From that 
 time on Friday seemed to have the idea, progress 
 was more rapid, and in a few more minutes several 
 words were taught. 
 
 In literature and history it is very often possible 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 1 73 
 
 to find a portion of a narrative which can be nicely 
 illustrated in this way. Of course there is unneces- 
 sary loss of time if much care is taken to give regu- 
 lar drill in presenting a given scene. What is 
 required is simply impromptu representation of any 
 scene, nothing more. 
 
 One proof that such teaching secures especially Proofofvaiue 
 vivid pictures is the fact that children taught in °ctivi°ty°'^ 
 this way are peculiarly free from self -consciousness ; 
 that is, they must so fully enter into the spirit of 
 situations that they forget themselves. This is a mat- 
 ter worthy of careful consideration on the part of 
 teachers. Further than that, by acting out thoughts 
 children really get possession of knowledge more 
 fully. If instead of ending with words in regard to 
 a topic, they close with actions, they feel that the 
 ideas are more fully their possession, which means 
 that they feel self-confidence in regard to their knowl- 
 edge. The presence of such self-confidence is itself 
 another proof that the picturing is vivid, for this con- 
 fidence is lacking where situations are not clearly 
 imaged. It is, therefore, an important test of method 
 to inquire to what extent the teacher provides for 
 motor activity as a means of producing vivid impres- 
 sions. 
 
 There are, then, four prominent factors to be 
 attended to when vivid picturing is desired : past 
 related experiences are to be appealed to in abun- 
 dance ; the objects studied are, just as far as pos- 
 
174 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 sible, to be seen and handled ; a large number of 
 carefully selected details are to be offered, and pro- 
 vision is to be made for physical expression of 
 thought. By careful attention to these factors it is 
 possible to present facts in such a manner that the 
 pupil enters into their spirit so as to seem to experi- 
 ence them himself ; he then feels himself among, or 
 in the midst of them ; or, in other words, is inter- 
 ested {inter esse, to be among or between or in the 
 midst of). This interest is necessary if knowledge 
 is to be really digested and become a source of 
 power. 
 When review The teacher's practice in regard to reviews is one 
 i/in^pi^ce°° very valuable test of his skill and insight. It was a 
 favorite maxim of the Jesuits that, " Repetition is 
 the mother of studies," and the extent to which they 
 applied it is astonishing. Every lesson began with a 
 review of the preceding lesson, and ended with the 
 review of that which was just covered. Besides 
 this, one day a week was devoted entirely to repeti- 
 tion. In the three lowest grades, also, the second 
 half of each year was spent in reviewing what had been 
 taught during the first half. Probably modern edu- 
 cators would agree with them in the importance that 
 they attached to review ; at least it should certainly 
 occupy much time. But modern educators would 
 disagree with them radically as to the way in which 
 it should be conducted. 
 
 To-day repetition and review are by no means fully 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 1 75 
 
 synonymous terms. On some occasions mere repeti- 
 tion, or reproduction of thoughts substantially in the 
 way in which they were first taught, is entirely in 
 place. For instance, the one, two, or three reviews 
 and summaries that have been suggested (p. 152) as 
 desirable in each recitation may practically amount 
 to a repetition of the facts presented. Such repeti- 
 tion may also be in place at the beginning of a 
 recitation when work is called for that was accom- 
 plished on the previous day. It is advisable to recall 
 subject-matter for a few times in much the same 
 manner in which it was originally taught; that is, 
 practically the same questions and the same answers 
 may be repeated until facts become well fixed for the 
 first time. 
 
 But before knowledge is really digested, it is AVherein re- 
 necessary to fix it in mind many times. Mere Si^n^sweak 
 repetition cannot do this in the right way ; what is 
 needed is a new adjustment of a thought to our 
 usual way of thinking, then another and another, 
 etc., until it becomes welded to our personality on 
 many sides. Repetition usually signifies verbatim 
 reproduction ; or, if not that, something so closely 
 akin to it that mainly memory, and not reason, is 
 appealed to. It requires that the same route be 
 followed that was originally travelled, and hence 
 always approaches knowledge from the same side. 
 This is what the Jesuits did, and it is largely what 
 was done in the term reviews so common in this 
 
176 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 country only a few years ago. It was the custom 
 then to set aside the last two or three weeks of the 
 term for a review of all the matter that had been 
 taught during the term. This was the practice not 
 only in the common schools, but in the normals and 
 colleges as well. On such occasions so much was 
 assigned for each lesson that there was no hope of 
 studying it so thoroughly as the first time it was 
 covered. Indeed, that was not the object; the aim 
 was rather to take a rapid view of all the ground 
 traversed in the belief that one more look, though 
 not a careful one, would greatly aid in fixing the 
 facts permanently in mind. It was mainly a hurried 
 repetition. But what stultifying work ! Two, three 
 weeks consumed at the close of each term without 
 pretence of reaching new thoughts, or of reviewing 
 old ones in a new light, but with the sole object of 
 impressing the memory ! There was certainly no 
 inspiration to the pupil in that kind of work, or to 
 the teacher, either. But, aside from that, there was 
 little profit for the pains ; the aim was a narrow one, 
 and it was very poorly attained. When a review 
 degenerates into a mere drill by repeating knowledge 
 in the same form in which it was first acquired, it 
 makes little impression upon the memory itself, and 
 the hammering must be kept up a long while before 
 it will tell. It was a narrow aim, too, because even 
 after one has learned a thing so well that he can 
 say it in his sleep, he has no proof that he knows 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 1/7 
 
 it SO thoroughly that he will be conscious that he 
 has it when it is needed. The world is full of peo- 
 ple who need to be told when to use their knowledge, 
 even though they have learned it by heart. 
 
 Reviews should aim to be much more than mere Purpose and 
 drills for the memory. They should aim to put the prf^cTpaf ** 
 child into the possession of facts for use by causing kind of 
 hivi to approach them from as many sides as possible. 
 No one who has thought of a point in only one way 
 has real control of it ; if he has repeated it a great 
 many times, he has perhaps fallen into a rut rather 
 than gotten a broad understanding of it. The 
 world does not necessarily, in fact does not usually, 
 adopt the one approach to a thought that was 
 taught in school ; hence, the school should prepare 
 for the world by leading the pupil to one point 
 from many directions. Repetition is then only one 
 kind of review, and an exceedingly narrow one at 
 that. 
 
 Reviews in the main should mean a new view of an 
 old thought, or a view from a new position. This kind 
 has already been partly provided for by the preceding 
 step, for, in the acquisition of individual notions, it 
 was shown to be important to collect the past related 
 experiences. Such a review can be fyrther secured 
 in the presentation of the new material, provided 
 teachers can find sufficient energy to throw away 
 questions that have become somewhat worn from 
 use, and think new ones. Any important topic. 
 
178 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 when once taught, should be recalled many and 
 many times, and the questions referring to it should 
 be stated in all possible forms, so that it can be seen 
 from one side, then another, and another, etc. A 
 mountain does not appear the same on one side as on 
 another, and he who has observed it closely from one 
 point may fail entirely to recognize it when viewed 
 from a different position. The same is true of ob- 
 jects of knowledge in all subjects. 
 
 It often happens that a mere change of the word- 
 ing of the question utterly confuses an intelligent 
 class. The author was once acquainted with a sen- 
 ior class in a state university who, in their study of 
 pedagogy, had reached the conclusion that the devel- 
 opment of good character was the chief purpose of 
 the public school. The matter had been discussed at 
 length until they seemed clear in their conception of 
 good character and well grounded in their reasons 
 for giving it such prominence. One day shortly after 
 this result had been reached, the statement was made 
 to them, "The superintendent of schools of one of 
 our largest cities recently remarked that the chief 
 object of the first three years of school is to teach chil- 
 dren to read. Would you agree with him or not ? " 
 The reply came unanimously that they would. The 
 matter was then carefully discussed, and they saw that 
 in this case the acquisition of knowledge was set up 
 as the highest purpose of the primary grades .while 
 they had asserted that it should be the development 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 1 79 
 
 of character. They acknowledged their inconsist- 
 ency and withdrew their assent to the superintend- 
 ent's remark. 
 
 Again soon afterward they were tested on the same 
 point, as follows : " A mother often says to her little 
 child, ' Did you have your reading lesson to-day .' ' 
 And if she is convinced that he did have it, she feels 
 quite satisfied as to the success of the school so far 
 as her child is concerned. Is she quite right ? " The 
 reply came that she was, in spite of previous conclu- 
 sions to the contrary.^ 
 
 These are merely examples showing how, after a 
 question had been settled not only once but even 
 several times, a query somewhat different from those 
 already presented will prove that it is not yet by any 
 means really settled or brought into relation to other 
 kinds of experience. It is largely because matters 
 have been reviewed in only one way, from one point of 
 view, that strangers, who have different ways of look- 
 ing at things from the teacher, receive no replies, or 
 
 1 The author was recently discussing the relative value of studies 
 with a class of twenty-five persons who averaged about ten years of ex- 
 perience in teaching. Nearly one entire recitation period was devoted 
 to that topic. It was the custom of the class to receive a few questions, 
 at the beginning of each hour, that bore upon any of the preceding 
 work of the year. Accordingly the next day after the recitation men- 
 tioned the question put was, Have we at any time during this year 
 discussed the problem, What knowledge is of most worth ? The unani- 
 mous reply was that we had never considered it. In like manner 
 children often " haven't yet had " a topic which has already been " had " 
 and finished by them. 
 
review. 
 
 1 80 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 very ridiculous ones, when examining school childrea 
 If there were usually an element of newness in the re- 
 views, so that they might be distinguished from mere 
 drills and repetitions by taxing the thinking power, they 
 would prove more interesting zxiA. thereby make a deeper 
 impression upon the memory; they would also lead 
 to greater thoroughness of knowledge and thus largely 
 eliminate such discouraging answers as the above. 
 Amount of There is no desire expressed here to diminish the 
 "^ " amount of time devoted to reviews. The great dan- 
 ger is that they will receive altogether too little 
 rather than too much attention. On the average 
 probably from one-third to one-half of the time in 
 school should be spent in considering topics that 
 have already been studied. It occupies much time 
 to recall the old related experiences in approaching 
 a new topic and in following the developing method ; 
 it consumes much more, as will appear later, to coni- 
 pare facts already studied, with the object of finding 
 similarities and differences and essentials ; it takes 
 more still to review old knowledge by applying it, 
 until it becomes one's own ; when all this is done 
 and when, in addition to it, time has been taken for 
 proper repetition, and for review by numerous ques- 
 tions put from new points of view, one will find that 
 easily one-half of the teaching time has been con- 
 sumed. But the time for review should not come 
 mainly toward the close of the term — -it should be 
 distributed throughout the term, every recitation con- 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED l8l 
 
 taining some of it. Only in that way can a student 
 become so familiar with thoughts that he has his 
 bearings in regard to them, no matter from what side 
 he may be approached. 
 
 One of the important parts of any recitation con- Assignment 
 sists in the assignment of the lesson for the next day, 
 In case the developing method is employed, the aim 
 of the next period should be clearly stated in the lat- 
 ter part of the recitation, and when the next period 
 arrives, that aim should be recalled. In the mean- 
 time the pupils can be held for careful reflection on 
 what was last accomplished, so as to reproduce it 
 correctly and with ease. 
 
 In case a text-book is used, sufficient time should 
 be taken toward the close of each recitation to state 
 the aim for the next period, and to allow at least the 
 preparatory step, so that the class may approach the 
 text at home in an apperceiving mood. It is impor- 
 tant that this preparation be completed before the 
 text itself be discussed. 
 
 But whatever method be employed, all that has 
 been heretofore said about the importance of fixing 
 a definite aim applies to the assignment of the next 
 lesson. If a clearly defined object is a necessary 
 condition of valuable study in the presence of the 
 teacher and with his help, it is all the more evident 
 that when left to study at home by themselves chil- 
 dren will waste much of their time unless guided by a 
 clearly defined purpose in each lesson. 
 
l82 
 
 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Amount of 
 time neces- 
 sary for the 
 second stage. 
 
 Require- 
 ments from 
 the teacher. 
 
 The time necessary for the second step varies in- 
 definitely. Sometimes it may not occupy more than 
 fifteen minutes. But when it is remembered that it 
 deals with individual notions and must furnish as 
 many of them as are necessary, as data, for reaching 
 a generalization, often a broad one too, it is evident 
 that it may occupy many recitation periods. Eight 
 or ten recitations are usually required to teach the 
 story of the Discontented Pine Tree. One period 
 is necessary for the first step, then five or six for the 
 narrative itself or the second step, and the other 
 three for the general truth and its appUcation. It 
 would take fully as much time for the Golden Touch 
 in the third or fourth grade. Several individual 
 trade centres should be studied somewhat in detail 
 before the generalization, trade centre, could be 
 reached. Minneapolis as the first example, and a 
 type, might require two weeks, although the others 
 could be taught in much less time. 
 
 In order to realize that all sections of our coun- 
 try must be firmly united under one central govern- 
 ment, very many data are necessary. A careful 
 treatment of those given in Chapter II could easily 
 occupy two months in the sixth grade. 
 
 The successful treatment of these concrete data 
 makes a great demand upon the teacher. In order to 
 excite deep interest among her children in her subject- 
 matter, she herself must be deeply interested in it. 
 As she approaches the class she must feel that she 
 
INDIVIDUAL NOTIONS PRESENTED 1 83 
 
 has something valuable to give them, something that 
 they will value highly as well as she. How little 
 this is the case with many common topics, as per- 
 son, voice, and case in grammar; the location of 
 cities in geography; the teaching of the several 
 cases in percentage, etc. ! The first demand on the 
 teacher is, then, that she know her subject thor- 
 oughly and feel its richness. But far beyond that, 
 she must have prepared each lesson with much care 
 before she can hope to provoke free, pointed discus- 
 sion, of such quality that good summaries will be 
 given in the natural language of the child. 
 
 This is the ideal, which can never be fully at- 
 tained. But it can at least be approached ; and there 
 is the consolation, too, in case of failures, that con- 
 stant, earnest practice will rapidly render a near 
 approach to it more and more easy. 
 
 In the last two chapters a large number of factors Summary, 
 have been considered that are important in the 
 preparation for, and presentation of, individual no- 
 tions. The first great question was. How should 
 individual notions be approached.' The answer, 
 was that the past experiences, related closely to a 
 given topic, should be called to mind in abundance ; 
 the method of doing that rei^eived much attention. 
 The second great question, How should individual 
 notions be presented } has now been discussed at 
 length. This completes our consideration of indi- 
 vidual notions. It is evident that there are two steps 
 
184 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 in their mastery ; first, the step in which the mind is 
 prepared for the new concrete matter ; and, second, 
 that in which the latter is presented. These will 
 often be referred to in the future as the first and 
 second steps of instruction. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 HOW PROCEED FROM INDIVIDUAL TO GENERAL 
 NOTIONS 
 
 Instruction often ceases at this point as though 
 all was finished when individual notions have been 
 acquired. This is the case in much of history and 
 geography; that is, in these subjects there is often 
 little more done than to collect a mass of facts about 
 individual men, battles, administrations, cities, moun- 
 tains, rivers, etc. But we have seen that percepts 
 without concepts are blind, they give no insight into 
 general truths and laws. Sense impressions, vivid a starting- 
 
 , , . point tor 
 
 concrete pictures or percepts, are only the starting- general 
 point in instruction; its end has not been reached "°^°rete° 
 until these concrete data have been sifted and fully material, 
 interpreted. IVe have thus far, as it were, merely, 
 collected the material out of which to build some 
 structure; just what kind it shall be is not yet 
 determined; it now remains to look over the many 
 things with care, to see what can best be made out of 
 them. Or we have thus far only gotten together in 
 piles the books which are to constitute our library ; 
 the usefulness of the same will now depend upon the 
 
 185 
 
1 86 
 
 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 How a full 
 view of 
 general 
 notions may 
 be secured. 
 
 care that is taken in sorting, arranging, and indexing 
 them. Hence there is much work still to be done. 
 
 It might happen that the mere sight of building 
 materials would hint at the best use to which they 
 might be put. So in instruction it can happen that 
 the concrete data immediately suggest the large truth 
 that they are intended to teach. This is the case with 
 the Golden Touch. The experiences of Midas, his 
 repentance, etc., are not peculiar to the king alone. 
 The child quickly feels that Midas is typical of many 
 people, and that, if their selfish wishes were granted 
 they, too, like him, would be grievously disappointed. 
 Thus a glimpse is caught of the general truth, the 
 universal application. 
 
 But is it not important to catch more than z. glimpse 
 of such a weighty truth } Should not s.full view of 
 it be obtained by bringing together those facts within 
 this narrative that point to it, and also by calling to 
 mind other stories and any actual experiences of life 
 that teach the same thought ? Baucis and Philemon 
 had their wish ; did they choose more or less wisely than 
 Midas ? Why .? In what respects was Solomon's choice 
 a wise one > How did Midas overestimate the value of 
 money .' What use did Robinson Crusoe make of his 
 bag of money when upon the island } Why ? Such 
 comparisons and questions bring the chief thought 
 into full view until it can be stated in words, and they 
 do it in such a way as to establish a conviction. 
 
 Any student of United States history necessarily 
 
FROM INDIVIDUAL TO GENERAL 1 87 
 
 becomes acquainted with some of the sad results of 
 our want of unity during the Revolutionary War and 
 the years immediately following ; but because the in- 
 struction is not planned to teach convincingly that our 
 states must be united, no intelligent conviction in regard 
 to that matter is established ; some of the most valuable 
 data are omitted entirely, and those that are furnished 
 by the book and teacher are not so massed as to point 
 inevitably to close union as the solution of the many 
 difficulties. 
 
 Geography contains almost an overplus of concrete 
 facts, but too often instruction stops with them, and 
 the result is that only a vague conception is given of 
 trade centre, manufacturing country, canal, harbor, 
 mountain, beautiful view, etc. Beyond doubt the de- 
 fect is due partly to the fact that individual trade cen- 
 tres, harbors, mountains, etc., are not studied in such 
 detail as to furnish the accurate facts necessary for a 
 fairly correct concept. Some idea of the number of 
 details required for that purpose was given in connec- 
 tion with Minneapolis. But the defect is due also to 
 the fact that such concrete data as are studied are not 
 brought together and compared. Minneapolis and 
 the other cities along the Mississippi River that were 
 mentioned represent only one kind of trade centre. 
 Minneapolis is an excellent type of our large Western 
 cities that deal largely in grain and lumber, and ship 
 goods in and out by rail. But all centres of trade do 
 not handle mainly these goods, nor depend so fully 
 
1 88 
 
 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 How a single 
 case is mis- 
 leading. 
 
 Danger of 
 stopping 
 short of gen- 
 eral truths. 
 
 upon railways. Buffalo adds coal and live stock to the 
 articles mentioned, and waterways by the Great Lakes 
 and Erie Canal. Pittsburg deals largely in iron 
 products, London in wines, fruits, iron goods, etc. A 
 glimpse of the characteristics necessary to a trade 
 centre is furnished by a study of Minneapolis alone. 
 But m this case, as in that of Midas, more than a 
 glimpse is wanted ; and it can be gotten by compar- 
 ing facts along the same line learned from other sources. 
 In this case several great cities should be carefully 
 compared in order to reach a clear conception of 
 trade centre. 
 
 One can get only a faulty conception of the 
 general notion of valley by observing one valley. It 
 is customary in good schools to examine a neigh- 
 boring valley, estimating its length, breadth, etc. 
 But it is usually so narrow that one can throw 
 across, or at least see across it. It gives scarcely a 
 suggestion of the great Mississippi Valley. Many 
 a child, who can define this word and illustrate what 
 he means, is mystified by being assured that he 
 himself lives in the Mississippi Valley, for he has 
 never even seen that river. So the worded defini- 
 tion fails of interpretation until numerous valleys 
 of various sizes and characteristics are studied and 
 compared. 
 
 These instances show that it is unsafe to stop 
 short of the abstract truths, the rules, laws, or defi- 
 nitions. When one has presented only the individual 
 
FROM INDIVIDUAL TO GENERAL 1 89 
 
 notions he has, as it were, what he knows to be valu- 
 able gold ore in his possession. But the latter must 
 be refined before it can be brought into relation to 
 human needs, before it can be used ; so with knowl- 
 edge; the non-essentials that are mixed with the 
 essentials in concrete facts must be separated from 
 these before the latter can become adapted to our 
 use. That itself is a very important part of instruc- 
 tion. In arithmetic it is not left to one or a few 
 examples worked to suggest of themselves the arith- 
 metical rule ; that would involve too much risk. It 
 is a matter of vital importance to compare the steps 
 taken in adding different groups of fractions in order 
 to discover what must always be done, i.e. what the 
 rule is. This is the case, too, in all study. The 
 first and second great steps of instruction give com- 
 mand at best of well-arranged series of individual 
 facts ; from these the general truths are still to be 
 drawn ; and unless this is done the instruction of 
 the teacher is, as a rule, largely in vain. So far as 
 knowledge is concerned, general truths are the 
 teacher's harvest; just as the reaping and threshing 
 of wheat are essential parts of wheat raising so the 
 careful reaching of generalizations is an essential 
 part of good instruction. 
 
 While the acquisition of concrete facts may be 
 regarded as a single large step, it was found to con- 
 sist of two minor acts, each of which involved a 
 large number of valuable considerations. So the 
 
igO METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 progress from individual to general nbtions is not 
 simple; enough has been said to indicate that the 
 individuals must be compared in order to discover 
 in what respects they are alike and what properties 
 are essential to all ; then must follow a collection of 
 the essential characteristics of the class and an 
 expression of the same in words in the form of a 
 definition, maxim, or proverb, etc. Hence, there 
 Two steps in may be said to be two stages in proceeding from 
 genera iza^ individual to general notions : one, the stage of com- 
 parison and abstraction, the other, of definition ; the 
 former would then be the third, the latter the fourth 
 step in the mastery of general notions, since, as 
 shown above, two are necessary in acquiring the 
 concrete data. 
 
 Third Step 
 
 Comparison presupposes a knowledge of things to 
 be compared ; one cannot well hunt out resemblances 
 and differences among objects before these them- 
 selves have been separately studied. The argument 
 for this statement is well worth thinking out, it 
 would require too much space to be presented here. 
 The opposite practice is quite common. 
 
 The extent to which the comparison is carried 
 must depend upon the number and nature of the 
 data furnished through the second step, or through 
 other similar experiences acquired either in or out- 
 side of school. Few problems involving addition of 
 fractions need be solved before their comparison can 
 
FROM INDIVIDUAL TO GENERAL I9I 
 
 take place with the view of reaching the rule. This The ease or 
 is because one problem is quickly recognizable as reachinggen. 
 typical of all others. Likewise the metamorphosis eraUzations. 
 of one insect readily represents that of others of 
 the same class. The moral of a story may easily 
 be reached from the one narrative when the theme 
 is simple and when it recalls numerous past experi- 
 ences tending in the same direction. This is the 
 case with the Golden Touch. Children who are 
 quickly susceptible to the force of the underlying 
 truth must necessarily have been led already to re- 
 flect on the occasional uselessness of gold; for 
 instance, they have found Crusoe rightly preferring 
 a jack-knife to a whole bag-full of money. And 
 such experiences, coupled with the narrative, indeed 
 compared with it unconsciously, cause the moral to 
 seem easy and capable of being reached at a single 
 bound. However, as already shown, it is reached 
 much more effectively if time is taken to recall other 
 related experiences and compare them all. 
 
 But some of our great classics furnish remarkable 
 examples of a common inability to " read between the 
 lines." Pestalozzi's " Leonard and Gertrude " was un- 
 doubtedly regarded "only as an interesting story, not 
 as a work on education, by the great majority of its 
 multitude of admirers during the previous century. 
 Even to-day students need to be cautioned that it is 
 educational in its aim before they are inclined to dis- 
 cover in it educational truths. One hundred years 
 
192 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 ago people wanted many of the experiences that 
 must be put alongside those of this story in order to 
 bring out clearly its fundamental thought. Now 
 they have plenty of them, but easily fail to call them 
 to mind and to associate them with the contents of 
 the book. Hence it must be a part of the instructor's 
 duty to call up such experiences and suggest, through 
 them, the generalizations intended. 
 
 Pestalozzi's book furnishes an excellent example of 
 a properly realized second step ; i.e. there is an abun- 
 dance of incidents or particulars so presented as to be 
 very clearly seen and to appear interesting ; but while 
 there is no fault to find with it in that respect, the 
 reader must extricate himself from this mass of details 
 and discover the great truths that the essential parts 
 of the story indicate before he has really read the 
 book or gotten its worth. 
 
 In general, this step of comparison must be a con- 
 siderable abridgment of what is necessary in a com- 
 plete induction. It would be agreeable if a great 
 number of individual valleys, trade centres, and stories 
 teaching the same underlying thought as the Golden 
 Touch, etc., could be studied in detail. But want of 
 time, in school at least, forbids. Only a few well- 
 chosen types can there receive such close attention, 
 and they must represent and explain in a rough way 
 the entire class to which they belong. It is for the 
 home and later life to supplement this work of the 
 school. 
 
FROM INDIVIDUAL TO GENERAL I93 
 
 If these individuals have been accurately and in- The various 
 terestingly taught, the comparison that follows can eomparfson"' 
 awaken much life. It is interesting to note how a 
 cat or a dog runs across the floor ; but it is more in- 
 teresting still to note how the former is fitted to do 
 it so much more quietly than the latter. We enjoy 
 observing just how the sheep, the cow, or the horse 
 cHps off grass from the meadow, but we enjoy still 
 more the comparison of them to discover why one 
 prefers long grass and another grass that is very 
 short. Tennyson's poem of "The Brook" is very 
 attractive in itself, but after ceeing what message a 
 little stream carries not only to one poet but to two 
 or three, it is especially attractive to compare these 
 messages and their various styles of expression. The 
 old Greek heroes were wonderful men ; so were our 
 own pioneers. A class that has formed a close 
 acquaintance with both sets of men is likely to be- 
 come especially stirred in determining which had the 
 greater difficulties to meet and which were the nobler. 
 
