Illl''r.ji'i1i.. lilii' i:.i A SHORT SURVOr OF THE UTEHATUBE OF RABBINICAL AND MEDUEVAL JUDAISM W, O, E, OESTERLEY AND G, K BOX 3s CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY FROM THE ALUMNI FUND THROUGH THE CORNELLIAN COUNCIL oci^-6-wmi« 4(70 9 J977F .^^^._ . wjw^r- Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029285371 DCtAa ^^«"®" University Library Do718 .029 ®^°niiiS™^^„.°' *^® literature of rabbin olin 3 1924 029 285 371 A SHORT SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE OF RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM A Short Survey of the Literature of Rabbinical and Mediaeval Judaism BY W. O. E. OESTERLEY, M.A., D.D. AND G. H. BOX, M.A., D.D. LONDON: SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1920 /\(j(p '6t- printed in great britain by Richard Clay and Sons, Limited, brunswick street, stamford street, s.e. and bungay, suffolk. PREFATORY NOTE The object of this volume is to provide in outline an introduction to the Hterature of post-Biblical Judaism. We wish to emphasise the fact that it ds an outline, and nothing more, that has been attempted. The field is vast, and only a very broad survey has been possible. Many interesting tracts have perforce been passed over in silence, or dismissed with bare mention ; and even when a subject seems to occupy, proportionately, a considerable space, e.g. the general Historical Survey, it must be remembered that only the slightest treatment of the theme has been possible. Anything like an adequate exposition would have required several volumes. Our work is essentially an Introduction, in the elementary sense. We have in mind the needs of a very large body of readers to whom the whole field of later Jewish literature is absolutely unknown. We hope that this manual will open to them a new and fascinating field of study. We have more especially tried to bring out, by way of the suggestion of points, the importance of so much of this literature for the study of Christian origins ; this applies more particularly to the earlier phases of Rabbinical literature, when Judaism and Christianity vi PREFATORY NOTE were more nearly allied to a common original. As time went on they diverged more and more, though even in the later phases a certain amount of mutual influence, conscious and unconscious, must be allowed for. An interesting instance of how an element which was original to Judaism, and was afterwards for a considerable time either suppressed or driven into the background, only to re-emerge after the lapse of centuries, is the case of the apocalyptic or mystical tradition. Such writings, e.g., as the Book of Enoch, which has survived in an Oriental version of a Greek rendering, meet us again to a large extent in a Hebrew form in the Geonic period, i.e. the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. ; the bearing of such a fact as this on the study of Christian origins has not hitherto been adequately recognised. In seeking, then, to cover so vast a field within the compass of a single volume, only a bird's-eye survey has been possible; but in some respects the readers we have in v\q.v4 will find this a gain. If the study of our book should in any way serve to stimulate others to delve more deeply into this interesting literature, or should be the means of sending them to larger works which specialise upon subjects only cursorily dealt with here, we shall be amply repaid for our labours. We have endeavoured to indicate many of the more important aids to study in short selected bibliographies; but we have not felt it necessary to attempt to give exhaustive lists of works on the various subjects referred to. PREFATORY NOTE vii We have deliberately omitted from our survey the most modern phase of Jewish literature, which may be said to date, roughly, from the time of Moses Mendelssohn ( 1729- 1 786). This is so essentially modern, and is divided off by so clear a line of demarcation from the older literature, that it seemed desirable to leave it out of account We have limited ourselves to tracing out the literary development to the close of the mediaeval period, which in the case of Jewish literature may be reckoned to have extended to the sixteenth century. A word of explanation may be necessary as to the relation of the present book to our earlier work. The Religion and Worship of the Synagogue (second edition, 191 1). Though to some limited extent the two books cover the same ground — viz. in the treatment of Rabbinical literature — yet they are essentially distinct and independent. We are here concerned primarily with the literature of Judaism, while in the earlier work this occupied only a subordinate place, Jewish religious life, custom, thought, and doctrine being the main themes. In consequence it will be noticed, if a comparison be made, that our treatment of the common element in this volume is on a larger and fuller scale ; while very many subjects dealt with in the earlier book are not even mentioned in the present one. It will readily be understood that in the volume before us a certain amount of repetition of particular points is inevitable ; for we have endeavoured to viii PREFATORY NOTE survey the literature under distinct heads and classi- fications ; but as these necessarily shade off into each other some overlapping is unavoidable. We have also found it impossible to be quite con- sistent in matters of spelling and transliteration, for there does not yet seem to be any generally accepted system, and in quoting from other writers we find variations in this respect. But we hope that no serious inconvenience will result from this cause. Our earnest hope is that this strange and unfamiliar world of letters may become more widely known to the general reader. We shall be well content if our volume can assist in any real way towards attaining this end. If only a society could be organised on an adequate basis, to be called (shall we say ?) " The Mediaeval Hebrew Text Society,'' which would undertake to publish the original texts, with English translations (on opposite pages), of the best of these treasures, many a delightful book which is now buried in manuscript in European libraries would be given to the world. Our warm thanks are due to Professor A. R. S. Kennedy of Edinburgh, who has kindly read through the proofs and made many valuable suggestions. The reader's attention is called to the list of Addenda printed on pp. 305-306. W. O. E. Oesterley. G. H. Box. CONTENTS PART I GENERAL HISTORICAL SURVEY PACE I. — THE POST-EXILIC PERIOD ... . 4 11.— THE MACCAB^AN ERA AND THE HASMON.EANS ; THE FALL OF JERUSALEM .... II III.— THE TALMUDIC PERIOD : (i) The Tannaitic Period 20 (ii) The Period of the Amoraim 22 (iii) The Period of the Saboraim 24 IV. — THE GEONIC PERIOD . . 25 v.— THE JEWS IN SPAIN . 29 PART II THE RABBINICAL LITERATURE I. — THE TARGUMS : (i) Introductory . . • . 39 (ii) On the Targums generally . 43 (iii) The Doctrinal Teaching of the Targums . 46 (iv) A Short Account of the Different Targums : The Targum of Onkelos . 50 The Palestinian Targum . 52 The "Fragment" Targum ... 54 The Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel 54 The Targums to the Hagiographa . 55 K CONTENTS n.*— THE MIDRASHIM : page (i) Introductory . . .57 (ii) Midrash Halakah and Midrash Haggadah 60 (iii) A Short Account of the Different Midrashic Works : Bereshith Rabbah ... 65 Aggadath Bereshith 68 Mekilta . . 68 Sheinoth Rabbah . 69 Sifra . , .70 Wayyikfa Rabbah 70 Sifre . . 71 Befnidbar Rabbah . 7 1 Debarim Rabbah . 72 Midrash Sheinuel . y2 Midrash TehilHin , 72 Midrash Mishle 73 Midrash Yonah 74 The Five Megilloth 74 Pesikta . yy Pesikta Rabbati 78 Tanchuvia Yelaminedcim y"^ Midrash Hashkeni 79 Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer 79 Yalkut Shimeoni . ■ • 79 Yalkut ha-Makiri . * 79 Midrash ha-Gadol . 80 The Pi-oeins 80 III. — THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE : (i) Introductory . . 82 (ii) The Mishnah, Tosephta, and Baraithas , 97 (iii) The Talmuds . . . 114 FART III THE JEWISH LITURGY I. — SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS . 141 II. — SOURCES OF THE PRESENT LITURGY . 149 CONTENTS xi III.— NON-SACRIFICIAL ELEMENTS IN THE TEMPLE page WORSHIP . . 151 IV. — THE STRUCTURE OF THE DAILY MORNING SERVICE . . ... .155 V. — THE Zemiroih 161 VI.— THE Shema'' 162 vii.— THE Shemo7ieh ''Esreh . . 164 VIII. — THE Tacha7ttinim . . 180 IX. — THE READING OF THE LAW . 182 ^.—Kaddish . .... 183 XI.— THE SERVICES FOR THE SABBATH : (i) Inauguration of the Sabbath . ■ 188 (ii) Service for Sabbath Eve . . . 190 (iii) Service for Sabbath Morning 191 (iv) Additional Service for the Sabbath 193 (v) Service for Sabbath Afternoon . . 194 (vi) Service for the Conclusion of the Sabbath . 195 Xn.— THE FESTIVAL SERVICES . ... I96 XIII.— THE DAY OF ATONEMENT AND OTHER FAST-DAYS I98 XIV. —THE BURIAL SERVICE ; PRAYERS FOR THE DEPARTED ... . . 201 PART IV THE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE I. — INTRODUCTORY . . . 209 II. — GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS . 212 III. — THE MYSTICAL LITERATURE 235 IV.— PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS . 254 v.— THE MEDIEVAL POETRY 271 VI. — SOME OTHER FORMS OF LITERATURE 290 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE . . . 299 SHORT TITLES OF FAMOUS RABBIS 305 ADDENDA ... . 307 INDEX . . . . . 311 ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS VOLUME. DB = Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. /E = The Jeivish Encyclopedia (12 vols.). JQR = The Jewish Quarterly Review. MT = Masoretic Text. RIVS^ = Religion and Worship of the Synagogue, by W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. Box (second edition, 191 1). RV = Revised Version (of the English Bible). SchiJrer GJV = Schilrer's Geschichte des jiidischen Volkes (3 vols.), latest edition. Singer = The Authorised Daily Prayer Book (Hebrew and English), edited by the Rev. S. Singer (for use in the Synagogues of the British Empire) : published by Eyre and Spottiswoode. TB = The Babylonian Talmud. T/ = The Jerusalem (or Palestinian) Talmud. Zunz GV = Die gottesdienstlichen Vortrdge der Judefi^ von Dr. Zunz (ist edition, 1832 ; 2nd edition, 1892). [In the transliteration of Hebrew words h or ch represents n^ k — -p^ s or lz = )iy and / = 'c.] PART I GENERAL HISTORICAL SURVEY PART I GENERAL HISTORICAL SURVEY [Literature (selected) : Josephus, Antiquities^ bks. xiii.- XX.; Reinach, Textes d\iuteiirs^ grecs et remains relatifs au fudaisme (1895) ; Schiirer, Geschichie des Jiidischen Volkes, Band i. (1901) ; Stade, Geschichie des Volkes Israel^ ii. (1888) ; Edwyn Bevan, The House of Seieucus (1902) ; Jerusalem under the High-priests (1904) ; Holtzmanrij Neutestainentliche Zeit- geschichte^ pp. 1-69 (1906). Milman, History of the Jews (1829); Jost, Geschichie des Judenthums und seiner Sekten (1857 . . ) ; Karpeles, Geschichie der Jiidischen Literatur (1886); Graetz, History of the Jews (iSgi-iSgS) ; Cassel, Lehrbuch der Jiidischen Ge- schichie und Literatur (1896). Lindo, History of the fews of Spain and Portugal (1848) ; Jacobs, The fews of A?tgevi?i England (1892); Abrahams, The Expulsion of the fews from E?igla7td (1895) ; fewish Life in the Middle Ages ( 1 896) ; Chapters 07t fewish Literature (1899) ; Maimonides (1903) ; Hyamson, A History of the fews in England (1908) ; Rigg, Select Pleas^ Starrs, and other Records fro7n the Rolls of the Exchequer of the Jews, A.D. 1220-1284 (Selden Society) (1902). The many relevant articles in JEl] No apology is needed if, as a preliminary to our review of Rabbinical literatu re, we take a brief glance at the historical background of the various periods during which that literature was in growth. It is probably true to say that in no other case has the literature of a people been so conditioned by the trend of historical events as in that of the Jews — a fact which is perhaps to be accounted for by the B 2 4 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM unique position which has always been occupied by the Jews among the nations of the world. It is over a stretch of many centuries that our task will lead us ; therefore, of necessity, our historical survey can take account only of the more notable landmarks. It is not our intention to attempt to write history in the ordinary sense of the word ; we desire only to depict in outline the historical back- ground of certain periods of Jewish history which have been marked by special literary activity, or have been the promising seed-field in which the later harvest has germinated. We hope also to point out, if possible, how the historical conditions of those periods have affected and influenced the national literature. THE POST-EXILIC PERIOD In the year 550 B.C., or thereabouts, Cyrus II., king of Persia, had conquered the entire Median empire, and he proceeded then to deal with what would have been a dangerous neighbour if un- subdued — namely, the kingdom of Lydia. Croesus saw what was coming and tried to forestall the blow by making aUiances with Nabonidos, king of Babylon, and Amasis, king of Egypt. It was in the interest of both these monarchs to check the growing power of the Persian conqueror. Cyrus, however, struck too soon for them, and in a single campaign (547 B.C.) defeated Crcesus before the allied armies had been able to join him. Possibly as early as the following year Cyrus, in continuation of his con- quests, attacked Nabonidos ; at any rate, within the next few years, assisted by internal troubles in Babylonia, he mastered this country too, and entered Babylon, which he now made the capital of THE POST-EXILIC PERIOD 5 his empire. From the so-called " Cyrus cylinder," on which the Babylonian priests recorded the doings of Cyrus, we learn that he respected the religion of the conquered country and himself accepted the worship of the gods of Babylonia.^ This is fully in accord with his statesmanlike and broad-minded treatment of the Jews and their religion as recorded in the Old Testament, which enabled Ezra and Nehemiah to carry on their work — a work which had the most far- reaching effect on both the religious development and the literature of the Jews. During the long period of Persian rule over the Jews there are but scanty records of their history ; they were not sufficiently -important to the outside world for historians to write about them, while the paucity of records — not always reliable — supplied by the Jews themselves must be accounted for by the restless and dangerous times through which they lived. Incessant wars went on around them ; they did not, it is true, take any direct share in these, but it was inevitable that they should have been greatly affected by the turmoil which raged at their very doors; for during the long struggle between the Persians and the Egyptians (408-343 B.C.) Syria was the centre in which many a sanguinary battle was fought out, until, at length, in 343 B.C., Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) finally conquered the Egyptians. Although, as has just been said, the Jews did not take any direct share in this struggle, from two incidents which are on record it appears that they were tempted to make a bid for independence, for in 3S3 B.C., according to Orosius (ill. vii. 6 f), Jericho was attacked by the Persians and destroyed ; a number of Jews were carried away captive to Hyrcania and Babylon. The other incident, some- what obscure, is that recorded by Josephus {Antiq. XI. ^ cp. Hommel, Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens. pp. 785 ff. (1885). 6 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM vii. i) ; he tells of how Bagoses {i.e. Bagoas), one of the generals in Artaxerxes' army, punished the Jews because Jochanan slew his brother Joshua, the high- priest, in the Temple. It is not clear why the people as a whole should have been made to suffer for the individual outrage perpetrated by Jochanan. The story as given by Josephus is incomplete ; but, in view of the earlier incident, mentioned above, it is reasonable to suppose that it reflects some further attempt to throw off the Persian yoke. The date of this occurrence is uncertain, but it probably took place while Artaxerxes was preparing his third cam- paign against the Egyptians (348-346). The downfall of the Persian empire, which was one of the results of Alexander's victories, did not, so far as we know, greatly afiect the Jews at first. It is to be presumed that they recognised the Greek ascend- ancy and bowed to the inevitable. Not long after the death of Alexander, in 323, began the great conflict between the Seleucids and the Ptolemys, which continued, with interludes, during practically the whole of the third century B.C. During most of this time, again, the Jews do not seem to have suffered excepting in so far as the constant clash of warring elements around them necessarily brought hardships. They had to pay tribute to both Seleucids and Ptolemys, as these were alternately victorious ; but otherwise, so far as our scanty records give us information, they were not molested. They showed a preference, upon the whole, for the Ptolemys, since these had greater consideration for Jewish religious susceptibilities than the Seleucids.^ But towards the end of the third century a great revulsion of feeling took place, and a considerable section of the Jews threw in their lot with the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III. 1 For further details, see Oesterley, The Books of the Apocrypha : their Origin^ Teachings and Contents^ pp. 28 ff. (1914)- THE POST-EXILIC PERIOD 7 The reason for this was, in all probability, due to the growth of Hellenistic influence among many of the Jews {cp. I Mace. i. 11 f ) ; though in 3 Mace. i. 10 f. it is accounted for by the fact that Ptolemy IV. "attempted to enter into the Holy of Holies. Towards the close of our period a lamentable strife broke out between the aristocratic priestly families of Onias and Tobias in Jerusalem ; it was concerned with religious as well as political questions, and ceased only with the rise of the Maccabees.^ In spite of both external and (to some extent) in- ternal unrest during these centuries, there is reason to believe that the whole period was one of much growth and development among the Jews in more directions than one. Indeed, it is true to say that the seeds from which the Rabbinical literature grew (and this is here our main concern) began to be planted as early as the time of the Exile itself One fact in par- ticular is to be noticed here as being especially important from our present point of view, although its relevancy may not be immediately apparent : for an individual Israelite to be exiled from his native land was about as cruel a lot as could befall him, for it meant separation from his God and the snapping asunder of the tie which bound him to the com- munal life of his tribe, with all that these things signified. But in the case of the Babylonian Exile, not individuals, but whole families and tribes were taken away ; when these, therefore, settled down in their new home they were able to continue to live under the same internal political and social con- ditions as in Palestine. To a large extent this was also the case regarding their religious life ; the sacrificial system, it is true, could not be continued — a fact which resulted in consequences of the highest ^ For a detailed account of this struggle, see Biichler's learned work, Die Tobiaden und Oniaden . . . (1899), where all the sources are thoroughly examined. 8 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM importance to the religion of the Jews. Moreover, since whole famiHes and septs went together into exile, there was not, as would have been the case with an individual, the same feeling of separation from the national God, because, the family consti- tuting, according to the old belief, a self-contained unit for the purposes of worship. His presence was believed to be assured, even in a strange land. Besides, although the conception of " the God of the land " still obtained to some extent, it is clear from the books of Jeremiah and Ezekiel that a worthier belief regarding the God of Israel had been attained ; and there is especially this fact, that many priests, and, above all, the heads of families, had come into Babylon. According to very ancient belief and custom, the heads of families were the religious, as well as the political, leaders of the people ; their importance and influence, which had been so cur- tailed by the rise of the monarchy, were now immensely increased, since the monarchy was no more ; this is abundantly clear from the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. They, therefore, took up their old position of leaders of the people, both from the point of view of politics and of religion. Further, there are many indications which lead us to the conclusion that the lot of the exiles in Babylon was not a hard one. What the prophet Ezekiel says does not suggest that the general conditions were in any sense intolerable,^ nor does Jeremiah anticipate a time of cruel hardship for the people, as is clear from his words : " Thus saith the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel, unto all the cap- tivity, whom I have caused to be carried away captive from Jerusalem to Babylon : Build ye houses, and dwell in them ; and plant gardens, and eat the fruit of them ; take ye wives, and beget sons and daughters, and take wives for your sons, and give ^ Ezek. i. 5 ; viii. i ; cp. Ezra viii. 15-21. THE POST-EXILIC PERIOD 9 your daughters to husbands, that they may bear sons and daughters ; and multiply ye there, and be not diminished. And seek the peace of the city whither I have caused you to be carried away captive, and pray unto the Lord for it ; for in the peace thereof shall ye have peace" (xxix. 4-7). Clearly, the people had reasonable freedom ; they lived un- molested, and were able to carry on their various callings. But the most important factor was that they were permitted the unrestricted exercise of their religion. It was here that a deep and far-reaching change began to take place. Instead of the sacri- ficial system, which had hitherto been the chief religious expression in Israel, but which could now no longer be carried out, the people — or, at all events, their religious guides — were led to think of the deeper truths of religion : the problem of sin, personal responsibility, the meaning of suffering, a fuller conception of atonement ; and there resulted a wider apprehension of God and of His relationship to man and to the world. Not that all the ancient and time-honoured external religious requirements were forgotten ; circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath were more than ever emphasised ; indeed, these came to be the distinguishing marks of the Jews. All these facts point to the Exile as being the period during which the foundations were being laid for that development of the Jewish religion the ultimate development of which is to be found in the Rabbinical literature. The later books of the Old Testament furnish us with many indications of how, in the practical religious life of the people, things were proceeding during the succeeding century or two ; and before we conclude this section it will be well to refer quite briefly to some of the more impor- tant ways in which this is illustrated by these books. From a liturgical point of view, it is of interest to note that, according to i Chron. xxiv. 1-19, the 10 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM priests were divided into twenty-four courses, and from 2 Chron. xxiii. 4, 8, we learn that these courses changed every Sabbath.^ It was the same with the Levites ; see i Chron. xxiii. 3-32 ; xxiv. 20-31. That these arrangements were brought about during the post-ExiHc period and were not part of the earlier practice is clear from the fact that neither in the Pentateuch nor in the earlier portions of the books of Ezra and Nehemiah is there any mention of them. Developments in the conduct of the services are of a still more far-reaching character. So far as the Temple singers are concerned, while they are unknown in the Pentateuch, their position is an established one, according to Neh. vii. 44 ; xi. 23 ; xii. 28 ; although here they apparently occupy a lower grade than the Levites. But, according to I Chron. xxv., they, too, were divided into twenty- four courses ; and, what is more important, they were reckoned among the Levites (although occupying a lower grade), according to i Chron. xxiii. 3-5, for the leaders of the three choirs were Asaph, Heman, and Ethan (or Jeduthun, in i Chron. xv. 17, 19 ; xxv. 1-6; 2 Chron. v. 12), who belong to the "sons of Levi, Gershom, Kohath, and Merari " (see i Chron. vi. 16-32). These facts point not only to the import- ance placed upon the elaborating of the Temple services and to the consequent effect upon the Liturgy, but also to the far-reaching results which were ultimately brought about by the general body of worshippers being made to take part in the services, through being led by the Levitical choir, and by singing the Hallelujah and saying the Amen {cp. I Chron. xvi. 36 ; Ps. cvi. 48). The priests, of course, still continued to perform the main parts of the services, but they were no more in the position of entire separation from the congregation which had obtained in earlier days. We must see here, there- ^ cp. pp. 147 ff. THE MACCAB^AN ERA ii fore, the beginnings of congregational worship in the real sense of the word. And, lastly, the Scribes of this period began to form themselves into guilds {cp. i Chron. ii. 55); and from the later book of Ecclesiasticus (xxxviii. 24- xxxix. 11) we can see that they devoted themselves exclusively to the study of sacred literature, the Law being the centre of all their activities. The import- ance of this from our present point of view needs no emphasis, since they were in the truest sense the spiritual forbears of the Rabbis. II THE MACCAB^AN ERA AND THE HASMON.^ANS ; THE FALL OF JERUSALEM The immediate cause of the Maccabaean rising was the attempt of Antiochus Epiphanes, the Syrian king, to enforce uniformity of religion and worship throughout his kingdom (see i Mace. i. 41 ff), and therefore upon the Jews. He was doubtless encou- raged to make this attempt owing to the presence among his Jewish subjects of a strongly pro- Hellenistic party (see I Mace. i. 13-15). The priestly aristocracy in Jerusalem, headed by the usurping high-priest Menelaus (of the house of Tobias), sided with Antiochus ; and it is evident that he was followed by a considerable section of the people. On the other hand, those Jews who were faithful to their religion showed a very different spirit. They first fled into the wilds east of Jerusalem ; and on being attacked on the Sabbath day they refused even to defend themselves, lest they should desecrate the Sabbath, and were slaughtered in cold blood — a most striking illustration of the powerful effect which insistence on the observance of the Law had 12 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM had upon many Jews. But this tame and useless attitude did not last long (i Mace. ii. 39-41). Active resistance' first took place under Mattathias, an aged priest from Modin. He, together with his five sons, organised a Jewish army whose watchword was to fight and die for the Law. Thus one of the most extraordinary religious wars in history came about (167 B.C.). Mattathias was the grandson of one named Hasmon, and it is from him that the Macca- bseans took the family name of the Hasmonaeans. The bold example set by Mattathias attracted many to his side, and especially the Chasidim^ the "saints," as they are called in Ps. xxx. 4 (5) (i Mace, ii. 42 ; cp, vii. 12-14). His first efforts were directed against renegade Jews, and he succeeded in re-estab- lishing respect for the Jewish Law in Jewish lands. But he died in the following year (166 B.C.), and the leadership was taken by his son Judas, the " Maccabaean," who vigorously attacked the Syrians and succeeded in driving them from Jerusalem and the surrounding country. The Holy City thereupon became the religious centre of the revolt. The Temple was cleansed; "blameless priests, such as had pleasure in the Law," were chosen ; the holy place was rebuilt ; and all the old services and sacrifices were reinstituted. A special ceremony of Dedication {Chamtkkah)'^ took place in December, 165 B.C. {cp. Ps. xxx. title) ; and for a brief period there was peace (see i Mace. iv. 36-61). The war soon broke out again, however ; the Jews were attacked by some of the smaller peoples who had made common cause with the chief enemy ; while both in Gilead and Galilee the Gentiles menaced the Jews. But in all these theatres of the war Judas, greatly helped by his brother Simon, was successful. The high hopes now entertained by the Hasmonaeans were but short-lived. We cannot enter here upon all ^ This festival has been kept annually by the Jews ever since. THE MACCAB^AN ERA 13 the details of the struggle.^ Suffice it to say that, thanks to the leadership of Judas, religious liberty was gained; but in 161 Judas fell, and his followers were filled with despair. Nevertheless, his brother Jonathan, nothing daunted, took up the struggle, and with success ; in i Mace. ix. 73 it is said : " And the sword ceased from Israel. And Jonathan dwelt at Michmash. And Jonathan began to judge the people ; and he destroyed the ungodly out of Israel." The struggle soon after was continued, but it entered upon a new phase owing to the activity of the rival claimants to the Syrian throne. The Macca- bsean power, as it had now become, occupied the position of the deciding factor, and was thus courted first by the one and then by the other claimant to the throne. Jonathan was clever enough to utilise this for the advantage of his people. In 153 he was recognised as head of the Jewish people and was appointed high-priest of the nation. From this point may be dated the real beginning of the Hasmonsean rule in Jerusalem. In 143 Jonathan was assassinated through Syrian treachery, and his brother Simon succeeded him as leader and high-priest. He continued the energetic and clever policy of his brother, and increased the nation's terri- tory. Owing to him, Judsea became recognised as an independent country, and the Hasmonsean dynasty was formally established. Thus both reli- gious and political freedom were gained for the Jews. In 135 B.C. John Hyrkanos, the third ^ son of Simon, succeeded his father. On coins of his reign the inscription runs : " John the high-priest, head of the congregation 2 of the Jews." From this it is clear ^ For these, see Oesterley, op. dt. pp. 427-438. ^ The two elder sons had been treacherously slain with their father ; see i Mace. xvi. n-17. 2 The word is Cheber^ meaning, in post-Biblical Hebrew, a " rehgious association." 14 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM that the official head of the Jewish state looked upon himself first and foremost as a religious personage. Nevertheless, the fact that John Hyrkanos had his name inscribed on coins (he was, so far as is known, the first high-priest of the Jews to do so) indicates that he regarded himself as a temporal ruler as well as a high-priest. John Hyrkanos's long reign (135-104 B.C.) was, according to Josephus, a prosper- ous one ; he says that Hyrkanos "lived happily, and administered the government in the best manner for thirty-one years ... he was esteemed by God worthy of the three greatest privileges, the govern- ment of his nation, the dignity of the high-priesthood, and prophecy ; for God was with him" {Antiq. XIII. X. 7). Hyrkanos's son, Aristobulus I., was the first Jewish ruler to assume definitely the title of king. It is not necessary to go into the details of his reign, nor yet of those of the two following, viz. of Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 B.C.) and of his widow Alexandra, or, according to her Jewish name, Salome (she died in 69 B.C.). But during the reign that followed altogether new conditions arose, for Palestine came under the suzerainty of Rome. The Roman power would, it is true, have asserted itself over Palestine in any case sooner or later ; but, as a matter of fact, circumstances in this country during the reign which followed that of Alexandra were such as to invite the intervention of Rome. At the very end of Alexandra's reign the Sadducaean party, which had been oppressed by the dominant Pharisaic party, broke out into revolt in Judaea. Of Alexandra's two sons, Hyrkanos upheld the Pharisaic party, while Aristobulus sided with the Sadducees. The latter was the more vigorous of the two brothers and gained considerable success at the outset of this struggle. Alexandra died at the beginning of the civil strife. During her reign she had appointed her eldest son, Hyrkanos, to the high-priesthood — he was, in any case, the THE MACCAB.EAN ERA 15 rightful successor — but immediately upon her death her second son, Aristobulus, sought to gain the kingdom. He conquered his brother in battle near Jericho, and Hyrkanos fled to Jerusalem, and presently made peace by renouncing both the high-priesthood and the kingship in favour of Aristobulus. This, one would suppose, ought to have ended the strife ; but it was not so. Urged on by Antipater (the father of Herod the Great), governor of Idumaea (and, we may surmise, by the leaders of the Pharisaic party, too), Hyrkanos was induced to fight for his rights. An alliance, brought about by Antipater, was made between Hyrkanos and Aretas, an Arab prince. Together they attacked Aristobulus and overcame him. He, as his brother had done on a former occasion, fled to Jerusalem, where he was besieged. Whilst this fratricidal struggle was going on, Pompey had been conducting his victorious campaign in Asia. In the year 65 B.C. he sent one of his generals, Scaurus, into Syria, where the latter heard of the civil war which was taking place in Palestine. Both brothers sent deputations to Scaurus and sought to gain him ; in the end he decided to uphold Aristobulus. For the time being, therefore, Aristo- bulus was master in Judaea. This did not, however, last long. Pompey himself arrived in Syria in 63 B.C., and while sojourning in Damascus he was approached by three deputations of Jews ; these represented the parties of Hyrkanos and Aristobulus, and a further one representing the Jewish nation ; this last wished to have nothing to do with the two others — an interesting fact, showing as it does that there was at least a considerable section of the Jews at this time which, presumably, stood apart from the Sadducsean and Pharisaic parties. As Pompey was about to undertake an expedition against the Nabataeans, he told his petitioners that they must wait until this had been accomplished, and that then he would decide i6 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM upon what course he would follow. On his way south, however, he received news which gave him reason to suspect Aristobulus of treachery ; so he postponed his intended campaign. He now com- manded Aristobulus to deliver up Jerusalem. Seeing that resistance was useless, Aristobulus submitted ; he left the capital and came to Pompey. Thereupon Pompey sent his general Gabinius to take possession of Jerusalem. Gabinius, however, returned without having accomplished his purpose, for the defenders of Jerusalem refused to give up possession of the city in spite of Aristobulus's surrender. So Pompey himself came against Jerusalem. Now in Jerusalem itself matters were in a deplorable state, for the supporters of Hyrkanos and Aristobulus were quarrelling amongst themselves ; those of Aristobulus determined to resist, while those of Hyrkanos wanted to submit because they regarded Pompey as their deliverer. These latter, being more numerous, had their way, and Pompey was admitted into Jerusalem without having to strike a blow. The supporters of Aristobulus, how- ever, withdrew to the Temple mount, the position of which was very strong ; here they held out for three months, but were ultimately compelled to surrender. Jerusalem, together with the whole land of the Jews, became tributary to Rome. But, in addition to this, large portions of Judasa were cut off ; the whole of the coast-land on the west, and all the non-Jewish cities east of the Jordan, were taken from the Jews ; Samaria also, together with a large tract of the sur- rounding country, was separated from Judaea, What was left of Jewish territory was placed under the high-priesthood of Hyrkanos II., but he was not permitted to retain the title of king. It was not only the Jews who were affected, for the whole of Syria was made a Roman province. From the taking of Jerusalem by Pompey in 63 B.C. to the year 47 B.C., when Caesar became THE MACCAB^AN ERA 17 «. actively interested in the Jews, the lot of the people was a hard one. But things altered in consequence of Caesar's gratitude to them for supporting him in his Alexandrine war ; and he showed this in the following way : In addition to being confirmed in the high-priesthood, Hyrkanos was made temporal ruler in Judaea with the title of ethnarch, which was to be hereditary ; the supreme court for the administration of justice in all that related to Jewish law was also placed under the immediate jurisdiction of Hyrkanos ; a number of cities were given back to Judsea, including Joppa on the coast ; Hyrkanos was per- mitted to rebuild the walls round Jerusalem ; and many taxes were remitted. Further, Caesar rewarded Antipater, who had also been of assistance to him during the Alexandrine war, by nominating him procurator of Jud^a. It is important to note that, by receiving this office direct from Caesar, Antipater was no more subject to Hyrkanos, as he had been hitherto, but was responsible to Rome alone. This is of importance for the further history of Judaea, for Antipater was thereby enabled to increase his power. He managed, indeed, to procure important posts for his sons, Phasael being appointed to administer the district of Jerusalem, and Herod that of Galilee. On the death of Antipater both his sons were made tetrarchs, with the result that Hyrkanos to all intents and purposes lost his authority as temporal ruler. This happened in the year 41 B.C. In the following year the whole condition of affairs in Judaea became again altered owing to the invasion of Syria by the Parthians. There is no need to go into the details of this invasion ; the special point, among its various consequences, that affected the Jews was that Herod was made king of Judaea by the Roman power. Under him the Hasmonaean dynasty came to an end by the judicial murder of the aged Hyrkanos (31 B.C.). Upon the whole, Herod left the Jews in peace so far C i8 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM as their religion was concerned. His passion for gorgeous buildings is well known, and need not be further touched upon here excepting to say that the Jews benefited by it, especially by the way in which he beautified the Temple. On the death of Herod (B.C. 4) his kingdom was divided among his three sons. Archelaus became eth- narch of Judaea, Idumasa, and Samaria {cp. Matt. ii. 22); his lands (in A.D. 6) came under the immediate rule of the Roman procurators, of whom Pontius Pilate governed A.D. 27-37. Antipas, who is always called Herod in the New Testament, received the title of tetrarch (he is called *'king'' in Mk. vi. 14) ; he inherited from his father Galilee and Peraea. Philip became tetrarch of north-eastern Palestine. But while the arrangements regarding these divisions were being made in Rome bitter fighting broke out in Palestine, where the impossible project seems to have been entertained by some of throwing off the Roman yoke. Foremost among the Jewish leaders was a certain Simon, who was active in Peraea ; in southern Judaea Athrouges, a shepherd, led the revolt ; and, above all, Judas, in Galilee, by energetic action gained important initial advantages. But it was all useless ; in a very short time Varus crushed every vestige of opposition for the time being. Nevertheless, the national spirit of the Jews and their yearning for freedom, fostered by the thoughts of the heroic and successful struggle of the Maccabees in bygone days against over- whelming odds, served to keep the embers of revolt from being extinguished. At last, in A.D. 66^ the long-prepared conflagration broke out, and the fatal war against Rome began. The terrible details of this war cannot be entered upon here. It ended at last in the final overthrow of the Jews with the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. THE TALMUDIC PERIOD 19 III THE TALMUDIC PERIOD The fearful struggle with Rome left the Jews physically prostrate. But it had the further and deeper effect of driving them from what had hitherto been the centre of their life and religion. Jerusalem no longer belonged to the Jews. A new phase of the Dispersion was about to commence which was going to make the words of Strabo true in a larger sense than he could ever have believed when he wrote : " Now these Jews are already gotten into all cities, and it is hard to find a place in the habitable earth that hath not admitted this tribe of men, and is not possessed by it."^ Palestine itself was divided up ; it was in part distributed among Roman soldiers and in part sold to the highest bidders ; only a tiny remnant was left to the Jews. It is now that one is able to see the very far-reaching and abiding effect which, beginning with Ezra and Nehemiah, and con- tinued by like-minded religious leaders through the centuries, the teaching of the Law had had upon the race. They had lost their country ; as a self-con- stituted nation they were no longer in existence ; even their religion was in danger. One thing was left to them — the Law, together with a mass of traditional teaching on the Law which had been handed down for generations. What we have called the Talmudic period includes the time during which the many elements of which the Talmud is made up were being gathered and welded together ; and this period is divided into three well-marked divisions, which are known re- spectively as the times of the Tannaim^ the Amoraim^ ^ Quoted by Josephus, Antiq. Xiv. vii. 2 ; cp. Sib. Orac, ill. 271 : "Every land and every sea is full of thee." C 2 20 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM and the Saboraim ; these names will be explained as we proceed. (i) The Tannaitic Period By the beginning of the Christian era there were recognised teachers of the Oral Law whose pronounce- ments were regarded as authoritative. Each such teacher received the name, or title, of Tanna, " teacher " (plur. Tannaim), from the Aramaic root teni^ *'to teach." These teachers all belonged to the Pharisaic party. After the destruction of the Temple (a.D. 70) the leaders of the Pharisaic party received permission from Titus to settle down in Jabne (Jamnia), a small place on the sea coast, not far from Jaffa. Here they established a new Sanhedrin, consisting of seventy- two *' elders" {Zekenim), under the presidency of the now aged Jochanan ben Zakkai. Jabne became a new centre for Palestinian Judaism, thus taking the place of Jerusalem in this respect ; and under the guidance of Jochanan ben Zakkai and his successors the Academy, or Beth ha-Midrash, of Jabne became so important that its pronouncements were recognised as authoritative not only among the remnant of the Jews in Palestine, but also throughout the Dispersion in the Western world. The head of this Academy soon came to be known as the Nasi^ or " Prince." Later on the Academy was removed to Sepphoris, and after- wards to Tiberias. It will, therefore, be seen that the lot of the Jews under the Romans was at least toler- able ; though a subject race, they were not badly treated so long as they acquiesced in the new con- ditions ; what they most valued, religious freedom, was fully accorded to them. In the meantime there were various scattered Jewish communities in the East, the descendants of the exiles in Babylonia and Mesopotamia. These had lived more or less unmolested for centuries, and had gradually established seats of learning in Baby- THE TALMUDIC PERIOD 21 Ionia. Over all these Eastern Jews there was a political head called the " Prince of the Captivity " {Resh Gelutha). Babylonia was destined to become the centre of Rabbinical Judaism ; but before we come to this part of our survey we must continue briefly to follow the history of the Jews in Palestine. The period immediately following the destruction of Jerusalem was comparatively peaceful ; certain hard- ships they had undoubtedly to bear, but it is evident that they were permitted full religious liberty, and intense activity in the Jewish schools of learning con- tinued ; communities were formed all over the country, and there can be no doubt that comparative security was enjoyed by the whole people ; it would otherwise be impossible to account for the long and tenacious resistance offered later by the nation to Hadrian. During the reign of Trajan, whether on account of oppressions or owing to the yearning for independence, the Jews broke into open revolt both in Palestine and elsewhere. For the time being they were subdued. But when, some years later, Hadrian attempted virtually to stamp out Judaism as a religion, a really serious revolt against the Roman power burst forth under the leadership of Bar-Cochba (" son of a star "). For three years, A,D. 132-135, the-fighting continued ; but the power of Rome inevitably won the day at last. Hadrian founded a new city on the site of Jerusalem, in which he planted a colony of foreigners. He attempted to obliterate the very name of Jeru- salem by calling his new city ^lia Capitolina ; no Jew was allowed to enter it. Among the religious leaders of this time the most prominent were the Tanna Rabbi Akiba,^ who died about A.D. 132-135 probably, and Judah ha- Nasi ; ^ the latter, as the redactor of the Mishnah, is certainly one of the most important figures in ^ See further below, p. 95. ** See further below, pp. 44, 96 ff. 22 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Jewish history. As religious leader of the Pales- tinian Jews he worked for many years in Beth She'arim (in Galilee), to which place he transferred the seat of the patriarchate and principal Academy. Later on he went to Sepphoris, where he lived for seventeen years, and died A.D. 220. From this time onwards, although the Palestinian teachers continued their work in the various Academies and finally com- pleted the Palestinian Talmud, it was Babylon which became more and more the authoritative centre of Judaism. (ii) The Period of the Amoraim " Sherira Gaon, in his famous letter (the chief source for information on the Babylonian schools), wrote ; * No doubt, here in Babylonia public in- struction was given in the Torah ; but besides the exilarchs there were no recognised heads of schools until the death of Rabbi (Judah I.).' The prin- cipal seat of Babylonian Judaism was Nehardea."^ But it was the nephew of Judah I., Rabbi Arika, known later as " Rab," who initiated a new epoch, for with him began the time during which for centuries the Academies in Babylonia played the leading role as the fountain-head of Judaism. This began approximately in A.D. 220. He founded a new Academy in Sura, leaving his friend Rabbi Samuel to preside at the ancient seat of learning in Nehardea. This latter city was destroyed in A.D. 259, and its place was thereupon taken by a town not far off called Pumbeditha. In these schools study was concentrated upon the Law and upon the various explanations and comments of earlier teachers on it which had accumulated in course of ages, and which to a large extent had been incor- porated in the Mishnah. The scholar whose work during this period was of paramount importance was ^ JE i. 145.:?. THE TALMUDIC PERIOD 23 Rabbi Ashi, the president of the Academy at Sura. He undertook the colossal work of gathering together and sifting the materials which were the outcome of two centuries of Rabbinical labour in the Academies of Babylonia. "The final editing of the literary work which this labour produced did not, it is true, take place until somewhat later ; but tradition rightly regards Ashi as the originator of the Baby- lonian Talmud. Ashi's editorial work received, indeed, many later additions and amplifications ; but the form underwent no material modification. The Babylonian Talmud must be considered the work of the Academy of Sura, because Ashi submitted to each of the semi-annual general assemblies of the Academy, treatise by treatise, the results of his examination and selection, and invited discussion upon them. His work was continued and perfected, and probably reduced to writing, by succeeding heads of the Sura Academy . . . from the Academy of Sura was issued that unique literary effort which was destined to occupy such an extraordinary position in Judaism." ^ The date of the comple- tion of the Babylonian Talmud was approximately A.D. 500. During the whole of this period work similar to that of the Babylonian Academies was being carried on in the Academies of Palestine ; here, too, a Talmud was by degrees being brought into exist- ence. The centre from which this came forth was the Academy of Tiberias, and the foremost worker in connexion with it is Rabbi Jochanan ben Nappacha. All the teachers of this period, whether in Babylonia or Palestine, are known as Amoraim^ the plural form o^ A mora J which means "a speaker"; but in the sense of " interpreter," it is used in reference to the inter- preters of, or commentators on, the Mishnah. This period lasted to the year A.D. 500. ^ /E i. 146a. 24 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM (iii) The Period of the Saboraifn This period was of much shorter duration than the two preceding ones. The scholars to whom the name of Sahara (" decision ") was appHed were those who gave the final touches to the Talmud (Babylonian); they added various decisions on many points which had been handed down from earlier teachers, but nothing that they added was of their own composition. They are to be regarded as the final redactors of the Talmud. This period closed, and with it the whole of what we have called the Talmudic period, about A.D. 550, or a little later. It was a period which, speaking generally, was favourable to the Jews provided they acquiesced in what their rulers insisted upon. Both in Palestine, under the Romans (and later under the Byzantine Empire), and in Babylonia, under the Persians, there was (with one or two exceptions) no interference with the Jewish religion ; this, from the point of view . of Jewish literature, which is wholly a religious litera- ture, was of paramount importance. The Jewish religious leaders, especially in Babylonia, had no wish to interfere in the world of politics ; that they should be left in peace to continue their religious literary pursuits was their great desire ; and that this was accorded them is evident from the results of their labours which have been handed down. The importance of Palestine as a Jewish centre continued to decrease, while that of Babylon gained more and more in authority and prestige ; so much so that during our next period interest in Palestine becomes negligible.^ ^ Schools continued to exist in Palestine for several centuries, but their authority, as compared with that of the Babylonian centres of learning, was quite unimportant. THE GEONIC PERIOD 25 IV THE GEONIC PERIOD Gaon (plur. Geonint) means " Excellency " {cp. Ps. xlvii. 4), and was the title given to the heads of the two leading Academies in Babylonia, namely. Sura and Pumbeditha. They were the direct suc- cessors of the Amoraim and Saboraim ; for, "while the Amoraim, through their interpretation of the Mishnah, gave rise to the Talmud, and while the Saboraim definitely edited it, the Geonim's task was to interpret it ; for them it became the subject of ■ study and instruction, and they gave religio-legal decisions in agreement with its teachings."^ The Geonic period lasted from the latter part of the sixth century to the first half of the eleventh, about four centuries and a half;^ throughout this period the Geonim were recognised as the chief religious authorities throughout Jewry — that is to say, not only in Babylonia, but also in northern Africa, Spain, and in those parts of Europe generally where Jewish communities were founded. The great world-event of this period was the rise of Mohammedanism. When, early in the seventh century, it commenced its aggressive career in Arabia, the Jews were the first sufferers. There had existed here for many centuries an obscure Jewish community which does not seem to have had any relationship with either Palestine or Babylonia. When the Prophet raised his cry of " The Koran or the sword ! " it meant bitter persecution for these Arabian Jews. But this formed an exception to the general treatment accorded by the Mohammedan rulers to the Jews. When once conquest was gained the Caliphs behaved tolerantly towards them ; so 1 JE V. 568a. 2 See pp. 209 ff. 26 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM long as there was no active opposition the Jews were permitted the exercise of their religion without molestation. The Caliph Omar showed himself quite friendly to the Geonint in Babylonia ; the schools of Sura and Pumbeditha, which had been closed for some time previously by the Persian government, were reopened, and the heads of these Academies — known also by the name of Kallah'^ — gave them- selves again uninterruptedly to the work which had been carried on by their predecessors. The most celebrated of the Geonhn during the early part ot this period was Jehudai ben Nachman, known also by the name of Judah the Blind ; the influence of his teaching continued long after his death. The Geonim ^ became by degrees the great authorities on all religious and legal questions, leaving all political matters, as we have seen, to the functionary called the Resh Gelutha, the origin of which dated from earlier centuries ; he was originally an officer appointed by the suzerain power. But during Mohammedan ascendancy the Resh Gelutha lost more and more of his influence, and finally, in the tenth century, the office ceased to exist. It was during this period that what is called the Karaite movement arose, a movement which owed its rise indirectly to Mohammedan influence. The founder of the sect which originated this movement was named Anan, who lived early in the ninth century. _ He and his followers called themselves Bene Mikra ^ (" sons of reading "), and they pro- fessed to follow the teaching of what they read in the Bible only, and ignored altogether the interpre- tations of the Rabbis and the teaching and practice ^ Derived possibly from the Aramaic word for '' garland," in reference to the teachers of the Academies, who formed a "circle" of adornment; but the origin of the word is obscure. 2 From the same root as the \vord Koran. They were also called Ananites after the founder. THE GEONIC PERIOD 27 founded thereon. In fact, it was a repetition of that loyalty to the Written Law and repudiation of the Oral Law which in earlier ages had been championed by the Sadducees. The influence of the Karaite sect was in one respect far-reaching ; their main principle, i.e. regarding the Scriptures as the sole authority in matters of faith and practice, entailed on their part a minute examination of the text of the Bible in order to be able to refute the Rabbinical standpoint ; in order to counter this the Rabbis undertook a similar task. This critical study of the text of Scripture developed into a very keen contest between the Rabbinical and Karaite champions. There is no doubt that the bulk of the work of compiling an authoritative text, which was the outcome of this contest, must be assigned to the initiative of the Karaites. The result of this literary contest was of the highest importance, for it produced what is called the " Masoretic " text (from the Hebrew word Massora, " Tradition ") ; this is the text of the Hebrew Bible at the present day, from which also the Authorised and Revised Versions of the English Bible were made. Apart from this, the Karaites exercised but little influence; they were never numerous. It is a curious thing that they, never- theless, continued to exist, and are to be found even at the present day in Egypt and Eastern Europe, as well as in Jerusalem. The most distinguished personality, from a literary point of view, in the Geonic period was Saadya. He was born in 892, in the Fayyum (Upper Egypt), but spent many years of his life in Palestine. In 928 he was appointed Gaon of Sura, and under his guidance that Academy enjoyed a position of great importance and prestige, in spite of the fact that, owing to quarrels, Saadya had for part of the time to leave Sura and settle down in Bagdad. Saadya was not only the greatest Jewish literary light of his 28 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM own time, but also the first great writer in post- Biblical Judaism since Philo; *'as Philo had united the Hellenic language and culture with the Jewish spirit, so the language and civilisation of the Moham- medan Arabs gained a similar, but far more lasting, influence over the history of Judaism through the writings of Saadiah. He was, moreover, almost entirely a creator and an innovator in the scientific fields in which he laboured, although much of his work, even that which was written in Hebrew, is now known only from citations/' ^ Of his many works, exegetical, grammatical, Halakic, liturgical, and polemical, the foremost is the Emunotk we- Deoth (" Articles of Faith and Philosophic Dogmas "), written in 933 ; it is "the first systematic presentation and philosophic foundation of the dogmas of Judaism " ever written ; it appeared originally in Arabic, and was twice translated into Hebrew. Ever since its publication, and right up to the present day, it has commanded the greatest respect and authority in orthodox Jewish circles.^ He lived during the time of the Karaite movement, and was zealous in writing refutations of the teachings of this sect. Important, too, was his translation of the Hebrew Bible into Arabic, for it was " a potent factor in the impregna- tion of the Jewish spirit with Arabic culture."^ Though not confined to this period, but belonging to it in a special way, is an element in Jewish literature which is of a unique character, viz. the " Responsa Prudentum," or, according to the Hebrew form, She'eloth u-Teshuboth ("Questions and Answers"). These constitute a collection of replies, decisions, and comments, of various recognised teachers, and especially of the heads of Academies, in written form, to questions addressed to them by 1 JE X. 580^. 2 See further Jost, Geschichte des Judentums^ ii. 279 ff. (1857). 3 For details of his various works, SG.e/E x. 581 ff. THE JEWS IN SPAIN 29 Jewish inquirers in all parts of the world. " These Responsa constitute a special class of Talmudic and Rabbinical literature, which in form differs both from the commentaries and from the codifications of Rab- binical Judaism, yet in content is similar to both." They deal with subjects of every imaginable kind, and though many of them are of a theoretical character, the majority are concerned with practical matters of everyday life. The date of the earliest is subsequent to the completion of the Mishnah ; and though many belong to a time before the Geonic period, it is during this period specifically that the Responsa were written. The earliest were written in Aramaic ; later on Hebrew and Arabic took the place of Aramaic. The custom continued to much later times all over Europe ; but these later Responsa have neither the same importance nor interest as the earlier ones. Collections of the Geonic Responsa were made in the sixteenth century, and various further collections of them have been made since, the latest having been published in 1905 by Ginzberg, under the title " Genizah Studies." The Geonic period coincides to a large extent with the centuries during which the Jews lived in much prosperity under the Ommeyade Caliphs in Spain ; it is, therefore, to this period that we must now turn. V THE JEWS IN SPAIN ^ Not without reason has the period of the Jews* settlement in Spain from the eighth to the thirteenth century been called the " Golden Age of the modern Jews."^ Communities of Jews had settled in Spain long before this time ; as early as the third century, so the evidence shows, they were already living in ^ See further, pp. 209 ff. 2 Milman, History of the Jews ^ iii. 267 (1829). 30 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM the country, the tombstone of a Jewish girl bearing a Latin inscription belonging to this century having been discovered at Adra,^ a small town on the southern coast of Spain. Until the arrival of the Moors the lot of the Jews was not happy ; both the civil and religious authorities oppressed them, though they enjoyed peaceful intervals at times. But by the beginning of the eighth century a very different prospect opened out before them. Under the Arab conquerors the Jewish population increased greatly, mainly through immigration from Africa ; southern Spain especially became an asylum for oppressed Jews from other parts of the country. When the Caliphs began to establish themselves in the splendid state of peaceful sovereigns, the Jews found occasion to exercise their influence in teaching the less cul- tured people among whom they had settled the arts and luxuries of civilised life. "The Hebrew literature was admirably adapted to the kindred taste of the Arabians. The extravagant legends of the Talmud would harmonise with their bold poetical spirit ; their picturesque apologues were probably the form of instruction in which the Arab tribes had ever delighted to listen to moral wisdom ; even the niceties of their verbal disputes would not be without charm to their masters, who soon began to pay attention to the polish of their rich and copious lan- guage." ^ During the reigns of Abd al-Rachman, king of Cordova (called Al-Nasir), and his son, Al-Chakim (a.d, 912-961), the Jews rose to great importance; they devoted themselves whole-heartedly to the service of their masters, and were rewarded by being allowed absolute freedom and security, and were given posts of honour in the kingdom. These reigns constituted " a golden era for the Spanish Jews and Jewish science. Abd al-Rachman's court ^ HiJbner, Inscriptiones Hispania Latince, p. 267 (1869). 2 Milman, op. cit. iii. 269. THE JEWS IN SPAIN 31 physician and minister yjas Hasdai ben Isaac . . . the patron of Jewish scholars and poets. During his term of power the scholar Moses ben Enoch was appointed Rabbi of Cordova, and as a consequence Spain became the centre of Talmudic study, and Cordova the meeting-place of Jewish savants." ^ But things did not always go so well with the Jews even during this, generally speaking, prosperous period. The positions of authority and responsibility some- times entailed being involved in political affairs, which, on occasion, brought disaster not only to a highly placed Jew, but also to his co-religionists. Such was, for example, the case towards the end of the eleventh and in the twelfth century during the bitter struggle between the Almoravides and Almo- hades in southern Spain. Under the Christian rulers in Spain the Jews again lived through very varied fortunes, at one time persecuted, at another favoured. A definite turning-point was, however, reached about the middle of the thirteenth century, under Ferdinand III., ruler of the united kingdoms of Leon and Castile, and James I., king of Aragon ; owing to the power of the clergy, all Jews were forced to wear the yellow badge on their clothing. By this means the Jews were marked and differentiated from their fellow-subjects, with the inevitable result that they were regarded with suspicion and contempt. In 1250 a Bull was issued by the Pope, Innocent IV., to the effect that the Jews might not build a new synagogue without special permission ; they were forbidden to make proselytes under pain of death and confiscation of property; they were not allowed to associate in any way with Christians ; the latter were forbidden the use of any medicine prepared by a Jew — an exceedingly foolish provision, for the fore- most physicians during the Middle Ages were Jews ; the use of the yellow badge was again enjoined ; no 1 /£ xi. 485^. 32 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Jew was allowed to appear in public on Good Friday. Yet, in spite of this, there were periods during which life was quite tolerable for the Jews ; it depended mainly upon the attitude of the ruler for the time being whether they were tolerated or persecuted. But from the beginning of the fourteenth century their position became more and more precarious ; terrible massacres took place from time to time ; constant anti-Jewish enactments were put forth ; popular risings against the Jews were liable to take place at any time. By the end of the fourteenth century (the year 1391 was marked by one of the most bloody massacres) things had reached such a pitch that the ill-treatment of the Jews brought its own revenge upon the country. " The persecutions, the laws of exclusion, the humiliation inflicted upon them, and the many conversions among them had greatly injured the Jews, but with them suffered the whole kingdom of Spain. Commerce and industry were at a standstill, the soil was not cultivated, and the finances were disturbed. ... In order to restore commerce and industry Queen Maria, consort of Alfonso V. and temporary regent, endeavoured to draw Jews to the country by offering them privileges, while she made emigration difficult by imposing taxes." ^ And so the ups and downs went on from decade to decade, the details of which cannot be recounted here. The end came in 1492 with the edict of expulsion against the Jews issued by Ferdinand and Isabella, the Jewish population in Spain at that time being over a quarter of a million on a low estimate. We have seen that during the long period in which the Jews lived in Spain it happened not infrequently that peaceable times of considerable duration were enjoyed, and this was especially the case up to about the twelfth century. During the eleventh and twelfth ^ JE xi. p. 497i^. THE JEWS IN SPAIN 33 centuries Spanish Jewry had various centres of learn- ing, from which issued scholars of great note ; indeed, all the foremost Jewish scholars of the Middle Ages came from this country. Among the large number of these, four stand pre-eminent ; of each of these a few words must be said. The earliest is Ibn Gebirol (1021-1070). It is claimed for him that he was the first teacher of Neoplatonisni in Europe, and that he exercised a considerable influence on mediaeval Christian scholas- ticism. It is certain that he was one of the leading scholars and authorities in the Middle Ages on the philosophy of Greece, and that his learning was far more appreciated by Christian than by Jewish scholars, both during his lifetime and in succeeding ages. His most important works are the Mekor Chayyint (" The Fountain of Life") and his "Treatise on Ethics." In the former his main thesis is that " all that exists is constituted of matter and form ; one and the same matter runs through the whole universe from the highest limits of the spiritual down to the lowest limits of the physical, excepting that matter, the further it is removed from its first source, becomes less and less spiritual." In the latter work he attempts to show that ethics do not depend upon faith or dogma. Ibn Gebirol was also a poet of great renown ; he contributed many piyyuthn ^ to Jewish literature ; of these the most celebrated is the Kether Malkutli (" The Kingly Crown ") ; this has been incorporated in the Sephardic Ritual. A work of different character, but one which has enjoyed great popu- larity, is the Mibchar ha-Peninim (" The Choice of Pearls") ; this is a collection of aphorisms, reflections, and wise sayings, many of which are full of sound sense and practical value, e.g. : " What is a test of good manners ? Being able to bear patiently with ^ Liturgical poems ; see below, pp. 272, 279-281. D 34 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM bad ones/' Comparatively short as his Hfe was, Ibn Gebirol did much for his own and succeeding generations. A contemporary of his was Judah ha-Levi (1085- 1 140), who likewise enjoyed with his brethren peace in the one country of Europe in which at this time the Jews were left unmolested. By profession ha-Levi was a physician, but his activity was mainly literary. Like all the great Jewish writers of these centuries, he was both an Arabic and a Greek scholar ; much as he loved the ancient classics and the wisdom of the Greeks, he wrote characteristically of it that " it bears not fruit, but only blossom." Judah ha-Levi is best known as a religious poet ; as such he probably stands foremost among post- Biblical Jewish writers. He was very deeply imbued with the religious spirit, and his poems breathe forth the most earnest piety. More than three hundred of his poems have been incorporated in the various forms of the Liturgy. But he was also a philosophical writer of great eminence. His chief philosophical work is the Sepher ha~Kuzari^ written originally in Arabic, in about 1 140. It is an "Apologia'' of Judaism, which he vindicates in opposition to ancient philosophy, Christianity, and Mohammedanism. While not pre- senting a regular doctrinal system of Judaism, it deals with isolated doctrinal subjects ; it is a book which has always enjoyed a great vogue in orthodox Jewish circles. Another outstanding writer of these times was Abraham ibn Ezra (1092-1167), who wrote works on a large variety of subjects, of which the chief were his commentary on the Pentateuch, and the Yesod MorUy a study in religious philosophy. But the greatest of all the Jewish mediaeval writers was Moses Maimonides (i 135-1204), of whom the Jews say : " From Moses to Moses there hath arisen none like unto Moses." His life was a chequered one, but THE JEWS IN SPAIN 35 this is not the place for a biographical sketch,^ as we are here concerned only with the literary activity of Maimonides. Of his many works the two outstanding ones are the Vad /ia-C/iac;aka/i (" The Strong Hand ") and the Moreh Nebukim (" Guide to the Perplexed "). The former, published in li8o ^its original title is Mishneh ToraJt), deals with the Jewish Law, written and oral ; the faith and practice of the Jews from the earliest times are presented, all the later authorities on the subject being taken into consideration. It is a work of immense research and industry, and has always been regarded as one of the most important Jewish literary productions. But in originality and independence of thought this work is far surpassed by the Moreh Nebukim ; this was originally written in Arabic ; it was published in 1191, and soon trans- lated into Hebrew. The object of the work was to deal with the perplexities of religious belief, and in doing so Maimonides forsook all the old traditional lines of argument ; for, being steeped in the Aristo- telian world-views, he sought to spiritualise the secrets of Holy Writ on the lines of Alexandrine allegori- sing. That his book called forth condemnation on the part of the orthodox cannot cause surprise, for, traditional Rabbinism being thus entirely set aside by Maimonides, the Rabbinical authorities of his day perceived at once the blow to orthodoxy which his views involved. Nevertheless, in spite of being- condemned and publicly burned, the works of Mai- monides received more and more recognition ; it is probably true that to-day no serious Jewish theolo- gian would dispense with them. Maimonides was also a hymn-writer; two of his hymns, Adon Oldvi ^ See Geiger, Nachgelassene Schriften^ iii. pp. 34-96, and the excellent article \n JE by Lauterbach. See also Jost, Geschichte des Judenthums und seiner Sekten^ ii. pp. 452 ff.; iii. 7 ff. (1857 . . ) ; and Abrahams, Maimonides (1903). D 2 36 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM and Yigdal} have been incorporated in the Jewish Liturgy. All these writers, and many more (for we have mentioned only the most important), lived in Spain, and for the most part spent their whole hves there ; so that it is not without reason that this period is regarded as the " Golden Age " of Jewish literature. As we have already seen, Spain was for long the only country in Europe in which the Jews could live in peace. But the time came, in 1492, when they were driven even from Spain. They had been expelled from England in 1290, and in 1394 from France, where the great commentator Rashi lived during the latter part of the eleventh century. They were tolerated in parts of Germany, but this was only because they became, together with all their belongings, the absolute property of the Emperors, to be used as and when it suited them. Ultimately, however, there, too, life became unbearable for most of them, especially among the poorer classes, and they emi- grated in large numbers to Poland, only a few settle- ments remaining in Germany. Some Italian cities (e.g. Rome and Venice) also permitted Jews to settle down in them ; but they were shut up in Ghettos. It was not until the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that Jewish literature began to flourish once more, especially in Holland, the foremost name being that of Spinoza, the Dutch philosopher (1632-1677). But with this later period we are not here concerned. 1 On these see below, p. 157. PART II THE RABBINICAL LITERATURE PART II THE RABBINICAL LITERATURE THE TARGUMS [Literature : Emanuel Deutsch, Literary Remains^ pp. 319- 403 (1874) ; Buhl, Canon and Text of the Old Testament^ pp. 167-185 (1892) ; Zunzj Die Gottesdienstlichen Vortrdge der Juden, pp. 65-86 (1892): Schiirer, GJV^ i. pp. 147-156 (1901) ; Dalman, Graimnatik des Jildisch-Paldstinischeft Ara- mdisch^ pp. u-35, with important bibliography (1905); the arts. "Targum" in Hastings' DB 2Si6.JE^ where a full bibliography is given. An English translation of the Targums to the Penta- teuch was edited by Etheridge, The Targums of Onkelos and fonathan be7i Usziel on the Pentateuch^ with the Fragments of the Jerusalem Targum (1862, 1865). The Targums are printed by the side of the Hebrew text in the Rabbinical Bibles, and in Walton's Polyglot with Latin translation.] (i) hitroductory Since the Targums are written in Aramaic, and not in the "holy tongue" of the Hebrews, a few pre- liminary words explaining how this came about will not be out of place. Aramaic was the language of the Aramaeans, the people who, during most of the Old Testament period, lived in the country to which the Greeks gave the name of Syria.^ The Aramaeans belonged to the Semitic race, whose primaeval home was ^ In the Septuagint the Hebrew Aram is always rendered Syria, The name Syria is first found in Herodotus. 40 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM Arabia ; ^ they issued from here, in -all probability, during the middle of the second pre-Christian millennium or thereabouts, and pushed northwards towards the Euphrates land. Shalmanassar I., king of Assyria {circa 1 300 B.C.), refers frequently in the inscriptions of his time to the battles he was com- pelled to wage against the Aramaeans. By this time they were constantly overrunning Mesopotamia, and when, soon after, the Assyrian empire came to an end (1275 B.C.), they succeeded in establishing them- selves in the northern parts of this country ; and it was not until over a century later that they were definitely driven into their natural element, the steppe. This was the work of Tiglath-Pileser I.,'-^ the renewer of the ancient Assyrian empire ; owing to the energy with which he combated the encroach- ments of the Aramaeans, he succeeded in driving them off into the northern parts of what is now called Syria ; at that time it formed part of the powerful empire of the Hittites. But even before the time of Shalmanassar I. it is highly probable that Aramaean invasions on a small scale had taken place not only into northern Syria, but even into Palestine. A distant echo of some contact between the Aramaeans and the Israelites is to be discerned in Judg. iii. 8, where we read of the latter having been in bondage to Cushan-rishathaim, king of Aram-naharaim,^ for eight years. This was approximately in 1200 B.C. Within a century of this time the Aramaeans must, according to the data in the Old Testament, have been in possession of Damascus, the Hauran, and the districts east of the Jordan from the Lake of Tiberias 1 This opinion regarding the origin of the Semites is now held by practically all authorities ; see, e.g.