3 1924 084 876 618 
 
 m 
 
 COfflCLLyNWCIilTI 
 
;<ri 
 
 Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924084876618 
 
GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS 
 
 Class Book 
 
 
THE 
 
 SAIDAPET EXPEEIMENTAL FAEM 
 
 MANUAL AND GUIDE. 
 
 PREPAKED UNDER THE ORDERS OP GOVERNMENT 
 
 BY 
 
 CHAHLES BENSON, 
 
 MEMBER OF THE EOYAL AGEICTJLTUBAL COLLEGE, 
 SUPEEINTENEENT OP SAIBAPBT FARM. 
 
 MADEAS: 
 PRINTED BY R. HILL, AT THE GOVERNMENT PRESS. 
 
 18 79. 
 
5 
 
ALBERT R. MANN 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 AT 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSLT\ 
 
PEEFATORY REMARKS. 
 
 This compilation has been prepared in order to bring 
 together, in a form convenient for reference, the most interest- 
 ing and valuable writings, referring to the practice of agricul- 
 ture in this Presidency, which are to be found scattered 
 through the annual and special reports, submitted by the 
 agricultural ofl&cers of the Madras Grovernment during the 
 past ten years ; many of these reports being either out of 
 print or otherwise not available to the public. 
 
 A short guide to the Saidapet Experimental Farm has 
 been added to the compilation in order that the farmer and 
 agricultural student may be able to comprehend the circum- 
 stances under which the results and experience narrated 
 have been gained. This guide will enable any one to judge 
 whether it is likely, under the conditions with which he 
 himself has to deal, that similar results would be obtained 
 if he adopted the practices detailed ; he will also be assisted 
 in deciding what modifications of them would in his case be 
 advisable. He should, however, not forget that in farming it 
 is impossible to reduce, to the accuracy and preciseness usual 
 in a manufactory, the results of the operations performed. 
 Agriculture is, more than any profession, dependent on 
 Nature for success. 
 
 Agricultural experiments are in all countries surrounded by 
 many difficulties ; and only to be carried out at great cost to 
 the experimenter ; although the results obtained may be of 
 incalculable value to the public at large. I might quote on 
 this subject from the writings of many of the leading authori- 
 ties on scientific agriculture, but will only give the following 
 extract from Von Thaer's " Principles of Agriculture : " — 
 
 " These experiments, it is true, are not easy ; still they are in 
 the power of every thinking husbandman. He who accomplishes 
 
IV PREPATOEY EEMAEES. 
 
 but one, of hoivever limited application, and takes care to report 
 it faithfully, advances the science, and, consequently, the prac- 
 tice of agriculture, and acquires thereby a right to the gratitude of 
 his fellovjs, and of those who come after. To maJce many such is 
 beyond the power of most individuals, and cannot be expected." 
 In this country, however, agricultural experiments have been 
 and are surrounded by many difficulties, which in other 
 countries are almost unfelt. The almost entire absence 
 of reliable information regarding the rational performance 
 •of the tillage of the ground, of the culture of any of our 
 common crops, or of the management of live stock under 
 the conditions with which we have to deal, has been a draw- 
 back to progress, which it is scarcely possible to overrate. 
 The want of co-adjutors, working for the same object as the 
 officers of Government, has also been a great obstacle to the 
 collection of reliable data on which to base conclusions of a 
 definite nature. 
 
 On the Saidapet Farm numerous alterations, rendered 
 necessary, after it had been in operation some years, by a 
 change in its objects, together with the difficulty of obtaining 
 that uniformity of condition in preparation for experiments, 
 which is necessary for the collection of reliable data, owing 
 to the apathy, ignorance, and carelessness of the laborers, and 
 to the impossibility which exists for Europeans to remain all 
 day exposed to the sun in the plains, have retarded the pro- 
 gress of research greatly. At the same time the chances of 
 success attending experimental work are always reduced by 
 the extremes of heat and moisture, of flood and drought, 
 which characterise the climate, and by the depredations of 
 birds, animals, and insects, as well as from the general habits 
 of allowing domestic animals to graze at large, and of petty 
 pilfering from the fields. 
 
 It should not be forgotten by the reader that this work 
 only attempts to show the local agricultural experience 
 gathered at Saidapet up to the present time ; as this has been 
 gained at one place only, and in a very limited period, and as, 
 
PREFATORY REMARKS. V 
 
 besides the farm here, there have been no similar institutions 
 in any part of the Presidency, it is quite possible that wider 
 and fuller experience will controvert many of the opinions 
 which are expressed ; on many points light will doubtless be 
 thrown in the future, and many results will be negatived or 
 confirmed by further trial. 
 
 Such a work as this is can only remain of value for a 
 short time, but it will be, it is hoped, of use to the public in 
 diffusing sound ideas regarding improved methods of agri- 
 culture. As far as possible it has been my object to bring 
 down the data given to the most recent possible date, and 
 thus perhaps some as yet unpublished figures will be found 
 in the work. 
 
 CHARLES BENSON, m.e.a.c, 
 Saidapet, ' Superintendent of Saidapet Farm. 
 
 5th November 1878. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Chaptbr 
 
 I. — GdiDE to the SaiDAPET EXPEEIMENTAL FaBM 
 
 II. — The Treatment of the Land 
 III. — Manures and Manueing 
 
 IV.— Crops 
 
 V. — Livestock 
 
 VI. — Foods and Feeding 
 VJI. — Implements, Machines, and Tools 
 Index 
 
 Page 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 35 
 
 71 
 
 91 
 
 103 
 
 117 
 
THE 
 
 SAIDAPET FAEM MANUAL. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GUIDE TO THE SAIDAPET EXPERIMENTAL FARM. 
 
 The farm is situated on the northern bank of the Adyar river, 
 which forms its southern and eastern boundaries, between 5 and 6 
 miles south of Madras, in the Saidapet Taluk of the Chingleput District. 
 The district around Saidapet is chiefly occupied by rocks of the 
 secondary, tertiary and recent ages, the remainder of the area being 
 taken up by rocks of a metamorphio form. Mr. Foote classifies the 
 rocks as follows : — 
 
 " The following tabular statement illustrates the various groups into 
 which the rocks of the Madras area have been classified : — 
 
 C Blown sands. 
 Recent or quaternary . . < AUuvium, marine and ftuviatUe.. 
 
 ( Laterite and Conjeveram gravels. 
 Tertiarv . j Gritty sandstones. 
 
 ^ ' ' ' ' iCuddalore sandstones. 
 
 Secondarv 4 (Cretaceous ?) Jurassic, Eajmahal 
 
 •' ' ■ ' ■ J plant beds. 
 
 Sub-metamorphic . . Cuddapah group. 
 
 Metamorphio . , , . Gneissic series." 
 
 The formations chiefly prevalent are : — 
 
 "1st. The Blown Sand. — These sub-serial deposits are of no great extent 
 or importance. The greatest width obtained by this coast ridge may be' 
 about a mile. 
 
 " 2/id. The Alluvial I<'ormaUons. —^These are of two classes, marine 
 (includin g estuarine) and fluviatile, but they are nearly undistinguishable 
 in character, and at many points graduate into each other imperceptibly. 
 Their general character, as seen at the surface, is that of pure, or nearly 
 pure, sHicious sands ; but beds of black, blue or grey clay occur largely 
 below the .surface in the marine alluvium near Madras ; these are, however, 
 nauch less frequent in the fluviatile aUuvimn higher up the river valleys. 
 The river alluvia are of more interest than the marine, because they afford 
 evidence of some remarkable changes within the human period in the 
 c ourses of several of the principal rivers in the district. 
 
 "3rd: Lateritic Formations. — The formations classed tmder the above 
 heading are of three principal kinds, namely, clayey conglomerates, gravels 
 and sand which occur distributed over nearly the whole of the area under 
 consideration. These formations are found constantly graduating into 
 
4, GUIDE TO THE SAIBAPET FARM. 
 
 each other in such a manner that they can only be regarded as parts of one 
 and the same deposit, however various the appearance of the different 
 members. In the Madras areas and to the north of Madras in the Nellore 
 District, the character of the lateritic formations is considerably different 
 from that of the representatives of the same series further south in 
 Trichinopoly and South Arcot Districts, the difference consisting in the 
 much greater frequency of conglomerates and in the presence of large quanti- 
 ties of quartzite pebbles enclosed in the conglomerates. The laterite 
 gravels frequently contain pebbles of quartzite and gneiss mixed with 
 the pisiform ferruginous pellets in varying proportion according to their 
 proximity or distance from the older quartzite yielding rocks. The sands 
 associated with the lateritic conglomerates and gravels show considerable 
 variety in texture and color, the latter depending on the percentage of iron. 
 They not unfrequently contain a large quantity of clay, and are then apt to 
 cake and harden, but without the excessive fissuring noticeable in purer 
 clays. These sandy beds are frequently found overlying the highly 
 ferruginous beds and form to a great extent the soil of the laterite areas." 
 
 The climate (A the district is, compared with many others of this 
 Presidency, good ; for the great heat is considerably lessened by the sea 
 breezes over a great part of its area, and the rainfall is more consider- 
 able than in other neighbouring districts. The following table gives 
 the average data of the meteorology of Madras from the records of the 
 Observatory; the situation of which is Latitude 13° 4' North, Longi- 
 tude 80° 15' East :— 
 
 Months. 
 
 u m 
 
 
 & PI 
 
 a-2 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 4^ 
 
 
 tS 
 
 
 W 
 
 CD 
 n3 
 
 
 CS 
 
 U 
 
 A 
 
 s 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 -p . 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 .a 
 *e3 
 
 cS 
 
 o 
 
 !^ 
 
 13 
 
 03 
 
 ID 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 r1 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 1— I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 .a 
 
 '3 
 
 a 
 
 '3 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 P3 
 
 is 
 
 77-4 
 
 74-3 
 
 0-71 
 
 1 
 
 81-0 
 
 78-6 
 
 207 
 
 2 
 
 80-9 
 
 78-3 
 
 1-99 
 
 7 
 
 790 
 
 76-5 
 
 3-81 
 
 12 
 
 77-6 
 
 74-8 
 
 4-53 
 
 12 
 
 77-3 
 
 74-4 
 
 4-83 
 
 10 
 
 75-6 
 
 72-6 
 
 10-99 
 
 12 
 
 72'5 
 
 691 
 
 1317 
 
 13 
 
 70'2 
 
 65-7 
 
 510 
 
 7 
 
 67-9 
 
 62-4 
 
 •99 
 
 2 
 
 691 
 
 63-8 
 
 ■30 
 
 1 
 
 72 
 
 67-6 
 
 •45 
 
 1 
 
 a fe 
 
 CD *^ 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 April 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December ,. 
 
 January 
 
 February . . 
 
 Maroli 
 
 29-824 
 29-730 
 29-698 
 29-716 
 29-749 
 29-774 
 29-841 
 29-933 
 29-979 
 29-995 
 29-962 
 29-904 
 
 84-3 
 87-2 
 87-0 
 85-0 
 83-6 
 83-1 
 80-8 
 77-5 
 75-3 
 74-8 
 76-8 
 79-9 
 
 77-4 74 
 
 78-2 
 76-4 
 75-7 
 76-0 
 76-0 
 75-5 
 72-6 
 70-2 
 68-9 
 70 
 
 73-5, 74 
 
 139-0 
 140-5 
 135-0 
 133-0 
 133-1 
 136-5 
 133-3 
 131-5 
 133-6 
 134-0 
 134-5 
 136-5 
 
 92-7 
 97-6 
 98-2 
 95-6 
 93-2 
 92-1 
 88-3 
 84-0 
 82-1 
 82-8 
 85-4 
 88-4 
 
 S.E. by S. 
 
 S. by E. 
 
 S.W. by S, 
 
 S.W. 
 
 S.W. by S. 
 
 I S.W. by S. 
 
 East. 
 
 N.N.E. 
 
 N.N.E. 
 
 N.E. by E, 
 
 East. 
 
 S.E. 
 
 190 
 229 
 218 
 207 
 
 180'3i; 
 16036' 
 12443J 
 16843| 
 179 49' 
 149 64 
 133,741 
 151 761 
 
 In the next statement the rainfall records made at Saidapet during 
 eight years are tabulated ; these show considerable variations from the 
 Observatory figures. 
 
GUIDE TO THE SAIDAPET FARM. 
 
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GUIDE TO THE SAIDAPET FARM. O 
 
 The rainfall as -will be seen is very unevenly distributed, more than 
 50 per cent, of it falling between the middle of October and the middle 
 of December ; from the last mentioned time until Jime there is seldom 
 much rain, unless it be of a cyclonic character : cyclones however are not 
 unfrequent, and often visit this coast in May ; during one which burst 
 here in 1877 22-23 inches of rain were registered in 96 hours, 16-55 
 inches of which fell in one period of 24 1 hours. 
 
 The temperature and state of the atmosphere varies very much with 
 the time of year ; during April, May, and June strong westerly winds 
 commonly prevail, which are intensely hot and dry, withering up all 
 vegetation and reducing the country generally to the appearance of a 
 desert, in which operation the general want of trees, hedgerows and 
 plantations greatly assists. Later in the year, after the burst of the 
 south-west monsoon, occasional showers, commonly thunderstorms, 
 render the air more and more moist until, before the change of wind 
 to the north-east in October, the air becomes oppressive, and excessively 
 damp ; after the heavy rains at the latter end of the year the climate 
 is cool and very favorable to agricultural operations; heavy dewa 
 invariably falling and so enabling the crops to perfect themselves. 
 Were it not for the shortness of the season, and the uncertainty of the 
 rainfall being fairly distributed, the climate would be very advantageous 
 to agrictdtural pursuits ; as it is, it presents many terrible obstacles in the 
 way of the farmer; the weather in January and February however 
 could not be excelled, usually, for harvesting operations. 
 
 The Farm Estate, which stands about twenty feet above the sea level, is 
 a triangular block of land divided into two nearly equal portions by the 
 waste water channel of the Mylapore tank running west and east. The 
 portion lying south of the channel is alone referred to below, the other 
 portion being intended for a stock farm, and will be most of it laid 
 under grass ; the former portion is divided into twenty fields and its 
 area is occupied as follows : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 Field No. 1 
 
 
 • • • • 
 
 . 2-38 
 
 
 Do. „ 2 
 
 
 
 
 . 1-62 
 
 
 Do. „ 3 
 
 
 
 
 . 1-78 
 
 
 Do. „ 4 
 
 
 
 
 . 5-87 
 
 
 Do. „ 5 
 
 
 
 
 . 0-94. 
 
 
 Do. „ 7 
 
 
 
 
 . 3-29 
 
 
 Do. „ 8 
 
 
 
 
 . 2-62 
 
 
 Do. „ 10 
 
 
 
 
 . 4-25 
 
 
 Do. „ 11 
 
 
 
 
 . 2-96 
 
 
 Do. „ 12 
 
 
 
 
 . 343 
 
 
 Do. „ 13 
 
 
 
 
 . 2-73 
 
 
 Do. „ 14 
 
 
 
 
 . 3-47 
 
 
 Do. „ 15 
 
 
 
 
 . 7-30 
 
 
 Do. „ 16 
 
 
 
 
 . 4-82 
 
 
 Do. „ 17 
 
 
 
 
 . 4-90 
 
 
 Do. „ 18 
 
 
 
 
 . 4-59 
 
 
 Do. „ 19 
 
 
 
 
 . 4-37 
 
 
 Do. „ 20 
 
 
 
 
 . 1-48 
 
 62-80 
 
 River-bed under cultivation 
 
 
 • . • 
 
 4-52 
 
 Fruit and fuel trees 
 
 . 
 
 , 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 32-56 
 
GUIDE TO THE SAIDAPET FARM. 
 
 Farm-yard and buildings 
 
 Superintendent's and Overseer's houses. 
 
 Slaughter-houses and ground 
 
 Roads 
 
 Channels 
 
 Waste land, river-bed, &c. 
 
 Aericultural ( ®^*® '^^^ grounds 
 °p 11 < Students' cottages 
 
 ° ■ (. Botanical Gardens 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 5-30 
 
 
 2-23 
 
 
 3-97 
 
 11-50 
 
 9-37 
 
 
 4-13 
 
 
 11-28 
 
 24-78 
 
 19-94 
 
 
 2-67 
 
 
 5-20 
 
 27-81 
 
 Total .. 163-97 
 
 The farm soils are all derived from alluvial deposits, probably estuarine, 
 the characteristic silieious sands covering the greater part of its area, 
 with beds of black clay belo-w the surface at varying depths ; the latter 
 occasionally crop out. A ridge of metamorphic rocks runs through this 
 portion of the farm in the direction of south'-west to north-east, 
 protruding in two or three places. 
 
 When the estate was originally taken up almost the entire surface was 
 covered by a low dense pestiferous scrub of prickly-pear and wild guavas ; 
 there were no roads, and the existing wells were in a ruinous state, 
 choked with rubbish, and most of them dry ; whilst the land was broken 
 up -with old brick-yard pits and covered with the ruins and foundations 
 of old buildings. The land was selected because it was in the hands of 
 Government at the time, and the only available piece of land near 
 Madras ; it was also a nuisance to the neighboring to-wn of Saidapet and 
 for that purpose it was desirable that it should be cleared. 
 
 The farm was opened in April 1865, under the management of a 
 committee of gentlemen, which existed until 1871, when it was dissolved 
 and the present arrangements came into force. Before the year 1870, 
 there is little matter of any value recorded in the reports. None of 
 the land of the farm is irrigable by gravitation, but it contains about 
 twenty acres which it is possible to bring under well irrigation. The 
 water in the wells has to be raised generally about twenty feet. A con- 
 siderable increase in this area will shortly take place, bringing, it is 
 intended, as much as 40-50 acres under occasional irrigation, which 
 will allow of more certainty being obtained in experimental cropping. 
 There are at present two bucket pumps and two double mhotes, besides 
 several other lifts of different kinds, in regular work. 
 
 The buildings, which consist of a granary, store-houses for ca ttle food, 
 &c., a chaffing and cotton-ginning room, sheep sheds, cattle sheds, a 
 poultry house and other necessary accommodation, are most of them 
 built of brick-and-mud walls, excepting in the case of open sheds 
 where the pillars are of brick and lime, and are covered in all except two 
 cases with tiles ; they are situated at the south-east extremity of the farm, 
 and although not in the most advantageous position, are commodious 
 and efficient. The Farm Overseer's quarters are adjacent to, and the 
 Superintendent's near, the yard. 
 
 Since the establishment of the Agricultural College in connection 
 with it, the objects of the farm have become two-fold — Educational and 
 Experimental. For the former purpose, it is endeavored to carry on. 
 
GUIDE TO THE SAIDAPET FARM. 
 
 side by side with purely experimental work, the system of improved 
 agricultural practice which experience has shown to be best adapted to 
 this country, in order that the students may see and learn with their 
 Q-wTi eyes the results obtained. In experimental work the following 
 objects are held in view : — 
 
 " (1.) To ascertain by experiment the proper use of rotation in crops 
 
 in this country. 
 "(2.) To introduce the system of root or green-crops in lieu of 
 
 fallow, without artificial irrigation. 
 " (3.) To introduce new crops. 
 " (4.) To provide new kinds of seed, and fresh seed for the crops 
 
 now cultivated. 
 " (5.) To make experiments in the use of water for the cultivation 
 
 of crops now termed " Dry " crops, and for raising grasses 
 
 and other crops to be used as fodder. 
 " (6.) To make experiments in the use of lime and other manures — 
 
 mineral and animal. 
 " (7.) To introduce new and improved implements of rural labor. 
 "(8.) To improve the working cattle, sheep, horses, and other 
 
 varieties of live-stock in the country." 
 
 The soils of the farm vary from light blowing sands, through sandy 
 loams of greater or less value, to a stiflSsh loam, but the area occupied 
 by the latter class is only about 3 or 4 acres at the south-east corner, 
 being Fields Nos. 1, 2, 3 referred to above. The fields which are of best 
 quality in the farm are inferior to the land generally cultivated in the 
 country, being very sandy and extremely deficient in organic matter- 
 containing only about 2 per cent, of that substance — and are consequently 
 very liable to the effects of drought, ha-\dng little power of absorbing 
 or retaining moisture. The worst soils of the farm, besides some that 
 have already been planted with trees cover Fields Nos. 17, 18, and 19 ; in 
 them, the sand is very coarse and almost pure silica. The most valuable 
 portions are Fields Nos. 4, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, and 15, the rest forming a 
 series filling up the intermediate space. The following analyses, made 
 some years ago before the soils had been ameliorated to any great 
 exent by cultivation and manuring, give some idea of their natural 
 poverty ; the soils referred to are some of the best on the farm : — 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 No. 4 Field (Bast side). 
 
 No. 1 Field 
 
 Surface 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Surface 
 Soil. 
 
 Sub-soil. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Alumina ... 
 Oxide of iron ... 
 
 Phosphate of lime 
 
 Carbonate of do. 
 Do. of magnesia 
 
 Sulphate of lime ... ... 
 
 Chlorides 
 
 Moisture 
 
 Organic matter 
 
 Sand 
 
 Total ... 
 
 4^420 
 
 1^800 
 
 •240 
 
 •700 
 
 Trace. 
 
 Do. 
 
 1080 
 
 2^760 
 
 2^500 
 
 85900 
 
 2060 
 
 2900 
 
 •009 
 
 •560 
 
 Trace. 
 
 Do. 
 
 •720 
 
 1420 
 
 1740 
 
 90^400 
 
 3-240 
 
 1-350 
 
 •120 
 
 •310 
 
 Trace. 
 
 Do. 
 
 •900 
 
 2090 
 
 2120 
 
 89870 
 
 99400 
 
 99809 
 
 100^000 
 
8 
 
 GUIDE TO THE SAIDAPET FARM. 
 
 It 19 also well to record the valueB placed on the land in 1865 by the 
 Revenue Settlement Department, which are embodied in the tablo 
 below : — 
 
 No. 
 
 Irrigated 
 or Dry. 
 
 Source of 
 Irrigation. 
 
 Description of 
 Soil. 
 
 Taram. 
 
 Rate per 
 Acre. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Assess- 
 ment. 
 
 la 
 
 Dry ... 
 
 Government 
 
 Permanently 
 
 
 BS. 
 
 A. 
 
 ACS. 
 
 CTS. 
 
 BS. A. 
 
 
 
 well. 
 
 improved. ..2 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 1 2 
 
 h 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Black sand... 5 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 6 5 
 
 2 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Do. ...5 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 51 
 
 19 6 
 
 3 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Red loam ...7 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 66 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Do. ...7 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 94 
 
 2 15 
 
 5 
 
 Peram- 
 boke. 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 67 
 
 
 6 
 
 Dry ... 
 
 Government 
 
 Permanently 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 well. 
 
 improved. ..2 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 3 I 
 
 7 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Black loam... 4 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 1 8 
 
 8 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 Government 
 well. 
 
 Red loam ...7 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 63 
 
 17 4 
 
 9 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Red loam ...7 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 10 7 
 
 10 
 
 Peram- 
 
 boke. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 
 11 
 
 Dry ... 
 
 Government 
 
 Permanently 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 well. 
 
 improved... 2 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 90 
 
 17 9 
 
 12 
 
 Do. .. 
 
 ..* 
 
 Red loam ...7 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 8 4 
 
 13 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Do. ...7 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 93 
 
 7 14 
 
 14 
 
 Do. . . 
 
 
 Black sand... 5 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 99 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Do. ...5 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 96 
 
 14 15 
 
 16 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Black loam... 4 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 59 
 
 11 3 
 
 17 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Do. ...4 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 43 
 
 8 14 
 
 18 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Black sand. ..5 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Do. ..5 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 15 3 
 
 20 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Red sand ...8 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 61 
 
 3 4 
 
 21 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Do. ..,8 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 47 
 
 1 13 
 
 22 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 
 Do. ...8 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 4 3 
 
 23 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 Government 
 well. 
 
 Do. ...8 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 6 4 
 
 24 
 
 Do. .. 
 
 
 Do. ...8 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 79 
 
 4 12 
 
 25 
 
 Peram- 
 boke. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ... 
 
 132 
 
 57 
 
 190 2 
 
 Abstract exliibiting the Area and Assessment of each Class of Soil. 
 
 Taram or 
 Glass. 
 
 Rate per 
 Acre. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Assessment. 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 BS. A. 
 
 4 8 
 2 
 1 8 
 
 1 4 
 
 ACS. CTS. 
 
 4 83 
 32 65 
 12 81 
 67 1 
 
 BS. A. 
 
 21 12 
 65 6 
 19 4 
 83 12 
 
 Total ... 
 
 117 30 
 
 190 2 
 
 Peramboke ... 
 
 15 27 
 
 
 Grand Total ... 
 
 132 57 
 
 
THE TREATMENT OF THE LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE TREATMENT OP THE LAND. 
 
 DEEP CULTIVATION.— Year by year experience of the results 
 seen on this farm confirms the opinion, " that the value of deep culture can, 
 for usefulness in India, be scarcely overrated." Shallow cultivation is the 
 curse of Indian agricidture, and the man who can induce the ryot to add 
 an extra inch or two to the depth of his arable land will be as much 
 entitled to the gratitude of his country, as the man who makes two 
 blades of grass to grow where only one grew before. The usual system 
 of dry land management in this district, which allows of crop after crop 
 being taken off the land without a particle of organic manure being 
 used, and is content if the cultivation of the soil is confined to a surface- 
 stirring of not over three inches in depth, is most suicidaL The great object 
 of the cultivator of dry land should be to enable his soil to retain as 
 much water as possible without its being stagnant or being actually 
 visible to the eye. He should take care that no water remains on the 
 surface of the land, and by deep ploughing and the liberal use of organic 
 manures increase, as much as possible, the porosity of his soil ; instead 
 of this, the result of his operations is that his soil is rendered as little 
 porous as possible ; his lands during the rains are flooded and swampy, 
 while during the dry weather they are baked and cracked. 
 
 In referring to deep cultivation deep ploughing is not at ail necessarily 
 referred to : deep ploughing signifies the inversion of the soil, deep cultivation 
 only the deep stirring of it ; the former is in many eases injurious, 
 and must in no case be rashly attempted. On such soils, for instance, as 
 those resting on a tenacious soapy subsoil, which in the process would be 
 brought to the surface, deep ploughing would render the surface soil 
 unproductive Tintil physical and chemical agencies had again restored 
 it to a condition fit for the growth of crops ; and it would be equally as 
 unwise to bring up to the surface, by working the plough more deeply, 
 portions of a subsoil which is poorer than the surface soil, or that is 
 otherwise calculated to injure the surface soil in its physical character : 
 in some cases good land has been ruined for many years owing to 
 a raw subsoU in which nothing would grow, being brought to 
 the surface. Deep caltivation on the other hand has almost always 
 most beneficial effects ; it is not so much that the outturn is 
 enhanced, but that the soil is not so easily affected by climatic distur- 
 bances, affording a larger field for the roots of plants to search for their 
 food in, and thus maintaining the average productive power over a 
 much longer period. Unless more manure is used, no extra depth of 
 cultivation can permanently maintain an increased outturn ; the two 
 things must go together. Deep cultivation will always have more effec* 
 
 2 
 
10 
 
 THE TREATMENT OF THE LAND. 
 
 on strong stifE soils than on light ones ; the benefits accruing will also he 
 clearly visible for a long period of years on the former class of soUs, whilst 
 on the latter they will be much more fleeting. It is extremely probable 
 that deep cultivation can, if universally followed where possible and 
 efficiently performed, do perhaps more to avert famine in this country than 
 almost any thing else ; it would also if adopted, greatly enhance the 
 producing capacity of the land, as our surface soils cannot but be in a 
 very reduced condition for the supply of the requisite food for our 
 crops. There is reason to believe that the result which has followed 
 the breaking of the sod of the western prairies of America — a wonderful 
 change and amelioration of climate, together with an increased rainfall 
 and less violent variations of temperature — would take place in India, 
 were our arable lands more deeply cultivated, and thus rendered 
 absorptive of the rain-water which now so often flows away to the sea. 
 The analogy between Indian arable soils and the unbroken hard-beaten 
 sod of the prairie is very close, in respect to their non-absorbent qualities, 
 only differing in a slight degi'ee. The fact that breaking up land 
 reduces the flow of water off it is well known to tank-makers, and if the 
 inefficient cultivation now practised has such effects, how much more 
 might not real deep cultivation do ? 
 
 During the drought of 1876 the advantages of deep cultivation on 
 this farm were clearly shown ; the most casual observer in looking over 
 the crops could not have failed to note the remarkable superiority of the 
 plants growing on the deeply tilled soil, compared with those growing 
 on the head-lands of the fields and other shallow cultivated land. 
 Without the aid of any irrigation water a crop of Sorghum saccha- 
 ratum yielded 5,000 lb. of straw and 924 lb. of grain, per acre ; 
 while, crops of yellow cholum and Planter's friend yielded from 
 300 to 450 lb. of grain and 2,500 to 4,000 lb. of straw per acre, thus 
 showing that by deep cultivation and good management in the driest 
 seasons a fair supply of food for the people and fodder for the cattle of the 
 country could be grown even on such inferior soils as those of the farm. 
 The following table gives some figures showing the effects of deep and 
 shallow cultivation ; the deep cultivation being in the body of a field, 
 the shallow on its headlands : — 
 
 Ihmng 
 Growth.. 
 
 Duration 
 of Growth. 
 
 Nature 
 of Culti- 
 vation. 
 
 Area of 
 Plot. 
 
 Yield of 
 Straw. 
 
 Yield of 
 
 Straw 
 
 per Acre. 
 
 1 
 f 
 
 Yield 
 
 of 
 Grain. 
 
 Yield 
 
 of 
 
 Grain 
 
 per 
 
 Acre. 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 Rain- 
 fall. 
 
 Wet 
 Days. 
 
 •16 
 
 3 
 
 87 days. | 
 
 Deep . . 
 ShaUow. 
 
 S, YDS. 
 
 16,027 
 2,180 
 
 LB. 
 
 11,456 
 216 
 
 LB. 
 
 3459-5 
 479-5 
 
 100 
 14 
 
 LB. 
 
 221 
 4-5 
 
 LB. 
 
 66-7 
 9-99 
 
 100 
 15 
 
 The whole field had been heavily manured throughout, and if any- 
 thing the head-lands received more than their share of the manure 
 During the growth of this crop only -16 inches of rain fell. The seed 
 was sown after a week's dry weather, which followed a fall of 1-55 
 inches, before which there had been no rain at all for more than a 
 fortnight. 
 
THE TREATMENT OF THE LAND. 11 
 
 The head-lands were cultivated fully as deeply and as well as is the 
 ordinary practice of the country, which, there is therefore no room for 
 doubt, intensifies enormously the occasional deficiencies of rainfall we 
 suffer from. 
 
 Deep cultivation should be carried out by degrees, the subsoil plough 
 should be freely brought into use, and, when an even texture and 
 condition to a considerable depth has been gained, deep ploughing may 
 be resorted to. The depth of cultivation most advantageous to a parti- 
 cular soil can only be found out by experiment. 
 
 IRRIGATION. — Although it has not been possible, from the 
 absence of the necessary facilities for the purpose, to carry out any 
 accurate experiments on this practice, much valuable experience in the 
 use of water has been gained. 
 
 It is frequently remarked by persons, who ought to know better, 
 " that, if the Indian ryot knows but little regarding dry-land cultiva- 
 tion, he has nothing to learn regarding wet-land culture." This is 
 a most serious mistake, for, as far as is known the cultivation of irrigated 
 land in this country is but little, if at all, superior to that of unirrigated 
 land. To produce an average crop on a good soil, with the aid of an 
 abundant supply of water, is no test of the quality of the farming prac- 
 tice ; the question is whether this good soil could not, with half the 
 quantity of water generally used, be made to produce as good results ; 
 in this way doubling the area under irrigation, and at the same time 
 improving the sanitary condition of the country and maintaining the 
 productive powers of the soil over a longer period. 
 
 We do not require to make our lands into swamps, to enable us to 
 get good results from irrigation, unless, indeed, we wish to confine our 
 practice to the culture of low types of agricultural plants. Merely 
 pouring water into a paddy field, floored with an impervious subsoil, is 
 not making the best use of irrigation. The water must pass through, and 
 not merely into and over the soil. "We want perfect filtration, by which 
 the water will pass down through the soil, and away by subsoil drainage, 
 either artificial or natural. Until we possess this, we cannot hope on 
 ordinary wet land to grow high types of plants. Irrigation water, 
 judiciously applied, enables a plant to utilize thoroughly the food in its 
 neighborhood, not only by rendering that food more fit for assimilation, 
 but by bringing it within reach of its roots. 
 
 Of the amount of water used by the ryot for growing paddy there is 
 little doubt, that the volume varies from 8-12 feet in depth : in the 
 Coimbatore District 12 feet deep is required; whilst in an experiment 
 made in the Grodavari District, carried out expressly to discover the 
 amount generally used, a sheet of water, an acre in extent, and 9 feet 
 deep, in addition to a rainfall of 26 inches, was taken to bring to maturity 
 one acre of paddy, and this under the superintendence of Irrigation 
 Officers, whose presence undoubtedly contributed to lessen the quantity of 
 water that would otherwise have been used. There is no reason to suppose 
 that the ryot in this case was more greedy in the use of the water than 
 other ryots, who are equally favorably circumstanced for getting a supply. 
 The quantity used in other irrigation experiments, made by the Public 
 Works Department, varied from 6 feet to 7 feet in depth in addition to 
 
12 THE TREATMENT OF THE LAND. 
 
 the rainfall to' mature a crop of paddy. Experience on the farm has 
 proved that under moderately good cultivation, with a soil of fair average 
 quality, a volume of water, about 4 feet in depth, is ample for the 
 production of one crop of paddy. Not only does swamp irrigation 
 cause an enormous waste of a valuable producing power, but it is highly 
 prejudicial in many other ways ; the health of the people is injured ; the 
 soil is rendered unfit for cultivation, except under semi- aquatic crops of 
 low types ; and the capabilities of our irrigation works are seriously 
 lessened by the smaller area thus watered. No doubt irrigation water is 
 partly used in such wasteful quantities in order to maintain the fertility 
 of the land, which the ordinary practice of the ryot is the best method of 
 destroying ; there is no reason however why the fertilizing agent should be 
 confined in its use to such small areas, for, if used economically, twice the 
 area of land, even under paddy, might be in-igated, and for this plenty 
 of manure could be obtained from other sources. 
 
 In irrigating lands under wells the ryot has learnt to be more careful 
 of the water, but the area so irrigated is but an infinitesimal portion of 
 the total arable area of the country. 
 
 DEAINAGE. — The unmerited ridicule with which the advice of a 
 distinguished agriculturist was received some years ago in this Presidency, 
 when he ventured to advise our ryots to drain their paddy fields, is well 
 known. Speaking generally, that advice was perfectly sound, and there 
 is not the least doubt but that, had it been generally adopted, the country 
 would have been richer by some millions of rupees than it now is. 
 Irrigation and drainage must proceed together ; the vast expenditure 
 the State has incurred on irrigation works will never produce a fair 
 return, until the districts so watered are properly drained. The almost 
 perfect irrigation arrangements of some districts, under present circum- 
 stances, act only to their injury. The command of an abvmdant supply 
 of water throughout the year is the very reason why, in the neighbor- 
 hood of some of our best irrigation works, there is now so much valuable 
 land abandoned. If it is the duty of the State to provide its tenants with 
 the means of irrigating the land they occupy, it is equally its duty to see 
 that proper drainage arrangements are made, so that the irrigation water 
 they provide, may not collect and stagnate in the soil to its injury, and 
 to the injury of the health of the people who reside in the neighborhood 
 of land so irrigated. But, while a large tract of country has thus been 
 rendered improductiveby the abuse of irrigation in the absence of proper 
 drainage, there is still in this Presidency a far wider area of coimtry 
 that is injured by natural means, through an excess of water from rain- 
 fall or other causes. Not only does such water on retentive soils greatly 
 retard field operations at the season when such work yields the largest 
 returns, but it also prevents the free use of improved field implements, 
 rendering it impossible to adopt superior methods of cultivation, and 
 confining the cropping of the land to the lower classes of plants. How 
 frequently it now happens, during September and October, when it is so 
 important that every hour should be utilized for getting in the cold 
 weather crops, that a heavy fall of rain puts an entire stop for days to all 
 field operations on our retentive soils, by making the land unfit to caiTy 
 cattle and implements, until evaporation lias again rendered them 
 sufficiently firm for the cultivating operations to be proceeded with. 
 
THE TREATMENT OF THE LAND. 13 
 
 The great desire of the intelligent ciiltivator is to commence operations 
 on his soil, as soon as possible after the rains first begin, and to get it 
 cultivated and sown without loss of time, in order to secure the full 
 advantage of the growing weather for starting his crops. On a good 
 deal of the stiff land of this Presidency, nothing can be done in working 
 the soil imtil a week or more after a heavy fall of rain, and frequently 
 by the time that the land is in a state fit for being worked, the weather 
 has undergone a complete change ; the air having become dry, and the 
 sky clear and cloudless ; conditions, which are anything but favorable for 
 the success of newly sown crops. On the other hand, similar land when 
 properly drained will generally be fit within a day or two after heavy 
 rain. Not only does an excess of water in a soil of a retentive character 
 prevent the cultivators of such soils from taking full advantage of 
 seasonable rains for getting in their crops, thus delaying and putting out 
 of season all subsequent operations, but a large proportion of the seed 
 sown under such conditions invariably perishes, and another considerable 
 proportion yields only undersized sicldy plants, while the plants produced 
 by the remainder yield but very poor returns ; from having so much to 
 contend with during their growth from weeds, which owing to the 
 wetness of the groimd, cannot be regularly removed by the bullock or 
 hand-hoe ; from the absence of aeration in the surrounding soil, on 
 account of the impossibility of working cultivators satisfactorily in a wet 
 soil ; from the attacks of insects, and from fungoid diseases, mildew, rust, 
 &c., which delight to feed on crops that are growing under unfavorable 
 conditions. During a drought, crops on undrained soils are far more 
 likely to suffer from it than those on a similar soil that has been properly 
 subsoil drained. At such a time undrained soils cake over, become hide- 
 bound, and full of cracks, while drained soils are loose and friable, condi- 
 tions suited for the absorption of dew and watery vapor during the night, 
 while the whole body of the tilled soil being more or less porous, it holds 
 water readily in mechanical suspension ; and, as the roots of the plants 
 growing on such a soil meet with no obstacle to their free passage, but 
 rather encouragement to their growth, they naturally grow deeper into 
 the soil, and are thus better protected from the hurtful influence of a 
 scorching sun. 
 
 This much being certain, it was resolved to make some experiments 
 in subsoil drainage. When this was first proposed, it was contended 
 by some that, if water is so essential for the proper growth and 
 development of field crops in Southern India, it would be exceed- 
 ingly unAvise to attempt to lessen the quantity of this element 
 in our soils. It must be remembered however that no description 
 of subsoil drains can remove from a soil the whole of the moisture 
 it contains, nor any which could be of use to growing crops ; there is 
 always even in the most perfectly drained land a considerable quantity 
 of water which no drainage can remove. It has been foimd again 
 and again that a well-drained soil contains dming a drought more 
 moisture than an undrained soil of similar character and composition ; 
 there are many reasons why this is so ; one is that drainage facilitates 
 the working of a soil by field implements, not only in the greater perfection 
 of the work done, but also in affording a longer season in which to do 
 the work under favorable conditions, and as a thoroughly tilled soil is 
 always well pulverised and therefore more porous, its capabilities to retain 
 
14 THE TREATMENT OF THE LAND. 
 
 water are greatly increased, as well as its atility to absorb moisture from 
 the air. A proper seed-bed cannot be obtained in a soil in which there 
 is too much water ; for to cause the germination of seed and the healthy 
 growth of plants, atmospheric air must be present in the soil, and it cannot 
 be there in a sufficient quantity when the soil is full of water. Further, 
 a water-logged soil is always cold, not only on account of the great 
 reduction of temperature caused by the evaporation of its water, but also 
 because heat cannot penetrate into it. Tropical plants suffer very much 
 when the temperature of the soil on which they are growing becomes 
 much reduced. There are, of course, soils that do not require to be 
 artificially drained, being sufficiently well drained naturally ; artificial 
 drainage is only necessary for the removal of such water as the land will 
 not hold in suspension, or that of springs found immediately under it. 
 
 Where, as in this neighborhood from 3 to 16 inches of rain sometimes 
 fall in 24 hours, not more than one inch of which may sink directly 
 into the ground, it will always be necessary to provide surface drains for 
 carrying off flood- water even where the subsoil drainage is perfect. 
 
 Persons who are unacquainted with agriculture, as practised in this 
 country, can form no idea of the enormous losses that the cultivators of 
 badly-drained land suffer in an unusually wet season. The money 
 expended in draining an acre of land would be soon recovered ; indeed, on 
 many soils in from 8 to 10 years, no doubt the entire cost, with interest 
 on capital, would be repaid. 
 
 In this country deep cultivation is absolutely necessary in order to 
 secure the full benefits that result from subsoil draining. A soil that is 
 simply drained, the particles of which are not separated and loosened under 
 the influences of thorough cultivation, cannot in a dry season be expected 
 to take up much more moisture from the atmosphere, than undrained 
 land of the same kind in a similar mechanical state. The absorption of 
 moisture from the air can only occur in porous soils into which it 
 can pass freely ; sun-dried, hard, compact soils being quite incapable of 
 absorbing moisture from the air. As in this country, at night, the air 
 Hear the surface of the ground is at certain seasons so heavily charged 
 with moisture, it is especially necessary, in order to secure this moisture^ 
 that our soils should be kept as open and as porous as possible. 
 
 Thus it is probable that the general introduction of subsoil draining 
 must be deferred for a considerable length of time, but general drainage 
 must be carried out by the State in many places soon, imless it is desired 
 to aid the repetition of famine. 
 