 Such comparisons increase not only the interest in 
 knowledge, but its accuracy and definiteness as well. 
 One serious defect in most instruction is that the 
 facts taught are abandoned too soon for the sake of 
 new ones, and in consequence they are neither thor- 
 oughly comprehended nor even retained in memory. 
 But the moment we begin to compare animals or 
 poems, or men, etc., they must be recalled vividly to 
 mind ; thus a careful review is instituted. But more 
 
194 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 than that : this knowledge is not reproduced in just 
 the same way in which it was originally acquired ; it 
 is approached from some new point of view, it is seen 
 in one or more new relations. We may be well 
 acquainted with the life of Washington or of Lincoln ; 
 but if asked to show in what respects they were alike, 
 or in what respects one was superior to the other, we 
 would have hard thinking before us. Each life would 
 need to be reviewed from a new position ; points that 
 we have been in the habit of emphasizing might 
 receive little attention, while others that have been 
 neglected might be brought into prominence; the 
 result would be that new thoughts and perhaps new 
 convictions would be reached. So a comparison of 
 the Rhine, Hudson, and Mississippi valleys causes 
 a careful review of each and adds new thoughts or 
 conclusions to our stock. Most people are prone to 
 recall facts, for instance, the causes of the Revolution- 
 ary War, in the same order in which they were first 
 learned, if they recall them at all; in consequence 
 they make little advance in their knowledge, it does 
 not grow more thorough. But comparisons tend to 
 remedy the defect by forcing them to look at a sub- 
 ject from one side, then from another and another, 
 etc., the result is that their knowledge becomes more 
 thorough, for seeing any topic from many sides or in 
 many relations means thoroughness. Thus compari- 
 sons are an important agent in securing interesting 
 reviews and wide comprehension of a sulject. 
 
FROM INDIVIDUAL TO GENERAL Ig5 
 
 In developing the idea of nouns the teacher gives 
 examples of nouns such as horse, mountain, deer, 
 tree, boy, apple, barn, etc. By examining and com- 
 paring such words as to their meaning, children will 
 conclude that nouns must be the names of objects. 
 But if the teacher suggests that there are other 
 nouns such as running, playing, talking, eating, etc., 
 and shows that these too can be used in the' same 
 way as the previous list, the children, by comparison 
 of the two groups of ideas, will modify their state- 
 ment and conclude that nouns are the names of both 
 objects and actions. 
 
 Let the teacher now call to mind such nouns as 
 courage, honesty, beauty, kindness, strength, fear, 
 etc., and show how they are used in sentences. 
 After further comparison of the three groups, the 
 children may include names of qualities in their defi- 
 nition of nouns. The teacher may go farther and 
 show that any word like under or quickly can be used 
 as a noun, as " Under is a word of two syllables." 
 By still further comparisons the children may be able 
 to see that a noun is the name of anything used as an 
 object of thought. Without such a series of compari- 
 sons it is difficult to see how the notion of nouns can 
 be clearly formed and a correct definition obtained. 
 
 Tn getting a clear notion of vertebrate animals, 
 children may notice the backbone first in quadrupeds, 
 then in birds, later in fishes, frogs, serpents, etc. 
 Only by successive comparisons do they arrive at a 
 
igfi METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 comprehensive view of the groups of animals included 
 under the term vertebrates. By a similar process of 
 comparisons does a child get the wider significance 
 of boat, road, fruit, government, church, states- 
 man, etc. 
 How com- The third step was spoken of not only, as a step of 
 to abstra(>^ comparison but also of abstraction. How the latter 
 ''°°^' takes place may be seen from examples. In the 
 
 study of trade centres the individual characteristics of 
 each were considered in detail. Without any further 
 study of them we have a partially correct conception 
 of the idea trade centre. But if we wish to make 
 it at all accurate, we must first compare these several 
 great cities: one, Minneapolis, is the centre for flour 
 and lumber, another for coal, another for iron, fruits, 
 grain, etc. Some depend mainly upon water for 
 transportation, others upon railways, others upon 
 both to a marked degree. Hence in order to be 
 styled a trade centre it is unnecessary that a certain 
 city deal largely in flour ; neither must it be iron, nor 
 coal; in fact, it makes no difference just what the 
 articles be, so we leave that matter out of considera- 
 tion. What do we hold in mind then ">. Those char- 
 acteristics simply that are really essential and hence 
 common to all trade centres. In order to be properly 
 called a trade centre there must be a large quantity 
 of goods shipped to and from a certain city ; also 
 there must be conveniences for transportation, i.e. 
 plenty of railroads or waterways or other means for 
 
FROM INDIVIDUAL TO GENERAL I97 
 
 carrying. The attention is drawn away (abstracted) 
 from all minor and non-essential matters and centred 
 finally upon those that are necessary for conceiving 
 trade centre properly. In reaching a correct defini- 
 tion of valley, one goes through exactly this same 
 process of comparison and abstraction. It is practi- 
 cally the same in reaching the generalization in his- 
 tory in regard to unity. In that case while many 
 details were studied showing the troubles that fol- 
 lowed the Revolutionary War, only the more signifi- 
 cant of these are now considered. They are brought 
 together and compared — perhaps ten or twelve im- 
 portant facts; most of these are found to be aUke 
 in pointing toward unity as their remedy ; if some of 
 them, though important, do not hint strongly at unity, 
 the attention is withdrawn (abstracted) from them 
 and centred on those that do. These latter being 
 weighty matters, and pointing all to the same con- 
 clusion, are recognized as sufficient data on which to 
 found the conviction that our states should be united. 
 People are continually reaching conclusions in 
 this way, i.e. through comparison and abstraction 
 — so it is nothing strange. But the difficulty is that 
 they do it very carelessly and hence make mistakes. 
 They are prone to the same errors in this case as in 
 the observation of the common objects about them, 
 i.e. the results reached are hazy and inaccurate 
 unless they expend conscious effort or do some real 
 studying. It is the duty of teachers to give children 
 
1 98 
 
 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Why clear 
 statement of 
 general 
 truths is 
 difficult. 
 
 training in this work and to lead them to reach im- 
 portant generalizations correctly in all school studies. 
 
 Fourth Step 
 
 After separating essentials from non-essentials, 
 it remains to collect the former and to word clearly 
 and accurately the result reached ; for example, the 
 necessary characteristics of a trade centre, the rule 
 for addition of fractions, the law for the metamor- 
 phosis of insects, the underlying thought in the 
 Golden Touch, or the generalization regarding unity, 
 should receive definite statement. This is not an 
 easy matter ; the world is full of people who " know 
 it but can't tell it." Some of the most common ideas 
 are defined in words with the greatest difficulty. 
 For instance, teachers quite frequently speak of 
 good character as the purpose of education, yet they 
 seldom dare attempt to state what the chief ele- 
 ments in such character are ; all people are ac- 
 quainted with Christ's parables of the sower, and of 
 the wheat and the tares; yet it costs a struggle to 
 word properly the thought in either of them. Every 
 one, no doubt, has often been surprised at his ina- 
 bility to express himself on a topic with which he 
 had supposed himself to be familiar. What is the 
 cause of the difficulty? Beyond question in most 
 cases it is not first of all a lack of words, but of 
 clearness of ideas ; when one knows exactly what his 
 thought is, he can usually give expression to it ; hesi- 
 
statement. 
 
 FROM INDIVIDUAL TO GENERAL I99 
 
 tation is due to vagueness. It means a decided ad- 
 vance in thinking to state a conclusion tersely in 
 words ; it is an advance, too, that should be regu- 
 larly required from all learners, for the final utility 
 of the three preceding steps in instruction is directly 
 dependent on the clearness and accuracy with which 
 generalizations are reached ; their purpose is to lead 
 to generals, and nothing is clinched until these latter 
 are fully expressed. 
 
 In whose words should the abstraction be stated, who shall 
 in those of the child or student, on the one hand, ^™** * 
 or in those of the book or teacher .' Much is involved 
 in the question. As a rule, the mistake is made of 
 hastening altogether too rapidly to reach the exact 
 wording that the book or teacher prefers ; as though 
 an exact wording given to the child would neces- 
 sarily produce an exact thought in his mind. The 
 truth is that unless the exact notion has been ap- 
 proached very nearly by one's own power to think 
 and use words, the definition carefully worded for 
 him by another accomplishes little or nothing ; it does 
 not meet a feeling of need, and fails to be apper- 
 ceived or appreciated. Any statement of a defini- 
 tion, law, or rule should be the immediate outcome of 
 the thinking that has gone before, otherwise it is an 
 imposition upon the child. To be sure, children can 
 often reproduce the book's statement and talk about 
 it with glibness, but that proves only their ability 
 to handle words ; they are often conscious that they 
 
200 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 are only playing with phrases and wondering if the 
 teacher will find them out ; this thing is happening 
 every day in our schools, and as a rule the attempt 
 to hide behind words is successful. It is a game of 
 hide-and-seek between teacher and pupil — a mas 
 querading with words. 
 
 If it is true that accurately worded statements 
 from the book or instructor do not necessarily elicit 
 accurate thinking from the pupil, less faith should 
 be placed in mere verbal accuracy, and the somewhat 
 cruder statement from the child should be more 
 willingly accepted. The latter is his own and is 
 genuine. The exact definition very often does not 
 appeal to him, and, in that case, instead of being 
 forced to learn it, he should be- scolded if he allows 
 himself, parrot-like, to repeat it. The boy who said 
 that " number tells about the how-muchness of 
 things,'' had the essence of the definitioij ; why not 
 judge hihi by that and preserve his individuality.' 
 It is one of the most difficult things in the world for 
 one to be himself in the true sense, and school in- 
 struction, instead of discouraging the real expres- 
 sion of self in the use of words, should count that 
 one of its high functions. Did not the boy have 
 an accurate idea of a bat, who defined it thus : " He's 
 a nasty Uttle mouse with injy-rubber wings and shoe- 
 string tail, and bites Hke the devil " .' Does the text- 
 book come closer to the child's thought by describing 
 it as a " Mammal with a wing membrane extending 
 
FROM INDIVIDUAL TO GENERAL 20I 
 
 from the enormously elongated bones and fingers of 
 the fore limb to the comparatively short hind limbs"? 
 The adult's love of accuracy and graceful form of ex- 
 pression too often misleads him in these matters. 
 
 The uselessness of such a memorized definition is How repro- 
 seen from the fact that, when once forgotten, there ^oZn'' 
 is no way of reproducing it except by turning to the statements, 
 book. Now the fact is that any rule or general 
 truth directly taught to a child vfiW probably be for- 
 gotten — a discouraging fact, but certainly true ; 
 and as text-books are not to be kept at hand 
 throughout life, how is the definition to be • made 
 available 1 The really useful generalization, the one 
 that brings with it a feeling of strength, is the one 
 that can be reproduced, after having been forgotten, 
 through the data out of which it arose ; it should be 
 so closely associated with these and so directly an 
 outgrowth from them that they can replace it when 
 lost; the child himself should draw the generaliza- 
 tion from the data in the first place, then when it is 
 forgotten it should be reproduced by his own un- 
 aided effort. The first thing, then, in regard to the 
 acquisition of definitions, principles, etc., is that the 
 child reach them by his own thinking and state them 
 as well as possible in his own words. 
 
 The ability to do this depends greatly, of course, 
 upon his intimate acquaintance with the data them- 
 selves ; the individual notions and their points of 
 similarity must be well known to him ; in other words, 
 
202 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 the first, second, and third steps must have been 
 properly covered. 
 
 M^hentouse But should he never accept the words of another? 
 
 statement. He may, and undoubtedly should, at times, but not 
 until he has done his own thinking on the matter 
 and feels the crudeness of his own wording. The 
 mistake consists in offering the book's statement 
 prematurely, before the need of it is felt. If the 
 definition for case in grammar, or the rule for the 
 division of fractions, is taught before the meaning 
 itself stands out clearly in the mind, there is serious 
 danger lest it may never be rightly comprehended; 
 the reason is that the child, having once memorized 
 the definition or rule, refers to it for guidance and is 
 unwilling to turn back to speculate about its origin. 
 It is very difficult, after having gotten the words for 
 an abstract thought, to go back and get the thought 
 itself, for the mind is not then in a learning attitude ; 
 having secured the semblance of knowledge, it is 
 deceived into thinking that it has the whole thing 
 and is impatient of delay. The only safe method, 
 then, is to move slowly toward any definition, taxing 
 in full the learner's abiUty to think and express him- 
 self, until the correct conception is reached. After 
 that, if there is difficulty merely about a brief and 
 accurate wording, the form of statement given by 
 the book or teacher is entirely in place and may be 
 learned by heart. 
 Occasionally at the end of the discussion it is pos- 
 
FROM INDIVIDUAL TO GENERAL 203 
 
 sible to clothe the principle in a classical garb ; for Value of 
 example, the proverb, " How much better is it to get poetfc form.'' 
 wisdom than gold ! " expresses the ruling idea in the 
 Golden Touch; "In unity is strength," the one 
 suggested by the historical facts presented in Chapter 
 II. The Germans are far more accustomed to 
 summing up their conclusions in this form than we, 
 and the practice certainly adds grace and force to 
 their speech. The reason for preferring a classical 
 form of expression for a weighty thought over an 
 ordinary form, is much the same as that for prefer- 
 ring a classical poem to a poor one. Hence school 
 instruction should encourage familiarity with such 
 proverbs or maxims as are found in Poor Richard's 
 Almanac, the Bible, and .^Esop's Fables, in poetry, 
 etc., and should do so by selecting them to express 
 valuable sentiments that have been taught. 
 
 Text-books are often in place in the fourth step. Text-books 
 Many of them, as the ordinary small geography for 
 beginners, brief outlines of United States history, 
 grammars, etc., are little more than brief summaries 
 of the main facts belonging to the studies that they 
 represent. If these facts have been slowly reached, 
 i.e. to a fair degree inductively, they should be finally 
 reviewed and accurately summarized. Such text-books 
 accomplish this in an excellent, manner. Among 
 some teachers it is the custom to require pupils to 
 enter their generalizations or main outlines of facts in 
 small blank books, with proper headings ; one book 
 
 summaries. 
 
alizations are 
 premature. 
 
 204 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 is kept for each study and, as soon as an important 
 topic has been finished, it is written in its proper 
 place. Thus the children practically make their own 
 books, 
 whengener- Sometimes, especially with young children, it seems 
 advisable not to teach the rule at all, relying upon 
 the concrete facts — whatever their nature — to sug- 
 gest it of themselves. This applies to arithmetic and 
 to literature, as well as to other studies. Froebel 
 emphasizes it strongly in the kindergarten. Little 
 people who cannot appreciate the statement of an 
 abstract rule may remember how a typical example 
 was worked and solve another in the same way ; or 
 in literature they may recall a story together with the 
 feeling it produced, thus receiving some benefit from 
 it, while a full statement of the moral might prove 
 too abstract, or, on other accounts, unwholesome. It 
 requires much delicacy on the part of the teacher, 
 especially when teaching morals, to distinguish what 
 is best to be done in this regard. 
 
 In teaching the rules and analyses of arithmetic 
 teachers sometimes demand from children a prema- 
 ture exactness and fulness of language. It is obvious 
 that exact verbal statements in description of con- 
 crete objects are difficult, still more so are rules and 
 abstractions which are much more difficult to under- 
 stand and formulate. Children in the fourth or fifth 
 school-year are often teased and worried over a long, 
 exact, and tedious analysis of a problem in denomi- 
 
FROM INDIVIDUAL TO GENERAi 205 
 
 nate numbers or fractions, or in the exact statement 
 of a rule not yet sufficiently illuminated by examples. 
 Generally such careful, exhaustive analyses are suited 
 only to advanced pupils who have already acquired a 
 clear knowledge of their subjects. In beginning any 
 important topic in arithmetic, children should first 
 become familiar with a process by repeated oral and 
 written problems. If they can work these prob- 
 lems and give short, intelligent answers as to 
 the reasons, it is enough. By such simple ques- 
 tions and answers, the teacher can tell if a child 
 understands a problem, and more than this is often 
 mere vexation of spirit. The recitation period is 
 often wasted and the children vexed and confused by 
 such long-winded analyses and statement of rules. 
 
 Over-exactness in defining the meaning of words in 
 the reading lesson leads also to a waste of time and a 
 wearisome routine. Such excess of verbal precision 
 may give a little clearer insight, but it is often gained 
 at the expense of interest and enthusiasm for the 
 subject. It is very depressing. 
 
 Summing up : inability to state the generalization 
 reached is due primarily to vagueness of thought; 
 such a statement, then, is an essential part of instruc- 
 tion. The wording for the same should come from 
 the child himself, being an immediate outgrowth from 
 the data that he has at hand ; this is especially impor- 
 tant, since any rule is likely to be forgotten, and unless 
 it can be recalled without help, the utility of the 
 
206 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 knowledge is greatly diminished. The book's state- 
 ment may be memorized, but not unless it seems to 
 voice the child's own feeling. If possible, a classical 
 form of expression should be found for the generali- 
 zation. If the precaution here advised in approach- 
 ing the generalization is in place, it is apparent how 
 ridiculous it is to place the general before chil- 
 dren, even before the individual facts have been pre- 
 sented, as is often done. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 HOW SHOULD GENERAL NOTIONS BE APPLIED ? 
 
 What worth have these general truths which have When shaii 
 been gained at such expense of labor on the part of jj'o/of'pri^l 
 both teachers and pupils? We may stop a moment "pies^e 
 
 acquired? 
 
 to take account of our work done, and of the task 
 that still lies before us. In the previous chapters we 
 have dealt somewhat in detail with the series of steps 
 necessary to the construction of those general notions 
 which, properly fitted together, constitute the chief 
 framework of a study. When the children have 
 worked their way to a clear grasp of these general 
 notions, by a self-active, inductive process of thinking, 
 have they not reached the end sought by instruction ? 
 If so, the goal set up is a clear view of important 
 principles. To those who look upon the school as a 
 place of preparation in contrast with later life as a 
 field of appUcation, this is the goal of schpol studies. 
 But this leaves unsolved the child's most difficult 
 problem ; namely, the acquisition of skzl/ in the ready 
 use of principles. It has been said over and over 
 again by the best teachers and writers on education 
 that principles and rules are never safely mastered 
 
 ao7 
 
208 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 till they have settled into the usual practice and con- 
 duct of a child. " For from repeated cautions and 
 rules, never so often inculcated, you are not to 
 expect anything either in this or any other case fur- 
 ther than practice has established them into habits." 
 (Locke, par. lo, "Thoughtson Education.") If children 
 are to know how to apply important principles in later 
 life, when shall they acquire the extremely difficult art 
 of application f There may be a whole series of abor- 
 tive efforts in education due to this disposition to call 
 a halt in the mental movement before the final result 
 in the form of useful application is reached. 
 Errors on the The first of thcsc crrors was seen above in the 
 cation? ^''^'" "Verbal mastery of rules and principles without clear 
 insight. No matter how fluently and trippingly a 
 child in the schoolroom may run off such formulse, 
 the whole process of learning may be empty and 
 farcical. At the other extreme, the most complete 
 theoretical mastery of principles will not give profi- 
 ciency in their practical use. One may master the 
 grammar of the German language and still cut a most 
 blundering figure in German conversation. Between 
 the extremes of rote-learning and of clear insight into 
 principles there may be an entire series of miscar- 
 riages. But even beyond the step of clear insight 
 there may be the greatest miscarriage of all in the 
 failure to turn clearly recognized rules into use. 
 The end of instruction has not been reached until 
 skill in the actual application has been developed. 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 209 
 
 We deceive ourselves again and again by stopping at 
 halfway stations on the highway of learning. We 
 are not simply sight-seers, to be satisfied with fine 
 views, not caring to reach any destined point. 
 
 One who has worked his way up to the clear grasp The breadth 
 of some important principle stands at a high point ^ applied 
 and gets a broad survey. A survey of what ? Of the *'°°s- 
 road he has already travelled, and in part also of that 
 which he is still to traverse. That is, he has a double ^ 
 task to perform : first, to look backward and see the -' 
 extent to which the principle operates in what he^ 
 already knows ; and, second, to look forward and apply ^ 
 it to the new problems which he is about to meet." 
 Both these things are difl&cult. But they are difficul- 
 ties which lie of necessity in the path of knowledge. 
 As when travellers ascend some broad mountain 
 range, till they reach at last the summit of the high- 
 est ridge, from which they look back over the slopes 
 behind and forward on their journey through moun- 
 tains and plains, so the student, as he rises to the 
 grasp of some large principle, looks back over the 
 steps already traversed and forward to those which 
 follow. The discovery of a great principle is no 
 doubt a long forward step, but it may take all the 
 rest of one's life to find out the breadth and variety 
 of its applications. The first grasp of such a princi- 
 ple, be it never so clear, is only a foretaste of the 
 richer fruitage it will still bear. When Columbus 
 first landed on the shores of the Bahamas, he had 
 
2IO METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 indeed solved a great problem, and had gone far 
 toward establishing his general theory ; but there 
 was a bigger problem to be solved, both as to the 
 continents of America and as to the extent of the 
 world whole. Since Darwin first expounded the law 
 of evolution, it has been applied by scientists in 
 scores of directions only vaguely contemplated by 
 Darwin himself. Macaulay, on the basis of the prin- 
 ciples of common law in England, worked out a ser- 
 viceable plan for the administration of justice in the 
 courts of India. How the world is astonished from 
 time to time by new applications of the power of 
 electricity which operates under certain laws ! Every 
 new principle discovered becomes an instrument of 
 investigation, a lever for prying open new secrets. 
 General notions, the more we grow up to them, be- 
 come more and more the interpreters of our prob- 
 lems, the keys which, like the open sesame, unlock 
 and swing open many long-closed doors. Nature 
 everywhere locks the door and bars out the in- 
 truder. But whoever carries a bundle of bright keys 
 in the form of principles and laws, and is constantly 
 turning and testing them in use, will rapidly gain 
 the freedom of the realm. This is, indeed, the goal 
 toward which instruction should move, and never 
 lag till the end is reached ; namely, such a working 
 mastery of general truths as shows itself in ready 
 instinctive tact in common use. The great fact here 
 to be kept in mind is, then, that the value of general 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 211 
 
 truths lies in the freedom and versatility with which 
 we can turn them into use. 
 
 We see now a great defect in much of our knowl- The difficulty 
 edge, and why it is so halting and unserviceable when °heoiy to 
 called into sudden action under the emergencies Practice. 
 of life. The old adage teaches that knowledge is 
 power. 
 
 But the power of the school-trained man so often 
 suffers a partial or complete paralysis in times of - 
 need that this old proverb seems only half true, or 
 in cases not true at all. Its truth depends upon the 
 meaning which is read into the word knowledge. 
 Undigested, unorganized knowledge is not power. 
 Knowledge which has never been tested in use, 
 never worked over into habit, is not power. Knowl- -^ 
 edge, stored away in the half-forgotten recesses of 
 the mind and even in the time of learning not clearly " 
 understood, is not power. 
 
 The old question of the relation between theory 
 and practice is here at issue. The prevailing ques- 
 tion in school is. What do you know.? But life 
 insistently demands. What can you do.' and since 
 school prepares for life it should meet this demand. 
 In the case of many reputedly well-educated people, 
 there is a wide breach between their knowledge and 
 their power to do. It is the duty of the school to 
 make the ability to do a part of the knowing. 
 
 The boy who wishes to be a sailor has acquired 
 some knowledge of ships and of seafaring life. He 
 
212 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 has heard stories and read books of travel and 
 adventure in foreign lands. In fancy he dreams of 
 delightful voyages, and is only disenchanted by the 
 rough usage of real sailor life. But this inuring to 
 hardship and rough usage is a necessary preparation 
 for good seamanship. 
 
 The errand boy in the bank office forecasts his 
 easy success as a great banker, but tires under the 
 long routine and industry of working his way to a 
 complete knowledge of the business. The young 
 student of agriculture has vivid theories of the revo- 
 lution needed in farming ; but the careful and con- 
 stant labor required for keeping down expenses and 
 losses, while securing profits, leads to wisdom and 
 thrift. 
 
 But failure and miscarriages are not confined to 
 young people. Older persons constantly blunder in 
 measuring the distance and difficulty between an 
 idea and its realization. In consequence life is 
 strewn with wrecks. The unrealized schemes and 
 half-executed projects of business men everywhere 
 cumber the ground. If the schools, therefore, can 
 induce any habits which bring thought and action., 
 knowing and doing, into vital union, they will per- 
 form a great service to society. 
 
 There are certain situations in life where such a 
 close relation between theory and practice can be 
 witnessed. The boy brought up by a prudent father 
 to the hard and varied work of the farm, daily welds 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 213 
 
 his thought and experience into union. His prac- 
 tice keeps pace with his knowledge. The young 
 recruits of Prussia are inured, even in time of peace, 
 to the hardships of war. The best preparation of a 
 soldier is to experience the drills, marches, hard- 
 ships, and manoeuvres of army life. This kind of 
 training makes the soldier a veteran before he has 
 seen a battle. Our medical schools, by means of 
 laboratories, dissections, and clinical operations, come 
 as near as possible to making expert physicians of 
 their students before allowing them to practice. In 
 trade and polytechnic schools, students are brought, 
 by dealing with the actual materials and processes 
 of their work, to skill and mastery of the mechanic 
 arts. In all these cases the school is formed into 
 the closest possible resemblance to life. In law 
 schools, by moot courts; in theological schools, by 
 drill in preaching ; in normal schools, by practice 
 departments, there is a close approximation to the 
 actual difficulties of later professional work. 
 
 But does this law of close and inseparable com- should the 
 panionship between knowledge and its use prevail s°to™°reiate 
 also in common school studies .' It is easy to see that knowledge to 
 
 ■* practice, 
 
 professional schools of all sorts must lay great 
 stress upon the use of knowledge, because each of 
 them aims directly at practical efficiency in a single 
 calling. But the common schools are not designed 
 to fit children directly for particular callings. The 
 knowledge they give fits equally for all callings. 
 
214 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Now it will be acknowledged that the general culture 
 acquired in the common schools is just as essential to 
 complete living as is the particular knowledge gained 
 in law, or dentistry, or engineering. But has it the 
 same close relationship to practice ? Why not ? 
 Mere knowledge is not what we are after in common 
 schools any more than in a chemical laboratory, but 
 rather character as expressed in conduct. Character 
 is the union of theory with practice ; it is the incor- 
 poration of knowledge into habit. If character is 
 being formed in school years, just to that extent 
 knowledge of some sort is being converted into use, 
 changed into habit. 
 