^ Paton, Syria and Palestine^ pp. 3 ff., in "The Semitic Series" (1902). 2 For details regarding the reign of this king, see Hommel, Geschichte Babylo7tie7is unci Assy riens^ pp. 514 ff. (1885). 3 //■/. "Aram of the two rivers"; R.V. therefore renders it " Mesopotamia," THE TARGUMS 41 up to Mount Hermon. At any rate, by about 1000 B.C. the Aramaeans^ had become a powerful settled kingdom with Damascus as its capital. From this time onwards, i.e. approximately from the time of David, direct contact between them and the Israelites was frequent. This is abundantly illus- trated in the pages of the Old Tes'tament, and it continued until the final disappearance of the Aramaean (or Syrian) kingdom, towards the end of the eighth century B.C., through the conquests of the Assyrian kings. But though the Aramaeans as a nation ceased to exist, and by degrees became absorbed by other races, the results of their influence lasted on for many centuries ; this was through their language.^ Com- merce must have been the most potent cause at first of the spread of the Aramaic -language among the Israelites ; to a less extent politics. But, whatever the various causes, it is quite certain that the Aramaic language came to be spoken more and more all over Palestine as time went on.^ There was a constantly increasing tendency for it to become the common language of the ordinary people, while Hebrew was spoken by th^ more cultured classes and became the Hterary language. Added to this was the fact, that from the comparatively early times of the first inroads of the Aramaeans into Mesopotamia and neighbouring districts their language continued to be spoken there, with the result that during the Exile the Jews came more than ever into close touch with 1 We are referring, of course, only to those who had by degrees worked their way northwards and westwards ; the Aramaean nation as a whole never formed a political unity, 2 cp.^ e.g., Gen. xxxi. 47, where Jegar-sahadutha (Aramaic) and Galeed (Hebrew) occur side by side ; both mean "a heap of witness." 3 "The opinion that the Palestinian Jews brought their Aramaic dialect directly from Babylon — whence the incorrect name 'Chaldee'— is untenable" {Encycl. Bibl. \. 282). 42 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Aramaic. So that, even while absent from their own land, the Israelites used the same language, though a somewhat different dialect of it, to which they had been becoming more and more accustomed before the Exile. Three main dialects of Aramaic existed from early times : Western, or Palestinian ; Eastern, or Baby- lonian ; and Mesopotamian. It is the two former which are of importance in the present connexion ; for to one or other of these belong the Aramaic portions of the Old Testament and the Targums, as well as the two Talmuds and a great deal of the Midrashic literature.^ As a literary language Aramaic appears for the first time, so far as we know, some time before 400 B.C.; for from Ezra iv. 8-22 ; v. 1-6, 12 ; vii. 12-26, we see that documents dealing with the history of the Second Temple were written in Aramaic ; and a few short passages of the book itself are in Aramaic (iv. 23 ; V. 5 ; vii. 13—18).^ A century or so later we have the book of Daniel, a considerable portion of which is written in Aramaic. " The employment of the two languages in these Biblical books well illus- trates their use in those circles in which and for which the books were written. In point of fact, at the time of the Second Temple, both languages were in common use in Palestine : the Hebrew in the academies and in the circles of the learned, the Aramaic among the lower classes in the intercourse of daily life. But the Aramaic continued to spread, and became the customary popular idiom. . . ." ^ Thus the knowledge and understanding of Hebrew were gradually lost by the people in general, and the ^ The Talmuds and the Midrashic works contain a good deal of Hebrew as well as Aramaic ; but it is Neo-Hebrew, not the classical Hebrew of the Old Testament. 2 The Aramaic fragment of the Story of Ahikar in the Assouan Papyri may be dated 420 B.C. ■^ JE ii. 69^. For the general use of Aramaic during the New Testament period, see DahnanjZ?/V Worte Jesu^ pp. 2 ff. (18 THE TARGUMS 43 Scriptures, written in Hebrew, therefore threatened to become a sealed book to them. To avoid this the reading of the Scriptures in the synagogue was sup- plemented by translating the ^ Hebrew into the Aramaic vernacular. This was, of course, done orally at first ; and that is the origin of the Targum. (ii) On the Targums genei'ally The word Targum (the tt is long) means " trans- lation " or *' interpretation " ; the origin of the word is uncertain, but it is possible that it is related to an Arabic root used in connexion with forecasting the future, and which means *' to unravel." ^ From it comes the word M etJmrgeinan ^ (pass. part, form), which occurs in Ezra iv. 7 : " . . and the writing of the letter was written in Aramaic and translated into Aramaic." ^ In Neh. viii. 8 we get what appears to be the earliest reference to the way in which the Targums first came into use : *' And they read in the book, in the law of God, distinctly [or ' with an inter- pretation '] ; and they gave the sense, so that they understood the reading." Uncertain as the meaning of this text is,"^ there is no doubt that the Rabbis understood it in reference to the Targum.^ Deutsch, in this cormexion, appropriately quotes Sanhedrin 21b (Bab. Talmud)^: "Originally the Law was given to Israel in Ibri (Hebrew) writing and the holy lan- guage. It was again given to them in the days of Ezra in the Ashuri (Syrian) writing and the Aramaic language." ^ Wellhausen, Reste Arabischen Heidetituins^ p. 207 (1897). ^ The word '* Dragoman" is a corruption of this. ^ The text is obviously corrupt, but that does not affect the present point. ■^ See Batten, Ezra a?id Nehemiah (Intern. Grit. Com.), pp. 356 ff. (1913)- " Babylonian Talmud, Megitla yi. ^ Literary Remains^ p. 321 (1874). 44 RABBINICAL AND MEDIi^VAL JUDAISM There can be little doubt that in its beginnings the Targum belongs to the time of the Second Temple, and, as already pointed out, it was originally delivered orally. The prohibition to commit the Targum to writing was due to the fear lest what was written down should come to be regarded as of canonical authority ; the written word and a written interpretation of it might, so it was thought, easily involve the danger of each coming to be regarded as equally authoritative. For centuries, therefore, the explanation of the Scriptures in the Aramaic ver- nacular was handed down by word of mouth. But there is distinct evidence that by the beginning of the Christian era written Targums were in existence. Zunz goes so far as to say that *' written Aramaic translations of most of the Biblical books certainly existed as early as the times of the Hasmonaeans." ^ At any rate, it is reliably related of Gamaliel I.^ that he caused a Targum on the book of Job to be walled up within the Temple.^ There would doubtless have been other Targums extant before this, as the book of Job would certainly not have been the first to have been translated ; indeed, we know that this was the case, for the Targum of Onkelos (see below) to the Pentateuch belongs to the very beginning of the Christian era,* though in its permanent written form it belongs to a somewhat later date, in all probability. In the Mishnah {Yadayim iv. 5), which was redacted by Jehudah ha-Nasi at the end of the second or beginning of the third century A.D., rules regarding the manner of writing the Targums are given ; the practice must, therefore, have been in vogue long before this. ^ Die gottesdienstliche?i Vortrdge der Juden^ p. 65 (1892). " He flourished at the beginning of the Christian era; see Acts V. 34, 39- ^ Bab. Talm. Sabbath ii^a (Dabnan, op. cit. p. 2). "* cp. Zunz, op. cit. p. 66. THE TARGUMS 45 The Targums, especially those which are more pronouncedly paraphrastic, come under the compre- hensive term of Rabbinical literature, for, though the Rabbinical literature proper belongs to a rather later date, the Targums exhibit the traditional Rabbinical conception of the written text of the Scriptures, and especially of the Pentateuch. The Targums were used primarily for Biblical instruction, but they also had their place in the synagogal Liturgy. There were special rules which guided the reading of the Targum in the synagogue, and these varied according to the importance of the Targum which was being read. These rules are given in the Mishnah, Megilla iv. 4, where it says : '" He v^o reads the Torah may not read less than three verses (at a time) ; but to a Methurgeman ^ not more than one verse may be read (at a time). But when the prophetical sections (are read) three (verses may be read at a time)." This means that in the ordinary reading of the Pentateuch not less than three verses should be read at a time ; but when it is officially read in the synagogue, where it has to be translated into Aramaic for the congre- gation to understand, then only one verse is read at a time in the original and immediately translated. In the case of the prophetical books the translation is given after every three verses, these books not being so important as the Pentateuch (Torah). The reading of the Hebrew was never done by the Methurgeman ; in the case of the Pentateuch there had to be one reader and one interpreter ; in the case of the Pro- phetical books one reader, but there might be more than one interpreter. By a strange irony of fate, it was the written Targum which became the cause of abolishing the use of the Targums in the synagogue. It was ignorance of Hebrew which called the Targum into ^ The Hebrew was read to the Methurgeman, the official translator, and rendered by him in Aramaic to the people. 46 RABBINICAL ANB MEDIEVAL JUDAISM existence ; but Aramaic, in course of time, shared the same fate as Hebrew and was as httle understood. Even where Aramaic continued to be the spoken language it altered its character, so that the Aramaic of the Targums, having become archaic, was no more understood. Among the Jews of the .Diaspora, who did not know any Aramaic at all, it was, of course, worse. The rise of Islam tended to make Arabic the language of the Jews in the Oriental lands. In Babylon, however, the stronghold of Judaism for many centuries after the destruction of the Jewish state, the ancient Targum was used in the synagogue, in spite of its not being understood, up to about A.D. looo ; then it was given up, as had been the case for long previously among the Jews elsewhere. Among the Jews in Europe the Targums have never been in use in the synagogue ;^ in spite of the desire, which existed for centuries, that after the reading of the Law it should be translated into the vernacular, this was not actually carried out until 1845, and then only in America and Germany. (iii) l^he Doctrinal Teaching of the Targums The doctrine of God in the Targums is based upon that of the Old Testament ; but there is this differ- ence, that in the Targums a very pronounced trans- cendentalism is taught ; so much so that the thought of the divine working in the hearts of men directly seems to be almost entirely eliminated. Moreover, this one-sided doctrine of God is in so far antagonistic to the Old Testament teaching in that it altogether does away with the belief in God as the God of history ; for the divine transcendence as taught in the * An exception to this was the reading of the Targum (which nobody understood) on the seventh day of Passover, and during the Feast of Weeks, in France and Germany (Elbogen, Der judische Goiiesdienst in seiner geschichtlichen Eniwickelung^ p. 191J. THE TARGUMS 47 Targums is such that God is represented as One who is too holy and of necessity too separate from human affairs to take any interest in man and his doings. In accordance with this teaching the Targums avoid everything that appears to savour of anthropomorphism and implies any direct per- sonal communion between God and man ; the effort is, therefore, made, for example, to soften down or explain away everything that in the Old Testament is represented as a likeness between God and man. An interesting illustration, and one of the most pointed which could be given, is the paraphrase in the Targums of the words : " Let us make man in our image, after our likeness'' (Gen. i. 26). In the earliest Targum, that of Onkelos,^ the softening-down process is not so marked as in the later Palestinian Targum ; ^ nevertheless, the tendency referred to is quite distinct, for it is implied that the "image" and " likeness " are between man and the angels rather than God Himself. But in the Palestinian Targum the paraphrase runs : " In the likeness of the presence of the Lord created He them " ; the likeness, that is to say, is represented as being not to the Lord Himself, but to the divine presence which, as it were, comes between God and man. Interesting, too, is the way in which the anthropomorphisms of the Old Testa- ment are avoided, though here again this is more characteristic of the Palestinian Targum than that of Onkelos. For example, in Gen. xviii. 8 it is said : *' And he (Abraham) stood by them under the tree, and they did eat" ; in the Targum of Onkelos this is given verbally, but the Palestinian Targum para- phrases : " And he served before them, and they sat under the tree ; and he quieted himself (to see) whether they would eat " ; the direct assertion of their eating is avoided. But both Targums constantly paraphrase ^ On these see the next section. The tendency referred to is more marked in the Palestinian Targum throughout. 48 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM anthropomorphisms by the expression "He mani- fested Himself," or something like it, e.^: Gen. iii. 5 ; Ex. iii. 8 ; xi. 4, etc. Examples could be given to an)^ extent, but one more must suffice : Gen. xxxii. 28 runs: "Thy name shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel ; for thou hast striven with God and with men, and hast prevailed." For this the Targum of Onkelos has : " Thy name shall no more be Jacob, but Israel ; for a prince art thou before the Lord, and with men hast thou prevailed." ^ In the Palestinian Targum the elimination of the anthropo- morphisms is even more pronounced ; there it says simply: "And an angel contended with him in the likeness of a man " ; a few verses further on the angel is spoken of as Michael. Closely connected with what has been said is the doctrine of the Memra (the Word of God) in the Targums. The central point here is that the Memra takes up an intermediate position between God and men, thus making the divine relationship with man indirect For example, in Gen. ix. 12, 13, it is said : " And God said. This is the token of the covenant which I make between Me and you and every living creature that is with you, for perpetual generations : I do set My bow in the cloud, and it shall be for a token of a covenant between Me and the earth " ; for this the Targum of Onkelos (the Palestinian Targum is practically the same 2) has : "And the Lord said, This is the token of the covenant which I make between My Word and you and every living creature that is with you, for perpetual generations : I do set My bow ^ It is, however, interesting to note that this rendering comes close to that of the Septuagint and the \'ulgate : " . . . thou hast had power with God, and thou shalt prevail against men." ^ In the Targum of Onkelos the term Memra is invariably used for the " Word," while in the Palestinian and so-called " Fragment " Targums (on this latter see the next section) the term Dibbura is also frequently used ; both terms come from roots meaning " to speak." THE TARGUMS 49 in the cloud, and it shall be for a token of a covenant between My Word and the earth." It may be re- garded as a genera] rule that in the Targums Meinra is used whenever it is desired to avoid the idea of a direct relationship between God and man. Another way of emphasising the divine transcendence in the Targums is by making the Shekinah {i.e. the visible glory which indicates the divine indwelling) take the place of God Himself; thus while in Gen. xviii. 33 it is said : "And the Lord went His way, as soon as He had left communing with Abraham/' in the Targum of Onkelos this is paraphrased by the words : " And the glory {Shekinah) of the Lord ascended when it had ceased speaking with Abraham" ; the Palestinian Targum is identical with this.^ One other point of special doctrinal interest is the teaching of the Targums concerning the Messiah. Here the fact of main importance is the stress laid upon the kingship of the Messiah ; indeed, in the Targums He is almost always spol^en of as "King Messiah," or else this is implied, as, e.g., in the Targum of Onkelos to Gen. xlix. 10, which reads: "He that exerciseth dominion shall not pass away from the house of Judah, nor the sceptre from his children's children for ever, until the Messiah come, whose is the kingdom and whom the nations shall obey." In the Pafestinian Targum the expression "King Messiah" is used, and the following comment is there added : " How beauteous is King Messiah, who will arise from the house of Judah ! He hath girded His loins and hath descended, and hath set in array the battle against His adversaries. . . ." The Targums offer much that is of great interest on the subject of the Messiah, of which the following are examples ; they are taken from the so-called Targum of Jonathan ^ For further details regarding these intermediate agencies between God and men, see Oesterley and Box, The Religio?i and Worship of the Synagogue^ pp. \<^^-ii\ (191 r). E 50 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM (see next section) to the Prophets: in reference to Is. X. 17 this Targum says that at the coming of the Messiah He will annihilate the Gentiles. The para- phrase of Micah iv. 8 runs: " But Thou, Messiah of Israel, who hast been hidden because of the sins of Israel, Thine shall be the kingdom." In the paraphrase of Zech. iv. 7 the same Targum says : "And he will reveal the Messiah, whose name hath been uttered from all time, and He shall rule over all kingdoms." Some general ideas regarding the Targums and their doctrinal tendencies will now have been gained. It remains to enumerate the various Targums at present extant, and to give a brief account of them. (iv) A Short Account of the Different Targums There exist Targums to the Pentateuch, to the Prophetical books, and to the Hagiographa, of which the third category is the least important, while the other two are of great importance for the study of Jewish exegesis and doctrine as well as for the light they throw on much that is concerned with Christian origins. The Targum of Onkelos} There are various refer- ences in the Talmud to Onkelos, and they are of a somewhat confusing character. What may, however, be regarded as certain is that he was a proselyte to Judaism, and that he lived about the middle of the first Christian century. His translation of the Pentateuch into the Aramaic vernacular was, there- fore, undertaken in all probability during the lifetime of Christ, certainly not long after. Most authorities are agreed that the Targum of Onkelos originally came from Palestine, but, owing to the many marks of Babylonian influence which it contains in its present form, it is evident that it was at some time or other re-edited in Babylon, which became the centre of ^ Best edition, Targum Onkelos^ ed. Berliner (Berlin, 1884). THE TARGUMS 51 Jewry soon after the break-up of the Jewish state. For this reason this Targum is often spoken of as the Babylonian Targum (Targum Babli). Of all the Targums this is the most literal in its translation, and therefore the least paraphrastic. The deviations from this literalness are most marked in poetical passages, e.g. Gen. xHx. ; Num. xxiv. ; Deut xxxii., xxxiii. ; thus in the Old Testament Num. xxiv. 7 runs : '* Water shall flow from his buckets, and his seed shall be in many waters" ; this is interpreted in the Targum in the following way : *' The king anointed from his sons shall increase, and have dominion over many nations." Smaller variations from the Old Testament occur frequently, and there are not a few discrepancies and fanciful interpretations and render- ings ; but in spite of these this Targum, in the words of Deutsch, " never for one moment forgets its aim of being a clear, though free^ translation for the people^ and nothing more." He goes on to say that " wher- ever it deviates from the literalness of the text, such a course, in its case, is fully justified — nay, necessitated — either by the obscurity of the passage, or the wrong construction that naturally would be put upon its wording by the multitude. The explanations given agree either with the real sense or develop the current tradition supposed to underlie it." ^ The language of the Targum of Onkelos is in the main Eastern Aramaic, though the Palestinian dialect is very often to be discerned.^ What has been said above a's to the avoidance of anthropomorphisms in all the Targums applies, of course, here. This Targum became greatly venerated from early times, and manuscripts of it exist in great numbers. Its popularity is seen from the fact that men were urged to read it every Sabbath in their homes. There can, moreover, be no sort of doubt that it has exercised a great influence upon Jewish exegesis. A Jewish sage, 1 op. clt. p. 355. " See Dalman, op. at. p. 67. E 2 52 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Sar Shalom, writing in the ninth century about the Targuni of Onkelos, says : '' The Targum of which the sages spoke is the one which we now have in our hands ; no sanctity attaches to the other Targumim. We have heard it reported as the tradition of ancient sages that God wrought a great thing [miracle] for Onkelos when He permitted him to compose the Targum." ^ The great twelfth-century Jewish teacher, Maimonides, also refers to this Targum as -of high importance, the composer being described as " the bearer of ancient exegetic traditions, and as a thorough master of Hebrew and Aramaic." ^ The Palestinian Targum, This, too, is a para- phrase of the Pentateuch only. In Jewish literature it is usually referred to as the Jerusalem Targum {Targinn Jerushalmi'). Formerly it was known as the " Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel on the Penta- teuch," but this was owing to a misunderstanding of the abbreviated form — *' Targum J " — by which it was known ; the " J " was thought to stand for Jonathan, who was the author of the Targum to the Prophets (or believed to have been), while as a matter of fact it represented "Jerushalmi." It is, therefore, now sometimes spoken of as the " Targum of pseudo-Jonathan." As will have been noticed in the few quotations given in Section iii., this Targum is far more paraphrastic than that of Onkelos ; it is therein that the main difference, between the two chiefly consists. As a further illustration of this, one example may be added here from Gen. iv. 8 (Targum Onkelos is practically identical with the Old Testa- ment), viz. :■ " And Cain spake with Abel his brother;^ and it came to pass while they were in ^ Quoted '\n JE xii. 59(2. 2 /i^i^f^ ^ It is worth noting that the literalness of the translation here is such that the corruption of the Hebrew text is followed. The Septuagint and other ancient authorities read : *' And Cain said unto his brother Abel, Let us go into the field." {cp, the THE TARGUMS 53 the field that Cain rose up against Abel his brother, and slew hinn." In the Palestinian Targum we have a great expansion giving the details of the conversa- tion between the brothers : " And Cain said unto Abel his brother, Come and let us two go forth into the field. And it came to pass when they two had gone forth into the field, that Cain answered and said unto Abel, I- perceive that the world was created in goodness, but it is not governed according to the fruit of good works, for there is respect of persons in judgement; therefore it is that thy offering hath been accepted, and mine not accepted with good will. Abel answered and said unto Cain, In good- ness was the world created, and according to the fruit of good works is it governed ; and there is no respect of persons in judgement ; but because the fruits of my works were better than thine, my oblation hath been accepted with good will before thine. Cain answered and said unto Abel, There is neither judgement, nor judge, nor another world ; nor will good reward be given to the righteous, nor vengeance be taken on the wicked. And Abel answered and said unto Cain, There is a judgement, and there is a judge, and there is another world ; and a good reward is given to the righteous, and ven- geance is taken on the wicked. And because of these words they had contention there in the field. And Cain rose up against Abel his brother, and drave a stone into his forehead, and slew him." As to the date of this Targum there are some clear indications ; its comparatively late date is shown, e.g., by the mention of Constantinople in Num. xxiv. 19, 24; but more important is that in Gen. xxi. 21, Mohammed's daughters Hadidiah and Fatima are mentioned, showing that the date must be later than the time of Mohammed; it cannot well Palestinian Targun:i given below.) It is quite obvious that something has fallen out of the Hebrew text. 54 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM have reached its final form before the middle of the seventh century. Its language differs from that of Targum Onkelos with its approximation to Biblical Aramaic, the Palestinian Targum being written in the idiom of the common people of Palestine. In spite of its late date, this Targum is valuable on account of the considerable quantity of ancient material embodied in it; "it is one of those late compilations in which the more ancient and the later tradition is stored ; it forms, when used with critical caution, a very abundant source for the presen- tation of the religious conceptions of old Palestinian Judaism."^ The ^^ Fragment'' Targum. This work, which also deals with the Pentateuch, is closely connected with the foregoing ; it has received its name in modern times, as it consists of isolated pieces. It represents, in all probability, a kind of preparatory work for the developed Palestinian Targum, but it often differs considerably from this. The two are of different authorship, but of the authors nothing is known. A striking characteristic of both is the developed angelology they exhibit. The Targum of Jonatlian ben Uzziel. This is a paraphrase of the Prophetical books; but it must be remembered that among these are included what are called the " former prophets," i.e. the books of Joshua, Judges, I and 2 Samuel, i and 2 Kings, and the " latter prophets," i.e. the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Minor Prophets. This Targum as we have it now belongs possibly to the third century A.D. ; some scholars place it a century later. That it is subsequent in date to the Targum Onkelos is evident, since various passages are quoted ve^'-batim from it.^ Jonathan ben UzzieP was a pupil of the 1 V^^ ehG.\- J Jnedische 7 heologie^ p. xxi. (1897). 2 Zunz, op. cit. p. 67, note. 2 He was such an ardent student of the Law that the Talmud THE TARGUMS 55 celebrated Hillel ; his name is attached to this Targum because there are good grounds for believing that he was the original author who laid the founda- tion upon which this Targum in later years was built up.^ This is also borne out by the language, which is Eastern Aramaic, showing that in its present redacted form it belongs to Babylon, not Palestine, Jonathan's home. This Targum differs greatly from that of Onkelos both in its theological standpoint and in its free paraphrase ; in fact, it is rather a Haggadic commentary than a Targum, and contains an immense amount that is of interest from the point of view of folk-lore. Deutsch goes so far as to sa}^ that '* the Semitic fairy and legendary lore which for the last two thousand years — as far as we can trace it — has grown up in East and West to vast glittering mountain-ranges is to a very great extent to be found, in embryo state, so to say, in this our Targum." ^ Somewhat of an exaggeration as this is, there is no sort of doubt that it is largely true ; the tales of wonder which it contains, and the activities of angels of which it tells,^ certainly seem in numerous cases to be the basis of many of our fairy stories. The Targums to the Hagiographa. There are three classes of these : first, the Targuuts on the Psalms^ the Proverbs^ and Job. These all belong approxi- mately to the same period, viz. the seventh or eighth century A.D., and frorfi their similar style would {Baba Bathra I34<3;, Siikka zZa) relates of him that "when he sat studying the Torah, every bird that flew over his head was burned," the reason being that many angels gathered around him in order to hear the words of the Law which proceeded from his mouth (Weber, op. at. p. xx). 1 For details see Deutsch, op. cit. pp. 364 ff. 2 op. cit. p. 374. ^ The idea, e.g.^ of EHjah hearing the voices of angels singing in silence (paraphrase to i Kings xix. 1 1-13) is interesting. 56 RABBINrCAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM appear to have come from the hand of one author. They are all believed to have originated in Syria. The Targums to the Psalms and Proverbs have not much that is paraphrastic ; they are mainly trans- lations, and not of much value. That on Job is more interesting, and contains much Haggadic material. We have already referred to the existence of a Targum on Job in much earlier times ; what relation there is between these, if any, it is, of course, impos- sible to say now. The Targiinis to the Song of Songs^ Ruth^ Lamen- tations, Esther, and Ecclesiastes belong to another class, for they can scarcely be called Targums in the ordinary sense ; they are picturesque commentaries, the commentary having often little or nothing to do with the text. An excellent English translation of the Targum to the Song of Songs has been edited by Prof H. GoUancz (1908), and it gives one an intimate idea of this class of Targum ; it contains much of great interest. Lastly, there are the Targums to Daniel, i and 2 Chronicles, and Ezra ; these, too, are comparatively late in date ; they are of minor importance. The great value of the Targums, though this applies mainly to those on the Pentateuch and ,the Prophetical books, is that they constitute a most important source for the early phases of Judaism before it became stereotyped and hardened into Rabbinical Judaism proper. They are, therefore, exceedingly interesting, and also important, for the study of the New Testament, and not infrequently throw light on this. For the history of Jewish exegesis they are, of course, invaluable. THE MIDRASHIM 57 II THE MIDRASHIM [Literature (selected) : Hoffmann, Zitr Einleittaig in die Halachischen Mid7'aschiin (1886) ; Zunz, Die gottesdienst- licheji Vortrdge der Jiiden^ passim^ especially pp. 37-61, 87-102, 193-283(1892) ; Weber, Juedische Theologie . . ., pp. xxiv'-xxx (1897) ; Bacher, /^/> aelteste Terminologiederjiidischen Schriftaiislegimg (1899) ; Schiirer, GJV^ i. pp. 138-146, ii. pp. 392-414, where a full bibliography will be found (1901) ; Oesterley and Box, The Religion and IVorship of the Syna- goguc^ pp. 77-100 (191 1) ; Theodor's art. mJE viii. 548-580.] (i) Introductory The word Ulidrash (plur. Llidrashini) is a Biblical one, though, it is true, it occurs but twice in the Bible, viz. 2 Chron. xiii. 22 ; xxiv. 27. It conries from a root {darasJi) meaning, in the first instance, " to resort to," " to seek out," which occurs frequently in the Hebrew Bible, e.g\ Deut. xii. 5 : But unto the place ivhich the Lord your God shall choose out of all your tribes to put His name there, even iinto His habitation, {i.e. the place where He dwells) shall ye seek (dai'ash), and thither shalt thou come. Later this root came to be used of searching out, or studying, the Law, e.g. Ezra vii. 12 : 'Ezra had set his heart to seek {darasK) the Law of the Lord. When the Neo-Hebraic word JMidrash was formed it meant the searching out, or investigating, of a book with a view to its interpreta- tion ; then, by a very natural development, the word was applied to the result of such investigation,^ In ^ In speaking of the variety of meanings attaching to different Hebrew technical terms Deutsch says : '*Thus Midrash, from the abstract 'expounding,' came to be applied, first to the 'exposition' itself— even as our terms 'work,' 'investigation,' ' inquiry,' imply both process and product ; and finally, as a special branch of exposition — the legendary — was more popular than the rest, to this one branch only and to the books that chiefly Tepresented it" {Literary Remains^ p. 13 [1874]). We 58 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM the Targums and in the Talmud the root means "to examine," then " to expound," or "to interpret," and finally " to teach " and " to lecture " on, the Law and on the Old Testament generally. There is also the technical word daishan, from the same root, which means an "interpreter" of, or " lecturer "on, the' Law. This searching out of the Law was undertaken with the object of discovering hidden meanings, or such as could be derived by implication, a very different thing from the primary and obvious sense of a passage which could be readily understood by the simple. " In contradistinction to literal interpretation, sub- sequently c^W^d. peshat} the term Midrash designates an exegesis which, going more deeply than the mere literal sense, attempts to penetrate into the spirit of the Scriptures, to examine the text from all sides, and thereby to derive interpretations which are not immediately obvious." ^ The earliest evidence that we have of this deeper searching of the Scriptures is contained in Neh. viii. 2-8, where it is told how Ezra the Scribe, together with a number of other Scribes^ who are mentioned by name, " caused the people to understand the Law ; and the people stood in their place. And they {i.e. the Scribes) read in the book, in the Law of God, distinctly (R.V. marg. ' with an interpretation '), so that they {i.e. the people) understood the reading" The passage is obscure and the text is certainly not in order, but it is clear that the " interpretation " gave the people something more than the literal, primary meaning which could be easily grasped. We are, shall come to deal presently with this one branch and the books represented by it. 1 i.e. "simple " ; cp. the word Peshiita^ the Syriac equivalent to the Latin " Vulgate." - JE viii. 548^. ^ They are called Levites in the text, but their procedure shows that they were Sopherim^ or Scribes, as well. The earlier Sopherim (from Ezra to Simon the Just) were all members of the Levitical priesthood. THE MIDRASHIM 59 therefore, justified in regarding this passage as re- ferring to the subject under discussion, and as seeing in it the earliest reference to Midrash in its abstract sense. The explanations and comments which these Sopherim gave were not written down, but were transmitted by word of mouth from teacher to pupil. But there was another type of Midrash which was written dow^n in, comparatively speaking, very early times. This is proved by a reference to 2 Chron. xiii. 22 ; xxiv. 27 ; in the former of these passages the Chronicler speaks of a "commentary of the prophet Iddo " ; in the latter he refers to the " commentary of the book of Kings." In both cases the Hebrew word for "commentary " is Midrash. So that at least as early as the middle of the third century B.C.^ we find the Chronicler utilising written historical Midrashic works as sources for his history. Their historical value was almost certainly insignificant, but that is immaterial from our present point of view ; the important thing is that these Midrashim were already in existence as written documents in the third century B.C., and were regarded as sufficiently authori- tative to be consulted in compiling a history of the nation. The character of these written Midrashim can, to some extent, be gathered by comparing the books of Samuel and Kings with Chronicles ; for this latter itself partakes of the nature of a Midrash (in certain passages) on the former ; instructive examples of this are: i Chron. xv. i-xvi. 43 compared with 2 Sam. vi. 12-20; i Chron. xxii. 2-19 with 2 Sam. vii. 1-3, 13 ; 2 Chron. iii. i-v. i with i Kings viii. ; 2 Chron. xii. i-i6 with i Kings xiv. 21 ff. ; 2 Chron. xiv. 9-15 with I Kings xv. 23 ; and many others.^ 1 Most modern authorities are agreed that the books of the Chronicles were compiled about 250 B.C. or slightly earlier. ^ A more developed form of this type of Midi-ash can be seen, ^.,^., by comparing the book of Jubilees with Genesis, or the additions to" Esther with the canonical book of Esther. 6o RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM In quite early times, therefore, we meet with two types of Midrash ; Neh. viii. 2-8 refers to interpreta- tions of the Law given by the Sopherhn, and the two passages 2 Chron. xiii. 22 ; xxiv. 27 refer to written historical Midrashhn. In one case explanation of the Law, in the other narrative expansion, form the content of the Midrashic comment. In each it is a case of searching with the object of interpreting ; in the former the interpretation of the Law is meant to give guidance, in the latter the narrative is intended for edification. As these two elements give the key- notes to the entire body of Midrashic works which subsequently came into being, it will be well to say a word about them before speaking of these Midrashic works themselves. (ii) Midrash Halakah and Midrash Haggadah The vast Midrashic literature may broadly be divided into two main classes : the Halakic {^Midrash Halakah^ and the Haggadistic {Midrash Haggadah). The earliest written Midrashini which have been handed down, the Mckilta, Sifra, and Si/re, which in their oldest elements go back to the second century A.D., exhibit a mixed character containing Haggadah interspersed with Halakah. But they may be regarded as predominantly Halakic. The great mass of the Midrashic literature, apart from these examples, is essentially Haggadistic in character. The term Halakah ( = "rule," ''binding law") is applied to the traditionally recei\-ed rules of practice which were of a binding or legal character. This legal element in the Oral Law, together with the Rabbinical discussions and decisions which depend upon it, are embodied in the Mishnah, the Talmuds, and the compendiums of Rabbinical Law based upon the latter. The method of the Talmud is to group and classify the various Halakoth, and to comment THE MIDRASHIM 6r on thenij tradition by tradition, giving the Scriptural proofs for each, and otherwise elucidating thenri. On the other hand, the Halakic Midrashim are cast in the form of exegetical commentaries on particular books of the Bible, viz. part of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The Scriptural text determines the order of the exposition, and the various Halakoth dealing with the traditionally received rules of life and ritual are deduced from the Biblical text directly. The resultant Midrashim may be regarded as due to an attempt on the part of the teachers of the Law to justify in a popular way the Halakah against the objection of the Sadducees. Of course, there is a large amount of Haggadistic material scattered about the pages of the Talmud, and this has been worked up in separate form and embodied for the most part in the Haggadic Midrash. It should be noted that the term Midrash Halakah is applied not merely to the verification of currently received practice from the text of Scripture, but also to the development of new Halakoth and legal enact- ments from the Biblical text. An example of the method employed will serve to illustrate what has just been said. Thus, with reference to the verse (Ex. xii. 4) : And if the household be too little for a lamb, then shall he and his neighbour next unto his house take one accordi7tg to the number of the souls. The Midrash Mekilta^ ad. loc, comments as follows : ''''According to the number {rsuyo) of the souls. The word nODO is to be understood only as (meaning) number, viz. that one must slaughter it (the lamb) according to the number (of persons) assigned to it. But if one have slaughtered it not for the number (of persons) assigned to it, one has transgressed a commandment." In other words, the Passover lamb cannot be legally slaughtered till the slaughterer is aware of the number of persons who are going to partake of it. This example is taken from the older and simpler Halakah, based upon a simple and direct exegesis. The later Halakah is more complicated and artificial in its methods.^ Though the ^ For details see the article "''Midrash Halakah" in the Jewish Encycl. viii. 571. 62 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM line between independent collections of Halakoth as contained in the Mishnah and Tosefta and the Halakic Midi^ashim is not always sharply drawn {e.g. many sections in the Mishnah and Tosefta are Midrashic Halakoth/ and on the other hand the Halakic Midrashiin sometimes contain independent Halakoth, without reference to the Scriptural text in support 2), yet on the whole the broad distinction remains that the Halakic Midrashiin are in form exegetical, following the text of certain books of Scripture. The occasional confusion between the two forms is explained by the fact that the redactors of the two kinds of collections borrowed from each other. The term Haggadah means primarily '* narration," " telling," and in its original application as a technical term connoted the recitation or teaching of Scrip- ture ; cf. the formula, frequently found in ancient Rabbinical literature, ^IP^H TJ^D' " ^^^ Scripture teaches." Thus Haggadah probably had at first a general application, " but at an early date was restricted to denote a non-Halakic explanation." It thus came to mean the exegesis of Scripture, not included in the Halakic, of a freer and more edifying tendency, with stories and illustrative matter, drawn from popular custom, tales, and beliefs. In the Midrash Haggadah it expressed itself in a rich development, first in the form of homiletic com- mentary on Biblical books, and then independently as finished homily or popular discourse, not primarily exegetical in character. The popular preacher who delivered homiletic discourses in the synagogue of a Haggadic character was termed Maggidy i,e. " ex- pounder of Haggadah." The characteristic features of this kind of oratory have been well summed up by Zunz : *' The Haggadah, which is intended to bring heaven down to the congregation, and also to lift man up to heaven, appears in this office both as the glorification of God and the comfort of Israel. Hence religious truths, maxims, discussions con- ^ e.g. Berakoth i. 3, 5. - e.g. Sifra Wayyik?'a Hobah i. 9-13 (ed. Weiss, p. 16 a^ b). THE MIDRASHIM 63 cerning divine retribution, the inculcation of the laws which attest Israel's nationality, descriptions of the past and future greatness, scenes and legends from Jewish history, comparisons between the divine and Jewish institutions, praises of the Holy Land, encou- raging stories and comforting reflections of all kinds, form the most important subjects of these discourses." ^ The Haggadic literature thus reflects the highest and deepest thoughts of the Jewish teachers on religion and ethics embodied in popular form. Its aim was to work upon the mind, conscience, and heart of the Israelite in such a way as to inspire a passion for religion ; and it sought to do this by using the past . and present experiences of the race as symbols and illustrations designed to justify the ways of God to man, and to kindle enthusiasm and devotion for the ideals of Israel's religion, and a passionate belief in Israel's vocation and destiny. The literature in which the Haggadah is embodied, i.e, the Haggadic Midrashic literature, is of vast extent, and its production in literary form covers a considerable period of time. It may be said to have flourished from the second to the tenth centuries A.D. But the beginnings of the Haggadah go back to a much earlier period. Much material of this kind is contained in the Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphical literature, and it can be traced in the works of Josephus and Philo. Its richest period of develop- ment may be placed in the period when the Mishnaic and Talmudic literature grew up, i.e, between A.D. lOO and 500. The compilations which were produced subsequently were largely in the nature of a re- shaping of mateiial already in existence (the epoch of the revisers and collectors). For a time (during the third and at the beginning of the fourth century A.D.) "the masters of Halakah were also the representatives of the Haggadah : but ^ Cited op. cit. ibid. 64 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM side by side with them appeared the Haggadists proper (n"T:Ji^ "^^^l)' ^^^*^ subsequently became more and more prominent, attracting with their discourses more hearers than the Halakists. The highest product of the Haggadah, the public discourse drawing upon all the arts of Midrashic rhetoric — ■ sentence, proverb, parable, allegory, story, etc. — now received its final form."^ Examples of the latter, furnished with proems and properly constructed, can be seen best in the Pesikta homilies {Pesikta de Rab Kahana and Pesikta Rabbati) and in the Tmichuina collection (for details of these works, see below). (iii) A Short Account of the Different Midrashic Works We can now proceed to enumerate the more impor- tant Midrashic works, and to give a short account of them. In his articles on the Midrashini in the fewish Encyclopedia Theodor classifies the whole body of these writings in the following way : A. Mid rash Haggadah: Mekilta ; Sifra ; Sifre to Numbers ; Sifre to Deuteronomy. B. The earliest exegetical Midrashim : Bereshith Rabbah ; Ekah Rabbati. The homiletic Midrashim : Pesikta ; Wayyikra Rabbah; Tanchiuna Yelam'medenu ; Pesikta Rabbati ; Debarim Rabbah ; Bemidbar Rabbah ; ShemotJt Rabbah ; Aggadath Bereshith ; We-Hizhir {Hash- ke7n). The later exegetical Midrashim : Shir ha-SJiirivi Rabbati; Midrash Ruth ; Midrash Koheleth ; Midrash Megillath Esther. The other exegetical Midrashim not dealing with the Pentateuch: Midrash Shemuel ; Midrash Mishle ; Midrash Tehillim ; Midrash Yeshayah ; Midrash Yonah ; Midrash lyyob. ^ op, cit, ibid. THE MIDRASHIM 65 Special Haggadic Midrashim : Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer ; Seder Elijahii ; Yalktit Shwieoni , Yalknt ha-Makir ; MidrasJi ha- Gadol. A number of other small and unimportant Mid- rashic writings are enumerated ; but they do not call for notice here. This scientific classification will be found valuable for reference. For readers, however, who are entirely unfamiliar with this class of literature it will probably be found useful if, in giving a short account of the different works, we enumerate them under the English names, and in the usual order, of the Biblical books with which they deal. In most cases a Midrash deals with one specific Biblical book ; but some of them include comments, etc., on two or more books. We will deal with the former first as being, generally speaking, though not always, older and more important. A. Genesis. Quite one of the most important of all the Midrashic writings is that called Bereshith Rabbah} the great Midrash on Genesis. It is valuable on account both of its age and of its contents. It belongs approximately to the sixth century A.D., but contains materials of much earlier date. Indications pointing to its date are the follow- ing : Authoritative Babylonian teachers are cited who lived during the latter years of the third century A.D. Further, not only does it contain a story about the Emperor Diocletian,^ but Rabbis who lived ^ Bereshith (= " In the beginning") is the Hebrew name of the book of Genesis. Rabbah (=" great") is added as this Midrash belongs to the great collection of Midrashim^ called " Midrash Rabbah," which comprises Midrashim on each of the books of the Pentateuch and on each of the five "Scrolls," as they are called, viz. Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Eccles- iastes, Esther. Best text, the critical edition issued in parts and edited by J. Theodor (Berlin), not yet complete. ^ In § 63 it is said that in his earlier years he lived as a swineherd in Tiberias. 66 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM during his reign, and earlier, are frequently men- tioned by name. Again, a list of a succession of seven Rabbis is enumerated, beginning with Rabbi Akiba (he lived at the beginning of the second century A.D.) and Rabbi Jehudah ha-Nasi (second half of the second century A.D.), of each of whom it is said that at the death of his predecessor a sun went down and a sun rose ; the meaning is that when God permits the sun of a righteous man to. set {i.e. when he dies) He permits the sun of another righteous man to rise.^ As Zunz^ points out, even if this saying is not to be taken literally, and we suppose it to refer to generations of teachers, the date of the last-men- tioned Rabbi in the list (Rabbi Abba Hoshaya) is only a few years before the reign of the Emperor Julian (A.D. 361-363). Lastly, the frequent occur- rence of Greek words in this Midrash points to an early date, as well as the fact that its place of origin is Palestine.^ Bereshith Rabbah is a continuous commentary of Haggadic character on the whole of Genesis ; the sayings and explanations of many authorities, a large number anonymous, are quoted ; not infrequently the compiler adds long narrative passages illustrative of some verse under discussion. References are often given to contemporaneous historical events, and it is characteristic of this Midrash " to view the per- sonages and conditions of the Bible by the light of contemporary history." Although this Midrash is a commentary on Genesis, it must be confessed that, so far as elucidation of the text is concerned, it is not often illuminating ; over and over again one finds, on seeking for some explanation of a difficult text, that the Midrash offers little that is of help. There are, of course, exceptions to this ; but, generally speaking, the use and interest of it are of a different kind. ^ The passage occurs at the beginning of § 58. 2 op. cit. p. 185. ^ See further Zunz, pp. 185 ft. THE MIDRASHIM 67 One or two examples of what we mean may be given : Gen. iv. 15, And the Lord appointed a sign for Cain : The comments on this are as follows: "According to Rabbi Jehudah, the Lord caused the sun to rise on his behalf \i.e. that all the world might see that Cain was forgiven]. According to Rabbi Nechemiah, on the contrary, the Lord did not cause the sun to rise for this sinner, but made leprosy to come upon him (Ex. iv. 8). Rab said, He (the Lord) gave him a dog. Ac- cording to Abba Jose bar Kisri, the Lord made the horn (of salvation) to sprout from him ; according to Rab, the Lord made him a sign of warning for murderers ; according to Rabbi Chanina, the Lord made him a sign for the repentant ; finally, according to Rabbi Levi, speaking in the name of Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish, the Lord caused him to be suspended in the air, and afterwards he was swept away by the Flood (Gen. vii. 23)." Comments like this, which do not really throw any light on the subject, often occur. While exegetically this Midrash is not often helpful, in other respects it offers much that is useful and interesting ; the following example is taken from the passage about Abraham being commanded to sacrifice Isaac : " Sammael ^ came to our father Abraham and said to him : * Old man, old man, hast thou lost thy wits ? Art thou indeed about to sacrifice a son who was given to thee in thy hundredth year ? ' Abraham answered : * Even so.' Then Sammael continued : ' How if God should prove thee still further, wouldst thou still remain steadfast?' Abraham said; *Even if (God proved me) still further.' Again Sammael spoke : ^ But to- morrow He will say to thee, Thou art a shedder of blood, thou hast murdered thy son.' Abraham answered : 'Even so [some words such as ' I will carry out my purpose ' are under- stood]. When Sammael saw that he could do nothing with Abraham, he turned to Isaac and said to him : ' Unhappy child, he is going to kill thee.' Isaac answered: 'Even so, I will follow him. . . '" On the difficult words " Until Shilo come," in xlix. 10, the only comment is that it refers to "King Messiah." 1 The angel of death ; identical with Satan in Rabbinica literature. F 2 68 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM For the rest, there are numberless points of doctrine and practice, interesting archaeological details, fables, and parables, as well as controversial passages against heretical opinions, all of which go to show that this Midrash is of marked importance. Aggadath BeresJiith. This Midrash is of later date and of much less value. It contains a collection of homilies on various set passages from Genesis. Each homily is in three sections, " so arranged that the first one connects with a seder ('section') from Genesis, the second with a prophetic section, and the third with a psalm." The contents of these homilies are for the most part taken from Tanchuma (see below), according to Thegdor, who speaks of them as being " notable for artistic composition." This Midrash deals in the main with Genesis, but it comments also on passages from the Prophetical books and on some of the Psalms. (Best edition of text, Bubers, Cracow, 1903.) Exodus. Two Midrashic works on this book exist : Mekilta ^ and Shemoth Rabbah. The former and more important one, which contains both legal (Halakic) and narrative (Haggadic) material, is a commentary on Ex. xii.-xxiii. 19, the main legal portion of Exodus ; it deals also with the two passages, xxxi. 12-17, >;xxv. 1-3, which contain the law concerning the Sabbath. It appears, therefore, that the original intention of the compiler of this Midrash was that it should be purely legal in char- acter ; as a matter of fact, however, it contains just about as much Haggadic matter as Halakic. Like Sifra and Sifre (see below), this Midrash in its ^ The word means "measure," "rule," or '* form," equivalent to the Hebrew Middah ; this title was given to the Midrash because the fixed Rabbinical rules of Scriptural exegesis are the basis upon which the comments, etc., it contains are constructed. The best editions of the Hebrew text are those of Weiss (Vienna, 1865) and Friedmann (Vienna, 1870). THE MIDRASHIM 69 original form goes back to the beginning of the second century A.D. *'The disciples of Rabbi Jochanan ben Zakkai, viz. Ishmael, Akiba, and Eleazar of Modin, appear to have redacted the principal contents of the exposition on the basis of the still older and anonym- ous stratum of exegetical tradition. Mekilta, for the greater part, contains the comments and sayings of Rabbi Ishmael and his pupils. It will, therefore, be seen that a Midrash which embodies so much ancient material possesses a high value and interest ; and this is especially the case from the point of view of New Testament study, for it reflects the Jewish religious standpoint as this existed in the time of the Apostles. As an illustration we may give the following parable, which occurs among the comments on Ex. XX. 2 : " It is like a king who had two stewards ; one was placed in charge of the straw (supplies) ; the other was set over the gold and silver treasure. He that was placed in charge of the straw (supplies) came under suspicion (of unjust dealing) ; thereupon he made complaint that he had not been set over the gold and silver treasure. Then he who had been set over the gold and silver treasure said unto him : ' Foolish man, having come under suspicion of unjust dealing regarding the straw (supplies), how shouldest thou be trusted with gold and silver?'"^ {cp Luke xvi. 10.) The other Midrash on Exodus, Shemoth - Rabbah^ is of much later date ; it belongs in its present form, according to Zunz, to the eleventh or twelfth century A.D., though it has embodied a good deal from earlier Midrashim^ especially Tanchiima Yelaminedemi (see below). It contains a large number of parables, taken in the main from earlier works ; the thirtieth section alone contains nineteen. ^ lit. "Thou didst lie concerning straw ; how much more (concerning) gold and silver?" ^ She7noth (= *' Names") is the Hebrew title of Exodus ; it is shortened from Elleh Shemoth (" These are the names "), the opening words of the book. 70 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM Leviticus. On this book, likcAvise, there are two Midrashim^ both of considerable importance. The first is called Sifra ( = " the Book ") ; it is also known by the name Torath Kohmiim^ ( = "the Law of the priests "). The authorities quoted in this Midrash belong, at the latest, to the first half of the third century A.D. ; it is almost wholly Halakic in content, as one would expect in a commentary on Leviticus ; the small Haggadic portions correspond with the historical passages in Leviticus. Sifra emanates from Babylonia, as its ancient title (see foot-note above) implies ; but Rab came originally from Palestine, so that we may take it that much of the Palestinian exegetical tradition is embodied in this Midi-ash. An example of Halakic commentary from this work is the following : " Thou shalt not be resentful. What is meant by being re- sentful ? When one person says to another, ' Lend me your axe,' and he will not lend it ; then on the following" day the latter says to the former, * Lend me your sickle' ; whereupon he says, ' Here it is ; I am not like you, who refuse to lend me your axe.' Therefore it is written : Thoii shalt not take vengea?ice^ and Love thy ?iet^^hbour as thyself. Rabbi Akiba says : 'This is the great principle of the Torah.' Ben Azzai says : 'This is the book of the generations of man (Gen. v. i, Hebrew), which is a still greater principle.'" ^ The other Midrash on Leviticus is Wayyikra^ Rabbah ; this is one of the older of the Midrashic works, though not so ancient as Mekilta, Sifra, and Sifre ; Zunz dates it in its present form about the middle of the seventh century A.D. ; it embodies, of course, material of much greater antiquity. A striking characteristic of this Midrash is its large ^ Another ancient title is Sifra debe Rab {=-- " The Book of Rab's Academy ") ; Abba Arika, the leading Babylonian Amora, is distinguished by the title '* Rab," i.e. the teacher par excellence. - Quoted in/^viii. 5551^. ^ Wayyikra{=^'''' k.x\A He called") is the Hebrew name of Leviticus, being the word with which the book begins. THE MIDRASHIM 71 collection of proverbs, e.g. " If you have knowledge, what do you lack ? If you lack knowledge, what do you possess ? " (i. 6). " If one knot is unravelled, then two knots are unravelled " (xiv. 3).^ Numbers. The ancient and valuable Midrash called Sifre =(" Books") deals with Numbers, from chap. v. to the end, and the whole of Deuteronomy. The authorship is clearly dual ; the portion which is concerned with Numbers is almost entirely Halakic, and it is full of the tedious and long-drawn-out discussions which are characteristic of the Talmud ; the polemical element also is pronounced. The Deuteronomy portion is, likewise, in the main Halakic, but it is also in part Haggadic. The whole belongs to the third century A.D. It is a very important source for dogmatic Judaism ; the following are a few examples : "There is not a single commandment the fulfilment of which does not at once bring with it its corresponding reward (351^). The words of the Torah are to be compared with water. Just as water is life to the world, so, too, are the words of the Torah life to the world (84rt). Wherever God is called Jehovah, there it is implied that He is the God of mercy ; wherever He is called Elohim, there it is implied that He acts according to strict justice {jia). Lord of the world, why did the first Adam 2 die ? He (God) answered them (the angels) : Because he did not fulfil My commands (141(7)." ^ The other Llidrash on Numbers is called Bemidbar^ Rabbah. This composite work is made up largely of quotations from Tanchuina (see below). It belongs to the twelfth century A.D.-, and is of much less importance than Sifre. ^ Quoted in JE viii. 560^^. 2 With the expression " the first Adam " cp. i Cor. xv. 45 f. 3 These quotations are from Weber, Juedische Theologie^ Passim. ^ Bemidbar ("in the wilderness") is the Hebrew name for Numbers ; it is the important word in the opening sentence of the book. 72 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM Deuteronomy. Of the more important of the two Midrashim on this book, Sifre, we have aheady spoken. The other is Debarim ^ Rabbah ; this is of late date, about A.D. 900 according to Zunz. Like Bemidbar Rabbah^ it has many extracts from Tan- chuma, A short quotation may be given : " Our Rabbis say that the Torah may be compared with five things : with water, with wine, with honey, with milk, and with oil. ... As this oil gives hfe to the world, so also do the words of the Torah give life to the world ; as this oil gives light to the world, so also do the words of the Torah give light to the world " (§7). Samuel. The Midrash Shemuel is a late work belonging to the first half of the eleventh century, and there are interpolations of still later date.^ Of the thirty-two sections into which the work is divided, only the last eight deal with the second book of Samuel, all the rest being concerned with the first book. This Midrash is mentioned for the first time by Rashi (1040-1105); it emanates from Palestine, and the compiler drew his material for the most part from early Palestinian authorities whose comments, etc., are already quoted in the Mishnah and earlier MidrasJmn. This work does not offer much that is not found in earlier writings ; its value, therefore, is small. Psalms. The Midrash on the Psalms, called Midrash Tehillim^ is a commentary on Pss. i.- cxviii., to which was added later an appendix dealing with the rest of the Psalms. Although late in date 1 Debarim (=" words") is the Hebrew name for Deuter- onomy ; it is shortened from Elleh ha-Debarim ("These are the words "), the opening words of the book. 2 Zunz, op. cit. p. 282. Edition of Hebrew text by Buber (Cracow, 1893). 2 The Hebrew for " Psalms" ; this Midrash is also known by the name oi Shocker tob {= " He that diligently seeketh good," Prov. xi. 27), the opening words of the book. Best Hebrew text, Buber's Midrasch Tchillim (Wilna, 1891). THE MIDRASHIM 73 (not later than the eleventh century), it contains a great mass of interesting and valuable material, partly homiletic and partly exegetical, much ot which is ancient. It is important as containing the traditional Palestinian exegesis of the Psalms. This Midrash contains a number of "stories, legends, parables, proverbs, and sentences, with many ethical and Halakic maxims. Of the interesting myths may be mentioned that of Romulus and Remus, to suckle whom God sends a she-wolf {Midr. Teh. to Ps. x. 6) ; and the legend of the Emperor Hadrian, who wished to measure the depth of the Adriatic Sea {Midr. Teh. to Ps. xciii. 6)."^ The following is an example of a parable ; it occurs in the comment on Ps. ii. 12, Kiss the son lest he be angry ^ and ye perish from the way : " Whereunto is this to be compared? It is like a king who was wroth against the inhabitants of a city ; these, therefore, went unto the king's son and made their peace with him, in order that he might go to the king and make peace on their behalf. So he went and pacified the kmg. When the inhabi- tants of that city knew that the king had been propitiated, they desired to sing a song (of thanksgiving) to him ; but he answered and said : ' Do ye wish to sing a song (of thanks- giving) to me? Nay, but go and sing it unto my son ; for had it not been for him, I should have destroyed the inhabi- tants of the city.'" Proverbs. The Midrash on this book, which has not come down to us in its entirety, is called Midrash Mishle (= "Proverbs").^ Opinions differ as to its date. Zunz places it as late as the middle of the eleventh century ; others regard it as belonging to the eighth century. Its place of origin is believed to be Babylonia, but this cannot be stated with cer- tainty. Lauterbach says of this Midrash that it " is different from all other Haggadic Midrashiin in that its interpretations approach the simple exegesis then in vogue, being brief and free from the prolixity found in the other Midrashim, so that this work is in ^ JE X. 250^ 2 Best Hebrew text, Ruber's (Wilna, 1893). 74 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM the form of a commentary rather than in that of a Midrash. The interpretations follow immediately upon the words of the text, without the introductory formulas found in the other Midrashim, ' as Scripture says/ or 'Rabbi N. N. began'; the latter formula, however, occurs at the beginning of the Midrasky^ Jonah. The Midrash on this book, called Mid- rash Yonah, which contains a Haggadic account of the Biblical story, is read in the synagogue on the Day of Atonement. It consists of two parts; the first part is the MidrasJi proper, while the second contains the story of Jonah allegorically referred to the soul. Zunz says it contains extracts from the Talmud and long passages from the Baraitha of Rabbi Eliezer, but does not offer anything original.^ It is of late date, having been compiled subsequently to the Midrash on the books of Samuel. Evidence is forthcoming that at one time Mid- rasliivt on Ezra, the books of Chronicles, and Job existed, as quotations from these are found in Rabbinical writings. The Five Megilloth. The MidrasJiim on Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Esther form a special group, with the exception of Lamentations (see below); they are called the five Megilloth (= "Rolls"): Midrash Ruth. In its present form this little work belongs to the eleventh or twelfth century ; but, like so many of the MidrasJiim it embodies a great deal of much earlier material. Thus many passages from the Jerusalem Talmud, Bereshith Rabbah, and Pesikta are found in this Midrash ; and it is likely enough that other ancient writings have been laid under contribution ; so that the value of many of these later Midrashim is not necessarily diminished be- cause their date of compilation is late. MidrasJi RutJi, which consists of eight divisions, is a running ' JE X. 23i(J. '^ op. tit, p. 282. THE MIDRASHIM 75 Haggadic commentary on the book of Ruth, which is preceded by a special introduction containing various proems (on these see below). There are many interesting matters dealt with, archaeological and dogmatic points being of frequent occurrence, and, according to the Jewish traditional method, parables and stories often illustrate subjects of dis- cussion ; the following is an example : " A king was journeying from place to place ; and a pearl fell from his head {i.e. from the crown on his head). Then the king and all his following arose (and sought the pearl). And the people who were passing by said : ' What is the king, with his following, seeking here?' They were answered : 'Do ye not see that a pearl has fallen from the king's head ?' So what did (the king) do? He caused the soil to be heaped up and had sieves brought ; then they put the soil of one heap through the sieves, but found nothing ; they did the same with a second heap ; all in vain. At last, at the third heap he found (his pearl). Then said the people : ' The king has found his pearl again.'" This parable is spoken in reference to God seeking Abraham (§ viii., beginning). Midrash KoJieleth. This MidrasJi on Ecclesiastes is late, but, like the one just considered, contains a great deal of early material, and is Haggadic in character. Its interpretation of the text of Eccle- siastes is largely allegorical ; e.g. such passages as Eccles. ii. 24; iii. 13 ; v. 17; viii. 15, where an Epicurean and hedonistic view is expressed, are interpreted allegorically and given a religious signi- ficance, viz. : " Wherever eating and drinking are spoken of in this way, the pleasure is meant which the study of the Bible and the performance of good works afford." ^ Midrash Shir ha-Shirim Rabbati. This Midrash to the Song of Songs is called also Aggadaih Chazitha, from the opening Hebrew words. The comments and explanations, often clothed in the ^ Quoted by Theodor,/^ vii. 530((. 76 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM garb of a homily, are free and untrammelled ; " the words of the text are treated in very diverse ways, being made to apply now to historical events, now to practical life with its religious needs. . . . Extra- ordinarily rich in colouring is the picture of the * Woes of the Messiah,' i.e. the tragic period which is to precede the advent of the son of David." ^ The work is full of interesting matter, many parables and well-told stories, as well as fables and legends, occur- ring in it. The Song of Songs is throughout inter- preted allegorically. Like the other Midrashini in this group, this one, which is a much bigger work than Midrask Rutli^ not only has many extracts from earlier writings, especially Bereshith Rabbah^ the Jerusalem Talmud, etc., but also contains material anterior to these. Its date in its present form is earlier than the two foregoing, as it belongs to a time previous to the ninth century ; a more exact date cannot be determined. As an example of allegorical interpretation the following may be cited : i. 5, " I am black, but comely . . ." (supposed to be said by Solomon); this is explained thus: " 1 appear black in my deeds, but comely in those of my ithers. The congregation of Israel says, I appear black unto lyself, but comely in the eyes of my Creator." See Amos ix. 7.^ Ekah Rabbati. This Midrask on Lamentations is so called on account of its opening word Ekah (= '* How "). Rabbati is added for the similar reason that Rabbah is added to certain other Mid- rashini (see above). It occupies a special position in this group because it belongs to the oldest of the Midrashic works ; it was compiled from a mass of ancient material in the second half of the seventh ^ Wiinsche, Der Midrasch Schir ha-Schirim^ p. \. 2 Am. ix. 7 runs : " Are you not as the children of the Ethiopians unto Me, O children of Israel? saith the Lord." It is a good instance of the mechanical use the Rabbis make of the words of Biblical texts, no matter how inappropriate the use of the text itself may be. fath. m THE MIDRASHIM 77 century, according to Zunz,^ " The Haggadic expla- nation of this book (Lamentations) — which is a dirge on the fall of the Jewish state and the extinction of the national splendour — was treated by scholars as especially appropriate to the Ninth of Ab,^ to the day of the destruction of the Temple, and to the eve of that fastjday." ^ The character of the contents of this Midrash is similar to that of the others in this group. (The best edition is that of Buber, Wilna, 1899.) Midrash Megillath Esther. This Midrash on the book of Esther (Megillath = " Roll ") is also called Haggadaih {= '' N^rrditiYG'') Megt//ah. It was com- piled before the eighth century, as it "is often cited in Rabbinical writings subsequent to that date.* Like the other .Midrash hn of this group, it borrows largely from the Jerusalem Talmud, Bereshith Rabbah, and Wayyikra Rabbah. B. Among the Midrashim which deal with more than one book of the Old Testament the first which claims attention is Pesikta? This word means " Section," and the Midrash is so called because it is based on the Scripture sections which form the lessons read in the synagogue on Sabbaths and festivals. As these lessons are taken from the Pentateuch and the Prophetical writings, this Midrash deals with a number of different Biblical books. It is an impor- tant work on account of its age, since it belongs to approximately the same period as Bereshith Rabbah^ or even earlier. But, as Theodor® points out, "the proems (see below) in the Pesikta, developed from short introductions to the exposition of the Scripture text into more independent homiletic structures, as ^ op. cit. p, 191. 2 One of the chief Jewish fast-days. 3 Theodor \nJE v. 85;^. ^ See Zunz, op. cit. p. 276. ^ Known also as Pesikta de-Rab Kahana^ from the name of the compiler; but see Zunz, op. cit. pp. 204 f. Text by Buber (Lyck, 1868) ; German translation by Wiinsche, 1885. ^ JJE viii. 560(3;. y^ RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM well as the mastery of form apparent in the final formulas of the proems, indicate that the Pesikta belongs to a higher stage of Midrashic development," Each of the sections of which the Midrash is com- posed forms a self-contained whole, the subject of which is the particular Scriptural lesson for the Sabbath or festival in question ; this is h^ggadically developed and ramifies into a mass of topics in relation, more or less, to the original subject. A good deal of the Midrash is identical with parallel passages in BereshitJi Kabbah, PVaj/jikra Rabbah^ and the Jerusalem Talmud. Pesikta Rabbati?- This Midrash, like the one just considered, is also a collection of homilies on the lessons from the Pentateuch and the Prophets for Sabbaths and festivals. It is called Rabbati (" Larger ") to distinguish it from the earlier and more important Pesikta. Although the names are similar, the contents of these two Midrashim differ entirely. Zunz assigns the second half of the ninth century as the date of its compilation, TancJiuma Yelammedenu. Two originally distinct Midrashim have become amalgamated under this name: (l) the Midrash Tanchuma, the work of a celebrated Palestinian Rabbi, named Tanchuma, who lived during the latter half of the fourth century ; and (2) a Midrash called Yelainniedent4, an abbre- viation of Yelammedenu Rabbenii ( = *' Let our Master teach us"), the formula with which the Halakic exordium begins. ^ Of these two the Midrash of Tanchuma is the more ancient, belong- ing to the fifth century in its present form ; it is one of the most important of the Midrashic writings. The Yelammedenu is later, having been compiled during the eighth or ninth century. This amalga- mated Midrash contains a collection of homilies dealing with all five books of the Pentateuch. 1 Hebrew text edited by M. Friedmann (Wien, 1880). 2 Theodor,/^ viii. 560a. THE MIDRASHIM 79 Midrash Hashkem. This, in the main, Haggadic Midrash on the Pentateuch is so called after the second word of the opening sentence, taken from Ex. viii. 20 (verse 16 in tlie Hebrew), with which it begins; "Hashkem," i.e. "Rise up early." It also has the name VVe-Hizhir ; this is abbreviated from the standing formula: We-hizhir ha-Kadosh^ bariik Hu ("And may the Holy One— Blessed be He !