_*?5|t^^_. mm i i iS^^iK^siv^^SLi .1 1 i H i S WSi II ^^H £>tate CoUcge of ^BHCulture m Cornell IHniberSitp Utijaca, B. S- Hifirarp SF 239X2^1916""'""*"*' ^'"""^ 3 1924 003 231 218 B Cornell University M Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003231218 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING HOW TO CONDUCT DAIRY FARMING FOR THE LARGEST PROFIT By CLARENCE B. LANE, B.S. Assistant Chief of tke Dairy Division., Bureau of A nimal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture ILLUSTRATED NEW YORK I t ' ^ ORANGE TUDD COMPANY^^ LONDOM " < I Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Limited , I916 y ' '/ ' Copyright, iqog, by ORANGE JUDD COMPANY All Rif^kts Reserved [ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON, ENGLAND] PRINTED IN U. S. A. Uo /IDs Mffe WHOSE UNTIRING EFFORTS AND VALUABLE ASSISTANCE HAVE MADE POSSIBLE THE PRESENTATION OF THIS BOOK PREFACE This little book has been prepared for the use of dairy students, producers and handlers of milk, and all who make dairying a business. Its purpose is to present in clear and concise form various business methods and systems which will help the dairyman to reap greater profits. The main'efifort of every business man is to secure the largest possible return for every dollar ex- pended, and it is hard to convince dairy farmers that in their branch of business, as in any other, an accurate account of expenditures and receipts must be kept, in order to determine where profits are made or losses occur. Simple methods of keeping these records, accounts, etc., within the scope of the average dairyman, have been presented and, in as many instances as possible, the forms and methods themselves have been used instead of de- scriptions of them. No attempt has been made to go into details of growing crops, as this is not the field of the book. The work will be found helpful to dairy students, and may be used as a text book or reference in dairy schools. The book has been written largely from the author's experience. He desires to acknowledge special obligations to Prof. Ivan C. Weld, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and Prof. William A. vni PREFACE Stocking of Cornell University, for reading the proof and for valuable criticisms, and to Prof. Ed- ward H. Webster, Chief of Dairy Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and Dr. E. B. Voorhees, Director of New Jersey Experiment Stations, through whose courtesy the writer obtained a num- ber of valuable illustrations. Washington, D. C, October i, 1908. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PAGE The Farmer as a Business Man: His Failures and Opportunities i PART I.— THE SOIL I A Debit and Credit Account with the Soil ... 5 II The Dairy Business in Relation to Soil Exhaustion 14 PART II.— CROPS ' I Intensive System of Cropping . II Cutting, Handling and Feeding Forage Crops III Top Dressing for Soiling Crops . IV A Succession of Soiling Crops for Fifty Full-Grown Animals ....... V Value of Forage Crops per Acre Compared Clover Hay and Wheat Bran VI Succession of Soiling Crops in Different States VII Advantages and Disadvantages of Soiling . VIII Soiling vs. Silage . . . . , . PART III.— THE DAIRY HERD I ■ - ' Selecting the Breed from a Business Standpoint . 55 with 38 4a 42 44 47 51 S3 Milk Records The Yield of Milk CONTENTS II III 79 91 IV Records of Purebred Cows of Special Importance 94 V Records of Grade Cows 104 VI Business Methods of Improving the Dairy Herd by Means of a Purebred Sire 11 1 PART IV.— FEEDS AND FEEDING I Business Methods in Feeding 125 II Observations by Haecker I3<» III Home-Grown Dairy Foods for Winter Use . . 144 PART v.— PRODUCTS I Yield of Milk and Cost of Production . . . 164 II Sanitary Methods in Milk Production . , . 171 III ■\yinter Dairying Too Much Neglected . . . 194 PART VI.— SALES I •Business Methods in Retailing Milk .... 198 II Dairy Accounts — Daily Record 200 III Advertising 215 IV Business Accounts on a Dairy Farm .... 219 Appendix 225 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES Frontispiece 2 The Soil 4 Crops 20 Harvesting Alfalfa in New Jersey .... 26 Crimson Clover in Corn at Last Cultivation . . 27 Mixed Grasses — a Very Appetizing Food for Stock 27 Field of Cowpeas in Alabama 29 Barnyard Millet. Yield 15 Tons per Acre ... 30 Crop of Cowpeas and Kaffir Corn. Yield 13 Tons 91 per Acre 31 Field of Crimson Clover 36 A Crop of Peas and Oats 36 Field of Soy Beans . . 36 Experiment with Nitrate of Soda on Wheat . . 42 A Dairy Herd S6 Grand Champion Ayrshire Cow, National Dairy Show, Chicago, 1906 60 First Prize Three- Year-Old Guernsey Bull, Pan- American Exposition 61 Guernsey Cow, "Yeksa Sunbeam." Record 1,000 Pounds Butter in One Year 62 Holstein Bull, "Count Paul De Kol 2d." First Prize Three-Year-Old, Pan-American Exposition . . 64 Holstein Cow, "Colontha 4th Johanna." Champion Butter Cow of the World, 1,164.63 Pounds in a Year 65 68 70 74 85 A Good Type of the Jersey Breed A Typical Brown Swiss Cow .... Good Type of Dairy Shorthorns .... Keeping a Careful Record of the Weight of Milk XU ILLUSTRATIONS Curing Alfalfa Hay 124 The Dairyman's Best Investment — The Silo . . IS9 Dairy Products 163 Steps in Producing and Handling Clean Milk . . 172 Steps in Producing and Handling Clean Milk . . I73 Filthy Stable and Cows i74 Clean Cows and Clean Stable i75 Interior of a Well-Lighted Stable .... 176 A Modern Stable, Admitting an Abundance of Light 177 Ventilating by Means of the Muslin Curtain . . 177 Manure Breeds Flies and Contaminates the Milk 178 Milk House Connected with the Stable — a Bad Practice I79 Bottling Milk 180 Interior of a Modern Dairy House .... 180 A Cheap but Practical Milk House. Utensils Prop- erly Cared for ....... 181 A Milk House for the Small Farmer . . . 182 Interior of Clean Stable 183 Four Styles of Milk Pails ... . . 183 Dirty Milk Deposits — a Sediment in the Bottom of the Bottle 184 Trolley System for Conveying Milk from the Stable to the Milk House 185 The Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy Milking Machine . 188 The Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy Milking Machine in Operation . . . . , . . .189 Delivering Milk ........ 197 TEXT FIGURES Showing How the Farm May Be Laid Out to Facili- tate the Keeping of Records ..... 23 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING INTRODUCTION THE FARMER AS A BUSINESS MAN: HIS FAILURES AND OPPORTUNITIES In these days of sharp competition, it is necessary for the dairy farmer to make a close study of his business if he is to succeed. Like the manufacturer, he must know exactly what his products cost him and determine the sources of his profits and losses. In fact, he should make a business proposi- tion of the whole farm. We can point to one here and there who has followed this plan with wonder- ful success, but the condition of the dairy industry, as seen on the average farm, points to the need of better methods and a more definite knowledge of the business. In no department connected with the' farm is there more need for absolute data than in the dairy. . Investigations of the financial condition of pro- gressive and unprogressive dairymen indicate that there is no business which shows a greater range of profit than that of dairy farming. There is need of more careful business methods in the selection aiid breeding. of dairy cows; keeping records of the yield- 2 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING of milk; the cost of rations, and the fertility ele- ments added to and taken from the soil. Too much money is expended by the average dairy farmer for commercial feeding stuffs, and a large percentage of the foods for our dairy herds should be grown on the farm. Many comparatively small farms would be capable of carrying a large herd if a more inten- sive system of growing crops were practiced. Many dairy farmers fail to reap the profits they should because of an inferior product, due to in- sanitary conditions. A first-class product is always in demand at profitable prices. The dairy farmer should make an effort to establish a reputation for his dairy and his product: first, by having a good product, and second, by advertising or in some way calling the attention of the consumer to it. If his product is market milk, this object may be accom- plished by having a reputable veterinarian examine his cows, a bacteriologist and chemist his product, and some dairy inspector certify to the sanitary condition of his stable, dairy house, etc. If his prod- uct is butter, let him make it the best; have a butter judge examine and criticize it, and then sell the butter under his name or brand it so it can always be identified in the market. The dairy farmer to-day has abundant oppor- tunity to practice the most up-to-date business methods. With the telephone in his house connect- ing him with all the markets in the nearest city ; the trolley passing his door; the rural delivery system for collecting and distributing his mail; improved, roads enabling him to haul heavy loads with the INTRODUCTION 3 least power; and, most important of all, an abun- dance of literature on all subjects pertaining to his business, that he can have almost for the asking, certainly the dairy farmer has every opportunity to carry on a profitable business. What he needs is the best knowledge, then the intelligence to apply it. One of the reasons why dairying is not found profitable by many is that dairying is made sec- ondary to other farm work and is not handled in a business way. With a small number of cows and a small product to dispose of, the small dairyman does not and cannot aflford to equip his place with the necessary apparatus for producing a good product. A dairyman under these circumstances should do one of two things, either enlarge his dairy work and conduct it as a business, or give it up altogether and follow some other line of work. With more strict laws regarding the methods of producing and hand- ling milk, and with the increased use of the milk- ing machine, the tendency in the future will be to increase the number of large dairies and reduce the number of small ones. PART I— THE SOIL CHAPTER I A DEBIT AND CREDIT ACCOUNT WITH THE SOIL The first consideration in dairy farming is nat- urally the soil. This is an important part of the dairyman's capital and perhaps shows the effects of good business methods more strikingly than any other branch of his work. It is possible to keep a debit and credit account with the soil and thus show the condition of each acre of the farm from the standpoint of fertility and the amount of the crops removed from time to time. We will take one acre of land for an illustration and this will be considered the same as a bank ; that is, our capital stock will represent the constituents in the soil, our deposits the fertility elements applied to the soil, our expenditures the fertility elements removed from the soil in the crops taken off. Capital, the soil. — We will consider first our cap- ital. What does our bank contain? We may make a chemical analysis of the soil, but this Avill not give us an accurate value of it, since a part of the plant food is not available, and some of the power of the plant to secure that which is available depends upon 6 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING many conditions, such as the proper preparation of the land, the kind of crops raised, the relative amounts of the various required constituents and the amount of moisture present. A chemical anal- ysis, however, will give us some idea of the compo- sition and value of our soil. The analyses of soils made by reliable chemists show that even the poorer soils have an abundance of plant food for several crops, while the richer soils in some cases have sufficient for many years. Since the soil and subsoil contain such stores of fertility and since such deep- rooted plants as clovers and alfalfa bring to the sur- face abundant quantities of nitrogen with some min- eral matter, and since many fields receive applica- tions of farm manure from time to time, there must be some cause tending to restrict production. The principal causes of low yields of farm crops are found in imperfect preparation of the soil and poor tillage. As a result there is a lack of available plant food and insufficient moisture sometimes during growth. We need to better appreciate and utilize nature's storehouse. Deposits. — Last year's plant food will not do for this year's any more than last year's plowing. Grow- ing crops must have nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash as food, which eventually becomes a part of the natural plant. This fixed in mind, the intelligent handling of the fertilizing problem becomes a simple matter. We will regard the soil, then, as a bank in. which the forms of plant food are deposited as in- comes or fertilizers and drawn out in the form of salable crops. On the average soil, farm-produced A DEBIT AND CREMIT ACCOUNT 7 manures are used to the best advantage when sup- plemented with commercial fertilizers containing available phosphoric acid ar,d potash. Good authori- ties recommend that for every ton of stable manure applied, 50 to 100 pounds of acid phosphate and 25 to 50 pounds of high-grade muriate or sulphate of potash be used. Home mixing of fertilizers. — ^l^he farmer should mix his own fertilizers — that is, he should buy the separate ingredients and put them together accord- ing to the formulas desired. In doing this he will learn what the dififerent forms of plant food are, what they are valuable for and from what source they can be obtained. He will become to some ex- tent an investigator and will of necessity take a deeper interest in his work. In purchasing the sep- arate ingredients the object sought should be to secure as much nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in available form as possible for $1, instead of as many pounds of fertilizer as possible regardless of the amount of plant food contained in them. The quality and cost of home mixtures analyzed by the experiment stations indicate very clearly the advan- tage of this method of purchase. When the cost of plant food purchased in this way is compared with the average cost of that in the regular brands, there is frequently shown a saving of 30 per cent. Expenditures. — The relation of deposits or fer- tility ingredients, to expenditures can perhaps best be illustrated by a balance sheet from an acre of land at the New Jersey Agricultural College Farm, where an exact record of 76 acres was kept by the THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING BALANCE SHEET FOR ONE ACRE OF LAND PLOT 16 Record for the Years 1897, 1898, 1899 Br. Manures, Fertilizers, Labor, and Seed Cost Amonnt Applied Date Nitro- gen Phos- phoric Acid Potash April 1897. To Fertilizer— $0 93 1 46 38 1 20 30 20 20 72 Lbs. 2.97 Lbs. 18.0D Lbs. 41.37 ti 13.11 To Labor and Seed- Harrowing, i hours Carting weeds, 1 hour Man 1 hour Total $5 39 2.97 31.11 41.37 1898. To Fertilizer— $10 05 $2 70 2 70 25 45 20 72 42.88 44.22 68.34 " 10 To Labor and Seed- Plowing, 9 hours " 11 Harvesting, rolling, planting, 9 hrs.. 12 Quarts corn " 28 " 83 Sowing crimson clover, 1 hour 12 lbs. crimson clover seed Total $17 07 42.88 44.22 68.34 1899, To Fertilizer— 6.1 tons manure June 1 $9 15 23 32 50 2.40 40 25 2 52 3 00 1 40 39.04 ""isa" 40.28 10.17 6.14 62.22 " 21 50 lbs. acid phosphate " SI 25 lbs. ground bone " 21 13.79 " 21 To Labor, Seed, etc.— Plowing, 5 hours $1 j50 Harvesting, rolling, etc., 3 hrs. BO Planting corn, 1 hour $0.30 Sowing fert., 1 hour 10 10 Qts. Southern white corn July 4-27 Cultivating, 6 hours $180 12 lbs. crimson clover 72 Oct. 12 Plowing, harvesting, rollinfr. 10 lirs. 2 bu rye, at 55 cents $1 JO Drilling, 1 hour 30 Total $20 17 39.90 56.67 76.01 A DEBIT AND CREDIT ACCOUNT BALANCE SHEET FOR ONE ACRE OF LAND PLOT 16 Record for the Years 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900, 1901 Cr. Crops Grown Yield Value Amount Removed Date Nitro- gen Phos. phoric Acid Potash July 1897. By corn fodder, at $3.00 per ton... Total Tons 10.74 $ 38.32 Lbs. 58.00 Lbs. 32.22 Lbs. 70.88 10.74 11.00 8.00 32 22 38.50 24.00 98.00 110.00 43.20 32.22 28.60 24.00 70.88 1898. 85.80 Aug. By 8.00 tons corn fodder, at $3.00. . Total 52.80 19.00 5.00 16.30 62.50 17.50 48.60 153.20 50.00 87.48 52.60 13.00 48.60 138.60 May Sept. 1899, By crimson clover, at $3.50 39.00 By 16.80 tons corn fodder, at $3.00. Total 109.92 21.30 66.10 187.48 61.60 148.92 to THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING BALANCE SHEET FOR ONE ACRE OF LAND (Continued) PLOT 16 Record for the Years 1900, 1901 Dr. Manures, FertilizerB, Labor, and Seed Cost Amount Applied Sate Nitro- gen Phos- phoric Acid Potash May to Sept. 1900 To Fertilizer-;' $2 10 60 63 1 03 85 2 70 40 75 60 3,00 1 80 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 55.16 100 lbs acid phosphate 7.93 7.16 20.33 12.27 50 lbs. ground bone 50 lbs. nitrate of soda 50 lbs. dried blood .62 May 85 to May 38 To Labor and Seed- Plowing and fitting land, 9 hours 6 Qts. Stowell's evergi:een corn Planting and sowing f ert Sept. 22 Plowing, etc., 9 hoursi. $3 70 Sowing fert. and grass seed.. 30 15 lbs. Mammoiith red clover Total $14 46 16.81 33.22 55.16 1901. To Fertilizer— 7. 9 tons manure Feb. $11 85 2 55 33 2 70 1 93 6 20 3 00 400 50.56 1.72 2.06 52.14 12.87 14.72 80.58 April 100 lbs. muriate potash $2 00 50 lbs. bone 55 55.16 63.43 July April S 9 July 9-10 To Labor and Seed- Plowing, harvesting, drilling, 9 Iirs. 2 bu. oats $0 64 VA bu. cowpeas 1 29 Harvesting and rolling, 13 hrs.. $3 90 1.15 lbs. mur. potash 2 30 16 qts. kaffir corn $0 50 32 qts. cowpeas 2 60 Sept. 11 Preparing ground, 11 hours $3 80 7 lbs. Essex rape 70 Total $32 56 54.34 79.13 199 17 Total, 5 years $89 65 156 90 244.25 440 05 A CEBIT AND CREDIT ACCOUNT II BALANCE SHEET FOR ONE ACRE OF LAND PLOT 16 Record for Years 1900, 1901 Cr. Crops Grown Yield Value Amount Kemoved Date Nitro- gen Phos- phoric Acid Potash May 1900. By rye fodder, at $3^00 Tons 4.10 5.90 18.30 17.70 Lbs. 33.63 31.86 iLbs. 21.30 17.70 Lbs. 54 94 Sept. ' 38.94 Total 10.00 6.80 18.20 30.00 31.70 42.70 65.48 50.84 87.60 39.00 17.36 30.38 93 88 July 1 Sept. 1 1901. 58 38 By cowpeas, and kafflr corn, at $3.50. Total 125.66 18.40 14.40 138.44 47.74 183.94 79.34 255.32 553.60 233.16 636.33 Balance 165.57 —395.70 -i-31.36 —196 17 Note- The dairyman who wishes to calculate the fertility of his crops is referred to table in the, appendix. 12 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING writer for seven years. The records include the manures and fertilizers applied to each crop and the fertility elements removed in the crops. A record is also shown of the cost of labor and seed, so that it is an easy matter not only to draw a balance with reference to the fertility elements, but to show the cost of producing the crop up to the time of harvest- ing. A study of the above account with an acre of ground for a period of five years shows that fertility elements were applied amounting to 156.9 pounds of nitrogen, 244.25 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 440.05 pounds of potash. The fertility elements removed amounted to 552.6 pounds of nitrogen, 233.16 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 636.22 pounds of potash. Balancing the account by subtracting the amount removed from the amount applied we find that 395.70 pounds more nitrogen has been taken off in crops than has been applied in manures and fertilizers. The question arises, where did this nitrogen come from. It is not very probable that there was this amount of available reserve nitrogen in the soil. It is easily explained, however, when we consider the fact that such crops as crimson clover, Canada field peas and cowpeas, which were grown on this plot, take free nitrogen from the air during growth. It is not surprising, therefore, that more nitrogen is removed in the crops than was ap- plied to the soil. Again, referring to the phosphoric acid, we find that 31.26 pounds more has been applied than removed in the crop, so that an excess remains in the soil. In case of the potash 196. 17 pounds A DEBIT AND CREDIT ACCOUNT 1 3 more were removed than applied in the manures and fertilizers, so that we have a deficiency of this ele- ment in the soil. Future treatment. — Considering all these condi- tions, how shall this soil be treated the next season ? Taking it for granted that the soil was normal at the start, we should continue to grow some legumi- nous crop which will utilize the free nitrogen of the air and apply only such amounts of nitrogen as are necessary to give leguminous crops a start and to properly fertilize grains and such crops as cannot take free nitrogen from the air. As to phosphoric acid, the balance shows an excess in the soil and we will only need to apply about the amount that the crop naturally requires. With the potash, however, the balance shows a deficiency in the soil and the application for the next crop should be a liberal one. Financial balance. — A nominal value has been placed on the crops in order to show a financial bal- ance and to show whether the crops have really been worth more than the expense incurred in growing them. Interest, taxes, and insurance are not in- cluded. The cost of harvesting is also omitted, the value being assigned to the standing crops. On this basis we have a balance for the five years (difference between the cost of production and the value of the crop) of $165.57 or $33-ii per year. A fairly good remuneration. It should be stated, however, that the soil was very ordinary in fertility and that the year before these records began (1896) the plot would not produce over one-half ton of hay to th« acre. It may appear to some, also, that the 14 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING value of the crops has been rated a little high, but they were cut when in prime condition for feeding and utilized, in some instances, at the season of the year when no other crops were available. CHAPTER II THE DAIRY BUSINESS IN RELATION TO SOIL EXHAUSTION The keeping of accurate records of all fertility elements applied to the soil in the form of manures and fertilizers and the amount removed in farm crops, as we have seen, is an important matter. We will now look at the subject of the fertility of the dairy farm from a wider viewpoint ; and endeavor to show that a dairy farm, in selling market milk and using good business methods in its operations, in- cluding the feeding of balanced rations and growing a large percentage of the food stuffs on the farm, will tend to grow richer instead of poorer in plant food. The records used for this purpose were kept by the writer and cover a period of seven years on a farm having about 76 acres under cultivation and a herd of 30 to 40 milking cows. The following tabulation shows the amount of fertilizing elements contained in the feeds purchased and in the milk produced by the herd. There is shown to be a decided gain to the farm in all the elements of fertility each year. The total gain is equivalent in nitrogen and phosphoric acid to that contained respectively in 27.6 tons of nitrate of soda, 29.6 tons of acid phosphate and in potash to that A DEBIT AND CREDIT ACCOUNT 15 00 § ^ e IT g 0. s g S g A C" oa M ■-1 ^ ^ " ©> 1-7 tH 03 »:3 ^ s 1 01 r- 03 i i 03 OJ S ~S~l3~ ■~s s A o- cc ^. 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E _s : 1 3 c a 1 % c ■d ? : d 5 4 p 4- I • 1 1 5 1 1 "c B C C : % ■I 3 a IS 1 4- 1 1 1 i B •a c 1 c ^ 1:- ■5 H- c C 1 c t6 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING . m CO 04 • m oa ot • CD 3 00 CO -* S : !S •a e i 1 EO 3 ffl M ■* ©» " s e g s s 8 ^^ » ^4 0> V 03 s § : S ( s g i ,2 w " tH 00 9 s« P s J H n [> 04 CO a • ' ~~i r~ «5 OS OS o & m (N CO V ' e E? 1 g i "" e -^ -* t- O eo ir • C I e s~ OQ w i-t y « Oi ©. 1 1 A ; ^ )■ e 3 Hi Ol CO to iH 1 1 J3 ^ iH ea (N £S ^ c i J T-( tn e> t- ei ~e : -^ K O r-t -* Oi CD • 1- 1 s A ■* e 4 e hJ m ~U5 rt ,H " •" r t- CM O" 1 5 c 3 01 CO a» C2 u Cv • ©■ ih" 1 c 1 s Hi OO CO : ^ 1 i-t •« -^ OD o w ff : g "~e li C M Oi VO 00 CO ■« a e A v> tsk ; ' 1 C g s 1^ rH < c OS 1 £5 S ^ K «o g "1 ? 5 ,2 Oi b- M ev fH ^ iH " Oj EQ ~a § S9 ~i ^ : 5 ^ • 8 g ~ O § 3 a- ■ fH P C\ I> » tc o ■* ^ a CO ~~c ■i -^ s t» (M CT l> a 3 £ i-t 3 " ei 3 O t. QQ T e e S S i rQ IH c 1 t- s h^ '^ EO "Ir A ta OQ 13 % i>« fo a s a s; t: o 1 "i "3 1 ■■g * • ffi 1 i i3 1 ■*- o s 1 3 1 g O o 1 i c 1 c O a 8 1 A DEBIT AND CREDIT ACCOUNT 1 7 contained in 2.47 tons high-grade muriate of potash. It is not affirmed that the constituents contained in the manure are equal in agricultural value to those contained in the fertilizers mentioned, or that even under the best conditons of care and application, they could not be used by the plants, but, because the manure contains all the coilstituents and is well adapted for most crops, the general farmer is, as a rule, able to get as good returns from it in propor- tion to constituents contained as from products con- taining the same constituents in more available forms. The tabulation shows, further, that if all the milk sold from the farm was obtained from foods grown on the farm, the exhaustion of nitrogen would be in greater proportion than the mineral elements, and that when this is the practice it is necessary to apply nitrogenous fertilizers in order to maintain the fer- tility. If manure is well cared for and used properly, it is more economical to purchase the nitrogen in the form of feeding stuffs, whose whole cost is returned in the increased product resulting from the use of well-balanced rations. Business methods in maintaining fertility. — Any system of farming must result in the removal of some of the elements of fertility from the soil, but dairy farming properly conducted results in the removal of a minimum rather than a maximum of these elements ; provides for the physical and chemi- cal character of soils and is constructive rather than destructive in its effects. It is the dairy farmer's business to so utilize his crops as to remove from the farm only the minimum l8 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING amount of fertility elements in the finished product. For example, experiments have shown that the out- go of fertilizing value in different dairy products from one cow in one year amounts, where butter is sold to .059, where cream is sold to $1.11; where cheese is sold to $4.34; and where milk is sold to $6.68. This does not mean that it is always more profitable from a fertility standpoint for a dairyman to sell butter than milk — the price received for these products must determine which is the most profit- able. But where milk is sold, the dairyman should see to it that the fertilizing elements removed from the farm through this channel are restored either by the purchase of commercial feeding stuffs to bal- ance the rations or by direct purchase of manures or commercial fertilizers. The former method will usually prove the more profitable, as it serves the double purpose of feeding the stock and eventually restoring fertility to the soil. It has been estimated that the fertility in 100 acres of virgin soil is worth $10,000 ; that the wheat crop would remove from 100 acres in twenty years, $10,- 000 worth of fertility; and that a herd of eighteen cows in twenty years would restore $10,000 worth of fertility to 100 acres. This herd of cows would not only support the crops grown to feed them- selves, but additi®nal fields of twenty acres of corn, and 14 acres of wheat where milk is sold ; 24 acres of corn and 18 acres of wheat where cheese is sold ; 33 acres of corn and 23 acres of wheat where cream is sold, and 35 acres of corn and 24 acres of wheat where butter is sold. A DEBIT AND CREDIT ACCOUNT IQ To illustrate further how dairying, properly con- ducted, will preserve the fertility of the soil, land on the Pacific Coast reduced to such poverty by the continual raising of wheat that it produced only eight or nine bushels to the acre has been so restored by dairying that it now produces from 20 to 40 bushels and the land has doubled in value. The same may be said of thousands of acres of land which have been continuously planted to corn until it failed to return a profit. Such farmers have had to return to dairying and the keeping of live stock to restore the fertility to the soil. Continuous growing of corn or wheat is like drawing the principal deposited in the bank until all is gone, while dairying permits a man to live on the interest. The use of commercial fertilizers and the turning under of green crops may be used in conjunction with dairying for maintaining equilib- rium in fertility, but the dairy cow will do the work the cheapest. When the crops grown on the farm are fed to live stock and the fertilizer resulting is put back on the land, it is possible to restore to the land 80 to 90 per cent, of the fertilizing elements that were taken from it. The growing of legu- minous crops on the farm to be fed to the dairy cows tends to increase the nitrogen content of the soil, since these crops deposit more nitrogen in the soil than is sold in the milk produced by feeding them. This matter of maintaining soil fertility is one of the most important agricultural questions in this countrv. 