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CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 LIBRARY 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 the Estste of 
 A.. Henry Detweiler 
 
Cornell University Library 
 BR 145 .B56 
 
 Sketch of the history of Judaism and Chr 
 
 olin 
 
 3 1924 029 244 872 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029244872 
 
JUDAISM AND CHRISTIANITY. 
 
' The World's Religions " Series, 
 
 1. Primitive Religions : An Introduction to the 
 
 Study oi' Religions, with an account of the 
 Behgioas Beliefs of Uncivilised reoples. 
 
 2. Tlie Great Indian Religions : An Account of 
 
 Brahmanism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and 
 Zoroastrianism. 
 
 3. Mohammedanism, and other Religions of 
 
 Mediterranean Countries. 
 
 -4. History of Judaism and Christianity, in the 
 light of Modern Research and Criticism. 
 
 Lokuom; Waiiu, Lock, Bowden and Co. 
 
lift 
 
 ''SI'^'I i 'I 
 
 ST, PAUL S 
 
AL, lOKDON. 
 
'•^be Moulb's iReligions" Series. 
 
 A SKETCH OF THE 
 
 HISTORY OF JUDAISM 
 
 AND 
 
 CHEISTIANITY, 
 
 IN TEE LIGHT OF MODERN UE8EABGE 
 AND OBITIGISM. 
 
 G. T. BETTANY, M.A., B.Sc, 
 
 4iit)ior 0/ " The ll'oilJ's Iii?Mbiia)its," " Life of diaries Daruiiii," etc. 
 
 WITH MANY ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 WARD, LOCK, BOWDEN AND CO. 
 
 LONDON; WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, B.C. 
 
 iSfEW YOEK : BOND STREET. 
 MELBOURNE: ST. JAMES'S STREET. STD^JEY ( YORK STREET. 
 
 1892 , 
 (All riglds reserved,)' 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 rpO all wlio wish to read a brief narrative of me history 
 -L of Judaism and Christianity in the light of modern 
 criticism and discoveries, but not written in any spirit of 
 party bias or dogmatism, this little book, completing an 
 account of the World's Religions, is offered as supplying 
 what they want. It is unlike some books of the kind, in 
 not telling over again the most fundamental points with 
 which every one who has read the Bible is familiar, in 
 not assuming that modern theories are necessarily true, 
 or ancient behefs necessarily false. It is a book which 
 believers in Christianity of aR shades of opinion may read 
 without finding any dogmatic statement which will shock 
 their feelings, or any attempt to enforce a peculiar way of 
 looking at things. The most salient characteristics of 
 Judaism and Christianity, and their sacred books, have 
 been selected and recounted, in a form best suited for 
 comparison with other religions. Not assuming the tone 
 of the preacher who enforces a Divine revelation, the 
 author is the more free to point out the excellences of the 
 teaching or the language of the Bible, and the influence 
 they have had. 
 
 It is foolish in these days to ignore the discussions and 
 criticisms which have arisen about many biblical questions. 
 This is like ignoring the attacks of enemies in war, or 
 awaiting a battle without any intelligeace department. 
 Much of what some regard as destructive criticism has no 
 such tendency in reality. It is undertaken with a most 
 serious desire to ascertain truth, to collect together the 
 utmost amount of historical or other evidence, and to 
 weigh it carefully, apart from preconceived opinions which 
 would bias the judgment. If in such an investigation the 
 special belief of the reader appears to be set aside, that is 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 necessary to a fair trial ; just as the judge, in a case of 
 murder, takes everything as not proven, until it is un- 
 mistakably proved, and then leaves all to the jury.* No 
 lover of truth need be afraid of impartial inquiry for truth. 
 When any fragment of truth is well established, it 
 becomes necessary to honesty to adopt it; and it is at 
 least necessary for intelligent persons to give a fair hear- 
 ing to new views. In this book our aim is to set before the 
 reader a number of facts in the history of Judaism and 
 Christianity which appear to have been well established 
 in modern times, while in matters which are under 
 controversy between important schools of divinity and 
 history, the salient points on both sides are presented. 
 