— instruct [lit. illuminate]"), with which most of the sections in the Midrash begin. It used to be thought that these two names indicated the exist- ence of two distinct Midrasliim ; but Zunz has shown that they are really one and the same work, and his conclusion is now generally accepted. This Midrash is defectn-e ; it is assigned by Zunz to the middle of the tenth century. It is one of the less important among the Midrashic works. Finally, mention may be made of four special Hag- gadic works which partake of a Midrashic character: Pirke^ de Rabbi Elieser. This contains lengthy Haggadic discussions on all the most important events described in the Pentateuch. According to Zunz, it cannot have been composed before the eighth century (see also Gerald Friedlander's transla- tion, pp. liii ff.). Yalkut'^ Shimconi. This is a great collection of Midrashic material ranging over the entire Old Testament. Shimeon was presumably a Rabbi who lived in Frankfort^ in the Middle Ages, but the date of this work cannot be determined. Its chief value is text-critical, for the comparison between it and the ancient Midrashic works helps towards determining the correct text of the latter. Yalkiit ha-Makiri. This is a later work than the foregoing, but also useful for text-critical purposes. 1 Pirke = " Sections.'' An English translation by Gerald M. Friedlander was published in London in 1916. =* Yalkut = " Collection." ^ This is stated in the preface to the printed edition of the work (1709) ; but there seems to be some doubt about it. 8o RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM It is not knowa when the author, Machir ben Abba Mari, Hved. The collection of Midrashic material which Machir gathered seems to have dealt with the Prophetical books and the Hagiographa ; but we do not know what the original extent of the work was. Midrash ha-Gadol} This is a still more compre- hensive work than the two foregoing, as it includes quotations from theTargums and Kabbalistic writings (which the other collections do not), in addition to those from the Midrashiin and Tahmidiin. It is later in date than the others. The name of the author is not known. There are, in addition to the writings which have been enumerated, many other small and unimportant Midrashic Avorks. It is not necessary to mention these by name. All that are of real value have been dealt with above. A final word must be said about what are called the Proems. These are introductions, or prefatory remarks, which in all the more important Haggadic MidrasJiivi precede the expository matter proper. They occupy, as Theodor insists, '' an important position in the entire Midrash literature . . . they are the clearest evidence of the existence of a deliberate technical arrangement in the Haggadic Midrashim^ and constitute both in name {petichah) and in nature an introduction to the exposition of the lesson proper ; to this, however, they lead up by means of the interpretation of an extraneous text, the proemial text, which must not be taken from the lesson itself; and the proems may be as different in structure and finish as in contents. The proems are either simple^ consisting of a simple exposition of the proem text, often amplified by quotations, parables, etc., and connected throughout, or at least at the end, with the lesson or with the initial verse thereof; or composite^ consisting of different interpretations of the 1 Ha-Gadol =''T\i^ Great." The Hebrew text of the part on Genesis was edited by Schechter (Cambridge, 1902). THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 8i same extraneous verse, by one or by various authors, and connected in various ways, but always of such a nature that the last interpretation, the last com- ponent part of the proem, leads to the interpretation of the lesson proper."^ The proems are often of great length, sometimes longer than the whole of the interpretations which follow ; in some cases there is more than one proem. It often happens that proems, or parts of them, belonging to earlier Midrashim have been incorporated into the expository portions of others ; by this means the dependence of one Midrash on another can be established. The proems are also important on account of the ancient material which they so often embody. Ill THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE [Literature : " The Talmud," an article published in the Quarterly Review^ October, 1867, by E. Deutsch, and reprinted m\i\s Literary Remains {\.QxiAoxi^ 1874); the articles " Talmud " in JE xii. pp. 1-27 (by Bacher), and in the extra volume of Hastings's DB^ pp. 57-66 (by Schechter), also in the E7icycL Britt. (by Schiller-Szinessy). Useful compendiums of infor- mation on the subject are Mielziner's Introduction to the Talmud (Cincinnati and Chicago, 1894) and Strack's Ein- leitung in den Thalmud (Leipzig, 4th ed. 1908). See also RWS', pp. 52-76. A new edition of the Babylonian Talmud (based upon a rearranged and abridged text) in an English translation, by Michael L. Rodkinson, was published by the " New Talmud Publishing Company," in New York, in 16 vols. (18 vols, in 16), together with an introductory volume on the History of the Talmud (2 vols, in i ; 1896-1903). Various "Selections" from the Talmud have been published in English ; the following may be mentioned here : Hershon's Talmudic Miscellany (1880) ; his Treasures of the Talmud (1882) ; and his Genesis with a Talmudic Commentary (1883) ; Polano, The Talmud (in the "Chandos Classics ") ; Montague, Tales from the Talmud (London, 1906) ; Gerald Friedlander, ^ TE viii. 553^. 82 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Rabbinic Philosophy and Ethics (an excellent volume ; London, 1912). Heference may also be made to Schiirer, HJP I. i. pp. nyff-? and to 1. Abrahams, Short History of Jewish Literature, chaps, i. and iii. (London, 1906). Other literature is referred to below under the separate sections.] (i) Introductory The term ■' Talmud " is applied generally to the vast corpus of Jewish traditional literature which has been preserved in two independent collections, viz. the "Talmud Jerushalmi " (TJ.), i.e. the Jerusalem or Palestinian Talmud, and the "Talmud Babli" (T.B.), or "Babylonian Talmud." Both collections are the product of the Jewish schools, the former repre- senting the work of the Palestinian schools, and completed some time in the fourth century A.D., the latter embodying the work of the Babylonian schools, and completed about a century later than the Jeru- salem Talmud. Both may be regarded as amplifi- cations of the Mishnah, which, in the form that was officially sanctioned by R. Judah I. about A.D. 190 or 200, was simultaneously adopted in Palestine and Babylonia as the basis for the discussions of the schools. Consequently the Mishnah is regarded as a component part of both Talmuds ; and even those parts of the Mishnah which have no Talmudic amplification are included in the text of editions of the Babylonian Talmud. It is important to realise that both the Mishnah and the later Talmudic amplifications, which rest upon it, represent an oral tradition, transmitted for centuries in an oral form, until finally it was redacted in a fixed written shape. When exactly these works were reduced to writing is uncertain. A third-century prohibition forbids the committal of the teaching of tradition to writing, or the use of any written form of such by the teachers in lecturing (T.B. Gitt. ^oa. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 83 Tern. 14^). In a reply addressed to the scholars of Kairwan, Sherira Gaon (A.D. 900—1000) alludes to this prohibition as follows : " In answer to your question asking when the Mishnah and Talmud were respectively com- mitted to writing, it should be said that neither of them was thus transmitted, but both were arranged [redacted] orally ; and the scholars believe it to be their duty to recite them from memory and not from written copies."^ It is clear from Sherira's words that even in the tenth century the scholars of the Jewish Babylonian Academies abstained from using written copies of the Talmud in their lectures ; they were, it would seem, sufficiently familiar with its text to be able to recite this from memory. On the other hand, the Gaon*s words certainly imply that written copies were already in existence. Such manuscripts, though their public and official use was interdicted, were doubtless employed for purposes of private study. At an earlier period still, during the time of the Amoraim (third to fifth centuries A.D.), it is probable that the Mishnah and the allied traditional literature of the Tannaim had already been reduced to writing. It may be added that, owing to the persecution of the Jews in the Middle Ages, and the consequent de- struction of their MS. literature, only a comparatively small number of MSS. of the Talmud have survived. Most of these are fragmentary, codices of single sections (" Sedarim ") or even of single tractates (" Massektoth "), which are preserved in various Euro- pean libraries. The only known complete MS. of the Babylonian Talmud, written in A.D. 1369, is in the possession of the Royal Library of Munich. A fragment of the tractate Pesahivi, of the ninth or tenth century, is preserved in the University Library 1 Cited \xiJE xii. 19^ (art. *' Talmud"). G 2 84 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM of Cambridge, and an edition of this, with autotype facsimile, was issued at Cambridge in 1879, under the editorship of W. H. Lowe. The same editor was also responsible for a printed edition of the text of the Mishnah on which the Palestinian Talmud rests^ from a unique MS. preserved in the University Library of Cambridge (1883). This is the most important extant authority for the text of the Mishnah. The first printed editions of this literature were issued at Naples and Venice. At Naples as early as 1492 the Mishnah, with the commentary of Maimonides, appeared. The first complete edition of the Babylonian Talmud was published by Daniel Bomberg in twelve folio volumes, at Venice, in 1520-23. It contains not only the text, but also the commentary of Rashi, the Tosaphoth, the com- pendium of Asheri, and the Mishnah-commentary of Maimonides. This editio princeps has become the model for all subsequent editions, which reproduce its pagination by which reference to the Babylonian Talmud is made. It is also important critically, because it is free from the mutilations introduced into later editions by the Christian censorship. The first edition of the Jerusalem Talmud was also issued by Daniel Bomberg, at Venice, in 1523-24, in one folio volume, without any commentary. The technical term "Talmud" has undergone a certain amount of development in meaning. Originally an old scholastic term of the Tannaim {i.e. the Rabbis mentioned in the Mishnah), its primary meaning is (i) "teaching" (from the Hebrew -yd^ "teach"), although it also signifies "learning."^ In this latter sense it sometimes denotes "the study of religion," and is contrasted with "practice" (ninyo), i-e. the practice of religion. In the sense of "teaching" it frequently occurs in Tannaitic terminology,^.^, in the phrase talmud lomar, to denote teaching ^ e.^. in the phrase Talmud Toi-ah = "study [learning] of the Law." THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 85 based upon the text of the Bible and the exegetic deductions made therefrom, and especially " teaching " which takes the form of a Halakic principle deduced by exegesis from the Biblical text. The term "Talmud" thus denotes primarily, in the Tannaitic phraseology, the exegetic confirmation of the Halakah, or binding religious rule. It further (2) came to be applied, in a more restricted sense, to the exposition of the Halakah when this had been formulated into an independent code of Law (the Mishnah). In this more restricted sense it is distinguished from study of the Bible text {Mikra\ and also from that of the Mishnah. In a story referring to the Patriarch Judah I. (the compiler of the Mishnah in its present form) the three branches of study, as thus developed, are clearly distinguished. The members of the Academy are classified as follows (T.B. Baba bathra Stz, according to the true text of the passage) : those who devoted themselves to the study of the Bible-text («-iprD 'byn) ; those who gave themselves principally to the study of the Mishnah (n^iijo •hs'i) ; and those who mainly studied the Talmud (rrabn ^^rn)- With this special development of Talmud study the term "Talmud" (3) began to acquire a larger meaning. The Mishnah became an integral part of the " Talmud," which also gradually incorporated into itself a large portion of the old Midrashic literature.^ The term occurs in this comprehensive sense, as a designation of the entire corpus^ in the Babylonian Talmud itself.^ As distinguished from the Mishnah, the commentary on it is termed " Gemara," a word derived from Babylonian Aramaic which has the meaning " what has been learned," i.e. the learning that has been transmitted by tradition, and then, in a restricted sense, applied specially to the exposition of the Mishnah. In this technical sense it seems to have been a comparatively late substitution for the term "Talmud." While the Mishnah was written in pure Hebrew, the language of the Gemara, both of the Palestinian and of the Babylonian Talmud, is predominantly Aramaic. The Aramaic of each Talmud is, however, different, that of the Babylonian being a dialect of Eastern Aramaic (akin to " Syriac *'), while the Aramaic of the Palestinian Talmud is Western in * Of course, the Midrashic literature has been edited in separate and independent collections (see Part II., section ii., above). But many passages have parallel versions in the Talmuds. ^ See Bacher \n JE xii. 2b for details. 86 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM character, and approximates to the dialect of the Palestinian Targum. The contents of the two Gemaras are also largely independent.^ The Talmud is in many respects unique among the literary monuments of the world. " In form a commentary, it became an encyclopaedia of Jewish faith and scholarship, comprising whatsoever the greatest representatives of Judaism in Palestine and in Babylon had regarded as objects of study and investigation and of teaching and learning during the three centuries which elapsed from the con- clusion of the Mishnah to the completion of the Talmud itself"^ With the incorporation of the Mishnah the Talmud became a vast record of the gradually developed and enriched oral tradition. As we study its pages we hear the debates, often minutely recorded, that went on through successive generations in the Jewish schools. Its astonishingly varied contents, and wealth of detail on all sorts of subjects, show that, academic as it is in spirit, the Jewish scholars were in contact with the popular life, details of which are often minutely described. It thus constitutes an important source for the history of civilisation, not to speak of its excursions into the most varied branches of human knowledge — astronomy and medicine, mathematics and law, anatomy and botany — which furnish valuable data for the history of science. The Talmud, in its finally redacted form, bridges the Judaism of the Bible and of the later period. But it did not remain a mere literary monument It became a formative factor of the most decisive kind in the further development of Judaism in the post-Talmudic period. It acquired high authority as a religious thesaurus, "equal to the Bible itself as a source of instruction and decision in problems of 1 For details see below, pp. 131 ff. 2 Bacher mJE^ ibid. 241^. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 87 religion." It thus became the basis for systematic epitomes or expositions of religious duties and truths adapted to the needs of later times. The study of it determined, to a large extent, for centuries the very fibre of Jewish thought and the forms of Jewish intellectual activity. Its subtleties served to sharpen to an extraordinary acuteness the minds of its devoted students. Nor has it, even yet, lost its historical importance for Judaism. Though many Jews have, during the last century, absorbed modern culture and neglected Talmudic studies, the Talmud is to-day, for masses of Je\\^, the supreme authority in religion. The ministers and Rabbis of modern Jewry must possess a competent knowledge of their traditional literature, and, above all, of the Talmud, which is still, with the Bible, the most venerated religious authority among orthodox Jews. It has already been pointed out that the Talmud (with the Mishnah) was in its origin a compilation of the oral Law. As such it was clearly marked off from the canonical Scripture, which was handed down in written form. The distinction was clearly marked in Rabbinical terminology, " the Torah by mouth" (nr) ^yitD rTlin) being distinguished from '*the Torah in writing" (^nlDlU^ n")"in)' which was embodied in the canonical Pentateuch.^ The Oral Law was regarded by the later Rabbis as going back to Moses himself. Thus a saying attributed to R. Simeon ben Lakish (third century A.D.) runs : " What is that which is written : / will give thee tables oj stone^ and the Law^ and the commandment which I have 1 In the first instance the Pentateuch formed the sole con- tents of canonical Scripture. Later the Prophets and Hagio- grapha were added, but were not put on the same level of authority, being regarded as "Tradition" {I^abbalah\ though of course in a written form. 88 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM written to teach them (Ex. xxiv. 12)? 'Tables,' these are the ten words; 'Law,' that is the Scripture; 'and the command- ment,' that is the Mishnah ; * which I have written,' these are the Prophets and Writings (Hagiographa) ; ^ 'to teach them,-' that is the Gemara ; thus instructing us that all these were given to Mo^es from Sinai " (T.B. Ber. ^a). The real beginnings of the Oral Law are, no doubt, to be placed in the early post-Exilic period, when the written Torah of Moses, as canonical Scripture, was read and expounded in the syna- gogues. From small beginnings this gradually grew, being developed and modified from time to time to meet the exigencies of changing circumstances, till, after being subjected for some centuries to these varying influences, it first assumed a fixed and official form in the Mishnah promulgated by the patriarch Judah I. about A.D. 190-200. This final form of the Mishnah, it must be remembered, had been preceded by earlier attempts at codification, which prepared the way for R. Judah's work. The later developments of the oral tradition, which took the text of the Mishnah as the basis for further dis- cussions and commentary, have already been referred to above. Reference has been made to the extraordinarily varied contents of the Talmud. A broad distinction is drawn, in this connexion, between the Halakah and Haggadah.^ The former term, which means "rule," is applied primarily to laws which are of a binding character, but in an extended sense it em- braces not only the laws themselves, but also "all expositions, discussions, and reports which have the object of explaining, establishing, and determining legal principles and provisions." ^ Hence it comprises all the legal portions of the Talmudic literature. The actual Halakah includes, of course, all that belongs to the strictly legal or ritual element in Scripture, or can be deduced therefrom. "The term extends also to the 1 Notice that the Prophets and Hagiographa are distinguished here from '* Scripture," i.e. the Pentateuch. 2 cp. what is said on this point above, pp. 60 ff. 3 Mielziner, Introduction to the Talmud^ p. 56. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 89 usages, customs {Minhdgint)^ ordinances {TekanSth)^ and decrees [Gezerdih) for which there is little or no authority in the Scriptures."^ The Mishnah, which is essentially an inde- pendent codification of law, is almost exclusively Halakic in character. On the other hand, " Haggadah " (or ''Aggadd)f a term which in its original significance meant, apparently, recitation {sc. of the Scriptures), acquired a very extended meaning, embracing all that was not included in the Halakah. Hence the Haggadah comprises " all historical records, all legends and parables, all. doctrinal and ethical teachings, and all free and unrestrained interpretations of Scripture"^ which are non-Halakic in character. It is also applied to such subjects as astronomy, medicine and magic, theosophy and mysticism, and everything connected with folk-lore. Before we proceed to discuss the different st7'ata which make up the Talmudic literature, something must be said about the Jewish scholars who are referred to as authorities in this hterature. These may be classified into two main groups, viz. {a) those referred to in the Mishnah and the allied literature, and {b) those referred to in the Talmuds. {a) AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO IN THE MISHNAH AND THE ALLIED LITERATURE The Mishnah and the Rabbinical literature more or less contemporary with it, i.e. the Tosephta and the Baraithas,^ which embody the earliest compila- tions of the traditional material, mention the follow- ing as authorities: (i) The Sopherivi or "Scribes"; (ii) the Zngoth or " Pairs " ; and (iii) the Tannaim or " Teachers." (i) The Sopherim. This term is traditionally applied to the authorities who transmitted and 1 Schechter in Hastings's DB v. (extra vol.), p, 58^. 2 The Hebrew and Aramaic forms are msrr mjN and NmsN- The Hiphil (Aram. Aphel) of the verb i;: = to narrate ; hence the noun = recitation^ narration^ and may be applied to a tale or anything related which has no binding authority. ^ Mielziner, op. cit. p. 56 f. * See below for details of these branches, pp. io8 ff., \\\ ff 90 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM expounded the Law from the days of Ezra to the time of Simon the Just (who flourished about 300- 270 B.C.). The name "Sopher" (plur. *' Sopherim ") means "Bookman," i.e. one who taught out of the "Book" (Heb. Sepher) of the Law. The name was given to the successors of Ezra, who not only guarded and transmitted "the Book of the Law" {i.e. the Pentateuch),^ but were also its official inter- preters and administrators. These " Sopherim " were originally priests; "scribe and priest" was a com- bination that persisted long after Ezra — in fact, as has been pointed out, down to the time of Simon the Just. The latter was himself high-priest and also head of the " Sopherim " ; but at his death (c. 270 B.C.) the organisation of this closely knit priestly body seems to have broken down, and as an official body its activities probably ceased. Doubtless individual priests were active in the work of transmitting the Law after this period, but only as individuals, animated by piety. It was perhaps during the interval 270-190 B.C. that a class of pious laymen arose, who became teachers of the Law, and were the progenitors of the later Pharisaic party. When it became necessiry to set up a new authoritative body — the Sanhedrin — its members were composed of priests and laymen, with the high- priest as its official head. The Sanhedrin was prob- ably organised about 190 B.C. Henceforth the Rabbinical teachers, who were laymen as a rule, were active and influential. They must be carefully distinguished, as, in fact, they are carefully distin- guished in the Rabbinical literature, from the early " Sopherim," who were priests.^ ^ They were responsible for transmitting" the text of the "Pentateuch in the Scrolls. ^ See Further the article " Pharisees " (by G. H. Box) in Hastings's ERE ix. 831 ff., and also an article by the same writer in the Expositor iov June, 1918, "Scribes and SaclduceeS in the New Testament,'' p. 402 f. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 91 Simon the Just was the last of the old Sopherim acting as a close and authoritative body of priests. The evidence for this fact is contained in a sentence of the Mishnah tractate Pirke Aboth (i. 2 J, which, referring to Simon, states that he was "of the remnants of the Great Synagogue," i.e. among its last survivors. It is highly probable that "the men of the Great Synagogue " of Rabbinical tradition are to be identified with the " Sopherim." It is repre- sented to have been a synod consisting of 120 members. It is doubtful, however, whether such an assembly ever really existed. The element of truth underlying the tradition may be that an authori- tative body of priestly Sopherim did exist and was active during the period referred to above. To the " men of the Great Synagogue " many " sayings, ordinances, and decrees are attributed ; such as the arrangement of the Old Testament Canon, the reading of the Law on certain days of the week, the arrangement [in its earliest form] of the daily prayers, saying of grace after meals," ^ and other matters, and doubtless there is a substratum of truth in these statements. The chain of tradition is described in the following passage, which forms the opening paragraph of the tractate Pirke Aboth (i. i) : " Moses received the Torah from Sinai, and l;.e delivered it to Joshua, and Joshua to the Elders (Josh. xxiv. 21 ; Judges ii. i), and the Elders to the Prophets, and the Prophets deUvered it to the men of the Great Synagogue. They said three things ' Be deliberate in judgement ' ; and ' Raise up many disciples and ' Make a fence to the Torah.' " The second of these sayings suggests that the Sopherim were active in the work of teaching and expounding the Law. Probably, however, their exposition of the Law was simple and plain in character, without any of the elaborate amplifications 1 cp, RWS\ p. 56 f. 92 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM and deductions that marked the work of the later Rabbinical teachers. No great amount of readjust- ment was required while the community was small and compact, and undisturbed by the invasion of new and revolutionary influences. These came later with the rising tide of Hellenism ; and when they came necessitated a total reorganisation of the Jewish community. The earlier Sopherim must be carefully distinguished from the "Scribes" of the New Testament period, who were the purely professional class who possessed an expert knowledge of the Law, and were able to administer it. Though some priests may have been included in the scribal class of the New Testament period, the Scribes were predominantly laymen of the class of the Rabbinical teachers.^ Though the earlier Sopherim were primarily concerned with the Law (Pentateuch), which was regarded by them as Scripture par excellence^ there is no reason to suppose that they refused to recognise the other collections of sacred writings embodied in the Prophets and Hagiographa. On the contrary, the evidence suggests that they took an active part in the formation of these collections and their embodiment in the Canon of Scripture. Only it must be remembered that these other parts of Scripture were never put by them on a level with the Law. It is not improbable that some of the work of the earlier Sopherim [e.g. Ps. cxix.) is included in these later collections. Their outlook was broad and humanistic — they seem to have been much influenced by the class of the " Wise." Ben Sira may, perhaps, be regarded as inheriting their tradition. His .picture of the "Scribe" (Ecclus. xxviii. 34 ff.) shows that a broad culture and wide interests were the marks of the ideal Scribe. It is to be noted that Ben Sira quotes freely from all parts of the Hebrew Bible, not merely from the Pentateuch. The chain of tradition is continued in Ph-ke Aboth with the mention of Antigonus of Soko, who is stated to have continued the tradition of Simon the Just. "Antigonus of Soko received from Simon the Just. He used to say : ' Be not as slaves that minister to the lord to receive recompense ; but be as slaves that minister to the lord without a view to receive recompense ; and let the fear of Heaven be upon you.'" 1 See further the Expositor article above referred to. THE TALMUDTC LITERATURE 93 Of Antigonus nothing further is known. He may- have been one of the pious laymen who continued the work of the Sopherim, arid as such stands here in a representative capacity for many others whose names have not been preserved. He forms the con- necting Hnk between the Sopherim and the " Pairs." (ii) The "Fairs." This name (Heb. rr\T\1 = Greek Zvyov) is given to the leading teachers of the Rabbinical class who flourished between the Macca- bsean age and the Herodian epoch (c. 150-30 B.C.). The following five " pairs " are mentioned, and in this order (bridging five generations): (i) Jose b. Joezer of Zereda and Jochanan of Jerusalem ; (2) Joshua b. Perachya and Nittai of Arbela ; (3) Jehuda b. Tabbai and Shim*on b. Shetach ; (4) Shema'ya and 'Abtalyon ; (5) Hillel and Shammai. According to tradition, the two mentioned in each case occupied the position of heads of the Sanhedrin, the one mentioned first being the President (Nasi), the second mentioned in each case being the Vice- President (Ad beth dm). This is certainly not true of the official Sanhedrin, which down to New Testa- ment times, and, indeed, to the last days of Jeru- salem (a.D. 66-70), was presided over by the high- priest ex officio. What underlies the tradition may possibly be the fact that the teachers enumerated in the " pairs" really stood at the head of the organised Rabbinical schools, and were, according to Rabbinical theory, the rightful bearers of the functions entrusted to the heads of the Sanhedrin. Several of these names are distinguished in the history of Judaism (especially Shim'on b. Shetach, Shema'ya and 'Ab- talyon), but the most important are those of Hillel and Shammai. Both these great teachers founded schools, which were called after them " the school of Hillel" and "the school of Shammai" (Beth Hillel and Beth Shaimnai). The controversies between the latter figure prominently in the Mishnah. Both 94 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM teachers were active in the Halakic development of the Torah, and it was Hillel who framed the first exegetical rules (seven in number, afterwards ex- tended to thirteen, and later still further expanded). (iii) The Tannaim (n'^x^n) ^^ " Teachers/' a name given to the doctors of the Mishnah,^ may be traced from the rise of the rival schools of Hillel and Shammai, ie. from about A.D. lo,^ down to the close of the career of Judah I. (c. A.D. 220). The period, however, of their greatest activity falls between the years A.D. 70-200 (from the destruction of the Temple). Between these dates some 120 of these teachers flourished, who may be grouped con- veniently into four generations. It will only be possible to note under each generation a few of the more prominent names. (i) The first generation (A.D. 70-100). The greatest figure at this time among the Rabbinical teachers was the famous Jochanan ben Zakkai, who founded the college at Jamnia where Judaism was recon- stituted. Jochanan was one of the leaders of the peace party in the disastrous war with Rome (A.D. 66--7o).2 (2) The second generation {x.V>. loo-i id). Jochanan b. Zakkai was succeeded as head of the Academy at Jamnia by Rabban Gamaliel II. (perhaps a grandson of Gamaliel I.), a man of masterful character. To this period also belong the five famous disciples of Jochanan b. Zakkai, viz. Eliezer ben Hyrkanus, brother-in-law of Gamaliel II., and head of a school at Lydda, Joshua ben Chananya,* Jose the Priest, ^ Tl:/^^^ ("Teacher") does not occur in the Mishnah itself. It was applied to the scholars mentioned in the Mishnah by- later generations. 2 Rabban Gamaliel I (mentioned in Acts v. 34, 39) flourished in this earher period. He was a grandson of Hillel. 3 Jochanan b. Zakkai belonged to the school of Hillel. ^ These two authorities are constantly referred to in the Mishnah as *' R. EUezer" and " R. Joshua" respectively. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 95 Simeon ben Nathanael, and Eleazar ben Arak. To this generation also belong R. Eliezer b. Jacob L, famous, as an authority on matters connected with the structure and services of the Temple (in which he had participated), and Eliezer b. 'Azarya, who traced his pedigree to Ezra the Scribe. From the younger members of this generation sprang its most domi- nating figure — Akiba, who met a martyr's death in the later insurrection against Rome organised by Bar-Cochba (a.d. i 31-135). Akiba, who compiled an earlier form of the Mishnah, which was afterwards expanded by Judah !., was the great champion of a severely literal exegesis. He maintained the prin- ciple that every detail of the sacred text, even the minutest, was significant.^ Another famous contem- porary was R. Ishmael b. EHsha, who founded a school at Usha where Midrash studies were culti- vated, and from which various Midrashim emanated. Against Akiba he maintained the principle that the language of Scripture is to be interpreted by the standards of human speech, and that details are not to be unduly pressed. R. Ishmael also developed HilleFs seven rules of interpretation into thirteen. Other famous contemporaries were R. Tarphon, R. Jose of Galilee, Simon b. Azzai, the last of whom entered with Ben Zoma, Elisha b. Abuya, and Akiba into '* Paradise," i.e. engaged in mystical and theo- sophic speculation. Elisha b. Abuya, who is often referred to as " Acher " {i.e. " the other one "), ultimately apostatised from Judaism. He may be regarded as the Faust of the Talmud. (3) The third generation (A.D. 130-160). The most important of R. Ishmael's disciples were R. Josiah and R. Jonathan, who are often referred to in the early Midrashim {Mekilta and Sifre), but not in the Mishnah. The most important of Akiba's disciples ^ Akiba's principles of interpretation influenced the new Greek translation of the Old Testament made by Aquila. 96 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM was R. Meir, who is mentioned no fewer than 330 times in the Mishnah and 452 times in the Tosephta. For a time Meir was a pupil of R. Ishmael, but afterwards of Akiba. He lived mostly at, or in the neighbourhood of, Tiberias. He was responsible for a redaction of the early Mishnah of Akiba, and it was Meir's edition of this which was ultimately worked up by Judah I. Other famous disciples ot Akiba were : R. Simon b. Jochai — referred to in the Mishnah^ always as " R. Simon'' simply — R. Jose ben Chalaphta (in the Mishnah 2 always " R. Jose"), R. Jehuda ben Ilai (in the Mishnah^ always *' R. Jehuda" simply). Of these Simon ben Jochai is traditionally connected with the mystical literature. He figures prominently in the traditions of Oriental Judaism, especially in those of Persia. From Jehuda b. Ilai the groundwork of the early Midrash Sifra (on Leviticus) is derived. Mention may also be made here of R. EHezer, son of Rabbi Jose of Galilee, who was a famous Haggadist, and R. Simon IL, son of Gamaliel II. and father of the Patriarch Judah I. (4) The fourth generation ( A.D, 1 60-200). The great figure of this period was the Patriarch Judah the Prince {Nasi), often referred to as Rabbi without further qualification. He is famous as the compiler of the most authoritative form of the Mishnah, which, with some slight later additions, is identical with the one that has been handed down to later generations. Judah was a man of wide culture and sympathies, and dispensed a lavish hospitality. He is one of the most impressive and attractive figures in the whole history of Judaism. Himself the disciple of Simon b. Jochai and of Eleazar ben Shammua,'* ^ Some 325 times. ^ Some 330 times. ^ More than 600 times. * Referred to in the Mishnah as " R. Eleazar" simply. He was born near Alexandria and was a disciple of Akiba, whom he visited in prison. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 97 he surrounded himself with a band of able scholars and disciples. In virtue of his office he presided over the later (Rabbinical) Sanhedrin, which in his time seems to have moved about from place to place — from Usha to Beth Shearim, and thence to Sepphoris and Tiberias. Among the Patriarch's colleagues may be mentioned R. Nathan ha-Babli (" the Babylonian "), who had emigrated from Baby- lonia to Palestine. Possibly the recension of the tractate Aboth which underlies the text of the Aboth de Rabbi Nathan goes back to him. Symmachus ben Joseph, a famous Halakist and a disciple of Meir, also^ belongs to this period, as does the ascetic R. Pinchas (Phinehas) ben Jair, to whom miracles were attributed. He is the reputed author of a later Midrash known as Tadshe. Some scholars, e.g. Strack, assign to a fifth generation the younger contemporaries of the Patriarch Judah who survived him, and who gave final authoritative recognition to the Mishnah. They form a group which is transitional to the Amoraim, and may be classed as "half-Tannaites." At their head stands Gamaliel III., the son and successor of Judah I. Others belonging to this group are : R. Chiyya, the disciple and friend of Judah, a Babylonian who, late in life, emigrated to Palestine and settled in Tiberias ; he took part in the redaction of the Halakic Midrash on Leviticus known as Sifra ; and bar Kappara, who presided over a school in Csesarea. The outcome of the labours of these various gene- rations of Tannaim and of their predecessors was the Mishnah with its allied literature, to the consideration of which we now proceed. (ii) The Mishnah^ Tosephta, and Baraithas [Special Literature : {a) Editions of the Mishnah Text. The best text is that edited by W. H. Lowe, to which reference has been made above. A classical edition is that of Surenhusius, 6 vols., Amsterdam, 1698-1703 (Hebrew text with Latin trans- lation and commentaries). An edition, with pointed Hebrew text and German translation in parallel columns, has been appearing (in Berlin) since 1885 (edited by Sammter and others). H gS RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Valuable editions of separate treatises have been edited by Strack, and an edition of the tractate Pirke Aboth (" Sayings of the Jewish Fathers") by Dr. C. Taylor (2nd ed., Cambridge, 1897); also an edition (with English translation and notes) of the tractate 'Abodah zara ("The Mishnah on Idolatry") by W. A. L. Elmslie ("Text and Studies " series, Cambridge, 191 1). The text of the Tosephta has been published complete by Zuckermandel (1880-82). An edition of the Tosephta tractate Berakoih (text, translation, and explanations) appeared in 191 2 edited by Oscar Holtzmann (Giessen, Topelmann). {b) T7'ajislations. Of English translations the following call for mention : Eighteen Treatises of the Mishna^ translated by De Sola and Raphall (2nd ed., London, 1845) '■> eighteen tractates translated by J. Barclay and published in a volume under the title The Talmud (London, 1878). A German trans- lation of the Tosephta tractate Berakoth (by H.^Laible) ap- peared in 1902. (r) Discussio7is, articles^ etc. Graetz, History of the Jews^ English translation, vol. ii., chaps. 13-17 ; the article "Mishnah" in Encycl. Brit. xvi. 502 (9th ed.), by Dr. Schiller-Szinessy ; the articles " Tosefta " and " Baraita '' (together with the literature cited) in JE xii. 207-209 and ii, 513-516. An important work has been published by Zuckermandel under the title Tosefta.^ Mishna^ imd Baraitha iti ihrem Verhdltniss zii einander (2 vols., Frankfort, 1908).] {a) THE MISHNAH The name " Mishnah " is a Hebrew term derived from a verb {shanaJi) which means "to repeat," and then "to learn" or "teach" by repetition. It thus came to mean "teaching" (by oral repetition).^ The text of the Mishnah is arranged in six parts or orders (Heb. seddrmi, sing, seder). Each order {seder) is divided into tractates {i7tassektoth'^\ and each trac- tate into chapters {pei^akhn^)^ and each perek into paragraphs, which are called individually a Mishnah. 1 Such traditions (AZ/j/i^zay- K^;"/;) are termed Seurepoxrets-, z>. "repetitions," in the Patristic literature, ^.^. Jerome,^/. 121 (" I M^ould fail to tell of the multitude of the traditions of the Pharisees which are now called h^vT^pcacr^is^^), See PJVS^, p. 59, note. 2 Plur. o{ masseketh (dddd, Aram, ndddo), from a root meaning "to weave"; cp. Latin /^xZ/zj-. 3 Perek=^ "joint." THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 99 The six sedarim or orders are as follows : (i) Seder ZeraHm, or "Seeds," contains tractates dealing mainly with the laws connected with agri- culture. But the opening tractate of this seder treats oi "^^^.y^x {Berakoth = "Blessings"). (ii) Seder M&ed {Mo'ed = " Festival ") deals with the festivals, including the Sabbath. (iii) Seder Nashim ("Women") is mainly con- cerned with marriage laws, but includes two tractates on vows. (iv) Seder Nezikin (" Damages ") is mainly con- cerned with civil and criminal law. (v) Seder Kodashhn (" Holy Things ") deals mainly with the laws of sacrifice. It includes an interesting and valuable tractate {Middoth) on the structure and dimensions of the Temple, based upon tradition. (vi) Seder Toharoih ("Purifications") deals with the laws of personal and ritual purification. In all, the six Sedarim ^ contain sixty-three tractates, as follows : (i) Seder ZeraH^n (eleven tractates) 1. Berakoth {j\xr\-i~ Blessings ox Benediciions). This tractate treats of liturgical matters, at what times prayers should be offered, on what occasions, and in -what places, etc. It contains nine chapters. 2. Pe^ah (n«D = Corner) deals with the questions relating to "the corners of the field" (Lev. xix. 9 ; cf. Deut. xxiv. 19, 21) and the rights of the poor in connexion therewith. It contains eight chapters. 3. Demai or Dammai (>nqt =-- Uncertain) discusses questions concerning corn and various fruits from which it is doubtful whether or not tithes should be given to the priests. 4. KiVayim (d'^^d = Mixtures). This tractate discusses the problems involved in giving effect to the injunction of Lev. xix. 19 : Thou shalt not let thy cattle gender with a diverse kind j thou shalt 7iot sow thy field with two kinds of seed; neither shall ^ Heb. amo nttSu? contracted to d'^mJi which in later editions of the Talmud is frequently substituted for «id:i. Hence Shas is a popular designation of the Babylonian Talmud. H 2 100 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM there come upon thee a garment of two kinds of stuff mingled together (cf Deut. xxii. 9-1 1). It contains nine chapters. 5. ShebiHth {x\yy^ = Seventh, i.e. " Seventh " or " Sabbatical " year). The subject-matter of this tractate is concerned with the command of Ex. xxiii. 1 1 : The seventh year thou shalt let it [thy land] rest and lie fallow {cf. Lev. xxiii. 1-8) ; the last chapter deals with the question of the remission of debts at the end of this year {cf. Deut. xv. 1-3). It contains ten chapters. 6. Terumoth (mm-in = Heave-offerings). The whole subject of heave-offerings is explained and discussed in this tractate. The text for the discussion is Num. xviii. 8-20 {cf. Deut. xviii. 4). It contains eleven chapters. 7. Ma'^asroth (m"iiU5?Q = Tenths, Tithes) deals with the tithes due to the Levites {cf Num. xviii. 21-24). It contains five chapters. 8. Ma''aser sheni (>:iij ntosjD = Second Tithe). The subject of this tractate — "second tithe" — is closely connected with that of the tractate immediately preceding {cf Deut. xiv. 22-29 J xxvi. 12-13). ^^ contains five chapters. 9. Challah {j^^ = Dough). In Num. xv. 21 the injunction is given : Of the first of your dough ye shall give unto the Lord an heave-offering throughout your generations. The subject-matter of this command is fully discussed in this tractate, and the use of leaven is fully dealt with. It contains four chapters. 10. ^Orlah {r&^ ~ Foreskin [duds, first-fruit'^ deals with the command not to eat the fruit of trees during the first three years, during which they are to be " uncircumcised " {j:f Lev. xix. 23 ff.). The last chapter refers to the prevalence of this custom outside the land of Israel (in Syria and elsewhere). It contains three chapters. 11. Bikkurim (omsn, First-fruits) deals with the first-fruits which were to be brought to the Temple {cf Deut. xxvi. i ff.; Ex. xxiii. 19). It contains three chapters. (ii) Seder Afo^ed {twelve tractates) 1. Shabbath (miiJ = Sabbath^ is an elaborate tractate. It discusses fuUy the laws relating to the Sabbath, predominantly the prohibitions of work {cf Ex. xvi. 22-30; xx. 10 ; xxiii. 12, etc.). It contains twenty-four chapters. 2. ''Erubin (piij? = Combinations ov Amalga?nations) is really an appendix to the previous tractate, dealing with one special aspect of Sabbath observance, viz, the ways in which localities can be artificially extended so as "to enlarge the ' Sabbath boundary and evade the strict letter of the law regarding a Sabbath day's journey. It contains ten chapters. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE loi 3. Pesachim (o^nDD = Passovers) sets forth the laws regulating the observance of the Passover — the search for and renioval of leaven on the eve of the feast, the slaughter of the Passover lamb, its roasting, the service of thanksgiving, etc. It contains ten chapters. 4. Shekalim (o^^pnj = Shekels) has for its main subject the Temple-tax {cf. Ex. xxx. 11-16) and the various objects for which it was spent. It also touches on other matters. It contains eight chapters. 5. Yoina («ov = The Day^ sc. of Atonement). One of the most interesting and valuable of the tractates, dealing, as its name implies, with all that concerns the ritual of the Day of Atonement as celebrated in the Temple {cf. Lev. xvi.). It contains eight chapters. 6. Siikkah (hdid = Booth). This interesting tractate deals, as its name suggests, with the laws concerning the observance of the Feast of Tabernacles or Booths, and other celebrations connected with the festival (^ Lev. xxiii. 34 ff.; Num. xxix. 12 ff.). It contains eight chapters. 7. Betzah (nsu — ^SS)-i ^^ called from its opening word ; but the nature of its contents is better indicated by the alternative title Yom iob^ /,t'. " Feast-day." It gives directions regarding the different kinds of work allowed or prohibited on the festivals {cf, Ex. xii. 10). It contains five chapters. 8. Rosh ha-shanah (n^iDn iii«-i = Head of the Year^ i.e. New Year) deals with questions of the calendar, but more especially with the laws regarding the due observance of the beginning of the seventh month {Tishri)^ which is the Jewish (civil) new year {cf Lev. xxiii. 24; Num. xxix. i ff.). It contains four chapters. 9. Ta'-anith {nysT\ = Fasting) deals with the laws to be ob- served on the fast-days, together with the liturgical directions. It contains four chapters. 10. Megillah {r^yo = Roll). Megillah is the technical name of the "Roll" of the Book of Esther, which is read in the synagogue on the Feast of Purim {cf Esther ix. 28). The tractate treats of the times appointed for the reading of the book, the manner in which it is to be written and read, and of other matters, such as the pubUc reading of the Law on various solemn days and other topics. It contains four chapters. 11. Mo' ed /Cat an Qtop ni?ra = Miftor Feast or Season). This tractate contains directions regarding the observance of the middle days {i.e. the days between the two first and the two last days of the seven prescribed) of the Feasts of Passover and Tabernacles, setting forth the kinds of work allowed and pro- hibited on those days. At the end of the tractate there is a section on mourning customs. It contains three chapters. T02 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM 13. Chagigah (nr:n = Festival offering) treats of the duty of attending the pilgrimage feasts at Jerusalem (Passover, Weeks, and Tabernacles), the kinds of sacrifice to be brought on such occasions, and the different degrees of defilement against which the pilgrims must be on their guard. For the pilgrimage feasts see Ex. xxiii. 17 ; Deut. xvi. 16. It contains three chapters. (iii) Seder Nashim (seven tractates) 1. Yebafnoth (n'ion' = Sisters-in-Laiu, or possibly to be pointed riTOr = Tke duty of Levirate marriage). The main subjects dealt with in this tractate are {a) Levirate marriage {cf. Deut. XXV. 5-10 [Matt. xxii. 24]) ; {b) the ceremony of the " Chalitzah" {cf. Ruth iv. 7), and all that this involves. " Chalitzah " means the "drawing off" of the shoe {i.e. sandal). It symbolised renunciation of rights and possession on the part of the widow ; {c) the forbidden degrees in marriage {cf Lev. xviii., etc.). It contains sixteen chapters. 2. Kethuboth (msiriD = Marriage-deeds)., as the title implies, has for its subject marriage- deeds and marriage-settlements {cf Ex. xxii. 16). It also deals with the subject of divorce. It contains thirteen chapters. 3. Nedarim (amj = Vows) treats of the whole subject of vows and their annulment on the basis of Num. xxx. It contains eleven chapters. 4. Nazir (tw = Naziriie) deals with the subject of the Nazirites {cf Num. vi.). It contains nine chapters. 5. Sotah (niDiD = Adulteress). The subject of the tractate is "the woman suspected of adultery" {cf Num. v. 11-31). It contains nine chapters. 6. Gittin {^-^y = Divorces) deals with the procedure involved in delivering in due form " bills of divorce," the preparation of such documents, their attestation, etc. {cf Deut. xxiv. i). It contains nine chapters. 7. Kiddushin (]>ii)Tip = Betrothals) deals with the subject implied by its title. It contains four chapters. (iv) Seder Nezikin (ten tractates) 1. Baba kamma («Dp wnn = First Gate) ; 2. Baba met2i''a (m3?'2q nii = Middle Gate) ; 3. Baba bathra (n-ihs Hni = Last Gate). These three tractates originally formed a single treatise under the general title of Masseketh Nezikin (lyi^ n^Do)- *' Tractate of Damages." When the order was compiled, and other tractates had to be included, the one on Damages was subdivided into three, bearing the titles given above, and each containing ten chapters. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 103 The three tractates are primarily concerned with questions of law ; the first deals with damages of various kinds caused by man or beasts for which he is responsible {cf. Ex. xxi. 18 fif. ; xxii. 5 ff.) ; the second gives directions regarding the disposal of property which has been found, trusts, the prohibition of usury, etc., the treatment of hired labourers {cf. Ex. xxii. ; Lev. xix. 13, etc.) ; the third is concerned with the laws of property, landed estates, boundary marks, sale of land, etc. 4. Sanhedrin (pin^D = Courts) and 5. Makkoth {T\y:io — Stripes) ■3Siz\^x\\\yios:\\\^A a single tractate. The former deals with the constitution and procedure of the various courts of justice and the administration of the criminal law (capital punishment, etc.). The latter has for its subject the infliction of corporal punishment, the thirty-nine stripes prescribed in the Law {cf. Deut. xxv. 1-3), the punishment of false witnesses {cf. Deut. xix. 16 fif.), and the laws of the cities of refuge {cf. Num. xxxv. roff.). Sankedrin contains eleven, and Makkoth three, chapters. 6. Skebu^oth (nwntj = Oaths) deals with the subject implied by the title, viz. oaths taken in private or administered with judicial sanction {cf Lev. v. 4 fif.). It contains eight chapters. 7. ''Eduyyoth{rr{'r\'S=' Testimonies or Evidences). This tractate is rather different in character from most of the others. It gives the testimony of later Rabbinical authorities as to the laws sanctioned by earlier teachers. It is largely concerned with the opposing opinions of the schools of Hillel and Shammai on a variety of subjects. It contains eight chapters. 8. '■Abodah zarah (rm nniy = Strange worships Idolatry) contains the principles and regulations which should govern Jews m their attitude towards idolatry and idolaters. This is one of the most interesting of the tractates, discussing as it does the problems that confronted a pious community in a heathen environment. It contains five chapters. 9. Aboth or Pirke Aboth (mnN 'pis = Sectio7is of the Fathers). This is not only the best known, but in many respects the most valuable of the Mishnaic tractates. The "Fathers" are the Fathers of Jewish tradition, and the treatise contains a collection of their ethical maxims. The Rabbis represented mostly belong to the Tannaim. It traces the "chain " of tradition, which was ultimately embodied in the Oral Law, from its beginning in Moses, and in this way justifies and safeguards its authority. The whole tractate is included in the Jewish Prayer Book, and at certain times is read in the synagogue service. It con- tains five chapters, with an appendix (" The Perek of R. Meir"). 10. Hoj'ayoth (nvnn = Teachings^ Decisions) deals with wrong decisions given by authorities (or a court), and the sacrifices 104 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM thereby necessitated if the people acted on such wrong decisions {cf. Lev. iv.). It contains three chapters. (v) Seder Kodashim (eleven tractates) 1. Zebachim (n^nn = Sacrifices) contains the laws relating to sacrifices and offerings. It is an important source of informa- tion regarding the sacrificial system generally and its doctrinal significance. It contains fourteen chapters. 2. Menachoih (niTOO = Meal-qfferins^s) deals with meal-offer- ings and the laws regarding libations {cfi Lev* ii.; v. 1 1-12, etc.; Num. v. 11-31 ; vi. 12-20 ; xxviii. ; xxix.). It contains thirteen chapters. 3. Chullin (pVin = Profane things) is mainly concerned with laws and regulations concerning the slaughter of animals for ordinary domestic {i.e. non-sacrificial) use. It also deals with the general question of eating animal food, and other matters. It contains twelve chapters. 4. Bekoroih (miisi = First-born) deals with the regulations regarding the first-born of men and animals (r/. Ex. xiii. 2, 12-16; Lev. xxvii. 26 f. ; Num. viii. 16-18, etc.). It contains nine chapters. 5. ^Araktn (piy = Estimations) deals with valuations of persons and things dedicated to the Temple [cf. Lev. xxvii. 2-8). Some laws regarding the year of Jubile are also included {cf. Lev. XXV.). It contains nine chapters. 6. Temurah {7r\yQr\ = Exchange) deals with the laws regarding the substitution of a "common" {i.e. non-sacred or secular) animal for one already dedicated to the altar {cf Lev. xxvii. 10, 33). It contains seven chapters, 7. Kerithoth (mrrn^ = Excisions). The sins which incur the punishment of " cutting off" from the people {cf Gen. xvii. 14 ; Ex. xii. 15, etc.) are discussed in this tractate. It contains six chapters. 8. MeHlah (n'^'j^o = Trespass). The "trespasses" here referred to consist in applying to secular use things belonging to the Temple or altar {cf Lev. v. 15 f.). It contains six chapters. 9. Tamid (tdh shortened for ^^D^ n'?ii' = Continual Biirnt- offerifig). This interesting and valuable tractate gives details relating to the arrangement and ritual of the daily burnt-offering, which was offered morning and evening in the Temple {cf Ex. xxix. 38-42 ; Num. xxviii. 3-8). It contains valuable information about the early Liturgy, and has seven chapters. 10. Middoth (nno — Measurements). A valuable tractate, embodying much sound tradition about the structure, buildings, etc., of the Temple. It contains five chapters. J I. Kinnim (o^Dp = Birds' nests) gives information about the THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 105 dove-offerings (two turtle doves or two young pigeons ^) which might be offered on account of poverty, instead of a lamb, by a woman for purification after child-birth {cf. Lev. xii. 8) ; the same might also be offered as a free-will burnt-offering {cf. Lev. i. 14-17). It contains three chapters. (vi) Seder Teharoth (twelve tractates) r. Kelim (d'^d = Vessels). A long and important tractate vfhich has for its subject the different degrees of Levitical uncleanness that may attach to furniture, garments, and utensils of various kinds {cf. Lev. xi. 32 ; Num. xix. 14 f. ; xxxi. 20 f.). It contains thirty chapters. 2. Ohaloth (nibriN = Tents) treats of the Levitical uncleanness that may arise in connexion with tents and other kinds of habitation. A dead body makes unclean not merely (as in other cases) by contact, but by proximity ; as, e,g.^ in the case of a man who finds himself in the same tent with a dead body {cf. Num. xix. 14). It contains eighteen chapters. 3. NegaHjn (d'3?;3 = Plagues^ i.e. leprosy). This tractate deals with leprosy in its various degrees [cf Lev. xiii.— xiv.). It con- tains fourteen chapters. 4. Parah (mo = Heifer) gives minute regulations regarding the "red cow" (or heifer) of Num. xix. — the age, required characteristics, preparation for slaughter, making ready of the ashes, and sprinkling of the water mingled with ashes, etc. It contains twelve chapters. 5. Toharoth (miniQ = Purifications). The title is euphemistic for Defileme7its. Various degrees of minor Levitical uncleanness are dealt with that lasted till sunset. It contains ten chapters. 6. Mikwa'oth (niwipiD = Baths or Cisterns) gives directions as to the proper requirements of the ritual bath {cf. Lev. xv. 1 1, 12). It contains ten chapters. 7. Niddah (mj = Uncleanness [menstruation]) deals vi^ith the Levitical uncleanness incurred by women under certain recurring physical conditions {cf Lev. xii.; xv. 19 ff.). It contains ten chapters, 8. Makshiri?! (^■y^yo ~ Things made ritually fit for certain purposes) sets forth the conditions under which certain things, by coming into contact with liquids, become capable of defile- ment {cf Lev. xi. 34, ■^'j f.). It contains six chapters. 9. Zabint (o^m = Persons with fluxes) deals vi'ith the impurity attaching to persons afflicted with running issues {cf Lev. XV. 2ff.). It contains five chapters. ^ The one for a sin-offering, the other for a burnt-offering. io6 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM 10. TebuJ Yom (cv "^uto = Immersed on {during) u. day) has for its subject the condition of a person who has already taken the ritual bath, but has to await the com'ng of sunset before he can be regarded as completely free from defilement {cf. Lev. XV. 5 ; xxii. 6, 7). It contains four chapters. 1 1. Yadayim (on^ = Hands) is an interesting and important tractate, being concerned with the question of ritual uncleanness and its removal by washing of the hands {cf. Matt. v. 2, 20 ; xxiii. 25 ; Mark vii. 2-4 ; Luke xi. 38-40). It contains four chapters. 12. ^Uktsi?n fepw = Stalks) deals with the question how far the stalks .may oe considered part of the fruit, and so capable of conveying impurity when touched by anything unclean. It contains three chapters. The Mishnah is written in New Hebrew, an idiom which, though essentially scholastic in character, and cultivated as a learned language, was developed organically from the older language. It has a large admixture of Greek and Latin words. ^ As has already been pointed out, the Mishnah, as we have it, has grown out of earlier compilations. The date of its final redaction may be fixed approxi- mately some time before A.D. 220, and its present form is due (with the exception of some slight addi- tions) to the Patriarch Judah I. Possibly the first composition of such a collection of material was already begun by the early disciples of Hillel and Shammai. R. Akiba compiled an edition, which was continued and enlarged by his disciple R, Meir, and this was the principal source of Judah's work, though he also used other compilations of a similar kind {e.g. the Mishnah of Abba Shaul). Clear indications of these different strata are often discernible. As Schechter well remarks, Rabbi Judah's work was undertaken and accomplished, " not with the ^ There is a good discussion of the character of this idiom in M. H. Segal's essay, " Misnaic Hebrew and its Relation to Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic," published in JQR^ July, 1908 (and also separately reprinted by Horace Hart, Oxford). For the grammar, see K. Albrecht, Neuhebrdische Grammatik (in the "Porta Linguarum Semiticaruni" series), 1913. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 107 purpose of providing the nation with a legal code, but with the intention of furnishing them with a sort of thesaurus, incorporating such portions of the traditional lore as he considered most important. Hence the ground for his including in the work the opinions of the minority {e.g. of the school of Shammai), which only in a few exceptional cases were accepted as a norm for practice." ^ Judah's compilation was accepted as a sort of canonical collection. But there were other collec- tions of similar material, embodying the teaching of the Tannaim, parts of which have survived. Thus there are scattered about the Talmud certain sections known as Baraitha (see below) which are of this nature, and a sort of " apocryphal" Mishnah is extant under the name of Tosephta (see below). Though the contents of the Mishnah are pre- dominantly legalistic in character, there are other elements, which lend variety, such as the description of the architecture and administration of the Temple in Middoth, and the delineation of sacrificial rites and ceremonies as they were actually practised. Many of these elements are of earlier literary origin than the compilation of the collection, and in some cases much earlier.^ The style of the Mishnah is terse and compressed, almost to baldness. Brevity, for the sake of memo- rising, was aimed at. Only very occasionally does a flowing description emerge, such as the charming picture of a procession of first-fruits arriving in Jeru- salem {Bikkuriin iii. 2 f.). Some illustrative citations from the Mishnah will be given in the sections that follow to exemplify its relation to the Tosephta and Gemara respectively. ^ Hastings's DB^ extra vol. (v.), p. 6\b. ^ See Schechter, Hastings's DB^ v. p. 62. io8 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM (d) THE TOSEPHTA The name " Tosephta " means " Addition " or " Supplement," and is given to a collection of Halakoth parallel to the Mishnah proper. The material embodied in it is largely of the same character and covers the same ground as that in the latter. Like the Mishnah, the Tosephta is divided into six " orders," or sedarim^ containing the corre- sponding tractates, with the exception of A both m Seder Nezikin^ and Kinnim^ Middoth^ and Tamid in Seder Kodashim, The Tosephta, though it covers the same ground as the Mishnah, deals with the material in a much freer manner. It often illustrates the theme by anecdotes, and sometimes gives the Halakoth in fuller form. Consequently it is a valuable supplement, especially for critical purposes, of the official Mishnah. The exact relation of the Tosephta to the Mishnah and the Baraithas of the Talmud has not yet been satisfactorily deter- mined. The relation with the Mishnah is undoubtedly very close. The phenomena are complex. Parts of the Tosephta apparently come from collections earlier than our Mishnah, but in the collected form in which we know it, it presupposes a knowledge of the Mishnah in its official shape. Other elements may be of an even later date, presupposing" the Gemara of the Talmud, and having been recast in the New Hebrew of the Mishnah. Schechter concludes, on the basis of these data, that " the date of its final redaction falls in the later age of the ^ Aino7'aim^ though its composition may have been initiated by R. Chiyya and R. Hoshaya, the disciples of R. Jedudah [the Patriarch], to whom tradition attributes such a work, undertaken in imitation of the Tosephta of R. Nehemiah, who is credited with having collected ' additions ' to the Mishnah of R. Akiba." ^ The following brief extracts from the tractate Sanhedrin will serve to illustrate the style of Mishnah and Tosephta, and their relation to one another. The paragraphs are taken from the Mishnah, ^ op. cit. p. 62^. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 109 Sanhedrin iv. S f., and the Tosephta, vii. 8-1 1, viii. I, 2?- Mishnah " The Sanhedrin sat in the form of a semicircle so that they might all see each other ; and two judges' clerks stood in front, one on the right and one on the left, taking down the evidence for the prosecution and the defence. R. Jehudah [bar Ilai] holds that there were three : one taking down evidence for the prosecution, the second for the defence, and the third taking down both. Before them sat three rows of disciples, each knowing his own place. If it became necessary to appoint another judge, he was appointed from the front row, while one from the second row took his place, and one from the third row that of the second. And for the third row one of the assembled audience was chosen. He did not sit in the place just vacated, but in a place for which he was suited." Tosephta vii. 8, When the Prince ]^' NasV'\ enters, all the people standi and do not sit until he bids them do so. When ''the Father of the Cornet'' ["Ad beth din"] enters, they stand up on either side to make a passage for him^ until he has come to and taken his place. When a member of the court enters, one after another stands up to make room for him until he has come to and taken his place. When the services of the children and disciples of the members of the court are required, they pass over the heads of the assembled people. And although they say that it is not praiseworthy in a disciple of the wise to come in late, he may yet go out if necessity demand it, and come in again and take his place, ^ From the translation by H. Danby (in the series 01 "Translations of Early Documents"), pp. 75-77. no RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM 9. The children and disciples of the members of the courts if they can U7iderstand the pr'oceedings, turn their faces to their fathers ; if not^ they turn their faces tozvards the assembled people. R. Eleasar^ the son of R. Zadok, says: ^' Also at a feast children are placed by the side of their fathers T 10. When a member of the court comes in, his opinion is not asked until he has had time to make up his mind. Similarly a disciple shotdd not be asked his opinion as soon as he comes in. If on his entering he finds the court occupied in some legal discussion^ he may not break in upon their talk until he has sat dowft and discovered what is the subject with which they are occupied. If he should do so it is of such a one that it is said : " There are seven marks of the clod, and seven of the wise man" etc} 1 1. Seven rules of interpretation did the elder Hillel expound before the elders of Bethyra . 2 viii. I. Every Sanhedrin in which are two members competent to speak, and all to comprehend^ is worthy of being a Sanhedrin. If there are three, it is an average assembly; if four ^ a tvise one. The Sanhedrin was arranged in the form, of a semicircle, so that they might all see each other. The Prince [" Nasi "] sat in the middle, with the elders on his right and left. R. Eleasar, the son of Zadok^ said : " When Rabban Gamaliel [//.] sat in fabneh {famnia), my father and another sat on his rights and the other elders on his lefty And why does one sit in accordance with age on the right ? Because of the reverence due to age, 2. There were three rows of disciples sitting in front 1 This is cited from Pirke Aboth, v. 10, and the passage continues : " The wise man speaks not before one who is greater than himself in wisdom, and does not interrupt the words of his companion." '- The omitted lines give the technical designations of the seven exegetical rules (afterwards expanded to thirteen). See Singer, p. 13. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE iii of them : the most important firsts the second in importance next^ and the third in the last row. After this there %vas no fixed order, except that each shoiitd be placed fonr cubits away from his felloiv. The officers of the conrt^ the defendant, the witnesses and their refiiters, and the refuters of their refuters, nsed to stand within the front row near the people. And it was always easy to know which was the defendant, since he zvas always stationed next to the chief zvitness. It will be noticed, when the two parallel passages given above are compared, that the matter contained in the Tosephta is at once fuller, and also introduces elements that are not represented in the Mishnah text at all. {c) THE BARAITHAS The term ''Baraitha" (^^n*'"^l) ^^ ^" Aramaic one meaning "outside," *'externar' {sc. Mishnah^), and designates a Tannaitic tradition not incorporated in the official Mishnah, or a collection of such. It has been suggested ^ that this Aramaic designation may- be an adaptation of the New Hebrew term sepharini ha-chitzo7iim, i.e. " the external books," which denotes apocryphal writings, and is employed by Akiba (Sanh. X. i). The relation between the official Mishnah and the Baraithas would thus be similar to that of the Apocryphal Books to the canonical writings of Scripture.^ In the Babylonian Talmud "Baraitha" is applied to very varied kinds of literature — in fact, to any Tannaitic traditions not contained in the official ^ In Aramaic Nn*:nJD- ^ InfE ii. 513^ {s.v. Baraitd). ^ Another explanation connects the term with the Tannaitic tradition taught in the private schools (designated bara "outside"). 112 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Mishnah, such as the collections known as Tosephta, and even the Tannaitic Midrashim Sifra, Sifre, and Mekilta. A large amount of the material, however, which is properly termed " Baraitha " exists in the form of isolated sections, scattered about the Talmuds,^ where they are distinguishable from the rest of the Gemara by the fact that they are cited in Hebrew, while the language of the Gemara is Aramaic. They are also introduced by a formula which runs: "Our Rabbis have taught " {tend rabbdnari), or " There is a tradition " {tanya), or where an authority is cited by name : *' Rabbi So-and-so taught '* {tent R.). The material contained in the Baraitha sections embraces both Halakah and Haggadah, the latter element being often very considerable, while in the official Mishnah it is reduced to a minimum. The Baraitha material also may be broadly distinguished into two main divisions, viz. the pre-Mishnaic and post-Mishnaic, which fundamentally differ from each other. The former, for instance, has often preserved the older Halakah which was rejected by the official Mishnah.^ In many cases also the reasons are given fully for a Halakah which is merely enunciated by the official Mishnah, and assumed as axiomatic without further discussion. The Haggadic Baraithas are probably survivals of earlier collections of such material which have perished. That such collections, consisting of homi- letic expansions with an admixture of legendary elements, and based on a continuous Biblical text, were early in existence is suggested by such a book as Jubilees or the so-called Biblical Antiquities of Pseudo-Philo. From such collections many of the ' It should be noted that these sections are often cited //-6d). He was a great casuist.