'to''. PART II— CROPS CHAPTER I INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF CROPPING The losses sustained by a dairyman by reason of scanty pastures during summer droughts are very great. The dairy herd having once fallen in yield of milk for any length of time will rarely recover and return to its normal flow. The dairyman's profits are not only reduced but the dealer or con- sumer to whom he supplies milk or butter is disap- pointed and there is trouble all along the line. It is particularly important that the dairyman who retails his milk have a constant supply from day to day and from month to month. The usual and ordi- nary losses and difificulties could largely be over- come by what is known as the intensive system of dairy farming or the soiling system. This consists in feeding farm animals a succession of green forage crops in the field or stable during the summer period instead of allowing them to run on pasture. Soiling is especially adapted to localities where the value of land is high and pasture areas are limited. It is adapted to steers as well as to dairy cows. The use of the silo in summer feeding is tak- ing the place of soiling to some extent, as it is used 22 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING for supplementary feed to scant pastures during summer droughts. The production of soiling crops results in inten- sive methods of farming, as not only large yields are produced from single crops, but two and some- times three crops are grown upon an acre the same season. (See page ^y.) This necessitates heavy applications of manure and fertilizers in order to maintain the fertility of the soil. Green manuring is also practiced in connection with soiling to advan- tage. Laying out the farm for soiling. — When forage crops are depended upon entirely as food for the dairy herd in summer, it is a desirable plan to lay out the farm on paper in one or two acre plots (See page 23), decide what crops should be grown, amount and kind of fertilizer to be applied, and figure how much forage can be secured from each acre, allowing for droughts and other unfavor- able conditions. He can then calculate the number of cows his farm will carry through the summer. It may seem, at first, a difficult matter to do this, but by stfldying thoroughly the productive capacity of the farm for a number of years the calculation can be made almost to a nicety. This calculation can be made during the winter, when the dairyman is less busy with the field work. The seed and the fertilizer need to be ordered, tools put in repair, and everything made ready for the spring work. It has been my experience that land devoted entirely to forage crops will carry three cows per acre for six months from May ist to November ist. INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF CROPPING 23 24 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING The dairyman should, as far as possible, select crops that can be successfully grown on his farm and should avoid those which might contribute an undesirable flavor to his dairy products, as, for example : rape, turnips, etc. Partial soiling. — This consists in feeding forage crops supplementary to pasturage or to other foods at a time when pastures furnish an insufficient sup- ply. The system is a common practice with many farmers and aids very materially in keeping the milk flow uniform throughout the summer months. Whether complete or partial soiling is practiced, a succession of crops must be provided which will furnish a continuous supply of forage at the proper stage of growth for feeding as the season advances, or say from May ist to November ist. It is a com- mon practice among progressive dairymen to keep the cows in a darkened stable during the day when the pastures are dried up and the cows annoyed by the heat and flies. They are fed forage and some dry coarse foods and grain, and turned out at night. Crops for soiling. — As it is not the purpose of this book to discuss crops except in so far as they relate to business methods in dairy farming, it will suffice to mention here only a few of the more important of the great variety of crops which have been recom- mended for soiling. The following succession was used by the author in New Jersey and would be applicable to other of the Middle Atlantic and the Central States: Rye. — ^The herd was fed a half ration of green rye about May ist, and in the course of a week a full INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF CROPPING 2$ ration was supplied with the exception of a small amount of dry roughage once a day, consisting of hay or corn fodder. A cow weighing 1,000 pounds will ordinarily consume from 60 to 70 pounds of the average forage crop a day in addition to a -small amount of dry fodder and from six to eight pounds of fine feeds. While the food value of rye is not as great as some of the crops which follow, it is a valuable food for the reason that it comes at a time when no other crop is available. Wheat immediately follows rye, and while the yield is not usually as great as that obtained from the former crop, it is very palatable, and owing to its larger proportion of leaf growth it remains suc- culent for a longer time and has proven an excellent forage for the middle of May. Alfalfa without question is the best perennial crop. It is ready for cutting shortly after the middle of May, and a yield of 20 tons of green forage per acre during a season is not uncommon. An average of 22 tons per acre annually for the four years following seeding has been secured, the greatest annual yield being 26 tons per acre from five cuttings. Owing to its high content of protein (the hay nearly equaling that of wheat bran) it serves an excellent purpose on a dairy farm in materially reducing the need for purchased feeds, whether the crop is fed as green forage or hay. Crimson clover is one of the most useful crops from the standpoint of yield, composition, cost, and the ease with which it may be secured. It may serve as a pasture where soiling is not practiced, or INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF CROPPING 27 be made into hay if cut when in early bloom. The crop is usually in the best condition for forage about the first of June. WW^Ik^. 'y CRIMSON CLOVER SOWN IN CORN AT LAST CULTIVATION MIXED GRASSES— A VERY APPETIZING FOOD FOR STOCK 28 THE BUSINESS OP DAIRYING Mixed grasses. — Following crimson clover a mix- ture of red and alsike clover, timothy (and some- times red-top added) has been used for feeding with good results early in June. This combination affords a palatable forage and may be fed from ten days to three weeks, depending upon the character of the mixture. There is probably no forage crop that is relished more by dairy animals than this mix- ture of grasses and clovers, if cut at the proper time. Peas and oats. — This mixture afifords a very serviceable crop and very rarely fails to give a good yield when planted early. It supplies forage when other crops are not usually available, unless large quantities of alfalfa are sown, thus providing a second cutting at this time. It may be seeded at in- tervals ranging from a week to ten days, the crops being harvested in the order of their maturity. This mixture also makes excellent hay, although more difficult to secure than ordinary grasses. Like alfalfa and crimson clover, it needs to be cured in windrows or small cocks for best results, and when so handled it is of great value as a milk producer. Vetch is sometimes used in place of peas, with equally good results. Indian corn. — For general forage purposes no an- nual crop has been found superior to Indian corn. If quick curing varieties are grown, two crops may be obtained in one season from the same area. The thoroughbred White Flint is particularly valuable for forage purposes. It grows very rapidly and branches from the base, thus producing from three to five stalks from a single kernel. This variety also Intensive system of cropping 29 has a large proportion of leaf and is very succulent. Cows never refuse Indian corn when cut green, and relish it particularly at the stage when the ears are developing. Cowpeas and soy beans. — These crops possess many desirable characteristics as forage and are very valuable for midsummer feeding. They stand the drought well and will thrive on light, poor soil if ■ HI ll'fei^^S FIELD OF COWPEAS IN ALABAMA an abundance of mineral elements are provided. They also remain in condition for feeding for a longer time than most crops. Either of these crops may follow peas and oats to good advantage. Aside from forage, they are excellent for green manuring. As to varieties of cowpeas, the Red Ripper is one of the best late varieties and the Southdown Black 30 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING and Taylor are among the best for earlier seeding. The Eureka and Green soy beans are among the most profitalile kinds. Millets. — The various millets have an important place in the forage rotation because they grow EAKNYARD MILLET. YIELD, I5 TONS PER ACRE NEW JERSEY E.XPERIMENT STATION INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF CROPPING 31 rapidly, mature early, and may be seeded from any time from May until August. The Japanese barn- yard millet has proven to be one of the most profit- able varieties. The yield during some seasons has reached 13 tons per acre. This crop is often ready for feeding from 45 to 50 days after seeding. Kaffir corn. — This crop is a good yielder and is often grown with profit. When mixed with cow- crop OF COWPEAS AND KAFFIR CORN. YIELD, 13 TONS PER ACRE NEW JERSEY EXPERIMENT STATION peas at the rate of one bushel of cowpeas to one- half bushel of kaffir corn per acre and sown in July, yields of 12 tons have been secured. Cowpeas are high in nitrogen, and kaffir corn is a carbon- aceous plant. The combination of the two there- fore makes a very valualjle and nutritious fodder. Barley. — This is the latest crop to be utilized for soiling. It is not injured by light frost and can be fed throughout October. Barley should be seeded 3^ THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING about August ist at the rate of two bushels-per acre. It is a good practice to seed rye with barley. The rye makes a good growth in the fall after the barley is harvested, holds over the winter well and starts early in the spring. Additional crops. — Some other crops which have been grown with more or less success are teosinte, sorghum, velvet beans, winter oats, and lupines. A few standard crops best. — Some dairymen make the mistake of attempting to grow a great variety of forage crops, many of which are uncertain and not adapted to their particular farms. A few stand- ard crops well cared for will usually prove the better plan. For example, rye and wheat for early feeding, followed by large areas of alfalfa (which can be cut three or four times during the summer), and this in turn followed by oats and peas and corn will give a continuous supply if the areas devoted to each were adjusted to the size of the herd. The soiling system may be made still simpler by simply grow- ing alfalfa and corn. With this plan the feeding period could begin about the middle of May and continue until irqst. WHAT CONSTITUTES VALUE IN FORAGE (i) Yield and composition. — In the case of fine feeds, the amount and quality of the nutrients they contain are taken as the basis in making a com- parison of their feeding value. This method is also applicable in comparing the value of forage crops for milk production. The number of tons produced INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF CROPPING 33 of any forage is not in itself a safe guide as to its value. For example, corn, at that stage of maturity which would make it a useful crop for feeding green, will contain about 25 per cent, of dry matter, where- as certain millets, Kaffir corn, etc., belonging to the same group of plants, will oftentimes contain as little as ID per cent. The same is true in the g^se of the leguminous crops ; certain of these are much more watery at the proper stage for feeding than others. This point of variation of dry matter in the diiiferent crops should be taken into consideration, together with the other important one, namely, the influence of the proportion of the diiiferent nutrients in determining their value. For example, those crops which belong to the cereal group — corn, mil- let, sorghum, etc. — are carbonaceous in their char- acter, and should be fed in connection with legu- minous crops, which supply a larger amount of protein. Season of the year in which the crop may be grown and time required for it to mature. — There are certain winter annual plants, as rye, wheat and crimson clover, which are very valuable in the for- age rotation from the fact that they are available in the early spring. Again, there are other crops which grow best, and can only be grown, in early or midsummer; among these may be mentioned oats and peas, cowpeas and soy beans. Then there are others that are valuable for the reason that they will make considerable growth after the weather be- comes cool, as barley, corn and certain of the grasses. 34 THfi BUSINESS OF DAIRYING Other plants are valuable from the fact that they will mature in a very short period. In this class are included the various millets, the barnyard variety producing a crop in from 40 to 50 days. The number of plants that will supply forage through the entire growing season is very limited. Al^fa comes as near to this as any grown in this country. Cuttings from this crop have been made as early as May 12th and as late as October 22d. Palatability and influence upon the flavor of milk. — A plant that is not palatable is of but little value for'forage. Fortunately there are not many that be- long to this class. The following are not readily eaten by dairy stock: Yellow and Rural Branching Doura (Millo Maize) and Evergreen Broom-Corn. Animals sometimes refuse to eat certain varieties of peas and beans for a short period,- but they soon learn to like them. There is no forage crop which are common, with the exception of Dwarf Essex Rape, that has given an unpleasant flavor to milk when fed judiciously. This crop is not safe to feed to dairy cows. There is the most danger of produc- ing a "grassy" flavor in milk at the beginning of the season, when animals are changed from dry foods to green forage. It sometimes occurs, too, when immature forage is fed. This undesirable effect can usually be overcome by feeding in limited quantities and always after milking. As already stated, one of the advantages of soil- ing is that larger yields can be obtained with the system than by-pasturing. These are secured in two ways : by increased yields from single crops as a INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF CROPPING 35 result of careful preparation of the ground and thor- ough cultivation, and by growing two and some- times three crops on the same area during a season, taking advantage of the fact that certain crops grow best at certain times of the year. The following combinations of crops have been found practicable in my experience and show the possibilities of intense farm practice under good average conditions. Some Practical Forage Rotations— Annual Yield Per Acre Yield per Time of Time of Acre. Crops in One year Rotation seeding cnttinjj Tons Rye and Crimson Clover September May 1-10 8.05 Oats and Peas May 10 .Tnly 1-10 7.60 Soy Beans July 10 Sept. 1-10 9.00 Total 24.65 Wheat Fodder September.... May 10-20 7.00 Cowpeas May 80 .Tuly 10-20 8.20 Japanese Millet .July 20 Sept. 10-20 7.00 Tota 1 22 .20 Oats and Peas April 1 June 10-20 7.34 Japanese Millet .Tune 20 Aug. 1-10 8.73 Barley and Peas Aug. 10 Oct. 10-20 6.03 Total ,:. 22.10 Oats and JPeas April 10 June 1-10 6.80 Cowpeas Jnne 10 Aug. 10-20 8.20 Barley and Peas Aug. 20 Oct. 20-30 6.30 Total 21 . 30 Rye September May 1-7 9.60 Cowpeas .Tune 10 Aug. 25-Sept. 1 10.50 Barley Sept. 2 Oct. 27-Nov. 1 2.60 Total 22 . 70 Rye October May 7-19 9.60 Soy Beans .Tune 10 Aug. 19-2') 8.80 Barley Sept. 2 Oct. 2r-Nov. 1 2.60 Total 21 . 00 Crimson Clover .Tuly May 20-.Tune 1 8.00 Corn .Tune 1 July 20-Aug. 1 9.56 Total .17.56 Mixed Gras.ies September June 20-30 7.00 Corn June 20 Aug. 20-Sept. 1.... 12.24 Total 19.24 36 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING Three Crops that may be Grown in Succession on the Same Area the Same Season. (See page 37.) 3D. SOY BEANS INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF CROPPING 37 Yield per Time of Time of Acre. Cropis in One year Rotation seeding cutting Tons Eye and Vetcli Sept. 10 May 10-19 8.60 Corn May 27 July 20-29 11.80 Total 20.40 Eye August May 1-10 8.50 Pearl Millet May 18 Aug. 8-15 15.10 Total 23.60 Oats and Peas.. Aug. 10 June 16-23 10.20 Cowpeas • Aug. 1 Sept. 16-22 8.00 Total 18.20 Oats and Peas Aug. 21 June 29-July 6 10.20 Flint Corn .July 10 Sept. 22-30 11.00 Total 21.20 Oats and Peas April a., Cowppas and Kaffir Corn July 10. June 26-July 4 6.20 . Sept. 1-16 12.20 Total 18. 40 Alfalfa— First year, two cuttings 8.00 " Second year, four cuttings 20.21 " Third year, five cuttings 26.60 " Fourth year, four cuttings 21.70 " Fifth year, five cuttings 20.11 A Combination of Forage Crops which May Be Grown on the Same Area the Same Season Crops in one year rotation Time of Seeding Time of Cutting Yield per acre. Combination 1* Crimson Clover - Oats and Peas.. ( Soy Beans September May 10 July 10 May 1-10 July 1-10 Sept. 1-10 Tons •8.05 7.60 9.00 Total 24.65 Combination 2. I AVheat Fodder. ■{ Cowpeas ( Japanese Miilci September May 20 July 20.... May 10-20 July 10-20 Sept. 10-20.... 7.00 8.20 7.00 22.20 1 Eye October . . Tune 10 Sept. 2 May 7-19 Aug. 19-25 Oct. 27-Nor. 1. 9.60 Combination 3. ■< Soy Beans 1 Barley 8.80 2.60 Total Combination 4. 21.00 J Mixed Grasses. 1 Corn September. June 20.... June 20-30 Aug. 20-Sept. 1 7.00 12 24 Total Combination 5. 19.24 Alfalfa August . . . May 15-Oet. l. (5 cuttings.) 26.60 ♦Wee page oo. 38 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING CHAPTER II CUTTING, HANDLING, AND FEEDING FORAGE CROPS With the exception of corn, forage crops can be cut to advantage with the mowing machine. On large dairy farms, however, a reaper will do the work. Corn may be cut for a small herd by hand, and for large herds with the ordinary corn harvester. In my experience with a herd of fifty animals, the plan followed was to cut about one and one-half tons of forage each morning to supply the herd for the day. This was cut with the mowing machine, re- quiring from 20 minutes to a half hour, raked with a heavy horse-rake, loaded on a low wagon, and fed to the cows in a two-acre field where they were turned every morning for exercise. Some may ob- ject to this method, preferring to feed all the forage in the stable, which was my practice for the evening feeding. However, with a field kept clean and well drained and with plenty of room, the plan worked well. The cows were driven into the stable early in the afternoon and given a light feeding of hay. The barn was darkened to lessen the annoyance of flies, and at this time of day the stable was also much cooler than the field. After being milked, the cows were fed forage in the stalls and turned out again. With a stable arranged so that a team can be driven through in front of the cows, I should prefer to feed both morning and evening in the stable. CUTTING, HANDLING AND FEEDING CROPS 39 Care should be taken that the cows are' kept clean where soiling is practiced, as the animals are not ordinarily as clean as when kept in pasture, for the reason that in the latter case they keep clean natu- rally. It is important to feed dry hay in connection with the soiling crops, to give the manure a proper consistency and to aid in keeping the stable clean. Forage as a complete ration. — The advantage of green forage in providing an abundance of roughage throughout the growing season, as well as the rela- tive cheapness of certain of them, makes the ques- tion of whether they may not constitute the ration of the entire herd a practicable one — that is, whether it is practicable and profitable to use soiling crops exclusively and thus reduce the necessity for pastur- age and for purchased feeds. An experiment was conducted by the writer to learn the influence of a ration composed entirely of forage and its econopiy as compared with a food consisting of a mixed ration of green forage and fine feed. The forage ration consisted of lOO pounds of oats and peas, while the forage and feed ration was made up of 60 pounds of oats and peas (green), five pounds wheat bran, and three pounds of dried brewers' grains. Notwith- standing the relatively large bulk of the forage ra- tion, the animals consumed it readily and no un- favorable effects upon their health were noticed, though the gain in weight was somewhat less than for the ration consisting of forage and feed. Milk from the forage and feed ration was produced at a cost of 46 cents per hundred, and from the forage ration at a cost of 39 cents per hundred. The results 40 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING of the experiment indicated that green forage of the same general composition as oats and peas may serve as the entire ration of dairy cows without in- jury to the animals, and at a considerable saving in the cost of milk, though the yield may be slightly reduced. CHAPTER III TOP DRESSINGS FOR SOILING CROPS It frequently pays to use top dressings on soiling crops. This, however, is a matter which must be carefully considered by the individual dairyman. My experience has been that with early crops, par- ticularly such as rye and wheat, this method of in- creasing the yield usually results in a financial gain. Several experiments were conducted to determine this point. The plan was to use two acres in experi- menting with each crop, one being treated with nitrate of soda as a top dressing, while the other untreated served in making a comparison. The fol- lowing table shows the date and amount of applica- tion on the different crops and the yield on the treated and untreated plots. The results indicate that crops of this nature may be very materially increased by applications of ni- trate of soda at the rate of 150 to 200 pounds per acre. They also show that the treatment is profit- able from a financial standpoint, especially early in the season, when forage is not usually abundant. CUTTING, HANDLING AND FEEDING CROPS 4I to H t3 tn Q < 3 Ph Pi O nroo laH $1.99 1.45 5.20 2.23 13.65 0.99 3roV .lad aumSN; JO »B00 $3.38 4.50 3.38 3.37 3.60 4.00 ^ 1 noji jad OS'EI )B 3n!BA $5.37 5.95 8.58 5.60 17.25 4.99 •}U80 raj W to CO ^ tA t- -« rH tH W in ec CO s 1 % m t 0) i 42 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING UNTREATED PLOT — 4.6 TONS TREATED PLOT — 7-5 TONS PER ACRE PER ACRE EXPERIMENT WITH NITRATE OF SODA ON WHEAT CHAPTER IV A SUCCESSION OF FORAGE CROPS FOR FIFTY FULL GROWN ANIMALS The following table shows a succession of forage crops actually grown at the Experiment Station Farm in New Jersey, and which furnished a continuous supply of forage from May 1st to November ist, or six months. Data showing the time of planting and harvesting, cost of production and jneld are also given in connection with the table. The number of acres used for supplying the 278 tons of forage was 24, TO of which were used exclusively for forage crops, while the other 13 were only used a part of the season. A SUCCESSION OF FORAGE CROPS 43 A ROTATION OF SOILING CROPS WHICH SUP- PLIED FIFTY ANIMALS SIX MONTHS (N. J. Experiment Station) KiNI) Seed Used Bus. Date of Seeding Period of Cutting and Feeding Yield. Tons Rye, 3 acres Rye, 3 acres Alfalfa, first cutting. Wheat, 8 acres Crimson Clover, 6 acres Mixed Grasses, 1 acre.. Oats and Peas, 3 acres.. Oats and Peas, 2 acres.. Alfalfa, second cutting. Oats and Peas, 6 acres. . Southern White Corn, 2 acres 4 4 7-12 4 11-5 Barnyard Millet, 2 acres Soy Beans, 1 acre Cowpeas, 1 acre Cowpeas and Kaffir Corn. 2 acres Pearl Millet, 2 acres Cowpeas, 1 acre Mixed Grasses, 5 acres (partly dried) Barley, 2 acres Total 10 7% 1% 1 1% Sept. 27, 1900 Oct. 3, 1900 May 14, 1898 Sept. 26, 1900 July 16, 1900 April 2. April 11. April 19. May 2. June 19. June 10. June 10. July 10., July U. July 24. 3% Sept. 2. May 1-7 May 7-19 May 19-25 May 25-June 1 June 1-21 June 21-26 June 26-July 4 July 4-9 July 9-11 July 11-22 July 22-Aug. 8 Aug. 3-19 Aug. 19-25 Aug. 25-Sept. 1 Sept. 1-16 Sept. 16-Oct. 1 Oct. 1-5 Oct. 5-27 Oct. 27-Nov. 1 8.4 19.2 11.1 10.4 42.8 8.3 12.4 8.2 2.1 16.4 17.7 23. a 8.8 10.5 24.4 20.3 8.0 20.0 5.3 278.3 44 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING CHAPTER V VALUE OF FORAGE CROPS PER ACRE COM- PARED WITH CLOVER HAY AND WHEAT BRAN The arrangement of crops (see page 45) furn- ished a continuous supply of forage for the dairy- herd From May ist until Nov. 1st. The wheat on acres 3, 4, and 5, the alfalfa on acre 8, and the crim- son clover on acres 13, 14, and 15, were used for green manure. The total yield per acre for all crops in the year's rotation shows a profitable return. Leaving out of consideration the crops that were turned under, and the mixed grasses, which were not in the regular rotation, six acres yielded less than ten tons, eleven acres yielded more than ten tons and less than fifteen, four yielded over fifteen and less than twenty, while one yielded over twenty tons. The average yield per acre for the crops in the regular rotations, not including those turned under, was 12.15 tons. VALUE OF FORAGE CROPS PER ACRE 45 SOILING CROPS— KIND, YIELD AND NUTRIENTS Crop Rotation < Pi ■a I Nutrients 1 Eye Tons 6.70 9.05 Lbs. 347.73 364.80 Lbs. 80.4 154.2 Lbs. 2 441 95 Cowpeas and Millet 3,162.00 Total 15.75 5.00 10.05 712.53 259.50 417.36 234.6 60.00 172.19 5,603.95 1,822.35 996 09 f. Rye Cowpeas and Millet Total 15.05 676.86 r;33.19 2,818.44 » •Wheat Peas and Oats 5.55 7.00 588.30 231.00 72.15 86.80 1,143.30 2,316.30 White Flint Corn Total 13.55 819.30 158.95 3,459.60 4 •Wheat Peas and Oats 5.55 7.00 588.30 231.00 72.15 86.80 1,143.30 White Flint Corn •2,316.30 Total 12.55 819.30 158.95 3,459.60 S "Wheat Peas and Oats 5.34 7.00 556.04 231.00 69.42 86.80 1,100.04 White Flint Corn 2,316.30 12.34 4.15 3.60 787.04 255.00 97.20 156.22 42.50 39.60 3,416.34 R Crimson Clover 969 00 1,004.40 Seeded to Alfalfa August 13th Total 7.75 4.25 4.00 177.05 255.00 108.00 61.00 42.50 44.00 1,849.00 969 00 7 Crimson Clover Cowpeas and Kaffir Corn 1,116 00 Total 8.25 363.00 86.50 2,085.00 R •Alfalfa Barnyard Millet 13.60 1.00 435.20 83.00 240.80 18.00 5,807.20 323.00 Reseeded to Alfalfa, August 6th Total 14.60 10.34 5.00 518.20 597.04 177.05 258.80 186.12 61.00 6,130.20 3,701.72 1,819.00 <) Total 15.34 10.34 6.04 756.09 .579.04 347.90 247.12 186.12 93.02 5,550.72 3,701.72 1 208 00 n Wheat Cowpeas Total 16.38 4.24 5.10 3.40 926.94 220.48 339.52 183.60 279.14 50.88 118.54 in an 4,909.72 1,543.36 2,292.28 1,074.00 1 Vetch and Oats Total 1 12.74 743.60 204.22 1 4,809.64 (Concluded on page 46) *Uaed for green manure. 46 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING SOILING CROPS— KIND, YIELD AND NUTRIENTS (Continued from page 45) Crop Rotation 2 Nutrients •3 1 to Rye Tons 4.24 5.10 3.40 Lbs. 220.48 339.52 183.60 Lbs. 50.88 112.54 40.80 Lbs. 1,543.36 Vetch and Oats 2,292.28 Barley 1,074.00 Total 12.74 743.60 204.22 4,909.64 1^ *Crimson Clover 1 7.30 4.00 773.80 216.00 90.52 48.00 2,415.57 Barley 1,264.00 Total 11.30 989.80 138.52 8,679.57 U *Crimsoii Clover 6.30 3.30 667.80 178.20 81.90 39.60 1,297.80 1,042.80 Total 9.60 846.00 121.50 2,340.60 Peas and Oats 6.60 2.50 699.60 68.00 85.80 25.50 1,359.60 587.50 Total 9.10 6.90 2.75 767.60 336.40 88.00 111.30 124.20 49.50 1,947.10 1H Wheat 2 470 20 Barnyard Millet 1,174.25 9.65 5.30 2.00 474.40 296.80 64.00 173.70 95.40 36.00 3,644.45 1,897.40 854 00 17 Wheat Barnyard Millet 7.30 21.36 11.15 9.00 21.73 360.80 1,775.02 925.45 540.00 572.59 131.40 378.07 200.70 90.00 193.57 2,751.40 6,900.42 3,601.45 1,971 OO 1S Alfalfa 10 Alfalfa "0 Crimson Clover 7,983.60 Total 30.73 13.20 20.08 1,112.59 1,146.80 1,887.52 1,080 810 540 924 558 283.57 292.80 481.92 264 198 132 246 228 9,954 60 91 5,124.00 8,^3.60 Mixed Grasses (second crop) Pour tons clover hay contains 5,040 8,780 2,520 Three ** " '* " Two^ " '* " *' 8,240 4,200 •Used for green manure. SUCCESSION OF FORAGE CROPS 47 CHAPTER VI SUCCESSION OF FORAGE CROPS IN DIF- FERENT STATES The tables shown in this connection will serve as guides to the dairymen in these particular States. While it is not expected that any of these systems can be followed in detail, they may prove useful. EXAMPLES OF ROTATIONS OF SOILING CROPS Soiling Crops Adapted to Northern New England States — Lindsey. (For lo Cows, Entire Soiling) Kind Seed per Acre Time of Seeding Area Time of Cutting Bye Wheat Red CioTer Grass and Clover Vetcli and Oats.. Vetch and Oats.. Peas and Oats... iPeas and Oats . . . Barnyard Millet. Barnyard Millet. Soy Beans (medium green) Corn Corn Hungarian Barley and Peas 2 bushels 2 bushels 20 pounds Vi bus. Bed Top, 1 peclt Timothy, 10 lbs. Ked Clover 3 bus. Oats, 50 lbs. Vetch 3 bus. Oats, 50 lbs. Vetch Wi bus. Canada Peas, 1% bus. Oats 1% bus. Canada Peas, 1% bus. Oats 1 peck 1 peck Sept. 10-15.... Sept. 10-15.... July 15-Aug. 1 September . April 20 April 30 April 20 18 quarts. 1 bushel Vk bus. Peas, 1^ bus, Barley April 30 May 10. May 25. May 20. May 20. May 30. July 15. Aug. 5.. %acre V4 acre % acre %acre Vz acre %acre Vz acre ?^acre %aere %aere %acre %acre %acre ^acre lacre May 20-May 30 June 1-June 15 June IS-June 25 June 15-June 30 June 25-Juiy 10 July 10-July 20 June 25-JuIy 10 July 10-JuIy 20 July 25-Aug. 10 Aug. 10-Aug. 20 Aug. 25-Sept. 15 Aug. 25-Sept. 10 Sept. 10-Sept. 20 Sept. 20-Sept. 30 Oct. 1-Oct. 80 48 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING SOILING CROPS FOR PENNSYLVANIA Watson & Mairs Ceop Area for 10 Cows When to be Fed Eye Alfalfa Clover and Tiraotby Peas and Oats Alfalfa (second crop) Sorghum and Cowpeas (after Kye)... O owpeas (after Peas and Oats) % acre .. 2 acres . . % acre .. 1 acre .. 2 acres.. % acre .. 1 acre .. May 15-June 1 June 1-June 18 June 18-June 24 June 24-July 15 July 15-Ausr. 11 Aug. 11-Aug. 28 Aug. 28-Sept. 30 CROPS FOR PARTIAL SOILING FOR ILLINOIS DURING MIDSUMMER— Fraser Kinds of Fodder Amount Seed per Acre Approxi- mate Time of Seeding Appronmate Time of Feeding 1. Corn, early, sweet and dent 2. Corn, medium dent 3. Cowpeas 4. Soy Beans 5. Oats and Canada Peas. 6. Oats and Canada Peas. 7. Bape (Dwarf Essex)... 8. Rape, second sowing... 9. Bape, third sowin; 8 quarts . . 5 quarts . . 1 bushel . 1 bushel . 1 bushel each 1 bushel each i pounds 4 pounds . 4 ooundi . May 1.., May 15., May 15. May 15., April 15. May 1.., May 1.. June 1 . . July 1... July 1-Aug. 1 Aug. 1-Sept. 30 Aug. 1-Sept. 15 Aug. 1-Sept. 15 July 1-July 15 July 15-Aug. 1 July 1-Aug. 1 Aug. 1-Sept. 1 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 SUCCESSION OF FORAGE CROPS 49 < a o >f (^ !3 o ^ uO o , o fe fa o M oo I-" u u> o o tJ ^ "d •« fc 1 1 a u 1- rage. rage. rage. rage. .d. ygoo y goo ygoo id. o .S .S a. Qjojojotri^ho O OS S > >->.>.Oa)a)ajo (i( fu ^ ^ t»o ^ &i] bii bii : « ■E a a fl a ■3 as a B §§c 1 <•- S3i O ^ In milk. In milk. Before b Mature . In silk . When w( In silk . Mature . 1 f n S£| 0-'= ■Si's c pq n f i c s.«oo naj, JO} jj3jp^ 5 ss 3!^?;is;fS g^BiSAV MOO JOJ 00 «> «£ CO CO 0- p ggsg^sssss H H paaa Area J99AJ^H i ^ C o o t- eo «D (M !!> •«1 O 0% SuiMOg t- t- t- «3 CO OO O CO IIIOJJ SjCbQ o rA IT s <1 3 S >> a H-» S 1 m ! 5-15., 15-25. 15-30. 1-15.. 15-25. 25-Se 10-25 25-0( 1 & 1=1 p 0. £?£?i?3iSfSp,p, "S S l-S 1- ^ g&s ; ; «M c o o SC CO SO O ■ iH O as'S iH IN (N in r» (N r-( CO (M .§i "K t^' ~ 3 >. >» >> 2 ^ >. cd sS « cj -g s=° ^1 a S5 n s ° s OOC ooo o \a o in ' of Seed Acre (N lO oi C u ,-^ • a o< : S o : o :0 00 •a ■ c d : > 1 c; OS o a '■£ 1 Z c n n o ■a CS <— 1 Corn , mm .., ;reen S :i; "S r- S5«S.s^'£S rt !i^ c OJ CJrtScdSnt-c: fe << K ft ^ c "i M fe wH B 1 so THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING Remarks. — Feed in stable during day and turn cows on pasture at night, or feed in the pasture, spreading the forage. After cutting rye, use same ground for the rape, flint corn and sorghum, and after cutting peas and oats, use same ground for evergreen sweet corn and rape. After oats, sow peas and barley. In this way a single acre only is required (except alfalfa, which is permanent) and the forage produced is ample amount of good succu- lent feed for ten cows for nearly half a year. DATES FOR PLANTING AND USING SOILING CROPS IN WESTERN OREGON AND WEST- ERN WASHINGTON— Hunter CROPS When Planted When TTsed Rye and Vetch Winter Oats and Vetch. Winter Wheat and Vetch Red Clover Alfalfa Oats and Peas Oats and Vetch Oats and Peas Rape Oats and Peas Rape Corn Turnips Thousand Headed Kale. Mangels, Carrots and Rutabagas September 1-15. Sept. and Oct.. Sept. and Oct.. February February April May 1 May June May 10-20 July 1 March 15 and trans. June 1.. April April 1-May 15. May 15-July 1. May 15-JuIy 1. May 15-July 1. During June. During June. June 15-July 15. During July. During July. During August. During August. During Aug., Sept. and Oct. Late fall and early winter. Oct. 15-April 1. Oct. 16-April 1 (fed from bins, pits or root-bouses. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOILING 5 1 CHAPTER VII ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOILING ADVANTAGES (i) Less land required. — Any system which in- creases the productive capacity of the soil reduces the acreage required to maintain the same number of cattle. (2) Less fencing required. — Aside from a small field for exercise, it is not necessary for the cows to run at large. Hence the fences can be disposed of, saving much expense for their maintenance. This also throws the farm into larger areas for cultiva- tion, saving time in turning with teams during planting, cultivating, etc. (3) Increased food production. — The amount of food produced by soiling frequently exceeds three times that from pasture, as every square foot of the farm is kept at its highest productive capacity undis- turbed by the treading of animals. (4) Greater variety of food. — ^The succession of crops provides changes in the ration which are usually much appreciated by the animals, keeping their appetites good and favoring a large consump- tion of food. (5) Less waste. — Animals on pasture waste much food by constant tramping, by manure dropping and by lying on it. Some of the pasture grasses become old and unpalatable, while in the soiling system, plants are cut at the proper time, insuring palatabil- ity. 52 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING (6) Less discomfort and better condition of the animals. — With the soiling system the animals can be kept in the stable during the heat of the day, where they may be protected from flies, and instead of racing over scanty pastures to secure the proper amount of food, they are fed regularly and liberally. (7) Increased milk and better production. — ^The soiling system favors the production of a large and even flow of milk, so important in the retail milk business, hence more profit. (8) Increased quantity and better quality of manure. — The animals are kept in the stable more of the time, where the manure is saved and preserved without waste. Where soiling is practiced it is im- portant that the land be rich, hence the saving of manure is particularly valuable in connection with this class of farming. This saving of the manure alone frequently pays for the extra expense incurred in raising and handling the soiling crops. DISADVANTAGES (i) Increased labor required. — ^The soiling sys- tem requires much extra labor in preparing the soil and planting and harvesting the various crops and in feeding the herd. The crops must be planted at the proper time and green feed cut and placed before the animals daily, regardless of the weather and other farm work which may be very urgent. (2) More practical knowledge of crops required. — For successful soiling, careful planning and much forethought and study are necessary, which does not need to be considered with the pasture system. SOILING VS. SILAGE S3 CHAPTER VIII SOILING vs. SILAGE It has been my experience that the production of milk from soiling crops, supplemented with five or six pounds of hay and six to eight pounds of grain of the proper kind to make a balanced ration, has been practically the same as when a ration of silage has been fed properly balanced with from six to eight pounds of grain. The results of the two systems where soiling crops were fed from May ist to November ist and silage for the remaining six months are shown in the accompanying table. Only those animals which remained in the herd the entire year are included in the record. The tabulation shows that during the period of seven years with a herd averaging 23 cows there is a difiference in the average yearly milk yield for the herd of 378 pounds, which is in favor of soiling. This difiference, however, only amounts to about 16 pounds a year for each cow, which is hardly worth considering. The difference in the annual but- ter yield of the herd amounted to about 16.8 pounds in favor of soiling, or less than one pound a year for each animal. The difference in the average per cent, of fat from the two systems is perhaps of most interest, but this proved to be practically the same, being 4.31 per cent, for the soiling period and 4.38 per cent, for the silage period. The number of fresh cows each month during the year was quite uniform, 54 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING SUMMARY RECORD OF THE DAIRY HERD, SHOWING AVERAGE YIELDS OF MILK AND FAT DURING THE SOILING AND SILAGE PERIODS 1 o 1 SoiLrae Period. Mat 1st— November 1st Silage Periods November 1st— May 1st Yeah AvERAOB Yield pek Cow OF— Average Yield per Cow OP — 1 1 1 ^ s 1 1 £ 1897 SI 20 18 27 86 30 86 Lbs. 3,414 3,174 3,889 3,390 3,250 3,684 3.076 Lbs. 144.5 140.7 164.3 153.4 137.1 153.8 133.7 Lbs. 168.6 164.8 191.7 179:0 160.0 179.4 156.0 4.83 4.43 4.23 4.53 4.82 4.24 4.35 Lbs. 2,941 8,970 3,078 8,975 3,387 3,046 8,871 Lb$. 183.1 132.0 137.8 137.8 144.8 127.7 184.9 Lbs. 143.6 1S4.0 160.8 160.1 168.2 149.0 145.7 4 13 1898 4 44 1899 4 48 1900 4 61 1901 4 39 1902 1903 4.35 Average 83 3,402 146.8 171.3 " 4.31 3,024 132.4 154.5 4.38 hence the comparison of yields from the two sys- tems is a fair one and shows that both systems are practicable in respect to the quantity, as well as the quality, of the product produced. On small farnis, where it is desired to keep the largest herd possible, it is necessary that every acre be made to produce to its highest capacity. The above systems of summer and winter feeding doubtless come the nearest to accomplishing this. PART III— THE DAIRY HERD CHAPTER I SELECTING THE BREED, FROM A BUSI- NESS STANDPOINT With the dairy farmer the breed should be chosen from a business standpoint. Dairymen are too often careless and indifferent in regard to this matter, hence fail in building the very foundation of their business. In selecting the breed it is necessary that the dairyman bear in mind its adaptability to the particular line of dairying he intends to follow ; that is, whether a retail milk business where the cus- tomers demand a high quality and are willing to pay for it; whether a wholesale milk business where quality is of little importance and the price is low; whether a breed is wanted for the production of butter on the farm for local trade, or whether a good all-around family cow is wanted. Again a breed should be adopted to the general conditions of the farm. If the farm is made up of large areas of rough stony pastures, a breed that is a good rustler will be more profitable than one that is not. The point should also be considered whether the dairyman is going to make it his chief business to breed and sell pure bred stock or whether the production of milk and butter is to have the first consideration. SELECTING THE BREED 57 Some dairymen in selecting a breed look for a "general purpose" or dual purpose cow, or a cow from a specially developed milk producing family of the beef breeds, or grades of such stock, the claim being that even if such animals are not so productive while in the dairy, their meat-producing tendencies offset this. The dual purpose cow, however, is too apt to prove a no-purpose cow. The consensus of opin- ion among those who are strictly in the dairy busi- ness is, that under most conditions, cattle of the dis- tinct dairy type specially developed for dairy pur- poses are best. Owners of the so-called "special purpose" cows expect the dairy products to give such profitable returns that the beef producing qualities of the cow can be entirely ignored. In any case the selection of the breed should be with a view to profit, and this selection must be determined by local conditions. Special adaptations. — While it is claimed for two or three breeds of cattle that they possess the com- bined qualities of meat and milk, there are a num- ber of families and breeds which have marked char- acteristics distinguishing them as milk and butter producers. With this great variety, a dairyman who is ambitious can find and select cows well adapted to his particular conditions. Some breeds are noted for the quantity of milk they produce, others for the richness of their milk and the color of their product, whether milk, cream or butter. Certain individual cows combine quantity and quality in a marked de- gree. Some breeds are very active and thrive on a wide range of scanty pasture and consume coarse S8 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING foods with profit in winter. There are other breeds which do better when more closely confined and subjected to high feeding. Some cows give a heavy- flow of milk for a short period and others are more persistent, giving a good flow throughout the year. Many of these different characteristics pertain to dairy breeds, so that a dairyman knowing what he wants, can choose his breed without pronounced opinions or direct advice from others. There is no one best breed for all. The best breed is the breed best suited to each individual dairyman's needs. It is simply a question of making a proper study of the subject, and no dairyman has to go far in this country to find a good breed for milk production, for the cream trade or for butter-making. It has been demonstrated that the best cow for butter is also the best cow for cheese. It will not be out of place to mention briefly, in this connection, some of the characteristics of the breeds most prominent in the dairy world to-day. Let us have clearly in mind at the outset what a breed is. We recognize a class of animals as a breed when they have been subjected to and repro- duced under the same conditions until they have ac- quired a distinctive character common to all mem- bers, which reproduces with very slight variations. PRINCIPAL DAIRY BREEDS Ayrshire. — A breed adapted to the rougher and less fertile sections of the country, for the reason that they originated in the county of Ayr, Scotland, a region of moderate fertility, with natural pas- SELECTING THE BREED 59 turage so distributed that grazing animals had to travel long distances to satisfy their hunger. They excel in their ability to obtain subsistence and thrive on a wide range of scanty pasture and in giving a dairy profit on coarse forage. They are tough and hardy and stand rough weather better than most other breeds. In perfecting the breed the end sought has been a large yield of milk without extravagance of food. The Ayrshire cows are of medium size, averaging about i,ooo pounds at ma- turity. They are short legged, fine boned, very active and of a somewhat nervous temperament. The Scotchman has worked for quality in the udder for a long time, with the result that the full udder of the Ayrshire has come to be regarded as a model in shape. The teats, however, are a little too small for easy milking, but careful breeders remedy this defect. The Ayrshire cow is a large and persistent milker, occupying middle ground between the Hol- steins as large producers and the Jerseys and Guern- seys as rich producers. One noted herd has an un- broken record for nineteen years with an average product of 6,407 pounds a year to the cow. Some individual cows have exceeded 12,000 pounds in one year. Large butter records are not numerous, but some individual cows have reached 500 and even 600 pounds. The milk of the Ayrshire is not exceptionally rich but somewhat above the average. Herd records average from 3.5 to 4.0 per cent, of butter fat throughout the year, the average for the breed being about 3.8. Ayrshire milk is very uniform in its 6o THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING physical character. The fat globules are small, even in size and do not separate freely from the milk. Cream, therefore, rises slowly and has compara- tively little color. The Ayrshire is therefore noted more especially as a milk breed, the milk being ordinarily suited for city supply. It stands long transportation without churning or injury. The Ayrshire may be fairly classed as one of the promi- nent dairy breeds. Guernsey. — The shrewd, careful people of the isl- and of Guernsey have developed this breed, which is known the world over for producing butter of the highest natural color and with small outlay for food. Taking a look at her we see an animal weighing GRAND CHAMPION AYRSHIRE COW, NATIONAL DAIRY SHOW, CHICAGO, I906_ SELECTING THE BREED 6i from 900 to 1,200 pounds and giving the impression at once of an animal of the dairy type built for the butter-making business. The udder and teats are large and well placed in select specimens. Not only is the butter from the breed of rich golden color, but the milk and cream as well. For this reason these products are highly prized by the critical consumer. The cows produce liberal quantities of milk of un- common richness in butterfat and natural color. They are valuable butter cows and at the same time good animals for market milk where quality secures a relatively high price, and they are noted for rich production combined with especial economy in feed- FIRST PRIZE THREE-YEAR-OLD GUERNSEY BULL, PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION 62 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING ing-. In their native land the average herd is ex- pected to produce 5,000 pounds of milk and 300 pounds of butter in a year. In this country, where the animals are more highly fed, many herds exceed 6,000 pounds of milk and 400 pounds of butter. GUERNSEY COW, YEKSA SUNBEAM. RECORD, 1,000 POUNDS BUTTER IN ONE YEAR Single cows have records of over 14,000 pounds of milk, and one has reached an equivalent of 1,000 pounds of butter in a year under official test. The Guernsey and her sister, the Jersey, rank as the leading butter breeds in this country. Holstein-Friesian. — These black and white ani- mals, introduced from the provinces of North Hol- land and Friesland, constitute one of the oldest of SELECTING THE BREED 63 the dairy breeds. This breed excels in milk produc- tion. The animals are also characterized by their large frame, fine bone (compared with the size of the breed), abundance of flesh, silken coat and ex- treme docility. The object of the early breeders was to produce as much milk and beef as possible from the same animal, and this is still the object of many of the breeders of these animals to-day. Their big bony frames are usually well filled out and are thus readily turned into beef. The calves are large at birth and they usually grow and fatten with great rapidity. For this reason the heifers develop and mature early. The calves are usually raised with lit- tle difficulty. In size the Holsteins are the largest of all the dairy breeds. Mature cows range in weight from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds and sometimes reach 1,800. The bulls at maturity are very large, often above 2,500 pounds, and usually possess a vigorous constitution. As already stated, one of the prominent characteristics of this breed is the large milk production. The udder is often of extraordi- nary size with teats of good form and well placed. The milk veins are frequently remarkably developed. The cows are generally of the true dairy type. Records are numerous of cows giving an average of above their own live weight in milk monthly for over twelve consecutive months, and there are au- thentic instances of daily yields of 100 pounds or more for several days in succession, and 20,000 to 30,000 pounds of milk in one year. Many herds pro- duce an average of 8,000 pounds per cow a year, and some 10,000. One of the most serious defects in 64 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING this breed is the low percentage of fat and total solids in the milk. The cows have been favorites for dairymen doing a milk snpply business, but in numerous instances their product has been below the standards fixed by State and municipal laws. HOLSTEIN BULL. COUNT PAUL DE KOL, 2D, FIRST PRIZE THREE-YEAR-OLD, PAN-AMERICAN E.XFOSITION It should be stated, however, that many breeders are working toward a higher fat content with con- siderable success, and many families of this breed produce milk which exceeds 4.0 in fat and are profit- able butter producers. The fat globules are small and of uniform size, separating slowly by the grav- ity method of creaming and carrying very little SELECTING THE BREED 65 color. There are several yearly records of butter production of herds exceeding 400 pounds per head, and single cows have exceeded 600 pounds. The Holstein cow Aggie Cornucopia Pauline has an official 7-day record of 27.459 pounds of butter fat, kJl iWllL ■■'■ ■ "■ . ; - ':'■'■'' ''■' ■\" w% y .;■• ■ -- ,.-v V- ■-:.'■' -'fi^' -,:-.. HOLSTEIN COW, COLANTHA 4TH JOHANNA, CHAMPION BUTTER COW OF THE WORLD., 1,164.63 POUNDS IN A YEAR equivalent to 32.03 pounds of butter. To do their best this breed must have an abundance of rich food without the necessity of much exertion to obtain it. As stated at the outset, the dairyman must select the breed best suited to his conditions. The Holsteins with the Ayrshires rank as the foremost milk breeds. Jersey. — This is one of the most important and widely distributed of the dairy breeds of cattle in 66 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING this country. Developed on the Island of Jersey, it is delicate and gentle with well-established charac- teristics. Thp animals are light, quick and graceful in movement, and are often spoken of as "deer-like" in appearance and action. The color is variable from black to brown and tan to fawn. The blood of the Jersey is almost unmistakably shown by signs or markings, whether pure bred or grade. A valu- able characteristic of this breed is prepotency or transmission of form, constitution and function to offspring, these having been established by many generations of pure breeding. The Jersey is noted as a butter breed. The milk produced is, as a rule, richer in fat and solids than that of any other breed, but the quantity yielded, on the other hand, is apt to be lower. The milk from Jerseys often contains over 6 per cent, of fat, and the average for the breed is close to 5 per cent. The fat globules in the milk are large, causing the cream to separate quickly, which is quite an advantage, particularly where the gravity system is used. The Jerseys are second only to the Guernseys in the abundant secretion of color- ing matter, which shows itself in the skin and on various parts of the body and gives a rich tint to milk and cream and a golden hue to the butter. The typical Jersey generally has a high-strung nervous temperament. They must therefore receive good care if best results are to be secured. That is, they cannot be abused as to feed and treatment without injury. They are therefore most likely to prove a success in the hands of intelligent dairymen who take an interest in their stock. The dairy type SELECTING THE BREED (>l] predominates, showing a wedge-shaped, deep- chested body, good digestive organs, large full udders, well-developed milk veins, and a soft, mel- low skin. The cows are gentle and docile when well treated, while the bulls have a reputation of being hard to handle and sometimes ugly and dangerous. This, however, depends largely upon their early treatment and training. While the Jerseys are the smallest in average size of the noted dairy breeds, certain strains of Jerseys reach a good weight. On their native island the Jerseys have been bred especially and almost exclusively for butter. In America breeders have striven with some degree of success to increase the milk yield while maintaining its high quality. The cows are noted for persistence in milking, making a long season of profit. Many herds average 5,000 to 6,000 pounds of milk an- nually, and single cows have reached 14,000 and even 16,000 pounds. Jersey butter records usually make a good showing, and good herds average 350 to 400 pounds of butter annually, and single cows have exceeded 600 pounds. Confirmed tests of 20 pounds of butter in seven days have been recorded. The man more important than the breed. — It is possible to select any one of the principal breeds of dairy cows and consider it from the most favorable standpoint and make it appear to be the best breed. On the other hand it is just as easy to discuss these same breeds individually from their most unfayor- able standpoint and make them appear very unde- sirable for dairy purposes. The writer, however, has tried to give them all fair treatment. The fact 68 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING is, there are most excellent cows in all of these breeds, and success will depend more upon the in- telligence of the man behind the breed who studies his conditions, than upon the breed itself. Some other breeds that have marked dairy quali- A GOOD TYPE OF THE JERSEY BREED ties. — The principal dairy breeds have already been described, but a discussion of this question would not be complete without a brief mention of some of the less prominent yet very useful breeds of animals. As the subjects in this book are being discussed principally from a business standpoint, the writer wishes to state that some dairymen will no doubt SELECTING THE BREED 69 be able to reap quite as much profit from some of the following breeds, under certain conditions, as from the breeds which are more strictly of the dairy- type. Brown Swiss. — This dairy breed par excellence in Switzerland, and having a fine reputation through- out Europe, has not, however, much prominence in this country. The animals are strong, muscular and active and well adapted to the mountains of Switzer- land, many of which are covered to their tops with fine rich herbage. The cattle graze in the valleys in winter and on the mountains in summer. This breed may be placed in the second class as to size, among the distinctly dairy breeds. The color shades from dark to light chestnut brown, and often approaches a mousie color. They are strong, flieshy, compact, well proportioned, hardy and necessarily good mountain climbers. They have a straight back, heavy legs and neck, giving a general appear- ance of coarseness, although in fact they are small boned, have a fine silky coat and other attractive dairy points. The calves are large, often weighing over 100 pounds at birth. They mature fast and have healthy constitutions. Both bulls and cows are docile and easily managed. If any breed has a claim to the class of so-called "general purpose" animals the Brown Swiss probably approaches it the nearest. Being developed originally as a dairy breed. Brown Swiss cows yield a generous flow of milk and hold out well. Good specimens average 6,000 pounds of milk a year, and in single instances have reached 10,000. The milk tests from 3.5 to 4.0 70 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING fat. At the Chicago Show in 1891, one cow of this breed made an average daily record for three days of Si. 7 pounds of milk containing 3. 11 pounds of fat, equivalent to more than 3^2 pounds of butter in one day. These cattle also make good beef. They are A TYPICAL BROWN SWISS COW almost always full fleshed and readily fattened when not in milk. The meat is said to be of fine quality. Devon. — The native home of this thrifty and attractive breed of deep red cattle is on the high- lands of Devonshire in southwestern England. The Devonshires are regarded as one of the oldest and purest breeds, and it is believed that they were among the very first cattle brought across the Atlantic, reaching New England in the year 1623. SELECTING THE BREED "Jl Among the characteristics of the Devon are attrac- tive appearance, compactness, hardiness, activity, intelligence, docility, and tendency to fatten. The prevailing red varies from a dark rich color to pale chestnut. The hair is soft, fine and often curls closely on the neck, shoulder and face. As a result of centuries of careful breeding the Devon has been brought to a fixed type and is not subject to great variations. They are of medium size, easy keepers, active, hardy, thriving on meager pasture and in hilly and mountainous regions. As a breed Devons do not yield large quantities of milk and are not persistent milkers. Certain families bred for dairy purposes have made fair milk records, and some herds average 4,000 pounds per year. Single ani- mals have produced 50 pounds of milk in a day. The milk is fairly rich in quality, ranking next to the Channel Island breeds in percentage of fat, total solids and high color. Comparatively little attention has been given to their milking qualities, as they are regarded by the majority of breeders as more par- ticularly a beef producer. The beef is highly prized, bringing the top price. The steers are special favor- ites as working cattle. The calves are always fat and lusty, showing a vigorous growth. The best friends of this breed claim there are great possibili- ties in developing the dairy qualities of these animals. Dutch belted. — During the seventeenth century, when the cattle interests of Holland were in the most thrifty condition and breeding had become a science, a breed was developed known in that 73 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING country as "Lakenfeld" cattle, but called Dutch Belted in this country. Wonderful and remarkable as it may appear, the Dutch Belted cattle were bred true to color, a pure black with a continuous white belt around their body, beginning behind the shoulders and extending nearly to the hips. This sharp contrast of color makes an imposing contrast and a beautiful sight when several of these animals are seen grazing together. Feats in breeding by the Hollanders, particularly for contrasts in color, were accomplished that would defy our modern breeders, and they have been classed as lost arts. For several centuries they were owned and controlled by the nobility, keeping them pure and limiting their num- ber to their ownership. Importations were first made about the middle of the present century. Their form approaches the dairy type and they pos- sess many of the qualifications of an ideal dairy ani- mal. They are docile, hardy and vigorous and have a very compact form. As milk producers the belted cattle seem to give good satisfaction, though the milk is not above the average in quality. Leading breeders claim for them that they are thrifty, practi- cable and profitable. One herd of 37 is reported as averaging 5,840 pounds of milk containing 3.6 per cent. fat. Single cows have exceeded 8,000 pounds of milk in a year. This breed is not numerous, either in Europe or America. Shorthorns as dairy cows. — ^This breed has made a great influence upon the live stock of England and was the first pure breed to make an impress upon the cattle of the United States, and importations SELECTING THE BREED 73 date back as far as 1783. The climax of the Short- horn "boom" came in 1873, when 109 head were sold at auction in three hours for $380,000. One cow at this time sold for $40,600. The aim of most breeders of Shorthorns has been to secure early maturity, size, form and beef produc- ing qualities. "All is useless that is not beef" is the motto generally followed. The Shorthorn is a beef breed and has been so for many generations, but there have always been good dairy cows among them, and in England especially strains and families have been kept somewhat distinct and known as milking Shorthorns. A few breeders in the United States have followed this example and enough were found in 1893 to make up a herd which entered the famous dairy-cow test at the Columbian Exposition, and there made a most creditable record. Although they can hardly claim to belong to the class of special dairy breeds, they are entitled to recognition in these pages. In point of size the Shorthorns are probably the largest among pure breeds of cattle. The weight of the cows ranges from 1,200 to 1,600 pounds and the bulls from 2,000 to 3,000. The colors of the breed have always been various blend- ings of red and white. In the best milking types the cows are rough and angular in outline, with large, hairy udders and good-sized, straight teats well placed. The animals are quiet and kind in disposi- tion. The Shorthorns when first brought to America received the name of "the milk breed," and even now the breed has inherent dairy qualities which careful 74 TIIK BUSINESS OF DAIRYING lirccdcrs successful!}^ develop. Among the early records 6 to 9 rrallons of milk a day was not uncom- mon. At the Cohimhian Exposition the best Short- horn cow ,t;a\e 65 pounds of milk in one day and 1,593 pounds in 30 da3'S, yielding 62J/2 pounds of butter. The best dairj' herds of this breed average 6,000 to 7,000 pounds of inilk per cow annually and 300 pounds of butter. Single cows have exceeded 10,000 pounds of milk and 400 pounds of butter in GOOD TYPE OF DAIRY SHORTHORNS one year. The milk of this breed is of fair quality, averaging about 3.75 per cent. fat. The fat globules are of medium and uniform size, so that cream sepa- rates quite readily. The milk is rather pale in color. Polled Durham. — This is simply a branch or family of the Shorthorn breed, but from the fact that SELECTING THE BREED 75 they have become so fixed in type and in the potency of the hornless feature, they have been allowed a name and place as a distinct breed. Animals regis- tered as Polled Durhams, however, are also ad- mitted to the American Shorthorn Herd Book. TJiis family has all the features of the Shorthorn breed except that they are hornless ; this feature be- ing developed through sports and selection. It may be said that this is the only breed of cattle originat- ing in America. Its foundation, however, goes back to England. While they are classed as beef animals, the milking qualities have not been lost sight of and among them are some excellent milkers. As they practically duplicate the "Shorthorns" in dairy ca- pacity, a separate description is unnecessary. Red Poll. — Hornless or polled cattle have existed in different counties in England from time imme- morial. The modern Red Polled cow in this coun- try is the result of the combination of several strains of polled cattle, and it is the aim of the most pro- gressive breeders to produce a cow of medium size, blood-red in color, of fine bone, compact form, fat- tening easily and giving a fair flow of moderately rich milk. In other words, the "general purpose" cow idea is kept in mind. The breed is compara- tively new. Red Polled cattle resemble the Devons almost as closely as Polled Durhams resemble the Shorthorns, yet the two races are probably not closely related. The Red Polls, however, are some- what larger, and the cows as -a rule are better milkers than the Devons. Their meat is fine grained and of high quality. As dairy animals this breed 76 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING must be placed in the second class with the other breeds which aim to serve the dual purpose. Being comparatively few in number in this country there are not many dairy records at hand. Records of herds averaging 6,000 to 7,000 pounds of milk are reported, and single cows have produced 12,000 pounds. The milk is of fair quality, averaging about 3.75 per cent. fat. It should be remembered that the above records are from select herds and are far above the average for the breed. BREED TESTS Comparative yields of milk and butter fat. — The following statements, taken from the Report of the Wisconsin Experiment Station for 1903, show the average per cent, of fat and production of milk and Average Per Cent, of Fat and Production of Milk and Butter Fat per Breed — American and European Analyses (WoU) Brebd Fat Tests Eecords of Yield sP 3m S? ^=^1 §'t2?- r fiS as |S^P Per cent. Lbs. Lbs. 491 4.93 425 27.3 1.38 191 4.77 151 29.7 1.42 679 3.28 503 48.8 1.60 370 S.73 275 43.5 1.62 108 3.84 60 37.0 1.42 50 3.73 60 37.S 1.39 20 3.78 14 37.3 1.41 60 4.57 27 13.2 .60 5 3.40 5 27.2 .92 6 4.66 5 22.3 1.07 6 3.99 6 27.0 l.OS Jersey Guernsey Holstein-Friesian Shorthorn Ayrshire Eed Polled Brown Swiss Devon Dutch Belted .... Polled Jersey French Canadian SELECTING THE BREED 77 butter fat per breed. The data for per cent, of but- ter fat in the table which follows includes tests of the milk of 1,974 cows and the data for milk yield includes tests of 1,510 cows. This summary includes a large number of Euro- pean analyses of milk, especially of milk from Short- horn, Jersey, and Holstein cows, and it may there- fore be argued that the results do not fairly repre- sent the quality and yield of milk produced by American cows of the respective breeds. To over- come this criticism all available analyses of milk pro- duced by purebred American dairy cows were con>. piled and the results of this second summarization are shown in the following table, which includes data for 881 cows as regards the fat content of the milk and for the average milk yield of 825 cows : Summary of American Analyses of Samples of Milk from Purebred Cows (WoU) Bbezd Fat Test ^ ° 1° Becords of Yield 1= Jersey Guernsey Holstein-Friesian Shorthorn Ayrshire Eed Polled Brown Swiss Dutch Belted Devon Polled Jersey French Canadian . 