 But the school is inclined to lose sight of this 
 measure of its efficiency, to shift the responsibility for 
 character, and to set up an artificial standard of 
 excellence. The present prevailing school standard 
 is an intellectual grasp of knowledge, tested by ex- 
 aminations ; unfortunately this test does not reach 
 far enough. Oftentimes it falls far short of the final 
 test of power to use. When a child in a history or 
 reading lesson appreciates an example showing the 
 bad effects of sudden and uncontrolled anger, he has 
 caught a clear view of an important truth in life ; but 
 no one will claim that the lesson is really learned till 
 he is prepared to curb his own anger under provok- 
 ing circumstances. During the recitation, at recess, 
 and upon the playground the teacher has better and 
 more important opportunities for testing the best 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 215 
 
 ideas in conduct than the written examination can 
 furnish. 
 
 We all admit that the application of truth must 
 come sooner or later, but when shall this be ? Is it 
 safe to postpone the use of knowledge to later years ? 
 Doubtless we shall have much need for it later on. 
 But shall we be able to bring it into use in future 
 years unless we habituate our^lves to its use dur- 
 ing the period of acquisition.? Children are in the 
 full tide of life. They show many-sided activity. 
 Conduct is not a future contingency, but a present 
 fact. They have all sorts of duties and responsibil- 
 ities. There will never be a time when the child will 
 have more varied uses for his knowledge than now. 
 But the habit of separating knowledge from use is in 
 itself pernicious, and when formed in youth is a pos- 
 itive obstruction to success in mature life. Is it any 
 less important that a child should put in practice day 
 by day the merits and virtues of his early training 
 than that a plumber, during his apprenticeship, should 
 learn the technique of his work in iron. Is it any 
 more necessary that a theological student should 
 learn to make and deliver sermons at the seminary 
 than that a boy in school should learn to be self- 
 reliant and honest in board work ? 
 
 Many of the most important lessons of life must 
 be learned and converted into habit long before pro- 
 fessional studies are begun. Before the boy decides 
 to be a merchant or a dentist, he must decide whether 
 
2l6 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 he will be an honest man or a rogue, a law-abiding 
 
 citizen or a disturber, narrow and bigoted, or charitable 
 
 and liberal. Until these things are settled, and settled 
 
 right, it is an impertinence to talk of a profession. 
 
 The danger The incomplete and theoretical character of much 
 
 the°app1ica-^ school knowledge is brought to light by the perfunc- 
 
 tionofknowi- torv and half-hearted action of children while en- 
 edge. ■' 
 
 gaged in school work. Good study, like good eating, 
 
 is marked by relish and appetite. But where zest is 
 lacking, work is spiritless and without healthy tone. 
 When the strong life impulses pour themselves 
 through the school studies the latter then become a 
 part of the child's deeper character-forming experi- 
 ence ; that is, an organic part of Ufe, not dead matter 
 wedged in between the living tissues. Children 
 should be occupied with studies which spring out of 
 and return into their interests, which call out the full 
 measure of their volitional, emotional, and active 
 powers as well as the intellectual, all of which to- 
 gether give complete expression to their life impulses. 
 A theoretical, bookish knowledge, to which our 
 school work is sometimes limited, not only gives a 
 torpid intellectual growth, but it dwarfs the social 
 activities. It is fractional and does not compass a 
 child's whole life, nor reach far enough into his own 
 deeply felt experience and need. It does not fill up 
 the measure of a child's spontaneous action. And 
 this many-sided spontaneous activity of children is 
 their mode of applying knowledge to life. 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 21/ 
 
 If we neglect some of the normal phases of child- 
 activity, as, for instance, the volitional and motor 
 energies used in applying knowledge, why should we 
 expect later life to make good the deficiency ? How 
 can a schooling which is not full enough to satisfy a 
 child's present limited needs prepare for the wider, 
 more complex life that follows school? Adult life 
 is an expansion of child life. If the boy is a theo- 
 rist, seeking no useful outlet for knowledge, the man 
 will probably show the same traits in an accentuated 
 degree. If the child life is incomplete and fractional, 
 adult life will show the same defects. The only kind 
 of knowledge that will stand the test of later years 
 is that which has linked itself with conduct and has 
 thus appeared in that final form by which its value is 
 tested and its assimilation into life rendered complete. 
 To make use of knowledge as it accumulates day by 
 day is to rescue it from theoretical isolation, is to 
 yoke it to service under the coercion of daily needs. 
 
 It is a praiseworthy economy of mental labor to 
 sift out from studies that knowledge which is widely 
 and constantly serviceable, and to mass the effort 
 upon this as indispensable. For its supreme worth 
 or worthlessness comes out only in use. 
 
 It is a mistake to collect a large body of princi- how econ- 
 ples and facts which have no present, and only a °s'^a°,edby 
 possible future use — waste material, which is an an- theappiica- 
 
 *^ tion oi pnn- 
 
 noyance in the learning and a burden to the memory, dpies. 
 The simple principles of the English language come 
 
2l8 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 hourly into practice, and this is a test of their value 
 as being worth learning. When this test is con- 
 stantly made, education is stripped of waste and 
 verbiage. We need to concentrate our efforts along 
 a few important channels. Education, like the waters 
 in the delta of the Mississippi, loses depth and 
 carrying power as it spreads out into divergent chan- 
 nels. Captain Eads's plan of the jetties of the 
 Mississippi River was to collect as much water as 
 possible into a single narrow channel, and to scour 
 out a serviceable passage across the bar. Likewise, 
 the accumulation of thinking power upon those few 
 principles in each study which have central impor- 
 tance and perpetual application is the true economy 
 of mental effort. Studies which fall short of this 
 useful goal cultivate theorizing and even do-noth- 
 ing habits. 
 
 Both the faults as well as the merits in knowledge 
 are brought out by use. In the effort to use acquired 
 knowledge the partial or erroneous views come dis- 
 tinctly to light. Just as a piece of machinery when 
 put into operation reveals at once any friction or 
 imperfection of construction, so knowledge newly 
 acquired is thoroughly tested in its application. In 
 learning a modern language, like French, the daily 
 and hourly effort to use the new rules brings out a 
 multitude of blunders, but at the same time begets 
 constant improvement and mastery of the language. 
 If newly gathered knowledge is not put to service, 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 219 
 
 these difficulties do not appear, and we are led to a 
 false security, a self-satisfied but empty presumption 
 of knowledge. 
 
 On account of this varied stress upon the use of is it utiiita- 
 knowledge, can we be charged justly with lowering stresron'' 
 the standard of education, with forgetting higher appUcation? 
 things for the sake of direct utility? There is a 
 lower form of utility which reduces everything to 
 the standard of dollars and cents. This, of course, 
 is to be rejected. The most important uses of knowl- 
 edge and power cannot be estimated in money, as, 
 for example, the services of a parent or teacher or 
 friend, and it is these higher uses of knowledge 
 which it is the preeminent purpose of the school to 
 cultivate. The great principle of utility is right and 
 has universal value. The best thing that can be said 
 of science or philosophy or religion is that it serves 
 human needs. The doctrine of service is too vital 
 and too deeply felt in our Christian civilization to 
 need any defence. By their fruits ye shall know 
 them. We have, in the service rendered, an infalli- 
 ble test of the value of the man. Knowledge is valu- 
 able just to the extent to which it can be transmuted 
 into some form of useful service. 
 
 The application of general truths falls under the HowappUca- 
 head of deduction. The first four steps are indue- IhTscope^oT 
 tive, leading up from particulars to generals ; the last principles, 
 step is deductive. Does the deductive process ex- 
 pand and amplify our experience, or does it simply 
 
220 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 give quickness and tact in the use of what we have 
 learned ? It is evident that the inductive process of 
 deriving the general truth can touch only a few 
 cases, i.e. is narrow in its range. In treating Minne- 
 apolis as a trade centre and as a type of cities on 
 the upper Mississippi, a general truth about cities as 
 centres of trade for collecting, manufacturing, and dis- 
 tributing products was evolved. But in applying this 
 truth (deductive) to the lake cities we find the situa- 
 tion similar yet different. Albany and Troy, Ban- 
 gor and Augusta, St. John and Montreal, furnish 
 still further examples of trade centres in lumber, but 
 under quite changed circumstances. Pittsburg and 
 Allegheny are fine illustrations of the notion trade 
 centre in other products, yet still more divergent from 
 Minneapolis than those mentioned before. Should we 
 compare Minneapolis with Liverpool, Glasgow, Ham- 
 burg, and Naples, we should find the same notion 
 operative under still more widely differing surround- 
 ings and conditions. In other words, the continued 
 application of the idea trade centre to new cities not 
 only enlarges the number of objects falling within 
 the scope of the idea, but multiplies the variety of 
 objects coming under its sway. 
 
 In the study of the milkweed butterfly the first 
 inductive treatment of this topic is confined mainly 
 to this one species, but in applying the general idea 
 of metamorphosis to other butterflies we find great 
 variety in size, color, food-plants, habitat, and organs. 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 221 
 
 Extending this application to moths, another large 
 and curious field of insect life is brought under trib- 
 ute. Finally, in referring the idea of metamorphosis 
 to flies and other insects, we are astonished at the 
 simplicity of the law that pervades so great a variety 
 of insect life. In the application of such a general 
 principle or law we are constantly introduced to new 
 and varied fields of knowledge, whose meaning is 
 more quickly interpreted and more intensely felt 
 because of its identification with what we have 
 already learned. 
 
 Moreover, this constant variation and readjustment Howversatii. 
 of the principle to new objects and conditions neces- Inappfying'^ 
 sitates a genuine thoughtfulness at every step. It is principles, 
 not a mechanical routine which simply repeats the 
 same action time and again. To apply general notions 
 requires a rational self -activity. We never meet 
 exactly the same situation a second time. The stu- 
 dent in this case is like the pilot of a Mississippi 
 steamboat. He must know not only the large bends 
 and currents of the river, but also the shifting of 
 sand-bars, the new obstructions and snags, the 
 changes that follow a freshet in cut-offs, and shift- 
 ings of the channel ; in other words, he must be alive 
 to constant alterations and emergencies. Or as with 
 the military strategist, in directing the movements of 
 an army, every day brings a new situation, makes 
 necessary a recombination of forces. Arithmetic il- 
 lustrates the point perfectly. Every new problem is 
 
222 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 a new and somewhat modified application of the prin- 
 ciple, and as the boy advances to more difficult mis- 
 cellaneous problems, he nieets more complex and 
 intricate embodiments of his principle. This fits him 
 to meet the usual conditions and necessities of life. 
 Every day brings a new situation requiring thought- 
 fulness in applying knowledge to new conditions. 
 
 In bringing up children in the same family we 
 have a striking illustration of the necessity of modi- 
 fying our application of principles to suit different in- 
 dividualities. A writer like Spencer can give a lucid 
 statement of the universal truths upon which the 
 management and proper training of children should 
 be based. A father tries them upon one child in the 
 family and they seem to work admirably. He begins 
 upon the next child in the same way, but the method 
 seems totally at fault. Is it really a weakness in the 
 principles or in the clumsy method of applying them ? 
 He forgets to modify and adapt them to the new 
 character. This adaptation of a principle to changed 
 or more complex conditions is what makes the applica- 
 tion of knowledge so difficult. It demands constant 
 thoughtfulness and prudence. There are, indeed, 
 kinds of business, fragments of trades in factories 
 and shops which call for an invariable and exact rou- 
 tine ; for instance, the carpenter who makes one in- 
 variable design, the operator who simply nails heels 
 to shoes, or the switchman who pulls the levers of an 
 interlocking switch. But these people do not de- 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 223 
 
 velop strength and versatility of character; in fact, 
 
 they are in danger of becoming fixed in a narrow 
 
 routine which unfits them for doing anything else 
 
 when thrown out of employment. 
 
 From this standpoint of flexibility in the use of Why exact 
 
 knowledge (as already discussed also in Chapter VI) noT^e best 
 
 we are able to estimate the value of a review system fo™of 
 
 , . , . , , , .,, application. 
 
 Which Simply repeats and drills upon the exact form 
 
 of thought and expression which was first learned. 
 There is, indeed, no objection to the exact formula- 
 tion of a general truth nor to memorizing it ; but flexi- 
 bility in its application is more important than verbal 
 accuracy in its statement. 
 
 The stated reviews which drill and redrill upon 
 a form of words rather than upon a quick interpre- 
 tation of a principle under changes and disguises is 
 a cramping routine. It is much more important 
 that a child shall get a quick, firm grasp of a gen- 
 eral truth, in spite of its Proteus-like changes of form, 
 than that he should be held to an invariable formula 
 in its statement. Excessive routine drills and repe- 
 titions give thought a certain cast-iron inflexibility. 
 This fixedness makes knowledge unmalleable. It is 
 like cold iron in the hands of a blacksmith. Our 
 generalized thought needs to be made wonderfully 
 pliant and flexible so as to shape itself to a thousand 
 diversities of form. Some minds have a photographic 
 accuracy in regard to principles and details, but 
 mental photographing is not the higher form of 
 
224 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 thinking. Thought when rationalized in principles 
 must be plastic and versatile. 
 
 The best form of review, therefore, is that which 
 springs out of comparisons, which finds in the new 
 lessons amplifications of old principles, which makes 
 every lesson a review of old knowledge in the light 
 of new experience. Incidental reviews and compari- 
 sons, by which every new topic is incorporated into 
 the body of our previous experiences, are the rational 
 form of study. It is constantly making over, modi- 
 fying, and expanding the old thought material. The 
 stated periodical review presupposes a static condition 
 in knowledge; such knowledge, when finally salted 
 down, partakes of the nature of a petrifaction and 
 lacks that fluidity and pervasiveness which make it 
 penetrate and permeate every nook and avenue of 
 experience. 
 Can pliancy But principles losc none of their strength and sta- 
 gotogethS? bility by being rendered pliant and flexible. Their 
 constant reappearance and identification among all 
 the forms of experience show that they are con- 
 stantly elaborated out of past thought and action, 
 and stand ready to measure up and test new data. 
 Each person grows out of his own past into the 
 future. The field for the wider application of princi- 
 ples is our own present and new-entering experience, 
 not some terra incognita to be revealed in adult life. 
 Our own daily life and surroundings furnish the 
 perpetual test of our growing maxims. The discovery 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 225 
 
 of such pervading principles strengthens the per- 
 sonality and gives a centre and foundation for the 
 character to rest upon, from which it is not easily- 
 moved. It is when we fail to find an anchorage in 
 such fixed yet flexible principles that we shift from 
 day to day. This pliancy of knowledge can be 
 secured largely in the natural order of studies. 
 
 Our examination of the school studies has given Mastery of 
 striking proofs of the necessity for the perpetual rdated'to^^ 
 use of knowledge, following close upon the heels of s^eat variety 
 
 o i ofappli- 
 
 acquisition. It is indeed a serious question whether cation. 
 it is real knowledge until it has been apprenticed to 
 use in a variety of ways. When one or two arith- 
 metical problems have been worked out to illustrate 
 and fix a rule, it is not claimed that the principle is 
 fully understood. To insure more thoroughness in 
 its mastery, problems of increasing difficulty are 
 worked out and explained. Further on, miscellaneous 
 problems, involving this rule in conjunction with 
 others, are solved. All along the quickness and 
 versatility of the children are exercised upon mental 
 problems involving the same rules. Even after all 
 these devices and tests for insuring a clear recogni- 
 tion of the rule, under the various disguises in which 
 it masquerades, teachers are often discouraged by 
 the pupil's apparent blindness to the principle. The 
 whole round of inductions and applications, if neces- 
 sary, must be repeated. Among various difficulties, 
 the hardest thing in the whole course of instruction 
 
 Q 
 
226 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 is to learn to use knowledge rationally. Memory 
 work is trivial compared with this kind of thinking 
 power. This fatal weakness shows itself among 
 college men, scholars, and among all classes of even 
 so-called educated people. 
 
 The same difficulty is met in trying to get the 
 mastery of good English. Language lessons empha- 
 size certain correct forms and usages, e.g. a drill 
 upon the rule for irregular verbs or pronouns. The 
 children see the old error, understand the principle, 
 and apply it to a few sentences. But wrong lan- 
 guage habits are not cured and remodelled by such 
 brief exercises. In geography and science lessons, 
 in reading and history, the children should run their 
 language into these new and better moulds. Else 
 why have them .' Or, if you like, let them disregard 
 in history and geography the correct usage learned 
 in language. The children are encouraged by our 
 indifference and neglect to violate the principles 
 which we have just been so anxious to inculcate (in 
 another study). What is our teaching, then, other 
 than a succession of contradictions.' What greater 
 inconsistency can we devise than to teach earnestly 
 the value of a correct principle in one recitation, and 
 then encourage children to ignore it in the practice 
 of the next ? What is worth learning in one lesson 
 is worth practising in all others where it naturally 
 reappears. In reading we insist on a certain excel- 
 lence and weed out the faults. It is equally impor- 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 22/ 
 
 tant to require an expressive reading when reading 
 is incident to grammar, arithmetic, or history. This 
 will make good reading natural and habitual. Like- 
 wise, if a round, vertical script is required in writing 
 lessons, let the same excellent penmanship appear in 
 composition exercises, in arithmetic, in board work, 
 briefly in all necessary written work. 
 
 In view of the principle of consistency just stated, Each study a 
 we conclude that any one study clearly emphasizes nation for 
 certain ideas and principles peculiar to that subject, o*i>er studies, 
 till they stand out, in theory at least, with clearness. 
 The other studies furnish just the necessary addi- 
 tional opportunity for applying these ideas and prin- 
 ciples till they are converted into habit and become 
 established in all regular usage.. In pointing out 
 this close connection we see how indispensable the 
 branches of school instruction are to one another. 
 No study can stand upon its own feet. Complete 
 efficiency requires that all studies stand close to- 
 gether in mutual support. Complete isolation of 
 different studies is extremely impractical because 
 it destroys this opportunity for utilizing knowledge. 
 If knowledge is not complete till it is worked over 
 into regular practice, it is just as important to apply 
 knowledge gained in one study to other studies as 
 to get the theoretical mastery of each study within 
 its own realm. 
 
 This unity and interdependence of different studies 
 and experiences is still more vital in the important 
 
228 
 
 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Moral train- 
 ing weak on 
 the side of 
 application. 
 
 realm of moral education. Moral instruction, bj 
 itself, can effect little if anything. The moral ideas 
 scattered through reading, history, and literature, 
 no matter how beautiful and impressive they may 
 be, need to reappear in all the studies, and especially 
 in all the conduct incidental to the discipline and 
 social order of the school. Perhaps the chief reason 
 for the prevailing scepticism in regard to the value of 
 moral instruction in schools is that it is too theoretical, 
 too much divorced from practice. Efficient morality 
 always finds an expression in conduct, in the appli- 
 cation of moral principles to behavior. In this respect 
 there is no study or phase of school life that does not 
 need to be, in its entire inception and progress, moral. 
 So important is the practice of the virtues as com- 
 pared with their theoretical treatment that many 
 people have gone to the extreme of putting the 
 whole emphasis upon the practice, and of giving no 
 place for instructive examples and illustrations of 
 moral ideas. As if conduct, the highest and most 
 difficult of all arts, had no theoretical basis and no 
 rational approach, through instruction, to its diffi- 
 culties and opportunities. The subject-matter of 
 some of the school studies is prolific in moral and 
 social ideas and examples, while all the studies, 
 plays, recesses, and social experience of the school 
 furnish a broad field of conduct and realization. In- 
 struction and theory must culminate in use or fall far 
 short of any practical result. 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 229 
 
 This entire discussion confirms us in the judgment 
 that the application of general truths to a great 
 variety of uses is the fifth essential step in all good 
 instruction. The school in all departments of in- 
 struction should never limit itself to the theoretical 
 treatment of studies, but the movement toward use 
 and application should be strong and should con- 
 stantly pervade all school effort. Anything short 
 of this is not real education but is fractional or even 
 abortive. 
 
 There are two important principles which not only The appu- 
 demand, but constantly work out this translation of know°edge 
 knowledge into power, into practical service; namely, byapperoep- 
 correlation and apperception. The examples just relation, 
 given of the close interdependence of studies fur- 
 nish one of the strongest arguments in favor of 
 correlation. Apperception in every lesson emphasizes 
 the turning of our accumulated store of knowledge 
 into service. The very definition of apperception 
 shows that new information can only be acquired 
 and assimilated through the interpretive use of old 
 ideas. Apperception throws a child back constantly 
 upon his own resources ; upon the thoughtful use 
 of acquired knowledge and experience. It makes 
 no difference from what study or source the old 
 knowledge springs. The geography lesson may 
 draw its interpretive materials from reading, history, 
 science, or the playground. The whole horizon of 
 experience should be kept in sight of every study. 
 
230 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 This is the true thoughtfulness and self-activity. It 
 is simply a restatement in pedagogical terms of 
 the old parable of the talents, that what we have 
 inherited or accumulated is for use and not for 
 hoarding. 
 How child The school then, like life itself, is as much a place 
 
 mands appii- ^^^ applying Es for accumulating knowledge. The 
 cation. traditional idea of storing up knowledge against the 
 
 evil day is narrowing and cramping in its influence 
 upon child activity. The fact that children have 
 quick memories and large receptive powers is not a 
 safe ground for exclusive memory exercises. For 
 children show such an overplus of activity in ex- 
 pressing and using their fund of knowledge that the 
 argument in favor of application is at least equally 
 strong. The avenues through which knowledge can 
 be turned into use in childhood, and in school life 
 itself, are so numerous as to constitute a full share 
 of legitimate child life. 
 
 There is, therefore, a broad foundation upon 
 which to base this demand for the full and com- 
 plete expression of child life. Children are little men 
 and women, and their impulses press on to a complete 
 circuit of activity ; perceiving, knowing, feeling, will- 
 ing, or doing. In this series, the productive and con- 
 structive use of knowledge is as conspicuous as any 
 other phase of effort. The doing always rounds out 
 and perfects the knowing. Without pressing on to 
 this final test of knowledge in use, the child's activ- 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 23 1 
 
 ity is prematurely arrested. On the other hand, 
 education, by its excessively theoretical tendency, 
 may produce a whole race of inefficient and imprac- 
 tical men and women. 
 
 In aU the essentials of character and power such 
 people are apt to be weak and worthless. They 
 deceive themselves and others with the semblance 
 of learning and education, but they are inexpert and 
 bungling in important affairs. The storage theory of 
 knowledge needs to be reenforced by the present use 
 theory, which organizes and unifies the incoming 
 experience and gives it flexibiUty and aptness for 
 still more important future service. 
 
 To teach children how to apply their knowledge 
 requires much painstaking care and patience in the 
 teacher. It is in their first efforts to apply knowl- 
 edge that children are slow and bungling, and tax the 
 long-suffering patience of teachers. Many a mother 
 has made the fatal blunder of not letting her girls 
 wash dishes or sew or make bread (even when they 
 wanted to) because the girls were so awkward and 
 blundering and unsuccessful in their first efforts. 
 The mother prefers to do things herself rather than 
 let the girls botch their work and waste materials. 
 But the only road to success lies through this period 
 of awkward and sometimes painful effort. 
 
 Even with our present methods of teaching, the Amount of 
 amount of time spent in applying principles consti- ^en°J' 
 tutes a large proportion of the available school time, application. 
 
232 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 In arithmetic three-fourths of all the time is spent 
 in applying rules to problems. In reading a still 
 larger proportion is spent in the effort to put in 
 practice the few simple principles of oral expres- 
 sion. 
 
 The one chief purpose of language lessons is to 
 cultivate the proper use of the correct forms of oral 
 and written language. In grammar the parsing and 
 interpretation of the rules of etymology and syntax, 
 that is, application, take up a large share of the 
 study. In writing and spelling we may say that the 
 purpose for which they are studied is the necessity 
 of their constant use in other branches. Drawing 
 is now felt to be largely tributary (in the common 
 school grades) to the other studies because of the 
 service it can render in more clearly defining their 
 objects and conceptions. In history and geography 
 it would be more difficult to show the immediate uses 
 of the knowledge acquired. This, however, is largely 
 due to our faulty methods of memorizing facts, in- 
 stead of studying out these facts in their important 
 relations and uses. A general view of our school 
 studies, as now taught, will show how fundamental 
 is the principle of the application of knowledge. 
 
 But in order to secure the proper kind of think- 
 ing, self-activity, and organization of knowledge, 
 sttll more time will have to be given to application. 
 We are not wasting time when we stop and wait for 
 children to think out the relations and use of what 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 233 
 
 they are learning. We may, indeed, seem to move 
 slowly, but we are moving as fast as their thinking 
 power will permit. It takes time for children to 
 think out and adapt these principles to new and 
 changed conditions. To neglect the cultivation of 
 such thinking power as this for the sake of a little 
 verbal fluency and memory drill, is short-sightedness 
 and even folly. 
 
 In saying that the effort to apply knowledge is Power to 
 laborious, and that school study is thus rendered edge'asa°^ 
 more rigorous and severe, we may seem to be laying ^o"''^* °^ 
 an uncalled-for burden upon school children. But 
 children will find in such applied study rich com- 
 pensation for their effort. The truest satisfaction 
 of all study comes from the conscious power to make 
 ready use of it. Knowledge is always something of 
 a burden and a discouragement till it has found an 
 outlet in some definite form of utility. There is no 
 point where we can stop in this movement toward 
 knowledge and feel sure of its value, until the goal 
 of useful application is reached. The real irksome- 
 ness and discouragement of study do not spring 
 from proper efforts at application, but from the dull, 
 often meaningless, memory drills, which do not even 
 reach forward to clear knowledge, to say nothing of 
 power to apply. Knowledge, which thus ends in a 
 blind alley, and finds no entrance into the thorough- 
 fares of life, is a deadening influence in our schools. 
 It produces stagnation in voluntary effort, while 
 
234 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 successful application of newly gathered knowl- 
 edge leads out into the clear sunlight of conscious 
 power. 
 
 Children who have learned to apply one lesson 
 thoroughly are ready and eager to grapple with new 
 problems. There is no better test of successful 
 progress in studies than this power to render prac- 
 tical account of our possessions, and there is no 
 better guarantee for future energetic effort. 
 