^ (iii) Third Generation (a.d. 320-370) : {a) Palestine. During this period the Palestinian schools gradually decayed, and finally ceased to exist, owing to the persecuting policy of the Christian Emperors Constantine and Constantius. Perhaps the most important Palestinian Amora of the period was R. Jeremiah b. Abba (always referred to simply as " R. Jeremiah "), a Babylonian, who migrated to Caesarea, where he made rapid. progress in his studies. Among his teachers were Abbahu and his own countryman Ze'ira. The latter, a Babylonian, who had been a pupil of Chisda and Judah b. Ezekiel at 1 Another Babylonian Amora of some importance belonging to this period is R. Nachman bar Jacob (died A.D. 320). He had been a pupil of Mar Samuel, and became head of the school at Neh^rdea, He is often referred to as " R. Nachman," 122 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM Pumbeditha, out of his love for the Holy Land emigrated to Palestine, where he became the intimate friend of Assi and Chiyya bar Abba. Ze'ira was highly regarded by Abbahu, the head of the school at Caesarea, and was a pupil of the latter. On account of his piety he was known as "the pious Babylonian/' Among his Haggadic sayings the following is notable : " He who has never sinned is worthy of reward only if he has withstood temptation to do so'' {i:.].Kidd.6id). Jeremiah, as has been said, was Ze'ira's pupil, and astonished his contemporaries by his diligence in study. He ultimately became recognised as the leading scholar in Tiberias, and his fame as a scholar was equally great in both Babylonia and Palestine. A famous pupil of Jeremiah was R. Jonah, who became a leading Amora in Palestine in the fourth century. With his schoolmate and lifelong colleague, R. Jose I L, he had studied under Ze*ira. About A.D. 350 these scholars presided over the school at Tiberias. An elder colleague, and, like them, an eminent member of the Tiberias circle, was R. Haggai, who had likewise been a pupil of Ze*ira. It is reported that " Haggai opened the discourse and Jonah and Jose closed it " (T.J. Rosh ha-shanah ii. 58^). Jonah left a worthy son and successor in Mani 1 1. (Mani is an abbreviation of Menachem), who was a pupil of Jose II. He lived and taught for the most part in Sepphoris. One other famous Palestinian Amora calls for mention here, Tanchuma b. Abba, who, according to Bacher, resided in Nave, a town in Persea. He was pre-eminent as a Haggadist, and may be regarded as completing the line of Palestinian tiaggadic scholars. It was he who began the process of fixing the Midrash in literary form, and may be regarded as the founder of the Midrash literature. His collection of Midrashim, which is no longer extc^nt in original form, THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 123 probably formed the basis of the Pesikta lilidrasJam \Pesikta de Rab Kahana and Pesikta Rabbatlii), as well as of the Tanchuma (" Yelammedenu ") Midrash. He often engaged in controversy with Christian scholars. {b) Babylonia. Rabbah b. Nachmani (270-330) forms the connecting link between the fourth and the previous generation of the Babylonian teachers. He was a pupil both of R. Huna at Sura and of Judah b. Ezekiel at Pumbeditha. Though he belonged by birth to a distinguished priestly family of Juda;a, he seems never to have left Babylonia. He is usually styled "Rabbah" simply. On the death of Judah, Rabbah was elected head of the Academy at Pumbeditha, and held this office till his death. A man of keen critical faculty, he was a master of dialectic, and on this account was styled "the uprooter of mountains." He and his family seem to have lived in great poverty, in spite of his fame as a teacher. A contemporary and pupil of Rabbah was Raba b. Joseph b. Chama (A.D. 280-352). He was born and died in Machuza, where his father was a wealthy and distinguished scholar. His companion in study was Abaye (A.D. 280-338), a man of about his own age. The two scholars developed the dialectic method of their master Rabbah. When, after the death of R. Joseph, Abaye was chosen head of the Academy at Pumbeditha, Raba founded a school of his own at Machuza, to which centre, when Abaye died (in 338), the Academy at Pumbeditha was transferred ; and during the lifetime of Raba, Machuza remained the only seat of Jewish learning in Babylonia. Raba ranks as a high authority in the chain of Halakic tradition ; but he was equally pre- eminent as a Haggadist His Haggadic discourses seem to have been delivered, to a large extent. In public, perhaps in connexion with the Sabbath afternoon service. His controversies (on Halakic 124 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM subjects) with Abaye contributed much to the development of the dialectic method of the Talmud. Abaye was one of the first to draw a clear line of demarcation between the simple meaning of Scripture (the Peshaf) and the Midrashic exegesis of it. It is also interesting to note that he defended the Apocry- phal book Ecclesiasticus against the attacks of his teacher, Rab Joseph. The latter, belonging to the older generation (died A.D. 323), was styled by his contemporaries " Sinai," on account of his profound knowledgeof the traditional Law. For two years and a half after the death of Rabbah he was head of the Academy at Pumbeditha. A pupil of Raba and Abaye must be mentioned here, Papa (A.D. 300-375), who, after the death of his teachers, founded a school at Neres, a city near Sura. He engaged in the trade of brewing, in which he amassed considerable wealth, and is said to have been very avaricious. He was not a great scholar, and lacked independence of judgement. He, how- ever, possessed considerable knowledge of the world, which he acquired by extensive travel, and was con- sidered to be an authority on popular proverbs. (iv) Fourth Generation (a.d. 375-427) : Entirely Babylo}iian. In the year that Raba, the head of the school at Machuza, died, one who was destined to play an all-important part in the perpetuation of the labours of the Babylonian Amoraim was born. This was Ashi (a.d. 352-427), who, at the age of twenty, reopened the Academy at Sura as its head, and presided over it for fifty-two years. It had been closed since Chisda's death (in 309), and under Ashi regained all its old prestige. Ashi's commanding position among his contemporaries is indicated by a saying of the time that since the days of the Patriarch Judah I. (the compiler of the Mishnah) " learning and social distinction were never so united in one person as in Ashi'* (T.B. Sank. 36^). He was THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 125 the first really important teacher to arise in the Babylonian colleges since Raba's death. Owing to the fact that he was persona grata with the Persian government, and also regarded with reverence by the authorities of the other Babylonian colleges (Nehardea and Pumbeditha), he was able to carry on his life-work undisturbed. This was the initiation of the task of compiling, sifting, and arranging the material which was afterwards em- bodied in the Gemara of the Babylonian Talmud. The work begun by Ashi was only completed under Rabina, the last of the Amoraim (died A.D. 499). It required immense powers of memory, great mental grasp, and mastery over the vast and varied material, which Ashi possessed in abundant measure. He not only made Sura a centre of intellectual life, but materially enhanced its prosperity by rebuilding at great expense Rab's old Academy and the syna- gogue attached to it. Ashi's teacher was Rab Kahana, who afterwards became head of the Academy at Pumbeditha. Another senior contemporary and teacher of Ashi was Amemar H., who re-established the college at Nehardea, which had been destroyed over a century before, and for many years (A.D. 390-422) acted as its head. Together with Ashi and Mar Zutra he officially represented the Jews at the court of Yezdigerd \\. (v) Fifth Generation {Babylonian) (427-500). During this period the Academies of Sura and Pumbeditha were active. Ashi's son. Mar bar Rab Ashi (Tabyomi), did not immediately succeed his father, on the latter's death, as head of the Sura Academy, but was elected to the office twenty-eight years later, and held it for the remainder of his life (A.D. 455-468). He continued his father's work on the arrangement and compilation of the Talmud. This work also went on under Rabba Thospia (or 126 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Thospha'ah), who succeeded Tabyomi as head of Sura. His work on the text of the Talmud con- sisted of amplifications and explanatory additions to make the sense of certain obscure passages clear. The last of the Amoraim, who completed the work of the schools in editing the Talmud, was Rabina^ (died A.D. 499). Under him the great work was practically brought to an end. He was head of the school at Sura. The finishing touches were given by the so-called '^Saborai" (" explainers ").2 They were responsible for the final redaction of the text. As their name suggests, the " Saborai " did not venture to assume authority to give decisions on their own responsibility, but confined themselves to the task of elucidating the text, and making clearer doubtful cases where the Amoraic authorities disagreed. As a medieval Jewish authority says : "They have added nothing of their own to the Talmud, nor have they expressed any divergent opinions, merely determining the arrangement of the text of the Talmud in all its chapters." The Babylonian teachers to whom the designation " Saborai " is applied were the heads of the Academies at Sura and Pumbeditha between 500 and 540. There was no corresponding class of teachers in Palestine. The connecting link between the Amoraim and Saborai was Rab Jose, who presided over the Academy at Pumbeditha during the years a.d. 475-520. " Flourishing still for a number of years after the close of the Talmud, he was at the same time the first of the Saboraim and must be considered as the most prominent among them." ^ Other prominent Saborai are Rab Achai b. Huma and Rab Samuel b. Abbahu. II As has already been pointed out, the Palestinian Talmud was completed some time in the fourth 1 Rabina is a contraction of " Rab Abina." This Rabina is usually styled by historians Rabina II. to distinguish him from a former teacher of the same name who was a disciple of Raba. In the Talmud both are called simply " Rabina," which some- times leads to ambiguity. 2 The verb -i^d means *'to reason,'' "think," "suppose," or " conjecture," and from it v^i^d is derived. 3 Mielziner, op. cit. p. 55. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 127 century, about a century before the Babylonian Talmud. But who was responsible for giving it its present shape we do not know. It was apparently not subjected to a final revision, and has reached us in an incomplete form. Possibly some portions have been lost. In its present form it embraces thirty-nine of the sixty-three tractates of the Mishnah, but in some parts of these the Gemara is incomplete. All the tractates of the orders ("sedarim") Zera'im, Moed, Nashim, and Nezikin (except 'Eduyyoth and Aboth) are included ; but none in Kodashim and Teharoth (except Niddah). In the Babylonian Talmud also the Gemara is incomplete, only thirty-seven tractates of the Mish- nah being commented on — actually two less than in the Palestinian Talmud. But the bulk of the Baby- lonian Talmud is very considerably larger than that of the Palestinian. The following are the names of the tractates which have a Gemara in the Babylonian Talmud. The number of pages folio in each tractate is given in brackets after each enumeration : (i) Seder ZeraHm I. Berakoth (64). [All the other tractates of this Seder are without a Gemara in T.B.] (ii) Seder Mo' ed I. Shabbath (157). 7- Rosh ha-shanah (35) 2. 'Erubin (105). 8. Yoma (88). 3- Pesachin (121). 9- Sukkah {^€). 4- Betzah (41). 10. TdanithXii). s. Chagigah [2-]). II. Megillah (32). 6. Mo'edKaian (29). 128 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM 1. Yehamoth (122). 2. Kethiiboth (112). 3. Kiddushin (82). 4. Gittin (90). (iii) Seder Nashim 5. Nedarim (91). iV^^/r (66). Sotah (49). T. ^(3^(3: kamma (119). 2. ^(3;^« metzi'ah (119). 3. Baba bathra {l^6\ 4. 'Abodah zarah {76). (iv) Seder Nezikin 5. Sanhedrin {\\'^. 6. Shebu'oth (49). 7. Makkoth (24). 8. Horayoth (14). (v) Seder Kodashim 1. Zebachim (120). 2. Mefiachoth (no). 3. Bekoroth (161). 4. Chullin (142). 5. 'Arakin (34). Temurah (34). Kerithoth (28). MeHlah (22). Tamid (9). (vi) Seder Teharoth I. Niddah (73). [All the other tractates of this Seder are without Gemara.] It will be noticed that all the tractates in the first and sixth Sedarim are without Gemara, with the exception of one in each case. It is noteworthy that the Palestinian Talmud has a Gemara for all the tractates of the first Seder, thus (to some extent) supplementing the Babylonian Talmud. In the case of the second Seder the only tractate that is without Gemara in the Babylonian Talmud is Shekalim. The third Seder {Nashim) is complete. In the following Seder {Nezikin) Aboth and Makkoth have no Gemara, and this is also the case with the tractates Middoth and Kinnim in the fifth Seder {Kodashim), THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 129 The figures given above in brackets represent the pagination which is reproduced in all editions of the Babylonian Talmud, the two sides of each leaf being regarded as one page numbered a and b respectively. In accordance with this numeration, references to the Babylonian Talmud (T.B.) are made. Thus "T.B. Berak. 30^3:" means that the reference will be found in the Gemara of the Babylonian Talmud in the tractate Berakoth on the first side of the folio or page numbered 30. In the case of the Palestinian Talmud references are some- times|made in the same way (ed. Krotoschin). It is more usual, however, to cite by the Mishnaic chapters, each of which together with the Mishnah text contains, immediately following, the corresponding Gemara, divided into paragraphs (usually styled " Halakah i, 2, 3, etc."). It may be added that the text of the Mishnah (as distinguished from the Gemara) is cited according to chapter and paragraph, e.g. "Berak. vii. 2" shows at a glance that the Mishnah (not the Gemara) is referred to ; and that the seventh chapter of the tractate Berakoth., and the second paragraph, are intended. Besides the tractates enumerated above, which form the text of the Babylonian Talmud proper, a number of minor tractates, forming a sort of apocry- phal collection, are appended in the editions, usually at the end of the fourth Seder, immediately following ^Abodah zarah. The two first of these are of con- siderable value historically and in other ways. There are seven altogether. I. Aboth de Rabbi Nathan. This work, which is written in New Hebrew, and contains forty-one chapters, forms a kind of Tosephta text to the Mishnah treatise Pirke Aboth, which, it will be remembered, possesses no Gemara. The general character of the treatise is similar to that of Aboth, but with considerable expansion and illustration of the ethical dicta therein contained. The R. Nathan to whom the work is attributed was a Tanna of the fourth generation (A.D. 160-200), and is usually styled *' the Babylonian " (see above, p. 97), but in its present form the treatise is post-Talmudic. A critical edition by Schechter, giving two recensions, ap- peared in 1887 ; a German translation {Rabbi Nathans System K 130 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM der Ethik und Moral) by Kaim Pollak in 1905 (Frankfort-on- the-Main) ; and an English translation is given in Rodkinson's Tahnud, vol. 1. 2. Sopherim ("Scribes"): a treatise in twenty-one chapters, containing rules for the writing of the Pentateuch scrolls, as well as Masoretic and liturgical rules. The liturgical matter is of considerable importance (see pp. 149 f.). The best edition is that of Dr. Joel M iiller in 2 vols., containing a critical Hebrew text with elaborate notes in German ; Leipzig, 1878. 3. Ebel rabbathi (sometimes called euphemistically Semachoth, *'Joys"): a treatise on mourning. It contains fourteen chapters, and deals with mourning and burial customs and rites. An edition of the original text, with German translation and notes, has been edited by M. Klotz (Berlin, 1890). An English translation is given in Rodkinson's Talmud^ vol. viii. 4. Kallah (" Bride ") : a small tractate consisting of one chapter, dealing with the subject of marriage (the obligation of chastity in married life, etc.). 5. Derek ^eretz (" Conduct of Life") : a treatise con- taining eleven chapters ; it deals with ethical, social, and religious themes. 6. Derek 'eretz ziita ("Conduct of Life; minor treatise"), in ten chapters, of the same general character as the preceding. Enghsh translations of the two last mentioned are given in Rodkinson's Talmud, vol, i. 7. Perek ha-shalom (" Chapter on Peace ") : a small tractate consisting of one chapter, which has for its theme the importance of peacefulness. For further details regarding the above, reference may be made to Zunz, GV^, pp. 93 f. Another collection of seven minor tractates (distinct from the above), edited, under the title Septem libri Talmudici parzd Hierosolymitani^ by Raphael Kircheim from an ancient MS,, appeared in 1851 (Frankfort-on-the-Main). THE TALMIIDIC LITERATURE r3i III Besides the difference of language already referred to, the two Talmuds differ markedly in other respects. The Palestinian is much simpler and more direct in statement, and contains (in spite of its smaller bulk) a larger Haggadic element than the Babylonian. Though many authorities are cited equally in both, neither Talmud quotes directly from the other. Owing to the decay of the Palestinian schools in the fourth century, the Palestinian Talmud was never formally completed or subjected to a final redaction. Parts of it have probably perished, and what has- survived is often fragmentary and incomplete. In these circumstances it naturally fell into neglect, and till recent times it was, as a rule, only known to special scholars among the Rabbis. On the other hand, the Babylonian Talmud was formally completed and redacted, as we have seen, in the schools of Babylonia. Its development, before the final fixing of its text, went on for more than a century later than the Palestinian. As a consequence, it has a much larger and more richly developed dialectic and casuistic element. Further, the study of it has been maintained con- tinuously among the Jewish communities, and so it is,/^r excellence, to this day the Talmud for the mass of orthodox Jews. After its completion the study of it spread from Babylon to Egypt, northern Africa, Italy, Spain, France, and Germany — in a word, to the centres of Jewish communal life. It is true that there has been from time to time a certain amount of reaction against its predominance, as in the Karaite movement, which began in the eighth century, in Babylonia itself, and, later, in the growth of mysticism and mystical movements (Kabbalah). In the Middle Ages the greatest Jews, like Maimonides, combined the study of the Talmud with K 2 132 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM that of philosophy. But from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century the Talmud was almost the exclusive preoccupation of the Jews, though a violent mystical reaction was marked by the rise of Chasidism in the eighteenth century. " The Talmud/' it has been said, " is not a book, it is a literature. It contains a legal code, a system of ethics, a body of ritual customs, poetical passages, prayers, histories, facts of science and medicine, and fancies of folk-lore. The Talmud is not exactly a national literature, but it was a unique bond between the scattered Jews, an unparalleled spiritual and literary instrument for maintaining the identity of Judaism amid the many tribulations to which the Jews were subjected." ^ In spite of its many faults — its massive incoherence, its lack of style and form, its over-refined subtleties and wearisome casuistry — it remains one of the great literary monuments of the world. The work embodied in it is immense. If its form is uncouth, it never lacks strength, and its grandeur is strange and arresting. " The very incoherence of the Talmud," a Jewish writer remarks with justice, " its confusion of voices, is an index of free thinking." ^ Indeed, its defects must serve to endear it to Jewish eyes, for in it the pious Jew sees a true reflex of the labours and aspirations, the ideals and achievement of his race, as these expressed themselves throughout a fateful and fruitful epoch. If it lacks some of the qualities which mark great literature, it remains an arresting, an amazing, and a weirdly fascinating product of Jewish genius, a literary monument, unique in character, which faithfully exhibits many characteristic aspects of the life and thought of a gifted but peculiar people. ^ I. Abrahams, op. cit. p. 25. 2 I. Zangwill, Chose?i Peoples, p. 24 THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 133 Additional Note talmudic commentaries and compendiums Though the commentaries which appear in printed editions of the Talmud, and the compendiums of Talmudic law which have been compiled from time to time, belong properly to the mediaeval literature of Judaism, it will be convenient to refer here to one or two of the more important examples. The text of the Talmud presents numerous difficulties and obscurities to the student ; and without the aid of commentaries even the Jewish student would often be at a loss. As a consequence, many commentaries, written in Hebrew, have been produced, and a selection of these is usually printed, below the text, in the printed editions.^ The most famous of these is the commentary of Rabbi Shelomoh Yishaki of Troyes (a.D. 1040-1105), who is usually styled, from the initials of his name, *' Rashi." This commentary, which embraces nearly all the tractates of the Babylonian Talmud, is always printed in editions of that work.^ It is, indeed, indispensable for the study and elucidation of the Talmudic text. Remarkable alike for its brevity and lucidity, " by a few plain words it often sheds light upon the obscurest passages and unravels the most entangled arguments of the Talmudical discussions. ^ The best complete edition of the Babylonian Talmud is the Wilna edition of the Widow and Brothers Romm (1880-86 in 25 vols.). In this a large number of commentaries are given, among others that of Rabbenu Chananel (n'S) of Kairowan (Africa), who flourished about A.D. 1050, and commented on a large part of the Talmud. A full list of Talmud commentaries will be found in the article "Talmud Commentaries" in JE xii. 27-30. * An unfortunate exception to this rule is the text, accom- panied by a German translation, of the Babylonian Talmud by Goldschmidt in several volumes (not yet complete). Gold- schmidt's text is printed without any commentaries. 134 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM As if anticipating the slightest hesitation of the inexperienced student, it offers him at once the needed explanation, or at least a hint that leads him the right way. It has truly been said that, but for this peerless commentary of Rashi, the Babylonian Talmud would have remained as neglected as the Palestinian." ^ Rashi's comments also often indicate and establish the true Talmudic text, where this has been corrupted. In addition to Rashi's commentary proper,^ which is printed in the inner margins, the editions of the Babylonian Talmud have also a number of annotations and glosses, printed in the outer margins, which are called Tosap/iot/i ( = '' Additions"). They do not form a running commentary (like Rashi's), but take the form of separate notes, and often embody discussions of difficult passages, and occasionally criticise the explanation given by Chananel or Rashi. Often, too, they attempt to harmonise contradictory passages or meet possible objections, and are full of subtle dialectic. The authors of these additions, called Tosaphists {cp. pp. 231 f), were numerous, and flourished in France and Germany during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They are partly identical with the authors who supplemented missing parts of Rashi's commentaries.^ Commentaries were also written on the Mishnah as 1 Mielziner, op. cit. p. 66. 2 Rashi's commentary, where incomplete, was supplemented by his relatives and disciples. Thus his son-in-law, R. Jehuda b. Nathan, completed the commentary on Makkoth^ his grand- son, R. Samuel b. Meir (" Rashbam "), that on Baba bathra ; while the commentary on Nedarim was completed by supplying the missing portion from the work of Rabbenu Gershom, a predecessor of Rashi. ^ The rnoDin vcio ("Decisions of the Tosaphoth") which are appended in the editions of the Babylonian Talmud at the end of\each tractate are the work of an anonymous compiler of the fourteenth century, who collected from the Tosaphoth the practical results of their discussions and decisions. THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 135 an independent work. The best known is that of Maimonides (twelfth century), which was composed in Arabic^ and afterwards translated into Hebrew (by- several hands). The Hebrew translation is usually printed in editions of the Talmud. Another well- known commentary on the entire Mishnah is that of R. Obadiah of Bertinoro, in Italy, who was Rabbi in Jerusalem in the sixteenth century (died A.D. 15 10). Both these commentaries are given in a Latin trans- lation in Surenhusius' ^reat edition of the Mishnah (6 vols., Amsterdam, A.D. 1698-1703). Commentaries were also written by distinguished scholars on separate tractates, especially on those which have no Gemara in the Babylonian Talmud, and which are, therefore, not included in Rashi's commentary. Thus R. Simson of Sens (twelfth century), a famous Tosaphist, completed a commentary on all the tractates of Seder Zera'im, except Berakoth^ and on all those of Seder Teharoth, except Niddah. A similar series on the same tractates was completed by R. Asher b. Jechiel (thirteenth century). An important commentary on the tractate Middoth (for which there is no Gemara) was written by R. Shemaya, who is supposed to have been a disciple of Rashi. The commentaries on the Palestinian Talmud are few, none older, apparently, than the sixteenth century. Some of the more important are comparatively modern. As the Babylonian Talmud possessed not only a theoretic but also a practical interest for all orthodox Jews, since it was the source of the laws which regulated religious practice, it was inevitable that attempts should be made to codify in systematic form the rules and regulations which were binding for practical life and conduct. In these epitomes or codes the irrelevant elements, such as the Haggadic material and the lengthy discussions, were either wholly omitted or condensed, and the relevant material was systematised. ^ Maimonides commenced it in the twenty-third year of his age in Spain, and finished it in his thirtieth year in Egypt. 136 JRABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM The most important compendiums are those of (a) R. Isaac Alfasi (born at Fez, in Africa, 1013 died 1 103 in Spain), who is usually styled from the initials of his names " Rif/' ^ This is a real com- pendium, being an abridgement of the Talmud, the style and language of which it retains. (d) R. Asher b. Jechiel, already mentioned (died 1 327), a German Rabbi, who died in Spain. R. Asher modelled his work on that of Alfasi, adding the opinions of later authorities. This compendium is printed in the editions of the Talmud at the end of each tractate.^ A codification of the Talmudic legal material in the strict sense was first accomplished by Maimonides in his great work Mishneh 7^(?;'(^^ ( = " Repetition of the Law "). It embraces the material included in both Talmuds, or based upon such, with occasional references to the opinions of the post-Talmudic authorities, the Geonim. It is written in New Hebrew, in a lucid and attractive style, and is divided into fourteen books ; hence the popular name for the collection, Sepher ha-yad (" Book of the Hand " — the Hebrew word for " hand," -^1 = numerically 14), and later, by way of distinction, Yad ha-chazakah (pjpfj-jpl ^*i, " The Strong Hand "). Each book is divided into " Halakoth," and these again are sub- divided into " sections " or '* chapters " {peraktm) and paragraphs. Maimonides' work also became the basis for later commentaries and annotations, which are usually printed with it. A code which deserves mention here is that known as "the great Law-Book" fyny r\riy:i "'o) of R.Moses of Courcy, in France (thirteenth century). Here the Talmudic laws are grouped ^ His work is often cited as n"'i or 'dd'jn- 2 Under the title -iuJn ^yT\' THE TALMUDIC LITERATURE 137 under 613 precepts (positive laws and prohibitions), which is the number of such enactments found, according to the Rabbis, n the Pentateuch. Another important codification bears the title Turim ( = *'Rows," i.e. "rows of laws"). This was compiled by R. Jacob, son of the R. Asher b. Jechiel already referred to. It is divided into four parts, viz. Tiir orach chayyini^ dealing with liturgical laws ; Tur yorek de^ahy dealing with ritual laws ; Tur 'eben Jid- 'ezer^ dealing with marriage laws ; and Tur choshen tnishpaty dealing with civil laws. Each part is divided up into sections, with appropriate headings, according to subject-matter ; and each section is subdivided into smaller portions called semdntm. The Turhn differ from the Mislmeh Torah of Maimonides in that they deal only with those laws and customs which are in actual use, all others being disregarded. It thus embraces rites and customs which are of post- Talmudic origin. The printed editions usually give the commentaries on the Turim by R. Joseph Karo (this commentary being styled Beth Joseph) and by R. Moses Isserles {Darke MosheK). The most famous of all the codifications, and the one that has established itself as authoritative amone orthodox Jews, even down to the present day, is the work of the Joseph Karo already referred to (sixteenth century). Taking the Turhn and his own commentary thereon as a basis, and retaining its four divisions with their titles, he remodelled the entire contents so as to give it the character of a text- book of law. This remodelled work is known as the Shulchan 'Aruk ("The Prepared Table"), and is widely used by orthodox Jews. The author's con- temporary, R. Moses Isserles (t^'i'i)^"^), added numerous annotations ; and these, with a number of commentaries which have been produced, are usually printed with the text in the folio editions. 138 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM A word may here be added as to the collections of Haggadic material from the Babylonian Talmud. A well-known one which is very comprehensive is the ^En Ja'akob ("Well of Jacob") of R. Jacob ibn Chabib (beginning of the sixteenth century). Vol. I. of an English translation has recently been published (by S. H. Click) in New York (1919). A similar collection made from the Palestinian Talmud was published, with a commentary, by R. Samuel Japhe (Vienna, 1590, reprinted Berlin, 1725-26) under the title Yepheh mar'eh (n«iD no')- PART III THE JEWISH LITURGY PART III THE JEWISH LITURGY [Literature (selected) : Zunz,Zur Geschichte und Literatiir (1845) ; Zunz, Synagogale Poesze des Mittelalters (1855) ; Zunz, DieRiius des synagogalen Gottesdienstes geschicktlich eniivickelt (1859) ; Baer, Seder Abodath Israel (1868) ; Zunz, Die ^ottesdienstliche7i Vortrdge der Juden^ histoi isch entwickelt (1892); M. Friedlander, The Jewish Religion (1900); Morris Joseph, Judaism, as Creed and Life^ pp. 177-318 (1903); Seeberg, Die Didache des Jiidentums tind der Urchristenheit (1908) ; Duchesne, Les Origines du culte chretien (1910) ; Oesterley, The Psalms in the Jezvish Church (1910) ; Oesterley and Box, The Religion and Worship of the Synagogue (1912) ; Elbogen, Bemerkungen zur alten jildischen Liturgie^ in " Studies in Jewish Literature, issued in honour of Prof. Kaufmann Kohler " (1913) ; Elbogen, Der jildische Gottesdienst in seiner geschichtUchen Entwickelung (1913) ; Schwaab, Historische FAnfiihrung in das Achtzehngebet (1913) ; Srawley, The Early History of the Liturgy (1913) ; Abrahams, Annotated Edition of the Authorised Daily Prayer Book (19 14) ; Rendtorff, Die Geschichte des christlichen Gottesdienstes unter dem Gesichts- punkt der litiirgischen Erbfolge (1914). The relevant articles in Hamburger's Realencyclopddie des Judenthums and in the Jewish Encyclopedia^ I SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS The importance and Interest of the Jewish Liturgy ■ — especially, of course, in its earlier elements — for the study of Christian origins is not generally recognised ; not that this is a matter for surprise, for the Jewish Liturgy, in whatever forms at present existent (and 142 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM they are various), is so complex and involved to the uninitiated that the ordinary reader of it, even as it exists in its English and much abbreviated form, is not unnaturally somewhat overwhelmed when he first comes to read it. Nevertheless, there is an immense deal in the Jewish Liturgy which is of profound importance and interest for the student of Christian origins ; and that interest must be greatly enhanced when it is realised that in the Jewish Liturgy are embedded the prayers, praises, and thanksgivings offered up by Our Lord Himself, by His disciples, and by the Jewish-Christians of the first century. The earliest accounts which we have of the Christian Liti^rgy — fragmentary and incomplete as they are — show clearly enough that the worship of the early Church was influenced by that of the synagogue. In the primitive Church Order contained in \hQ Dzdache} chaps, vii.-xv., the prayers are distinctly Jewish in character and reveal many phrases and ideas which are to be found in the Jewish Liturgy. The same is true of certain passages, dealing with the worship of the early Church, in the epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians ;^ concerning them Srawley says: " These passages, then, suggest that certain ideas and stereotyped phrases had found a place in the lan- guage of Christian worship, and that a certain defined type of prayer had become current, based upon Christian terminology, the Old Testament, and the forms of the synagogue worship." ^ The same writer, in speaking of Justin Martyr's account^ of the Sunday Eucharist, points out that it shows that " the separation of the Eucharist from the Agap^ had already been effected, and * the service of the word,' which in later times was known as the Missa ^ First half of the second century. '^ Written about A.D, 95. ' The Early History of the Liturgy^ p. 31 (191 3). * Circa A.D. 150. SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 143 Catechumenomm^ consisting of lessons from the Old and New Testaments, a sermon, and prayers, had established itself as the introductory portion of the liturgy. This preliminary ' service of the word ' shows the influence of the religious services of the Jewish synagogues, which included the same three elements, prayers, lessons, and homily." ^ But, even apart from this, there are two considera- tions regarding the Jewish Liturgy which should commend it at least to the sympathetic notice of all students of religion. As has been truly pointed out,^ it is the earliest form of divine service which was offered with great regularity not only on Sabbaths and festivals, but on every day throughout the year ; with the result that the whole life of the nation became influenced by religious thought and the religious spirit, and a national unity was brought into existence which nothing else could have effected.^ And there is also this consideration, that nowhere is the history of the growth of religious ideas more clearly revealed than in the modification or development of liturgical forms ; therein are reflected ultimately the religious thoughts and con- ceptions which through centuries perhaps had been growing in the minds of a people ; there they become stereotyped ; and there they remain until a further advance in religious conceptions demands some modification. In the Jewish Liturgy we have an excellent example of this ; and the observation of the changes which it has undergone has its advan- tages for the Christian student of religion, inasmuch as in studying the phases of religious ideas as reflected in a liturgy other than one's own one can * op. at. p. 2>7' 2 Elbogen,. JDer judische Gottesdienst in seiner geschichtlichen Entwickelung^ p. 2 (1913). 3 That such a religious unity did not exist in earlier days in Israel is shown clearly enough by the Prophets. 144 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM approach and deal with the subject in a spirit of greater detachment than, from the nature of the case, is possible when dealing with that which is one^s own. Complicated as the Jewish Liturgy is in its present form, it is far less so now than it was in days gone by ; while in its first beginnings it was simple in form, various circumstances contributed to its develop- ment, and during the Middle Ages this development increased to an enormous extent, so much so that it is no exaggeration to say that it became altogether overloaded with extraneous matter, much of which was not worthy of a place in this venerable liturgy. It was, however, not until the beginning of the nine- teenth century that a thoroughgoing reform of the Jewish Liturgy was initiated. The first cause of development was the outcome of a natural desire to put into the prayers and thanks- givings a fuller expression of thought and aspiration ; then there grew up a tendency to incorporate in the Liturgy the devotions which had been framed by outstanding religious leaders ; historical occurrences of national interest also offered material which was incorporated in the prayers, and, these becoming stereotyped, continued to be used even when the original cause to which they owed their form was for- gotten. But the most pronounced period of develop- ment of the Jewish Liturgy commenced in the sixth to the seventh century, approximately, with the incor- poration of Piyyitthn (a corrupt form from the Greek word for " poet," see p. 272) ; these were poetical com- positions of very varying quality and of great number which by degrees found a place in the Liturgy and increased its bulk to a very appreciable extent. Most of these poems have now been eliminated ; the few that remain are the most choice and are fully worthy of their place ; they will be referred to later on. In the course of the centuries various liturgical " Uses," technically called Minhagim, have come into SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 145 existence, differing more or less from each other, though the original groundwork is to be discerned in each. Two main groups, the Palestinian and the Babylonian, are recognised ; the foremost represen- tatives of either group are the Ashkenazic and Sephardic Rites respectively ; ^ there are subdivisions of less importance, which need not, however, concern us. The Rite to which, in the main, we shall direct our attention is the Ashkenazic ; this has been pub- lished in a most convenient form in Hebrew and English.^ The Sephardic Rite is much more elabo- rate, containing as it does a great deal of the material which grew up in the Middle Ages.^ One of the first things which will strike even a cursory reader of the Jewish Liturgy is its Scriptural atmosphere ; the incorporation of Biblical phrases and passages in the synagogue prayers is one of their marked characteristics. The Psalms are espe- ciall}' drawn upon here, and, of course, the books of the Law are utilised largely for this purpose. But, in addition to this, long passages from Scripture (e.£: Exod. XV.) and a copious use of Psalms constitute a considerable part of all the services. The important place which from the earliest times was accorded to the interpretation and explanation of the Old Testa- ment* further emphasises the desire felt for making the Scriptures the foundation of the liturgical struc- ture, and illustrates what has always been one of the great principles of Jewish religious practice, viz. that ^ But see Gaster, TAe Book of Prayer and Order of Service^ p. xiv (1901), who maintains that the Sephardic Rite represents the Palestinian tradition. ^ The Annotated Edition of the Authorised Daily Prayer Book^ with historical and explanatory notes, and additional matter, compiled in accordance with the plans of the Rev. S. Singer, by Israel Abrahams (1914). ^ These forms are printed in Forms of Prayer by De Sola (5 vols.) ; new edition by Dr. Gasker, 1901-6. * Hence the rise of the Targums. ' 146 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM instruction in the Word of God is an indispensable part of worship. The influence which, especially, the Pentateuch and the Psalms have had upon both the language and the thought of the Jewish Liturgy can be paralleled by the like influence which the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Apocalypse have had upon the early liturgies of the Church. In the Jewish Liturgy the general term for prayer is Berakkah, the root of which, in its original signifi- cation, means "to kneel down"; but the noun came to mean that for which a man knelt down, i.e. prayer. Further, the act of kneeling in prayer to God implied the recognition of His Blessedness, i.e. of His power and mercy and goodness ; hence Berakhah also connotes praise ; and finally, since every act of praise involves thanksgiving, this, too, is an essential part of the meaning of Berakhah. The word has, therefore, come to have a very wide connotation, and is usually translated " Benediction," which is intended to embrace the ideas of prayer, praise, and thanks- giving. Moreover, this word is the more appropriate since the fixed form which, in course of time, the Berakhah tended to assume began with "Blessed is" He . . ." or " Blessed art Thou . . " ; this is not neces- sarily always so now, though these words do occur somewhere in every Benediction, properly so called. A notable example of this is the Benediction with which the actual service (apart from its introductory portion) for the daily Morning Prayer opens ; this contains a ninefold " Blessed be He,'' and concludes with : " Blessed art Thou, O Lord, a King extolled with praises." The classical example, however, is the great prayer called the Shemoneh 'Esreh ("Eighteen Benedictions "), of which we shall have much to say later on. Benedictions are also used for the purpose of forming a framework in which some of the more important and ancient portions of the service are set ; SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 147 we shall see this illustrated when we come to examine the service for Morning Prayer. Originally the prayers of the synagogue were variable ; they were not written down until about the fourth or fifth century. An old Jewish sage used to say that " he who writes down prayers sins as though he burned the Torah/'^ The subject-matter of the prayers was fixed, but the form of words in which the prayer was offered up was left to the indi- vidual leader in prayer. All the prayers were origin- ally quite short ; the essence of the prayer-leader's task lay in guiding the congregation in regard to the subject oi "pvdiytr ] it was then left to each individual to elaborate this for himself in silent prayer and meditation. It is a point worth emphasising that provision was thus officially made for silent prayer and meditation during public worship ; we shall have to return to the subject later on. The extempore character of the prayers in the early synagogue seems to have been followed in the worship of the early Church, judging by the testimony of Justin Martyr {Dialogue with Trypho, c. 6y\ A further characteristic of the synagogue prayers is their national note ; it is not only the individual congregation which prays, but the congregation as an integral part of the Jewish nation. In the Christian Church this feeling of national unity is further enlarged and enhanced by that of the Catholic Church, which transcends national limitations. A word must be said regarding the part originally taken by the laity in the worship of the synagogue. Just as the priests and Levites were divided into twenty-four courses or classes, which in turn under- took the duties of the daily services in the Temple, and relieved each other week by week, so, the Jewish ^ The idea underlying this objection to the writing down of prayers was that of fear lest the holy words should fall into the hands of the profane. L 2 148 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM laity was also, in like manner, represented by twenty- four classes. These classes, or courses, were collec- tively called hlishmaroth ("watches");^ the par- ticular individual class was called a Ma'amad ("standing"); it was so called because these repre- sentatives of the people "stood" before God during the offering of the daily services.^ But there was this difference between the priestly and Levitical and the lay classes, that, whereas in the case of the former the entire class went up to the Temple when its turn came, in the case of the latter only a few represen- tatives went up, and the remainder assembled in their local synagogue, where they offered up daily prayers and read the Scriptures.^ When this duty of offering prayer in what may be called an official capacity by the laity began cannot be stated with certainty ; but it is reasonable to suppose that it arose, in some form or other, soon after the return from the Exile, when the beginnings of so much that belongs to the later Judaism are to be sought. The custom is important both because it witnesses to the official recognition of the laity taking their part in public divine worship, and because it wit- nesses to the emphasis laid on prayer as distinct from sacrifices even while the Temple with its full sacrificial system was in existence. The present Jewish Liturgy is the product of many centuries of development. The beginning of a Jewish Prayer Book in the modern sense is to be sought in the middle of the second century A.D. approximately, and, as a compilation, was originally * niiDipD ; the word occurs in reference to the "observances" of the House of God in Neh. xiii. 14. 2 cp. Ps. cxxxiv. I, where the word is used in this technical sense. ^ See Mishnah, Taajiiih iv. 1-4; cp. Tatnid v\\.\ see further Schiirer, Geschichte des jiidischejt Volkes^ ii. 337 f.; Elbogen, op. cii. p. 237. SOURCES OF THE PRESENT LITURGY 149 based on the dictum of Rabbi Meir, about A.D. 150, to the effect that a man should utter daily a hundred Benedictions. For a long period, of several centuries, different Prayer Books were compiled on the prin- ciple of the *' Hundred Benedictions." ^ II SOURCES OF THE PRESENT LITURGY Although the Jewish Liturgy belongs in its origins to a period long anterior to the beginning of the Christian era, the earliest written liturgical details belong to a much later time. This is not to be wondered at, for, as we have seen, in ancient times it was regarded as a sinful act to write down prayers. It was not until the completion of the Talmud in the sixth century that prayers began to be written down. Many liturgical notes and much information regarding the early Liturgy are, however, to be found scattered about in the Mishnah, Talmud, and Midrashic works. But obviously a fixed Liturgy must have been long in existence, since it is referred to as so well known in these writings. The earliest source which gives a connected and detailed account of the Liturgy is the tractate Sopherim^ belonging to about A.D. 600 (see p. 130). It is the latter part of this tractate, chaps, xvi.-xxi., in which many liturgical details are preserved. It is Palestinian in origin, like all the smaller treatises. There are, besides this, various collections of liturgical prayers which have been made from time to time, and other early writings dealing specifically with the Liturgy, which are invaluable since they contain a mass of traditional matter regarding the content, order, and ceremonial of the services of the Temple as well as of the synagogue. The earliest extant ^ ni3T5 HNp, Elbogen, op. cit. pp. yf., 358. 150 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM collection of prayers is what is called the "Hundred Benedictions " of Natronai (circa A.D. 860). But the first Jewish Prayer Book, so far as is at present known, is that of Amram (about A.D. 875),^ which contains the Sephardic, or Spanish, Rite. The next in date is the Siddur^ of Saadya (892-942); then follows the great Machsor^ Vitry {circa iioo), com- piled by Simcha ben Samuel, of Vitry; it represents the ancient French Rite, which is closely connected with the more widespread German, or Ashkenazic, Rite> Among the more notable works of the Middle Ages important for the details they give concerning the early Liturgy are : the Mishneh Torah of Maimonides (i 180), in the concluding book of which the text of the prayers is given, as well as various authoritative decisions concerning the Liturgy in other parts of the work ; the Minhag^ of Abraham ben Nathan ha-Jarchi, belonging to the same time as the preceding ; and David Abudraham's com- mentary on the Prayer Book (1340).® As in the Christian Church there are different Liturgies, the Roman, Gallican, Sarum, etc., so, too, in the Jewish Church ; but in the latter all go back to one of two fundamental Rites, the Palestinian and the Babylonian. The former has been almost entirely superseded, and even the fragments of it to be found in the Talmud show Babylonian impress ; it is, however, represented in the tractate Sophej'im^ in the Siddur of Saadya, and in the Machsor Vitry ; ^ It is published by A. Mark in Jahrbuch der jiidischen literarischen Gesellschafty v. ( 1 907) ; also by A. Frumkin (Jerusalem 5672). ^ Siddur means the *' Order " of prayers ; no published edition of this exists as yet. ^ Machsor also means "Order" of prayers, but one which contains more detail and explanation than a Siddur, *■ It is published by Luzzato (1889). ^ Minhag means ritual "custom" or "use." ^ Elbogen, op. cit. p. 11. NON-SACRIFICIAL ELEMENTS 151 Amram represents the Babylonian Rite. As for the two chief forms of the Liturgy in present use, the Sephardic and the Ashkenazic, the former represents the Babylonian Rite ; ^ it is used in all parts of the world where the Sephardic, or Spanish, Jews have settled. The Ashkenazic Liturgy represents the Palestinian Rite ; this is used, with certain variations, mainly in England, America, Germany, Holland, Russia, Poland, and Italy.^ Ill NON-SACRIFICIAL ELEMENTS IN THE TEMPLE WORSHIP The present Jewish Liturgy is a greatly developed form of the early (pre-Christian) synagogue worship. But the early synagogal Liturgy, which consisted purely of spiritual worship, was derived from the worship of the Temple, with its sacrificial system. In order, therefore, to seek to trace out the origin and background of the earliest elements in the Jewish Liturgy, it is necessary to try to discover whether any elements of worship apart from the sacrificial system existed in the Temple Liturgy. Although in the synagogal Liturgy the counterpart of the sacrificial worship had its place,^ direct and indirect evidence is forthcoming that there existed in the Temple worship itself certain elements dis- tinct from the sacrificial service, and it is in these that the real origin of the synagogal Liturgy is to be found, ^ Though, as noted above, Caster denies this. ^ In Italy the Sephardic Rite is also used where there are Sephardic Jews. ^ It is insisted upon again and again in the Talmud that the prayers of the synagogal Liturgy were instituted to correspond with the sacrifices, e.g. Berakhoth 24^, referred to by Blau in JE viii. 132^. 152 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Important evidence on this point may be gathered from Is. i. 12-15. Although the prophet is here inveighing against the hollowness and insincerity of the people's worship of God, his words show, none the less, that there existed in the Temple forms of worship apart from the sacrificial system ; for, in addition to the multitudes of sacrifices, oblations, and incense, he speaks not only of the observance of new moons and sabbaths, but also of the " spreading forth of hands " and " many prayers." The last two phrases, which both point to the same thing, bear witness to the existence of a service of prayer distinct from sacrifices. Further, another example of divine worship during which prayer instead of sacrifice was the most prominent feature was the gathering together of the people on fast-days. These gatherings were in existence in pre-Exilic days, and they were not necessarily held in the proximity of the altar ; indeed, it seems clear that sometimes there was no sacrifice at all, and that the worship consisted solely of prayers together with informal confession of sins. These assemblies for prayer on fast-days " exercised a great influence in moulding the form of the later worship of the synagogue. The description of the accustomed ceremonial at these gatherings on fast-days which we possess belongs, it is true, to later times ; the Mishnah depicts this ceremonial as it existed in the Tannaitic period (i.e. roughly A,D. 1-200), but most of the forms then in use — and just the more important ones — agree with what we read in the Old Testament and Apocryphal books regarding this ; so that there can be little doubt as to the antiquity of the ceremonies described in the Mishnah as taking place on the fast-days." ^ But, as Elbogen goes on to say, these gatherings were in no sense of regular occurrence, they were spasmodic and rare, and they formed no pattern of ^ Elbogen, op. at. p. 235. NON-SACRIFICIAL ELEMENTS 153 daily worship such as belongs to the synagogue. Most authorities are agreed that the beginnings of the regular daily gatherings of the synagogue are to be sought during the Babylonian Exile ; not that the non-sacrificial elements in the Temple worship were without influence on the character of these gatherings — quite the contrary ; but during the Exile the only thing that could take the place of the daily sacrificial services of the Temple was the meeting together of the people for prayer, etc., at the corre- sponding times, morning and evening, at which the Temple services had been held. During the Exile the national consciousness, the nation's ideals, aspira- tions, and hopes, were conserved and fostered by the daily assembling of the people in order that they might worship and pray to the God of their fathers, and confess before Him the national sins and short- comings for which they were being justly punished, and that they might hear the reading and expla- nation of their Law which had been handed down, in one form or another, for so many generations. It is in these daily gatherings during the Exile that we must see the pattern which was followed as, by degrees, the settled institution of the synagogue came into being. The chief elements contained in that pattern were prayer, confession, the reading of the Scriptures, and the explanation of the latter. On the return from the Captivity these elements constituted an important part in the worship of the people even after the rebuilding of the Temple ; the books of Deutero- Isaiah, Ezra-Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah show this clearly enough, and we have also the evidence of the Mishnah. In this latter we learn that the offering up of the daily morning sacrifice was sus- pended while the ministering priests went in a body to the " Hall of hewn stone*' {Lishkath ha-gazith) for a service of prayer {Tamid v. 1-3). We learn also that the important element of reading the Scriptures 154 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM centred in portions from the Pentateuch, and, above all, in the reading of the Shema' and the Ten Com- mandments ; indeed, so important was this part of the Liturgy considered to be that it soon came to be introduced by a formal thanksgiving for the divine revelation, of which it constituted a part ; it was also followed by a declaration of the hope that the revela- tion which had been accorded to the nation's fore- fathers might be continued to the congregation of Israel. This was followed by a prayer that God would accept the sacrifice of the altar ; then came the priestly blessing.'- This is all part of the Temple Liturgy and shows how important the non-sacri- ficial elements had become. The Mishnic tractate Megillah^ which, like Tamid, reflects the conditions as they were, at any rate, before the beginning of the Christian era, gives as the main parts of the syna- gogue Liturgy : prayer (the Shemoneh ^Esre/i), the Shema\ the Torah lesson, the lesson from the Prophets, explanation of Scripture, and the priestly blessing {Megillah iv.) ; this, with slightly more detail, corresponds closely with the evidence of Tamid. In addition to this, we know from various sources about the use of Psalms both in the Temple and in the synagogue ; ^ this constituted the praise portion of the service. While, then, it is not possible to trace out in detail the development of these elements of worship, we may regard it as certain that, even before the Macca- baean era, the Temple worship included, apart from the sacrifices : prayer, confession, reading and expla- nation of Scripture, the Shemd' and the Ten Com- mandments being accorded special prominence, and Psalms. These are the elements, belonging to the non-sacrificial part of the Temple worship and prac- ^ cp. Elbogen, op. cit. p. 236. ^ 2 e.g. Tamid vii. 4. See for further details, Oesterley, The Psalms in the Jewish Churchy pp. 110-128 (1910). THE DAILY MORNING SERVICE 155 tised daily, which constitute the foundation of the daily worship of the synagogue ; out of them and around them many developments have arisen in the course of ages, but, as we shall see in the next section, they stand out (with one exception) as clearly as ever in the Jewish Liturgy of the present day. IV THE STRUCTURE OF THE DAILY MORNING SERVICE The daily morning service, called Shacharith, con- tains the groundwork of the regular services of the synagogue ; there are certain variations in the after- noon (Minchali) and evening {Ma'arib) services, as well as the additions on those for Sabbaths, New Moons, and festivals ; but Shacharith may be regarded as the basis. Its main divisions are as follows: (i) Intro- ductory, or preparatory portion ; (2) the Zemiroth ("Psalms"); {i) t\iQ Shefna' ('* Hear [O Israel]"); (4) the Shemoneh ^Esreh ("Eighteen [Benedictions] ") ; (5) the Tachanunim ("Supplications"); (6) K^riatJi ha-Torak ("The Reading of the Law"); (7) con- cluding portion, A general outline-analysis of the contents of each of these divisions will be the best means of giving a bird's-eye view of the structure of the whole service. (i) Introductory, or preparatory portion. {a) Prayer on entering the synagogue. (U) The canticles Yigdal and 'Adon ^Olam. (c) The Morning Benedictions, (d) Supplications, (e) Scriptural and Rabbinical passages dealing with the subject of sacrifices. (/") The putting on of the Tallith and Tephillin. (2) Praise portion, {a) Songs of praise: (i) Opening Benediction, Baruk shedmar ; (ii) i Chron. xvi. Z-?i(> (= Ps. cv.), Ps. xcvi. ; (iii) Hymn 156 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM of praise composed of extracts from the Psalms, {b) Psalm c. {c) Hymn of praise composed of Scriptural extracts, {d) Pss. cxlv.-cl. {e) Passages of praise : (i) I Chron. xxix, 10-13; (^0 ^^^^- i^- 6-11; (iii) Ex. xiv. 30-xv. 18 ; (iv) concluding Benediction, Yishtabbach S/izmeka. Half of the Kaddish. (3) The Shema'. {a) Introductory Benedictions: (i) Yotzer\ {\\)'Ahabah. {U) The Shema\ {c) Con- cluding Benediction : Geullah. (4) The Shemoneh 'Esreh : The Eighteen (Nineteen) Benedictions. (5) The Tachanun. {a) Psalm vi. {b) Vehu RacJimn and "Lord God of Israel" (said only on Mondays and Thursdays), {c) "O Guardian of Israel." (6) The Reading of the Law (on Mondays and Thursdays), [a) The opening of the Ark and taking out of the Scroll of the Law. {U) The calling out of three persons for the reading of the Law, {c) The reading of the Law. {d) The elevation of the Scroll. (e) The Scroll is returned to the Ark. (/) Pss. xxiv., cxlv., XX. {g) ** And a redeemer shall come to Zion/' followed by Kedushah and two prayers. Kaddish^ followed by the ^Alenu Prayer. (7) Concluding portion, {a) Hymn of Glory. {b) The Psalm for the day. {c) The Prayer for Sus- tenance, {d) The Ten Commandments, (e) The "Thirteen Principles" of Faith. (/) 1 he 'Akedah (Gen. xxii. 1-19) and "the Manna" (Ex. xvi. 4-36). Of these seven divisions the last is not an essential part of the service ; a few words of comment on them may be offered here, but the contents of the other divisions will be dealt with a little more fully in separate sections. The introductory portion. The whole of this portion was originally in the nature of a private devotional preparation for the service which was to follow ; only by degrees did it become incorporated into the service itself. Though some parts of, it are THE DAILY MORNING SERVICE 157 ancient, excepting for the Biblical passages it contains no pre-Christian material. The canticle Yigdal, so called from its opening word, " Magnified be the living God, and praised," is quite late ; it belongs to the thirteenth or fourteenth century ; its contents are based on what is called the Creed of Maimonides, or the Thirteen Principles of Faith (see below, pp. 160, 288). The other canticle, 'Adon 'Olam ("Lord of the world "), is a sacred poem belonging to the eleventh century ; it deals specifically with the doctrine of God ; originally it was evidently an evening prayer, as is suggested by the words : " Into His hand I commend my spirit, when I sleep and when I wake." The Morning Benedictions which follow are five in number, and conclude with the words of the priestly Benediction (Num. vi. 24-26) ; in them the worshipper blesses God for His com- mandment concerning the washing of hands, for the creation of man by divine wisdom, for the Law, for the teaching of the Law, and for the choice of Israel, the people of the Law, from among the nations of the world. These are followed by a number of quite short Benedictions which begin with : " Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, King of the Universe." Among the Supplications, which come next, one has a particular interest because it corresponds in content, and in part verbally, with the three first sentences of the Lord's Prayer ; it runs thus : " Our Father, which art in Heaven,^ show mercy towards us for Thy great Name's sake whereby we are called ; ^ and fulfil unto us, O Lord our God, that which hath been written, At that time will I bring you in, and at that time will I gather you . " ^ cp. Pirke Aboth^ v. 23 ; " Be strong as a Hon to do the will of thy Father which is in Heaven." ^ lit. "Thy great Name which is called over us"; the phrase comes from Deut. xxviii. 10 ; according to the Old Testament idea, the people belonged to him whose name was called over them. 158 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM This last sentence refers to the coming of the Kingdom, and the second sentence is an implicit hallowing of God's Name ; ^ so that one can say with truth that the content of the first three clauses of the Lord's Prayer is contained in this supplication.- In the first two supplications also there are phrases strongly reminiscent of other clauses in the Lord's Prayer, viz. : " O lead us not into the power of sin, or of transgression or iniquity, or of temptation, or of scorn." And again : " May it be Thy will, O Lord my God, and God of my fathers, to deliver me this day, and every day, from arrogant men and from arrogance . . and from any mishap, and from the adversary that destroyeth." The Scriptural (Num. xxviii, i-8 ; Lev. i. ii ; on Sabbaths Num. xxviii. 9, 10 is also added) and Rabbinical passages which now follow refer to the sacrifices ; they are intended to emphasise the truth that the prayers of the synagogue are spiritual sacrifices and correspond to the sacrificial system of the Temple. Finally, the putting on of the Tephillin, or Phylacteries, is done in accordance with the commands given in Ex. xiii. i-io; 11-16; Deut. vi. 4-9 ; xi. 13-21.^ The concluding portion. This portion is not, strictly speaking, part of the service;^ and it varies considerably in different Rites. Some elements of this part of the service are, however, very ancient. Of special interest is the Psalm for the day ; this is a ^ In the preceding supplication occur the words : " Sanctify Thy Name upon them that sanctify it, yea, sanctify Thy Name throughout Thy world." 2 cp. also the words in one of the Benedictions in the evening service : " Our God, which art in Heaven, assert the unity of Thy Name, and establish Thy Kingdom continually, and reign over us for ever and ever." 3 On the wearing of the Tephillin see RWS^ pp. 447 ff. * It is left to the devout to use part or all privately, according to the desire of the individual worshipper. THE DAILY MORNING SERVICE i59 pre-Christian element. In the Mi5hnah(Ta7ntdvu.4), quoted in the Prayer Book, it is said : '* These were the Psalms which the Levites used to recite in the Temple : on the first day of the week they used to recite T/ie earth is the Lord's (Ps. xxiv.) ; on the second day Great is the Lord (Ps. xlviii.) ; on the third day God standeth in the congregation of the mighty (Ps. Ixxxii.) ; on the fourth day God of vengeance (Ps. xciv.) ; on the fifth day Exult aloud unto God our strength (Ps. Ixxxi.) ; on the sixth day The Lord reigneth (Ps. xciii.) ; on the Sabbath A Psalm^ a song for the Sabbath day (Ps. xcii.). It is the Psalm and song also for the hereafter, for the day which will be wholly a Sabbath and a rest for life everlasting." As is well known, in the Septuagint five of these chosen Psalms have inscriptions referring them to the days of the week ; this is, however, not the case with the Psalms for the third and fifth days. Another very ancient element in this part of the service is the recitation of the Ten Commandments, for, according to Tamidv. i, these were read daily in the Temple. There follow then some responses and the " Prayer for Sustenance," which is based upon Scriptural texts. The presence of the Ten Commandments, after this prayer, is interesting. As we have just seen, the Decalogue was used daily in the Temple Liturgy, where it was read before the Shema' (Mishnah, Tamid v. i ; Bab. Talm. Berakhoth lib, I2a) ; but it was excluded from the service on account of the attitude adopted by certain sectaries who maintained that only the Decalogue, not the rest of the Law, had been revealed by God to Moses. When this exclusion, took place is not absolutely certain, but in all probability it was during the first century A.D. Though printed in the Daily Prayer Book,i the 1 Some twenty years ago the late Chief Rabbi H. Adler allowed the Decalogue to be read in English on Sabbaths in the synagogues under his jurisdiction. i6o RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Decalogue is not now part of the official service, and is only used privately by those who care to do so. The Decalogue is followed by " The Thirteen Principles of Faith " of which the canticle Yigdal, as we have seen, is a poetical version. These " Principles " were compiled from Maimonides' ^ commentary on the Mishnah ; they are also known as the " Creed of Maimonides." They form the nearest approach to a formal creed which the Jews possess, but are not binding on the Jews, nor are they universally accepted. " Maimonides must indeed have filled up a great gap in Jewish theology, a gap, moreover, the existence of which was very generally perceived. A century had hardly elapsed before the Thirteen Articles had become a theme for the poets of the synagogue. And almost every country where Jews lived can show a poem or prayer founded on these articles." ^ The final conclusion of the service then follows with the reading of the 'Akedah^ or " Binding" of Isaac (Gen. xxii. 1-19), and the passage about the giving of the Manna (Ex. xvi. 4—36). Dr. Abrahams explains the raison d'etre of these passages here thus : " The 'Akedah is not merely an eternal plea to man for readiness to undergo all trials to which he may be subjected, but it also established a human plea for divine mercy. The obedience of Abraham was from two sides an inspiration to his descendants ; it inspired self-sacrifice and self- confidence. . . . The recital of the chapter on the Manna implies firm belief in the providential care of the Father. . . . When the daily round of work is begun in a spirit of faith, there will be no lack of sustenance."^ * He lived 1 135-1204. (See pp. 34 ff) 2 Schechter, Studies in Judaism {^\x%X. Series), pp. 199 £.(1896). ^ op. cit. p. cii. THE ZEMIROTH i6i V THE ZEMIROTH It is a Jewish liturgical principle that the making of petitions to Almighty God must be preceded by offering Him praise. Hence the praises at the opening of the service proper. Zeniiroth is the Hebrew for "Psalms.".^ We have plenty of evidence as to the. use of Psalms in the Temple Liturgy ; a number of them were sung by the Levites during the offering of the sacrifices ; w^e are specifically told also that every morning, immediately after the sacrifices had been offered, the Levites sang Ps. cv. I— 1 5,^ and every evening Ps. xcvi. In the synagogue these are joined together and said every morning as an introduction to the praise portion of the service. But, as so often occurs in the Jewish Liturgy, important parts of the service are enclosed within a framework of Benedictions ; this is so, too, in the present case ; a Benediction is said before and after the recitation of the Psalms. The opening one is called, from the words with which it begins, Baritk shedinar (" Blessed be He who spake ") ; this is a composite piece, the second part of which leads over to the Psalms of praise : " Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God . . . praised by the mouth of Thy people. . . ." The closing Benediction, also called after its opening words, is known as Yishtabbach Shimeka, *' Praised be Thy Name." It is after the former Benediction that Pss. cv. 1-15 and xcvi. are said ; these are followed by a number of extracts from the Bible, mainly from the Psalms, strung into two ^ cp. the titles of many of the Psalms, Mizmor le-David^ a Psalm of David ; the word Mizmor is from the same root. Zemiroth is also a technical term for religious poems, usually sung ; e.g. the Zemiroth sung at table on the Sabbath. 2 This occurs also, with slight variations, in i Chron. xvi. 8-36, which is the form adopted in the Liturgy. M i62 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM hymns of praise, with Ps. c. in the centre. The second of these hynnns of praise is composed wholly of verses containing .the Name of God. Ps. c. is in all probability a remnant here of the old Temple Liturgy. Now the opening Benediction, Pss. cv. i-iS, xcvi., and the hymns of praise with Ps. c. in the centre, all form part of the framework around the real centre of the praise portion of the service ; the kernel of the whole is formed by Pss. cxlv.— cl.; ^ these are the real Zemiroth. The first actual mention of these Psalms as being part of the daily service of the Liturgy is by Rabbi Jose ben Chalaphta, who lived in the middle of the second century A.D. ; ^ but it is very probable that they formed part of the Temple Liturgy. In the ancient Prayer Books these Psalms are immediately followed by the concluding Benediction, Yishtabbach SJiimcka, but in course of time the three Biblical passages, i Chron. xxix. 10—13 (David's Song of Thanksgiving); Neh. ix. 6-1 1 (A Song of Praise); and Ex. xiv. 30-xv. 18 (The Song of Moses), came to be inserted. These three passages and the final Benediction form the rest of the framework around the Zemiroth proper. At the end of this part of the service half of the Kaddish is said ; on this see below, § IX. VI TPIE SHEMA' We have already seen (p. 154) that this part of the service, concentrating the mind as it does upon the cardinal tenet of the Jewish faith — belief in one God — was considered so important that in the worship of the Temple it was introduced by a formal thanksgiving ^ Strictly speaking, it hegins at Ps. cxlv. 15. ^ Tractate Sopheriin xvii. 11 (Elbogen, op. cit. p. 82). THE SHEMA' 163 for the divine revelation, and followed by the prayer that this revelation should be continued to Israel. Something similar finds its place up to the present day in the Jewish Liturgy. The Shema' is introduced by various Benedictions or prayers, the two central ones being known respectively as Yotzer (''Creator") and Ahabah ("Love") from the most important of their opening words. It is followed by a Benediction called GeullaJi (" Redemption "), because it refers to the Almighty as the Redeemer of Israel. It is probable that, in some form, all these three existed in the Temple Liturgy. This is certainly true of the Ahabah^ without doubt one of the most beautiful prayers in any Liturgy ; it is as follows : " With abounding love hast Thou loved us, O Lord our God. With great and overflowing pity hast Thou had pity upon us. O our Father, our King, for our fathers' sake who trusted in Thee, and whom Thou didst teach the statutes of life, be gracious also unto us, and teach us. O our Father, merciful Father, ever com- passionate, have mercy upon us, and put into our hearts to discern and to understand ; to hear, to learn, and to teach ; to observe and do and fulfil in love all the words of instruction in Thy Law. Enlighten our eyes in Thy Law, and let our hearts cleave to Thy commandments ; and unite our hearts to love and to fear Thy Name, that we may never be put to shame. For in Thy holy, great, and revered Name have we trusted ; so shall we rejoice and be glad in Thy salvation. O bring us in peace from the four corners of the earth, and make us go upright to our land ; for Thou, O God, dost work salvation. And us hast Thou chosen from all peoples and tongues, and hast brought us near to Thy great Name for ever in faithfulness, that we might in love give thanks to Thee, and proclaim Thy unity. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who in love dost choose Thy people Israel." The actual Shevta\ which receives its name from the opening word " Hear," consists of the three Biblical passages, Deut. vi. 4-9, beginning : '' Hear, O Israel; the Lord our God, the Lord is One"; Deut. xi. 13-21 ; and Num. xv. 37-41. This was part of the Temple service which, as the Mishnah {Taviid V. i) tells us, was taken over by the M 2 i64 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM synagogue. It is interesting to note that the words which immediately follow after the saying of the Shevia' — "Blessed be His Name, whose glorious Kingdom is for ever and ever" — were always said in the Temple when the Holy Name, Jehovah, was uttered. VII THE SHEMONEH 'ESREH We come now to what is the most interesting and, in many respects, the most important part of the Jewish Liturgy. But before coming to speak in some detail about this venerable prayer it will be well to say a word or two as to its date ; not that this can be fixed with certainty, but there are some indications which point to a high antiquity, at any rate, of parts of it, though in its present form it belongs to about A.D. 100. Nowhere in the canonical Scriptures, it is true, is there any sign that it was known to any of the writers. But in the Wisdom of Ben-Sira there is a passage which demands some attention, namely, the Psalm which, in the Hebrew Version, comes after li. 12. The parallelisms between this passage and the Shemoneh ^Esreh are partly to be found in identity of expression, and partly in similarity of thought. These are as follows ; identical expressions in the Hebrew of each are printed in italics : Ben-Sira ^erse Shem. 'Es. Section 2. Give thanks unto the God 3. Holy ones praise Thee of praises. 5. Give thanks unto ^ke Re- deemer of Israel. 6. Give thanks unto Him />^c(/ gathereth the outcasts of Israel. every day. 7. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, the Redeemer of Israel. 10. Blessed art Thou, Lord, that gatherest the out- casts of Thy people Israel. THE SHEMONEH 'ESREH 165 Ben-Sir A Verse 7. Give thanks unto Him /Aiz/ buildeih His City and His Sanctuary. 8. Give thanks unto Him that causeth a horn to flourish for the house of David. Give thanks unto the Shield of Abraham. Give thanks unto the Rock of Isaac, Give thanks unto the Mighty One of Jacob, Shem. *Es. II. 13- Give thanks unto Him that hath chosen Zion. 14. Give thanks unto the A'zV;^ of the kings of kings. Section 14. Do 1 8. 17. Thou dwell in the midst of Jerusalem Thy City. . . . And buz/d it an everlasting building speedily in our days. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, that buitdest Jeru- salem. Do Thoti cause the branch of David speedily to flourish.^ And do Thou exalt his horn by Thy salvation. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, the Shield of Abraham. . the Rock of our lives. ... the God of Jacob., the great God, mighty and revered. May our eyes behold Thy return to Zion. . Blessed art Thou, O Lord, that restorest Thy Shekinah to Zion. Reign Thou over us. . . . Blessed art Thou, O Lord and Kin^. The title of " King " is applied to God four times in addition to this one. Identical expressions grouped together in this way in the Shemoneh 'Esreh and in this Psalm can scarcely be fortuitous. It must be re- membered that the Psalm is quite short, and though the order in which these expressions occur differs in the two pieces, yet when they are respectively found within a restricted compass the supposition of a con- nexion of some sort between the two is justified. The Wisdom of Ben-Sira belongs approximately to the year 175 B.C., so that if we could trace a real relationship between the Shemoneh *Esreh and this i66 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Psalm, there would presumably be some grounds for dating the origin of the former somewhere about the beginning of the second pre-Christian century. The subject is, however, complicated by the following considerations : (a) Some authorities hold this Psalm to be later than the rest of Ben-Sira's book. (&) The conditions presupposed in the Shemonch 'Esreh (i.e. Pharisaic) are inadmissible in 175 B.C. (c) With one exception, the identical expressions referred to above occur in the admittedly later Benedictions of the Shcmoneh ^Esreh (viz. 7, 10, 14, 15). These objections are weighty, though not insuperable. In some form or other the prayer was certainly existing in 175 B.C. and doubtless for some time before this date. Two recensions of this prayer are in existence : the Babylonian and the Palestinian ; from these we are enabled to see that it was originally shorter than it appears in its present form in the Jewish Liturgy. The following is an English version of the Shemoneh ^Esreh translated from the Babylonian recension published by Dalman.