 An endeavour is made to bring into clear prominence 
 the vital characteristics of the books of the Old Testament. 
 As to the early history of Christianity, only a brief ex- 
 position can be given ; but the most distinctive features of 
 Christianity and its Founder have been briefly recounted. 
 The sketch of modern Judaism and of the history of 
 Christianity is of necessity greatly condensed ; but it will 
 have its use if it enables readers who cannot find time to 
 read long histories to gain a notion of the vast amount 
 of deeply interestiug life through which the Church of 
 Christ has passed. Each age has its own difficulties, its 
 own natural situations which had to be dealt with. Each 
 has produced its men of noble character, all agreed in 
 devotion to God and Christ, though wonderfully diverse 
 in their views on Divine things, their manner of teaching, 
 their ideals of the Church, their mode of dealing with the 
 world. After the early triumphs of the apostolic age, we 
 have the dimly illumined second century, so important 
 in its bearing on future events. Light grows fuller and 
 clearer as we pass through the third and fourth centuries, 
 and, from being persecuted, Christianity became the State 
 religion of the Roman empire. Then we enter upon 
 the multiform results of connection with the State, both 
 in the Eastern and Western Churches, the period of 
 great oBcumenical councils to settle universal creeds for 
 the Church. That the vote of an assemblage of bishops 
 can settle any matter of belief whatever we must be 
 
PREFACE. , vii 
 
 permitted to doubt ; but the history of wha.t the Councils 
 settled, and why they did so, is of unending human 
 interest : and if we study early Church history we shall 
 find the same human nature that we are familiar with in 
 modern times. Though in many respects they were less 
 enlightened, their spirits often show as high a capacity 
 for catching the Divine Light and reflecting it as any in 
 our day. 
 
 Mediasvalism, the growth of the autocratic papacy, the 
 formation of the monastic orders, the grasping of temporal 
 power by popes and bishops, their struggle with emperors 
 and kings, have still for the serious reader their lessons 
 and import. The scholastic theology of the Middle Ages, 
 a remarkable attempt to be logical, superseded the less 
 systematic expositions and treatises of earlier times ; 
 while here and there voices were heard, such as those of 
 Abelard, Roger Bacon, Huss, and Wyclif, which portended 
 the coming of great convulsions of thought and practice. 
 When we are fairly started on the modern period, the 
 interest of the Reformation and its antagonistic influences 
 grows tremendous. Our space has not enabled us to do 
 full justice to the causes which led to the establishment 
 of the Protestant Churches and the limitation of the grip 
 of the Church of Rome upon the world. In a future 
 volume the writer hopes to give more fully the course 
 and results of the great Reformation of religion in modern 
 times. 
 
 G. T. B. 
 Midmnimer, 1891. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 THE JEWISH EELIGION. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Eabli' Histoky— Moses i 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 The Jewish Religion: Legislation, Festivals, Morals . . 25 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 The Jewish Phiesthood and Temples ; the Psalms and Philo- 
 sophical Wisdom 50 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 The Pkophets of Israel 73 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Judaism after the Prophets 90 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Modern Jewish Ritual. — The Karaites and Samaritans . . 122 
 
 b 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 The Founder of Christianity 147 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 The New Testament 172 
 
 CHAPTER m. 
 The Apostolic Times 190 
 
 CHAPTER rV. 
 Christianity Persecuted : Second ' and Third Centuries . . 207 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Christianity as a State Church: Fourth Century . . , 242 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 The Church in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries . , , , 260 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Christianity to the Separation between East and West . . 287 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Tbe Eastern Church — Russian and Greek 306 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 The Roman ChuucH in the Middle Ages 828 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 Religious PersSoutIons and the Refohmation .... 360 
 
CONTSNTS. xi 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 The ConNciL op Teent ahd Modern Eomanism .... 879 
 
 CHAPTEE Xir. 
 The Luthehan, Eefokmed, and Presbttekian CiiunckES . . 402 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 The Chukch op England and the Nonoonpormists . . . 426 
 
BOOK I. 
 THE JEWISH EELIOIOK 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 ®arli) li'Storp— iW0£{f£f. 
 