164 67 503 43 33 15 14 5 28 5 5 Per cent. 5.13 4.87 3.30 3.58 3.85 3.84 3.77 3.40 4.64 4.66 153 53 493 39 18 15 14 5 35 5 5 Lbs. 34.5 28.9 48.9 31.9 37.7 36.6 37.3 37.3 11.8 33.9 27.0 Lbs. 1.36 1.41 1.61 l.U 1.07 1.02 1.41 .93 .55 1.07 1.08 If the results are arranged in the order of the aver- 78 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING age daily amounts of fat produced by the cows, we note that the Holstein-Friesian cows lead the list with an average production of 1.61 pounds of fat. The other breeds follow in this order: Guernsey and Brown Swiss, 1.41 pounds of butter fat; Jersey, 1.26 pounds; Shorthorn, 1.14 pounds; French Cana- dian, 1.08 pounds; Ayrshire and Polled Jersey, 1.07 pounds; Red Polled, 1.02 pounds, etc. The data obtained for the Holstein-Friesian cows dififers somewhat in their character from those for cows of the other breeds from the fact that the Hol- stein tests in a large majority of cases were of short duration, i.e., mostly seven days, and were con- ducted under, a more or less forced system of feed- ing. The large number of animals contributing to the average data for this breed renders the figures valuable as an expression of the average quality of milk of American Holsteins and their production of milk and butter fat at this time. The latter figures may be considered maximum when the performance of a large number of animals is summarized. The data given in the column headed "Per cent, of fat" represent, as we believe, very accurately the aver- age quality of milk produced by purebred cows of the different dairy breeds in this country at the pres- ent time. MILK RECORDS 70 CHAPTER II MILK RECORDS Value of milk records. — Records of the perform- ances of dairy cows form the only accurate and safe basis for judging their value. No person is able to go into a good-sized herd and pick out all of the best cows by examination. Records are absolutely necessary to determine profit and loss. In one com- munity, where the dairymen had the same soil and the same market, it was shown that one made $2.50 for every dollar invested in feed, while his neighbor lost 50 cents. This difference was due almost en- tirely to a lack of business methods. It is the con- stant aim of progressive dairymen to improve their herds, and such improvement must depend largely upon culling the herd and getting rid of the unprofit- able animals. From, the breeder's standpoint, records are especially valuable in assisting in finding customers for their stock. Many buyers insist upon seeing records of performance before purchasing. A record is also of great help to the feeder. If he knows exactly what a cow is doing he can pre- pare the ration accordingly and often feed more economically. Again, a daily milk record enables a dairyman to detect the approach of sickness in a cow and thus to take steps to ward it off. Much inspiration is obtained from keeping a record, and nothing gives a dairyman more satisfac- tion than watching the improved returns from his herd. Many of the State experiment stations have 8o THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING given examples of the importance of keeping careful records of the individual cows, and thus determining which are profitable and which are kept at a loss. Example i. — At the Georgia station the best cow in the herd gave 7,968 pounds of milk, which pro- duced butter worth $115.44, while the poorest cow in the same herd gave only 2,788 pounds of milk, with a butter value of $41.63. Example 2. — At the Michigan station the profit on the milk from different cows varied from $6.08 to $94.05. Example 3. — At the New Jersey station the profits from different cows varied from 13 cents to $49.72 when milk was valued at $1 per 100 pounds. Example 4. — At the Connecticut (Storrs) station, during the year 1903, the best cow gave a profit of $54.72, and the poorest $2.76. In this case the best cow gave a profit of nearly twice that of the average cow in the herd. Example 5. — At the World's Columbian Exposi- tion, Chicago, the cow with the best individual record made two and one-third times as much butter as the poorest of the seventy-five. While the difference between the best and poorest animals in the examples given are great, the poorest cows reported are not so poor as many of those kept by individual dairymen, who make no accurate tests and who rarely know anything of what each animal is actually doing. Strong evidence is given on this point by the Illinois Experiment Station, which found, after testing a number of herds in the State, that nearly every one proved that some of the cows MILK RECORDS Si produced butter enough to pay a handsome profit to the owner, while others that required the same feed, care and time spent in milking, did not make butter enough to pay for the food they ate. One man who kept twelve cows got more money for the milk of three of them than he did for that of all the other nine put together. To cite an example of a single dairyman in a Western State, eleven heifers in his herd gave, during the first milking season, 2,807 pounds of but- ter, which netted 20.4 cents per pound, an average of $51 for each heifer. With an allowance of $40 for feed, he had a net average profit of $11 per head. In the absence of a daily record he might have been content with the result and gone on in blissful ignorance of the fact that five of the heifers, instead of giving a profit of $11 each, actually lost for him an average of $8.20 each. Neither would he have known that six of the heifers gave him an average profit of $27. Further, he would not have known that if he had not been the unprofitable owner of the five poorest heifers, his whole profit, instead of being $121, would have been $162, or $41 more profit with no more than half the work. The last statement is the most important, for many dairymen could reduce their herd one-half (and the labor and capital as well) and still be making more profit. This is the great lesson which the dairy farmer needs to learn to-day, for it is the foundation of profit in dairy farming. Accurate records necessary. — Guesswork is ex- pensive to the dairyman. Even the best judges are 82 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING not able to pick out the best cow in a herd without weighing and testing. Farmers know the good and poor milkers in their herds in a general way, but only a few breeders, whether of common or pure- bred stock, use the scales or fat test to supply definite knowledge. When the milk is not weighed the amount is almost sure to be overestimated. The fact that a cow gives 12 to 15 quarts of milk a day at a certain time does not prove that she will give 5,000 pounds in a year. She must be fed and cared for during the entire twelve months, and the profit or loss depends upon what she will produce during the entire year. Even dairymen who have bred and handled their own cows are not able to estimate their yearly yield of milk, and those who have attempted it have usually come wide of the mark. In one instance reported, a dairyman before begin- ning his test made a note of the joint opinion of him- self and his sons who had done the milking in the herd for years, as to the half dozen best cows in the herd, and an estimate of their season's milk yield. When the year's record was completed it was found that, in order of actual merit, the cows stood thus: First the fifth; second a cow not on his merit list; third his fourth ; fourth his first ; fifth his sixth ; sixth like the second, and his second and third still lower on the list. These facts were verified by subsequent records. The records showed this owner further that about one-fourth of his cows were being kept at a loss, while others barely paid their way. The record of the herd is a matter of the utmost MILK RECORDS 83 importance. The highest degree of success cannot be attained unless dairymen know accurately the production of each individual cow. This is neces- sary as a guide to rational treatment and to insure the greatest profit. The record should include not only the dairy performance, but a concise history and description of each animal. The former re- quires a daily record of the milk yield of every cow and a fat test of several consecutive milkings, if ac- curate records are to be secured. Samples for this test may be mixed and this "composite sample" tested, thus obtaining the average. The method is easily learned and practiced. With the percentage of fat taken periodically and a summary of the daily yield of milk, the dairyman has a full record of every cow in his herd. To give still more complete knowl- edge there should also be a record, at least approxi- mately accurate, showing the cost of the food con- sumed by each cow, so that the economy of the pro- duction may be shown. Records easily kept. — Records are far more easily kept than are generally supposed, and the time and cost of keeping. them for each cow is so small as to be only a trifle in comparison with their value. The length of time required to weigh and sample the milk will depend much upon the quickness of the individual doing the work. Ordinarily, however, it has been the author's experience that one-fourth minute per cow at each milking, or one-half minute per day, is sufficient to record the weights. When samples are taken on two successive days in each month, which is becoming a common practice, this FORM FOR DAILY MILK RECORD. rwME OF cow PRINCESS/ REGENA 4tK. q. BEAUTY Q. IDEAL QUEEN ALTA SE80LT E. JILIX EVESTA 6th. MONTH AM P.M A.M P.M A.M P.M AM P.M A,M RM A.M RM A.M RM A.M RM A.M PM. 1 lbs: Ib9 lbs lbs lbs. lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs. 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 .- 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 TOTAL ^ ^^ MILK RECORDS 85 will require practically the same time daily per cow as weighing the milk. An hour or two some rainy day is all that is necessary to make the Babcock test for percentage of fat. With this amount of time expended the farmer can have a reasonably accurate KEEPING A CAREFUL RECORD OF THE WEIGHT OF MILK dairy record of every cow in his herd. Considering the time consumed in doing this work, and the small expense involved in securing record sheets, scales, and some simple form of the Babcock tester, it is surprising that more dairymen do not test their herds. After keeping records the farmer will find that he has made many surprising mistakes in his estimates of the relative value of his cows. The Babcock test. — While full directions usually accompany the apparatus as purchased it will not be out of place to state briefly here the principles of 86 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING the test and how it is operated. The outfit consists of a pipette for measuring the milk sample, an acid measure, test bottles graduated to lo per cent., and a centrifugal machine for whirling the bottles and contents at high speed. Small machines are easily operated by hand, while large ones require power. The important thing at the outset is to secure a fair sample of the milk to be tested. This is accom- plished by thoroughly mixing the milk by repeatedly pouting it from one vessel to another. It is then in condition to sample. The sampling may be done by using a small dipper. Owing to variations in the composition of the milk from day to day and in the morning's and evening's milk of the same day, it is necessary to collect several samples if accurate re- sults are to be secured. These may be brought to- gether for two or three days and made into a com- posite sample before the test is made. A few drops of formalin or a little potassium bichromate may be used to keep the sample sweet. The composite sample thus obtained should be thoroughly mixed. The pipette is then drawn nearly full of milk by placing the mouth at the end ; the forefinger is then quickly placed over the top end of the pipette as it is removed from the mouth ; the pipette is held on a level with the eye, while the milk is allowed to run out slowly until its surface is even with the 17.6 mark. The pipette is then inserted far enough into the test tube to allow the milk to run in without spilling. After the pipette has drained, the last drop is blown from it and the sample is ready for the acid. The ordinary commercial sulphuric acid, having a MILK RECORDS §7 Specific gravity of about 1.82, is used in making the test. It should be used at a temperature ranging from 50° to 70° F. and always kept in a tightly stop- pered bottle. Care must be taken in mixing the acid with the milk ; 17.5 c. c. are measured into the acid graduate and slowly turned into the test tube in such a way that it runs down on the inside of the bottle rather than directly into the milk, to prevent burning the milk solids. A complete mixture is effected by holding the bottle by the neck and giv- ing it a gentle rotary motion. The action of the acid causes a rapid increase in temperature, at the same time dissolving all the non-fatty solids of the milk and making possible a rapid and complete sepa- ration of the fats. The test bottles and contents are now placed in the centrifugal machine and whirled at the required speed, which varies with the size of the machine. The bottles assume a horizontal position, and as the fats are the lighter part of the milk they rise to the surface. With the hand machine full speed should be maintained for five or six minutes for the first whirling, after which enough hot water should be added to the contents of the bottles to float the fat within the limits of the graduated scale on the neck of the test bottle. The bottles are whirled again for two or three minutes at full speed, after which they should be placed in hot water (temperature 125° to 140° F.) to keep the fat in a clear liquid state for reading. If when managed in this way clots of curd or other matter are mingled with the fat, making the reading uncertain, the difHculty can usually be 88 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING LONGITUDINAL 5ECTI0N CR055 5ECTI0N '^GLASS"*^ ADJUSTABLE RECORD BOARD DESIGNED BY THE AUTHOR MILK RECORDS . 89 avoided by adding the hot water in two portions, filling the bottles at first only to the neck, and after whirling about one minute adding sufficient hot water to bring the fat into the graduated neck, after which the bottle should be whirled and the fat measured. If a steam-power machine is used it will not be necessary to place the bottles in hot water. The percentage of fat is determined by the grad- uated scale on the test tube. A pair of dividers or small compasses (Fig. 4) can be used to good ad- ! vantage in reading the results. The two points are carefully adjusted, so they exactly enclose the fat column. The lower point is then placed at the zero mark ; the other point will then indicate the exact reading. The result obtained gives the percentage of butter fat in the milk. To determine how many pounds of butter a cow is producing, multiply the pounds of milk produced by the percentage of butter fat, and multiply the result by i 1/6, Example : 24 (pounds milk) X 0.04 (per cent, fat) =0.96. (pound fat) X i 1/6= 1.12 (pounds butter). Record board. — ^The accompanying cut (page 88) represents a record board designed by the author at the New Jersey Experiment Station. A record sheet of sufficient size to include the weight of the morn- ing and evening milk of each cow in the herd for a month is attached to this board by means of thumb tacks. Two panes of glass (a-a) are set in the frame in front of the record sheet with a space (&) of three-fourths of an inch between them for entering 90 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING the record. The record board is so constructed that the front frame can be lowered each day to enter the new record by adjusting the pin (c) which holds it in place. It has the advantage of keeping the record sheet clean and in condition for permanent filing. The glass can be readily cleaned with a moist sponge. Methods of estimating records. — Several methods of estimating yearly records from a few weighings and tests have been proposed. As previously stated, however, the only absolutely accurate way to tell the amount of milk and butter fat produced by a cow is to weigh and test the milk at every milking. Cows vary so much in the amount and quality of their milk from one milking to another, owing to variotis causes, many of which are uncontrollable, that entirely accurate results cannot be secured by weighing and testing the milk secured at a few milkings and using the results as a basis for estimat- ing the total production for a lactation period, or even for a month. Many dairymen, however, do not feel that they can take the time to secure daily records ; nor is this necessary if it is simply desired to obtain a reasonably accurate estimate of a cow's performance at the end of the year. An approximate record is sufficient for comparing one cow with an- other or for determining whether a cow is up to the profit standard. THE YIELD OF MILK 91 CHAPTER III THE YIELD OF MILK Raising the standard. — It is interesting to note that the average production of milk and butter per cow in the United States has been increasing slowly yet constantly from one decade to another. The following data shows the census returns from 1850 to igoo: Average Production per Cow in the United States TEAK Milk Butter TEAR Milk Butter 1850 Lbs. 1,436 1,505 1,772 Lbs. 61 64 75 1880 Lbs. 3,004 2,709 3,646 Lbs. 85 1880 1890 1900 115 1870 155 While this increase is encouraging, even the record for the year 1900 is too low to afford the dairyman much profit at the average price for milk and butter. The record indicates further that many dairymen whose herds are below the average in production must be keeping cows at a loss. As a matter of business, then, and a condition essential to best results, every dairyman should study the individuality of his cows, set a standard, and main- tain it by promptly disposing of the animals which fail to attain it, unless he has reason to believe that an animal will make a better record in the future. When the standard is reached it should be grad- ually but persistently raised. This can be done by 92 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING keeping a record of the quantity and quality of the milk product, knowing approximately the cost of production and systematically weeding out the herd. Many dairymen are doing this, and the following examples will serve as illustrations: Example i. — The Babcock test was introduced in a creamery and one dairyman started to test his cows and found many surprises. The butter made per cow ranged from 137 to 502 pounds, and the average of the whole herd was 271 pounds. Out of the 64 cows 21 failed to come up to his standard of 200 pounds annually and were sold to the butcher. The second year the standard was put at 210 pounds and 15 cows were disposed of. The third year the standard was put at 225 pounds and he had but 6 to sell. The fourth year his mature cows reached 300 pounds of butter. He made the remark that many dairies were doing better than his and that there was no reason why any dairyman could not do as well. The business requires time and persever- ance the same as any other. Example 2. — A dairyman having 17 native and grade Shorthorn cows found the average annual yield of butter for the herd to be 125 pounds per cow. This did not pay. The Babcock test was then applied and in four years (1886) the average was raised to 151 pounds and the cash returns .were a trifle over $36. In 1894 15 cows averaged 220 pounds of butter and $46.65 per head. In 1895 the herd made an average of 234^^^ pounds of butter worth $47.84. During 1896 the herd averaged 301 pounds of butter and $52.30 per head. And in 1897 THE YIELD OF MILK 93 the herd averaged 5,691 pounds of milk and 343 pounds of butter. The butter sales averaged $60.28 per cow. Dairy records aid in selection and increase the profits. Example 3. — The owner of a Holstein-Friesian herd weighs the milk daily in bulk and determines the fat in each cow's milk monthly; the individual milkings of each cow being weighed for the first three days of each month, a composite sample taken and the per cent, of fat determined by the Babcock test. The average yield of milk for the herd for a term of years was 10,500 pounds per cow, inclusive of all heifers. The yield would have been larger but for the fact that the herd was kept ypung by selling the older cows. The average yearly per cent, of fat for the herd was 3.45, and the yield of butter was equivalent to 422 pounds. It has long been the aim of this dairyman to have his herd average 400 pounds of butter fat per year, but after passing the 350-pound mark it has been found more difficult to increase the yield. However, he expects to reach it in time. High records can be reached only by years of per- sistent effort and accurate testing. 94 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING CHAPTER IV RECORDS OP PUREBRED COWS OF SPECIAL IMPORTANCE The keeping of accurate records is perhaps of more importance to the owner and breeder of pure- bred stock than to dairymen who have nothing but grade and native cows in their herds. With the breeder of purebred stock the products of the dairy are often a secondary matter, his principal business being to breed and sell the animals. If he can present creditable records of the cows and heifers he may have for sale as well as those of their ancestors for some years before, naturally these will assist in ad- vertising his stock. It has been the aim in the follow- ing pages to present records of purebred herds of various breeds kept under a variety of conditions of soil and climate, and it is hoped that these will be of some value not only to the dairyman but to the breeder as well. The data given in connection with the one hundred or more herds are quite full and should give some light to those seeking dairy knowl- edge. They represent every-day working herds, give the kinds of feeds employed and the cost of same, and show what results may be expected where good rations are fed and business methods practiced generally. " 9 o 2 <^ rawng ^1!W JO js'oo o o> MJiO s CO o ■* o 8 S CO a Oil g t 9513 .S^oS .«ti h sd b m M t» OS 2 a a a o o CO M OJ ■a ^ .n qS9Jj uaqAV o 60 . 'b od 00 a o a ■a -c a ^ ' — ft S *c; "3 *^ 3 n c ^ fc rt rt 1^ fo : ^ : : s : : : : : : : : fe : : m : • • : i : : pasi'BH; s^oQ tH |H H (H IH !« ^ ^ IBJ 33BJ3AV CM ao ^1 jswa iH O OS CO 25 th fH 00 00 2i[!K MOO Saidaaa JO }soa S S CO Q adLT-O a ^1 1 S 0) S ig MOO 53- asp o ■a a ■a a V ■a 0} 0)^ Sol to a| ■a &5S * S-.9-' S. 'oaa ■o-a ■SS !>. a"n oj oj la If ^ a 0-1 0) 0) M a; 09 f^ A . 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S •2- £ ^ IS 02 »£» □Q o2 "'fa" EO DC £1 OE xa h OQ OQ c C 0) « £ &£ bj a i a i fe qssj^ naq^Si 4- ^ T • ■M o •d o — t^-J o ■a +j a ■a- +j 't-::3 ^ a g CO K ^^ < 1 ^' 1 -S pas^qo ^ & ^ ^ ^ fe -inH paaiBa sj&oo 01 s a; s ts i si S S (n S2 t» OS § >J ►h H Sh X h (H !>< >H H iHtH H >H |H ^ o 'o o o o O o O O OC E« 9 ■o ■a Td •a ■a •o ■a ■a "C "OT •0 "C ■a n ^ , n t o o o o o o o o o o o h ^ •a ■a -o w ■o ■o -a ■a -o '0-3 •0 •d ■a a3v aSBiSAV in CO Ui (O «D -* CD in " m COLO -* e- t- iMoo JO -oja; in n S SS i s fc S S o CO ffi g s s ^ US la lO on O Oi n a* lA O s g 8 S S S 8 8 8 SS ■s s S S g g S g g S9 »St'd _ a 9> s ° ."SOS'S : ost- ..S='o.. rt boba ^■^ o«a a ja-g i'Sai • S.2S cj a ri =1 0) ffl Hill ■a a 03 a CI 2 ■♦-» o- 9 o5 a S gM S- •° •a — •^s .. ..§ sa u (jH a a arg rt w ^ f' on aoa^ a. 3" ^ d s a ri » -^ » .Mcl 2 t. o o « boos u a" £.9 u . ..b»t>. ■3»K 03 J= Sa 01 5? fell 03 «S 03 3" 03 « a a OH a 03S a, P4" U O t4 h a_ aa m fj aim 03 gj el 63 03 q CQ 03 S CO a a " a « ■ > § '• an "w fe ■01 ^ « fo tM |H 01 OJ m og o) u o a ° to - 104 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING A study of the above table shows that the annual cost of feeding a cow ranged, with the 95 dairymen reporting, from $16 to $75, the average being $40.36. The average of the milk yield reported by 99 dairy- men was 7,093.1 pounds, and the average butter yield reported by 78 dairymen was 341.2 pounds. It should be remembered that most of these dairy- men practiced up-to-date methods, were careful feeders as well as breeders, and kept careful records of their work. These records present a great con- trast to those reported under creamery patron in- vestigations. CHAPTER V RECORDS OF GRADE COWS The great mass of dairymen deal with the grade cow and will doubtless continue to do so for many years to come. The records of these animals are therefore more important to the average diary farmer. The following detailed descriptions and records of profitable dairy herds will serve to show the possibilities in production where herds are well managed and good business methods followed: o tn Q Q < Q o ta Q O Q < M C4 }«i 3SBI3AV v.° a o 00 ' S e« ^^ ■* in « -# ■« 'iji ■a^ mS o s ^ s S 3 s II ia»na " " c S o s o g § CO 31IIK .Qoo vS «o «o ; CO w CO < hj * s 8 8 8 8 s 8 JO }soo !S g §2 g S5 s is *^ el 11 53 iQ 1 ^isi 1= l:m oja •Z s o o " aa ■t-' '-^^^ 1 .g *1 ■ ■.a .2 o I M 3ja a " 0) .. a 4) Oi^a rt oi « tr F y « rt o i §b|S 5° CI 'eq 11^ «^ ! §g os2 . 3 » a 1! ■ CO I§ sSooSSo < «sa ««^«&SS si m .^"S. qaaJi natiM. a 4J 5 as i <1 03 & H fe ■< fe P3BVTI3 g 1 id 3 -inj SAioo fe £ n ■^ GQ q-i E! psaiBH BJioo ^ H s K > < (H H P4 6 u 1 o ■d ♦a 1 i 5 3 o o •a n d o ^ o >a £ < S -^ s OS u CD sis h CJ 1 fflfrt Q 1 aSV a3BJ8AV CO in lO t- T H t> : 00 1 8.uon lO ■OM 3S S n : 1 1: ^ \ i Hi a B g 03 cd bi a^ t; >-M0Sa aSy^ aSBjSAy !.ttoo ;o Oil s s s iC @ s > t. t' •a a cj a S a •a GO K & l» 0) !>H tH |M pq ^ t 0) a) I' tH l> >l fo H >■ W -5SS pa3fl5 aji : Q) Sm aa. a) a) a) Pi ai ic a) h>F^ -a a Si B33 a; iH Efi a « ,g^ O 1-1 •3 • a a) ai d t-1 s ■M io8 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING Low records of grade cows. — As a contrast to the preceding table, the following records of herds of 100 creamery patrons are presented to show the low profits realized by the average farmer in many parts of the country. Records of Herds Owned by loo Patrons of a Creamery [Reported in Hoard'sTJairyman] II o Breed of Cows 1^ ft 1^1 Ee turns from Creamery per Cow ^^1 Heturns for each 100 Pounds of Milk Returns for each $1 Worth of Food Fed 1 8 10 10 7 17 7 13 8 16 8 13 8 9 12 7 8 9 19 20 20 25 7 13 30 16 6 24 10 11 10 17 15 13 14 6 15 20 Natives mostly $42 70 33 80 35 50 36 28 34 12 31 75 38 60 48 00 35 40 31 25 39 25 38 88 51 10 36 50 40 00 39 00 42 00 38 58 39 75 42 25 36 90 37 10 33 23 43 50 31 25 37 80 42 38 35 45 35 10 38 50 37 00 30 00 41 50 31 43 44 65 38 20 37 90 $49 44 48 36 27 43 31 00 37 40 89 65 83 86 70 33 37 89 82 97 38 86 46 97 66 80 39 35 43 13 46 55 49 75 39 45 42 18 35 57 42 30 28 91 37 21 53 38 39 64 48 15 45 38 52 66 50 07 46 63 36 04 13 88 31 73 32 94 3!) 66 45 60 18 60 Lbs. 4,628 4.655 2,756 3,198 3,630 3,224 2.266 6,393 3,856 2,428 3,754 4,463 5,5ra 3,916 4,394 4,974 5,197 4,303 4,350 3,605 4,335 3,067 3,675 5,298 4,811 4,500 4.508 5,276 5,866 4,745 3.004 1,566 8,155 3,548 8,874 4.466 8,081 $1 07 104 99 97 1 03 92 1 02 1 10, 96 95 1 03 1 07 1 20 1 00 98 91 96 92 97 99 98 94 1 01 1 06 94 1 07 1 01 1 OO 95 98 1 04 98 1 00 93 92 1 06 92 $1 16 2 Natives and mixed breeds do 1 43 77 4 do 85 S R Natives and grade Holsteins Natives mostly 1 09 93 7 62 8 q Natives and mixed breeds do 1 67 1 05 in do 73 11 Natives 99 1?, 1 81 13 14 Ti Natives and grade Jerseys Natives and mixed breeds 1 3f 1 01 1 07 in Holsteins and grades 1 19 17 18 19 Grade Jerseys and Holsteins Natives and mixed breeds Natives 118 1 02 1 06 80 21 23 Natives and mixed breeds Natives and grade Holsteins Grade Jerseys and natives Natives 81 115 78 1 18 24 S5 Grades Holsteins and Jerseys.. 1 23 1 86 9.K Natives 1 87 W Mixed breeds 1 07 88 Natives and mixed breeds Grade Holsteins 1 48 1 43 30 31 Natives and mixed breeds Natives and grade Holsteins.... Natives 1 21 83 46 33 do 34 Natives and grade Holsteins and 35 36 87 Natives and mixed breeds Natives and grade Holsteins.... Natives SO 1 19 49 (Continued on page 109) RECORDS OF GRADE COWS 109 Records of Herds Owned by 100 Patrons of a Creamery (Continued from page 108) 11 ■s Breed of Cows 1^1 Beturns from Creamery per Cow Returns for each 100 Pounds of Milk Keturns for each (1 Worth of Food Fed 88 19 28 30 14 6 27 5 50 24 20 27 13 10 30 8 15 15 5 21 12 7 7 9 15 32 10 8 19 20 21 10 10 30 15 20 21 13 15 26 13 14 35 14 20 21 13 12 10 34 S7 42 00 46 20 38 50 41 50 40 48 40 20 36 10 36 50 39 50 36 55 39 00 36 40 38 50 42 20 31 60 42 18 32 00 39 00 40 00 35 00 37 00 37 35 38 35 43 00 40 60 40 20 39 50 32 00 40 00 32 70 37 00 37 00 38 72 40 60 37 00 41 00 37 60 40 50 40 00 35 00 40 00 39 60 38 60 43 25 33 00 38 75 39 00 31 10 54 93 57 32 40 23 64 50 38 90 45 13 32 54 46 56 30 03 54 47 29 93 39 71 53 63 48 13 29 38 45 40 25 53 35 00 41 57 40 85 47 84 37 11 20 72 35 91 23 50 26 50 39 83 28 64 30 06 35 25 38 52 24 81 41 68 46 44 25 16 41 18 41 68 33 60 38 00 29 22 38 06 39 57 34 31 47 65 32 47 37 45 40 81 Lbs. 3,075 4,957 5,355 3,948 6,303 3,885 4,438 3,187 4.680 3,165 5,181 3,063 4,168 5,580 4,813 3,228 4,789 2,806 3,511 4,014 4,800 4,771 3,893 2,157 4,029 2,483 2,818 3.966 3,198 3,809 3,750 4,042 2,409 4,041 4,551 2,780 3,877 4,041 3.140 3.518 2,865 3,696 3,987 3,534 4,814 3,184 3,941 4,021 1 01 111 107 1 02 102 1 00 1 02 1 02 1 00 95 1 05 98 95 97 97 91 96 91 1 00 103 95 100 99 96 89 97 94 1 00 91 93 94 95 1 03 1 03 1 02 91 1 09 103 1 07 1 08 1 02 1 03 1 00 97 99 1 02 95 1 02 90 39 1 31 40 41 48 43 44 Natives Natives and grade Jerseys and » Holsteins Natives and mixed breeds Jersey and Holstein grades Natives 124 105 1 56 96 1 12 45 Mixed breeds 90 46 do 1 28 47 48 Natives and mixed breeds Natives and grade Jerseys and Holsteins 76 1 49 49 Holstein grades 76 50 51 Mixed breeds 1 39 58 Natives 53 do 93 54 51 Natives and mixed breeds <. Natives 108 80 56 57 Natives and grade Holsteins.... Mixed breeds 90 1 03 58 59 Holstein and Jersey grades Natives .... 1 17 1 29 m Mixed breeds 99 R1 do 54 f!i>, Natives and grades 84 as 64 R5 Natives and mixed breeds 66 66 Natives 89 67 68 64 Natives and Jersey grades 1 08 70 do 67 71 7? Natives and mixed breeds do 1 08 1 14 73 74 Natives and grade Jerseys Natives 68 1 OO 1 U 75 76 Natives and mixed breeds 77 78 Natives and mixed breeds Natives 95 79 80 Natives and mixed breeds do 95 1 OO 89 1 10 81 do 8? do 83 98 96 105 S'l Natives mostly 85 Natives and grade Holsteins.... (Concluded on page 110) no THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING Records of Herds Owned by loo Patrons of a Creamery (Continued from page 109) ,"l- n " F.a II li. s - •S^^n Ketnrns from Creamer per Cow o^% 09 1 ■sqi Oi H j!?