 It has already been found that there are technical difficulties in 
 this country which preclude the exact imitation of the practice followed 
 in Europe. Cutting drains in such a manner as to get a proper bed 
 for the pipes and to allow no room for their shifting can only be 
 effected by skilled laborers with proper draining tools : but the Indian 
 laborer has no inclination to use other tools for es«(avation than his 
 time-honored mamotty and crowbar; and if he were really inclined 
 to use the draining spade, in most cases he would not have the 
 strength to wield it; moreover, the soil during the greater part of 
 the year is seldom in such a state that it can be worked with the 
 spade without the assistance of the crowbar or pickaxe. Considering 
 
THE TREATMENT OF THE LAND. 15 
 
 these peculiarities, it is evident that wide drains with roughly worked 
 bottoms very often cannot be avoided : but this difficulty may be 
 overcome by allowing the people engaged 'in cutting the trenches to 
 work in theii' own way while excavating to about four-fifths of the 
 intended depth, and making the remainder of the excavation by the use 
 of special tools, in order to secure the narrowest cutting possible. In 
 this way a solid bed for the draia pipe wiU generally be secured. To 
 neutralise the bad effects resulting from wide and badly formed drains, 
 the use of collars on the pipes would be of good service; but the 
 application of collars causes another drawback; viz., that the pipes encased 
 in collars are frequently not well connected, because their perfect juncture 
 cannot be so well attained when covered by collars as when without them, 
 and as the collars must be made wide to admit of their use over pipes, 
 which are neither quite round nor straight, it follows that sand has easier 
 access to the pipes encased in collars than to those without them. There 
 is thus no other way left than to cover the ends of the collars with plastic 
 clay ; or to double the piping — a thing which is impossible from its 
 costliness. 
 
 The first experiment made in subsoil drainage was commenced early in 
 1873 in a field of nearly foui' acres, in which the soil is a stifiish loam, 
 and was then of a sour soapy character, resting on a subsoil of a similar 
 nature, and had been almost quite unproductive during the five previous 
 years. The land was formerly (before it became the property of Govern- 
 ment) used for growing paddy, imder the repeated cultivation of which 
 it had become injured. When heavily seeded, there was generally a fair 
 covering of plant up to the time the crop was about One-third grovsra, and 
 the plants looked well as long as their roots were confined to the few 
 inches of the healthy surface soil ; but after this, when the roots got into 
 the sour soil, there was little further growth, the plants became yellow 
 and stunted, and gradually red from the attacks of the fungoid disease, 
 " rust," and only an exceedingly small yield of inferior grain was 
 obtained ; it mattered not what crop was tried, the result was generally 
 the same. One portion of the field was drained with stone drains, and 
 another with pipe drains ; each portion being separately provided with 
 a main drain and an outfall. On both plots the parallel drains were 3^ 
 feet deep, and the main drain 4 feet deep, while the distance between 
 each parallel drain was 24 feet. A year after laying it was found that 
 the stone drained plot had not been successfully treated : the discharge of 
 water from the drains was never very great, and soon became exceedingly 
 small ; ultimately ceasing altogether. The drainage with pipes was at 
 first most successful, and the land has been permanently ameliorated, and 
 the qualities it possessed, inimical to plant growth, have been removed. 
 In January 1878 — ^just five years after the commencement of the 
 experiment — the drains were all opened and found to be blocked with silt in 
 nearly every case. This was probably due in great measure to the pipes 
 not having been properly laid, and also to the fact that the cracks, produced 
 in the dry seasons, though much smaller than those that appeared before 
 the land was drained, being very large and reaching down many of them 
 to the level of the pipes, would at the first heavy rain convey the water 
 immediately to the pipes, the joints of which admitting the water at once, 
 and, if it held any earthy matter in suspension, this would also enter ; 
 but if the pipes were not well connected or otherwise out of order, the 
 
16 THE TREATMENT OF THE LAND. 
 
 sand brought down by the force of the water would enter also, A\liich 
 once inside of the pipes wovdd be deposited. 
 
 In another case a small piece of •v\'ater logged soil, on which nothing 
 could be induced to grow was subsoil drained, but owing to the circum- 
 stances of the case the drains did not get a fair chance of success, and 
 the result was a failui-e. 
 
 Another experiment is at present being carried on the farm, but all 
 that has yet been arrived at is that the question requires a long and 
 patient inquiry before it can be finally solved^ The cost of draining an 
 acre of land 4 feet deep with drains 30 feet apart will be about as 
 follows : — 
 
 ES. A. p. 
 
 Cost of cutting parellel drains 467 yards. 7 4 
 
 Do. main drain 75 yards . . 18 
 
 Levelling drains, &c. . . . . ..100 
 
 Cost of 1,400 2-inch pipes .. .. 12 8 
 
 Do. 225 4-inch do. . . ..3100 
 
 Carting do. 16 
 
 Laying pipes and filling trenches . . 18 
 
 Outlet and contingencies . . . . 112 
 
 Total ..30 8 
 
 This estimate would apply to a loamy soil of tolerably even quality ; 
 the rent charge in such a case at 7 J per cent, on capital would be 
 Rupees 2-4-0 per acre. 
 
 ROTATIONS OF CROPS.— Undoubtedly many benefits result from 
 the adoption of a stringent rotation in cropping ; still these advantages 
 may be purchased at too high a cost. In a well cultivated district which 
 is not subjected to any great atmospheric changes, but where the 
 seasons recur with clock-work regularity, and with perfect uniformity, 
 it may be desirable to introduce a regular system of rotation. A 
 properly arranged rotation of crops not only enables the farmer to 
 make the best use of the plant food in his soil, but tends to conserve the 
 fertility of it. One tribe of plants thrives and luxuriates upon food 
 which may not only be useless, but even noxious to another; one delights 
 in lime, another in phosphoric acid, a third in potash, and so on. Some 
 plants have tap roots, some fibrous roots ; some feed on the surface of 
 the land, while others derive their sustenance from a lower stratum. 
 Some plants are consumed by stock on the farm, and the excrements of 
 the animals fed on them are again rettirned to the soil; while others are 
 removed from the farm, none of the fertilizing matters they contain being 
 returned to the soil. Some plants have narrow leaves and an upright 
 habit of growth which encourages the growth of weeds ; while others 
 have broad leaves and put out lateral branches which shade the ground 
 and check the growth of weeds. If a certain crop is cultivated year 
 after year on the same piece of ground, it will ultimately remove such a 
 quantity of the particular plant food it delights in as to render the 
 raising of a remunerative crop of this particular plant a matter of great 
 
THE TREATMENT OF THE LAND. 17 
 
 difficulty. Granting that by careful manuring the elements of plant 
 food taken up by a certain crop can be regularly returned to the soil, 
 there are still many difficulties to contend against : it has been found 
 that certain insects prey on particular crops, and that, if these crops are 
 repeated too frequently, they increase to such an extent as to interfere 
 very seriously with the profitable culture of these particular crops. 
 Again some plants — many of the leguminous family for example — have 
 large fleshy roots, in which they have stored up a large amount of nitrogen- 
 ous substances, which they have elaborated from the ammoniacal matter 
 they have absorbed ; these roots, when left in the soil, decay, and afford a 
 large quantity of excellent food for the following crop. This is well 
 knoAvn in England where a good clover crop — a crop producing plenty 
 of fleshy roots — is invariably followed by a good crop of wheat, and 
 here the cereal crop taken after a gram crop is generally a good one. 
 Though a large crop of gram removes a good deal of lime from the soil, 
 it is nevertheless considered by farmers as a restorative crop, and the 
 reason just given explains this apparent paradox. 
 
 Again it is the object of every agriculturist to economise labor, and, to 
 do this efficiently, the seed-time must be extended over as long a period 
 as possible. In temperate climates, the seed-time extends throughout 
 nearly the whole year. Here owing to the character of the season, it is 
 not possible to extend the seed-time very much ; but to a certara extent 
 it is, and, in constructing a rotation for any locality, the climate, having 
 a most important part to play as regards the Labor Bill, must be care- 
 fully considered. 
 
 As a rotation for dry lands applicable to many soils ; including 
 amongst the crops suggested two of the most valuable products com- 
 monly grown in Southern India ; providing an adequate supply of food 
 for man and beast ; not presenting a system of exhaustive culture, in too 
 repeatedly growing the same crop or description of crop ; and enabling 
 the land to be kept free from weeds, the following may be suggested : — 
 
 1st year — Corn crop and cotton. 
 
 2nd ,, — Indigo. 
 
 3rd ,, — Corn crop followed by a catob. crop of gram. 
 
 4th ,, — Guinea grass. 
 
 5th „ — Do. 
 
 The only portions of the crops in such a rotation, which should actually 
 be sold off the land, would be the cotton lint and indigo dye ; the ccim 
 crop being used for the support of the cultivator, his family, and of such 
 laborers as he employed, should not be lost, as the ordure and rubbish 
 from their houses might be collected and returned to the land. The 
 crop of gmnea grass would take the place of "waste" under native 
 management. 
 
 On stiff strong rich soils, instead of planting guinea grass in the foxirth 
 year, an early sown cholum crop, cut green for fodder, followed by a 
 leguminous crop, such as black or green gram, could be taken and, being 
 harvested in the early part of the year, might be succeeded by a summer 
 crop of gingelly ; in the fifth year indigo might again be taken, followed 
 in the sixth year by a com crop, in the seventh and eighth years by 
 guinea grass. The rotation would then run as follows : — 
 
 3 
 
18 THE TREATMENT OF THB LAND, 
 
 1st year — Corn and cotton. 
 
 2nd ,, — Indigo. 
 
 3rd ,, — Corn followed by gram as a summer crop. 
 
 4th „ — Cholum cut green, followed by a leguminous crop 
 
 and by gingelly as a summer crop. 
 5th ,, — Indigo. 
 
 6th , , — Cholum followed by gram as a catch crop. 
 7th and 8th years — Guinea grass. 
 
 Another variation might be made ; instead of indigo in the fifth year 
 com and cotton might be introduced, and another year added to the 
 rotation, which would then become a nine-course one. 
 
 The farm being devoted exclusively to experimental work, no fixed 
 rotation of crops has been adopted ; the general principles referred to 
 above are always held in view, and there are at present two rotation 
 experiments proceeding in which cases the rotations which will be 
 followed as near as circumstances permit are : — in one case. 
 
 1878, 1st year- — Maize and cotton (manured). 
 
 1879, 2nd ,, —Indigo (limed). 
 
 1880, 3rd ,, — Yellow cholum or sorghum. 
 
 1881, 4th „ —Gingelly. 
 
 1882 5th „ — Guinea grass (manured). 
 
 1883 6th Do. 
 
 and in the other 
 
 1878, 1st year — Castor oil and raggy. 
 
 1879, 2nd ,, — Maize and cotton (manured). 
 
 1880, 3rd ,, — Guinea grass. 
 
 1881, 4th „ — Do. 
 
 1882, 5th ,, — Dholl and tenney (top-dressed). 
 
 1883, 6th ,, — Indigo (surface dressed with manure). 
 
MANURES AND MANXJSING. 
 
 19 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 MANURES AND MANURING. 
 
 MANUE.INQ- is performed either to maintain or enhance the natural 
 productive powers of a soil, and all substances which are applied as 
 manures act either mechanically or chemically. It is well known 
 that a crop extracts from the land on which it is grown certain mineral 
 and nitrogenized matters which are required for its nutriment, and that, if 
 these crops are permanently removed from the land, the amount of such 
 Bubstances contained in the produce will be taken away. The capacity 
 of a soil for furnishing plant- food being limited, in the end, if cropping 
 without returning to the soil any of the matters removed in the crop, as 
 is usually practised on the unirrigated lands of this Presidency, be con- 
 tinued, exhaustion must ensue. It has been abundantly proved however 
 by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, at Rothamstead, that, when a soil is left 
 unmanured for some years and at the same time cropped, the productive 
 power of it is brought so low that ultimate exhaustion may be deferred 
 for a very great length of time. The soil thus, as it were, possesses a 
 power of protecting itself to a limited extent from the rapacious greed 
 of the cultivator, for though it may contain abundance of the elements 
 necessary for the support of plant-life, these, being in a presently 
 unavailable condition, are only yielded up in driblets as they become 
 soluble. This fact also explains why the results of a chemical 
 analysis are so often misleading, and accounts for results obtained in 
 manuring which are otherwise altogether inexplicable. 
 
 In applying manures the nature of the soil being dealt with must be 
 considered, for it is often great folly to apply manures in quantities and 
 methods to light soils, which amounts and system of application would 
 be the best in the case of strong deep soils. In India with its burning 
 Sim and terrific heat the gradual dissipation from the soil of the organic 
 matters it contains must be very great, and, knowing the importance of 
 the presence of these matters, every effort should be mode to conserve 
 and increase them. 
 
 Some manures act both by adding to the plant-food of the soil and by 
 improving its mechanical condition, amongst such may be mentioned 
 farm-yard manure, composts, lime, burnt clay, &c. ; other manures again 
 are simply mechanical in their action, as for instance sand when applied to 
 a clay ; the last great class of fertilizing substances is that which contri- 
 butes only to the increase of those substances which the plant requires 
 for its growth. Manures may be applied with a view to their present or 
 ultimate effect J for instance a top-dressing of saltpetre might be given 
 to a cereal crop which was not looking healthy with a view to stimulate 
 its growth, but bones would be used as a dressing to add to the material 
 condition of the soil. Some crops again prefer a rich upper layer of soil, 
 
20 MANTRKS AMI MAXI'RIXn 
 
 others seek for all their food deep in the soil ; for the latter, manure must 
 be applied before sowing and covered in, for the former top-dressing will 
 probably be as efficacious a manner of manuring as possible. 
 
 MANURES. — Before proceeding to describe the experiments which 
 have been made, a few notes regarding the chief general and special 
 manures which have been and are generally used will be appropriate. On 
 the sandy soils, which cover the greater part of the farm area, organic 
 manure is the chief -want, for, although they are chemically poor, their 
 physical condition is even worse. 
 
 FAEM-YAED MANURE.— To provide sufficient quantities of such 
 manure reliance is chiefly placed on the manufacture of it on the farm by 
 housing all the cattle stock in loose boxes, where they and the manure are 
 protected alike from sun and rain. The manure thus made consists of the 
 straw used as bedding, and of both the solid and the liquid excrementitious 
 matters of the cattle, which being allowed to accumulate in tlie 
 boxes during two or three months, layer by layer, and being constantly 
 subjected to the pressure of the animals' feet, becomes a rich homogeneous 
 mass of a dark brown color, fitted at once for use, without xmdergoing 
 any preparatory process. As the cattle stalled in these boxes are all fed, 
 in addition to green fodder, on oil-cake, the manure is necessarily rich 
 in the more important elements of plant-food, phosphoric acid, ammonia, 
 potash, &c., as it is known that unless animals are young and growing 
 nearly all the ash constituents and nine-tenths of the nitrogen contained 
 in their food passes into the manure. It has been foimd that in an 
 average year 20 cart-loads of this manure are obtained per head of 
 working bullocks housed in these boxes ; this is only the manure made at 
 night and during a portion of the day when the cattle are not engaged 
 in field labor ; thus, for every pair of working cattle employed if their boxes 
 be always well littered 40 cart-loads per annum of box manure can be 
 calculated on. 
 
 The manure is now always used direct from the boxes ; formerly it 
 was carefully stacked in pits in the different fields in which it would 
 be needed, but it was found necessary to give this up, as the manure in 
 a dry season suffered so much, not perhaps by any diminution in its 
 fertilizing ingredients, but in its physical properties ; it became a fine 
 powdery substance, very portable and easy of distribution but altogether 
 destitute of the valuable physical properties of farm-yard manure. It 
 must be remembered that the beneficial results attending the use of farm- 
 yard manure are due to no inconsiderable extent to its physical action 
 on the soil, as well as to its power of yielding to the soil the exact 
 chemical food needed for the production of crops. 
 
 Though in the present day, box-feeding wiU not be adopted in this 
 country for the same object as in Europe ; stiU, there can be no reason 
 why working, milch, and young cattle should not be kept in loose boxes at 
 night. If we are to grow cotton, maize, &c., we must have manure, 
 and there is no better or more economical way of making it than under 
 the loose-box system. On sanitary grounds alone, the system is worth 
 general ado ption. At first sight it may appear objectionable to keep 
 the animals for three or four months in the boxes, without removing 
 
JIAXITRES AND MANURIXG. 
 
 21 
 
 the manure ; however, no bad results arise from the practice ; the working 
 cattle have for 10 years heen always housed on this system, and the 
 fear at first expressed that it would injuje their hoofs has proved to he 
 utterly groundless ; considerable numbers of cattle have been fattened also 
 in loose boxes, and in no case did any of the animals have a single day's 
 illness, though in several instances, the manure was not removed 
 for upwards of three months, whilst it had accumulated nearly two 
 feet in depth. Of course the excrements are not allowed to collect on the 
 surface, the usual plan being with feeding cattle for the cattle-feeder to 
 enter the boxes three or four times a day and to throw up the bedding 
 with a fork. No smell whatever is perceptible, and there is nothing 
 that the most fastidious person could object to : indeed, in this respect it 
 is much cleaner than the usual system, which allows the solid and liquid 
 excrements to lie and decompose upon the surface of the ground. In the 
 loose-box system the products of decomposition as well as the liquid 
 matters are absorbed by the litter. Loose-box feeding, which has done 
 so much for the agriculture of England, can, there is no doubt, do much 
 for the agriculture of India. 
 
 GrREEN MANURINGr — 'KoTse-gram^BoHchos uniflorus) is well suited 
 for culture on sandy soils, for ploughing-in as a green manure. 
 
 The action of green manuring is two fold : — 
 
 Istli/. — The substance of the plant decaying in the soil leaves 
 behind a large quanity of prepared food, ready for absorption by the 
 roots of the succeeding crop ; and 
 
 2ndly. — When ploughed in the structures of the green crop add 
 directly to the amount of organic matters in the soil, and thus improving 
 its mechanical condition, adding to its power of absorbiag and retaining 
 moisture, and increasing in the case of stifE soils their friability. 
 
 Leguminous crops ploughed in green are an especially good prepara- 
 tion for cereals, owing to the very high percentage of nitrogenized 
 substances which they always contain. 
 
 In the neighborhood around Madras " summer crops " on dry sandy 
 land are exceedingly precarious ; on the average we have not more than 
 one year in four in which crops sown in June or July yield returns 
 that repay the expenses of cultivation ; so that, instead of attempting to 
 grow " summer crops " such as gingelly, cumboo, &c., except on a 
 small scale on choice land, the wisest course after removing the " cold 
 weather crop," would be, to clean the soil thoroughly, and then to sow 
 it with horse-gram for ploughing-in. These sowings would in three 
 months, or less, yield per acre from 2,000 to 3,000 pounds of plant 
 which if ploughed- in would prepare the soil admirably for the succeeding 
 " cold weather crops." 
 
 When the seed is drilled in lines, the land can be hoed by cattle or 
 by hand during the growth of the crop ; in this way the weeds can be 
 kept down, and the soil maintained in a loose friable condition. 
 
 COTTON SEED when steeped to destroy its vitality is undoubtedly 
 one of the best manures we possess, and is suited for any crop we grow, 
 more especially the cotton crop. In cotton seed there is large quantity 
 
22 
 
 MANURES AND MANtlRIXG. 
 
 of fertilizing matter concentrated in a very small bulk ; it is thus well 
 suited for coffee or tea planters, and where, in order to reduce the cost 
 of transit, it is necessary to get a portable concentrated manure. Though 
 at first sight it may appear rather a wasteful practice to use cotton seed 
 as a manure, especially as the oil it contains, though valuable in feeding, 
 is worthless as manure, it is nevertheless a practice to be recommended 
 until some cheap and effective means of removing the outer husk of the 
 the seed has been discovered. Cotton seed is used to some extent as a 
 cattle food; but it is not a safe food to give, except in very small 
 quantities and along with succulent fodder, as the cotton, which 
 invariably adheres to the seed, sometimes collects in balls in the stomach, 
 and produces serious and often fatal disarrangements in the digestive 
 organs. 
 
 CASTOE CAKE has been generally used as a top-dressing after 
 being first pulverized, and is applied at the rate of 200-1,000 lb. per 
 acre. It is used on both unirrigated and irrigated crops. On the latter 
 the result is in most instances very satisfactory, but on the dry crops 
 little effect is noticed ; however little else can be expected as it probably 
 remains long inert in the dry land, though still available as plant food 
 when favorable conditions arise. The cake is especially rich in nitrogen ; 
 it is therefore a powerful fertilizer ; its action is slow ; but, when mixed 
 with cattle manure, it becomes a great deal more active and more fitted 
 to meet the wants of quick-growing crops. 
 
 BASSIA NUT CAKE, called in Tamil lUupu, is .obtained from the 
 seeds of the Bassia longifoKa, a tree which emits a disagreeable smell, 
 when flowering resembling that met on entering a filthy stable ; applied 
 at the beginning of the rains, the manure is slow acting but useful. 
 
 The following are analyses of the three above mentioned substances : — 
 
 
 Cotton Seed. 
 
 Castor Cake. 
 
 Bassia Nut 
 Cake. 
 
 Moisture 
 
 Organic matter 
 
 ( Phosphate of lime and magnesia . . 
 Ash . . \ Alkaline saltd 
 
 (Sand 
 
 Containing nitrogen 
 
 Do. phosphoric acid 
 
 PER CENT. 
 
 9-51 
 
 86-46 
 
 1-71 
 
 1-77 
 
 -55 
 
 PER CENT. 
 
 9-95 
 81-07' 
 4-49X 
 1-80 
 2-69 
 
 PER CENT. 
 
 13-54 
 
 80-79° 
 
 1-43 
 
 3-63 
 
 -61 
 
 100-00 
 
 10000 
 
 100-00 
 
 •• 
 
 8-69° 
 0-06X 
 
 2-73° 
 
 SLAUGHTEE-HOUSE REFUSE.--This is obtained from the 
 Commissariat slaughter-yards which are situated on the farm ; it consists 
 of blood, the solid refuse matters, and a considerable quantity of yard 
 washings ; the whole being removed daily to compost heaps. These are 
 formed of ashes, burnt earth, weeds and other vegetable refuse, and the 
 blood, &c., is poured over, the heap being covered each time with ashes 
 
MANURES AND MANURINft. 23 
 
 to prevent any offensive smell being given off. These compost heaps are 
 placed in pits excavated for the purpose, made to hold from 50 to 80 
 loads. After the proper depth has been reached, generally from four to 
 five feet, the whole is allowed to stand for two or three months, and then 
 when opened the manure is found to be in the best possible condition 
 for immediate use, having quite lost all its former unpleasant properties, 
 and assumed a condition in which it is impossible to determine of what 
 it was originally composed. In this state even caste coolies make no 
 objection to work amongst it. The manure thus prepared is very 
 valuable for aU kinds of crops, especially for such as sugarcane, maize, 
 &c., which require highly nitrogenized manures. For grass and fodder 
 crops it is also of great value, and being of very fine texture is more 
 useful in the dry season than farm-yard manure, which tends to open 
 the soil to which it is applied. 
 
 TILLAGE NIGHT SOIL.— For several years a large quantity of 
 poudrette was made, the excreta being collected in the Wudder settle- 
 ment, which was formerly situated on the farm. Latrines were provided 
 for the use of the people and a scavenger was employed to collect and 
 remove the solid excreta. At the place set apart for the purpose the 
 excreta was, as it was gathered, thrown into a heap, and the whole 
 covered each time with a slight coating of ashes to prevent any 
 offensive smell. When the heap had accumulated to about 20 or 25 cart 
 loads, it was finally covered with ashes and soil, and a fresh heap 
 begun. After lying in the heap for about eight or nine months, the night- 
 BoU was found to be quite deodorized and fit for use. In this state the 
 coolies made no objection whatever to work with it; indeed, the 
 character of the manure is so thoroughly changed, that few persons 
 could, from its appearance alone, determine the nature of its original 
 ingredients. 
 
 ALLUVIAL EARTH. — Large quantities of this valuable substance 
 have from time to time been raised from a deposit which underlies a great 
 portion of the farm. When raised it comes out in blocks, but after full 
 exposure for six months it crumbles down to a fine powder, in which 
 condition it makes an excellent surface-dressing for our sandy soils ; not 
 only does such a dressing greatly improve their physical state, but it 
 also considerably increases their fertility by supplying the food needed 
 by crops. 
 
 ASHES. — ^Large quantities of ashes from brick-yards, houses, &c., 
 have been used with fair results, but the soils of the farm are more 
 benefited by organic than by mineral manures. In one case a sample 
 of ashes, which was said to be obtained from a brick-kiln, was found to 
 contain 6 per cent, of moisture ; 20'60 per cent, of the sample was 
 soluble in hydrochloric acid, of which 3 per cent, was soluble in water ; 
 of the 80 per cent., insoluble in hydrochloric acid, 10"37 per cent, was 
 soluble in boiling caustic potash ; of the remainder, more than 60 per 
 cent, consisted of sand and charcoal. In the portion soluble in 
 hydrochloric acid, was no less than 3"874 per cent, of phosphoric acid 
 and a fair percentage of potash, lime and «oda. 
 
24 
 
 MAMJRES AND MANURING. 
 
 The fuel used in the kilns is chiefly wood, but this could not 
 possibly account for the large quantity of phosphoric acid found. It is 
 customary to use a small quantity of dried cow-dung fuel, when the 
 kilns are first lighted, but the quantity used is quite insufficient to 
 account for the large percentage of phosphoric acid. The only possible 
 explanation is, that, probably, the contractor who supplied the ashes 
 to the farm, obtained a portion of them in some "Burning ground," 
 instead of, from brick-kilns, as stated by him. 
 
 LIME {Calcium carlonate). — The use of this mineral as a manure in 
 native agriculture is totally overlooked, and perhaps fortunately so ; for 
 if the ryot knew the stimulating qualities of a dressing of lime on the 
 soil, he would soon deprive it of the small reserves of plant-food it 
 contains, and leave it utterly barren. The mineral is easily obtainable 
 in many localities and might be applied to some soils with great 
 advantage, but it is not to be recommended for use except under 
 enlightened management, for it has long been said of lime that " it 
 enriches the father and impoverishes the son," in this referring to the use 
 of it in excess. As a manure for leguminous crops it is very valuable. 
 
 It is obtainable here in the form of burnt shells (marine and fresh 
 water), such as are used for preparing shell chunam in the Madras 
 District ; they yield an almost pure carbonate of lime, containing an 
 exceedingly small quantity of impurities. After being slacked it forms 
 a light powder, which can, with great facility, be spread over the land. 
 But at the rate prevalent in Madras this is a costly way of obtaining 
 lime for agricultural purposes. The cost is at least 50 per cent, in excess 
 of the cost of equally good lime in the agricultxiral districts at home. 
 
 The high price of fuel is the great bar to the use of the mineral as 
 manure; but, where near large towns considerable accumulations of 
 organic refuse, consisting of sweepings, &c., exist, there appears to be no 
 reason why limestone should not be burnt for agricultural purposes at a 
 very low cost, as these accumulations would provide excellent fuel for the 
 purpose, while the ashes made would of themselves make a valuable 
 manure. Nodular limestone can in most instances be obtained at very 
 easy distances, the position of the town of Madras being especially 
 favored in this respect. 
 
 The following are the analyses of three sorts of limestone found in 
 this Presidency : — 
 
 
 Limestone from 
 
 Vellicherry. Poontoor. 
 
 Cuddapah. 
 
 Calcium carbonate 
 
 Moisture 
 
 Clay, sand and other substances insoluble 
 in hydrochloric acid. 
 
 TOO 
 1-2 
 
 28-8 
 
 75-4 
 
 20 
 
 22-6 
 
 76-90 
 
 2-85 
 
 20-25 
 
 1000 
 
 1000 
 
 100-00 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. 25 
 
 CALCIUM SULPHATE OE GYPSUM.— Sulphate of lime, the 
 refuse of the soda-water manufactories, has also been used with 
 considerable success. This can be delivered at the farm at about 1 rupee 
 per load. It is not chemically pure calcium sulphate ; as, it contains 
 besides calcium carbonate, various chlorides, sulphates and sulphurets 
 of calcium and sodium ; but on this account it is none the less 
 valuable as a manure, while to us near Madras it is far less costly 
 than the natural sulphate. Our soils being very poor in lime, this 
 manure is of great value to them, but its special value is as manure 
 for leguminous crops. As a constituent of compost heaps containing 
 decomposing nitrogenised matters, it is of special value in arresting the 
 escape of volatile ammonia, the sulphuric acid it contains having evidently 
 a stronger affinity for ammonia than for the lime with which it is in 
 combination. 
 
 Natural Gypsum has also been tried, but it has to be brought a 
 considerable distance, and costs nearly 20 rupees a ton at the farm. 
 
 PHOSPHO-GUANO.— Small supplies of this valuable manure 
 have been purchased at various times for use in our field experiments. 
 This manure has been long and favorably known in England and in 
 Germany. Its high fertilising qualities have again and again been 
 noticed by Liebig, Yoeleker, and others. The manm-e contains, in round 
 numbers, about 39 per cent, of soluble phosphate of lime, about 6 per 
 cent, of insoluble phosphates, nearly 4 per cent, of ready-formed 
 ammonia, as non- volatile ammonia salts, and some potash. It has been 
 ascertained that the manure is very efficacious as an application for 
 preventing sugar-cane cuttings from being attacked by white-ants, and 
 it must be remembered, it at the same time affords the food needed by 
 the sugar-cane during its growth. 
 
 BONE DUST consists of minutely pulverised bones ; so prepared 
 in order to facilitate distribution over the surface of the land. This 
 minute state of division is not generally necessary, and the dishonest 
 dealer can, with much more ease, adulterate bone dust than he can 
 adulterate bones which are simply broken ; while for all practical 
 purposes quarter or half inch bone is equally as effective, not perhaps 
 in the immediate result, but in the general effect. All the different 
 preparations of bones are valuable to the farmer, whether as boiled bones, 
 crushed bones, bone dust, bone black, or in the form of superphosphate, 
 chiefly in jdelding calcium phosphate, though in the raw state bones 
 yield a large percentage of ammonia, still it is as a means of adding 
 phosphoric acid to the soil that they are chiefly employed by the 
 farmer, as it is phosphoric acid that all cultivated crops appropriate so 
 largely, and not only crops, but every animal the farmer rears removes 
 from the soil large quantities of phosphoric acid in building up its 
 internal framework of bones, muscles, &c. Assuming that the bones of 
 an average sized country bullock weigh 8(J lb. containing 55 per 
 cent, of calcium phosphate, and an average sized sheep or goat 15 lb. of 
 bones, containing a similar percentage, it is not difficult to explain in 
 what way the soils of the ryot, on which stock are reared fast become 
 exhausted in phosphates or bone material. Bones are costly in this part 
 
 4 
 
26 
 
 MANURES AND MANURING. 
 
 of India, and their collection a matter of difficulty ; but assuming that 
 the annual death-rate of live-stock to be 10 per cent., nearly 19 thousand 
 tons of calcium phosphate annually disappears; this -would provide enough 
 phosphoric acid for a million tons of our chief food-grains. 
 
 ANIMAX. OR BONE CHAECOAL has been used several times. 
 It is a very inert, slow acting substance, and though of value, as it contains 
 a large percentage of phosphoric acid, immediate results can never be 
 hoped for from its use. 
 
 SALTPETRE. — Potassium nitrate has from time to time been 
 largely used ; it is easily obtainable in many districts of the Presidency, 
 m a state fit for use at a reasonable price. It is a good manure for 
 cereals generally, but is most effective when employed on soils already 
 in good manural condition, or when used as an auxiliary manure 
 along -with some organic substance. It has been used sometimes -with 
 great success, but at other times with little. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS.— Proceeding now to the experiments which have 
 been made, it must be remembered that those referred to do not form a 
 tithe of those which have been made, the results of which have not from 
 various causes been fit for report, or have not been considered worth 
 repetition here. 
 
 In 1872, a portion of a field planted -with maize and Hinginghaut 
 cotton was divided into plots each containing 2,500 square yards, and the 
 top-dressings given in the table below applied to the Maize crop with 
 the results mentioned ; in the calculation half the gross area of each plot 
 is deducted as having been occupied by the cotton crop : — 
 
 No. of 
 Plot. 
 
 Top-dreseings applied per Acre. 
 
 Produce. 
 
 
 Per Plot. 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 Cobs. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Cobs. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Cobs. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 None 
 
 Lime 968 1b 
 
 Animal charcoal 484 lb. 
 Gypsum 968 1b. 
 
 lb. 
 150 
 219 
 160 
 
 178 
 
 lb. 
 
 588 
 
 1,008 
 
 806 
 
 724 
 
 lb. 
 580-4 
 847-9 
 619-5 
 689-2 
 
 lb. 
 2,276 
 3,902 
 3,120 
 2,803 
 
 lb. 
 
 267-5 
 
 39-1 
 
 108-8 
 
 lb. 
 
 1,626 
 
 844 
 527 
 
 Besides the top-dressings, the whole of the land was manured with 
 farm-yard manure at the rate of about 8 tons per acre. It will be 
 seen that the dressing of lime produced 267-5 lb. of cobs, and 1,626 lb. 
 of straw per acre more than the plot simply manured with fann-yard 
 manure ; in this instance the cost of the lime was repaid by the crop to 
 which it was applied, while there is not the least doubt but that the 
 beneficial effects of this dressing were working for several years on the 
 crops afterwards grown on this land. In these experiments gypsum 
 was not so effective as lime, though it is a well known fact that this 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. 
 
 27 
 
 substance is of especial value as a manure for the maize crop ; probably, 
 the superior efficacy of the carbonate over the sulphate in this instance 
 may be due to the action of the former on such a soil (a stiffish one in a 
 sour condition) as that on which these experiments were conducted in 
 restoring a healthy condition, and in rendering insoluble silicates soluble 
 and fit for assimilation by the growing crops. The inefficiency of the 
 charcoal in these experiments is the action usually noticed. 
 
 Another set of experiments of a similar nature was made on a yellow 
 cholum crop, on plots each measuring 1,000 square yards. The soil on 
 which these experiments were conducted is stifier than the majority of 
 our soils. The top-dressings were applied at about the end of the second 
 week in October, and, though doubtless a large proportion of the 
 more soluble portions were washed off the land by the heavy raias which 
 fell about that time, the results were more satisfactory than those of top- 
 dressings applied ten days later, when the heavy rains had ceased. 
 
 o. o I Top-dressings applied per Acre. 
 
 Produce. 
 
 Per Plot. 
 
 Grain. Straw. 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 Grain. Straw. 
 
 Increase 
 Per Acre. 
 
 Grain. Straw. 
 
 3'+ 7 
 
 1 + 5 
 
 2 + 6 
 4 + 8 
 
 Unmaniired 
 Lime 1,742 lb. 
 Saltpetre 242 lb. 
 Gypsum 1,742 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 76 
 
 1,442 
 
 183-9 
 
 3,489 
 
 ... 
 
 90 
 
 1,487 
 
 217-8 
 
 3,598 
 
 339 
 
 131 
 
 1,633 
 
 3170 
 
 3,951 
 
 133-1 
 
 97 
 
 1,435 
 
 234-7 
 
 3,472 
 
 50-8 
 
 lb. 
 
 109 
 
 462 
 
 - 17 
 
 It -win be seen that the two plots dressed with saltpetre produced nearly 
 twice as much grain as the two plots of similar size that were not 
 manured, while they also produced nearly one-fourth of a ton more 
 straw ; as the cost of the saltpetre applied was under 5 rupees per acre, 
 it was more than recovered in the increase obtained. The increase from 
 lime was not quite equal to the cost of the applications ; but this was 
 scarcely to be expected^ as the action of lime is much slower, though 
 more durable than the more active saline manures. The benefit from 
 saltpetre -will generally be obtained during the year in which it is applied, 
 or at the outside in very dry seasons -withia the second year, whereas 
 lime may act and give good results for ten years. 
 
 Another experiment, made in 1870, of a similar nature gave very 
 interesting results. The crop selected was Sorghum or Chinese sugar- 
 cane ; it had been sown on the 10th October in driUs two feet apart with 
 Beed at the rate of 14 lb. per acre ; the plants came up slowly but with 
 regularity, and the manure was so-wn when they were about 4 inches high 
 on plots, measuring -^ of an acre each, in duplicate : as usual after sowing 
 the top-dressings a bullock-hoeing was given. The following are the 
 results ; — 
 
28 
 
 AIAXUKE^ AXD MAXUKING. 
 
 Manure applied per Plot. 
 
 6 
 
 Yield per 
 Plot. 
 
 Increase 
 per Plot. 
 
 Increase 
 per Acre. 
 
 Value of 
 Increase 
 per Acre. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 03 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 03 
 
 Grain. 
 Straw. 
 
 Profit per 
 
 Acre 
 
 
 KB. 
 
 A. 
 
 p. 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 Unmanured 
 
 13 lb. of Peruvian guano. 
 152 „ of limo 
 
 10 „ of saltpetre 
 
 37 „ of bone dust 
 112 ,, of gypsum 
 
 ES. 
 
 LB. LB. 
 
 60; 908 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 
 90, 1,064 
 
 30 
 
 156 
 
 540 
 
 
 99| 1,237 
 
 39 
 
 329 
 
 702! 
 
 
 1101 1,318 
 
 50 
 
 410 
 
 900! 
 
 
 lOs! 1,328 
 
 4« 
 
 420 
 
 864 
 
 
 96 1,181 
 
 36 
 
 173 
 
 648 
 
 LB. ! ES. 
 
 2,K08 24 
 5,922 36 
 7,380 ' 46 
 7,560 ! 45 
 
 4 3 
 9 10 
 
 In the above calculations the straw was valued at 5 rupees per ton, a 
 low price ; and the grain at the rate of 30 lb. per mpee, also a very 
 low price. 
 
 It will be seen that saltpetre gave the best results ; an expenditure 
 of 18 rupees per acre on this manure having not only nearly doubled 
 the crop, but, after repaying its own cost, left an additional farmer's 
 profit of nearly 30 rupees per acre. The value of saltpetre has long been 
 recognized in England ; but its great cost in that country has prevented 
 its general use ; this salt is best applied as a tcp-dressing when the crop is a 
 few inches above the groimd : 100 lb. or at most 150 lb. per acre is enough 
 to apply : it should always be mixed with sand or some similar material, 
 in order that it may be more regularly distributed over the ground. 
 
 Bone dust stands second in the list ; probably, if the continued effects 
 of each were considered, it would stand first. Next comes lime 
 {chunam.) ; the expenditure of 18 rupees per acre was not only repaid 
 by the increase in the crop, but a profit of nearly 20 rupees was added. 
 Sulphate of lime (gypsum) comes next ; this also not only repaid its 
 original cost, but left an additional profit of nearly 15 rupees per acre. 
 The guano repaid its cost, but only left a profit of about 6 rupees per 
 acre ; it was inferior ; still there were probably other reasons for the 
 comparatively small return it gave. 
 
 In 1871 a portion of a field planted in alternate lines with New 
 Orleans cotton and maize was top-dressed in the latter part of the first 
 ■week in October, the crop at the time being only a few inches above 
 ground. The land set apart for these experiments was divided into 16 
 plots, each containing one-twelfth of an acre. The experiments were 
 repeated in'dupUcate. The whole of the land had been manured before 
 the crop was sown with farm-yard manure at the rate of 20 cart loads, or 
 about 8 tons per acre. The following results are the averages of each pair 
 of experimental plots over the two years dming which the crop was kept 
 down. The value of the top-dressings was Eupees 18 per acre : — 
 
MANUUES AND MANURING. 
 
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30 
 
 MAXtTRES AND M.VXrRIXG. 
 
 With the idea that by mixing bone charcoal with decaying organic 
 matters some portion of its constituents might be rendered soluble by the 
 action of the acids and heat generated in process of decomposition, 
 several experiments, the results of which are recorded below, were made 
 during the season of 1877. It is however difficult to say whether the 
 increase, which is shown to be obtained by use of cake and bone charcoal 
 mixed sometime before application is due to the partial decomposition of 
 the cake or to any dissolution of the constituents of the charcoal ; this 
 point will require further examination. 
 
 1 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Yellow Cholum. 
 
 Planter's Friend. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Sumba Paddy. 
 
 2 
 
 Manure per Acre 
 
 "3 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 (D d M 
 
 sat 
 
 CQCOfH 
 
 331) lb. Bone charcoal. 
 380 lb. Cake. 
 Mixed and allowed to 
 decompose. 
 
 « i 
 
 S p.s 
 
 Wo > 
 
 372 lb. Bone charcoal. 
 4.26 lb. Cake. 
 Mixed and allowed to 
 decompose. 
 
 ^ .i 
 
 2s.a 
 
 S72 lb. Bone charcoal. 
 426 lb. Cake. 
 Mixed and allowed to 
 decompose. 
 
 ■3 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 s 
 
 699 lb Bone charcoal. 
 784 lb. Cake. 
 Mixed and allowed to 
 decompose. 
 
 3 1 Area of Plots in Acres . , , 
 
 •6,55 
 
 ■655 
 
 ■16 
 
 ■16 
 
 •16 
 
 ■16 
 
 ■3 
 
 •3 
 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 -) (-Straw. 
 
 ^Tield per Plot. ^ 
 
 ) (.Grain. 
 
 -) ("Straw. 
 > Yield per Acre. < 
 ) (.Grain. 
 
 LB. 
 3,617 
 
 LB. 
 
 3,686 
 
 LB. 
 
 2,760 
 
 LB. 
 
 3,068 
 
 LB. 
 
 606 
 
 LB. 
 
 408 
 
 LB. 
 
 1,145 
 
 LB. 
 