 Old Testament the cMef authority— Its growth and editing— £lohist and 
 Jehovlst narratives— The cosmogony of Genesis— Dean Perowne's view— 
 The Jehovlst narrative of creation- The fall variously interpreted — 
 History of Adam's descendants— Longevity of man— The deluge— The 
 covenant with Noah— The confusion of tongues— The history of Israel 
 begins— Abraham's migration — His worship of God— Abraham and Mel- 
 chizedelc- Diviue appearances— Abraham's character— Sacrifice of Isaac 
 — Jacob and special providence— Sacred stones and household images — 
 Jacob's great struggle— Patriarchal moral character— Jacob's dying 
 blessings— Israel in Egypt— Egyptian influences— Education of Moses— 
 His long residence in Mldian— The Divine commission— The plagues of 
 Egypt— Passage of the Red Sea— The decalogue— Character of Moses. 
 
 WE must preface our remarks upon the Jewish re- 
 ligion by saying that it is outside the scope of 
 this -work to offer any discussion on the question of the 
 inspiration of the Bible, respecting -which so many dif- 
 ferent views are current, even amongst divines. It is 
 simply sought to give an account of Jewish religion and 
 its growth in the same manner as the author has done 
 with some other religions, noting the principal features of 
 Old Testament teaching, and their historical development, 
 and especially those points in which a comparison can be 
 made with other religions. For this purpose it is, of 
 course, necessary to examine the historical records of the 
 Old Testament in a manner as unprejudiced as possible 
 by theories of inspiration, which on any theory acted 
 through human instruments. 
 
2 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 It is somewhat singular that the Old Testament is 
 
 almost the only authority for much of the history of the 
 
 Jews, owing to the absence of contemporary 
 
 °menttoe' records in stone, and of relics of buildings, etc.. 
 
 chief which in other countries have thrown hght on 
 
 authority. j-gj-g^Qj^ . ^nd it is in the religious history of 
 
 Chaldsea, Assyria, Philistia, and Egypt that the mosi 
 
 interesting facts have come to light which illustrate the 
 
 development of religion among the Jews. 
 
 Taking the Pentateuch and the Historical Books of the 
 
 Old Testament as a whole, it is pretty generally agreed 
 
 Its growth that, whatever be the date of their arrangement 
 
 and and promulgation in the form in which we 
 
 editing. \^-kjq them (and this is variously placed in the 
 period between Hilkiah's discovery of the Law in Josiah's 
 reign, in the seventh century B.C., and its recitation by 
 Ezra about B.C. 445), the compilers or authors had before 
 them previous records, some of which may be distinguished 
 from one another by their language, wliile of others we 
 have only the names, such as the Book of the Wars of 
 Jehovah. There are many indications in the Pentateuch 
 that it was at least extensively revised long after the date 
 of Moses ; and, indeed, there is nowhere in the Pentateuch 
 any assertion that Moses wrote the books which have 
 generally been attributed to him, and which speak of 
 him in the third person. Discussion as to how much 
 Moses has contributed to the Pentateuch would be out of 
 place here. It is stated in numerous passages that Moses 
 wrote records of events, and of the commands of Jehovah ; 
 and in several passages of the Old Testament this is 
 definitely attributed to him. Great knowledge of Egypt 
 and Egyptian customs is shown by the writer, thus accord- 
 ing with the opportunities Moses had of gaining such 
 knowledge. The value of the historical works of the Old 
 Testament as sources of history is extreme ; and many 
 facts therein recorded have been remarkably confirmed 
 by archseological and geographical investigations, espe- 
 cially by those of the Palestine Exploration Fund. 
 