«a ■* ^ O w lO t •sqT s U P J[r!K «r I> t- 91 •sqq »M s ^ « ^JM ■« •* S o iH 00 P •sq-I s S ^ « 3111111 •sqi e 8 CO 69 ^ s 1 i i 1 1 3 o (M to o PS J!»M ■* ■^ •* 'W ^ o OD CO en ^ CO < a •sqq > »>» ^ ^ >* >> >. >» •M A A ,13 •si A rH c« cow TEST ASSOCIATION 1 17 COW TEST ASSOCIATIONS PROMOTE BUSINESS METHODS What they are. — Cow test associations are organ- izations of dairy farmers having for their object the determination of the economical production of the individual cows in the herd. The plan commonly followed is for a number of dairymen having a total of 300 to 500 cows to organize, elect oflScers, adopt constitution and by-laws, and perhaps give the ofifi- cers power to employ a man to do the testing. The tester should be a practical and tactful man, having a thorough knowledge of his business. He need not necessarily be a college graduate; often "Short Course" students make splendid men for this work. How the work is done. — The tester visits each herd once a month, weighs the milk of each cow for a period of twenty-four hours, takes samples of some and analyzes them for per cent, of butter fat, weighs the feed that each cow is receiving, figures out the cost of the ration, puts the record in his book, leaves a copy for the dairyman, gives him all the helpful suggestions possible, and proceeds to the next herd, returning again in about a month. The entire cost to the dairyman for a year is about one dollar per cow in addition to boarding the tester during his stay at the farm. If there were 400 cows in the association, this would amount to a salary of $400 and board for the tester. The tester says to the dairyman, "For the sum of one dollar per cow, I will tell you just how much profit or loss every Il8 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING COW in your herd is giving you." Every dairyman ought to take advantage of this splendid opportunity of having so much of the business end of his work figured out for him at so nominal a cost. State experiment stations, State dairy associations, and State dairy and food departments often give valuable assistance in organizing cow test associations. Results. — Cow test associations have had a tre- mendous influence in improving dairy herds, par- ticularly in Denmark, where the first association was organized in 1895. In 1884 the average yield of butter fat per cow annually in that country was about 100 pounds and in 1903 it had increased to 212 pounds, or over 100 per cent., and largely through the influence of 425 cow test associations. Scores of associations have now been organized in this country, the first one being in Fremont, Michigan. To give one illustration of the difference found in the profits returned by individual cows through these associations: The best cow in one herd re- turned to the owner $2.29 for each one dollar's worth of feed and the poorest cow returned but 54 cents for each dollar's worth of feed, or, considering that the skim milk, calf and manure offset the labor, this cow was losing for the dairyman 46 cents for every dol- lar's worth of feed she ate. We must study dairying as a business proposition. It is not the size of the cow, or the breed, or the color or the pedigree, or the yield that we want to know, it is the economical production. How much profit is there after the bills are paid? NEWAYGO COUNTY DAIRY TESTING ASSOCIATION II9 Cow test associations set the dairyman to think- ing. If he is not getting as much profit as his neigh- bor he asks why ? These associations set the farmer to reading ; as a result, he keeps better cows, feeds better feeds, builds a silo, buys a purebred bull, keeps his stable clean, puts in light and ventilation, and takes more pride in his work generally. If a dairyman wants better prices for his products and a better profit, he must go after what he wants, and the Cow Test Association will help him to get it. He is certain of cheaper production if he disposes of the poor animals for better ones. It is simply a question of applying business methods. By-Laws of the Newaygo County Dairy Testing Association Adopted at first meeting, October 31, 1905. ARTICLE I. ANNUAL AND SPECIAL MEETINGS The annual meeting of the members of this cor- poration shall be held at a place to be designated by the board of directors in the village of Fremont, Michigan, on the first Monday of November of each year at two o'clock in the afternoon for the purpose of electing a board of directors and for the transac- tion of such other business as may lawfully come before said meeting. Special meetings may be called by the board of directors and notice thereof shall be given by the secretary by mailing to each member a written or 120 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING printed notice thereof at least five days prior to such meeting. Such notice shall state the object of the meeting, and no other business shall be transacted thereat. ARTICLE II. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Section i. The board of directors shall consist of nine members. They shall be elected at each an- nual meeting, the first election to be held on the first Monday of November, a.d. 1906. Sec, 2. The board of directors shall have the management and control of the business of the cor- poration, and shall employ such agents and servants as they may deem advisable, and fix the rates of com- pensation of all officers, agents and employes. Sec. 3. Whenever any vacancies shall occur in the board of directors by death, resignation or other- wise, the same may be filled without undue delay by the majority vote of the remaining members of the board. The person so chosen shall hold office until the next annual meeting or until his successor is elected and qualified. Sec. 4. The board of directors shall meet on the first Monday of every month, at such times and in such places as they may by resolution determine. Sec. 5. A majority of the directors shall consti- tute a quorum at all meetings of the board. ARTICLE III. OFFICERS Section i. The officers of the corporation shall consist of President, Vice-President, Secretary and Treasurer. The office of Secretary and Treasurer NEWAYGO COUNTY DAIRY TESTING ASSOCIATION 121 may be held by the same person. The officers shall be elected by the board of directors by a majority vote of the whole number of directors. The first election shall be held immediately after the organ- ization of the board. Subsequent elections shall be held annually on the day of the regular meeting of the board next ensuing the annual election, the day to be fixed by resolution of the board of directors. Sec. 2. In case of death, resignation or removal of any officer, the board shall elect his successor, who shall hold office for the unexpired term. ARTICLE IV. MEMBERSHIP Any person acceptable to the board of directors may become a member upon paying a membership fee of 25 cents. ARTICLE V. DUES Each member shall pay a fee of 25 cents annually on or before the first Monday of November. The first annual dues to be payable on or before the first Monday of November, 1906. No member shall be allowed to participate in the election of the board of directors who shall not have paid his annual dues in advance. ARTICLE VI. AMENDMENTS These by-laws may be amended, added to or al- tered by a majority vote of all members present at annual meeting or at a special meeting called for that purpose. 122 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING Articles of Association of the Newaygo County Dairy Testing Association We, the undersigned, desiring to become incor- porated under the provisions of Act No. 171 of the Public Acts of 1903, entitled "An act for the incor- poration of associations not for pecuniary profit" and the acts amendatory thereof and supplementary thereto, do hereby make, execute and adopt the fol- lowing articles of association, to wit : ARTICLE I The name by which said association shall be known in law is Newaygo County Dairy Testing Association. ARTICLE II The purpose for which it is formed is generally to promote the dairying interests of its members and particularly to provide means and methods for test- ing the milk of cows of the members periodically. ARTICLE III Its principal office and place of business shall be at Fremont, Michigan. ARTICLE IV The number of its directors shall be nine. ARTICLE V The names of the directors selected for the first year of its existence are as follows: John Dobben, Dirk Kolk, Gerhard Stroven, Chris Wils, George \ NEWAYGO COUNTY DAIRY TESTING ASSOCIATION 1 23 Kldoster, John Beem, Henry Wilcox, Wilks Stuart and Henry Rozema. ARTICLE VI Any person may become a member of this associa- tion and be entitled to all its benefits and privileges upon being accepted by its board of directors and upon complying with the requirements of its by- laws. PART IV— -FEEDS AND FEEDING CHAPTER 1 BUSINESS METHODS IN FEEDING The business man aims to secure the largest returns possible for every dollar expended. There is no business that requires more earful study and forethought to accomplish this than that which rests upon the dairyman when he faces the problem of providing a palatable and well-balanced ration for a dairy herd. The dairyman must not only be a good producer and intelligent buyer, but it is fully as important that he be a careful feeder. Give him the best cows obtainable and it is possible for him to feed them so sparingly or so wastefully that they will not return a dollar's worth of profit. The ques- tion of careful feeding becomes more important as the variety of crops multiply and new feeds are added to those already in the market. Proper feeding must begin when the animal is young. If we feed the growing heifer nitrogenous foods to develop muscle and bone and an abundance of coarse fodder to develop a capacity for digesting and Assimijating a large amount of food, we may expect these characteristics to show to a greater or less extent in the full-grown cow. On the other 126 .THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING hand if the cow is fed in calfhood largely carbona- ceous and fat-forming foods, whatever breed we may have at the start, we must expect, as a result of this method of feeding, an animal having a tendency to lay on flesh readily and with dairy qualities poorly developed. After a cow has begun to pro- duce milk, still more attention should be given to suppl}dng her with a balanced ration if large yields are to be obtained. The proper feeding of a dairy cow is a science which may be defined as supplying food in the right proportion to meet her various requirements with- out a waste of food nutrients. The chemist and the animal physiologist have carefully worked out the principles of feeding. It is left for the dairyman then to know his arithmetic and to spend a little time in learning the composition, digestibility and charac- teristics of the different food stuffs and in studying the needs of his individual animals. Careful study has been made of these with different animals under different conditions and the requirements of animals for the various food nutrients when at rest, at work, giving milk, producing wool, pork, beef, mutton, etc. The applications of the various feeding stuffs in practice, their cost and special adaptations must, of course, be considered. Composition of the animal body. — In order that we may have an intelligent idea of the feeding prob- lems and work out practical methods, we will discuss briefly the various substances found in the animal body. Water. — ^The principal constituent, in respect to BUSINESS METHODS IN FEEDING I27 quantity, and comprises from 40 to 80 per cent, of the gross weight. While indispensable, it has but little economic importance here. Ash occurs principally in the bones and consti- tutes from 2 to 5 per cent, of the live weight. The term is applied to the residue left after complete burning. Protein. — This is the constituent which forms flesh and includes all the nutrients which contain nitrogen; albumenoids being the most important. Familiar forms of this nutrient are lean meat, white of the egg, and the casein of milk (curd). The flesh, skin, bones (in part), vital organs, brain, nerves, in fact the bodily mechanism, are made up of protein diluted, so to speak, with water, supported by the ash of the skeleton and rounded out with fat. Protein is therefore of the utmost importance. Fat comprises from 6 to 30 per cent, of the live weight in different classes of animals and is usually well distributed in the body. It consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but contains no nitrogen. While not so vital to the animal life as the other three constituents, it has much economic interest. These various substances are formed from animal, vegetable, and mineral matter known as food and are converted by the animal eating them into flesh, fat, bone, milk, wool, and work (energy). It is of interest, therefore, to consider next the composition of vegetable matter, or the food of animals. Composition of food materials. — ^There is a simi- larity between the constituents of animals and plants. The four groups of substances cited under 128 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING the composition of animals — namely, water, ash, protein and fat — are also found in the food they con- sume, and in addition the food of herbivorous ani- mals contains a class called carbohydrates, which in- cludes cellulose, woody tissue, starch, sugar, gums, etc. While the individual substances which com- prise the groups when they are of vegetable origin, are quite different from those in the animal body, these differences are not important in this considera- tion. In other words, water, ash and true fat are quite alike, whether found in plants or animals. Water is a constituent of all food stuffs, however dry they may seem. The amount may be only 8 to 15 pounds per 100 pounds of material, as in hay, straw or grain, but in green corn fodder or silage it amounts to 75 to 80 pounds, and in some roots to 90 pounds. This water, although it may add to the palatability of food, is of no more benefit to the animal than the water in the food it drinks. Because of the variation in the proportion of water, the com- parisons of foods are usually made on the dry or water-free basis, which shows the percentage of food ingredients in the dry matter. Ash, — As already stated, this is what is left after burning, and consists of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, and various other compounds, and is used largely in making bone. Ordinary combinations of feeding stuffs contain an abundant supply of mineral matter for the requirements of the animal, so it is not given important consideration, only as far as it has a bearing upon the mineral elements of fertility in the manure. BUSINESS METHODS IN FEEDING 129 Fat. — The so-called fats of fodders and feeds is impure, being mixed with wax, resins, coloring matter, etc. These materials are also extracted from a fodder by boiling ether, hence are called ether extract. Carbohydrates. — Substances which come under this class are usually divided into two groups: (i) Nitrogen-free extract, a term applied to a somewhat miscellaneous group of nutrients, none of which con- tains nitrogen. Its principal constituents are starch, sugar, gums, and similar substances. (2) Cellulose or fiber, the essential constituents of the walls of vegetable cells. Example, cotton fiber and wood pulp, which are nearly pure cellulose. Coarse fod- ders like hay and straw contain a large proportion of fiber, while most grains contain but little. Protein. — Nitrogenous compounds is the name of a group of materials containing nitrogen. All other constituents of feeding stuffs, the ash, fat, and carbo- hydrates, are non-nitrogenous or free from nitrogen. Protein materials are often designated as "flesh formers" because they furnish the materials for lean flesh, but they also enter largely into the composi- tion of blood, skin and muscles, the casein and albumen of milk, etc. No substance free from nitro- gen can take the place of protein. It is absolutely necessary then to have it in the ration if the animal is to grow or maintain existence. Protein is held by some to be a stimulant to milk production. I. Chemical analyses of feeding stuffs. — For the practical dairyman the chemical analysis of fodders and feeds showing the crude nutrients they contain 13° THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING is of little direct value. It is essential for him to know, however, in case of each feeding stuff, what part of the protein, fat and carbohydrates as shown by analysis is actually digested by the animal. This knowledge has been gained by digestion experi- ments which have been repeatedly conducted at various experiment stations with a large number of animals under different conditions. As a result of this careful work we have a fair knowledge of the digestibility of all common feeding stuffs and the computation of rations has become a simple problem in arithmetic. It may be said, in passing, that the rates of digestibility are not equal for the same nutrient in different foods, hence each crude nutrient has its respective digestion coefiScient (proportion digested expressed as percentage). Feeding standards. — Standards at best can only be used as guides. Successful feeding embodies something besides problems in mathematics, and animal life and nutrition are too complex to be solved in this way. It is necessary to study the requirements of individual animals, their varying capacities, ability to produce, effect of various feeds upon the health and condition of the animal, and its appetite, and effect upon quality of the product, in order to obtain the maximum production at the minimum cost. These are some of the problems that must be considered by the skilful feeder if the best results are to be secured. Much experimental work has been done in this country and in Europe with a view to determining the fundamental laws of nutrition to be used as a BUSINESS METHODS IN FEEDING I3I basis for the economical practice of stock feeding. While our knowledge of these principles is not per- fect, sufficient information is at hand to give us a pretty clear idea of the food requirements of farm animals. It should be understood at the outset that all standards are the result of practical experience and careful observation. Their function is to act as guides and suggestions rather than to serve as rules to be strictly followed regardless of differences in individuals, breeds, food stuffs, climate, care, amount of product, etc. These varying conditions once appreciated, the use of a standard is of great value. Strictly speaking, then, a standard should express the proportions of digestible nutrients best adapted to the needs of various animals and to the purposes for which stock is kept. Advantages of a feeding standard from a business standpoint. — ^The question naturally arises, with so many standards and so many limitations, and with cows, fodders and feeds of all sorts and descriptions, is it wise to attempt to follow a standard in feeding? This question can be answered positively in the af- firmative. By adopting a standard, the dairyman will give closer attention to his cattl^, their care and their feeding. Without a standard, there is danger of the dairyman feeding too little or too much, or an unbalanced proportion of nutrients. In the first in- stance the result would be lower production and possibly shrinkage in bodily weight. If the nutri- ents are not in proper proportion the result is 132 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING waste, or in some instances the production of flesh rather than milk. If the animals are over- fed their health is endangered, the quality of the product is impaired, and there is also waste. In any case the feeder should study carefully his own conditions. He must determine for himself whether greater profit will follow large production coupled with greater cost, or low production with less ex- penditure ; whether it will pay better to feed largely home-grown foods and a fairly wide ration, or to sell some foods and buy others which will add more of the nutrient protein to the ration, thus mak- ing it narrower. Ordinarily with good cows, good markets and a reasonable price for concentrated feeds, approximate conformity to standards will be found most profitable. Calculation of rations. — The feeding of the dairy cow is a science which may be defined as supplying food in the right proportion to meet the various re- quirements without a waste of food nutrients. The process of calculating a ration is much simpler than it appears at first. With certain coarse foods and grain feeds at hand, definite weights are provision- ally chosen, the total dry matter and digestible nutrients are determined and the result compared with the standard. If the result is close to the standard the work is done, otherwise the additions or subtractions are made, or possibly some other foods are substituted until the standard is reached. An example will best explain how a ration is calcu- lated. Let us as a preliminary trial take some feeds commonly used on dairy farms, as corn silage, BUSINESS METHODS IN FEEDING I33 mixed hay, wheat bran and corn and cob meal. (See Appendix.) For a trial ration we will combine the feeds in the following proportion (these amounts the author has frequently found in use by dairy- men) : Dry Matter 351bs. Corn Silage.... 7.35 10 " Mixed Hav.... 8.70 5 " Wheat Bran. . . 4.40 5 " Corn & Cob Meal 4.85 Protein .315 .620 .610 .220 CarbohydrateB + (Fat X 2.25) 4.515 4.600 2.265 3.385 14.705 13.4 Total Nutrients 4.830 5.230 2.875 3.545 16.470 15.9 Nutrient Batio Total 24.70 Wolff's Standard 24.00 1.765 2.5 1:8.3 1:5.4 Comparing the nutrients furnished by this ration with Wolff's standard, as given in table, we find that while the dry matter and nutrients are not far from the standard, the protein is much too low, the carbohydrates and fat are somewhat too great and the nutritive ratio too wide. Had we studied carefully the nutritive ratio of the four feeds enter- ing into the ration we should readily have seen that with the exception of wheat bran they are all wider than the standard. It is evident that one of the three grains must be substituted for one that is richer in protein, or, in other words, a very narrow nutritive ratio. Consulting the table, we find that among such are linseed meal, cottonseed meal, gluten feeds, brewers' grains, etc. As cottonseed meal is one of the richest, and furnishes protein at a comparatively low cost, we will substitute two pounds of this for two pounds of the corn-and-cob meal in the ration. Again taking the figures from the table (Appen- dix), we have: 134 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING Dry Carbohydrates Total Nutrient Matter Protein + (Fat X 2.25) Nutrients Batio 85 Iba. Com Silage. ... 7.35 .315 4.515 4.830 10 " Mixed Hay.... 8.70 .620 4.600 5.220 6 " Wlieat Bran... 4 40 .610 2.265 '2.875 3 " Com & Cob Meal 8,55 .132 1.995 2.127 2 " Cottonseed Meal 1.84 .744 .888 1.632 16.684 Total 34.84 2.421 14.263 1 : 5.89 Wolff's Standard 24.00 2.5 13.4 15.9 1:5.4 Comparing this ration with the standard we find it corresponds very closely. While the substitution of cottonseed meal for the corn-and-cob meal adds somewhat to the expense, it is the experience of careful feeders that the increased returns will more than pay for properly balancing the ration. The same result might be obtained by substituting other feeding stuffs, and the selection should be made by determining which can be most economically used to supplement the home-grown foods. By formu- lating a properly balanced ration containing each of the foods under consideration, and by assigning the actual market values per pound to each of the feeds in the ration, the cost can readily be ascertained and the cheapest selected. CHAPTER II OBSERVATIONS BY HAECKER* It has long since been recognized that because of the diflFerence in composition of the various kinds of feed stuffs no single standard of composition for all feeds would be practicable, and yet, while there is as ♦Bull. No. 79, Min. Exp. Station. OBSERVATION BY HAECKER 1 35 great a difference in the composition of milks as there is in feed stuffs, there has been no adjustment of the nutrients in the ration to the quantity and character of the solids contained in the milk yielded, though, as has been shown, such an adjustment ap- pears to be quite simple and practicable. If in for- mulating a ration it is deemed necessary in economic milk production, to take note of the fact that one feed stuff contains 12 per cent, of protein and an- other 20 per cent., is it not equally important in our attempt to adjust the ration to the needs of the cow in milk production to also take into account the fact that one cow may give milk containing 3 per cent, fat while that of another may contain twice as much? It would seem quite as consistent to feed an animal food regardless of its composition as to feed an assumed balanced ration regardless of the composition of the product which is to be elaborated from the nutrients in the food. Great stress has been placed upon the fact that the mitrients in milk have a nutritive ratio of approxi- mately one to five, and that therefore the ration for a milch cow should have a similar nutritive ratio; apparently overlooking the fact that only about 50 per cent, of the ration is used in milk production and the balance for maintenance of body. If note is taken of the fact that about half the ration is used for maintenance and that the maintenance ration has a nutritive ratio of i to 10, it becomes apparent that for the production of milk of average quality by an animal of average milk producing powers the nutritive ratio of the ration should be approxi- 136 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING mately i 7.5. But since animals vary in productive powers, and since this variation is not in proportion to weight of body, it follows that if rations are ad- justed to the actual requirements of animals the nutritive ratio of the rations will also vary. The tables of nutrients required to a pound of milk ranging in per cent, fat from 2.5 to 6.5, are printed on pasteboard cards 7x3!/^ inches, and on the reverse side a table giving the nutrients in a pound of ordinary feeding stufifs. Given the daily yield of milk in pounds, its per cent, of butter fat, and the weight of the cow expressed decimally, it is an easy matter to determine the required ration. As an illustration, suppose a mature cow weighs 825 pounds, gives 20 pounds of milk daily, testing 4 per cent, butter fat. One pound of 4 per cent, milk re- quires of protein .0467, carbohydrates .214, and of ether extract, .0159. Multiplying these factors by 20 it is found that for the production of milk she needs .934 of protein, 4.28 of carbohydrates and .318 of ether extract. For food of maintenance multiply .07 protein, .7 carbohydrates and .01 of ether ex- tract (maintenance formula) by 8.25, which gives protein .578, carbohydrates 5.78 and ether extract .082; adding to this the nutrients required for milk production, we have 1.5 1 of protein, 10.06 carbohy- drates and .40 ether extract, the nutrients required in the ration. They should be supplied in such manner with reference to bulk that it will satisfy the appetite. A ration like this should be largely made up of roughage. But suppose a cow weighing 850 pounds yields OBSERVATION BY HAECKER 137 40 pounds of 4 per cent, milk daily, the required ration would be : Pro. C. H. Fat Pro. C. H. Fat (.0467 — .214 — .0159) X 40= 1.868— 8.56 — .636 (.07 —.7 — .oi )x8.50= .595— 5-95— .085 Ration required, 2.463 — 14.51 — .721 A ration like this should be largely composed of grain so that it will not contain so much bulk that she will go off her feed, and yet furnish the nutri- ents required. If a cow's ration is adjusted in bulk with reference to her feeding capacity and in nutri- ment content to the work she is doing, she will not be overfed nor go ofif her feed. A cow will not do her best unless she is so fed that she is satisfied, but the ration should not contain more nutriment than she actually needs. From this it follows that cows do not require a uniform nutritive ratio in their ra- tions, but that it varies according to the quantity of milk yielded and weight of cow. ' To illustrate, let us take a cow weighing 1,200 pounds and yielding 20 pounds of milk daily, and one weighing 850 pounds yielding 40 pounds of milk, both testirig 4 per cent. fat. Pro. C. H. Fat Nutrients for i lb. of 4 per cent. milk. . .0467 .214 .0159 Nutrients for I cwt., maintenance 07 .7 .01 For COW weighing 1,200 pounds and yielding 20 pounds of 4 per cent, milk : Pro. C. H. Fat Nutrients for 20 lbs. milk 93 4.28 .32 Nutrients for 12 cwt. maintenance... .84 8.40 .12 Ration required 1.77 12.68 .44 Nutritive ratio 1:7.7 I3S THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING For COW weighing 850 pounds and yielding 40 pounds of 4 per cent, milk : Pro. C. H. Fat Nutrients for 40 lbs. of milk 1.87 8.56 .64 Nutrients for 8.5 cwt. maintenance. . .59 5.95 .08 Ration required 2.4614.51 .72 Nutritive ratio 1:6.5 But if the cow weighing 12 cwt. yields 40 pounds of milk per day and the cow weighing 8.5 cwt. yields 20 pounds, the nutrient requirements for their re- spective rations according to table will be as fol- lows: Pro. C. H. Fat Nutrients for 40 lbs. of 4 per cent. milk 1.87 8.56 .64 Nutrients for 12 cwt. maintenance... .84 8.40 .12 Required ration 2.71 16.96 .76 Nutritive ratio 1 :6.8 Pro. C. H. Fat Nutrients for 20 lbs. of 4 per cent. milk 93 4.28 .32 Nutrients for 8.5 cwt. maintenance. . .59 5.95 .08 Required ration 1.52 10.2^ .40 Nutritive ratio 1 17.3 In prescribing rations upon the basis of flow and quality of milk and weight of cow and using the factors given in the table the nutritive ratio be- comes a factor of very little importance the same as is the case with dry matter in a ration. If the nu- trients required or a given flow of milk are provided for in the concentrates the food of maintenance may be secured by feeding at least a portion of the rough- age ad lib. If the grain mixture has a nutritive ra- tio of I to 5 or 5.5 it will fairly meet the require- ments. OBSERVATION BY HAECKER 1 39 In adjusting rations for cows fresh in milk note should be taken of surplus nutriment stored in the body during the time that a cow goes dry. If she gained rapidly in weight and is well rounded out with fat she will be able to do normal work during the first few weeks of her lactation on a light grain ration, for she will use the stored fat in generating body heat and energy and may also use some in the elaboration of milk solids. So as this milking-down in body weight takes place the concentrates should be gradually increased so that she will be on full feed by the time she reaches her normal working weight. From then on the amount of concentrates should be as constant as the flow of milk will per- mit until after the sixth month of gestation, when it should be gradually decreased so she will go dry during the seventh, when a couple of pounds a day will suffice. The deduction from the data indicates that the Wolflf feeding standard for dairy cows is fairly cor- rect in the average amount of total nutriment re- quired, but faulty in that it prescribes an excess of protein and in the assumption that cows need nutri- ents in proportion to their weight. • That the Wolff-Lehmann standard is faulty in that it prescribes an excess of protein and other nutrients, does not designate the nutrients required upon a basis of a unit in weight of milk ; does not recognize the fact that quality of milk yielded should be considered as well as quantity, nor that heifers require more nutrients for a given flow of milk than mature cows. 140 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING That the nutrient requirements in milk production depend : 1. Upon the weight of the cow. 2. Upon the quantity of milk yielded. 