^ This is the longer form, and therefore includes the later additions, but it is the form as now found in the Jewish Liturgy. Dalman believes that this recension is originally Palestinian, but that Babylon was the centre from which later on it spread and became the universally accepted form. There is every reason to believe that originally this prayer was composed on the pattern of early Hebrew poetry, i.e. each paragraph consisted of two lines in rhythmic measure ; then came the Bene- diction, The Shemoneh 'Esreh is introduced by the words from Ps. li. 15 (E.V.) : "O Lord, open Thou my lips, And my mouth shall show forth Thy praise," ^ Die Wof'te Jesii^ pp. 301-304 (1898). THE SHEMONEH 'ESREH 167 BENEDICTION I^ Blessed art Thou, Lord our God, and the God of our fathers, The God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob. 2[God the Great One, the Mighty One, and the Revered One], God Most High, [Who dost grant loving^ mercies], and dost possess all things, [Who dost remember the pious deeds of the fathers, and showest compassion upon their children, and wih bring a redeemer to their children's children for His Name's sake, in love ; Merciful King, Saviour, Helper, and Shield]. Blessed art Thou, Lord, the Shield of Abraham. BENEDICTION II Thou art mighty for ever, Lord, [O Thou that quickenest the dead, Thou art mighty to save], That causest the wind to blow, and the rain to descend. Thou sustainest the living [with mercy], Thou quickenest the dead. [With great mercies Thou dost heal the sick, dost help the weak, dost support the fallen, dost loose the bound, and dost keep faith with them that sleep in the dust. And who is like unto Thee, Master of mighty acts? And who resembleth Thee, that killest and makest alive, and causest salvation to spring forth, that art faithful in quickening the dead ?] Blessed art Thou, Lord, that quickenest the dead. ^ When used in the public service this prayer is said first by the worshippers silently ; it is then recited aloud by the Precentor or Reader. '■i Words in square brackets are those portions which are probably later additionSj according to Ualman ; we are not able to agree with him in every case. . i68 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM BENEDICTION III Thou art holy, and holy is Thy Name, And holy ones praise Thee every day. Blessed art Thou, Lord, the Holy God. After this Benediction follows what is called the Kedushah (" Sanctification ") ^ ; this is not an original part of the Shemoneh 'Esreh, and when it first came to be inserted is quite unknown ; but it is mentioned in very early writings/ and its presence in the Jewish Liturgy is in any case pre-Christian. We shall have to say a word about it presently, when it will be seen to be of peculiar interest from the Christian liturgical point of view. BENEDICTION IV ThoH dost favourably grant knowledge unto men, And dost teach discernment unto men ; Grant us from Thee knowledge, and understanding, and discernment. Blessed art Thou who dost graciously grant knowledge. BENEDICTION V Cause us to return, our Father, unto Thy Law ; And draw us near, our King, unto Thy service ; And bring us hack in perfect repentance to Thy presence. Blessed art Thou, Lord, that delightest in repentance, BENEDICTION VI Forgive us, our Father, for we have sinned ; Far don us, our King, for we have transgressed. For Thou art the God of goodness, Thou dost forgive. Blessed art Thou, Lord, [Who art gracious], Who dost abundantly forgive. ^ The earliest direct quotation of it is cijra a.d. 350 ; see Elbogen, op. at. p. 62. ^ See Zunz, Die gottesdienstlichcn Vortrdge der Juden, PP- 382, 395 (1892). THE SHEMONEH 'ESREH 169 BENEDICTION VII Look Upon our affliction, and plead our cause, and haste to redeem us ; For thou art God, [King], Mighty Redeemer. Blessed art Thou, Lord, the Redeemer of Israel. BENEDICTION VIII Heal us, Lord our God, and we shall he healed ; [Save us, and we shall be saved], Vouchsafe [perfect] healing to all our wounds. For Thou, God, art a merciful Healer. Blessed art Thou, Lord, that healest [the sicknesses of His people] Israel. BENEDICTION IX Bless US, Lord our God, in all the work of our hands, And bless our y^ars, [and give dew and rain upon the face of the earth], and satisfy the world and its fullness with Thy goodness, [and give plenty upon the face of the earth through the richness of the gifts of Thy hands, and preserve and prosper, O Lord our God, this year with every kind of produce, (keeping) from it every kind of destruction and want ; and grant to it issue, and hope, and plenty, and peace, and blessing, as in other good years]. Blessed art Thou, Lord, that blessest the years. BENEDICTION X Sotmd the great horn for our freedom, And lift up the ensign to gather all our exiles from the four corners of the earth to our own land. Blessed art Thou, Lord, that gatherest [the outcast of Thy people] Israel. 170 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM BENEDICTION XI Restore our pledges as in former times, and our counsellors as in the beginning, [And put away from us grief and sighing], and do Thou alone reign over us [in mercy, in righteous- ness, and in judgement]. Blessed art Thou, Lord, [and King], that lovest [righteousness and] judgement. BENEDICTION XII And for slanderers'^ let there he no hope, And let all the Minim ^ he destroyed as in a moment ; And the kingdom of arrogance do Thou uproot and cruih [speedily in our days]. Blessed art Thou, Lord, [that crushest the enemies, and] that humblest the arrogant. BENEDICTION XIII upon the righteous, [and upon the pious], and upon the proselytes of righteousness [And upon the remnant of Thy people, even all the house of Israel] let Thy mercies be stirred, Lord our God ; And grant a good reward unto all that trust in Thy name [in truth ; and set our portion with them for ever ; let us not be ashamed, for in Thy Name have we trusted, and we have relied upon Thy salvation]. Blessed art Thou, Lord, [the Stay and] the Trust of the righteous. ^ D^r^iJbo ; but in the marg. and in two MSS. d^iqitijio " religious renegade," or the like. 2 "Heretics" ; the reference is possibly to Christians ; but some eminent Jewish scholars hold that the term refers to Gnostics and not to Christians ; see Joel, Blicke . . ., i. 26, 29. THE SHEMONEH 'ESREH 171 BENEDICTION XIV Do Thou dwell in the midst of Jerusalem, Thy city [according as Thou hast said], And build it an everlasting bviilding speedily in our days. Blessed art Thou, Lord, that buildest Jerusalem. BENEDICTION XV Do Thou cause the branch of David speedily to flourish, And do Thou exalt his horn by Thy salvation. Blessed art Thou, Lord, that causest [the horn of] salvation to flourish. BENEDICTION XVI Hear our voice, Lord our God, [spare us] and have mercy upon us. And accept our prayer in mercy [and favour]. [From Thy presence, O our King, turn us not away empty], for Thou hearest the prayer of every mouth. Blessed art Thou that hearkenest unto prayer. BENEDICTION XVII Accept, Lord our God, Thy people Israel [and thei prayer], A nd restore the service to the oracle of Thy House. [And the fire-offerings of Israel and their prayer and their service do Thou speedily accept in love with favour ; and may the service of Thy people Israel be ever acceptable], And may our eyes behold Thy return to Zion [in mercy, as of yore]. Blessed art Thou, Lord, that restorest [speedily] Thy Shekhinah unto Zion. 172 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM BENEDICTION XVIII We give thanks unto Thee [for Thou art He], Lord our God, and the God of our fathers ; [The Rock of our Hves, and the Shield of our salvation art Thou from generation to generation. We will give thanks unto Thee, and declare Thy praise,] for o^ir lives which are committed into Thy handy and for our souls which are in Thy charge ; For Thy miracles, and for Thy wonders, and for Thy benefits at all times, [at evening, and morning, and mid-day. Thou art good, for Thy loving- kindnesses fail not ; Thou art merciful, for Thy mercies cease not. For all the living praise Thy great Name ; for Thou art good, Thou Good God]. Blessed art Thou, Lord ; good [and beautiful] it is to praise Thee [and Thy name continually]. BENEDICTION XIX Give [goodly] peace and blessing [grace, and mercy, and loving-kindnesses] unto us, even unto Israel Thy people. Bless us altogether, Lord our God, [in the light of Thy countenance ; for in the light of Thy countenance Thou hast given us, O Lord our God, the Law, and life, love and mercy, righteousness and peace, blessing and loving- kindnesses] ; yea, it is good in Thine eyes to bless Thy people Israel [with abundance of strength and peace]. Blessed art Thou, Lord, that blessest [Thy people Israel] with peace. Amen. As already pointed out, after the people have said the Shemoneh 'Esreh privately the reader repeats it aloud ; during this repetition in ancient days men belonging to priestly families uttered the Blessing of THE SHEMONEH 'ESREH 173 the Priests before the nineteenth Benediction ; ^ this was done daily, but for many centuries its daily use has ceased, and it is only said on festivals, as well as on the Day of Atonement, but not when it falls on the Sabbath. The Blessing of the Priests (Num. vi. 24-26) was an important ceremony in the Temple Liturgy ; it was uttered by the priests every morning and evening over the worshippers at the bringing of the whole burnt-offering. This is, therefore, another element which the synagogue has taken over from the Temple Liturgy. This Blessing is not now neces- sarily said by priests ; on ordinary occasions the officiating reader utters it. It is not said if a con- gregation consists of less than ten males, aged thirteen years or over.^ The name Shemoneh 'Esreh (= Eighteen [Benedic- tions]), referring especially as it does to the Bera- khoth or " Blessings " with which each sentence concludes, dates, then, in its present form from about the year A.D. 100. Before that time it con- sisted of only seventeen Benedictions.^ The addition of the eighteenth was due to Gamaliel II. (see below). In its present form, however, the prayer consists of nineteen Benedictions ; this is because in the Jewish Liturgy the Babylonian recension has been adopted, and in this recension what in the Palestinian recen- sion appears as a single Benediction is in the Baby- lonian recension divided into two, namely, the four- teenth and fifteenth. Another name which is very often given to this prayer is Tephillah ( = " prayer "), because it is par excellence the prayer of the Jewish Liturgy. Yet another name by which it is commonly known is 'Amidah (= "standing"), because during ^ In the Mishnah {So^a vii. i) this Benediction is called Birkath Cohanhn ( = " The Blessing of the Priests "). 2 Mishnah, Megilla iv. 4. ^ EarUer still it consisted of only twelve, in all probability- while there is reason to believe that in its earliest form it was made up of only six Benedictions ; see below. 174 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM its recitation the congregation stands, whereas they sit during most of the preceding part of the service. Originally, when this pra3^er was offered up in the synagogue, one came forth from the congregation and recited it. He was called the Sheliach Zibbiir, " the messenger of the congregation." This was done in order to emphasise that the prayer was offered by the congregation. The Sheliach Zibbur was the mouthpiece of the congregation ; he was not their representative ; he did not occupy a position analo- gous to that of a priest ; it was simply that his voice was the voice of the people. Jewish worship was essentially congregational. And while as a rule (until much later times, and for convenience' sake) the congregation had their mouthpiece, they did with their own voice collectively utter certain responses belonging to this prayer ; the most important of these was the Avicn at the end. This response came originally from the Psalms, and its utterance by the congregation was essential. We are reminded of St. Paul's words in i Cor. xiv. i6 : " Else if thou bless with the spirit, how shall he that filleth the place of the unlearned say the Amen at thy giving of thanks . . . ? " Regarding these last words, it is worth noticing, as an illustration of the fact that the Liturgy of the early Church was, in some of its main principles, founded on the pattern of the Jewish, that in this prayer the "Amen" follows the giving of thanks \ of this thanksgiving we shall speak presently. The importance attached to the congre- gation's " Amen '* ^ is well illustrated by the fact that in the large synagogue at Alexandria, where there was a difficulty for all the members of the congrega- tion to hear when the end of the prayer was reached, an official stood up on the platform in the centre of the synagogue and waved a flag as a sign to the congregation to say the " Amen."^ ^ cp. the conclusion of Ps. cvi. ^ Elbogen, op. cif. p. 495. THE SHEMONEH 'ESREH 175 Regarding the structure of the Shemonch 'Esreh, in its present form there is an important point to which attention must be drawn. The paragraphs, or Benedictions, fall into three distinct groups ; the first three are ascriptions of Praise : God, the Most High, Possessor of all things ; God, the Mighty One, Sustainer of the living and quickener of the dead ; God, the Holy One, who is praised every day. All the intermediate ones are Peii- tions. The three last are offerings of Thanks- giving, This last point is not immediately apparent in all of the three ; but a very little examination shows that thanksgiving is the underlying thought even where not directly expressed. Thus, in the last but two (it is called 'Abodah, "service") the prayer is made that God would accept His people Israel and restore the service in the Temple at Jerusalem ; but the service in the Temple, i.e. the sacrificial offerings, was, among other things, an expression of thanks- giving ; so that in its essence this Benediction is rightly regarded as coming under the head of thanks- giving. In the eighteenth Benediction the note of thanksgiving is quite clear : " We give thanks unto Thee . . . O Lord our God, and the God of our fathers. . . . We will give thanks unto Thee, and declare Thy praise, for our lives which are committed into Thy hand, and for our souls which are in Thy charge, for Thy miracles, and for Thy wonders, and for Thy benefits at all times." Then, as to the final Benediction, the note of thanksgiving is to be dis- cerned in the words : " It is good in Thine eyes to bless Thy people Israel," where the recognition of the divine blessing accorded to the people is essentially a form of genuine thanksgiving. So that, although at first sight these last three paragraphs of the prayer do not, excepting in the case of the last but one, seem to come under the head of thanksgiving, they do so in their essence, and have always been regarded as 176 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM expressions of thanksgiving in the Jewish Church. The Shemoneh 'Esrch seems, therefore, to present us with the earliest pattern of what the subject-sequence of divine worship should be, viz. first. Praise to God, then Petition, then Thanksgiving. The next point of interest regarding our prayer is this : the Shemoneh 'Esreh is the earliest example of a fixed framework of praise and thanksgiving enclosing ' variable matter according to the sacred seasons. We have just seen that the Benedictions are divided into three distinct groups : the first three, the last three, and the intervening Benedictions. The first three and the last three occupy, and have always occupied, a very special position ; for these six are used on every day of the year without exception. The other thirteen are used only on ordinary week-days, whereas on Sabbaths, feasts, and the Day of Atone- ment they give place to special petitions. The first three and the last three Benedictions form, therefore, a fixed framework. So that on a feast-day, for ex- ample, the Shemoneh 'Esreh consists of the first three Benedictions of Praise ; then there follow, not the ordinary thirteen Petitions as quoted just now, but special petitions (variable in number) proper to the festival or fast ; then come the three concluding Bene- dictions of Thanksgiving. This liturgical principle of a fixed framework of praise and thanksgiving enclosing variable matter is thus seen to be extremely ancient ; and we find it in our Communion Office — though here the praise and thanksgiving portions have changed places — for the Proper Prefaces, variable according to the season, are enclosed by the constant paragraphs of thanksgiving and praise, thus : " It is very meet, right, and our bounden duty that we should at all times and in all places give thanks unto Thee, O Lord . . ."; then at festivals comes the Proper Preface, of variable content according to the season ; and this is followed by the unchanging THE SHEMONEH 'ESREH 177 offering of praise : '* Therefore with angels and archangels and with all the company of Heaven, we laud and magnify Thy glorious name, evermore praising Thee ..." ' It is, of course, only the liturgical principle to which attention is drawn, and which the Christian Church in all probability adopted from the Jewish ; the details naturally differ. Then we come to another interesting point in which the question of congregational responses is also involved. It has already been pointed out that after the third Benediction comes what is called the Kedushah ('* Sanctification "), so called because of its content, to which we shall come in a moment ; this Kedushah is now, and has been for a great many centuries, regarded as an integral part of the Shemoneh ^Esreh ; it was certainly not so originally, as it does not figure in either the Palestinian or Babylonian texts of the prayer ; nevertheless, it had already been incorporated, as an integral part of the prayer, before the Christian era, and that is the important point for us. The Kedushah consists of responses uttered by the reader and the people, and is as follows : ""^ Reader. We will sanctify Thy name in the world even as they sanctify it in the highest heavens, as it is written by the hand of the prophet ; And they called to one another and said : People, Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of Hosts ; the earth is full of His glory. Reader, Those over against them say, Blessed — People. Blessed be the glory of the Lord from His place. Reader, And in Thy holy words it is written, saying : People. The Lord shall reign for ever, Thy God, O Zion, unto all generations. Praise ye the Lord \i.e. Hallelujah]. Reader. Unto all generations we will declare Thy great- ness, and to all eternity we will proclaim Thy holiness ; and Thy praise, O our God, shall not depart from our mouth for ever, for Thou art a great and holy God and King. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, the Holy God." In all probability this present form of the Kedushah is an amplification of its primitive form ; and it is N 178 RABBINICAL AND MEDI^.VAL JUDAISM difficult not to believe that the form which the first Christians used was the parent of the Sanctus in the Church's Communion Office. But if this is so (and it can hardly be doubted), it makes all the sadder another fact, namely, that this pra3'er acted as one of the means whereby the complete separation between Jews and Jewish- Christians Avas brought about. We have already seen that about the year A.D. lOO Gamaliel 11. added a Benediction to the Shemoneh 'Esreh ; he did this with the object of excluding Heretics or Gnostics, among \\'hom must be reckoned Christians, from the synagogue. The Benediction he added was what is now the twelfth : *' And for slanderers let there be no hope, And let all the Minim be destroyed as in a moment ; And the kingdom of arrogance do Thou uproot and crush. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, that crushest the enemies, and that humblest the arrogant.'' The jarring note of bitterness and hatred sounded in this paragraph of the prayer is wholly alien to the spirit of the rest of it. In this paragraph two types of men, hateful to the Jews, are referred to. The first, now designated "slanderers," were not originally so called ; in this paragraph in its original form the word was Meshummadim, i.e. renegades. So that the opening line of this paragraph ran originally : "And for renegades [to their religion] let there be no hope." As to the Minim spoken of in the second line of the paragraph, by this term was meant those who differed from the orthodox belief of the Jews, including Sadducees, Samaritans, Christians and Gnostics, and heretics generally. But the use of the word in this prayer was intended to be directed against Christians, according to Elbogen. It seems pretty evident that Justin Martyr refeis to this in saying that the Jews THE SHEMONEH 'ESREH 179 cursed the Christians three times daily in their syna- gogues ; so, too, Epiphanius, who refers to the prayer more pointedly in saying that the Jews pray to God that He will destroy the Nazarenes. Elbogen believes that the word " Nazarenes " stood in the prayer at one time.^ After the Shemoneh ^Esreh had been said it was customary in ancient days to spend a short time in silent prayer and supplication. During the Middle Ages, however, this gradually became replaced by a set form of Selichoth (" Petitions," or, more exactly, " Penitential prayers "), since the word comes from the root meaning *' to forgive." These Selichoth (see further § XI. on the Day of Atonement) were an outcome of the assemblies on fast-days to which reference has already been made (pp. 152 ff.). Though originally instituted for the Day of Atonement and fast-days only, they were gradually extended and used at other services as well. One of the oldest is that beginning: "And He, being merciful, forgiveth iniquity and destroyeth not . ." ; this is known, from the Hebrew of the opening words, as Vehu Rachum ; it contains references to many Biblical passages, which is characteristic of all the Selichoth. On ordinary occasions, instead of Vehu Rachum, the Shemoneh 'Esreh is immediately followed by two sen- tences in which are sounded the notes of penitence, i.e. the Selichah note, and that of supplication, i.e. the Tachanun note, thus leading over to the next part of the service, the Tachanunim. These two sentences are as follows : " And David said unto Gad, I am troubled exceedingly ; let us fall, I pray thee, into the hand of the Lord, for His mercies are many, but let me not fall into the hand of man" (2 Sam. xxiv. 1 4). ^ op. cit. p. 36. On the other hand, Abrahams, in his edition of the Prayer Book, p. Ixiv f., holds strongly that the reference throughout the Benediction is to sectarian Jews. N 2 i8o RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM " O Thou who art merciful and gracious, I have sinned before Thee. O Lord, full of merc}^ have mercy upon me and receive my supplications " ( Tachanunai), VIII THE TACHANUNIM The word Tachanunim means " Petitions for grace " ; the origin of these is very interesting. In the Temple worship during the service on the Day of Atonement the whole congregation twice prostrated itself upon the ground : first when the Levites sounded with their trumpets and the high-priest gave the blessing, and again when the high-priest pronounced the abso- lution.^ On these occasions of prostration the people, according to the Mishnah, offered up private prayer.^ The custom was continued in the synagogue worship ; and these private prayers, instead of being offered up at the close of the public sacrifice, were said at the close of the congregational prayers — that is, at the end of public worship ; opportunity was then given to the individual worshipper to pour out his heart to God.^ " By this means," as Elbogen says, '* the most difficult problem of congregational worship was solved ; it gave the due adjustment between the demands of the congregation, for which united prayer was indispensable, and the reasonable craving of the. individual for personal communion with God. The demand of the congregation receives prior recog- nition, but, this having be^n satisfied, opportunity is given to the individual worshipper to pour forth without restraint the inner yearnings of his heart." * ^ cp. Ecclus. I. 16-21. ^ See Elbogen, op. cit. p, ']-^. ^ cp. the Psalmist's words : " Commune with your own heart . . . and be still" (Ps. iv. 4 [5 in Hebr.]). ^ op. cit. p. 74. THE TACHANUNTM i8i In later times the place for private prayer was trans- ferred to the conclusion of the Shemoneh 'Esreh. The point to be emphasised is that opportunity for private prayer during public worship was thus offi- cially provided for. In course of time the duration of private prayers was regulated ; it was laid down that "they who utter words ^ after the Tephillah"^ might make their prayer as long as they wished, but it must not be longer than the longest prayer known ^ — that is, the prayer of the Day of Atone- ment. In later centuries this admirable provision for private prayers during public worship largely fell into disuse, though not wholly; and by degrees its place was taken by what are now known as the Tachanunim, i.e. "Petitions for grace." These have now become an integral part of the official prayers of the synagogue. What is known as the Tachanun is based, as we have seen, on the words of David in 2 Sam. xxiv. 14: "Let us now fall into the hand of the Lord, for His mercies are great ; and let me not fall into the hand of man." It will be noticed that the Tachanun comes immediately after the Shemoneh 'Esreh, according to the old usage. It is necessary to add that the words of Dan. ix. 3 ff. came to be brought into connexion with the Tachanunim ; the prayer in that passage, it will be noticed, goes over into a confession of sin. This element has entered into all the Tachanunim^ and they have thus come to be very largely, like the Selichoth, penitential prayers. This transformation of private prayers into public penitential prayers is a fact full of human interest. ^ To " utter words '" is an early technical term for private prayer. - Another name, as we have seen, for the Shemoneh ''Esreh. ^ Tos. Berakhoth \\\. 6, quoted by Elbogen. i82 RABBINICAL AND MEDL^VAL JUDAISM IX THE READING OF THE LAW One of the main objects of. public worship was instruction in the Law, and for this purpose various sections from the Pentateuch and other parts of the Bible were introduced into the regular prayers. But besides these were readings from the Scroll. The Pentateuch is now, in most synagogues, read through on Sabbaths once a j^ear ; this custom comes down to us from Babylonian usage. In Palestine the Pentateuch was read through once in three years, this being what is known as the Triennial Cycled The Scrolls of the Law are kept in the Ark, which is placed at the east end of the synagogue. When the Ark is opened and when the Scroll of the Law is taken out various sentences based on Scriptural passages are said. On Mondays, Thursdays, Sabbath afternoons, and on Fast-days three persons are called to the reading of the Law : a priest,^ a Levite,^ and an Israelite ; these in days gone by read the Pentateuch passages themselves ; now, however, this is done by the officiating reader. Benedictions are said before and after the reading of the Law ; these embody passages from Scripture. Then come Pss. cxlv. and XX., followed by a passage beginning with a citation from Is. lix. 20, 21: "And a Redeemer shall come to Zion . . .", which leads over to the concluding portion of the service. This we have already con- sidered.^ ^ Abrahams, A7t?totated Prayer Book^ p. Ixxviii. 2 i.e. one descended from a priestly family, or a Levitical family, respectively. ^ The daily afternoon ser\'ice is a shortened form of morning service ; the daily evening service is also based upon it, but modified in some respects and adapted to evening time ; it is not regarded as obligatory. KADDISH 183 X KADDISH Kaddish means " Sanctification " ; it was in its origin a doxology uttered by a teacher at the close of his discourse, and had nothing to do with the worship of the synagogue ; but in course of time it was incorporated in the Liturgy to mark the close of parts of the service. In the first form in which it occurs in the service it is abbreviated, and is known as Half-Kaddish. Full Kaddish is said at the con- clusion of the service proper, i,e. after the Shemoncli 'Esreh ; in this form it is known as Kaddish tithkabbal, from the opening word of one of the sections, ''May there he accepted tlie prayers and supplications of all Israel by their Father which is in Heaven ; and say ye, Amen." A third form of Kaddish was said at the close of reading extracts from Rabbinical writings ; hence it is called Rab- binical Kaddish. But the two most interesting forms of Kaddish are "Mourner's Kaddish'' and the *' Kaddish of Renewal." The former of these was "originally recited at the close of the seven days' mourning, with the religious discourses and bene- dictions associated with it, but (Sopherlm xix. 12) only at the death of a scholar ; afterwards, in order not to put others to shame, it was recited after every burial."^ The "Mourner's Kaddish" is recited by mourners in the synagogue during the first eleven months after the death of a parent, and on anniver- saries afterwards. This constitutes a memorial of the departed, though it is not a prayer for the departed. It seems, however, [)ossible that " Mourner's Kaddish " represents a faint echo of, or substitute for, some- thing that was originally a definite prayer for the departed. Elbogen points out that, according to 1 Kohler '\r\JE vii. 401. i84 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Shabhath 1 19&, there was a mystic idea of the miraculous efficacy which the recitation of this Kaddish had both for the living and the dead. The following story,^ told of Rabbi Akiba, who lived in the early part of the second century A.D., throws an interesting sidelight on the point: Rabbi Akiba was once walking through a forest when he met -a man rushing along carrying a great burden ; the Rabbi accosted him, asking him why he was thus hurrying along with that burden on his back. The man replied that he was condemned to do so throughout the centuries because of the sins he had committed when he had lived as a mortal on earth. Rabbi Akiba asked him if he had had no son. The man replied that he could not say, for he had died before his wife had borne him a child ; one might have been born after he had died, but he did not know. Then the man continued his . endless journey. Rabbi Akiba thereupon bestirred himself to seek out the man's widow. After much toil he found her, and learned that she had given birth to a son after her husband's death. Then the Rabbi told her to teach her son to say the " Mourner's Kaddish,'' and to bid him recite it in the synagogue. She did so ; and the boy recited the "Mourner's Kaddish'' in the syna- gogue. Soon after the man appeared to Rabbi Akiba in a night-vision, and thanked him for what he had done, telling him that his punishment had ceased, and that he was now resting in Paradise in peace. The story clearly suggests that at one time the "Mourner's Kaddish" partook of the character of a prayer said for the benefit of the departed ; this is made the more probable by the fact that what is called " Renewal Kaddish'' is said at the close of the * It is only the substance of the story which is given ; it was told to the writer by a well-known Jewish minister ; it is from an ancient Midrashic source. KADDISH 185 service for the burial of the dead. The "Renewal" here refers to the new world hereafter. Though "Mourner's Kaddish'' is not directly a prayer for the departed, that does not mean to say that the Jewish Liturgy does not contain such prayers (see pp. 201 ff.). The following is a translation of Kaddish^ in its full fornn : "And now, I pray Thee, let the power of the Lord be great, according as Thou hast spoken. Remember, O Lord, Thy tender mercies and Thy loving-kindnesses ; for they have been ever of old. (This is not said aloud on any occasion during the service.) Magnified and sanctified ^ be His great Name in the world which He hath created according to His will. May He es- tablish His Kingdom during your life and during your days, and during the life of all the house of Israel, even speedily and at a near time, and say ye, Amen. Reader and People. Let His great Name be blessed for ever and to all eternity. Reader. Blessed, praised and glorified, exalted, extolled and honoured, magnified and lauded be the Name of the Holy One. Reader a7id People. Blessed be He ! Reader. Though He be high above all the blessings and hymns, praises and consolations, which are uttered in the world ; and say ye, Amen. People. Accept our prayer in mercy and in favour (said privately). Reader. May the prayers and supplications of all Israel be accepted by their Father which is in heaven ; and say ye, Amen. People. Let the name of the Lord be blessed from this time forth for evermore (said privately). Reader. May there be abundant peace from Heaven, and life for us and for all Israel ; and say ye, Amen. People. My help is from the Lord, who hath made heaven and earth (said privately). Reader. He who maketh peace in His high places, may He make peace for us and for all Israel ; and say ye, Amen." ^ Its original language is Aramaic, not Hebrew. ^ It is this word which gives the name to this prayer. i86 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM When H^lf-Kaddish is said it begins at " Magnified and sanctified be His great Name," and ends with the sentence said by the Reader : *' Blessed, praised and glorified." Rabbinical Kaddish differs from the ordinary form in that it inserts after the Reader's words *' Blessed, praised and glorified . . .*' the fol- lowing sentence : " Unto Israel, and unto the Rabbis, and unto their disciples, and unto all the disciples of their disciples, and unto all who engage in the study of the Law, in this or in any other place, unto them and unto you be abundant peace, grace, loving- kindness, mercy, long life, ample sustenance, and salvation from the Father which is in Heaven, and say ye, Amen." Then it goes on at *' Let the Name of the Lord be blessed " to the end. Mourner's Kaddish is the same as ordinary Kaddish up to the end of "Blessed, praised and glorified"; the two sentences which follow this are omitted ; the place of the Reader is taken by the mourner, who says all the versicles, while the people make the usual re- sponses. Renewal Kaddish, so called because of the reference to the new creation hereafter, belongs to the Burial Service ; it is said by children after the burial of a parent, the responses being uttered by the people present ; it is as follows : Motiriters. " May His great Name be magnified and sanc- tified in the workl that is to be created anew, where He will quicken the dead, and raise them up unto life eternal ; will rebuild the city of Jerusalem, and establish His temple in the midst thereof; and will uproot all alien worship from the earth, and restore the worship of the true God. O may the Holy One — Blessed be He— reign in His sovereignty and glory during your life and during your days, and during the life of all the house of Israel, even speedily and at a near time ; and say ye, Amen." It then continues at " Let His great Name be blessed for ever and to all eternity," and the rest is the same as in ordinary Kaddish ; but the Reader takes no part in Renewal Kaddish. THE SERVICES FOR THE SABBATH 187 The reference to the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the re-establishment of the Temple points to this form of Kaddish as belonging to a date subsequent to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. yo. This is, then, the order of the daily Morning Prayer in the synagogue, the central elements of which were originally : Confession, the Shema^ and the Ten Commandments, the Shemoneh 'Esreh, the Reading of the Law and its Interpretation, Psalms, and the Priestly Blessing (not necessarily in this order). Around these, in course of ages, large developments have grown up, as well as modifica- tions in the order of the different elements in the service. While Confession, the reciting of the Ten Commandments, and the Reading of the Law (this latter taking place only on Mondays and Thursdays, and of course on Sabbaths) do not occupy quite the same prominent position as in the early centuries of our era, the Shema' and the Shemoneh 'Esreh form, as ever, the most outstanding features of the worship of the synagogue. XI THE SERVICES FOR THE SABBATH The very special sanctity with which the Sabbath is, and always has been, regarded by the Jews finds expression in various striking ways both in the arrangement of the services as well as in the services, and in the celebration of special rites peculiar to the Sabbath. There are six services held in celebration of the Sabbath. A short account of each of these will give some insight into the character of this very important weekly festival. i88 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM (i) Inauguration of the Sabbath Originally, and, as far as can be gathered, long before the beginning of the Christian era, this was a home service, and continued so for many centuries. It is still a home service; but during the Amoraic ^ period there was instituted, first in Babylonia and later in Palestine, a synagogue service as well as a home service for the inauguration of the Sabbath, on Friday nights. The home service begins with the lighting of the Sabbath lights. It is the special duty of the woman of the house to kindle these two candles,^ the lights being the symbol of joy at the coming festival which it is the woman's privilege to proclaim. Then follows the Xiddush, i.e. " Sanctification " of the day, said by the head of the house. This is a Benediction uttered over bread and wine. The contents of the Kiddush are as follows : Gen. i. 31-ii. 3. The Blessing over the wine : " Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who Greatest the fruit of the vine." A Benediction is joined to this in the words: "Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who hast sanctified us by Thy commandments and hast taken pleasure in us, and in love and favour hast given us Thy holy Sabbath as an inheritance, a memorial of the creation, that day being also the first of the holy convocations,^ in remembrance of the departure from Egypt.* For Thou hast chosen us and sanctified us above all nations,'' and in love and favour hast given us Thy holy Sabbath as an inheritance. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who hallowest the Sabbath." « ^ See pp. 22 fif., 1 16 If. ^ In the Mishnah, Shabbath ii. 6, it is said: "Because of three transgressions women die in child-birth : because they do not pay due regard to . . . and to the (Sabbath) lights." •* Lev. xxiii. i fi^. ^ Deut. v. 15. ^ Deut. vii. 6, 7. ^ Gen. ii. 3 ; Ex. xx. 11. THE SERVICES FOR THE SABBATH 189 The Blessing over the bread : " Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, King of the Universe, who bringest forth bread from the earth.' ^ Then follows the ordinary Sabbath meal.^ The text of Kiddush is practically the same in all the various Rituals — ■" a proof," as Elbogen says, " that it rests on good ancient tradition."^ A very much later custom is the synagogue service of the Inauguration of the Sabbath. This dates from the end of the sixteenth century. As in the home service, the Sabbath lights are kindled (not, of course, by a woman in this case) ; and, moreover, a shortened form of Kiddush is said (the Genesis passage being omitted),, but this comes now during the first Sabbath service proper. Mr. Abrahams points out that the saying of Kiddush m the synagogue " arose from the custom of entertaining and lodging wayfarers in the synagogue precincts, and thus the rite was part of the meal provided for the communal guests. The public Kiddush, however, as an act of sanctification, was retained long after it ceased to be customary to associate the guest-house with the place of worship." * The Service for the Inauguration of the Sabbath, which varies in the different Rituals, begins with the kindling of the Sabbath lights, during which is said ; " Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who hast sanctified us by Thy command- ments, and commanded us to kindle the Sabbath light." This command is not based upon any Biblical ordinance, but upon tradition which is also regarded as divine. Then Ps. xcv. (the "Venite") is said, together with Pss. xcvi.-xcix. and xxix. These are followed by a beautiful hymn, called Lekah Dodi ^ Ps. civ. 14. 2 It is important to note that originally TTzV/^/z^y/z took place a//er the festal meal ; cp. Elbogen, op. cii, p. 107. ^ op. cit. p. 112. * op, at. p. cxl. 190 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM (" Come, my friend, to meet the bride ") ; it was com- posed by Alkabetz (Solomon the Levite, cp. p. 289) in the first half of the sixteenth century, and is spoken of by Schechter as "perhaps one of the finest pieces of religious poetry in existence."^ In it the Sabbath is personified as a bride, and every worshipper is called upon to go forth and meet her. The poem consists of nine stanzas, after each of which the refrain is sung : " Come, my friend, to meet the bride ; let us welcome the presence of the Sabbath." Lekah Dodi is found in all the Rituals. Then come Pss. xcii. (the Psalm for the Sabbath day) and xciii. This ends the Inauguration Service in the synagogue. (ii) Service for Sabbath Rve (Maarib) This follows immediately after the foregoing, and is in its structure the same as the ordinary week-day evening service, though there are naturally some variations and additions in details.^ The reading of the Mishnah treatise Shabbath, chap, ii., after the Shcmoneh 'Esreh is one of these additions ; this passage is chosen because it gives directions regarding the Sabbath lights. It is followed by a passage from the Talmudic tractate Berakhoth which speaks of the peace which is to be the lot of those who love the Law. At this point of the service Kiddush is said (see above). The rest of the service concludes as on ordinary days, excepting that Yigdal is sung at the end of the service. It is the custom on the eve of the Sabbath and on holy-days at the conclusion of this service for parents to pronounce a formal blessing upon their children, whether young or grown-up. This is a home rite ; ^ Siitdies in Judaism (second series), p. 228. ^ Regarding the saying of the Shemo?teh ^Esreh on Sabbaths and festivals, see above, pp. 175 ff. It consists here of only seven Benedictions. THE SERVICES FOR THE SABBATH 191 but it is sometimes done in the synagogue by the Rabbis, only, of course, as regards boys. When done at home the father, or the mother, places both hands on the head of each child ; to boys is said : " God make thee as Ephraim and Manasseh " ; to girls : " God make thee as Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel, and Leah." Then follows the blessing proper upon all : " The Lord bless thee, and keep thee; the Lord make His face to shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee ; the Lord turn His face unto thee, and give thee peace." Finally, Prov. xxxi. 10-31 is read. This custom is ancient, for, although not incorporated into the Liturgy until the sixteenth century, it is already referred to in the tractate Sopherim xviii. 5, which embodies a mass of ancient material. (iii) Service for Sabbath Morning The structure of this very important service is to a large extent identical with that for week-days ; but, as one would naturally expect, there are some variations and some notable additions. Up to the end of the Praise portion (Zemiroth ; see above, § V.) there are the following differences : The addition of Num. xxviii. 9, 10 to the "sacrificial passages"; the meditation and benedictions for the Tephillin are not said ;^ instead of Ps. c. (see p. 156), there are said Pss. xix., xxxiv., xc, xci.; cxxxv., cxxxvi., xxxiii., xcii., and xciii. ; and after Ex. xiv. 30-xv. 18 ^ (see p. 156) four ascriptions of praise are uttered before the concluding Benediction of praise, Yishtabbach Shimeka. Of these four additions a few words must be said. By far the most important of them, called Nishmath, from the opening word (" The breath of every living being shall bless Thy name "), ^ The Tephillin are not worn on Sabbaths. 2 Originally this probably belonged exclusively to the Sabbath Zeniifoik^ also called Pesiikc de Zimj'a. 192 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM is a beautiful hymn of praise, and ancient. It is found in a more or less identical form in all the Rituals, and is referred to as well known by Rabbi Jochanan (first century A.D.). A strange thing about Nishma'h is that in the Middle Ages it was widely held to have been written by the Apostle Peter ; how this curious belief arose seems to be quite unknown. Nishmath is a long hymn of praise, and full of Scriptural phraseology. The other three are quite short, the second being from Is. Ivii. 15 ; all breathe forth an intense spirit of praise. The service then continues as on week-days ; the introductory and concluding Benedictions to the Shema' are, however, fuller. The Shemoneh 'Esreh on Sabbath mornings consists of only seven Benedictions ; the three first and the three last are the same as on week-days, though the Kedushah (see pp. 177 ff.) is somewhat amplified on Sabbaths. It is the fourth which is the distinctive feature of the Shemoneh 'Esreh on the Sabbath ; it runs thus : Moses rejoiced in the gift of his portion^ for Thou didst call hi7n a faithful servant ; a diadem of glory didst Thou place upoJi his head^ when he stood before Thee on Mount Sinai; a7td in his hand he brought down the two tables of stone ^ upon %vhich the observa?ice of the Sabbath was prescribed., and thus it is written in Thy Law. Then follows Ex. xxxi. 16, 17, the points being, as Mr. Abrahams says, that " the observance of the Sabbath is ordained in the Decalogue, but also it is written elsewhere in the Law. The Sabbath is referred to in ten passages over and above the fourth commandment." ^ The service then continues as on weekdays ; but the ceremony of the Reading of the Law is more elaborate on Sabbaths. In addition to the Reading of the Law, there is, on Sabbaths, also the Reading from the Prophets. This is called the Haphtarah, which means " dismissal," or perhaps ^ op. cit. p. cxlviii. THE SERVICES FOR THE SABBATH ,19.-5 "conclusion," for it comes at the end of the service. The reading of the Haphtarah was introduced long before the beginning of the Christian era.^ Another ceremony, also very ancient, in connexion with the Sabbath may be mentioned, viz. the announcing of the new month. This is done on the Sabbath preceding new moon. "In ancient times it was the duty of the Sanhedrin to declare the beginning of the new month, which was originally fixed by actual observation, and not only by astro- nomical calculation. The declaration was accom- panied by blessings and praises (Sopherim xix. 9), The synagogue announcement is a survival of this ancient rite." ^ The prayer said in the synagogue on this occasion dates from the third century A.D., though it is not incorporated in the older Rituals ; it runs as follows : " May it be Thy will, O Lord our God, and God of our fathers, to renew unto us this coming month for good and for blessing. O grant us long life, a life of peace, of good, of blessing, of sustenance, of bodily vigour, a life marked by the fear of Heaven and a dread of sin, a life free from shame and reproach, a life of prosperity and honour, a life m which the love of the Law and the fear of Heaven shall cleave to us, a life in which the desires of our heart shall be fulfilled for good. Amen." (iv) Additional Service for the Sabbath This service, called Musaph ("Addition"), corre- sponds to the additional sacrifices in the Temple worship on Sabbaths, new moons, and festivals, commanded in Num. xxviii., xxix. It opens with the Shemoneh 'Esreh, consisting of seven Benedictions, of which, as usual, the three first and three last are as on ordinary days ; the central Benediction appro- priately makes mention of the additional sacrifices offered in the Temple on Sabbaths. The Kedushah ^ cp. Luke iv. 16 ff. ^ Abrahams, op. cit. p. clxi. O 194 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM for Musaph differs from the usual one in its reference to the vision of Jsaiah and the declaration of the Unity of God. It is known as the "Great Kedu- shah." Then follows Kaddish. The next part of the service opens with the canticle 'En Kelohenu ("There is none like our God") and extracts from the Talmud and the Mishnah. The ^Alenu Prayer ("For us it is the duty to praise the Lord''), which is then said, belongs specially to the Musaph of New Year, though it has been transferred to the daily morning service as well. It is a very ancient prayer, in all probability pre-Christian, and deals specially with the divine Kingship. While in the first half a somewhat particularistic note is struck, the second half is thoroughly universalistic, as the following extract will show : " Let all the inhabitants of the world perceive and know that unto Thee every knee must bow, every tongue must swear. Before Thee, O Lord our God, let them bow and fall ; and unto Thy glorious name let them give honour ; let them all accept the yoke of Thy kingdom, and do Thou reign over them speedily, and for ever and ever. For Thine is the kingdom, and to all eternity shalt Thou reign in glory." Then comes Mourner's Kaddish (see p. 184) and 'Adon 'Olam (see p. 157). The "Unity Hymn for the Sabbath Day " is then said ; this is a late com- position, belonging to the end of the eleventh century. The service concludes with the Hymn of Gloryy Ps. xcii., and Mourner's Kaddish is repeated if mourners are present. (v) Service for Sabbath Afternoon This service is called Minchah (see p. 155). After some introductory sentences and Ps. cxlv., and "And a Redeemer shall come to Zion . . . ," Kaddish is said ; then the first section (Parashah) of the Lesson (Sidra) from the Pentateuch of the following Sabbath is read. The Shemoneh 'Esrehj which follows, has again seven THE SERVICES FOR THE SABBATH 195 Benedictions, of which the intermediate one (the fourth) is proper to this service ; its special notes are the Unity of God and the Sabbath rest. Kaddish again concludes this first part of the service. Then come the Psalms, viz. civ. and the fifteen Songs of Ascent (cxx.-cxxxiv.).^ From Passover to New Year one chapter of Pirke Aboth is read every week ; during the rest of the year the Psalms mentioned are all read every Sabbath ; this is followed by the 'Alenu Prayer and Mourner's Kaddish. (vi) Service for the Conclusion of the Sabbath This service is largely the same as that for the ordinary weekday evening service ; but it opens with Pss. cxliv., Ixvii., and then continues as usual, viz. Vehu Rachum (see p. 179), Shema\ Shemoneh 'Esreh, Kaddish^ Ps. xci., " And a redeemer shall come" (see p. 156), Kaddish. Then follows a long passage, peculiar to this service, made up of numerous passages from the Old Testament, and the service concludes with Ps. cxxviii. The Habdalah. This is primarily a home service, and is always said at the Conclusion of the Sabbath, which from very early times, long before the begin- ning of the Christian era, was celebrated by a special meal, just as in the case of the Inauguration of the Sabbath. The word Habdalah means *' Separation," i.e, between the holy Sabbath and the ordinary week- days. The ceremony marking this celebration is interesting. The head of the house takes a cup of wine in his right hand and utters a Benediction over it beginning with the words: *' Behold, God is my salvation " ; it is made up from other citations from the Psalms and Isaiah, and concludes with the words : '* Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who Greatest the fruit of the vine." ^ These Psalms and the reading from Pirke Aboth are not the same all the year round. O 2 ig6 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Then he takes spices, and says over them : " Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who Greatest divers kinds of spices." Then he spreads his hands towards the Hghts, saying : " Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who Greatest the light of the fire." Finally, he takes the cup once again in his right hand and says : " Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who makest a distinction (lit. who separatest^ from the same root as Hahdalah) between holy and profane, between light and darkness, between Israel and other nations, between the seventh day and the six working days. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who makest a distinction between holy and profane." After this a concluding hymn is said : " May He who maketh a distinction between holy and profane pardon our sins." This hymn, belonging probably to the eleventh century, is of a strongly penitential character, and is main- tained by some to have been originally written for the concluding service of the Day of Atonement. The Hahdalah is also celebrated in the synagogue as part of the service. XII THE FESTIVAL SERVICES The three great Jewish festivals, Passover {Pesach), Pentecost (Shevuoth), and Tabernacles (Succoth), are known as the " Pilgrim Festivals," called in Hebrew Regalim (plural of the word for "foot"), because the pilgrims went up to Jerusalem on foot to celebrate them.^ ^ According to Ibn Ezra (a.b. 1092-1167). "The Rab- binic rule was that every pilgrim should walk on foot at least the final stage of the journey up from the city of Jeru- salem to the Temple, deriving the rule from the word Regalim (Mishnah, Cha^igah i. 1)" (Abrahams, op. cit. p. cxci). THE FESTIVAL SERVICES 197 On the eve of festivals the service is a somewhat shortened form of that said on Friday afternoon preparatory to the Sabbath. The other festival services are as on the Sabbath, but with two distin- guishing marks. The first of these is the festival Shemoneh 'Esreh. As in that for the Sabbath, this, too, consists of seven Benedictions, of which the fourth is proper to the festival ; the latter runs as follows (the italicised words denote the beginnings of the different paragraphs) : " nou hast chosen us frojn all peoples ; Thou hast loved us and taken pleasure in us, and hast exalted us above all tongues ; Thou hast sanctified us by Thy commandments, and brought us near unto Thy service, O our King, and hast called us by Thy great and holy Name. And Thou hast givejt us in love, O Lord our God, appointed times for gladness, festivals and seasons for joy ; this day of [at Passover] the Feast of Unleavened Bread, the season of our freedom ; [at Pentecost'] the Feast of Weeks, the season of the giving of our Law ; ^ [at Tabernacles] the Feast of Tabernacles, the season of our gladness. Our God, and God of our fathers, may our remembrance rise and come and be accepted before Thee, with the remembrance of our Fathers, of Messiah the son of David, Thy servant, of Jerusalem Thy holy city, and of all Thy people the house of Israel, bringing deliverance and well-being, grace, loving- kindness and mercy, life and peace on this day of [according to the festival]. Remember us, O Lord our God, thereon for our well-being ; be mindful of us for blessing, and save us unto life. By Thy promise of salvation and mercy, spare us and be gracious unto us ; have mercy upon us and save us ; for our eyes are bent upon Thee, because Thou art a gracious and merciful God and King. O Lord our God, bestow upon us the blessing of Thy appointed times for life and peace, for joy and gladness, even as Thou hast been pleased to promise that Thou wouldst bless us Sanctify us by Thy commandments, and grant our portion .in Thy law ; satisfy us with Thy goodness, and gladden us with Thy salvation ; purify our hearts to serve Thee in truth ; and ^ " The revelation on Sinai, according to traditional compu- tation, occurred on the sixth or seventh of Sivan, i.e. on the Feast of Weeks " (Abrahams, op. cit. p. cxcii). 198 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM let us inherit, O Lord our God, with joy and gladness Thy holy appointed times ; and may Israel, who hallow Thy name, rejoice in Thee. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who hallowest Israel and the seasons." These four paragraphs are all ancient ; they have undergone some unimportant verbal changes, but in substance they belong at least to the early centuries of the Christian era. They did not find a place in the Liturgy all at the same time, and they are not cited in the Talmud as forming one connected whole ; each was originally an independent piece. Elbogen (op. cit. p. 133) points out that where they are cited in the Talmud the source is Babylonian, but that traces of a Palestinian recension are to be discerned in the tractate Sopherim. This would indicate a still greater antiquity for them. Secondly, there is a special Kiddush for festivals, in order that a specific reference to the festival being celebrated might be made in this indispensable Bene- diction. While there are various other differences according to the particular festival observed, the general stnic- ture of all the festival services is similar to that of the daily Morning Prayer. The same applies to the New Moon and New Year festivals, also the Day of Atonement and Chanukkah ('* Dedication ") and Purim (" Lots "). XIII THE DAY OF ATONEMENT AND OTHER FAST-DAYS The former is by far the most important of the fast- days of the synagogue. Fast-days in the Jewish Church come historically under two categories : fasts which were inaugurated as some special occasion required (see, e.g., i Kings xxi. 9 ; Joel i. 14; ii. 15), and those which were held in commemoration of some tragic event in the nation's history. It is only the latter which were regularly observed ; and of these the four THE DAY OF ATONEMENT 199 Biblical ones mentioned in Zech. viii. 19 are still observed, viz. " the fast of the fourth month (= Tam- muz), of the fifth month (= Ab), of the seventh (= Tishri), and of the tenth month (=Tebeth)"; these were inaugurated during the Exile in memory of events connected with the destruction of the Temple and Jerusalem in 586 B.C.; other minor fasts are also still observed. The most important fast- days, however, are those included in the penitential season of ten days with which the Jewish New Year opens, and which culminate in the Day of Atone- ment. On this day the Shemoneh ^Esreh has special Benedictions proper to the season ; these are too long to quote here, but a short passage may be cited in order to show how the special subject of the season is brought in : *' . . . And Thou hast given us in love, O Lord our God, this Day of Atonement for pardon, forgiveness, and atonement, that we may obtain pardon thereon for all our iniquities ; an holy convocation, as a memorial of the departure from Egypt." Confession of sin and penitential prayers follow ; these comprise the alphabetical confessions 'Ashamnu (" We have trespassed ") and 'A/ Chit (" For the sin [which we have committed]"). These are both ancient, especially the latter, parts of which " point to a period during which sacrificial rites were still performed in the Temple, or shortly after their cessation. That, however, alphabetical confessions were in use much more anciently than we have them liturgically recorded is clear from the Didache^ a work which belongs to the first century and bears distinct traces of such a confession, as Rendel Harris has shown. The forms in our Liturgy, though in one sense dating from the Geonic age, may go back to a very much earlier date/' ^ The hymn Abinu Malkenu is said on the ten days (Sabbath excepted) of penitence. ^ Abrahams, op. cit. p. cci, 200 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM At the close of the Day of Atonement the special prayer called Ne'ilah is said. This word means " shutting/' in reference to the Temple gates, which were closed at the approach of sunset; at this time the priests pronounced their Blessing upon the people in ancient days. The prayer received its name from this, as it was said at the same time, viz. at the close of the service, which lasts all day. Belonging to a later period is the opening service of the Day of Atonement, held on the preceding evening, called Kol Nidre (= " All vows") ; the name comes from the formula of remission of vows which is said immediately before the service. In spite of the fact that the Babylonian Geonim raised great objections to Kol Nidre, it has been incor- porated in the Liturgy since the ninth century. Originally the remission oLvows referred only to the past year ; but in the twelfth century it was made to refer to the coming year. The abuses which this might easily bring in its train will be obvious ; but, as a matter of fact, the remission refers only to obligations in reference to a person individually, not in reference to a second person ; and these are only in respect of ritual duties, and have nothing to do with the affairs of ordinary life. One other special ritual act on this day is the blowing of the Shophar (" ram's horn "), which is sounded to mark the close of the solemn fast-day ; this is a very ancient custom ; it used also to be blown, according to Josephus {Bell. IV. ix. 12), on the termination of the Sabbath, and, according to the Mishnah, it was also blown to announce the coming of the Sabbath. The Shophar is also sounded on New Year's Day. We have only drawn attention to specific points proper to the services for the Day of Atonement ; the rest of the services follow the lines of the ordinary daily services. THE BURIAL SERVICE 201 XIV THE BURIAL SERVICE ; PRAYERS FOR THE DEPARTED The study of the mourning customs among the Israelites and later Jews leads to the conviction that the majority of them were practised for the sake of the living, not for the benefit of the departed. Some of these customs are to be explained as protective measures against what was believed to be the danger of hostile action of the spirits of the departed towards the living. But this cannot . be said of all those customs ; such an act, for example, as that described in 2 Mace. xii. 43-45 (to be quoted presently) is obviously intended to be for the benefit of the departed. It must be acknowledged — and it is acknowledged by some at least of the leading authorities on the subject ^ — that some of these customs do not, even in their oldest known form, pre- suppose the slightest fear of hostile action on the part of the dead. As long as the old Sheol belief existed anything in the shape of prayers for the departed was impossible, for two reasons : first, there was not, according to that belief, anybody to pray for, so that the idea could not have entered into people's heads ; and, secondly, there was nobody to pray to, for, according to the old Sheol belief, God was only con- cerned with men while living. With the rise of a belief in the resurrection it is obvious that men's thoughts on the subject must have undergone a change, likewise in two directions. While they could not be expected to take much interest in a more or less impersonal shade, it was very different if a departed loved one were firmly believed to be living after death, and living in a fuller sense ^ £.£-. Marti, Torge, and others ; cp. also Stade, Biblische Theologie des alien Testa?ne?ites, i. pp. i38fF. 202 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM than ever before ; the realisation that he was still living necessitated continued interest in him ; if that realisation is in any sense real, then a person's interest in a loved one cannot cease merely because his life is now unbounded, while before it was restricted. Belief in the resurrection, then, necessitated interest in the departed. Concurrently with this it was also inevitable that with a belief in the resurrection an enhanced doctrine of God must have arisen ; for while, according to the old Sheol belief, God's interest in man was restricted to his life here on earth, when the life of man was believed to continue hereafter God's interest in him could no longer be restricted to what was, comparatively speaking, a moment of his existence. In effect, Christ refers to this in saying: " God is not a God of the dead, but of the living" ; that closed the mouth of His adversaries, for it was their beHef, too, though they failed to realise its implications. These parallel thoughts, then, con- cerning God and man in what we call the Hereafter led to prayers for the departed among the Jews. One of the earliest notices, perhaps the earliest known one, is found in 2 Mace. xii. 43-45, where it is said that Judas Maccabaeus offered sacrifices and prayers for the departed : " And he made a collection, man by man, to the sum of two thousand drachmas of silver ; and he sent this to Jerusalem for a sin-offering, acting therein well and honourably, for he was bearing in mind the resurrection. For if he were not expecting that the fallen would rise again, it would have been superfluous and senseless to pray for the dead. And if, doing this, he was looking for the splendour of the gracious reward laid up for them that have fallen asleep in godliness, holy and pious was the thought." Though this is, doubtless, unhistorical, it none the less reflects the tendency of thought and practice at the time when the book was written, probably just before the beginning of the Christian era, as there THE BURIAL SERVICE 203 are distinct indications that Philo was acquainted with it The study of the history of the Jewish Liturgy shows that, while the principle of development in external form has throughout the ages been acted upon, the essential original elements have been maintained. This is true of both the Sephardic and Ashkenazic forms of the Liturgy. In both of these prayers for the departed are used ; the form of these has undoubtedly been subjected to modification, but the principle of offering them has certainly been acted upon ever since belief in the resurrection of the dead became a dogma of Judaism ; and this took place long before the beginning of the Christian era. We have already referred to " Mourner's Kaddish " and " Renewal Kaddish'^ (see pp. 184 f. above) and their significance in the present connexion. We turn now to the Jewish Burial Service^ where this short prayer is uttered when the coffin is being lowered Into the grave : '' May he [or she] come to his [or her] place in peace"; but more striking is the prayer which is offered up in the house of the mourners ; one or two extracts from this may be given : " O Lord and King, who art full of compassion . . . receive, we beseech Thee, in Thy great loving-kindness the soul of [the name of the departed is then mentioned], who hath been gathered unto his [or her] people. Have mercy upon him, pardon all his transgressions.^ . . . O shelter his soul in the shadow of Thy wings. Make known to him the path of life ; in Thy presence is fullness of joy ; at Thy right hand are pleasures for evermore. Vouchsafe unto him of the abounding happiness that is treasured up for the righteous. . . ." ^ cp, Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer^ xxxix. (end), where Isaac prays for the dead Esau thus ; " Sovereign of all the universe, let mercy be shown to this wicked one, for he had not learnt all the precepts of the Torah" (Gerald Friedlander's edition, p. 310 [1916]). 204 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM That is taken from the Liturgy of the Ashkenazic Jews ; the other division of the Jews, the Sephardim, has its own Liturgy, in which much is retained which finds no place in the Ashkenazic Ritual. It will be worth while, in conclusion, to turn to this other Liturgy, for the Sephardic Jews have in their Liturgy elaborate, and in some cases beautiful, prayers for the departed. " In substance many of them are believed to date back to the time of Hillel — circa 30 b.C.-a.d. 10 — and they contain passages of great beauty. They are also of interest as representing at least the type of prayer for the dead which must have been familiar to the earliest circles of Jewish Christians." ^ The following are a few examples taken from the Sephardic Ritual in present use : " Have mercy upon him, we beseech Thee, O Lord, Thou living God and King of the universe ; for with Thee is the fountain of life. And continually may he walk in the land of life, and may his soul rest in the bond of life." Again : " May the Gracious One, in the abundance of His mercy, forgive his transgressions ; may his good deeds be before His eyes, and may he be near unto God with all His faithful ones and walk before Thee in the land of life. And continually may he walk in the land of life, and may his soul rest in the bond of Hfe." These are two of seven sentences which are chanted during a procession round the bier ; each ends with the refrain : ** And continually may he walk in the land of life, and may his soul rest in the bond of life." The two just quoted are addressed to God ; others are the expression of prayer, but they are addressed to the departed, thus : " The gates of heaven mayest thou find opened, and the city of peace mayest thou see, and the dwellings of confidence and angels of peace to meet thee with joy ; and may the high-priest stand to receive thee ; and thou, go thou to the end, for thou shalt rest and rise up again. And continually may he ^ Miss Dampier in Church and Synagogue^ xi. 'j'j. THE BURIAL SERVICE 205 walk in the land of life, and may his soul rest in the bond (' bundle' ; see i Sam. xxv. 29) of life/' But the fullest and most beautiful prayer, which is well worth quoting in full, is that which is offered up after the committal ; this prayer is called the Hashkabah (from the root meaning " to lie down "), and it is said in what is the Jewish equivalent of our cemetery chapel. This prayer is as follows : "May the repose which is prepared in the celestial abode, under the wings of the Divine presence (z.g. the Shekinah) in the high place of the holy and pure — who shine and are resplendent as the bright light of the firmament — with a renewal of strength, a forgiveness of trespasses, a removal of transgressions, an approach of salvation, compassion and favour from Him that sitteth enthroned on high, and also a goodly portion in the life to come, be the lot, dwelling, and the resting- place of the soul of our departed brother (to whom may God grant peace in Paradise), who departed from this world according to the will of God, the Lord of heaven and earth. May the supreme King of Kings, through His infinite mercy, have mercy, pity, and compassion upon him. May the supreme King of Kings, through His infinite mercy, hide him under the shadow of His wings, and under the protection of His tent; to behold the fair beauty of the Lord, and to wait in His temple ; may He raise him at the end of the days, and cause him to drink of the stream of His delights. May He cause his soul to be bound up in the bond of life, and his rest to be glorious. May the Lord be his inheritance, and grant him peace ; and may bis repose be in peace, as it is written : 'He shall come in peace ; they shall rest in their beds ; everyone walking in his uprightness.' May he, and all the people of Israel, who slumber in the dust, be included in mercy and forgiveness. May this be His will, and let us say, Amen." This Hashkabah prayer is repeated every evening during the week of mourning, and also, like the " Mourner's Kaddish " in the Ashkenazic Liturgy, on the anniversary of the death. A high authority on Jewish belief and practice, the lateTjRabbi Singer, writes as follows on this subject : " Unless we are prepared to maintain that at his death the fate of man is fixed irretrievably and for ever, that 2o6 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM therefore the sinner who rejected much of God's love during a brief Hfetime has lost all of it eternally, prayer for the peace and salvation of the departed soul commends itself as one of the highest religious obligations/'^ Many interesting subjects in connexion with the Jewish Liturgy have not been mentioned ; our object has, however, been to deal only with the most central and important parts. ^ Lectures and Addresses^ p. 72. PART IV THE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE PART IV THE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE [Literature : The following works of a general and com- prehensive nature may here be mentioned : J. W. Ethendge, Jerusalem and Tiberias ^ Sura and Cordova; A Survey of the Religious and Scholastic Literature of the Jezvs (London, 1856) ; M. Steinschneider, Jewish Literature (London, 1857); Winter und Wiinsche, Die jUdische Literatur seit Abschluss des Kanons^ 3 vols. (Berlin, 1897) ; Zunz, Die gottesdientslichen Vortrdge der Juden^ 2nd ed. 1892 ; Israel Abrahams, A Short History of Jewish Literature (London, 1906). See also JE under the names cited. A useful bibliographical conspectus is contained in Strackand Siegfried's Lehrbuch der neu-hebrdischen Sprache^ pp. 93-132 {Abriss by Strack) : 1884.] I INTRODUCTORY The transitional period which connects the earlier Talmudic with the mediaeval literature is marked by the era of the Geonim. The title Gaon (plur. Geonim)^ which means Excellency^ was given to the heads of the two Babylonian Academies of Sura and Pumbe- ditha, who presided over the schools which had completed the work of fixing the text of the Talmud in its final form. The period of the Geonim dates, according to Bacher, from the year A.D. 589, when Mar Rab Chanan of Iskiya became Gaon of Pumbe- ditha. The last Gaon of Sura (Samuel b. Chophni) died in 1034 ; the last Gaon of Pumbeditha (Hai) died in 1038. Thus "the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years." During this ^ Probably derived from Ps. xlvii. 5 (E,V. 4), ge^on Ya^akob^ " The excellency of Jacob." 209 P 210 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM period the centres of Jewish learning were in Baby- lonia and Persia. The Jewish communities in these regions enjoyed a large measure of independence, during the Geonic period, under their own political head known as the " Exiliarch." Though the Geonim of both Academies went every year to pay formal homage to the Exiliarch, and though the latter was associated with them in the formal promulgation of specially impor- tant decrees, the Geonim seem to have occupied a position of practically complete independence. The Gaon of Sura ranked above the Gaon of Pumbeditha. This apparently was due to the fact that, during the period of the Amoraim, Sura had been the principal seat of Jewish learning, first under its founder Rab and his pupil Huna (third century), and later under Ashi (died 427). During the Geonic period, too, Sura was most prominent, the most famous of the Geonim, Saadya (tenth century), having presided over the Academy of Sura. " The importance of the Geonim in Jewish history," says Bacher, " is due, in the first place, to the fact that for a number of centuries they occupied a unique position as the heads of their respective schools, and as the recognised authorities of Judaism. Their influence probably extended chiefly to the Mohammedan countries, especially Northern Africa and Spain ; but in the course of time the Jews of Christian Europe also came under the influence of the Babylonian schools. It was for this reason that the Babylonian Talmud came to be recognised as the basis for religio-legal decisions throughout Jewry and as the principal object of study. Even the facilities offered for such study to the Diaspora were due to the Geonim, since the Geonic exposition of the Talmud, with regard to both text and contents, was, directly or indirectly, the chief aid in comprehending the Talmud. The importance of the period of the Geonim for the history of Judaism is further enhanced by the fact that the new Jevi'ish science, which steadily developed side by side with Talmudic studies, was created by a Gaon, and that the same Gaon, Saadya, effectively opposed the dis- integrating influence of Karaism." ^ ^ Article '* Gaon " in JE v. 570. INTRODUCTORY 2ii Of their literary work a considerable portion has not survived. They had much to do with the adaptation of the principles of the Talmud to the changing social conditions of the Jews of their time ; they improved educational methods, and deeply in- fluenced the Liturgy. One of the earliest literary works of the Geonic period that has come down to us is the Sheiltoth (= " Questiones ") of Achai, composed about the middle of the eighth century, and containing about two hundred homilies on the Pentateuch. About 870 the Gaon Amram compiled a Siddur, or prayer book, which is one of the principal sources for our know- ledge of the Jewish Liturgy. The famous Saadya will come before us as a grammarian and exegete. The last of the Geonim, Samuel b. Chophni and Hai, were also authors of many works on Bible and Talmud, and Hai was a poet. The most characteristic branch of their literary activity, however, is to be seen in their responsa, or letters. The advice and guidance of these famous teachers were sought from all parts of the Jewish world on a variety of subjects, religious and literary. "Amid the growing complications of ritual law, a desire was felt for terse prescriptions, clear-cut decisions, and rules of conduct. The imperfections of study outside of Persia, again, made it essential to apply to the Geonim for authoritative expositions of difficult passages in the Bible and the Talmud. To all such inquiries the Geonim sent responses in the form of letters, sometimes addressed to individual correspondents, sometimes to communities, or groups of communities." ^ These letters were later collected into volumes and treatises, though many were never included in such collections. Numerous examples have come to light (some not yet published) in the collection of Genizah fragments now in Cambridge. * I. Abrahams, Short History of Jewish Literature^ p. 40. P 2 212 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM The responsa form a vast literature of many thousands of documents. The beginnings of this literature date from a much earlier time than the Geonic epoch. An active correspondence, in the form of letters and replies to questions, was carried on between Palestine and Babylonia at the end of the third century A.D. But the Geonic responsa mark a definite develop- ment in literary form and contents. In these responsa the Geonim used at first Aramaic (the language of the Gemara), but later Hebrew and Arabic. After the period of the Geonim the responsa literature underwent further development and became widely diffused (the Spanish, French, German, and Italian schools). This literature has gone on in unbroken continuity down to the present time. The technical desig- nation of it is She^eloth u-Teshuboth ("Questions and Answers") An interesting survey of the whole literature is given in JE in the article "■ She'elot/i u-7eshubot" xi. 240-250. In the following pages it will be convenient to group our survey of the mediaeval literature under the following heads : Grammar and Exegesis (ii) ; The Mystical Literature (ill) ; Philosophy and- Ethics (iv) ; The Mediaeval Poetry (v) ; Some other Forms of Literature (vi). II GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS [See Bacher, Die hebraische Sprachwissenschaft 2.Yi^ Die Bibel- exegese in Winter und Wiinsche, op, cit. ii. 135-342 ; the art. Grammar (Hebrew) in JE ; numerous specimens of mediaeval Jewish exegesis are given in Neubauer and Driver, The LIIP'^ Chapter of Isaiah according to Jewish Interpreters (2 vols, text and transl. 