(UNIVERSITYj 115 "SOCIAL HEREDITY" A^ikuSiKAtEfi IN THE GREEK PEOPLE BY THOMAS JAMES LACEY DF 74S Mq"*" ""'^'■''•y Library ^'''^iliiimiMiMiiim™',.,!??'^*''''/ 3* illustrated 3 1924 028 255 457" Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924028255457 A STUDY OF SOCIAL HEREDITY AS ILLUSTRATED IN THE GREEK PEOPLE BY THOMAS JAMES LACEY B.A. (Griswold College), B.S. (New York University), M.A. (Columbia University), B.D. (Seabury Divinity School), Ph.D. (New York University). This thesis has been accepted by the Graduate School of New York University, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ^.3?I3?5 CONTENTS. Introduction. 1. Social heredity distinct from physical heredity. 2. Race characteristics. 3. Descent of modern Greeks — a subject of controversy. 4. Statement of the thesis. Part. I. Survey of the Life of Ancient Greece. A. Centrifugal forces. 1. The passion for local autonomy. a. Greek versus Latin city state. b. HfeUenic attitude in Plato and Aristotle. c. Why the Athenian empire was repugnant to Greece. d. Enthusiasm for politics. 2. The spirit of individualism and personal liberty. a. The freedom of a Greek city. b. The Athenian democracy and the individual. c. Why the Sophist appeal found ready response. 3. The enormous energy seeking outlet in a. Colonization. b. War. a. The Greek as a soldier. c. Commerce. a. Honesty of the Greeks. b. Graft among the Athenians. B. Unifying forces. 1. The idea of common ancestry. a. Greek vs. Barbarian. b. Racial pride and intolerance. 2. A common language. a. The Greek tongue as a vehicle of expression. b. A revelation of mental alertness. c. Periclean literature and art. 3. Religion and Games. a. Supreme importance of religion in the city state. b. Close relation of religious and civic life. c. Religion as a bond of nationality. a. Delphic Oracle. b. Unique place of Olympic Games in Greek life. C. Why the social consciousness of Greece never reached full develop- ment? Part II. MoDEbN Greek Life — A Comparison with the Ancient to Dis- cover THE Persistence of Common Factors. A. Establishment of the modern Greek Kingdom and survival of the idea of the city state, political turmoil, and rivalry of parties. B. Pronounced Individualism of Modern Greeks. a. Greek factiousness. b. Personal element in Greek politics. c. Greek aversion to discipline. C. Energy of Modern Greeks in 1. Immigration. 2. War. a. Estimate of the Greek as a soldier. 3. Commerce. D. Race Pride of Modern Greek. 1. Fixed belief in classic ancestry. 2. Their racial intolerance. a. Greek and Bulgar. b. Greeks and Syro-Arabs. E. Modern Greek Language and Its Relation to the Classic. F. The Greek Church. a. Identification of religion and nationality. b. Changed content of religion but same form. c. Does a people ever change its religion? d. Same mental attitude toward religion in ancient and modern Greece. Part III. Greeks in America. 1. Greek irnmigration. Causesi-Growth — Geographical distribution — Occupations; 2. Unifying influences. a. The Greek Church. b. The Pan-Hellenic Union. c. The Greek Newspaper. d. The Coffee-House. 3. Some of the principal colonies in the U, S. and a sketch of my visits to them: a. New York. b. Chicago. c. Lowell. d. Tarpon Springs. 4. Does the immigrant reproduce the characteristics we have seen at home and m the past ? 5. Will the Greek make a desirable citizen? Conclusion. 1. Respective spheres of physical and social heredity. 2. Large role of social heredity in civilization and progress. INTRODUCTION. The term "heredity" is apt to suggest its biologic signification — the transmission of physical qualities from parent to offspring. This racial heredity is responsible for such physical characteristics as the form of head, texture of hair, color of the iris, etc. The prominent cheek bones and oblique eyes of the Mongol, and the thick, protrud- ing lips of the negro are matters of physical heredity. "In children," says Fairbanks, "the physical peculiarities of parents and of earlier generations tend to reappear. . . . Descendants of the same ancestors have the same physical nature and a tendency to develop the same psychical characteristics."^ This organic heredity, as Professor Conn says, "concerns the germinal substance in the egg and sperm. It is fixed and determined by the mixture of the germinal substance of the two parents in sex union. It is not capable of being modified by any action of the individual and is unmodified by any kind of acquired variations."^ Social heredity, on the other hand, is distinct from physical heredity. It is not a biologic process. It is entirely outside the realm of biology. Acquisition proceeds sociologically. Social heredity is the social transmission of achievement. Professor Ward says : "Knowledge, the social germ plasm, is incapable of hereditary transmission. Social heredity consists in the social transmission of this plasm from generation to generation. This is not a vital but a social process. It consists in planting knowledge into individual minds after they are born. No one is born with the least rudiment of it inherent in his mental constitution. Every one must acquire every item of it during life. Cut off any portion of mankind from the main stream of thought and it loses at once all that has been bequeathed to the civilized world at such enormous cost. This knowledge, wrought by toil and struggle, by patience and thought, by genius and skill, and heaped up little by little through ages of time, is the Promethean fire that must never be allowed to go out. Social heredity, as Professor Conn points out, is in marked con- trast to physical heredity. It does not at all concern the germmal substance in the egg and is not fixed by the union of germ sub- stances in sex union. It is capable of being modified by the action of individuals and may be entirely changed by the development of newly acquired variations. It has had little or nothing to do with the evolution of the human animal but much to do with the evolu- tion of the civilized human race. Civilization is handed on from parent to child throughout the generations in a way totally distinct from that which our students of heredity have been studying. This power of handing on the accumulated material and mental posses- sions, the customs, habits, methods of thought, is social heredity. Social heredity is controlled by its own laws. They must not be con- fused with the laws or organic heredity to which they are diamet- rically opposite.* Institutions, language, religious ideas, certain mental traits and aptitudes are perpetuated through the social contact of successive generations. This implies an attitude of mind which enables a people to enter into sympathy with institutions, appropriate them, assimi- late them, and having made them their own, to reproduce them as far as conditions permit. The net work of common traditions, ideas, sentiments, beliefs, modes of thinking, which enters so largely into what LeBon calls the "soul of a people," owes its persistence to social heredity.^ Social heredity is the basis of Bluntschli's distinction between a race and a nation. "Races are due to nature's creative energy. Nations are the products of human history."® They are distin- guished by spirit, character, language, law. What we popularly designate as racial characteristics are cultural, not natural. They have their origin in the social consciousness. The basis of nationality is "kulturgemeinschaft." There is an original, natural endowment common to both savage and savant; but if you strip any nation of its acquired characteristics and reduce it to its natural endowment alone, it ceases to have the distinctive traits of Italian, Spaniard, Greek or Anglo-Saxon long before you get down to the natural level. What we call racial characteristics are acquired. The complicated 6 process which Tarde treats under "Laws of Imitation" plays a large role in the transmission of those habits, customs, modes of thinking which descend from generation to generation until they come to be regarded as part and parcel of a nation's life. "Nations are often distinguished," says Jebb, "by broadly marked tendencies or apti- tudes traceable through every period of their history. These may properly be called national characteristics. Originating partly, per- haps, in race, they may yet cease to be in themselves proofs of a perpetual strain of blood since they attach themselves to a certain type of civilization ; but the persistency of such broad traits vouches at least for a continuous tradition of those institutions and usages, those ways of thinking and feeling which give essential unity to an originally composite nationality."^ This distinction between physical and social heredity finds an apt illustration in the Greek people. The physical descent of the mod- ern Greeks has been a subject of controversy. Are the Greeks of to-day flesh and blood kin of the Greeks of classic times? About the middle of the last century, Fallmerayer of Munich in his "His- tory of the Morea during the Middle Ages" took the position that the Slavs had so completely submerged the ancient Greeks that the Hellenic blood has entirely disappeared.* The Greeks, according to his theory, are "Byzantinized Slavs." Fallmerayer's extreme view was modified by the investigations of Karl Hopf. It still finds an advocate in Gustav LeBon. "The modern Greeks," he says, "have no relation with the ancient Greeks. Anthropology has shown that they are brachycephalous Slavs. The ancient Greeks were dolicho- cephalic."® Dr. Woodruff contends that the modern Greeks are not Aryan. He traces Greek civilization to a savage, unlettered, blond race who conquered an earlier Semitic type, forcing their language on the present people. Making their way into Greece about 2000 B. Cj, they became the upper ruling class — the soldiers, judges, legislators, writers, poets, philosophers. They fell victims to the climate and degenerated. "It is quite likely that by the beginning of the Chris- tian Era, few Homeric Greeks were left, if any. But the real Greek, the brunette Semite who was the peasant, farmer, artisan, fisher, trader, slave — the low class — survived, and his descendants are the modern Greeks, still talking the same language forced upon them three or four thousand years ago, but speaking it so badly as to con- stitute another tongue."^** There can be no question that the modern Greeks represent very great mixture of blood. The precise extent of admixture has been a subject of warm discussion and the opinions of scholars show a wide range of difference. Keane believes that the Hellenic race has almost perished on the mainland." Deniker says that the physical type is diversified among the Greeks and requires further study .^^ Professor Sloane thinks the proportion of Greek descent in Greece is about equal to that of Anglo-Saxon descent in America.^^ So^g writers speak in a vague way of the survival of an Hellenic strain in the modern Greeks, but on careful analysis they seem to have in mind the social rather than the physical heredity, as when Jebb tells us that by reason of their superior social civilization, the Greeks were able to absorb the Slavs,^* or when Wheeler says that "the Greek blood, the Greek usages, the Greek habit of mind, like the Greek tongue, have entirely predominated."^^ These writers have confused physical and social heredity. The two are not correlated. The persistence of the Greek language, tra- ditions and institutions does not establish the survival of Greek blood. In this connection, the findings of Anthropology as summed up by Professor Ripley are interesting: "The cephalic index of modern living Greeks ranges with great constancy about 81. This is an appreciably broader head than in the case of the ancients. In Thes- saly and Attica, the dolicocephalic type persists. In Epirus they are broad headed. The Peloponnese has best preserved the dolicocepha- lic. Thessaly is also close to the classic type. The anthropological measurements show heterogeneity."^® Hogarth sees in the Greek of to-day a surviving stream of old Hellenic blood mixed with the blood of Slavs and Tosks, of Turks, Italians and Vlachs, but "the Hellenic type of civilization has assim- ilated by its superiority all others and given to Slav and Tosk, to Vlach and half-breed, Italian and Turk, community of tradition and hope, language and creed and one character as a nation."^'' Thus, while the physical heredity of the Greeks has undergone great modification, the social heredity stands out clear and distinct. "Whatever may be said of the physical descent," remarks Professor Fairchild, "there can be no doubt that spiritually the modern Greeks are the direct inheritors of the ancient. A familiarity with the modern people brings countless illustrations of similarity of thought and character between the old and the new and clarifies many a dim passage in ancient history."^* The purpose of this thesis is to seek illustration of social heredity by tracing the persistence of certain marked traits and institutions through classic and modern Greek life. The physical heredity does not concern us. By social heredity the modern Greek has entered into the spirit of the ancient life, reflecting its most characteristic features of thought and temper and reproducing in their ensemble those traits of character that were distinguishing marks of the ancient Hellenes. Throughout the long, varied history of Greece the sway of social heredity has been clearly defined, tending ever to produce the same mental attitude in ancient and in modern, in pagan and in Christian times. There persists uninterruptedly through Greek history a common type of mind, perpetuating and reproducing, as Jebb says, "the intel- lectual and moral stamp of Hellenic society in a national character of marked distinction."^® This is in contrast to Italy, for while Roman law survives, the Roman type of character and mind has disappeared. The Greek type persists so little changed, that when Mahaffy published his presentations of ancient Greek character based on studies of classic literature, people at Athens were so struck with the resemblance of the old Greeks to the present inhabi- tants that they concluded at once that he must have visited Greece and drawn his pictures of the classical people from the Greeks of to-day.2» In this treatment there will be presented, first, a survey of the social life of ancient Greece ; second, a comparison between ancient and modern Greek life with a view to tracing the common factors ; third, a brief study of the Greeks in America, noting the persistence, even here, of certain striking traits. PART I. A survey of ancient Greek life reveals a people among whom the play of centrifugal forces was always so pronounced as to prevent the realization of any kind of national unity. The Greeks are often spoken of as a race rather than a nation. Like Germany in the middle of the last century, and Italy at the Renaissance, Greece was divided into multitudinous, independent city states, each of which was a focus of social, political and intellectual life. The centrifugal factors in Greek life may be classified under three heads : I. The passion for local autonomy. II. The excessive individualism of Greek character. III. The enormous energy of the people, ever seeking outlet in colonization, war and commerce. The earliest political unit of Greece was the city state, which was common to both Greek and Latin. It was the outgrowth of the primitive village community which rested on ties of kin, govern- ment, community of land, and worship, but the Greek and Latin city states followed divergent lines of development in accord with the genius of each people. Rome began its true existence as a city state, but the genitis of the Latins for cohesion was the guiding spirit of its advance.^^ "The Latin tribes," says Laurie, "estab- lished themselves on the hills about the Tiber, developing the civic life of Latin communities. They formed a union, gradually ac- quired the hegemony of the Latin race, extended their dominion to the Volsci on the south, the Sabellians on the east, and the Etrus- cans on the north."^^ The Latin genius was unifying and organiz- ing. The Latin mind took a world view. The Roman poet, ex- pressing the destiny of his people, said: "Let others celebrate the arts and humanities and mould the bronze into breathing shape. Others will be more eloquent. Others will celebrate grander tri- umphs of chisel and brush. Let others describe the circling move- 10 ments of the heavens and tell the rising of the stars. Thy work, oh Roman, is to rule the nations, to subdue the proud, to put down the rebellious, to stretch the arm of power over the world. "^* World conquest was the Roman ideal. In Greece, local autonomy was the dominant conception. Grote says : "There is a want of grouping and unity in the early period, and this is to a degree a cl;iaracteristic inseparable from the history of Greece from its beginning to its end. . Nothing short of force will efface in the mind of the free Greek the idea of his city as an autonomous and separate organization. The city is a unit, the highest of all political units, not admitting of consolidation with others to the sacrifice of its own separate and individual mark. Such is the character of the race both in primitive country and in colonial settlements, in their early and late history, splitting by natural frac- tures into a multitude of self -administering cities. Each city follows its own thread of existence in no partnership nor common purpose with the rest."2* PoHtical disunion was a settled maxim of the Hellenic mind. "The only unity which Greece ever achieved was the melancholy unity of subjection under all-conquering Rome."^^ The Greek never learned to sacrifice narrow civic interests to the large idea of Hel- lenic nationality. When Plato undertook the description of the ideal state he drew the picture of a city small, well walled to keep out foreigners, inde- pendent, self-sufficing.^® Aristotle conceived the city state as the highest possible form of social union.^'^ The ideal state is wholly able to maintain its own character as a state by itself and for itself. Both writers are at one in their dislike of large political unions. One reason why the Athenian Empire excited such deep hostility is found in the natural repugnance of the Greek mind to an imperial organization which violated local autonomy. In its overthrow its enemies regarded themselves as defenders of the true doctrine of the city state. From earliest times Greece offered an inviting soil for political experimentation and became the cradle of political science because the city states afforded ample field in which every conceivable ex- periment might be tried. Politics ran the whole gamut of timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, tyranny. n In Athens politics was regarded as the business of every man. Thucydides puts these words on the hps of Pericles : "The admin- istration is in the hands of the many and not of a few. An Athenian citizen does not neglect the state because he takes care of his own household. Even those of us who are engaged in business have a very fair idea of politics. We alone regard a man who takes no interest in public affairs not as a harmless but as a useless char- acter."28 There is a passage in Plato where the writer constructs a philoso- phy of history and interprets Greek life in the light of the inherent tendencies of human nature.