 A most conspicuous result of modern criticism of the 
 Pentateuch, is the discernment of at least two authors or 
 
THE COSMOGONY OF GENESIS. 3 
 
 documents, one describing tlie supreme God as Elohim, 
 "the Mighty," a plural title which was well un- Eionist and 
 derstood by the peoples surrounding the early JeHovist 
 Israelites, and among whom the briefer El was a "^^'^^'^'"^^• 
 common designation for their own chief deity ; the other 
 using the term Jehovah, or Jahveh, translated "the 
 Lord." A third variation is found when the names are 
 coupled together. The passage in Exodus vi. 3, where 
 Jehovah says to Moses, "I appeared iinto Abraham, unto 
 Isaac, and unto Jacob, as God Almighty (El Shaddai), 
 but by My name Jehovah I was not known to them," 
 appears to fix all narratives in which the name Jehovah 
 is used as later than that revelation to Moses ; but this is 
 by no means agreed upon by critics. We may, however, 
 study the religious development of the Jews in two 
 periods — that in which the name of the Deity was some 
 form of El or Elohim, and that in which it was Jehovah. 
 The first boob of the Pentateiich, commonly termed 
 Genesis, in the first place gives a cosmogony (i. to ii. 3) 
 in which the Creator is spoken of as Elohim. ,^^^ ggg. 
 It is undoubtedly superior to any other ancient mogony of 
 cosmogony. It describes every act of creation ^^^^^i^- 
 as directly the work of Elohim, and this is the predomi- 
 nant note of the narrative. An orderly procession of 
 events is traced, and identified with days which may be 
 referred to immense periods of time, though there is no 
 evidence that the narrative was originally understood in 
 any sense but that of days consisting of evening and 
 morning, or twenty-four hours. The narrative appears 
 to imply, though it does not expressly assert, the creation 
 of the world out of nothing, and it represents the Creator 
 as in direct relation to His work, regarding it as "good," 
 and "very good." Many attempts have been made in 
 modern times to bring the statements as to the " days " 
 of creation into connection with distinct, or marked geo- 
 logical periods ; but all these appear to fail. In the one 
 case we have a graphic representation of the order of 
 creation, drawn out on broad lines appreciable by man- 
 kind in an early stage of literary development, and by 
 children and the unlearned of all ages ; on the other, we 
 
4 EARLY JE WISH HIS TOR Y. 
 
 have an abtempt at inductive and detailed liistory. The 
 present writer regards the attempt to draw out a detailed 
 correspondence between the two as futile. Nor does it 
 appear necessary that even those who regard the narra- 
 tive of creation in Genesis as an inspired and infallible 
 document should read into it all the discoveries of modern 
 science in order to establish or confirm its value and 
 interest. In any case, we have a grand series of pictures, 
 ending with the creation of man, or " Adam," male and 
 female, on the sixth day, and a conclusion which gives a 
 foundation and sanction for the Sabbath as observed by 
 the Jews, by attributing to the Creator "rest" on the 
 seventh day, and the sanctification of the day. Bishop 
 Harvey Goodwin {Contemporary Review, vol. 50, p. 524) 
 argues that the week did not take its rise from the sacred 
 history, but that the form in which the history was cast 
 depended on the writer's knowledge of the division of 
 time by weeks, and of the Sabbath as an institution 
 already existing long before the time of Moses. Bishop 
 Goodwin regards the story of creation as either a specula- 
 tion, or a poetical picture, or the record of a vision 
 accorded to some gifted seer. The narrator, requiring 
 some framework for his vision, and knowing the division 
 of time by weeks, naturally used it as the most appro- 
 priate.^ 
 
 In this connection we may quote Bishop Perowne's words 
 
 in Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible" (article Genesis). 
 