 1,837 
 
 104 
 
 101 
 
 264 
 
 23 
 
 296» 
 
 236* 
 
 267 
 
 227 
 
 6,369 
 
 6,626 
 
 16.500 
 
 18,348 
 
 3.036 
 
 2,448 
 
 3,810 
 
 4,456 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 115 
 
 138 
 
 1,776» 
 
 1,416* 
 
 896 
 
 766 
 
 The yellow cholum crop was so-wn on October 4th, 1877, and the 
 manure was applied when the crop was about 6 inches high on the 16th of 
 the same month ; it was harvested on 11th January 1878, having been 
 on the ground 99 days, during which 30-13 inches of rain fell in 29 
 days, of which 29*27 inches in 27 days were registered after the applica- 
 tion of the manure ; the soil of the field is for the most part a light 
 sandy loam but, being rather steeply inclined, is exposed to considerable 
 surface wash. The planter's friend crop is referred to below where all 
 particulars regarding the crop are given. The maize crop was so'wn in 
 a field only recently levelled, and the results obtained in it are therefore 
 open to great doubt owing to the uneven quality of soil ; they are 
 further in a measure vitiated as regards the weight of cobs obtained 
 by the number stolen from the field before harvest. The crop was sown 
 on September 24th and was 89 days on the ground. The manure was 
 appUed on October 14th and out of the total rainfall of 32-22 inches in 34 
 days, which the crop received, 29 '47 inches fell in 28 days after that 
 date. 
 
 The follo'wing experiment was made to test the value of poudrette ; 
 two plots each half acre in extent, of poor light sandy soil were selected 
 and sown •with yellow cholum on 14th October 1875 ; the plants appeared 
 above ground in 5 days, and during the growth of the crop it was once 
 bullock and once hand-hoed ; the duration of gro'wth was 115 days, during 
 
 * Cobs, 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. 
 
 31 
 
 wMch time 21 '29 inches of rain fell in 26 days; the poudrette was 
 applied at the rate of 40 loads per acre ; the results were as follow : — 
 
 TJmnanTired 
 
 Yield of 
 
 Straw 
 
 Grain 
 
 Straw 
 
 Manured 
 
 Grain 
 
 Per Plot. 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 LB. 
 
 2,198 
 
 193 
 
 LB. 
 
 4,396 
 
 386 
 
 3,108 
 
 186 
 
 6,216 
 
 372 
 
 It is possible that the heavy dressing of manure killed a number of 
 young seedlings from the solubility of the salts it contained. It must 
 also be remembered that the poudrette did not contain any liquid 
 excreta, which contain f of the valuable portion of human excrements. 
 
 An experiment was made in 1 876 to test the comparative value of box- 
 manure, and the ashes which are left on burniug cow-dung bratties. 
 The crop selected was one of yellow cholum sown on 8th April on a 
 sandy loam, cultivated under occasional irrigation for fodder. The 
 experiment was stopped after the second cutting had been removed, owing 
 to some alterations in the arrangements of the field. The results were 
 that the first cutting of fodder obtained from the plot manured with the 
 ashes, was heavier than that which was obtaiaed from the plot manured 
 with farm-yard manure ; but, the second crop, was 60 per cent, lighter 
 on the ash-manured land than that on the land manured with farm- 
 yard manure. 
 
 Besides being incomplete from being stopped before completion, the 
 fact that the crop was irrigated was such as to require detailed 
 investigation as to the amount of water required by the different plots, 
 organic manure being a weU known economiser of water. The quick 
 action of ashes is not surprising ; it only agrees with the experiences of 
 coffee planters and others who, in clearing a forest, bum off the 
 timber, &c. 
 
 In 1877 several experiments were made with saltpetre as a top- 
 dressing in different amounts, with a view to determine the most 
 profitable rate at which to apply it, but, owing to the character of the 
 season, these were not satisfactory ; in the following table however the 
 results obtained with a crop of Sorghum are given : — 
 
 
 Unmanured. 
 
 60 lb. 
 Saltpetre 
 per Acre. 
 
 90 lb. 
 
 Saltpetre 
 per Acre. 
 
 120 lb. 
 Saltpetre 
 per Acre. 
 
 Per plot ...| 
 Per acre 
 
 Straw 
 Grain 
 Straw 
 Grain 
 
 LB. 
 4,437 
 
 167 
 8,874 
 
 334 
 
 LB. 
 4,364 
 
 208 
 8,728 
 
 416 
 
 LB. 
 
 4,514 
 490 
 
 9,028 
 980 
 
 LB. 
 
 5,296 
 
 160 
 
 10,592 
 
 320 
 
 Value of pro due 
 
 3 per acre ... 
 
 RS. A. P. 
 
 42 15 
 
 ES. A. P. 
 42 3 2 
 
 RS. A. P. 
 
 45 4 8 
 
 BS. A. P. 
 
 48 1 8 
 
32 MANURES AND MANURING. 
 
 The crop was sown rather late but came up extremely well. The 
 land had boon manured by ploughing in a crop of horse-gram, but 
 no great depth of cultivation was attained. The soil is rather light and 
 sandy, and on that account not likely to give great returns from the use 
 of saltpetre. The weather also after the application of the top-dressings 
 was not at all advantageous, for, after December 11th, the date on 
 which they were applied, only '51 inch of rain fell during the remaining 
 period of the growth of the crop, an amount perfectly inadequate to bring 
 out the full action of saltpetre. 
 
 In the same year a field of " Planter's friend " was selected for a series 
 of top-dressing experiments ; it had been sown on September 28th with 
 seed by the di'ill at the rate of 22 lb. per acre, and the crop came up well ; 
 during the period of growth (106 days) 30'65 inches of rain fell on 
 32 days. On October 12th in the centre portion of the field 24 plots 
 each of yV acre in area were marked down, 12 on the western and 12 on 
 the eastern side ; those on the east were denominated Series B, and in 
 the first few plots a very sandy description of soil, differing greatly from 
 the rest of the field, prevails, this is at the southern end. The soil on 
 which the A series were situated is of far more even quality, and it is 
 from them rather that reliable information can be derived. The top- 
 dressings were all apjilied on the same day and immediately afterwards 
 the bullock-hoes were put into the field in order to mix the manm-es with 
 the soil and prevent their being washed away by any showers ; on 
 October 14th there was a slight fall of rain, "2 inch, which was probably 
 of great value in dissolving, whilst at the same time it did not wash 
 out the soluble manures ; thus for the saltpetre and common salt 
 applied the circumstances were as favorable as could be wishod, but for 
 the different applications of oil-cake, &o., probably it would have been 
 more advantageous had the land been in a more saturated condition. 
 Up to the 29th October none but very light showers fell, and during the 
 total period of growth after the application of the manures 29 '47 inches 
 of rain were registered on 28 days. Shortly before harvest a few spots 
 of rust appeared in the field, on the lighter soil generally first, and the 
 grain was attacked by a fungoid disease ; to this the deficiency of grain 
 must be attributed. 
 
 The results were as follow : — 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. 
 
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■i4 ilAXfRKS AXD MANURING. 
 
 Looking at the A series alone, saltpetre gave by far the best results, the 
 application being rather a heavy one ; the lowest yield in the series was 
 given where castor seed husks had been applied : this is not surprising 
 considering the character of the manure, which, although it is probably 
 very rich in ash constituents, from its nature will take a considerable 
 time in decomposing ; the white castor cake is composed of the kernel 
 of the castor bean, and consists chiefly of carbonaceous with some 
 nitrogenous matters, and although the former would improve the 
 texture of the soil, the only active fertilizing substances are the latter. 
 These experiments seem to show that, for this crop on our land, common 
 Bait is not of much, if of any, value ; mixed with saltpetre in equal 
 values it did not yield as much as half the increase a full dressing of 
 the saltpetre did, whilst when applied alone there was no increase 
 observable. 
 
 The figure in the last column of the table shows the percentage 
 decrease on drying the straw, received from the several plots, in the 
 open air for 17 days ; they are the first of the sort recorded in India. 
 It is well known that some manures induce plants to produce more 
 succulent forage than others, and in estimating the value of fodder 
 grown with different manures these characteristics must be taken into 
 consideration. 
 
CEors. 
 
 35 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CROPS. 
 
 The experiences gained regarding the habits and best methods of 
 treating different crops will be given further on in detail, but among the 
 many valuable results which have been obtained, the fact, that this 
 country is preeminently favored with regard to forage crops, is 
 conspicuous ; and the more so because these crops can be grown with the 
 greatest ease with ordinary care and skill, and their valuable attributes 
 were formerly unknown and unsuspected. Of thjeir value the following 
 figures, giving the outturn of some field crops which have been grown 
 on the farm are conclusive :— 
 
 Crops. 
 
 Duration of 
 
 Yield per Acre, 
 
 
 Growth. 
 
 of Green Fodder. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 
 Yellow cholum 
 
 11 months. 
 
 51,870 
 
 Irrigated, 5 cuttings. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 7 do. 
 
 48,168 
 
 1)0. 4 do. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 5 do. 
 
 17,024 
 
 Not irrigated. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 119 days. 
 
 16,586 
 
 Irrigated, 1 cutting only. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 63 do. 
 
 19,659 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 63 do. 
 
 43,850 
 
 A small portion of the latter. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 88 do. 
 
 24,939 
 
 Irrigated, 1 cutting only. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 88 do. 
 
 80,924 
 
 A small portion of the latter. 
 
 Maize 
 
 90 do. 
 
 12,226 
 
 Irrigated. 
 
 Sorghum eaocharatum. 
 
 89 do. 
 
 16,444 
 
 Unirri gated. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 107 do. 
 
 21,108 
 
 Do 
 
 Planter's friend 
 Cumboo 
 
 106 do. 
 
 75 do. 
 
 11,878 
 15,000 
 
 Do. (grown for grain). 
 Do. 
 
 Do. and horse gram 
 
 78 do. 
 
 5,070 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 75 do. 
 
 8,346 
 
 Do. 
 
 Horse gram 
 
 71 do. 
 
 10,642 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 117 do. 
 
 7,318 
 
 Do. 
 
 Car paddy 
 
 133 do. 
 
 18,075 
 
 Irrigated. 
 
 Shamay . . 
 
 138 do. 
 
 47,151 
 
 Do, 2 cuttings. 
 
 Sugar-cane 
 
 9 months. 
 
 131,624 
 
 Do. 
 
 Pariali grass 
 
 1 year. 
 
 11,536 
 
 Do. 
 
 Guinea grass 
 
 141 days. 
 
 0,228 
 
 Not irrigated, 2 cuttings. 
 
 These results, obtained under such conditions as exist on the farm, 
 show most conclusively that with good farming it is possible to raise 
 abundance of fodder, and that too, it can be proved, of first:-rate quality, 
 without any difiiculty. There is therefore no reason, from want of 
 proper and adequate food, why the country should not produce good stock 
 instead of the miserable degenerate animals on which it St present 
 depends for the cultivation of the land and for transport on the roads, 
 
3G 
 
 CROPS. 
 
 A point, which is not understood by the cultivators of this country, 
 is the imperative importance of harvesting crops before they are dead 
 ripe. On this point the following experiment is instructive : — A small 
 plot of car paddy, containing 388 square yards, was divided into two 
 equal parts — one-half was harvested when the grain, on being pressed 
 between the finger and thumb, ceased to exude any milky fluid, though 
 the straw at the time was quite green ; the other half was allowed to 
 stand until dead ripe, as is the usual practice of the ryot. The first half 
 was cut on the 1 3th June, and the remaining half on the 3rd of July. 
 The following are the results : — 
 
 
 Square 
 Yards. 
 
 Produce per Plot. 
 
 Produce per Acre. 
 
 Plot No. 1 
 
 Plot No. 2 
 
 194 
 194 
 
 Grain. 
 
 LB. 
 
 56 
 42 
 
 Straw. 
 
 LB. 
 
 245 
 170 
 
 Grain. 
 
 LB. 
 
 1,397 
 1,047 
 
 Straw. 
 
 LB. 
 
 6,112 
 4,241 
 
 Thus, the half of the plot early harvested produced per acre 350 lb. 
 more grain and 1,871 lb. more straw than the half that was allowed to 
 stand until it was dead ripe. Any one conversant with the appearance 
 of paddy land a few weeks after harvest will readily account for this loss 
 of 350 lb. of grain. It is chiefly shed on the ground, though a certain 
 proportion is carried off by birds. The difference in the weight of the 
 fitraw is due to the larger quantity of juice it contained when cut green, 
 and, as at this stage in the growth of the plant its juice contains a 
 large percentage of nutritive matters, this increased weight is so much 
 gain ; besides a ton of straw cut when dead ripe does not contain so 
 much nutritive matter as an equal weight cut two or three weeks before 
 it has reached this stage. The results of this experiment fully agree 
 with the experience of European countries. 
 
 It has in fact been found that paddy may be safely harvested, as 
 far as the yield and quality of grain produced is concerned, whilst the 
 com is still green ; it must however be dry, not exuding any milk on 
 pressure or rupture, and if so will gain its proper color after it is 
 threshed or better still on the straw ; whilst by cutting early little or no 
 loss from shedding will ever be experienced. With most other crops the 
 same experience holds good. 
 
 SUGrAE-OANE {Sacchamm officmaru7H) — (Tam.) Karoomboo ; (Tel.) 
 Cherukoo ; (Hind.) Gunna. — A small plot, measuring about 2,000 square 
 yards, was planted with sugar-cane in February 1872. The experiment 
 was instituted merely to ascertain whether sugar-cane could be grown 
 profitably on the ordinary soils of the Farm. The crop was manured 
 with slaughter-house refuse only. The following are the results : the 
 crop was planted during the first week in February, and was harvested 
 at about the same period in the following year ; it was planted in Knes 
 about 3 1 feet apart ; there were 35 lines ; of these, 24 were sold to 
 bazaarmen for Rupees 69-8-9, and the remaining 11 lines, which were 
 the best, and were valued at Rupees 4 per line, were kept for farm use 
 to provide cuttings for planting another crop. The total return was 
 
CROPS. 37 
 
 thus, say, Rupees 113-8-9, or Eupees 274-12-6 per acre, against an 
 expenditure amounting to Eupees 106-8-0, or Eupees 257-11-8 per acre, 
 a large portion of which was taken up in raising water 20 feet high. 
 However, in the case of a ryot who, instead of hiring all the necessary 
 labor, works his land himself with the aid of an occasional laborer, the 
 actual expenditure would have been very small, and the return obtained 
 from the crop would have been ample to compensate him. 
 
 In order to test the capabilities of the crop as a fodder producer, 
 an average row of canes was cut down in November ; the canes 
 weighed 1,162 lb. and the toppings 392 lb., or together 1,554 lb., 
 equal to 131,624 lb. per acre, worth at least Eupees 290, so that it 
 would have been far more profitable to have treated the crop as a fodder 
 one, whilst, if the whole had been cut for fodder at the time the single 
 row of canes was harvested, there would also have been a large saving 
 in the cost of watering and weeding, and a large second crop would 
 have been obtained. There can be no doubt but that sugar-cane as a 
 fodder-product is almost unequalled by any crop. Our Municipalities, 
 with their abundant supplies of manure, might find it worthwhile to grew 
 sugar-cane as a fodder crop; they might produce it in all favorable 
 localities at Eupees 5 per ton, at which price it should meet with a large 
 demand for feeding milch cows and draught cattle. 
 
 WHEAT.— (Tam.) Godumay ; (Tel.) Godumalu ; (Hind.) Gehun.— 
 In 1875 several small plots were sown with wheat; some with seed 
 obtained from the Nilgiris, and others with seed produced in the 
 Coimbatore District ; the sowings were made at different dates, between 
 the 1st of January and the middle of March. The seed from both 
 districts germinated well, and produced vigorous and healthy plants ; 
 however, only a very small proportion of them succeeded in maturing 
 any grain, the result evidently of the high temperature that prevailed 
 during the latter half of their growth. The experimental plots were all 
 thoroughly cultivated and liberally manured, and irrigation water was 
 applied when necessary. The species experimented with in this case was 
 the Tfiticum spelta. 
 
 In 1876 two samples of wheat were obtained from Egypt, and sown 
 but, though they germinated and grew fairly at first, no grain was 
 produced ; this may have been owing to a want of sufficient water, to a 
 higher temperature than is usual in Egj^t, and to the lightness of the 
 soil on which the crop was sown. 
 
 In 1877 some further experiments were made, with seed obtained 
 from Agra, but the results were very similar to those already given ; 
 the crop was however sown in October and harvested in January : the 
 varieties sown in this case were both red and white native wheat. 
 
 MAIZE {Zea mays) — (Tam.) Mukka-cholum ; (Tel.) Mokka-jonna; 
 (Hind.) Mokka, Boota — has become a regular crop of the farm, occupying 
 an important place as one of the best food crops we possess ; it how- 
 ever requires better cultivation than that generally practised in Southern 
 India, and so when good seed falls into the hands of the native 
 cultivators its fate is inevitable and it rapidly deteriorates ; it has 
 been found that one average-sized Queensland maize cob grown under 
 
38 
 
 rRor; 
 
 good cultivation at Saidapet yields more grain than 12 of the cobs 
 grown in the Vellore District. The value of the grain for humaa food 
 is well known, excelling by far rice and the dry grains of this country, 
 whilst at the same time it is more productive, and will thus support a 
 larger population ; on good soils 2,000 lb. of grain may be grown per 
 acre without extraordinary management, and at the same time from 2^ 
 to 3 tons of dry straw per acre may be expected ; this straw is rich in 
 saccharine matters, and is a valuable fodder for all kinds of farm-stock. 
 The crop, however, should be well manured with organic manures, and will 
 repay the applications of very heavy dressings ; it is admirably adapted 
 for growing in the intermediate spaces left in cotton cultivation, as it 
 occupies the ground only about four months and when removed leaves 
 the cotton plants as a crop on the land for the hot weather the usual 
 objection of the unprofitableness of cotton culture being thus obviated ; 
 the maize crop paying at least all expenses and leaving the cotton, which 
 is sold, for profit. 
 
 It is advisable to tar the seed before sowing to preserve it from the 
 attacks of squirrels, &c. The seed should be sown, if the crop be taken 
 alone, in rows about 3 feet apart, at the rate of about 30 lb. per acre ; if 
 grown with cotton, the rows of maize should be 4 feet apart, and those 
 of cotton at the same distance, alternately. An experiment was made 
 to find out the best depth at which to sow this crop, 50 grains were sown 
 at each of the depths mentioned in the following table, with the results 
 noted : — 
 
 When Counted. 
 
 Sown 1 Inch 
 deep. 
 
 Sown 3 Inches 
 deep. 
 
 Sown 3 Inches 
 deep. 
 
 Sown 4 Inches 
 deep. 
 
 SownSInches 
 deep. 
 
 
 Numier of F 
 
 laiits that had 
 
 appeared aboi 
 
 e ground. 
 
 
 lat day 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2nd „ 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3rd „ 
 
 ... 
 
 ..• 
 
 
 
 
 
 4th „ 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 5th „ 
 
 io 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 6th „ 
 
 27 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 7th „ 
 
 38 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 8th „ 
 
 39 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 9th „ 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 The 60 grains of maize sown at 1 inch produced 40 plants ; the same 
 quantity of seed sown at 2 inches produced only 16 plants ; a similar 
 quantity sown at 3 inches in depth yielded only 9 plants showing that 
 when sown at a slight depth more seeds germinate and that they 
 germinate more quickly ; the results were, however, exceptional, and 
 probably 1^ inches to 2 inches is the best depth at which to sow maiiie. 
 
 In harvesting, the cobs should be well matured before being gathered ; 
 if the weather during the time be favorable, the skins are best kept on 
 the cobs until the seeds are perfectly hardened and glazed. 
 
 In the following table, the results of some experiments made in 1869 
 with this crop are given ; the seed was sown on ridges 3 feet apart, and 
 box manure had been applied to Plot 1 at the rate of 25 tons per acre ; 
 
CROPS. 
 
 39 
 
 to Plot 2 at the rate of 15 tons ; and to Plot 3 at the rate of 20 tons. 
 To Plot 1 in addition, 2 cwt. of bone-dust was applied. No manure 
 was applied to Plot 4, the soil being in good condition, having cai'ried 
 no grain-crop since it had been reclaimed : — 
 
 o 
 
 ■s 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 eg 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 <! 
 1 
 
 w 
 •s 
 
 g 
 
 
 a 
 ■s 
 
 Yield of 
 Fresh Cdbs. 
 
 Yield of 
 Grain (Dry). 
 
 Yield of 
 Stra-ff (Dry). 
 
 'ca 
 
 O 
 
 < 
 & 
 
 ■3 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 < 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 
 5,774 
 10,647 
 6,044 
 4,918 
 
 Oct. 12th 
 „ 18th 
 „ 31st 
 „ 26th 
 
 LB. 
 36 
 
 54 
 
 40 
 
 27 
 
 LB. 
 
 30 
 25 
 32 
 26 
 
 17th Jan. 1870 
 17th „ „ 
 17th „ „ 
 17th „ „ 
 
 97 days 
 91 „ 
 
 83 „ 
 
 20-89 
 20-16 
 18-17 
 19-94 
 
 40 
 37 
 32 
 36 
 
 LB. 
 
 7,080 
 7,382 
 1,932 
 2,366 
 
 LB. 
 
 6,837 
 3,340 
 1,449 
 2,299 
 
 LB. 
 
 1,851 
 
 1,877 
 
 1,063 
 
 850 
 
 LB. 
 
 1,551 
 854 
 651 
 836 
 
 LB. 
 
 7,456 
 8,411 
 7,271 
 .7,666 
 
 LB. 
 4,944 
 
 3,808 
 
 5,722 
 
 7,543 
 
 ES. A. 
 
 p. 
 
 28 12 
 
 3 
 
 15 1 
 
 
 
 20 11 
 
 
 
 38 6 
 
 2 
 
 After allowing for all expenses the profit per acre was- 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Do. 2 
 
 1)6. 3 
 
 Do. 4 
 
 A storm occurred when the plants were ninety-eight days old ; the 
 yield of grain from Plots 1 and 2 would have been much greater had not 
 the effects of the storm necessitated the harvesting of the crop before it was 
 matured. In forming any conclusion on the results of these experiments, 
 the wretched nature of the soil must not be lost sight of. Not only is it 
 very poor in the elements of plant-food, but it is physically a bad soil. 
 It parts with its moisture too rapidly, and during hot weather becomes 
 very hard and compact. However, if such soils — and there is a large 
 area of similar soils in an uncultivated state in this district — -will under 
 maize give a profit of 25 Rupees per acre, the profit from maize cultiva- 
 tion on good soils must be large. 
 
 The following are the results obtained with a sowing made out of the 
 usual season — September — , under occasional irrigation, and are worthy of 
 notice, for maize being a tall growing plant is liable to injury by the high 
 winds of the north-east monsoon. A plot of land measuring 1,950 
 square yards was, on the 15th of January 1875, sown with 14|^ lb. of 
 maize seed. The soil was a free sandy loam ; it was twice ploughed, 
 twice harrowed, manured with 1,500 lb. of oil cake and fourteen cart- 
 loads of ashes, and ridged. During the growth of the crop the land 
 was irrigated five times and once hand-hoed. The plants grew so 
 luxuriantly, that it was found necessary to thin out a considerable 
 number ; the weight of fodder thus obtained was 1,134 lb. The 
 remainder of the plants matured three months after sowing, and 
 produced 1,738 cobs and 1,324 lb. of dry straw. The cobs were small 
 from the plants having been too crowded on the ground : the total yield 
 of cobs was 4,314 per acre. 
 
40 (.iKips. 
 
 Maize may be grown with success as a fodder crop. In the season 
 1876-77 a plot, measuring 2,418 square yards, was sown with this crop ; 
 and, under occasional irrigation, produced, between November 8th and 
 February 6th, 6,108 lb. of fodder, which is at the rate of 12,226 lb. 
 per acre. The rainfall during the period of the growth of this crop was 
 3'90 inches, and it received eight waterings ; it was manured with about 
 twelve loads of stable manure, and received a top-dressing of 50 lb. 
 of saltpetre. It will be seen that it produces a fair crop of fodder ; 
 this fodder is highly prized in America as a food for milch cows. 
 
 GEEAT_ MILLET (Sorghim vu/gare)— (Tarn.) Cholum ; (Tel.) 
 Jonna; (Hind.) Joar; the Durra of Africa — has been largely grown 
 both for grain and for fodder ; in the latter respect it has scarcely a 
 rival. It can be grown on all classes of soil with success, but no doubt 
 deep strong soils are best adapted for its perfection. For success, it 
 must be sown on a well prepared deeply tilled and adequately manured 
 soil. If to be grown under irrigation it is best to sow the seed on the 
 ridge ; the seed being thinly sown at the rate of 20 to 30 lb per acre only. 
 If intended for fodder it should be cut when two-thirds grown, and will, 
 under irrigation, yield as far as 50,000 to 70,000 lb. of fodder per 
 acre in a year ; whilst, if unirrigated, during the seven or eight months, 
 it will produce four cuttings, yielding about one-third of that amount. 
 If grown for grain it will produce from 500 to 1,000 lb. of seed, besides 
 4,000 to 6,000 lb. of good straw per acre. Under spade-culture in the 
 Botanical Garden, on small areas of about 72 square yards, crops yield- 
 ing at the rate of from 70,000 to 90,000 lb. per acre in one cutting 
 have been grown ; this shows that the crop amply repays high culture, 
 and also what could be done by every ryot for the production of forage 
 for his live-stock. 
 
 WHITE CHOLUM in a great measure possesses the qualities of 
 the yellow variety, to which it is closely allied, and from which it differs 
 chiefly in the color of the seed and the character of the panicle. It has 
 not been experimented with so largely ; however, as far as experiments 
 have gone, the results have not been so satisfactory as those attending 
 the cultivation of yellow cholum. 
 
 CHINESE SUGAR-CANE (Sorghum saccharatu?n).— This crop was 
 first introduced on this farm from Sydney in the early part of 1870, and 
 has now established itself here as one of our regular cold weather crops. It 
 can be grown as readily and with as little skill as the ordinary cholums 
 of the ryot, though, unlike our cholums, good results have not as yet 
 been obtained from hot weather sowings. It has been tried over and over 
 again in the hot season, but every time with the same want of success, 
 even when the crop was occasionally irrigated ; the seed always germi- 
 nated well, and there were plenty of plants, but they were invariably 
 sickly and stunted, and we never, even in the most favorable circum- 
 stances, obtained more than one-fourth of an average cold weather crop. 
 This is very different from our cholums, which with water will grow 
 well at any time of the year, and frequently better in the hot weather 
 than in the cold season. Land intended for sorghum should be in good 
 
CROPS. 
 
 41 
 
 condition physically and manurally ; seed may be sown at the rate of 
 from 10 to 20 lbs. per acre, either on the flat or on the ridge ; the former 
 method reqmring more seed and giving lighter crops than the latter, 
 but it is more expeditious and cheap. It has been suggested that 
 transplanting might stiit the habits of the sorghum plant, but it is seldom 
 in this country that this can be done without great expense and seriously 
 delaying farm-work. Transplanting may answer well enough for 
 planting a few square yards with sorghum in a kitchen garden, but is 
 altogether imsuited for operations in the field, excepting perhaps under 
 irrigation. 
 
 The crop occupies the ground only about 100 days, even less if it be 
 only grown for fodder. Sorghvmi is recommended as a fodder plant but 
 not as a grain producer to the farmers of this country ; it will yield two 
 or three successive cuttings of fodder, under good cultivation when 
 occasionally watered, but it does not throw out so many fresh stems as 
 the cholums of this country do after each cutting. 
 
 IMPHBE and PLANTEE'S FRIEND {Sorghum Kaffrarium) have 
 been grown ; they are supposed to have been originally obtained from the 
 south-eastern coast of Africa. In America they are by many con- 
 sidered to be better sugar-producers than the Chinese siogar-cane, and all 
 agree that their sugar is much more easy to crystallize. A few pounds of 
 seed of the former were obtained from Sydney, and sown on the 30th of 
 November 1870, but its growth was very unsatisfactory ; it did not 
 produce more than one-tenth of the crop Chinese sugar-cane yielded, 
 whilst it required much longer time in coming to maturity. The canes 
 were thick, but very short, and the presence of any more saccharine matter 
 than is found in our common cholums could not be detected. 
 
 Planter's friend was first tried in 1876, and the results were satisfactory; 
 it has been found to yield from 4,000 to 12,000 lbs. of straw, besides a 
 crop of grain, per acre ; it is, however, especially a fodder-producer and to 
 obtain the best results should be cut when in flower. The straw of this 
 variety is very rich in saccharine matter. The results which have been 
 obtained show abundantly that both " Sorghum " and " Planter's 
 Friend " are most valuable fodder-producers ; the former gives a heavier 
 yield of grain than the latter, but it may be remarked here that the grain 
 of both varieties is at present unsaleable at Saidapet for use as food for 
 man ; that of the Sorghum because of the difficulty in removing the husk ; 
 that of the Planter's Friend because of a bitter taste which it possesses. 
 For the production of sugar neither crop has been investigated on this 
 farm, but there is every reason to believe that it would be a most valuable 
 addition to the crops of the country in this respect ; occupying the ground 
 only about one hundred days, it will, without irrigation, produce in that 
 time about 8 or 10 tons of green sorghum fit for crushing. From an 
 experim.ent made, with very imperfect means of extraction, it was found 
 that the crude juice showed specific gravity of 1*90 or 12° density on the 
 Beaume scale, which is higher than the average commonly obtained in 
 America. A supply of the seed of some of the best sugar-yielding 
 varieties has been indented for from the United States, but imless some 
 adequate means of crushing the cane and purifying and evaporating the 
 juice be also supplied, it will not be possible to do much in this 
 direction. 
 
'J2 i'K(jrs. 
 
 SPIKED MILLET {PeniciUaria spicat a)— (T&m.) Cumboo; (Tel.) 
 Sujjaloo; (Hind.) Bajree — is an indigenous plant, especially suited 
 for cultivation, during a season of high temperature and light rainfall, 
 on lands which it is not possible to inigate. It is chiefly grown on the 
 poorer classes of soils and does not produce very heavily. It grows well 
 in some localities imder irrigation, but does not come up to cholum 
 either in productive powers or in the quality of the forage produced. 
 Notwithstanding, it is a valuable crop for culture in the hot weather 
 before the regular cold season crops are sown. The value of the fodder 
 is referred to in another place ; the grain meets with easy sale, but 
 is of low value. It produces fodder at a time when there is generally 
 great scarcity of cattle food in this neighborhood. It is possible 
 always to have something green for the stock between the months of 
 October and May ; but the great difficulty is to find some crop that 
 will jdeld green fodder during the months of June, July, and August. 
 Of course under irrigation it is possible to grow yellow cholum, so as to 
 afford a supply of green fodder throughout the hot season, but there are 
 large tracts of country to which irrigation cannot be applied, in which 
 cumboo will yield excellent green fodder during the season when the 
 stock feeder finds it the most difficult to maintain the condition of his 
 animals. 
 
 CEOW-FOOT GEASS (Meusim corocana)—{Tam.) Kelvaragoo; 
 (Tel.) Taindulu ; (Hind.) Eagi — is a fair fodder-producer, and yields 
 a valuable food-grain under moderate irrigation. It is easily grown 
 and is extensively raised under wells during the hot season, being planted 
 out from seed beds. The best plan is to ridge up the land, as is done for 
 maize and cotton, and to plant the seedlings on both sides of the ridges. 
 The crop is a difficult and expensive one to harvest, owing to the ears 
 never ripening at one time ; and it is also costly to thresh, the grain 
 adhering with great persistency to the panicle. 
 
 ITALIAN MILLET (Pavinim ifaliciim)—(T3,m..) Tennai, (Tel.) 
 Koraloo, Kora ; (Hind.) Kora, Kala-kangni — has been grown on more 
 than one occasion on the farm with tolerable success ; it produces a fair 
 crop of grain as well as straw. The grain is difficult to thresh, and does 
 not command a ready sale. 
 
 LITTLE MILLET {Pmiicum _mi/imr)-{Tam.) Samai, (Tel.) Sha- 
 maloo ; (Hind.) Kungoo — is an inferior grain of no great value as a 
 grain-producer ; it grows readily on poor soils, and is a valuable fodder- 
 producer under irrigation. The following experiment was made with it 
 as a fodder crop : — A plot of land, measuring 744 square yards, was sown 
 with 10 lbs. of Shamay seed on the 2nd of August. The crop grew 
 rapidly and with great luxuriance ; on the 25th of October, when most 
 of the plants were coming into ear, the whole was cut down, and yielded 
 4,575 lbs. of excellent fodder. This was dried and made into h&y 
 which, when cured, M'cighed 1,411 lbs. After the removal of the first 
 cutting the plants again started vigorously, and on the 18tli of Decem- 
 ber another cutting, weighing 2,673 lbs. was obtained. This, when 
 dried, yielded 925 lbs. of hay. The total return thus obtained from 
 the plot dmng the foui- months that ebpsed between the sowing of the 
 
CHOPS. 43 
 
 crop and the harvesting of the second cutting was 7,248 lbs. of 
 fodder, which gave 2,S36 Ihs. of hay, equal to 47,151 lbs. of fodder, 
 or 15,197 lbs. of hay per acre. The land had been manured with four 
 loads of box manure, and the crop was watered seven times, but during 
 the time it was on the ground the rainfall generally was copious, hence 
 it was seldom necessary to irrigate ; had it been necessary to water the 
 crop regularly throughout the whole time it was growing, the cost of 
 producing the fodder would have been largely increased : it was under 
 Rupees 2 per ton. 
 
 COMMON. MILLET (Fanicum tmliaceum)—(Tam.) Varagoo ; (Tel.) 
 Varagalu ; (Hind.) Chenna — is a crop not worth much attention ; 
 the grain is very inferior, and commands a very small price in the 
 bazaars, while it is a very slow grower, occupying the land a long time. 
 In one case about 2 acres were put under this crop ; the soil was 
 prepared in the usual way and manured with 5 tons of fold-yard 
 maniire per acre ; about 24 lbs. of seed was sown in drills 22 inches apart 
 in the early part of October. The crop was harvested on the 1st of 
 March, and yielded 456 lbs. of grain ; the straw would not weigh more 
 than half a ton per acre. 
 
 COUNTRY PADDY [Ori/za safwo,)— (Tam.) NeUoo ; (Tel.) Urloo> 
 Beeum ; (Hind.) Dhan. — Both of the car and sumba varieties have been 
 extensively grown from time to time. It has been found that the 
 amount of water usually taken for irrigating the crop is far in excess 
 of its actual requirements, which is the more to be deprecated for the crop 
 is of a low type, and produces a poor food ; it developes habits of idleness 
 and unthrift in the people from the ease with which it may be grown, and 
 consequently the adoption of perfunctory methods of cultivation ; it is 
 insanitary in its efEects, causing under the system. o£ the native cultivator,, 
 the presence of large bodies of generally stagnant water — a fertile source 
 of malarious fever j and finally it monopolises water which might be far 
 more usefully employed for irrigating maize or wheat, either of which 
 crops might be grown with a tithe of the water now used for paddy, 
 whilst the food they would produce would be equal or greater in 
 quantity, and of far better quality. What the effects would be of an 
 outbreak of a disease on this crop, which might, as the potato disease did 
 in Ireland, destroy the greatest food resource of the people, it is diflScult 
 to contemplate ; and yet the extension of irrigation works goes on, and 
 consequently that of paddy culture. Paddy is at present the bane of 
 South Indian farming. 
 
 As a fodder crop, paddy is a good producer. Numerous experi- 
 ments with this object have been made on crops grown in the usual 
 way ; some from seed and others from transplanted seedlings ; as a 
 general rule, the best results were obtained from seed which had been, 
 sown broadcast. 
 
 The fodder was always harvested when the plants were- in the shot 
 blade, just before the ear appeared ; the outturn was found to be about 
 18,000 to 20,000 lbs. per acre, which could be produced at the rate of 
 929 lbs. per 1 rupee, or at about Rupees 2-6-7 per ton. It is in the 
 power of every ryot, who owns ordinary paddy soil with a moderate 
 
44 CKOPS, 
 
 supply of water, to produce similar results, while those who can apply 
 the irrigation water by gravitation can produce the fodder at a much 
 lower cost. 
 
 Of course, the distance from a market wiU limit the remimerative 
 cultivation of paddy fodder to but a small area of the land now under 
 paddy, still there is no doubt but that near our larger towns, within a 
 distance of six or eight miles, a large proportion of the land might 
 profitably be employed in growing fodder, not continuously, but in 
 alternation with a crop of grain ; and certainly during seasons of long 
 drought, when cattle are starving and the ryot and his people idle, the 
 water available, though it would not nearly suffice to bring a crop 
 of grain to maturity, might be turned to account in growing a crop 
 of paddy fodder. It is lamentable at such times, when large tracts of 
 country are lying idle and cattle dying off, to see here and there a few 
 feet of water in the tanks left unused, because there would not be 
 enough to mature a crop, when it might suffice for raising a crop of 
 paddy fodder. However, if a bad season comes, the ryot seems quite 
 without resource ; he folds his arms and blames his unfortunate fate. 
 
 Owners of horses could eilect a very considerable saving in the 
 cost of their stables by substituting paddy fodder for a portion of the 
 grass now supplied by grass cutters. At the rate of wages usually paid 
 to these people, this grass seldom costs less than 12 Rupees per ton. 
 Paddy hay when chaffed is better, than when given uncut, as a horse 
 fodder ; the hay may be valued at Rupees 9 per ton, and the cost of 
 chaffing it would be about one rupee per ton. 
 
 BUEMESE PADDY.— A few pounds of each of the best kinds 
 of Burmese paddy were obtained in 1873 from Rangoon. Each variety 
 was sown on a separate plot of land, the cultivation adopted being pre- 
 cisely that under which indigenous paddy is raised. The general 
 results were not good, a large number of the plants producing small 
 inferior grain, but this may to some extent have been the result of the 
 great change in climate, especially as the crops matured in the early 
 part of the dry season, at which time the dryness of the air in Madras 
 affords a very marked contrast to the state of the atmosphere most 
 common in Burmah. These varieties of paddy are much more highly 
 esteemed by natives than the ordinary paddy generally grown in 
 Southern India. 
 
 CAROLINA PADDY. — Many experiments have been made with 
 this variety, both with seed imported direct, and with seed raised in 
 this country ; the results have been highly satisfactory, and have proved 
 that the native system can be adapted to its growth, if only less water be 
 used, deeper cultivation be adopted, andmoreattentionbe paid to drainage: 
 good results can be obtained either by sowing the seed at once in the paddy 
 bed, or by sowing it in a seed bed and afterwards transplanting the plants 
 into the paddy bed ; either procedure may be justified by the peculiar 
 circumstances of the ryot : it has been found that remunerative crops 
 of country paddy can be produced on a soil that altogether fails in 
 producing a fair crop of Carolina paddy, and also that a soil which one 
 year' produces a good crop of this grain may, in the next year, not be able 
 
CROPS. 45 
 
 to produce even half a crop. Thus, soils which in 1870 produced as 
 much as 2,000 lbs. per acre of Carolina paddy yielded in 1871 only 
 half as much, though equally as well cultivated and manured ; the 
 explanation of this is simple ; the soils which produced such good crops of 
 Carolina paddy in 1870 were in a fresh stateatthe time the paddy was sown ; 
 they had not been under wet cultivation for several years, while those sown 
 in the following year with this paddy had been under wet cultivation in 
 the previous year, and had become more or less reduced, by the stagna- 
 tion of the irrigating water in the sub-soil, to the condition of the more 
 inferior descriptions of paddy land, or, in other words, to a sour, 
 unhealthy, soapy condition, in which atmospheric agencies had been 
 able to have no effect for good, in which plant food was either locked up 
 and rendered inert, or formed into combinations more or less injurious to 
 vegetable life, but whose surface to a depth of 2 or 3 inches was more 
 or less healthy and capable of producing plants of a low type. It is 
 easy to understand why, on a soil in this condition, Carolina paddy 
 seldom does well, while country paddy may thrive. The former feeds 
 deep down in the soil, it has long deep roots, varying in length, under 
 average circumstances from 4 to 6 inches, while few of the rootlets 
 are horizontal. It is very different with the roots of coimtry paddy ; 
 nearly the whole of its rootlets radiate over the surface of the ground at 
 right angles to the stem of the plant. They are seldom more than 2 or 
 3 inches in length, and are so interwoven as to form a sort of network 
 well suited for supporting the plant on the semiliquid mud in which 
 this variety delights to grow. Hence a soil in a bad physical state, if 
 it only has a healthy surface 2 or 3 inches in depth, may produce 
 fair crops of country paddy, though it will entirely fail in producing a 
 crop of Carolina paddy. On such a soQ the Carolina paddy would start 
 as well as the country paddy, and would continue to grow as well, until 
 its roots began to penetrate below the aerated soil, when its growth 
 would be checked, and it would gradually turn yellow and sicken. 
 
 It was expected by many that the sample imported would deteriorate ; 
 this does not necessarily follow, for, although deterioration must take 
 place if it be grown under very imfavorable circumstances, if properly 
 cultivated it will not. In preparing rice from ordinary Carolina paddy, 
 by means of the pestle and mortar, in the usual manner adopted by 
 natives, the following results were obtained : — 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Clean rice 67-24 
 
 Small rice 8-48 
 
 Tour 5-24 
 
 Husks, &c 19-04 
 
 100-00 
 
 Eegarding the cultivation of the crop the following advice is given : — - 
 
 " Soil, frc.' — Carolina paddy has a very strong aversion to stagnant water ; 
 therefore avoid all land on which, from imperfect drainage, water is likely 
 to collect and stagnate. Remember that water may stagnate in the soil as 
 well as on its surface. Select good healthy paddy-land resting on a 
 moderately porous sub-soil and with a surface sufficiently high that it will 
 not become a swamp during the rains while it is yet sufficiently low to 
 
4-6 cKops. 
 
 admit of being watered at a moderate cost. In the endeavour to avoid a soil 
 that is too retentive take care that you do not select one that parts too 
 readily with its moisture, as a soil with this defect is as objectionable as one 
 that is too retentive. Endeavour to select a soil that is neither too retentive 
 nor too porous ; in every taluq there are hundi-eds of acres of wet land that 
 fulfil these conditions. These observations refer chiefly to the physical or 
 mechanical condition of the soil. It is of much greater importance to secure 
 a soil in a good physical condition than one in a high manural condition, as 
 by the application of a suitable quality and quantity of manure the last- 
 mentioned condition can so readily be secured. Land which is being put 
 under irrigation for the first time will nearly always produce good crops of 
 Carolina paddy. 
 