 One conclusion that springs from this entire dis- 
 cussion is that the proper use of knowledge has to be 
 learned. It does not come by accident or inadvert- 
 ence, but is the result of definite purpose and rigor- 
 ous effort. Even if later life with its severer tests 
 were not to follow, the school would need the tonic 
 of this kind of effort to adapt and use knowledge 
 in order to bring school work to proper unity and 
 completeness. 
 
 We may now glance back at the lesson unit, in the 
 treatment of which application is the final step. In 
 working up to a general truth or concept through 
 particulars, we have followed the inductive move- 
 ment through the steps of preparation, presentation, 
 comparison, and generalization. A single central 
 thought which lies at the root of the lesson unity 
 has dominated the entire movement. In the appli- 
 cation we ire still operating with this central truth, 
 turning it about, testing it on new data, and detect- 
 ing the various forms in which it clothes itself. The 
 
GENERAL NOTIONS APPLIED 235 
 
 length of time, that is, the number of recitations 
 required in working out this general truth through 
 all the five steps, depends upon the simplicity or 
 complexity of the central truth itself, and the 
 amount of data required to develop and apply it. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 THE VALUE OF TYPES 
 
 Relation of The magnet which lies at the centre of every 
 unity to° he weighty lesson is the general truth which is to be 
 general truth, worked out and applied. The entire foregoing dis- 
 cussion of the succession of steps in the handling 
 of a lesson unity unfolds the growth of a general 
 truth in the mind. A proper lesson unity is a topic 
 which has such an embryo truth in it, and the lesson 
 process follows the growth of the truth in the child's 
 mind up to maturity and fruitage. This elaboration 
 of a general truth involves the complete circuit of 
 mental action from the observation and comparison 
 of particulars up to the clear grasp of the general 
 notion, and back again to a broad and ready inter- 
 pretation in its light of the varying objects and situa- 
 tions in Ufe. 
 
 All the illustrative lesson unities in Chapters II 
 and X are examples of the working out and appli- 
 cation of such general truths. In irrigation is ex- 
 plained the process by which water from rivers and 
 lakes is brought upon arid lands and utilized. This 
 process, with modifications, is the same for hun- 
 dreds of irrigating ditches, and presents one of those 
 
 836 
 
VALUE OF TYPES 237 
 
 general truths of agriculture which deserves our 
 attention. In the battle of King's Mountain the 
 independent spirit and energy of the common peo- 
 ple are exhibited in a striking and successful raid 
 against the English troops. By a close comparison 
 we find this same spirit at Bennington. When we 
 come to expand this truth, and interpret other events 
 in its light, as, for example, Bunker Hill and The 
 Cowpens, we find this spirit breaking out on many 
 important occasions. In other words, a general truth 
 is strongly suggested by the careful study and com- 
 parison of two battles, and this is the chief reason 
 for their elaborate presentation. The study of 
 Minneapolis and the other cities of the Northwest 
 was to set forth in clear and unmistakable outlines 
 the general notion of a trade centre in lumber and 
 flour. The rule for the addition of fractions, the 
 metamorphosis of the milkweed butterfly, the Golden 
 Touch, and national unity illustrate the same cen- 
 tering of a whole lesson unity in a single thought or 
 general notion. How to get at these general truths 
 is undoubtedly the one problem of recitation method. 
 
 How far does the study of types render us direct The relation 
 aid in the struggle to master general truths.' The °he general '"^ 
 very word type seems to bridge the chasm between '™*- 
 the particular and the general. The type itself 
 is always an object, a particular thing, action, or 
 process ; but in so far as it is a type, it is a repre- 
 sentative object, it stands for a whole class, the 
 
238 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 features of a general truth shine out more distinctly 
 through it than through other objects of the same 
 class. We say that Peter Cartwright was a type of 
 the backwoods itinerant preachers. Garrison was 
 a type of the uncompromising abolitionists, Asa 
 Gray, of scientific students, Spurgeon, of Baptist 
 preachers of England; but in the typical or repre- 
 sentative man the general truth seems to stand out 
 enlarged, magnified, more forcible and tangible than 
 in the average man, in whom it seems to be obscured 
 by dulness or personal defects. 
 Is the type a A type, therefore, has all the interest and con- 
 induotion?" Crete intensity of a particular or personal and con- 
 spicuous object, while at the same instant it displays 
 to the thoughtful person the clear outline of a general 
 truth. This does not appear to the child at first as 
 a general truth, but a little later, by comparison, it 
 is brought out clearly. If general truths are what 
 we aim at, and if the type points the way to- the 
 general truth with greater precision and strength, 
 then why not select the best typical objects as the 
 centres of our lesson unities .-• But in setting up 
 types as the pivotal points in recitation method we 
 are met at the threshold with vigorous objections. 
 Are we trying to discover or invent a short-cut from 
 the particular to the general notion.' Does not 
 induction require that we study the individuals one 
 by one before comparing and deriving the general 
 notion.? In saying that a type is both particular 
 
VALUE OF TYPES 239 
 
 and general, are we not throwing into confusion our 
 whole inductive plan ? How can a child see a gen- 
 eral notion in a single object before others have 
 been brought to his notice? Of what value is the 
 step of comparison if the type idea in a single object 
 is so significant? 
 
 The answer to these questions and objections 
 may reveal to us more definitely than any other 
 means the practical and modified working of the 
 inductive process in dealing with the new forms of 
 truth as they arise in children's minds. 
 
 It must be confessed that the study of a type is a 
 short-cut toward a general truth, but it is an abbrevia- 
 tion of the process which the trained scientific, as 
 well as the untutored, mind inevitably takes. 
 
 A child first makes the acquaintance of its own 
 father through a multitude of successive daily experi- 
 ences, revealing many sides of his character. A little 
 later, in meeting other fathers in the neighborhood, 
 he is inclined to project this familiar notion of his own 
 father into these other fatherly characters. Certain 
 it is that he does not make a second, third, and fourth 
 elaborate study of neighboring fathers, and then sit 
 down and patiently compare them in order to discover 
 the type idea. The dominant notion in the child's 
 mind is the idea of his own father, and this is modi- 
 fied from time to time by the incidental experiences 
 met with in the neighborhood. Even the strict and 
 exact scientist in collecting his data for later ultimate 
 
240 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 comparison and conclusion, projects his previous ex 
 perience into every new experiment, avoiding errors 
 and accelerating his observations by a constant refer- 
 ence to previous knowledge. The ornithologist, who 
 studies the stomachs of birds to determine the char- 
 acter of their food, moves up gradually to his final 
 conclusion, comparing each new specimen, in part at 
 least, with the average of his previous data. 
 
 Strict systematic induction, i.e. a careful observa- 
 tion of one specimen or example after another and a 
 later comparison, is almost never followed in the 
 young student, and is only realized by the mature 
 scientist. Only one or a very few objects are carefully 
 observed, and a quick observation and comparison 
 of a much wider field of similar objects is sufficient 
 to set forth the general truth. Indeed, we cannot 
 afford the time for a full and elaborate study of 
 many specimens of a class. If we can find the time 
 for a careful scrutiny of one or two oak trees, we can 
 afford to take a swift or cursory glance at other oaks. 
 For the average student this is all that can be ex- 
 pected or desired. 
 How com- And yet a clear general notion cannot be reached 
 reTCXthe without Comparison. A number of similar objects 
 type. must be brought together, and their differences and 
 
 likenesses distinctly marked. It is only in this way 
 that the generic properties can stand out as the basis 
 of a general notion. It would be a waste of time to 
 give a detailed description of more than one city in 
 
VALUE OF TYPES 24 I 
 
 the Northwest like Minneapolis, or of more than one 
 irrigating ditch in the West. A very much briefer 
 account of other lumbering cities and other irrigating 
 ditches, with the distinguishing characteristics and 
 differences, serves all the purposes of comparison. 
 
 We cannot fail to observe that some objects are The number 
 very much better types of the class to which they ^es needed 
 belong than others. Minneapolis is a very striking 
 type of the lumber and flour city. The milkweed 
 butterfly is a conspicuous common species of butter- 
 flies. Daniel Boone is almost a perfect type of the 
 backwoodsman and Indian fighter. The Hudson is 
 a remarkably clear and majestic type of our naviga- 
 ble rivers. Daniel Webster is our preeminent orator, 
 much more distinctly so than Calhoun or John Quincy 
 Adams or Sumner. Mount Shasta is a remarkable 
 type of extinct volcanoes. Study it in the elaborate 
 monograph by J. S. Diller, and make the brief com- 
 parisons he suggests with other volcanoes, and you 
 have an excellent treatise on volcanoes, and ge.t a 
 fine appreciation of the general truths which they all 
 illustrate. Study the life of Samuel Adams in Hos- 
 mer's biography. You become intensely interested 
 in a man of peculiar force of character. The scenes 
 in Boston in which he figured as a controlling spirit 
 are among the most picturesque and important events 
 of the eighteenth century. Looked at from the 
 standpoint of a personal history, it is as thrilling and 
 instructive as one of the great novels, But compare 
 
242 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Samuel Adams with three or four other prominent 
 characters about Boston, — Governor Hutchinson, 
 James Otis, John Adams, and John Hancock, — and 
 you will get at the very nucleus of New England his- 
 tory during that most stirring period. After such a 
 comparison you will see that Samuel Adams stands 
 forth as the representative Puritan leader of New Eng- 
 land, the acknowledged type and embodiment of the 
 spirit which animated thousands of lesser Puritans. 
 
 . For all the practical purposes of life we must con- 
 tent ourselves mainly with the study of such types. 
 We have neither the time nor the strength to study 
 all the Adamses in equal detail, to say nothing of 
 all the Smiths and Browns. We simply cannot enter 
 into the details of all the important statesmen, volca- 
 noes, rivers, cities, or butterflies. Good teaching in 
 most studies depends first of all upon a careful selec- 
 tion of a few best types. Instead, therefore, of spread- 
 ing our attention over a great multitude of facts, we 
 pick out a few important centres. Around these we 
 gather a large body of facts ; we trace out the causal 
 relations of the central type object to its environment, 
 and finally we discover by comparing it with other 
 similar things that it is the representative of a law 
 which repeats itself in scores or thousands of other 
 cases. It stands at the head of an army of facts all 
 of which obey the same command. 
 
 But nearly all objects and phenomena in nature 
 are essentially typical in their deeper-lying charac- 
 
VALUE OF TYPES 243 
 
 teristics. How, then, may we select among objects 
 all of which are types ? Even if all objects were 
 equally typical of the classes to which they belong, 
 it would be a necessary economy of effort to pick 
 out and make a careful study of a few, with later 
 comparisons, in order to get a quick and sure mastery 
 of the many. But objects differ greatly, as noted 
 above, in their typical or representative power. The 
 value of any type as the principal basis of a lesson 
 unity (be it an event, a person, or a natural object) 
 lies in the strength and reach of its representative 
 qualities. The sunflower is a much more striking 
 type of compound flower than is the wild aster or 
 even the dandelion. The Colorado River is the most 
 con,spicuous type of canon-making streams. For ma- 
 ture minds, at least, Shakespeare is one of the few 
 best poets for study, because of the preeminence of 
 the cardinal poetic qualities in him. And among 
 the masterpieces of any great author some are more 
 typical than others. Among the Waverley novels, 
 for instance, "Ivanhoe" gives the most vivid and real- 
 istic pictures of feudalism which Scott delights so 
 much in portraying. In selecting the complete mas- 
 terpieces of literature for regular use in reading 
 classes, we cannot be satisfied with anything less 
 than the best typical poems, essays, and speeches of 
 our American and English masters. 
 
 Some trees in the forest strike their roots deeper 
 into the soil, spread their branches wider, and tower 
 
244 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 higher than their fellows. This is far more the case 
 in human life and history. Some men project their 
 influence throughout whole nations and stand forth 
 noticeably as representative leaders of millions of 
 their fellow-citizens. Emerson in his " Representa- 
 tive Men " has shown clearly that their power lay in 
 their ability to absorb into their own lives the great 
 typical ideas and impulses that were abroad among 
 their fellow-men. This simplifies history. It is only 
 in this way that we feeble mortals can grasp the 
 meaning of large, complex, political, and social phe- 
 nomena. We see the essential features of a wide- 
 spread movement incorporated into the striking 
 personal traits of a Gladstone or Luther, and what 
 was before complex and obscure flashes forth in a 
 simplicity which the commonest intelligence can 
 grasp. Some men have not only towered above their 
 contemporaries, but have wrought an influence so 
 colossal and so typical as to overshadow centuries 
 and even thousands of years in the lives of great 
 nations. Such were Homer, Moses, and Aristotle. 
 Types as In all our preceding chapters we have had oppor- 
 
 ways to^ tunity to see the variety and importance of general 
 lesson truths in different studies. In our present discussion 
 
 unities. j- , 
 
 we discover that these general truths clothe them- 
 selves, to a large degree, in striking types. Peda- 
 gogically considered, these types should stand at the 
 entrance to the important avenues of truth in nearly 
 every study. This fact will be of great service to us 
 
VALUE OF TYPES 24$ 
 
 when compelled to face the problem of selecting 
 those topics in each study which contain the best 
 lesson unities. This problem is now upon us in 
 American schools. We are now sifting out and 
 measuring up the school branches more thoroughly 
 than ever before. The whole question of relative 
 values of studies and of the comparative worth of 
 different topics in a study is distinctly before our 
 schoolmasters. The presumption of our present dis- 
 cussion is that the key to the interpretation of this 
 problem will be found in the selection of types. 
 
 Summing up the answers to objections against the 
 use of types, we may say : the well-selected type is 
 a short-cut in the inductive thought movement from 
 particular to general. But it is a short-cut which not 
 only children but even scientific thinkers are com- 
 pelled to take. The well chosen type is a combina- 
 tion of the particular and the general, the graphic 
 elements of the concrete being mingled with the 
 striking features of the general notion. To disengage 
 this general notion and bring it clearly into the light 
 a comparison of several similar objects with the type 
 is necessary. This is the natural and necessary 
 method of abbreviating the inductive process. With- 
 out confusion, therefore, the type combines the two 
 fundamental elements of all clear thinking : first the 
 concrete basis and second the outline or index of a 
 general truth. 
 
 In surveying some prospective field of study, as 
 
246 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Types as grammar or geography, before approaching it with 
 pofntfin children for purposes of conquest, shall we look 
 instruction, upon it as a simple accumulation of facts, as a dead 
 level of equally important truths, like so many hills 
 of corn in a field, all to be cultivated with equal 
 care, or as a few central truths to be completely 
 mastered and applied? Is the field of knowledge 
 like a field of ripened wheat, swath after swath of 
 which is levelled by the sturdy reaper till all is laid 
 low? We know that machines have been made to 
 do this kind of monotonous, mechanical work even 
 better than the sturdiest human arms. But the 
 healthy acquisition of knowledge (in spite of its 
 labor and partial drudgery) is not much like this 
 monotonous level of mechanical effort. As one sur- 
 veys a field of study he discovers that some facts are 
 more important, tenfold, a hundred-fold more impor- 
 tant than others. The field of knowledge resembles 
 a mountainous district rather than a plain. To get 
 the broadest views one must climb the highest ridges 
 and summits. The knowledge embraced in any 
 branch of study is not to be considered as a miscel- 
 laneous accumulation of facts, nor even as a well- 
 ordered but monotonous series of facts, to be simply 
 memorized or stored away ; but it is a field of con- 
 quest which can be best brought under control by 
 taking possession of its strong, strategic positions. 
 
 When the Prussians invaded France in 1870 they 
 did not scatter themselves broadly over the whole 
 
VALUE OF TYPES 247 
 
 of eastern France, stopping to plunder every village, 
 city, and hamlet, but they concentrated their armies 
 upon a few of the great frontier fortresses, till they 
 had fought and forced them into surrender. When 
 Strasburg and Metz and Sedan were taken, they had 
 a firm hold on eastern France. They then turned 
 the march of their converging hosts upon Paris, the 
 citadel of France, with results which approved their 
 wisdom. The reduction of the less important towns 
 and districts was accomplished at their leisure. 
 
 In a similar way we should plan the conquest of a 
 field of knowledge. As teachers, therefore, there is 
 laid upon us the necessity, before entering upon the 
 conquest, of surveying the field and of selecting the 
 strategic points (the lesson units) upon which we will 
 concentrate our forces. 
 
 It is interesting, by the way, to notice what HowtosUi 
 masterly quaUfications this implies in the person who °"' *^''*' 
 lays out the series of lesson topics in a branch of 
 study. It implies a mastery of the subject far beyond 
 what is commonly regarded as a knowledge of its 
 facts. Facts must be sifted out, their relative worth 
 and rank determined. The types must be chosen 
 which are most important in their individual influence 
 and in their representative character. A review of the 
 types worked over in Chapters II and XI will show that 
 any given type is important for two reasons: first, 
 because it stands deeply rooted in a large environ- 
 ment of facts, which find in it a central, controlling 
 
248 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 idea; and, second, because of its representative quality, 
 by which, even in this deep setting of environing 
 facts, it proclaims the characteristics belbnging to a 
 large class. 
 
 It may be stated as a general proposition that 
 ,_ most of our lesson unities will find their embodiment 
 in these types. But as all objects are more or less 
 typical, and as every study contains ten times as 
 many topics, all typical, as can be properly treated 
 in school exercises, the necessity for a choice becomes 
 apparent. It is customary to compromise this dif- 
 ficulty by spreading effort equally over the whole 
 body of facts, in geography, for example; but this 
 is like the farmer trying to cultivate a thousand acres 
 when he has just force enough to cultivate properly 
 a hundred. Some types are many fold more important 
 than others, both in their root-connections and in their 
 exhibition of generic qualities. This is shown above 
 by numerous examples. Children often spend as 
 much, if not more, time in learning some trivial fact 
 as in the effort to grasp some event whose deeper, 
 meaning spreads light far and wide throughout a 
 whole subject. Such a fact, interpreted in its causal 
 relations and seen in its representative character, may 
 swing the intelligence into the track of some universal 
 law, as of gravitation or of evolution. Examples of 
 this preeminence of certain types may be found in 
 many studies. The oak tree is such a type among 
 trees and vegetation, the beaver among animals, the 
 
illustration. 
 
 VALUE OF TYPES 249 
 
 silkworm or butterfly among insects, Mount Washing- 
 ton and Pike's Peak among mountains, the Mississippi 
 among great rivers, Livingstone among explorers, 
 Bismarck among statesmen, Darwin among scientists. 
 
 Certain events in history stand out as landmarks, a historical 
 The year 1787 records a number of important events, 
 among them the meeting of the constitutional con- 
 vention at Philadelphia. At the time it probably at- 
 tracted much less attention than our last presidential 
 election. But consider what a tree was there planted, 
 what a growth it has since had, and how it has spread 
 its branches over a continent. The constitution then 
 adopted not only brought into union and harmony 
 the demoralized and antagonistic governments of the 
 thirteen colonies, but determined beforehand the 
 framework of new commonwealths as they have 
 sprung up in rapid succession. Politically, we have 
 been living for more than a hundred years in the 
 house which they built. We elect our governors, 
 judges, congresses, and presidents at the time and in 
 the manner which they specified. The constitution 
 has been of unmeasured influence upon our history 
 for more than a century and will continue, in all 
 probability, to augment its influence for centuries to 
 come. We pride ourselves also that it has been the 
 type of popular, democratic governments the world 
 over. It has been the model upon which other free, 
 representative states in South America and Europe 
 have been constructed. In other words, in studying 
 
250 METltOD OP RfiCITAtlON 
 
 the work of the federal convention, we are dealing 
 with a few of the fundamental principles of govern- 
 ment in their preeminent type, the constitution of the 
 United States. The meeting of the constitutional con- 
 vention is an event of such transcendent importance, 
 the causes which led up to it. are so deeply rooted in 
 the early history of the colonies, it brought together 
 so many of the wisest heads of the time in great 
 deliberate council, and the influences that have flowed 
 from it are so vast, that we can afford to spend more 
 time upon it than upon any other single event in 
 American history. Other so-called important events of 
 1787, as compared with this, are insignificant. 
 
 The meaning of such an event lies in its deep 
 generic quality and in its wide-reaching causal re- 
 lations. Such a topic is a citadel of strength in his- 
 torical study. It cannot be adequately surveyed in 
 a single recitation. It will take many recitations to 
 gather up and focus the necessary tributary facts, 
 to organize them around the central event. But 
 when it has been properly done, a view-point has been 
 gained from which we may rationally survey and in- 
 terpret a large extent of otherwise unrelated events. 
 Types as Now it is evident that if so much time is given to 
 
 centres! ^^^ extended treatment of such an important event, 
 
 a corresponding amount must be subtracted from the 
 time now given to a number of lesser topics, It may 
 mean that the selection and adequate treatment of 
 such types involves the expulsion, as topics, of a 
 
VALUE OF TYPES 25 1 
 
 host of minor events. But many of them will re- 
 appear in their proper setting as secondary to the 
 main topics. It is clear that such a full handling of 
 central types is based upon a rigid ranking of events 
 according to their true value. 
 
 The concentration of effort upon such topics, with 
 their related material, enables us to ground our work 
 upon those natural laws of association upon which 
 memory and reason rest. The links which bind 
 together such a large complex of facts are the ideas 
 of similarity and of causal relation. The body of 
 facts contained in any given study needs to be or- 
 ganized around a few centres, which thus reduce a large 
 and intricate collection of data to comparative sim- 
 plicity, and put it under easy control. Just as a city 
 in the midst of a productive and populous region, by 
 means of its numerous radiating lines of traffic, centres 
 in itself the collection and distribution of products, 
 so an important type, by its representative character 
 and causal relations, centralizes and organizes a 
 large accumulation of facts, and leaves thought free 
 to issue forth in every direction from this stronghold, 
 working its interchanges along the great traffic lines 
 of association. 
 
 The selection of the important typical lesson 
 unities in a study will be found later to pave the way 
 for the solution of two large problems which the 
 teacher is sure to meet, — correlation and scientific 
 arrangement. 
 
252 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 In the very process of careful selection and elabo 
 rate treatment of a type we meet unavoidably this 
 correlation, or close interrelation of studies. In treat- 
 ing the Hudson River as a type we come upon the 
 mountains, forests, water power, and manufacturing 
 of its upper course ; the navigation, cities, railroads, 
 and scenery of its lower course ; its commercial con- 
 nections by canal with the coal fields of Pennsyl- 
 vania, with the forests of the north by canal to Lake 
 Champlain, with the Great Lakes by the Erie Canal 
 along the Mohawk to Buffalo. The harbor and city 
 of New York, and their easy connections with the 
 Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi Valley, are 
 on one side, with the Atlantic coast and the marts of 
 Europe on the other. Historically, the Hudson is 
 very attractive : Hudson and his early exploration 
 and his contact with the Indians, the first Dutch 
 settlers, Washington and his campaigns along the 
 Hudson, the old forts and battle scenes, Arnold and 
 Andrd, Burgoyne's invasion and its attendant battles 
 and strategies. In literature, Irving has made cer- 
 tain spots on its banks as famous as the old battle 
 grounds. These stories our children use in their 
 regular reading lessons. From a purely scientific 
 standpoint, the great drowned river valley, its pal- 
 isades, mountains, and incoming ocean tides are at 
 once suggested. 
 
 The moment we begin to treat the Hudson River 
 as an important and typical object in this rich and 
 
VALUE OF TYPES 253 
 
 fruitful way, we are certain to run across these rela- 
 tions of the geography to history, literature, and 
 natural science. Not that we are forced in the geog- 
 raphy lesson to give the historical or hterary or sci- 
 entific treatment. But the Hudson River as a whole 
 has these historical and scientific and literary facts 
 and associations as well as the geographical. Nor 
 can we dig deep among the geographical facts with- 
 out running across these root-connections with the 
 other studies. It is just at this point that the prob- 
 lem of correlation must be met and solved, not by 
 mixing and jumbling the studies, but by tracing in 
 each study these deeper relations to others. 
 
 So long as geography study consists in locating 
 and learning the names of cities, rivers, and moun- 
 tains (this surface survey of geographical facts), we 
 shall not be troubled with the problem of correlation. 
 But take some large geographical type and begin to 
 turn up the deep, rich fund of detailed knowledge 
 involved in it, and at once this strong network of 
 deep and important relations between studies is en- 
 countered. 
 
 Not only is there an important collection of geo- 
 graphical facts (physical, commercial, industrial, and 
 political), all firmly linked together by strong causal 
 relations, but naturally included within the same 
 area and explained by this very environment are the 
 scientific, historical, and literary facts which cannot 
 be kept out of sight. They are all bound up together 
 
254 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 in one great picture or panoramic view in the very 
 setting in which nature and the growth of human 
 society have put them. 
 
 The object of correlation is not to invent or fix up 
 relations between studies, but simply to see facts 
 and objects in those natural and necessary relations 
 in which they actually stand and without which they 
 have no meaning. The concentration of study upon 
 an important type is the choice opportunity for get- 
 ting into a nest of these naturally correlated facts. 
 The superficial survey of facts in a branch of knowl- 
 edge and the strict isolation of studies from one 
 another are the teacher's artificial method of exclud- 
 ing life and meaning from studies. 
 
 Such types are not at all difficult to find in geog- 
 raphy, history, natural science, and literature. The 
 itemized, connected life history of an oak through 
 its years of germination, growth, fruit-bearing, and final 
 decay, is a close study of the tree in its relations to 
 minerals and soils, of the physical and chemical 
 processes in the tissues, bark, and leaves, of atmos- 
 pheric and climatic condition, of insect and bird 
 life among its branches, and of the clouds and sun- 
 light above its head. The oak tree as a botanical 
 specimen is rooted and all its parts live in the close 
 environment of the other sciences. Here are several 
 sciences in such intimate relation that no absolute 
 lines of distinction can be drawn. Practically, how- 
 ever, there need be no mixing or confusion of sci- 
 
Value of Types 255 
 
 ences because the central topic is a purely botanical 
 one and puts the other sciences under tribute only 
 to the extent that they can help to understand the 
 important phases of the tree's life. 
 