1871).] The rise of a sound and scientific exegesis of the Hebrew Scriptures was determined, as will be seen, by the growth and development of philological studies. The two branches of learning are inti- mately connected, and in the result an important exegetical literature was developed, which is a characteristic product of mediaeval Judaism. But before this can be traced something must be said about the earlier type of exegesis which preceded it. GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS 213 The earliest form of Scriptural exegesis is the Mid- rashic?- The whole of this vast literature embodies an immense wealth of exegetic material, largely of a traditional character, which has grown up in the course of centuries. In this connexion the development of the Halakic Midrash exercised an important influence on Scrip- tural exegesis. Owing to the fact that the Rabbinical teachers found it necessary to supply a Scriptural basis for the expanding Halakah, there was developed comparatively early (in the time of the elder Hillel) a system of hermeneutic rules, seven in number — later expanded into thirteen — under the influence of which a highly artificial type of Scriptural exe- gesis was developed. It was Akiba who pressed the view that every detail of the sacred text, even the minutest, was of incomparable importance. Nothing was to be regarded as insignificant or without special meaning ; hence everything in the text was to become the subject of interpretation.^ Akiba successfully founded a school of exegesis, based on these principles, which was influential in the post-Hadrianic epoch. One of his pupils, Eliezer the son of the Galilean Rabbi Jose, formulated thirty-two rules for Haggadic exegesis. It was the latter type of exegesis that was dominant in the Midrashic literature. Here the Haggadic exe- gesis had full scope. It dealt with the text of the Bible with great freedom, often interpreting it in a way that seems remote from the simple and natural meaning of the original words. Not that the plain and strict meaning of the text is always ignored. ^ For the meaning of the term Midrash^ and the Midrashic literature, see pp. 57 ff. above. 2 It should not be forgotten that it was an eminent Halakist, R. Ishmael (second century A.D.), who maintained the view (against Akiba), which was to have an important influence on later Jewish exegesis, that the language of Scripture is to be interpreted by the standards of human speech, and not to be unduly and artificially pressed. 214 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM The " Peshat," as it is termed,^ i.e. the literal meaning of the text, is often referred to and discussed, and in many cases with fine insight and sound linguistic knowledge. But this is entirely overbalanced by the mass of purely Haggadic exposition. " In the Halakic as well as in the Haggadic exegesis the expounder endeavoured not so much to seek the original meaning of the text as to find authority in some Biblical passage for the concepts and ideas, the rules of conduct and teachings, for which he wished to have a Biblical foundation. To this were added, on the one hand, the belief that the words of the Bible had many meanings, and, on the other, the importance attached to the smallest portion, the slightest peculiarity of the text ; hence the exegesis of the Midrash strayed further and further away from a natural and common-sense interpretation."^ It must also be remembered that the Midrash is essentially homiletical in tendency. It aims at religious edification rather than scientific investi- gation of the meaning of the text. As such it was necessarily one-sided, and sooner or later a reaction was bound to set in against its almost exclusive predominance. The elements for this already existed in the distinction drawn between the "Peshat" and the " Derash," and also in the attitude of opposition taken up by R. Ishmael and his followers against the school of Akiba. It will be remembered that Ishmael insisted that the language of Scripture is to be interpreted naturally, in accordance with the stan- dards that apply to human speech, and ought not to be pressed unduly and artificially in detail. Ishmael is even reputed to have exclaimed once, in rejecting an exposition of Eliezer ben Hyrkanos : *' Truly you say ^ It should be noticed that the " Peshat " is carefully and deliberately distinguished from the " Derash" (nhi), i.e. the free Haggadic exposition, especially by the Babylonian teachers. 2 JE iii. 164 {s,v, "Bible Exegesis"). GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS 215 to Scripture : Be silent, while I am expounding."^ It was the Babylonian Amoraim who first used the ex- pression " Peshat " to designate the primary sense in contradistinction to"Derash," the Midrashic exegesis. It was in Babylonia also that the important prin- ciple was laid down that the Haggadic exegesis could not annul the primary sense. These distinctions were later destined to exercise a determining influ- ence in the development of Jewish exegesis. Another factor that helped to prepare the way for a closer and more literal exposition of the Biblical text was the labours of the Masoretic scholars. Though great care had always been lavished on preserving a correct Hebrew text of the Old Testament Scriptures by the Scribes, this branch of learning received a great impetus in the seventh century, when vowel-signs were introduced. Henceforward Masoretic studies steadily developed, and the body of Masoretic tradition — all concerned with the exact determination and preservation of the Biblical text — steadily grew for centuries.^ Such activities must obviously have contributed largely to the more exact exegesis of the Bible which gradually grew up. Perhaps the most important part in bringing this about must be assigned to the Karaites — themselves keen gram- marians and textual scholars — who boldly challenged the claims of the current exegetical tradition, and, indeed, the authority of Rabbinical tradition gene- rally, and insisted that the sole fount of authority for the religious life was to be found in the plain text of Scripture. Founded in the eighth century by Anan, this sect, which has lasted to the present day, has remained only a comparatively small and heretical branch of Judaism ; but it has, by reaction, exercised a permanent influence on the development of exe- gesis in the main body of orthodox Judaism. A ^ Cited from the Sifra on Lev. xiii. 49 '\nJE^ ibid. 2 The Masora was printed for the first time in 1525, 2i6 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM century and a half after the rise of the sect the great Jewish exegete Saadya (892-942) inaugurated a new epoch — " the period of the Feshat" — in the inter- pretation of the Hebrew Bible. Engaged in con- troversy with the Karaites, he was yet profoundly influenced by them. A great scholar, and the creator of Hebrew philology, Saadya also occupied the most authoritative position of his time in Jewry as the Gaon of Sura, and was able, in virtue of his unique opportunities as well as of his own great personal qualifications, to bring the large majority of orthodox Jews, who still held to tradition, into new paths in the matter of Bible study. Saadya, in fact, put Jewish Biblical exegesis on a new line of develop- ment. His most important work, the Arabic trans- lation of the Scriptures, aims at giving, not a bare reproduction of the original text, but a rational exegesis embodied in a free translation. He wrote a number of other important works, some of which have come down to us only in fragmentary form. The principles which he applied to the interpretation of the Bible, and which exercised a profound influence on the later exegesis, may be summarised as follows : (i) His fundamental postulate is that reason is the true basis of all exegesis, and in accordance with this principle **the exposition of the text must contain nothing that is obscure or that contradicts logical thought." He does not deny the divine origin or the divine authority of the Bible ; and the miracles he thinks serve as witnesses to the veracity of the Prophets, and of Scripture generally. At the same time these postulates are not irreconcilable with the claims of reason ; anthropomorphic language about God is regarded as figurative. (2) Besides the authority of reason, the collateral authority of the Scriptures themselves is recognised as a source of sound exegesis (parallel passages and illustrative texts). GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS 217 (3) He also recognises, to some extent, the authority of tradition in his Bible exegesis, so far as this is compatible with the paramount claims of a rational exegesis. The last of the Geonim, Hai (died 1038), who was a great Talmudist, and the author of a famous lexicon also devoted himself to Bible exegesis (he wrote a commentary on Job). He is cited by Kimhi in his commentary. But Saadya's true successors, both in philological and exegetical study, are to be found in the great Jewish schools of North Africa and Spain. Kairwan, in North Tunis, became one of these centres, and was already growing in importance even during Saadya's lifetime. It was here that Dunash ibn Tamim^ (tenth century) was one of the pioneers of the comparative study of Hebrew and Arabic as an aid to Biblical exegesis. Another North African earlier still, Judah ibn Koreish, had compiled a work in which Arabic, Aramaic, and New-Hebrew are systematically compared with Biblical Hebrew. Judah also recom- mended in this connexion the study of the Targum (Aramaic). It was, however, in the Spanish schools, where Hebrew philology was most fruitfully studied and developed from the middle of the tenth to the beginning of the twelfth century, that the foundations of the later mediaeval exegesis were laid. "From the time of Hasdai ibn Shaprut to that of Samuel ibn Nagdela (second half of the tenth to the first half of the eleventh century) eminent and gifted scholars vied with one another in placing the science of Hebrew grammar on a firm basis — a basis that has not been overthrown even by the philology of the nineteenth century. They also developed Hebrew lexicography to a point far in advance of all preceding endeavours. Menahemben Saruk's dictionary ; Dunash ibn Labrat's ^ Not to be confounded with Dunash ben Labrat (also born in North Africa). Ben Labrat was a younger contemporary of Dunash ibn Tamim, 2i8 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM critical work ; Judah ben David Hayyuj's work that came like a revelation ; Abulwalid's critical work ; the literary controversy between him and Samuel ibn Nagdela ; the writings of both as well as of others belonging to their circle ; and, finally, Abulwalid's chief work, composed of a grammatical and lexical part — all these works mark the development of the philologic literature in Spain. Those of Hayyuj and Abulwalid especially furnished a firm basis for a Bible exegesis that, on its linguistic side at least, was free from gross errors and mere guesswork." ^ Abulwalid's great work, which is a combination of a grammar and a lexicon,^ is especially rich in exegetic material. It should be added that these scholars, though, of course, they knew Hebrew, used as their ordinary medium the Arabic language. Two eminent philologists of the Spanish-Jewish school who directed their attention to Biblical exegesis proper were Moses ibn Giktilla of Cordova and Judah ibn Balaam of Toledo (both flourished in the eleventh century). The former wrote commen- taries on Isaiah and the Psalms, from which Abraham ibn Ezra frequently quotes. These commentaries are the first comprehensive attempt to explain the respective Biblical books historically. Ibn Giktilla's exegesis is thoroughly rationalistic (e.g. he gives rationalistic explanations of the Biblical miracles), and was violently attacked by Ibn Balaam. Both wrote in Arabic.^ * /E, ibid. 167. ^ Abulwalid ibn Janah (Rabbi Jonah) was the greatest Hebrew philologist of the Middle Ages. The work of his referred to above is divided into two parts — the Luma and the Book of Roots. The latter has been edited, in the Arabic text, by Dr. Neubauer (Oxford, 1875). Abulwalid was born at Cordova between the years 1085 and 1090, and died at Saragossa in the first half of the eleventh century. ^ Ibn Giktilla's work is important because he was the first exegete to give purely historical explanaV9P2 9f ^^ prophecies GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS 21Q But the Jewish-Spanish schools also brought forth new elements which were destined to influence Biblical exegesis. These were associated with the development of poetry and the philosophy of religion. Jn this connexion two famous names may be mentioned, representatives both of poetry and the philosophy of religion, Solomon ibn Gebirol (1021-1058)^ and Moses ibn Ezra (1070-1 138). In order to reconcile the Biblical statements with the postulates of philosophy the text was treated with considerable freedom. Allegory was also used to some extent. " In consequence the elements of a new form of Midrash found their way into Bible exegesis, made subservient to philosophic speculation. The Peshat exegesis, which had been freed from the fetters of the early Midrash, contained in the traditional literature, found itself now confronted by a new enemy — the philosophic Midrash." ^ Mean- while, in those countries which lay outside the domain of the Arabic culture, i.e. the Christian countries of Europe, especially France and Italy, the old Mid- rashic exegesis remained paramount, and continued to develop along its own lines. Its schools produced some famous exponents of this type of exegesis, called *' Darshanim," and notably Moses ha-Darshan (flourished in Narbonne middle of the eleventh century). It also came to expression in the Yalkut Shimeoni, a vast Midrashic compilation (often from older sources) embracing the entire text of the Hebrew Bible, and dating perhaps from the middle of the thirteenth century. of Isaiah and the Minor Prophets. He wrote several important works on grammar and philology, and occasionally wrote in Hebrew. David Kimhi several times quotes from Ibn Giktilla in his Psalms commentary (cf. on viii. 3 ; xvi. 2 ; xxv. i ; xxxv. 20). ^ Gebirol was one of the first to revive the study of Neo- platonism in Europe. (See above, p. 33.) ^ y^, ih'd. 168. Abraham ibn Ezra gives several specimens of Ibn Gebirol's philosophico-allegorical Bible interpretation. 220 RABBINICAL AND MEDIiEVAL JUDAISM Strangely enough, however, it was in this field (northern France) that there arose,in complete indepen- dence of the Spanish-Arabian school, a new school of Bible exegesis which endeavoured to arrive at a literal and simple interpretation of the Bible text — the Peshat — and deliberately set this in contrast with the Mid- rashic exegesis. The founder of this school was the famous Rabbi Shelomoh Yishaki (Solomon ben Isaac), commonly called Rashi (died 1105). The value of Rashi's work is well known to all students of the later Hebrew literature. His commentary on the Talmud is indispensable, and is practically always printed with the text in printed editions. But his Biblical commentaries also occupy an almost unique position in Jewish exegetical literature, especially his running commentary on the Pentateuch. This work, which soon acquired the widest popularity, has a peculiarly Jewish flavour about it which marks it out among similar works. There are no graces of style, but the comments are terse and to the point. Not a word is wasted. It also combines in a remarkable manner the new with the old. The author uses the old Midrashic exegesis by a process of selection in such a way as to evolve explanations which conform to the Peshat The more fanciful and far-fetched Midrashic applications are rejected. In addition he pays constant attention to the linguistic side of the exegesis, and often gives the vernacular French equivalents of the Hebrew words. " There is," says Dr. I. Abrahams, speaking of Rashi's Pentateuch commentary,^ " a quaintness and fascination about it which are lacking in the pedantic sobriety of [Abraham] ibn Ezra and the grammatical exactness of [David] Kimhi." ^ Rashi's work was continued by his sons-in- law, and by his distinguished grandson, Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam, 1100-1160), whose commentary on ^ For editions, see pp. 133. 2 Short History of Jewish Literature^ p. 73. GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS 221 the Pentateuch may be regarded as, perhaps, marking the highest point reached by the exegetic school of northern France. In his work and that of Joseph Kara the Peshat was adopted in a more thoroughgoing and independent way than in that of Rashi himself. The schools of northern France died away in the early part of the twelfth century, owing to the tumults brought about by the Crusades. Jewish exegesis, however, in the Christian countries of Europe was destined to receive a new and fruitful impulse from a Jew who had absorbed the whole culture of Spanish Judaism at the highest point of its intellectual development. This was Abraham ibn Ezra, who was born at Toledo some time before 1 100. Ibn Ezra left his home, a mature man, in 1 140, and spent nearly thirty years (1140-1167) in wandering over Italy, Provence, northern France, and England, everywhere, as he himself says, *' writing books and revealing the secrets of knowledge." In 1 158 he visited London, His scholarship and literary activity were many-sided and astonishing. He was distinguished as a mathematician, a poet, and an exegete. His commentaries, written in Hebrew, are the most important products of his literary activity. They are distinguished in many ways — by the author's mastery over his material, by their attractive style and graceful Hebrew, and by their originality combined with profound learning and critical acumen. His Pentateuch commentary, side by side with Rashi's, has enjoyed great popularity among Jewish exegetical works. His own exegetical method is most clearly expounded in the preface to his com- mentary on the Pentateuch, where he criticises the various methods hitherto employed by exegetes. He clearly distinguishes between the Peshat and Derash, and accords only a limited place to the new philo- sophical Midrash. Dr. I. Abrahams well sums up his method as follows : " In his commentaries he rejected 222 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM the current digressive and allegorical methods, and steered a middle course between free research on the one hand, and blind adherence to tradition on the other. Ibn Ezra was the first to maintain that the book of Isaiah contains the work of two prophets — a view now almost universal. He never for a moment doubted, however, that the Bible was in every part inspired, and in every part the Word of God."^ The Kimhis were worthy coadjutors in, and continuators of, his work. One other name must be mentioned before we reach the period of David Kimhi, that of Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides), who is by common consent to be regarded as " the greatest Jew of the Middle Ages." Maimonides (i 135-1204) was an older con- temporary of David Kimhi (i 160-1235), and is constantly quoted by the latter in his commen- taries. 2 Born at Cordova, and, like Ibn Ezra, inheriting the culture of Spanish Jewry, Maimonides also helped to disseminate this culture in other lands. Forced to leave Spain, owing to Mohammedan per- secution, he emigrated with his family in 1165 to Palestine, and after a time settled in Egypt, in Fostat, or old Cairo, where he ultimately died. Maimonides wrote both in Hebrew and Arabic. Though he contributed no set commentary on any Biblical book, his chief philosophical work, composed in Arabic and subsequently translated into Hebrew by R. Samuel ibn Tibbon, and known as " The Guide of the Perplexed'' (Hebrew Moreh Nebukim)/^ contains a wealth of exegetic material. His funda- ^ op. cit. p. 69. 2 Maimonides was, of course, a younger contemporary 01 Abraham ibn Ezra. See pp. 34 f. ^ Two translations of the Guide were made during the author's Hfetime. The original was written about 1190. It was studied by both Mohammedans and Christians {e.g. Aquinas). For best edition, see p. 265. GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS 223 mental aim in this work is to reconcile the postulates of philosophy, based on the Aristotelian system as expounded by Arabian thinkers, with the data of the Bible. He recognises an exoteric and esoteric sense in the words of Scripture. " The ' secrets of the Law' hidden in the Biblical words are found by investigation into the esoteric meaning. But such secrets, as sought by Maimonides, have nothing to do with mysticism ; he undertakes the investi- gation with absolute rationalism, as may be seen particularly in his explanation of certain Bible stories and his exposition of the reasons for the Law. He finds the teachings of the Aristotelian physics and metaphysics in the chapters on Creation (Gen. i.), and in that of the Heavenly Chariot (Ezek. i.). His rationalism, however, halts at the facts of pro- phecy and of the Bible miracles, though here, too, rational investigation comes into play. One of the most original and daring aids to exegesis is evolved by the doctrine concerning prophecy, namely, the theory of visions — whereby he transfers a number of Bible stories from the realm of fact into the realm of psychic experience. The principle of the exoteric and esoteric sense of Scripture leads him to allegorical exegesis . . . but his allegory remains within the bounds prescribed to it, by his rationalism on the one hand, and by his faith in tradition on the other." 1 It was through the influence of this great work of Maimonides that the Aristotelian philosophy became firmly entrenched in Jewish thought, and also a chief factor in subsequent Bible exegesis. A distinguished part in the diffusion of learning throughout European Jewry during the twelfth and ^ JE, ibid. 170, " Maimonides," says Dr. Abrahams {op. cit p. 84), " like Saadya, recognised a higher function for reason. He placed reason on the same level as revelation, and then demon- strated that his faith and his reason taught identical truths." 224 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM thirteenth centuries was played by the family of Kimhi, the most famous of whom is David Kimhi. The father of David was Joseph Kimhi (RiKam), who, as grammarian, exegete, poet, and translator, took an active share in the work in which Ibn Ezra was engaged, was a contemporary of the latter, his lifetime falling within the years 1105-1170, and, like Ibn Ezra, was of Spanish birth and knew Arabic. Owing to Arab fanaticism, he was forced to leave Spain and emigrated to Narbonne, Provence, where he seems to have remained for the rest of his days, living the life of a poor scholar-student and teacher. It is probable that Ibn Ezra, who visited Narbonne in 1 160, met Joseph Kimhi. He quotes the latter in his Bible commentaries. Both scholars worked along the same lines, and, though Joseph Kimhi was inferior to Ibn Ezra both in brilliance and in learning, it may yet be claimed for him that he was " the first suc- cessful transplanter of Judseo-Arabic science to the soil of Christian Europe." ^ In the department of grammatical study, though not profoundly original — he was especially dependent upon Hayyuj and Ibn Janah — he did some impor- tant work and made some advance, more particularly in minor details. These books have been published : Sefer Zikkaron (ed. by Bacher, Berlin, 1888) and Safer ha-Galuy (ed. by Matthews, Berlin, 1887). Both works contain interesting features. Thus the author makes a point of examining the language of the Liturgy, and in his philological discussions adduces evidence from the Talmud, Targums, and Arabic. He also wrote a number of exegetical works, not all of which have survived, while some of his work which exists in manuscript is still ^ cj>. Gratz {History of the Jews^ iii. 404) : " Joseph Kimhi's merit consists solely in the fact that he introduced the Jewish culture of Spain into South France, and completed lastingly ihe results of Ibn Ezra's fugitive activity." GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS 225 unpublished. Of his published work mention may here be made of his commentary of Proverbs, Sefer Hukkah (Breslau, 1868). He usually follows the method of the Feshat, and in his exposition pays careful attention to the context. He quotes from and criticises predecessors ; he avoids reading into the text of Scripture the scientific knowledge of his time. \Vc must here pass over the important work he accomplished as translator and poet.^ Joseph Kimhi died, as has been said, about 1170, leaving a younger son, David, who at this time was a boy of about ten years of age, under the care of an elder son, Moses Kimhi (ReMaK), who at this time was probably a mature man,^ and was a scholar and commentator of mark. Commentaries of his on Proverbs and Ezra-Nehemiah are printed in the Rabbinical Bibles, where they are wrongly attributed to Ibn Ezra. He also wrote treatises on grammar, and one of these (the Mahalak) became widely used as a concise methodical text-book of Hebrew grammar, and in the first half of the sixteenth century was a favourite text-book with non-Jews. It was edited many times, and translated into Latin by Sebastian Mlinster. It was under the care and guidance of Moses Kimhi that the young David, destined to become the most illustrious of his line, grew up. It is hardly surprising that with such connexions and under such influences David Kimhi should have become one of the most accomplished of Jewish scholars, well versed in the whole range of Hebrew literature. In later times one of the sayings from Pirke Aboth (iii. 21) was applied to him : " Without Kemah (= fine flour, the etymon of the name Kimhi) no Torah." ^ He 1 For details %^^JE vii. 496 f 2 Moses Kimhi died about a.d. iigo. 2 The name was pronounced " Kamhi " in Arabic-speaking circles. From the meaning oi Kemah = "corn ground smalV^ is to be explained the French surname " maistre petit." 226 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM is also sometimes called " Sefardi " ("Spaniard"), on account of his family's connexion with Spain. David Kimhi's \\'ork was equally notable both in the domain of grammar and philology and in that of exegesis. What may be described as his magnum opus, the Miklol, to which he constantly refers in his commentaries, is a combination of a Hebrew grammar and a dictionary of the Bible. This treatise is divided into two quite distinct parts, which were later separated, the second part being issued separately under the title Sefer ha-Shorashim, or "Book of Roots"; the title Miklol was then retained exclusively for the first or grammatical part While not strikingly original, Kimhi's work has high merit. He is no mere compiler, but marshals his material with the sure hand of a thorough scholar, who possesses in a high degree the power of lucid systematisation and popular expo- sition. *' His grammatical material is drawn chiefly from the works of Hay)'uj and Ibn Janah and from the writings of his own father. He tries to understand the language from itself, seeking analogues in later Hebrew, less frequently in Aramaic and Arabic."^ Kimhi's Miklol has exercised a lasting influence not only on Jews but on Christians, and is still taken into account by scientific grammarians, e.g, by E. Konig, who, in his monumental work on Hebrew grammar, writes with constant reference to Kimhi.^ In the field of exegesis Kimhi produced com- mentaries on Genesis, the Prophets, Psalms, and Chronicles, and possibly on other parts of the Bible. Here, again, the qualities exhibited in his grammatical ^ JE\u. 494. Both parts of the Mik/ol h^iw^ been frequently printed, the grammar as recently as 1862 by Rittenberg at Paris, and the lexicon at Berlin in 1847 (by Biesenthal and Labrecht). A Latin translation of the second part (the " Book of Roots") was issued in 1535, and of the first part (the grammar) in 1540, by Guidacier (Paris). GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS 227 and philological work, which appear in his exposition, made his commentaries exceedingly popular and influential. That on the Prophets is printed in the Rabbinical Bibles, and parts of it have been translated into Latin for Christian use.^ The commentary on the Psalms was first printed in 1477, and again in the Rabbinical Bible of Chayim, but not in those of Buxtorf and Frankfurter. His exegesis is based primarily upon an exact and grammatical construction of the text. As a rule, he adheres strictly to the literal meaning (the Peshat), but he notices, from time to time, the old Haggadic explanations, as well as (occasionally) the later philosophico-speculative exposition. He con- stantly quotes older authorities (especially Abraham ibn Ezra), and in his citations from the Targum oft^n offers valuable data for the criticism of its text. The effect of the important new principles intro- duced by Maimonides on Jewish thought generally, and on Jewish exegesis in particular, was profound and far-reaching. During the following three cen- turies the philosophic exegesis of Scripture, with its rationalism and its use of allegory, constantly asserted itself and was expressed in many works of an exegetical character. " Many Bible commen- taries," says Professor Bacher, '' were primarily concerned with finding the tenets of philosophy in Scripture." Not that this type of exegesis succeeded in ousting altogether its rivals. The old Midrashic ^ Isaiah (Melanimeus, at Florence, 1774) ; Joel and JonaJi (Leusden, Utrecht, 1656), and Malachi (De Muis, Paris, 1618). Amos was rendered into German in 1581 (by Veke), and Zechariah into English (by McCaul) in 1837. It should be added that Kimhi's commentary on Chronicles is accessible also in the Rabbinical Bibles ; that on Genesis was printed separately in 1842 (Pressburg). A critical edition of the Hebrew text of Kimhi's commentary on the Psalms (Bk. I.) was edited by Dr. Schiller Szinessy (Cambridge, 1883) : English transla- tions (Psalms i.-\iii.) by Dr. Greenup, 1918, and by R. G. Finch (S.P.C.K.), 1919. Q 2 228 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM tradition, as well as the Peshat, was still recognised, while a new element — the mystical Kabbalistic — also became influential. And all the time the reputation of Rashi and Ibn Ezra steadily grew. In fact, what happened was that all these factors acted and reacted on each other, and are often to be detected side by side in the same works. It would, indeed, have been a disaster for Judaism if the tendencies represented by Maimonides' work had triumphed absolutely. From this disaster Juda- ism was saved by the protest of the anti-Maimonists, which took a somewhat embittered form in the controversy that broke out and continued for a considerable period after the great teacher's death. In the end, as has been well said, "the triumph of Maimonides was complete all along the line. But the opposite party gained something for which it contended. The philosophical conception of Judaism was allowed a high place in the schools, but Judaism was not merged into rationalism. This was due to the anti-Maimonists, while the medieval Kabbalah (or mysticism) applied to the Jewish religion that touch of emotion which Maimonides so conspicuously lacked. Again, the aim of Maimonides to provide a code (the Mishneh Torah) which should form a final court of appeal in Jewish life was unsuccessful. Into Spain itself the French methods of studying the Talmud were introduced during the century follow- ing the death of Maimonides. So far from destroying pilpiil — casuistical discussion — the Code or Mishneh Torah itself became the object of pilpulistic comment. This was to the advantage of Judaism. Pilpul is to law as laboratory work to science." ^ In spite of opposition the influence of Maimonides became all- powerful. Before the publication of the Guide of the Perplexed the students of philosophy within the ranks of Judaism had been few ; but ever since ^ Maimonides^ by David Yellin and Israel Abrahams, p. 152 f. GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS 229 they have been both numerous and pov/erful. The influence of Maimonides also has served as a wholesome check upon the extravagances of the Kabbalistic movement. The books of the Bible that especially lent them- selves to exegetic treatment from the philosophic point of view were the Wisdom Books (Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job), and another book, which had long been subjected to allegorical treatment — Canticles. Maimonides' pupil and spiritual son, Joseph ibn Aknin, produced a commentary on it of the philosophic-allegorical type ; Samuel ibn Tibbon, who translated Maimonides' Arabic into Hebrew, wrote a commentary of this kind on Eccle- siastes, and his son Moses another on Canticles. One of the most important products of this line of thought is the Malmad ha-Talmidim of Abba Mari ben Jacob Anatoli (son-in-law of Samuel ibn Tibbon), a collection of sermons on the perikopes of the Penta- teuch. Here the allegorical exegesis is pursued in - the style of Philo, even the personages and occur- rences of the Pentateuch being resolved into philo- sophic concepts and postulates. The philosophic exegesis was pursued during the fourteenth century, its most notable representative being Levi ben Gershon (died 1 344), " a strict Aristotelian who wrote commentaries on most of the Biblical books." Similar commentaries on the Pentateuch were written by Nissim ben Moses of Marseilles, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, and by Samuel Zarza of Valencia (fourteenth century;. Mention may also be made here of the Akedath Yitzhak (" Offering of Isaac") of Isaac Arama, "the last great exegetic work written in Spain before the expulsion" (in 1492). It consists of sermons, largeh' of a philo- sophical nature. The influence of this type of thought can also be seen in the work of Don Isaac Abarbanel (or Abrayanel), who was one of the 230 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM victims of the expulsion. Abarbanel was born in Lisbon in 1437, and died in Venice in 1508. His career was chequered. For some years before the expulsion (1484-1492) he occupied a high position of State under Ferdinand and Isabella. Then he was driven from Spain in the general expulsion, and went in succession to Naples, Corfu, and Venice, where he died in happiness and honour. As a com- mentator it has been said of him that *' no prede- cessor . . came so near as he did to the modern ideal of a commentator on the Bible." ^ He wrote commentaries on the whole of the Hebrew Bible (except the Hagiographa), and was the first Jewish exegete to prefix introductions to works of this kind, dealing with such questions as authorship, date, etc. He also cites, without animus, the views of Christian exegetes, such as Jerome, Augustine, and Nicholas de Lyra. These excellences made AbarbaneFs work highly esteemed in Christian circles, where they were closely studied and exercised a lasting influence. Abarbanel's training in high affairs of State had made him realise that to understand ancient writings the social and political environment in which they were born must be considered and envisaged. Though he was much influenced by Maimonides, and was himself an Aristotelian, Abarbanel was not fundamentally in sympathy with the root- conceptions of the philosophic school. He firmly believed in the reality of God's revelation in history, and especially in that of the history of the Chosen People. " Had Abravanel," says Dr. Ginzberg,^ " not been misled by the Guide of Maimonides, for whom he shared the traditional veneration, he might have given an exposition of his views on the relations of philosophy and religion. As it is, however, these views are confused, being at one and the same time ^ I. Abrahams, S/ior/ History of Jewish Literature^ p. 139. ' \xv JE i. 127 f. GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS 231 Maimonistic, anti-Maimonistic, and in a measure even cabalistic." His formal treatises on philosophy exhibit this mixed character. The most important of these are the Miphaloth 'Elohim (" Deeds of God"), which is mainly based on Maimonides, and the Rosh 'Anianah ("Pinnacle of Faith"), a defence of the Thirteen Articles of the Creed formulated by Maimonides. He also wrote three works in defence of the Messianic Belief (1496-98), one of .which is in the form of a commentary on Daniel, whom, contrary to Jewish tradition, he reckons among the Prophets. From the eleventh to the fourteenth century a line of French scholars, continuing the tradition of Rashi, occupied themselves with Talmudical studies. From the " additions " (Tosaphoth) which they compiled to Rashi's famous commentary on the Talmud these scholars acquired the name of " Tosaphists." The *' Tosaphists " were essentially casuists, delight- ing in subtle analysis and discussion, while, on the other hand, the ideal of the Spanish school of Talmudists was simplification. The Tosaphists dis- played so keen a critical insight, and attained so great a mastery over the Talmudical material, and were, moreover, so filled with the old Rabbinical spirit, that their fame and reputation spread far, even into Spain itself Their obiter dicta on exege- tical matters were afterwards collected into different compilations ; and commentaries were written under their influence by Eliezer of Beaugency (twelfth century), who was a pupil of Samuel ben Meir, Rashi's grandson. Those on Isaiah and Hosea have been published ; others exist in MS. in libraries. Eliezer, whose work is almost entirely free from Midrashic elements, was mainly concerned with the endeavour to trace the logical connexion of verses and passages. The most eminent of the Tosaphists was Jacob 232 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM ben Meir Tarn, commonly called '' Rabbenu Tam " (1100-I171), a brother of Samuel ben Meir, and, of course, a grandson of Rashi. He was not only a great Talmudist, but also did important work as a grammarian, and was, besides, a liturgical poet, but not a Biblical commentator. The great reconciler between the French and Spanish schools was Moses ben Nachman, com- monly called Nachman ides (Ramban), himself a Spaniard (i 195-1270). Of the French Rabbis he says: "They are our masters in Talmud, and to them we must go for instruction."^ Inheriting the culture of Spain, he also possessed much of the Spanish independence and breadth of view. He was also a poet, and a man of a warm and sympathetic temperament. Exiled from Spain, a victim of Chris- tian zeal, he settled in Palestine in 1267, and died there about 1270. He wrote some important theological works, notably ''The Sacred Letter," in which he defended the divine character of man's earthly nature ("the flesh"), and " The Law of Man " (Torath ha-Adam), in which there is much ^\-ise reflection on suffering and death. Pain and suffering, he says, are *' a service of God, leading man to ponder on his end and reflect about his destiny." His greatest work was, however, his commentary on the Pentateuch (written about 1268). There is much in this that charms and impresses the reader. It is not only scholarly, but full of original thought, based upon independent study. But its most significant quality is its mysticism, in which we can discern the first beginnings of Kabbalistic doc- trine. True, this is restrained and guarded in Nach- manides' work, and is rigidly confined to a secondar}' place. But it is there. The underlying principle of this type of exegesis is that the words of Scripture have implicit in them a deeper esoteric meaning, apart from the plain literal sense. "This conception, ' I. Abrahams, op. cif. p. 97. GRAMMAR AND EXEGESIS 233 together with the assumption that all truths about God and creation, the universe and man, which are cognisable by the human mind, and which have been so cognised, must be found in Scripture,"^ is clearly enunciated by Nachmanides in the preface prefixed to his Pentateuch commentary. Here it appears openly avowed for the first time, and gained much from the powerful recognition of so famous a scholar. This principle asserts itself in his typological exegesis of the Biblical narrative. Thus the six days of Creation are regarded as a prophecy of the six thousand years of the world's history, to be suc- ceeded by the seventh, or millennial age. Jacob and Esau are prototypes of Israel and Rome, and Joshua's battle with Amalek prefigures the Messianic conflict which is imminent. These ideas and applications are not, of course, original with Nachmanides — they belong to the old apocalyptic tradition — but their recrudescence in the orthodox teaching of the Rabbis, at this time, was a novelty. Not that he was a Kab- balist in the full sense— he did not, for instance, accept the Kabbalistic tenet of the eternity of matter and the world {Kadmuth hd-'6lam), and differed from them on other important points. But his mystical tendencies were marked. Another form of mysticism, based upon the letter of Scripture, arose in Germany in the thirteenth century, represented in the writings of Elijah ben Judah of Worms (1176-1238). This consisted in the manipulation (by combination and interchange) of the letters of the Scriptural text, and by similar manipulation of their numerical values (Gematria). The Kabbalistic method of exegesis is founded upon this method, which it uses in combination with the allegorical and typological exegesis. These methods of exegesis, together with others (non-Kabbalistic), are represented in the commentary of Bachya ben Asher of Saragossa (1291) on the Pentateuch, which ^JE iii. i7o. 234 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM enjoyed a wide popularity. Four methods of exe- gesis are mentioned in the introduction to this work as applicable to the text of Scripture : (i) The method of the Peshat ; (2) that of the Midrash ; (3) that of reason {i.e. the philosophic exegesis) ; (4) that of the Kabbalah. It was about this time that the great classical exposition of the Kabbalistic mysticism — the famous book Zohar — appeared in Spain. More will be said of this below. The four methods of exegesis just referred to as exhibited in Bachya ben Asher's work can be traced, in various degrees of emphasis, throughout the prolific exegetical literature that was produced in the various centres of Jewry during the three centuries that followed the death of Maimonides. Some of the more prominent and important of these works have been referred to above, and must be passed over in silence here. The period that followed was one of stagnation and decline in general culture, marked by a sterile devotion to purely Talmudic studies, which was only brought to an end in the eighteenth century by the move- ment initiated by Moses Mendelssohn. At the same time a similar growth of Kabbalistic study, also one-sided, took place by way of reaction, which was accompanied by much superstition. Abarbanel stands on the threshold of this epoch, but really belongs to the one that was passing away. A younger con- temporary, Ellas Le\ita (1469-1549), in Italy devoted himself to Masoretic studies, and produced his epoch-making work Masoret ha-Masoret (standard edition by C. D. Ginsburg, 1867). He and his contemporary, Jacob ben Chayim, also a Masoretic scholar, stimulated the study of Hebrew in Europe. (His Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible, Hebrew and English, has been edited by C. D. Ginsburg, 2nd edition, 1867). The most prolific exegete was Moses Alsheik of Safed (second half of the sixteenth century), who produced voluminous com- mentaries, largely homiletical and Midrashic in character, on most of the books of the Bible. THE MYSTICAL LITERATURE 233 III THE MYSTICAL LtTERATURE [Literature : Dr. Philipp Bloch, Die judische Mystik unci Kabbala (in Winter und Wunsche, iii. 219-286) ; J. Abelson, Jewish Mysticism (1913) ; articles Cabala (by Ginzberg in fE iii. 456-479), Zohar (by Broyde in JE xii. 689-693) ; Ginsburg, Tlie Kabbalah (London, 1865) ; Mathers, The Kabbalah 6^«7'f/7r(/ (London, 1887); A. Franck, La Kabbale (2nded. 1889). The whole of the Zohar has been translated into French by Jean de Pauly. See also Steinschneider, Jezvish Literature, and Schechter, Studies in Judaism^ first series, pp. i ff. (on the Chassidim).] The general name of the mystical type of thought that finds expression in Jewish Hterature is L^ahhalah ("Cabala'), which means "tradition," "the received or traditional lore." ^ This is the specific term used for "the esoteric or m}^stic doctrine concerning God and the universe, asserted to have come down as a revelation to elect saints from a remote past and preserved only by a privileged few."^ At first the elements embraced in the tradition were simple, but under the influence of the Neoplatonic and Neopythagorean philosophy it gradually assumed a speculative character. In the Geonic period this lore gathered round a sort of holy book entitled Scpher Yetzirah, or " Book of Creation," and was systematically studied by the elect called " mekub- balim " or " Ba'ale ha-Kabbalah," i.e. those initiated into, or possessors of. Kabbalah.^ ^ Heb. TOi'p from ^3^ "to receive." 2 Kohler in /E iii. 456. ^ Aftei wards called " maskilirn'' (*' wise," from Daniel xii. 10). The technical term mno: noDn =" hidden wisdom" also furnished a designation from its initial letters :' n = "grace"; the initiates were known as p 'riv (Eccles. ix. 11) = " adepts in grace." 236 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM During the thirteenth century and onward these studies, which had been more or less confined to small circles, received a great impetus and became widel}^ diffused. They gave rise to an extensive literature, written in a peculiar dialect of Aramaic, and grouped around a new holy book — the Zohar — which suddenly made its appearance, but claimed to be a work of great antiquity, its reputed author being the famous second-century R. Simeon b. Yochai. This Kabbalistic literature grew up, to some extent, in opposition to the Talmud. Though the Zohar was compiled in its present form in the Middle Ages, it embraces much older elements, and, in fact, is essentially a reshaping of old material. The Kabbalistic tradition can, indeed, be traced back to a considerable antiquity. Books containing the secret lore of the " wise " circulated within small circles, as an esoteric literature, at a comparatively early period {cf. Dan. xii. 9-10; 2 Esdras xiv. 45-46). There was, in fact, a continuous esoteric tradition, which has run on from ancient down to modern times. The name Kabbalah suggests this, and the Kabbalists were perfectly right in main- taining that the ideas to A\hich they gave expression, and which they were constantly reshaping, were old. How old is not always realised. "A study of the few still existing apocryphal books [of the Old Testament]," says Kohler,^ '* discloses the fact, ignored by most writers on thev Cabala . . . that the 'mystic lore' occasionally alluded to in the Talmudic or Midrashic literature . . is not only much more systematically presented in these older writings, but gives ample evidence of a continuous Cabalistic tradition ; inasmuch as the mystic literature of the Geonic period is only a fragmentary repro- duction of the ancient apocalyptic writings, and the saints and sages of the Tannaitic period take in the former the place occupied by the Biblical protoplasts, patriarchs, and scribes in the latter." The Slavonic Enoch (not later than the early part of the first century A.D.) is remarkably illaminating in its realistic pre- sentment of some of the Kabbalistic ideas — e.g, as to the process of creation, the constitution of the heavens, and so on ; the wonders of the Creative Wisdom can also be traced in other apocryphal and apocalyptic books {e.g. Ben-Sira, TesUxment of ^ \xiJE iii. 457. THE MYSTICAL LITERATURE 237 Abraham). In fact, the two great themes of this early mystical tradition were the cosmogony and the mysteries of the Divine Chariot or Throne. " The speculation which gave rise to the tradition starts from Ezekiel's Chariot-vision (Ezek. i.)- ■ The material of which it is composed, and which is constantly reshaped, consists mainly of descriptions of the seven heavens, ' with their hosts of angels, and the various store-houses of the world, and of the divine throne above the highest hea\'en.' " Heaven is pictured as filled with light of inexpressible brilliance, and the Divine Chariot as surrounded by fiery angels of warlike aspect. The mystic who is allowed to enter the celestial sphere usually receives divine disclosures about the future or the spiritual world. In order to enjoy this experience he had to prepare himself to enter the ecstatic state, and this was brought about especially by ablutions and fastings, bat sometimes also by fervent invo- cations and by other means. He was rewarded by "the vision of the Divine Chariot" (or Merkabah)} The typical mystic imagined himself entering the Divine Chariot and floating through the air. Such were called Yorede Merkabah^ i.e. ''those who go down {i.e. embark) into the ship-like chariot." - It is in this chariot that they are supposed to ascend into the heavens, where, in the dazzling light, they are able to penetrate the secrets of the universe. The heavenly charioteer is Metatron,^ the angel next the Throne, whose name is like God's, who possesses all knowledge and imparts it to man. The affinities of the Kabbalistic literature with ancient Gnos- ticism have been pointed out by Kohler, and afford further evidence of the antiquity of the ideas embodied in this literature. Two elements may be broadly distinguished here : {a) The mythological element, and especially the grossly anthropo- morphic descriptions of the Deity, which occur in the older writings embodied in the present form of the Zohar^ and doubtless belong to the old tradition of ancient lore ; (b) the speculative Kabbalah, which probably was derived from Alexandria in the first century or earlier, " with her strange commingling of Egyptian, Chaldrean, Judtisan, and Greek culture." It was in this congenial soil that the seeds of the mystic philosophy were sown. It is important to emphasise the fact, which has been referred to above, that the Kabbah'stic tradition 1 G. H. Box, Introduction to the Apocalypse of Abraham, p. xxix. 2 Jellinek. 3 According to Kohler, this name was suggested by that of Mithra. 238 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM is a continuous development from older sources. This is sometimes lost sight of when the Zohar is spoken of scornfully as a '* forgery," clumsily put together by Moses de Leon in the thirteenth century. As a matter of fact, there is little, if anything, that is original in Moses' work, which was essentially a reshaping of old traditional material, and actually embodied older works in their original form. A considerable Hebrew literature of the Kabba- listic-mystical type seems to have been current in the Geonic period. Many of these books are no longer extant, but some have survived. One of the most remarkable is that known as Shi'ur Komah, an extraordinary treatise on the bodily dimensions of God, It exists in fragments, the largest of which is included in the Kabbalistic book Sepher Raziel. It apparently was current in the eighth and following centuries as an independent work, and in its present form may have been redacted, at the latest, in the eighth century. But in substance it is much older, having affinities with the early Gnostic systems of thought.^ Closely allied to this, and in its present form probably belonging to the same period, is the "Hekaloth" literature, a number of fragments treat- ing of the heavenly " Halls " (hekaloth), which, according to Hai Gaon, originated with the mystics who experienced the heavenly chariot-ride (Yorede Merkabah), already referred to. These, according to the same authority, " brought themselves into a state of entranced vision by fasting, asceticism, and prayer, and imagined that they saw the seven [heavenly] halls, and all that is therein, with their own eyes, while passing from one hall into another." The most remarkable literary production of this kind, however, is the Sepher Yetzirah (" Book of 1 For specimens of the contents in translation, see JE xi. 298 {s.v. Shi''ur Komah). THE MYSTICAL LITERATURE 239 Creation "), which, in its present form, may belong to the Geonfc period. This work enjoyed so great a reputation in the ninth century that Saadya wrote a commentary on it. It forms the Hnk between the earlier mystic literature and the later Kabbalah. The doctrine of emanations, which played so prominent a part later, as well as the mystic power of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet, are here enunciated in an early form. The ten " Sephiroth," according to this book, constitute the fundamentals of all existence, being the ten prin- ciples that mediate between God and the universe. They include the three primal emanations that proceed from the Spirit of God, viz. (i) spiritual air, (2) primal water, (3) fire. Six others consist of the three dimensions (height, length, breadth) to the left and right ; and these nine, together with the Spirit of God, form the ten " Sephiroth," which are eternal. The first three are the ideal proto- types of Creation, which became possible when infinite space, represented by the six other Sephiroth, was produced. While the three primal elements constitute the substance of things, the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet constitute the form. The letters hover, as it were, on the boundary-line between the spiritual and the physical world ; for the real existence of things is cognisable only by means of language, i.e. the human capacity for conceiving thought. As the letters resolve the contrast between the substance and the form o-f things, they represent the solvent activity of God ; for everything that is exists by means of contrasts, which find their solution in God, as, for instance, among the three primal elements, the contrasts between fire and water are resolved into ruach, "air" or '* spirit" ("spiritual air"). The doctrine of emanations is, of course, really 240 RABBINICAL AND MEDLEVAL JUDAISM Neoplatonic. It attempts to answer the question, how the finite can be brought into touch with the infinite, b)- the view that all existing things are an outflowing which ultimately proceeds from God. God embraces them all, animate and inanimate. The Sepher Yetzirah prepared the way for the mediaeval Kabbalah. Its doctrine of the ten Sephi- roth has obvious affinities with the later represen- tation in the Zohar and allied literature, though there are important points of difference.^ Its im- portance is obvious, for it brings us into the heart of Jewish mysticism. Besides the Sepher Ycizira/i^ the following are the most important books or fragments belonging to the mystic literature of the period of the Geonim that have survived; (i) *'The Alphabet of R. Akiba" (two \'ersions published in jellinek's Beth ha-Midrash^ vol. iii.) ; (2) " The Garden of Eden " {Gau '■Rden) in Jellinek, ii., iii., v. (different versions) ; (3) Tractate on "Gehinnom" (Jellinek, i.) ; (4) "The Sword of Moses'' {Harba de-Mosheh\ ed. by Gaster, 1896; (5) Hibbut ha-Kebcj (Jellinek, i.) ; (6) Hekaloth (already referred to) in several versions in Jellinek, ii., iii. (also in Wertheimer's Jerusalejn^ 1889) ; Midrash Konen (Jellinek, i., and several times printed). Fragments of this early mystical literature also exist in the Pirke de R. Eliezer^ Midfash Tadshe^ and Niunbers rabba. The revival of Kabbalistic literature that took place in the Geonic period makes it certain that many scholars belonging to the Babylonian schools cultivated the mystic lore. Some of the Geonim themselves were deeply interested in these studies, and it is not without significance that certain Kabbalistic works, even though they may have been compiled at a later time, were ascribed to the authorship of particular Geonim. Another remarkable fact is that the German Kabbalah owes its origin to Babylonia. It was a Babylonian, Aaron ben Samuel ha-Nasi, who, emi- 1 For a discussion of these, see Abelson, Jewish Mysticism chap. V. THE MYSTICAL LITERATURE 241 grating to Italy in the first half of the ninth century, carried with him these teachings, and imparted them to the Kalonymides, who carried them to Germany about 917. They were not published till nearly three centuries later, when Judah the Pious (died 12 17), himself a member of the family, commissioned his pupil, Eleazar of Worms, to introduce the oral and written Kabba- listic doctrine into larger circles. This explains the strange fact that the German Kabbalah is a direct continuation of the Geonic type of mysticism. In Italy and Germany it had remained untouched by foreign influences. On the other hand, in Arabic-speaking countries the Grseco-Arabic philosophy reacted upon the Kabbalistic tradition ; and, in particular, the influ- ence of the philosophical doctrines of Solomon ibn Gebirol (1021-58), the great exponent of Neo- l^latonism, was marked. Thus the three sources from which the Kabbalah of the thirteenth century was derived" were the esoteric tradition of the Talmud, the Geonic mysticism, and the Arabic Neoplatonic philosophy. The essential doctrines of the German school of KabbaUsts, whose principal literary exponent was Eleazar of Worms (died 1237),^ are as follows : God is exalted beyond mortal comprehension. In order to make Himself visible to inferior beings (both angels and men), He created out of the divine fire His kabod ("glory," "majesty"),'-^ which has both size and shape, and sits on a throne, as God's visible presence, in the east This "glory" is veiled by a curtain {pargod) on the east, north, and south from the world of angels, but is open to the illumination of the divine light from the west. All the anthropomorphic statements of Scripture are referred to this "glory." The German Kabbalah also assumes the existence of different worlds, \'iz. (l) the world of the "glory" {kabod) ; (2) that of ^ R. Eleazar ben Jehudah, called " Rokeach," was probably born in Mainz. He lived and died at Worms. '- cp. the Rabbinical "Shekhinah." R 242 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM angels ; (3) that of the animal soul ; (4) that of the intellectual soul. The lack of the late philosophical element here is ob- vious, and clearly reflects the ancient type of mystical thought which goes back to the Talmudic period. It responded to the needs of religious feeling in revolt against a dry and intellectual legalism. "While study of the law vi'as to the Talmudists the very acme of piety, the mystics accorded the first place to prayer, which was considered as a mystical progress towards God, demanding a state of ecstasy. It was the chief task of the practical Cabala to produce this ecstatic mysticism, already met with among the Merkabah-travellers^ of the time of the Talmud and Geonim ; hence this mental state was especially favoured and fostered by the Germans. Alphabetical and numerical mysticism constitutes the greater part of Eleazar's works, and is to be regarded simply as means to an end, namely, to reach a state of ecstasy by the proper employment of the names of God and of the angels, 'a state in which e^'ery wall is removed from the spiritual eye.'" - The origins of the Kabbalistic tradition in southern France (Provence) and Spain are more difficult to trace. The transmission, according to the Kab- balists themselves, can be traced to Jacob ha-Nazir (beginning of the twelfth century), who initiated Abraham ben David of Posquieres. The son of tbe latter, Isaac the Blind, is reputed to have been the teacher of Azriel (born about 1160), who played an important part in the formulation of the specu- lative Kabbalah. A rudimentary form of the speculative Kabbalah appears in the treatise known as Masseket Azilutlt^ which contains the doctrine of the four graduated worlds. The book emphatically enjoins that the doctrine must be kept secret, and insists that the learners must be of proved piety. These injunctions suggest an early date. The idea of the Sephiroth is presented simply and unphilosophically, and the angelology and representation of Metatron harmonise with the views on these subjects pre\alent in the Geonic period. The rudiments of the speculati^■e system are here, but undeveloped. Possibly, as Ginzberg suggests, it may be a product of the later Geonic period. 1 i.e. the mystics who travelled through the heavens in the divine chariot {Merkabah). ^ Ginzberg iny^ iii. 465, THE MYSTICAL LITERATURE 243 A book of fundamental importance for the develop- ment of the speculative Kabbalah is the work known as Bahir ("Brilliancy"), which apparently was com- piled in the thirteenth century in the school of Isaac the Blind. In the style of a Midrash on the first chapters of Genesis, it adopts the method of a dialogue between ' master and disciples. It de- velops the doctrine of the Sephiroth of the Sepher Yetzirah, only here the ten Sephiroth are different. They are divided into three primary ones — primal light, wisdom, and reason — and seven secondar)- ones. Here for the first time the doctrine of emana- tion is clearly enunciated. The world, according to this book, is not the result of an act of creation ex 7itIiilo. "Like God, it existed from all eternity, not only in potentiality but in actuality ; and the Creation consisted merely in the appearance of that which was latent in the first 'Sephirah'^ . . which emanated from God. This Sephirah gave birth to ' Hokhmah ' ('Wisdom'), from which emanated Binah (' InteUigence'). From these three, which are the superior 'Sephiroth' . and form the primary principles of the universe, emanated, one after another, the seven inferior Sephiroth, from which all material things are formed.^ . . . The ten Sephiroth are the energy of God, the forms in which His being manifests itself."^ Other interesting points about the book are its insistence on the doctrine of metempsychosis (by means of which the problem of the suffei'ing righteous is solved), and its enunciation of the doctrine of a celestial trinity. There are many paral^les in the book. The most important teacher of speculative Kab- balah was a Spaniard, Azriel (1160-1238), who had been trained in philosophy, and was prepared to expound Kabbalistic doctrine in a manner that would appeal to philosophers. ^ i.e. the primal light (no;n iii^ "the hidden light"). 2 cp. Pirke de 7?. Eliezer, iii., end ("By ten }na\i)}iaroih (== Sephiroth) was the world created, which are reduced to three," etc.). ^ JE ii. 443. R 2 244 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISIVI " Starting from the doctrine of the merely negative attributes of God, as taught by the Jewish philosophy of the time, Azriel calls God the 'En-Soph' (r]i"|'i^ — ' Endless One'), the absolutely Infinite, that can be comprehended only as the negation of all negation. From this definition of the En-Soph, Azriel deduces the potential eternity of the world — the world with all its manifold manifestations was potentially contained within the En- Soph ; and this potentially existing universe became a reality in the act of creation. The transition from the potential to the actual is a free act of God ; but it cannot be called creation, since a 'creatio e\ nihilo' is logically un- thinkable, and nothing out of which the world could be formed exists outside of God, the En-Soph. Hence it is not correct to say that God creates, but that He irradiates ; for, as the sun irradiates warmth and light without diminishing its bulk, so the En-Soph irradiates the elements of the universe without diminishing His power. These elements of the universe are the Sephiroth, which Azriel tries to define in their relation to the En-Soph as well as to one another." According to the Kabbalists, Nachmanides was a pupil of Azriel, and, if so, certainly his most important pupil. But this is difficult to accept. For though Nachmanides had pronounced mystical tendencies, as wq have seen, }'et in his commentary on the Pentateuch he contradicts some of the most fundamental tenets of Azriel's system. Thus he emphasises creation " ex nihilo," and insists that attributes can be assigned to God — a view which is totally irreconcilable with the doctrine of the En-Soph. Yet it is true to say that Nachmanides played an important part in extending the influence of Kabbalistic doctrine. His own tendency towards such doctrine was marked, as was also the case with his most important pupil and successor, Solomon b. Abraham ibn Adret (RaSHBa) (1235- 13 10), the great Talmudist. A distinguished pupil of Ibn Adret was the famous exegete, Bachya ben Asher of Saragossa (died 1340), whose commentary on the Pentateuch did much to spread Kabbalistic doctrine. Here the method of the Kabbalah (termed by him the path of light) is followed (together with THE MYSTICAL LITERATURE 245 that of the Peshat, Midrash, and, to some extent, philosophical exegesis), and occupies a large space. By means of it Bachya sought to penetrate into the deep (esoteric) meaning of Scripture, and to bring hidden truths to light. This work, fre- quently reprinted, has enjoyed a wide popularity, and many super-commentaries have been written upon it. Azriel's system was worked out completely in a number of Kabbalistic works of the second half of the thirteenth century which have survived in frag- mentary form. Their aim was to systematise the doctrines of the Bahir and of Azriel. One of the most important is a small book known as Sepher ha~Temunah ("Book of Form"). Here the attempt is made to illustrate the principle of emanation by means of the forms of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The doctrine of the Sephirotli is syste- matised. They are regarded as powers inhering in the En-Soph, like the limbs in the human bod\', the entire complex forming one indivisible whole. They are thus penetrated by, and are the organs of, one common will. In this way the problem, which had occupied the Kabbalistic thinkers, as to how the divine will was transmitted to the different Sephi- roth, is solved. This book also enunciates, for the first time, the doctrine of double emanation, which becomes henceforth an integral part of the Kabba- listic system, and represents the attempt of the Kabbalists to solve the problem of evil, without falling into the dangers of pantheisni. The doctrine imputes a double aspect to the Sephiroth, a positive and a negative. The positive aspect represents the active divine element, which produces all that is good — the energy that is constantly striving for perfec- tion ; while the negative (or passive) aspect corre- sponds to the finite, and represents the imperfect and limited. Evil is therefore regarded as esscn- 246 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM tially imperfection, a negative rather than a positive element in the universe. Another important work belonging to this category- is the Ma'areketh hd-Elohuth. Here Azriel's system is presented in its most complete form. While this speculative mysticism, which was con- cerned with strictly metaphysical problems— the nature of God and His relation to the world — was being developed (from the end of the twelfth century to the beginning of the fourteenth), another school was working out a system from a different point of view, the religio-ethical, laying all the stress upon the practical side of religion. Both systems were striving to realise the union of the soul with God. The speculative thinkers endeavoured to attain this by constructing a theory of God and the universe essentially monistic in character, while the other school strove to make the union possible and prac- ticable for everyday life. Two important names may be mentioned in this connexion : Todros Abulafia (i 234-1 304) and Abraham Abulafia (1240- 1291). The former of these, a wealthy and influential Spanish Jew, liberally supported Kabbalistic scholars and himself wrote two Kabbalistic works, viz. Shd^ar Jia-Razim (" The Gate of Secrets"), a commentary on Psalm xix., and an important book entitled Otzar ha-h'abod (" The Treasury of Glory "), in which the Hag-gadoth of the Talmud are interpreted for the first time in a Kabbalistic sense. Here quotations from the Zohar occur for the first time. More important still was Abraham Abulafia, also of Spanish birth, who at the a.c^e of twenty began a life of ceaseless wandering". He went to Palestine, then to Italy, and returned to Spain, where he became subject to \'isions, and took up the study of the SepJicr Yetzirah and its numerous com- mentaries. This study and the influence of Eleazar of Worms greatly affected him. He devoted himself to the mystical study of the letters of the alphabet, numerals, vowel-points and accents, and especially to the letters of the Divine Name (the Tetragrammaton). With the aid of these symbols, combined with the practice of ascetic rites, men could, he declared, attain the heights of the mystical life. He produced a book called Sephcr Jia-Vashar ("Book of the Righteous"), and THE MYSTICAL LITERATURE 247 wrote other works. At one time he gave himself out as a prophet and Messiah, and created much excitement among the Jewish masses. He abandoned speculative Kabbalah for "prophetical," maintaining that the former was an inferior degree of knowledge. "The highest goal is prophetism, assuring men a certain degree of community with God," and the means are the close study of the names of God, especially of the Tetragrammaton. He also employed in different ways for mystical purposes letter-symbolism. He introduced into Jewish Kabbalah a Trinitarian doctrine and desired, apparently, to win Christians to the Kabbalistic faith. The two movements converged in the ZoHar, the most important literary production of Jewish mysti- cism, which became the holy book of the Jewish Kabbalists. The name Zohar, which means " Bright- ness," is derived from Daniel xii. 3 : And they that be wise shall shine brightly as the brightness {yazhiru kezohar) of the firmament. Written partly in Aramaic and partly in Hebrew, it is in form a commentary on the Pentateuch, but in reality is a compendium of Kabbalistic theosophy. It belongs to the large class of pseudepigraphic writings purporting to be the record of a divine revelation made to R, Simeon b. Yochai (second century A.D.), who is represented as imparting this in a series of utterances to his disciples. In reality it is a composite work, drav/n from many sources (some old), and was published in practically its present shape by Moses ben Shem Tob de Leon (1250-1305). Moses de Leon lived in various parts of Spain. The question as to how far he was responsible for the present form of the Zohar has been much debated. That he "forged" the work cannot be proved, but that he had a considerable share in reducing it to its present shape is probable. In doing this he worked on older materials, and, like other pseudepigraphic writers, he may have regarded himself simply as an instrument for reducing to written form what had long been transmitted as a series of traditions. This estimate is borne out by the character of the work, which is heterogeneous and can hardly be the production, in any valid sense, of a single author. 248 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM Distinct writings, too, are referred to in the work, and actually quoted. These are {a) ^Idra rabba ; {b) ''Idra zuta ; {c) Matititin ; {d) Midrash ha~ne^elain ; {e) Rdaya Mehem7ta ; (/) Saba ; {g) Raze de-Ra2zn ; {h) Sepher Hekaloth ; (z) Sifra de-Zeniaitha ; (;') Sitre Torah ; {k) Tosephta ; (/) Yanuka} Dr. Broyde,'^ commenting on these features, says : " The contents of the Zohar clearly indicate that the work is the production, not of a single author or of a single period, but of many authors, periods, and civilisations ; for it contains the most puzzling incongruities and irreconcilable contradictions, with lofty ideas and conceptions . and also mystic teachings of the Talmudic period \\ith those of the Geonim and later Cabala." He calls attention to a passage [Zohar iii. gb) which says : ■' In the book of Hamnuna the elder we learn through some extended explanations that the earth turns upon itself in the form of a circle ; that some are on top, the others below ; that the creatures change in aspect, following the manner of each place, but keeping in -the same position. But there aie some countries on the earth which are lighted, while others are in darkness ; and there are others in wliich there is constantly day, or in which at least the night continues only some instants. These secrets were made known to the men of the secret science, but not to the geographers." Dr. Broyde points out that till the time of Coper- nicus the theory that the earth revolves on its own axis and is a sphere was only known to ancient Hindu philosophy, and later, outside the place of its origin, in Persia in the eighth century, where under its influence many mystic sects, including that of the Sufis, were founded. This movement undoubtedly influenced the Jews of Persia, among whom were some curious sects, and he suggests that the secret writings preserved among these sects "probably formed the nucleus of the Zohar. ... In 1 See further below, p. 251. 