 " Preparation of the Soil. — The soil may be ploughed and worked in the 
 dry state for sowing, or it may be ploughed under water and puddled. 
 I much prefer the former arrangement ; the latter is sometimes attended 
 with advantages, but the evils which result from the vrretched state in 
 which the soil is left by the process are frequently of a very serious kind. 
 But, whatever plan you adopt, take care to give the soil a liberal 
 application of good manure during the time it is being prepared for the 
 reception of seed. 
 
 " Seed and Sowing. — Choose a fresh sample of seed ; it should be of a rich 
 golden color ; the sample should be uniform both as regards color and the 
 size of the grain ; if the seed is mixed with the seed of country paddy 
 (which is the case almost invariably with all country-grown samples), and 
 you cannot get a pure sample, you may, by using a fan and a bamboo sieve, 
 remove the greater portion of the indigenous grain. Before you finally 
 select the seed you should test its vitality. You may do so in the following 
 way:— 
 
 " Take a shallow vessel — a soup-plate will answer admirably ; place 
 about 1 inch deep of good garden soil in the plate, and scatter over the 
 soil 100 seeds; cover this with apiece of muslin, and over the muslin 
 place about half an inch of soil. Keep the soil damp. Aft era few days the 
 muslin with the upper soil may be lifted off and the condition of the 
 seed ascertained. The number of seeds that have germinated will give the 
 percentage of vital seeds. But you had better make duplicate experiments 
 and take the average of the results obtained as the percentage of vital 
 grain ; ascertained in this way the results of the test are more trustworthy. 
 
 " Having selected suitable seed, and having prepared your land for its 
 reception, you may proceed with the sowing. You may sow the seed at 
 once on the land, or you may sow it in seed-beds and afterwards transplant 
 the seedlings into the field. If you adopt the former of these arrangements, 
 you may sow say, at the rate of fifteen measures per acre on either dry or 
 puddled soil ; if on dry soil, you may take the seed in its natural state 
 and broadcast it or drill it in ; but, if you prefer to sow on a puddled 
 surface, you may sprout the seed before you sow it, but when this is done 
 you can only sow broadcast. When transplanting is preferred, take care 
 that the nursery-bed is deeply dug and thoroughly manured. When 
 this is done the roots of the seedlings are small and compact, and the plants 
 can be raised with ease and without suffering any injury in the operation. 
 To produce seedlings for transplanting, sow eight measures, or about 18 lbs. 
 of seed in the nursery-beds, for each acre of land to be planted ; less 
 will probably suffice, but this quantity will provide against any loss. 
 The seedlings may be lifted for transplanting when three or four weeks 
 old: they may be planted in the field in the puddled, or wet soil, at 
 distances of from six to nine inches apart, a couple of seedlings being 
 planted together. It may be good practice either to sow the seed at once 
 
CROPS. 
 
 47 
 
 in the field, or to sow it first ia the nursery, and afterwards to plant out the 
 seedlings in the field. Thus, when the area to he sown is large, the season 
 late, labor scarce, and seed plentiful and cheap, we would adopt the former 
 plan, and the latter, when the seed is scarce and dear, the area to he 
 cropped small, the weather favourable, and labor plentiful. 
 
 " Irrigating* in whatever way the land is sown or planted, it 
 should be moderately watered on the same day ; this enables the seed 
 to meet with a good bed and fixes the roots of the seedlings. It is 
 seldom necessary to flood the land except to kill weeds or insects, especially 
 after the plants begin to shade the soil. The endeavour should be to keep 
 the land constantly damp, and not alternately in a state of puddle, and dry 
 and filled with large cracks, as is too commonly the case with wet land 
 under ordinary paddy culture." 
 
 " After-cultivationsf. — These are of a very simple nature; it is only 
 necessary to keep the crop free of weeds and to thin out a few of the plants 
 if the crop grows too luxuriantly." 
 
 GrEiASSES. — Attempts have often been made to introduce the 
 grasses cultivated in Europe and America into this country but with in 
 general very partial success. On more than one occasion Prairie grass 
 (JBromus unioloides), Italian ryegrass {Lolium italicum), Perenialrye 
 grass [Lolium perenne), have been tried, and the results have been that 
 the" seeds germinated well and produced healthy plants, which however 
 died off on the approach of the hot season. Greater success has 
 attended an attempt made in 1875 to introduce the Buffalo grass 
 {8tenotaphi-um glahrum) of Australia and America : a small box of roots 
 was obtained from Sydney, and although six or seven weeks in transit 
 most of them reached Madras alive. The plants have thriven since 
 their introduction, and are spreading over the ground, but the area yet 
 planted is too small to admit of any practical conclusions being arrived 
 at regarding the suitability of the grass for general culture here. It is 
 said to thrive in hardened alkaline soils on which other grasses will 
 scarcely exist ; in this country we have a large area of such soils. 
 
 GUINEA GHASS (Panicum jumentoriuni) — has, of all the grasses 
 experimented with, been found to be the best ; it is an exotic, but 
 perfectly acclimatized grass, which is most easily propagated by root 
 cuttings. Its culture is very simple, for if planted at the commence- 
 ment of the rains, it soon strikes root and is then safe and out of danger 
 for the future. If planted in rows it allows of interculture by cattle- 
 power, by which means the land on which it grows may be easily 
 cleaned; thus it affords an excellent crop for a rotation. It has 
 been found capable of withstanding our longest and severest droughts 
 without the aid of irrigation, and, although its energies remains dormant 
 during such a time, the first rain makes it spring up again most rapidly. 
 This power was never more clearly demonstrated than in a field planted 
 in September 1875 measuring about 2 acres, which in May 1877, after 
 
 * The practice suggested here is tased on experience ohtained in the neighhourhood of 
 Madras where the evaporation is great. In districts where the evaporation is less, and 
 where the soil is moderately retentive, the American irrigation practice might be 
 substituted. 
 
 t Hoeing is very beneficial and should be performed. 
 
48 CROPS, 
 
 the great drought, was as hrown and as dry as if it were totally devoid 
 of life ; the heavy rains which fell during that month however led to its 
 immediate revival, and, before the third day of rain was over, green 
 shoots had appeared all over the field which grew on and produced a 
 good crop of fodder in two months, which weighed green 5,566 lbs. ; 
 this was followed by another cutting of 4,564 lbs. of dry fodder two 
 months after, an amount equal to about 12,000 lbs. green. Not one per 
 cent, of the tufts failed to throw out shoots after the rain referred to. 
 
 An idea still prevails that guinea grass must be irrigated, not only at the 
 time it is planted, but regularly at stated intervals afterwards ; that it 
 must be taken up and be replanted on new ground at the end of every 
 two years at the furthest, and that the fodder is not a suitable food for 
 stock, and can only be used in small quantities for such a purpose. It 
 is perfectly true that, if guinea grass is planted in the hot season, or 
 during dry weather, when the soil contains scarcely a particle of 
 moisture, and the sky is clear and bright, that the plants will fail 
 completely if not watered a few times ; but there can seldom be any 
 necessity for planting under such circumstances. In the dryest parts 
 of the country there is always a time when the sky is cloudy and the 
 weather showery, and, if such opportunities are properly utilized for 
 planting, the roots can be established sufficiently well without the aid 
 of irrigation. Irrigation, of course, enables more cuttings to be obtained 
 in a year, but it is never necessary for the maintenance of the crop. It 
 is, however, most necessary to manure land for guinea grass well. It is 
 general on the farm to plant this grass (the sets being obtained by 
 dividing into several parts old tussacks from another field) on the 
 ridge on a showery day, care being taken that they are planted 
 uniformly at a distance of 2 feet apart in each direction, thus admitting 
 the use of the plough between the Knes of plants and across these lines 
 at right angles ; for it is advisable to pass a plough or cultivator 
 occasionally through and across the crop, as the absorptive powers of 
 the soil can in this way be kept up. This ploughing or cultivating 
 should be repeated at any rate once after the removal of each cutting. 
 Before the end of the second year the plants from frequent cutting will 
 have formed large tussacks ; these should be reduced by simple chopping 
 with a spade, hoe, or man-vetti. It has been found best to make two 
 cuts across the tussacks at right angles to each other, thus dividing it 
 into four parts. Of these, three may be removed, and form excellent 
 bedding for cattle stalls, the fourth remaining to perpetuate the crop. 
 In this way there is no necessity to remove the plants to other ground, 
 but care must be exercised to see that the soil is properly manured, as a 
 crop which yields such large returns necessarily makes large demands 
 on the soil. The fodder can be used for all kinds of stock ; at first, 
 it seems to disturb the digestive organs of some animals, but this is 
 only temporary ; cattle and sheep have been fed on it exclusively for 
 months, not only without any ill-effects, but with the most satisfactory 
 results. A guinea grass field is a capital place in which to graze 
 working cattle during the hot season, while for ewes with young 
 lambs better pasture could scarcely be discovered. It produces 
 an abundant flow of milk in the ewes, without, what is common in 
 such cases, disturbing the health of either mother or lamb. Care must, 
 however, be always observed never to graze guinea grass too closely. 
 
CROPS. 49 
 
 HARIALI GEASS {Cynodon dactylon)—ih.Q doob grass of Nor- 
 thern India, tlie couch grass of Australia and America — is a valuable, 
 but overrated fodder plant, possessing great vitality and widespreading 
 roots which are capable of propagating the grass from each section of 
 them ; it is suited to our long droughts and is also capable, under high 
 cultivation and irrigation, of producing heavy cuttings of tough wiry 
 fodder, which however must possess considerable nutritive qualities ; 
 on poor soils it is liable to be crushed out by inferior types of plants, 
 but on those of fair quahty it is very persistent and difficult to eradicate ; 
 the latter point is detrimental to its use as a crop to be taken in a 
 rotation. When highly cultivated it yields heavily under irrigation 
 and is grown for hay near some large stations. In 1868 there was 
 a plot of this grass on the farm measuring 3 acres ; it yielded fairly 
 without irrigation, and during the year 1870-71 gave five cuttings 
 yielding 8 tons, 13 cwt. of hay; this hay sold for Rupees 360-13-3, 
 whilst the cost of curing it was Eupees 105. After this, the plot was 
 kept for pastiire, and in 1875 not half of the grass then growing 
 was Hariali, the remainder being chiefly nutt-grass {Gyperus bulbosus) 
 and finger-grass [Panicum sanguinale). 
 
 The following system is recommended for putting down this grass : — 
 
 " The land having been well cleaned should receive a dressing of fold- 
 yard manure : when ploughing in the manure a woman should follow each 
 plough and drop the roots in the open furrow, the succeeding plough 
 covering them up, when its furrow is similarly planted, and the process 
 repeated; a heavy harrowing and rolling complete the work." 
 
 Regarding the curing of hay the following remarks with reference 
 to this grass are of value : — 
 
 " Hariali, like most other meadow grasses, should be cut immediately 
 the flower begins to appear ; in this state the juices of the grass are more 
 nutritious, and the hay is far superior than when made from the fully 
 matured plant. Besides, when cut before the seed appears, the plant ia 
 more vigorous and produces another crop much sooner. Hariali hay ia 
 generally spoiled in this country by being too much exposed to the sun's 
 rays. It is quite unnecessary to bleach the grass, in order to make it into 
 hay. The great object should be to retain the green color of the grass by 
 drying it as quickly as possible. Under ordinary circumstances, two days, 
 or at the most three days, should suffice for making the hay. 
 
 " Cutting should not commence until the dew is off the grass. The 
 grass should remain on the ground for an hour or so after being cut. It 
 shoidd then be turned and tossed imtil sun-set. It cannot be tossed too 
 much during a hot sun. To preserve the green color and aroma of the 
 hay it is absolutely necessary to keep it moving. At night, if the dews 
 are heavy, it should be put up in small cocks, each containing from two to 
 three cwts. These cocks should not be tramped, though it is advisable to 
 beat the outside smooth with the back of a rake, in order that, should a 
 shower of rain fall, the water may run off without penetrating the mass. 
 A single hay rope should be passed over the cock, to prevent it from being 
 blown to pieces by a gust of wind. Next morning, after the dew is off 
 the ground, the cocks may be opened again, and the hay spread out. It 
 must be tossed and turned again, as on the previous day ; care being taken 
 that it is constantly kept moving. At the end of the second day, under 
 ordinary circumstances, it will be fit to cart ; though if the weather be at 
 all damp or foggy it wiU be advisable to give it another day's sunning, 
 of course putting it again into cock at night. 
 
 7 
 
50 
 
 CROPS. 
 
 " Hay thus rapidly made is rich in saccharine matters, and is, 
 therefore, very liable to heat and ferment ; this, to a moderate extent, does 
 no harm ; in fact it gives the hay a good flavor ; however care must be 
 taken that it does not go too far and char the hay. If the hay is loose in 
 a room, exposure for an hour or two in the hot sun, will put it all right, 
 or a layer or two of dry paddy or cholum straw may be put through the 
 mass. In the stack it is equally easy to prevent too great fermentation. I 
 have found a single line of six-inch drain pipes placed at about the middle 
 of the stack from the centre to the outside, a capital arrangement for 
 keeping down the temperature. A thick bamboo, or a couple of hollow 
 pieces of the stems of palmyrah or cocoanut trees, the one resting on the 
 other so as to form a pipe, will equally effect the purpose, or, in building, 
 two or three layers of dry paddy or cholum straw placed in a stack will 
 prevent it heating to an injurious extent." 
 
 In 1874 some experiments with indigenous grasses were made, and it 
 was found that the following grasses, on the soil and under the condi- 
 tions met with at Saidapet gave the results mentioned : — 
 
 Name of Grasa, 
 
 Botauioal Name. 
 
 Bemarks. 
 
 Melampary or 
 Pishadu. 
 
 Panioum sanguinale 
 
 Average height 2 feet 9 inches. Up- 
 right growth without bottom grass. 
 When green it yields a fair fodder, 
 but unfit for making hay. 
 
 Shegapa Shamai ... 
 
 Daotyloelenium .liBfiyptia- 
 cum. 
 
 Average height 15 inches. Bottom 
 grasa abundant ; a moderately good 
 pasture grass ; would aifoid a coarse 
 hay. 
 
 Cinna Arrioum , , . 
 
 Panioum erucoeforme ... 
 
 Average height 24 inches. A fair 
 quality bottom grass. Stems and 
 blades fine but rather wiry. A 
 moderately' good pasture grass. 
 Makes coarse hay. 
 
 Koopary 
 
 Panicum distachyum ... 
 
 Average height 24 inches. A coarse 
 grass ; almost useless for pasture or 
 for making hay. 
 
 Korani 
 
 Panioum Peetioerii 
 
 Average height 24 inches. Besfcitute 
 of bottom grass. Affords a moderate- 
 ly good fodder ; but unsuited for 
 making hay. 
 
 Varastamai 
 
 Setaria glauca 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 Ottarai ... 
 
 Lappago racemosa 
 
 Average height 12 inches. Has an 
 abundance of bottom grass. Is a 
 moderately good pasture grass. 
 Affords hay of fair quality. 
 
 Vematheriti 
 
 Traohys mucronata 
 
 Average height 30 inches. A coarse 
 inferior grass. 
 
 Poopillu 
 
 Poa fluvialia 
 
 Average height 9 inches. A fair 
 amount of bottom grass. Blades and 
 stem tough and wiry. 
 
 Punjapoo 
 
 I 
 
 Cyperns iria 
 
 A useless grass. 
 
CROPS. 
 
 51 
 
 ELEPHANT GEASS.— About the year 1872 a tall, upright grass 
 was noticed growing on the farm amongst some paddy that had been 
 raised from purchased seed. The grass had evidently been introduced 
 from some distant part of the Presidency, as it was unknown in the 
 district around Saidapet. In habit of growth and in general appearance 
 it resembles the small Millet (Fanicum Miliare), but its seed is much 
 smaller and more like that of the Spiked Millet. As the grass appeared 
 to be a large producer, while the fodder seemed to possess some merits, 
 some seed was collected and sown on a plot of land measuring 624 square 
 yards, with the following results : — 
 
 Number of times ploughed . . . . Ploughed in puddle three timea. 
 
 Quantity of manure used . . . . . . About 16 cart-loada of fold-yard manure. 
 
 Date of sowing 14th of March 1873. 
 
 Quantity of seed sown' . . . . . . 9 Ih. of seed ; broadcast. 
 
 Date when germinated 20th of March 1873. 
 
 Number of times weeded , . . . , . Four times. 
 
 Do. of waterings , , . . . . Twenty-five. 
 
 Date of 1st cutting . » . , . , . . 5th June 1873, 
 
 Weight of 1st cutting 1,5761b. 
 
 Average height . . . . . , . . 3 feet. 
 
 Date of 2nd cutting 25th of September 1873. 
 
 Weight of 2nd cutting 1,1321b. 
 
 Total yield 2,708 lb. = 21,004 lb. per acre. 
 
 HORSE GRAM {DoUchos uniflorus)—{Ts.m.) Kolloo ; (Tel.) Woola- 
 wooloo; (Hind.) Kooltee — is a plant belonging to the natural order 
 Leguminosse. It is a hardy plant, thriving on the poorest soils. The 
 soils of this district contain a very small proportion of lime ; and this 
 plant, like all leguminous plants, requires a good deal of lime before it 
 can mature its seed. It has been ascertained from experiment, that, 
 unless the manure applied contains a considerable percentage of lime, 
 the tendency of the plant under better cultivation is to produce leaf 
 rather than seed ; this tendency has been utilized, and by deeper 
 cultivation and the application of a moderate dressing of manure we 
 have succeeded in growing good fodder, at a very moderate cost. 
 
 Generally in preparing land for gram the following method is 
 adopted : — After ploughing 4 to 6 inches deep, and harrowing, the seed 
 is sown in lines, if the season is unfavorable and the soil poor, close 
 together ; if the reverse, far apart, at the rate of from 30 to 40 lb. per 
 acre. During growth, the crop should be bullock -hoed once or twice, as 
 circumstances demand, and hand-hoed at least once. The crop should be 
 cut immediately the flower appears and removed the same day. The cost 
 of growing a ton of fodder is about Rupees 3. The fodder makes good 
 hay, which possesses a pleasant aromatic smell when well made; it 
 however loses 75 per cent, of its weight in curing. 
 
 When cut before maturing its seed, the cultivation of gram 
 improves rather than impoverishes the soil. There will always be a 
 slight loss in the mineral constituents ; but still, as the plant appropriates 
 such a large amount of atmospheric food, and stores it away in its 
 roots, and as these roots, weighing from 800 to 1,000 lb. per acre, are 
 left in the soil, its condition must be greatly improved. 
 
 The value of the crop for green manuring has been, and nutritive 
 quality it possesses will be, referred to in another place. If grown solely 
 for fodder four or five crops can be produced in a year, and thus the crop 
 is admirably adapted for renovating worn out or improving poor lands. 
 
52 CROPS, 
 
 BENGAL GEAM {Cicer ariet in um)— [Tarn.) 'K&diaia.j ; (Tel.) Sane- 
 galoo ; (Hind.) Chenna. — has been tested on a small scale, but the results 
 were not such as to induce the extension of its cultivation on the farm. 
 
 WILD INDIGO {Tndigofera paucifoUa) has been grown on a small 
 scale for fodder with satisfactory results. Sheep are very fond of it, 
 and it grows very freely on our poorest soils, keeping green during nearly 
 the whole of the year, and may possibly become a valuable crop. 
 
 INDIGO {Indigofera tindoria.) — (Tarn.) Averie ; (Tel.) Neelee 
 (Hind.) Neel. — The growth of this valuable crop is attended with 
 considerable difficulties. The seed time, adopted on this farm, is usually 
 characterised by very uncertain weather, and the difficulty in obtaining 
 as good a seed-bed for the seed as is requisite, is great, whilst the chance 
 of a heavy fall of rain caking the surface of the ground, and thus 
 preventing the young germs from coming through is considerable ; but, 
 when once a fair plant is obtained, we have scarcely any crop more 
 hardy and less susceptible of drought. Land intended for indigo 
 should be broken up well in September, or earlier if possible, and at 
 some convenient time it should be ploughed and subsoiled as deeply as 
 possible ; every exertion must be made to remove weeds, especially those 
 of a rapid habit of growth, for indigo, when it first appears above the 
 ground, being a very small and tender seedling requires to have the 
 fullest and freest liberty in order that it may get beyond that stage as 
 rapidly as possible. Shortly before sowing, the surface soil must be 
 brought into as fine a tilth as is possible, such as is desired for turnips in 
 England ; this can generally be attained without much difficulty unless 
 very wet weather prevails, by the aid of those processes, which the 
 agriculturist knows how and when to make use of, such as ploughings, 
 rollings, and harrowings. When the requisite degree of fineness has 
 been obtained, the surface should be rolled down in order to render it 
 sufficiently compact and even to prevent the seed, which should always 
 be sown in lines to admit of after cultivation, from being buried too 
 deeply ; in fact probably half an inch deep is amply sufficient for so 
 small a seed, and, were it not that the STin is, whenever it appears, so 
 powerful, scorching, and destructive to young plants, it might be sown 
 with advantage on the surface and only covered, as clover is, with a 
 brush harrow. 
 
 From 10 to 15 lb. of seed per acre should be sown, but even less 
 will do if the seed is of first-rate quality, and than indigo, there is 
 perhaps no crop the seed for which should be more carefully tested with 
 regard to its vitality. Fresh seed carefully harvested from the first growth, 
 not the last as is the common practice in this country, should always be 
 used. In some cases it may be useful to steep the seed before sowing. 
 
 Having sown the seed with every precaution to ensure its early 
 and regular germination, the appearance of the plant above ground must 
 be awaited ; this is perhaps the most anxious period of the crop's 
 existence, for should heavy rain fall in all probability the sowing will be 
 lost, even if the germs have just penetrated the surface. Should, 
 however, success reward the endeavours of the cultivator, and the 
 plant come up evenly over the whole field, nothing can be done until 
 it has grown to such a size as will enable the lines to be discerned; 
 
CROPS. 53 
 
 to expedite this, if there be any superabundance of grass in a field, 
 it has been found useful to turn a flock of sheep in, which will graze down 
 the grass leaving the young indigo intact, and thus allowing the bullock- 
 hoes to be admitted some days earlier than otherwise. Following in the 
 wake of the buUock-hoes, hand-hoes should be kept constantly at work, 
 and, when their work is finished in all probabiKty, unless the land be in 
 a very foul state, the field can be left until the crop is ready to yield 
 its first cutting. 
 
 If the sowing takes place at about the middle of November the crop 
 will be ready for cutting by the beginning of March ; after this cutting 
 is removed, the crop should be bullock and hand-hoed, and in a good 
 season a second cutting can be obtained in May, followed by a third in 
 July ; between the last two cuttings the same cultivation being performed 
 as after the first. In a fair season on average soil, a yield of 200 
 bimdles, measured with a seven foot chain, may be expected per acre ; 
 this would be worth at present rates nearly Rupees 30, wliilst it would 
 yield to the manufacturer 2 maunds of dye, if the indigo be good, worth 
 about Rupees 90, at a very small charge for manufacture. It is well 
 known that the ryot gets but a small share of the profits of the crop ; 
 probably he scarcely makes one-tenth of that which goes into the 
 manufacturer's hands. 
 
 A crop of indigo, yielding 200 bundles per acre will weigh about 
 12,000 lb. ; this amount of valuable organic substance can be recovered 
 in toto for use as manure from the vat after the dye has been extracted ; 
 estimating this to be worth Rupees 3 per ton, we should get per acre 
 manure in the shape of compost of a total value of Rupees 16, and 
 thus indigo would become a restorative crop, and not, as it is now, 
 where the plant is wasted, one of the most exhausting grown by the 
 ryot. The valuable characteristics of the indigo crop do not however 
 alone consist in the valuable compost it gives, for the roots, &c., left in 
 the soil after the last cutting form a most useful preparation for a 
 cereal crop, which should be taken next. 
 
 The value of the water, used in steeping the plant, for irrigation 
 purposes is also great, containing as it does a considerable amount of the 
 Taluable ash constituents of the plant, and a considerable quantity of 
 nitrogen. Indigo has been tried more often with failure than success, 
 and the remuneration which it has been shown may be derived from 
 its cultivation, may be pronounced exaggerated ; such an idea however 
 would be based on deductions derived from the wasteful, irrational, and 
 suicidal practices usually pursued, and until they are corrected indigo will 
 continue to retain the evil character it at present possesses. There are 
 risks attending its culture, but large profits may be expected from it, and 
 these far more than compensate for any danger which may be incurred, 
 
 LUCERNE {Medicago satwa). — Under irrigation this plant pro- 
 duces a large quantity of valuable fodder. A few pounds of English 
 seed sown in September 1869 grew satisfactorily and jdelded three 
 cuttings of excellent fodder ; it did not appear to be injured by the heat 
 of the sun, though the thermometer exposed in the sun part of the time 
 registered 135°, and the crop then looked vigorous and healthy. A 
 similar result was obtained with some seed sown in 1876. 
 
54 CROPS. 
 
 GROUND-NUTS {Arac/i is hi/pogcea)— (Tarn.) Yayr or 'Nela.j-ca.dala.y ; 
 (Tel.) Veru or Nela Sanagalu; (Hind.) Moong-phuUie. — On two or 
 three occasions small plots have been planted with ground-nuts, but the 
 results obtained have been unsatisfactory ; there was always an 
 abundance of leaf and stem, but the yield of nuts was exceedingly 
 small. This is probably due to a deficiency of lime in the farm soil ; 
 for in an experiment made in 1876, it was found that a dressing of 
 lime caused an increase in outturn of 83 per cent, of nuts and 10 per 
 cent, of straw. 
 
 The crop requires a porous healthy soil, rich in potash, lime, &c., and 
 as generally cultivated it is a very exhausting one, and, when 
 fi-equently repeated, rapidly reduces the fertility of a soil ; however, if 
 the cake, made from the crushed nuts in extracting the oil, was given 
 to the live stock on the farm on which the nuts were raised, there 
 would be but a small loss of fertilizing matters. Usually, the ryot sells 
 the whole of the nuts he produces, and never gets back the cake for 
 feeding his stock ; the result of this is that the soils, on which the 
 ground-nut is cultivated, are becoming poorer and poorer every year, 
 the fertilizing matters, which they lose, being turned to good account 
 in the coffee estates of this country and Ceylon, and in England and 
 France to which countries the ground-nut is now largely exported. 
 
 COTTON— (Tam.) Paratie ; (Tel.) Puttie ; (Hind.) Kapas.— When 
 cotton culture was first attempted on the farm it was believed by most 
 people that the experiment could yield no good results, as it was said 
 it had been ascertained beyond all doubt that the climate of the 
 district was altogether unsuited for the healthy growth of the plant, 
 while general experience had proved in an equally conclusive way that 
 cotton could not be raised on a poor sandy soil such as that which 
 forms so considerable a proportion of the farm. The Collector of 
 Chingleput in a report to the Board of Revenue, dated 7th June 1869, 
 explaining why he had failed in getting any cultivator to take some 
 cotton seed which had been sent to his oiSce for distribution, remarked ; 
 "Due notice was given in the District Gazette, and the various farmers 
 and proprietors were invited to apply for the seed, but no applications 
 were received, the fact being that in this district little or no cotton is 
 grown, the soil being quite unfitted for it." Again the Honorary 
 Secretary to the late Farm Committee, in a report, dated 23rd June 
 1869, explaining to the Board of Revenue why certain cotton seed sent 
 by the Board for experimental cultivation had not been sown, said : 
 " The soil of the Government Experimental Farm at Saidapet is of a 
 very sandy description, and the Committee considered it was useless to 
 try the experiment of growing cotton." Evidently far too great trust 
 was placed in the opinions expressed by the ryots of the neighbor- 
 hood. On comparing the meteorological registrations of the district with 
 those of the regular cotton-growing districts, it was found that there 
 was nothing in the climate prejudicial to the growth of cotton, while 
 the soil, though very much inferior to the so-called cotton soils, could, 
 it was known, by the aid of manure be rendered sufficiently fertile. 
 
 It is true that on inferior soils such as those of the farm cotton 
 cannot be raised without the aid of manure, whereas, on the more fertile 
 
CROPS. 55 
 
 soils of the districts in which cotton is commonly grown, it can be ; but 
 the yield is always very small, seldom more than one-fourth the 
 quantity that could be raised on the same soil if properly cultivated 
 and manured. On the Experimental Farm, crops that have yielded 150 
 to 180 lb. of clean cotton per acre have repeatedly been produced, while 
 the average produce in the cotton districts is only 75 lb. of clean 
 cotton per acre. There are thousands of acres of land around Madras 
 in no way inferior to the soils of the farm, now lying bare during two- 
 thirds of the year, and during the remainder producing wretched crops 
 of varagoo and horse gram, which might be made to yield remunerative 
 returns under cotton ; the extra expense on cultivation and manure 
 would be more than counterbalanced by the smaller cost of conveying 
 the cotton to the shipping port. 
 
 Experiments were made on a small scale at first, but with uniformly 
 successful results, and now cotton has become a regular crop. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS COTTON {Gossypium barbadense) .—This is the 
 variety which is now preferred on the farm. It is especially suited for 
 high cultivation ; a dressing of manure that would be necessary to 
 render our inferior soils fit for producing this cotton would cause plants 
 of the indigenous variety to run to stem and leaf instead of increasiag 
 the yield ; whereas the yield of the New Orleans plant under similar 
 circumstances would be largely increased. Unless this variety is well 
 cultivated it will not produce good results ; this explains the numerous 
 failures which have attended attempts at its general introduction. 
 When the system of agriculture has been improved then improved 
 types of plants may be safely introduced. In America, the New Orleans 
 plant comes much quicker to maturity than it does in this country ; 
 to some extent this is due to the different climatic conditions it has 
 to encounter in the two countries, the temperatm-e of Madras being 
 much higher than that of New Orleans, whilst in New Orleans the 
 temperature in December sinks below the freezing point, which of 
 course puts a stop to all vegetation. In New Orleans, the producing 
 capabilities of the cotton plant are therefore more concentrated, from the 
 shorter season in which the plant bears ; in Madras, on the other hand, 
 we have no such complete cessation of vegetable energy, excepting, 
 during an unusually long drought and even then cotton does not 
 perish ; thus, we have no definite harvest time for our cotton, a gathering 
 being afforded after every heavy fall of rain succeeded by bright hot 
 weather. 
 
 The usual system has been to sow the crop in September on land 
 prepared in our usual way for maize, viz. : — first, well ploughed ; then 
 harrowed, rolled, weeded, &c. ; afterwards ridged at distances of two 
 feet apart, in the furrow between these ridges farm-yard manure being 
 applied at the rate of 20 loads, or about 8 tons per acre ; the ridges split 
 through the centre with a plough, one-half being cast over the manure on 
 either side, thus raising new ridges ; the ridges harrowed with the chain 
 harrow to consolidate them, and maize and cotton sown along their tops 
 in alternate rows ; the chain harrow following and completing the work. 
 
 In 1876 an investigation was commenced with a view to discover 
 the best linting season ; the following figures were collected that year :— 
 
56 
 
 CROPS. 
 
 
 Cotton 
 
 n Seed 
 
 Cleaned 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Percentage 
 
 
 received. 
 
 received. 
 
 of Lint in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cotton 
 in Seed. 
 
 Total lbs. 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Total lbs. 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Jannary 
 
 102-5 
 
 4-18 
 
 34-65 
 
 4-71 
 
 33-80 
 
 February 
 
 1680 
 
 6-85 
 
 59-00 
 
 8-02 
 
 35-12 
 
 March 
 
 2510 
 
 10-23 
 
 91-74 
 
 12-47 
 
 36-55 
 
 April 
 
 3300 
 
 13-45 
 
 119-25 
 
 16-21 
 
 36-14 
 
 May 1st to June 10th 
 
 3150 
 
 12-84 
 
 102-00 
 
 13-87 
 
 32-38 
 
 Juue 10th to July 18th ... 
 
 3720 
 
 15-17 
 
 98-00 
 
 13-32 
 
 26-34 
 
 July 18th to August 24th... 
 
 655-5 
 
 26-72 
 
 151-50 
 
 20-59 
 
 2311 
 
 August 24th to Sept. 25th. 
 Total ... 
 
 259-0 
 
 10-56 
 
 79-50 
 
 10-81 
 
 30-69 
 
 2,453-0 
 
 100-00 
 
 735-64 
 
 100-00 
 
 29-99 
 
 It will he noticed that there is a great variation in the yield of lint 
 at different times of the year, the cotton gathered during the earlier 
 months yielding a much higher percentage than that picked later on. 
 Thus the percentage of lint in the cotton gathered before June 10th was 
 34'92, and, in that which was gathered between June 10th and the end 
 of August, it was only 24-28, or about ]0i per cent. less. The yield of 
 cotton in seed, during the first of the above-named periods, was 74'75 
 per cent, of the total gathering. The gatherings in September show a 
 high percentage yield of lint, but, as it was an unseasonably dry 
 month, especially after the first week, the outturn in it must be taken as 
 exceptional. 
 
 The rainfall of the four months — May, Jime, July, and August — waa 
 1 inch less than the average of the previous sixty years, but more than 3 
 inches less than that of the previous ten years ; the chief difference being 
 in the fall during the month of May, so that the long dry season was 
 rather more protracted than usual ; no rain fell from December 17th, 1875, 
 tmtil April 30th, 1876, when, after a drought of about eighteen weeks, 
 ■81 inch fell, followed by four slight falls before June 10th amounting 
 in all to 1'30 inches, which falls, considering the temperature of the air, 
 and the dryness of the soil at the time when they fell, could have but 
 little permanent effect. 
 
 From these results it appears that after July it would generally 
 be undesirable to keep cotton on the land ; for, not only is the outturn 
 shown to be chiefly given in the early months of the year, and that 
 the percentage of lint produced after June is low, but also, during the 
 showery weather of July and August, it is most difficult to keep down 
 the weeds, and in all probability, if the crop is kept on the land for a 
 longer period in the hope of obtaining rather more yield, the succeeding 
 crop will be endangered, and great expense will be necessitated to clean 
 the land again. It would also appear better to sow the cotton crop at 
 an earlier date than has been customary ; instead of September, August 
 should be the month chosen ; by this means, cotton-picking might begin 
 at the end of December, instead of the end of January or the beginning 
 of February which has been until lately the usual season. By this means 
 a longer gathering season during the early months of the year, when 
 the percentage of lint is greater, the staple longer, the sample usually 
 
CROPS. 
 
 hi 
 
 muoli cleaner and not stained with oil, would be obtained, and the 
 temptation to keep the crop on the ground late, in hope of obtaining a 
 further gathering, would be lessened. 
 
 During the year 1877, owing to the abnormal character of the 
 season, it was impossible to collect any reliable figures ; but during the 
 season of 1878 those given below were obtained : — 
 
 
 Amount of 
 
 Seed Cotton received from 
 
 the Field. 
 
 Amount of Clean Cotton 
 received. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Percentage 
 of Clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 10 Field. 
 
 No. 33 Field. 
 
 No. 10 Field. 
 
 No. 33 Field. 
 
 Cotton, Lint, 
 
 Month 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 obtained 
 
 during which 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 from Cotton 
 
 received. 
 
 "S 
 
 o 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 o . 
 
 c3 * 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 1^ 
 
 P. 
 C3 " 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 C3 O 
 
 in Seed. 
 
 
 la 
 
 l| 
 
 .9 
 
 1l 
 
 ■a 
 
 13 CD 
 
 la 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 
 
 j3 
 o 
 
 bH 
 
 ■§ 
 
 O bH 
 
 -§ 
 
 
 "p 
 
 §3|S 
 
 No. 10 No. 33 1 
 
 
 E- 
 
 pm'^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Ph 
 
 Eh 
 
 P^ 
 
 Eh 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 1877 
 
 LB. 
 
 
 LB. 
 
 
 LB. 
 
 
 LB. 
 
 
 
 
 December ... 
 
 1 
 
 •08 
 
 253-5 
 
 17-43 
 
 ■25 
 
 ■07 
 
 69 
 
 16-04 
 
 25 
 
 27-22 
 
 1878 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 January 
 
 
 
 201-5 
 
 13-86 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 13-25 
 
 
 28-29 
 
 February . . , 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 -69 
 
 
 
 Z-2,b 
 
 •76 
 
 
 82-50 
 
 March 
 
 268 
 
 22-27 
 
 361 
 
 24-82 
 
 79 
 
 21-98 
 
 115 
 
 26-74 
 
 29-48 
 
 31-86 
 
 April 
 
 440 
 
 36-58 
 
 170-5 
 
 11-72 
 
 146 
 
 40-62 
 
 46 
 
 10-69 
 
 33-18 
 
 26-98 
 
 May 
 
 89 
 
 7-40 
 
 134 
 
 9-21 
 
 26 
 
 7-23 
 
 44 
 
 10-23 
 
 29-21 
 
 32-84 
 
 June 
 
 371 
 
 30-84 
 
 294 
 
 20-21 
 
 98 
 
 27-27 
 
 87 
 
 20-23 
 
 26-42 
 
 29-59 
 
 July 
 
 Total ... 
 
 34 
 
 2-83 
 
 30 
 
 2-06 
 
 10-16 
 
 2-83 
 
 8-87 
 
 2-06 
 
 29-88 
 
 29-57 
 
 1,203 
 
 100-00 
 
 1,454-6 
 
 100-00 
 
 359-41 
 
 100-00 
 
 430-12 
 
 100-00 
 
 29-88 
 
 29-68 
 
 With reference to these figures, it was observed : — 
 
 " I do not attribute the low percentage of lint sho-wn in the early 
 gatherings this year to the proportion of that substance being low, but 
 rather to the fact that when gathered all the cotton in seed is slightly damp, 
 and being brought to account in this state, an apparently low percentage 
 of lint is shown. At ordinary times of the year our loss in ginning varies 
 from 3 to 10 per cent. ; the latter figure being reached in September 
 when the cotton in seed is never dry when gathered, whilst early in the 
 year, about April and May, the loss is at the former figure, the slight 
 loss being due to dust and small portions of the cotton and to drying 
 after receipt from the field. The loss in giniung in December and 
 January this year, however, has exceeded the highest figure, and, 
 if we attribute the excess loss above the average to the presence of 
 larger quantities of moisture when received, nearly 10 per cent, should 
 be deducted from the amount ginned, which would cause a proportionate 
 increase to the percentage of lint yielded. For instance, two lots ginned 
 on March 23rd were weighed off when dry, immediately before ginning 
 and foimd to have lost, the first 14^ and the other 9 per cent, of their 
 5veight since gathering ; during January when the dews are heavier 
 
 8 
 
.",8 nnops. 
 
 than in March, the loss in weight was probably considerably greater. 
 When the deduction was made, it caused the wonderful figure of 39 '7 
 per cent, of lint to be attained instead of 33"9." 
 
 It was found in 1877-78 that the first gathering took place 
 between five and six weeks earlier than in 1875 or 1876, as the following 
 statement shows : — 
 
 Date of Sowing. 
 
 Date of First Receipt. 
 
 Days to First 
 Gathering. 
 
 5th September 1877 
 18th November 1876 
 23rd September 1875 
 16th September 1874 
 
 18th December 1877 
 31st March 1877 
 20th January 1876 
 2nd February 1875 
 
 104 
 133 
 119 
 139 
 
 These figures also show that the earlier linting season was not due 
 solely to earlier sowing, although that operation took place about a 
 fortnight before it did in 1875 and 1874, but to the unproductive period 
 of growth having been reduced, temporarily or permanently — time alone 
 can show — by twenty-five days or about 19 per cent. If this habit be con- 
 firmed, and by the use of the earliest gathered seed only in future it 
 probably will be, a great step wall be made ; but not a greater one than the 
 improvement which seems to have been effected in the style of the plant ; 
 formerly it was low, not above 2 J feet high, with a wide branching 
 growth ; in the season referred to many of the plants were four or five 
 feet high with straight stems, and produced few side branches. 
 
 Referring to a shipment of three bales of some cotton of this variety 
 made in 1 873, a firm of professional brokers in London remarked : — 
 
 " We have carefully examined the sample of three bales cotton ex Sultan 
 at Madras, and find it to be of an useful description of Salem character, 
 ginned, fair color, silky, but rather weak staple, and worth about 6f(?. 
 per lb. 
 
 " This is the value which cotton of this quality would coromand to-day 
 ■were it here in any quantity, say 50 or 100 bales. The color is good and 
 the cotton is clean, but our brokers complain that the staple has been 
 somewhat injured ; they presume in the process of ginning." 
 
 Unfortimately, at the time when this sale was made, the cotton 
 markets were unusually low, but still compared with the prevailing 
 rates the valuation was satisfactory ; at the same time Fair Westerns 
 were selling at 6^. per lb. 
 
 EGYPTIAN COTTON.— In 1872 a plot was sown with this variety 
 which grew admirably ; it seems quite as well suited to our soils and 
 climate as any variety that has been tried ; it has, however, one serious 
 defect — its spreading habit of growth — instead of growing upright like 
 other varieties of cotton, it spreads over the ground ; and, while a plant 
 frequently covers with its branches a space measuring from 4 to 6 
 square yards, there are few plants 3 feet in height ; the result is that 
 it is exceedingly difficult to clean land that is under this crop — cattle, 
 in working hoes and cultivators between the rows of plants, committing 
 such havoc amongst the lateral branches ; and we cannot afford the 
 
CROPS. 59 
 
 amount of manual labor required to keep the land clean if bullock labor 
 is not employed. The Egyptian cotton-plant produces large bolls, and 
 its fibre is both longer and more soft and silky than that of the New 
 Orleans variety ; and in the ease with which the cotton can be separated 
 from its seed, the variety possesses one advantage over aU others that 
 have yet been tried. 
 