 BisHop "It is certain that the author of the first 
 
 Perowne's chapter of Genesis, whether Moses or some one 
 
 ^®^' else, knew nothing of geology or astronomy. 
 
 It is certain that he made use of phraseology concerning 
 
 physical facts in accordance with the limited range of 
 
 ' Bishop Goodwill fvirtlier olDserves that " wlien we speak of the 
 ' literal interpretation' of this portion of lioly Scripture, M-e are 
 using language which, when examined, has no definite meaning. 
 The whole history of creation is necessarily supra-litei-al. ' The 
 Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.' What literal 
 meaning is there here ? ' God said, Let us make man in our image, 
 after our likeness.' How can we assign to such transcendental 
 language any sense which can properly be called literal ? And so 
 on throughout the whole creative histor3-." 
 
NOAH'S SACRIFICE. 
 
 information Avliich he possessed. It is also certain tLat 
 the Bible was never intended to reveal to us knowledge 
 of which our own faculties rightly iised could put us in 
 
 il||llll|l,|ll||lj ||ll I «i M H \i I « f\f I ti 
 
 II U ItCA'aSW fi^^m 
 
 ji^**''''^atii''llii<llifliliiM 
 
 possession. And we have no business, therefore, to expect 
 anything but popular languaj^e in the description of 
 
6 EARLY JE WISH HI ST OR Y. 
 
 physical phenomena. Thus, for instance, when it is said 
 that by means of the firmament God divided the waters 
 which were above from those which were beneath, we 
 admit the fact without admitting the implied explanation. 
 The Hebrew supposed that there existed vast reservoirs 
 above him corresponding to the ' waters under the earth.' 
 We know that by certain natural processes the rain 
 descends from the clouds. But the fact remains the 
 same, that there are waters above as well as below." It 
 must, however, be admitted that the extent to which 
 modern science is consistent with the broad outlines of the 
 picture in Genesis is remarkable. 
 
 The section Genesis ii. 4 to iii. 2i is admitted to be very 
 distinguishable from the preceding, especially in its using 
 Tie Jenovist ^^® form " Jehovah or Jahveh Elohim " for the 
 
 narrative Deity twenty times. This combination is only 
 of creation, fo^j-^jj elsewhere in the Pentateuch in Exodus 
 ix. 38. The name Elohim is also used three times by 
 itself The narrative begins by a very different and con- 
 densed account of the creation of the world and of living 
 things, with a particularisation of man as " formed of the 
 dust of Adamah, or the ground," whereas he is previously 
 described as " created in His own image," and " male and 
 female." The second account goes on to describe the 
 primitive dwelling of man, the separate command to 
 Adam or the Adam to refrain from eating of a particular 
 tree, on pain of death, the naming of all cattle and fowl 
 by Adam, the framing of a woman as his helpmeet out of 
 his side, this being made the basis for the recognition 
 of husband and wife as " one ilesh." 
 
 It is not necessary to repeat here the story of the Fall, 
 which has been so differently interpreted by thinkers of 
 
 The fall ^11 ages since criticism began. Many interpret 
 
 variously it allegoric ally, as signifying a deep spiritual 
 erpre e . ^j.^^}^^ gf which, however, various accounts may 
 be given. Apart from questions of theology, it is of great 
 interest as showing the early Hebrew mode of accounting 
 for the presence of sin in the world. The description 
 of the garden in Eden may be referred to some tract of 
 Mesopotamia, from which region the ancestors of the 
 