^* He sees in the constitution of society an expression of psychological law. The character of the citizens is impressed on the political structure. Accepting this thesis, we see in the political disunity of Greece a reflection of the passion for individual liberty which characterized the Hellenic mind. Among the states we find a passion for local autonomy. Among individuals we find a passion for j>ersonal freedom manifesting itself in restive- ness under authority, jealousy, rivalry, factiousness, self-assertive- ness. Ramsay speaks of a certain atmosphere of liberty about a Greek city. "The unfettered development of the individual was the aim of Hellenism. The cities in which the Hellenic ideal was best realized were those in which freest play was given to the individual to live his own life according to his own judgment. No other ancient peo- ple aimed so steadfastly as the Greeks at freedom. Order, and even the safety of the state, were sometimes jeopardized in the pursuit of individual freedom which tended to degenerate into caprice and license."'" On its positive side, this passion for individual liberty found its highest expression in the Athenian democracy. Bluntschli points out that even the old monarchies and aristocracies of Greece pos- sessed a kind of democracy which distinguished them from modern monarchy or from Roman aristocracy.'^ Athens solved the problem of the free play to individual talent. She fostered and drew out the best political ideals of the Greek mind. Here democracy found its most logical expression. In no other state was the rule of the people so extensive. The "Ecclesia," with its subordinate administrative committee, 12 "the Boule," was the visible representative of the many-headed demos. Its power embraced the whole life of the state. It ap- pointed embassies, received envoys, decided peace or war, chose generals, conducted military operations, levied taxes. The people undertook the whole work of government. In every matter of political life, peace, war, treaties, army, navy, finance, religion, the voice of the people was supreme and final.*^ It was the individualism of Greek character that gave the Sophist appeal fruitful soil among the young men of Greece. Stoicism made headway at Rome because it had so much real affinity with the moral consciousness of the Roman. It struck a note of sternness that was consonant with Roman genius. The Sophist appealed forcefully to the Greek mind. He appeared as an up-to-date man, the distributor of culture. He frequented the centers of population as a profes- sional teacher. He developed rhetoric as the expression of the aesthetic and as the great art of carrying one's point. Each man has the right to carry his point. In the endeavor to justify himself the Sophist reached a philosophy of radical egoism. The man is the measure of things. "For the young man of good birth who had to keep up the role of a gentleman, the natural, almost only, career to look forward to was connected with the political life of his city, and the indispensable quality to success was skill in carrying his audience with him, which the Sophist professed to teach. The goal of the politician was not so much truth as victory."^* The widespread pursuit of politics and the pronounced individualism of the Greek caused the Sophist program to obtain a great vogue and it became a factor in the downfall of Greece. Professor Binder makes a people's relation to the sea the index to its type of civilization. The sea is man's educator toward culture. From its earliest stages Hellenic civilization reflected the bold, venturesome activity of a sea-faring race. "The national epic of Greece," says one writer, "is a story of maritime adventure. Her great cities are all on the sea. Greek civilization and culture are inextricably interwoven with cruise and adventure."^* Energy, en- terprise, alertness, are paramount, in contrast to the quiet, passive river type. The voices of mountains and sea, so impressive in the natural environment of Greece, found response in the character of 13 the people ever restlessly seeking an outlet for their surplus energy in colonization, warfare or commerce. Colonization was a natural consequence of the growth of a people confined within a somewhat restricted territory. It found a stimulus in civil dissensions, frequent political changes and commercial enter- prise. The year 750 B. C. marks the beginning of an era of colonization which continued through two centuries. The colony reflected m most instances the ideals of the home city, but it was always politi- cally independent. Athens established colonies on the Asiatic shore, where the transplanting of Greek life to a new environment stimu- lated intellectual activity. Philosophy took its rise in Miletus. Megara founded Byzantium which became mighty Constantinople. Chalcis established the commercial colony of Cumae. Syracuse was Corinth's most famous colony. Achaeans from the northern Pelo- ponnese established Sybaris and Crotona. In 600 B. C. hardy mari- ners from Phocaea in Asia Minor founded Massilia, the modern Marseilles, a narrow fringe of Hellenic civilization on the border of benighted Gaul. A network of colonies spread over the whole Medi- terranean region from the coasts of Asia Minor to Italy and Sicily, carrying everywhere the seed of Hellenic culture. The military ideal is not commonly associated with the Greeks, although war played a big role in their history. "In Greece," says Ruskin, "there is no soldier caste. Every citizen was necessarily a soldier."*^ The Greek engaged in warfare under the necessity of a situation, taking the battlefield under the stimulus of powerful patri- otism, as in the defense of Hellas against Persia or the civil warfare between Sparta and Athens. World conquest was foreign to the Hellenic temper and first appears as an ideal with the advent of Alexander the Great. The Greeks were not fond of long continued military service. The lonians were so little given to war that they readily accepted the Lydian yoke, preferring servitude to the drudgery, fatigue and hardship of campaign.^® Professor Wheeler says : "The ancient Greeks were by no means all fond of war nor good fighting men. The Spartans were rugged fighters and susceptible of superior discipline. The stolid, realistic Boeotian fitted well into Epaminondas's solid phalanxes. The Arca- dians and Achaeans were famous professional fighters and from 14 the fourth century B. C. furnished the largest contingents of mer- cenaries. But the Athenians greatly preferred to have their fighting done for them, and after the fifth century one never hears of an Athenian army made up exclusively of Athenians. "^^ Gulick says that military discipline was not rigid among the Athenians. "The army was on a democratic basis. The general was required to render an account of his generalship to his soldiers. The spectacle of an undisciplined force was common in Greek mili- tary history. Rigorous officers like the Spartan Clearchus were generally hated. "^* It was in commerce rather than warfare that the Greek found his most congenial occupation. In this he gradually supplanted the Phoenician pioneers, adopting the selfsame policy of monopoly and exclusion of rivals. Many of the Greek colonies were commercial in origin. The Greek sometimes fell under the opprobrium that often at- taches to commercial people who are peculiarly exposed to the charge of dishonesty. Perhaps their very success invites the accusa- tion. The Phoenicians were regarded in antiquity as cheats and liars. Letourneau says : "Primitive society esteemed the merchant slightly and associated him with greed and monopoly."^® Virgil gives the Greeks a reputation for duplicity in his famous passage, "Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes,"*" and Juvenal does not veil his disgust at the increasing number of Greeks in Rome and the gradual ascendancy of the Greek language and customs. He represents them as effeminate, quick witted, desperately impudent, fluent of speech.*^ We must receive with caution the impression of a Roman satirist. Jebb points out that the Greeks described by Juvenal were Asiatic in type, "Syrus in Tiberim defluxit Orontes," and a distinction must be drawn between the Greeks of Hellas and those of Asia.*^ The latter were people of very mixed blood in whom the quick Greek intelligence passed over into versatility and cunning. They were not truly representative of Hellenic ideals. That there was a great deal of dishonesty in the very best days of Athens admits of no question. Greece had her problems of "graft" and municipal corruption. There is a melancholy record of leaders who were strong on the battlefield but could not resist the subtle temptation of gold. The love of money proved a root of evil in 15 every period of Greek history. Pausanias, Miltiades, Themistocles, Demosthenes, are all under a cloud. Graft at Athens was so much a matter of common knowledge that Spartan twitted Athenian on the cleverness with which the Athenian magistrates were wont to loot the public treasury.*^' Mutual recrimination was the order of the day. Any pubUc man might at any time come under suspicion. Even Pericles did not escape charges, and the far-seeing Pheidias, anticipating possible accusations, arranged the gold in Athena s statue in such a way that it could be detached and weighed. But when all these things are taken into account, I still hesitate to brand the Greeks as sinners above all others. In view of our experience in the government of American cities, I believe a careful comparison might show that Greek conditions, if no better, were certainly no worse than our own. Into the field of Greek life where the play of centrifugal forces was so marked there entered three great unifying factors. They are: I. The idea of a common nationality. II. A common language. III. The influence of religion and games. All Greeks conceived themselves the descendants of Hellen, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha. This common descent was a fundamental article of popular faith. They moved and acted under its influence. As early as the sixth century B. C. we find increasing conviction of the superiority of the Greek to the foreigner. There was a distinct line of cleavage between Greek and barbarian. Strangers and for- eigners were barred from the religious festivals. Participation in the games was open only to men of Hellenic blood. The Greek was exclusive. Racial pride was very intense. Tarde says : "Of all nations conquered by Rome, none was more allied to her through blood than the populations of Greek origin. Yet these were precisely the communities where her language failed to spread and her culture and genius failed to be assimilated, because they retained their fierce pride— their indelible feeling of superiority."** The language spoken by the scattered sons of Hellas was itself a bond of union. Like the rugged mountain country, it was broken into numerous dialects. It attained great perfection as a vehicle of expression. Its vocabulary, rich in words to describe the most deli- 16 cate shadings of meaning, lent itself in a peculiar way to philosophy and later to Christian theology. It was a revelation of the mental alertness of the people. Professor Binder finds in language an index of civilization. A people intellectually alert seeks clearness of ex- pression and artistic form. There was a many-sidedness to the culture of the Greeks. Nothing was beyond the range of their interest. They were pioneers in philosophy, religion, ethics, politics. They produced the earliest literature of Europe, original in conception and artistic in form. They were distinguished for vivid mental power. "The opening up of many widely different branches of research during the nineteenth century," says Benjamin Kidd, "has brought a crowd of workers in various departments into close contact with the intellectual life of the Greeks. The unanimity of testimony which comes from these representatives of different spheres of thought as to the high average standard of intellectual development reached by this remarkable people is very striking. It is not only that the mental calibre of isolated minds like Socrates, Aristotle, Plato or Phidias appears so great when carefully measured and the state of knowledge and the circumstances of the time are taken into account. It is rather that the mental average of the whole of the people should have been so unmistakably high. In both respects the Greeks seem to have surpassed us."** Literature and art reached a climax in the Periclean Age. The intellectual distinction of Athens in the fifth century is an extra- ordinary phenomenon. Such brilliancy was never again seen until the Renaissance. Athens was the home of the best thought of the age — the school of Greece. The ideals of Pericles which found classic expression in Thucydides were reahzed in democracy, indi- vidual versatility, beauty and wisdom. The Hellenic spirit ex- pressed itself in political and social conditions that favored indi- vidual culture, intellectual activity and personal ambition. National enthusiasm and thorough-going democracy combined to create an atmosphere favorable to the highest literary and artistic genius. Some writers lay stress on slave labor as a factor in the situation. Botsford regards slavery as an essential condition of Athenian democracy because it gave leisure for participation in public life.*® Professor Ferguson minimizes its importance and characterizes 17 the current view as a "well nurtured delusion." He thinks the leisure of Athens has been greatly overestimated. One-third of the citizens had to earn a living by selling their labor. The majority of farmers had to till the land with their own hands. Slavery was simply one form of capital and there was in Athens no leisure class such as historians often picture.*^ Dr. Woodruff finds an explanation of the brilliancy of the Peric- lean era in the decadence of the Greeks which he believes was already well advanced in the fifth century. The very statuary copies the stigmata of degeneration in a dying race. The great achieve- ments were those of neurotics. Socrates, Antisthenes and Diogenes were degenerate though men of genius.*^ Jones places the date of Hellenic decline in the fourth century. "By 300 B. C. the Greeks lost much of their manly vigor and intel- lectual strength." He finds the cause in malaria, which became en- demic in Greece during the last quarter of the fifth century. He notes the frequent occurrence of ■K0fi£r6<; in literature after 425 B. C, the very year when the Athenians were engaged in campaigns at Sphacteria, one of the worst malaria centers of the Mediterra- nean.*** Can there be any connection between the prevalence of malaria in the fourth century and the unprecedented importance of the sanc- tuary of Asklepios at Epidaurus which rose into prominence at that very time? If Woodruff attributes Athenian greatness to decadence, Kaines Smith, on the other hand, finds the source of its achievements in its vigor, patriotism and high idealism. He sees an unconscious har- mony between the art and history of any period. "The artist is bound to be the unconscious interpreter of the mental, moral and social atmosphere in which he lives. Not only does he give to the nation what it wants, he is of the nation and he wants the same things himself for the same reason. "•'*' Such masterpieces as Myron's "Discobolus" and "Marsyas" or the statue of Victory by Paionios were called into being by the emotions that filled the heart of Atliens in the first flush of successful encoun- ter with Persia. The genius of Pheidias embodied in gold, ivory and marble the splendid faith and unselfish patriotism of tlie Athe- nian people. The combination of restraint and exuberance in his 18 master productions is a reflection of the nation's character. Greek religion also gave unity. "In the early city state," says Warde Fowler, "the unifying power of religion was itself so strong and irresistible as to be almost beyond the comprehension of a mod- ern unfamiliar with the life of the ancient world. "®^ Greek religion was social-political. Church and state were inti- mately allied. "Service of the gods," says Kaines Smith, "meant to the Greek, service of the state, of the city in which stood the sacred places that it was his duty as a good servant of the gods to defend. Religion and citizenship were to this extent identiccd."*^ Famell characterizes Greek religion as "unique perhaps in the world for its almost naively intimate association with the whole political and social life of the people. The religious atmosphere is all-pervading. Law courts, market places, council chambers, town hall, are consecrated places under the charge of certain deities. Religion is absorbed in politics, especially at Athens, where occa- sionally even a partisan color is given to it."^^ There was a full recognition of the gods in the great incidents of domestic life, birth, marriage, death. There was a civic recognition of the gods in religious festivals, numerous and stately. The sacerdotal element was in abeyance. There was no central- ized, organized priesthood. Sacerdotalism was alien to the Hellenic mind. "While religion was inwrought into the fabric of the state," says Farnell, "it took a subordinate place, ministrant rather than ■ master. The priest was a citizen, the servant, not tlie despot, of the state."^* "The tendency of the Greek," says Reinach, "was to subordinate priest to magistrate. The priests never constituted a clergy like those of Persia, India and Gaul."^^ Religion reflects the humanity of the civil life. Priests were elected and might be changed at intervals. "The priest's duty," says Laurie, "seems to have been chiefly that of a caretaker and a regulator in the manner of offering sacrifices on special occasions.""^ Religious toleration was a feature of Greek history which is marked by the absence of religious persecution. The cult of Apollo was the first bond of union between Hellenic cities. From the eighth century onward the Delphic oracle is the most potent Pan-Hellenic force in Greek religious institutions. Far- 19 nell compares its influence to that of the mediaeval papacy. "It bore the same part in relation to Greek cities that the mediaeval papacy played in relation to the states of Christendom. But ecclesiastical domination was rendered impossible in Greece partly by absence of genius at Delphi but mainly by the stubborn independence and cen- trifugal instincts of the Greek nSXa."^'' Closely connected with religion were the national games that played a big part in unifying the people. Religious in origin, they became a unique feature of Greek life. There is nothing parallel in any other nation. The Olympic games go back to remote antiquity. Later in their development were the Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian. The fondest ambition of every Greek was to appear as victor before assembled Hellas. These games afforded communication between scattered communities. They stimulated traffic. Hither the poet came to present his masterpiece and here the musician found an opportunity to show his skill. Wrestling, boxing, running, javelin throwing, chariot racing, found place on the program. In 393 A. D. the Olympic games had been held for the last time. Nothing corresponding to them has since appeared in Greek life. The revival of the Olympic games in 1896, when the contests took place at Athens and were hailed with enthusiasm by Greeks, repre- sents something entirely different from the ancient institution. The Marathon race was won by a Greek youth, but among the Greeks to-day athletics hold no important place. Gymnastics only recently became a part of Greek education. ^^ Games do not play the same part in university life at Athens as at Oxford, and outdoor sports do not flourish in Greece. "Foot-ball and cricket," says tlie author of "Greece of the Hellenes," "present no attraction to the youth of Greece, and the latter game introduced into Corfu during British occupation has gradually died out even there."^* The question naturally suggests itself, why did the Greeks fail to develop a larger social consciousness, — why was the social mind always so closely limited by the horizon of the city state ? This ap- pears the more strange because the ideal elements were present in language, institutions, religion and kinship, but these ideal factors never proved sufficiently powerful to effect political solidarity. Ellwood says: "The Greeks, the most intellectual people of an- tiquity, had Httle or no practical moral genius, and their social life 20 was characterized by instability, disharmony, and at length by cor- ruption and degeneracy."