3. Upon the quality of the milk, and 4. Upon the age of the cow. During the past few years we have analyzed some 2,000 milkings by the gravity process, and compar- ing the composition of the milk with the nutrients consumed in its production, we find that the net nu- triment, that is, the nutriment in a ration available for product, requires 1.75 of nutriment to one of product yielded. That is, reducing the digestible matter in the productive part of the ration to a com- mon energy value, and the milk solids yielded to a common energy value, it requires 1.75 units of nu- triments to produce a unit of product. Whenever a cow consumes more than this we find she gains in weight, and if she receives less, she either shrinks in milk or loses in body weight. Applying this gen- eral rule in feeding practice, we find that in addition to the food of maintenance a cow needs 1.75 of nutri- ment to a unit of product. Some claim that some cows will yield more prod- uct for a unit of feed than other^. We find that such is not the case if a cow is under normal condition. The reason why they feed some cows more for a unit of product than others, is that the cow will con- sume the feed, though she does not need it, and it takes several months for some cows to begin to utilize the surplus nutriment in making body gain. OBSERVATION BY HAECKER 141 UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA— AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE Nutrients in a Pound of Feeding Stuffs CONCEN- TRATES Corn Barley Oats Wheat Eye Millet Kaffir corn... Sorghum Shorts Bran Peas Corn oil meal Gluten feed... Oil meal Gluten meal.. Cotton, S. M. EOUGHAGE- CUKBD Fodder corn Stover Sorghum Timothy Prairie hay Bed top Oat hay lUlllet Marsh hay Soy bean Cowpea Clover Alsike Alfalfa Pro. C. H. Fat .079 .667 .043 .087 .656 .016 .093 .473 .042 .102 .692 .017 .099 .676 .011 .089 .450 .032 .078 .571 .029 .070 .521 .031 .122 .500 .038 .129 .401 .034 .168 .518 .007 .202 .445 .088 .233 .507 .027 .293 .327 .070 .322 .422 .025 .372 .169 .122 .025 .346 .012 .017 .328 .007 .024 .321 .016 .028 .434 .014 .029 .415 .012 .048 .469 .010 .043 .464 .015 .032 .485 .010 .024 .299 .009 .109 .401 .015 .107 .382 .012 ;068 .358 .017 .084 .425 .015 .110 .396 .012 EOUGHAGE- GRBBN Fodder corn... Sorghum Oats Timothy Red top Clover Alsike Alfalfa Cowpea Soy bean Barley SILAGE Corn Sorghum Cowpea Clover Soy bean Alfalfa MISCELLA- NEOUS Potato Sugar beet Mangel Turnip Rutabaga Cabbage Pumpkin Rape Beet pulp STRAW Wheat Oat Barley Pro. .010 .006 .026 .012 .021 .020 .027 .039 .018 .031 .019 .009 .006 .015 .020 .037 .030 .009 .011 .011 .010 .010 .015 .010 .015 .006 .004 .012 .007 C. H. .116 .122 .189 .191 .212 .148 .121 .127 .187 .110 .102 .113 .149 .008 .135 .087 .085 .163 .102 .054 .072 .081 .098 .058 .081 .073 Fat .004 .004 .010 .006 .006 .007 .006 .005 .002 .005 .004 .007 .002 .009 .010 .013 .019 .001 .001 .001 .002 .002 .003 .003 .003 .000 .004 .008 .006 -142 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING FEEDING STANDARD For Heifers in Milk Coefficients for food of maintenance per cwt., and nutrients re- quired for the production of one pound of milli testing a given per cent, of butter fat. Protein Carbo- hydrates Ether Extract For Maintenance .07 .7 .01 Milk Testing 2.5 .0378 .0391 .0404 .0417 .0430 .0443 .0456 .0469 .0482 .0495 .0508 .0521 .0534 .0547 .0560 .0.573 .0586 .0599 .0618 .0625 .0638 .0651 .0664 .0677 .0890 .0703 .0716 .0729 .0742 .0755 .0768 .0781 .0794 .0807 .0830 .0833 .0846 .0859 .0878 .0885 .0898 .188 .194 .800 .808 .818 .218 .224 .230 .236 .242 .248 .254 .260 .266 .272 .278 .284 .290 .898 .302 .308 .314 .320 .326 .332 .338 .344 .350 .356 .362 .368 .374 .380 .386 .392 .398 .404 .410' .416 .422 .428 .0130 " 8.8 .0134 " 2.V .0139 8.8 .0143 " " 8.9 .0148 " " 3.0 .0152 " " 3.1 .0157 " " 3.8 .0161 3.3 .0166 " " 3.4 .0170 " " 3.5 .0175 " " 3.6 .0179 3.7 .0184 3.8 .0188 " " 3.9 .0193 " " 4.0 .0197 " 4.1 .0202 4.3 .0206 " " 4.3 .0211 " " 4.4 .0215 " 4.5 .0220 " " 4.6 .0224 " " 4.7 .0229 ""48 .0233 " " 4.9 .0238 5.0 .0242 " " .. 5.1 .0247 " " 5.8 .0251 " " 5.3 .0256 5,4 .0860 " " 5.5 .0265 5.6 .0869 " " 5.7 .0274 5.8 .0278 " " 5.9 .0283 6.0 .0287 " " 6.1 0898 " " 6.8 .0296 " " 6.3 0301 " " 6.4 .0305 " " 6.5 .0310 OBSERVATrON BY HAECKER 143 FEEDING STANDARD For Mature Cows in Milk Coefflclents for food of maintenance per ewt., and nutrients re- quired for tlie production of one pound of milk testing a given per cent, of butter fat. Protein Carbo- hydrates Etlier Extract For Maintenance , . .07 .7 .01 Millt Testing 2.5 .0362 .0369 .0376 .0383 .0390 .0397 .0404 .0411 .0418 .0425 .0432 .0439 .0446 .0453 .0460 • .0467 .0474 .0481 .0488 .0495 .0502 .0509 .0516 .0523 .0530 .0537 .0544 .0551 .0558 .0565 .0572 .0579 .0586 .0593 .0600 .0607 .0614 .0621 .0628 .0635 .0642 .164 .167 .170 .174 .177 .181 .184 .187 .190 .194 .197 .200 .804 .207 .210 .214 .217 .220 .223 .227 .230 .233 .237 .240 .243 .247 .250 .253 .258 .260 .263 .266 .270 .273 .276 .280 .283 .286 .289 .293 .296 .0124 " " a. 6 .0126 " 2.7 .0128 " " 2.8 .0131 2.9 .0133 " " 3.0 .0136 3.1 .0138 " " 3.2 .0140 " 3.3 .0142 " " 3.4 .0145 " " 3.5 .0147 3.6 .0149 " " 3.7 .0152 " " 3.8 .0154 " " 39 .0156 " " 4.0 .0159 " " 4.1 .0161 " " 4.2 ; .0163 4.3 .0165 " " 4.4 .0168 " 4.5.... .0170 " " 4.6 .0172 " " 4.7 .0175 " " 4.8 .0177 4.9 .0179 " " 5.0 .0182 5.1 .0185 " " 5.2 .0187 " " 5.3.... .0189 " " 5.4 ;... .0192 " 5.5 .0194 " " 5.6 .0196 ." " 5.7 .0199 " " 5.3 .0201 " " 5.9 .0203 " " 6 .0206 " " 6.1. ..1 .0203 •* " 6 2 .0210 " " 6.S .0212 " " 6.4 .0215 " " a.5 .0217 144 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING CHAPTER III HOME-GROWN DAIRY FOODS FOR WINTER USE Generally speaking, the nearer we can approach to growing all the feeds on the farm the more money we shall make. This is particularly true of the coarse foods, all of which should be grown on the farm. Commercial fe^ds are expensive; in fact, in the past few years, many of them have been too high priced for the dairyman who wholesales his milk for 2j4 to 3 cents per quart to use with profit. Besides growing the corn crop for the silo, there are many crops which can: be grown and made into hay, and which are rich in the important nutrient protein, hence will, in a large measure, take the place of fine feeds in balancing the winter. ration. Corn is one of the most important home-grown crops and should be preserved in the silo and form the basis of the winter ration, and may also compose a large part of the summer ration as well, if desired. Some of the reasons why silage should form the basis of the winter ration may be mentioned briefly as follows: It is succulent, palatable and digestible, and closely resembles the green forage of summer. It is prepared for use at small cost, the average expense of harvesting and putting it in the silo does not usually exceed 75 cents per ton. It requires comparatively small space for storage. It is ready for immediate use and requires but lit- tle labor to place it before the animals. HOME-GROWN DAIRY FOODS FOR WINTER USE I45 There is but little loss either from decomposition or waste. The amount from both of these sources, in the writer's experience, has not exceeded 5 per cent. The waste from feeding dried corn stover or corn fodder frequently exceeds 25 per cent. More milk can be produced from corn silage than from dried corn fodder. Experiments have shown that 12 per cent, more milk can be produced from silage than from corn fodder preserved dry; the fodder being taken from the same field in both cases ; or, put in another way, corn preserved in the silo is worth $10 more per acre. For these reasons the silo is regarded as almost a necessity in modern dairying. Indian corn is better adapted than any other crop for the silo, and is at present, and is likely to be the main silage crop throughout the country. Combinations of cowpeas and corn make a valuable food, both being sown in the same drill and cut with a corn harvester. Such crops as cowpeas, soy beans and clovers may be preserved in the silo without mixing with other crops, but as a rule the silage from these crops is more acid and has a disagreeable odor. The following series of experiments by the author will serve to show the value of certain leguminous crops as substitutes for purchased feeds. Alfalfa hay. — Alfalfa is one of the plants known as nitrogen collectors and is able to draw its nitro- gen directly from the air. The roots are covered with nodules which contain countless numbers of bac- teria, and it is through these thit the plant secures its nitrogen. It is sometimes necessary to supply these 145 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING bacteria. This may be done by using soil from an old field or by cultures of bacteria prepared espe- cially for the purpose. Alfalfa and other plants be- longing to the legume family are the best for the farmer to grow, as they provide not only a food rich in nitrogen but lay up in the soil large amounts of this expensive fertilizing element for future crops. Alfalfa hay, properly cured, has no superior and is readily eaten by all farm animals. It is not a com- plete ration in itself, but should be fed with corn fodder silage, roots, or other carbonaceous foods. For the reason that it contains large amounts of protein, it is a valuable substitute for such feeds as wheat bran and cottonseed meal. Special care should be taken in making alfalfa hay — it should be cut in the forenoon and, when well wilted, raked into windrows and put into cocks, where it should remain until cured. If the leaves are allowed to become dry and brittle the most nutritious and valuable part of the hay will be lost. Three to six tons should be secured per acre. Experiments with alfalfa hay.* — Four cows were in the test, which included a period of 32 days. The "alfalfa hay ration" consisted of 13 pounds of al- falfa hay and 30 pounds of corn silage. The "feed ration" fed in comparison with this was composed of 30 pounds corn silage, 5 pounds mixed hay, 6 pounds wheat bran, and 5 pounds dried brewers' grains. The two rations contained practically the same amount of protein (3.08 and 3.13 pounds, re- spectively). The nutfltive ration was estimated at *Bull. No. 161, N. J. Exp. Station. HOME-GROWN DAIRY FOODS FOR WINTER USE 147 1 : 5 in the alfalfa hay ration and i : 6.1 in the feed ration. The alfalfa ration was produced entirely on the farm, while over two-thirds of the most expen- sive nutrient protein in the feed ration was pur- chased. While about 4 per cent, more milk was pro- duced from the purchased feed ration, the in- crease was not enough to ofifset the greater cost of production, hence the alfalfa ration proved the more profitable. The cost of food used to produce 100 pounds of milk and one pound of butter was 55.9 cent^ and 11. i cents, re- spectively, for the alfalfa ration, and 83.9 cents and 16.7 cents for the feed ration. The profit from feed- ing the home-grown ration (where milk is worth $1 per hundred) exceeded that of the purchased feed ration by about $2 per cow per month, or with a herd of 25 cows the gain would amount to $50. The cows on the home-grown ration also gained 10 pounds more in weight. On the basis of the experi- ment when mixed hay (timothy and clover) sells for $16 per ton and when wheat bran costs $26 per ton and dried brewers' grains $20 per ton (as was the case when the experiment was made), alfalfa hay is worth $24.52 per ton as a substitute for mixed hay, wheat bran and dried brewers' grains fed in the proportion indicated in the ration. Experiments with crimson clover hay. — This is another valuable leguminous crop for the dairy farmer and supplies a palatable food that can be substituted for commercial feeds to good advantage. Where it can be successfully grown it is one of the most useful plants, from the standpoint of yield, 148 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING composition, cost, and ease with which it is grown. It may be seeded at the rate of 12 to 15 pounds per acre in corn at the last cultivation, or after a crop of potatoes, without interfering with regular rota- tions. The yield of hay will range from one to three tons per acre. The method of curing should be similar to that described for alfalfa. A feeding experiment.* — ^This experiment was conducted with four cows and continued 30 days. The "crimson clover ration" contained 16.4 pounds of crimson clover hay and 30 pounds of corn silage. This was used in comparison with a "purchased feed ration" composed of 30 pounds corn silage, 5 pounds mixed hay, 6 pounds wheat bran, and 5 pounds dried brewers' grains. The two rations supplied practically, the same amount of dry matter and protein and car- bohydrates, while the fat was somewhat greater in the feed ration. The nutritive ratio for the crimson clover hay ration was i i^.y and for the feed ration 1 :6.i. The crimson clover and silage were produced entirely upon the farm, while over two-thirds of the most expensive nutrient protein in the feed ration was purchased. The home-grown ration proved a practical one from the feeder's standpoint. There was a saving of 18.3 cents per hundred in the cost of the production of milk, and 3.73 cents per pound in the cost of producing butter by feeding the home- grown ration. Stated in another form, the gain from feeding this home-grown ration over the pur- chased feed ration amounted to $1.10 per cow per month. On the basis of this experiment, when *N. J. Exp. Station Bull. No. 174, by the author. HOME-GROWN DAIRY FOODS FOR WINTER USE I49 wheat bran costs $26 per ton, as was the case at the time this experiment was conducted, dried brewers' grains $20 per ton, and mixed hay (timothy and red- top) $16 per ton, and when these feeds are used in the proportion indicated in the ration, crimson clover hay is worth $16.55 P^^ ton as a substitute for the above feeds. Crimson clover hay and cowpea silage experi- ment. — ^This experiment was similar to the one just described in respect to the number of cows used and the length of time covered by the test. The pur- pose was to compare the value of a ration that could readily be grown on the farm with a ration in which Cowpea Silage and Crimson Clover Ration 1 Total Nutkiekts 1 1 4 II 1^ 11 III 33 Iha CowDea Silaare Lbs. 6.01 8.89 5.09 Lbs. .99 1.53 .51 Lbs. .46 .!2 .21 Lbs. 3.85 6.38 4.28 10 Ih"^ Crims'on Clover TTav Total 19.99 3.03 .89 U.51 1:6 Feed Ration 36 lbs. Corn Silage 5 lbs. Mixed Hay 4 lbs. Dried Brewers' Grains. 2.5 lbs. Cotton-seed Meal; Total. 9.01 .69 .47 7.48 4.47 .31 .13 3.77 3.66 .97 .29 2.31 2.30 1.05 .32 .74 19.44 3.02 1.21 14. So 1:6 ISO THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING the protein was largely purchased in the form of feeds commonly used by dairymen, namely, dried brewers' grains and cottonseed meal. It was planned to have each ration contain the same amount of total protein, the amount of milk obtained, other things being equal, being the meas- ure of the relative value of the protein in the two rations. A comparison of the rations shows that they contained practically the same amount of dry matter and protein, namely, 19.99 pounds and 3.03 pounds, respectively, in the silage and clover ration, and 19.44 pounds and 3.02 pounds in the feed ration. The nutritive ratio was calculated and found to be 1 :6 in each ration. During the first period Lot I. was fed the silage and clover ration, and at the beginning of the sec- ond period this lot was changed to the feed ration. Lot II. was fed during the first period on the feed ration and during the second period on the silage and clover ration. The object of the changes was to equalize the effect of advance in the period of lactation. The results showed that the amount of milk and butter produced from the two rations was practi- cally the same. The home-grown ration producing 1,485.1 pounds of milk and 65.89 pounds of butter fat, and the feed ration 1,473 pounds of milk and 68.97 pounds of butter fat, a diflference of 12. i pounds of milk in favor of the home-grown ration. These results show that it was practical, in this instance, from the feeder's standpoint, to grow the entire ration upon the farm. HOME-GROWN DAIRY FOODS FOR WINTER USE I5I In calculating the cost, the foods grown on the farm, with the exception of silage, were placed at the market price, namely, $12 per ton for crimson clover hay, $16 for mixed hay, and $17.10 per ton for corn-and-cob meal. The corn and cowpea silage were placed at the cost of production, $3 per ton. The cost of the purchased feeds was $20 per ton for dried brewers' grains and $30 per ton for cottonseed meal. The cost of foods used to produce 100 pounds of milk and one pound of butter from the two ra- tions was 66.9 cents and 15.1 cents, respectively, for the crimson clover hay and cowpea silage ration, and 66.9 cents and 14.9 cents for the feed ration. While it is shown that practically the same amount of milk and butter was produced from the two rations, and at nearly the same cost, it should be noted that the mixed hay, crimson clover hay and corn-and-cob meal were produced on the farm and charged up in the ration at market prices. There was, therefore, a considerable gain from feed- ing the home-grown ration, inasmuch as there was a wide margin between the actual cost of these foods and the market price. For example, the crimson clover hay was grown in corn as a catch crop, costing $4 per ton, hence in selling it to the dairy for $12 per ton (the price used in calculating the cost of the ration), there was a gain of $8 per ton. There was also a considerable profit over the cost of production for the mixed hay and corn-and-cob meal, which were sold to the dairy for $16 and $17.10 per ton, respectively. These data are significant in showing not only the 152 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING value of such home-grown crops as cowpea silage and crimson clover, but that a ration may be pro- duced on the farm that is equally good as a milk producer as one in which the fine feeds are pur- chased. The weights of the cows remained practically the same during the feeding of both rations. Cowpea hay.* — We have in cowpea hay one of the cheapest and most productive crops for dairy animals. "The feeding value of cowpea hay is fully equal to that of the best of red clover and is almost equal to alfalfa, and as much forage can be produced from cowpeas in 80 days as red clover will yield in 15 months." (Grantham.) More real feeding value will usually be secured when the crop is preserved as hay rather than silage. The crop is cured similar to alfalfa. After it is well wilted it should be put up in cocks not too great in diameter and allowed to remain two or three days until cured, then hauled to the barn without further handling. Experiment in substituting cowpea hay for pur- chased feeds. — A ration consisting of 17 pounds of cowpea hay (1. p. 27) and 36 pounds of corn silage was compared with a ration made up of 5 pounds of corn stalks, 36 pounds of corn silage, 4 pounds of wheat bran, 3 pounds of dried brewers' grains and 2 pounds of cottonseed meal. The cowpea hay ra- tion contained 3.06 pounds of protein and had an estimated nutritive ratio of 1:6. The feed ration contained 3.20 pounds of protein and had an esti- *N. J. Exp. Station Bull. No. 174, by the author. HOME-GROWN DAIRY FOODS FOR WINTER USE I53 mated nutritive ratio of 1:5. The cowpea ration was produced entirely on the farm, while two-thirds of the protein of the feed ration was purchased. On the cowpea hay ration the daily yield averaged 23.7 pounds of milk, containing 3.86 per cent, of fat; on the feed ration it was 25.7 pounds of milk con- taining 4. 1 1 per cent, of fat. The feed ration pro- duced 8.3 per cent, more milk, or 15.2 per cent, more butter, than the cowpea ration. At market prices for feeding stuffs the cost of producing 100 pounds of milk was 39.8 cents, and of producing one pound of butter 8.82 cents, when the cowpea hay ration was fed. When, however, the feed ration was given the cost of production was 60.5 cents per hundred for milk and 12.6 cents per pound for butter. With milk at $1 per hundred these results indicated an increased profit for a herd of 30 cows of $37.20 per month from the home-grown ration over the feed ration. However, it is believed that a combination of coarse and fine feeds is necessary to produce the best results. Soy bean silage and alfalfa hay. — ^The soy bean is a plant similar to the cowpea but grows a little slower, has a tougher stalk, and is not quite as palat- able or quite as sure a crop. However, good yields are secured when conditions are favorable, and the crop is worthy of mention as a home-grown food and a possible substitute for expensive purchased feeds. Experiment with soy bean silage and alfalfa hay. — A home-grown ration consisting of 36 pounds of soy bean silage, 8 pounds of alfalfa hay, 154 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING and 6 pounds of corn meal. The protein content of the ration was 3.64 pounds and the esti- mated nutritive ration was i : 5. The feed ration consisted of 6 pounds of corn stalks, 36 pounds of corn silage, 4 pounds of wheat bran, 4 pounds of dried brewers' grains, and 2 pounds of cottonseed meal. The protein content was 3.45 pounds and the estimated nutritive ratio was i : 6. The average daily yield of the milk per cow was 27.2 pounds test- ing 3.2 per cent, of fat on the home-grown ration, and 25.7 pounds testing 3.8 per cent, of fat on the purchased ration. The home-grown ration pro- duced, therefore, 5.81 per cent, more milk than the purchased ration. The butter production was prac- tically the same on both rations. On the home- grown ration the food cost of 100 pounds of milk was 56.5 cents and of one pound of butter was 13.5 cents, and on the purchased ration 65 and 14.6 cents, respectively, showing a considerable saving when the home-grown feeding stufifs were used. Another experiment showed that when protein was supplied in the form of cottonseed meal, rather than wheat bran and dried brewers' grains, the sav- ing in cost of production was 11. 9 cents per 100 pounds of milk and 3.3 cents per pound of butter. Advantages of home-grown coarse foods. — It should be noted that the coarse foods mentioned in the above experiments included hay made from al- falfa, crimson clover, and cowpeas, also silage from soy beans and cowpeas were produced on the farm and charged in the rations at market prices. There was, therefore, considerable gain in feeding the HOME-GROWN DAIRY FOODS FOR WINTER USE 1 55 nome-grown rations not mentioned above, inasmuch as there was a wide margin between the actual cost of these foods and the market price. For example, the crimson clover hay was grown in the corn as a catch crop, costing $4 per ton, hence in selling it to the dairy for $12 per ton (the price used in calcula- ting the cost of the ration) there was a gain of $8 per ton. An average stand of crimson clover will yield two tons of hay per acre, which at $8 would make; the gain per acre 200 per cent, over the cost. The gain per acre for alfalfa hay was even greater, amounting to 38.62 when sold to the dairy for $14 per ton, the price used in calculating the cost of the alfalfa ra- tion. While it will usually pay most dairymen, and pay them well, to purchase some fine feeds in the form of cottonseed meal and other concentrates, the fact cannot be too strongly emphasized that it pays to grow a large proportion of the ration on the farm, and that this practice results in reducing the cost of milk and butter production. Illustrating how losses in dairying may be due to purchasing expensive feeds. — One dairyman was found complaining that dairying did not pay, al- though he had fairly good cows and fed an abun- dance of good food. On examining his conditions it was shown that during the month of January he milked 33 cows yielding an average of 2 gallons of milk daily, which sold for 17^4 cents per gallon. His daily ration consisted of 10 pounds mixed hay, 15 pounds corn stover, 35 pounds corn silage, 2 pounds wheat bran, 2 pounds buffalo gluten, 3 pounds corn bran, 2 pounds cottonseed meal, 2 pounds beet pulp. 156 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING and 4 pounds molasses grains. The total ration cost 36.5 cents, or 1.5 cents more than the receipts for the milk. He was, therefore, not only milking and feeding his cows for nothing, but losing 50 cents a day besides; All the food except the silage was purchased, when a large part of it might have been raised. The amount of grain fed was too heavy and one-fourth of it was probably wasted. On the basis of the food used during the month indicated, the cost of feed for each cow was $133.22 a year. The above is quite a contrast from the following which is quoted from Hoard. "The total cost of keeping a cow in my herd the past year is as follows : Pasturage $5.00 6 pounds of grain a day for 210 days at $20 per ton 12.60 ID pounds alfalfa hay a day at $10 per ton 10.50 6,300 pounds ensilage at $1 per ton 3.1S Hay and ensilage used in summer 3.00 $34-25 "On this sort of feed with good care the herd aver- aged in 1906, per cow, creamery basis, $76.27, with the addition of $16.20 for skim milk ; making a total of $92.47 at the pail. From this subtract cost of food and we have $58.22 profit at the pail above cost of food. Understand I have reduced everything to the creamery basis. Understand another thing, that the cows were good. It would be a reproach to me as a farmer to keep any other. I cannot afford to fool away my time and labor and food on poor cows. I must have the best cows I can produce to make this feed and labor answer back with the highest profit from it. The herd averaged nearly 400 pounds HOME-GROWN DAIRY FOODS FOR WINTER USE 157 of butter per cow, including heifers and all. I have no more business to put costly food into a wasteful machine than I have to thresh wheat with a ma- chine that would send half the grain into a straw pile. It has paid me well to think hard, read and study on these things. Is there any reason on earth why it will not pay you to do the same thing?" Illustrating the value of considering the cost in selecting dairy foods. — The value of carefully select- ing a ration, from the standpoint of economy, is very clearly illustrated in an experiment at the Ohio Average Daily Rations Lbs. Feed Dry Matter. Lbs. Protein. Lbs. Crude Fiber. Lbs. Nitro- gen-free Extract. Lbs. Ether Extract. Lbs. I-SILAGE RATION 58. Silage 10.83 5.77 1.80 1.76 1.369 0.550 0.664 0.308 2.71 1.90 0.19 0.18 5.43 2.761 0.768 1.078 .531 6.8 Mixed Hay .211 2. Oil Meal .06 2 Bran .03 Total 20.16 2.891 4.98 10.037 .882 II-GKAIN RATION 4 7 3.29 0.211 5.43 0.518 2.25 0.83 4.25 0.46 5.29 0.924 1.15 1.79 0.237 0.095 0.54 1.70 2.60 0.96 3.435 3.234 .063 Mixed Hay . Oil Meal .... .198 2 5 .075 5 Corn Meal ■ ■ • .19 .24 Total 20.51 2.943 3.812 11.929 .766 158 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING State station. Two rations were compounded hav- ing practically the same composition, y-et diiifering very materially in cost. These were fed to two lots of cows of five each, for a period of four months, and the results carefully tabulated. Aside from the standpoint of economy, another object of this test was to determine whether silage could be made to take the place of a considerable portion of the grain usually fed to dairy cows. The silage used was a mixture of one ton of soy beans and cow peas to two and one-half tons of silage corn. The two rations, as shown above, contained about the same amount of nutrients. The cost of the silage ration, however, averaged 13.48 cents daily, Dry Matter Consumed per Day In silage ration r 20.16 lbs. In grain ration SO. 51 lbs. Product per Hundred Pounds of Dry Matter RATION Milk Lbs. Fat Lbs. 96.7 81.S s.os Grain 3.90 Cost of Feed per Unit of Product RATION Per 100 Lbs. Milk Per 1 Lb. Fat Silage $0,687 1.055 $0,131 221 Grain HOME-GROWN DAIRY FOODS FOR WINTER USE I 59 while the feed ration cost 17.73 cents. The averaoe monthly yield of milk amounted, in the silat^e ra- tion, to 588.7 pounds per cow, and the feed ration to THE DAIRYMAN S BEST INVESTMENT — THE SILO 503.8 pounds. The profit over feed amounted, in the silage ration, to $5.86 per cow, monthly, and in the feed ration to $2.46. Putting the results in another form, the following tabulation shows the product per hundred pounds of dry matter. A diiTerence of 37 cents in the cost of 100 pounds of milk, or a saving of 9 cents in the cost of a pound of butter, is well worth considering. This illus- trates very pointedly the results of good business methods in feeding. ILLUSTRATING THE LOSSES FROM FEED- ING POOR RATIONS* While progressive dairymen know the importance of good feeding, yet the rations used by many show *BulI. No. 137, N. J, Exp. Station, by the author. i6o THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING that too little attention is given to this part of their business. The total nutrients supplied are generally, sufficient, but the rations frequently contain an ex- cess of the heat and fat-forming elements, i.e., car- bohydrates and fat, and too little protein, the nutri- ent very essential in the production of milk. As no other food compound can take the place of protein and perform its functions, its deficiency must neces- sarily result in decreasing the milk production. The food-stuffs which are ordinarily grown on the farm are poor in protein, which doubtless accounts in part for the deficiency of this compound in farm- ers' rations. If a farmer can afford to produce milk at all, he will generally find it profitable to buy feeds containing a high percentage of protein, in order in the preparation of rations to properly bal- ance the home-grown products. An experiment was conducted to show the ad- vantages of good feeding in the production of milk 1 DiOBSTlBLB GOOD RATION 1 1 is 1 30 lbs. Silage Lbs. 7.69 4.22 3.53 3.65 1.82 Lbs. .37 .17 .54 .67 .50 Lbs. .21 .06 .13 .22 .14 Lbs. 4.48 2.23 1.80 1.36 .69 5 lbs. Hay (Timothy) 4 lbs. Wheat Bran Total 20.91 10.78 6.75 3.42 2.34 .41 .27 .32 .76 .11 .10 .12 10.56 6.50 3.57 2.63 1:5 3 PooB Ration 12 lbs. Cornstalks , 8 lbs. Hay (Timothy) i lbs. Corn Meal Total 20.95 100 .33 12.70 1*13 5 HOME-GROWN DAIRY FOODS FOR WINTER USE l6l and butter. Four cows were included in the test, which continued for two months. Two were fed for the first 30 days on the "good ration" and the other two on the "poor ration," then the rations were re- versed in order to equalize the effect advance of lactation. It will be observed that the total dry matter as well as the total digestible nutrients were prac- tically the same in both rations, but a study of the separate food compounds shows that the protein and fat in the poor ration were less than half the amount contained in the good ration, with an excess of carbohydrates, thus making the nutritive ratio extremely wide. The feeding of rations similar in character to the poor one is quite common in many dairy sections. THE YIELD OF MILK AND FAT The milk from each cow was weighed daily, and sampled and analyzed for percentage of butter fat. The following table shows the daily yields of milk and its composition as well as the total yield per cow of milk and of fat during each period of the test: Summary of Test Good Ration Poor Ration Milk Fat Fat Butter MUk Fat Fat Butter Cow No. 1 Cow No. 2 Cow No. 3 Cow No. 4 Lbs. 949.9 538.5 500.4 712.9 P. c. ■ 4.72 3.55 4.48 3.65 Tibs. 44.84 19.09 22.39 25.98 Lbs. 52.31 22.28 ■ 26.12 30.31 Lbs. 613.6 435.6 402.5 562.5 P.O. 4.02 3.45 4.61 4.01 Lbs. 24.68 15.01 18.56 22.53 Lbs. 28.79 17.61 21.65 26.35 Total and average. . . . 