2 Art. ''Zohar" \\\JE xii. 691. THE MYSTICAL LITERATURE 249 its peregrinations from Persia to Spain the Zohar probably received many additions and interpolations, among which may have been the various names of the Tannaim and Amoraim, as well as the allusions to historical events." Whatever truth there may or ma}' not be in this theory, Persia doubtless offered a congenial home for Kabbalistic ideas. To this day Simeon b. Yochai is the greatest figure among the Rabbis to the Jews of Persia. The Zohar, as has been remarked already, sums up the Kabbalistic ideas that had been developed up to the time of its appearance. It became not only the text-book of Kabbalistic doctrine, but the canonical book of the Kabbalists. To expound its doctrines, which do not form a coherent system, but are a blending of ideas which do not always har- monise, would require a treatise by itself^ It will only be possible here to glance at one or two important points in passing. The doctrine of the ten Sephiroth is throughout assumed as axiomatic As in all mystical thought, the soul occupies a dominant place in the theology of the Zohar, and the ideas concerning it {e.g. its constitution as a trinity) reflect the influence of the Platonic psy- chology. The doctrine of soul-transmigration also is taught. " In the minds of the Kabbalists, transmigration is a necessity not alone on the grounds of their particulav theology ^the soul must reach the highest stage of its evolution before it can be received again into the eternal home — but on moral grounds as well. It is a vindication of divine justice to mankind." 2 The doctrine of the four worlds also plays an important part in the Zoharistic system. These are (a) the 'Azilutic world (or world of emanation), which contains the Sephiroth ; (b) the Beriatic world (or 1 See an excellent summary by Ginzberg \rvJE iti. 471-479. ■^ Abelson, yt'7('7V/ il/]'.s-//t7>;//, p. i64f 250 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM world of creative ideas), which contains the souls of the pious, the divine throne, and the divine halls ; (c) the Yeziratic world (or the world of creative forma- tions), which is the abode of the ten classes of angels with their chiefs, presided over by Metatron, who was changed into fire ; (d) the 'Asiyyatic world (or world of creative matter), in which are the Ophannim, the angels that receive the prayers and control the actions of men, and wage war against Sammael, the embodiment of evil. There seems to be no doubt that these worlds were at first conceived realistically, but were later interpreted in an idealistic sense. On its ethical side the Kabbalah teaches that love is the highest relation of the soul to God, transcending knowledge and will. Ethics is, indeed, part of religion to the Kabbalists. "The connexion between the real and ideal world is brought about by man, whose soul belongs to heaven, while his body is earthy. Man connects the two worlds by means of his love to God, which . . unites him with God. The knowledge of the law in its ethical as well as religious aspects is also a means towards influencing the higher regions ; for the study of the law means the union of man with the divine wisdom. . . The ritual also has a deeper mystical meaning, as it serves to preserve the universe and to secure blessings for it."^ It should be added that the Zoliar has certain appendices which are attributed to its reputed author, or to some of his immediate disciples, and without which it would be incomplete. These are (a) Sifra di seni Hitha (five chapters), in which are discussed questions relating to Creation, such as the transition from the infinite to the finite, etc.; {b) Idra rabba, developing and enlarging the preceding ; {c) Idra zuta, a risume of the two preceding. In these sections the term "En-Soph" is not applied to God — a mark of early origin. To these larger appendices are added the following fragments : {d) Raze de Rasin^ dealing with the connexion of the soul with the body, etc.; [e) Sephej- Hekalofk^ treating of the seven heavenly halls, ^ Ginzberg, op. cit. ibid. THE MYSTICAL LITERATURE 251 Paradise and Hell ; (/) Ra!ya inehemna^ containing a con- versation between Moses, Elijah, and Simeon ben Yochai on the allegorical significance of the Mosaic commandments and the Rabbinical injunctions ; {g) Sitre Torah^ dealing with a variety of Kabbalistic topics ; ijt) Midi'ash ha-ne'clam^ giving mystical explanations of various passages of Scripture ; if) Saba (=" Old Age"), containing a conversation between the prophet Elijah and Simeon ben Yochai on the doctrine of metempsychosis (trans- migration of souls) ; {j) Ya?tuka (= "child"), written in the name of a child of Hamnuna Saba (hence the title), giving injunctions about the importance of ritual washing of the hands before meals ; {k) Tosephta and (/) Mathnifhm^ sketching the doctrines connected with emanation (the Sephiroth), etc. Besides the Zohar proper, there is a Zohar Chadash (= "New Zohar") on Canticles, and a series of Tikkunim in the style of the original work. As has already been pointed out, the Zohar is in form a commentary on the Pentateuch. In this connexion it is interesting to note that four types of exegesis are admitted in the commentation, or, at any rate, four distinct methods of interpretation, viz. Peshat^ Remez (=" allusion," typological sense, allegory), Derash^ and Sod (= "secret," esoteric or mystical sense), the initials of these four terms making Pardes = "Paradise." It is possible that the Christian mode of exegesis, which was well known to the Spanish Jews, may have influenced the method of the Zohar'. The Christian method interpreted Scripture in a fourfold sense, \ iz. the historical or literal, the tropological or moral, the allegorical, and the anagogical.^ The publication of the Zohar took place probably in the opening years of the fourteenth century. It soon gained wide recognition, though not without some opposition, and Kabbalistic study grew. A great impetus was given to the spread of the doctrine when the expulsion of the Jews from Spain took place at the end of the fifteenth century (1492). The national misfortune stimulated such studies which 1 This method had long before been formulated, by the Venerable Bede in the eighth, and by Rhabanus Maurus in the ninth, century. 252 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM held out to their votaries the hope of discovering, by their means, a way of deliverance from the national suffering. Kabbalists were active in Palestine and Egypt and elsewhere. Solomon Alkabiz (author of the Sabbath h5^mn, still sung every week in the syna- gogues, " Come, my Beloved, to meet the Sabbath ") was a well-known Kabbalist who flourished at Safed, in Palestine, in the sixteenth century. Safed, in fact, became a centre for the movement. Even Joseph Karo, the famous Tahnudist and codifier of the Shulchan Aruk, who died at Safed in 1575, though not a Kabbalist in the strict sense, was influenced by Kabbalistic ideas. He, in conjunction with Alkabiz, gathered around him a circle which endeavoured by stringent ascetic practices to induce a state of ecstasy in which they hoped to receive heavenly revelations and to behold visions of angels. A pupil of these two leaders, Moses ben Jacob of Cordovero (1522- 70), was a famous Kabbalist, and is generally regarded as the best representative of the early Kabbalah, and, next to Azriel, the most important speculative thinker produced by the school. He wrote a well-known work called "The Garden" (ha- Pardes). A new and important development in Kabbalah was initiated by Isaac Luria (1533-72). Luria intro- duced the doctrine that all that exists is composed of substance and appearance. According to this extremely subjectix-e view, there is no such thing as objective cognition. With the spread of the doc- trines of this school a good deal of superstitious practice went hand in hand, such as the writing of amulets, conjuration of devils, the use of mystic numbers and letters for certain purposes. Prominent among Luna's pupils were Chayim Vital and Israel Saruk, who were great propagandists of the new doctrine. As a result a considerable Kabbalistic school grew up in Italy in the sixteenth THE MYSTICAL LITERATURE 253 century, and traces of its influence still remain there. But it was also attacked by Italian scholars. Vital's son, Samuel Vital Chayim, together with Abraham Azulai, did much to spread Luria's Kabba- listic doctrine. They introduced an ascetic mode of life (mystical meditations on prayer, vigils, frequent ritual bathings, and penance), which had a noble side in the emphasis laid on a pure life, philanthropy, the practice of brotherly love and kindness. Finally, in the eighteenth century there grew up among the Jews of Poland a remarkable movement known as " Chassidism," which, though accompanied by a good deal of superstition, was essentially a religious protest against a hard and lifeless Rab- binical formalism. The Jewish Kabbalah also exercised a considerable influence in the Christian world. Through Reuchlin (1455-1522) it helped to leaven religious movements at the time of the Reformation, and was diHgently studied by Christian scholars during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It is worth noting in this connexion that a remarkable approximation to the Christian tenets regarding the fall of man developed in the Kabbalistic literature that grew up after the publication of the Zohar. Starting from the ancient idea of Adam's original corporeal and spiritual excellence, the later Kabbalists pro- pounded the view that originally all souls were combined in him. It was this archetypal man whose whole nature was poisoned by the venom of the serpent, and with him all Nature, which then became susceptible to the powers of evil. Human nature was darkened, and man received a corporeal body which was weakened and deprived of its original excellence. His whole nature sank to a lower plane, and, at the same time, the 'Asiyyatic world, of which man had been lord and master, was contracted and coarsened. Even the higher worlds were affected in a similar manner. In this way the Kabbalists explain the presence of physical and moral evil in the world. Here again the Kabbalists were only developing and elaborating ancient doctrine. Thus the sin of Adam, as affecting the destinies of the whole human race, is emphasised in early Jewish apocalyptic (2 Esdras), as well as in early Christian, literature. Various judgements have been passed upon the Jewish Kabbalah doctrines and literature. Some of 254 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM their most severe critics are, and have been in the past, Jewish scholars who by temperament and training were naturally antipathetic to any forms of mystical thought. The unlovely features of the whole literature have been seized upon — its weird and fantastic ideas, its irrationalism, and its super- stitious elements — in order to discredit the whole. But this, as Dr. Abelson remarks, " is really an unfair criticism, seeing that it leaves totally out of account the preponderating mass of true poetry and spirituality which inhere in all parts of Jewish mystical speculation. , . . Nowhere in Jewish literature is the idea of prayer raised to such a pitch of sublimity as it is in the lives and writings of the Jewish mystics. If it is true to say that Judaism here and there suffers from too large an element of formalism and legalism and externalism, it is equally true to say that many of these drawbacks are corrected, toned down by the contributions of m}'sticism." ^ Some of the most exquisite prayers and liturgical poems of the s)'nagogue Liturgy are the productions of the Kabbalists. By their sheer beauty and devotional power they have won their way into practical!}- universal use in the synagogue. ^ IV PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS [Literature: Dr. Philipp Bloch, Die jiidische Religions- philosophie (in Winter und Wiinsche, ii. pp. 695-793); Isaac Husik, A History of Mediaval Jewish Philosophy (Jewish Publication Society of America) ; the article "Philosophy" (Jewish) in Hastings's Dictio?ja?y of Religion a?id Ethics^ and the relevant articles, under the personal names, iny^ ; and for Judah ha-Levi's Kitab al Khazari^ the edition (English translation, with a valuable introduction) by Dr. H. Hirschfeld ^ feiuish Mysticism^ p. 12. PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS 255 (London, 1905); the article "Ethics" in JE v. 245 ft'. ; on Bachya, the article \n JE ii. 446 f.; Bachya^s Duties of the Hearty English translation by E. Collins (London, 1903) ; J. H. Hertz (now Chief Rabbi), Bachya^ The Jewish Thomas a Kempis (1898) ; cp. also I. Abrahams, Short History of Jewish Literature^ chap, xix.] "The Jewish reh'gion," says Dr. Hirschfeld, *'is, by its nature, opposed to philosophic pursuits and meta- physical speculation in particular. Yet, in spite of this, mediaeval Jewish literature has 9, chapter on religious philosophy which is as extensive as it is profound." ^ The causes which led to this remark- able development are to be traced, as Dr. Hirschfeld suggests, to the fact that the Jews who were living under Moslim rule were brought into contact with the movement which stimulated the scientific spirit, and resulted in the eager pursuit of such sciences as astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. A further cause was the influence of Moslim theology, which, owing to a variety of conflicting factors, had developed a metaphysical side ; and this reacted on Judaism. The Arab philosophy became systematic only when Greek philosophical thought, represented by Plato and Aristotle, had been made accessible in Arabic to the Mohammedan theologians. " Philo- sophy, called to the aid of religion, produced the aid of Kalam (speculative theology), and a class of theologians who styled themselves Mutakallims. The latter found themselves compelled to supplement the teaching of the Koran by philosophic demonstra- tions of the existence of God, His attributes and character as Creator and Governor of the universe.' The first to apply to Jewish theology the philo- sophical methods of the Arabs was Saadya (892- 942), to whom reference has already been made in a former section. Brilliantly gifted, Saadya excelled ^ Introduction to ha-Levi's Khazari^ p. i. " Hirschfeld, ut cit. supra. 256 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM in culture all his Jewish contemporaries. At the age of thirty-six (in 928) this Egyptian Jew was summoned to preside as Gaon over the famous Academy of Sura, in Babylonia. He was the great protagonist for Rabbinical Judaism against its mortal foes, the Karaites. The latter appealed to the text of the Bible to justify their rejection of the Rabbinical positions. Saadya determined, therefore, to make the Bible accessible in the vernacular (Arabic), and so produced his Arabic translation of the Scriptures, adding notes. This version won immediate favour, and displaced, in the synagogues, the old Aramaic Targum, \\hich had hitherto been read with the original Hebrew. Saadya's version, thus publicly read, became a potent factor in impregnating the Jewish spirit with Arabic culture. Saadya may be regarded as the creator of a Jewish philosophy of religion. His great work in this depart- ment, completed in 933, was written in Arabic, Kitab al-Amanat wal-I'tikadab (" Book of Creeds and Doc- trines "V This is the first systematic treatment on a philosophic found- ation of the doctrines of Judaism. Saadya modelled his method on the Mutazillite Kalani. The first two sections deal with the metaphj'sical problems of the creation of the world (i), and the unity of the Creator (2). In the succeeding sections the following themes are treated of: The Jewish theory of revela- tion (3), doctrines of faith concerning the divine justice (4), and those concerned with merit and dement (5). Then follow sections on the soul and death (6), the resurrection of the dead (7), which, according to the author, is closely connected with the theory of the Messianic redemption (8). A concluding" section (9) deals with the rewards and punishments of the future life. An appendix (10) follows on the importance of moral conduct based on right belief. This last section is really a system of ethics. ^ Better known under the Hebrew title niyn n'^inw idd, the title given to the Hebrew translation by Judah ibn Tibbon. Another Hebrew version is cited at length in The Ethical Treatises 0/ Beruchya^ ed. by H. Gollancz(i902). PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS 257 Saadya also wrote an Arabic translation of, and commentary^ on, the mystical book Sepher Yefzirah, which he regarded as a genuine work of the patriarch Abraham. In this work he is not influenced by the speculative theology of the Kalam. Here, while regarding this (as he thought) venerable work as interesting and worthy of deep study, he evidently did not look upon it as a source for the theory of Judaism. He also wrote numerous other works in Hebrew and Arabic (on philological and Halakic questions), and compiled a Siddur or Hebrew Prayer Book (with explanations in Arabic), and composed liturgical poems (in Hebrew). A contemporary of Saadya, who cites him, though himself not referred to by Saadya, is the Karaite Al-Kirkisaniy whose work (in a fragmentary con- dition) has recently been made available for scholars.^ Kirkisani was apparently well versed not only in the study of the Bible and the works of the older Karaite teachers, as well as the Kalam, but was also acquainted with the Mishnah and Talmud and the Rabbinical Prayer Book. He was also familiar with the tenets of the Aristotelian philosophy and with the beliefs of Christians, Samaritans, and MosHms. He seems to have written a number of works (only fragments of which survive), the principal bearing the title Book of Lights and LighthouseSj a sort of encyclopaedia with nearly 500 chapters, dealing with a variety of subjects, historical, philosophical, polemical, exegetical, ritual, and legal. He also wrote commentaries on various books of the Bible, and a treatise on the unity of God. Specimens of his philosophical treatment are given by Dr. Hirschfeld, who shows ^ that he deals ^ Arabic title Tafsir Kitab al Mabadi. It has been edited with a French translation by Lambert (Paris, 1891). A Hebrew translation exists in MS. 2 By Dr. Hirschfeld, Qirqisani Studies (Jews' College Publications, No. 6, London, 1918). ^ op. cit. p. 19. S 258 RABBINICAL AND ]\IEDI^VAL JUDAISM with " the principal doctrines which one would seek in a Jewish philosophy of religion." These are " the existence of God, His unity and eternity, the refutation of the eternity of time and matter, and the divine attributes of the Creator of the world and His omnipotence. The Bibhcal anthropomorphisms are discussed by the author in MutazziHte style later on in one of the canons of exegesis. Human free-will is alluded to in a passing remark. Although all this is gained by direct deductions from Biblical passages, the author shows himself a true follower of the Mutazzilite Kalam, in which the doctrine of human free-will occupies a prominent position. His whole attitude in regarding reason as the mainspring of metaphysical as well as of physical knowledge is Mutazzilite. In his doctrine of human free-will he is entirely in accord with Saadya, and even uses the same term to express it." Saadya had not been dead much more than a generation when there arose in the East " the greatest philosophic genius the Mohammedan world had pro- duced," the famous Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037). His writings, which were brought to Spain about a century after their publication, exercised considerable influence over Jewish thought in the Middle Ages. A Latin translation of his philosophical work Al-Shefa (" Healing") was prepared with the aid of Jewish interpreters, and frequently used by Jewish writers. Another smaller work, entitled The Healing of the Soul^ was translated in the fourteenth century. Of his medical treatises, the chief, called The Canon — a colossal work — was for centuries used in its Latin forpi as a text-book in European universities. Avicenna was a great master of logic and metaphysics. A thorough Aristotelian, he taught that matter, "the principle of individuation, does not directly emanate from the Godhead, although it is, in its primal origin, eternal, and includes within itself all possibilities of development. . . . The first and only immediate product of God . . is the world-soul or world- intelligence, which unwinds an endless chain of creation through- out all the celestial spheres down to the earth. The cause that produces, however, must also conserve, for cause and effect are identical ; from which it follows that the world itself, like God, must be eternal."^ His theory, however, is not completely consistent. It seems that his Neoplatonic view of evolution gradually led him to mysticism. ^ JE ii. 351 (article "Avicenna"). PHILOSOPHY AND ETHirS 259 Avicenna's reputation was so high, that his writings were eagerly studied by Jews. The outstanding name among the Jewish Neo- platonic philosophers is that of Solomon ibn Gebirol (1021-58 or 1070), famous also as a poet.^ He had much to do with the diffusion of Neoplatonism in Europe, his works .enj())Mng a wide popularity in Latin among Christians. His main philosophic work, the Arabic original of wliich is lost, has survived parti)' in a Hebrew translation witli the title Me/cor chayvi/n ('* Fount of Life"), but as a whole exists only in the tw^elfth-century Latin translation Pons VitcE. The author is liere st3^1ed " Avicebron,'' who \vas sujjposed to be a Christian scholastic till in 1848 Solomon I\Iunk established hi^ true identity. In this work Gebirol treats phikjsopliic problems without any pronounced theological preconceptions. In a similar way Isaac Israeli (died 953,), a famous physician, and the first known philosophic \\riter of the Arab period among the Jews, treated philosophic questions apart from theology. He was also a Neoplatonist. Though the Fons Vitce influenced the Jewish Kabbalah, especially in its theory of emanations, it did not exercise any marked effect upon Jewish scholastic development, and, in fact, was more influential a.mong Christian than Jewish philosophers. A collection of moral maxims known as The Choice of Pearls^ which was a favourite ethical handbook in the Middle Ages, is also attributed to Gebirol's authorship, but this is doubtful. A more important and highly original ethical treatise, which is probably the work of Gebirol, and was written at Saragossa about the year 1045, is the treatise entitled The hnprovement of Moral Qualities (ed. in Arabic and English by S. S. Wise, Ne\\- York, 1901). On this see fE vi. 529. A highly popular ethical treatise, which in its Hebrew form has gone through about fifty editions, was produced by Bachya ibn Pakuda of Saragossa ^ Gebirol was a Spanish ]^\\. From this time Spain was the chief seat of Arab culture among the Jews. 2 English translation" by B. H. Asher (London, 1859). 26o RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM (about 1050-1100). This is known from the title of the Hebrew translation produced by Judah ibn Tibbon (1167J as The Duties of the Heart (Chohoth ha-Lehahoth)} Bachya is an original thinker of high rank, well acquainted with the entire philosophical and scientific literature of the Arabs, as well as that of Jewish writers. He was also a man of deep personal piety as well as a philosopher, and is moved by deep religious feeling. The influence of Neoplatonic ideas and Sufi mysticism is apparent in the book, though these elements are never allowed to cloud the clear enunciation of a pure Jewish monotheism. T/ic Duties of the Heart represents an attempt "to present the Jewish faith as being essentially a great spiritual truth founded on Reason, Revelation (the written Law), and Tradition, all stress being at the same time laid on the willingness and the joyful readiness of the God- loving heart to perform life's duties."^ Though not formally a metaphysical treatise, the work contains a compendium of religious philosophy.^ Neoplatonic doctrines were also diffused by the translation into Hebrew of non-Jewish writings of this school of thought. In some cases such works have survived only in the Hebrew translation. About this tioie (the latter half of the eleventh century) a reaction against extreme Aristotelian teachings, which had been growing among the Mohammedans, came to a head in the writings of the great Arab philosopher and theologian Al- Ghazali (born in Khorasan 1058, died there 11 11). His most important works are The Aims of Philo- sophers, The Destruction of Philosophy^ and The Revival of the Science of Religion. His writings exercised considerable influence over Jews, especially in the form of Hebrew translations.* 1 The original Arabic text, under the tide Al-hiddja' ildfard^ id al-quliib., has been edited, with an introduction, by A. S. Yahuda (Leyden, 1912). For an English version, cp. p. 255 above. ^ JE ii. 447 (article " Bahya"). 3 See the full exposition of Bachya's system \nJE ii. 447-454. * These translations began to be made as early as the thirteenth century. PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS 261 The famous Judah ha-Levi,^ though most eminent as a poet, also did important work in the domain of philosophy. He occupied much the same position in Jewish religious philosophy as that occupied by Al-Ghazali in Islam. Indeed, he seems to have been influenced by the latter. His views are ex- pounded in the well-known apologetic work, written originally in Arabic, but circulating also in the form of a Hebrew translation by Judah ibn Tibbon, the Kitah al-Khazari. (Best edition, Arabic original and Hebrew translation, by H. Hirschfeld, Leipzig, 1887; for English translation, cp. p. 254 above.) This famous apology for Judaism is cast in the form of a dialogue between the pagan king of the Chazars and a Jew who had been summoned to instruct him in the tenets of the Jewish religion. The main principle of the treatise is to show that revealed religion is superior to natural religion ; in other words, revelation, not speculative philosophy, is the only trustworthy guide to a real knowledge of God. He defends the Jewish Scriptural doctrine of Creation ("ex nihilo ") against the Aristotelian view of the eternity of matter. Judah also dis- cusses the questions relative to the attributes of God and anthropomorphism. The apologetic character of the book is revealed in the second Arabic title, which runs : Book of Argumefit a7td Demonstration in Aid of the Despised Faith. It is essentially not only a defence of revealed religion against philosophy, but a defence of traditional Judaism against assailants such as the Karaites. A considerable portion of the third part is devoted to a vindication of the Talmud. It was translated into Hebrew not more than thirty years after its publication by Judah ibn Tibbon, and again later, and many commentaries have been written on it. In the first half of the twelfth century Neoplatonic philosophy among the Jews was represented by Abraham bar Chiyya ha-Nasi (" Abraham Jud^us "), often called " Savasorda." An eminent mathema- tician and astronomer, he also wrote on ethics and philosoph)'. 1 Born at Toledo about 1085, died in the East after 1 140 {cp. p. 34), 262 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM A profoundly religious and ethical work of his (written in Hebrew) is Meditatioii of the Sou/ {Heiryoii ha-nephesh). In philosophy he followed Ibn Gebirol, maintaining' the Neo- platonic view that "matter, being void of all reality, requires form to give it existence. Now the union of these two by the will of God, which brings them from a state of potentiality ii\to one of actuality, is creation, time itself being simultaneously produced with the cieated things." ^ To this school of philosophic thought belong also the poet IMoses ibn Ezra of Granada (died 1139), the author of a treatise in Arabic called The Garden (of which onl}^ fragments have survived) ; his contem- porary, Joseph ibn Zaddik of Cordova (died 1149), author of a Neoplatonic work which has been pre- served onl\' in a Hebrew translation called Microcosm Qolam katdn) ; and the famous Bible commentator Abraham ibn Ezra (about 1100-1167). Strict Aristotelianism was revived in Jewish philo- sophy in tlie second half of the twelfth century by Abraham ibn Daud ha-Levi (RABaD I.) of Toledo (11 10-80), who was also an astronomer and historian. His philosophical work, The Suhlime Faith, written in Arabic, has been preserved in two Hebrew trans- lations. Though not an original thinker, he is important as being "the first to introduce that phase of philosophy which is generally attributed to Alaimonides, and which differs from former systems of philosophy mainly in its more thorough systematic form deri\ed from Aristotle."" He considered the Arabic commentators Alfarabi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna^ to be the only true philosophers, and he constantly attacks Gebirol, who represented Neoplatonic views. True philosophy, accord- ing to Ibn Daud, is an aid to revealed religion — where they seem to contradict one another a mode of reconciling them can be found. He was, lunvcNer, unable to reconcile the Aristo- telian doctrine of the eternity of matter with the Biblical view of Creation, which implies c7'eatio ex luhilo. His doctrine of ^ JE \. 109 (j.i'. ' Abraham bar Hiyya"; sec the whole article). ^ JK i. lor {s.v. "Abraham ibn Daud"). PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS 263 God is interesting. God, as being the Prioie Mover of all motion, is Himself motionless, and, being infinite, must be absolutely One and Unique. He also discusses the problems of human free-will and predestination. An important Arabian philosopher, who exercised considerable influence on Jewish philosophy, and belongs to the twelfth century, must be mentioned in this connexion. This was Averroes, or, to give him his Arabic name, Abul Walid Muhammed ibn Ahmad ibn Roshd of Cordova ( 1 1 26-98). Like Avicenna, Averroes wrote an original compendium of the Aristotelian philosophy, and also the so-called " Middle Commentaries " (which follow the text), and other works. His writings were greatly admired in Jewish circles, and owe their preservation (either in Hebrew translations or Hebrew transliterations of the Arabic text) to this fact. In Mohammedan circles they were extensively condemned. His writings were familiar to Maimonides, who, however, cannot be called his disciple, though often in agree- ment with him. Some of his other original works also influenced Jewish writers. One on The Relation of Faith to Knowledge is extant in an anonymous Hebrew translation (dated 1340), and another has the title The Book of the Revelation of the Method of Proof touching the Principles of Religion. Both were known to Kolon\'mus ben Kalonymus and Simon Duran in 1423. More famous is his reply to Ghazali's attack on the philosophers. Averroes called his reply A Confutation of the Confutation. Kalonymus, the son of David ben Todros, translated it into Hebrew in 1328.^ The influence of Averroes was all-powerful in the fourteenth century, but after that rapidly declined. Levi ben Gerson and Moses ^ This Hebrew translation was rendered into Latin by a Neapolitan physician, also named Kalonymus (ben David), and published in \'enice in 1327. 264 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Narboni may be regarded as followers of his philo- sophy. As has been pointed out, Averroes was much studied in Jewish circles ; Maimonides frequently refers to him, often to differ from his positions. Many commentaries on, and trans- lations of, his writings were made later in Hebrew ; and a number of original writings in Hebrew were inspired by his works. The first to introduce his philosophy to Jewish literature was Samuel ibn Tibbon (the translator of Maimonides' Giiide)^ who published at the beginning of the thirteenth century an Eficycloptzdia of Philosophy which mainly consists of extracts from Averroes. Translations (into Hebrew) of his works appeared in 1232, 1260, 1284, and 1298. A new series appeared in the first half of the fourteenth century, and the second half of that century, which may be regarded as "the golden age of Averroism among the Jews," witnessed the production of many original treatises, inspired by the study of Averroes, among the Jews. Levi ben Gerson (Gersonides) and Moses of Narbonne (Messer Vidal) are especially prominent in this connexion. Mention may also be made here of the ethical and rhetorical work by Jedayah Penini (1261-1321) entitled Bechinath ^OIa?n ("Examination of the World") and his ^Itggereth ha-Hithnaizeluth ("Letter on Self-exculpation"), defending philosophy against the attack of Solomon b. Adret, and the commentaries of Joseph Caspi on Maimonides' Guide — all influenced by Averroes. The greatest Jewish philosopher of the Middle Ages, Moses ben Maimun, commonly called " Mai- monides" (i 135-1204), was a }'ounger contemporary both of Averroes and Abraham ibn Daud, the latter of whom he frequently follows. Maimonides, start- ing with the fundamental conviction that reason, being a gift of God, cannot be irreconcilable with religion, or contradict it, sought to show that the highest form of philosophy, which he identified with the teachings of Aristotle, could be harmonised with those of Judaism. This attempt is made in his great work The Guide of the Perplexed (written in Arabic about 1190, and subsequently translated into Hebrew more tlian once). The book is divided into two parts, the first of which deals with the apparent contra- PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS 265 dictions between Aristotle and the Bible, Maimonides attempt- ing to show that this is due only to a literal interpretation of the latter. When the anthropomorphic langviage is properly explained, these, he contends, disappear. In this connexion he discusses the divine attributes. " Maimonides does not admit any positive attributes in the description of God, except those referring to God's actions. God's essence can be described only negatively."^ The first part concludes with a history of the Kalam^ and a criticism of its methods and teachings. This is a valuable source — till recent times the main source — of knowledge of the subject. In the second part the principal problems of philosophy — creaiio ex nihilo^ the unity and incorporeality of God — and the nature of prophecy are discussed ; while the third part is devoted to questions of a more theological nature, such as the origin of evil, the extent of divine providence, and the meaning and purpose of the divine law. " Maimonides identifies religion, as expressed in the divine precepts of the Pentateuch, with ethics and tries to show that the precepts, if properly understood, have a moral purpose." ^ Maimonides' works were widely studied in Christian circles, and exercised great influence on the scholastic writers, es- pecially Albertus Magnus and Aquinas. The best edition of the Guide is that of Dr. M. Friedlander, in 3 vols. (London, 1881-85). A useful conspectus is given in the volume on Maimonides by David Yellin and Israel Abrahams (London, Macmillan, 1903). Maimonides' disciple and " spiritual son," Joseph ben Judah ibn Aknin (1160-1226), wrote on philo- sophical problems, but the controversy which arose after Maimonides' death led to a decline of philo- sophic studies in Jewish circles during the thirteenth century. 2 Ibn Aknin was the author of a treatise which discussed {a) the nature of the Absolute, {b) the derivation of all things from the Absolute, and ic) creaiio ex nihilo. This was written in Arabic, but has survived only in a Hebrew translation. Jewish writers who dealt with philosophic problems were not wanting in the thirteenth century ; but for the most part their ^ Maker in Hastings's Dictionary of Religion and Ethics^ vol. ix., p. 876. ^ Maker, op. cif. ibid. ■'• cp. Graetz, tlistory of the Jezvs (E.T.), iii, 522-545 and 623 ff. 266 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM work is destitute of originality, merely repeating what had been said already, taking the form of commentaries or compendiums. Translations of foreign woiks into Hebrew were also made. In this connexion the following may be mentioned : Shem Tob Palquera (1225-90); the Italian physician Hillel ben Samuel (1220-90), the translator into Hebrew of several works, among others of the Liber dc caiisis (from the Latin text) ; Isaac Alhalag, of South France (second half of thirteenth century), who tried to harmonise the Biblical account of Creation with the Aristotelian tenet of the eternity of matter ; and Joseph ibn Caspi of Argenti^re (1297-1340), who was a prolific writer. With the dawn of the fourteenth century Jewish peripatetic philosophy was revived and given its most pronounced form . by the famous Levi ben Gershon (RaLBaG), commonly called " Gersonides," who is also known as " Leon de Bagnols," and, in Latin, as *' Magister Leo Hebr^us" (1288-1344). Gershon, who was exegete, mathematician, and physician, as well as philosopher, began to write the philosophical work which brought him so much renown — the Milchamoth 'Adonai ("The Battles of the Lord "j — when he was not yet thirty years of age. He wrote numerous philosophic commentaries on the Bible, on the works of Averroes, and on parts of the Talmud, as well as treatises on mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. The following important works of Gershon were finished by 1321 (when he was thirty-three): The Milchamoth ^Ado7iai (begun 1317), commentaries on the Pentateuch, on the earlier Prophets, on Daniel, on Proverbs, on Canticles, Esther, Ecclesiastes, and Ruth, a treatise on syllogisms {Sepher Hekkesh ha- Yashar)^ and a commentary on the Middle Commentaries and risunih of Averroes (part of this commen- tary was translated into Latin by Jacob Mantino and published in the first volume of the works of Aristotle with the commen- taries of Averroes). Levi ben Gershon occupies a unique position in the history of Jewish philosophy. " Of all the Jewish peripatetics he alone dared to vindicate the Aristotelian position in its integrit}', regardless of PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS 267 the conflict existing between sonie of its doctrines and the principal dogmas of Judaism. Possessed of a highly developed critical sense, Levi sometimes disagrees with Aristotle and asserts his own views in opposition to those of his master Averroes ; but when, after having weighed the pros and cons of a doctrine, he believes it to be sound, he is not afraid to profess it, even when it is directly at variance with an accepted dogma of Jewish theology. ' The Law,' he says, * cannot prevent us from considering to be true that which our reason urges us to believe.' "^ In his treatment of philosophical questions Gershon adopts the method of Aristotle. Before giving his own solutions, he subjects the opinions of his pre- decessors to a critical review. In his MilchamSth 'Adonai he discusses the nature of the soul, its relation to the intellect, the question " Is prophecy possible?" the nature of prophecy, God's omni- science, Divine Providence, astronomy, physics, and metaphysics, Creation and miracles. Some of his philosophical tlieories influenced Spinoza. Another interesting name in this connexion is that of Moses ben Joshua of Narbonne (sometimes called Moses Xarboni), surnamed " Maestro Vidal Blasom " (born at end of thirteenth century, died after 1 562). He studied and practised medicine with great success, and was well versed in Biblical and Rabbinical literature ; but his main activities were devoted to philosoph)-, and especially to the works of Averroes, of whom he was an enthusiastic admirer. He wrote (in Hebrew) valuable commentaries on the latter's works, as well as on those of Avicenna, Ghazali, Ibn Tufail, and Maimonides. The reaction against the extreme philosophical positions of Gersonides and Maimonides was marked by the appearance of a profound philosophical work ^ Broyde in /E viii. 29. (See the whole article for a full discussion of Gershon's philosophy.) 268 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM by Chasdai ben Abraham Crescas of Barcelona (1340- 1410). The title of this is 'Of 'Adonai (" Light of the Lord "). Crescas intended this to be the first part of a larger work. The second part, which was neve written, was to be called Ner 'Adonai (" Lamp of the Lord "), the whole to be a complete presentment of the contents of Judaism. The 'Or ^Adonai is a philosophical treatment of Jewish dogma. Its avowed object "was to liberate Judaism from the bondage of Aristotelianism, which, through Maimonides, influenced by Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Gersonides, influenced by Ibn Roshd (Averroes), threatened to blur the distinctness of the Jewish faith, reducing the doctrinal contents of Judaism to a surrogate of Aristotelian concepts."-^ The work is divided into four parts, which deal respectively with (i) the existence of God ; (2) the fundamental doctrines of the faith; ('3) other doctrines w'hich, -without being funda- mental, are binding on the adherents of Judaism ; (4) traditional doctrines which are not binding, and which are open to philosophical construction. Crescas is important because he met the philosophical attack on religion with philosophical weapons. It was through Albo that his ideas more directly influenced Jewish thought. Mention can only be made in passing of a philo- sopher of distinction who arose among the Karaite Jews during the fourteenth centur)-. This was Aaron ben Elijah of Nicomedia (Asia Minor), who produced a treatise (finished in 1346) which was modelled on Maimonides' Guide, called The Tree of Life. This is a work of some importance. Another philosophic writer of the end of the four- teenth century is Profiat Duran (called '' Maestre Frofiat "), whose real name was Isaac ben Moses ha- Levi, the author of a synoptic commentary on Maimonides' Guide, which shows considerable acquaintance with the Aristotelian philosophy." ^ JE {s.v. '' Crescas"), iv. 351. 2 He also wrote a critical Hebrew grammar, which was much praised by both Jews and Christians, and a polemical work PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS 269 More noteworthy is Simon ben Zemach Duran (RaShEaZ) (1361-1444), a man of vast learning and a prolific author of writings on Talmudic, Biblical, religious, liturgical, and philosophic subjects. He wrote a vast treatise of an encyclopaedic character entitled Magen Aboth, in which he displays his familiarity with philosophy and with the whole range of the secular learning of the Middle Ages. He attacked Chasdai Crescas and defended Maimonides. The best-known Jewish philosophic writer of the fifteenth century is Joseph Albo (about 1 380-1444), a pupil of Chasdai Crescas, and author of the famous work 'Ikkarivi (*' Principles "). Albo's ''Ikkarini ("Book of Principles ") became a popular text-book. It may, perhaps, be regarded as primarily a contribution to the apologetics of Judaism. Like his master Crescas, he criticises Maimonides and the Aristotelian philo- sophy. He reduces the fundamental "roots" or root-doctrines of Judaism to three, and attaches to each of these a number of '■Shirashim^ or " secondai'y radicals." The three fundamental root-principles are: (i) Belief in the existence of God; (2) belief in revelation, or communication of divine instruction by God to man ; (3) belief in divine retribution (future rewards and punishments). After Albo there flourished several Jewish philo- sophic writers of merit, but none of marked originalit}', during the rest of the fifteenth century. The best-known names are those of Abraham Bihago of Huesca (died about 1490), who commented on Averroes, and wrote a philosophic defence of the Jewish faith {The Path of Faith) \ Judah Messer Leon of Mantua; Elijah del Medigo of Crete (1450-93), a famous professor of philosophy (at the University of Padua and elsewhere), who wrote not only in Hebrew (the Bechinath ha-Dath^ " Investigation of Religion"), but also in Latin (on the works of Aristotle and Averroes) ; Isaac Arama of Zamora (died 1494), the author of a popular philosophic and homiletical work called The Offering of Isaac ; (still unpublished) criticising Christian dogmas. This was written in 1397 at the request of Chasdai Crescas, to whom it was dedicated. Its title is Kelimniath ha-Goyim. 270 RABBINICAL AND MEDLEVAL JUDAIS:\I and Isaac Abarbanel ([437-1508), the author of numerous Bible commentaries, who has already been referred to in that connexion, also wrote on philosophical questions. With the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492 the great centre of Jewish science and learning was destroyed. And with this event the Hne of "Jewish philosophy" in the strict sense came to an end. Books deaUng with philosophical questions were still written, but no great contributions were made. The line of Jewish philosophers played, perhaps, no gvea-ttole in the evolution of philosophy, but they took an important part in preserving and transmitting philosophic thought through a difficult period. Besides the purely ethical treatises already referred to, the most notable of which is liachya's Duties of the Hearty mention ought to be made of some others that were important. A book of this kind that obtained wide currency in the Middle Ag"es is The Book of the Pious {Sepher ha-CJtasidini)^ which has been attributed to Judah Chasid, of whom very little is known. He is supposed to have lived in Regensburg at the end of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century. The Book of the Pious^ however, seems really to be the work of no single writer, but to have grown up out of various elements — mystical, ethical, ceremonial — in the Khinelands during the thirteenth century. Parts of it display deep insight into the cravings of the human heart. The famous Eleazar of Worms ( 1 176-1238), who has already been referred to in other connexions, and w ho \\as a pupil of Judah Chasid, was the author of a well-known book of a similar kind entitled Rokeach^ by which name Eleazar himself is also sometimes called. An anonymous ethical book which emanated from the Rhine district, and was probably written some time in the fifteenth century, is known as The Ways of t/ic RigJiteous i^O^'choth Zaddikin)} It has often been printed (both in Jewish-German and Hebrew). Another favourite class of ethical works consisted of com- pilations of an ethical character from the Talnmd and Midrash. The oldest and most highly esteemed of these was written at the beginning of the fourteenth century by Isaac Aboab, and ^ Also called sometimes Sepher ha-Middoth. THE MEDI^^^\L POETRY 271 bears the title Lamp of Light {Menorath ka-Maor). The author Hved in Spain. Another popular compilation of the same kind is Jacob ibn Chabib's ^En Ya'akob, which was made in the sixteenth century {cp. p. 138 above). Elijah de \'idas' Reshith Chokmah {Beginning of Wisdom)^ first published in 1578, was also widely read. It collects maxims on such topics as the love and fear of God, repentance, holiness, and humility. A peculiarly Jewish department of this kind of literature is the ethical will, many examples of which are extant. In these documents^ a father (or a teacher) leaves a kind of ethical testament to sons (or disciples). They were private documents, not intended for publication, which were carefully treasured within the family circle, and were often written from the thir- teenth century onwards. A well-known example of this kind, which is really a small ethical treatise, and has found its way into many prayer books under the title JVays of Life^ is the ethical will of R. Asher ben Jechiel (1250-1327) to his son R. Jehudah ben Asher. One of the most interesting examples of this type of literature is the ethical will of the translator Judah ibn Tibbon, in which he gives his son excellent advice on methods of study and translation.^ V THE MEDLEVAL POETRY [Litb:rature : Professor A. Sulzbach, Die poetische Litter- atur (in Winter und Wiinsche, iii. 1-215) ; the articles " Poetry (Lyric)," '■'' Piyytit" \n fE \ the articles on the personal names in fE\ the articles "Literature (Jewish)," §5, and "Hymns (Hebrew and Jewish)" in Hastings's Dictionary of Religion and Ethics ; Zunz, Die synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters (Berlin, 1855), and Die Litteratur-geschichte der synagogalen Poesie (Berlin, 1865) ; Franz Delitzsch, Zur Geschichte der jiidischen Poesie (Leipzig, 1836) ; M. Sachs, Die religiose Poesie der Juden ifi Spanien ; Thomas Chenery, Machberoth Ithiel (London and Edinburgh, 1872) ; Brody and Albrecht (E.T.), The New-Hebrew School of Poets of the Spanish- Arabian Epoch (London, 1906 ; Hebrew text, with introduction, notes, and dictionary). English translations (in poetical form) by Mrs. Lucas {The Jewish Year), Nina Salamans, and others; chaps, vii., a., xii. in Abrahams' Short History of fewish Literature^ 1 Heb. ni«i^. ^ See/fi'vi. 545. 272 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM (i) The development of post-Biblical Hebrew poetry derived its first impulse from the necessities of liturgical worship. The technical term for this kind of composition is piyyiit, and the author of a piyyut is called a payyetan. ' The word is derived from the Greek term for "poet," iroirjTTjs. In the Mirlrash piyyut is used in the general sense of " fiction." while payyetan has the technical sense of an author of synagogue poetry. This fact suggests that the latter term is a secondary term for the former. The oldest piyyutim, in the technical sense of the term, which are anon3^mous, probably date from the Geonic period (seventh century). The most famous payyetan of the Middle Ages is Eleazar ben Kalir, whose exact date is uncertain, but may be some time in the tenth century.^ The oldest payyetan whose name is known and whose work must have been known to Saadya (died a.d. 942), since the latter quotes him, is Jose ben Jose. Another, somewhat later, is Jannai, who is reputed to have been the teacher of Eleazar ben Kalir, while the latter was the immediate predecessor of Saadya. From this time the payyetanint are numerous, and were flourishing in the Jewish settlements, especially in Germany, France, Spain, and Italy. The piyyut is, of course, not a fixed part of the Jewish Liturgy, but represents the " occasional " element which is used on the great festivals and certain special days. In consequence the collections of piyyutim differ in the different rituals. Those used by the Spanish Jews, for instance, are, as a whole, different from those used by the Germans. They are written in Hebrew ^Hebrew often used in a strained and artificial way, especially by Kalir, but still Hebrew ; for though Arabic replaced Hebrew as the literary language of the Jews of the Orient, and was also used by the Jews in Spain, the Liturgy was always recited in Plebrew. ^ Others would place him about 750, THE MEDIEVAL POETRY 273 In Spain, where the new Hebrew poetry attained its zenith in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the outstanding names are Solomon ibn Gebirol, Judah ha-Levi, and Moses and Abraham ibn Ezra. T\\& piyyutwt fall into different classes, varying in structure and according to their theme and place in the Liturgy. One large class, which is perhaps the oldest, is the Selichoth, or penitential prayers. In its simplest and oldest form the Sellchah is represented by such pieces as the we-hu rachum (Singer, pp. 57-62), which in its opening clauses runs as follows : And He^ being 7nerdful, forgive fh iniquity and destroy eth not j Yea J ?na?ty u time He turneth His anger a%vay^ and doth not stir up all His wrath. Withhold not Thou Thy tender mercies from us^ O Lord: Let Thy loving-kifidness and truth continually presei^e us. This is recited on Mondays and Thursdays, and was known as early as the Geonic period. It was originally intended for fast-days, as were some of the other anonymous Selichoth. ^ The oldest poetic Selichoth are in the form of litanies, arranged in short sentences, and sometimes in alphabetic acrostic. From these litanies originated the rhymeless Selichoth., which were modelled on the Biblical alphabetic Psalms. In course of time the construction was elaborated and rhyme introduced (sometimes middle rhymes as well), and the verses, arranged in two-, three-, or four-lined strophes, have a certain well-defined rhythm.^ A favourite theme for these compositions was the Akedah^ or Sacrifice of Isaac, which naturally led on to the commemoration of \'oluntary sacrifices made for the Jewish religion (martyrdom). A good example of the poetic Selichah^ with two-lined strophes, the two lines rhyming, and each strophe iDeginning with an alphabetic letter in order, is one known as Dipn «!« for the morning service on the Day of Atonement, the author of which is unknown, and which is probably not later than the thirteenth century. It has been rendered into English verse by Mr. Zangwill, some of whose lines may here be quoted : ^ God and the God of our fathers^ honotcred and terrible Name, Pardofi the sin of this people, gathered Thy praise to proclaim. ^ SeQfEs.v. ^^ Selihahj^' XI. 1 70 ff. for further details. ^ See Service of the Synagogue {Machzor), ed. Davis, ii p. 84f. T 274 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Tender Thine ear for Thy glory : hark to our prayer and plea ^ Song of Thy suppliant servants^ yearning to reach unto Thee. Nigh to Thy Teinple this niorn^ to render t hanks e.iving I drew^ Set on confessing my si?is : the si?ts that Thy people pt/rsue. The term piyyittivi is applied more specifically to the hymns for holy-days and special Sabbaths, which are divided into distinct classes, according to their place in the Liturg}-. Those which are inserted in the Evening Prayer i^Arbith) are termed Ma'arbiyyoth ; a large class, which are inserted in the first Benediction of Morning Prayer ( Yotisvr ''o?-\^ are called Yotser^ and another, inserted in the second Benediction (known as ^Ahabah)^^ are called ^Ahabah ; those inserted in the Benediction following the Shema'- are termed Zulath^ from a characteristic word which occurs at the end of the second paragraph of that Benediction ("There is no God beside Thee \zTilathekaY)} Other special names are Ophan^ applied to the piyytit which is inserted at that part of the morning Benediction which refers to the " Ophannim (wheels) and holy chayyoth" giving praise (Singer, p. 39) ; the idea of the passage is based upon Ezekiel's vision (chap, i.), and the theme of the inserted piyyut is that of the heavenly host praising the Lord ; and also Keroboth^ Shib^ata ("seven," because the ''Amidah Prayer for Sabbaths and holy days consists of seven Benedictions), Tokachah ("reproof"), a kind of penitential discourse, and Kinah (*' lamentation "'), used on the Fast of the Qth of Ab. The term Keroboth (" prayers of approach," i.e. to God ; cp. Jer. xii. 2) in particular is applied to the piyyutim which are inserted in the earlier part of the repetition of the morning 'Amidah on special Sab- baths, on the three festivals, and on New Year in the Ashkenazic Liturgy. They are associated with very ancient melodies. 1 See Singer, p. i'] f (" Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who Greatest light "). 2 'Ahabah = " Love" ; cp. Singer, p. 39 f. (" With abounding love" etc.). 3 cp. Singer, p. 43. Sometimes Geidlah (" Redemption ") is used. THE MEDIEVAL POETRY 275 They are constructed in accordance with a fixed scheme, always opening" with a resJiuth^ or prayer of the cantor for divine guidance, accompanied by a confession of unworthiness. The resliidh is cantillated to a melody A\hich reappears in the concluding verses. The main body of the piyyut is now generally read through in an undertone. The whole is brought to an end in a long meditation bringing in the KediisJuxh^ which is termed the SiUtik {i.e. "cessation,"' sr. of the singing). The following' example illustrates the opening of such a piyynt for the morning service of the First Day of the New Year.^ The opening clause rhymes in the Hebrew, as well as the lines that follow.^ From the counsel of the wise and under standing y and front knowledge gotten of the discerning, I will open my lips in prayer and supplication, to intreat and implore the presence of the King of kings and Lord of lords. Trembling, I now pour forth my prayerful plea, And, suppliant, seek Thee shrined in awe supreme. I fear that worthless Thou my deeds must deem , Wisdom I lack, and hope forsaketh me. Teach nie my sacred portion to possess : Strengthen, ttphold me, weak in terror s snare. Account my whispered plaint as incense rare. Sweeter than honey voice of my distress. Its guileless utterance through Thy grace coufwjn, And pardons ransom to my people speed. Melodious let my supplication plead For these Thy suitors, humbled as the worm. Thy promise, from the sheltering covert heard, Renew, and hearken to the prayer I frame. When Thou dost search mv heart, mine inward flame , With dread of doom my stricken soul is stirred. ^ See Set vice of iJie Synagogue, Nc-iv Year, p. 95 f. ■^ The author is R. Jekuthiel b. Moses of Speyer (circa 1070). The rhymed version is by Elsie Davis. T 2 276 RABBINICAL AND MEDIiEVAL JUDAISM Lest sill be paid full due, each heart doth quake ; As streams, the fountains of mine eyelids flow. Craving Thy charity, I wait, bestow Thy pardon, for the righteous fathers' sake. My heart grows hot the while I muse and pray, 'Tis kindled as a fiery, glowing coal ; Doubts, like a tempest, agitate my soul ; For terror hath invaded us this day. All this is cantillated by the Reader. Then follows a longer passage recited by the congregation. The compositions called Kin-oth are designed for use on the 9th of Ab, the solemn fast which commemorates the various destructions of the Holy City. Various elegiac poems of this type were produced in the Middle Ages, the most famous being the Sionim of Judah ha-Levi. To another Spanish-Jewish poet of the twelfth century, Baruch (1077-1127), son of R. Isaac ibn Albalia, two Kinoth are attributed which are still used in the synagogue. One of these has been rendered into English in poetical form by the late Canon T. L. Kingsbury, from A\'hich the following stanzas may be quoted. The elegy consists of twenty- two short stanzas, following the alphabetic order (and thus forming an alphabetic acrostic) ; each stanza again is subdivided by a double refrain, When I forth from Egypt came, and When I left ferusalem. The poet "' contrasts the mercies and glories of the Exodus with the awful judgements which accom- panied and followed the two falls of Jerusalem,"^ but ends on a triumphant note. An introductory stanza, which stands outside the alphabetic scheme, describes the emotions which moved the poet to write. We quote this and two others of the twenty-two : ^ See The Holy Tears of Jesus (London, Hodder and Stoughlon, 1892), Appendix iii. THE MEDIEVAL POETRY 277 Introductory Stanza Fire is kindled me within, Bright thoughts in my heart upspring, How I forth from Egypt came. Lays of mourning I intone, Memory utters groan on groan, How I left Jer^isalem. Aleph Moses sang that glorious day 'Song that ne'er shall pass away, When I forth from Egypt came. Jeremiah pour'd his soul Forth in lamentable dole. When I left ferusalem. Daleth Angel-bread from highest heaven, Rock-stored water-streams were given, When I forth from Egypt came. Wormwood, gall have been my food, And my drink of tears the flood. Since I left ferusalem. Another elaborate kind of liturgical composition for the Day of Atonement services is termed 'Abodah ("Service"), its theme being a detailed description of the service in the Temple on that day, based upon the Mishnah tractate Yoma. Other liturgical compositions of a similar general character are ^AzharoUi (embodying the Pentateuchal commandments), and Hosha''a?ioth^ poetical pieces with a " Hosanna " refrain, used on Hoshctna rabha (the seventh day of the Feast of Tabernacles). The cycle of festival services is termed Machsor ("cycle"). 278 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM (ii) Kalir is, in man}^ respects, the most remarkable of the payyetanim. He was a proHfic -writer, no less than \.\\o hundred of his compositions being still extant in various Machzorim. He is the most essential !)■ Jewish of the liturgical poets, drawing his materials from the Talmudim and Midrashim, and using as his medium of expression Biblical Hebrew — but a Biblical Hebrew "enriched with daring innovations." He takes great liberties with the language, uses rare words, and constantly makes allusions to the Haggadah and indulges in allegorical expressions to an extent that makes him difficult to follow. In spite of these defects, which have pro- voked much criticism, Kalir has always had imitators, and the " Kalirian " form of piyyitt has been per- petuated down to recent times. Kalir employed the acrostic (and also gematria) in order to interweave his own name into his compositions, and uses rhyme. Saad3''a also added hymns to the Liturgy. Some of these have all the faults of the Kalirian piyynf without its virtues ; but others are characterised by a purit}' and simplicity that suggest the Spanish school, of which, indeed, in some wa)^s Saadya was the harbinger. Under the princeh- physician and statesman, Chasdai ibn Shaprut (915-970 or 990), Cordova became the home of Jewish culture and letters. There Jewish grammarians, critics, poets, merchants, and courtiers assembled under his auspices, among the rest Dunash ibn Labrat, grammarian and poet. Dunash was for a time a pupil of Saadya, and it was after the death of the latter (in 942) that he went to Cordova. His importance as a poet is considerable, as he was the first to apply Arabic metrical rules to Hebrew poetr)-, though very few of his verses have survived. THE MEDIAEVAL POETRY 279 About half a century after the death of Chasdai, Samuel ibn Nagdela (993-1055) was head of the Jewish community in Granada, and occupied a position of commanding influence. As head of the Jewish community he is termed "the Nagid " (" Prince "). He became the principal minister of the ruler of Granada. A man of extraordinary versatility, Samuel was at once Rabbi (and a pro- found Rabbinical scholar^), statesman and man of affairs, and poet. Pie wrote many poetical pieces — hymns in the style of the Psalms (Ben Tehillim) and of Proverbs {Ben Mishle), as well as secular pieces such as wine- and love-songs. "When Samuel the Nagid died in 1055, the golden age of (Jewish) Spanish literature was in sight." ^ "In the days of Chasdai," says Abraham ibn Daud, "the poets began to twitter." This, of course, refers to the poets of the new Spanish-Arabian school, who may be said to begin with Dunash ibn Labrat and his opponent, Menachem ben Saruk. In Spain Jewish poetry, though largely religious, embraced also secular subjects, and was pervaded by a totally different spirit from that of the KaHrian piyyut. It was purer in its diction, less artificial, and more melodious and graceful. It was brought to perfec- tion by the great masters, Solomon ibn GebJrol, the Ibn Ezras, and Judah ha-Levi. Solomon ibn Gebirol (born in Malaga in 102 1, died in 1058 or 1070) was a man of genius, and, like many other geniuses, lived, on the whole, very unhappily. His work as a philosopher has already been discussed in a previous section. As a poet he ^ He wrote a well-known Introduction to the Talmud {Mebo ha-Talmicd). It is usually included in the printed editions of the Talmud at the end of the tractate Berakoth. Under the title Clavis Talmudica'xX. was translated into Latin by Constantin L'Empereur (Leyden, 1633). ^ I. Abrahams, op. cit. p. 62. 28o RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM stands with the supreme masters of the Jewish- Spanish school. It was Gebirol who was the first of the Hebrew poets to elaborate and apply the strict Arabic metrical principles introduced by Dunash ben Labrat.^ The poems are rhymed, all the lines, whether long or short, ending with the same syllable. They are written in pure Biblical Hebrew, and all, even the secular poems, are permeated by strong religious feeling. His finest compositions, however, are his liturgical poems. Zunz says that " the liturgic poetry of the Spanish-Arabic Jews attained its perfection with Ibn Gebirol." Here the limitations imposed by the payyetanic form and involved and artificial expres- sion are almost wholly overcome. Perhaps the best example of his genius in this department is the Kether Malktdh, or Royal Crown, a philosophical and ethical poem in rhymed prose, containing a description of the universe, sphere within sphere, and forming a glowing panegyric of the glory of God as manifested both in the realm of the material and the spiritual. Extracts from this poem are given in an English version, in jDoetical form, by Mrs. Lucas in JQR viii. 239 ff. (1896). The following stanza may be quoted : Beyo7id conception great Thy power is, wherewith Thou didst create From out Thy glory's depths a radiant flame, Hewn from the rock of rocks and wrought Out of eternity y with wisdom fraught, The soul, the living soul — th^is didst Thou call its name. By Thee Omnipotent, Formed of the spirit's fire, and sent To guard and keep and serve awhile this earthly frame. ^ Ibn Ezra cites examples from Gebirol's poems in his Sephev Zachoth to illustrate his description of the various metres. THE MEDIEVAL POETRY 281 His contributions to liturgical poetry were very- numerous, and have found a place not only in the Spanish Rite, but also in others (Rumanian, German, and even Karaitic). These consist of piyyutim and selichoth (more than 100) for the Sabbaths, festivals, and fast-days. A beautiful rendering of the poetic hymn used in the Abodah of the Atonement Day services is given by Mrs. Lucas in her Jewish Year (p. 67 f.). The opening stanza runs as follows : Happy he who sa^v of old The high-priest^ with gems of gold All adorned from crown to liein^ Tread thy courts Jerusalem^ Till he reached the sacred place Where the Tardus especial grace Ever dwelt^ the centre of the whole : Happy he whose eyes Saw at last the cloud of glory rise, But to hear of it afflicts our soul. Gebirol also wrote a rhymed enumeration of the 613 precepts of the Law {Azharoth), and a poem of 400 lines called ''Anak. A selection of his poems (Hebrew text and English translations) is published in Treasures of Oxford^ by Edelman and Dukes (London, 185 1), and there is a selection (of Hebrew texts only) in Albrecht and Brody's The New Hebre%v School of Poets. Another master of the Spanish-Jewish school of poets was Moses ibn Ezra,^ who was also distin- guished as a philosopher. He was born at Granada about 1070, and died after 1138. As a poet he appealed especially to scholars and those who were able to appreciate his command over the technical devices of the art. His poetical compositions were preferred by Al-Charizi even to those of Judah ha-Levi. Nevertheless, his liturgical poems, which number some 220 pieces, have, many of them, found a place in most of the Machzorim (with the excep- tion of the Ashkenazic). He writes in Biblical 1 Moses ben Jacob ha-Sallach (Arabic name Abit Harun Musd). 282 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Hebrew (with a certain admixture of rare forms and usages), and some of his piyyittim are of remarkable beauty. His secular poems are contained in two works : {a) The Tarshish (nj^njin =" topaz "), so called because it contains 1,216 lines {si2''-^'\r\^=hy gematria 1,216), is divided into ten chapters, each of which contains the letters of the alphabet in order. It is written in the manner of the Arabic "tajnis," or "punning^' rhyme, which consists of the repetition of words in every stanza, but employed in a different sense at each repetition. The ten chapters consist of (i) a dedication to a certain Abraham, while the rest have for their themes (2) wine, love, and song ; (3) the charm of country life ; (4) and (5) love- sickness and the separation of lovers ; (6) unfaithful friends ; (7) old age ; (8) vicissitudes of fortune and death ; (9) con- fidence in God ; (10) the glory of poetry. An edition of the Hebrew text was published by Uavid Giinzberg in 1886 (Berlin, Society of the d^qtid ^zj^po)- Two illuminating articles by K. Albrecht on the language of the poem appeared in vol. xix. of the Zeitschrift f. d. Altiest. Wissenschaft^ 1899 (pp. 134-155 and 310-328), entitled Ztun Lexicon unci zur Grammatik d. Neu- hebraische7i (with special reference to the Tarshish). (d) The Diva^y still extant in MS. This contains some 300 secular poems, having for their theme the praise of friends, and elegies on the death of scholars. The following is an extract from a rendering of one of Ibn Ezra's liturgical pieces {The Jewish Year, p. ii2f.). It is entitled PENITENTIAL PRAYER Forth files }ny soul upborne by hope uuilring^ The land of rest, the spring of life deslrmg^ Unto the heavenly dwelli7ig-place aspirings To seek its peace by day and iilght. My spirit does God^s niajesiy adore^ And without wln^s shall to His prese?tce socir^ There to behold His glory evermo7'ey At dawn\ at noojiday^ a?id at night. Another Ibn Ezra, the famous scholar, philosopher, and exegete, Abraham (born at Toledo before iioo, died, perhaps, 11 67), was also a poet. Yet poetry was not his principal preoccupation, and admirable and lofty as the sentiments expressed in his poems THE MEDIEVAL POETRY 283 are, and excellent as they are in fornn, they lack the imaginative element. He wrote a Divaji (260 numbers) which has been edited from a unique MS. by I. Egers. This work also contains a religio-philosophical poem in rhymed prose, based upon an Arabic prose-work of Avlcenna. To the Liturgy he has con- tributed several hymns, which breathe a spirit of resignation. Several specimens are given in English verse in Mrs. Lucas's Jewish Year. The greatest of the Jewish mediaeval poets, in whom the distinctive Jewish feeling most perfectly expressed itself, was Judah ha-Levi (born at Toledo in the last quarter of the eleventh century, died in the East after 1140). The year of his birth may have been 1085, a fateful year, in which Toledo was recaptured from the Moors by the Christian king Alfonso VL " It was a fit birthplace for the greatest Jewish poet since Bible times. East and West met in Toledo. The science of the East there found Western Christians to cultivate it. Jew, Moor, and Christian displayed there mutual toleration which existed nowhere else. In the midst of this fa\'ourable environment Judah Ha-levi grew to early maturity."^ It is probable that Judah was sent by his father, who was a man of means, to Lucena (near Cordova) to be educated at the school of Alfasi. It was probably at Lucena that he became the friend of Baruch Albalia, also a poet. After completing his studies he returned to Toledo, and there practised as a physician for a time, afterwards remo\'ing to Cordova. But his heart was in the East, and after the completion of his Al-Khazari he decided to set out for Palestine. He arrived in Alexandria, and, in spite of the entreaties of friends not to proceed further, he continued his journey to the Holy Land. He visited Tyre and Damascus, and, according to tradition, arrived ultimately outside the walls of Jerusalem, where, it is said, he was ridden down and killed by a fanatical Arab, chanting as he died the most moving of all his compositions, the famous Ode to Sion. Judah was a real poet, and displayed his gifts in this respect in his youth. He won the admiration of his friend and senior, the poet Moses ibn Ezra. A ^ 1. Abrahams, op. cii. p. 75. 284 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM large place in his non-liturgical poems is occupied by pieces which are poems of friendship or eulogy. In this connexion figure such personalities as Moses ibn Ezra, Samuel ha-Nagid, and Baruch Albalia, as well as many others. Sometimes he sadly com- memorates the death of friends, as his teacher Isaac Alfasi, Moses ibn Ezra, and the latter's brothers Judah and Isaac, and the pathetic lamentation over the murdered Solomon ibn Farissol (May 3, 1108). His religious poems are pervaded by deep and passionate devotion to God. Another note that recurs is his profound love of his people and sym- pathy with them in their sufferings. While " Edom and Ishmael riot in the Holy City," Israel is every- where in bondage. In one poem the poet represents Israel as pleading with God for release from the harsh bondage. " Come, Beloved, come Thou to me\ In the homer of lilacs woo me : Slay the friends that would pursue me. " Harps and chimes and cups all golden To the joy of old embolden, 'Neath the radiant glory olden'' God answers : " Bide thoti thy time — within thy soul be peace, Nor ask complaining when thy pain shall cease , Speak, rhyme, and sing, for victory is thine. Nigh thee My tent is pitched, and thou art Mine." National feeling, patriotism, and religion blended to a remarkable degree in the spirit of mediseval Judaism. They find their perfect expression in the poems of Judah ha-Levi. Judah believed literally in the return to Sion, and this motive determined his last pilgrimage. His famous " Zionide " — the ode addressed to Sion — has found a place in the Liturgy THE MEDIEVAL POETRY 285 of the 9th of Ab, among the Kinoth, or lamentations which commemorate the fall of the Holy City. The opening stanza is thus rendered by Mrs. Lucas (Jewish Year, p. 129 f.) : ^ Art thou not, Zion,fain To send forth greetings fron thy sacred rock Unto thy captive train, Who greet thee as the remnants of thy flock ? Take thou on every side. East, west, and south and north, their greetings mtilti- plied. Sadly he greets thee still, The prisoner of hope who, day and night, Sheds ceaseless tears, like dew on Hermon's hill. Would that they fell upon thy mountain's height I More than 300 of Judah's poems have been incorporated into the Jewish Liturgy. A number of these have been rendered into English verse by Mrs. Lucas in The Jewish Yea?'. Several collections of Judah's poems have been published (original texts). The most complete edition of the Divan is that of Brody, published for the Mekitze Nirdamini Society (Berlin, 1894 and following years) ; \h^ Bethidath bath Yehudah, edited by S. D. Luzzatto (Prague, 1840) ; the same editor also issued an edition of the Divait ; another volume, entitled Tal Aroth (Przemysl), appeared in 1881. Translations have been published by Sachs (with text), Zunz {Synag. Poesie), Geiger {Diwan), Heller, Kampf, Steinschneider {Manna), and Sulzbach. In English in Treasures of Oxford (185 1), Nina Davis ("Songs of Exile"), E. G. King (in JOR, First Series, vii. 464), J.Jacobs ("Jewish Ideals"), Mrs. Lucas {op. cif.), and Lady Magnus ("Jewish Portraits"); also in French, Italian, and Russian. Judah, though he seems to have doubted at one time their propriety to Hebrew, uses the most complicated Arabic metres in his poems. The New-Hebrew poetry of which Judah is the best representative hardly survived him. The old inspiration dried up under the stress of persecution. ^ The whole rendering is strikingly successful and beautiful. 2S6 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Al-Charizi, indeed (thirteenth century^), "the genial poet of macames," who, Hke Judah ha-Levi, hved in Spain and travelled in the Orient, was celebrated as a poet. He may be regarded as the last great representative of the ancient classical school of Spain. But his poems are very different in spirit from those of his great predecessors. Al-Charizi was a serious student of literature as well as a poet. A master both of Hebrew and Arabic, he shone as a translator (from Arabic into Hebrew). He rendered the Makamat of the Arab poet Hariri of Bozrah into Hebrew, as well as some of Maimonides' (Arabic) works (the commentary on the Mishnah, and, in part, the Gtiide). His masterpiece was a work, composed in Hebrew (1218-20), to which he gave the name of Tachkejuoni^ which is supposed to mean " the wise one." This was written in the form of the Arabic luacanic {makama)^ a curious species of rhymingprose. The style of the macanie may be gathered from the following reproduction of one of Charizi's sentences : As if the word of the Lord of life— in Israel 7vere no longer rife; like her of old — of whom we are told — '' other vineyards I protected — my own^ alas I that I neglected J ^^ (Cant. i. 6).