^ Benjamin Kidd thinks that intellectual brilliancy does not neces- sarily make for social efficiency. He cites the French as an illustra- tion. In their light, agile, athletic grasp of principles and ideas they bear striking similarity to the Greeks. In the intellecttial order they are immeasurably superior to the Teutons, but in social efficiency they are constantly outstripped by their less brilliant neighbors.®^ However we may incline to stress or to discount the intellectual factors, it seems to me a deeper reason for the failure of Greece to rise high in the scale of social efficiency is to be found in the geog- raphy of the country itself. Buckle reads off all history in terms of food and climate. Marx finds its interpretation in the economic struggle. Each has grasped a truth, though not the whole truth. Environment plays a very decisive part in economic and social life. Fairbanks illustrates the difference between the French and Ger- man people by reference to the contour of their respective lands. "Paris is almost in the center of a large basin including more than half of France. By nature it is the political center and the eco- nomic center of all that region. This configuration of the country has been one factor in producing the historic unity of France. Not only has the unity of the nation remained for centuries unthreat- ened, but the life of the people is far more centralized than is the life of other European peoples. The industrial center is Paris. No other city has a commercial activity in any sense independent of its relation to Paris. Education, literature, art, center in the capital. In Germany, the North German plain is the only considerable geo- logical district. Each small district has developed its own particular customs and industries, its own mode of thought, its own ideals. It is impossible that the common life of the people or its national life should be as centralized as in France."^^ Dr. Williams finds the fundamental difference between Russian and Enelish history in the difference between a plain and an island. The difference between a sea and land empire is constantly felt and largely accounts for the striking difference between the two nations in character, social structure and political development. The compact, highly organized social structure of an island is in con- trast with a diffused civilization extending over a wide geographical 21 area and not readily concentrated at any given point. The natural environment so different from the snug compactness of an island with an even temperate climate has determined the main lines of Russian historical development.®^ In a similar way Hogarth thinks geographical conditions were a determining factor in the trend of Hellenic life. The geography and topography of the country implanted in the Greek mind a ten- dency toward small independent groups each imbued with its own intense local patriotism.®* "The Aryan tribes," says Fairbanks, "penetrating into Greece were necessarily broken into smaller groups. Lack of communication between narrow valleys made the culture of one group less and less like that of others."®^ The Greek states represented varying ideals. The versatile Athe- nian had little in common with the Boeotian who was proverbially sluggish. Gay, dissipated, luxurious Corinth had little in common with Sparta, where every one was poured in the same mould. Moun- tain barriers checked free communication. Groups lived in isola- tion. Each developed a particular social type apart from the rest. In spite of ideal factors making for unity there never was much real sympathy between Sparta and Athens. Greece did not offer a practical sphere in which the ideal elements could come to fruitage. The religious festivals and games kept alive memories of racial one- ness and glory, but they did not provide contacts sufficiently fre- quent, intimate nor widespread to beget national solidarity. For a time the states forgot local differences under the menace of foreign invasion. Formidable danger from without always draws a people together and inspires united action. But when victory is achieved the bond of union is often weakened, as in the case of the Balkan League. Industrial and commercial development offer the best basis for national solidarity. Under the strong motive of economic interest constant contacts are provided and mutual relations are established, bidding fair to continue unbroken through generations. This finds an illustration in the history of Germany, which presented certain ideal elements of unity in language, culture, tradition and blood kinship. Yet none of these gave her a national solidarity until the "ZoUverein" taught the German states cooperation. Developed by the Prussian financier Maassen in 1818, the "ZoUverein" estab- 22 lished an economic unity which became the precursor of political unity. Such economic unity was impossible in ancient Greece. Neither the geography of the country nor the civilization of the time afforded an impetus to the development of the social constitution. The very commerce itself in which the Greeks excelled was a centrifugal force as regards their own country. There was not a sufificiently wide and constant interstate trade to beget the habit of cooperation and to establish varied and permanent contacts. The social conscious- ness did not rise beyond the tribal stage. It was unable to overcome the natural barriers to communication. The time was not auspicious for Greek civilization to reach the third and highest stage of Profes- sor Binder's classification, the cooperation and peaceful competi- tion of world-wide commerce. Had the physical geography of Greece been such as to facilitate the growth of domestic trade on a large scale, I believe that the trend of Hellenic history might have been altogether different. We find then, an illustration of a principle well established in sociology, namely, the process of socialization is in large measure dependent on the habit of cooperation, and this in turn grows out of easy and constant communication and contact. The realization of potential consolidation in Greece was thwarted by the absence of those intimate economic and industrial relations which supply at once the all-powerful motive and open the field for national soli- darity. 23 PART II. The destruction of Corinth by Mummius in 146 B. C. marks the end of Greek independence. The battle of Navarino might be taken as the starting point of the history of modern Greece. The scene of Cleon's signal victory in the Peloponnesian war became the scene of an unexpected engagement between the Turco-Egyptian and the allied fleets under the command of Sir Edward Codrington. A five-hour contest resulted in a decisive victory for the latter. The date was October 20, 1827. Greek independence was assured. Then began the slow rehabilitation of the Greek state. Does modern Greece in some sense reproduce the past? Shall we discover the play of the same forces that were marked in ancient tim^s? Can we trace unbrokenly the same ideals, tendencies and aptitudes that stamp ancient and modern akin by social heredity? Is there any survival of the type of mind that found its highest satisfaction in the politics of the city state? Is individualism pronounced to-day as in antiquity? Does the attitude of the Greek toward coloniza- tion, war, commerce, bear any resemblance to what we found in classic times? Are racial pride, language and religion still unifying bonds among the people? These are the problems of our thesis. It is very significant that even at the outset of modern Greek his- tory many patriots, as Sergeant tells us, cherished the vision of a revival of the ancient system of local self rule.'^® The idea of the city state still persisted, illustrating the tendency of a people to. think in a certain groove; but the idea no longer possessed vitality and effectiveness. We can point to three factors that tended to deprive it of power and prevent its emergence as a characteristic of Hellenic life. These were : (a) The influence of Alexander's conquests; (b) The influence of Turkish domination; and (c) The consciousness of national solidarity which was such a 24 marked phenomenon in European history in the nineteenth century. Alexander introduced into Greek hfe the ideal of a larger Hellen- ism. The accident of his death prevented the unification of the world. He dreamed a dream of world empire and conceived his program with a breadth of vision far more consonant with the im- perial mould of the Latin mind than the exclusiveness of the Greek. Four centuries of Turkish domination drew the Greek people together, obliterating the old time animosities and welding them into a homogeneous nation, in which there was no Sparta, no Athens, no Thebes. And finally, the Greeks felt the influence of the spirit of the times — the Zeitgeist — ^which expressed itself every- where in a trend toward national unification. Thus it came about that modern Greece possessed a political unity which ancient Greece had never known. The modern kingdom came first under the regime of the Bavarian Otto, whose rule did not bring prosperity. He was succeeded in 1863 by the late King George. But even under the changed conditions of modern Greece, the old passion for local autonomy lives on.®'' The habit of thought persists. This is especially true in the interior towns which are less affected by the movement of life beyond their immediate borders. Here the traveler notices the stubborn persistence of the narrow tribal outlook, which as we have already pointed out, strikes its roots in the topography of the land. "There is to-day," says Rodd, "a stationary character and a marked separate individuality from val- ley to valley and range to range which has been accentuated by the physical features of the country, the difficulty of communication, and the long devious paths which separate dwellers in one plain from their immediate neighbors across the mountains. Boeotian will still be found somewhat of a stranger in Sparta, and I have heard those in Sparta express themselves very disparagingly of their neighbors across Taygetus and of the race of Messenians in gen- eral."®* Throughout Greece there is a tendency to set the interests of a district or town above the general interests of the nation. The Greeks to-day are no more inclined to take a large, national view than were the Greeks of classic times, and the passion for politics is unabated as in the Periclean age. It pervades every class. "The mildest dissipation of the native laborer or artisan," says Martin, "is to pass a few hours outside or inside one of the numerous cafes 25 discussing local politics. He cares and knows nothing about cul- ture, though he is shrewd enough to follow the trend of public events and the consequences which legislation is destined to have upon his particular interests. "^^ "The Greeks," says Miller, "are almost all born politicians, to whom political discussion is as the breath of their nostrils. Before and during each sitting of Parliament the courtyard is crowded with spectators and the galleries are usually full. Politics are the morning and evening pabulum of Athens and the debates are min- utely followed in the paper. The discussions of the ancient Athenian democracy are vividly recalled."^" This all engrossing enthusiasm for politics has had a baneful effect on Hellenic progress. The professions are overstocked. The agri- cultural resources are undeveloped. Thei-e has been raised up an army of professional politicians whose influence is detrimental. Endless political turmoil has been engendered. In 1872, Secretary Watson of the British legation at Athens pointed out this weakness. "While there is felt in Greece a painful dearth of men whose education has fitted them to supply some of the multifarious material wants of the country — surveying, farm- ing, road making, bridge building, there is a plethora of lawyers, writers and clerks, who in the absence of regular occupation become agitators and coffee-house politicians."''^ Mahaffy bears witness to the same. "The study of politics has been driven too far. The people find agricultural pursuits not to their liking. I am informed that many Greek politicians are paupers who sit about the cafe on the lookout for one of the ten thousand places devised for the patronage of the ministry. As there are thirty thousand expectants, twenty thousand disappointed are always at work seeking to turn out the ten thousand."''^ Sergeant, writing in 1897, says : "The Greeks naturally incline to methods of parliamentary government and are disposed by training and tradition to throw themselves with fervor into the business of debate and intrigue. The circumstances of the country render com- petition for every political office exceedingly keen."'''^ Jebb, in 1901, says: "Greece has universal suffrage and civil servants are removable on a change of ministry. Thus there has been a general dearth of secure careers for able men. The liberal 26 professions have been overcrowded. Greece has too many politicians and poHtical journals. There is a disproportionately large number of men who are educated for law, medicine, journalism, politics. Politics should cease to be a game played between holders and seek- ers of office and all local personal interests should be uniformly and steadfastly subordinated to the public interests of the country."'^* I am very much impressed with the uniformity of testimony on this point. Every one who has any acquaintance with modern Greek life is conscious of the disastrous effect of the inordinate pursuit of politics. Miller says that even the army system is vitiated by politics, which greatly impairs its efficiency."''^® The Greek press is largely concerned with politics. "The Greeks," says Martin, "are the greatest readers of newspapers in the world. The political intelligence of the day, foreign and at home, forms the one and only subject in which the average Greek takes any particular interest."^® Athens, with more than a dozen newspapers for her population of two hundred thousand people, even when you take into account the fact that the area of circulation extends throughout the kingdom, displays a kinship with the ancients who in St. Paul's day "spent their time in nothing else but either to tell or to hear some new thing," and whom Demosthenes represents as walking about and asking one another, "Is there any news?"'''" We noted as characteristic of ancient Hellas an extreme indi- vidual freedom. The same individualism is as marked to-day as in ancient times. Jealousy, rivalry, restiveness, factiousness, self- assertion, inhere in the national character. In 1823-4, Greek success was ebbing. The people were divided into factions springing from conflict of private interests.'^* Byron saw clearly that nothing could be accomplished until the Greeks were at unity among themselves. From the outset the Greek revo- lution was well nigh paralyzed by discord. Concerted effort was rendered impossible. Each band wished to act apart. Tuckerman points to personal ambition as the most prominent trait in Greek character. "Rivalry is the whetstone of university, bar, political arena." "Jealousy is prominent in communities and individuals. Attica and the Peloponnesus faintly recall to-day the dissensions of ancient times. Continental Greece and the Ionian 27 Islands view each other askant. Between provinces, villages and classes exist jealousies and petty feuds that seem beyond power of reconciliation. There is no sacrifice for the good of the whole."™ Mahaffy says that "jealousy is specially engrained in the texture of Greek nature."*" The personal equation plays a big part in Greek life. It enters largely into politics. "In Greece," says Miller, " a dissatisfied place hunter goes over bag and baggage to the opposition. No one is in the least scandalized at such a rapid change of front, because politics in Greece have nothing to do with principles, but are wholly per- sonal. There being no burning differences of principle between parties, parliamentary life becomes a struggle between rival leaders. Each has his faction behind him, which he must placate with spoils of office when he comes into power. "*^ "During the parliamentary election time," says Martin, "all Greece is in noisy ferment. Candidates are engaged day and night in inter- viewing and being interviewed. In Greece alone I have observed the strong personal as opposed to party element in election cam- paigns. The majority of candidates avowedly have no policy. They follow blindly the particular political chief ."®^ Tuckerman says : "Unlike our own election, where the announce- ment of the elected candidate is like oil on the waters of clamor and effervescence of parties, the defeated candidates retire from the open field to unite to get their opponents ousted on the first con- venient opportunity."** Professor Wheeler considers aversion to mechanical discipline a deep-seated national characteristic running through the whole life from the drill of the soldiers to a funeral procession. "Men walk together on the street but do not keep step. A Greek funeral pro- cession presents a disorderly and individualistic appearance. The people go on foot. Each seems to be strolling on his own account. There is no fixed order of procedure. Every one does what seems to him good. If there occurs a halt in the proceeding a debate may ensue. Three out of four of the bearers will prove to be orators. There is no one person in authority. Five or six different ones are giving orders or making suggestions at the same time. The same popular trait shows itself wherever masses of people are as- sembled."** 28 The special war correspondent for Reuters in the Greco-Turkish war of 1897 strikingly confirms Wheeler's observation. "Here I may sum up the impression derived from a close inspection of the men at Athens, at Volo and at Larissa. So far- as the rank and file were concerned, the physique was excellent. As men they would compare well with the soldiers of any other nation of Europe. . . . But their drill was loose and their bearing could scarcely be called soldierly. One could not watch them long without being impressed with the general intelligence of all and that they were anxious to do their duty as far as it accorded with their notions of discipline. And here was the weak spot in the whole Greek army. There was no real sense of strict military discipline. The drill was left mainly to the non-commissioned officers. There was no habit of implicit obedience to orders. I have actually seen an officer approach a private and implore him as a favor to do what he had been told by his non-commissioned drill instructor. On another occasion when a shower of rain came on during drill a battalion simply melted away to seek the shelter of the nearest trees. "One trained in British methods, much more one cognizant of the stern discipline of the German army, must have been shocked at the free and easy familiarity between officers and privates on and off duty. On the streets and in cafes privates mixed on a footing of perfect equality with their superior officers and debated with free- dom military subjects."*^ Miller speaks of this same lack of discipline. "The soldier or- dered to execute a certain manoeuvre instead of obeying blindly pauses to consider whether the officer has given the right order."*® The same writer says : "One unfortunate result of the extreme democracy so firmly ingrained in the Hellenic character is the dis- inclination to obey a leader and the consequent tendency to split up into cliques and groups. Again and again the daily life of Greece shows the impossibility of forming clubs and companies or anything which requires cooperation and the subordination of the individual to the whole. The Greeks have an intense distrust of one another and this is an immense hindrance to the development of the coun- try. For this reason Greek companies cannot be formed to exploit its universal resources. "*'' In 1905 there was a project of establishing a line of steamships 29 from the Piraeus to New York. It fell through on account of per- sonal differences between the directors. The company split up into hostile factions. One had the ships. The other had the money.