2,701.7 4.16 112.32 131.04 2,014.2 4.01 80.84 94.32 l62 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING This summary shows that 687.5 pounds, or 34.1 per cent., more milk, and 31.47 pounds, or 38.9 per cent., more fat were produced from the good ration than from the poor ration, an actual gain in produc- tion of over one-third. The cost, of the food used to produce 100 pounds of milk and i pound of butter was practically the same for the two rations, viz., 70.2 cents and 14.5 cents, respectively, for the good ration, and 70.3 cents and 15 cents for the poor ration, yet 34.1 per cent, more milk and 38.9 per cent, more butter were produced from the good ration than from the poor ration with practically the same amount of labor and capital. The results, therefore, indicate that 20 cows well fed, yet. with no attempt at forcing, would produce as much milk as 30 cows, equally as good, fed an abundance of corn stalks and timothy hay and 4 pounds of corn meal per day. If, then, there is any profit in producing milk from a ration made up largely of roughage of a carbonaceous character, on the basis of this experiment, the profit might be increased one-third by feeding a ration containing a larger amount of concentrated feed and properly balanced in respect to food compounds. It has been claimed that, other things being equal, a small herd well fed will prove more profitable than a large herd poorly fed, and the facts brought out by this study emphasize the correctness of this claim, and point to the importance of good feeding, in the economical production of milk and butter. PART V— PRODUCTS CHAPTER I YIELD OF MILK AND COST OF PkODUC- TION According to the United States census taken in 1900, the average yield of milk per cow was 3,646 pounds, and butter 155 pounds. This amount is too low to afford the dairymen much profit. The rec- ords indicate, further, that many dairymen whose herds are below the average in production must be keeping cows at a loss. As a matter of business, then, and a condition essential to best results, every dairyman should study the individuality of his cows, set a standard and maintain it by promptly dispos- ing of the animals which fail to attain it, unless he has reason to believe that the animal will make a better record in the future. When the standard is reached, it should be gradu- ally but persistently raised. This can be done by keeping a sufficient record of the quantity and qual- ity of the milk product, knowing approximately the cost of production, and systematically weeding out the herd. Six thousand pounds of 4 per cent, milk per cow is a paying yield in most localities, and many grade herds average much higher than this. COST OF PRODUCTION l6S WHAT IT COSTS TO PRODUCE MILK At the New Jersey agricultural college farm the writer kept records of a herd of about 40 cows for 7 years, beginning April i, 1896. These records in- clude the cost of labor, the kind, amount and cost of foods eaten by the dairy herd and the amount of milk produced by each cow. The cost for the year ending April i, 1903, is here reported. The herd averaged 34 cows. The Kind, Amount and Cost of Foods for Thirty-four Cows for One Year, April i, 1902, to April i, 1903 Amount Fed Cost Lbs. per Ton Total Wheat bran , 26,000 $20 40 $265 20 Dried grains 3S,Soo 1890 335 48 Buckwheat middlings... i,Soo 1400 1050 Wheat middlings 3,000 2000 3000 Rice meal 4,500 2000 45 00 Gluten meal 3,000 2425 3637 Cottonseed meal S,400 2900 7830 Hominy meal 3,000 2400 3600 Cost of feeds $836 85 Soiling crops 360,000 $1 60 $28800 Silage 234,000 2 40 280 80 Dried cornstalks 20,000 400 4000 Mixed hay 16,000 5 00 40 00 Roughage 648 80 Total cost of food $1,485 65 Total cost of food $1,485 65 Cost per cow per day ii-97 cents Cost of feeds 836 85 Cost per cow per day 6.74 cents Cost of roughage 648 80 Cost per cow per day 5.23 cents Total yield of milk 98,574 quarts Average per cow per day 7.94 " Cost of food per quart 1.51 cents Cost of feed per quart .85 " Cost of roughage per quart .66 " l66 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING The cost of feeds represents what was actually paid. The cost of hay, corn stalks and soiling crops represents the actual cost of labor, seed, manures, and fertilizers, the farm manures being charged at the rate of $1.50 per ton. Fifteen of the 19 forage acres received manure at the rate of eight tons per acre. The average cost of the daily ration was 11.97 cents, of which 6.74 cents, or 56.3 per cent., is repre- sented by purchased feeds and 5.23 or 43.7 per cent, by the cost of farm crops. The total- cost of pro- ducing milk, including the cost of labor and the in- terest on and decrease in the value of the herd, is giyen, the latter item being estimated. Foods, as per statement $1,485 65 Labor $600 00 Interest on value herd at S per cent. ... 68 00 Decrease in value herd at S per cent. . 68 00 736 00 Total $2,221 6s Cost of food per quart of milk 1.51 cents Cost of labor and interest per quart of milk 75 cents Total cost per quart 2.26 cents The average weight per quart of milk as put up in bottles for delivery was 2.18 pounds, hence the total weight of milk, 214,891 pounds, was equivalent to 98,574 quarts. The cost per hundred was, therefore, $1.03. At $1 per hundred, the price received in many rural districts, the profits from the business, if any, must be found in the manure. In the calcu- lation of the cost of farm foods the manure was charged at the rate of $1.50 per ton. The amount produced by the herd during the year was 370 tons. COST OF PRODUCTION 167 • In selling milk for $i per hundred, the receipts are $72.74 less than the expense. Deducting this amount from the actual charges made for manure, in the growing of the crops — $1.50 per ton — there remains $482.26, which represents the profits from 34 cows, an amount too small to make the business pay. In rural districts, however, where pasture is abundant, the cost of feed would not be as great as where soiling crops supply the entire ration, with the exception of concentrates. At 3j4 cents per quart, the price that would have been received at wholesale, the receipts would have amounted to $3,450.09. Deducting the cost of pur- chased feeds, labor and interest and decrease in the value of the herd, amounting to $1,572.85, we have a balance of $1,877.24, which represents the value of the home-grown crops ; or, in other words, at 3^/^ cents per quart for milk, the farm would sell its produce to the dairy at profitable prices, namely, $4.62 per ton for soiling crops, $6.94 for silage, $14.45 for hay and $11.56 for dried corn stover, a gain over cost of production of $3.02 per ton for soiling crops, $4.54 for silage, $9.45 for hay and $7.56 for dried corn stover, besides an additional gain represented by 370 tons of manure. Looking at the question of profit from another standpoint, we will assume that the dairyman per- forms the work himself. Deducting, therefore, the item of labor, which amounted to $600, from the total cost of production ($2,221.65), we have a bal- ance of $1,621.65. Dividing this amount by the total pounds of milk produced (214,891), we find the cost i68 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING per hundred to be 75J4 cents. The difference, there- fore, between the cost and selling price of the milk represents the dairyman's profits when he performs the work himself. Assuming that the milk produced by the above 34 cows had been sold for $i per hundred, a profit of 2454 cents would have been realized from every hundred pounds, or a total of $526.48 for the year's production, besides the additional gain represented by the 370 tons of manure. At 3j4 cents per quart, the profits would have amounted to $1,818.44, be- sides the additional gain from the manure — a good salary for a dairyman. The average production per year for the 7 years is shown to be 181,345 pounds, equivalent to 83,186 Average Cost of Producing Milk for Seven Years 1 ■s t-i B Milk Peoducbd ■a ii ■5 Cost per Cow PER DAT Cost per Quart or Mn.K OP— Tear 1 1 ■o i ■3 1 1 •a i| 31 S 1896 23 25 25 30 30 30 34 141,517 154,758 172,726 . 198,345 195,875 191,304 214,891 64,916 70,990 79,232 90,984 89,851 87,754 98,574 6,153 6,791 6,911 6,612 6,529 6,377 6.320 Cts. 4.99 5.06 6.53 6.65 7.30 7.62 6.74 cts. 6.61 6.38 6.16 6.58 5.35 6.26 5.23 Cts. 11.60 11.44 12.69 13.23 12.65 12.88 11.97 Cts. .646 .650 .750 .800 .890 .950 .850 Cts. .855 .820 .710 .790 .650 .660 .660 Cts. .99 .92 .82 .79 .80 .82 .75 Cts. 2.49 1897 2 39 1898 2 28 1899 2 38 1900 2 34 1901 2 43 1902 Average — 181,345 83,186 6,528 6.41 5.94 12.35 .791 .735 .84 2.37 COST OP PRODUCTION 1 69 quarts. The average yield per cow was 6,528 pounds. The average cost of food per cow per day was 12.35 cents, of which 6.41 cents, or 51.9 per cent., represents purchased feeds and 5.94 cents, or 48.1 per cent., farm crops. The average cost per quart of milk for the 7 years, including food, labor and interest and decrease in the value of the herd, is shown to be 2.37 cents. While the care and feeding of dairy cows is of very great importance, the proper selection of ani- mals for the dairy is most essential to success. We must first have a cow capable of good dairy per- formance before we can secure results. An illus- tration will serve to make this clear. The accom- panying table, taken from Bulletin 29 of the Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, shows the cost of keep, income and net profit of the station herd each year for 5 years. Particular attention is called to column 12, which shows for a period of 5 years the average net profit of each cow in the herd, or the reward of management. From 1899 to 1903 the average total cost of keeping a cow increased from $92.86 to $94.34, or $1.49, while the income increased from $91.63 to $106.04 and the net profit per cow from $1.23 loss to $21.69 profit. The author states that "during the five years cov- ered by these records the variety and amount of food and the care of the herd have been much the same. The increase in the net profits from $1.23 loss in 1899 to $21.64 profit in 1903 must be attributed to the selection of animals better suited to dairy pur- poses. The average cost of animals added to the 170 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING < > i-i fa K O fa o u {^ fa Eh M fa o fa H M O < fa fa > * CM m * a> OS s S| CM C*3 CO CO CO CO CM 5- a CO tH ■* tH ii CO 00 00 iO in r^ 1-H iH « t- CO eo ea OS TH M d& T-) tH iH iH s» » ia i (M C5 1-1 tH « (N g^ i-t 1-1 tH T-i o„ c« CO to OS -* OS »S;M 00 i-t 00 IN OS QO > ffi 1-1 i-t 05 CD CO CO 10 00 in CO CO !> SO ? i> 00 00 fe CO ■^ CD y-t m OS ■3 -3 |5 00 ta ■* C- CO CO U5 in CD ■* Inten on Value of Minns 01 Apprecii or Deprecii JlM(lttOitfWrMWMriMrtMft MUfWMT' A MODERN STABLE. ADMITTING AN ABUNDANCE OF LIGHT VENTILATING BY MEANS OF THE MUSLIN CURTAIN 178 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING results. Many claim to secure efficient ventilation by means of adjustable windows, but this is not automatic and requires constant attention for good results. At least 500 cubic feet of air space is de- sirable for each cow, even where there is a good system of ventilation. No other animals should be rf &> '^ j3^ ._: - MUM .. \., _ ,, ■ ''■--•^^^ V'a^^yi pm lb ^S ^ - ■ "■^■f'':^'* MANURE BREEDS FLIES AND CONTAMINATES THE MILK housed in the same stable with the cows. Haul the manure to the field daily, or to a protected, water- tight pit outside the barnyard and at a sufficient dis- tance to prevent odors from reaching the stable. Keep the stable yard clean and well drained. Milk house. — Preferably this should be a separate building and located at a safe distance from all sources of contamination. Abundance of light and some system of ventilation should be provided. It should be equipped for heating water or generating SANITARY METHODS IN MILK PRODUCTION 179 steam. It should also be supplied with a cooler, proper pails, cans and strainers, and storage facili- ties. It is desirable that the milk house be divided into two sections, one for heating water and clean- ing utensils and the other for cooling and storing the milk. We are considering now the dairyman MILK HOUSE CONNECTED WITH THE STABLE — A BAD PRACTICE who produces market milk rather than the butter maker. The floor of the milk house should be con- structed of cement and the walls and ceiling made smooth and tight for ease in cleaning. Provide screens for doors and windows. It is particularly- important that the water-supply for cleaning should be free from all contamination. An}' contagious disease can be readily transmitted through this me- dium, as the milk comes in direct contact with the BOTTLING MILK INTEMOK OF A MODERN DAIRY HOUSE SANITARY METHODS IN MILK PRODUCTION I«I Utensils. Improper cleaning of utensils is often the cause of sour milk. Soaking first in lukewarm wa- ter, thoroughly washing in boiling water contain- ing some cleaning material, rinsing in clean hot water and careful draining will generally secure cleanli- ness. It is better still, however, to go a step farther A CHEAP BUT PRACTICAL MILK HOUSE. CARED FOR UTENSILS PROPERLY and sterilize all utensils with steam. Pails, cans, strainers, etc., should be inverted in pure air, if pos- sible in the sunlight, on suitable racks. Milking. — It goes without saying that the milker should be healthy. He should wear a clean garment, wipe the udder and surrounding parts with a clean moist cloth and milk with clean, dry hands. It is desirable to use a small-top milk pail to prevent 1 82 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING contamination of the milk during milking as far as possible. Cooling and storing. — The best plan is to remove the milk from the barn after milking each cow, strain, and run over a cooler, immediately reducing the temperature to at least 50° It is just as impor- A MILK HOUSE FOR THE SMALL FARMER tant, also, that the milk be stored at a low tempera- ture. Ice is the best protection during transporta- tion, but the milk should at least be protected with a wet blanket in summer and a dry one in winter. The dairy score card. — The score card presented herewith is used by the Dairy Division, United States Department of Agriculture, for rating dairy farms. It points out ideal conditions and shows mathcmaticall}' the proper weight to be given to each division of dairy work. Any dairyman can SANITARY METHODS IN MILK PRODUCTION 1 83 INTERIOR OF CLEAN STABLE FOUR STYLES OF MILK PAILS. THE TWO AT THE RIGHT KEEP OUT NEARLY ALL DUST AND DIRT (Piibiislied in Bill. No. 41. Hygienic Laboratory, Treiieiiry Di-'pt.) i84 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING readily score his own dairy by carefully following the instructions accompanying the card and deter- mine how far he has progressed in the production of clean milk. The Boards of Health in a number of the larger cities have adopted this card as a basis for issuing permits to dairymen and for keeping records in a concise form of the conditions existing on the DIRTY MILK DEPOSITS A SEDIMENT IN THE BOTTOM OF THE BOTTLE various farms which supply the cit}- with milk. Some cities not only adopt a standard which every dairyman must reach, but publish in their regular reports the standing of ever}' dairy. It will be readily seen, therefore, where this is the practice, that it is to the producer's advantage to have a creditable rating. In some instances a higher price SANITARY METHODS IN MILK PRODUCTION l8S is paid for milk from the best dairies, resulting in greater profits, while the dair}^ with a low score is obliged to sell its product for i to 2 cents per quart less. The point desired to emphasize here is that it will be to the dairyman's advantage to use modern methods in the production of milk, to secure the en- IROLLEY SYSTEM FOR CONVEYING MILK FROM THE STABLE TO THE MILK HOUSE dorsement of the city health officer in the form of a good rating on the score card mentioned, and having done this he is in a position to make this fact known to his customers and use it as an aid in building up his business. It will often pay him to go still farther than this and have his herd examined physically by a compe- l86 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING tent veterinarian, and tuberculin tested. He can then use the veterinarian's endorsement of the health of his herd in addition to that of the health officer (which shows the sanitary conditions), and thus be in a position to sell milk of the highest qual- ity. SANITARY INSPECTION OF DAIRIES DAIRY SCORE CARD Owner or lessee of farm Town State Total No. of cows No. milking Quarts of milk produced daily Product is Bold at wholesale retail. Name and address of dealer to whom shipped Permit No Date of inspection , 190 Score of methods multiplied by 2 = Score of equipment multiplied by 1 = Total divided by 3 = _... Final score Remarks (Signed) SANITARY METHODS IN MILK PRODUCTION 187 DETAILED SCORE EQUIPMENT Ferftct Allowed Score METHODS Per fed Allowed COWS Condition Healtli (outward appearance). . . Comfort Bedding 2 Temperature of stable 1 Protected yard 1 Cubic feet of space per cow : Over 300, 2 ; over 400, 4 ; 600 to 1,000, 6 Peed Water Clean 6 Fresli 2 STABLE Location Well drained 3 Free from contaminating sur- roundings 3 Construction Tight, sound floor 3 Gutter 1 Stall, stanchion, tie 1 Low-down manger 1 Smooth, tight walls 1 Smooth, tight ceiling 2 Box stall 1 Light : 1 sq. ft. glass per cow. 2;2 8q.ft.. 4;3sq. ft.,6;4sq, ft., 8 ; even distribution, 2. . Ventilation: Sliding windows, 2; hinged at bottom, 4; King system or muslin curtain, 8. . Stable yard (drainage) HILK EOOM Location Convenience 2 Tree from contaminating sur- roundings 4 Construction Floor 1.5 Walls and ceilings 1 Light 5 Ventilation 5 Screens 5 Arrangement Equipment Hot water or steam 2 Cooler 2 Narrow-top milk pail 1 Other utensils 1 Water supply for utensils Clean 6 Convenient 2 Abundant 2 Clean milking suits Total. 10 10 10 100 Cleanliness of cows . Cleanliness of stable Floor 4 Walls 8 Ceiling 2 Ledges 1 Mangers and partitions. . , 1 Windows 1 Stable air . Removal of manure To field or proper pit 4 30 feet from stable S Cleanliness of stable yard. Cleanliness of milk room. . Care and cleanliness of utensils Inverted in pure air 2 Clean (sterilized) 8 Cleanliness in milking Clean, dry hands 4 Udders washed and dried. 10 Cleaned with moist cloth. 8 Cleaned with dry cloth... . 4 Cooling Cooled immediately after milking each cow 10 Cooled to 50° F. or below. 10 51° to 55° F 8 56°to60°F 6 Storing Below50°F 8 51° to 55° F 6 56° to 60° F 4 Transportation Iced. 10 Jacket or wet blanket 8 Dry blanket 4 Covered wagon 2 Total., 10 100 1 88 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING THE BURRELL-LAWRENCE-KENNEDY MILKING MACHINE MILKING MACHINES One of the most practical pieces of apparatus that have recently been perfected for the use of the dairy farmer is the milking machine. It is particularly welcomed at this time when labor is becoming scarce or incompetent. The wages paid for labor have also increased very materially during recent years. Many farmers have become discouraged, ow- ing to these conditions, and either given up the dairy business altogether or greatly reduced the SANITARY METHODS IN MILK PRODUCTION I89 size of their herds. The innovation of the milking machine has tended to reverse these conditions, and the small dairyman is now increasing his herd, and the dairyman who went out of business has returned to it with greater energy than ever. It is reported that there are 3,000 of the Burrell-Lawrence-Ken- pVH^IIi 3 THE BURRELL-LAWRENCE-KENNEDY MILKING MACHINE IN OPERATION nedy machines alone, which are probably milking daily 25,000 to 30,000 cows. A description of this machine follows. THE BURRELL-LAWRENCE-KENNEDY MILKING MACHINE With this machine the milk is drawn by inter- mittent suction. The suction may be created bv either a vacuum pump or a steam ejector. Connected IQO THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING with the vacuum pump is a vacuum reservoir and a pipe running the whole length of the cow stable, with a connection valve or vacuum cock between each pair of cows. A safety valve is connected to the reservoir to prevent the vacuum from running higher than is desired. The machine itself (page i88) consists of a heavy tin pail, which is cone-shaped and holds about 55 pounds of milk. The cover of this pail is a disk, in which is a vacuum motor which produces the pul- sations in drawing the milk from the teats. The cover fits the pail tightly and excludes all air. To operate the machine it is placed between the pair of cows to be milked. A rubber tube connects the pail top or pulsator with the vacuum cock above the stanchions. On opening the cock the air is drawn from the pail and the motor immediately starts. The degree of pressure maintained is about one-half atmosphere, or 7J/2 pounds to the square inch. Lead- ing from the pail cover or pulsator are two flexible tubes besides the one leading to the vacuum cock above the stanchions. At the end of each tube are 4 cups, which are fitted over the teats of the cow. The milk from the 2 cows is discharged into one pail (page 189). In operation the machine makes a low, clicking sound, which is caused by the motor. The vacuum pulsations run from 50 to 70 per minute and may be easily adjusted to the speed required. The milk in passing from the cow to the pail goes through a glass inspection tube, so that the operator may watch the flow. When the milk ceases to flow the suction is turned oflf and the action of the ma- SANITARY METHODS IN MILK PRODUCTION IQI chine stops. Four different sizes of teat cups are provided, so that different sizes of teats may be fitted. Cost of equipment for machine milking. — At the present time the equipment required to milk a herd of 40 cows with the machines and the cost of the same would be as follows : 1. An engine or some power with which to drive the machine. For milking up to 8 cows at a time, a 2-horsepower gasoline engine may be used, costing $105 00 2. A vacuum pump, costing 75 0° 3. A vacuum tank, like a tank that is used in con- nection with ranges or stoves in kitchens, costing II 00 4. The piping with valves, etc., necessary in barn, depending upon extent of plant, number of cows, etc., costing for a 42-cow dairy about 25 00 5. Four milking machines, costing 30000 Total S16 00 One machine milks 2 cows at a time, and it has been found practicable to allow one machine to every 10 or 12 cows when equipping the herd. In a general way it may be said that the entire cost of installing a plant for herds of diffeirent sizes would be about as follows : For a dairy of 30 cows, with 2 machines, milking 2 cows each or 4 cows at one time, cost per cow ; . . $13 00 For a dairy of 40 cows, with 3 machines, milking 6 cows at one time, cost per cow 12 00 For a dairy of 60 cows, with 4 machines, milking 8 cows at one time, cost per cow. 10 00 For a dairy of 75 cows, with s machines, milking 10 cows at one time, cost per cow 8 50 For a dairy of 100 cows, with 8 machines, milking 16 cows at one time, requiring ajDout a 4-horse- power engine and a larger pump, cost per cow 10 00 192 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING One good careful man or woman can operate 4 machines milking 8 cows simultaneously, and an additional hand cannot only carry away the milk, but assist in manipulating the cows' udders. The operating expense of the machines is comparatively small. Different kinds of power which may be utilized. — The kind of power employed to operate cow milk- ers is not important provided it is uniform and can be depended upon. Dairymen well know that, in the case of hand milking, if they were to stop for a time when a cow was partially milked and then begin again and finish milking, the chances are that there would not only be a decrease in yield, but the milk would be of poorer quality. A similar efifect is produced in the case of machine milking. If the engine, or whatever power is employed to work the pumps, stops for any cause during the milking, a marked decrease in the yield of milk results. Gasoline engines. — These are most commonly em- ployed for power at the present time. Electric motors. — Some farmers located near cities find electricity the most convenient power. This has worked successfully on two farms at least. In one case a trolley line passes near the barn and a wire is attached to the main trolley wire and con- nected with a one horsepower electric motor inside of the building. As electric roads are now being rapidly built through country districts, it is quite possible that this may prove a popular method of securing power to operate cow milkers. SANITARY METHODS IN MILK PRODUCTION I93 Steam power. — Steam engines are employed on some farms, and they will be found to work satisfac- torily in supplying power to operate the milking ma- chines. Where steam is used on farms for other purposes it can be made to run the milkers with but little extra expense. The milking machine described has many advan- tages, one of the most important being the saving of labor, as less than one-half the help is required. It is necessary that the labor employed, however, be of a little higher class, and better wages must be paid, as the milking machine, like other farm ma- chinery, requires intelligent operators to secure the best results. One man can readily operate 3 or 4 machines and milk from 25 to 30 cows an hour. Two men with 6 machines can milk 60 cows an hour. It will be readily seen that even one man can milk a fair sized herd, thus making it possible for the other helpers to start with the teams early in the morning and work them the full day without having to stop to do dairy work. With the milking machine the dairyman can take charge of a good sized herd with- out assistance, if he so desires, and is then indepen- dent of labor difficulties. Experiments thus far con- ducted show that in some instances more milk is se- cured through the use of the machines and in others less. It is believed, however, that where the ma- chines are properly handled fully as good results may be obtained with machine milking and with much less labor. It should be stated that the ma- chine has some objections and difficulties. The out- lay at the beginning may prove a serious obstacle to 194 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING dairymen of limited means. Others who are finan- cially able to make the investment will hesitate in installing machines until their practical utility has been fully demonstrated. Another drawback is the time required to properly clean the machines. Un- less properly cleaned, more bacteria may be intro- duced into the milk than by hand milking, and sour- ing take place quicker. However, with proper fa- cilities for cleaning the results should be better than by the old method. Other machines.* — There are several other ma- chines that have been on the market for a shorter time and their practical value has not yet been dem- onstrated. No machine will prove practical which cannot be sterilized in all its parts and is not adapted to the use of the ordinary dairyman. CHAPTER in WINTER DAIRYING TOO MUCH NEG- LECTED It is the practice with many dairymen to milk their cows in summer and let them go dry in winter. They seem to think that winter is the time for the cows to "rest," and themselves as well. Many, also, make the claim that feed-stuffs are too expensive. This is all wrong. With the silo as an aid, milk can be produced on thousands of our farms as cheap in winter as in summer, and prices for this product are *See Bulletin No. 92, B. A. I., Dept. of Agriculture. WINTER DAIRYING TOO MUCH NEGLECTED IQS very much higher in winter. With all-the-year- round dairying-, too, the hired help is kept continu- ously employed and there is more time to devote to the care and feeding of the herd, there are no flies to annoy the animals and the food supply can be depended upon. Considering all these points we see that winter dairying has many advantages over summer feeding. Go to the creameries through the country and look up the patrons who supply a uni- form quantity of milk month after month through the year and you will find that it is the all-the-year- round dairyman that has the biggest checks and is the most prosperous. The principal reason for failures in winter dairy- ing is lack of business methods. To illustrate: A farmer let his cows run out in the corn field in cold bleak weather and the stable was not much warmer than the open fields. Wh«n asked why he did not build a warm stable he said that lumber was too ex- pensive and the price of milk too low. Yet this same farmer drove two miles every day with 20 quarts of milk, and could give no reasonable excuse for doing so. This man had enough cows on his farm, and had he taken good care of them and fed them properly he could have delivered 100 to 125 quarts of milk daily. He was feeding 12 to 14 cows and they were all dry with the exception of three, and they were strippers. This, too, was in the mid- dle of December, when the milk shippers were bid- ding $1.40 per hundred weight at the railroad sta- tion where the farmers delivered their milk. He had no milk to deliver at the time when milk should ig6 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING bring a profitable price. His cows were fresh on grass and stayed fresh for perhaps six months, when the price of milk was lowest. Then when winter came his cows were poorly housed, given poor feed and practically no attention. What this man needed was better business methods rather than a higher price for his product. Second illustration : The following description of methods practiced by another dairyman in the same State is directly opposite from the above, and shows good business methods. This man had been ship- ping for several years practically as much milk in December as when his cows were on grass. He fed his cows plenty of good milk-producing feeds with the belief that in order to get good results out of them he had to feed results into them. He was a dairyman every month in the year. He was ship- ping eight to nine cans .