 YCA VALLEY COTTON.— The seed of this variety was introduced 
 by Mr. Clement Markham, when engaged in introducing the cinchona 
 plant into India from Peru. It was obtained from the coast valley of 
 Yea. During Mr. Markham's visit to this country in charge of the 
 cinchona plants, it occurred to him that many districts in the eastern 
 paxt of the Presidency possessed the same conditions of climate as the 
 coast of Peru, and he, therefore, suggested that the plant might be 
 introduced with great advantage into this district. The first supply of 
 seed seems to have been received in this country dm-ing the latter 
 part of 1864, and was distributed by the Board of Revenue to the 
 Collectors in charge of the districts referred to by Mr. Markham : it is 
 neither known what results marked the attempt to cultivate this species 
 of cotton, nor what became of the seed produced, excepting a few 
 ounces given to the farm by the Honorable J. D. Sim, c.s.i., in 1870. 
 
 From this small supply, sufficient seed to sow five acres was 
 raised in two years. The plant is a perennial. If left impruned it 
 will grow to the height of 8 or 10 feet. It can be propagated by 
 cuttings, but not with so good results as from seed. It bears transplant- 
 ing well in the early stage of its growth, that is, before it is three months 
 old, though it may be transplanted even when full grown, but it does 
 not produce well when transplanted out so late as this. Unfortunately 
 it has not been possible to maintain the crop ; in 1873 it was remarked 
 of it ; — 
 
 " The small plantation of this variety of cotton has been unfortunate 
 during the past year, having been two or three times attacked by a borer, 
 which, beginning at the tips of the branches, works down the pith into the 
 hard wood, destroying all as it proceeds. The only effective plan of checking 
 the depredations of this insect, was to cut off the affected branches a few 
 inches below the portion injured, and to collect and burn them ; still the 
 good result of this was only temporary, for, a month or two after each of 
 these prunings, the plants were again in as bad a condition as before ; but, 
 by persisting in cutting away injured parts of the plant, I hope eventually 
 to get rid of the pest, though many fine plants wUl, in the meantime, be 
 sacrificed in spite of every care. The insect appeared in the Yea valley 
 plants in all the plots, though these were at a considerable distance from 
 each other : no other variety of cotton was attacked by it, though in one or 
 two instance the plots of Yea valley plants were quite surrounded by cotton 
 plants of other varieties." 
 
 A year later it was again reported : — 
 
 " The borer before noticed continues to commit great havoc amongst the 
 plants, the shrubs have again and again been pruned of all their affected 
 branches, which have been collected and burnt, but in spite of every effort 
 the borer has continued its depredations, and many of the plants are now 
 reduced to little more than bare stumps ; the ground on which they are 
 
(>0 
 
 CROPS. 
 
 growing has been thorouglJy cultivated and various manural dressings 
 have been appKed, but the effect was only to stimulate the growth for a 
 time the extra luxuriance produced, apparently only affording greater 
 scope for the depredations of the borer and since then the few remaining 
 plants have completely died out, this is to be deplored for the cotton was a 
 most valuable variety ; for the quality of the cotton was certainly all that 
 could be wished ; indeed, probably a better cotton was never produced in 
 this country." 
 
 Samples of the produce were submitted to professional examination 
 by His Grace the Secretary of State for India. The following was 
 Dr. Forbes Watson's Report, through whom these valuations were 
 obtained : — 
 
 " This cotton was submitted to, and valued at, from lOd. to 10|<?. per 
 lb. by the Cotton Broker's Association in Liverpool. It was likewise 
 valued by a firm of brokers in the same place, and at the same time, at 
 from lOd. to l\d. per. lb- 
 
 " It is considered to be similar to Peruvian cotton, and the prices named 
 are nearly identical with those quoted for the best qualities ( ' good and 
 fine') of Peruvian cotton at the same date, audit ranks higher than good 
 ' Egyptian,' as will be seen from the subjoined table, which gives the means 
 of comparing the value of the Yea valley sample from Madras, with that of 
 similar samples in the Liverpool market during the week ending 28th 
 September last : — 
 
 Clasdfication and Value 'per Pound. 
 
 
 
 
 
 J; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 
 f-. 
 
 bo 
 
 
 'S 
 
 
 
 
 !S 
 
 .g 
 
 
 iS 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 % 
 
 '.H 
 
 t3 
 
 mj 
 
 s 
 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 .a 
 
 Cottmifrom Tea Valley seed grown in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Madras in 1871, value lOd. to lid. per pound. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 6f 
 
 8 
 
 9*- 
 
 f 
 % 
 
 H 
 
 n 
 
 lOJ 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 8J 
 
 9f 
 
 "1 
 
 Egyptian 
 
 n 
 
 si 
 
 H 
 
 lOJ 
 
 13 
 
 " It should be mentioned that, during the same period, American ' mid- 
 dling uplands' was selling at 9 -j^-f?., and American ' middling fair uplands' 
 at 10|(?. per lb. while the price of the two best sorts (' good') of Indian 
 cotton in the market at the time, namely, ' Hinginghaut ' and ' middling 
 ginned Broach ' amounted to %%d. and 8|<?. respectively." 
 
 Another independent report was as follows : — 
 
 " \st. — Rather mixed in color, part being very white, clean, and carefully 
 ginned, the remainder duU, rather dead in color, and not so 
 well ginned. 
 
 ^' 2nd. — PartaHng of the same character of the inferior portion of the 
 first bale, but the whole of good staple, long and generally 
 strong, but of woolly description and suitable for mixing with 
 wool. 
 
 " This cotton resembles a quality received from the Figi Islands, raised 
 there we understand from seed imported from the Brazil. There can be no 
 doubt but this is most excellent cotton, by far the best we have seen from, 
 your Presidency. It is a good deal mixed both as regards cleanliness and 
 etaple, the latter being far &om even throughout the sample." 
 
CKOPS. 
 
 61 
 
 In ginning, this variety yielded most favorably, the proportion being 
 as follows, that of two well known Indian varieties is also given for the 
 sake of comparison : — 
 
 
 
 Hinginghaut. 
 
 Bunnie. 
 
 Yua Valley. 
 
 
 
 Clean cotton 
 Seed, &c. 
 
 Total ... 
 
 2515 
 74-85 
 
 25-54 
 74-46 
 
 3807 
 61-93 
 
 
 
 10000 
 
 10000 
 
 100-00 
 
 
 In 1875 the Secretary of State resolved to obtain some fresh seed of the 
 variety from Brazil, but nothing more has been heard of it. 
 
 BAHMIEH COTTON.— Some seed of this variety, which is 
 supposed to be a hybrid between the ordinary cotton plant (Gossypium 
 vitifolium) and the edible okro or ladies-fingers {Hibiscus esculentus) 
 was obtained in 1877 from Egypt. The plant was recommended as 
 being more prolific, and more upright in growth than the ordinary 
 cotton plant ; but in several experiments made on the farm the crop did 
 not come up to the expectations formed of it from the descriptions 
 given of it ; for, from some reason, although the plants came up rather 
 more uprightly than our ordinary cotton (New Orleans) after some time 
 they began to throw out branches near the roots, and occupied fully as 
 much space as the plants of other varieties do. 
 
 INDIGENOUS COTTON {Gossypium herbaceum).—A piece of land 
 measuring about half an acre, was sown -with Coimbatore cotton, 
 and was manm-ed and treated in the same way as an ordinary crop of 
 New Orleans cotton. The result was very imsatisfaetory ; gigantic 
 plants, heavily covered by leaves, were produced, but the yield of cotton 
 was exceedingly smaU ; the result is, however, quite in harmony with 
 general experience, not only of native cotton, but all indigenous crops. 
 With other indigenous varieties the following results may be noticed : — 
 
 " WESTERN. — A 5-acre field sown with this variety of cotton and 
 maize ia alternate lines yielded 1,766 lb. of seed cotton equal to 353 lb. per 
 acre, and this was in addition to a fair crop of grain and straw from the 
 maize plants that grew in alternate lines with the cotton plants." 
 
 <'HINGINGHA.UT AND BUNNIE.— These varieties are grown largely 
 in Bombay, where they are said to be highly appreciated ; the results 
 obtained with them differed but little from those yielded by ordinary 
 'Western' seed." 
 
 Experiments have been made on more than one occasion in treating 
 cotton as a biennial instead of an annual crop ; but it has not generally 
 been found to answer, for not only is the yield in the second year 
 deficient, but the land also when kept under cotton for so long a period 
 as two years unintermittedly becomes excessively foul, and this necessi- 
 tates a heavy expenditure on cleaning it afterwards. 
 
 EOSELLE (Hibiscus subdariffa) — (Tarn.) Pulichay kiray ; (Tel.) 
 Yerra gogu; (Hind.) Kaserica. — In 1875, a small plot of land was sown 
 -with this crop : the soil was a free sandy loam : after the land had 
 been well manured, the seed was sown on February 1st at the rate of 
 
02 
 
 lR(jps. 
 
 24 lb. per acre, on the ridge. During the growth of the crop, the land 
 was once hand-hoed, once bullock-hoed, and eighteen times irrigated. 
 The seed germinated well, and the plants grew with great vigor ; they 
 were straight and almost without side branches, and averaged between 
 5 and 6 feet in height when ready for cutting, about three months after 
 sowing. As the crop was grown chiefly in view to the production of 
 seed, the fibre of the plants was not utilized ; a few plants were, 
 however, cut down when in flower, in order to ascertain the quality 
 of their fibre, the result was very satisfactory, for the fibre proved to be 
 long in staple, strong, and silky. 
 
 SUNN HEMP {Grotalaria jimcea) — (Tam.) Janappa; (Hind.) Sunn — 
 has been grown experimentally on two occasions ; in 1875, a plot 
 was sown on 2nd February, with seed at the rate of 50 lb. per acre on 
 ridges two feet apart ; during the growth of the crop it was watered 
 eight times. The seed germinated well, and the plants grew with great 
 luxuriance, but when they had reached the time for cutting, there 
 was no fibre whatever in their stems. The soil of this plot was a 
 sandy loam, and probably the high cultivation and watering were 
 unfavorable to the production of fibre. In 1877 another experiment 
 was made ; for it a piece of land measuring 585 square yards was selected ; 
 it is a light and very sandy loam, recently levelled with a slope of about 
 9 inches in 300 feet. The land was prepared for an ordinary crop by 
 ploughing and harrowing until it was reduced to a proper state, and the 
 seed was then sown with the drill in rows 9 inches apart at the rate 
 of 12 lb. per acre. The land had been manured with horse-manure 
 at the rate of 12 loads, or about 4 tons per acre. The after cultivation 
 consisted of two hand hoeings. The following table gives the outturns 
 obtained ; the plot was divided into three equal portions, and each of 
 these again, excepting the last, was sub-divided into two ; the whole 
 of each main division was harvested on the same day, one-half being 
 pulled and the other reaped close to the ground, the land however 
 became so hard before the last plot was reaped that none of it could 
 be pulled up with the roots. The results were as follow : — 
 
 Date of harvest 
 
 4th Deqember. 
 
 15th December. 
 
 24th Decem- 
 ber. 
 
 Area of land 
 
 877-5 sqr. ft. 
 
 877-5 sqr. ft. 
 
 877-5sqr.ft. 877-5 sqr. ft. 
 
 1755 sqr. ft. 
 
 Condition of plant 
 when cut. 
 
 Flowering. 
 
 Seed pods formed and 
 partly matured. 
 
 Seed ripened. 
 
 Method of harvest... 
 
 Cut level Pulled up 
 with ground, by the roots. 
 
 Cut level 
 with ground. 
 
 Pulled up 
 by the roots. 
 
 Cut level 
 with ground. 
 
 Duration of steeping 
 and temperature of 
 water. 
 
 6 days ; 78° 
 
 4 days; 82° 
 
 4 days ; 82° 
 
 Yield of fibre 
 
 61b. 
 
 6-5 lb. 
 
 8-5 lb. 
 
 9-75 lb. 
 
 17-5 lb. 
 
 Yield of fibre per acre. 
 
 300 lb. 
 
 325 lb. 
 
 425 lb. 
 
 487-5 lb. 
 
 437-5 lb. 
 
CROPS. 
 
 en 
 
 After being removed from the ground, the stems were tied in bundles 
 of about 50 — 100 each and placed to steep in a tank, being weighted 
 down to keep them under water ; when considered fit the fibre was 
 removed from the wood by splitting it off by the hand ; it was then 
 washed and dried ; it came off in a very matted and tangled condition 
 and there was not much difference in the quality or color of the different 
 cuttings. All the samples being coarse, lightish yellow in color and of 
 nearly similar strength ; excepting that the last was rather stronger than 
 any of the others. 
 
 JUTE.— (Tel.) Parinta ; (Hind.) Singin janascha, Koshta. In 1874 
 & considerable area of land was cropped with jute {Gor chorus olitorius). 
 The experiments were made at different seasons from June up to the end 
 of the year ; in some the seed was first sown in seed-beds, and the yoimg 
 seedlings afterwards transplanted into the field ; in others it was sown 
 directly in the field ; in some experiments it was sown thinly on drills 
 placed wide apart, in others on the flat in lines with but small spaces 
 between. Some of the experimental plots were regularly watered during 
 the growth of the crop, while others were nurtured by the rainfall only. 
 The soil of nearly all the plots was a sandy loam. In all the experi- 
 ments the seed germinated well, and the plants looked strong and healthy, 
 but in nearly every instance they flowered when only about six inches in 
 height, and threw out an immense number of lateral branches, these 
 rendering the plant of but little value for fibre producing purposes. 
 
 In 1877 an experiment was made with the other variety of jute 
 (Gorchorus capsularis) on some light sandy soil which had been fairly 
 manured ; the crop was sown on September 5th, and when it appeared 
 fit for harvest the following experiment was made — 
 
 Date of harvest 
 
 29th November 1877. 
 
 Area of plot treated . . 
 
 420 square feet. 
 
 Condition of plant when cut 
 
 Seed partially matured. 
 
 Method of harvest 
 
 Reaped close to 
 the ground. 
 
 PuUed up by the roots. 
 
 Duration of steeping 
 
 U days. 
 
 Temperature of the water 
 
 82°. 
 
 Yield per plot 
 
 5-75 Ihs. fibre. 
 
 6-75 lbs. fibre. 
 
 Yield per acre 
 
 599 lbs. do. 
 
 703 lbs. do. 
 
 The fibre produced was very similar in both cases, but the increased yield 
 of 100 lbs. per acre when pulled, shows that that method of harvesting 
 eeems to be the best ; the weight alone however cannot be taken as a 
 
1 CROPS. 
 
 conclusive proof, for the ends of the pulled-stem fibre were more woody 
 than the other. The fibre was cleaned in the same way as the Sunn 
 already referred to, and came out in a fine glossy silky state averaging 
 from two to three feet in length, and being of great strength. In a 
 better season and on a less sandy soil heavier returns and a better 
 sample might have been obtained ; in this case, the crop suffered consider- 
 ably from a drought in October and probably did not attain such a fine 
 growth as it might have done. 
 
 EHEEA OR CHINA-GEASS {Boehmeria nkea).—ln November 
 1876, 100 roots of this plant were received from the Superintendent 
 of the Botanical Grardens, Saharanpore, North- West Provinces. The 
 roots were much out of condition on reaching Saidapet, from the 
 length of time (a week) occupied in transit. They were planted out at 
 once, and a considerable number of them grew and produced healthy 
 plants, but diiring the hot season the leaves of most of the plants 
 became so bleached and discolored, apparently from the high temperature 
 prevailing at the time, that it was deemed necessary to remove the plants 
 to a plot of ground somewhat shaded from the sun. The change was 
 beneficial, and the leaves assumed a healthy green color. 
 
 There is at present only a small plot of about 4 square yards growing 
 on the farm, but from this in one cutting ^ lb. of fibre was obtained. 
 From the nature of the plant not less than four and perhaps more 
 cuttings could be obtained per annum ; but to do this abundant manure 
 and some irrigation would be required. The cost of growing the stems 
 need not be heavy, but until some machine capable of cleaning the fibre 
 cheaply is produced, it is not of much use endeavoring to introduce the 
 plant here where we have many other more easily manipulated, though 
 perhaps not so valuable fibres. 
 
 MANILLA HEMP {llusa texUlis). — An attempt was made in 1877 
 to introduce this plant, but although a few shoots obtained from the 
 Botanical Grardens, Calcutta, were received in good condition, they were 
 not apparently able to exist in the climate of Saidapet, and aU died off 
 within 12 months. In this Presidency it is, probably only in the country 
 bordering on the western coast and on the slopes of some of the higher 
 ranges of hills, that it will be possible to cultivate this plant without 
 irrigation. Elsewhere the rainfall is too scanty, and the use of irrigation 
 water would, in most instances, add considerably to the cost of raising 
 the crop. Of course, there are tracts of land so situated that the irriga- 
 tion water can be applied at a very little cost while good drainage can 
 also be secured, but land so circumstanced is already under profitable 
 culture. 
 
 TOBACCO {Nicotiana tabacum)—(Tam.) Pogheieley ; (Tel.) Pog- 
 haku ; (Hind.) Tambaku — has been cultivated on two occasions on the 
 farm, and the following advice to growers has been deduced from the 
 results of these experiments. To raise plants for an acre of land, select 
 as a seed bed a healthy piece of ground, measuring about 100 square feet, 
 the soil of which should be friable (a sandy loam or loam), and well 
 drained. Dig the ground over to a depth of 1| feet some months, and a 
 
CROPS. 
 
 65 
 
 second time about two weeks, before sowing the seed, and manure it 
 heavily, if the soil is poor as much a country cart load of well rotted 
 manure (about 600 lbs.) may be given ; and shortly before sowing the 
 seed dig over the ground a third time. Divide the nursery into three 
 beds ; each bed should not be more than 4 feet wide to facilitate watering, 
 &c. Sow the three beds at intervals of four or five days ; by this arrange- 
 ment ample time will be given to transplant the seedlings when ready. 
 The best time for sowing is immediately after the monsoon rains are over, 
 and about one ounce of good seed is sufiicient to raise as many seedlings 
 as are required to plant one acre ; therefore one third of that amount of 
 seed will be required for each division. The soil having been reduced to 
 a fine tilth, sow the seed broadcast on the surface and cover it by strewing 
 some handfuls of mould or fine compost manure over it, taking care not 
 to bury the seed but only to cover it ; if ants are troublesome strew some 
 ashes over the surface to prevent their removing or injuring the seed. 
 A temporary shed, or a roof of calico, should be erected over the nursery 
 to protect it from sun and rain, and a deep drain dug around the beds to 
 avoid excessive wetness of the soil. After the seed is sown keep the soil 
 constantly moist, but not wet. During dry weather it will be necessary 
 to water the beds daily two or three times for the first few weeks, this 
 should be done with a watering pot with a rose, the pot being held low 
 when watering, for otherwise the plants, which appear about eight days 
 after sowing, and are very tender during the first stage of their growth, 
 may be destroyed. Should the plants spring up very thickly they must 
 be thinned out when about a week old ; and may be transplanted either 
 into a separate bed or into another part of the same bed, when blanks 
 exist ; each plant should be allowed not less than one square inch. The 
 seedlings will be fit for transplanting about six or eight weeks after 
 sowing. 
 
 The land intended to be planted with tobacco should be situated if 
 possible near to the nursery bed ; the soil preferably should be of the 
 same quality as the nursery bed, viz., a friable sandy loam or loam, 
 with adequate drainage. Clay soils usually produce heavier crops, 
 but the leaves are generally coarser and do not possess so much flavor 
 after being cured. After being several times deeply ploughed, the land 
 should be heavily manured and again ploughed and harrowed until the 
 soil has been reduced to a fine tilth, and then it should be ridged. The 
 distance apart at which to place the ridges depends on the nature of the 
 soil and the species of the crop. With a good species, such as the 
 Maryland, which grows to a considerable height and spreads its leaves 
 very much, on a good soil the ridges should not be less than 3^ feet 
 apart from centre to centre to allow weeding, hoeing, suckering, 
 &c., without breaking the leaves. In the line the seedlings may be 
 planted about 3 feet apart. Transplanting should be performed only in 
 the evening, excepting on cloudy days when it may be done at any time. 
 Before taking out the seedlings, the nursery bed should be properly 
 watered in order that the plants can be easily removed without breaking 
 their roots. The plants must be watered immediately after transplanting 
 and the watering must be repeated every day for about a week unles* 
 any rain falls ; the plants should also be shaded during this time to- 
 protect them from the sun ; and blanks caused by the death of any plants? 
 must be filled up from the nurseiy. 
 
 9 
 
66 CROPS. 
 
 After the plants have once taken root they grow rapidly and requii-e 
 comparatively little attention until they commence to flower. They 
 will require a watering once in from four to eight days according to 
 circumstances, and hoeing whenever the soil becomes too close and weeds 
 make their appearance. Insects, which sometimes attack tobacco, must 
 be searched for and killed. When the plants are about nine inches 
 to a foot high, the soil should be heaped round the plants in cones and 
 saltpetre should be applied unless the soil be very rich in potash ; 200 lb. 
 of saltpetre per acre produced a notable effect on the tobacco gi-own 
 on this farm ; the saltpetre was applied after being dissolved ; some 
 holes were made near the stem of the plant and a certain quantity of 
 the solution poured into them. 
 
 The plants will commence to flower about two months after trans- 
 planting, when about 3 to 6 feet high. As soon as the flowers appear 
 they must be broken off together with the top and bottom leaves. The 
 suckers, which appear after the tops have been broken off, must be 
 removed at least once every week, for if this is not done the quality 
 of the tobacco and the size of the leaves will be seriously impaired. 
 
 The plants will be fit for cutting about three months after transplant- 
 ing. Proper maturity is indicated by the appearance of yellow spots on 
 the leaves ; at which time they become very brittle. 
 
 When the plant is fit for harvest, the whole should be cut down 
 at the bottom and removed at once. They must then be hung up, 
 tying the butt-ends of the plants together over bamboos, &c., under some 
 shade for wilting ; any large tree standing near will answer the purpose, 
 or, if none be available, a temporary shed should be erected near the 
 ground : the plants should be handled as little as possible in order 
 to avoid breaking their leaves. After being wilted they must be 
 removed to the curing shed and hung close together until the leaves 
 have commenced to turn yellow, when they must be hung wider apart 
 to avoid injurious decomposition, and may remain thus until quite 
 dry and fit for stripping. The time required before the leaf is fit for 
 stripping varies from four to six weeks according to the weather ; if the air 
 be very dry, it may be necessary to pour some water on the floor of the 
 shed to make the leaves more pliable ; if the air be moist the leaves are 
 apt to become mouldy, if this happens a fire must be made to promote 
 the drying of the leaves. 
 
 Whilst stripping them, the leaves should be sorted according to 
 quality ; the best colored (golden) and large sized leaves give cigar 
 wrappers and will fetch the highest price. After stripping they should be 
 piled in heaps to undergo a further fermentation : when the heat rises too 
 high, viz., to more than 110", the tobacco must be replied, but a well dried 
 tobacco will seldom heat as much. Tobacco may be kept in bulk for some 
 months, after which it may be made into cigars or disposed of otherwise. 
 
 VliKNTAINS (Musa paradisiaca)— [Tarn.) Vali ; (Tel.) Ariti ; 
 (Hind.) Mauz. — Since 1872 there has always been a patch of greater 
 or less extent under this crop near one of the wells ; besides being 
 a valuable and remunerative crop, it affords labor for the coolies 
 during the dry v^reather : it requires careful tillage and heavy manuring 
 to be brought to successful maturity, whilst it produces a large amount 
 
CROPS. 
 
 67 
 
 of palatable food, as well as a fibre held in considerable esteem. The 
 folio-wing account of a tope planted in September 1876 is interesting : — 
 
 " The plot measured 1-68 acres and -was planted -with sets placed in ro-wra 
 6 feet a part either way. The cost of maintaining the plantation until the 
 Ist of June 1878 was as follows : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 1878 
 
 Planting . , 
 
 Manm-e and Manuring 
 
 Hoeing and Digging 
 
 Watering 
 
 Hoeing and Digging 
 
 Watering 
 
 Manure and Manuring 
 
 Digging and Hoeing 
 
 Watering 
 
 ES. A. p. 
 
 29 
 
 39 12 
 
 17 6 
 
 1 8 
 
 34 14 
 
 60 12 
 
 64 
 
 7 8 8 
 
 45 
 
 Total .. 
 
 289 12 8 
 
 R8. A. P. 
 17 4 2 
 23 10 6 
 10 4 3 
 
 14 3 
 20 12 2 
 36 2 7 
 32 2 3 
 
 4 7 10 
 26 12 7 
 
 172 6 7 
 
 ' This expenditure may be classified per acre as follows ; 
 
 Planting 
 
 Manure and Manuring 
 
 Watering 
 
 Digging and Hoeing 
 
 RS. A. 
 
 .. 17 4 
 .. 55 12 
 .. 63 13 
 .. 35 8 
 
 p. 
 
 2 
 9 
 5 
 3 
 
 Per cent, of 
 Total, 
 10-01 
 32-36 
 37-03 
 20-60 
 
 
 Total Es. 172 6 
 
 7 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 " The land on which the tope is situated is o£ very poor and varying 
 quality, the greater portion being a coarse sand, and the remaiader a sour 
 stiSish loam, on which nothing has flourished, and on which the plantains 
 even are comparatively stunted. The manure used was, for the first appli- 
 cation in 1876, partly blood compost and partly poudrette, that for the 
 dressing given in 1877 — in September — chiefly blood compost, hut box 
 manure was also used for a few trees. Up to the end of 1 877 the fruit yielded 
 was of inferior quality, but since then, now that the last dressing of manure 
 has acted, they have a flavor than which I have never noticed a better." 
 
 " Against the cost of production must be set the receipts up to the 1st of 
 June for 332 bunches, which sold for Eupees 78-6-9, or Rupees 46-10-10 
 per acre ; at the same date the trees standing on the ground were valued 
 at Eupees 312-8-0, orEnpees 186-0-2 per acre, leaving a balance of Eupees 
 101-2-1, or Rupees 60-3-2 per acre in favor of the plantation after one year 
 and nine months' existence. From February 1878 the weight of the 
 bunches received was recorded, and although it was not large, 176 bunches 
 weighing 2,289 lb., yet assuming the whole number received to have been 
 about the same weight, the yield per acre in the months during which the 
 plantation was bearing, amounted to between 2,500 and 2,600 lb. per acre. 
 It was found by experiment that the yield of food (pulp) from the bunches 
 was about 49 per cent, of their weight, so that the rate per acre was about 
 1,250 lb." 
 
 THE EGG-PLANT OR BRINGAL {Solamm melongem)—(Tam.) 
 Kattrikai ; (Tel.) Wankai ; (Hind.) Baingan — is frequently grown on a 
 small scale as a hot- weather crop under occasional irrigation ; the crop is 
 
68 CROPS. 
 
 a profitable one, especially for the small tenant who does not employ 
 laborers. The plant yields its crop gradually through four or five months : 
 total outturns of from 3,200 lb. to 4,200 lb. per acre have been obtained 
 on the farm. 
 
 TAPIOCA {Jatropha manihot) — (Tarn.) Maravullie — In 1871 a piece 
 of land measuring 1,200 square yards was planted with cuttings of this 
 plant obtained from Travancore. The land planted was a piece of poor 
 sandy soil on the western side of the farm. A stiffer soil could have 
 been provided, had this been thought necessary, but the small experi- 
 ments made in previous years on moderately heavy soil seemed to 
 indicate that a stiff soil was not the most suitable ; while it is a well 
 known fact that starch is developed more freely in tubers, and fleshy 
 roots, when the soil in which they are growing is free and thoroughly 
 aerated than when it is stiff and compact, and the commercial part of 
 tapioca chiefly consists of starch. The soil was naturally a very poor 
 one, and contained fuUy 90 per cent, of sand, but its poverty was to 
 some extent, compensated by giving it a heavy dressing of foldyard 
 manure. The land was first thoroughly ploughed, grubbed, and 
 weeded. It was then ridged about 30 inches apart, and the manure 
 spread in the open furrows between the ridges. The plough was then 
 passed along through the centre of the ridges, throwing the soil over 
 the manure on each side, thus raising a new ridge immediately over 
 the manure. The cuttings were planted on the 17th of July on the 
 ridges, in pairs crossing each other obliquely, each pair being planted 
 about three feet apart ; the ground being exceedingly dry at the time, 
 the cuttings were twice watered (with chatties). They were afterwards 
 left entirely to the weather, and received no other attention, except a 
 slight weeding. The plants grew well and vigorously, but were too 
 heavily covered with leaves for such a light soil as that in which they 
 are growing, as, during the cyclone which broke over this district in the 
 early part of May 1872, the whole crop was prostrated, and nearly the 
 whole of the plants being permanently injured, no alternative remained 
 but to gather the crop. The tubers weighed 656 pounds ; but, as they 
 were not matured, they possessed no commercial value. 
 
 The sandy soil seems suitable, but evidently too much foldyard 
 manure was used (box manure is rich in nitrogenous, or leaf-producing 
 matters) ; had less of it been used, and with it a small quantity of some 
 phosphatic manure (bone dust, or animal charcoal) a good result would 
 probably have been more certain. 
 
 ARTICHOKES {Selianthus tuherosus). — ^A plot of land, measuring 
 about one-fifth of an acre, was ploughed and manured with four cart- 
 loads of fold yard manure, and, on the 23rd of August 1870, planted 
 with 35 pounds of Artichokes. The sets were planted about a foot apart 
 in lines. The crop was harvested on the 8th of February following 
 and yielded 331 pounds^of tubers, or 1,655 per acre. The tubers were 
 used as food for pigs. 
 
 In the earliest days of the farm both Beet-root and Mangel vrarzel 
 {Beta valgaris) were tried on a small scale, but it was soon seen that, 
 although fair crops could be grown with care, the care required for 
 these if given to indigenous crops would produce far better results. 
 
CROPS. 
 
 69 
 
 BUCK-WHEAT {Polygonum fagopyrum) — has been tried on two 
 occasions. In 1870 a bushel of seed was obtained from Sydney, and a 
 portion of it was sown on the 8th of October on a piece of suitable soil 
 in fair condition. The crop grew and flowered but did not succeed. In 
 1876 a plot of 1,300 square yards was sown with this crop, the seed 
 having been obtained from Australia. It grew well and would in an 
 ordinary season have doubtless attained maturity without being watered, 
 but in the present case it was necessary to do so. The seed was sown on 
 November 9th, and within ten weeks the crop was ofE the ground, 
 leaving it ready for another. The yield was at the rate of, grain 167 
 lb., straw 1,136 lb., per acre ; but, under more favorable circumstances, 
 it would, there is every reason to believe, yield better results. The crop 
 is useful as a preparation for a cereal, or as a green manure. The 
 fodder is good food for cows, and the grain yields, after the husk has 
 been removed, a meal rich in nutritive matters. As an alternative crop 
 with the cereals, as a catch crop after an early one grown for fodder, or 
 grown as maniire, bucVwheat can be recommended for some portions 
 of the Presidency. 
 
 FLAX {Linum usitatissimum) . — In 1870 a few pounds of Egyptian 
 flax was sown on the 26th November. It grew very satisfactorily. It 
 was cultivated as a dry crop, and matured its seed. The crop was not 
 more than two-and-a-half feet in length ; but the weather was unusu- 
 ally dry during its growth. 
 
 In 1876 a crop, giving similar results, was grown from Australian 
 seed ; it was sown in November and occasionally watered ; it grew well, 
 and was very healthy, but did not attain great length (only about 21 
 inches), as it was sown at wide intervals for the sake of seed. 
 
 PEICKLY CONFREY {Symphytum asperimum) — has been strongly 
 recommended for culture as a fodder plant in India, but as far as the 
 experiments made at Saidapet have gone, it has been found that it 
 has little, if anything, to recommend it for cultivation for such purposes 
 in the plains of Southern India. It requires a deep, rich, moist soil, 
 under shade, and where these requisites can be secured may perhaps be 
 grown with some success, whilst our ordinary forage crops will yield 
 good returns under much more unfavorable conditions, as has been 
 repeatedly shown in the many results obtained on the farm. 
 
 EGYPTIAN CLOVER AND BEANS, EAPE, VETCHES, 
 LENTILS {Ervum lens), LUPINS {Lupinus albus) — and several other 
 useful European crops have been experimented with and the results 
 have generally been such as follows : — 
 
 "VETCHES {Tieia sativa) and RAPE {Brasaica napua). — Australian 
 seed — were sown, but, although the seed germintated well, neither crop 
 succeeded. The vetches were apparently unable to withstand the heat, and 
 the rape was attacked by caterpillars." 
 
 THE LOCUST OR CAROB BEAN (Cemtowm siliqua).—Inl866 
 some seedlings of this tree were obtained and planted on a piece of 
 land in a good situation on the farm, but until 1877 they never 
 
70 CROPS. 
 
 produced any fruit. There are now five trees, only one of whicli is a 
 female ; they are about 1 7 feet high, and the stems, at 1 foot above 
 the ground, measiire about 20 inches in circumference, but for the last 
 few years they have made no apparent increase in size ; this can scarcely 
 be attributed to the climate, for the trees do not seem to suffer even in 
 the hottest weather, but is probably due to the fact that the soil on 
 which they are growing is deficient in lime. The trees were planted 
 in a line, which arrangement, owing to the habit of the tree, is 
 unadvisable, and might have explained the reason why no fruit had 
 been produced before, were it not that the solitary female one has at 
 last done so. The risk which must always attend planting the tree, 
 owing to its being dioecious (the male and female flowers being borne on 
 separate trees), and there being no method of ascertaining the sex of the 
 plant until it flowers, is forcibly illustrated in this case, as of five trees 
 planted only one of them has turned out to be a female one. To over- 
 come this, grafting the seedlings should be adopted, as by grafting from 
 known female and male trees, a certainty as regards the sex of the trees 
 can be depended on ; the grafts thus raised could afterwards be 
 planted out at convenient distances, allowing a large number of female 
 plants to each male one. 
 
 The value of the tree lies in the fleshy pulp which forms the covering- 
 of its seed ; the seed also is capable of becoming a useful food when split 
 and steamed. 
 
 AEECA-NUT PALMS {Areca catechu)— <Tam.) Camooghoo, Paak- 
 maram; (Tel.) Poka-chettu ; (Hind.) Sooparee. — In 1871 a quantity 
 of areca-nuts were obtained from the Western Coast, a few were 
 injured by heating on the v/ay over, but most of them germinated. 
 The seedlings were planted out on a piece of open groimd, which 
 had been well cultivated and manured, having good drainage, both 
 surface and sub-soil ; they were watered when necessary, and the 
 soil about them was kept open and free from weeds. For the first 
 few months they appeared promising ; after this they gradually 
 turned yellow and sickened, and one by one died off. Had they been 
 planted under shade, more satisfactory results would probably have been 
 obtained, as the plants exposed to the fuU glare of the sun suffered 
 most ; on the Western Coast, where the climate is moister, it is usual 
 to plant areca-nuts under the shade of plantains, but whether or not 
 the scorching weather experienced here for six months in the year is 
 against their general cultivation in this district, they certainly need 
 too much attention to make them a remunerative crop where the labor 
 required must all be hired. 
 
LIVE STOCK. 71 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 CATTLE. — As milk in various forms is the chief, and most 
 important animal food of the people of this country, and as the opera^ 
 tions of tillage are performed with the aid of oxen only, the necessity for 
 improving the milch and draught cattle of the country is undeniable. 
 Native cultivators object to incur any expense when grass is scarce for 
 providing special food for their milch cattle ; they argue that bullocks 
 pay for their food in the work they perform, but that the cow yields 
 milk in such small quantities and for so short a period that she will 
 not repay the cost of any special feeding. 
 
 Working cattle. — The ordinary cows of the ryot, when in full 
 milk, seldom give more than one measure of milk per day, and seldom 
 yield milk for a longer period than six or seven months ; but there 
 is no good reason why they in this country should not earn their food, 
 by working at any rate, during the time they are not giving milk. 
 In many parts of Europe, cows are very extensively employed as 
 draught animals. During a month or two before calving, and, for three 
 or four months afterwards, it might be inexpedient to work cows, but 
 during six months in the year, they might, as draught animals, earn 
 their food. There are in this Presidency, according to the latest statistics, 
 about 8| million head of cattle ; of these it may be fairly assumed that at 
 least 2 millions are cows and heifers above 2 years of age. By working 
 them lightly, 500,000 head of cattle, or from 10 to 15 per cent., might be 
 added to the cultivating force of the country as it at present stands. 
 There are no objections to be raised against such a practice in the 
 interests of the cow ; it would rather in fact be for her advantage, the 
 moderate exercise entailed thereby and the extra food given her being 
 likely to keep her in better bodily condition and in better health. 
 
 Cattle impeovement. — It will be best in endeavoring to improve the 
 milch cattle that bulls of the best dairy breeds of Europe, should be 
 imported by Government ; those of Southern Europe direct, and those 
 of Northern Europe from Australia. Experience has shown that the 
 supposed weakness of constitution in cattle, the produce of a cross between 
 an European bull and a country bred cow, is groundless, the oiispring 
 being perfectly capable of remaining out of doors all day ; they, how- 
 ever, generally seek the shade of trees, such as usually exist in good 
 pasture land, during the time when the sun is hottest. 
 
 In attempting to improve breeds of cattle, great care should be 
 exercised in order that the increase in size bears a. strict relation to the 
 
72 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Bupply of food available ; in most parts of this Presidency during the 
 dry months, even in a moderately good season, the food available is 
 Boaroely suflBcient to preserve the lives of the undersized cattle kept by 
 ryots, and would, therefore, be totally inadequate to do even this much 
 for animals of a larger size. Before taking steps for improving the size 
 of the cattle in the more backward parts of the Presidency, it is necessary 
 that something should be done to induce ryots to grow fodder, &c., as 
 food for their Uve stock ; for as long as so many ryots consider that it is 
 more economical to allows their cattle to starve or even to die in the dry 
 season rather than to go to the trouble of growing fodder for their use, 
 it will be exceedingly unwise to attempt to increase the size of the cattle 
 they keep. 
 
 Native cattle like native laborers can adapt themselves readily to 
 the bad conditions with which they have so frequently to contend ; they 
 can be starved down to, and be kept alive, for a time, on a daily allow- 
 ance of food that would represent only a tithe of the quantity they 
 could consume when in full health. This is the ordinary process to 
 which they are subjected every hot season at the hand of their owners. 
 But while it is possible to reduce gradually the daily food of a bullock 
 until in amoimt it is not one-tenth of the allowance that should 
 be given, it is not so easy again to increase without injury that 
 allowance to the quantity necessary to support the animal in health ; 
 henoe the enormous losses that are experienced in this country 
 amongst live stock when, after a long drought, a sudden fall of rain 
 produces a luxuriant and plentifid growth of grass. Few cattle die 
 directly from starvation ; the deaths in most cases are the result of the 
 sudden supply of succulent food in abundance, greedily eaten by animals 
 whose constitutions have been weakened by a long and gradual starving 
 process. 
 
 Housing. — The general neglect of providing proper housing for cattle 
 is another point which must be reformed before much progress can be 
 made in improving them. For although it is only at exceptional times 
 that the special value is particularly shown, the general usefulness of 
 adequate housing is undoubtedly to be found in the general condition 
 and health of all stock so treated ; for instance, in Saidapet Taluk in 
 May 1877 11,687 cattle and 7,218 sheep died from the effects of 
 exposure in a cyclone ; these may be taken to have been of an aggregate 
 value of nearly 2 lakhs of Rupees, £20,000, In the Revenue Settlement 
 Report of the taluk submitted by Mr. Banbury in April 1 874, it is 
 stated that the number of ploughing and milch cattle in it amounted 
 to 28,316, and the number of sheep and goats to 16,929 ; the loss 
 therefore amounted to 41 per cent, of the former and 43 per cent, of the 
 latter ; no doubt the terribly reduced condition of the stock caused them 
 to succumb in such numbers, but had they been protected from the rain 
 and chill consequent on their exposure, the loss would have been trifling : 
 on the farm in a stock of 31 cattle not one was lost, whilst out of 300 
 sheep three or four died, possibly from the effeets of the weather. 
 Nor can much good be done until the practice of using any ill-formed 
 brute as a sire is put a stop to ; it would be well that all bulls, unless 
 their owners can procure a license from an officer appointed for the 
 
I.IVE STOCK. 7'-! 
 
 piu'pose, should be castrated, all licensed animals being branded, num- 
 bered and registered. 
 
 From some statistics collected in 1877, it was shown that average 
 native cattle stand higher at the loins than behind the hump ; this may 
 be an advantage for draught purposes, by enabling them to throw more 
 weight against the yoke. The length of leg in proportion to the depth 
 of barrel is an excessive and general defect in the cattle of the country, 
 forming as it does over 40 per cent, of the total height of the animals. 
 Their girth is excessively low, not being more in full grown specimens 
 than that attained by cattle of English breeds in less than twelve 
 months. 
 
 The live weight of the cows, kept by ryots in the neighbourhood of 
 the farm, varies from 2U0 to 4U0 lb., while the lightest of the bulls at 
 the farm will weigh over 800 lb., it is consequently quite useless to put 
 the bulls with at least 75 per cent, of the cows that are sent to them. 
 It is a great mistake to expect to obtain a good cross between bulls 
 of the large Nellore breed and the undersized, degenerate breeds of these 
 districts. To improve the breeds of this district we must obtain a 
 medium-sized bull of some breed known as suited for the dairy ; with 
 this view, in 1874, one bull, one cow and two bull calves of the Aden 
 breed were imported. The Adens had a high reputation as dairy 
 animals ; the name Aden by which they are distinguished has probably 
 originated from Aden being the port from which cattle of this breed are 
 generally shipped, as they are not found in the neighbourhood of Aden, 
 but are brought from districts situated at considerable distances from 
 the coast. The animals imported were not nearly as good as it was 
 expected they would be, although there is every reason to believe them 
 to be average specimens ; probably, with regard to their form and 
 general quality, the breed has been much overpraised. As the cow has 
 proved to be a good milker, her defects in shape may be overlooked, 
 for it must be remembered that there are several highly- valued breeds 
 of dairy stock in Europe, the cows of which are exceedingly irregular 
 in form. If, by the use of bulls of the Aden breed amongst the dairy 
 stock of the ryot, we can succeed in producing a cross the cows of which 
 will possess larger milk-yielding capabilities, the experiment will have 
 been fairly successful, and improvement in form may be attempted 
 by the use of bulls of some other breed. It is however worth mention- 
 ing that, in the measurements already referred to, a bull of the Aden 
 breed showed a better girth measurement than any native cattle. 
 