*^ This is a parable of the whole situation. It is hard for Greeks to work together. They lack self-restraint and discipline — what Ar- nold calls the "power of conduct" — in which the Romans excelled and which became a source of strength in Rome's history. It was quite characteristic of the Greek nature to continue fighting the Turk when their Balkan allies granted an armistice for negotiating peace.** It was no less characteristic for Greeks and Bulgars to fall out of alliance. Social heredity asserts itself. Of old "scarcely had the last Persian left Hellenic soil before those who fought side by side at Salamis were at one another's throats." With regard to the energy of the Greeks in colonization, their atti- tude toward war and their commercial activity, what has been af- firmed of the ancient people well describes the situation to-day. There is the same "wanderlust" as of old. Greek emigrants seek outlet for their energy in every quarter of the globe, from the United States to the Transvaal, carrying Hellenic traditions and preserving and perpetuating them in a marked way. As in ancient Hellas, the military ideal plays no significant part. Miller says that the Greeks do not as a nation like the military career and the service is not popular with them.*" But when the country calls, the Greek responds. Opinions differ as to his fighting * ability. Wheeler thinks he is distinguished by "dash rather than good staying power." He lacks the solid, monotonous, plodding spirit of the German. He will excel in such military operations as admit of an element of sport, the exercise of wits, features of sur- prise and shifting interest."^ Cassavetti says : "The Hellene's tem- perament is such that an initial success or failure may be critical for him. A success inspires and gives confidence. A serious check is apt to destroy morale."*^ We have already referred to the lack of discipline which the mod- ern Greek soldier shares in common with the ancient Athenian. The Greek army has, however, shown improvement in this respect since 1897 when it proved unequal to the combat with Turkey."^ Greece emerged from the Balkan war with large gains due, I think, not so much to military skill as to a combination of favorable circum- 30 stances, and especially to the diplomatic talent of the great Veni- zelos, who ranks with the leading statesmen of the world. As of old, Greece is winning her biggest victories through diplomacy, not through military power. It must, however, be said that the people are keenly awake to the need of a strong army and navy and under the regime of her soldier king we may confidently expect military progress. In commerce, the Greek reproduces most strikingly the type of the ancients. "The Greeks," says one writer, "have a national genius for commerce. They succeed best in countries where con- ditions are advanced. Their intelligence readily allies itself with the superior facilities."®* "Owing to their natural aptitude for com- merce," says the the author of "Greece of the Hellenes," "as also to their predilection for seafaring life, the Greeks have secured a great proportion of the trade of the Levant."''^ "The activity, thrift, skill, and prosperity of Greek merchants," says Sergeant, "are attested wherever markets are open to them. Commercial aptitude continues to be one of the characteristic feat- ures of the race."®^' Greek history presents an almost unbroken record of commercial success from antiquity, through Byzantine times down to our own day. The author of "Greece and the Ionian Islands" says that "the Hellenic race is the motive power of the Ottoman Empire in trade, industry and civilization."'''^ "The Turk," says Schurman, "is a soldier and farmer. The Greek is preeminent as a trader and his ability secures him a disproportionate share of the trade of the empire."*^ It is remarkable how the Greek love of disputation manifests it- self in every-day trading. Wheeler says that "the Greek shopkeeper cannot tolerate a one-price system. The consummation of every trade involves a duel of wits and a certain amount of conversation. If you take time enough and argue well, you may often induce a Greek to sell for really less than he ought to."''" "It is very amus- ing to stand by," says Tuckerman, "and watch the process of a business transaction even if it be the buying and selling of a string of dried onions. Argument is often lost in the vehement simultane- ous declamation of both parties."^*"' "A long argument over the price to be paid," says Miller, "leaves no rancour behind it. The 31 Greek regards such a process as the natural way of doing business and when it is over he will ask you to take a cup of coffee or offer to show you the sights just as if you had accepted his first proposal without demur. "^"^ The Greek salesman, like the peddlar in Romola, loves to talk over the purchase, betraying even in his commercial transactions the instinct to have things talked over which was a characteristic old as Homeric society, where open discussion was a leading fact in every-day life.-"*^ We noted in ancient times that a certain prejudice against the Greeks found expression in Roman writers. A similar prejudice to-day leads occasionally to the charge that the Greeks are dishon- est, crafty, untrustworthy. Byron gives expression to prevalent opinion in the lines : "Still to the neighboring ports they waft Proverbial wiles and ancient craft. In this the subtle Greek is found. For this and this alone, renowned. "^"^ Tuckerman finds the source of this idea in the low character of the mixed population of the Levantine ports. ^''* The seaport towns of Europe," says Grosvenor, "especially the Mediterranean, nourish a peculiar brood. A sort of human scum drifts aiong the coast. Here the dishonest Greek is only the most dextrous among many rivals. "^"^ "The Levantine Greeks," says Cassavetti, "are not true Greeks but Hellenized Levantines who perhaps for two centuries have been known in Western Europe as sharp and not altogether honest traders. The Levantine Greek cannot be taken in any way representative of the Greek of to-day. He has characteristics whicli are quite foreign to Hellenic character as any one will discover who cares to visit Greece and tries to understand something of her people."i«6 Those who know Hellenic life intimately seem to agree that the average Greek to-day measures well up to the standard of any other class. Grosvenor points out that the leading Greek firms of Lon- don, Marseilles, Trieste and Constantinople are deservedly esteemed for integrity and business honor. Their reputation is as high as French, English and American houses.^'''' Tuckerman thinks that 32 the commercial and working classes in a Greek city are as respect- able and honest as the same classes in other European cities.-^"* Miller reaches a similar conclusion. He thinks that the cosmopoli- tan inhabitants of the large cities are not truly representative of the Greek and he bears high testimony to the honesty of the country folk-ios Mahaffy refers to instances in which the Greek ministers have been known to accept bribes. ^^'^ This is a modern parallel to the "graft" so common among ancient Athenians. In general, modern Greek commerce follows the same lines as the ancient. It is foreign rather than domestic. The physical geog- raphy of the country has determined its trend. Facilities of trans- portation within Greece are backward. "It is only within the last fifty years," says Martin, "that Greece has been able to boast of any organized railway system. The progress of construction has not been commensurate with the general improvement in the country's commerce and industry."^^^ Greece has now seven railway sys- tems. In marked contrast is the phenomenal growth of the mercan- tile marine. In 1896 the foreign commerce of Greece was valued at £7,560,000. In 1910 it had risen to £11,841,975."^ In 1912 the foreign trade of Greece amoimted to $57,724,194. The value of merchandise imported was $29,734,960. The exports were valued at $27,989,234. The countries which share in the trade of Greece in order of their relative importance are Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Germany, France, United States, Netherlands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Belgium, Egypt, Italy, Roumania, and Switzerland.^^^ Statesmen are awakening to the necessity of developing home industries. Speaking of the high cost of living in the Patras district. Consul Arthur B. Cooke says : "Most articles of food and clothing used by the better classes are imported; and since practically all these articles pay a high duty, the cost of living for the better classes in Greece is unusually high. Strong efforts are being made by the Government to reduce the cost of living and to develop domestic industries, thus furnishing opportunity for labor and making the conditions of life more attractive for those who might be disposed to seek their fortunes in foreign lands."^^* Having noted the operation of these centrifugal forces in modern 33 Greek life, modified in some measure by the new conditions, we ask now whether the unifying power of race, language and reUgion can still be felt, and I think we shall find that social heredity is here even more striking. Racial pride among the Greeks is no less pronounced than in antiquity. The Greek believes implicitly in his Hellenic lineage, regarding himself the direct descendant of the classic people. The scholarly Bikelas states the conviction in these words: "The en- tirely and exclusively Hellenic character of all the features, physical and intellectual, presented by the present inhabitants of the country is a most striking fact, almost unique in history, a glorious mark of our race and a wondrous proof of the intensity of our national vitality.""^ Wheeler says that "the modern Greek is morally convinced that he is lineally descended from the men who made the Greece of old the motherland of art, eloquence, letters, civics, philosophic thought and human liberty. With intellectual conviction on the subject he refuses to deal."-'-'® "One cannot hurt a modern Greek more surely," says Martin, "than by telling him he is not a descendant of the ancient Hellenic race."-'-'''' Unbroken Hellenic ancestry is assumed by every Greek writer. When Germanos of Patras raised the standard of insurrection against the Turks, he drew up a letter to the European consuls pleading for support on the ground "of the services rendered to humanity by our ancestors. "^^® When the Cretans sought American sympathy in their attempt to throw off the Moslem yoke they began tlieir appeal in this char- acteristic way, "We, the descendants of Minos and of Jupiter."^^* The deep-seated conviction has left a decided impress on Greek character. It has kept them close to ancient ideals. In language, thought and custom the Greek reverts to the classic era for his standard. "No motive appeals more strongly to the modern Greek than the desire to be worthy of those he believes to be his ances- tors.""" There is a conscious aim to reproduce the past. It is very significant that at the revival of the Olympic games in 1896 the Greeks threw the discus according to ancient method. They had never heard of any other way.^*^ This belief in their classic ancestry has begotten a somewhat nar- 34 row and intolerant pride of superiority. "The Greeks," says Miller, "are justly tenacious of Hellenic descent and nothing is further from their desires than to be represented in any way, however re- motely, connected with their hated rivals the Balkan Slavs/'^^a There is a certain racial arrogance about the Greek when he is brought into cooperation with other peoples. This is especially manifest in church aifairs. Under Ottoman rule, the Greek Patri- arch of Constantinople has a unique position as the political repre- sentative of the Christian population of the Turkish Empire. So carefully were all national and racial aspirations of the different peoples within the fold of the Orthodox communion repressed that the Greek Patriarchate, as von Mach says, "was well on its way toward making all the Christian subjects of the Sultan, Orthodox by religion and Greek by nationality."^^* With a growing consciousness of nationality, the Bulgars grew restive under the ecclesiastical rule of the Greeks and demanded a national hierarchy. In 1870 a firman established the Bulgarian exarchate. This implied the formal recognition of a Bulgar as dis- tinct from a Greek nationality. Friction arose between the Greek Patriarch and the Bulgarian Exarch and schism ensued in the church. The intense bitter antipathy between Greek and Bulgar, between patriarchist and exarchist, has been the source of the gravest complications in the Macedonian situation. The friction strengthened the Sultan's hold on Macedonia and gives us the key to the interpretation of this involved chapter in the history of the Near East. A recent situation in Palestine affords illustration of a similar attitude on the part of the Greeks. The churches in Jerusalem and neighboring towns are largely Arab in their membership, but the higher ecclesiastics are all Greek who carefully exclude the natives from ecclesiastical preferment and higher educational opportunities. The result is an undercurrent of friction which at times breaks out in open revolt. The persistence of language affords another illustration of social heredity. The Greek language registers the vicissitudes of Greek history. By the tenth century classic Greek ceased to be under- stood and by the thirteenth century the popular language was a dialect. 35 It was Adamantios Coraes (1748-1833) who laid the foundations of modern literary Greek. A native of Chios and an ardent patriot, he sought to rouse among his countrymen the conviction that as true descendants of the ancients they should regard as their own the heritage of classic times. He conceived the purification of the language, the elimination of foreign words, and a return as closely as possible to Hellenistic standards.^^* Mahaffy says that the present Greeks read the old classics as well at first sight as our peasants could read Chaucer. There is little change between the language of Plato and that of the present Greek.125 "The Latin language," says Jebb, "passing into Romance was disintegrated. Greek was for centuries rude and ungrammatical, with foreign words thrust in, but in the organic matters of structure and syntax, Greek never made a compromise with any foreign tongue."i26 "The process of transforming the Hellenic language into the mod- ern Greek dialect," says Finlay, "evidently arose from a long neglect of the rules of grammar and orthography. The pronunciation, though corrupted by the confusion it makes of vowels and diph- thongs, proves by the very tenacity with which it has preserved the Hellenic accentuation that modern Greek is a lineal descendant of the classic language, for with its inflections correctly written, it might easily be mistaken for a colloquial dialect of some ancient Greek colony. There is hardly more difference between the lan- guage of Homer and the New Testament than between that of the New Testament and a modern Greek review. "^^'^ There is a ten- dency to-day both in written and spoken Greek to approximate to the classic type. The tenacity with which the Greek clings to this ideal found illustration in the "Gospel Riots" of 1901, which arose out of the indignation of students at a translation of the New Testa- ment into the vernacular which they regarded as a debased form. Talking to an educated Greek, a university man, whom I met on the steamer at Patras, I happened to mention that I had a modern Greek Testament, whereupon he begged me to destroy it. The author of "When I Was a Boy in Greece" gives a vivid pic- ture of the pride with which the Greek boy is taught to regard the language. "With what ease and pleasure an intelligent Greek 36 boy who has passed through his grammar school, where he only learns modern Greek, will tackle his Anabasis when he goes to the 'gymnasium,' and he finds out that there is about the same differ- ence between the modern Greek that he speaks to-day and the Greek of Xenophon, as there is between the Greek of Xenophon and that of Homer. It is always a living language to us, and I remember how indignant we boys felt and how unreasonable it appeared to us when the master told us one day that the Greek taught in England was taught in a pronunciation of English making."^^* The conformity of modern Greek to classic standards and the tenacity with which the people cling to the language have been re- garded by some as conclusive proof of physical heredity. Even so great an authority as Mahaffy falls into confusion on this point, finding in the persistence of language the principal support for his contention of the descent of modern Greeks from the classic Hel- lenes. ^^^ Language, however, does not establish physical heredity. The Bulgars are Slavs in speech, but of Finn or Turk descent. The Roumanians are probably Slavic in origin but Romance in language.^3** Speech gives no criterion of race. It is proof of social contact not of racial heredity. Even greater perhaps in its unifying power than either race or language is the Greek Church. It is part of the Eastern Orthodox communion which includes the patriarchates of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, the national churches of Rus- sia, Servia, Montenegro, Roumania, Bulgaria, the Cypriote Church and certain independent metropolitanates in Austro-Hungary. Its doctrines are established by the seven ecumenical councils. The Eastern and Western churches differ in spirit and point of view. Eastern theological thought is rooted in Greek philosophy. West- ern theology reflects the spirit of Roman law. The Latin ideal is monarchical, a government from one centre obliterating as far as possible national distinctions. The Eastern Church is a confedera- tion with no one head and recognizes nationality as a controlling influence in ecclesiastical development. The Byzantine liturgy, lengthy, rhetorical, awe-inspiring, impressive, reflects the tempera- ment of a people who incline to the metaphysical aspect of religion and delight to dwell on the subtle mysteries of the faith.^^^ 37 No nation presents greater religious homogeneity than the Greek. Among no people is the idea of the identity of church and state more thoroughly rooted. Whatever seems even remotely to tres- pass on the former is regarded as treason to the latter. The attitude of the people toward religion presents a striking likeness to ancient days. Le Bon raises the question whether a people ever changes its faith. He says "conversion en masse takes place, but a close study shows that what people have more especially changed is the name of the old religion and not the religion itself. The adopted beliefs have been transformed and brought into touch with the old ones they replaced."^^^ While we may not be prepared to go to the full length of Le Bon's conclusion, yet the study of comparative religion affords in- numerable instances in which his statement holds true. The cross on the grave of the Christian Samoyed is supplemented by the overturned sledge to convey the dead safely over the snows of the underworld.^** Among the Christian Lapps the old notions of a material after-life survive.^** Social psychology takes cognizance of this persistence. Professor Ross stresses the survival of form where the spirit has changed.^*'' In no field does this find such a wealth of illustration as in the religion and folk lore of modern Greece. The author of "Greece of the Hellenes" says: "The Greeks would seem to have assimi- lated to a greater extent than any other Christian nation the heathen festivals and observances of their ancestors and the classical 'genii loci' have in many instances only slightly changed their names. "^'' Allinson points out numerous parallels in earlier and present Greek religion. It would seem as if there had been a studied effort to make the transition from paganism to Christianity as easy as possible so that the change might not be too abrupt. Byzantine churches replace the ancient shrines on the same site. The cult of Dionysus has been skilfully transformed into that of St. Dionysius in vine-bearing Naxos. Shrines of Demeter have given place to churches dedicated to St. Demetrius.