(8 gallon) of milk per day, from 22 cows, and his milk check for the month of December was $316. He was feeding a ration Of hominy feed and dried brewers' grains, with shredded corn fodder and clover hay for roughage, and was giving them all they would eat up clean with a relish. PART VI— SALES CHAPTER I BUSINESS METHODS IN RETAILING MILK The problems and difficulties which attend the retailing of milk are numerous, and yet if the work is conducted on a strictly business basis the retailer will, as a rule, secure his share of the profits. Handling the milk. — At the present time the glass bottle is the best style of package for use in deliver- ing milk. While it has some disadvantage over the so-called dippage system, such as extra weight on the wagon, extra work of cleaning, and breakage and loss of bottles (which amounts to about lo cents a day for each loo used), the decrease in waste and better sanitary condition of the milk when delivered (experiments have shown that milk dipped in city streets contains three times as many bacteria as the same milk handled in bottles) more than offsets the extra cost. There is good prospect in the near future for a still better package for use in delivery of milk in the paper pulp milk bottle. The advan- tages of such a bottle are very evident, as it is simply used once and thrown away. The principal saving will be in the lighter weight on the delivery wagon and in the expense of handling BUSINESS METHODS IN RETAILING MILK I99 and washing the thousands of bottles which re- quire so much labor and expensive equipment in our milk plants at the present time. Several styles have already been manufactured and appear to be practical ; the only questions remaining to be solved appear to be the cost of the bottle and the attitude of the consumer to this innovation. Losses due to waste in handling. — It has been my experience that the profits are affected in no small degree by the attention given to the loss of milk during the processes of cooling and bottling, and particularly in delivery where the dippage method is practised. Hence the importance of having a care- ful man to do this work. The following tabulation illustrates this. About 250 quarts were handled daily. Waste in Waste in Total Handling, Cooling Delivery or Waste, and Bottling. Dippnge. Per Per Cent. Per Cent. Cent. 1897 S-7 5-1 10.8 1898 4-4 4-9 9-3 1899 4.8 2.0 6.0 1900 4.7 1.7 6.4 1901 3-8 1.7 5-S 1902 .8 1.2 2.0 1903 — .16 .16 During the years 1897 and 1898 about 50 per cent, of the milk was bottled, so that the actual loss due to dippage was practically 10 per cent, of the amount handled in cans. For the last five years the pro- portion of milk delivered in bottles was gradually increased — in fact, from July i, 1902, practically all of the milk was delivered in bottles. The waste in delivery and dippage the last year amounted to practically nothing more than an occasional broken 200 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING bottle. The tabulation also shows that there was a decrease from year to year in the percentage of waste in handling, cooling and bottling. This is due largely to jrnproved apparatus and greater care in handling the product. CHAPTER II DAIRY ACCOUNTS— DAILY RECORD It is important that the dairyman have proper forms for his accounts, not only that he may save time but that he may always have the statements up to date, make out bills regularly, etc. The sys- tem used for such records should be simple and plain and show at any time each customer's in- debtedness. The following sheet from a driver's account book illustrates a system which has proved practicable for the daily record. In connection with this daily record, the driver enters on the back of the envelope shown herewith the amount of milk and cream taken, delivered, re- turned and wasted, the size of package, whether quarts, pints or half-pints, and the total cash re- ceived, from credit customers (those who were ren- dered monthly bills), cash customers and the sale of tickets. He places the cash in the envelope, seals it and turns it over daily to the farm superintendent, who enters the accounts in an ordinary cash book and ledger. The milk and cream may be checked out to the driver every day or only occasionally to keep tab on his records. DAIRY ACCOUNTS — DAILY RECORD 201 Use of tickets. — Where tickets are used they should be handled but once and destroyed, thus eliminating the danger of carrying disease from one DRIVER... The New Jersey Colle - ' n; ■ ' ' ' / DRIVER „ ," ge Farm Milkmen's Account for the Month of. Ji) 1 2 i 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 II 12 13 It 19 16 17 W 19 21 Zl n 23 ^ 25 !6 27 n !9 9Q 31 f 1 ^aLuL / iJ^^UlA CASH *.. \S!i TICHFTS CASH TICKETS CASH Jiyjp FlJvTn TICKOS CASH TICKETS CASH m. nim TIIKTS CASH J _ _ family to another. With the style of tickets now in common use, they are handled by all kinds of people, sick or well, kept in dirty kitchen drawers and other insanitary places and become a dangerous source of filth and disease. The expense of printing tickets on cheap paper is very slight. It is conven- ient to have pads printed containing a dollar's worth each. 202 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING THE COLLEGE FARM REPORT OF MILK SALES AND COLLECTIONS HADX BT Driver- Date MILK CREAM Quarts Pints Whole- sale Quarts Pints Half Pints Taken Returned Delivered Waste Total Delivered Total as Quarts BOTTLES SKIM MILK Quarts Pints Half Pints Taken Qts takpn Qta Tpt.nrnprl Returned Shortage Total, Gain Cash Customers Cash Customers — Tickets. Credit Customers Total $ DAIRY ACCOtJNTS — DAILY RECORD 203 FAT % 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II \2 13 7.3 2 ' 5.2 1 1 / / ^^ 2 5.0 4 1 1 \ / / / \ \ / / / 4.8 1 1 1 \ ! i \ \ / / / ... v^. \ y 4.6 1 1 I \ \ ! i \ / / / 4.4 1 1 1/ -4 J \ 1 / \ 1 1 / / 4.2 1 K \ I \ / /' / \ \ . k (y 3 4.0 3.8 3 5 \ \ 1 1 / ; \ / \ r \ 1 \ \ \ \ 1 — \ / / / 4 \ \ \ 1 1 r-. i 1 \ / \' / \ \ \ i 1 \ \ \ \ 3.6 \ \ \ \ \ 1 I 1 , 1 "r 1 \ ;/' \ / i \ 5 3.4 \ \ \ \ \ \ 1 1 i \l I \ ! \ / 3.2 \ \ \ \ 1 1 \ \ \ 1 i 3.0 \ \ i \ / 1 i Zh \ 1 \ 1 The columns Nos. 1, 2, 3, etc., indicate the weeks during which the experiment was continued, and the column at the left of the dia- gram shows the per cent, of butter fat for the weeks during which the experiment was conducted. The figures on the right show the number of dealers. No. 1 represents the composition of the milk from a'herd in charge of the author during the period of thirteen weelc. 204 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING Lack of uniformity in the composition of milk. — Many dairymen make the mistake of selling milk varying greatly in quality from day to day. They do not seem to appreciate the fact that consumers desire and look for a titliform amount of cream, and when they do not find it they accuse the dairyman of some crooked work, which may be simply poor business methods in handling the milk. Many cus- tomers change their milkman for no other reason than this, and he is left to wonder why his business does not increase. To illustrate : I had an oppor- tunity to study the variation in the butter fat con- tent in the milk actually delivered to consumers by iive retail dealers in a certain city for a period of 13 weeks, the results of which are shown graphi- cally in the accompanying illustration. WHAT PRODUCT IS MOST PROFITABLE FOR THE DAIRY FARMER? It is often a problem with the farmer what prod- uct he can best afford to sell. That is, will it be more profitable to sell whole milk or can he better afford to sell cream or butter? This, of course, will depend largely upon the price that each product can command. Even with the prices before the dairy- man, it is not always easy for him to decide which product will pay him best, as there is some differ- ence in the freight or express charges on the differ- ent products, and in case cream is sold, the skim milk is left for feeding purposes, and where butter is sold, the buttermilk has a value for feeding; at DAIRY ACCOUNTS — DAILY RECORD 205 the same time, there is some labor attached to mak- ing butter. The following table has been prepared to aid the dairyman to decide in what form he can best sell the products of his dairy. PRICES OF MILK, CREAM, BUTTERFAT AND BUTTER COMPARED MTT,K VALUE XPat Price per Qallon aOif Cream 25^ Cream 30* Cream Butter fat Batter per Gallon per Gallon per Gallon per Lb. per Lb. 10 .41 .49 .58 25.5 18.0 12 .58 .63 .75 38.0 23.5 3.5 .... U .63 .76 .92 39.0 29.0 16 .74 .90 1.00 46.0 35.0 18 .85 1.04 1.26 53.0 41.0 80 .96 1.28 1.43 60.0 47.0 10 .34 .48 .50 33.0 16.0 18 .44 .54 .65 29.0 21.0 4.0 .... 14 .54 .66 .79 35.0 26.0 16 .63 .78 .93 41.0 31.0 18 .73 .90 l.OS 47.0 36.0 80 .83 1.02 1.22 63.0 41.0 10 .30 .36 .43 21.0 14.0 18 .89 .47 .66 86.0 18.5 1.5 .... 14 .48 .57 .60 31.0 23.0 16 .57 .67 .88 36.0 28.0 18 .66 .77 .95 41.0 33.0 80 .75 .87 l.OS 46.0 38.0 10 .87 .33 .38 19.0 12.5 12 .34 .48 .60 24.0 16.5 5.0 .... U .43 .52 .62 29.0 80.5 16 .51 .68 .74 34.0 24.5 18 .50 .78 .81 39.0 28.5 SO .67 .88 .98 44.0 32.5 It should be stated in explanation of the above table that milk is taken as the basis for making the comparison in prices. For example, in the second line where milk containing 3.5 per cent, fat sells for 12 cents per gallon, cream containing 20 per cent. 206 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING fat should bring 52 cents per gallon ; 25 per cent, fat 63 cents, and 30 per cent, fat, 75 cents per gallon. The creamery should pay 32 cents per pound for butter fat, and butter should sell for 23.5 cents. Values have also been worked out for milk contain- ing 4, 4.5 and 5 per cent, fat, when sold for differ- ent prices per gallon. By glancing at this table, the dairyman should be able to tell how he can dis- pose of his milk most profitably. Minimum and maximum prices ordinarily received for milk at wholesale are given, and if higher or lower prices are received, it will be easy to make computations from the figures presented. In making these com- putations, skim milk and buttermilk have been val- ued at 20 cents per hundred. The freight on milk has been figured at 2 cents per gallon and cream 3 cents, as these are the charges commonly made within a radius of 50 miles of the larger cities. No allowance has been made for hauling. As this va- ries greatly under different conditions, each farmer can best calculate it for himself. There would be but little difference in the charge for hauling to the creamery or shipping station, and where butter is made, the labor will usually be equal to that of haul- ing the whole milk. The difference in the amount of fertility sold in milk, cream or butter (see page 18) also has a bear- ing upon this question of comparative prices. It will be noticed that dealer No. 2, for instance, delivered milk the first week containing 7.3 per cent, of fat, the second week it dropped to 3.8, and the third week to nearly 3; the fourth week the same as DAIRY ACCOUNTS — ^DAILY RECORD 207 the third, it increased again the fifth week to 4.6, and continued with similar extreme variations through- out the 13 weeks, as shown in the diagram. Others also showed a similar lack of uniformity. These re- sults indicate either carelessness in preparing milk for delivery, that is, delivery to the consumer; rich milk from certain animals in the herd one day and poor milk from other animals the next, or careless- ness in dipping the milk, the first customer receiv- ing milk from the top of the can and the last from the bottom. It is very probable that the uniformity was affected by both these causes, and shows the importance of properly mixing the herd milk, also of delivering milk in bottles, insuring each customer a uniform product from day to day. Is it possible to have a uniform product? The author's experience with a herd of 25 to 30 milking cows has a bearing upon this subject. The accom- panying tabulation gives the average per cent, of fat in the mixed milk from this herd as well as the maximum and minimum of the individual cows, the number of fresh cows introduced into the herd, and the number of cows milking during the month. The fresh cows were introduced when necessary to sup- ply a uniform quantity of milk from day to day rather than for the direct purpose of regulating the composition. Corresponding results may be ex- pected from any similar herd under good conditions of feeding and management. The tabulation shows that the milk of individual animals varied in com- position from month to month, but such variation did not materially affect the average composition of 208 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING the daily product of the herd, that is, the per cent, of fat in the mixed milk of all the animals was not low one day and high the next. THE AVERAGE MONTHLY COMPOSITION OF HERD MILK AND THE VARIATION IN THE COMPOSITION OF THAT OF INDIVIDUAL COWS Month May June July August ... September October . . November December January .. February . Marcb . . . . April 4.2 1.3 4.3 4.4 4.3 4.4 4.2 4.2 4.3 4.1 4.0 4.1 3.S 3.7 3.5 3.4 2.6 2.9 2.5 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.1 3.0 6.3 6.5 6.1 5.9 6.8 7.4 7.6 8.3 8.0 6.6 6.6 7.1 18 20 19 20 23 24 22 18 22 26 *5 ^T3 V !?£^ It will be observed that although a wide variation exists in the fat content of the milk of individual animals, ranging from 2.6 to 8.3 per cent, in the month of December, the composition of the entire daily product is remarkably uniform — 4 per cent, of fat could have been safely guaranteed throughout the year. The lowest, 4 per cent., is found in the month of March, 1897, and the highest, 4.4 per cent., in August and October, 1896, or a range of .4 per cent, between highest and lowest, a difference so slight from month to month as not to materially DAIRY ACCOUNTS^-DAILY RECORD 209 affect either the producer or the consumer. Ini other words, it appears from the study of this herd, which is fairly representative, that so far as uni- formity of composition of the daily mixed milk is concerned, its sale on the fat basis would have been entirely practicable. It was also found that it was not even necessary to mix the milk of the whole herd. With care in arranging the animals in the barn so that the milk- ing might take a certain order, it was possible to furnish from day to day a product that was prac- tically uniform in composition. Notwithstanding the fact that different animals showed a wide difference in the composition of their product, due to individuality, breed, feed, and period of lactation, it was entirely practicable to furnish a product that did not vary one-half per cent, in the content of butter fat. THE QUART BASIS OF SELLING MILK UN- FAIR TO PRODUCER AND CONSUMER The value of milk for butter-making depends upon its content of butter fat. The value of this product as market milk also depends upon the amount of butter fat it contains and should be sold on this basis, but is commonly sold on the quart basis. The dairyman, therefore, who is producing milk richer than the average is not receiving his share of profits for the reason that, as a rule, it costs more to produce rich milk than poor milk. To il- 210 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING lustrate : One cow in a dairy herd produced 2,000 quarts of milk in one year which contained an aver- age of 6.4 per cent, of fat, while another cow under the same conditions of feed produced the same period 3,200 quarts containing, on the average, 4 per cent, of fat. At 3 cents per quart the value of the product from the first cow was $60, while that from the last named cow was worth $96, or a difference between the two of $36. Any improvements or economy in feeding could not make up for the differ- ence in the returns from the product of these two animals on the quart basis of sale. If, however, the product of the 2,000 quart cow had been sold on the basis of its fat content, or converted into its equiva- ent of 4 per cent, milk, it would have been worth exactly the same as that of the 3,200 quart cow. This is one instance where the method of sale is more important than making efforts to reduce the cost of production. To again illustrate the unfairness of the method, farmers who sold milk containing a high per cent, of fat to creameries when the quart basis was prac- ticed, were practically making it possible for their neighbors to make a profit who produced milk con- taining a low per cent, of fat. The farmer produc- ing rich milk, therefore, although he might have studied closely the cost of production, was unable to realize a profit. When the method was changed and the milk was sold on the fat basis, the rich-milk farmers made a good profit while the others were obliged to obtain better animals or go out of busi- ness. A few creameries are still buying milk on the DAIRY ACCOUNTS — ^DAILY RECORD 211 same old basis. These same considerations apply, in a large measure, to the sale of market milk, because the cost of production per quart is, as a rule, less for that of a low quality than of a high one. It is evi- dent, therefore, that those who produce higher cost products of a better quality are not receiving, on the quart basis, a price proportionate to its value. An investigation of the character of the milk as now sold, made by the New Jersey Experiment Station in 1896, clearly showed the lack of uniformity in the quality of milk offered for sale, and the great injus- tice of the present method. In this study io8 sam- ples were taken from the delivery wagons of repre- sentative dealers in four large cities. The examina- tion showed a range in content of butter fat of from 2.56 to 7.76 per cent., and therefore in selling at a uniform price on the quart basis (this milk all sold for 8 cents), those having the highest grade received less than it was worth and those the lowest more than it was worth. Or, assuming that the low grade was worth the price charged, those having the high grade received but $i for milk that was actually worth $1.38. The fact was also brought out that if milk containing 4 per cent, of fat is worth 8 cents per quart, milk containing 3.50 would, on the same basis, be worth 7 cents per quart; and 3 per cent, milk only 6 cents per quart, while milk containing 4.50 per cent, fat would be worth 9 cents per quart, and 5 per cent, milk 10 cents per quart. If the fat content were adopted as a basis of sale the con- sumer would be protected in the sense that he wouldreceive just what he paid for, and the producer 212 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING of a high quality product would have the advantage of a higher price, which fairly belongs to him be- cause of the greater cost of producing milk of a •better quality. A few dairymen are already prac- ticing this method with success, the percentage of fat in the milk being stamped on the milk cap and the system should be encouraged for the benefit of both producer and consumer. Lack of uniformity in the sanitary qualities of milk. — It is only until recently that much attention has been given to the sanitary quality of milk. City Boards of Health have given their attention largely to chemical standards for milk, and examinations have been made chiefly for content of fat and total solids and for adulteration and preservatives. At the present time more attention is being given to the sanitary conditions at the farms, to the health of the cows, and to the cleanliness of the milk when delivered to the consumer. Now, in addition to ask- ing the question, "Is the milk reasonably rich and free from adulterations?" the Board of Health asks, "Is the milk clean?" The standards used for judging milk on the sani- tary basis include bacteria (the number allowed ranging, in different cities, from 100,000 to 500,000 per c.c.) ; temperature of the milk (which is re- quired in some instances to be 50° F. or below when entering the city) ; and the dairy score card already referred to. Education of the public. — The grading of milk on the basis of its chemical and sanitary qualities is of little value to the dairyman unless the general pub- ADVERTISING 213 lie demands a good product and is- willing to pay for it. Until very recently "milk was milk" whether produced under good or bad conditions, and the cheapest product has generally been sought. The fact has not been appreciated that the price of feed- ing stufifs and labor have been constantly increasing during the past lo years, while the price of milk to the consumer has scarcely changed at all. It has been stated elsewhere that it cost more to produce rich milk than poor milk, and it is equally true that it costs more to produce clean milk than dirty milk. There is no use in legislating for the production of a quality of product that the people do not want. There is a general movement throughout the coun- try for cleaner milk and better foods in general. The dairy farmer, then, who practices good business methods and is awake to this situation should put hifnself in a position to meet the demands for better milk, which is constantly increasing. This is clearly shown in the increased demand for certified milk produced under the supervision of medical milk commissions and which retails at prices ranging from ID to 20 cents per quart. CHAPTER III ADVERTISING All business men learn that judicious advertising pays. The dairyman is no exception and can bring his products to the attention of the public in many ways and with little expense. A ffew examples are given as follows : 214 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 1. Appearance of the farm. — Every passer-^by uti-^ consciously forms his opinion of the farm manage^ ment and quality of the products and becomes in himself an advertiser or otherwise. Neat surround- ings, buildings well painted and in good repair, farm well laid out and good crops, all help to make a good impression. In this connection the author calls to mind a man who had a good reputation as a dairy farmer and on driving several miles across country to visit him, passing farm after farm poorly cared for, suddenly came in sight of a place which pre- sented a great contrast to those already seen. The farm was well laid out, the crops even and well cul- tivated, two silos were conspicuous near the stable, and the whole presented a neat, attractive and busi- nesslike appearance. I did not need to be told that this was my destination, as the dairyman lived itp to his reputation and the farm was its own adver- tisement. This contrast was due not to money but to business methods. 2. Appearance of the dairyman and his team. — Like the dairy farm, the dairyman and his team should present a neat, businesslike appearance., which will certainly give him an advantage over his careless and slovenly neighbor. \\'hile this alone will not insure success, it helps to advertise his busi- ness. 3. Naime of the farm. — It is well for every dairy- man to have a name for his farm, which, if used in business transactions, will serve as a trade mark and aid in selling the products. Every effort should be made, therefore, to have the products of the high-. ADVERTISING SET^ECT DAIRT PRODTTCTS MILK FROM VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND DAIRIES Proprieior 324 B Street, S. W. Washington, D. C. 215 TtliphoiM ■ ■ I 48S STAR FARM HOLSTEINS LARGEST AND BEST HERD IN THE WORLD Use here cut of Bull or Cow Proprietor CORTLAND N. Y. Mercedes Julip't Pietertje's Paul 29830 Most Noted Holstein Sire in the World ILLUSTRATING LETTER HEAD ADVERTISING SELECT DAIRY PRODUCTS , Proprietor 326 B ST., S. W., WASHINGTON, D. C. RETURN IN S DAYS ILLUSTRATING ENVELOPE AUVERTISING 2l6 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING est quality in order that this trade name will carry great weight wherever it goes and will always be identified with the best grade of goods. 4. Letterheads and printed envelopes, — A very inexpensive method of advertising is through printed letterheads and envelopes used in business correspondence. The envelopes may bear the name of the farm, the proprietor and post-office address. Fancy characters are not necessary on the letter- heads, a simple, tasty advertisement put up in at- tractive type is best. The local printer will do this work at surprisingly low cost. 5. Printed circulars. — It often pays to put before prospective customers a single-page circular giving a simple businesslike statement of the products for sale and the prices asked. This is particularly effec- tive where the dairyman makes a specialty of high grade milk or cream or dairy butter. 6. Newspaper advertising. — ^Where the business is large enough to warrant it, advertising through the newspapers may be made very profitable. This method has the advantage of reaching new custom- ers and a large number of people at once. This is the most expensive form of advertising, but often brings new trade and enlarges the business. Here, as in the circular, if a special point can be made of high grade or special quality of products, it is more likely to attract a prospective customer. 7. A good product the best advertisement. — ^An instance came under the writer's observation, where a dairy of forty cows changed management. At this time many of the animals were unhealthy, buildings ADVERTISING 217 Doing business under permit of the Health Department Milk from Tuberculin- tested Cows for Infant Feeding. Name Address.. ILLUSTRATING NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING in poor repair, stables insanitary, and no dairy house provided for the handling of the milk and sterilizing utensils. The sales of milk from this farm had not increased materially for several years, and the farm was not paying expenses. While a fairly good qual- ity of milk (from a chemical standpoint) was sold, it was not clean. The new manager began his work by removing the unhealthy animals, improving the buildings in a sanitary way and providing a dairy building. These changes, however, were made slowly, as the money had to be earned to provide for the expense. One important improvement in the delivery of milk was the change from the "dippage" system to the use of bottles. No advertising was done aside from supplying good milk, the ground 2lS THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING being taken that a good product should sell itself. The price charged for the milk was the same as in previous years. During the first year, when changes were being made, there was an increase in the sales of but 5 per cent. The following year, when milk that was clean as well as rich was guaranteed, the increase amounted to about 19 per cent., or a total gain to the farm of about $1,000 in the annual in- come. This was obtained with little other increase in cost than in the extra animals and in the feed, as the labor necessary for handling the milk in produc- tion and delivery was the same as that found neces- sary in the case of the smaller product. In the years which followed, the increase was even more marked, these results being obtained wholly by better busi- ness management resulting in a high-grade product. CHAPTER IV BUSINESS ACCOUNTS ON A DAIRY FARM The importance of keeping separate farm records has already been emphasized, and the business ac- counts are no less important in the general system. A complicated system of records involving double- entry bookkeeping is not necessary on the average dairy farm, but a simple cash account and a ledger is within the compass of the average farmer and (with an inventory taken once a year) is all that is required. The specimen pages shown herewith help to make this clear. For the sake of brevity the milk BUSINESS ACCOUNTS ON A DAIRY FARM 219 E-i O M O O N a < u 8 8 8 8 8 8 ^ 8 s s s s (D ^ ^ ^ , ^ J J ^ ^ >, 1 PC PC CC »r C £4 -T* IT «D C w (M 0" 5 ■• i - S :; i i - § IT> S .^ 8 € 5 a ^ ^ ? 1 g » J i C( > -, ■? . , « ■^ . i t .ii 3 s L cc 15 1? & i ^ ' s &■ ;; - - ■ - ' - i a : 1/ s c 5 a ^ o- \ s te s c Q c : ^ c B 220 THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING sales in the accompanying cash account are entered but once a week — the ordinary dairyman would per- haps enter them daily. He should be sure that the cash on hand at the end of any month agrees per- fectly with the balance in his cash book. LEDGER In the ledger we keep an account with persons. On January ist, John Smith owed a balance of $io, which he paid January 20th, thus closing his ac- count. At the beginning of the month Henry Hud- son owed a balance of $65.16, but on January 23d paid $55.16, leaving a balance January 31st of $10, which is an asset. On January ist we owed J. John- son $25, but on January 22d paid him $15 on ac- count, leaving us $10 in his debt — a $10 liability. These are the only forms of accounts which arise in ordinary transactions, and if the fundamental principles are understood the dairyman need have no difficulty in keeping his own business accounts. INVENTORY The receipts and expenditures alone do not show the real profits and losses of the business during the year. It is necessary to take an inventory of the property on hand. This should include property ci every description. The difference between the as- sets and the liabilities will give the net value. It is of interest to keep these records year after year, to make comparisons. .K BUSINESS ACCOUNTS ON A DAIRY FARM 221 8 O n w H K O 1-5 n o GQ Q W !zi n 2 g o OS Iz; W o s s 8 gi i s - 1 s s 8 •n o 3 t 1 1 U Si - - '222 '•'■■•■■ the .business of dairying Assets. 1. Real estate: a. Land. b. Water supplies. c. Growing crops. d. Buildings. 2. Live stock i 3. Implements. 4. Farm products. 5. Notes receivable. 6. Stocks, bonds, etc. y. Personal accounts (owing qs). 8. Cash in ba^nk. 9. Cash on hand. , Liabilities. 1. Notes payable. 2. Mortgages. 3. Store bills; 4. Personal accounts (we owe). The inventory may be taken during any month at the convenience of the dairyman, but is most fre- quently taken at the close of the yeat, December 31st, I when all books are balanced. There are some rea- sons why other times are more cpnvenient; as, for ■ example, in April or May ; the supply of hay in the : barn is low, the Silos have become empty, and it is easier to estimate the value of such materials at this time. The objection to, this date is that the dairy- BUSINESS ACCOUNTS ON A DAIRY FARM 223 man is busy with field work and does not like to vake the time to balance his accounts. To take an inventory properly requires good judgment of farm equipment and values. It is some- times necessary to consider cost and selling price as well as actual service value to the owner. Due consideration should be given to deterioration of real estate, machinery, and live stock. APPENDIX . APPENDIX ^27. Digestible Nutrients in One Pound of the More Common. Feeding Stuffs (Stone) •KIND OF FOOD Total Dry Mat- ter Founds of Diges- tible Nutrients «I2 Total Nutri- tive Batio SOlIiING, FODDER Fodder : Corii 1 Peas and . Oa'ts Peas and \\SarIey Bed Clover Alfalfa Hungarian Grass : Corn Silage. ..-. ROOTS AND TUBERS Potatoes Beet, Mangel Beet, Sugar Carrot Flat Turnip HAY AND STRAW Timothy Mixed Grasses and Clover... Hungiirian Hay Red Clover Hay Alfalfa Hay..: Corn - Fodder. Corn Stover Pea-vine Straw Bean Straw , Wheat Straw Oat Straw Corn (At.). Wbeat ;>... Bye Barley Oats Buckwheat Peas V GRAIN ; MILL Products Corn and CobMeal... Wheat Bj-atj Wheat Middlings Dark Feeding, Flour Low Grade Florir. ., — ...... Rye Bran — '. Buckwheat Bran..., Buckwheat Middlings .90 .010 .018 .017 .029 .039 .020 .009 .009 .011 .011 .008 .010 .045 .088 .110 .035 .017 .043 .036 .004 .012 .079 .102 .099 .087 .092 .077 .168 .044 .122 .128 .135 .082 .115 .074 .125 .076 .077 .164 .138 .169 .129 .165 .056 .104 .082 .077 .465 .460 .546 .396 .423 .373 .340 .341 .397 .372 .404 .764 .730 .700 .692 '.M .533 .534 .665 .453 .607 .658 .647 .548 .347 .185 .094 .094 .193 -.177 .189 .138 .174 .067 .115 .090 .087 .591 .464 .357 .384 .433 .376 4.1a .499 .779 .709 .575 .735 .793 .729 .663 .421 v676 1:12.5 1: 4.2 1: 4.5 1: 5.6 l: 3.5 1.:. 8.* , 1:11.3. 1:18.3. 1: 5.1 1: 9.4 1:10.3 i: 7.7 1:16.6 1: 7.4 1:12.1- 1: 5..8n 1; 3.8' l:14r9- 1:19.9 1: 7.9 1:11.0 1:93 1:33.6 1: 9.7 1: 7.2 1: 1.1 1: 7.9 1: 6.2 ■Ir 6.9 1: Z.% 1:15.1 1: 3.7 1: 4.7 1: 4.9 1; 7.9 1: 4.8 1: 4.7 (Continued ou page SgB) 228 THE BUSINESS OF -DAIRYING Digestible Nutrients in One Pound of the More Common Feeding Stufifs (Stone) (Continued from page 287) KIND OF FOOD Ponn ds of Diges- tible Natrientg a >.+i 1 IIS Total IM o^Sg .186 .409 .595 .039 .125 .164 .l.W .478 .635 .194 .633 .SI? •.2,W .656 .914 .ma .705 .780 .298 .485 .778 .282 .464 .746 .372 .444 .S16 .018 .091 .109 .017 .051 .068 .006 .073 .079 .091 .595 .686 .011 .164 .175 .031 .065 .096 .029 .OTO .088 .039 .065 .104 Nutri- tive Batio RYE PRODtlCTS Malt Sprouts Brewers' Grainn (wet) Brewers' Grains (dry) Gluten Feed Gluten Meal , Hominy Chops Linseed Meal (old process)., Linseed Meal (new process). Cotton-seed Meal , MISCELLANEOUS Cabbage Sugar Beet Leaves , Sugar Beet Pulp Beet Molasses Apple Pomace Skim Milt (gravity) , Skim Milk (centrifugal) Butter Milk .90 .24 .91 .90 .094 .10 1: 2.2 1: 3.2 1: 3.0 1: 3.3 1: 2.5 1: 9.4 1: 1.7 1: 1.6 1: 1.2 1: 5.1 '1:12" 1: 6.5 1:14.9 1: 2.1 1: 2.0 1: 1.7 Elements of Fertility in 1,000 lbs. (Stone) O 03 .§2- £ £ £2 a OS b Maize Fodder (green).. Peas and Oats (green). Barley and Peas (green) Bed Clover (green) Alfalfa (green) Hungarian grass (green) Corn Silage (green) Potatoes Mangle-werzel Beets (Sugar) Carrots Timothy Hay 45 197 "68 ' 63 828 467 755 790 760 870 779 750 873 820 870 143 14.7 16.05 16.7 16 22.1 12 11 12.2 8.1 10 41.1 1.6 2.8 2.7 4.6 6.2 3.2 1.4 1.4 1.7 1.7 1.2 4.4 1.1 1.65 1.8 1.5 1.5 .7 1.1 1.6 .9 .8 .9 5.0 3.9 6.2'i 5.05 4.8 3.5 4.7 3.7 5.7 8.8 3.7 2.6 14.1 $0.90 1.50 1.38 1.86 2.18 1.38 .82 1.04 .90 .88 .65 2.95 (Continued on page 229) APPENDIX 229 Elements of Fertility in 1,000 lbs. (Stone) (Continued from page 228) O