 But this typical object, standing in this environ- Types as 
 ment of closely related facts, towers above them, and scientific" 
 teaches still higher truths, setting into prominence {"^^^'^^ *""* 
 those larger scientific classifications and laws which 
 interpret the phenomena of nature and of human life 
 on a broad scale. Looked at from the standpoint 
 of botany, the full study of the oak brings out a 
 great type of vegetable growth. The type idea, when 
 clearly revealed by comparisons with other trees and 
 vegetable forms, not only stands as the representative 
 of forest trees, easily observed by all children, but 
 illustrates similar processes throughout all forms of 
 vegetation. Even a child may thus wake up to the 
 presence of great, universal laws, closely observed in 
 a few typical cases, but easily detected in many others. 
 The elaborate study of types is, therefore, the best 
 approach to scientific classes and principles. 
 
 Isolate one of these type objects, tear it loose from 
 its root-connections, and it is no longer a type. Its 
 deep setting and intimate vital relation to environ- 
 ment constitute a share of its typical character. As 
 the oak tree, uprooted by the storm, lies dead, no 
 longer a type of living forces, so a lesson topic loos- 
 ened from its natural setting has no life, no vital 
 force as educative material. 
 
256 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 In summarizing the points of value in type studies 
 we may note : — 
 
 1. The type furnishes us a centre around which to 
 collect the material for induction in the first four 
 steps. 
 
 2. The type is extremely concrete while strik- 
 ingly characteristic in its exhibition of generic quali- 
 ties. 
 
 3. The sifting out of the best types in a study 
 gives us a series of great lesson units, or strategic 
 points, whose mastery gives us the control of a whole 
 study. 
 
 4. The deepening of the type study uncovers those 
 radical relations between studies which give a real 
 meaning to the term correlation. 
 
 5. The general classes and truths, which the types 
 prefigure, constitute the scientific framework of the 
 study and at the same time furnish the nuclei for 
 lesson unities capable of treatment according to the 
 five steps of instruction. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 
 
 In this chapter three lesson unities are worked 
 out through the five formal steps, for the purpose 
 of illustrating more definitely the inductive-deduc- 
 tive movement in the treatment of such important 
 topics. 
 
 To work out such a lesson unity through all 
 the essential steps may require several recitation 
 periods. The lesson on irrigation will take proba- 
 bly four or five recitation periods of half an hour 
 each. 
 
 The Irrigation of Arid Lands 
 
 First Step. — How can the dry lands of some 
 of our far Western states be watered from the 
 rivers .' 
 
 How are our farms and gardens in Illinois sup- 
 plied with moisture .' Do you know of any of our 
 states where there is little or no rainfall on the 
 plains .' Point out on the map the dry region along 
 the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains. What do 
 you know from your geographies of the climate of 
 this strip of country.? What business may be car- 
 s 257 
 
258 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 ried on here ? Grazing and mining. Have you 
 heard of people who crossed the " plains " ? Where 
 are the plains ? Recall Fremont's trip to the Rocky 
 Mountains. Can crops of grain or vegetables be 
 raised on the plains.? What are the difficulties.' 
 What rivers flow across this region and in which 
 direction ? Would it be possible to get the water 
 from these rivers upon the dry uplands, so as to use 
 them for purposes of agriculture .■' Tell what you 
 may have heard of irrigating ditches. 
 
 Second Step. — The strip of country just east of 
 the mountains in Colorado is very dry. There is 
 almost constant sunshine, and very little rain, so 
 that, though the soil is good, it bears only a thin, 
 scattering buffalo grass, and most of the year the 
 country looks almost as barren as a desert. To 
 explain fully the process of irrigating by ditches, 
 "The Big Ditch," which is drawn from the South 
 Fork of the Platte near Denver, is described as 
 follows : — 
 
 In order to show the position of this ditch and 
 its relation to the river, the mountains, and the 
 slopes, a map of the region about Denver is neces- 
 sary, showing the South Fork of the Platte River, 
 the mountains and foot-hills, and the slope on which 
 the ditch is laid out. 
 
 The South Fork of the Platte River, after drain- 
 ing South Park, breaks through the foot-hills and 
 descends to the northeast through the great plain 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 
 
 259 
 
 A. A. A. — Main chain of the 
 
 Rocky Mounrains. 
 
 B. B. B. — Foot-hills. 
 
 C. C. C. — South Fork of the 
 
 Platte. 
 
 D. — Denver. 
 E.— The dam. 
 
 F.F.F.— The ditch. 
 G. G. G. — Cherry creek. 
 H.H.H. — Watershed. 
 I. I. — Clear creek. 
 K. — Georgetown. 
 P. — Pike's Peak. 
 S. S. — South Park. 
 
260 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 lying east of the mountains. Southeast of the Platte 
 a high watershed extends out from the mountains, 
 separating the valley of the Platte from the valley 
 of the Arkansas, still farther south. Pike's Peak, 
 a prominent spur of the mountains, lies a little south 
 of this watershed. From the foot-hills the country 
 slopes eastward toward the Platte as indicated by 
 the small streams descending from the mountains. 
 On the other side of the Platte' the land slopes 
 gradually from the height of land to the northwest, 
 as indicated by Cherry creek and other streams, 
 which, however, are dry most of the year. 
 
 This gently sloping land has a good soil, but on 
 account of the dry weather has only a scant growth 
 of buffalo grass, useful for cattle-grazing. Denver 
 lies at the junction of the Platte River and Cherry 
 creek, and other cities like Georgetown and Black 
 Hawk are located in the valleys of the mountains. 
 The Platte River emerges from the mountains or foot- 
 hills about twenty-one miles southwest of Denver. 
 
 Between the Platte River and the watershed on the 
 southeast is a large area of gently sloping country, 
 part of which it was proposed to bring under irriga- 
 tion by means of a large ditch taken from the Platte 
 River. Can you devise a plan by which the water from 
 the river can be brought upon this plain.? Where 
 should the ditch begin, which way should it extend, 
 and in what direction should the water flow through 
 it? In order to get the water at a high level, so as to 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 26l 
 
 carry the water as high along the slope as possible, 
 the engineers, following the stream into the moun- 
 tains, constructed a dam in the river three miles above 
 the point where it emerges from the foot-hills. The 
 river itself descends rapidly as it rushes down through 
 the canon and out into the open plain. But the big 
 ditch which is taken from the river at the dam is 
 carried along the canon in an artificially constructed 
 channel with a slow current, so that, as it emerges 
 from the mouth of the cafion, the channel of the 
 ditch is some twenty feet or more higher up than the 
 current of the river. What special advantage (for 
 irrigation) is it to have the level of the ditch twenty 
 feet above the current in the river ? 
 
 Near where the river emerges from the mountains 
 a small stream comes into the Platte from the south, 
 and the Big Ditch is turned back along this valley, 
 and, after crossing it, is kept as far back from the 
 Platte River and as high up along the slope as pos- 
 sible. Why do they wish to keep the ditch as far 
 away from the Platte as possible .' As it extends to 
 the northeast the distance from the Platte River grad- 
 ually increases till at Denver it is eight or ten miles 
 from the city, where it crosses Cherry creek. 
 
 After reaching the plain just east of the moun- 
 tains, the Big Ditch was made by digging a channel 
 in the earth, about forty feet wide, and when the 
 water was let in, about six or seven feet deep in the 
 middle. In digging this great trench on which side 
 
262 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 of the channel would the dirt be thrown, and why ? 
 The digging required the labor of hundreds of men 
 with teams and scrapers and other machines for re- 
 moving dirt. The work lasted many months and 
 cost many thousands of dollars. In some places 
 the ditch resembles great railroad cuts through a 
 hilly country. 
 
 When it was brought to one of the deep gullies 
 or dry runs, which are frequent on the plains, it was 
 necessary in some way to get it across. The largest 
 and widest of these is the valley of Cherry creek, a 
 half mile or more in width in many places. What 
 can you suggest as a good plan for getting a large 
 ditch across one of these valleys .■' Sometimes a 
 " flume " or aqueduct was built consisting of a great 
 wooden trough, supported by heavy piles or posts, 
 like a railroad bridge. This trough must be wide 
 and deep enough to carry the full stream of water 
 in the ditch. The seams and cracks between the 
 boards were filled and calked up so as to permit as 
 little leakage as possible. 
 
 The water with which the ditch is supplied comes 
 from the river. But how does the river get its sup- 
 ply in such a dry country ? It has been observed 
 that there is a much greater rainfall and snowfall 
 among the mountains and along the higher ridges 
 than on the level plains to the east. The cold moun- 
 tain sides condense the moisture into rain and snow. 
 The mountain peaks and ranges have frequent rain 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 263 
 
 and snowstorms when no moisture falls upon the 
 plains. The forest and vegetation upon the moun- 
 tain slopes hold back the moisture also. In the 
 spring, when the warm sun melts the snows, and in 
 April and May when the spring rains come, the rivers 
 are flooded. An immense amount of water, at this 
 season, escapes down the river and is lost unless it 
 can be stored up in reservoirs for use two or three 
 months later, when it will be greatly needed. Where 
 could such reservoirs be built.' These reservoirs 
 were constructed at various points along the Big 
 Ditch by building dams across the valleys or along 
 the edge of tracts of low-lying land. But in spite 
 of these reservoirs the amount of water is sometimes 
 insufficient to supply all the land during the spring 
 and summer season of irrigation. 
 
 Many smaller ditches were built by the farmers 
 or by small irrigation companies before the Big Ditch 
 was constructed in 1881. Although lower down on 
 the river, they have the prior claim, or water right, 
 and it is only after they have been supphed that the 
 Big Ditch (later built) can take the water from the 
 river. Who settles such disputes .' The legislature 
 of the state, meeting at Denver, makes the laws 
 regulating the division and use of the water supply 
 among the different ditch companies. 
 
 How can the water be drawn off from the ditch 
 and distributed to the farmers ? When the Big Ditch 
 has been liberally supplied with water, it is drawn 
 
264 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 off through wooden boxings or through gates to irri> 
 gate the separate fields. The boxing through which 
 the water escapes from the main ditch passes under 
 the embankment on the lower side. At the upper 
 end it is below the level of water in the ditch. At 
 the lower end is an upright slide or board which, be- 
 ing lifted, lets out the water, or by dropping it and 
 throwing loose dirt about it in the boxing, the flow of 
 water is stopped. Regular officers, or water inspect- 
 ors, are employed to pass along the ditches and to 
 regulate the amount of water sent out to the differ- 
 ent farms, also to keep careful watch over the ditch 
 banks, reservoirs, flumes, etc. Sometimes, in case of 
 rains and freshets, the ditch threatens to fill up and 
 break over its banks, wasting the water and injuring 
 ditch and crops. In such cases how can the excess of 
 water be turned off.' Gates are opened at the flumes 
 which allow the water to run off down the valleys. 
 Usually a larger boxing lets out enough water to form 
 quite a good-sized ditch, from two to six feet across. 
 This may skirt the edges of a number of farms and 
 from it the water is turned off in small channels to 
 the separate farms and fields. At what point should 
 a ditch enter a farm.? The fields are irrigated in 
 different ways. A wheat-field or meadow is some- 
 times flooded ; in a corn-field the water is often run 
 down in small furrows between each two rows. 
 When sufficient moisture is secured for a thorough 
 wetting, the mouth of the ditch is closed up with a 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 265 
 
 few shovels of dirt, and for a week or two the water 
 is not turned on again. Most of the land slopes so 
 regularly and evenly toward the river that it is pos- 
 sible to irrigate it fully. 
 
 How do the farmers measure and pay for water? 
 The ditch company usually sells the water to the 
 farmers by the inch, the amount of water passing 
 through a hole an inch square being enough to irri- 
 gate an acre. The cost of an inch of water is some- 
 times from ^ 1 . 50 to ;^2. 50. The ditch company, having 
 spent large sums of money in digging the ditch and 
 in buying up the land, is justified in charging a 
 rental for the use of the water. 
 
 The effect of bringing a district of apparently 
 desert country under irrigation is very striking. 
 Fields of grain, meadows of alfalfa and other grasses, 
 corn-fields, and vegetable gardens cover the country. 
 Groves of shade trees and fruit orchards soon grow 
 up, roads are laid out, fences, barns, and houses built, 
 and the whole country takes on much of the appear- 
 ance of a flourishing Illinois prairie in springtime. 
 Wells are dug and are well supplied with water, 
 so thoroughly does the water saturate the whole soil. 
 In the fall and winter the ditches are left dry. 
 Land below the ditch (between the river and the 
 ditch) becomes worth ^40 or j^so to the acre, while 
 just as good land above the level of the ditch, 
 only a few rods away, is worth but $S or $6 an 
 acre for grazing purposes. It is claimed by the 
 
266 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 farmers that irrigation is a more reliable and satis- 
 factory method of agriculture than farming in Iowa 
 or Illinois, where dependence must be placed upon 
 the natural rainfall. What are the advantages of 
 farming by irrigation ? One farmer told me that in 
 thirty-three years he had never had a failure of a crop 
 upon a single field. The abundant sunshine can be 
 counted upon to ripen grains and fruits. 
 
 The northwest slope of the Platte River (between 
 the river and the foot-hills) is supplied with water in 
 a somewhat different way. Quite a number of small 
 streams come down out of the mountains and foot- 
 hills and wind eastward across the slope to join the 
 Platte. Between the mountains and the river at 
 Denver, this rich level or rolling plain is about ten 
 miles wide and is a garden of beauty and abundance. 
 The small mountain streams moving eastward toward 
 the Platte are dammed up at favorable points so as 
 to form ponds or lakes. From one of these lakes 
 the slopes lower down the valley of the little stream 
 may be supplied with water by small ditches running 
 out from the lake on either side. A stream may be 
 dammed up in several places and thus constitute 
 a series of irrigating lakes. From the foot-hills a 
 thousand feet above the plain one can count more 
 than a score of these small lakes which preserve the 
 abundance of the spring waters for the use of the 
 farmers in the summer time. 
 
 On each side of the Platte River, therefore, there is 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 267 
 
 a strip of well-irrigated land for many miles. What 
 sort of market would you expect for the products 
 of irrigation ? The city of Denver, with one hundred 
 and thirty thousand people, furnishes a good mar- 
 ket for much of this produce. Locate the chief min- 
 ing towns within one hundred fifty miles of Den- 
 ver. An examination of the map of Colorado will 
 show along the foot-hills a series of mining towns 
 such as Black Hawk, Boulder, Georgetown, Golden 
 City, and Canon City, while a few miles back on the 
 plains are towns and cities like Greeley, Denver, Colo- 
 rado Springs, and Pueblo, which make a large de- 
 mand for vegetables, grain, grasses, and fruits. Un- 
 less they are raised by irrigation in Colorado, these 
 necessary supplies will have to be shipped several 
 hundred miles, from Kansas or Nebraska, or from 
 Utah. A ready market at good prices is pretty cer- 
 tain to be found near at hand for all the products 
 raised by irrigation. 
 
 In a brief review of the Big Ditch point out clearly 
 its relation to the climate of Colorado, to the surface 
 features and soil, to the rainfall, to cities and mining, 
 to government, and to commerce and population. 
 
 The first important river to the south of the Platte 
 is the Arkansas, which issues through the main ridge 
 of the Rockies by way of the Grand Canon not far 
 from Canon City. As it comes out upon the eastern 
 plains, its waters are drawn off in ditches to water 
 the lower lands near the river. Even as far as 
 
268 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 western Kansas it is used for irrigation by means 
 of ditches. In southern Colorado and west of the 
 main chain of the Rockies, the Rio Grande, as it 
 flows southward through San Louis Park, is drawn 
 off in ditches to enrich this fruitful valley, and south- 
 ward into New Mexico the waters of this river are 
 used for irrigation. In northern Colorado and in 
 southern Wyoming the North Fork of the Platte 
 and its branches are used for irrigation, and large 
 reservoirs or artificial lakes, many miles in length, 
 have been constructed for the purpose of holding 
 the spring floods in reserve. 
 
 Third Step. — Compare now these four rivers — 
 the South Fork of the Platte, the North Fork of the 
 Platte, the Arkansas, and the Rio Grande — as related 
 to the mountains and plains, as situated in reference 
 to the mining cities, and as illustrating facts of irri- 
 gation as now carried on. What is the relative im- 
 portance of the small streams as compared with the 
 large ones for purposes of irrigation } 
 
 Fourth Step. — In summing up the common features 
 of these river valleys we may observe that they are 
 all in an arid region, that they derive their water 
 supply from the mountains ; as they emerge into the 
 plains at the foot of the mountains their waters are 
 carried out to enrich the plains by means of artificial 
 channels. The smaller tributary streams are used in 
 a similar way. The presence of important mining 
 cities near these river valleys and in them makes a 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 269 
 
 ready market for all the products raised by irriga- 
 tion. The present wealth and population of these 
 districts depend largely upon the irrigating ditches. 
 
 Fifth Step. — The school children, having seen 
 clearly the conditions under which irrigation is 
 possible, and the means by which it is carried on, 
 will be able to extend its application over a number 
 of states and territories where similar conditions 
 of climate, soil, and surface features are repeated. 
 By a study of the maps and the descriptive parts of 
 their geographies they should be able to locate the 
 arid regions and determine what rivers are useful 
 for irrigation. Are the rivers of California irriga- 
 tion streams .? Of Utah ? Of Washington and Mon- 
 tana ? Finally locate the arid regions of the United 
 States and compare them in size with the portions 
 which have sufficient rainfall for purposes of agri- 
 culture. Could the rivers of your native state be 
 used for purposes of irrigation if rain were lacking ? 
 For example, the Illinois, the Hudson, the Minne- 
 sota, the Tennessee ? What have you heard of irri- 
 gating farms in Dakota and other states by means of 
 artesian wells.' Various attempts of this sort have 
 been made. What are the difficulties likely to be .? 
 
 In the later study of Africa, Asia, and South 
 America we may interpret plans of irrigation in 
 other lands and compare them with ours. 
 
270 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 The Battle of Kin^s Mountain and the Temper of 
 the Common People during the Revolutionary War 
 
 First Step. — We will see how the backwoodsmen 
 of North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia prepared 
 a surprise for Cornwallis and the British army. 
 After the battle of Camden, what was the condition 
 of things in the Carolinas ? Where was Gates's army ? 
 What was Cornwallis's plan ? Will the people of the 
 South attempt any further resistance to Cornwallis ? 
 
 A survey of the situation at this time will lead 
 the children to the conclusion that Cornwallis and 
 the British were in high hopes after the battle of 
 Camden, and that the Americans were scattered and 
 discouraged. Let the class study the maps and books, 
 and get a clear view of this discouraging situation. 
 Cornwallis seemed to be in full control of South 
 Carolina, and by cooperating with troops sent to 
 Virginia by Sir Henry Clinton was planning to bring 
 North Carolina and the whole South into complete 
 subjection to the royal cause. We will see how 
 the common people acted under these depressing 
 conditions. 
 
 Second Step. — In the mountainous districts of 
 western Carolina, in Tennessee and Virginia, were 
 scattered settlements of * backwoodsmen who had 
 never submitted to the king. Cornwallis now sent 
 Major Patrick Ferguson, with twelve hundred men, 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 2/1 
 
 on a foraging march into the rough country of west- 
 ern North Carolina, with instructions to scour the 
 mountain region between the Catawba and the Yad- 
 kin, harass the patriots, encourage the Tories, and 
 gather in royahst recruits. At Charlotte, in North 
 Carolina, he was to rejoin Cornwallis's army. What 
 sort of country had Ferguson to travel through ? 
 Would the backwoodsmen be likely to disturb him .' 
 What sort of training in fighting had they had .' 
 
 As Ferguson marched into this wild region he 
 found the people very unfriendly. Instead of sell- 
 ing their provisions to British soldiers, they dis- 
 tressed them by shooting down stragglers and 
 messengers, and cutting off supplies from the Brit- 
 ish army. Neither Ferguson nor Cornwallis was 
 expecting serious opposition from large bodies of 
 American troops. Yet it was very difficult for the 
 British to march through such a rugged and wild 
 country. Besides, the Americans could sometimes 
 bring together considerable companies of swift 
 horsemen, who did great damage to detachments 
 of the British army. 
 
 The story of the battle of King's Mountain is 
 thus told in Irving and Fiske's " Washington and his 
 Country," pp. 423-427. Let the teacher tell the 
 story, throwing in questions when needed. 
 
 "This hostility of the patriots was a sore annoy- 
 ance to Cornwallis, depriving him of all intelligence 
 concerning the movements of Ferguson, whose ar- 
 
272 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 rival he was anxiously awaiting. That doughtj 
 partisan officer was on his way to join Cornwallis 
 when a chance for a signal exploit presented itself. 
 An American force under Colonel Elijah Clark, of 
 Georgia, was retreating to the mountain districts of 
 North Carolina, after an unsuccessful attack upon 
 the British post at Augusta. Ferguson resolved to 
 cut off their retreat. Turning toward the moun- 
 tains, he made his way through a rugged wilderness 
 and took post at Gilbert-town, a small frontier vil- 
 lage of log houses. He was encouraged to this step 
 by the persuasion that there was no force in that 
 part of the country able to look him in the face. He 
 had no idea that the behavior of his followers had 
 arrayed the very wilderness against him. (What sort 
 of treatment had the patriots in the South received 
 at the hands of the British ?) The scattered inhab- 
 itants of the mountains assembled without noise or 
 warning; a hardy race, half huntsmen, half herds- 
 men, inhabiting deep, narrow valleys and fertile 
 slopes, adapted to grazing, watered by the coldest of 
 springs and brightest of streams, and embosomed in 
 mighty forest trees. Being subject to inroads and 
 surprisals from the Indians, a tacit league existed 
 among them for mutual defence, and it only needed, 
 as in the present instance, an alarm to be circulated 
 through their settlements by swift messengers to 
 bring them at once to the point of danger. (Against 
 what Indians had the early settlers of this region 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 2/3 
 
 fought ?) Now from the upland regions of Kentucky, 
 Virginia, Tennessee, and the Carolinas these bold 
 backwoodsmen assembled to the number of three 
 thousand, led by their militia colonels, Campbell, 
 Shelby, Williams, Cleveland, McDowell, and Sevier. 
 
 "Threatened by a force so superior in numbers 
 and fierce in hostility, Ferguson remembered the 
 instructions of Cornwallis, and breaking up his 
 quarters he pushed for the British army, sending 
 messengers ahead to apprise his lordship of the 
 danger. Unfortunately for him, his missives were 
 intercepted. (What might Cornwallis have done to 
 help Ferguson.?) 
 
 " Gilbert-town had not long been vacated by Fer- 
 guson and his troops when the motley host of moun- 
 taineers thronged in. The greater part were on 
 horseback. Some were in homespun garb, but the 
 most part in hunting shirts, occasionally decorated 
 with colored fringe and tassels. Each man had his 
 long rifle and hunting-knife, his wallet, or knapsack, 
 and blanket, and either a buck's tail or sprig of 
 evergreen in his hat. Here and there an officer 
 appeared in the continental uniform of blue and 
 buff, but most preferred the half-Indian hunting 
 dress. There was neither tent nor equipage, neither 
 baggage nor wagon, to encumber the movements of 
 that extemporaneous host. Prompt warriors of the 
 wilderness, with them it was 'Seize the weapon — 
 spring into the saddle — and away ! ' In going into 
 
274 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 action, it was their practice to dismount and tie their 
 horses, so as to have them at hand for use. after 
 battle, either to pursue a flying enemy or make their 
 own escape by dint of hoof. 
 
 " There was a clamor of tongues for a time at Gil- 
 bert-town ; groups on horseback and foot in every 
 part, holding hasty council. Being told that Fer- 
 guson had retreated by the Cherokee road toward 
 North Carolina, about nine hundred of the hardiest 
 and best mounted set out in urgent pursuit, leaving 
 those who were on foot, or weakly mounted, to fol- 
 low as fast as possible. Colonel William Campbell, 
 of Virginia, having come from the greatest distance, 
 was allowed to have command of the whole party; 
 but there was not much order or subordination. 
 Each colonel led his own men in his own way. A 
 rapid and irregular march was kept up all night in 
 murky darkness and through a heavy rain. About 
 daybreak they crossed Broad River, where an attack 
 was apprehended. Not finding the enemy, they 
 halted, lit their fires, made their morning's meal, 
 and took a brief repose. By nine o'clock they were 
 again on the march. The rainy night had been 
 succeeded by a bright October morning, and all 
 were in high spirits. Ferguson, they learned, had 
 taken the road toward King's Mountain, about 
 twelve miles distant. When within three miles of 
 it, their scouts brought in word that he had taken 
 post on its summit. The officers now held a short 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 275 
 
 consultation on horseback, and then proceeded. 
 The position taken by Ferguson was a strong one. 
 King's Mountain rises out of a broken country, and 
 is detached, on the north, from inferior heights by a 
 deep valley, so as to resemble an insulated promon- 
 tory about half a mile in length, with sloping sides 
 excepting on the north. The Mountain was covered 
 for the most part with lofty forest trees, free from 
 underwood, interspersed with boulders and masses 
 of gray rock. The forest was sufficiently open to 
 give free passage to horsemen. As the Americans 
 drew nearer, they could occasionally, through open- 
 ings of the woodland, descry the glittering of arms 
 along a level ridge, forming the crest of King's 
 Mountain. This Ferguson had made his strong- 
 hold, boasting that 'if all the rebels out of hell 
 should attack him, they could not drive him from 
 it.' (Why was this a strong position for Ferguson's 
 army } How could the Americans best manage the 
 attack ?) 
 
 " Dismounting at a small stream which runs 
 through a ravine, the Americans picketed their 
 horses, or tied them to the branches of the trees, and 
 gave them in charge of a small guard. They then 
 formed themselves into three divisions of nearly 
 equal size, and prepared to storm the heights on three 
 sides. Campbell, seconded by Shelby, was to lead 
 the centre division ; Sevier with McDowell, the right ; 
 and Cleveland and Williams, the left. 
 
276 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 " The divisions were to scale the mountain as nearly 
 as possible at the same time. The fighting directions 
 were in frontier style. When once in , action, every 
 one must act for himself. The men were not to wait 
 for the word of command, but to take good aim and 
 fire as fast as possible. When they could no longer 
 hold their ground, they were to get behind trees, or 
 retreat a little, and return to the fight, but never to 
 go quite off. 
 