^*'^ "Numerous chapels and churches," says Rodd, "are built on foundations and with material's of early pagan temples and the saint to whom they are dedicated has as it were by compromise in the struggle between Paganism and Christianity inherited the miraculous power attributed to the deity 38 he superseded."i5« Lawson points out how St. Elias the prophet, whose chapels crown countless hilltops, is successor to Helios the sun.i3» There still lingers, especially among the peasantry, a belief in "genii," "lamias" sirens, "nereids" and "the fates.""" Persistence of ancient custom runs through every department of Greek life. "Relics of ancient faith and superstitions," says Ser- geant, "of pantheism and the heroology of two thousand years ago survive in the traditions of the Greeks of to-day.""^ The common things of every day afford abundant instances where old customs have lived on with wonderful tenacity. Especially is this true in regard to the marriage and funeral customs. The crowning of the bride and groom with circlets in the marriage ser- vice is a survival of ancient Greek ceremony."^ Every traveler in Greece will note the funeral procession with the corpse borne uncovered in the casket to the grave. Rodd de- scribes it in this way: "First walks a bearer with the cofEn lid carried erect, covered with black velvet or white silk, with decora- tions of purple muslin, flowers and tinsel. Boys carrying the cross and banners of the church follow. Behind these come the priests in bright robes and one or two professional mourners who sing a sort of low wailing lamentation, while in front of the friends and relatives, the coffin open with the corpse exposed, propped up on a pillow, dressed as for a festival, is carried by four or six bearers.""* This custom, now falling into disuse in Athens, carries us back to pre-Christian Greece. Solon ordered the exposure of the corpse as a precaution against foul play. In the "Frogs" of Aristophanes, Dionysus conveniently comes across a corpse in the street and seeks to strike a bargain by which the corpse will bear some luggage to the underworld. "In Macedonia, Thrace and the islands of the Archipelago there is still a survival of Charon's obol. There is evidence that up to recent times this custom prevailed in European Greece. The Greek Church long waged unsuccessful warfare against this tenacious superstition."^** The author of "When I Was a Boy in Greece" says : "I remem- ber the funeral of my grandfather, and the noble pale head and gray beard raised by pillows could be seen by all the crowd as he was borne along. Before his body left the house I heard my mother 39 ask my father for a piece of money, which she put in the pocket of my grandfather. I was greatly surprised and asked her why she did this. She told me that the dead man would be ferried across a dark river and the money was to pay Charon who rowed the dead across to Hades, and that if my grandfather did not have the money he would remain uneasily there till somebody paid for him. Of course as a child I believed all my mother told me, and then later on when I went to school and learned about Charon and his obol and the belief of the ancient Greeks I marvelled at the old custom still existing among us which the Christian religion has not altered at all. In modern Greece we call him Charos. At one time he appears as the ferryman who carries the dead across to Hades and again he is the Angel of Death. There is much beautiful poetry and many weird stories about him in Greece and the Greek Macedo- nian villages. "^*^ One of the most interesting and familiar survivals is the "swal- low song." On the first day of March Athenian boys carry a wooden image of a swallow from door to door, singing a demand for cakes and tarts. This custom has an unbroken continuity with the past, for among the remains of Greek lyric poetry there is a swallow song sung by the boys of Rhodes from house to house, de- manding presents for the glad news of the return of spring. The lines that have come down from Athenaeus may be thus translated : She is here, she is here, the swallow. Fair seasons bringing, fair years to follow. Her belly is white Her back black as night, The swallow is here. From your rich house Roll forth to us Tarts, wine and cheese. Or if not these Oatmeal and barley cake The swallow deigns to take. 40 The song sung to-day by the Greek boys bears a striking similar- ity. Rodd has transcribed a few lines of the ancient and modern for comparison.i*^ xhe ancient song reads : ^Xff ^Xde xeXtdchii, kakdj &pai Sygoaa kai kaXohf ivtauToh^ iitl yaaripa Xeokd k'ant vwra ftiXatva Compare with this the song as sung to-day : ^p0ev ^pOe xeXtSova ^p6e kc aXXi) p.eXirjS6va kddrjtre kai XolXtjits kdl yXukd. keXASijae This persistence of ancient habits and modes of thought is char- acteristic of every phase of Hellenic life, and because religion is so deeply rooted in Greek life it naturally offers no exception to the sweep of this principle. Many old rites live on in the new faith and the mental attitude of the people toward religion strikingly reproduces that of the ancients. The content of religion has changed but the mental attitude in its salient features remains the same. In both classic and modern religion we have certain common elements : 1. The close identification of religion and nationality. 2. The tendency to subordinate the mystical personal aspect to the social political. 3. A democratic outlook which has effectually curbed sacerdotal- ism and priest craft arid given the lay element an important influ- ence. 4. An attitude of tolerance which has made religious persecu- tions and religious wars unknown in the history of Greece. The student of organic evolution traces the development of the organism from the simple to the complex, notes the slightest diverg- ence in the life stages of individuals, and beneath infinite variation discovers fundamental agreements in type and structure which point to common ancestry. Thus we have sought to compare the modem Greeks with the ancient and to trace the survival of certain charac- teristic attitudes and tendencies in political and individual life. We now ask further, Does the same social heredity find illustra- tion in the Greeks in America? Greek immigration has assumed 41 such large proportions that there is ample field for investigation, but in drawing our inferences we must use caution because there has not been time for the play of all forces to make itself felt. We are accustomed to represent America as the melting pot of nations. Our system of education tends to weld together diverse peoples, stripping them of national peculiarities. We cannot under- take to predict with any certainty what future effect American Ufe will have upon the Greeks. Another generation of Greek life in the United States may necessitate revision and reversal of some of our conclusions. At present social heredity is strong. Bearing in mind the limitation imposed on us by the comparatively short duration of this immigration, we shall give a brief sketch of the Greek in America. 42 PART III. The settlement of the Greek in America is very recent. In 1848 only one Greek is reported as arriving in New York. In 1858 there were two Greeks. In the seventeen years beginning with 1847 the total number of Greeks entering the country was seventy-seven. In 1886 the consul to Greece reports that there is no emigration from Greece to the United States or any other country. In 1900 the total number of Greeks in the United States was nine thousand. In ten years the number increased to one hundred thousand. In one year, 1907, the number of Greeks entering this country was 46,283. These official figures of the U. S. Immigration Department will afford an idea of the astonishing growth of Greek immigration in recent years. Greek Immigration to U. S. by Decades. 1869— 8 1879— 21 1889— 158 1870— 23 1880— 23 1890— 524 1871— 11 1881— 19 1891—1105 1872— 12 1882— 126 1892— 615 1873— 23 1883— 73 1893—1131 1874— 36 1884— 37 1894—1351 1875— 25 1885— 172 1895— 605 1876— 19 1886— 104 1896—2175 1877— 24 1887— 313 1897— 571 1878— 16 1888— 782 1898—2339 1879-^_21 1889— 158 1899—2333 Greek Immigration for 10 Years, Showing Proportion of Greeks from Greece Proper. Total No. of Gieeb From Kinpfom o( Greece 1900 3,773 3,771 1901 5,919 5,910 1902 8,115 8,104 1903 14,376 14,090 43 1904 12,625 12,515 1905 12,144 10,515 1906 23,127 19,489- 1907 46,283 36,580 1908 28,808 21,489 1909 20,262 14,059 1910 39,135 26,675 Neither religious persecution nor political oppression has been a factor in this emigration. The attitude of the Greek toward the home land and its administration is altogether different from that of the German who came here after 1848, or the Pole who. fled after the failure of the insurrection of 1830, or the Hungarian dis- appointed over the collapse of the revolution. These were out of sympathy with political conditions at home, bitter and hostile. The Greek, on the other hand, is an ardent patriot, in full accord with the politics and religion of the fatherland. Even the Greeks under Turkish domination, who are numerically a small part of the immigrants, are rarely driven out by active persecution.-'*'^ The attitude of the Greek toward home movements was clearly illus- trated in the recent Balkan outbreak, when scores of men all over this country returned to fight on behalf of Hellas, cheerfully, gladly, eagerly, at great personal and financial sacrifice. The motive for Greek immigration is to be sought in the adven- turesome, roving spirit of the people, in the same causes which were operative in early times to make the Greeks bold colonizers. In 1891 emigration received an impetus from the failure of the currant market, which struck at the heart of the national indus- tries."* Economic necessity reinforced the natural "wanderlust." Greece is the source of the world's currant supply. The main ship- ping port is Patras. Visiting there in 1912, I found the wharves literally filled with cases stacked high for loading on every ship of Christendom. Every section of the kingdom has contributed to the emigrant stream — the islands, the Peloponnese and Central Greece. In 1903 Consul McGinley reports that thousands from Sparta have sought the United States and some villages have sent all their able bodied men. Married Greeks migrated to this country without their wives and children."* In 1905 Greek women began to arrive. In 44 a table showing the sex distribution of immigrants for eleven years beginning with 1899 we find 95.4 per cent, males to 4.6 per cent, females.^^'' The immigrant has penetrated every part of this country. Large numbers are located in the metropolitan centres — New York, Phila- delphia, Boston. He is in the Ohio Valley. When I recently vis- ited Cincinnati, I noted a large Greek lodging house opposite the Central Union depot. The disused Franklin Bank on Third street west of Main has been secured for a church, a singularly fitting arrangement, because the building is modelled after the Parthenon, with a portico of Doric coluinns. Westward to Chicago and the towns of Illinois and Iowa the immigrant procession has moved. In the larger cities Greek youth are found among the patrons of the gymnasium and swimming pools at the Y. M. C. A. Greeks and Macedonians are fond of wrestling and boxing. In Kansas City and Omaha meets are arranged regularly through the win- ter .^^^ Speaking of the Greeks in Sheboygan, Wis., Rev. A. Parker Curtiss writes me : "Of all the foreign element here, the Greeks seem the most respected next to the Germans. The men mostly live in boarding houses. In spite of the fact that there are few women and few homes the Greeks as a class are not regarded as immoral." Rev. Joseph W. Gunn, of Ely, Nevada, writes me that the Greek population in that district is diminishing, as the mining companies are employing other laborers more largely. They have met discouragements in maintaining their church. About a year and a half ago they secured a priest, but he grew very homesick and went back to Athens in less than three months. They own a small chapel at McGill, fourteen miles down the valley, but no building at Ely. Well-to-do Greeks now send to Salt Lake City for a priest. There are strong Greek settlements in the south, in Savannah, Charleston, New Orleans. In Birmingham they number nine hun- dred, most of whom are naturalized citizens and take great interest in politics. The Nevada desert, the Pacific coast, the Gulf coast of Florida, are centres of Greek settlement, while scattered sons of Hellas are found everywhere. In 1912 I came across a Greek candy store in the little town of Easton, Maryland. A list of organized congregations of the Greek Orthodox Church will serve as an illus- tration of the widespread geographical distribution of the Greek population in the United States. 4S PLACES WHERE GREEK ORTHODOX CHURCHES HAVE BEEN ORGANIZED. Atlanta, Ga. 181 Central Ave. "Annunciation." Biddeford, Me. 7 Alfred St. "St. Demetrios." Bridgeport, Conn. Main St. "Holy Trinity." Buffalo, N. Y. Oak St. "Annunciation." Boston, Mass. 46 Winchester St. "Annunciation." Tyler and Kneeland Sts. "Transfiguration." Brooklyn, N. Y. 60 Lawrence St., near Johnson. "St. Constantine." Birmingham, Ala. 301 S. 19th St. "Holy Trinity." Baltimore, Md. Corner Homewood Ave. and Chase St. "Annunciation." Cleveland, Ohio. "Annunciation." Cincinnati, Ohio. 124 E. Third St. "Holy Trinity." Canton, Ohio. E. Fourth St. "St. Haralambos.'' Charleston, S. C. St. Philip St. cor. Fishburne. "Holy Trinity." Columbus, Ohio. Meets in Masonic Temple, under Rev. Nicholas Velonis, priest. Chicago, 111. 1101 S. Peoria St. "Holy Trinity." 6100 Michigan Ave. "St. Constantine." LaSalle near Oak. "Annunciation." Dover, N. H. 7 Main St. "Annunciation." Detroit, Mich. 80 Broadway. "Annunciation." Denver, Colo. 37th Ave. and Lafayette St. "Theotokos." ' Ely, Nevada. Galveston, Texas. "Constantine and Helena." Haverhill, Mass. 19 Walnut St. "Holy Apostles." Holyoke, Mass. Indianapolis, Ind. 275^ S. Meridian St. "Theotokos." Ipswich, Mass. Lafayette Road. "St. Mary." Kansas City, Mo. 510 E. Fourth St. "Annunciation." Lynn, Mass. 20 Pleasant St. "St. George." Los Angeles, Cal. 1216 San Julian St. Lowell, Mass. Lewis and Jefferson Sts. "Holy Trinity." Lewiston, Me. "Holy Trinity." Minneapolis, Minn. Tenth Ave. corner Lake St. "Theotokos." Manchester, N. H. Pine and Merrill Sts. "St. George." Moline, Illinois. "St. George." 46 Milwaukee, Wis. 664 Broadway. "Annunciation." Nashua, N. H. SO Ash St. "Annunciation." Newark, N. J. 149 Academy St. "St. Nicholas." Norfolk, Va. Freemason and Cumberland Sts. "Annunciation." New York, N. Y. 151 E. 72d St. "Holy Trinity." 310 W. S4th St. "Annunciation." New Orleans, La. 1220 Dorgenois. "Holy Trinity." Founded in 1867 by Greek cotton merchants, this was the first Greek Church in America, and the minutes of the administrative council have long been kept in English. Omaha, Neb. Sixteenth and Martha Sts. "St. Johns." Pueblo, Colo. Spruce corner Summit Ave. Portland, Ore. E. 17th and Taggart. "Holy Trinity." Providence, R. I. 333 Smith St. "Annunciation." Peabody, Mass. Walnut St. Philadelphia, Pa. 745 S. Twelfth St. "St. EvangeUst." Pensacola, Fla. "Annunciation." Pittsburg, Pa. 97 Fulton St. "Annunciation." Reading, Pa. Chestnut & Lenon Sts. "Constantine and Helena." Springfield, Mass. 36 Auburn St. "St. George." Savannah, Ga. Duffy and Barnard Sts. "St. Paul." Schenectady, N. Y. 25 Clinton St. "St. George." Seattle, Wash. "St. Spiridion." Somersworth, N. H. 40 Washington St. "Theotokos." Sheboygan, Wis. S. Tenth St. "St. Spiridion." San Francisco, Cal. Seventh St. "Holy Trinity." St. Louis, Mo. 1901 Morgan St. "Holy Trinity." Stamford, Conn. Temporary quarters under Rev. G. Calogiannis, Priest. Salt Lake City, Utah. 439 W. Fourth St. south. Toledo, Ohio. 631 St. Clair St. "Holy Trinity." Tarpon Springs, Fla. "St. Nicholas." Vandergrift, Penna. Meets in Hungers Hall under Rev. Basil Avramopoulos. Waterloo, Iowa. 512 Bluff St. "St. Demetrios." Washington, D. C. 619 Sixth St., N. W. "St. Sophia." Wheeling, W. Va. "Apocalypsis." 47 Not only has the Greek found his way to every section of the land, he has entered every industry. If you smoke cigarettes your "Turkish Trophies" bear the name "Anargyros," the Greek founder of the enterprise. Stephanos of Philadelphia and Melachrinos of New York are well known names in the tobacco industry. If you patronize the confectionery you will likely find the sign "Olympia" or "Marathon" or "Athens," which betokens the Hellenic proprie- tor who in some places has gained a monopoly in spite of the fact that Plato placed a ban on Athenian confections in his ideal republic. The bootblack parlors are largely in the hands of Greeks. The dusty streets of Athens have made the Greek lad expert in this line. As far back as the time of Aristophanes the dicast was on the look- out for a sponge and a basin of oil mixed with pitch for his dusty shoes. If you purchase a bouquet of flowers, the shop will very likely be owned by a Greek. The late Mayor Gaynor was a regular patron of a Greek florist in Brooklyn. Greek names are familiar everywhere. John Economopoulos is well known to visitors at Coney Island. Peddling, shoe shining, restaurant keeping, milling, mining, have offered avenues to Greek enterprise. Some of the finest spinning in America is done by Greeks at Lowell, Mass. The sponge diving 6t- Florida is entirely in Greek hands. There are also lawyers, physi- cians, dentists. When a body of Greeks settles in one place, the first step is the- organization of the community koivdryj? an association for the purpose of establishing and maintaining the Greek religious observ- ances. The community is made up of all the Greeks in a district, with officers, executive committee and terms of membership. In 1913 there were fifty-five of these communities. Their first care is to make provision for the church, which is administered in a thor- oughgoing democratic way. The power is vested in laymen. The' priest is engaged and discharged in the same way as an office boy or clerk. His position is distinctly a subordinate one. This in itself would seem a reversion to type. In our study of tlie ancient reli- gion we noted that the priests were elected and might be changed and their function was the due regulation of the sacrifices, etc. When the Greek priest in Milwaukee was asked for the use of a church room for a meeting of a group of Greeks he referred the "18 matter to the head of the community. He had no power in the premises.^^^ The church plays a big role in the life of the Greeks in America. It is an important bond of union, makes for enthusi- asm and loyalty, stimulates religion and keeps alive the interest in national history and traditions. "The scene around a Greek church on festive days," says Robert, "is worth witnessing. The spirit of worship in these people is a phenomenon that cannot be found else- where in any comraunity."