 Two buffalo bulls of the Gruzerat breed have been constantly 
 worked on the farm for the last eight years ; they are most usefiil 
 animals either for carting or ploughing, being admirably suited, on 
 account of their enormous strength and steady action, for deep-ploughing. 
 There is a very general impression that buffaloes will not work during 
 the heat of the day, but we have never experienced any more trouble 
 with them than with ordinary plough cattle, while their keep is 
 decidedly much less costly than that of ordinary cattle, as they will 
 eat any sort of coarse fodder, and are very hardy, being kept constantly 
 in the open air tied under the shelter of a tree ; their destructive 
 propensities prevent, in their case, their being placed in a shed. Being 
 far superior to the Madras breed of buffalo in form and strength, it was 
 
 10 
 
/ 1 LIVE RTOCK. 
 
 hoped that they might do much good in improving it, but although 
 they have served many cows in the neighbourhood the results are not 
 easy to trace. Only long continued, well directed, and persevering 
 efforts can ever produce any very clearly marked improvements in the 
 cattle or agriculture of any country. 
 
 Working Hours of Cattle. — Sundays excepted, the farm cattle 
 work daily in the cold season 9 hours, and in the hot season 8^ hours. 
 In the former they hegin work at 6 a.m. and work until 10 a.m. when 
 they are put into their stalls to feed and rest ujitil 1 p.m., at which 
 hour they are again yoked; they are employed until 6 p.m., when the 
 labor of the day ceases ; the animals are then placed in their stalls, where 
 they remain until the following morning. In the hot season their 
 working hours are different ; instead of beginning work in the morning, 
 at 6, they begin at 5-30, and in the afternoon instead of beginning at 
 1, they do not begin until 2 o'clock. These hours are shorter than is 
 usual in this part of India, though for a hot climate they are sufficiently 
 long for both the cattle and their drivers. Before these regulations 
 were adopted the working day on the Experimental Farm for the 
 draught cattle was about 10 hours in length throughout the whole year ; 
 however, it was seldom that the animals performed 10 hours' work ; for, 
 though they might be in the fields or on the roads for 10 hours, they 
 were not actually employed during the whole time, and it is better in 
 every way that they should be comfortably lying in their stalls during 
 the extra hour or hour and-a-half of leisure, which the present regula- 
 tions afford them, than be standing for a similar length of time on 
 the roadside or on the head-lands. Tlie cattle are now in their sheds 
 during the hottest part of the day, and they now perfoi-m more work in 
 a day than under the old system, being kept at work during the hours 
 set apart for work. The amount of labor performed in a day by a pair 
 of these cattle with European implements is — 
 
 In ploughing stubble land 4 to 6 inches deep . . 
 
 In ploughing fallow land 4 to 6 inches deep 
 
 In harrowing, with a set of iron seed harrows, once over 
 
 In harrowing, with an iron drag harrow, once over 
 
 In rolling, with a wooden roller, once over 
 
 In drilling, with 6 feet 6 inches drill . . 
 
 In scarif) ing, with 2 feet 6 inches grubber 
 
 Acres. 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 5—6 
 2—21 
 
 In all cases excepting the last only one pair of cattle is ever yoked 
 to one implement. In England and on the continent, where draught 
 cattle are employed, teams of two or even four pairs of oxen are often 
 yoked to implements ; we here think one pair sufficient ; and in those 
 countries, the " alternate " or " half-day system" of working oxen, is 
 frequently adopted, while the animals, generally have a month or 
 two at grass, during summer. The cattle are allowed 4 lb. of ground- 
 nut oil cake and as much chaff, consisting of green fodder or straw or 
 a mixture of both, as they like per diem, a little salt being mixed with 
 their cake. The cost of maintaining a pair for a year on this system 
 may be put down as follows : — 
 
LIVE STOCK. 
 
 76 
 
 KS. A. P. 
 
 Fodder tliroughout the year, at the rate of 100 
 
 lb. a pair daily, valued at 400 lb. 
 
 per rupee , . . , , . . . ..9140 
 
 Cake throughout the year, at the rate of 
 
 8 lb. a pair daily, valued at Rs. 7 per 
 
 500 lb. 40 14 
 
 Interest on probable value of the pair of cattle, 
 
 say, Rs. 100, at 5 per cent. . . . . 5 
 
 Deterioration, say, at 10 per cent, per annum, 
 
 on Rs. 100, the value of the cattle . . 10 
 
 Shoeing throughout the year twelve times, at 
 
 As. 12 .9 
 
 Contingencies . . . . . . , . , . 3 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 Total Es. . . 160 
 
 The total cost, Rupees 160, divided by 310, the number of 
 working days in the year, gives a sum per diem amounting to Annas 8 
 Pies 3 as the actual daily cost of a pair of these draught cattle. 
 
 Dairy experiments. — The following is a record of the milk-producing 
 qualities of a Nellore cow. The cow was an old one and was bought 
 from a milkman, who was very unlikely to sell her for 60 rupees had she 
 been more than a very ordinary cow ; indeed, when offering her for sale, 
 all he could say for her milk-producing abilities was that she would give 
 daily about two measures, and she had been for some time in his 
 possession. At the time of purchase she had a calf about one month old, 
 and was much out of condition ; her live weight, ten days after she was 
 bought being only 536 lb. Her food was daily : — 
 
 4 lb. of ground-nut cake. 
 2 lb. of wheat bran. 
 20 lb. of green fodder (cholum, &c.) 
 
 15 lb. of grass, 
 f ounce of salt. 
 
 She was allowed to graze in a compound each morning, after being 
 milked, for about a couple of hours ; during the remainder of the day 
 and during the night she was tied in a byre, and was always abundantly 
 supplied with drinking water. She was milked at about seven in the 
 morning, and at about five in the evening. She ate her cake (steeped) 
 and bran while she was being milked, and her calf was allowed to be 
 near her at the time, being permitted to strip any milk left ; after this 
 was done the calf was not allowed to go near its dam until the milking 
 hour again came round. The following details show the quantity of 
 milk obtained during the 12 weeks over which the experiment 
 extended : — 
 
 
 a 
 
 g> 
 
 
 
 
 bo 
 
 
 
 
 •g 
 
 .9 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 •a 
 
 a 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 i 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 1^ 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 Mrs. oiks. 
 
 Mrs. oiks. 
 
 Mrs 
 
 oiks. Knts. 
 
 
 Mrs. oiks. 
 
 Mrs. Oiks. 
 
 Mrs. Oiks. 
 
 Pints. 
 
 IstWeek... 
 
 10 2 
 
 8 5 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 54 
 
 5th Week. 
 
 12 7i 
 
 10 5i 
 
 23 5 
 
 68 
 
 2na do. ... 
 
 11 7i 
 
 10 4 
 
 22 
 
 ^ 
 
 65 
 
 6th do.... 
 
 14 7 
 
 11 7 
 
 26 6 
 
 77 
 
 3rd do. ... 
 
 12 2j 
 
 10 5 
 
 22 
 
 7i 
 
 66 
 
 7th do.... 
 
 15 
 
 11 1i 
 
 26 n 
 
 78 
 
 4th do. ... 
 
 11 6| 
 
 10 \i 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 8th do.... 
 
 15 U 
 
 11 2° 
 
 26 3| 
 
 76 
 
 9th do.- ... 
 
 14 6 
 
 10 5 
 
 2!> 
 
 3 
 
 73 
 
 llth do..,. 
 
 15 4 
 
 11 7 
 
 27 3 
 
 79 
 
 10th do. ... 
 
 15 3 
 
 U 4 
 
 26 
 
 7 1 78 
 
 12th do,,,. 
 
 14 7 i 11 5 
 
 26 4 
 
 76 
 
7 b LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Referring to this cow it was observed : — 
 
 ' ' While the j'ield of milk has increased, so also has the weight of the 
 cow. In the space of four months 143 lb. have been added to her live 
 weight, -vrhile the yield of milk has been doubled. 120 measures 
 of most excellent milk is now obtained monthly, at a cost, for food and 
 attendance, of Rupees 9-2-11, or at about 1^ Annas per measure. Under 
 the circumstances, I think,' I am fully justified in concluding that the increase 
 of 50 per cent, in the yield of milk is entirely due to the feeding. The milk 
 is unusually rich ; it yields regularly 12^ per cent, by volume of excellent 
 cream, and the yield of butter confirms this, as from two measures 
 (6'63 pints) of fresh milk, five ounces of butter is now regularly obtained. 
 This is equal to a yield of one pound of butter for 21-2 pints of milk. In 
 England the average quantity of milk required to yield one pound of 
 butter is 22 pints. The milk of the Alderney, the Kerry, and of some 
 of the other small breeds of dairy cattle is much richer than this, though 
 of their milk seldom less than 17 pints are required to yield one pound 
 of butter ; indeed, I only know of one published instance in which a less 
 quantity yielded one pound, and that was in a dairy of Kerrys grazed on 
 the rich ever-green pastures of the south-west of Ireland ; in that instance, 
 16 pints of milk regularly yielded one pound of butter." 
 
 In another case the produce of a cow, the result of a cross between a 
 Devon bull and a Nellore cow, was recorded, commencing from the day 
 the cow dropped her third calf, and extending over the whole period of 
 milking. This cow calved again, about two months after she ceased 
 to give milk ; thus, in the period between her third and her fourth calf, 
 she yielded milk during forty-four weeks, and was dry during eight 
 weeks. During the whole of this time her daily food consisted of 
 green fodder 40 lb., ground-nut cake 4 lb., wheat bran 2 lb., and 
 about a dessert-spoonful of salt ; the ground-nut cake was steeped and 
 mixed with the bran, half being given in the morning and half in the 
 evening ; in other respects the treatment was the same as that in the 
 case of the Nellore cow already referred to. The following are the 
 registrations : — 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 i> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 bo 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 '3 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 1 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mrs 
 
 . oiks. 
 
 Mrs. Oiks. 
 
 Mrs. Oiks. 
 
 Pints. 
 
 
 
 Mrs 
 
 oiks. 
 
 Mrs 
 
 Oiks. 
 
 Mrs. 
 
 01k 
 
 J. Knts. 
 
 1st Week.. 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 46 
 
 133 
 
 23ra Week. 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 2nd do. ... 
 
 25 
 
 n 
 
 19 
 
 3i 
 
 44 5 
 
 129 
 
 24th 
 
 do. 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 75 
 
 3rd do. ... 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 41 7 
 
 121 
 
 25th 
 
 do. 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 73 
 
 4th do. ... 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 H 
 
 42 3i 
 
 122 
 
 26th 
 
 do. 
 
 14 
 
 54 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 6th do. ... 
 
 25 
 
 li 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 45 
 
 130 
 
 27th 
 
 do. 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 i: 
 
 75 
 
 6th do. ... 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 40 1 
 
 116 
 
 28th 
 
 do. 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 76 
 
 7th do. ... 
 
 15 
 
 7i 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 30 34 
 
 88 
 
 29th 
 
 do. 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 
 3; 
 
 79 
 
 8th do. ... 
 
 16 
 
 li 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 31 3 
 
 91 
 
 30th 
 
 do. 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 3; 
 
 76 
 
 9th do. ... 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 31 3i 
 
 91 
 
 3l6t 
 
 do. 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 
 10 
 
 '4 
 
 24 
 
 6? 
 
 71 
 
 10th do. ... 
 
 15 
 
 64 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 30 3 
 
 88 
 
 32na 
 
 do. 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 i. 
 
 74 
 
 11th do. ... 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 30 4 
 
 87 
 
 33rd 
 
 do. 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 
 10 
 
 ll 
 
 22 
 
 
 i 64 
 
 12th do. ... 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 28 3 
 
 82 
 
 34th 
 
 do. 
 
 a 
 
 6^ 
 
 10 
 
 
 21 
 
 6: 
 
 63 
 
 13th do. ... 
 
 18 
 
 Si 
 
 14 
 
 4i 
 
 33 2 
 
 96 
 
 35th 
 
 do. 
 
 11 
 
 li 
 
 S 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 
 58 
 
 14th do. ... 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 32 1 
 
 93 
 
 36th 
 
 do. 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 a' 
 
 57 
 
 15th do. ... 
 
 16 
 
 i 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 30 64 
 
 89 
 
 37th 
 
 do. 
 
 10 
 
 1} 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 3) 
 
 t 63 
 
 16th do. ... 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 30 4 
 
 88 
 
 38th 
 
 do. 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 2) 
 
 47 
 
 17th do. ... 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 *i 
 
 31 4 
 
 90 
 
 39th 
 
 do. 
 
 7 
 
 74 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 i3 
 
 40 
 
 18th do. ... 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 30 7 
 
 89 
 
 40th 
 
 do. 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 37 
 
 19th do. ... 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 31 4* 
 
 91 
 
 41st 
 
 do. 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 % 
 
 10 
 
 . 
 
 29 
 
 20th do. ... 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 29 6i 
 
 86 
 
 42nd 
 
 do. 
 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 21st do. ... 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 28 4 
 
 82 
 
 43rd 
 
 do. 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 22nd do. ... 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 27 3 
 
 79 
 
 44th 
 
 do. 
 
 2 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
LIVE STOCK. 77 
 
 It will te observed that the return for the 7th week is 25 per cent, 
 less than the yield of the previous week ; this sudden diminution was 
 due to the cow having heen milked by a person to whom she was 
 not accustomed, the man who always milked her being absent owing to 
 sickness ; this change proved very unfortunate, for though, when the 
 regular milker returned to his duties in the 13th week, the yield some- 
 what improved, it was still very much below what it would have been 
 had not the change referred to occurred. It is necessary to call particular 
 attention to the facts just stated, for, though some cows will give the 
 same quantity of milk to any milker, it is well that it should be known 
 that with some cows a change in their attendant may lead to a very large 
 reduction in the quantity of milk obtained. 
 
 During the first four months of this experiment the calf was allowed 
 to take about one measure of milk daily and about half a measure 
 during the next two months ; this milk was of course not brought 
 to account in the foregoing registrations; it is an advantage in this 
 country to allow the calf access to its mother before and after milking as 
 is customary, for not only does the cow yield her milk more freely, but, 
 what is of more importance, her udder is thoroughly stripped after 
 each milking ; and, with the help of other food, the calf can be reared 
 at a very moderate cost. 
 
 The total quantity of milk yielded was 1,177 measures and 1^ ollocks, 
 or 3,397 imperial pints. The expenditure was as below : — 
 
 RS. A. P. 
 
 365 days green fodder, 40 lb. daily, at 300 lb. 
 
 per rupee . . . . . . . . . . 48 10 8 
 
 365 days ground-nut cake, 4 lb. daily, at 65 lb. 
 
 per rupee 
 365 days bran, 2 lb. daily, at 3 
 Salt, and bedding straw 
 Attendance . . 
 
 .. 22 7 
 
 b. per rupee 22 13 
 
 .. 12 
 
 .. 36 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 Total Es. ,. 141 15 
 
 
 
 The total expense thus amounted to Eupees 141-15-0 ; but from this 
 must be deducted the sum. Rupees 25, realized by the sale of the calf, 
 leaving Eupees 116-15-0 as the cost of 1,177 measures of milk, which is 
 equal to one Anna and seven Pies per measure. A yield of 424| gallons 
 of milk, in the year, is very satisfactory, considering the conditions met 
 with in this country. In Ireland, a cow of the Kerry breed, which is the 
 favorite dairy breed in that country, will jdeld during the year from 
 450 to 500 gallons of milk ; Mr. John Haxton in his book " How to 
 Choose a good Milch Cow " says : — " Mr. Crosby's dairy of Kerry cows 
 at Ardfort Abbey, near Trallee, averaged 42 in number during the seven 
 years ending with 1861, and averaged 488 gallons of milk a-piece, per 
 annum during that time, varying from 411 gallons in 1851 to as much 
 as 542 gallons in 1856," and Mr. Morton in his " Hand-book of Dairy 
 Husbandry " says : — " from these instances, it may be safely gathered 
 that the average yield of well-managed cows varies from 480 to 600 
 gallons of milk a year, according to breed and size, the Kerry under 
 good management yielding the former quantity, and the Yorkshire, 
 short-horned, and cross breeds the latter."' 
 
78 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 The quality of the milk was, throughout the whole period, exceed- 
 ingly good, yielding by volume on the average from 11 to 15 per 
 cent, of cream. 
 
 A daughter of the cow, last referred to, by a Nellore bull, calved 
 when about three years old. The following registrations show her 
 yield of milk, per mensem, during her milking period : — 
 
 
 Mrs. 
 
 Oiks. 
 
 
 Mrs. Oiks. 
 
 Ist Month ... 
 
 2nd do 
 
 3rd do 
 
 4th do 
 
 5th do. 
 
 6th do 
 
 110 
 114 
 106 
 111 
 112 
 115 
 
 VI 
 6i 
 3 
 
 5i 
 
 4i 
 
 7th Month 
 
 8th do. 
 
 9th do. 
 
 10th do. 
 
 nth do. 
 
 12th do. 
 
 Total 3,134 pints or .. 
 
 116 
 102 
 70 
 56 
 40 
 27 
 
 H 
 H 
 
 5i 
 
 1,086 
 
 1 
 
 Considering the age of the cow, the yield of milk was very satis- 
 factory. This cow dropped her first calf on the 13th of August, when, 
 as before noticed, she was only three years old. She was milked during 
 nearly 48 weeks, and had her second calf, scarcely twelve months after 
 the birth of her first ; thus, she had had two calves when just four 
 years old. The foregoing facts show how much good can be effected 
 by using bulls of a superior breed and by providing suitable fodder and 
 other food in sufficient quantity for the cows throughout the year. As 
 a general rule, the cows of this country seldom drop their first calf until 
 they are five or six years old. 
 
 The following statistics, referring to the Aden cow, already alluded 
 to as having been imported in 1874, show conclusively that she is a 
 good milker, for besides yielding the quantity of milk recorded, she reared 
 her calf ; her milk also is excessively rich, yielding butter at the rate of 
 1 lb. to every 16'3 pints of milk, and although this butter is probably 
 not so free from water, &c., as English, the produce compares most 
 favorably with the best English breeds, being better in this respect 
 than that of either of the cows already mentioned. The management 
 of the cow was in this case similar to that followed with the cross-bred 
 cow referred to above. In the month of October 1877 being in season 
 she took the bull and was thus due to calve again in July ; to her being 
 in calf the rapid diminution of the milk after the eighth month may be 
 attributed. The cost of keeping the cow for twelve months may be 
 put down as follows : — 
 
 10,800 lb. of fodder .. 
 1,440 lb. of oil-cake ., 
 720 lb. of bran 
 Attendance and sundries 
 
 BS A. p. 
 
 36 
 
 28 12 10 
 
 14 6 5 
 
 12 4 9 
 
 Rupees 7-10-0 per mensem or per annum Eupees. 91 8 
 
 The following table gives 
 from May 4th, 1877 :— 
 
 the monthly registrations, commencing 
 
LIVE STOCK. 
 
 79 
 
 
 to 
 
 .a 
 g 
 
 bo 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a ■ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 .9 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 Mrs. Oiks. 
 
 Mrs. Oiks. 
 
 Mrs. Oiks. 
 
 Pints. 
 
 
 Mrs. Oiks. 
 
 Mrs. Oiks. 
 
 Mrs, 
 
 Oiks. 
 
 Knts. 
 
 1st Month. 
 
 30 U 
 
 26 
 
 56 U 
 
 171-6 
 
 7th Month. 
 
 43 4J 
 
 39 3 
 
 82 
 
 7 
 
 253-2 
 
 2nd do. 
 
 34 5 
 
 34 2 
 
 68 7 
 
 210-2 
 
 8th do. 
 
 53 7 
 
 30 1 
 
 R4 
 
 
 256-9 
 
 3rd do. 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 72 
 
 219-8 
 
 9th do. 
 
 42 6 
 
 35 t 
 
 77 
 
 6 
 
 337-7 
 
 4th do. 
 
 42 3 
 
 31 2 
 
 73 5 
 
 225-0 
 
 10th do. 
 
 38 
 
 26 l| 
 
 64 
 
 1 
 
 195-9 
 
 5th do. 
 
 43 7 
 
 41 7 
 
 86 6 
 
 261-9 
 
 11th do. 
 
 32 2 
 
 26 5 
 
 58 
 
 7 
 
 179-8 
 
 6th do. 
 
 47 7 
 
 44 7 
 
 92 6 
 
 283-5 
 
 12th do. 
 Total ... 
 
 ^ 14 
 
 8 li 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 46-7 
 
 452 4^ 
 
 379 6^ 
 
 832 
 
 3 
 
 2542-2 
 
 This COW only weighed about five hundred pounds ; so that the total 
 yield, 318 gallons, is very good. In this case the cost of the milk was 
 one Anna and eight Pies per measure, not deducting the value of the 
 calf ; taking this result in conjunction with the data already given, it may 
 fairly be assumed that with care and good feeding any quantity of milk 
 of first-class quality may be produced in Madras at a price below that 
 mentioned. 
 
 It may not be out of place to remark here that the adulteration of milk 
 with water (if the water be good) is, after all, only a minor evil, the loss 
 being only in the pocket. It is a far more serious matter if the milk has 
 been obtained from a cow suffering from disease, or if the water the cow 
 drinks, or that added to the milk, contain minute forms of organized life. 
 Though the ill-effects of di'inking the milk of a cow suffering from 
 disease are not always apparent, especially in the case of adults, there are 
 many well authenticated cases in which disease and death have been 
 traced directly to the ill-effects of drinking diseased milk ; chiefly 
 amongst children, who are the largest consumers of milk in its 
 unprepared state. Eecent microscopic investigations have revealed the 
 fact that, if a cow is allowed to drink impure water (and few dairy 
 cows drink anything else in this part of India) containing animalculse, 
 the same animalculse may be found in its milk. It has been suggested 
 that ofiicers should be appointed to inspect the milk supplied to 
 consumers in Madras, but mere inspection of the milk would be useless. 
 The only effective way would be to inspect the dairy cattle and dairies, 
 and to allow no milk to be sold for consumption except by licensed 
 dairymen. 
 
 Useful though the Lactometre is in ascertaining whether the quality 
 of milk reaches a certain standard, it is not a trustworthy guide as a 
 means of ascertaining the quantity of water fraudiilently added to a 
 sample, if the quantity added is less than 20 per cent, of its volume. 
 Samples of pure milk contain water in various proportions from 80 to 90 
 per cent, and it is almost as easy for the dairyman to water the milk 
 before it leaves the cow, as afterwards by giving the animal succulent 
 watery food, and, in this case, the milk would be none the less pure. 
 
 Butter-maldng. — In endeavoring to discover the best manner of making 
 butter, the following are a few of many experiments made : — 
 
 1. (a) A measure of milk, which had been set aside from the previous 
 night's meal, was when churning commenced at a temperature 
 of 81°. The butter was a long time in appearing, and was 
 collected with great difficulty ; the total yield being only three- 
 
80 i.ivt: sTi.cK. 
 
 iquarters of an ounce. The milk in this instance underwent 
 no preparation before being churned ; it was slightly soured, 
 but this was caused by natural agencies. 
 
 (h) Another experiment of the same kind (excepting that, in this 
 instance, the milk was artificially heated to 110° just after 
 being taken from the cow) was made with two measures of 
 milk, and the total yield of butter was only one and a quarter 
 ounces. 
 
 2. A measure of milk, fresh from the cow, was placed in the churn, 
 
 its natural temperature at the time being nearly 100^; cold 
 water was added, reducing the temperature to 85°. After 
 churning for upwards of half an hour, the butter at length 
 appeared, but the total yield was only half an ounce. 
 
 3. (a) A measure of milk, immediately after it left the cow, was 
 
 artificially heated to 110° ; about one fluid ounce of churn milk 
 from the previous churning was then added, and the whole 
 placed aside in an ordinary milk bowl. Next morning when 
 churning commenced the temperatuj'e was 84°. The butter 
 was a very long time in appearing, nearly a full hour, and 
 the total yield was only one and a quarter ounces. The 
 quantity of churn milk used was evidently far in excess of the 
 requirement ; the milk had assumed such a coagulated 
 condition, that it was exceedingly difficult to separate the 
 butter from the curd. 
 (6) The experiment was again made with two measures of milk, 
 less of the churn milk being used. The butter appeared in 
 much less time, and the total weight obtained was four 
 ounces. 
 
 (c) The experiment was again performed with the same quantity of 
 milk, still less of the churn milk being used. The butter 
 came within 20 minutes, and the yield was four and a half 
 ounces. 
 
 {d) The experiment was repeated with the same quantity of fresh 
 milk several times, with varjdng quantities of churn milk, 
 until, with from six to ten drops per measure, five ounces of 
 butter were regularly obtained, generally within 15 minutes 
 from the time of commencing to churn. In very hot weather 
 a smaller quantity of churn milk was found to be enough, but 
 in cold weather (when the temperature of the milk was less 
 than 70°) one fluid ounce per measure was not too much. 
 
 Based on these experiments, the following advice is given on the 
 subject. Immediately on receipt from the cow of the morning's milk 
 strain, and measure it, putting the quantity needed for butter in a tin 
 can, which should then be placed over boiling water in an open chatty, 
 on a charcoal fire, the milk heated to 1 2U° and then emptied into a 
 bowl ; before cooling add from six drops to one fluid ounce of chum 
 milk per measure, as the weather is hot or cold ; then place the milk 
 aside in as cool a place as can be provided (though a hot dry place is 
 greatly preferable to a cool damp place). The milk obtained at the 
 evening milking should be treated in a similar manner, excepting that a 
 few additional drops of chum milk must be added. Next morning both 
 lots of milk should be put together into the chum. If the temperature 
 of the milk is over 80° cold water should be added to it ; but care must 
 be exercised not to fill the chum more than two-thirds full. To keep 
 down the temperature of the milk (which will rise during churning) the 
 
LIA'E STOCK. 
 
 81 
 
 churn* should be placed in a chatty of cold water, and chui-ning 
 commenced by raising and depressing the plunger — for the first five 
 minutes, at about 50 strokes per minute ; for the second five minutes, 
 at about 80 per minute ; and, when the butter begins to come, at about 
 120 per minute. Butter generally begins to appear in 12 or 15 minutes 
 after commencing to chum. Do not remove any until a moderate 
 quantity has acciunulated ; and then continue churning for about five 
 minutes after the first butter is removed, when a second supply may be 
 taken out, and the churning again resumed for about five minutes 
 longer, or until all the butter is finally obtained, the whole operation 
 generally lasting fi'om 20 to 30 minutes. Great nicety is required in 
 removing the butter, and, in manipulating it afterwards, and such a degree 
 of cleanliness is demanded that one shudders to think of the preparation 
 butter must undergo at the hands of the ordinary dairyman. After 
 removal from the chum, the butter should be thoroughly washed with cool 
 filtered water, and, during the operation, worked with a bamboo paddle. 
 To facilitate the washing operation, cold water may be placed in a 
 goglet fixed over the vessel containing the butter, the bottom of the 
 goglet being perforated with holes of sufficient size to allow a gentle 
 flow of water over the butter; the washings pass over the sides 
 of the bowl, and can be collected in a vessel beneath. This operation, 
 when carefully performed, need not occupy more than 10 minutes. In 
 this manner as good butter as any ever tasted has been and may be 
 made ; the flavour of the essential oils being effectually preserved. If 
 ice is used, butter-making is much less tedious. 
 
 SHEEP. — The foundation of the Saidapet breed of sheep can be 
 traced to a mixture of the Patna, Nellore, Mysore, and Coimbatore 
 breeds. The proportion in which the flock was originally mixed is not 
 known; but in 1868 there were only 11 Patna ewes in the flock of 75 ; 
 two rams, however, of the same breed seem to have been largely used in 
 crossing at that time. The flock was however nearly trebled in 1869 by 
 the piirchase of a large number of country ewes, so that the proportion 
 of good animals was reduced ; from this nimiber the ewes were selected 
 to form the nucleus for the flock from which the breed has since descended 
 directly, no new blood having been introduced ; the improvement which 
 has been affected having been brought about by carefully weeding out 
 inferior sheep and by the use of the best rams available. In fact a 
 system of in-and-in breeding has been followed. 
 
 In the early days of the experiment, 1870, it was fovmd that the 
 Nellores did not thrive so well on artificial keep as the Patna and 
 Mysore breeds ; during the dry parching weather experienced in 
 April, May and June, a considerable number of Nellore sheep died, and 
 the whole of them were much out of condition, while the Patna and 
 Mysore sheep, the Patnas more particularly, though grazed with the 
 NeUores and fed on the same food, suffered very little, and were always in 
 fair condition. A few Mysore sheep died ; but very few in proportion to 
 the number of Nellores. Of all the breeds, Nellore, Patna, Mysore, and 
 Coimbatore, the Patna is undoubtedly the best. It comes earlier to 
 maturity, feeds more rapidly, and gives a greater percentage of mutton. 
 
 * An ordinary atmospheric chum is referred to. 
 
 11 
 
ti-J. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 The chief characteristics of the Saidapet breed are that it comes 
 earlier to maturity ; gives a larger percentage of flesh for the food it 
 consumes ; and has a much better constitution than any known Native 
 breed. The covering of wool is fair, but, as must be expected in these 
 scorching plains, not of first rate quality. In 1872, it was observed 
 regarding sheep of this breed : — 
 
 "We have produced two year old sheep, weighing from 110 to 120 
 pounds live weight, capable of yielding 50 lbs. of mutton, worth (at Annas 
 4 per lb.) 12^ Rupees ; and these are from a flock of country ewes, many 
 of which at the time the experiment commenced would not have realized 
 2 Rupees each in the market. Indeed nearly 100 were sold at prices 
 ranging between Ij Rupees and 2 Rupees per head, some difficulty being 
 experienced in getting even these prices." 
 
 In the next year a few sheep of this breed, which in size and 
 form had not fully realised the expectations formed concerning them, 
 were killed for mutton with the following results : — 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Legs 
 
 Loins 
 
 Shoulders, necka, and breasts 
 
 Total weight mutton 
 
 lb. 
 
 10-66 
 15-33 
 17-50 
 
 43-49 
 
 Percentage 
 of Total. 
 
 24-51 
 35-25 
 4fl-24 
 
 100-00 
 
 None of these sheep had been specially fattened ; they had been 
 fed along with and in the same manner as the store sheep. They were 
 in good average condition, their mutton being well mixed with fat, and 
 tender. These weights are not great, indeed they could have been 
 greatly increased had this been desirable ; neither were the joints 
 unusually heavy ; the mutton was worthy of notice rather for its fine 
 grain, its fair proportion of fat and lean, its flavor, and the large propor- 
 tion of flesh to bone, than for anything else. 
 
 There are now on the Farm some excellent sheep of this breed, and, 
 what is equally satisfactory, the sheep are perfectly hardy and quite 
 fitted for the hottest climates. Though as the experiment proceeds the 
 quality of the sheep -will gradually improve and the good points which 
 characterize the breed -will become gradually more fixed, a good many 
 years must yet elapse before the breed can become thoroughly established. 
 In view to the saving of time, it would be well to procure from Northern 
 Australia, or Southern Europe, a few rams of a short- wooUed breed, in 
 order that by judicious crossing the desired results may be hastened. 
 
 Wool production. — When the experiment was commenced, the wool 
 yielded by most of the sheep was exceedingly coarse and almost quite 
 straight ; it is now finer and is a great deal more curled. There is, of 
 course, very much yet to be done before the average quality of the wool 
 will be even moderately good, but the improvement that has been effected 
 is very encouraging. 
 
 At one time it was feared that in this hot climate but little could 
 be done towards improving the quality of wool ; but, though intense 
 
LIVE STOCK. 
 
 83 
 
 heat is a great drawback, we possess one advantage over people resident 
 in a cold climate in being able to grow crops throughout the year for 
 sheep-food and this is a very important advantage in wool growing. 
 When sheep are alternately starved and overfed, their wool is always 
 very irregular in strength and quality, the portion produced during the 
 period when food is scarce being always weak. As our experiments 
 have shown that we can produce green food throughout the year, there 
 is no reason why we should not ultimately produce fine wool ; it must 
 be remembered that some of the finest wools produced in the world are 
 grown in countries where the temperature has a very high range, in 
 Australia for instance. 
 
 In 1872, the following valuation of the wool of this breed was made by 
 a professional London wool-broker. 
 
 " The two samples of wool sent to us for valuation are ' fair ;' ' East Indian 
 Yellows' worth here from lid. to ll^d. per pound." 
 
 In comparison with the value of the wool produced in the colonies, 
 this wool is certainly not a valuable kind, stiU the diiierence in value is 
 not so great as might have been expected ; thus, when this wool waa 
 valued, the following rates were quoted in the London "Wool Market 
 Report : — 
 
 Ordinary per lb. 
 
 Queensland and New South Wales 
 
 Victoria 
 
 Tasmania . . 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 2 
 
 The best colonial wool in unbroken fleeces was then selling at from 
 two, shillings and four pence to three shillings per pound. The rates 
 quoted above are for wools, classed as " broken pieces and locks," to 
 which class the wool submitted for valuation belonged. 
 
 In May 1877, when the experiment may be said to have been in 
 operation more than nine years, the following statistics, showing the 
 condition of the flock, were collected : — 
 
 Bams. 
 
 No. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Average 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Average 
 
 Yield of 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Ewes. 
 
 No. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Average. 
 Weight. 
 
 Average 
 
 Yield of 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Lambs 
 
 Shearling 
 
 2 Shear 
 
 3 Shear 
 Aged ... 
 Average 
 
 28 
 
 47 
 66 
 
 6913 
 69-7 
 
 58-74 
 
 lb. 
 
 Not 
 shorn. 
 1'76 lb. 
 2-28 „ 
 2-25 „ 
 1-78 „ 
 1-94 „ 
 
 27 
 
 Lambs 
 
 34 
 
 Shearling... 
 
 23 
 
 2 Shear ... 
 
 6 
 
 3 Shear ... 
 
 78 
 
 Aged 
 
 i4i 
 
 Average . . , 
 
 25-6 lb. 
 
 39-6 
 
 48 
 
 48-3 „ 
 
 53-55 „ 
 
 49-05 „ 
 
 Average of 211 sheep of all ages, excepting lambs 
 
 52-27 lb. 
 
 f Not 
 i shorn. 
 1-6 lb. 
 1-77 „ 
 1-58 „ 
 1-29 „ 
 1-45 „ 
 
 1-62 lb. 
 
 It was at that time observed that " the wool produced this year 
 shows on the whole an improvement in quality, and the sheep were far 
 better covered, there being an absence of the bare necks and breasts that 
 were foi-merly so common." The value of the wool in the local market 
 
Si 
 
 LITF, STOCK. 
 
 had increased considerably, for, instead of only 1| Annas per pound, 
 •the rate obtained in 1871, 2 J Annas were realized, showing an increased 
 value of 66 per cent. The amount of yield per sheep did not average 
 quite as high as the clip did in 1871, when 120 sheep averaged 1'81 lb. ; 
 this being probably due in a great measui-e to the scarcity of ^rass with 
 which the season had been charad;erized, whilst the number shorn was 
 in this case nearly double. 
 
 For every ten pounds of live weight, the sheep produced on aa 
 average 4'95 ounces of wool, an amount which compares not unfavorably 
 with that yielded by the English short-woolled breeds of sheep. Tho 
 following table shows the yield of wool per ten pounds live-weight by 
 sheep of diffei^ent sexes at various ages. 
 
 Sliearlings. 
 
 2. Shear. 
 
 3 Shear. 
 
 Aged. 
 
 Average. 
 
 Bams ... 
 
 Ewes 
 
 oz. 
 
 5-99 
 
 6-46 
 
 oz. 
 5'53 
 5-90 
 
 oz. 
 5-21 
 5-23 
 
 oz. 
 409 
 3-85 
 
 oz. 
 6-28 
 4-73 
 
 An attempt was made in 1874 to introduce the Chinese breed of 
 sheep, with the intention of using it for crossing on the Saidapet breed, 
 The experiment proved that the heat of the climate is too great for the 
 sheep of this breed, even when every care is taken to keep them from 
 direct exposure to the heat of the sun. This result was unfortunate, as 
 the breed possesses many valuable qualities, some of which it is desirable 
 should be stamped on the sheep of So.uthem India, amongst these 
 characteristics are a great length and depth of frame .; ribs remarkably 
 well arched ; a fair yield of very fine and lustrous wool ; and great 
 prolificacy. 
 
 Management of the flock. — In the early da-ys of the farm it was 
 arranged that the lambing season should commence shortly after the 
 rains, when there is an abundance of grass, but owing to the ewes 
 consuming a large quantity of this immature succulent fodder, their 
 milk being rendered injurious to young lambs, many deaths were caused : 
 since then the lambing season has been made to commence at about the 
 end of January. The management of the ewe flock is as follows ; it is 
 generally sorted over once a-year, those animals of a bad form or color, 
 or otherwise inferior, as well as any that have lost their teeth, being 
 taken out of the flock and put aside for fattening. In September the 
 ewes that remain in the flock are, with a number of gimmers then about 
 thirty months old, put with the ram ; about forty ewes being placed 
 with one : the breast of the ram is colored to mark the ewes in a way 
 that enables the shepherd to detect readily those which have been 
 served. The lambs are born about five months after, generally about 
 90 per cent, of the ewes proving to be in lamb. The ewes when about 
 to lamb are placed in covered pens, where they are kept imtil their lambs 
 are about three weeks old, after which they are again put with the flock 
 in the sheepfold. All males that do not promise to turn out 
 well are castrated when about six weeks old, or are sold as lambs. 
 When about three months old the lambs are weaned from their mothers, 
 about a fortnight's separation sufficing for this, after which the wether 
 
LIVE STOCK. 
 
 85 
 
 and gimmer lambs are grazed in the flock with the ewes, the ram lambs 
 being placed by themselves. 
 
 During the season of the year when night dews are heavy, the sheep 
 do not leave the pens in the morning until the greater part of the dew 
 has disappeared ; it having been found, when the sheep were turned out 
 too early in the morning to feed upon grass heavily covered with dew, 
 that a number of them were invariably attacked by dysentery of a 
 severe type. During the hottest part of the day the sheep return to 
 the fold for a few hours^ and again go to graze until about five in the 
 evening, when they again return and receive about half a pound of 
 ground-nut cake per head, and are shut up for the night. During very 
 dry weather they receive, in addition to the cake, a small quantity of 
 green food, but they are maintained chiefly by the food they gather 
 when grazing. The sheep thus fed are kept in a thriving condition ; 
 they are, of course, not fit for the butcher, but they are generally in 
 the condition that it is most desirable for breeding stock to be. 
 
 The sheep are generally clipped in April or May, which is the best 
 time of the year for the purpose. When the ewes are being clipped, it is 
 usual to mark the lambs in a way to render their identification easy ; 
 in the farm flock this is done by cutting a small notch with a pair of 
 shears in the cartilage of one ear of each. 
 
 PIGS — have been constantly, until a quite recent date, kept on 
 the farm, the breed having been derived from imported English pigs 
 picked up in Madras and from ships visiting the port. If pigs receive 
 proper attention, there is, perhaps, no more useful agricultural stock in 
 this country, but, as generally managed by the natives, pigs are the 
 scavengers of the villages ; hence the disrepute into which country pork 
 has fallen. It should, however, be generally known that the cattle and 
 sheep of the ryots, when kept in a half famished state, are quite as filthy in 
 their habits. Pigs that are properly housed and fed are almost as cleanly 
 in their habits as cattle or sheep under similar conditions. 
 
 They are admirably suited for keeping to supply the wants of 
 European households ou coffee estates and in other places where it is 
 almost impossible to get butcher meat fit to eat, as they can be reared 
 under conditions quite unsuited for rearing sheep, and under artificial 
 feeding a pound of pork can always be produced at a cost very much 
 lower than a pound of mutton. 
 
 In 1873, the following statement, referring to four small well- 
 fattened pigs, which shows the proportion of each kind of joint that 
 several pigs afforded, was prepared : — 
 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Percent, of 
 
 Average 
 
 Total Weight. 
 
 Legs 
 
 Loins ... 
 
 Shoulders 
 
 Necks and breasts 
 
 Total weight of Pork.., 
 
 LB. 
 20 
 40 
 18 
 12i 
 
 LB. 
 
 19 
 35 
 17 
 10 
 
 LB, 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 LB. 
 
 23 
 
 44 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 LB. 
 
 19-50 
 
 39-75 
 
 18-75 
 
 11-37 
 
 21-82 
 
 44-48 
 20-98 
 12 72 
 
 901 
 
 81 
 
 86 
 
 100 
 
 89-37 
 
 10000 
 
86 I.IVE STOCK. 
 
 It will be observed that the coarser and inferior parts of these pigs 
 (necks, breasts, &c.), weighed less than 13 per cent, of the entire weight 
 of pork jdelded by each pig ; this was very satisfactory, as it proved that 
 the pig stock at the farm had not degenerated, though it was many 
 years since the original stock had been brought from Europe. 
 
 Originally the pigs were kept in ordinary styes floored with 
 asphalte, the styes being provided with urine tanks ; this arrangement 
 was in operation for several years, and seemed to be as good as 
 could be devised ; however, the results never nvere satisfactory. The 
 urine made ruts in the asphalte, and never passed entirely into the 
 tanks, stagnating on the floors and causing a very ojBfensive 
 smell in the proximity of the styes ; but the chief fault was a liability 
 of the pigs reared in these styes to go lame, generally when about 
 half grown ; so common was this, that it was only with the utmost 
 care that it was possible to rear a sound pig ; covering the asphalte 
 with sand or with straw was alike useless, for owing to the slope of the 
 floors the covering always washed down from the higher level. It 
 is difficult to explain why asphalte is thus injurious to pigs ; probably, 
 the injury, is to some extent, due to the non-absorptive property of the 
 substance, moisture remaining a long time on its surface dming damp 
 weather, and thus generating rheumatism and similar complaints, to the 
 attacks of which pigs are very liable. 
 