 " Campbell allowed time for the flanking divisions 
 to move to the right and left along the base of the 
 mountain, and take their proper distances; he then 
 pushed up in front with the centre division. About 
 four o'clock Campbell arrived within rifle distance of 
 the crest of the mountain, whence a sheeted fire of mus- 
 ketry was opened upon him. He instantly deployed 
 his men, posted them behind trees, and returned the 
 fire with deadly effect. Ferguson, exasperated at 
 being thus hunted into this mountain fastness, had 
 been chafing in his rocky lair and meditating a furi- 
 ous sally. He now rushed out with his regulars, 
 made an impetuous charge with the bayonet, and 
 dislodging his assailants from their coverts, began to 
 drive them down the mountain. He had not pro- 
 ceeded far, when a flanking fire was opened by one 
 of the other divisions ; facing about and attacking 
 this he was again successful, when a third fire was 
 opened from another quarter. Thus, as fast as one 
 division gave way before the bayonet, another came 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 277 
 
 to its relief; while those who had given way rallied 
 and returned to the charge. (Do you think Ferguson 
 could have planned his part of the battle better?) 
 The nature of the ground was more favorable to the 
 rifle than the bayonet, and this was a kind of warfare 
 in which the frontier men were at home. The ele- 
 vated position of the enemy also was in favor of the 
 Americans, as it secured them from the danger of 
 their own crossrfire. Ferguson found that he was 
 completely in the hunters' toils, beset on every side ; 
 but he stood bravely at bay, until the ground around 
 him was strewed with the killed and wounded, picked 
 off by the fatal rifle. His men were at length broken, 
 and retreated in confusion along the ridge. He gal- 
 loped from place to place endeavoring to rally them, 
 when a rifle ball brought him to the ground, and his 
 white horse was seen careering down the mountain 
 without a rider. (Could Ferguson with his men have 
 broken through the ranks of the Americans on one 
 side and have escaped .■•) 
 
 " This closed the bloody fight ; Ferguson's second 
 in command, seeing all further resistance hopeless, 
 hoisted a white flag, beat a parley, and surrendered 
 at discretion. One hundred and fifty of the enemy 
 had fallen, and as many been wounded; while of the 
 Americans, but twenty were killed, though a con- 
 siderable number were wounded. (Why, do you 
 think, had the British suffered more in killed and 
 wounded than the Americans .') Among those slain 
 
278 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 was Colonel James Williams, who had commanded 
 the troops of Ninety-six, and proved himself one of 
 the most daring of the partisan leaders. 
 
 " Eight hundred and ten men were taken pris- 
 oners, one hundred of whom were British regulars, 
 the rest loyalists. The rancor awakened by civil war 
 was shown in the treatment of some of the prisoners. 
 A court-martial was held the day after the battle, and 
 a number of Tory prisoners, who had been bitter in 
 their hostility to the American cause, and flagitious in 
 their persecution of their countrymen, were hanged. 
 This was to revenge the death of American prisoners 
 hanged at Camden and elsewhere. (Would you 
 expect the backwoodsmen to follow up this victory 
 by marching against Cornwallis .'') 
 
 " The army of mountaineers and frontiersmen, thus 
 fortuitously congregated, did not attempt to follow 
 up their signal blow. They had no general scheme, 
 no plan of campaign ; it was the spontaneous rising 
 of the sons of the soil, to revenge it on its invaders, 
 and, having effected their purpose, they returned in 
 triumph to their homes. They were little aware of 
 the importance of their achievement. 
 
 "The battle of King's Mountain, inconsiderable 
 as it was in the numbers engaged, turned the tide of 
 southern warfare. The destruction of Ferguson and 
 his corps gave a complete check to the expedition 
 of Cornwallis. He began to fear for the safety of 
 South Carolina, liable to such sudden irruptions from 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 279 
 
 the mountains ; lest while he was facing to the north 
 these hordes of stark-riding warriors might throw 
 themselves behind him, and produce a popular com- 
 bustion in the province he had left. He resolved, 
 therefore, to return with all speed to that province 
 and provide for its security." 
 
 Third Step. — (The class is supposed to have had 
 earlier in their history study a complete account of 
 Burgoyne's invasion, including the battle of Ben- 
 nington. Recall Burgoyne's invasion and the events 
 which led up to the battle of Bennington.) 
 
 The battle of King's Mountain at the South sug- 
 gests the earlier battle of Bennington at the North. 
 Under what circumstances did Burgoyne send Baum 
 on the raid against Bennington .-• How did Baum 
 prepare to meet the attack of the Americans ? Bur- 
 goyne, after scattering St. Clair's army, followed up 
 his victory with sending Baum on a foraging march 
 toward Bennington. ' Compare this with Cornwallis 
 after Camden. 
 
 Colonel John Stark and his Green Mountain boys 
 assembled voluntarily at Bennington to repel invaders. 
 Compare these with the backwoodsmen of Carolina 
 and Tennessee who assembled under the six colonels 
 at King's Mountain. The Tories and Indians at the 
 North had exasperated the country people by cruel- 
 ties. How had the Tories and British treated the 
 patriots at the South t Baum took a strong position 
 on a hill and awaited the attack of the Americans, 
 
280 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Ferguson at King's Mountain did likewise. Stark 
 divided his army into three divisions and attacked on 
 three sides at once. In both battles the militia at- 
 tacked the British in a strong position and either 
 killed or captured the whole body. The British 
 leader was also killed or mortally wounded in each 
 battle. 
 
 What was the result of each of these battles in its 
 effects upon the movements of the principal armies f 
 There were also certain points of difference worth 
 noticing. At Bennington two battles were fought on 
 the same day. At Bennington there were two leaders 
 of the Americans ; at King's Mountain, six, but they 
 were not regularly appointed officers in either case. 
 
 Fourth Step. — As a result of this comparison we 
 find a remarkable similarity even in the lesser details 
 of these two battles, so far distant in place and time. 
 Although they were small battles and insignificant in 
 the number of troops engaged, yet they were very 
 important in their influence upon two important cam- 
 paigns. And what is also of much importance, they 
 throw much light upon the spirit which the common 
 people exhibited during the Revolutionary War. 
 
 At a time of great discouragement the people 
 themselves, under their own neighborhood leaders, 
 collect in large numbers, with such arms and equip- 
 ments as they bring from their own homes, and attack 
 and capture veteran troops in strong positions. In 
 this respect exactly the same spirit and energy of 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 28 1 
 
 character are shown by the backwoodsmen of Ten- 
 nessee, Carolina, and Virginia as by the Green 
 Mountain recruits and Yankee militia. 
 
 The common people, therefore, out of their own 
 love of liberty, and on account of their great courage 
 and energy, contributed much to the success of the 
 Revolutionary War. 
 
 Fifth Step} — Other battles of the Revolution may 
 be called up and measured upon this standard of 
 energy and patriotism as shown by the rank and file 
 of troops. Take, for example, Bunker Hill, Stony 
 Point, The Cowpens, Saratoga, and others. It is 
 sometimes said that a few men, especially Washing- 
 ton, bore the burden of the war. How far were the 
 spirit and energy of the common people responsible 
 for the final success .' Later in our history, both in 
 time of war and in the enterprises of peace, the 
 striking characteristics of the common people should 
 be studied and their influence upon important events 
 and movements observed and compared with earlier 
 manifestations of the popular will. -^ 
 
 This idea can be carried over also into the arena 
 of political and social reform. 
 
 1 The early colonial history abounds in illustrations of this popular 
 energy as shown in Indian wars and in resistance to the tyranny of 
 royal governors. 
 
282 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Parable of the Tares 
 
 Matthew xiii. 24-31 
 
 Several generalizations are suggested and a few 
 are plainly taught by this parable. The tares were 
 sown in the night, when people were asleep; so 
 wicked thoughts are sown when people are spirit- 
 ually asleep. The tares have an injurious influence 
 upon the good grain; so bad thoughts and actions 
 exert an injurious influence upon good thoughts and 
 actions. When harvest time comes, the different 
 growths shall be judged by the fruits that they bear, 
 and hence, " By their fruits ye shall know them." 
 The householder seems patient in allowing the weeds 
 to stand; so God seems patient with the wicked 
 people. The notes ordinarily furnished in connec-_ 
 tion with this parable state that the tares are a poi- 
 sonous weed; so bad thoughts and actions act like 
 poison in our lives. 
 
 These are all truths, however, that, while sug- 
 gested by the parable, do not express the essence of 
 its thought. They are really subordinate thoughts, 
 and should better be neglected than receive much 
 attention. The plainest truth involved is that a sure 
 reward awaits the good and a sure punishment the 
 evil. And that is the thought that Christ himself 
 presents when he is called upon by the apostles to 
 interpret the parable. However, many a teacher 
 will feel convinced that there is another truth fully 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 283 
 
 involved in the story, by means of which more in- 
 fluence can be exerted upon the child than by this 
 one just named. That is presented through the fact 
 that the householder commands his servants to let 
 the tares stand with the wheat, because the ser- 
 vants cannot remove the one without injuring the 
 other. This, interpreted, means that in this world, 
 though we would often like to banish evil from 
 among us, we do not know enough to separate it 
 from the good, and if we attempted to do so we 
 should make an abundance of mistakes. Hence, we 
 should let both grow together until the harvest, or 
 until the end of the world ; and we should not at- 
 tempt to judge and condemn people, thinking that 
 we see clearly what is good in them and what is 
 bad. The generalization, tersely stated, would be, 
 " Judge not, that ye be not judged." This is the one 
 chosen to be presented here according to the five 
 Formal Steps. The children are thought of as be- 
 ing at least ten years of age, and perhaps somewhat 
 older. The majority of the questions following, al- 
 though not all, could be given to ten-year-old chil- 
 dren. 
 
 Aim. — Let us see what Christ meant by his story 
 about removing weeds from the wheat. 
 
 I. Have you found weeds in a garden of your own .' 
 How were they gotten rid of .? Why is that so nec- 
 essary } Is there any danger to the other plants in 
 so doing } Have you seen weeds growing in grain in 
 
284 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 the country ? Where ? In what grains ? Is it more 
 or less dangerous to remove weeds from wheat than 
 from your flowers or vegetables in the garden ? Why ? 
 What, then, does the farmer do with them ? 
 
 2 a. Now let us listen to the story that Christ told 
 about removing weeds from the wheat. That was 
 in Palestine, and the particular weeds he mentioned 
 are called tares. They are said to look very much 
 like wheat. (Read Matthew xiii. 24-31.) (If time 
 allows, at least a portion of this parable could be 
 developed instead of read.) The children, after 
 hearing or reading the parable, relate the same prob- 
 ably two or three times, in order to see clearly the 
 concrete situation. Proceeding, we say, Why, then, 
 were the servants not allowed to pull up the tares ? 
 The chief answer is that in so doing they would root 
 up the wheat, because the tares stand so close to 
 the wheat that one could not be pulled up without 
 injury to the other. 
 
 2 b. Christ's disciples hardly knew what he meant 
 by this story, and they asked him about it. Do you 
 think you can possibly tell what is meant .' Let us 
 see. He says that a man having a field of grain may 
 be compared with the kingdom of Heaven. If so, 
 whom might the sower represent.' Answer — Christ. 
 And what would the field be.' Answer — the world. 
 Who would be meant by the good seed ? Who by 
 the tares ? When will the harvest be ? Who are the 
 reapers .'' 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 285 
 
 3. Are there many tares or wicked people in the 
 world? Give examples, as thieves, murderers, etc. 
 Those servants thought it would be wise to separate 
 the tares from the wheat and gather them up ; have 
 you ever had the same feeling about the bad people 
 in the world ? Have you wanted to do away with 
 the evil and leave only the good ? Well, now, sup- 
 pose you were allowed to separate the good from 
 the bad; if this permission were given you, how 
 would you go at it ? (i) On which side, the good or 
 the bad, would you place Jacob ? You remember he 
 deceived his aged father. (2) What would you do 
 with Moses } Remember that he killed a man. How 
 did God regard him ? (3) On which side would you 
 place Mary Magdalene.' What did Christ think of 
 her ? (4) Where would you place the Prodigal Son .' 
 (5) Would you regard Judas as belonging among the 
 wheat or the tares .' You remember he was one of 
 the disciples, and was trusted by them, although he 
 betrayed Christ later. (6) What would you do with 
 the brother of the Prodigal Son ? He stayed at home 
 and worked. (7) What would you do with your 
 friends and acquaintances ? Why are you confused 
 in these cases.? Once more. Why would not the 
 householder allow his servants to pull up the tares ? 
 Answer, They were too near the wheat stalks and 
 too much like them to be separated from them. Does 
 that help you any here ? How .' Answer, (i) The 
 evil is so near the good that they are both found in 
 
286 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 one person ; (2) The . good and bad often appear so 
 much alike that often we are not able to tell them 
 apart. What conclusion, then, do you reach about 
 our trying to separate the good from the bad ? But 
 what if we went ahead and decided to attempt it 
 nevertheless? Wrong!! Who, then, will attend 
 finally to this separation ? Why are angels chosen 
 for it rather than men ? 
 
 4. (i) Which verse in the parable most clearly calls 
 for delay in separating the bad from the good? 
 Look them through to see. Verse 30. " Let both 
 grow together until the harvest." Are you con- 
 vinced that this applies as much to good and bad 
 people as to wheat and tares ? 
 
 (2) Do you call to mind another verse that 
 brings to mind a similar thought ? You have heard 
 it often. It begins with the word judge. Mat- 
 thew vii. I. Judge not. Let us learn these two 
 verses, then, and hereafter when the parable of 
 the tares is called for, you may state its chief 
 thought for us by these two verses. 
 
 5. (i) At the close of this talk, Christ said, 
 " Who hath ears to hear, let him hear." Why do 
 you think he said that? What did he want them 
 to hear? 
 
 (2) Is it true that people have failed in times past 
 to listen to this teaching ? What examples from history 
 show this ? St. Bartholomew's massacte, witchcraft, 
 the Jews' treatment of Christ, etc. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 28/ 
 
 (3) Have you ever been misjudged yourself ? How 
 did you feel about it ? 
 
 (4) Have you ever misjudged others ? How did 
 you feel about it then, when you discovered that you 
 had been wrong ? 
 
 (5) Have you ever really attempted to stop judg- 
 ing others so freely ? (" Who hath ears to hear, let 
 him hear.") 
 
 (6) What comforting thought do you find in this 
 lesson ? Answer, That we should not be too much 
 discouraged at seeing wickedness allowed to continue. 
 We are taught not to be too impatient over the mat- 
 ter. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 LAWS UNDERLYING PROCESSES IN TEACHING 
 
 If the leading thoughts thus far presented are true, 
 there are certain steps in instruction that are universal. 
 No matter what the study be, whether Latin, mathe- 
 matics, science, or some other, there is a certain order 
 that the mind must follow in acquiring knowledge. 
 Through the old related experiences (first step, 
 preparation) new individual notions are reached (sec- 
 ond step, presentation) ; these are compared and their 
 essential characteristics abstracted (third step, com- 
 parison), and the resulting general truth is worded 
 (fourth step, generalization) ; this generalization 
 finally receives application (fifth step, application). 
 Since these steps are passed through in this order 
 without reference to the nature of the subject-matter 
 presented, they are rightly called the Formal Steps 
 of Instruction. They indicate the order of the move- 
 ments of the mind, or of the forms through which 
 thought must pass in reaching full maturity. 
 
 Now, law is reached the moment that a certain 
 order is shown to be uniform ; for a law is nothing 
 more than a statement of a uniform sequence, and a 
 
 288 
 
LAWS OF TEACHING 289 
 
 law of teaching, the statement of a uniform sequence 
 in the process of learning. Hence, it is clear that these 
 natural or Formal Steps of Instruction simply embody 
 the laws of teaching. 
 
 I. The most prominent one, often known as the 
 law of induction and discussed particularly in Chap- 
 ter V, may be stated thus : The order of steps in the 
 acquisition of knowledge is : («) individual notions ; 
 {b) general notions. Eminent authorities on teaching 
 now generally agree upon this law, and it is stated 
 by Huxley in these words : ^ — 
 
 "The subject-matter of biological science is differ- 
 ent from that of other sciences, but the methods of 
 all are identical. 
 
 " And these methods are : — 
 
 " I . Observation of facts — including under this head 
 that artificial observation which is called experiment. 
 
 " 2. That process of tying up similar facts into 
 bundles ticketed and ready for use, which is called 
 comparison and classification, the results of the pro- 
 cess, the ticketed bundles, being named general propo- 
 sitions. 
 
 " 3. Deduction, which takes us from the general 
 proposition to facts gained — teaches us, if I may so 
 say, to anticipate from the ticket what is inside the 
 bundle. And finally, — 
 
 "4. Verification, which is the process of ascertaining 
 whether in point of fact our anticipation is a correct 
 
 °"^- 1 Lay Sermons, p. 83. 
 
290 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 " Such are the methods of all science whatsoever." 
 
 Considering 3 and 4 as belonging to step S, the 
 essential aggreement of the preceding statements 
 with this quotation is evident. It is well to ask what 
 other method there is that could better be followed 
 than this. 
 
 II. Another law discussed especially in the first 
 part of Chapter VI is commonly known as the law 
 of apperception, and may be stated in these words : 
 New thoughts can be comprehended only by the help 
 of old thoughts ; also, new emotions (and volitions) 
 are dependent both in quality and in strength upon 
 old emotions (and volitions). The same general 
 thought is expressed by Dr. W. T. Harris as fol- 
 lows : ^ — 
 
 " Inasmuch as instruction is the leading of the 
 ignorant into knowledge by translating the unknown 
 into the known, there are two factors involved : («) the 
 unknown subject ; {b) the stock of knowledge already 
 possessed by the pupil. The knowledge already 
 possessed is the means by which the unknown can 
 be grasped and retained. All learning is a trans- 
 lating of an unknown into a known, just as the 
 learning of a foreign language proceeds by trans- 
 lating the unfamiliar words into familiar words, and 
 thereby changing the strange into the familiar. This 
 being so, unless constant reference is had by the 
 teacher to the stock of familiar ideas belonging to 
 
 I Rosenkranz, " Philosophy of ^dBcation," p. 99, 
 
LAWS OF TEACHING 29I 
 
 the pupil, there is imminent danger to instruction. 
 It may pass off into the process of exchanging un- 
 known words for unknown words — a movement 
 entirely within the realm of the unfamiUar. Such 
 a process is not instruction, whatever else it may be." 
 
 III. The law of aim, discussed in Chapter VI, is 
 one practically agreed upon in daily life, but until 
 recently it has not been dignified by teachers as a 
 law affecting their instruction. Nevertheless, they 
 are coming rapidly to agree that a definite and at- 
 tractive aim is a condition of the most effective 
 work of any kind, and hence that a clear aim should 
 be daily fixed in each recitation as elsewhere. Upon 
 this point Dr. Wilhelm Rein says :^ — 
 
 " The pupil should know beforehand what is com- 
 ing if he is to bring all his powers to bear upon the 
 work of learning ; and it is easier to call out all his 
 effort if he knows beforehand what is to be gained. 
 To conduct a child along an unknown road, toward 
 an unknown object by means of questions and hints, 
 the purpose of which he does not see, to lead him on 
 imperceptibly to an unknown goal, has the disadvan- 
 tage that it develops neither a spontaneous mental 
 activity nor a clear insight into the subject. Having 
 reached the end of such a line of thought, the pupil 
 looks about himself bewildered. He cannot survey the 
 road which he has just gone over, he does not com- 
 
 .. 1 "Theorie und Praxis des Volksschulunterrichts. Das erste Schul- 
 jahr," p. 103. 
 
292 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 prehend what has happened to him. He stands at 
 the goal but does not see the relation that the result 
 bears to the labor performed. He does not rise to 
 that satisfactory mental activity and favorable disposi- 
 tion of mind which are stimulated by the pursuit of 
 a clearly set purpose." 
 
 IV. The law of self-activity has been insisted upon 
 by all great educators in modem times, particularly, 
 however, by Froebel. It may be briefly stated thus : 
 proper development is possible only through a high 
 degree of self-activity. The law was discussed espe- 
 cially in reference to the development method of teach- 
 ing in the latter part of Chapter VI. Herbert 
 Spencer's opinion is shown in the following quota- 
 tion ^ — 
 
 " In education the process of self-development 
 should be encouraged to the fullest extent. Children 
 should be led to make their own investigations and to 
 draw their own inferences. They should be told as 
 little as possible, and induced to discover as much as 
 possible. Humanity has progressed solely by self- 
 instruction, and that to achieve the best results each 
 mind must progress somewhat after the same fashion, 
 is continually proved by the marked success of self- 
 made men." 
 
 As indicated in connection with the discussion of the 
 text-book method, there is abundant room for improve- 
 ment in the application of this law. 
 
 ^ Herbert Spencer, Chapter 11, in « Education." 
 
LAWS OF TEACHING 293 
 
 V. The law of absorption and reflection was briefly 
 discussed in the latter part of Chapter VI. Accord- 
 ing to it, absorption in details and reflection in regard 
 to them, regularly alternate in effective thinking. 
 Herbart's own words are as follows : ^ — 
 
 " Absorption and reflection, like a mental breathing, 
 should continually alternate with each other. Absorp- 
 tion takes place when ideas are brought to conscious- 
 ness one after another with proper clearness and 
 accuracy; reflection takes place when they are col- 
 lected and combined. The more fully and carefully 
 these operations are provided for, the more effective 
 proves the instruction." 
 
 Any good instructor unconsciously applies this 
 law when he stops to summarize and take a bird's-eye 
 view of ground covered, ranking the facts according 
 to their relative worth. 
 
 VI. In Chapter VI the importance of physical 
 action, or motor activity, was urged, and it was prac- 
 tically declared to be a law that ideas must find 
 expression, must be reahzed in action, before they can 
 be conceived with the greatest clearness and accuracy. 
 The kindergarten, especially, has always stood for 
 this thought ; in its plan of study more time each day 
 is devoted to carrying out ideas into action than to 
 the presentation of the ideas themselves — a practice 
 that has been by no means characteristic of instruction 
 above the kindergarten. But in recent years several 
 
 » Herbart, " Paedagogische Schriften," I, p. 4IJ. 
 
294 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 distinguished psychologists and educators have de- 
 clared themselves in favor of accepting this statement 
 as a law, and its marked influence on education in the 
 near future seems certain. 
 
 VII-VIII. Other possible laws have been occasion- 
 ally referred to in the preceding pages, but they are 
 not here enumerated, either because of some doubt 
 as to their universality, or because they are commonly 
 thought of as affecting rather the selection and arrange- 
 ment of subject-matter in studies than its method of 
 presentation in the class room. Two of these are 
 known as the laws of interest and of correlation. Ac- 
 cording to the former a deep interest must be aroused 
 in thoughts before they can exert the strongest in- 
 fluence upon mental life and character ; according to 
 the latter, the ultimate value of facts depends as well 
 upon the number and closeness of relations into which 
 they enter as upon the clearness and accuracy with 
 which they are conceived. 
 
 The law of interest expresses one great condition 
 of effective instruction ; it makes a demand that the 
 teaching accomplish a certain end, but does not itself 
 give any hint as to how this end can be attained. It 
 affects first of all the selection of subject-matter, but 
 furnishes a daily test of method as well, by requiring 
 that there be a healthy stimulation of the emotions as 
 well as of the intellect in all instruction. The law of 
 correlation was involved in the insistence (in Chapter 
 VI) upon a close sequence in the facts of a lesson, in 
 
LAWS OF TEACHING 29S 
 
 the demand that they be arranged in a series or net- 
 work, and that even the teacher's questions reveal a 
 close connection. 
 
 Both of these laws, therefore, have a direct influence 
 upon method, although not Umited to that field. 
 
 Undoubtedly there are other laws of teaching be- 
 sides the eight that are here mentioned, but these are 
 at least some of the broadest and most important 
 The law of apperception alone includes and interprets 
 most of the so-called principles of teaching that have 
 often been mentioned in times past; for example, 
 from the near to the remote ; from the simple to the 
 complex; from the easy to the difficult; from the 
 whole to the parts. These sayings are sometimes 
 true, sometimes not. The law of apperception is 
 deeper than they and shows where they are appli- 
 cable. 
 
 These eight laws should be guides to the teacher in 
 the fullest sense. It would scarcely be possible to 
 conduct a single thirty-minute recitation without ap- 
 plying all of them several times, with the possible 
 exception of the law of induction. 
 
 Thus we see a most intimate connection between 
 theory and practice when skilful instruction is im- 
 parted. The fact that these are general laws and not 
 specific devices prevents them from cramping the 
 teacher's freedom and individuality, for a general law 
 is always capable of infinite variety in application. 
 
 Jo the extent that laws of instruction are developed 
 
2g6 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 and brought into a system, there is a science of 
 method ; consequently these eight laws being as 
 deep and broad as they are, and being intimately re- 
 lated to one another, furnish a fair basis for the asser- 
 tion that there is a scientific method of teaching. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 
 
 The relation of the Formal Steps to text-books is 
 important, for our text-books are a fair index of our 
 methods of class-room work, and the standard set up 
 and generally recognized as attainable is that of the 
 better class of such books. So indispensable are 
 they in our prevailing methods of instruction that any 
 plan which ignores them will be regarded as vision- 
 ary. It is, therefore, quite important to see clearly 
 the relation of the formal steps to the use of text- 
 books. 
 
 First let us see the chief utility of these books, vaiueoftext- 
 They indicate what knowledge is regarded of most *'°°''^- 
 value to children, in what order and connection it 
 should be studied, and in a broad, yet definite way 
 the method by which it shall be acquired. The value 
 of text-books lies in their helpfulness to teachers and 
 pupils Containing, as they often do, the results of 
 ripest experience in able teachers, they embody such 
 a selection and arrangement of leading topics, such a 
 correct statement of truths as every teacher needs. 
 They give to both instructor and pupil that syste- 
 matic body of thought which forms the framework of 
 
 297 
 
298 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 each study. As the text-books, like arithmetic, are 
 worked out by different teachers, gradually a con- 
 sensus of opinion settles upon a definite body of 
 knowledge, which becomes the recognized standard 
 in that subject. 
 
 The advantage of such well-established, authorita- 
 tive text-books is seen, by contrast, in the absence of 
 such standards. When the teacher has no such text- 
 book, and no well-arranged body of knowledge of 
 his own to take the place of it, he has no coherent 
 method of procedure, and the work is a failure. 
 