^^^ The Rev. A. P. Curtiss, giving his impressions of the Church in Sheboygan, Wis., writes : "Their de- votion is touching. A freedom that at first looks like irreverence seems to be a real lack of self-consciousness and is very inspiring after one is used to it. The priest is a monk and has a very good influence over the men. He reads English very well but does not speak it readily." The Greek Orthodox Church is a new element in American reli- gious life. With three or four exceptions, the congregations have come into existence within the past decade. In some places an existing building has been rented or purchased and remodelled for ecclesiastical purposes. In others new churches have been erected after Byzantine models. So recent is the accession of the Greek Church to the family of American religious organizations that it is as yet imperfectly tmderstood. In my endeavor to secure a list of churches in the United States I encountered many difficulties. I sought information at the office of "Atlantis," a Greek newspaper published in New York. They knew of no list, but suggested that I might find valuable material in Helmis' Greek American Guide (1915). This book, however, makes no effort to give a directory of the churches. It mentions many of them in an incidental way, but omits entirely some of the largest and most influential congre- gations. My attention was called to a list in the Living Church Annual and Churchman's Almanac (1915), but I found it incom- plete in its omission of a number of churches, known to me which I myself had visited in the course of my study of the Greek people. When I undertook to verify the list by reference to the respective city directories I discovered further inaccuracies. The figures of membership are suspiciously even and regular and possess doubtful value for a scientific study, and out of a list of some forty priests less than two dozen are correctly given. 49 The compilers of the city directories are evidently in perplexity. A Birmingham, Ala., Directory (1913) classifies the Greek Church under Roman Catholic, a classification which Orthodox Greeks strenuously resent. A Detroit, Mich., Directory (1913) lists the Greek and Russian Churches under the novel denominational heading "Greek Evangelist." A New York Directory (1915) invents the equally amusing nomenclature "Hellenic Easterner Church." A San Francisco Directory (1915) lists the Greek Church under the title "Evangelical," grouping it with four Protestant organizations with which it has nothing in common. Boyd's District of Columbia Directory (1915) accurately follows the technical classification "Eastern Orthodox" in noting the Greek Church of St. Sophia in Washington. Many of the directories omit all mention of the Greek Church. This may be owing to the fact that the congregations have been only recently organized and are yet in an experimental stage, holding their services in temporary quarters and possessing no fixed habitat. Several directories give the Greek Church no place in the list of churches but name it correctly in the body of the book. The term "Greek Catholic" occurs occasionally as a designation but is misleading, because this namt has a technical signification quite dif- ferent, being applied to the "Uniat" congregations, of which there is a growing number, wherever a Ruthenian population has gathered. The Greek Church in this country is without a head. No bishop has been appointed and there is no central body of any kind. Each community makes its own provision for its religious needs, organ- izes its church, advertises for a priest, engages and dismisses him at will. The clergy shift so constantly from point to point that it is a hopeless task to secure an accurate list. The Pan Hellenic Union is the most important Greek society in America. Its membership extends throughout the whole country. Established in 1907, it suffered from factions, but now bids fair to prosper and prove a unifying influence among the sons of Hellas in the new land. The objects, as stated in the constitution, are "to cultivate the spirit of mutual aid and love for their own nationality, to instill veneration and affection for the laws and insti- tutions of their adopted country and for the cultivation of friendly relations between Greeks and American citizens, to teach the Eng- 50 lish and Greek languages, to preserve the Greek Orthodox Church and to develop and propagate educational and moral doctrines among the Greek compatriots, to procure pecuniary and other aid for members, to protect the immigrant and laborer and to secure the moral and material assistance of the Union toward the great needs of the Nation." These objects well express the ideal of the Greek-American. He is loyal to his new home and its institutions, but preserves his own traditions, language, religious faith and veneration for Hellas. The Greek newspaper is an important institution in America. We noted the large place the press fills at home. There are three daily papers in New York. "Atlantis" was established in 1894, and a little more than a decade later saw the appearance of the "Pan-Hellenic." The establishment of the second was the out- come of a quarrel between proprietors. The "National Herald" was started six months ago. Greek papers are published in Bos- ton, Lowell, Pittsburg, Chicago, Salt Lake City and San Francisco, and they play a vital and an influential part in the life of the people. Probably no other foreign nationality amongst us publishes so many papers in proportion to its numbers. "The Greek above all men loves to devour his newspaper. If you enter his place of business for a friendly chat and he is reading his paper, you must wait. This is not discourtesy, for the Greek is most courteous of men. It is habit. The newspaper above all else keeps him in touch with the fatherland and with his fellow countrymen here. It also tells him of American life. The Greek newspapers contain the happenings in Hellas, especially the politics. Every Greek is a well versed and fluent politician. "i^* In a neighborhood where a colony of Greeks has settled, the '"coffee house" plays an important part. It stands in the same rela- tion to the populace that the beer garden does to the German. At any hour, day and night, you will find groups of men sitting around small tables, sipping black coffee, smoking cigarettes and arguing vehemently.^^" Here and there on the walls is a framed chromo depicting some battle scene, for the people are steeped in race his- tory and love to dream of the glorious past of Hellas and its even greater ftiture. They are possessed with the "Great Idea,""" the 51 vision of a Greek empire which shall reproduce the Byzantine era in extent and power. The coffee house is a distinctively Hellenic institution, introduced into England as early as 1652 at Baliol by Konopios, a Cretan."^ The first of the Sir Roger de Coverley papers makes reference to the "Grecian Coffee House" which was in Devereux Court. It was kept by Constantine, a Greek who had a new and popular way of preparing coffee. The coffee house is itself an illustration of social heredity. As the Teuton, from the day of Tacitus, has been proverbial for the love of strong drink, so the Greek from Homer's time has been very abstemious. In the Homeric age, wine was drunk diluted with water. Sobriety is a national trait. Drunkenness now, as in ancient times, offends Greek taste, and is very rare at home and in this country.^^® "The splendid health of the Greek soldiers," says Cassavetti, "is due to their extreme sobriety. This was a subject of remark during the war of 1897, when the quickness with which wounds healed astounded the foreign surgeons."^"® Fairchild, comparing the immigrant races in regard to crimi- nality, finds that the German is addicted to crimes against property ; the Irish and Scotch to drunkenness; the Italian to crimes of vio- lence ; the French and Polish immigrants to crimes against chastity ; the Greek to violations of corporation ordinances and the sanitary code.^^" The crimes of Greeks arise from a low economic position, and with the rise in the economic scale the percentage of crime declines. ■'^^ In the crude conditions of the western gangs of laborers, Greeks and Italians were found to be the most unclean in their living ar- rangements. ^^^ Among the Chicago Greeks, who are in a more stable economic position, Miss Abbott found living and sanitary conditions good.^^^ ' The Greeks have from time to time gained unpleasant notoriety on account of the "padrone" system. "The shoe shining industry combines in marked degree," says Fairchild, "the necessary elements for the successful application of this system — small capital, cheap unskilled labor, close supervision. The Greek race is well adapted to apply it to an extreme extent, partly from natural aptitude, partly 52 from custom and training. For the system in its main outlines has long been familiar in Greece, though some of its most unfortunate aspects do not develop there. "^®* Having introduced the Greek in this general way, let me speak more specifically of my impressions of the larger communities. Let us begin with New York. In 1885 a Greek florist established himself on Columbus avenue, and a restaurant was opened on Roosevelt street. The centres of trade to-day are on Madison street, where the visitor will note Greek signs and Greek coffee houses. During the past few years Greek stores have come to Sixth avenue in the vicinity of 30th street, but there is no quarter of the city which is in any pronounced way a "Greek" quarter. In 1904 the Qiurch of the Holy Trinity was established on East 72nd street. Its large congregation is drawn from every section and represents varying degrees of culture. The church itself, unpretentious in exterior, is rich within. Marble, mosaic and painting represent the gifts of prosperous members. On the principal religious and civic occasions the services are celebrated on a scale of great magnificence and well-to-do Greeks from neighboring Jersey suburbs are in attendance. A second congregation has been organized as a result of some dissension. It has acquired a handsome Byzantine building on West S4th street. Robert thinks the jealousies and rivalries of the leaders are defeating the best interests of the people. "There are twenty thousand Greeks in New York," he says, "and yet they have no organization to look after the interests of the Greek immigrant on Ellis Island. The reason for this lack is found in the jealousies of leaders who are at daggers' points and malign each other in an irrational and a foolish manner. The result is that no immigrant is more subject to insult and wrong. There is no representative to look after his interest. The Greek colony in the metropolis is hope- lessly divided because the leaders cannot agree. The quarrels enter into business and social relations and have penetrated the sacred pre- cincts of the spiritual life. Two churches represent the division found in the community."^^^ The tendency in New York is to scatter over a large area rather than to congregate in one district. Families adopt American ways. Children attend the public schools. But the recurrence of ecclesi- 53 astical festivals or the celebration of Greek independence day attests the marvelous loyalty with which they cling to national and religious customs. We turn to the Chicago community. The first church was erected on Johnson street in 1898. It is not at all imposing in its architect ture. When I visited Chicago, in 1911, a costly new church of Byzantine type was in course of construction on La Salle street near Oak, a long distance from the original Greek quarter. This would seem to indicate that the Greek population is scattering over a wide area — a fact which is true in our large centers. The Greek quarter in Chicago is in the neighborhood of South Halsted street, near Hull House, whose workers have met with great success among the people. "One of the pleasures of a visit to Hull House," says Robert, "is the sight of the Greeks performing the plays of old Hellas. The men who took part were common people from the common walks of life, but when they took to the stage and became interpreters of the genius of Greece they became dignified and masterful."^®* My personal observations can add nothing to the ample descrip- tion by Grace Abbott, who made a clear, systematic, painstaking study of the Greek population by a house to house canvass of the neighborhood.^®'' The occupations are as varied as peddlar, bootblack, fruit dealer, restaurant proprietor, waiter, florist, confectioner. In this last they have almost a monopoly in Chicago. The women do not work outside the home. They are not found in sweat shops. Fixed tradition forbids their entrance into indus- try. The lad supports his sister until she is settled in life. The women are good housewives. Their homes are clean and comfort- able. The women from southern Europe generally avoid domestic service outside of their own homes. This is in contrast to the earlier immigration from Ireland, Germany and Scandinavia, and lies at the root of our servant problem. It is stated that girls in Greece do not attend school in large numbers because many parents think education unfits them for domestic life.'®® The Greek chil- dren in Chicago are bright and learn quickly. In the Jones school there were 81 Greeks out of 252. The Greek in Chicago is regarded as a shrewd business man. The 54 new comer will take any job that comes to hand. Usually he will join a gang in construction work, but only until he accumulates a little money, when he launches out in a small way in independent enterprise. They are scrupulously loyal to their religion. On Good Friday night on South Halsted street the stores are draped in purple and black and at midnight a procession marches through the street sing- ing and carrying gleaming tapers. "A Greek in Chicago left the church and was employed by one of the denominations to do mis- sionary work among his countrymen. His fellows called him devil, traitor, betrayer. His influence was gone. A Greek explained: 'Protestant is all right for you. You were born a Protestant but he was born a Greek.' A Greek is born to his religion just as he is to his nationality."**® To forsake the church is identical with for- saking the nation. The Greeks offer a difficult field to religious agencies that seek to proselyte them. The Chicago Greek has a fine record for thrift and rarely becomes a burden to the community. The Bureau of Charities reports few Greek applicants and the Municipal Lodging House shelters few Greeks. It is true of the Greek generally that only in very rare instances does he appeal for public relief.-'™ Lowell, Massachusetts, presents a Greek colony concentrated in one section. The presence of a foreign population is evident. I visited Lowell in the spring of 1914. Along Market street, begin- ning at Dutton, the Hellenic character is very pronounced. With almost no exception the stores are Greek for several blocks. I was impressed with the extent of the Greek quarter and the multiplicity and diversity of interests represented. I became very much inter- ested in the types of people. Some of them could speak English quite intelligently. The purchase of an apple at the fruit store was an excuse to draw the proprietor into conversation. The purchase of some Greek post cards led to an interesting interview with a Greek who had lived in Alexandria. I sipped a cup of coffee at the "Venizelos," where I was an object of wonder and comment to a dozen men grouped around the tables, but as none of them seemed to have much mastery of English and my own vocabulary was limited to xaXtjuipa and ri xdvsi^, we made little progress toward that communication and acquaintance that Giddings counts indis- pensable to socialization. 55 Walking along Market street we take note of some of the larger and more important stores : 311. Greek Printer. 360. Meteora the Grocer. 389. The Nausika Steam Laundry. (Note the Homeric name.) 391. Printing Office. 393. Hotel Venizelos. (The great statesman figures prominently in the names of hotels and restaurants. I noticed a "Venizelos" coffee house in Tampa, Florida.) 437. CouUs Greek-American Shoe Repairing. 444. Greek Stationery Store. 450. The Acropolis Cafe. (I noted a Greek woman and baby at one of the upper windows. She had a colored shawl over her head and presented a typical peasant face.) 457. The Byzantine Cafe — Demaras. 463. The Olympian Cafe— Spyropoulos. 469. The Athens Coffee House. 476. Vozeolas, the Druggist. 508. Lamprinocas, the Grocer. 523. Alexakos, the Grocer, whose sign is ornamented with Greek and American flags painted in gay colors. 575. Mavrakis, the Barber. 605. Stefankos, Common Victualer. 609. Katramados, Grocer. The foreign aspect of the neighborhood is intensified at Jefferson street when we catch a glimpse of the gold dome of Holy Trinity Greek Church. This is an expensive edifice of great beauty and stands out in contrast to the ramshackle buildings of the neighbor- hood. The life of the compact population reflects in general the charac- teristics that were noted in Chicago. The Greeks are independent, never relying on public charity. There is little drunkenness. They are fond of theatricals and an amateur company renders ten modern Greek plays each year."^ Many Greeks find employment in the mills. The mill agents' greatest complaints are on the score of their factiousness, and fond- ness for exploiting one another. The factious spirit is especially in evidence. It crops out everywhere. They are constantly coming into court with their dissensions. Greek employees form small groups in constant altercation with one another.^''^ 56 By far the most striking Greek colony in America is at Tarpon Springs on the Gulf coast of Florida. Here the life and customs of the homeland are closely reproduced. Tarpon Springs is the largest sponge center in the world. This industry keeps more than a thousand men employed all year and has over a hundred vessels operating in the Gulf of Mexico. The finan- cial returns run into millions of dollars annually. There are a dozen large packing houses. The wholesale houses of London, New York and Chicago, as well as the independent operators and buyers, are represented. For a long time sponge diving has played a part in the industries of Greece. For half a century the sponge industry has been estab- lished at Aigina. Other important centers are Hydra, Spetsai, Trikeri, Hermione, Kranidi. The fishing grounds are off the coast of Tripoli extending west to Tunis, also on the Gulf of Taranto and on. the coasts of Sicily, Sar- dinia and Lipari. The divers range in age from eighteen to forty- five years.^''^ In May, 1908, Greek divers first appeared in Tarpon Springs. They were introduced into the work by John K. Cheyney, a man of large interests in this and other enterprises. The growth of the Greek population has been phenomenal. The United States census of 1900 gives the State of Florida a total of 98 Greeks. The Thermopylae Almanac of 1904 gives Florida a Greek population of 182 divided among six cities. In 1908 the Greek American Guide reports 1,000 Greeks in Florida. When T visited Tarpon Springs last winter I was told there were now be- tween 2,000 and 2,500 Greeks in the town. All figures of Greek population are fluctuating. They are a roving, restless people, on the lookout for better opportunities, and are constantly coming and going. The departure of large numbers to the Balkan wars upset the most careful and accurate statistics. Thus in 1913 there were only thirty sponge boats in operation against more than one hundred in 1911. This is accounted for by the return of the Greeks to the scene of conflict. Tarpon Springs offers a peculiarly advantageous field for a study of the Greek in America. The small size of the town gives an opportunity for him to perpetuate his social customs untrammelled. 