 Asphalte having been found to be unsuitable for flooring, it was 
 determined to try the loose-box system, which had already been found 
 to produce such good results with cattle. The results were so satisfactory 
 that ever since pigs have always been kept in loose boxes with 
 ordinary earthern floors. The boxes vary in area from 200 to 
 400 square feet ; the former being the size allowed for a large 
 sow and litter, the latter for five or six half grown sows or hogs. 
 The roof of the shed first used in this manner was supported on brick 
 and chunam pillars about 6 feet in height ; a rail fence about 4 feet 
 high surrounding the whole building, and the divisions or boxes being 
 formed by partition railings. The floors were sunk about IJ feet 
 below the level of the surrounding ground, precautions being taken 
 to prevent surface water from flowing in ; and the eaves of the roof 
 projected about 2 feet, so that the roof water fell clear and did not 
 get into the bedding. At starting, a layer of ashes was spread 
 over the floor of the box, and afterwards bedding to the depth of 5 or 
 6 inches. The pigs were then allowed to enter the pens. On this 
 system in the course of a few days the bedding is trodden down to half 
 its former height and is more or less solidified according as the pigs are 
 large or small. It is then only necessary to add a slight surface dressing 
 of bedding when needed. In this way both the liquid and solid manure 
 is all retained in the straw, and the under-stratum made into an excellent 
 manure, the surface being as clean-looking as could be desired, while 
 there is an entire absence of smell. 
 
 At one time several of the best sows appeared to have become 
 permanently barren, and thoughts were entertained of selling them to 
 the butcher. Their diet was changed several times, and more exercise 
 was given them ; but no good results followed. As a last resource they 
 were supplied daily with a few pounds of cholum fodder in a green 
 succulent state ; the results were as satisfactory as could be desired. 
 
LIVE STOCK. 
 
 87 
 
 Probably any succulent vegetable would answer the same purpose as 
 cholum. The only caution to observe is not to give so much green food 
 as will cause any irregularity in the digestive organs of the animal. 
 
 Great care must be taken at certain seasons of the year to protect 
 pigs from the sun, for they are far more liable to its injurious effects 
 than is generally supposed. If exposed they are liable to suiier from 
 apoplectic attacks, which very often carry them off ; if taken in time the 
 best treatment is the application of cold water. 
 
 An unsuccessful attempt was made in 1874 to introduce some Chinese 
 pigs ; for although two boars, two sows, and four young pigs of the 
 smaller breed were received in good health, the original importations 
 succumbed to the heat, and trieir cross bred progeny to a disease of 
 the lungs. 
 
 POULTRY. — A cross between the Brahmapootra cock and Dorking 
 hen, imported from Sydney in 1868, was highly appreciated. These 
 fowls were widely spread over the Presidency. In appearance, they 
 were more like the Brahmapootra than the Dorking ; being about 
 the size of the former, with generally dark grey plumage ; they 
 frequently had yellow legs, seldom but more than four toes on each 
 foot, and were generally heavily feathered about the feet and lower 
 part of the legs. They throve well in the plains, and during the hot 
 season did not appear to suffer more than indigenous breeds of poultry. 
 When properly fed they were good layers and their eggs were much larger 
 than those of the country hen. They could be fed up to six or seven 
 pounds weight at nine or ten months old ; their flesh was good, but not 
 qtute equal to that of the Dorking. 
 
 Four chickens from one brood, when four months and three days 
 old, averaged 4^ lb. in weight ; these chickens, however, were fed on hard 
 boiled eggs, raw meat, bran, paddy, &c., and were of a much larger size 
 than is usually obtained under ordinary feeding. To illustrate the great 
 importance of giving proper food to fowls, a brood of chickens was 
 divided, one-half was fed according to the usual native custom, that is, 
 the chickens were left pretty much to themselves, and had only an 
 occasional hand- full of paddy or rice thrown to them ; at six months 
 old, these chickens only averaged 2^ lb. per head ; whilst the others 
 which had been regularly fed, though only on very ordinary food, 
 averaged nearly 4 lb. per head. 
 
 Ground-nut oil cake mixed with bran in the proportion of one to 
 two by weight, forms a most excellent diet for fattening poultry. 
 Fowls fatten rapidly on this food, and the flesh of those so fed is superior 
 to the flesh of grain-fed fowls. 
 
 With the exception of some Brahma-Dorking birds given to the 
 people of the Wudder settlement as narrated further on, it has been 
 usual to charge the full value for poultry obtained from this farm, 
 but if it be found possible to extend largely the practice followed in the 
 case of the Wudders and to distribute male birds of improved breeds 
 gratuitously to the headmen of villages under certain conditions, a great 
 amount of good may probably be done at a very moderate cost. It is 
 true that in many localities, from the absence of natural food during 
 a considerable period in the year, and the neglect of the people in 
 
8S i.iVF ^;-ir>( K. 
 
 providing proper food, superior breeds of poiiltry would degenerate, but 
 there are many localities, in which natural food is abundant throughout 
 the greater part of the year, that might be selected for the experiment 
 suggested. 
 
 The experiment already referred to was commenced in 1871 in 
 the "Wudder village, at that time situated on the Farm Estate, the 
 object being to improve the breed of fowls reared by the villagers for the 
 market. The village contained about 150 families of Wudders, and the 
 greater number of these kept fowls. The Wudders promised that, if 
 a certain number of cocks of the improved breed were supplied to them, 
 they would take great care of them and would not sell or kill them, 
 while they would kill every cock of the country breed belonging to the 
 village. Of this experiment it was observed in 1872: — 
 
 " They have kept their promise very fairly. There are still a few cocks 
 of the old breed in the village, but these they promise to kill, as soon as the 
 full number of cocks promised to them has been supplied. At first, the 
 experiment promised to be anything but successful. Several of the first 
 batch of birds died shortly after they came into the possession of the 
 Wudders ; for a time it was difficult to understand this ; however, a little 
 inquiry convinced me that it was entirely owing to the wretched accommo- 
 dation provided for the fowls at night. I found that eight or nine, and 
 sometimes more fowls, were confined from sunset until sunrise in a brick 
 and mud erection measuring about 3 feet each way outside measure, and 
 certainly not containing 8 cubic feet of space inside. This place, as soon as 
 the fowls were put inside, was almost hermetically sealed, there being 
 scarcely a single aperture for ventilating purposes. The dead birds presented 
 all the appearance of having been sufi'ocated. It was not in the least 
 surprising that birds which had been reared with care, and which had been 
 housed at night in a well- ventilated apartment, should be sufi'ocated in the 
 place provided for them by the Wudders, even though, in these same places, 
 fowls of the country breed seemed to sufier little or nothing. However, 
 the difficulty of getting ventilation without admitting snakes and other foes 
 to the birds has been overcome, chiefiy, I believe, by introducing a long 
 bamboo tube in the roof of the roosting place. The fowls now appear to be 
 thriving. There are, at the present time, about 150 chickens of the new 
 cross. These chickens are generally light-colored, and are much larger than 
 chickens of the country breed." 
 
 A year later on the same subject it was remarked : — 
 
 " The experiment in improving the breed of poultry in the Wudder 
 village has not been attended with as good results during the past year as 
 could be wished. The people cannot, or wiU not, separate the half-grown 
 fowls from those that are fully grown ; the consequence is that the young 
 hens begin to lay before they ought, which is most effective inputting a stop 
 to any further growth. Early breeding is the great difficulty. The results 
 of the experiment are, however, so far satisfactory that a 6-months' old 
 half-bred fowl is as heavy as a 12-months' old country fowl. To ascertain 
 what had been done towards improving the breed of fowls in the village, the 
 people were asked a few months ago to exhibit their half-bred poultry at the 
 farm yard on the Experimental Farm, a promise having been made to them 
 that a number of small prizes would be distributed to the owners of the best 
 birds. There were 30 entries for the competition ; these consisted of 
 cocks 20, hens 27, chickens 20 ; total 67. Several of the birds shown were 
 really very good. The people said that they would have been able to have 
 exhibited a very much larger numher of half-bred poultry, had not great 
 
LIVE STOCK. 89 
 
 numbers been stolen from the village during the fev weeks previous, and 
 they added that it was only by the exercise of great watchfulness on their 
 part that they were able to keep any of their fowls of the improved breed, 
 as thieves were so frequently on the look out for them. They requested 
 that they might be provided with a further supply of cocks of the European 
 breed. As long as the people attach so much importance to early laying, 
 we cannot effect any lasting improvement in the breed of poultry kept by 
 them. At the time the poultry were being exhibited in competition for 
 prizes, I was sorry to notice how anxious the people were to direct attention 
 to what they considered valuable in the half-bred fowls, namely, their early 
 laying propensities : one man seemed much disappointed because he did 
 not get a prize for a fowl he exhibited, which he declared was only three 
 months old, and yet had laid several eggs ; the hen was probably a little 
 older than the age mentioned by its owner, still it was but a chicken, and 
 was permanently spoiled by laying so early in life. The eggs exhibited of 
 the half-bred fowls were not so good as I had expected to see ; indeed, 
 they were but very little larger than the ordinary country eggs ; however 
 the birds which laid them were all very young, and the size of the eggs 
 wiU doubtless increase as the birds get older. In size and in quality the 
 half-bred fowls were a very decided improvement on the fowls of the 
 country breed previously kept in the village." 
 
 Shortly after the batch of fowls, referred to above, had been 
 inspected, a successful experiment was made to breed back from the cross 
 to the Dorking. It seems scarcely necessary to observe that by breeding 
 back in this way a pure bred Dorking never can be obtained, but, after a 
 few years' successful breeding, so as to fix the type, the bird produced 
 ■will so nearly resemble the pure bred Dorking that it will be impossi- 
 ble to distinguish it from one. By selection from a brood of chickens, 
 which showed the characteristic marks of the Dorking, and by carefully 
 raising their progeny, in three years a brood of fowls was established, 
 equal in most respects to the Dorking. They were very handsome 
 birds, and as well suited to the climate of Madras, as the indigenous 
 fowls of the district. The color of their plumage was a silver grey, and 
 they were as large as the birds of the Brahma cross, but much more 
 economical for the table, as, from their shorter legs and necks, there was 
 less of the coarser parts, while the breast and most valuable parts were 
 heavily covered with flesh. These fowls produSed much larger eggs 
 than country fowls, while they laid quite as many ; an average sized 
 egg weighing about 2^ oz., wlule an ordinary country egg only weighs 
 about 1 oz. 
 
 The effects of the climate, however, told on the original cross- 
 bred fowls imported, and, after seven or eight years, they had so 
 degenerated that it was considered advisable to obtain a fresh supply 
 from Australia : the fowls of the second batch were, however, very 
 inferior to those previously imported. At the same time some Aylesbury 
 ducks were obtained, and during the same year (1875) a batch of ducks 
 was obtained from Pekin. The latter reached Madras in excellent 
 health ; the breed is a very fine one, the birds being more like 
 small geese than ducks. These ducks have been perfectly healthy since 
 they arrived at the farm ; they are very prolific layers, and their eggs 
 are large, some weighing as much as 3 oz. ; however, after laying almost 
 continuously for nearly six months they stopped, and have not again 
 
 12 
 
90 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 eommenoed to lay to any extent, the extreme heat having apparently 
 been too great for them, although their health has been good. Some 
 average-sized eggs from these importations weighed as below : — 
 
 7 Peldn duck egga , . 
 6 Aylesbury duck eggs 
 
 8 Brahma-dorkiiig fowls' eggs 
 
 "Weight. 
 
 Average 
 
 Weight per 
 
 Egg. 
 
 oz. 
 19-03 
 
 9-74 
 13-73 
 
 oz. 
 2-71 
 1-94 
 1-71 
 
FOODS AND FEEDING. 91 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FOODS AND FEEDING. 
 
 FEEDING. — In selecting food for any kind of stock, the species 
 and age of the animal to be fed and the object with which it is being fed 
 must be remembered. Thus, the ox can digest more woody fibre in a 
 food than the sheep, whilst the pig seems to be incapable of digesting 
 it at aU ; cattle from the size of their stomachs require a bulky food 
 and a considerable amoimt of water ; sheep, on the contrary, do not 
 require so large a volume of food, nor do they require so much water, 
 in proportion to their size. Artificial foods, whilst they are most valu- 
 able auxiliaries, should not alone constitute the food of sheep. The 
 pig has been proved to make the most use of his food in assimilating it 
 into his structure, and thus fattens easily and quickly, and repays the use 
 of rich foods. If animals are young and in a growing state they require 
 a larger and more concentrated supply of food for their size than older 
 animals ; they require a more higmy nitrogenized food for the develop- 
 ment of their tissues ; and they extract from food a larger amount of its 
 mineral constituents for the formation of their bones, &c. In fattening 
 cattle and sheep, when the wear and tear is reduced to a minimum and 
 the object is to increase the amount of flesh and fat, substances rich in 
 oil, starch, gum, sugar, &c., produce the best results. Milch cattle 
 should always be liberally fed with green fodder, as it causes an increase 
 in the quantity of the rnilk produced ; if the production of butter be 
 the object in view, the use of foods containing a high percentage of oily 
 matters has an effect in increasing the amount ; should cheese be the 
 desideratum, the use of leguminous crops, such as gram, owing to the 
 fact that cheese is chiefly composed of casein (the nitrogenous part of 
 milk), will cause an increase of the constituent required. 
 
 Pasture. — In Southern India natural pasture is generally very 
 poor, the natural grasses being all, as far as is known, harsh, coarse and 
 wiry. The pasture lands are most unevenly distributed and no endeav- 
 ours are ever made to improve them. The growth of forage crops 
 is a branch of husbandry ignored, if known, and at any rate unpractised ; 
 fodder raising is however a remunerative branch of agricidture, although 
 the proflts from it are not to be immediately counted out in rupees ; 
 but are to be found in the larger supplies of organic manure so much 
 required in this famine-stricken land, in the greater number, the better 
 health, the earlier maturity, fuller development, greater power, and 
 stronger constitutions of the livestock. 
 
 Artificial, that is specially cultivated grasses are never grown, 
 although an unrivalled one exists in guinea-grass; whilst the Indian 
 cultivator possesses a variety of fodder crops such as would delight the 
 
92 
 
 FOODS AND FEEDING. 
 
 heart of agrionlturists in less favored countries. While the agriculturists 
 of this country have so long recognized the advantage of folding sheep 
 at night on arable land, it is strange that the importance of providing 
 green food for their consumption on the land has not long ere this 
 been recognized. There is nothing in the practice, that is prejudicial 
 to caste, or noxious to their feelings. 
 
 Fodders. — To test the proportionate feeding value of the fodders 
 mentioned, the experiment recorded belovs' was made with four bullocks, 
 aged from four to six years, in loose boxes. The animals received as 
 much green food as they could consume, the same quantity of com 
 and cake being given to each ; the following were the results : — 
 
 Dates of Weighing. 
 
 Bullock fed on 
 Cholum Fodder. 
 
 Bullock fed 
 on Grass. 
 
 Bullock fed on 
 Guinea-grass. 
 
 Bullock fed on 
 Gram Fodder. 
 
 February 2nd 
 Do. 12th 
 Do. 22nd 
 March 4th 
 Do. 14th 
 Do. 24th 
 
 Increase 
 
 LB. 
 
 843 
 840 
 335 
 359 
 867 
 383 
 
 LB. 
 
 384 
 406 
 415 
 423 
 431 
 430 
 
 LB. 
 
 287 
 304 
 310 
 315 
 329 
 331 
 
 LB. 
 360 
 375 
 375 
 385 
 396 
 403 
 
 40 lb., 
 or 12 per cent. 
 
 46 lb., 
 or 12 per cent. 
 
 44 lb., 
 or 15 per cent. 
 
 43 lb., 
 or 12 per cent. 
 
 Comparative cost of 
 fodder. 
 
 26 
 
 100 
 
 70 
 
 30 
 
 The result from guinea-grass is probably larger than will generally be 
 obtained, guinea-grass has never again given such returns. 
 
 An idea is prevalent amongst the ryots of this neighbourhood that 
 cattle will not eat eumboo straw. They certainly do not care for the 
 dry eumboo straw which has matured its grain ; but they are quite as 
 fond of it in the green state as they are of green cholum and other 
 green fodders. The following experiment was made with green cholum 
 and green eumboo straw : — 
 
 Date of Weighing. 
 
 July 18th 
 Do. 28th 
 Increase 
 
 Bullock fed on 
 
 Green Cumboo 
 
 Fodder. 
 
 Bullock fed on 
 
 Green Cholum 
 
 Fodder. 
 
 LB. 
 
 802 
 
 310 
 
 8 
 
 LB. 
 
 214 
 
 217 
 
 3 
 
 This experiment was conducted over much too short a period to 
 produce results of any practical value. It however proved, what 
 further experience has confirmed, that not only will cattle eat green 
 cumboo fodder, but that they will thrive upon it. 
 
 The following experiment was made to determine the value 
 of gram fodder, in comparison with the grass usually cut for horses, 
 and cholum fodder. Three lots, each lot containing the same number of 
 
rOODS AND FEEDIWG. 
 
 93 
 
 sheep, were put up-to feed, and weighed at the end of every ten days. 
 Each lot received the same quantity of corn and cake and as much 
 green food as the animals could consume. The results were : — 
 
 
 Average AVeight 
 
 Average Weight 
 
 Average Weight 
 
 Date of Weighing. 
 
 of Sheep fed on 
 
 of Sheep fed 
 
 of Sheep fed on 
 
 
 Cholum Fodder. 
 
 on Grass. 
 
 Gram Fodder. 
 
 1870. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 February 2nd 
 
 39-8 
 
 40-0 
 
 39-8 
 
 Do. 12th 
 
 40-6 
 
 400 
 
 40-6 
 
 Do. 22nd 
 
 420 
 
 39-2 
 
 42-5 
 
 March 4th 
 
 43-4 
 
 41-4 
 
 43-4 
 
 Do. 14th 
 
 45-2 
 
 44-8 
 
 45-2 
 
 Do. a4th 
 
 Increase ... 
 
 460 
 
 45-8 
 
 47-5 
 
 6-2 lb., 
 
 5-8 lb., 
 
 7-7 lb., 
 
 
 or 15'5 per cent. 
 
 or 14'5 per cent. 
 
 or 19-3 per cent. 
 
 The feeding value of some paddy fodder, grown at a cost of 
 Rupees 2-6-7 per ton, was tested against that of grass, such as is usually 
 provided by grass-cutters, grown on a similar soil as follows: — Of a 
 selected pair of working cattle, one animal was fed on the grass 
 alluded to, and the other on paddy fodder ; each forage was given at 
 the rate of 30 pounds per head, and each animal received in addition 
 4 lb. of oU cake. They were weighed at the end of every seven days, 
 with the following results: — 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 bis 
 
 f 
 
 tD 
 
 ui 
 
 tie 
 
 tib 
 
 ti 
 
 ti 
 
 Increase. 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 w 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 .13 
 
 
 
 
 
 li'n 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 -? 
 
 X) 
 
 la 
 
 ji 
 
 .a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 bD 
 1 
 
 tlB 
 
 1 
 
 
 60 
 
 1 
 
 .» 
 
 » 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 "3 
 
 t3 
 
 ja 
 
 rO 
 
 ja 
 
 J1 
 
 ja 
 
 ja 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r-( 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 x> 
 
 '^- 
 
 oo 
 
 OS 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 Animal 
 
 fed on paddy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fodder 
 
 
 784 
 
 826 
 
 836 
 
 846 
 
 850 
 
 860 
 
 854 
 
 882 
 
 876 
 
 8701 
 
 86 
 
 10-9 
 
 Do. 
 
 on grass ... 
 
 870 
 
 870 
 
 840 
 
 835 
 
 842 
 
 868 
 
 852 
 
 864 
 
 861 
 
 895 
 
 25 
 
 2-8 
 
 A similar experiment was made with sheep. Four full grown store 
 sheep were selected, and placed in two pens, two in each. Those in 
 Pen No. 1 reeeived daily 15 lb. of paddy fodder, 2 lb. of oil cake, and 
 2 lb. of tour ; those in Pen No. 2 received daily 15 lb. of ordinary grass, 
 2 lb. of oil cake, and 2 lb. of tour. The sheep in both pens were weighed 
 at the end of every seven days. The weighings were as follow : — 
 
 
 U) 
 
 
 S' 
 
 ti 
 
 ti 
 
 ti 
 
 li> 
 
 ti 
 
 ^ 
 
 bit 
 
 Increase. 
 
 
 t 
 
 fl, 
 
 .s 
 
 ..a 
 
 a 
 
 IS 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 •^ 
 
 ua 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 be 
 
 ■s 
 
 j3 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 fl 
 
 tlO 
 
 be 
 'S 
 
 •a 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 
 iH 
 
 « 
 
 m 
 
 Tf 
 
 US 
 
 to 
 
 j> 
 
 00 
 
 rH 
 
 E-i 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 LB. 
 
 Sheep fed on paddy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fodder 
 
 172 
 
 180 
 
 185 
 
 186 
 
 178 
 
 177 
 
 179 
 
 178 
 
 186 
 
 188 
 
 16 
 
 9-3 
 
 Do. fed on grass ... 
 
 154 
 
 166 
 
 166 
 
 166 
 
 167 
 
 155 
 
 160 
 
 160 
 
 163 
 
 167 
 
 13 
 
 8-4 
 
94 
 
 FOODS AND FEEDING. 
 
 Other experiments have been made, the results of which agreed 
 generally with those of these experiments. The results appear to be 
 slightly in favor of the paddy fodder grown under average circumstances. 
 It is weight for weight, as nutritious as the grass, which is almost 
 universally used in this part of India for feeding horses. Paddy 
 fodder can be made into hay, for which purpose it is as well suited as the 
 oat, which in some countries is largely so used. It is perhaps rather too 
 coarse a food for horses, excepting for those employed at slow work only ; 
 but for cattle, either for draught or for dairy purposes it is well adapted; 
 although as a food for dairy stock it is not as good as cholum fodder 
 as the following proves : — A milch cow, consuming daily 45 lb. of cholum 
 fodder yielded three measures of milk per diem, when paddy fodder was 
 substituted, though a similar weight was consumed, the yield of milk 
 was reduced to two measures, but when feeding with cholum fodder was 
 again resumed, the daily yield of milk rose to the quantity obtained 
 previous to the change of food. 
 
 It must be remembered that the nutritious value of any fodder will 
 much depend on the fertility and condition of the soil which produced 
 it. A soil, that is naturally rich or that has been highly manured, will 
 yield a more nutritious fodder than one which is in a more or less 
 impoverished condition. 
 
 Artificial Foods. — In the following table, the analyses of some 
 of the principal pulses of this country are given; they are published on 
 the authority of Professor Church, of the Eoyal Agricultural College : — 
 
 Common Name ... 
 
 DhoU. 
 
 G-reen 
 Gram. 
 
 Black 
 Gram. 
 
 Mochecottay. 
 
 Horse- 
 gram. 
 
 Botanical Name 
 
 Cajanus 
 Indicus. 
 
 Phaseolus 
 Mungo. 
 
 Phaseolus 
 
 Eox- 
 burghii. 
 
 Lablab 
 vulgaris 
 (Brown.) 
 
 Lablab 
 vulgaris 
 (White). 
 
 Dolicbos 
 oni- 
 florus. 
 
 Moisture 
 
 Oil 
 
 Albuminoids 
 
 Starch and digcstibl* carbo- 
 hydrates 
 
 Indigestible abro 
 
 Ash 
 
 13-30 
 2-60 
 17-09 
 55-73 
 7-53 
 875 
 
 10-80 
 
 2-65 
 
 2215 
 
 54-20 
 
 5-80 
 
 4-40 
 
 1010 
 2-15 
 
 22-72 
 55-83 
 4-80 
 4-40 
 
 14-60 
 2-25 
 1709 
 67-51 
 5-00 
 3-55 
 
 14-30 
 2-20 
 20-54 
 53-51 
 6-80 
 3-65 
 
 11-00 
 1-95 
 20-95 
 56-72 
 6-16 
 3-22 
 
 10000 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 In the early days of the farm, besides fodder, horse-gram was the 
 chief food of the cattle. The usual manner of preparing gram by boiling 
 was soon found to be inferior to steeping only ; for, quite independent 
 of the fact that boiling renders the albumen of the gram insoluble and 
 therefore less digestible, the cells of the pulse are generally violently 
 ruptured during the boiling process, and a large quantity of soluble 
 nutritious matters are set free ; these are lost in the water, and go to 
 form the soup which is always misappropriated by the coolies. In 
 order to determine the merits of the two methods, the following 
 experiment was made : — 
 
FOODS AND FEKDIWG. 
 
 95 
 
 A lot of sixteen draught cattle, similarly worked, was equally divided. 
 One lot was fed daily on 12 lb. of boiled gram and 12 lb. of ground-nut 
 cake, while the other lot received daily 12 lb. of steeped gram and 12 lb. 
 of ground-nut cake. The results were as follow : — 
 
 
 The Animals fed 
 on boiled Oram. 
 
 The Animals fed 
 on steeped Gram. 
 
 Weighed at the oommenoement of the experiment. 
 Twenty. seven days afterwards they weighed .., 
 
 Showing an increase of 
 
 Percentage increase 
 
 IB. 
 
 6,339 
 
 6,576 
 
 237 
 
 8-74 
 
 LB. 
 
 6,310 
 
 6,576 
 
 266 
 
 4-23 
 
 The substitution of steeping for boiling in the preparation of gram 
 as food for horses has been tried in many stables, but the results have 
 not generally been satisfactory ; some horses eating it readily but others 
 altogether refusing it. As a general rule recently imported horses eat 
 it better than horses which for years have been fed on boiled gram ; and 
 as most of the horses in this part of India are imported from countries in 
 which this pulse is unknown, it would, on their first arrival, be as easy 
 to accustom them to steeped as to boiled gram. 
 
 Q-EOTJND-NUT Cake.— It was discovered at an early date, however, 
 that it was more economical to use only ground-nut oil cake for 
 cattle food than gram. This cake is the refuse obtained in the manu- 
 facture of oil from the seeds produced in the underground pods of the 
 AracMs hypogcea ; a plant, belonging to the natural order of Leguminosse, 
 that is grown very largely in many parts of this Presidency as aa 
 ordinary field crop. 
 
 The oil of the ground-nut is highly valued in Europe ; indeed, it 
 is generally quoted at a price from 10 to 15 per cent, higher than the 
 best linseed oil ; it is said to be largely used as a substitute for olive oU, 
 and that it is chiefly used for preserving sardines. 
 
 The cake met v?ith here is always made from decorticated seed ', the 
 husks are used as fuel, and the ashes therefrom, which amount to -7 per 
 cent, of the total crop, are generally thrown away; which, as the 
 following extract shows, is a most wasteful practice :— 
 
 " The ash of the seed consists of salts wholly soluble in water, they 
 being phosphates of the alkalies, with traces of alkaline chlorides and 
 Bulpbates. The phosphoric acid is chiefly united with potassa. The ash of; 
 the husk differs in containing chiefly common salt, and phosphates of lime 
 and magnesia." 
 
 The value of the cake as a feeding stufi has been clearly shown, 
 both by experiment and by scientific reasoning. The following analyses 
 of this oil-cake are interesting : — 
 
96 
 
 FOODS AND FEEDING. 
 
 
 Professor 
 
 Professor 
 
 
 Dr. 
 
 ■^1 
 
 
 Church. 
 
 Tuson. 
 
 
 Anderson. 
 
 8. a 
 
 ConstitueatB. 
 
 i'2 
 
 I'd 
 
 a a 
 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Voeloker. 
 
 
 verage C( 
 tion of L 
 Cake. 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 •o 
 
 -<1 
 
 Moisture 
 
 9-3 
 
 81 
 
 9-58 
 
 9-28 
 
 10-80 
 
 10-84 
 
 12-0 
 
 Oil 
 
 5-6 
 
 8-8 
 
 7-40 
 
 6-99 
 
 8-12 
 
 9-80 
 
 11-5 
 
 Albuminoids ... 
 
 43-4 
 
 30-5 
 
 42-81 
 
 32-81 
 
 28-62 
 
 80-33 
 
 29-7 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 
 
 314 
 
 27-8 
 
 27-63 
 
 23-67 
 
 18-86 
 
 1 45-50 
 
 / 27-8 
 t 120 
 
 Indigestible fibre 
 
 5-2 
 
 191 
 
 7-87 
 
 23-80 
 
 2909 
 
 Ash 
 
 5-2 
 
 5-7 
 
 4-71 
 
 3-4S 
 
 •4-51 
 
 ta-53 
 
 J70 
 
 Judging from the analyses given by Professors Church emd Tuson 
 of cakes made when the seed is husked and imhusked, those of 
 Dr. Vcelcker and Dr. Anderson referred to samples of undecorticated 
 cake. Comparing the analyses with that of a sample of linseed oil-cake, 
 given by Dr. Voelcker, the cake will be seen to be not quite so rich in 
 oil and therefore not so well adapted for fattening purposes as that cake ; 
 but, as the means of expressing the oil from the seed in this country are 
 very inadequate, in all probability the percentage of oil here is much 
 higher, so that this objection disappears ; the high percentage of 
 nitrogenous matters explains why the cake is so useful a food for working 
 cattle. 
 
 It may be well to observe that the high percentage of nitrogenous 
 compounds in the cake causes a great increase in the value of the 
 manure made by animals fed on it ; for it is calculated by the best authority 
 on the subject, Mr. J. B. Lawes, of Rothamstead, that the loss of nitrogen 
 in the consumption of cake is about one-tenth of that which it contains, 
 the rest passing off in the manure. 
 
 Experiment has proved that working cattle will keep in better condi- 
 tion when fed on groimd-nut cake alone, than when fed exclusively on 
 horse-gram, as follows : — 
 
 
 Cattle fed on 
 
 Ground-nut 
 Cake. 
 
 Horse-gram. 
 
 First weighing 
 
 Last weighing twenty -seven days afterwards . . . 
 
 LB. 
 
 2,737 
 2,733 
 
 M. 
 3,097 
 3,070 
 
 As 'a food for horses, this cake is extremely valuable. It is only 
 necessary to remember that, weight for weight, it is as nutritious as gram, 
 and that in most seasons, it can be purchased at half the price of gram, 
 to ascertain at once the saving that would be effected by substituting 
 cake for gram ; however, in feeding horses this is not recommended. 
 
 * Containing sand 1-4. t Containing phosphates 1-15, phosphoric acid -80. 
 
 X Containing potash 1-65, phosphate of lime 4-92. 
 
FOODS AND FEEDING. 
 
 97 
 
 It is, for sucli a purpose a better plan to deduct one-half the usual 
 allowance of gram, and to replace this by cake. In this way a saving of 
 25 per cent, could be effected in the cost of the food of every horse now 
 fed on gram, while the condition of the animals would be improved. A 
 Pegu pony, which formerly received daily 2^ measures of gram (uncooked) 
 and was never in good condition, was fed for 18 months on the following 
 daily allowance : — 
 
 1 measure of gram, (uncooked) 
 
 2 lb. of ground-nut cake, 
 
 and kept in excellent condition. Under the old method of feeding, his 
 gram at ordinary prices cost monthly Rupees 5-14-2 ; the food substi- 
 tuted only cost Rupees 3-1-8 per mensem. 
 
 Several experiments have been made to test the comparative feeding 
 values of maize and horse-gram. In one case two pairs of working cattle 
 were selected, one animal from each pair being fed similarly in order to 
 ensure that the work performed should be equal. Each pair received 5 lb. 
 of tour, and 100 lb. of cholum fodder per diem, in addition, in one case 
 to 6 lb. of gram, and in the other to 6 lb. of maize. The results 
 obtained were as foUows : — 
 
 
 Febru- 
 
 Febru. 
 
 Febpi- 
 
 March 
 
 March 
 
 March 
 
 In- 
 
 
 ary 
 2nd. 
 
 ary 
 12th. 
 
 ary 
 22nd. 
 
 4th. 
 
 14th. 
 
 24th. 
 
 crease. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 Weight of the pair fed 
 
 1,762 
 
 1,765 
 
 1J99 
 
 1,806 
 
 1,806 
 
 1,823 
 
 127 
 
 on maize. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weight of the pair fed 
 
 1,765 
 
 1,789 
 
 1,767 
 
 1,759 
 
 1,786 
 
 1,768 
 
 3 
 
 on gram. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thus showing that weight for weight maize is superior to gram as 
 a food for working cattle. On another occasion two lots of six wethers 
 each were fed for slaughter ; both lots receiving as much gram fodder as 
 the animals would eat, whilst to one 3 lb. bran and 6 lb. maize, and to 
 the other 3 lb. bran and 6 lb. gram were given daily. The results were 
 as foUows: — 
 
 
 Date of Weighings. 
 
 Average Weight per head of 
 Sheep fed on 
 
 
 
 Gram. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 
 
 February 2nd 
 
 Do. 12th 
 
 Do. 22nd • 
 
 March 4th ... 
 
 Do. 14th 
 
 Do. 24th 
 
 Increase 
 
 lb. 
 38-75 
 39 
 
 40-83 
 43-83 
 44-33 
 45 
 
 lb. 
 37 
 
 37-33 
 37-33 
 39-66 
 42-80 
 45 
 
 
 
 6-25 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Increase per cent. . 
 
 16-13 21-62 
 
 
 la 
 
98 
 
 FOOnS AM) FEEDING. 
 
 As in the case of the cattle experiment, so in this case the maize 
 was novel to the animals, and was not eaten readily during the early part 
 of the experiment. However, as soon as the animals got to like it they 
 made greater progress than those on gram, and the results are very 
 satisfactory. In all probability had the maize and gram been crushed 
 and mixed together before being given to the animals, the result would 
 have been better, for gram and maize serve different purposes in the 
 animal economy ; the former being a nitrogenous or flesh producing, 
 the latter a carbonaceous or heat producing food. 
 
 Manufacture of Meat.— The following experiment was made to 
 ascertain the relative value of ground-nut cake and maize as food for 
 fattening pigs, and to discover also the cost of producing a pound of 
 pork. Four young pigs, nearly equal in age and in size, were selected ; 
 they were placed in loose boxes, two in each ; those in Pen No. 1 being 
 fed on 4 lb. of ground-nut oil cake and 4 lb. of tour, and those in No. 2 
 Pen on 4 lb. of maize and 4 lb. of tour, daily. Besides these foods a 
 quantity of green fodder was thrown into each pen two or three times 
 a day, all the pigs getting a similar supply. The pigs were weighed 
 at the end of every week with the following results : — 
 
 
 .60 
 
 'id 
 m 
 
 tiij 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 CO 
 
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 M 
 
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 Cost of Pork per 
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 6 
 
 :z; } 
 
 i" 
 "^ 
 
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 f?S J 
 
 Two pigs fed on 
 cake and tour. 
 
 Two pigs fed on 
 maize and tour. 
 
 lb. 
 236 
 
 255 
 
 lb. 
 254 
 
 254 
 
 lb. 
 
 257 
 265 
 
 lb. 
 
 257 
 
 270 
 
 lb. 
 267 
 
 282 
 
 lb. 
 280 
 
 307 
 
 lb. 
 314 
 
 320 
 
 lb. 
 
 323 
 330 
 
 lb. 
 
 335 
 344 
 
 lb. 
 99 
 
 89 
 
 lb. 
 59J 
 
 53J 
 
 RS. A. P. 
 
 4 6 1 
 
 7 5 7 
 
 RS. A, P. 
 
 14 
 2 2 
 
 Thus not only is ground-nut cake weight for weight superior to maize 
 for making pork, but also, with the price of the former at 85 lb. per rupee, 
 and the latter at 40 lb. per rupee, 38 per cent, cheaper food. 
 
 The following is a small experiment made to determine the cost of 
 producing a pound of beef, and, although partially injured by disease 
 checking the natural increase, the data collected during the thirty-five 
 days after the disappearance of it are valuable. Two bullocks, which 
 weighed together 692 lb. at the commencement of the experiment, were 
 allowed daily 6 lb. of ground-nut oil -cake and as much fodder as they 
 chose to eat, which amounted to about 50 lb. In thirty-five days they 
 increased 108 lb. in weight ; estimating that this increase in their live 
 weight would yield about 42 per cent, beef, the proportion which the 
 
K8. A. 
 
 p. 
 
 2 16 
 
 
 
 4 6 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 0- 
 
 FOODS AND FEEDING. 90 
 
 ca,ttle of tliis country are usually found to yield when fairly fattened, 
 the increase will represent about 45 lb. of beef at the following cost of 
 feeding : — 
 
 Ground-nut oil-cake for 35 days, at 6 lb. per 
 
 day, valued at 7 rupees per 500 lb. 
 Fodder for 35 days, at 60 lb. per day, valued 
 
 at 1 rupee for 400 lb. .... 
 
 Attendance, &c. 
 
 Total 45 lb. of Beef at 2 annas 10 pies per lb. = Esw. a 0' 
 
 The value of the manure would more than equal the cost of the straw 
 required for bedding, the value of the accommodation, &c. 
 
 In another experiment after sixteen weeks' feeding on horsegram 
 a bullock increased in weight 125 lb., which would yield about 52 lb. of 
 beef ; the cost being as follows : — 
 
 Gram, 3 lb. per day, for 112 da3's, valued at 
 
 36 lb. per rupee 
 Fodder, 30 lb. per day, for 112 days 
 Attendance, &c. 
 
 Total 52 lb. of Beef at 6 annas 1 pie = Rs, . . 
 
 An experiment was made in feeding a " lot " of bullocks, which 
 were purchased at Rupees 15 each. The charges made for food 
 include the cost of chaffing, crushing, and preparing it. The charge 
 under the column headed " Attendance, &c.," is composed of a monthly 
 charge of 6 annas per head for attendance, &c., and 2 annas per head 
 to pay interest, &c., on the cost of the cattle box : one man, at 5 rupees 
 per month, can easily attend to fifteen feeding cattle : the loose boxes 
 cost each about twelve rupees. With one exception the cattle were all 
 slaughtered and sold on the Farm. The average price obtained for the 
 beef was 4 annas per pound. One-fifth of the cost of cake, corn, and 
 bran, &o., is credited for inanure. The following are the results : — 
 
 B8. A. 
 
 p. 
 
 9 5 
 
 4 
 
 8 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 19 11 
 
 8 
 
100 
 
 FOODS AND FEEDING. 
 
 
 
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FOODS AND FEEDING. 
 
 101 
 
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102 
 
 FOODS AXD FEEDING. 
 
 The following figures show how results may vary with the kind of 
 animal selected for fattening. Two bullocks very similar in general 
 appearance were chosen ; both animals were similarly fed, the daily 
 food of each consisting of 3 lb. of horse-gram and as much fodder as 
 it coidd consimie, about 30 lb. ; the animals were weighed at the end of 
 each week as the experiment progressed, with the following results : — 
 
 let Week 
 
 2nd 
 
 do. 
 
 3rd 
 
 do. 
 
 4th 
 
 do. 
 
 5th 
 
 do. 
 
 6th 
 
 do. 
 
 7th 
 
 do. 
 
 8th 
 
 do. 
 
 9th 
 
 do. 
 
 10th 
 
 do. 
 
 11th 
 
 do. 
 
 12th 
 
 do. 
 
 13th 
 
 do. 
 
 Total increase . . . 
 Increase per cent. . . . 
 
 Bullock 
 
 Bullock 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 378 
 
 390 
 
 388 
 
 408 
 
 396 
 
 402 
 
 416 
 
 390 
 
 396 
 
 378 
 
 406 
 
 395 
 
 420 
 
 398 
 
 413 
 
 395 
 
 419 
 
 390 
 
 427 
 
 399 
 
 429 
 
 395 
 
 456 
 
 396 
 
 470 
 
 397 
 
 92 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 This experment is instructive in showing how differently two animals 
 will progress and lay on ilesh, even when fed with exactly the same 
 food and under exactly similar conditions. This fact is well known 
 to feeders in England, who will frequently readily give from ten 
 shillings to one pound a head more for cattle from one part of the 
 country than for those from another part, though the cattle for which 
 the higher price is given may in no respect look better than those which 
 are less appreciated. 
 
 Chaffing. — The practice of chaffing fodder for cattle has been 
 regularly practised with the best results. It is a most economical 
 arrangement in preventing the waste, which always occurs when cattle 
 are fed on long straw. It also enables cattle to be kept in good condi- 
 tion on a smaller allowance of food, as they do not tread into the manure 
 any appreciable amount of chaff ; and also as their food is in a finer state 
 of division, the cattle are able to assimilate more of what they eat. 
 
 In conclusion it may be well to observe that, in the present state of 
 the social customs of the country, it will scarcely be necessary to prosecute 
 fattening experiments to any extent, it having been proved that both 
 beef, mutton, and pork can be raised at remunerative rates ; the value of 
 ground-nut cake is incontestable, and the comparative value for feeding of 
 a grass very easily grown — guinea grass — has been clearly demonstrated ; 
 as well as that of several other fodders ; steeped gram has been shown 
 to be productive of better results than boiled, whilst maize is superior as a 
 food to either. There, however, yet remain many questions to be solved 
 before feeding in India can be reduced to the science it is in England. 
 
IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES AND TOOLS. 
 
 103 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES AND TOOLS. 
 
 The Indian farmer, as is well known, places but little trust in imple- 
 ments, he possess one which is called a plough, hut which is in reality 
 a very badly constructed cultivator or scarifier ; this implement can be 
 made for about a rupee and a half by any one, so that in embarking in 
 an agricultural enterprise the ryot does not, like his European fellow- 
 toiler, lock up any considerable amount of capital in the means of 
 preparing the soil for the reception of his crops. But in no way does 
 the ryot show his blindness to his own true interests more clearly than 
 in his adherence to his ancestral crooked stick, which he uses with so 
 much ill-directed energy in scratching the soil which he has treated so 
 ill, and which even to his Uliberal management yields returns so dis- 
 proportionately good. 
 