HISTORY OF. ADAM'S DESCENDANTS. 7 
 
 Israelites migrated ; but it is impossible to identify with 
 any certainty the limited tract that is meant. The nar- 
 rative appears to describe the creation of animals after 
 that of man, but it is evident that it does not attempt to 
 give a chronological account. Altogether, the description 
 is one showing many marks of antiquity, whether or not 
 we suppose the name " Jahveh " to have been inserted 
 at a later date. The conception of the Deity " walking 
 in the garden in the cool of the day," and taking part in 
 a series of dialogues, is an anthropomorphism which of 
 itself indicates a state of mind which is paralleled in 
 many primitive races, whose inward impressions are heard 
 as outward voices, and attributed to spirits or gods. The 
 connection of the first wearing of clothing with the first 
 consciousness of sin, the representation of the loss of a 
 primeval state of bliss and ease, the exclusion from the 
 garden by cherubim and the flaming sword, the idea 
 of a possible seizure of immortality by man, — all these 
 denote an early stage of self-conscious reasoning upon the 
 phenomena of life, which has been presented to us in 
 such simplicity and charm by no other religious book. 
 We may note that the serpent had in the East a reputa- 
 tion for sagacity which has not stood the test of later 
 investigation. 
 
 Genesis iv. contains the story of Adam's family through 
 Cain down to Lamech, with the murder of Abel by Cain, 
 and narrates the early occupations of mankind. History of 
 pastoral and agricultural, the development of Adam's 
 the use of metal for cutting implements, and descendants, 
 the invention of musical instruments. The two main 
 varieties of early offerings to Grod are here already estab- 
 lished, namely, " the fruit of the ground," and " the first- 
 lings of the flock, and of the fat thereof," and the 
 superiority of the latter is implied in their acceptance. 
 The punishment of murder on earth by a severer sentence 
 than death is indicated, and the power of' conscience is 
 strongly asserted. In this narrative the name Jahveh is 
 used, and at the close, after describing the birth of Seth 
 as the progenitor of the chosen people, we are told that 
 " then men began to call upon the name of the Lord." 
 
8 EA RLY JE\ VIS II HIS TOR V. 
 
 Chapter v. is essentially a genealogical chapter, boginning 
 with a third brief account of the creation of man, " male 
 and female," and termed collectively " Adam." Here the 
 name " Elohim " is used, except in ver. 29. "We have in 
 
 Longevity ^his chapter mainly that record of longevity 
 of -which Owen and many other eminent zoologists 
 ™^"' and physiologists declare to be incompatible 
 with the present physical structure of man, especially of 
 the teeth, while no traces of men Avith any structure 
 admitting of such length of days can be found. Of 
 course, if the early calendar was reckoned on some other 
 basis than ours, this difficulty disappears ; but, humanly 
 speaking, it is useless to look for modern scientific 
 accuracy in a record dating from very early times ; in 
 fact, the power of using considerable numbers is a com- 
 paratively advanced achievement. These records are best 
 looked at as representing the ancient genealogy of the 
 Jews preserved in the most authentic form they knew 
 about; and to attempt to reconcile them with modern 
 views on the antiquity of man is a fruitless endeavour. 
 We know that names were left out and genealogies drawn 
 up in round numbers of generations by the Jews, of 
 which there are numerous examples in the Bible. It has 
 been suggested that the account of Enoch's translation 
 represents an interesting stage of the mode by which 
 heroes become deified in many countries. 
 
 In the history of Noah we come into closer contact with 
 the traditions of other nations, and especially with the 
 The Deluge extremely interesting Chaldsean deluge story. 
 ' Moral evil had risen to a great height, owing, 
 as the early Hebrews believed, to an intermixture of 
 the daughters of the Adam with a powerful race, 
 the sons of Elohim, or the migJity ones, giving rise 
 to "giants." Jahveh is represented as "repenting" of 
 having made- man, and as threatening his extinction. 
 Noah, a righteous man, was selected to be preserved 
 during the impending destruction, and was instructed to 
 make a great "ark" in which he could save his familj', 
 and two of " every living thing," an expression which 
 must be taken with obvious limitations. We need not 
 
._!£:^^^ 
 
 MOSES KECITINO THE LAW I 
 
[HE A.LTAE AND THE PILLAKS. 
 