 Moreover, text-books are regarded not only as an 
 indispensable help and guide for teachers, but also 
 as the chief instrument by which pupils can be 
 brought to their tasks, to the mastery of their own 
 difficulties. For seat-work and for home-study the 
 text-books are indispensable. In the hfe of most 
 pupils the text-books play an important r61e. In the 
 schools as they are, it is largely the business of 
 teachers to assign lessons and to hear them recited, 
 and of pupils to learn lessons 'and reproduce them. 
 So universal is this dependence upon text-books that 
 most of our teachers would be at a loss to know what 
 to do without them. A very important fact to be 
 remembered is that most of our teachers have had 
 no special preparation for teaching. 
 
 The text-books are essentially deductive and dog- 
 matic in presenting truth ; the five formal steps are 
 expressly inductive. The distinction between these 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 299 
 
 two methods is not absolute, but relative, for text- 
 books commonly have a sprinkling of inductive pro- 
 cesses, while the formal steps at one point (the fifth 
 step) lay great stress upon deductive thinking. 
 
 Moreover, the inductive method of acquiring knowl- 
 edge is one that cannot be reduced easily to text- 
 book form. We have, indeed, text-books in Latin, 
 history, and language, which assume to follow an 
 inductive process, yet it is a method which, while it 
 can be illustrated, cannot be fully carried out in a 
 text-book. Such a method worked out in full would 
 make our text-books as big as dictionaries, and so the 
 teacher, in most topics, must be left largely to his 
 own resources in working it out. The Socratic Dia- 
 logues of Plato, with their elaborate inductions, are 
 examples of the detail with which a single truth is 
 worked out. But the inductive method requires 
 relatively few such elaborately treated subjects. It 
 assumes that the teacher has originality and thinking 
 power, and is not simply an instructor by rote or by 
 imitation. 
 
 It is, therefore, in the first, second, and third steps 
 that the inductive treatment of topics is clearly 
 distinguished from the usual dogmatic form of our 
 text-books. In detail these characteristics of the in- 
 ductive method may be briefly stated as follows : — 
 
 I. It sifts out, brings together, and focusses upon 
 the new topic those familiar experiences of the chil- 
 dren which have significant relations to that topic. 
 
300 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 2. It lays greater stress upon the clear and even 
 graphic presentation of the concrete facts. It not 
 only enlarges the descriptive detail upon any given 
 object, but it multiplies examples of the same truth 
 before leaping forward to general conclusions. The 
 teacher needs a much larger accumulation of con- 
 crete data than the book supplies, and a definite skill 
 in handling it. 
 
 3. The pupils are called upon to do more think- 
 ing, to trace out and explain causal relations, to raise 
 questions themselves and interpret facts by their rela- 
 tions, as this larger material accumulates. 
 
 4. Definite comparisons are set up and the points 
 of resemblance and difference, upon which laws and 
 classifications are based, are clearly made out. The 
 outcome of such comparisons is an index finger point- 
 ing toward a general truth. The text-books are 
 chiefly blank on these pages. They, with overween- 
 ing kindness, sum up the whole matter (often before 
 there is much to be summed up in the minds of the 
 children) and give the final result, but do not point 
 out the long route travelled over to attain the result. 
 
 5. The stimulus which keeps the children alert in 
 this self-active thought movement is the aim set up, 
 the question, whose answer is eagerly sought by the 
 children. Every lesson should work toward the 
 solution of some definite problem, and the concrete 
 data are collected and examined for the purpose of 
 finding this solution. 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 3OI 
 
 The entire inductive process, with its pursuit of 
 clear aims and movement toward general truths, sug- 
 gests the notion of large lesson units, which are 
 important enough to deserve a liberal treatment 
 through all the essential steps of instruction. Here 
 we are compelled to register a second strong contrast 
 of the formal steps, as a method of instruction, to the 
 method of the usual text-books. 
 
 The subject-matter of each study, viewed from the 
 standpoint of the formal steps, should consist of large 
 lesson units or groupings of facts, in each of which 
 groups some single idea dominates. This idea or 
 central truth (embodied at first in some particular or 
 concrete form) is to be worked out in a lesson unity 
 to completeness and seen in sufficient variety of cases 
 to warrant a general statement. In the discussion of 
 types, we found striking illustrations of the collection 
 of facts and of the centring of thought around a few 
 of these important truths. In the text-books the 
 general truths involved in these lesson unities are pres- 
 ent, but their superior worth and rank are obscured 
 in several ways. Side by side with them stand a 
 multitude of other facts or truths of far less real 
 value, but apparently of equal rank. These im- 
 portant truths of the subject stand disguised as 
 common soldiers when they ought to be uniformed 
 as officers and moving at the head of whole bat- 
 talions. In other words, the text-books distribute 
 their force nearly equally over a very large area of 
 
302 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 facts and truths without much regard to perspective 
 or relative value of the facts presented, not centring 
 suificiently upon the more imp.ortant ideas. 
 
 The formal steps call for the exhaustive inductive 
 treatment of a few important truths in any study. 
 This inductive process of the five steps is far too 
 elaborate a piece of method machinery with which to 
 attack the multitude of truths, little and big, with 
 which our text-books are crowded. If our wheat- 
 fields were fenced off into a multitude of quarter-acre 
 lots, it would hardly pay to apply the elaborate 
 machinery of a reaper and self-binder to each one. 
 The fields should be large enough to make the use of 
 that kind of machinery most efficient ; and so in the 
 studies. 
 
 Having observed these points of contrast the prac- 
 tical question is this : Can text-book methods of in- 
 struction be improved by modifying them in conformity 
 to the principles of the formal steps ? The answer is 
 that they can be so improved. In reviewing the 
 situation as stated above, we find that the primary 
 difficulty, for which no single teacher is responsible, 
 is the fact that the subject-matter is not arranged into 
 suitable lesson unities. The number of topics is too 
 great to admit of proper treatment. But for the 
 thoughtful teacher there is a remedy for these faults 
 which still admits of a liberal use of the text-books. 
 The teacher needs to survey the text-book material 
 judiciously, cull out the more important truths that 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 363 
 
 deserve full treatment, and bring the secondary and 
 minor facts into relation to these central points. If 
 necessary, omit some of the less important topics and 
 thus gain time to collect, from other sources, the con- 
 crete examples needed for developing the leading 
 general truths. One of the most important conclu- 
 sions from our entire discussion is that any topic to be 
 worked over by the formal steps must be important and 
 typical enough to receive a full treatment leading up 
 to the unfolding and application of a general truth. 
 
 In any case a clear grasp of the simple principles 
 of the formal steps cannot fail to show the teacher 
 how to put new life into text-book material. Any 
 teacher who constantly draws from the children's 
 home experience, from his own reading and larger 
 observation, who sets up clear aims in the class room, 
 and encourages children to the thoughtful working 
 out of their own problems, is working both induc- 
 tively and deductively. 
 
 It is evident from the entire discussion that any 
 sudden revolution of our methods of teaching by in- 
 troducing systematically the principles of the induc- 
 tive-deductive process is not looked for. It is a labor 
 of educating teachers out of traditional into rational 
 methods. Wherever teachers in training classes, 
 in normal schools and in teachers' colleges, in insti- 
 tutes, and in any meetings for careful discussion, are 
 searching for the simple elements of method, the 
 inductive process of developing general truths and 
 
304 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 applying them will give them a clear insight into the 
 fundamental law of good instruction. 
 
 From the pupil's standpoint this sets up every- 
 where the problem of self-realization. What he 
 needs is a chance to think and apply the truths 
 which make up the usual text-book, an opportunity 
 to develop and organize them into a body of related 
 knowledge. This is, in fact, exactly what is accom- 
 plished in classes where a skilful teacher works in- 
 ductively. The summaries and conclusions arrived 
 at in class instruction, all systematically entered in 
 the student's note-book, become a skeleton outhne 
 of the subject similar to that of a text-book. 
 
 Text-books are always in place when used to re- 
 view and summarize ideas that have been well de- 
 veloped in instruction. 
 
 The text-book is also indispensable as an outline 
 of the subject taught. The children need such an 
 outline, not only for the purpose of guiding them 
 into definite and systematic courses, but also to help 
 out the irregularities of school work. Pupils who are 
 absent often need such a text-book to find out the 
 work accomplished and as a means of recovering the 
 ground lost. 
 Are these In trying to lay down uniform principles of 
 
 enough?' ^ method the question naturally arises whether there 
 can be one method flexible enough to apply to all 
 studies and to children of different ages. Teachers 
 are prone to think that such a single method must 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 30$ 
 
 produce a dull uniformity in the treatment of all 
 studies. On the contrary, we claim that the laws 
 of teaching embodied in the formal steps lead natu- 
 rally to a great variety in the recitation work in 
 different studies. Perhaps the chief reason for this 
 is found in the diversity of general truths or laws 
 worked out in arithmetic, history, geography, etc., 
 and in the wide variety of concrete materials out 
 of which these truths are developed. An examina- 
 tion of the processes of treating these contrasted 
 topics in different studies will show how great is 
 the variety in method coupled with uniformity in 
 fundamental principles. 
 
 In geography for example, in such topics as Min- 
 neapolis as a trade centre, irrigation in the West, 
 a coal mine, the Rhine River, cotton raising in the 
 South, etc., the chief burden of work is met in the 
 first and second steps, where each topic is fully dis- 
 cussed and reproduced by the children. On the 
 other hand, the general truth which is developed in 
 the third and fourth steps can be derived quickly, 
 requiring only a small portion, relatively, of the reci- 
 tation time. The fifth step may be briefly handled, 
 or brought in by comparison in discussing later 
 topics. 
 
 This emphasis of the second step in geography 
 calls for a definite kind of knowledge and skill. The 
 teacher must know the full concrete details of his 
 subject and be able to present them in a graphic 
 
306 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 way. In primary, intermediate, and even in gram- 
 mar grades this abundance of interesting material 
 is peculiarly appropriate to the mental condition of 
 the children and brings into full action the senses 
 and the imagination. 
 
 What has just been said of geography is largely 
 true of history. In the history lessons of intermedi- 
 ate and grammar grades there is great need for ful- 
 ness of biographical particulars and much dramatic 
 and picturesque narrative. In contrast with this re- 
 quirement our text-books are filled up with general 
 statements, important enough in themselves, but not 
 understood for lack of background and detail color- 
 ing. In history, therefore, as in geography, the for- 
 mal steps point out the exact spot where the greatest 
 improvement is now called for ; namely, in the largely 
 increasing amount of personal, individual, narrative 
 material, which should be introduced to give keener 
 relish and clearer understanding of historical or geo- 
 graphical truths. For younger children in their first 
 approaches to history, simple and interesting biog- 
 raphies are strikingly suited. The reasonableness of 
 this demand for historical biographies is so generally 
 felt that many of the recent books introductory to his- 
 tory have made this idea the basis of their treatment. 
 
 In history the time given to comparisons and to 
 the formal statement of general truths is relatively 
 brief, as in geography. This is illustrated in the 
 lessons on King's Mountain, In Unity is Strength, 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 3O7 
 
 The Settlement at Plymouth, Burgoyne's Invasion, 
 The Invention of the Cotton Gin, etc. Indeed, it 
 may be said that any geographical or historical topic 
 which has been fully worked over in the first and 
 second steps will lead up quickly to a clear under- 
 standing of important general truths. No great 
 amount of time, then, need be spent on the third 
 or fourth steps. 
 
 A third study which may be classed with those just 
 mentioned is natural science. In this, also, the first 
 and second steps largely predominate and absorb 
 most of the recitation time. Here, again, the general 
 truths arrived at in the third and fourth steps may be 
 briefly stated. But the process of treating a science 
 topic in the first and second steps is quite distinct from 
 that in geography and history. In natural science 
 lessons the children are in the presence of the objects 
 of study, and must learn to observe and scrutinize the 
 facts. The skill required of the teacher is not that of 
 graphic description or narrative, but that of guiding 
 the children to a close observation, description, and 
 inference. This is illustrated by the lessons on the 
 milkweed butterfly, where the children observe the 
 outdoor life of butterflies, collect specimens, examine, 
 compare, and draw conclusions as to butterfly hfe. 
 
 These three studies, therefore, — natural science, 
 geography, and history, — while they agree in giving a 
 strong emphasis to the second step, present a striking 
 variety in the method of treatment suited to the 
 
308 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 peculiar materials of each study. They harmonize 
 also in abbreviating the third, fourth, and fifth steps ; 
 and yet the general truths formulated and applied in 
 the fourth and fifth steps are so widely divergent that 
 a free inventiveness and originality on the teacher's 
 part are always appropriate. The formal steps lay 
 no clamp upon the teacher. 
 
 In arithmetic our present methods of teaching 
 place great emphasis upon the fourth and fifth steps, 
 i.e. upon the statement and application of rules. 
 Generally speaking, neither text-books nor teachers 
 spend much time in the inductive solution of problems 
 before stating the rule. Perhaps nine-tenths of the 
 time of arithmetic recitations is consumed in learn- 
 ing and applying the rules. In arithmetic we have, 
 therefore, in present practice, the exact opposite of 
 what we have described in geography, history, and 
 natural science, and this is, in the main, defensible. 
 Even in the proper teaching of arithmetic by inductive 
 methods a much greater amount of time will be 
 spent on the fourth and fifth steps than on the first 
 and second. Our present practice in arithmetic 
 neglects the inductive approaches to rules, as every 
 experienced teacher knows. The formal steps call 
 attention to the importance of inductive processes in 
 working up to arithmetical rules. 
 
 In the study of formal grammar in the seventh and 
 eighth grades there is also a preponderance of the 
 fourth and fifth steps. The amount of language 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 309 
 
 material already collected in the experience of the 
 children makes it possible to devote the major part of 
 the pupil's time not to the acquisition of new indi- 
 vidual facts in language, but to the collection and 
 comparison of familiar facts, to the formulation of 
 general truths and their application. In developing 
 any language principle in the first and second steps 
 it is necessary to bring together familiar language 
 material, but there is no need for description or 
 narrative such as is found in geography and history. 
 ' Moreover, in both arithmetic and grammar we are 
 able to work out a somewhat complete and systematic 
 body of thought before completing the grammar 
 school. But in geography, history, and natural sci- 
 ence no such complete system is possible. As re- 
 marked above, it is necessary in these studies to 
 collect a large body of new and concrete data, and in 
 this lies a large part of the labor and interest of the 
 study. The general truths reached, while extremely 
 important, are not so numerous nor so complete and 
 systematic in statement and arrangement as in arith- 
 metic and grammar. The fact that the definitions and 
 rules of grammar and arithmetic can be definitely 
 developed out of particular data, and formulated in logi- 
 cal statements which can then be applied, makes the 
 treatment of topics in these studies (arithmetic and 
 grammar) almost perfect illustrations of the inductive- 
 deductive method of instruction. 
 
 In reading lessons a close analysis is necessary to 
 
3IO METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 show the definite application of the formal steps. 
 Reading has two phases. On the one side is learning 
 how to read, first by mastering the symbols in primary 
 grades, and second by drill in easy, natural oral ex- 
 pression in all the grades. On the other hand, reading 
 means learning to appreciate and interpret the thought 
 content of the lessons, the ideas, experiences, and 
 truths embodied in the best reading matter. In short, 
 reading may signify a mastery of symbols or a study 
 of literature. 
 
 The body of knowledge to be acquired in learning 
 how to read appears unsystematic and must be care- 
 fully sifted out by the teacher to get at the essential 
 ideas. The work consists largely of learning a set of 
 symbols and word forms and of associating with them 
 the already familiar forms of oral language. It includes 
 also the physical development and exercise of the 
 vocal organs. One of the chief causes of poor read- 
 ing is that teachers do not sift out the essential ideas 
 in this somewhat miscellaneous body of exercises. 
 While the general truths involved are somewhat 
 fugitive and difficult of formulation, they should be 
 as definitely grasped and stated as possible. 
 
 There are certain rules for the spelling and pro- 
 nunciation of words, for the distinct articulation of 
 vowels and final consonants, for acquiring natural, 
 conversational tones, for tiie expression of different 
 feelings aijd emotions, for emphasis and apt expres- 
 sion of thought. 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 3II 
 
 Such general directions do not cover the whole 
 ground, but they indicate what sort of definiteness 
 should characterize the teacher's effort. They may 
 be worked out inductively and applied in the class 
 room. In order to show that the art of reading involves 
 principles, it is only necessary to ask, What is the 
 teacher's chief purpose in any given lesson .' e.g. 
 distinct articulation or natural expression. If she has 
 no such distinct purpose, her work, lacking aim, will 
 be loose and indefinite, and specific progress will not 
 be made. 
 
 Looked at from the standpoint of the thought and 
 culture material supplied in reading, there are many 
 truths, historical, scientific, and social, which ought to 
 be worked out in reading lessons. Illustrations of this 
 embodiment of truths may be found in " The Vision 
 of Sir Launfal," "The Great Stone Face," "The 
 Psalm of Life," and " Evangeline." 
 
 Reading, in both its phases, greatly emphasizes 
 the step of application. It is one of the most directly 
 useful of all studies, first because the ability to read 
 is applied so constantly in most kinds of instruction ; 
 and second, because the reading of good books sup 
 plies one with the best outfit of social and culture 
 ideals. The fifth step, therefore, in all reading 
 exercises, is doubly important. To apply thoroughly 
 the few rules and principles of oral reading is 
 essential to good work, and bringing to bear the 
 social ideals derived from reading upon the behavior 
 
312 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 and upon all the social life of the school is vitally 
 important. The demand for. graphic, concrete 
 illustrations in the second step, and for the apper- 
 ceptive use of familiar experiences in the first step 
 is strongly felt in all good reading work. 
 
 In this brief survey of the school studies we observe 
 that the formal steps are capable of great variety of 
 adjustment to the peculiar subject-matter and needs 
 of different studies. The widely divergent character 
 of the general truths developed, and the still more 
 divergent subject-matter from which they are drawn, 
 are a complete test of the flexibility of any proposed 
 principles of instruction. We find that these simple 
 principles of induction and deduction possess ade- 
 quate elasticity. They are not a dull, mechanical 
 device for reducing all studies to a uniform method. 
 On the contrary, they not only allow, but require, 
 great flexibility and originality in the teacher. At 
 the same time, there is a fundamental movement, 
 which is the same in all the studies and is the basis 
 of scientific method. But the point to be emphasized is 
 that these principles not only lay requirements upon 
 the teacher, but they are a great help to her ; they 
 define the course so clearly, in a large way, as to be 
 encouraging and inspiring. They bring definiteness 
 into the field of teaching, where without them one 
 is lost. They are indispensable as a guide to young 
 teachers, and a strong corrective of poor methods in 
 experienced ones. 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 313 
 
 Looking abroad, beyond the range of common 
 school studies, we may find in the kindergarten, in 
 the high school and university, in Sunday-school and 
 pulpit, many places which will still further test the 
 flexibility of this method of instruction in its applica- 
 tion to the needs of education. 
 
 In this chapter we have considered mainly the 
 varying application of the inductive and deductive 
 processes to text-books and to the different studies. 
 But the formal steps also involve other principles of 
 very great importance. Closely linked with the 
 inductive and deductive processes are the principles 
 of apperception, of interest, of self-activity, of logical 
 sequence in thinking, of aim-setting, of the selection 
 of types and lesson unities. All these are involved 
 in the application of the formal steps to each of the 
 branches of study. We may say, in brief, that 
 the inductive-deductive thought movement furnishes 
 the opportunity for every one of these principles to be 
 put into efficient operation. When properly arranged 
 and adjusted to one another, these principles are not 
 antagonistic, but work in harmony. The principle 
 of apperception, for instance, applies to every lesson 
 unity, no matter in what study, and the formal steps 
 make definite provision for the exercise of this prin- 
 ciple in each important topic studied. The other prin- 
 ciples may be tested in the same way, in each study. 
 
 Before any such plan of selecting and of treating 
 topics can be generally accepted, it should be grounded 
 
this plan. 
 
 314 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 in psychology and its worth practically demonstrated 
 to the satisfaction of teachers in a large variety of 
 studies. Our present educational practice is based 
 upon traditions and theories which partly support and 
 partly antagonize the principles of the formal steps. 
 We can well afford to examine and test them from 
 both standpoints. 
 Criticisms of Any well-matured plan based upon psychology and 
 sound theory ought to be an ideal which our practice 
 has only partially attained. Many of the best criti- 
 cisms, therefore, will be found to be simply practical 
 difficulties which inevitably arise in every effort to 
 gain greater proficiency and skill. 
 
 The first criticism, which the friends as well as the 
 opponents of any plan of instruction must seriously 
 consider, is found in the query, "Is it scientific?" 
 This question we have attempted to discuss at length 
 in the earlier chapters. The psychology of the in- 
 dividual and general notion, of percept and concept, 
 was laid down in the earlier chapters as the scien- 
 tific basis of the inductive movement in learning. If 
 there is any one process in mental life upon which 
 the psychologists, as scientific thinkers, are agreed, 
 we take it to be this normal movement of the mind 
 from particular to general, from percept to concept. 
 Moreover, the great educational writers, some of 
 them psychologists of the first rank, as Comenius, 
 Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Spencer, have given 
 an overwhelming emphasis to this one idea. 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 315 
 
 It seems improbable that teachers will object to 
 any of the fundamental principles, considered singly, 
 such as sense perception, beginning with the individual 
 and concrete, self-activity in acquiring and in using 
 ideas, apperception, the inductive movement from 
 particulars to generals through close observation and 
 comparison, clear formulation and memorizing of the 
 general truth, the deductive extension of truth acquired 
 to new particulars, repeated applications till pro- 
 ficiency in common use is gained. But there is a 
 further question, whether we have rightly estimated 
 these various principles according to their relative 
 value, and have found out what are their true 
 sequence and interdependence. This organization of 
 essential principles into a compact plan, flexible 
 enough to be applied to different studies, may well 
 be subjected to close criticism. Even if such a plan 
 is adapted to geography and history, has it equal 
 value for mathematics, reading, and Latin .' 
 
 In this critical discussion it is not difficult to keep 
 in mind the three principal stages in the mental 
 movement upon which the formal steps are based: 
 (i) perception, or getting the knowledge of the 
 individual ; (2) the inductive process up to the clear 
 statement of the general truth ; (3) deduction, or the 
 varied application of the truth to new data. Just to 
 the extent to which we find this movement in learning 
 to be general or universal, we have a scientific basis 
 for method in instruction. 
 
3l6 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Natural reao- But we naturally resist the proposition to bind our 
 tion against ggj^gg (jown to any law of instruction. So strong is 
 the instinct toward individual freedom that we will 
 submit to no law unless it is very clear and very im- 
 perative. Instead of finding this general law ac- 
 cepted, we shall be met with the unfailing criticism 
 that we are drifting into a hard and close routine. 
 This criticism is based upon the assumption that the 
 teacher is trying to make an artificial mould in which 
 mental action is to run, rather than that the nature 
 and constitution of the mind itself determine its mode 
 of activity. The main question goes back to the 
 previous query. Have we found the natural process ? 
 All will agree that the teacher cannot arbitrarily 
 make the process, he can only help to guide the 
 minds of children along the road of their best natu- 
 ral free expression. 
 
 We have a right to resist any arbitrary effort to 
 impose upon us an artificial, dogmatic law of in- 
 struction. But having rationally and experimen- 
 tally worked our way to an understanding of the 
 simple principles of teaching, it is true wisdom and 
 self-mastery to constrain ourselves in practice to con- 
 form to them. 
 
 The freedom of the teacher consists not in disre- 
 garding the law, but in finding it out and obeying it 
 
 If psychologists and teachers have been so for- 
 tunate as to find the natural highways of human 
 thought, all this crying out against mechanism and 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 317 
 
 formalism is only so much railing at the laws of 
 nature. The whole question of freedom and origi- 
 nality in the teacher may be one of obeying the laws 
 of nature, or of constantly blundering in the effort 
 to be free and original. The teacher must have 
 either an instinctive tact or a conscious insight into 
 the simple laws of mental life and action, or this much- 
 lauded freedom and originality is entirely eccentric 
 and unreliable. That teacher will possess the great- 
 est freedom, versatility, and power in instruction who 
 is most skilful in obeying the law which regulates 
 the child's thinking. We are constantly driven back, 
 therefore, to the fundamental question : Are we mis- 
 taken in our interpretation of the mental movement 
 in children .' Have we wisely applied the principles 
 of psychology to method in teaching ? 
 
 But even if our principles are correct and our in- 
 terpretation of this general process well grounded, 
 we are still exposed to the danger of countenancing 
 a duU routine. The formal steps, hke any other plan 
 of recitation work, may be reduced to a mechanical 
 form, destitute of life. There is no protection against 
 this kind of routine except in spirited and earnest 
 teachers. A well-grounded process in teaching will 
 not save the teacher who lacks knowledge of his 
 subject, who lacks insight and tact in managing 
 children, or who is destitute of spirit and originality. 
 In other words, the teacher must throw the whole 
 strength of his personality into those channels which 
 
3l8 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 a wise method has laid out, or else failure is sure. 
 We can easily expect too much from formal princi- 
 ples and plans of instruction. They are valuable as 
 a means of economizing and of concentrating the 
 teacher's energies within the best channels. The 
 tacit assumption always is that a teacher pours his 
 own versatile and vigorous spirit through these 
 channels. Without this the form of instruction is 
 like a dry mill-race. It may be admitted that an 
 active-minded, independent teacher may feel ham- 
 pered, for a time, in the attempt to apply the formal 
 steps of instruction. But just as a young pianist 
 gradually overcomes awkwardness and self-conscious- 
 ness in following the directions dictated by the prin- 
 ciples of music, so the teacher can expect to free 
 himself gradually from the feeling of constraint, and 
 in the easy use of these principles find a means of 
 power. 
 
 Another criticism against the method of instruc- 
 tion under discussion is that it increases the load of 
 the teacher, while it reduces the amount of indepen- 
 dent effort required of the pupil. This criticism, if true, 
 strikes a fatal blow at the whole plan. There is, in 
 deed, an appearance of justice in this criticism. The 
 teacher is required to show greater skill in presenting 
 topics (in the second step), more power to illustrate 
 and explain, more insight and tact in calling out the 
 experience and older knowledge of children (first and 
 second steps), greater precision and aptness in ques- 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 319 
 
 tioning and in developing general truths (in second, 
 third, and fourth steps), a more complete logical 
 mastery of the principles of the subject taught, 
 and their various applications. All these things 
 are necessary to first-class teaching, and where the 
 teacher has not yet acquired this sort of professional 
 knowledge and skill, these requirements are indeed 
 a burden. 
 