^ This citation illustrates the clever way in which Charizi inter- weaves Biblical quotations so as to conform to the requirements of the rhyme. The macame is a species of spoken drama, in which two personages are supposed to take part ; the hero, who relates \arious episodes about himself, and the narrator, who acts as a sort of chorus, drawing out the hero by his questions. In Charizi's poem the narrator is Heman the Ezrahite and the hero Heber the Kenite. "Each episode described by the hero is the subject of a single inakania (poem), and has no close connexion with that which follows, but its rambling, rhyming prose is extended and diversified by the interpolation of smialler poems, in absolutely strict rhythm and rhyme, and generally of exalted strain. . The episodes of the 'Tach- kemoni ' cover a wide field of remarkable experiences, ^'arying from a banquet given to him in an important city of Babylonia (where, as the guest of Heman, Alcharizi tells of all the noble ^ Neither the date of his birth nor that of his death is known. His Hebrew name was Judah ben Solomon ben Hophni. He was surnamed "Al-Charizi." 2 Cited from/A^ i. 391 1 {s.v. " Al-Harizi "). THE MEDIEVAL POETRY 287 poets he has known in Spain) to a battle between Arabs * in the tents of Kedar,' a debate betv/een an ant and a flea, or a re- proof by a village chanticleer escaped from the butcher's knife." ^ Charizi was witty as well as accomplished, and though, as he complains, the victim of misfortune throughout his life, he could rise superior to thoughts of bitterness. He ranks high as a poet, and was a supreme master of all the technical devices of the art. A poet of a remarkable character, who may fitly be mentioned in this connexion, was Immanuel ben Solomon ben Jekuthiel (1270-1330), commonly known as " Immanuel of Rome," the contemporary, and per- haps friend, of Dante. Immanuel was a fine scholar, well versed in Biblical and Talmudical literature, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and the philo- sophical works of Arabians and Christians. He wrote various works on Jewish subjects (herme- neutics and Biblical commentaries on nearly all the books of the Bible). But his realh' original work was his poetry. He composed both in Italian and Hebrew, but only a few of his Italian poems have survived. " The child of his time, in sympathy with the social and intellectual life of Italy of that period, he had acquired the then prevalent pleasing, easy, humorous, harmlessly flippant tone, and the art of treating questionable subjects wittily and elegantly. He was acquainted with Dante's works, and was influenced by them. He introduced the sonnet form into Hebrew literature, and alternate instead of single rhyme." - In old age he collected his Hebrew poems into a Divan which he entitled M echabberoth. The poems here collected deal with episodes of Jewish life, and comprise satires, letters, prayers, and dirges intermingled. The Hebrew idiom used by the poet lends an added charm to his work. " His parodies of Biblical and Talmudic sentences, his clever allusions and puns, his equivocations, are gems of diction, on account of which it is almost impossible to translate his poems into another language."^ One poem in the collection (No. 28) ^ni\\\^A Hell and Paradise [ha-Tophet we-ka-Eden) is a vision clearly modelled on Dante's Divi?ie Comedy. Immanuel was an admirer of Charizi, who in some respects influenced the form of ^ JR i. 3911. - JE vii. 563. ■' JE ibid. 288 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM his poems. By later Jewish authorities {e.g. Joseph Caro) his poems were censured as frivolous and immoral, and they bore an ill-repute. By one of history's ironies, however, it seems probable that the metrical form of Maimonides' Creed known as Yigdal., which is printed in the Jewish Prayer Books, and universally used in synagogue worship, is really a composition of Immanuel's (see Dr. H. Hirschfeld in JQR-> New Series, V. 529 ff., April, 1915). The Divan was first printed at Brescia in 1 49 1, and has been reprinted several times since. The elaboration of the verse structure and other devices used for poetical purposes were steadily- developed, especially in the Spanish school of Jewish poetry, under Arabic influence. We have already seen that rh}'med prose was used as a medium, as well as verse proper. Compositions were also written in exact metre (according to a fixed scheme), while in others only the number of syllables is counted, and even this not always. The treatment of rh)'me was also much elaborated; there were single and double rhymes, the catchword (refrain), the '' punning " rhyme (Tajnis)^ as well as the acrostic. These and other points of a similar character can, of course, only be studied adequately in the original texts.^ Invaluable aid is given in these directions by the authors of The New-Hebrew School of Poets, already referred to. It should be added that the measure is determined neithqr by the quantity of the syllables nor by the accent, but depends upon the difference between a full syllable (whether marked by a long or a short vowel) and one that is not full {i.e. begins with a vocal shetva). The former is called tSnu''ah^ the latter yath'ed (indicated by - and yj— respectively). Thus the line ddd?i ''dlam dshcr niTdak would be marked i.e. it consists of a yath'ed (u -) followed by two iSnu^'dlh ( — ), followed by another yath'ed and two tcnii''oth. ' To the technical terms already referred to should be added the form called "mostegab," in which a Biblical verse is used at the beginning of every stanza. THE MEDIAEVAL POETRY 289 It has been impossible in this sketch to refer to the work of many of the liturgical poets of other countries than Spain. Thus in the tenth century Simon ben Isaac of Worms was a poet in the real sense of the term. In the eleventh century Germany produced Moses ben Kalonymus, Meshullam ben Kalonymus, Simon ben Isaac, and Gershon of Judah ; in the twelfth century, Jekuthiel ben Moses of Speyer, Menachem ben Machir of Ratisbon, Meir ben Isaac, Kalonymus ben Judah, Eliezer ben Nathan, Ephraim ben Isaac of Ratisbon, and Ephraim ben Jacob of Bonn ; and in the thirteenth century, Moses ben Chasdai, Eleazar ben Judah of Worms, and Eliezer ben Joel ha-Levi. In France Solomon ben Abun (twelfth century) stands out, as also does Abraham Bedaresi, surnamed " the Orator " (Abraham of Beziers, thirteenth century), who, with his son Jeda'aya (surnamed " ha-Tenini "), were meritorious payyetanhn. Italy, where, according to some scholars, Kalir lived, produced payyetanim from the tenth to the eighteenth century. But after the fourteenth century the piyyut was not so much cultivated, and new pieces were rarely embodied in the Liturgy after that period. Among the eminent poets of the Spanish-Jewish school ought to be reckoned Joseph Abitur, one of the earliest (died 970), who composed many liturgical pieces,^ and to this school also belong Isaac Ghayyat, Judah ben Bileam, Bachya ibn Pakuda (the author of Th Duties of the Heart), and Isaac ben Reuben of Barcelona. Finally, reference may here be made to the work of a late poet, . Solomon al-Kabetz of Safed (sixteenth century), the author of the famous Sabbath-hymn, Lekah Dodi, which is sung in the synagogues on Friday evening.^ Solomon al-Kabetz represents the fine devotional element with which the ^ For an English rendering of a Sabbath hymn by him see The Jewish Year^ pp. 37 fif. ^ Seep. 190 above. U 290 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Kabbalistic mysticism enriched the Liturgy. The hymn is a poetical greeting of "the Bride of the Sabbath." The Almighty is addressed and asked to meet His bride: Come forth, my friend, the bride to meet, Come, my friend, the Sabbath greet. And these lines form a refrain.^ One of the most famous of the Kabbalistic poets, who also belongs to the sixteenth century, is Israel Najara. He lived and died in the East. His Songs of Israel {Zeniiroth Yisrael) is a work of high merit. It contains a collection of poems on the marriage of God and Israel which are couched in sensuous language. He wrote many piyyutim (some in Aramaic), and these, with his hymns, have found a place in many Machzorim. He also composed secular poems, and evidently was well acquainted with many languages. For an illuminating dis- cussion of the piyyutim in particular, and the later Hebrew poetry in general, reference may be made to Dr. I. Abrahams's review of The Tewish Year \n JQR, First Series, xi. pp. 64-91. VI SOME OTHER FORMS OF LITERATURE A brief reference to some other forms of literature, which were cultivated by the Jews of the mediaeval period, is necessary in any account of their literary activities. The classes of literature that require some notice in this connexion are folk-tales, travel-tales, and historical works (chronicles). (i) A good example of the folk-tale rendered into Hebrew is Abraham ibn Chasdai's Prince and Dervish (Ben ha-melek we-ha-Nazir), which was ^ See Mrs. Lucas's beautiful rendering in T/ie Jewish Vear^ pp. 167 ff. SOME OTHER FORMS OF LITERATURE 291 compiled in the early part of the thirteenth century. The stories embodied in this collection are really of Indian origin, and belong to the " Barlaam and Joshaphat" cycle. Chasdai translated from an Arabic version of the original Persian, and may have introduced some original features into his book. The theme of the story is a prince's conversion to the ascetic life and the life of renunciation associated whh the teachings of the Buddha. Another collection of a similar kind was the Hebrew translation of the famous Fables of Bidpai, known in Hebrew as Kalila we-Dimna, which also belongs probably to the thirteenth century. This version is attributed to a certain Rabbi Joel, and played an important part in the diffusion of the stories throughout Europe. It was rendered into Latin by John of Capua, a converted Jew, in 1270, and this became the basis of a German version (from which later were derived Danish and Dutch versions) as well as of a Spanish. This book, according to Dr. Joseph Jacobs, influenced Europe more than any book except the Bible. See further the introduction to Kalilah and Dininah 07' the Fables of Bidpai^ by I. G. N. Keith-Falconer (Cambridge, 1885). The Hebrew version of Rabbi Joel was edited by Joseph Derenbourg with a French translation, and a collation with the Directoriuni {Deux versions h'ebraiqties du livre de Kalilah et Dimnah^ Paris, 1881). Another important name in this connexion is that of Berachya ha-Nakdan ("the Punctuator"), an Eng- lish Jew, who is chiefly known as the author of a number of "Fox Fables" {Mishle Shi('alim), which belong to the ^sop-cycle. Berachya was a versatile writer, and translated other works (seey^iii. 53 f.)- He was the author also of some elaborate ethical treatises, which have been edited in a sumptuous edition by Prof. H. GoUancz {The Ethical Treatises of Berachya^ London, 1902). U 2 292 RABBINICAL AND MEDIEVAL JUDAISM Another collection is contained in Joseph Zabara's Book of Delight, written in 1200.^ The author, like Berachya, uses rhymed prose, which is interspersed with snatches of verse. It is a poetical romance, partly autobiographical in character, and contains among other material a collection of fables. An account of the book is given, with a summary translation, by Dr. I. Abrahams in /QR, First Series, vi. 502 ff. To the literature already adduced above should be added Joseph ]2iCobs^s Jewish Ideals ("The Diffusion of Folk-Tales"), and for Abraham ibn Chasdai, J. Chotzner's Hebrew Humour^ pp. ii7fTf. (London, 1905). See also Dr. Abrahams's Short History of Jewish Literature^ chap. xv. (ii) The Jews, from the circumstances attending their dispersion over the world, acquired a considerable knowledge of, and interest in, geographical matters. Many notices of places and peoples occur scattered about in the earlier literature ; interest was especially strong in the question as to the place of exile of the Ten Tribes. But books of travel were not written till the twelfth century. A romance, however, based upon the interest that existed in the question of the Twelve Tribes was written about 880, called The Diary of Eldad the Danite. It tells of fabulous Israelite empires living prosperously and happily in distant parts of the earth. This romance was the source of the story about " Prester John." Eldad's fanciful narrative was accepted as true by his contemporaries. Various versions of the story exist and have been published (Mantua, 1480; Constantinople, 1516, 1519; etc.); also by Jellinek, etc., Beth ha-Midrash, iii., vi. It was early translated into Latin (1584), into Arabic, and into German (1700, 1723). It is doubtful whether Eldad was a bo7ia-fide traveller. * Joseph was born and died in Barcelona. SOME OTHER FORMS OF LITERATURE 293 The first real travel-book was the famous Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, a merchant who in 1160 started on a long journey, and visited a large part of Europe and Asia (including Jerusalem and Bagdad). Though not free from admixture of fabulous elements, Benjamin's book gives much valuable information about the places he visited. Another Jew who wrote a travel-book at about the same time (travelled during the years 1179-80) was Petachiah of Ratisbon, whose book contains interest- ing information, especially about the reputed tombs of ancient worthies. A more important contribution to geographical knowledge is the Kaphtor wa- Pherach of Esthori Parchi (completed 1322). He visited Palestine, and devoted seven years to the careful exploration of the country, making a special study of ancient sites. He was a remarkably accurate observer, and collected his material (in- cluding ancient and contemporary references) with the greatest care. Jews continued to visit Palestine in the fourteenth century, and with increasing facility. Letters and narratives describing these visits are numerous. In the sixteenth century appeared the Itinera Mundi {'Iggereth Vrchdth 'dldm) of Abraham Farissol (written 1524). This treatise embodies original research, as well as work based upon the contri- butions of Christian and Arabian geographers. Parchi's work was edited, with German translation, by Grunhiit, 191 2. The best edition of Benjamin of Tudela's work is that of A. Asher, The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela (with English translation, London, 1840-41) ; an English translation (with a critical text) is also given (with notes) in the/gj'?. First Series, vols. xvii. and xviii., by M. N. Adler (published in book form, London, 1907). For Petachiah of Ratisbon the edition of A. Benisch's Travels of Petachia of Ratisbon (with English translation) is available (London, 1856). 294 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM (iii) In the Middle Ages Jewish histories usually assumed the form of uncritical chronicles, mixing legend with fact. In this respect the Jewish writers were children of their time. An early example is The Chronicle of Achimaaz, written in 1055 in rhymed prose. More important is Abraham ibn Baud, the philo- sopher (i r 10-80), whose Sepher ha-Kahhalah (*'Book of Tradition "), written in 1161, contains much valu- able information, especially concerning the period of the Geonim and the Jews of Spain. The object of the book was to present the chain of tradition as unbroken from the time of Moses to Ibn Baud's own time, against the Karaites. The M'ork is a valuable historical authority on many matters. The text is given in Neubauer's Mediceval Jewish Chronicles^ vol. i. One of the sources used by Ibn Baud was " Josippon," the curious work called Sepher Yosippon, which gives a history of the Jews from the destruc- tion of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar to the fall of the city in A.D. 70. The book, which for long passed as " the Hebrew Josephus," was really put together in the tenth century. Beginning with Adam, the author passes to the legendary history of Rome and Babylon, and reviews the story of Daniel, Zerubbabel, the Second Temple, and Cyrus, passing on to Alexander the Great. He then proceeds to give a history of the Jews down to the destruction of the Temple. The book is written in Biblical Hebrew, and was much read and prized by the Jews in the Middle Ages. The book, which has suffered much from copyists, has often been printed. Sebastian Munster issued an edition (Basel, 1 541). Its Uterary problems have been the subject of much discussion among scholars (see JE vii. 259 f and the literature there cited). SOME OTHER FORMS OF LITERATURE 295 Many of the " elegies " or selichoth embodied in the Liturgy contain historical episodes ; but for a long time after Ibn Daud no formal historical work appeared. About 1504 a '* Book of Genealogies" (Sepher Yuchasin) saw the light. Its author was the famous astronomer Abraham Zacuto, who had been expelled in the great expulsion from Spain in 1492. " In this work Zacuto gives an account of the Oral Law, as transmitted from Moses, through the elders, prophets, sages, and the Hke, and also recounts the acts and monuments of the kings of Israel, as well as of some of the surrounding nations. In like manner, space is given to the Babylonian Captivity, the events which occurred during the period of the Second Temple, the characteristics of that period, the princes of the Captivity, and the rectors of the Academies of Sura and Pumbeditha." ^ The work, though often uncritical, is a valuable source for Jewish history. A complete edition by Filipowski appeared in London in 1857. Many previous editions had appeared. With the above we may fitly conclude our account of the mediseval Jewish historical literature: Later works, of a somewhat similar kind, were, it is true, produced ; but these fall outside the mediaeval period proper. David Cans (1541-1613), a German ]c\\'^ who took a real interest in the study of history, produced an extremely popular history called The Bra7tch of David {Zeinach David). The founder of historical criticism among the Jews, Azariah di Rossi (1514-88), wrote a history called The Light of the Eyes {Me'or Enayhn) ; and Gedaliah ibn Jachya (1515-87) was the author of a highly uncritical work called The Chain of Tradition {Shalsheleth ha- Kabbalah). Mention may also be made of Abraham de Porta Leone's Shields of the Mighty {Shilte ha- Gibbori})i\ which was printed in Mantua in 1612, and Leon da Modena's Ceremonies and Customs of the fews (printed in Paris, 1637). An historical chronicle of considerable importance, which, however, belongs to a much earlier period than the mediseval, ^ JE xii. 627. 296 RABBINICAL AND MEDIAEVAL JUDAISM is the Seder ''Olain' Rabbah^ the earUest post-ExiUc chronicle preserved in the Hebrew language. It is referred to in the Babylonian Talmud, and in its present form contains thirty chapters, which give a chronological record extending from Adam to the revolt of Bar-Cochb:i. The work, which is of considerable interest and importance, was first printed in Mantua in 15 14. It has been reprinted several times, and has been made the subject of commentaries. Recent editions are those of Ratner (with critical and explanatory notes ; Wilna, 1897) ; A. Marx (first ten chapters with German translation and introduction ; Berlin, 1903) ; and J. M. Leiner (containing the commentaries of Jacob Emden and Elijah Wilna, together with the editor's own notes ; Warsaw, 1904). A later work, supplementing the former, is tjie Seder ''Olam Zuta. This chronicle extends to the time of the Babylonian Exiliarchs. [The best collection of texts for the chronicle literature is contained m Neubauer's MedicEval Chronicles^T. vols. (Oxford, 1882, 1895), with a valuable introduction and chronological notes. To the literature already adduced should be added the article "Historiography" (by Dr. Joseph Jacobs) in JE vi. 423 fi\; and on "Josippon" an article by Neuhauer in JQR-i First Series, xi. 355 ff. A legendary recasting of the history of the world from the Creation to the death of Judas Maccabaaus is contained in the Chronicles of Jerahmeel^ edited in an English translation, with introduction, by Dr. M. Caster, 1899.] CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE APPENDIX AND ADDENDA CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE I. — To the Maccahcean Period and the EsiahlisJuneni of Roman Rule in Palestine. B.C. 587. The fall of Jerusalem (to Nebuchadnezzar). 550. Cyrus. 548 and following years. Deutero-Isaiah. 539. The fall of Babylon. 536. The beginnings of the Return. 529. Cambyses. 521. Darius I. (Hystaspis). 521-332. The Persian period. 520. Haggai and Zechariah. 520-5T6. The building of the Second Temple. 490. Battle of Marathon. 486-484. Revolt of Egypt and Persian reconquest. 485-464. Xerxes T. 464-424. Artaxerxes I. (Longimanus). 450 ?. Maiachi. 448. Revolt of Megabyzus in Syria. 443. Nehemiah Tirshatha. 444. Fortification of Jerusalem. [Date of Ezras Mission doubtful ; if placed in the reign of Artaxerxes II., probably between 397 ana 380.] 424-404. Darius II. (Nothus). 404-358. Artaxerxes 11. (Mnemon), [? Ezra promulgates a new edition of the Mosaic Torah, containing Priestly Code, about 380.] 358-338. Artaxerxes III. (Ochus). 335-331. Darius III. (Codomanus). [Jaddua High Priest.] 332. Battle of Issus ; Persian Empire overthrown by Alexander the Great ; the Samaritan schism. [A Samaritan temple erected on Mount Gerizim.] 332-166. The prc-M accabisan Greek period, 331. Foundation of Alexandria. 29; 300 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE B.C. 323-285. Ptolemy I. Soter, king of Egypt. [Onias L, Simon I., High Priests.] 320. Capture of Jerusalem by Ptolemy ; judcea passes under Egyptian rule. 285-247. Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. [Eleazar and Manasseh High Priests.] C. 250. Translation of the Pentateuch into Greek (LXX). [? 300-250. The Chronicler (author of i and 2 Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah).] 247-222. Ptolemy HI. Euergetes. [Onias II. High Priest.] 223-187. Antiochus III. Magnus, king of Syria, [Simon II. High Priest.] 203. Capture of Jerusalem by Antiochus ; Judcea passes under Syrian rtde. 199-198. Jerusalem captured by Scopas for the Egyptian king Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, but is defeated by Antiochus, king of Syria, at Paneas. 187-175. Seleucus IV. Philopator. 187. The sacrilege of Heliodorus. 180 ?. Composition of the Wisdom of Ben-Sira in Hebrew. 175-163. Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, king of Syria. 17^. Deposition of the High Priest Onias III. ; Joshua (Jason) succeeds him. 171. Jason supplanted by Menelaus. 170. Onias HI. murdered. 170, 168. Massacres (by Antiochus and Apollonius) at Jerusalem. 168 (Dec), The " abomination of desolation " set up. 167. Maccabaean revolt (headed by Mattathias) breaks out. 166. Death of Mattathias ; Judas Maccabaeus heads the revolt. 166-165. Judas organises his army ; victory at Emmaus. 165. Victory of Jews at Beth-Zur ; rededication of the Temple (December). 164. Book of Daniel (?), death of Antiochus Epiphanes. 163-162. Judas defeated at Beth-Zacharias. 162. Alcimus (Jakim) High Priest ; massacre of the Assidaeans. 161. Judas victorious at Adasa ; his defeat and death at Eleasa. 160. Death of Alcimus. 158-142. Jonathan (successor of Judas). 153. Jonathan High Priest ; occupation of Jerusalem, 146. Destruction of Carthage by the Romans. T42. Assassination of Jonathan ; Simon succeeds. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 301 B.C. 142-135. Simon Maccabseus. 135. Assassination of Simon ; his son, John Hyrcanus, succeeds, 135-105. John Hyrcanus. 135. The parties called Pharisees and Sadducees emerge for the first time. 132 ?. Wisdom of Ben-Sira translated into Greek. 109-108. Destruction of the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim by John Hyrcanus. 105-104. Aristobulus L (assumes title of " king "). T04-78. Alexander Jannaeus. 78-69. Salome Alexandra fwidow of Alexander Jannreus) queen-regnant ; the Pharisaic reaction. 69 and following years. The brothers Hyrcanus II. and Aristobulus II ; rise of Antipater, who attaches himself to Hyrcanus ; outbreak of civil war. 65. Intervention of the Roman general Scaurus. 64-63 Pompey arrives in Syria ; Hyrcanus and Aristobulus submit their claims to him. 63. Jerusalem surrenders to Pompey ; the Temple captured -^Pompey enters the Holy of Holies. 63. Hyrcanus II. High Priest ; Judaea controlled by the Romans. 5j. Reorganisation of Judaea by Gabinius. 48. Battle of Pharsalia ; death of Pompey. 63-4S ?. Composition of the Psalms of Solomon. 37-4. Herod the Great king of Judsea. 4 B.C.-6 A.D. Arcbelaus, ethnarch of Judsea, Samaria, and Idumea. 6 A.D. Deposition of Archelaus ; Judasa becomes a Roman province. II. — To the Destruction of Jerusalem and the Suppression of the Second Revolt (a.d. 135). 4 B . c .-39 A.D. Herod Antipas ruler over Galilee and Persea (Jesus' sovereign). 4 B.C.-34 A.D. Philip (son of Herod the Great) tetrarch of Iturea. 40 B.C.-20 A.D. Philo of Alexandria. A.D. 6. Census of Quirinius ; revolt of Zealots under Judas, 6-9. Coponius Roman procurator of Judaea. g-i2. Marcus Ambivius procurator. 12-15. Annius Rufus procurator. 14-37. Tiberius Emperor. 302 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE A.D. 26-36. Pontius Pilate procurator. 29 ?. Crucifixion of Jesus. 30 (or 35). Conversion of St. Paul. 36-37. Marceilus procurator of Judaea. 37-41. Marullus procurator. 3 7-4 1- Caligula Emperor, 37. Birth of Josephus. 38. Jews persecuted in Alexandria. 41-54. Claudius Emperor. 41-44. Herod Agrippa I. king of Judxa. 44. Death of Herod [cf. Acts xii.). 44-46. Cuspius Fadus procurator of Jud-Ta. 46-48. Tiberius A]exander procurator. 48-52. Cumanus procurator. 50-100. Herod Agrippa II. ruler of various districts in the north of Palestine (the last of the Herods). 52-58. Felix procurator. 54-68. Nero Emperor. 58 ?-6i. Fortius Festus procurator. 61-65. Albinus procurator. 64 . Burning of Rome and persecution of Christians ; [? death of St. Paul and St. Peter by martyrdom.] 65-66. Gessius Florus procurator of Judsea. 66. Outbreak of the Jewish revolt in Palestine. 69-70. Vespasian Emperor. 70. Titus destroys Jerusalem and the Temple. 70. Jochanan ben Zakkai establishes a Rabbinical School at Jamnia. 76-79. Josephus completes his history of the Jewish War. 79-81. Titus Emperor. 81-96. Domitian Emperor. 93-94. Josephus completes his Antiquities. 96-98. Nerva Emperor. 98-117. Trajan Emperor. 100 ?. Synod of Jamnia ; O.T. Canon finally fixed. 117-118. Revolt of Jews in Palestine. 117-138. Hadrian Emperor. 132-135. Revolt of Bar-Cochba. 135 ?. Martyrdom of R. Akiba. III. — The Talmudic and Geonic Period. A.D. 140-175. Revival of the Jewish Schools in Palestine. C. 190. Official text of the Mishnah fixed by R. Judah ha -Nasi. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 303 A.D. 219. Babylonian Schools founded at Sura and Nehardea by Rab and Samuel respectively. [Later a School at Pumbeditha founded by Judah b. Ezekiel (220-299).] 220-500. Period of the Amoraim. 320-370. Decay of Palestinian Schools ; completion of the Palestinian (Jerusalem) Talmud. 360. The Patriarch (Palestinian) Hillel II. fixes the Jewish calendar (still in use) . 499. Death of Rabina ; Babylonian Talmud completed. 589-1038. Period of the Geonim (heads of the Babylonian Schools at Sura and Pumbeditha; see pp. 209/.). 711. Conquest of Spain by the Arabs. [Eighth to thirteenth centuries Jews flourish in Spain.] 729. Victory of Charles Martel over the Arabs at Tours. 761 and following years. Rise of the Karaite sect (founded by Anam). 892-942. Saadya (appointed Gaon of Sura in 928). 980-1037. Avicenna (Mohammedan philosopher). 998-1038. Hai, the last of the Geonim. IV. — The MeUiesval Period. A.D. 1021-1058 (or 1070). Solomon ibn Gebirol. 1040-1105. Rashi (founder of French school of exegesis). 1096. Beginning of the Crusades (followed by persecution of Jews). 1 070-1 139. Moses ibn Ezra (Spanish Jewish poet). 1085-1145. Judah ha-Levi. 1092 ?-ii67. Abraham ibn Ezra (exegete). 1 135-1204. Maimonides. 1160-1235. David Kimhi. 1 1 65-1 1 73. Benjamin oJE Tudela (traveller). 1233. The writings of Maimonides burnt at Paris. 1242. Copies of the Talmud burnt at Paris. 1290. Expulsion of the Jews from England. 1 3 10 ?. Publication of the Zohar. 1340. The law-code known as Tiivim completed by R. Jacob b. Asher (of. p. 137). 1437— 1509. Don Isaac Abarbanel. 1453. Constantinople falls to the Turks. 1455-1522. Reuchlm. 1475. First Hebrew books printed. T469-1589. Elias Levita. 304 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE A.D. 1492. The Arabs finally driven from Spain ; expulsion of the Jews from Spain. 1497. Expulsion of the Jews from Portugal. 1520-1523. First complete edition of the Babylonian Talmud (in twelve vols, folio) printed by David Bomberg at Venice. 1523-1524. First printed edition of the Jerusalem Talmud (in one volume) issued by Bomberg at Venice. 1591, Spanish Jews settle in Holland. 1604-1657. Manasseh ben Israel. 1626-1676. Sabbatai Levi (false Messiah). 1532-1677. Baruch Spinoza. 1729. Birth of Moses Mendelssohn. T783. Mendelssohn's Jerusalem published. APPENDIX Short Titles of some Important Rabbinical Authorities. MaHaRIL = R. Jacob b. Moses Molin ha-Levi of Mayence (1365-1427) ; a liturgical authority (see JE viii. 469). RABaD (I.) = Abraham ibn Daud ha-Levi (1110-1180) ; cf. p. ^62 above (Jewish philosopher). RABaD (II.) = Abraham b. Isaac of Narbonne (iiio- 1179) ; Talmudist (see JE i. inf.). RABaD (III.) = Abraham b. David of Posquieres (1125- 1198) ; French Talmudic commentator (see JE f. 103). RaLBaG — R. Levi ben Gershon (" Gers'onides ") (1288- 1344) ; philosopher, exegete, etc. {cf. pp. 266/. above). RaM = R. Meir ben Samuel (1060-1136) ; French Tosaphist {cf. JE viii. 440). RaMBaM = R. Moses b. Maimon (" Maimonides ") (1135- 1204) ; see pp. 2.2.2 ff. above. RaMBaN = R. Moses b. Nachman (" Nachmanides ") (1195-1270) ; exegete (see above, p. 232). RaN — R. Nissim b. Reuben (c. 1340-1380) ; Talmudist and philosopher, teacher of Crescas (see JE ix. 317). RaSHBa = R. Shelomoh b. Abraham Adret (1235-1310) ; famous Spanish Rabbi (see JE i. 212 /.). RaSHBaM = R. Samuel ben Meir (son of RaM), Rashi's grandson (1100-1160) ; cf. pp. 220 /. above. RaSHBaZ = R. Shimeon (Simon) b. Zemach Duran (1361- 1444) ; see above, p. 269. RaSHI = R. Shelomoh Yishaki (1040-1105) ; see above, p. 220. ReDaK = R. David Kimhi (1160-1235), youngest son of Joseph Kimhi (RIKaM) ; see above, pp. 225 ff. ReMaK = R. Moses Kimhi (died about 11 90), elder brother of David Kimhi. RIBaM = R. Isaac b. Meir (brother of RaSHBaM and grandson of Rashi). 306 APPENDIX RIBaSH = R. Isaac b. Sheshet, famous for his responsa, contemporary of Crescas (1340-1410). RiF = R. Isaac Alfasi (1013-1103) ; author of a com- pendium of the Talmud (see above, p. 136). RIKaM = R. Joseph b. Isaac Kimhi (1105-1170) ; see above, pp. 224 /. ADDENDA. P. 66. A German traiaslation of the entire Midrash Rabbah (Pentateuch and Megilloth) was published in ten parts by Dr. A. Wlinsche under the title Bihliotheca Rahbinica (Leipzig, 1880-85). P. 68 (footnote) ; P. 72 (Deuteronomy). Further Tannaitic Midrashic material which exists in a scattered form in the Midrash ha-gadol (see p. 80) has been collected and published by Dr. D. Hoffmann in the following : Mechilta de-Rabbi Simon b. Jochai (to Exodus) (1905), and Midrasch Tannaim (to Deuteronomy) (Heft I. [Berlin], 1908 ; Heft II., 1909) — all very important. A valuable translation in German of the important Midrash Mehilta by Winter and Wiinsche was pub- lished in Leipzig in igog{ Mechilta : ein tannaiiischer Midrasch zu Exodus). It contains some important appendices and notes. P. 70. The best edition of Sijra (on Leviticus) is that of I. H. Weiss (Hebrew text, with notes ; Vienna, 1862). The best edition of Sifre (on Numbers V. to end and the whole of Deuteronomy) is that of M. Friedmann (Vienna, 1864). It contains the Hebrew text, with introduction and notes (in Hebrew). A Latin translation of Mekilta, Sijra, and Sifre is given (with the Hebrew text) in Ugolini's Thesaurus, vols. xiv. and xv. (Vienna, 1752). P. 72. A German translation of the Midrash on the Psalms by Dr. A. Wiinsche was published in 2 vols. Trier (1892-93)- P. 78. Midrash Tanchuma. A critical edition of this Midrash, based upon several MSS. and edited by Buber, was published in 3 vols, at Wilna in 1885. No translation has yet appeared. P. 79. The following parts of the Yalkut ha-Machiri have been published. On the Psalms (ed. by Buber, 1899 [Berdychevj), on Isaiah (ed. by Spira ; Berlin, 1894), on Proverbs (ed. by Grimhut, 1902), on Hosea and Zechariah (ed. by Greenup, 1909 and 1910). 307 X 2 3o8 ADDENDA P, 79. Yalknt Shimeoni. The ediiio princeps is that of Salonica (1526-27 ; 152a) ; a recent edition was published at Warsaw (1876-77). A translation of the Yalknt on Zechariah by E. G. King was published at Cambridge in 1882. P. 98, Add the following English translations which have recently appeared : Of Pirke Aboth (English transla- tion and notes), by R. Travers Herford, in Charles's Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, vol. ii. ; and by W. O. E. Oesterley (S.P.C.K., 1919) ; of Sanhedrin (Mishnah and Tosephta)by H. Danby (S.P.C.K. 1919); and of Berakoth (Mishnah and Tosephta), by A. Lukyn Williams (S.P.C.K., 1920). P. 114. To the literature on the Talmud the following may be added : Berakoth (text, German translation and notes), by E. M. Pinner (very helpful to students), I vol. folio (Berlin, 1842) ; and (to the lexicographical aids) G. Dalman, Aramdische-Neuhehrdisches Worterbuch zum Targum, Talmud, und Midrasch (Frankfort a/M., 1901) ; J. Levy, Neuhebrdisches und Ckalddisches Worterbuch iiber die Talmudim und Midraschim, 4 vols. (Leipzig, 1876-83) ; also by the same editor, Chalddisches Worterbuch uber die Targumim und einen grossen Theil des Rabbinischen Schriftthums, 2 vols. (Leipzig, i88t). P. 220. Rashi's Pentateuch Commentary, The best edition is that of Berhner (Berhn, 1866) ; a German transla- tion with accompanying text of Scripture, by Jul. Dessauer, appeared in 1887. P. 222. The commentary of Ibn Ezra on Isaiah has been edited (Heb. text, with glossary and notes) by M. Friedlander (1877), who published an English transla- tion of the same work in 1873. P. 270. A Hebrew (metrical) translation of The Choice^ 0/ Pearls (cf. p. 259) — which is a collection of ethical maxims — made by Joseph Kimhi and entitled Shekel ha-Kodesh ("The Holy Shekel'') has recently been printed and published for the first time, with English translation and introduction (Dr. Hermann GoUancz ; Oxford Press, 1919). In the same volume is included an edition of the text (with English translation and ' notes) of the treatise Yesod Hayirah (" The Foundation of Religious Fear "). P. 271. Ethical wills. A collection of these documents has been edited by Dr. Israel Abrahams, and is now in the press (1920 : Columbia University Press). INDEX INDEX A Aaron ben Elijah, 268 Aaron ben Samuel ha-Nasi, 240 ^Ab beth din, 93 Ab, ninth of, 77, 274, 276, 285 Abarbanel, 229/., 234, 270 Abaye, 123/. Abba Arika, 119 Hoshaya, R., 66 Mari, 229 Shaul, 106 Abbahu, 120, 121 Abd al-Rachman, 30 Abinit Malkemt, 199 Abina, Rab, 126 Abitur, Joseph, 289 Aboab, Isaac, 270 'Abodah, 175, 277 , hymn, 281 'Aboth de Rabbi Nathan, 97 Abraham, 67, 75 , Apocalypse oj, 237 bar Chiyya, 261 Bedaresi, 289 ben David, 242 ben Nathan ha-Jarchi, 150 Bihago, 269 ■ de Porta Leone, 295 Farissol, 293 ibn Daud, 262, 279, 294 ibn Ezra, 218, 282 Judseus, 261 Abraham the patriarch, 257 Zachuto, 295 'Abtalyon, 93 Abn Harun Musa, 281 Abudraham, David, 150 Abulafia. Abraham, 246 Abuhvalid, 218, 263 Abiiya, Elisha ben, 95 , the Faust of the Talmud, 95 Academies, Babylonian, 83 of Palestine, 23 Academy of Jabne, 20 Achai, 211 Acker, name for Abuya, 95 Acrostic, al phabetic, 2 73 Adam, the first, 71 'Adon 'Olam, 35, 155, 157, 194 Adra, 30 Adret, Solomon ben, 264 JElia, Capitolina, 21 i5isop-cycle, 291 Agape, the, 142 'Aggada, 89 'Aggadath Bereshith, 68 Chazitha, 75 ^Ahabah, 156, 163, 274 " Aims of Philosophers, The," 260 'Akedah, The, 156, 160, 273 '■Akedath Yitzhak, 229 Akiba, R. , 21, 66, 69, 70, 95, III, 213 . ''Alphabet of R.," 240 and the Mishnah, 95 , school of, 214 311 312 INDEX Akiba, R., story of, 184 Al-Chakim, 30 Al-Charizi, 281, 287 'Al Chit, 199 Al-Ghazali, 260/. Alkabiz, Solomon, 252, 289 A l-Khazari, 283 Al-Kirkisani, 257 Al-Nasir, 30 Al'Shefa, 258 Albalia, Barucb, 283 Albertus Magnus, 265 Albo, Joseph, 26^ ff. *Alenii, 120, 194, 195 Alexander Jannseus, 14 the Great, 6 Alexandra (Salome) , 1 4 Alexandria, 237 , synagogue in, 174 Alexandrine allegorising, 35 war, 17 Alfasi, Isaac, 284 Alfonso v., 32 VL, 283 Alkabetz, 190 " All vows," 200 Allegory, 219, 223 Almohades, 31 Almoravides, 31 '' Alphabet of R. Akiba, The," 240 Alphabetic acrostic, 273 Alphabetical confessions, 199 Alsheik, Moses, 234 Aristotelian philosophy, 257 Amasis, 4 Amemar II., 125 Amen, 174 'Amidah, 173, 274 Ammi, 120 Amora {" speaker "), 23 Amoraim, 19, 83 period of the, 22/., 113, 116/., 210 Amram, 150, 211 'Anak, 281 Anan, 215 Ananites, 26/. Angels, 71 Anthropomorphic language, 216 Anthropomorphisms avoid ed in the Targums, 47 /. Antigonus of Soko, 92 Antiochus III., 6 Epiphanes, 11 Antipas, 18 Antipater, 15 , procurator of Judsea, 17 Apocalypse, the, 146 of Abraham, the, 237 Apocryphal and Pseudepi- graphical literature, Mid- rashic elements in, 63 Apology for Judaism, 261 Aqaila, 95 Aquinas, 222, 265 Arab fanaticism, 224 philosophy, 255/. Arabia, primaeval home of the Semites, 39 Arabian geographers, 293 Arabic culture, 28 influence on Spanish school of Jewish poets, 288 -, language of the Jews in Oriental lands, 46 ■ translation of the Scrip- tiires, 216, 256 Arabs of Spain, Jews under the, 30 Aram, 39 Aram-naharaim, 40 Aramaean kingdom con- quered by Assyria, 41 language spoken by the Israelites, 42 , influence of the, 41 spoken all over Palestine, 41 race never formed a political unity, 41 Aramaeans, 39/. INDEX 313 Aramaic as a literary lan- guage, 42 , Eastern, 85 in the Midrastiic litera- ture, 42 in the O.T., 42 . Targnms written in, 39 , three main dialects of. 42 , Western, 85 'Arbith, 274 Archelaus, 181 Aretas, Arab prince, 15 Arika, R., 22, 70 Aristobulus I., 14 ff. Aristotle, 255, 265, 267 Aristotelian doctri nes, re- action against, 260 philosophy, 263, 268 physics, 223 system of philosophy, 222 ■ v/orld-views, 35 Aristotelianism, 262 Ark, the opening of the, 156 Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), 5 " Articles of Faith and Philo- sophic Dogmas," 28 Ascent, the fifteen Songs of, 195 Ascetic mode of life, 253 'Ashamnu, 199 Asher ben Jechiel, R., 136, 271 Ashen, compendium of, 84 Ashi, R., 124/., 210 , his work, 23 Ashkenazic Rite, 145, 150 Ashurith (Syrian), 43 Asiyyatic world, the, 250 Assemblies for prayer on fast- days, 152 j5^. Assi, 120 Assyria, 40 Assyrian empire, end of the ancient, 40 kings, 41 Atonement, Song of, 179, 198 ff., 273, 277 Augustine, 230 Averroes, 263/., 266/., 269 Averroism, golden age of, 264 Avicenna, 258/., 262 Azariah di Rossi, 295 'Azharoth, 277, 281 Azilutic world, the, 249 Azriel, 242, 24-^ ff., 252 Azzai, Simon ben, 95 B Ba'ali ha-Kahhalah, 235 Babli, Talmud, 82 Babylon, 4 Babylonia, 70, 73 the centre of Judaism, 21 y. Babylonian Academies, 83 Exile, 'jff,, 153 liturgical use, 145 Rite, the, 150 Talmud, the, 23 /., 82, , complete manu- script of, 83 tractates, i'2'j ff. Targum, 51 Bachya, 270 ben Asher, 234, 244/. ibn Pakuda, 259/., 289 Badge, yellow, 31 Bagoses, 6 Bahir, 243 Bar-Cochba revolt, 21, 95 Baraitha, 89, 107, m ff. collections, 113 Barlaam and Josaphat, 291 Baruch, 276 Albalia, 283 sh^mar, 155, 161 " Battles of the Lord, The," 266 Bechinaih ha-Dath, 269 'Olam, 264 314 INDEX *' Beginning of the Wisdom, The/' 271 Belief in One God, 162 Bemidhar Rahhah, 71/. Ben Azzai, 70 Ben ha-melek tve-ha-Naziv, 290 Ben Mishh, 279 Ben Sira, 92 . the Wisdom of, 164/. Ben Tehillim, 279 Ben Zoma, 95 Benediction, 146 over bread and wine, 188 Benedictions, a hundred, 148/. , the Morning, 157 Beni Mikra, 26 Benjamin of Tudela, 293 Berachya ha-Nakdan, 291 Berakhah , term for prayer , 146 wide connotation of, 146 Bereshith Rahbah, ^sff-» 74 > 76, 77 , extracts from, 67 Beriatic world, the, 249 Beth ha~Midyash, 20 Hillel, 93 Shammai, 93 She'arim, 22, 97 Bible, divine authority of, 216 Biblical Antiquities of Pseudo- Philo, 112 miracles, rationalistic explanations of, 218 • phrases incorporated in the synagogue prayers, 145 ■ text, preservation of , 215 Bihago, Abraham, 269 Birkath Cohanim, 173 Blessing of the Priests, 173 " Branch of David, The," 295 Bread and wine, Benediction over, 188 Bride oj the Sabbath, the^ 290 " Brilliancy " (Kabbalistic >vork), 243 Book of Argument and Demonstration in Aid of the Despised Faith, The,*' 261 of Creation, The," 235, 238 #. of Creeds and Doctrines, The," 256 0/ Delight, The," 292 of Form, The," 245 of Genealogies," a, 295 of Lights and Light- houses, The," 257 of Principles, The," 269 of Revelation of the Method of Proof touching the Principles of Religion, The," 263 of Roots, The," 218, 226 246 ■of the Pious, The," 270 ■ of the Righteous, The," of Tradition, The," 294 Buddha, 291 " Bundle of life," the, 205 Burial Service, the, 20X ff. Caesarea, 117, 120 Caesar's treatment of the Jews, 16/. Cambridge, Genizah frag- ments in, 211 " Canon," the, 258 Capua, John of, 291 Ca,ro, Joseph, 288 Caspi, Joseph, 264 Casuistical discussion, 228 Catechumenorum, Missa, 143 Catholic Church, the, 147 Ceremonial in the Tannaitic period, 152 " Ceremonies and Customs of ,the Jews," 295 Circumcision, 9 Clement of Rome, 142 INDEX 315 Chabib, Jacob ibn, 271 " Chain of Tradition, The," 295 Chaldee, 41 Chanina, R., 67, 117 Chanukkah, 12, 198 Chariot, the Divine, 237 , the Heavenly. 223 vision, Ezekiel's, 237 Chasdai, Abraham ibn, 290/. ben Abraham Crescas, 268 ibn Shaprut, 278 Chasid, Judah, 270 Chassidim, 12 Chassidism, 253 Chayim, Jacob ben, 234 ■ . Rabbinical Bible of, 227 Vital, 252 Cheber, 1 3 Chief elements of synagogue worship, 153 Chisda, R., 121 Chiyya bar-Abba, 120 Choboth ha-Lebaboth 260 " Choice of Pearls, The," 33, 259 Christian Church, liturgies of the, 150 origins, 141 rulers in Spain, Jews under, 31 -scholarship, mediaeval, 33 Christians, 178, 179 , controversy with, 117, 118, 120 Chronicle of A chimaar, the, 294 Chronicles, Midrash on, 74 , Kimhi's commentary on, 226 of Jerahmeel, 296 Church Order, the primitive, 142 , worship of the early, influenced by the Jewish Liturgy, 142 " Commentaries, Middle," 263 Commandments, the Ten, 154 Communal life broken by the Exile, 7 Communion Of&ce, 176 Confession, 153 of sin, 199 Confessions, alphabetical, 199 " Confutation of the Con- futation, A," 263 Congregation, the, regarded as an integral part of the nation, 147 Congregational worship, be- ginnings of, 1 1 Constantinople mentioned in the Palestinian Targum, 53 Contrasts, existence of things by, 239 Copernicus, 248 Cordova, 30, 31 Corinthians, Clement of Rome's epistle to, 142 Courses of priests and Levites, Creatio ex nihilo, 265 Creation, Maimonides on the, 223 Creed of Maimonides, 288 Croesus, 4 Crusades, the, 221 Cushan-rishathaim, 40 Cyrus IL, 4 cylinder, 5 , his broad-mindedness, 5 D Daily worship of the syna- gogue, origin of, 153 Damascus, 15, 40 Daniel, commentary on, 231 Dante, 287 Darash, 57, 214/. Davshan, 58 Darshanim, 219 Daud, Abraham ibn, 279 David Abudraham, 150 3i6 INDEX David ben Todros, 263 Gans, 295 Day of Atonement, the, 179, igSj^f., 273, 277 Debarim Rabbah, 72 , quotation from, 72 Decalogue, the, 159/. Dedication, feast of, 198 (festival of) instituted, 12 Departed, prayers for the, 201 j5f. , the, 201 /. Derash, 250 Deuteronomy, Midrash on, 71/- Development of belief, 8/. Devotional preparation for service, 156 Diary of Eldad the Danite, the, 292 Diaspora, 210 Dibbura, 48 Didache, the, 142 . prayers of the, Jewish in character, 142 Diocletian, 120 , story of the emperor, 65 Dispersion, new phase of the, 19 Divan, the, 282, 287, 288 Divine Chariot or Throne, mysteries of, 237 Comedy, the, 287 Dunash ben Labrat, 217, 278 ibn Tamim, 217 Duran, Profiat, 268 , Simon, 263 , Simon ben Zemach, 269 "Duties of the Heart, The," 260, 268, 2^0 Ecclesiastes, Midrash on, 75 Ecclesisisticus, 124 " Eighteen Benedictions,'* the, 146 Ekah Rabbati, 76/. Eldad the Danite, the Diary of, 292 Eleazar ben Arak, 95 ben Judah, 289 ben Kalir, 272 ben Pedath, 118 ben Shammua, 96 of Modin, 69 of Worms, 241, 246, 270 Elements, primal, 239 Eliezer, R., 96, 213 , R., Barditha of, 74 ben 'Azarya, 95 ben Hyrkanos, 94, 214 • ben Jacob I., R., 95 ben Joel, 289 ben Nathan, 2S9 of Beaugency, 231 Elijah ben Judah of Worms, 233 del Medigo, 269 Emanations, doctrine of, 239/. Emperors, persecuting policy of, 121 Emunoth we-Deoth, 28 'En Ja'akob, 138, 271 'En Kelohenu, 194 En-Soph, 244, 250 " Encyclopaedia of Philo- sophy," 264 Endless One, the, 244 Ephraim ben Isaac, 289 ben Jacob, 289 Epicureanism, 75 Epiphanius, 179 Esther, Midrash on, 77 Esthori Parchi, 293 Ethics, 254 ff. in the Kabbalah, 250 Eucharist, Sunday, 142 Evil, problem of, 245/. " Examination of the World," 264 Exegesis, 212 of Scripture, i\ifj. , principles of, 216/. INDEX 317 Exegesis, school of, founded by Akiba, 213 , schools of, in opposi- tion, 214 Exegetical rules of Hillel, 94 Exilarch, 22, 210 Exile, Babylonian, the, 7, 8/. . the, 41, 148 , worship during the, 153 Exodus, Midrash on, 68/. , the, 276 Expulsion of Jews from Spain, 32, 230 " External books,'' the, iii Ezekiel's vision, 274 Ezra the Scribe, 5, 90, 95 . Midrash on, 74 — — , Moses ibn, 281 Nehemiah, commentary on, 225 ■ and Nehemiah, effect of their work, 19 Fables of Bidpai, 291 Fanaticism, Arab, 224 Farissol, Abraham, 293 , Solomon ibn, 284 Fast-days, 152, 198/. Faust of the Talmud, Abuya the, 95 Feast of Dedication, 198 Lots, 198 ■ Pentecost, 196 Tabernacles, 196 Weeks, 197 Ferdinand III., 31 and Isabella, 32, 229 Festival Services, the, 196 ff. Folk-lore, 89 tales, 290/. Fons Vitcs, 259 Formalism, Rabbinical, 253 " Fount of Life," the, 259 '* Fountain of Life," the, 33 Four worlds, the doctrine of, 249 Fox Fables, 291 Fragment Targum, the, 54 Frankfort, 79 Free-will, human, 263 French Rite, the, 150 Gabinius, 16 Galeed, 41 Gamaliel L, 44 II., 94, 173, 178 Gan 'Eden, 240 Gaon, 25, 83, 209 " Garden of Eden," 240 , The," 252, 262 " Gate of Secrets," The, 246 Gebirol, Solomon ibn, 279/. Gedaliah ibn Jachya, 295 " Gehinnom," 240 Gemara, 85 Gematria, 233, 278, 282 Genesis, Kimhi's commentary on, 226 , Midrash on, 6$ff, Genizah fragments, 211 Gans, David, 295 Geography-books, 293 , Jewish knowledge of, in the Middle Ages, 292/. Geonic period, the, 25 ff., 210 ■ , importance of, 210 , Kabbalistic litera- ture in the, 240 , literature of, 236 mystical litera- ture in the, 238 Geonim, direct successors of the Amoraim and Saboraim, 25, 209 j^f. German Rite, the, 150 Germany, Jews in, 36 Gershon, 229, 266 ff. of Judah, 289 Gersonides, 264, 266/, 3i8 INDEX Gersonides, reaction against, 267/. Geullah, 156, 163, 274 Gezeroth, 89 Ghayyat, Isaac, 289 Ghettos, 36 Gnostic systems of thought, 238 Gnosticism, ancient, 237 Gnostics, 178 God, doctrine of, in the Tar- gums, ^6ff. " Golden Age " of Jewish literature, 36 of modern Jews, 29 Grace, petitions for, lygff. Gr33co-Arabic philosophy, re- action of, on Kabbalistic literature, 241 Grammatical study, 224 Great Synagogue, the, 91 Greece, philosophy of, in Middle Ages, 33 Greek ascendancy recognised by the Jews, 6 philosophical thought, words in Midrash, 66 words in the Mishnah, 106 " Guide to the Perplexed, The," 35, 264/-, 288 H Habdalah, the, 195/. Hadrian, 21 , emperor, story of, in Midrash Tehillim, 73 Haggadah, ^off., 88/., 21-^ ff. , expounder of, 62 in the Baraitha, 112 Megillah, 77 Haggadic exegesis and prim- ary sense of Scripture, 215 literature, 63 Haggai, R., 122 Hagiographa, Targums to the, 55/- Hai, 209, 211, 217, 238 Halakah, 60 ff., 85, 88/., 21^ ff. in the Baraitha, 112 " Hall of hewn stone," 153 Hamnuna the elder, 248 Haphtarah, 192/. Harha de Mosheh, 240 Hariri of Bozrah, 286 Hasdai ben Isaac, 31 ibn Shaprut, 217 Hashcahah prayer, the, 205 Hasmon, 12 Hasmoncean dynasty, end of, rule, beginning of, 13 Ha-Tophet we-ha-Eden, 287 Ha-Tenini, 289 Hauran, the, 40 Hayyuj, 224 Heads of families, 8 " Healing of the Soul," the, Heavenly Chariot, the, 223 Heber the Kenite, 286 Hebrew alphabet , mysti cal power of the letters of the, 239 and Arabic, comparative study of, 217 Bible, interpretation of the, 216 Josephus, the, 294 language displaced by Aramaic, 42 lexicography, 217 literature under the Arabs, 30 New, Mishnah written m, io6 philology, 217 Hebrews, epistle to the, 146 Hegyon ha-nephesh, 262 Helakoih, 240 " Helakoth " literature, 238 Hell and Paradise, 287 INDEX 319 Hellenistic influence on the Jews, 7 party among the Jews, 1 1 Heretics, 170 Hermeneutic rules, 213 Herod, beautifying of the Temple by, 18 , death of, 18 , religious peace under, 17 Herodotus, 39 ffihhut ha-Keher, 240 Hidden wisdom, 235 Hillel, 93, 204 . exegetical rules of, 94 , rules of, interpretation of, 95 , school of, 94 the elder, 213 Hindu philosophy, 248 Historical episodes referred to in the Liturgy selicoth, 295 works, mediceval, 290 /. History-books, 294/. Hittites, the, 40 Hohhmah, 243 Holland, Jews in, 36 Holy City, commemorations of the destructions of, 276 Hoshaiah, R,, 117 Hosha'na rabba, 277 Hosha'mioth, 277 Huna Rab, 120, 123, 210 " Hundred Benedictions," Prayer-books compiled on the principle of, 149 Hymn for Unity, 194 of Glory, the, 156, 194 Hyrcania, 5 Hyrkanos II., 16 , ethnarch of Judaea, 17 , murder of, 1 7 I Ibn Adret, 244 Ibn Aknin, Joseph ben Judah, 265' Ibn Cappi, Joseph, 266 Ibn Daud, Abraham, 262 Ibn Ezra, 196, 219, 220/., 224, 228 Ibn Ezra, Abraham, 34, 273, 282 Ibn Ezra, Moses, 273, 283, 284 Ibn Gabirol, 33, 219, 241, 259, 262, 273 Ibn Ganah, 224 Ibn Jachya, Gedaliah, 295 Ibn Labrat, 278 Ibn Nagdela, Samuel, 279 Ibn Shaprut, Chasdai, 278 Ibn Sina, 258, 262 Ibn Tibbon, R., 222, 260, 271 Ibri (Hebrew), 43 'Idra rabba, 248, 250 zuba, 248, 250 Idumsea, 15 'Iggereth ha-Hithnatzeluth, 264 'OrchSth 'dlam, 293 'Ikkarim, 269 Immanuel ben Solomon ben Jekuthiel, 287 of Rome, 287 " Improvement of Moral Qualities, The," 259 Innocent IV., bull of, 31 Interpretation of Hebrew Bible, 216 of Scripture, 213 " Investigation of Religion, The," 269 Isaac, 67 Alfasi, R., 136 ben Reuben, 289 Ghayyat, 289 ibn Albalia, 276 Israeli, 259 the Blind, 242, 243 Ishmael ben Elisha, R., 95 , R., 69, 213, 214 Islam, rise of, 46 Israel Najara, 290 Italy, Jews in, 36 320 INDEX Itinera Mundi, 293 Itineyary of Benjamin of Tudela, 293 J Jabne, Academy of, 20 Jacob, R., 157 ben Chayim, 234 ha-Nazir, 242 ibn Chahib, R., 138, 271 James I., king of Aragon, 31 Jamnia, 94 Jannaeus, Alexander, 14 Jannai, 272 Jechiel, Asher ben, 271 Jeda'aya, 289 Jedayah Penini, 264 Jegarsahadutha, 41 Jehuda ben Ilai, R., 96 ben Tabbai, 93 ha-Nasi, 44, 66 Jehudai ben Nachman, 26 Jekuthiel ben Moses, R., 275, 289 Jerakmeel, Chronicles of, 296 Jeremiah bar Abba, R., 121/. Jericho, 15 attacked by Persians, 5 Jerome, 230 Jerusalem after the destruc- tion, 21 besieged by Pompey, 16 , fall of, 18 Talmud, the, 78 Jerushalmi, Talmud, 82 Jewish communities in the East, 20 daily services, regu- larity of, 143 Liturgy, the, 1^1 ff. ■ massacres in Spain, 32 mysticism, 240 philosophers, 270 ■ physicians in the Middle Jewish property possessed by the Emperors, 36 science, 30/. theology, 255 Jews, deputations of, to Pompey, 15 expelled from England, 36 — expelled from Spain, 32, 230 -, golden age of, in Spain, 29 30 in Germany, the, 36 Holland, 36 Italy, 36 Persia, 248/. Poland, 35, 253 ■ Spain, 29j5^» -, ubiquity of, 19 - under Arabs in Spain, 30 ■ Christians in Spain, 25/- - Mohammedanism, Moors, 30 well treated by Csesar, 17 Job, Midrash on, 74 , Targum of the book of, 44 Jochanan ben Nappacha, 23, 117 ben Zakkai, 6, 20, 69, 94 of Jerusalem, 93 Joel, R., 291 John of Capua, 291 Hyrkanos, 13/ Jonah, R., 122 Hebrew philologist, 218 , Midrash on, 74 Jonathan, R., 95 ben Uzziel, Targum of, 54/- ■ the Maccabaean, 13 Ages, 31 Joppa, 17 Jose. R., 213 INDEX 321 Jose II., R., 122 bar Kisri, R., 67 ben Chalaphta, R., 96 ben Jose, 272 ben Joezer of Zereda, 93 of Galilee, R., 95 the Priest, 94 Joseph Abitur, 289 ben Chiyyah, 113 ibn Aknin, 229 ibn Zaddik, 262 Karo, 221, 288 • Zabara, 292 Josephus, 5, 14, 200 , Midrashic elements in, 63 Joshua ben Chananya, 94 ben Levi, 118 ben Perachya, 93 the high-priest, 6 Josiah, R., 95 Josippon, Sepher, 294 Jubilees, Book of, 112 Judaea after the fall of Jeru- salem, 16 , independence of, 13 Judaean-Arabic science, 224 Judah I., R., 82, 85, 88, 94. 96/., 106, 117, 119 ■ , champion of literal exegesis, 95 , his compilation of the Mishnah, 107 ben Bileam, 289 ben David Hayyuj, 218 ben Ezekiel, 121, 123 ben Solomon ben Hophni, Chasid, 270 — - ha-Levi, 34, 254, 255, 261, 272, 276, 279, 281, 283, 284, 286 ibn "Balaam of Toledo, 218 - ibn Koreish, 217 the Blind, 26 the Pious, 241 Judaism, Apology for, 261 . mediaeval, 212 , Oriental, 96 , philosophic, 28 . Rabbinical, 256 , systematic treatment on a philosophic foundation, 256 Judas the Maccabaean, 12 , death of, 13 Julian, the Emperor, 66 Justin Martyr, 142, 147, 178 K Kabbalah, the, 87, 131, 228, ' 235 #• , judgements upon, 253 /. . mythological elements in, 237 , speculative element in, 237 _ , teaching on love m, 250 Kabbalistic doctrine of Nach- manides, 232 literature in the Geonic period, 240 opposed to the Talmud, 236 reacted upon by Graeco-Arabic philosophy, 241 movement, the, 229 tradition, the, 236, 237/ Kabbalists, German school of, " 241/. Kahod, 241 Kaddish, 156, 162, 183 j^., 194, 195 -, miraculous efficacy of. 184 Rabbinical, 186 Mourners', 183/., 194, i95» 203 322 INDEX Kaddish of .Renewal, 183 /., 186, 203 ■ • tithkabal, 183 Kadmuth ha- Slam, 233 Kahana, Rab, 125 Kairwan, 83/217 Kalam, 255, 256, 257, 265 Kalila we-Dimna, 291 Kalir, 278, 289 Kallah, 26 Kalonymides. 241 Kalonymus ben Judah, 289 ■ ben Kalonymus, 263 , Meshullam, ben, 289 ■ , Moses ben, 289 Kaphtor wa-Pherach, 293 Karaism, 210 Karaite sect, existence of, to-day, 27 movement, 26, 28, 131 Karaites, the, 215/., 256, 261, ' 294 Karo, Joseph, 137, 221, 252 Kedushah, 156, 168, ijj ff., 192, 193. 194. 275 Kelimmath ha-Goyim, 269 Kewiah, 225 Keriath ha-Torah, 155 Keroboth, 274 Kether Malkuth (Ibn Gabirol), 33. 280 Kiddush, 188/., 190, 198 Kimhi, 217, 219, 220, iizfj. ; David, 225 _^. , Joseph, 225 , Moses, 225 Kinah, 274, 276 " Kingly Crown," the, 33 Kinoth, 285 Kiiah al-Amanat wal-I'iika- had, 256 ■ al-Khazari, 261 Kol Nidre, 200 obj ected to by Babylonian Geonim, 200 Ivoran, the, 255 Laity, their part m synagogue worship, 147 Lamentations, M idrash on, 76 f. "Lamp of Light, The," 271 Language of the Talmuds, Latin inscription found in Adra, 30 words in the Mishnah, 106 Law, the, 11, 19, 22, 58, 91 , Book of the, 90 , books of, often used in the Liturgy, 145 of Man, The," 232 , oral, 87 , Reading of the, 155, 182, 192 58 Scroll of the, 156 Scrolls of the, 182 searching out of the. secrets of the, 223 , written and oral, 27 Lekah Dodi, 189/., 289 Leo Hebrasus, Magister, 266 Leon da Modena, 295 de Bagnols, 266/. , Moses de, 238 of Mantua, Judah Messer, 269 " Letter on Self -exculpation," 264 Levi, R., 67 ben Gerhon, 229, 263 Levita, Elias, 234 Levites, courses of, 10 Leviticus, Midtash on, 70/. Lexicography, Hebrew, 217 Liber de causis, 266 " Light of the Eyes, The," 295 of the Lord, The," 268 Liskath ha-gazith, 153 J!.itanies, 273 INDEX 3^3 Literature conditioned by his- torical events, 3 of the Jews wholly religious, 24 Liturgical prayers, collections of, 149 uses, 144 j5^. ■ worship and poetry, 272 Liturgies of the Church, early, 146 Liturgy, complexity of the , 142, 144 ■ , development of the, 144 * , most pronounced in sixth and seventh cen- turies, 144 , early information re - garding the, 149 enriched by Kabbalistic mysticism, 290 , fixed, 149 ■ , historical occurrences referred to in the, 144 -important for Christians," 142^ influenced by the Geo- nini, 211 , Jewish, the, 141 ff. , language of the, 224 of the Temple, 151 ff. . origin of the, 151 — , poems in the, 144 product of many cen- turies of development, 148 , reform of, in nineteenth century, 144 — -, Scriptural character of, 145 simple in its beginnings, 144 , sources of the, 149 ff. used by Jewish-Chris- tians of the first century, 142 Love, teaching of, in the Kabbalah, 250 Lots, feast of, 198 Luma, the, 218 Luria, Isaac, 252 Lydda, 118 , school at, 94 Lydia, kingdom of, 4 M Ma'amad, 148 Ma'amaroth, 243 Ma'arbiyyoth, 274 Ma'areketh ha-'Eluhoth, 246 Ma'arib, 155, 190/. Macame, 286 Maccabasan power a deciding factor, 13 rising, the, 11 j5^. Maccabees, rise of the, 7 Machir ben Abba Mari, 79/. Machsor Vitry, 150 MachzoY, 277 Machuza, 123 Magen Aboth, 269 Maggid, 62 Mahalak, 225 Maimonides, 34/., 131, 135, 136, 137, 150, 222/., 230, 231, 262, 263, 264/., 268, 286 and anti-Maimonists, 228 , commentary of, 84 . Creed of, 156, 160, 288 , his rationalism, 223 on the Creation, 223 on the Targum of Onkelos, 52 . reaction against, 267/. , Thirteen Articles of, 231 Makamai, 286 Malmad ha-Talmidim, 229 Mani II., 122 Manuscript, complete, of T.B., 83 Manuscripts, destruction of, during persecutions, 83 Y 2 324 INDEX Manuscripts of the Talmud, 83 Mar Samuel, 119 • Rab Chanan, 209 Zutra, 125 Maria, queen of Spain, 32 Martyrdom, 273 Masora, the, 215 Masoret ha-Masoret, 234 Masoretic scholars,work of , 2 1 5 text, 27 Massacres of Jews in Spain, 32 Masseket Aziluth, 242 Massektoth, 83, 98 Matnitin, 248, 250 Mattathias, 12 Mechabberoth, 287 Mechanical use of words in Scripture texts, 76 Mediaeval literature, the, 209 j5^. Median empire, 4 Meditation, 147 " Meditation of the Soul, The," 262 Megilloth, the five, 74 j^. Meir, R., 96, 106, 148 ben Isaac, 289 , Samuel ben, 231 Tarn, ben, 232 Mekilta, 60, 68/., 70 ■ important for N.T. study, 69 ~, parable from) 69 MekoY Chayyini, 33, 259 Mekubbaliwi, 235 Memorial of the departed, 183 Memra, the, 48/. Menahem, 122 ben Machir, 289 ben Saruk, 217, 279 Mendelssohn, Moses, 234 Menelaus, high-priest, 11 Menoyath ha-Maor, 271 Me'or 'Enayim, 295 Merkabah, 237 Meshullam ben Kalonyxnus, 289 Meshummadim, 178 Mesopotamia, 40 Messer Vidal, 264 Messiah, doctrine of, in the Targums, 49/. , the, 68 , woes of the, 76 Messianic Belief, 231 Metatron, 237, 242, 250 Metempsychosis, doctrine of, 243 Methurgeman, 43, 45 Mibchar ha-Peninim (Ibn Gabirol), 33/. Middah, 68 Midrash, 95, 214 , example of, 61 ha-Gadol, 80 Haggadah, 60 ff. Halakah, 60 ff. ha-ne'elam, 248, 250 Hashkem, 79 in the O.T., 59 Koheleth, 75 Konen, 240 , meaning of the word, 57 Megillath Esther, 77 - Mishle, 73/. -, new form of, 219 - Kabbah, 65 - Ruth, 74/., 76 - Shemuel, 72 - Shir ha-Shirim Rabbati, 75/- Tehillim, 72/. , quotation from, 73 , two types of, 60 , written and unwritten, 59 Yonah, 74 Midrashic elements in Apo- cryphal and Pseudepigra- pbical literature, 63 in Josephus, 63 in Philo, 63 -^ exegesis, traditional, 219 INDEX 325 rashic historical works, 39 - literature, Aramaic in ae, 42 - tradition, 228 Irashim, ^j ff., 95, 213 -. classified, 64/. -, Tannaitic, 112 icrocosm/' 262 iddle Commentaries," 263 ilol, 226 chamdth 'Adonai, 266, 267 tchah, 155 ihag, 150 thagim, 89, 144 ff. tim, 178 '?haloth Elohim, 231 :hle SHi'alim, 291 •hmarothf 148 tmah, the, 82 j^^., gSff. -. compilation of the, 96 -, contents of the, 107 -, early form of, compiled y Akiba, 95 -, extract from the, 109/. -, meaning of the word, S -. six ■' Orders " of, 99 j5^. -, style of, 107 -, written in New Hebrew, d6 :hneh Torah, 35, 136, 137, 50, 228 :sa Cafechumenorum, 142 ^mor, 161 lin, 12 lammed, daughters of, lentioned in Palestinian argum, 53 lammedanism, 25/. -, Jews under, 25/. lammedan theologians, 55 )rs, Jews under the, 30 'eh NebuMm, 35, 222 ning Prayer, central ele- lents of, 187 Morning Service, structure of the, 155^. Moses ben Chasdai, 289 ben Enoch, 3 1 ben Jacob, 252 ben Jacob ha-Shallach, 281 - ben Joshua, 267 ■ ben Kalonymus, 289 - ben Shem Tob de I.eon, 247 ha-Darshan, 219 ibn Ezra, 262, 2S1 ff. ibn Giktilla of Cordova, 218 Isserles, H., 137 Narboni, 263 of Courcy, R., 136 -, oral Law traced back to. 87 " Moses, The Sword of,' Mostegab, 288 Mourning customs, 201 Musaph, 193 ff. Mutakallim, 255 Mystic lore, 236 ■ philosophy, 237 Mystical literature, 235 # 240 the. , Simon ben Jochai connected with the, 96 power of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet, 239 Mysticism, Jewish, 240 of Nachmanides, 232 Mythological element in the Kabbalah, 237 N Nabataeans, the, 15 Nabonidos, 4 Nachman bar Jacob, R., 121 , Moses ben, 232 Nachmani, 120 326 INDEX Nachmanides, 232, 244 Nagdela, Samuel ibn, 279 Nagid, 279, 284 Najara, Israel, 290 Name, the Holy, 163 Narboni, Moses, 264, 267 Nasi, 20, 93 Nathan ha-Babli, R., 97 , R., 129 Natronai, 150 Nazarenes, 179 Nechemiah, R., 67 Nehardea^ 118, 119, 125 , Academy of, 22 Nehemiah, 5 Ne'ilah, 200 Neoplatonic doctrines, 260, 262 philosophy, 235, 240 Neoplatonism, 33, 241 Neo-pythagorean philosophy, 235 Neres, 124 New-Hebrew poetry, 285 New month, announcing of the, 193 Moon festival service, 198 Moons, 155 Testament, study of, 6g Year festival service, 198 Year's Day, 200 Nicholas de Lyra, 230 Nishmath, 191/. Nissim ben Moses, 229 Nittai of Arbela, 93 Non-sacrificial elements in the Temple worship, 151 ff. North Africa, Jewish schools in, 217 Numbers, Midrash on, 71/. O Obadiah, R., 135 *' Offering of Isaac, The," 269 Olam Kafon, 262 Omar, Caliph, 26 Ommeyade Caliphs in Spain, 29 Onias and Tobias, conflict between the two houses, 7 Onkelos, Targum of, 44, 50 j^. Ophan, 274 Ophanim, 250, 274 'Or ' Idonaiy 268 Oral Law, 87 , beginnings of, 88 tradition, 82 'Orchoth Zaddikin, 270 " Orders " of the Mishnah, 99 # Oriental Judaism, 96 Origen, 117 Orosius, 5 'Otzar ha-Kahod, 246 Pagination of the Talmud, 84 Pain and suffering, object of, 232 " Pairs," the, 93/. Palestine, 70 ■ . Academies of, 23 visited by mediaeval Jews, 293 Palestinian liturgical use, 145 Rite, the, 150 Talmud, the, 22, 82 Targum, the, ^iff., 86 Papa, 124 Parable, 69, 73, 75 " Paradise," special meaning of, 95 Parashah, 194 Parchi Esthori, 293 Pardes, 250 Parents bless the children, 190 Pargod, 241 Parthians, invasion of Syria by, 17 " Path of Faith, The," 269 of Light, The," 244 INDEX 327 Payyetan, 272 Penini, Jedayah, 264 Penitential prayer, a, 282 prayers, 179/-, I99. 273 Pentateuch, commentary on the, 244 , influence of language and thought on the liturgy, 146 , lesson from the, 194 -, Nachmanides' commen- tary on, 232/. - readings, 154 Pentecost, feast of, 196 Perakim, 98 Persecutions, destruction of manuscripts during, 83 Persia, Jews of, 2^8 f. Persian Empire, downfall of, 6 : rule, 5 Persians and Egyptians, struggle between, 5 Pesach, 196 Pesakim, tractate, fragment of,' 83 Peshat, ^8, 124, 214/., 234, 250 exegesis, the, 219 , period of the, 216 Peshitta, 58 Pesikta, 64, 74, 77/. de Rah Kahana, 64, 77 Rahhati, 64, 78 Pesuke de Z intra, 191 Petachiah of Ratisbon, 293 Petichah, 80 Petitions for Grace, lygff. Pharisaic party, the, 14/. r- settled in Jabne, 20 Phasael, 17 Philip, 18 Philo, 28, 229 , Midrashic elements in, 63 Philological literature of Spain, 218 studies, 212 Philology, Hebrew, 217 Philosophers, Jewish, 270 Philosophic Judaism, 28 Philosophy and Ethics, 254 ff. , Aristotelian, 257, 263, 268 , , system of, 223 , Hindu, 248 , mystic, 237 , Neoplatonic, 235, 240 , Neo- Pythagorean, 235 of religion, 219 Physics, Aristotelian, 223 " Pilgrim Festivals," 196 Pilpul, 228 Pinchas, R., 97 Pifke ^Ahoth, 91, 157, 195, 225 Rabbi Eliezer, 79, 240 Piyyitt, 272 meaning of, in the Midrash, 272 Piyyuiim, 144, 272 j^. . classes of, 273/. in the Geonic period, 273 of Ibn Gabirol, 33 Plato, 255 Poetry, 219 Poetry and liturgical worship, 272 , New-Hebrew, 285 , the Mediaeval, 2^1 ff. Poets, Spanish- Arabian school of, 279 Poland, Jews in, 36, 253 Pompey, 15 besieges Jerusalem, 16 Pontius Pilate, 18 Praise, passages of, in Morning Service, 156 Prayer, 146 , a penitential, 282 and sacrifices, 148 , assemblies for, on fast- days, 152 ff- book, commentary on, 150 328 INDEX Prayer in the Early Church extempore, 147 , leader in, 147 , private, 180/. , silent, in public worship. 147 the Lord's, 157/. Prayers, collections of litur- gical, 149 for the departed, 2.01 ff. of the synagogal liturgy corresponded with the sacrifices, 151 of the synagogue, national in character, 147 ■ originally variable, 147 , subject-matter of fixed, 147 originally short, 147 , penitential, 179/., 199, 273 written down, 149 Predestination, 263 " Prepared Table, The," [37 *' Prester John," 292 Priests, courses of, 10 ■ , the Blessing of, 173 Primal elements, 239 Prince and Dervish, 290 of the Captivity," 21 Principles of exegesis, 216/. of Faith, the Thirteen, 156, 160 Private prayer, a technical term for, 181 Problem of evil, the, 245/. Proems, 64, 80/. Profiat Duran, 268 Proper Preface, 176 Prophets, Kimhi's commen- tary on, 226 , reading from the, 192 Proverbs, commentary on, 225 , Midrash on, 73/. Psalm for the day, 156 Psalms for each day of the week, 159 , influence of language and thought on the Liturgy, 146 , Kimhi's commentary on, 226 , Midrash on, 72/. often used in the Liturgy, 145 Pseudo-Philo, 112 Ptolemy IV., 7 Ptolemys and Seleucids, con- flict between, 6 Pumbeditha, 121, 125 , Academy of, 22, 209, 210 Punning rhyme, 282 Purim, 198 Q " Questions and Answers," 28 R Ra'aya Mehemna, 248, 250 " Rab," 22, 67, 70, 116, 119, 210 Abina, 126 Joseph, 124 Kahana, 125 Raba ben Joseph ben Chawa, 123 RABaD, 262 Rabba Tbospia, 125/. "Rabbah," 123 ben Nachmani, 123 " Rabban," 116 Rabbenu Tarn, 232 " Rabbi," 116, 119 Rabbinical Bible of Chayim 227 formalism, 253 Judaism, 256 Kaddish, 186 INDEX 329 Rabbinical literature planted in the Exilic period, 7 — — • passages read during Morning Service, 158 - tradition, 215 Rabina, 125, 126 RaLBaG, 266/. Rambam, 232 Ram's horn, 200 RaSHBa, 244 Rashbam, 220/. Rashi, 36, 72, 133/., 220/., 228, 231 , commentary of, 84 Rationalism of Maimonides, 223 Raze de-Razin, 248, 250 Reading of the Law, the, 155, 182, 192 Reason, the basis of exegesis, 2l6 Regalim, 196 " Relation of Faith to Know- ledge, The," 263 Religion, freedom of, among the Jews, 24 Religious ideas, growth of, revealed in the Liturgv, 143 ReMaK, 225 Remez, 250 Renegade Jews, 12 , religious, 170 Resh Gelutha, 21, 26 Lakish, 117 Reshith Chokmah, 271 Reshuth, 275 Responsa, 29, '2.11 ff. Pfudentiiim, 28 Reuchlin, 253 " Revival of the Science of Religion, The," 260 " Rif." 136 RiKam, 224 Rite, Ashkenazic, the, 145, 150 , , where used, 151 Rite, Babylonian, the, 150 — — , French, the, 150 , German, the, 150 . Palestinian, the, 150 , Sephardic, the, 145, 150, 151 , Spanish, the, 281 Rites, two fundamental, 150 Rokeach, 241, 270 Roman power, revolt against, 18 Rome, suzerainty of, over Palestine, 14 , war with, 94 Romulus and Remus, myth of, in Midrash Tehillim, 73 Rosh 'Afnanah, 231 " Royal Crown, The," 280 Ruach, 239 Ruth, Midrash on, 74/. Saadya, 27/., 150, 210, 211, 2i7» ^55ff-> 272 , Arabic translation of the Scriptures of, 256 , Hebrew Prayer-book compiled by, 257 , hymn writer, 278 , Jewish philosophy oi religion created by, 256 , principles of exegesis of, 216/. -, successors of, 217 Sabbath, 9 , additional Service for, r- Afternoon, Service for, 194/. , Conclusion of, Service for, 195/. Eve, Service for, 190/. hymn, 289 -, Inauguration of fhe, 188;?. 330 INDEX Sabbath lights, i88 meal, 189 Morning Service for, 191 # rest, the, 195 , Services for the, iSy ff. Sabbaths, 155 Saba, 248, 250 Sabora (" decision "), 24 Saboraim, 20 , period of the, 24 " Sacred Letter, The," 232 Sacrificial system, the, 148, 151 Sadducaean party, the, 14/. Sadducees, 27, 178 Safed, 252 Salome, 14 Samaritans, 178 Sammael, 67, 250 Samuel, R., 22 ben Chophni, 211 ■ ben Meir, R., 220/. ben Nachman, 120 , books of, Midrash on, 72 ibn Nagdela, 217, 218 ibn Tibbon, R., 222, 229 Japhe, R., 138 Sanctus, the, 178 Sanhedrin, 20, 90, 93, 97 Sar Shalom (Jewish sage), 52 Satan, 67 Saruk, Israel, 252 , Menachem ben, 279 Scaurus, 15 School of exegesis founded by Akiba, 213 Scribes, the, 11, 58, 8gff., 215 Scriptural exegesis, artificial type of, 213 Scripture, exoteric and eso- teric sense of, 223 , interpretation of, 213 text, critical study of, 27 Scriptures, Arabic translation of, 216, 256 Scriptures, authority of, 216 , explanation of the, 153 . reading of the, 153 , the foundation of Litur- gical structure, 145 Scroll of the Law, the, 156 Scrolls of the Law, 182 Second Temple, time of the, 42 Secrets of the Law, 223 Sedarim, 83 Seder, 68, 98 'Olam Rabbah, 296 'Olam Zuta, 296 Sefer ha-Galuy, 12.^ Hukkah, -2-2^ ha-Shovashim, 226 Zikkaron, 224 Seleucids and Ptolemys, con- flict between, 6 Selichoth, 179/., 273, 295 Sephardi, 226 Sephardic Rite, 143, 150 , elaborate character of, 145 Sepharim ha-Chitzonim, iii Sepher ha-Kabbalah, 294 ha-Kuzari, 34 ha-Middoth, 270 ha-Temunah, 245 ha-Yad, 136 ha-Yaskar, 246 Hekkesh ha-Yashar, 266 Helakoth, 248, 250 Raziel, 238 Yetzirah, 235, 238^.. 243, 246, 257 Yosippon, 294 ■ Yuchasin, 295 Sephirotk, 242 , the ten, 239 Sepphoris, 22, 97, 117, 122 , Academy of, 20 Septuagint, the, 159 Service of prayer in Temple worship, 152 " Service of the word," the, 142 INDEX 331 Sha'ar ha-Razim, 246 Sifre, 60, 69, 71/. Shachavith, 1 55 , quotation from, 71 Shalmanassar I., 40 Silluk, 275 Shalsheleth ha-Kahhalah, 295 Simcha ben Samuel, 150 Shammai, 93 Simeon ben Lakish, R., 67- , school of, 94, 107 87, 117/. Shaprut, Chasdai ibn, 278 ben Nathanael, 95 She'eloth u-Teshviboth, 28, 212 Simlai, R., 118 Sheiltoth, 211 Simon II., R., 96 Shekhinah, 49 Duran, 263 Sheliach Zibbur, 174 ben Azzai, 95 Shem Job Palquera, 266 ben Isaac of Worms, 289 Shema' , the, 154, 155, 156, ben Jochai, 96, 236, 247 162 ff., 274 ben Zemach Duran, 26Q Shema'ya, 93 the Just, 90/. Shemoneh 'Esreh, 146, 155, the Maccabsean, 12, 13 156, 164 Jf., 192, 194/- 197. Sin, confession of, 199 199 " Sinai," 124 . meaning of, 173 Sionim, 276 , structure of, 175/. Sitre Torah, 248, 250 Shemoth Rabbah, 68/. Sivan, 197 , parables in, 69 Slanderers, 178 . The/ Sheol-heliei, 201 /. Sherira Gaon, 22, 83 Shesheth, R., 113, 121 Shevuoth, 196 Shib'aia, 274 " Shields of the Mighty, 295 Shilhe, 121 Shilo, 67 Shilte ka-Gibborim, 295 Shimeon, R., 79 Shim'on ben Shetach, 93 Shirashim, 269 Shi'ur Kowiah, 238 Shocher tob, 72 Shophar sounded on New Year's Day, 200 Shulchan 'Aruk, 137 SidduY, 150, 211 , compiled by Saadya, 257 Sidy a, 194 Sifra, 60, 69, 70/., 96 debe Rab, 70 de-Zenicuiha, 248, 250 . quotation from, 70 Slavonic Enoch, the, 236 Sdd, 250 Soko, Antigonus of, 92 Solomon al-Kabetz, 289 ben Abun, 289 ben Adret, 264 ibn Farissol, 284 Isaaki, R., 133/. the Levite, 190 Song of Songs, Midrash on, 75/- Songs of Israel, the, 290 Sopher, 90 Sophevim, 58/., 89 j^'^. , tractate, information regarding the Liturgy in, 149 Spain, centre of Talmudic study, 31 , expulsion of Jews from, 230 , Jewish schools in, 217 . Jews in, 29 j^'^. , Ommeyade Caliphs in, 29 332 INDEX Spain, philological literature of, 218 Spanish-Arabian school of poets, 279 Spanish Rite, the, 150, 281 schools, 217 school of Jewish- poets, Arabic influence on, 288 Speculative element in the Kabbalah, 237 Spinoza, 36, 267 Spirit of God, the, 239 Spiritual sacrifices, 158 Strabo quoted, 19 " Strong Hand,*' The, 35 " Sublime Faith, The," 262 Succoth, 196 Sufis, the, 248 Suffering of the righteous explained by the doctrine of metempsychosis, 243 Sunday Eucharist, 142 Sura, 119, 120, 124 , Academy of, 22 , 23 , 210 Sustenance, Prayer for, 156 " Sword of Moses," the, 240 Symmachus ben Joseph, 97 Synagogal liturgy, origin of, 151 Synagogue in Alexandria, 174 -, influence of, on the Early Church, 142 ■ poetry, 272 prayers. Biblical char- acter of, 145 • originally variable, 147 ■ not written. 147 , the Great, 91 worship, chief elements of, 153 — — ■ developed from Temple worship, 151 Syria, 39 a Roman province, 16 Tabernacles, feast of, 196 Tabyomi, 125/. Tachanun, the, 156, 179 Tachanuniwiy 155, T-'jgjf. Tachkemoni, 286 Tadshe, 97, 240 Tafsir Kitab al Mabadi, 257 Tajnis, 282, 288 Tallith, 155 Talmud, authority of the, 86/. , Babylonian, the, 23, 82, 210 , , complete manu- script of the, 83 , . contents of the. 132 - — , , tractates of the, — , final redactors of the, 24 , Jerusalem, the, 78, 82 , lomav, 84/. . manuscripts of the, 83 — , meaning of the word, 82, 84/. opposed by the Kabba- listic literature, 236 , pagination of the, 84 , Palestinian, the, 22, 82 , period of the, Tgff. recited from memory, 83 , systematic codification of the, 135 Torah, 84 -, uniqueness of, 86 Talmudic commentaries and compendiums, 133 ff. literature, the, Sij^. ~ study, Spain the centre of, 31 Talmuds, language of the, 131 , the, 11^ ff. Tanchuma, 64, 68, 71, 72 bar Abba, 122/. ■ Yelammedemi, 69, 78 INDEX 333 Tanna, ii6 Tannaim, 19, 83, 89, 9^ff-, 107 T d^TindXtic Midrashim, 112 period, ceremonial in the, 152 -, literature of, 236 ^ the, 20 ff. Targum abolished in the synagogue, 45 /. , Babylonian, the, 51 . beginning of the, 44 , earliest reference to the, 43 Fragment, the, 54 in the Dispersion, 46 , meaning of the word, 43 not allowed to be written, 44 of Jonathan ben Uzziel, 54/- of Onkelos, 44, $off. -, Palestinian, the, 52 Jf., 86 , special rules for reading the, 45 Targums, the, 39^^., 145, 217 among the Jews in Europe, 46 , doctrinal teaching of the, 46/. , their use, 45 to the Hagiographa, 55 /. used in Babylonian synagogues, 46 used in synagogue wor- ship, 45 -, value of, for N.T. study, 56 Tarphon, R., 95 Tarshish, the, 282 Tekanoth, 89 Temple, daily services of the, , destruction of the, 77 gates, shutting of the, 200 Temple Liturgy, the, 151 ff. , non-sacrificial elements in the worship of, 151 ff. singers, 10 worship, service of prayer in the, 152 Ten Commandments, the, 154, 156, 159/. Tribes, place of exile of, 292 Tend Rabbanan, 112 Tenu'ah, 288 Tephillah, 173 Tephillin, 155, 158, 191 Tetragrammaton, the, 246 Tiberias, 97, 117 , Academy of, 20, 23 Theology, Jewish, 255 Thirteen Articles of Maimon- ides, 231 Tiglath-Pileser I., 40 Tikkunim, 251 Tobias and Onias, conflict between the two houses, 7 Todros Abulafia, 246 Tokachah, 274 Torah, 71, 72 in writing, the, 87 of the month, the, 87 Torath ha-Adam, 232 Kohanim, 70 Tosaphists, 231 Tosaphoth, 84, 134, 231 Tosephta, 89, 107, 10^ ff., 248, 250 , extract from the, 109/. Tradition, 87 , authority of, 217 Traj an, revolt during reign of, 21 Transmigration, 249 Travel-books, 293 tales, 290/. ' \ Treasury of Glory, ' ' the, 246 Treatise on Ethics (Ibn Gabirol), 33 1 1 i INDEX " Tree of Life, The," 268 Triennial Cycle, the, 182 Turim, 137 U Unity Hymn, 194 of God, the, 195 Usha, 97 , school at, 95 V Varus, 18 Vehu Rachtmi, 156, 179, 195, 273 "V'idal Blasom, Maestro, 267 \'idas, Elijah de, 271 Vital Chavim, Samuel, 253 Vulgate, 5"8 W War with Rome, 94 Washing of hands, the, 157 " Watches," 148 " Ways of Life, The," 271 " Ways of the Righteous, The," 270 Wayyikra Rahhah, 70/., 77 Weeks, feast of, 197 We-Hizhir, 79 " Well of Jacob, The," 138 Wisdom of Ben- Sir a, the, 164/. Woes of the Messiah, 76 Word of God, instruction in, part of worship, 145 " Words, to utter," a technical term for private prayer, 181 Y Yad ha-chazakah, 35, 136 Yalkut ha-Makiri, 79 Shimeoni, 79, 219 Yanu^a, 248, 251 Yathe'd, 288 Yellow badge, 31 Yepheh Mar'eh, 138 Yesod Mora (Ibn Ezra), 34 Yezdigerd II., 125 Yeziratic world, the, 250 Yigdal, 35, 155, 157, 160, 190, 288 Yistdbach Shimeka, 156, 161, 162, 191 Yovna, tractate, 277 Ydrede Merkabah, 237, 238 Yotzer, 156, 163 Or, 274 Zabara, Joseph, 292 Zachuto, Abraham, 295 Zamora, Isaac Arama of, 269 Zarza, 229 Ze'ira, 121 Zekenim, the seventy-two, 20 Zemach David, 295 Zemiroth, 155, 161/. Israel, 290 Zionide, 284 Zohar, the, 234, 236, 237, 240. 246, 247 ff, Chadash, 250 Zoharistic system, the, 249 Zugoth, 89, 93/- Zulaih, 274