57 There are 2,000 Greeks out of a population of 4,000 people. In Chicago, New York, Lowell, the Greek is completely overshadowed. He is a bubble on the bosom of a great lake. In Tarpon Springs he is a dominant factor, numerically and commercially. Tarpon Springs is compact and represents the working together of many callings, lawyer, doctor, artist, teacher, merchant, diver. It is the life of an Hellenic town transferred to America. Saclar- ides' art studio, Kaminis' machine shop, Georgiadis' bakery, Kal- amakis' grocery, represent business enterprises serving the whole community. The Greek atmosphere is marked. As you walk along the principal street you note the signs in Greek and English. There is the "Kalymnos" lodging house, the "Marathon" pool parlor, the Greek-American bank. Notices are posted in the railway station and post office in Greek. Placards announce a Greek play at the theatre. The coffee houses swarm with a jolly, noisy, good natured crowd, laughing, smoking, playing cards. There are two newspapers. The weekly paper carries a Greek page regularly. The "Daily Leader" occasionally publishes a Greek article. The stable Greek residents are enterprising business men of some education who have a fair knowledge of English. The sponge divers can scarcely be called residents, because their calling keeps them out on the water a large part of their time. They have meagre education. I ran across a diver at a coffee house in Tampa who could not even read Greek. But as far as I can discover, this is a very exceptional case. In Tarpon Springs we have two distinct classes of Greeks. There are the men actually engaged in the sponge diving, whose numb.er is as changing as their habitat. They go back and forth between here and Greece or Asia Minor and are quite untouched by American life. On the other hand, we have those Greeks who have identified themselves with the town. They represent the thrifty, intelligent class who have adopted this as their home. There is no "Greek" quarter. The Greek families live alongside American families. The Greek lodging houses shelter the divers when they are in port. Mr. Ashland P. Beckett, the cashier of the Greek-American Bank, made this careful estimate of the resident population for me in January, 1914. There are about 60 Greek families and 100 children. There are about 100 naturalized citizens and more in waiting for naturalization. His estimate of individual Greeks is as follows : 58 From Calymnos 500 From Halki 400 From Aegina 400 From scattered points in Greece and Turkey . . . 200 He pays high tribute to their excellent record as citizens, but adds "they are very factious." The principal of the school (M. W. Greene) gives me the follow- ing information about the Greek children: "There are about 40 Greek children in our school, nearly all of them in one room (for the sake of learning English). All teachers who have anything to do with them report them quite bright as a class. The teacher who has charge of most of them — including all beginners — ^has had con- siderable experience teaching children of various nationalities and likes the Greeks better than any other foreigners she ever had, say- ing that they surpass the others in nearly every respect, including the ability to learn English. Their greatest difficulty is to learn verbs. We find them a rather noisy bunch, but not vicious. There are only two or three above the fourth grade, but I think the chief trouble is that they have not had a teacher who understood them and could give them the character of instruction they needed. If we can retain our present teacher, I am sure we can hold a good many more than have been remaining in school." I was told further by observers that the Greek children were especially apt in arithmetic and mathematics. It was also suggested that one reason why they do not continue their schooling further is because, owing to the absence of child labor legislation in Florida, many can enter upon industrial life at an earlier age than in some of our eastern states. I paid three visits to Tarpon Springs within the past three years. In January, 1912, I spent a day with the Rev. Christy Angelopou- lis, the Greek priest. He entertained me at a luncheon in a Greek restaurant with a number of Greeks. A representative of the Greek newspaper, "The Pan Hellenic," was among the company. In the afternoon I attended a reception to the County Commissioners at the Greek-American Political Club and at night I witnessed a Greek play at the theater. The Greek-American Political Club had its headquarters in a very 59 comfortable, well appointed dwelling house on Tarpon avenue, the principal street. The rooms on this occasion were profusely dec- orated and there were several American guests. Mr. George Mein- danis, the president of the club, delivered this characteristic speech in excellent English : "The Athenian, the first lawgiver that history speaks of, passed a law in Athens decreeing that every citizen should take part with one political party or another. He who remained indifferent was con- sidered dishonest or a traitor. And he was right. Any man who lives in a town and takes no interest in the welfare of it, which much depends on the good or bad management of its affairs, is not worthy of living. It is true that all of us cannot take part in this manage- ment of the political affairs, yet we have a voice in it through our vote, and we are instrumental in the election of those who look after the public interest. I think the existence of political clubs indis- pensable in order to educate the masses and prevent a gross wrong in the use of the vote. With this object in view this club was estab- lished, its principal aim being the education of the masses and to cooperate in the upbuilding of town and state. "^'^* The address impressed me by its intensely Hellenic spirit. Here in a town on our Gulf coast I heard words that awakened vividly the dominant ideals of Athens of the fifth century. For several years this club has played an important part in the life of the town and gives expression to that interest in political affairs which is so uniformly characteristic of Greeks ancient and modern. After the speech making, refreshments were served — light wine, cordial, coffee and Greek candy. In January, 1914, I was present at the Greek Epiphany celebra- tion. The church fills a big place in the life of Tarpon Springs. The unpretentious frame edifice was built in 1909. On this occa- sion the building was decorated with Greek and American flags and brilliantly illuminated with electric lights — several hundred bulbs so arranged as to outline the building. The scene at night was very impressive. The Greek Epiphany occurs on January 19th. At this time com- memoration is made of the baptism of Christ.^''^^ This is observed in all countries where the Eastern Church predominates. One feature is the blessing of the waters. Kropatkin mentions this observance 60 in Russia.-'^" I am told that a colony of Bulgarians in Pennsylvania carry out similar ceremonies in the Susquehanna River.-'''' In Greece, especially at Syra and at coast towns, the day is celebrated on a scale of great elaborateness. The pious Greek believes that fair weather follows the blessing of the water, and steamers often await the ceremony before sailing.^'^^ At Tarpon Springs all elements are present for the reproduction of the traditions and ceremonies of the homeland. Here is a coast town with a predominantly Greek population of seafaring people to whom the service appeals forcefully. The celebration is unique and attracts tourists from all over the United States. I arrived on the evening before. The streets swarmed with peo- ple and the populace was astir. I passed two men carrying an icon toward the bayou where flags and decorations were already in evi- dence. The coffee houses were thronged with Greeks. American and Greek flags floated from nearly every building along Tarpon avenue. The services at the church began at eight o'clock the next morning and lasted three hours. The congregation stood through- out as is the custom.^'® Men were in the majority. Mothers came wheeling their baby carriages into the church or carrying infants in arms. The ceremony concluded with the benediction of water brought into the church in a large basin, and the congregation came forward with cups, jugs, bottles and pitchers to secure and carry home some of the water that had been blessed. After the service a procession led by the priest in his robes of office marched through the main street. Music was provided by a local band. The Greek congregation was augmented by American visitors. At the bayou numerous boats and launches had assembled. I counted nine Greek boats. One had 63 persons on board. Some of them were quaint in construction and bore such names as "Enosis," "Andronike," "Pillaros," "Aretusa.'' The priest delivered an address to the assembled people and then advancing to the water's edge threw a cross into the bayou. There was a splash as seventeen young Greeks in bathing suits instantly jumped in after it. A few seconds elapsed and the successful diver appeared holding the trophy aloft and came out dripping with water to receive congratulations of admiring friends. In the afternoon, Greek lads went through the town with trays of flowers which they 61 sold to the people. I am told that the successful youth receives a generous money gift. In Greece this often amounts to as much as 400 drachme.i*" Every detail of the observances of the day was picturesque and interesting and a revelation of the mental attitude of the people, a dramatic setting of religious belief. When we study closely the Greek immigrant we discover that he brings with him and tenaciously retains his distinctive traits. There is the same interest in politics. The movements of the homeland are followed with keen enthusiasm, but in due time the Greek transfers his interest to the political life of his immediate environment, as in Birmingham, Alabama, where a large percentage of the Greek population have become citizens and are active in political affairs,"^ or in Tarpon Springs, Florida, where the Politi- cal Club has for its object the preparation of its members for citi- zenship. Twenty per cent, of the Greeks in America are natural- ized or holding first papers.^*^ "No more patriotic people ever came to us," says Steiner, "than these modern Greeks, and although that patriotism is centered on their native country they will ultimately make good citizens, and even before that day make splendid poli- ticians, for in the craft of politics every Greek is an adept.^** Again, there is among the Greeks in America to-day the same individualism so marked in their racial history during the past.^** There is the same hatred of restraint issuing in jealousies, feuds and factions, unwillingness to submit to authority, intestine quarrel- ings, rivalries of leadership that repeat themselves in every depart- ment of life — the church, the community, the press. Indeed, Pro- fessor Fairchild raises the question whether his lack of reverence for authority may not militate against his social efficiency and render the Greek an undesirable factor in American life.^®'' Again, there is here in America the same commercial aptitude and thrift that make the Greek successful beyond his competitors, assur- ing rapid advance. Professor Ross ventures the assertion that every Greek in America is self-supporting.^^^ In Chicago, as we saw, the Greek is looked upon as a shrewd business man.^*'' In certain lines he has well nigh secured a monopoly. ^^^ The authors of the "Immi- gration Problem" point out that the general tendency of the Greek is to engage in trade. ^*® Homer relates how Glaucus and Diomede 62 met in battle on the Trojan plain. The former challenged his foe and inquired concerning his ancestry. When Glaucus unfolded his high lineage the two refused to fight and swore friendship. The wily Diomede thereupon suggested an exchange of arms to seal the oath and gave his own bronze armor for the costly gold armor of the Trojan hero.-^*" Thus unconsciously Homer portrays the in- stinct for keen bargaining, which is no less pronounced in the Greek in America to-day and makes him a clever tradesman. Again, racial intolerance has been carried over into America. Speaking of the gangs of laborers in construction work in the mid- west the authors of the "Immigration Problem" say: "Each gang is a racial unit living in separate cars and usually in a separate camp. Sometimes Bulgars and Croats, Croats and Roumanians and Italians were found in the same camp, but it seemed that Greeks could not live peaceably with any other race."^®^ There is among the Greeks in America the same passionate devo- tion to Hellas which leads the Pan-Hellenic Union to make explicit provision for the teaching of the mother tongue. Greeks every- where are unfailing in their loyalty to the mother country, and it is estimated that 57,000 volunteers from the United States entered the ranks of the fighters during the Balkan war.^®^ "The blood and brains of Greeks," says Burrows, "in their settlements all over the world — England, France, America, even in the little colony of Australia unheard of before the (Balkan) war — are at the service of Greece.""^ Above all, the Greeks are at one with their past in an intense loy- alty to their religious faith that even verges on bigotry. The Hel- lenic mind is as violently disputatious here in America as in the days of the Ecumenical Councils. "Bulgars and Roumanians," say the authors of "The Immigration Problem," "must be kept apart from Greeks, both of the former being secessionists from the Church of the Greek Patriarch, with tendencies anti-fraternal in a high degree."^** All these facts have an important bearing on the practical ques- tion, Does the Greek afford good material for the making of an American citizen ? My own answer is an emphatic affirmative. //By tradition and temper the Greek is predisposed toward the best ideals of this country. By reason of his historic love of statesmanship, 63 democratic spirit, self-reliance, initiative and thrift he will become a valuable asset to American life, and even unwillingness to submit to authority, which in Fairchild's opinion might prove detrimental, will find a corrective, I think, in the reaction upon him of the Anglo-Saxon spirit of law and order so potent in his new environ- ment.^®'- 64 CONCLUSION. We have endeavored to trace the survival of certain traits and institutions through the long course of Greek history. We have noted their persistence in spite of the aidmixture of Hellenic blood with that of ten successive peoples. These institutions and traits in their ensemble make up the Hellenic type of character which is as distinct as German, French or Anglo-Saxon. They have been trans- mitted by social heredity. They belong to the sociological, not the biological field, because nationality rests on social heredity. We sometimes speak of racial or national traits as something fixed, un- changeable, innate. But we are coming to recognize that they are largely matters of social inheritance. The persistent reaction of a people as a whole in a certain way for generations has established certain types in language, character and institutions. As one puts it : "A racial group which for many generations is subject to the same physical, social and political environment develops certain character- istics which seem to be bred in the bone. But let the environment be radically changed and a marvelous transformation will often take place.""» Customs and beliefs embody themselves in the family, the state, the legislation, the government, the religious life. The social mind moulds the individual in conformity to the social type. "Besides his physical inheritance of bodily form, size, appearance, his in- stincts and mental predispositions and capacities," says Bolton, "every child receives a social inheritance in the form of language, institutions, laws, customs, printed literature and the results of sci- entific achievements which at once put him a long way ahead in the march of civilization. Without them his physical heritage would be incapable of securing him much advancement."^'® This thesis is concerned with this social inheritance. There is a distinction between nature and nurture. In the flush of the wonderful and far-reaching significance of the Darwinian theory of evolution there has been a temptation to account for all things by a reference to human nature. Discrimination has cor- rected the perspective and we are beginning to recognize that not human "nature" but human "nurture" is the factor of larger im- 65 portance. "Social heredity," says Conn, is concerned with the trans- mission from generation to generation of the highest attributes of mankind, whereas organic evolution is concerned in the transmis- sion of the lowest, that is, those which we sometimes call the animal characteristics. "^^'^ Physical heredity manifests itself in stature, weight, color, facial features, the proportions of cranium, thorax, vertebrae, teeth, etc. Longevity is an ancestral bequest. Good and poor eyesight are family characteristics. Color blindness is hereditary. Tendencies to specific diseases are inherited. ^^^ Galton holds that not only physical and mental traits are heredi- tary, but that genius follows the law of organic transmission and is an affair of blood and breed."^ He made patient, painstaking inves- tigations to establish his contention. He finds certain families cele- brated for artistic genius, or musical ability, for scientific distinction or literary achievements. The statesman's type of ability, he thinks, is largely transmitted or inherited. "The combination of high intellectual gifts, tact in deal- ing with men, power of expression in debate and ability to endure exceeding hard work is hereditary."^'"' "There cannot remain a doubt," he says, in concluding his investigations, "that the peculiar type of ability necessary to a judge is often transmitted by descent."2oi Galton even goes so far as to maintain that the type of ability of a commander is a matter of heredity .^"^ Bolton tliinks the high grade intellectual ability necessary to certain callings is a matter of heredity, but adds, "I should not argue that particular callings are determined by heredity. That is largely a matter of imitation or chance."203 I think we must use the utmost caution in drawing conclusions, because in any discussion of mental traits, talent, genius, special aptitude, it is necessary to give due weight to the influence of social heredity registered in the atmosphere of the home, the traditions of the family, the influences of early training, unconsciously moulding the individual in conformity to a definite type and directing the trend of his life toward a specific goal. The spirit of the commu- nity, the dominant ideals of the age, represent decisive factors in bringing to fruition the latent character of the individual. Social conditions, as Giddings points out, determine for each individual 66 what element of his personality shall be played upon by influences that strengthen or weaken; what suggestions shall consciously or unconsciously give direction to his thought and quality to his feel- ing, and so at length, determination to his will.^"* "One period favors the soldier ; another, the business man ; another, the poet or man of science. If a man is born when men care nothing for the things in which he might excel, he never realizes the possibilities of his nature."2»5 Bolton thinks that physical heredity marks out in broad outlines the limits of the abilities of each individual. He regards mathe- matical power, linguistic capacity, the delicacy of touch which will give surgical skill, artistic imagination, as inborn.^"® Granting to biological heredity the most that can reasonably be claimed for it in both the physical and mental sphere, we still find a vast realm that lies entirely beyond its sweep. The contention of this thesis is that many things that play a most important role in man's development can in no wise be brought under the category of biological heredity. Political institutions, laws, language, religious faith, moral quali- ties, national characteristics, are all transmitted by social heredity. And yet these very factors contribute most largely to man's devel- opment and are in a great measure the determining forces. Compare the effect of the free, progressive American democracy under which we live with China, where slavish reverence for the past has shaped the body politic, creating poverty, congestion of population, political stagnation, and stifling originality in thought and scholarship. Plow irresistibly the social heredity works in each case toward the production of a specific type. Or look at the matter of language, which has played such an important role in civilization.^"'' The languages of savage tribes lack abstract terms. One Zulu tribe has ten names for different kinds of cows, but no word for "cow." The Tasmanian has several words representing different kinds of trees, but no word for "tree." There is "hopeless poverty in power of abstraction."