 But most persons will acknowledge that these re- 
 quirements are just. The teacher must assume the 
 obligation of a larger mastery of his subject and of a 
 readier proficiency in class-room treatment. In this 
 we are simply setting up a standard to which teachers 
 are encouraged to rise, and which lays upon them 
 the burden of professional equipment. 
 
 But there is another side to this difficulty. That 
 which at first glance seems only a heavy burden 
 becomes later an inspiration and easement. Having 
 once acquired professional knowledge and skill, the 
 teacher will find his work becoming less mechanical 
 and burdensome, more spirited and engrossing. The 
 feeling of conscious power, based on previous success, 
 becomes an exhilaration, and the teacher moves up 
 to a larger freedom and capacity for instruction. In- 
 stead of the cramping influence of a narrow routine, 
 he feels the expansive energy of a clear and gener- 
 ous purpose working in practical ways. The crit- 
 icism against this so-called overburdening of the 
 teacher loses its point when we consider that the out- 
 
320 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 come of a mastery of these principles of teaching 
 and of their skilful use means economy of effort and 
 the inspiration of success. 
 
 But the more important question is, What effect has 
 this method upon children ; does it make thinkers and 
 workers, or does it produce lassitude and easy-going 
 habits of study ? 
 
 It is sometimes supposed that the more skilful 
 and efficient the teacher and the method, the less the 
 pupils have to do. Just as if we had forgotten 
 the underlying purpose of all study, to produce the 
 greatest vigor of self-activity in the pupils. The 
 essence of all good teaching is to stimulate thought- 
 fulness and self-effort in the pupil. Even where the 
 teacher in the second step presents or illustrates 
 topics, his purpose is to awaken thought and to 
 secure close attention, and to increase the labor of 
 the pupil. 
 
 Whatever is thus presented by the teacher must 
 be appropriated and reproduced by the pupil. Much 
 greater vigor of attention and effort can be secured 
 under the eye of the strong teacher in the recitation 
 than in isolated seat-work where the pupil may 
 dawdle as much as he pleases. 
 
 The recitation itself is one of the best places in 
 which children can be trained into habits of keen and 
 close attention. But so far as possible the habit there 
 formed should be strengthened by similar exertions 
 in seat-work and in home-study. The main question 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 32 1 
 
 is, Where and how can the teacher bring his person- 
 ality to bear upon a child in such a way as to induce 
 strong and vigorous mental action? Our answer is 
 that it depends upon the manner in which the teacher 
 handles his subjects in the class room. If he knows 
 how to interest and intensify intellectual and will 
 power in the recitation, the seat-work and the home- 
 study will fall into line. In other words, it is a ques- 
 tion of method in the recitation. 
 
 Some children will probably learn how to concen- 
 trate their powers if left to themselves with books, 
 but most pupils need the presence of the vigorous 
 and incisive teacher to give them their tempo in 
 intellectual action. 
 
 Equally important with this habit of concentrating 
 attention is the ability to think logically and indepen- 
 dently. We want self-reliant thinkers. The Socratic 
 method of discussion, while very difficult, is the only 
 one that can lead to this result 
 
 Throughout the general inductive process (first, 
 second, third, and fourth steps) a careful scrutiny 
 will show that a child is constantly thrown back upon 
 his own resources in observation (sense perception), 
 in the resort to home experience and previous knowl- 
 edge (apperception), in the careful statement (repro- 
 duction) of all facts observed or presented in the 
 class, in making comparisons, and in the statement 
 of general truths which are formulated by the 
 children themselves. The underlying purpose of all 
 
322 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 this work is to arouse vigor of thought and self- 
 exertion on the part of the pupils. 
 
 It is an extremely superficial and perverted view of 
 this process therefore to call it a method of making 
 study merely easy, entertaining, and non-laborious to 
 children. Mental effort should always be tense, not 
 loose and flabby. It requires skilful teaching under 
 any circumstances to produce this kind of sturdy, self- 
 reliant effort. But we shall certainly not solve the 
 problem by allowing the teacher to abdicate his posi- 
 tion and his duty as a skilful leader in the class room 
 and to roll the whole burden and responsibility upon 
 the pupil by saying that he must learn the entire 
 lesson before he comes to the class. 
 
 The teacher is more than a simple taskmaster, and 
 his function as a taskmaster should remain in the 
 background till other and better means of stimulus 
 fail. 
 
 It is the business of the teacher to economize effort 
 for the children as well as for himself ; to get at 
 truth by the shortest route, along the line of least 
 resistance. We need not be frightened by such a 
 statement. There will be plenty of difficulties to call 
 out their powers, numberless tasks in which they can 
 work out their own salvation. One of the great 
 problems in the use of coal and electricity is to reduce 
 the waste, to economize by utiUzing the highest per- 
 centage of power. So in mental operations. 
 
 There is a great folly in wasting a child's effort 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 323 
 
 upon some problem which he is not ready for, when 
 the teaching has been so blundering as to bring him 
 against a difficulty he is not prepared to meet. One 
 reason why we have to help children so much is be- 
 cause of our unnatural methods of bringing them 
 unprepared into difficulties. If we lead children along 
 according to the natural law of thought, they will 
 solve their own difficiilties, become independent 
 thinkers. If we ignore the laws of teaching, we have 
 to step in frequently to extricate them from their 
 difficulties. Ease of movenient is a good thing. If 
 all our school work is encumbered with the heavy drag 
 of toilsome effort, i.e. of effort put forth merely to 
 overcome needless friction, it becomes terribly depress- 
 ing. 
 
 One of the most serious obstacles in the way of in- 
 troducing such a class-room method as we have 
 proposed (including spirited oral work, presentation 
 of topics by the teacher, and a Socratic mode of ques- 
 tion, answer, and statement by children), is the fatal ten- 
 dency, with many teachers, of allowing this process to 
 degenerate into a waste of time, an aimless wander- 
 ing and inadequate treatment of topics. The awkward 
 and abortive development lessons too often observed, 
 may easily lead us into a condemnation of inductive 
 methods of teaching. 
 
 The old-fashioned text-book work, in which children 
 learn their lessons and recite them, is far better than 
 this so-called development work. But there is some- 
 
324 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 thing better than the old verbatim recitation, and it 
 involves the higher power of skilful oral discussion of 
 topics in the recitation. The fact that so many of us 
 are clumsy in teaching inductively is no sufficient 
 reason why we should not set up for professional at 
 tainment that method which has most highly recom- 
 mended itself to the good sense of the best thinkers 
 and teachers. We have many teachers to-day, 
 especially in primary and intermediate grades, who 
 are so expert in the oral treatment of topics that they 
 could not be induced to return to a duller method. 
 All the great writers on education, Comenius, Locke, 
 Pestalozzi, Spencer, and Mann, have condemned the 
 purely deductive method of imparting general truths 
 dogmatically in elementary schools. In all schools and 
 institutes, therefore, where teachers are in training, it 
 is needful that inductive methods of study be cultivated, 
 illustrated, and applied. 
 
 Still another criticism has been raised, on the 
 ground that the inductive methods of teaching do not 
 lead to such a thoroughness and mastery of the subjects 
 as deductive teaching and formal drills. One of the 
 strong points in the education of the past, which has 
 been chiefly deductive, was the thoroughness of its 
 discipHne by drills and repetitions. At least such 
 has been the firm conviction of its friends. It is 
 incumbent upon the inductive processes of teaching 
 to show a superior kind of thoroughness, not only 
 that looseness and shallowness are not the necessary 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 32$ 
 
 fruitage of inductive methods, but that a thoughtful- 
 ness, a careful assimilation of knowledge, an organic 
 building-up of thought-masses, results, which gives 
 the best sort of thoroughness and mastery of studies. 
 
 In schools where the formal steps have been 
 systematically worked out and applied, such thorough- 
 ness has been one of the main results aimed at. It 
 shows itself especially in the power to use what has 
 been learned. In Chapter VII, where the acquisition 
 of particular notions is treated, and in the chapter on 
 the Application of General Notions, there was an 
 unusual and varied emphasis of this perfect mastery. 
 In addition to this we may evidence the fact that in 
 closing up the work of the second and fourth steps, 
 careful and thorough reproductions and drills are 
 held to be an essential part of this plan of teaching. 
 At these two stations we can afford to stop and sum- 
 marize the results of study. These are the two points 
 where a thorough knowledge of the individual notions 
 (second step) and general notions (fourth step) is 
 rendered indispensable. Careful repetitions and 
 drills and systematic ordering of facts and principles 
 are insured first by oral exercises in the class, and 
 secondly by clear and logical outlines and full written 
 statement of principles and rules, in a blank book 
 carefully kept or in the text-book form. 
 
 But in addition to these important stations on the 
 recitation road specifically devoted to careful fixing 
 of ideas, there are two other places in which the final 
 
326 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 complete mastery of knowledge is tested ; namely, in 
 the apperceptive use to which all our resources of 
 knowledge and experience are put in the first step, 
 and in the applications which are so completely 
 worked out in the fifth step. 
 
 The greatest difficulty which lies in the way of a 
 psychological procedure in teaching, which is adapted 
 to the needs of the children and to the material 
 treated, is the whole traditional method of instruction 
 now in vogue. No one teacher or group of teachers 
 is responsible for this. The plan which commonly 
 prevails of allowing children to prepare their lessons 
 at their seats, and come to the recitation to recite, the 
 prominence of the text-book with its brief statement 
 of facts and principles and the rigid dependence of 
 teacher and pupils upon it, the emphasis put upon 
 testing and examining by teachers — all these things 
 are matters of long-established custom, and are firmly 
 rooted in the habits and convictions of our teachers 
 of all grades of excellence. The plan of recitation 
 which we propose runs counter, in important points, 
 to these traditional methods. It calls for much 
 greater mastery of the subject taught, a closer 
 acquaintance with the children's experience, greater 
 skill in instructing, and more shrewdness and ability 
 in throwing the children upon their own resources 
 and self-activity. It is a plan for developing greater 
 tact, originality, and expert skill in every phase of 
 instruction. For this reason it cannot be accepted 
 
APPLICATIONS AND CRITICISMS 327 
 
 at once by all teachers. It calls for too great a 
 change from routine methods to methods based on 
 clear insight and skilfully applied. 
 
 A misconception that needs to be carefully guarded 
 against is that every recitation should show the full 
 treatment of a topic through the series of five steps. 
 On the contrary, it is seldom that a single recitation 
 will reveal the treatment of a subject in this complete 
 series. Frequently it requires one or several recita- 
 tions to handle merely the second step of a lesson 
 unity. Sometimes 'the application of a principle (fifth 
 step) will require the whole recitation period or more. 
 The unit of instruction is not the time of a single 
 recitation, but the central truth to be worked out and 
 applied in a lesson unity. 
 
 Another misconception is that any given method 
 whole (or lesson unity) must be worked out com- 
 pletely through the five steps before another method 
 whole is taken up. On the contrary, it will often 
 happen that one method unit will be carried through 
 the first and second steps, and then dropped for 
 a while, other unities being treated in the interval. 
 Later on new examples or data illustrating the first 
 unity come up for treatment, and comparisons are 
 made with the earlier lesson unit, which lead on to 
 the statement of a general truth and its further 
 application. 
 
 If, for example, the children have studied the 
 upper Mississippi as a lumber stream, other topics, 
 
328 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 as the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley, Niagara Falls, 
 etc., intervening, they will later come upon the lum- 
 ber streams of Maine, and make comparisons with 
 the upper Mississippi as to the mode of collecting 
 and distributing lumber, and draw a larger general 
 truth from it than was possible with the Mississippi 
 alone. 
 
 In history, likewise, the children have studied the 
 battle of Bennington long before they read of the 
 battle of King's Mountain. Many other topics have 
 come in between these two events. But when King's 
 Mountain has been described, it is a fitting time to 
 make the comparison with the battle of Bennington 
 (third step), and lead on to a statement of that com- 
 mon spirit which animated the patriots in both these 
 battles (fourth step), while still later conflicts of the 
 Revolution and of the Civil War may furnish the 
 best applications of the same idea (fifth step). 
 
 This conception of the free use of the formal steps, 
 according to the necessities of the study, and of the 
 particular topic under treatment, puts the teacher 
 under no narrow compulsion and removes the neces- 
 sity for cramping any lesson into an artificial method 
 scheme. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 LESSON PLANS 
 
 The preceding text demands that every progres- 
 sive teacher carefully prepare for the teaching of 
 any topic. This requirement necessitates lesson 
 plans of some sort. These should be written out 
 in detail by the inexperienced teacher, as often as 
 time and strength permit. It makes comparatively 
 little difference, with the experienced teacher, 
 whether they be written out or only thought out, 
 provided a well-digested plan is in her mind before 
 instruction begins. The best assurance, however, 
 that a plan has been properly digested, is its existence 
 on paper in proper form. Following are suggestions 
 as to the principal features desirable in such a plan. 
 
 (Full text of poem " Excelsior " at this point.) 
 
 PLAN FOR TEACHING "EXCELSIOR" 
 
 Age of pupils, 12-13 years Teacher's principal Aims — 
 (6th year of school). a. Enjoyment of a well-known 
 
 poem, hence increased love 
 of literatm-e. 
 b. Appreciation of a certain 
 moral idea, i.e. a lofty aim 
 with unhesitating pursuit of 
 same. 
 
 329 
 
330 
 
 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 SUBJECT-MATTER 
 
 Simple narrative taken literally. 
 Meaning of difficult words 
 and phrases. 
 
 Leading facts in literal story. 
 
 Interpretation. 
 
 METHOD OF PRESENTATION 
 
 Pupils' Aim — 
 
 To learn what became of a 
 young man who attempted 
 to climb the Alps. 
 Describe a lofty mountain. 
 What , are some of the 
 dangers one might expect 
 to meet in climbing it ? 
 How do the monks come 
 to the aid of mountain 
 climbers? 
 Read the poem, stanza by 
 stanza. 
 
 What is meant by device, 
 falchion, clarion, spectral 
 glacier, awfiil avalanche, 
 startled air ? 
 Read the poem through care- 
 fiilly a second time. De- 
 scribe the region. Tell the 
 story. 
 Was the young man joyous 
 or sad? Read answer in 
 words of author, (vv. 2, 
 3, 5.) Was he attractive 
 or unattractive in appear- 
 ance? (w. 2, 5, 9.) 
 What things tempted him 
 to abandon his journey ? 
 (vv. 3, 4, s, 6.) 
 Did he stop ? What be- 
 came of him? 
 Do you see any good reason why 
 he should not have stopped ? 
 Was he, then, a foolish felloW; 
 or a rash adventurer? 
 
LESSON PLANS 
 
 331 
 
 SUBJECT-MATTER 
 
 Longfellow calls the young man 
 " beautiful," and in last two 
 lines suggests his ascent to 
 heaven. Story figurative. • 
 
 The mountain signifies a steep 
 road, the route necessary for 
 an unselfish life. The happy 
 homes and the three persons 
 signify types of temptation, or 
 of overcautious advisers. 
 
 Striking qualities of the young 
 man are unselfishness, cour- 
 age, determination, energy. 
 
 All eflScient persons, with high 
 ideals, must show these same 
 qualities. 
 
 METHOD OF PRESENTATION 
 
 What is Longfellow's opinion 
 of him in the last verse ? 
 How explain such ap- 
 proval ? 
 Since the story is not to be 
 taken literally, let us see how 
 it should be interpreted. 
 What does the mountain sig- 
 nify? The happy homes? 
 The old man ? The 
 maiden ? The peasant? 
 Why is the device spoken of 
 as strange ? The tongue, 
 as unknown? Meaning of 
 excelsior? 
 What are the striking qualities 
 of the young man ? How 
 shown ? How was a motto 
 of value to him ? Reason for 
 frequent repetition of "Ex- 
 celsior " ? 
 
 Describe in full the kind of 
 person the author seems to 
 admire. 
 Have you ever known or 
 heard of such persons : 
 Washington, Lincoln ? 
 Other persons in history? 
 in present time ? 
 Do you think that it is neces- 
 sary for every good person to 
 exercise these same qualities? 
 Proof ? 
 Does this poem encourage reck- 
 lessness ? Proof ? At what 
 times do we most need to 
 
332 
 
 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 SUBJECT-MATTER 
 
 Style. 
 Diction — beauty, force. 
 
 Good oral reading. 
 
 METHOD OF PRESENTATION 
 
 recall it? What are the ad- 
 vantages of possessing a high 
 ideal? How is it helpful to 
 have a motto ? 
 
 Find some happily chosen words. 
 
 Which stanzas show the char- 
 acter of the youth most for- 
 cibly in your opinion ? Which 
 seem to you most attractive? 
 
 What precautions, if any, would 
 you suggest for the proper 
 reading of the poem aloud? 
 Read it aloud. 
 
 I. The most apparent, and probably the most im- 
 portant characteristic of the above plan is the complete 
 separation of subject-matter from method ; the space on 
 the left of a line drawn down the page is devoted solely 
 to subject-matter, that on the right, solely to method. 
 
 The primary reason for this complete separation of 
 two very different kinds of matter is that it is neces- 
 sary, in preparing a good plan, to think through 
 subject-matter independently of method, and, indeed, 
 before method is considered. It is very common for 
 teachers to begin determining their method of pre- 
 senting a topic before making sure that they know 
 the facts which are to be taught. And wheii subject- 
 matter and method thus become mixed, teachers are 
 not easily made conscious of their ignorance. Their 
 method, too, is then seriously affected, for one reason 
 for much bad method is that the facts to be taught 
 
LESSON PLANS 333 
 
 have not been clearly conceived. These statements 
 apply as much to grade work as to more advanced 
 instruction. Students are urged, therefore, to make 
 themselves masters of their subject-matter, to practise 
 outlining it for that purpose, before seriously consider- 
 ing the manner of its presentation. 
 
 An additional reason for this clear separation in 
 the plan is the fact that a critic teacher or other 
 supervisor can see at a glance the instructor's outline 
 of fact and of method. 
 
 2. The statements in the left-hand column are 
 intended to constitute an outline of the facts to be 
 presented, in close sequence, and to convey full mean- 
 ing when read without reference to the right-hand 
 column. The statements in the right-hand column 
 are likewise intended to show the. outline of method, 
 in close sequence, and to csxry full meaning ■when read 
 without reference to the left-hand column. 
 
 But the matter on the two sides of the line are so 
 placed on the page that the facts in the left will, so 
 far as possible, have their method of presentation 
 directly opposite to them on the right. ' 
 
 3. The outline of method consists of the actually 
 anticipated contfersation, in outline, between teacher 
 and pupils. The principal questions and statements 
 of the teacher, and the replies from children, — 
 when the latter seem necessary, which is seldom the 
 case, — therefore appear here in the form of direct 
 discourse. 
 
334 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 The reason for this requirement is seen in the fact 
 that such a conversation must actually take place 
 during the recitation period, and this is the nearest 
 equivalent to the real thing — as a preparation. To 
 be sure, one cannot with certainty foresee the turns 
 that a conversation may take ; but if he has thought 
 through its most probable course with care, mean- 
 while considering its possible deviations, he is far 
 more a master of the situation than otherwise, far 
 more ready for the unexpected. A carefully con- 
 sidered plan is the means of securing freedom to fol- 
 low any one of several courses ; in other words, to 
 adapt one's self to the needs of pupils. 
 
 This requirement applies more fully to "develop- 
 ment lessons " than to recitations in which the time 
 is occupied mainly with laboratory experiment; or 
 translation; or written work at the desk or at the 
 board; or construction, as in manual training, fine 
 art, domestic science and domestic art, where the 
 pupils' plan has already been completed and further 
 help from the teacher is individual. It applies still 
 less to the supervision of study hours, library read- 
 ings, etc. 
 
 Nevertheless, a well-developed plan of procedure 
 is desirable in all such cases, and there are always 
 the two factors involved, namely, subject-matter, in 
 the form of facts that are to be put before the pupils 
 collectively or individually, and method, or the man- 
 ner of presenting these facts. Usually, too, if a 
 
LESSON PLANS 335 
 
 teacher is properly acquainted with his subject and 
 his pupils, he can anticipate what points will need 
 particular attention, in what respects they will cause 
 difficulty, and how these difficulties may best be met. 
 For example, an instructor in composition in the 
 fourth year of the elementary school, or in the high 
 school, should foresee important difficulties to be 
 encountered by his class and the remedies; and this 
 is true even though they be writing on various topics. 
 Close sequence in the subject-matter of such a plan 
 and in steps of method is likely to be wanting, to 
 be sure, and possibly other characteristics here sug- 
 gested; but conversation or directions will be called 
 for, centring usually about certain few points, and to 
 the extent that this is true, a plan is needed, approxi- 
 mating the form here presented. 
 
 4. Careful paragraphing of statements, questions, 
 etc., with proper indentation to indicate subordinate 
 relationship, is~ as necessary here as elsewhere. In 
 fact, it is particularly important that persons prepar- 
 ing to teach, acquire the habit of grouping related 
 thoughts and recognizing their relative subordination. 
 Consequently this plan, both of subject-matter and 
 method, attempts to indicate clearly, by the form on 
 the page, what the chief topics are, and what matter 
 is of minor importance. This is only a preparation 
 for bringing the children to appreciate exactly the 
 same kind of relationships, which is one of the im- 
 portant objects of instruction. 
 
336 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 Teachers allowed to use the terms " preparation," 
 "presentation," "application," etc., in their plans, 
 have been found, very often, to paragraph on the 
 basis of such headings. But these are psychological 
 terms ; they are not to be heard in actual recitation, 
 and have little to do with the paragraphing of the 
 thought from the point of view of the child. They 
 are, therefore, omitted in this plan. If, however, 
 they sometimes seem necessary for the better com- 
 prehension of the plan on the part of supervisors, 
 they might be included, but enclosed in parentheses 
 and given a subordinate place on the page. 
 
 5. Some exception to the spirit of the last remarks 
 is made in the plan in regard to the aim. The out- 
 line of method includes, of course, the aim of the 
 recitation as worded from the point of view of the 
 children. But since the aim conceived from the teach- 
 er's point of view is usually very different from the 
 children's aim, and since each should be very clearly 
 apprehended and carefully worded, the two are here 
 included, with their distinctive names. 
 
 6. Owing to the great emphasis laid by modem 
 education on the arousing of interest through new 
 and rich thought, there is a strong desire, especially 
 among the more earnest teachers, for a constant 
 advance in the instruction. On this account, at least 
 partially, these teachers are prone to neglect detailed 
 reviews, summaries, and drills. Yet these are matters 
 of the highest importance ; interest itself, in the long 
 
LESSON PLANS 337 
 
 run, demands much time for them. For, if they are 
 overlooked, children soon lose the outline of the 
 subject-matter; their attempts to use facts recently 
 taught lead to failure, then discouragement and loss 
 of interest follow. 
 
 It is important, therefore, that detailed reviews, 
 summaries, and drills be included in the plans, being 
 sometimes indicated by these terms in parentheses 
 at the proper points, but, as a rule, by the exact 
 words in which the teacher expects to call for such 
 work. Much is involved in the last requirement. It 
 is easy enough, of course, simply to ask some child to 
 " review, " or " summarize, " certain matter, or to 
 "repeat it over and over." But the pedagogical 
 demand for live questions on the part of the teacher 
 applies in full to calls for reviews, summaries, and 
 drills. A progressive teacher will study to avoid 
 the dead formula here, and require such work through 
 thought-provoking questions and remarks. This is 
 one of the points where a high degree of skill is pos- 
 sible and where improvement is greatly needed. 
 The plan for " Excelsior " calls for a large amount of 
 review and for summaries, as can be seen by examina- 
 tion of it. But the authors have tried to avoid " going 
 out of their way " for such things. A large amount 
 of review is really necessary in the proper advance 
 of the thought itself, and this plan is an attempt to 
 illustrate that fact. 
 
 7. The amount of detail necessary for a plan is 
 
338 METHOD OF RECITATION 
 
 probably reasonably approximated in that here pre- 
 sented. Although very minor points are omitted, no 
 large amount of writing is required. The subject- 
 matter in this case, however, is contained in a poem,; 
 when it is not found in any particular text, the columns 
 for subject-matter will naturally need to be fuller. 
 
 8, The teaching of " Excelsior " would probably oc- 
 cupy not less than three or four recitation periods, but 
 the plan shows no subdivisions with x&iQx&r\ct.\.o particu- 
 lar lessons. In our opinion, plans in general should 
 be made out for a whole topic rather than for certain 
 lessons. 
 
 The amount of ground that is likely to be covered 
 in any one period may be omitted from consideration, 
 or, if attention is given to it, the subdivision can best 
 take place after the plan for the entire topic has other- 
 wise been completed. The reason for these suggestions 
 is that it has usually been found to be a serious 
 interruption to one's train of thought to be compelled, 
 when preparing a plan, to give attention to suitable 
 (twenty or thirty minute) stopping-places. It is 
 irrelevant to the work in hand, and therefore an 
 obstacle to connected thinking. 
 
 After a topic covering a number of lessons has 
 been prepared as suggested, shall the work for each 
 day be written out in more detail as it is approached } 
 This certainly is desirable, and it is the custom in 
 some training schools for teachers. But since time 
 and strength are limited, the authors are on the whole 
 
LESSON PLANS 339 
 
 opposed to devoting much effort to these daily les- 
 son plans. Many topics of instruction can receive 
 little preparation, and we believe it is a better use of 
 time to outline a greater number of topics very care- 
 fully as wholes, entering thoroughly into their spirit 
 and conceiving clearly the main points of method in- 
 volved in their presentation, than to reduce the 
 number of such topics for the sake of greater skill in 
 minor points of method. It is a question of relative 
 values. Some of the more detailed work should, how- 
 ever, be done by every young teacher ; every ex- 
 perienced teacher that is fully alive naturally drops 
 into the habit of adapting her work each day to her 
 pupils and seizes many odd moments for planning 
 such adaptation. It is only the careful writing out of 
 the particular day's lesson that seems to us to in- 
 volve some loss, when compared with the gain 
 brought about by the careful consideration of large 
 topics. 
 
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