 PLOUGHS. — On the farm for ten years Eansome and Sim's, and 
 Howard's ploughs have been in constant use; both large and small 
 ploughs have been employed, the former being found useful when the 
 ground is so dry and hard that a light plough cannot penetrate it. Cattle 
 and coolies work them well. The coolies readily learn the use of the 
 plough, some are very good ploughmen, and are as proud of their skill 
 as any English ploughman ; indeed, some of them will turn as straight 
 and regular a furrow as was ever seen in any champion ploughing match 
 at home. A remarkable change has taken place in the observations of 
 the ryots who come to see our operations ; at first one of their greatest 
 objections to our ploughs was that they ploughed too deep ; but the 
 chief one they now advance against them is their great cost in com- 
 parison with native ploughs. The seeming force of this objection will 
 be better appreciated when it is stated that twenty or twenty-five native 
 ploughs can be purchased for the price asked for one of our English 
 ploughs. 
 
 It, however, will be allowed that the question for the consideration of 
 the ryot, when about to buy a plough, is not so much the price that must 
 be paid for it, as the cost of the work that the implement will perform : 
 thus, if he can with an iron plough, making every allowance for labor, 
 keep of cattle, for wear and tear, interest, &c., turn over his soil at the 
 rate of sixty cubic yards for an anna, while with the country implement 
 the cost of doing the same work is not less than two annas, it is 
 evident that the extra cost of the iron plough will be recovered in a very 
 little time on a farm of moderate size ; indeed, the ryot who cultivates 
 a holding with but 20 acres of arable land can, by substituting an iron 
 for his native plough, save in a single season a sum equal to its first cost, 
 and it will, with ordinary care, last many years. It has been found 
 that for effect one English plough can do better work than three or four 
 
104 
 
 IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES AND TOOLS. 
 
 native ones ; so that allowing for a slightly better description of cattle 
 being required for the former, it is evident that by being relieved of the 
 expense of keeping up au extra two or three pair of draught bullocks, 
 and of the pay of two or three coolies to drive them, the ryot would affect 
 a saving such as has been pointed out ; the difference in cost of up-keep of 
 a good and of an inferior pair of cattle not being great. 
 
 It is well known that the native implement cuts a triangular groove, 
 while the furrow made by the English plough is rectangular ; the result 
 is that while the latter cleans out its furrow and leaves the undersurface 
 level at one operation, the former leaves a ridged undersurface with 
 nearly half of the land unmoved. It is also known that the English 
 plough inverts the soil and brings up each time a fresh surface, while 
 the native " cultivator," as it should be called, leaves the soil in its original 
 position. These facts explain the necessity for the ryot, in using his own 
 implement, to go over his land again and again before he can be assured 
 that the whole surface soil has been disturbed ; treading at the same 
 time the immediate subsoil into a *' pan " impervious to water and 
 presenting a barrier to the roots of plants, when searching downwards 
 for food and water. The native implement is imable also to perform 
 several operations vyhich the English plough can. 
 
 The ease with which the English plough can be made or repaired by 
 native blacksmiths has been abundantly proved on the farm ; in the 
 workshops attached to which, ploughs of different descriptions are 
 constantly being manufactured hy men, who, before they were taken into 
 the shops, never saw a real plough. The castings so often used at home 
 must of course be avoided, but that is easily done. 
 
 In the following table the results of some experiments made with 
 several ploughs are given : — 
 
 Description of Plough. 
 
 Price. 
 
 Depth of 
 Furrow. 
 
 Width of 
 Furrow. 
 
 Draught. 
 
 Soil moved 
 
 in 100 
 Yards run. 
 
 Travelled 
 
 in 
 
 ploughing 
 
 1 Acre. 
 
 Howard's plough . . 
 
 EanBome's New-Castle 
 plough. 
 
 Native plough 
 Combined plough 
 
 In puddle for paddy. 
 
 Combined plough 
 Native do. 
 
 RS. 
 
 36 
 
 Inches. 
 1 6 
 
 Inches. 
 8 
 9 
 
 LB. 
 
 184 
 308 
 
 Cub. Yds. 
 
 2-47 
 4-17 
 
 Miles. 
 12-37 
 II 
 
 90 
 
 f 4 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 280 
 406 
 
 3-09 
 4-63 
 
 9-9 
 9-9 
 
 1-i 
 
 M 
 
 Surface 6 
 Sole I 
 
 140 
 
 1-35 
 
 28-29 
 
 18 
 
 { I 
 
 .8 
 9 
 
 182 
 280 
 
 2-47 
 4-17 
 
 12-37 
 II 
 
 •• 
 
 6 
 6| 
 
 9 
 
 Surface 6 
 Sole 3 
 
 168 
 200 
 
 4-17 
 2-08 
 
 II 
 22 
 
 The plough first mentioned is that which is recommended especially for 
 its general utility ; although recently a plough imported from Sweden, of 
 
IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES AND TOOLJ. 
 
 105 
 
 stronger make, and costing about two-thirds of the price only, has been 
 experimented with, and though rather less efficient is perhaps better 
 adapted for use in this country. The New-oastle plough is very useful 
 during dry weather, when light ploughs will not penetrate the ground ; 
 this plough weighs 200 lb., and though much too heavy for ordinary 
 work, is nevertheless very useful in ploughing stubbles after harvest. 
 
 The Combined plough. — is a swing plough with wooden stilts and 
 pole, the remainder being composed of malleable iron ; it weighs only 
 70 lb., and can be caiTied from field to field, and whilst in work the 
 driver is always close to his cattle ; in preparing small fields for the paddy 
 crop the plough is particularly useful. As is shown by the concluding 
 portion of the table given above, the very defective construction of the 
 native plough adds greatly to its draught ; for in the hinder part of the 
 plough there is a flat surface measui'ing eight or ten inches square placed at 
 right angles to the line of draught ; this not only offers a great deal of 
 resistance to the passage of the plough through the soil, but in paddy 
 land such an amount of mud collects on it, and in the angle below the 
 pole, that the plough is drawn through the land with great difficulty. 
 This is not the case with a plough provided with an English shaped 
 moidd-board, this mould-board presenting no points for the accumulation 
 of mud, the plough cleans itself as it proceeds. 
 
 Although experience has clearly shown that in adopting the English 
 plough the ryot will follow the course most beneficial to his own interests 
 and to those of the country, experiments have been made to remove, by 
 simple alterations, some of the greatest defects of construction in the 
 native implement. The dead weight of the native plough is extraordi- 
 narily little, but its draught is enormous ; on one occasion it was found 
 that : — 
 
 1. An ordinary native plough, the dead weight of which was only 
 
 32 pounds, needed a force equal to 390 pounds to drag it 
 through the soil when working 
 
 2. An ordinary native plough, with some slight improvements, the 
 
 chief of which was the removal of the upright flat surface behind 
 the share by cutting down both sides, the dead weight of it then 
 being 36 i pounds required a force to drag it when working of 
 336 pounds. 
 
 3. An ordinary native plough, improved as in No. 2 experiment, 
 
 and fitted with a wooden mould-board, the dead weight being 
 56 pounds, required for dragging it when working a force equal 
 to 280 poimds only. 
 
 In these experiments all the three ploughs were doing the same amount 
 of work, viz., moving 2 cubic yards of earth in each 100 yards of furrow, 
 and were all dragged in an uniform way by coolies. It will be observed 
 that the improvements made materially lessened the draught ; it is also 
 worthy of notice that the heaviest plough did its work with an ex- 
 penditure ©f nearly thirty per cent, less force than the plough which was 
 only about half its weight. 
 
 It is scarcely probable that a plough will ever be made that will be 
 able to penetrate soil in-the dry season, which has been undisturbed for 
 
 14 
 
lOG 
 
 IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES AND TOOLS. 
 
 some months ; but some American ploughs, imported from Boston in 
 ] 872, were found to work well, when the soil was a little too hard to be 
 ploughed with any ordinary English plough, in spite of the hardness of 
 the grovmd. They are very clumsy- looking implements, and are certainly 
 transported over the farm with difficulty, but their working parts are 
 admirably adapted for contending with rough work. The following 
 table gives a comparison of their working capabilities, with that of the 
 ploughs generally in use : — 
 
 Description of Plough. 
 
 Dead 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Draught. 
 
 Work done. 
 
 Furrow. 
 Depth. Width. 
 
 Soil moved 
 in each 100 
 Yards run. 
 
 American plough ... 
 Ransome's Pony plough . . . 
 Howard's do. do. 
 Combined plough 
 
 lb. 
 90 
 92 
 86 
 67 
 
 lb. 
 
 330 
 
 280 
 
 330 
 
 290 
 
 Inches. 
 6 
 5 
 7 
 5-5 
 
 Inches. 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 0. Yds. 
 509 
 3-47 
 4-32 
 3-39 
 
 In 1875 two small ploughs were imported from America : one, a small 
 cast-iron plough intended to be drawn by one horse or mule for use in 
 cotton culture ; the other, a steel plough differing only from the former in 
 having a steel mould-board with a polished cast-iron share and land side, 
 the mould-board also being less abrupt. In both cases the beams and 
 Btilts are wooden, and the general construction is not good for ordinary 
 work ; the mould-boards are set nearly at right angles to the beam, thus 
 causing the draught to be very heavy ; and the slades are so short that the 
 ploughs move very unevenly through the soil, in places going so deeply 
 that they become fixed ; by placing a wheel imder the beam the latter 
 drawback has been avoided, and a slight alteration in the form of the 
 mould-board would greatly reduce the draught. The cast-iron working- 
 parts, also, are objectionable ; they are so liable to be broken when in 
 use by coming into contact with stones or the roots of trees. Imple- 
 ments that are fitted with working-parts made of cast-iron are not yet 
 suited for general use in this country ; much annoyance and loss have 
 already been experienced from the purchase of such implements. 
 
 The following results were obtained in an experiment made to test 
 the working capabilities of these ploughs : — 
 
 — 
 
 Weight of 
 Plough. 
 
 Draught. 
 
 Work Done. 
 
 Price 
 Delivered 
 in Madras. 
 
 Furrow. 
 
 Earth moved 
 in each 100 
 Yards run. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Width. 
 
 Steel plough... 
 Cast plough ,. 
 
 lb. 
 45 
 34 
 
 lb. Inches. 
 280 7 
 448 1 9 
 
 1 
 
 Inches. 
 11- 
 1353 
 
 C. Yds. Rs, 
 5-94 18 
 9-39 ! 10 
 
 1 
 
IMTLEMENTS, MACHINES AXB TOOJ-,«. 107 
 
 Were it not for its excessive draught the " cast " plough might have been 
 a valuable introduction ; a modification of the former has been made in 
 the farm Workshops at a cost of about Rupees 20. 
 
 One of Ransome's turn-wrest pony ploughs has been in use ; when 
 employed for cultivating between the rows of cotton, maize, sorghum, 
 &c., it performs its work in a satisfactory manner, and the draught 
 is very low. Turn- wrest ploughs are specially intended for use on the 
 slopes of hills, on which it is desirable to throw the furrow slice on one 
 side only ; for this purpose the mould-board is reversible ; still they are 
 well suited for use as ordinary 'ploughs on level land for cultivating, &c., 
 and possess an advantage over the plough of ordinary make, for when 
 the mould-board is worn near the sole, it can be reversed, and the upper 
 portion brought into use, thus performing the part of a new mould-board. 
 These ploughs are made entirely of iron, and are well suited for coffee or 
 tea plantations, where the slope is not too great. They can be worked 
 with a single bullock, pony, or mule, thus avoiding the use of swingle- 
 trees, which would do much damage amongst tea and coffee bushes. 
 The full-sized turn -wrest ploughs now used in England are much superior 
 in their construction to the implement referred to here. 
 
 In 1877 a number of ploughs of Swedish manufacture were 
 received from the Secretary of State ; on trial they were not found to be 
 quite so efficient as those of English make, but still, being much cheaper 
 and of a stronger make, several of them have a good deal to recommend 
 them for introduction into this country. Pattern No. 39 gave slightly 
 better results than a plough of Ransome's ; its cost, delivered in Madras 
 is about 12 per cent, less and its make considerably stronger than the 
 latter. Pattern No. 40 also can be recommended. Pattern No. 29 is 
 peculiar in having only one stilt ; it gave results but very little inferior 
 to Ransome's plough, and its cost in Madras is under Rupees 25, 
 Ransome's plough costing about Rupees 40 ; it is well adapted for use 
 on the prevalent light and medium soils of Southern India. 
 
 Resembling the native plough in some degree in its action, but in 
 nothing else, is a very valuable implement for the light land farmer — the 
 Grubber or Scarifier. It is doubtful whether for naturally open soils it would 
 not be better policy for the farmer to use a scarifier in general, leaving hi» 
 ploughs alone, excepting for the occasional and most necessary process 
 of deep cultivation ; when once in a season the land has been stirred to the 
 full depth intended, probably, unless the soil has the bad quality of 
 running together on the first fall of rain, like that of the farm, it would be 
 advantageous to use a grubber only. Eor this purpose it might be said 
 that the native plough is adapted ; but that is a fallacy, for it is one of 
 the most inefficient scarifiers imaginable and even, after it has crossed 
 and recrossed a field three or four times, parts are still left imtouched, 
 unmoved, whilst with a good grubber one, or at the utmost on dirty or 
 hard land two turns wiU suffice. A good grubber, which can be worked 
 by two pairs of moderate sized cattle will go over in a day as much 
 ground as three ploughs of the English pattern ; whilst it would probably 
 take from seven to twelve pairs of cattle with native ploughs, and an 
 equal number of drivers to do the same work with less efficiency. 
 
 HARROWS. — Of other implements used in preparing the land 
 for crops, iron-prong and chain-harro w» hava been in constant use ; the 
 
]08 IMPLEMENTS, MACHINE!. AND TOOLS. 
 
 latter are found to be of great value on light sandy soil for collecting 
 weeds, covering seeds, and consolidating the soil ; the former are rather 
 heavy " seed-harrows," and are not so useful for general work as " drag- 
 harrows/' being besides much too costly. 
 
 A useful description of drag-harrows for cleaning dirty land has 
 been made up in our workshops at a cost of about Rupees 25. They 
 perform very good work, and can be made and repaired wherever 
 there is a village smith ; they are made to expand or contract, to fit 
 them for any sort of work. 
 
 SEED-DRILLS. — A thirteen-row drill of Garret's pattern is in 
 constant use, and has proved of much value, nearly all our crops are 
 now sown with it, and the work is done efficiently, cheaply, and quickly ; 
 the cost of working this drill per diem is about : — 
 
 1 pair of cattle and driver 
 
 1 man steering 
 
 1 man attending to seed 
 
 OU 
 
 Total . . 13-0 
 
 Interest on capital wear and tear, &c., at 15 
 per cent, per annum on Rupees 300 
 charged on 60 working days . . ..0120 
 
 ES. A. 
 
 p. 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Total cost per diem . . 1 15 
 
 The machine sows about 5 acres a day, so that the cost of sowing is only 
 six annas two pies per acre, a very moderate charge. The advantages of 
 drilling seed over broad-casting are very well known, and for large 
 holdings such a drill can be recommended. 
 
 On small holdings, however, a description of drill, such as one 
 constructed out of an old broad-cast seed-barrow, is better adapted ; 
 it is fitted inside the hopper with rotary brushes fixed on an axle 
 driven from the wheel, these throw the grain into the seed coulters, 
 which are composed of loose tin funnels fitted into each other, as in the 
 Garret's drill. The barrow has two seed coulters, but three can be used 
 if necessary. The seed coulters can be regulated at pleasure to sow 
 in lines from nine inches up to twenty-four inches apart, and by altering 
 the gearing the speed of the elevating brushes can be increased or 
 decreased, so as to sow a large or small quantity of seed. This drill 
 will sow all the usual grains and pulses, raggy, cholum, tennay, shamay, 
 varagoo, gingelly, cumboo, the grams, &e. With it three men on such 
 soils as ours can easily sow about two acres per day. Drills of this soi-t 
 can be made at Rupees 30 each — a moderate price when it is considered 
 what sort of work they can perform. 
 
 Ordinary country bamboo drills may be turned out at a cost of not 
 more than one-tenth of that of the barrow-drill, but the work performed 
 by them is very indifferent ; besides, where a number of different crops 
 are grown, requiring to be sown in lines at varying distances apart, a 
 separate drill , is required for each, the seed coulters being fixed only to 
 
IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES AND TOOLS. 109 
 
 SOW at one width ; again the country bamboo drill does not sow at a 
 regular depth, and the quantity of seed it sows per acre altogether 
 depends on the skill or watchfulness of the man who attends it. There 
 is no guarantee of regularity. The sower may sow one part of a field 
 at the rate of 50 lb. per acre, another part 8,^ 30 lb., and on other parts 
 he may altogether omit to sow any seed. It is quite true that many 
 ryots do excellent work with these very primitive implements ; but then 
 the ryot himself drops the seed into the seed coulters, he is not generally 
 dependent on hired laborers, whose interest in the work is confined to 
 getting over the land as speedily as possible. It is a serious matter to 
 have land badly seeded, as the defect cannot be discovered until the crop 
 appears above ground, when, owing to many circumstances unnecessary 
 to detail here, it is frequently impossible to remedy matters ; the only 
 choice being either to plough and sow again, or to leave the crop with 
 large blanks, in which weeds will grow and give endless trouble. There 
 can be no doubt but that, on any holding on which 30 acres of dry crop 
 are sown annually, the cost of a good seed drill will be more than repaid 
 during each year in which it is used ; not large complicated drills, such 
 as are used in England and other countries, and mentioned above as 
 suitable holdings where labor is costly, but such drills, as can be made 
 at from 25 to 30 Rupees each. There is a class of superficial reasoners 
 always ready to oppose the introduction of any improved implements or 
 machines, if only these machines are more costly than those already 
 used by ryots, altogether regardless of their superior efficacy over those 
 in use. To such it may be said, what every thinking man must at once 
 admit, that if a driU, costing 30 Rupees, will in a year return on thii-ty 
 acres of crop one rupee per acre in excess of the amount a similar area 
 of crop sown by the ordinary drill would yield, it must be to the ryot a 
 much more desirable machine to possess than the one he already owns, 
 though this may have cost him only one-tenth of the sum that he would 
 pay for an improved drill. 
 
 The economy in the amount of seed required in drill-sowing is very 
 great, amounting sometimes to five-sixths of that which is ordinarily used, 
 especially is this the case with small seeds, such as raggy or indigo. To 
 admit of interculture during the growth of the crop drill sowing is 
 requisite, and of the value of after-cultivation there is no doubt, loosening, 
 and cleaning the surface of the soil as it does. 
 
 HOES, — Associated with drill-husbandry is the use of the hnllock or 
 horse-hoe, sometimes called a cultivator; these implements, which are made 
 for the purpose of stirring the soil between the rows of any crop, when 
 working cut ofE and destroy many weeds, thus lightening the labor of 
 hand weeding or hoeing ; there are few indeed more useful implements 
 to the Indian cultivator, especially when irrigation between the rows 
 of standing crops is adopted. After watering, the soil usually becomes 
 caked on the surface, and if water is again applied when the land is in 
 that state it either runs off, or evaporates ; when the cultivator is passed 
 between the drills, shorily after the surface of the soil has begun to 
 cake, it pulverises and opens up the soil, enabling it to absorb the dews 
 and the water when next it is applied. 
 
 Besides bullock-hoes, a few wheel-hoes, for manual power have been 
 , made and used, but the general results have not been very encouraging. 
 
110 IMPLEirF.NTS, MATHINK:* AND TOOLS. 
 
 They were made both with pronged and broad tines ; but neither did 
 the work as well as ordinary hand-hoes, while they cannot work 
 as cheaply as those drawn by cattle. One or two have been supplied to 
 tea plantations ; for hoeing on the slopes of hills, they_are probably well 
 suited, it being a work in which they have not to compete with cattle 
 hoes ; while in forcing the hoe down or obliquely across a slope, it can 
 be pushed with much greater force than over level surfaces. 
 
 Many varieties of hand-hoes have been tried, but it has been 
 found best to use a heavy one like that used by coffee planters ; in the 
 dry season especially they can be used at times when light broad hoes, 
 like those used for turnip culture in England, fail to penetrate the ground, 
 and then of course the advantages of using hoes is especially great in 
 killing weeds and increasing the absorptive powers of the soil. Hoe- 
 forks, that is pronged hoes, have been found of use in digging over 
 loose moist ground 3 or 4 inches deep, as for instance in a plantain 
 garden, where cattle power cannot be made use of. 
 
 WATEE-LIFTS.— The extension of cultivation under wells is 
 admitted by all to be greatly desired in Southern India ; for not only does 
 this branch of husbandry enable crops to be grown during the dry 
 weather or in droughty seasons, but it is also the one practice in native 
 farming to which most care and intelligence is de\'oted. On lands which 
 are watered thus, the ryot uses the little manure he ever applies to his 
 farm, and in all respects is the agriculture of the "well" irrigated lands of 
 a higher type than any other practised by him. The invention, application 
 or introduction of economical water-lifts is therefore a work of great 
 importance. 
 
 The Single Mhote, or inclined plane lift is well known throughout 
 India. It has been described as follows : — 
 
 "The water is lifted from the well in a skin bucket, to the bucket is 
 attached a rope which is fastened to the yoke of a pair of cattle ; a roller or 
 pulley is fixed about 4 or 5 feet higher than the discharging trough pro- 
 jecting slightly over the well, over this roller, or pulley, the rope travels as 
 the bucket ascends or descends. The bullock path is an incline. When 
 raising the bucket the cattle walk down the slope until the bucket reaches 
 the full height and discharges its contents ; the cattle are then backed up 
 the slope, and the bucket sinking into the water, to be again raised by the 
 forward motion of the cattle, and thus the process is again and again 
 repeated. This arrangement is certainly very simple, it is however equally 
 certain that the cost of raising the water by it is very great. With this 
 machine a pair of cattle while raising only 6,900 gallons of water in a day are 
 exceedingly hard worked in doing it ; whilst backing up an incline with a 
 slope of about 45 degi-ees, about forty times per hour, is a most effective way 
 of rendering cattle worthless." 
 
 In comparison with the Double Mhote, which is an adaptation 
 of the whim used for raising water and rubbish from mine-shafts in 
 England, and in Australia for raising water for the stock, &c., the 
 single mhote is inferior and will probably in time give place, 
 although doubtless the prejudice, poverty, and habits of Indian ryots, will 
 perhaps retard for a long time its general adoption. The first machine 
 was erected in 1869, the driving part being copied from a model brought 
 to this country from Australia by E. G. E. Fane, Esq., formerly the 
 Collector of Chingleput ; the rope arrangement and buckets were copied 
 
IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES AND TOOL*. HI 
 
 from a sketch, which was supplied to the then Farm Committee hy the 
 Eajah of Vencatagiri. Since that time the machine has been much 
 improved, and as it now exists on the farm, its mode of action has been 
 described as follows :— 
 
 "The water is raised by two leather buckets, similar to those in ordinary use 
 in most parts of this Presidency ; to each of these buckets is attached a rope 
 which is fastened to a drum ; one of these is coiled and the other uncoiled, as 
 one bucket ascends and the other descends ; the drum is fixed on a rotating 
 spindle, to which is fixed at right angles the draught bar to which the 
 bullock is attached ; the diameter and thickness of the drum varies with the 
 depth of the well ; as a general rule, for all ordinary lifts the diameter of 
 the drum may be equal to about one-fifth the number of feet that the water 
 must be raised ; the drum is placed about 6 feet above the ground in order 
 to allow the rope to pass over the head of the draught bullock ; the spindle 
 upon which the drum is placed is kept in its upright position by means of 
 two beams, into which it is fixed, which cross each other at the middle, and 
 are supported at the ends on posts placed opposite each other on the outer 
 side of the bullock path. The bidlock walks under the draught bar attached 
 to a curved yoke, which turns on a swivel. In raising water the bullock 
 travels round the upright spindle, thus turning the drum and winding one 
 rope and unwinding the ether. If the diameter of the drum is as suggested 
 IJ circuits around the path will raise each bucket to the requisite height ; 
 the bullock is turned round, facing the opposite direction, while each 
 bucket is being discharged, no longer time is required to do this than is 
 needed for the bucket to discharge its contents." 
 
 Comparing the two machines it may be said that the "double " will raise 
 in a given time about 30 per cent, more water than the " single mhote," 
 whilst the saving of cost in lifting a given quantity is about fifty 
 per cent. One bullock is enabled to do the work of two, although he 
 must be a stronger one, and probably more costly than the pair which 
 suffices for the single mhote ; the economy in number will not be 
 of much weight where inferior cattle are, as is commonly the case, 
 numerous and cheap. The erection of the single mhote is within the 
 means of almost every ryot, and the whole apparatus can be repaired with. 
 his own hands ; whilst the double machine involves the outlay of a large 
 sum of money and can only be repaired by a carpenter, if it gets out of 
 order. The objection which exists in backing cattle up a slope of about 
 1 in 4 or 5 can easily be overcome hy adopting the practice, common in 
 some places, of using two pairs of bullocks ; allowing one to walk 
 up alongside the track whilst the other is descending. The single 
 nJiote is not to be recommended, but it is suitable to the wants and 
 habits of the native, and is therefore likely to hold its own for many years. 
 Regarding the double mhote, an ingenious arrangement has been 
 adopted on'thef.Bangalore Experimental Farm whereby a pair of bullocks 
 can be used for this machine ; Mr. Harman, the Superintendent, thus 
 describes his improvements on the pattern in use at Saidapet, from which 
 he took his original ideas : — 
 
 "The chief modification introduced is a wheel fixed by a vertical bar 
 from the end of the beam to which the cattle are attached to equalize the 
 balance, lighten the draft, and allow of a longer beam being used. The 
 cattle can thus walk rapidly without turning giddy. The method of fasten- 
 ing the yoke for a pair of bullock* are employed, as bullock labor is 
 plentiful on the farm. " 
 
112 IMPLBMENTS, MACHINES AND TOOLS. 
 
 The Picofta, or simple lever lift common to all oriental countries, 
 works very well and cheaply for lifts under 12 feet ; above that height it 
 becomes expensive : a much better form of lift is used at Bangalore 
 than that common in this neighboui'hood. 
 
 The Bale. — For low lifts of from 1 to 2 feet, this mode of raising water 
 is simple and cheap. In the same position, the Archimedian Screw can be 
 used. 
 
 Btccket Pumps, for cattle power, are costly, and not very effective 
 machines; the wear and tear on them is great, and their prime cost 
 places them beyond the means of ordinary ryots. 
 
 Chain Fump. ~One of these machines for cattle power has been 
 made use of several times. It was found to constantly require repairing; 
 irregular driving causing frequent breakages. The speed obtainable 
 with cattle is not sufficient to work this machine well. 
 
IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES AND TOOLS. 
 
 113 
 
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114 
 
 IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES AND TOOLS. 
 
 BAEN MACHINEEY.— There is very Httle scope for the intro- 
 duction of this class of machines into this country. Threshing Machines 
 have yet to be invented which are adapted to clean our ordinary cereals ; 
 with the larger ones, cholum and cumhoo, the straw is too long and stiff 
 to pass through the machines, whilst to cut the crop at two operations in 
 the field is expensive ; with the minor cereals, raggi, tenai, &c., the straw 
 is weak and winds round the drum, and the beaters do not remove more 
 than a quarter of the grain, which adheres most persistently to the ears ; 
 whereas with paddy a few blows of the sheaf on a block of wood does 
 all that is required, at an extremely low cost: as long as three men can 
 be hired for a day's work at a shilling, or until a suitable machine has 
 been invented for our special grains, there is little, if any, probability 
 of, or use in endeavouring to urge the introduction of threshing machines. 
 
 Winnowing Machines on the other hand present very many ffreat 
 advantages to recommend their use to the Indian ryot ; at present he is 
 altogether at the mercy of the weather, which is undoubtedly generally fine 
 for long periods of the year, in preparing his grains for market, but did he 
 possess winnowing machines he would be better able to take advantage of 
 the rise-and fall of prices, and to sell out his crop, not as he now does, 
 flushing the markets and depressing the prices to his own loss in doing 
 60, as soon as ever the crop is off the ground, but whenever the most 
 favorable opportunity occurred for realising good prices ; the increased 
 price which enterprising men would gain by using such machines 
 would soon repay the capital they had sunk , whilst in the end greater 
 steadiness would prevail in the price lists of the coimtry. The 
 superior speed and efficiency with which a winnowing machine cleans 
 all descriptions of grains cannot be denied, and, except for very small 
 tenants, where the labor of the family is not counted, no doubt grain 
 can also be cleaned much more cheaply with them. Small machines 
 can be introduced from America at a cost of Rupees 45 delivered, at which 
 price, the charge per diem, estimating the machine to be used 60 days 
 annually, would be about half an anna, to cover all charges for interest, 
 wear and tear, &c. ; a ridiculousy small amount. 
 
 Several varieties of Maize-Shellers have from time to time been 
 tried, the one in use on the farm now is an American one ; it is very 
 simple, efficient and portable, and costs delivered only Rupees 40 and it 
 will shell about lb. of maize in an hour. The following table 
 compares the work and cost of two other maize-sheUers which have been 
 experimented with : — 
 
 
 BanBome's 
 and Sim's. 
 
 Ainsworth's. 
 
 Eagle 
 Sheller. 
 
 Cost of machine 
 
 Shelled per diem.'oobB 
 
 Coolies required to work 
 
 Cost- 
 Labor 
 
 Interest wear and teai, &c. 
 
 Oil, &c 
 
 BB. A. F. 
 
 170 
 3,150 lb. 
 3 
 
 9 
 2 8 
 4 
 
 BB. A. F. 
 
 37 8 
 
 4,500 lb. 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 16 
 4 
 
 RS. A. F. 
 
 40 
 
 10,400 lb. 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 17 
 2 
 
 Total ... 
 Cost per 1,000 lb., cobs 
 
 012 
 3 10 
 
 7 10 
 19 
 
 4 9 
 6 
 
IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES AND TOOLS, 
 
 115 
 
 Chaff-cutters have been in constant use on the farm for many 
 years ; their value lies in economizing the food of cattle and in 
 enabhng substances, which could otherwise not be so used, to be given as 
 fodder. From time to time chail-cutters have been obtained from 
 America ; they are made on a much better principle than English chaff- 
 cutters : instead of the cutting knives being fixed on the spokes of the 
 fly wheel as in the English chaff-cutter, they have cylindrical knives set 
 something like those of the lawn mower, the feeding roller being placed 
 immediately behind the knives. The cutting action is thus continuous 
 and less jerky than in the chaff-cutter with vertical cutters, while by 
 increasing or decreasing the speed of the feeding roller, the chaff can be 
 cut at different lengths. They are admirably suited for cutting all sorts 
 of thick straw, for cholum or maize straw they are especially suited. It 
 was found that the American machine could chaff cholum or maize straw 
 at 30 per cent, less cost than the Enghsh machine, though the first cost 
 of the latter is nearly 40 per cent, greater, proving that a low priced 
 machine does not necessarily perform the cheapest work, and that an 
 efficient machine, though its first cost may seem high, is often the cheapest 
 machine in the long run. This is too frequently lost sight of by those who 
 would provide the ryots only with the rudest description of implements 
 and tools. In the instance just referred to the extra charge for interest 
 and wear and tear on the more costly machine is only two pies per diem, 
 a very insignificant sum, when it is remembered that with such a machine 
 the manual labor expended wiU go 50 per cent, further than with 
 the less costly machine. 
 
 In the following table the cost of chaffing with several machines is 
 tabulated : — 
 
 Cost of machine 
 
 Chaffed per diem cholum or maize 
 Straw. 
 
 Coolies required 
 
 Cost of — 
 
 Manmal labor 
 
 Interest, wear and tear charged 
 over 250 days. 
 
 Oil and Sundries 
 
 Total ... 
 
 American 
 
 Cylindrical 
 Cutter. 
 
 English 
 Vertical 
 
 Cutter. 
 
 Es. 50 
 
 E8.36 
 
 lb. 630 
 
 lb. 495 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Es. 6 
 
 Es. 6 
 
 ,,005 
 
 ,,008 
 
 .,003 
 
 ,,002 
 
 Ea. 6 8 
 
 Es. 6 5 
 
 Es. 10 7 
 
 Ea. 15 10 
 
 16 
 
116 
 
 IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES AND TOOLS. 
 
 A cake-hreaking and grain-crushing macliine is in constant use, the 
 following is a summary of the daily cost of working : — 
 
 Value of machine 
 Days work 
 
 Men required 
 
 Cost- 
 Labor 
 
 Interest, &o. ... 
 OU and Sundries 
 
 Total 
 
 Coat per 1,000 lb. 
 
 Es. 165 
 
 Cake-breaking 
 5,400 lb. 
 3 
 
 Bs. 9 
 ,,010 
 ,,003 
 
 Rs. 10 3 
 
 Es. 1 11 
 
 Grain-crushing 
 2,400 lb. 
 2 
 
 Es. 
 
 6 
 10 
 3 
 
 Es. 7 3 
 
 Es. 3 
 
 Cotton-gins. — Generally cotton is ginned by one of Emery's gins with 
 thirteen saws, made by Burgess and Key ; having been found to work 
 more cheaply with cattle, that power is now always used; the following 
 are some comparative results, they are however considerably better than 
 those obtained in ordinary practice : — 
 
 Nature of Power used. 
 
 Time working ... 
 
 Amount of seed cotton ginned 
 
 Would giu in a full day 
 
 Labor required — 
 
 Coolies ... 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Cost of labor per diem 
 
 Interest on capital, wear and tear, 
 &c. 
 
 Total daily cost ... 
 
 Cost of ginning 1,000 lb. seed cotton... 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Kb. 
 
 7i hours. 
 262 lb. 
 315 „ 
 
 2 
 
 1 pair. 
 
 IS 
 
 8 
 
 Rs. 1 7 
 
 Es. 5 7 9 
 
 Manual. 
 
 7i hours. 
 135 lb. 
 162 „ 
 
 Rs. 1 2 
 ,,080 
 
 Es.l 10 
 
 Rs.l2 7 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Analysis of Farm soils 
 
 ,, of limestones ■ . 
 
 ,, of cotton seed .. 
 ,, of castor cake ., 
 ,, of Bassia-nut cake 
 ,, of pulses .. ., 
 „ of ground-nut cake 
 
 Alluvial earth as manure 
 
 Animal charcoal as manure 
 
 „ „ experiments with 
 
 Artichokes, growth of , . 
 
 Artificial foods . , . . 
 
 Areca-nut palms, growth of 
 
 Ashes as manure . . . . 
 
 Bale, the . . . , . . 
 
 Bassia-nut cake 
 
 „ „ experiments with 
 
 Bam Machinery 
 
 Beef, cost of manufacturing 
 
 Bengal-gram, growth of . • 
 
 Bone dust as manure . , 
 
 „ charcoal as manure 
 „ ,, experiments with 
 
 Box feeding, advantages of 
 
 Brinjals, growth of 
 
 Bucket pumps . , . . 
 
 Buckwheat, growth and uses of 
 
 Buffaloes, usefulness of 
 
 Buildings, &c. 
 
 Bunnese paddy, growth of . . 
 
 Butter-making . . . . 
 
 Calcium sulphate 
 
 „ „ experiments with 26, 
 
 Cattle, management of . . . . 
 
 Cake-breaking machines . . , , 
 Carolina paddy, cultivation of . . 
 
 „ hints for do. , . 
 
 Castor cake as manure 
 
 ,, „ experiments with 
 Climate of district 
 China grass for fibre, growth of 
 Chaffing fodder . . , . 
 
 ChafiE-outters 
 
 Chinese sugarcane, growth of 
 Cost of keeping Farm cattle , , 
 
 Cotton, growth on sandy soil 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 linting season of 
 
 Egyptian , , , , , . 
 
 Yea Valley . , . , . . 
 
 Bahmieh . , . . . , 
 
 Indigenous . . 
 
 seed as manure 
 
 Page 
 7 
 24 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 94 
 96 
 23 
 26 
 30 
 68 
 94 
 70 
 23 
 
 112 
 22 
 30 
 
 114 
 98 
 52 
 25 
 26 
 30 
 20 
 67 
 
 112 
 69 
 73 
 6 
 44 
 80 
 
 25 
 
 27,28 
 72 
 116 
 44 
 45 
 22 
 33 
 2 
 64 
 102 
 115 
 40 
 75 
 54 
 55 
 55 
 58 
 59 
 61 
 61 
 21 
 
 Common millet 
 
 Country paddy, growth of 
 
 Crops, early harvesting of 
 
 , , fodder 
 Crow-foot grass or ragi 
 
 Dairy experiments 
 
 Deep cultivation 
 
 Drainage, objects of 
 „ cost of 
 
 ,, difficulties of 
 
 „ experiments in 
 
 Double mhote 
 
 Early harvesting of crops . . 
 Egg-plant or briujal 
 Egyptian clover, growth of 
 „ beans, growth of 
 
 Elephant grass as a fodder crop 
 Estate, history of 
 Exhaustion, cause and prevention of, 
 
 Farm estate, description of 
 Farm-yard manure . . 
 Fattening cattle 
 
 Page 
 43 
 43 
 36 
 31 
 42 
 
 75 
 9 
 12 
 16 
 14 
 15 
 110 
 
 36 
 67 
 
 69 
 
 61 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 20 
 99 
 101 
 98 
 91 
 
 5 
 
 „ pigs 
 
 Feeding, principles of 
 Fields of the Farm . , 
 Fibre, experiments in manufacture 62, 63 
 
 of. 
 
 Flax, growth of 69 
 
 Form of cattle 73 
 
 Formation of Farm, history of . . 6 
 
 Fodder crops, abundance of . . 35 
 
 Fodders, feeding value of various, 92 
 
 experimented on. 
 
 Geological formation of district . . 1 
 
 Gins, cotton .. .. ., ,. 116 
 
 Green manuring, action of , . , , 21 
 
 Great millet or yellow cholum , , 40 
 
 „ ,, as a fodder crop .. 35 
 
 Grasses, experiments in growth of. . 47-50 
 
 Ground-nuts, growth of . . . . 54 
 
 Gram, boiled and steeped as food, 95 
 experiments with. 
 
 ,, and ground-nuts compared as 96 
 foods . 
 
 „ and maize do. do. 97 
 
 Grain-crushing machines .. ,, 116 
 
 Guinea-grass, cultivation of . . 47 
 
 Guano, Phospho, as manure . . 25 
 
118 
 
 TNDEX. 
 
 Guano, Phospho, experiments with , , 
 Gypsum as manure . . 
 
 Hari£<li grass as a fodder crop 
 HaiTows . . , . . , 
 
 Hoes . . . . . . . , 
 
 Horse-gram as a fodder crop 
 
 „ as a green manure 
 
 Housing cattle 
 
 Imphee, growth of , . 
 Indigo, wild . . 
 
 „ cultivation of 
 
 Indigenous gi-asses, experiments with, 
 Italian millet, growth of 
 Irrigation, objects of . . 
 
 Jute for fibre, growth of 
 
 Lentils, growth of . , 
 Lime as manure 
 Limestones, analysis of 
 Little millet, growth of 
 Lucerne, growth of . . 
 Locust bean tree, growth of 
 
 Page 
 27 
 26 
 
 49 
 107 
 109 
 61 
 21 
 72 
 
 41 
 62 
 62 
 50 
 42 
 11 
 
 63 
 
 69 
 24 
 24 
 42 
 53 
 
 Maize, large producer . . , . 
 
 depth for sowing 
 
 under occasional irrigation . . 
 
 as a fodder crop ... 
 
 and gram as foods compared. 
 
 and gi-ouud-nut cake do. 
 
 shellers 
 Manures, classification of 
 
 „ experiments with . . 26 
 
 Manuring, objects of 
 Manilla hemp, growth of 
 Mhote, single 
 , , double 
 Mutton, manufacture of 
 
 Night-soil, village, as manure, experi- 
 ment with. 
 „ manufacture of . . , . 
 
 Objects of the Farm 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 96 
 
 97 
 
 114 
 
 19 
 
 to 34 
 
 19 
 
 64 
 
 110 
 
 110 
 
 101 
 
 30 
 23 
 
 Paddy, country, as a fodder crop 
 „ Carolina 
 
 43 
 44, 45 
 
 Page 
 
 Paddy, Burmese 44 
 
 ,, bad type of crop . . . . 43 
 Pasture, poor quality of .. .. 91 
 Picotta, the 112 
 
 Pigs, management of 
 Planter's PViend, growth of 
 Plantains, growth of 
 Ploughs, descriptions used , 
 
 ,, experiments with . 
 Poultry — Fowls 
 
 ,, Ducks .. , 
 
 Prickly Comfrey, growth of 
 
 85 
 41 
 66 
 103 
 104 
 87 
 89 
 
 Rainfall at the Farm and at the 3 
 
 Observatory. 
 
 Eagi or crow-foot grass, growth of . , 42 
 
 Rape, growth of . . . . . . 69 
 
 Rheea for fibre, growth of . . . . 64 
 
 Rotations of crops . . . . . . 16 
 
 Roselle, growth of, for fibre and seed. 61 
 
 Saltpetre as manure . . , , , . 26 
 
 Seed drills 108 
 
 Sheep, Saidapet breed of, description 87 
 
 „ management of flock . , . . 84 
 
 Single mhote , . , . . . 110 
 
 Situation of Farm . . . . , . 1 
 
 Slaughter-house refuse, as manure . . 22 
 
 Spiked millet, or cumboo, growth of. 42 
 
 Soilsof Farm, description of.. .. 7 
 
 „ analysis of . . . , . . 7 
 
 „ settlement values of . . 8 
 
 Sorghum saccharatum , . . , 40 
 
 Sugarcane, cost of growing , , 36 
 
 Sunn-hemp for fibre growth of . . 62 
 
 Tapioca, growth of , , . . , . 68 
 
 Threshing machines .. .. .. 114 
 
 Tobacco, growth of . . . . . . 64 
 
 „ curing of . , . . . . 66 
 
 Vetches, growth of 69 
 
 Water, cost of raising .. ,, 113 
 
 Water-lifts 110 
 
 Wheat, difficulties of growing . , 37 
 
 White cholum, growth of . . . . 40 
 
 Wild indigo, as a sheep food . . 52 
 
 Winnowing machines ,. ., 114 
 
 Wool production of Saidapet sheep . ■ 82 
 
 Working of Farm cattle . . , . 74 
 
''-W