^"* How great must be the effect on a people's character of a mother tongue which by its very richness of vocabulary bespeaks a high place in the scale of culture l^"" Or turn to religious faith and to moral qualities, which latter have little connection with biological qualities, but are, as Bolton says, 67 "much more coefficients of environment and social heredity."*" These exert a profound influence on a people's life. Who can fol- low intelligently the trend of Chinese history without a clear under- standing of the moral and religious ideals enshrined in ancestor worship? How impossible to appreciate the history of the Slavic nations without a knowledge of the Orthodox Church, which is woven so intimately into the whole fabric of their life. Or, finally, who would undertake to estimate the significance to political psychology of that intangible, elusive "something" which in want of a better name we call the "national spirit" ? Nationality is an artificial, not a natural distinction, but how impossible for any individual to escape the pressure of the ideals that are created by legend and folklore and by the type of national hero enshrined in song and poetry. We noted in our study of the Greeks how belief in their classic ancestry has of itself been potent to mould Hellenic character in conformity to a definite standard. This has a psycho- logical significance that admits of wide application. We see an illustration in Roumania, where the people claim to be descendants of Trajan's colonists. The sentiment colors their whole life and aspirations, determines their national affiliations and sways their sympathies toward the Latin peoples of the west. Professor Robinson puts us on our guard against the danger of mistaking the artificial achievements of human nurture for traits of human nature. This distinction, old as Plato, is coming now to the forefront and is of supreme importance to sound sociological con- clusions. "There is no reason to think that one particle of culture ever gets into the blood of our human species. It must be either transmitted by imitation or inculcation or be lost. We doubtless inherit aptitudes from parents, grandparents or remoter ancestors, but any actual exercise they may have made of their faculties which we share with them cannot influence us except by example or emu- lation. It is education which has made us what we are ; education in its broad sense, including all that has come to a man from asso- ciation since infancy with civilized companions."*^^ To conclude — any adequate interpretation of individuals and peoples demands that we read them off in terms not only of biologi- cal but of social heredity, and in estimating the relative spheres of various factors we must often assign to social heredity the pre- eminent place. 68 LIST OF CITATIONS FROM AND REFERENCES TO AUTHORITIES. 1. Introduction to Sociology, Scribner, 1905, p. 79. 2. Social Heredity and Social Evolution, Eaton & Mains, 1914, p. 26. 3. Textbook of Sociology, Dealey & Ward, McMillan, 1905, p. 304. See also Pure Sociology, Ward, McMillan, 1903, pp. 34 and 573. 4. Social Heredity and Social Evolution, pp. 25-27. 5. Psychology of Peoples, McMillan, 1898, p. 182. 6. Theory of the State, Clarendon Press, 1885, p. 80. 7. Modern Greece, McMillan, 1901, p. 50. 8. Geschichte der Halbinsel, Morea, Stuttgart, 1830, p. 4. 9. Psychology of Socialism, McMillan, 1899, p. 206. 10. Effects of Tropical Light, Rebman, 1905, p. 237. 11. Man Past and Present, Cambridge Press, 1899, p. 545. 12. Races of Man, Scribner, 1900, p. 347. 13. The Balkans, Meth. Bk. Concern, 1914, p. 39. 14. Modern Greece, p. 49. 15. Modern Greek as a Fighting Man, B. I. Wheeler, N. Am. Review, 1897. 16. Races of Europe, Appleton, 1899, p. 409. 17. The Nearer East, Appleton, 1902, p. 149. 18. Greek Immigration, Yale Press, 1911, p. 20. 19. Modern Greece, p. 1. 20. Rambles and Studies in Greece, Coates, 1900, p. 23. 21. The City State, McMillan, 1893, Chap. II. et al. 22. Pre-Christian Education, Longmans Green, 1900, p. 303. 23. Aeneid 6, 846. 24. History of Greece, Murray, 1869, Vol. 3, p. 466. 25. Grote's History of Greece, Vol. 3, p. 466. 26. Republic 4, 423 (Davis and Vaughan's translation, McMillan, 1912, p. 121). 27. Pontics, Jowett-Clarendon Press, 1885, Vol. I, p. 124. 28. Bk. II, 37. 29. Republic 4, 435 (Davis and Vaughan, p. 138). 30. Cities of St. Paul, Armstrong & Son, 1908, p. 35. 31. Theory of the State, p. 431. 32. Age of Pericles, Grant, Scribner, 1893, p. 144 et seq. 33. Student's History of Philosophy, A. K. Rogers, McMillan, 1904, p. 44. 34. Athens the Violet Crowned, L. Whiting, Little, Brown & Co., 1913, p. 5. 35. Crown of Wild Olive, Lecture III. 36. Herodotus VI, 12. 37. North American Review, 1897. 38. Life of Ancient Greeks, Appleton, 1902, p. 197. 39. L'evolution du commerce, Paris, 1897. 40. Aeneid 2, 49. 41. Satire 3, 62. 42. Modern Greece, p. 5. 43. Anabasis, Bk. 4. 44. Laws of Imitation, Holt. 1903, p. 20. 45. Social Evolution, McMillan, 1898, p. 270. 69 46. Orient and Greece, McMillan, 1902, p. 178. 47. Greek Imperialism, Houghton Miflin, 1913, p. 61. 48. Effects of Tropic Light, p. 236. „„^ ,„ , „„ 49. Malaria, Jones, Ross & EUett, McMillan & Bowes, 1907, pp. 19 and 88. 50. Greek Art and National Life, S. C. K. Smith, Scribner, 1914, p. 235. 51. City State, p. 13. 52. Greek Art and National Life, p. 157. 53. Greek Religion, Farnell, p. 68. 54. Greek Religion, Farnell, p. 24. (See also Growth of Classical Greek Poetry, Jebb, Houghton Miflin, 1893, p. 15.) 55 Orpheus, Reinach, Putnam, 1909, p. 90. 56. Pre-Christian Education, pp. 202-210. 57. Greek Religion, Farnell, p. 98. 58. Greek Life in Town and Country, W. Miller, George Newnes, 1905, pp. 159 and 161. 59. Greece of the Hellenes, Garnett, Pitman, 1914, p. 149. 60. Sociology in its Psychological Aspects, Appleton, 1912, p. 274. 61. Social Evolution, McMillan, 1908, p. 297. 62. Introduction to Sociology, Scribner, 1905, p. 72. 63. Russia of the Russians, Williams, Scribner, 1914, p. 4. 64. The Nearer East, p. 246. 65. Introduction to Sociology, p. 62. 66. New Greece, Sergeant, Fisher Unwin, 1897, Ch. VI. 67. Modern Greece, p. 128. 68. Customs and Lore of Modern Greece, Rennell Rodd, Stott, London, 1892, p. 47. 69. Greece of the 20th Century, Martin, Fisher Unwin, 1913, p. 301. 70. Greek Life, Miller, pp. 35 and 39. 71. Quoted by Jebb, Modern Greece, p. 118. 72. Rambles and Studies in Greece, p. 239. 73. New Greece, p. 257. 74. Modern Greece, pp. 98 and 127. 75. Greek Life, Miller, p. 246. 76. Greece of 20th Century, p. 185. 77. Athens the Violet Crowned, Whiting, p. 194. Greek Life, Miller, p. 112. Greece of the Hellenes, p. 72. 78. Modern Greece, Jebb, p. 154, and New Greece, Sergeant, Ch, VI. 79. Greeks of To-Day, Putnam, 1872, p. 338. 80. Rambles and Studies, p. 245. 81. Greek Life, Miller, p. 26. 82. Greece of 20th Century, p. 185. 83. Greeks of To-Day, p. 100. 84. North American Review, 1897. 85. With the Greeks in Thessaly, W. K. Ross, L. C. Page & Co., p. 28. 86. Greek Life, Miller, p. 244. 87. Greek Life, Miller, p. 7. 88. Greek Immigration, Fairchild, p. 66. 89. The Balkans, Sloane, p. 167. 90. Greek Life, Miller, p. 243 ; also Greece of Hellenes, p. 31. 91. North American Review, 1897. 92. Hellas and the Balkan Wars, Cassavetti, Dodd, Mead. 1914, p. 75. 93. The Balkans, Sloane, 237. 94. Athens the Violet Crowned, p. 356. 95. Greece of the Hellenes, p. 130. 96. New Greece, Sergeant, p. 261. 97. Lenormant, quoted by Jebb, Modern Greece, p. 123. 70 98. The Balkan Wars, Schurman, Princeton Press, 1914, p. 19. 99. North American Review, 1897. 100. Greeks of To-day, p. 341. 101. Greek Life in Town and Country, p. 14. 102. Social Life in Greece, Mahaffy, McMillan, 1902, p. 183. 103. The Giaour, line 1S4. 104. Greeks of To-day, p. 342. 105. Permanence of Greek Type, E. A. Grosvenor — Proceedings of Am. Aritiq. Soc. Vol. XI, Apr. 1897. 106. Hellas and the Balkan Wars, p. 299. 107. Permanence of Greek Type (see 102 above). 108. Greeks of To-day, p. 343. 109. Greek Life in Town and Country, p. 14. no. Rambles and Studies, p. 247. Edition of 1900. 111. Greece of the 20th Century, p. 188. 112. Greece of the 20th Century, p. 226. 113. Daily Consular and Trade Reports, November 11, 1913. 114. Daily Consular and Trade Reports, July 14, 1914. lis. Christian Greece (trans, by John, Marquis of Bute), Gardner, London, 1890. 116. North American Review, 1897. 117. Greece of the 20th Century, p. 173. 118. The Greek Church, by Princess Dora DTstria, in American Church Review. July, 1881. 119. Juvenal's Satires, edited by Chase, Eldredge & Bro., Phila., 188S, p. 263. Note 271. 120. B. I. Wheeler in North American Review, 1897. 121. Greek Athletic Snort, E. M. Gardiner, McMillan, 1910, p. 320 (Ancient vs. Modern Discus Throwing). 122. Greek Life, Miller, p. 2. 123. The Bulgarian Exarchate, Richard von Mach, Fisher Unwin, 1907, p. 91. 124. Athens the Violet Crowned, Whiting, p. 211. 125. Rambles and Studies, etc., p. 416. 126. Modern Greece, p. 51. 127. History of Greece. Finlay. Oxford. 1877. Vol. 4. 128. When I Was a Boy in Greece, Demetrios, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, 1913, p. 14. 129. Rambles and Studies, Edition of 1900. n. 416. 130. The War in Europe. Hart, Aopleton. 1914, n. 65. 131. Studv of Eastern Orthodox Church, Lacey, Gorham, 1912, p. 30 et seq. 1,'?2. Psycholoirv of Peoples, p. 85. 133. The World's Peonies, Keane, Putnam, 1908, p. 183. l.'^^ The World's Peoples, Keane, Putnam. 1908. n. 187. 135. Social Psvcholoov. E. A. Ro<:s. McMillan, 1908, pp. 143, 256, 258, 273. 136. Greece of the Hellenes, p. 170. 137. Greek Lands and Letters. j*llinson, Houp^hton, Miflin. 1909, p. 30. 1.38. Customs and Lore of Modern Greece, Rodd, n. 140. 139. Modern Greek Folklore, Lawson, Cam. Press, 1910, p. 44. 140. Greece of the Hellenes. Ch. 14. 141. New Greece. Cassell. Peter & Galpin. 1878, p. 81 ; and Customs and Lore of Modprn Greece, Rodd, p. 1.32. 142. Modern Greek Folklore, Lawson, p. 557. (See also Greece of 20th Century, p. 331.) 143. Customs and Lore of Modern Greece, Rodd, p. 122. (See also Tucker- man, Greeks of To-day, n. 49 • Greece of 20th Century, p. 331 ; Athens the Violet Crowned, p. 35.) 71 144. Customs and Lore of Modern Greece, p. 126 ; see also Greeks of To-day, p. 309. 145. When I Was a Boy in Greece, G. Demetrios, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, 1913, p. 97. 146. Studies of Greek Poets, Symonds, A. & C. Black, London, 1902, Vol. 1, p. 288, and Customs and Lore of Modern Greece, Rodd, p. 136. (See also Modern Greek Folklore, Lawson, p. 35, and When I Was a Boy in Greece, p. 60.) 147. The Balkan Wars, Schurman, Princeton Press, 1914, p. 19. 148. Greek Immigration, Fairchild, p. 64. 149. The Immigration Problem, Jenks & Lauck, Funk & Wagnalls, 1912, p. 170. 150. Immigration, Fairchild, McMillan, 1913, p. 192. 151. The New Immigration, Roberts, McMillan, 1912, p. 271. 152. The New Immigration, Roberts, McMillan, 1912, p. 204. 153. The New Immigration, Roberts, McMillan, 1912, p. 207. 154. Greeks in America, Burgess, Sherman, French & Co., 1913, p. 68, and Greek Immigration, p. 209. 155. The Immigration Problem, Jenks & Lauck, p. 113. 156. Greeks of To-day, p. 120. 157. Greeks in America, p. 37. 158. Social Life in Greece, Mahaffy, McMillan, 1902, p. 46. 159. Hellas and the Balkan Wars, Cassavetti, p. 170. (See also Greek Life in Town and Country, pp. 205 and 211, and Greek Immigration, p. 37.) 160. Immigration, Fairchild, p. 332. 161. Immigration, Fairchild, p. 333. 162. The Immigration Problem, p. 171. 163. Greeks in Chicago, Am. Jour, of Soc, Nov. 1909 (see Greeks in Amer- ica, p. 134). 164. Immigration, Fairchild, p. 275. 165. The New Immigration, p. 181. See also Greek Immigration, Fairchild, p. 155. 166. The New Immigration, p. 276. 167. Greeks in Chicago, Am. Jour, of Soc, Nov., 1909. 168. Greek Life in Town and Country, p. 137. 169. The New Immigration, p. 210. 170. Greek Immigration, Fairchild, p. 132; also p. 144 and p. 151. 171. Greeks in America, ch. 9. 172. Greek Immigration, Fairchild, p. 139. 173. Greek Life in Town and Country, p. 225 et seq. 174. Tarpon Springs Leader, Jan. 20, 1912. 175. Greece of the Hellenes, p. 164. 176. Memoirs of a Revolutionist, Houghton Miflin, 1899, p. 148. 177. This statement was made to me by the Prot. Epis. Bishop of Harrisburg, Dr. Darlington. 178. Greek Life in Town and Country, p. 101. 179. Study of Eastern Orth. Church, Lacey, p. 32. 180. Greek Life in Town and Country, p. 102. 181. Greeks in America, Burgess, p. 174. 182. The Immigration Problem, Jenks & Lauck, p. 272. 183. On Trail of the Immigrant, Steiner, Revell, 1906, p. 287. 184. Rambles and Studies in Greece, Mahaffy, Coates, 1900, p. 57. 185. Greek Immigration, Fairchild, p. 239. 186. The Old World in the New, Ross, Century Co., 1914, p. 243. 187. Greeks in Chicago, Am. Jour, of Soc, Nov., 1909; also Greeks in Amer- ica, p. 131. 72 188. Greeks in America, Burgess, p. 35. 189. The Immigration Problem, Jenks & Lauck, p. 124. 190. Iliad VI, 21 et seq. 191. The Immigration Problem, Jenks & Lauck, p. 172. 192. New Greece, Burrows, Quarterly Review, April, 1914. 193. New Greece, Burrows, Quarterly Review, April, 1914. 194. The Immigration Problem, p. 172. 195. Greek Immigration, p. 239. 196. Gospel of the Kingdom, Jan., 1915, p 5. 197. Principles of Education, Bolton, Scribner, 1910, p. 9. 198. Social Heredity and Social Evolution, p. 27. 199. Principles of Education, Bolton, pp. 183-189. 200. Hereditary Genius, Galton, Appleton, 1871, Preface, p. vi. 201. Hereditary Genius, Galton, Appleton, 1871, p. 110. 202. Hereditary Genius, Galton, Appleton, 1871, p. 69. 203. Hereditary Genius, Galton, Appleton, 1871, p. 149. 204. Principles of Education, p. 191. 205. Principles of Sociology, McMillan, 1903, p. 380. 206. Principles of Sociology, McMillan, 1903, p. 327. 207. Principles of Education, Bolton, p. 9. 208. Elements of Sociology, Giddings, McMillan, 1900, p. 24a 209. Social Heredity and Social Evolution, Conn, p. 55. 210. Principles of Education, Bolton, p. 609. 211. Principles of Education, Bolton, p. 225. 212. The New History, Robinson, McMillan, 1912, p. 253. 73 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Heredity— J. A. Thomson. Murray, London, 1908. First Principles of Heredity— S. Herbert. A. & C. Black, London, 1910. First Principles of Evolution— Herbert. A. & C. Black, London, 1913. Heredity and Selection in Sociology— G. C. Hill. A. & C. Black, Lon., 1910. Social Heredity and Social Evolution— Herbert Conn. Eaton & Mains, 1914. Evolution and Animal Life— Jordan & Kellogg. Appleton, 1907. Hereditary Genius — Galton. Appleton, 1871. Races of Europe — Ripley. Appleton, 1899. Races of Man — Deniker. Scribner, 1900. Man Past and Present — Keane. Cambridge Press, 1899. Effects of Tropical Light— Woodruff. Rebman, 190S. Principles of Education — Bolton. Scribner, 1910. Pure Sociology— Ward. McMillan, 1903. Principles of Sociology — Giddings. McMillan, 1903. Laws of Imitation — Tarde. Holt, 1903. Principles of Sociology — Spencer. Appleton, 1904. Introduction to Sociology — Fairbanks. Scribner, 1905. Sociology in its Psychological Aspects — Ellwood. Appleton, 1912. Descriptive Sociology — Giddings. McMillan, 1906. Social Psychology — Ross. McMillan, 1908. Social Evolution— Kidd. McMillan, 1898. Psychology of Peoples — LeBon. McMillan, 1898. Psychology of Socialism — ^LeBon, McMillan, 1899. The New History— Robinson. McMillan, 1912. Russia of the Russians — Williams. Scribner, 1914. The Nearer East— Hogarth. Appleton, 1902. The Orient and Greec^Botsford. McMillan, 1902. Political Institutions of Ancient Greece — Hammond. Clay, London, 189S. Political Theories of Ancient World — Willoughby. . Longmans, Green, 1903. Theory of the State — Bluntschli. Clarendon Press, 1885. The City Stat^Fowler. McMillan, 1893. The Ancient City — Fustel de Coulonges. Lee & Shepard, 1901. Pre-Christian Education — ^Laurie. Longmans, Green, 1900. Homeric Society — Keller. Longmans, Green, 1902. Ancient Athens — Gardner. McMillan, 1907. Life in Ancient Athens — Tucker. McMillan, 1906. Story of Athens — Butler. Century Co., 1902. Home Life of Ancient Greeks — Blumner. Cassell, 1895. Life of Ancient Greeks — Gulick. Appleton, 1902. Greek View of Life — Dickinson. McClure Phillips Co., 1906. Greek Imperialism — Ferguson. Houghton Miflin, 1913. Student's History of Philosophy — Rogers. McMillan, 1904. Greek Athletic Sports — Gardiner. McMillan, 1910. Principles of Greek Art — Gardner. McMillan, 1914. Greek Art and National Life — Smith. Scribner, 1914. Malaria — Jones Ross & EUett. McMillan & Bowes, 1907. 74 Cities of St. Paul — Ramsay. Armstrong, 1908. Studies of the Greek Poets— Symonds. A. & C. Black, London, 1902. Growth of Classical Greek Poetry— Jebb. Houghton Miflin, 1893. From Homer to Theocritus — Capps. Scribner, 1901. Social Life of Greece— Mahaffy. McMillan, 1902. Age of Pericles — Grant. Scribner, 1893. Study of the Gods in Greece— Dyer. McMillan, 1891. Cults of Greek States— Farnell. Clarendon Press, 1896. Prolegomena to Study of Greek Religion — Harrison. Cambridge Press, 1903. Themis — Harrison. Cambridge Press, 1912. Greek Religion — Farnell. Scribner, 1912. History of Religion— G. F. Moore. Scribner, 1913. (Ch. 17-21.) Orpheus — Reinach. Putnam, 1909. Destruction of the Greek Empire — Pears. Longmans, Green, 1903. Greek War for Independence — Phillips. Scribner, 1897. Christian Greece — Bikelas (Translation). Gardner, London, 1890. Christian Greece and Living Greek — Rose. Peri Hellados Co., 1898. Greek and Eastern Churches — ^Adeney. Scribner, 1908. Study of the Eastern Orthodox Church — Lacey. Gorham, 1912. The Bulgarian Exarchate — von Mach. Fisher Unwin, London, 1907. Greeks, Bulgarians and English Opinion — Z. D. Ferriman. Bonner, Lon., 1913.. Bulgaria and Her People — Monroe. Page Co., 1914. Modern Greek Folklore — ^J. C. Lawson. Cambridge Press, 1910. Customs and Lore of Modern Greece — Rennell Rodd. Stott, London, 1892. Rambles and Studies in Greece — Mahaffy. Coates, 1900, Greek Lands and Letters — AUinson. Houghton, Miflin, 1909. Greece and the Aegean Islands — Marden. Houghton Miflin, 1907. Aegean Days — J. J. Manatt. Murray, London, 1913. Vacation Days in Greece — Richardson. Scribner, 1904. Greek Life in Town and Country — W. Miller. Geo. Newnes, London, 191S. Modern Greece — ^Jebb. McMillan, 1901. Greece, Her Progress and Present Position — A. R. Rangabe. Putnam, 1867. Greeks of To-day — Tuckerman. Putnam, 1872. New Greece — Sergeant. Fisher Unwin, London, 1897. Greece of the XX Century — Martin. Fisher Unwin, 1913. Athens the Violet Crowned— Whiting. Little, Brown & Co., 1913. The Balkans — Sloane. Meth. Book Concern, 1914. Hellas and the Balkan Wars — Cassavetti. Dodd, Mead, 1914. The War in Europe — A. B. Hart. Appleton, 1914. With the Greeks in Thessaly— Rose. L. C. Page & Co., 1898. The Balkan Wars — Schurman. Princeton Press, 1914. The Orient Question — ^Lazarovich. Duffield, 1913. When I Was a Boy in Greece — Demetrios. Lathrop, Lee & Shepard, 1913. Greece of the Hellenes — Garnett. Pitman, London, 1914. Letters from Greece — J. Mavrogordato. Seeker, London, 1914. The Immigrant Invasion — T. J. Warne. Dodd, Mead, 1913. The Immigration Problem — ^Jenks & Lauck. Funk & Wagnalls, 1912. The Old World in the New— Ross. Century Co., 1914. Immigration — Fairchild. McMillan, 1913. The New Immigration — Roberts. McMillan, 1912. Greek Immigration — Fairchild. Yale Press, 1902. The Greeks in America — Burgess. Sherman, French & Co., 1913. On the Trail of the Immigrant— Steiner. Revell, 1906. (Ch. 19.) References should also be made to Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics, Herodotus, Thucydides, and to the standard histories of Greece by Grote, Bury, Botsf ord, Morey, Holm, Abbott and Curtius ; also to these- 75 MAGAZINE ARTICLES. The Greeks in Asia — Wilson. Asiatic Quar. Rev., Jan., 1887. London, T. F. Unwin. Permanence of Greek Type — Grosvenor. Proceedings Am. Antiq. Soc, Vol. XI, April, 1897, Worcester, Mass., 1898. The Modern Greek as a Fighting Man — Wheeler. North American Review, April, 1897. New Greece — Burrows. Quarterly Review, April, 1914. Greeks in Chicago, by Grace Abbott. Am. Journal of Sociology, Nov., 1909. The Greek Church, in American Church Review, July, 1881. 76