THE DELUGE. 
 
 follow the details of the Flood, but note that it is obvi- 
 ously impossible that this can have been a universal 
 Deluge in the sei-;se in which that term would now be 
 
 understood. The conception of a plain only broken by 
 comparatively low hills, covered by water as far as the 
 eye could see, suffices to adequately fulfil the conditions 
 
lo EARLY JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 really demanded. The " mountains of Ararat " are ren- 
 dered the " mountains of Armenia " by many, and it is 
 nowhere said that the highest mountains were meant. 
 Noah's offering of a burnt sacrifice to God consisting of 
 "every clean beast and every clean fowl" is of great 
 interest as showing religious advance, and as indicating 
 that a sort of classification of animals into clean and 
 unclean had been made. The narrative, among other 
 anthropomorphisms, represents the Deity as " smelling a 
 sweet savour." 
 
 The great covenant which Noah now received and pro- 
 mulgated is of prime interest in whatever way it may 
 The covenant be regarded, whether as a direct Divine reve- 
 witu Noaii. lation, or as an evidence of a stage in natural 
 religious development. A very orthodox commentator 
 regards the covenant as expressing Noah's strong inward 
 convictions in answer to his prayers during his sacrifice. 
 It inspires hopefulness of future good, notwithstanding 
 the evil so prone to arise in man's heart, and confidence 
 in God's beneficence. It contains a sort of charter of 
 man's supremacy on the earth and over animals, which 
 in its broad lines is unique at such an early period. The 
 responsibility for human life is laid down as a funda- 
 mental human obligation, resting upon man's brotherhood, 
 and his relationship to God as being made " in His image." 
 Noah, appalled by the late destruction, was reassured that 
 neither men nor beasts were to be cut off by a flood in 
 future. The rainbow was to Noah the sign of this cove- 
 nant, a fact by no means implying, what so many have 
 imagined, that the rainbow then first appeared, an idea 
 incompatible with the laws of light. In the history of 
 Noah, then, we trace the broad outline of the conception 
 so much developed and filled in later in the Jewish and 
 Christian religions, of the fatherhood of God and the 
 brotherhood of man. 
 
 The next great cosmologlcal conception in the Book of 
 
 Genesis is in the story by which the variety of languages 
 
 THe confusion 'was accounted for. It is closely paralleled by 
 
 of tongues, some fragments of Babylonian tablets in which 
 
 is described the anger of Bel at the sin of the builders 
 
THE PATRIARCHS OF ISRAEL. ii 
 
 of the walls of Babylon 9,nd the mound of the to-wer or 
 palace. The builders, whose attempts were directed 
 against the gods, were confounded on the mound, as well 
 as their speech. The winds are said to have finally de- 
 stroyed the impious works. This story may very well 
 have had its origin in the building of the great temple on 
 the mound of Birs Nimroud or some other notable temple 
 raised in successive stages. Primitive peoples regarded 
 such huge enterprises as impiety against the gods, much 
 as the originators of railways were denominated impious. 
 The divergence of language between people a few miles 
 apart, which must have been far more marked then than 
 in modern civihsed countries, was similarly considered an 
 act of vengeance directly due to the gods. In Grenesis, 
 to quote another orthodox divine, Dr. Payne Smith, 
 "Jehovah is described as a mighty king, who, hearing 
 in his upper and heavenly dwelling of man's ambitious 
 purpose, determines to go and inspect the work in person, 
 that having seen, he may deal with the offenders justly." 
 And in order to defeat men's unlimited ambition, diversity 
 of speech was brought about, so that men were not in- 
 telligible to one another. 
 
 The history of Israel now properly begins with the 
 narrative of the life of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the 
 three great ancestral patriarchs of the Jewish The patriarchs 
 people. Some scholars, who cannot believe that of Israel, 
 any ancient narrative at all closely corresponds with fact, 
 have imagined these to be mythical beings, and have 
 given fanciful interpretations of their biographies. But 
 the sober style of the narrative lends little countenance 
 to such ideas, while much confirmatory evidence from 
 language, antiquities, geography, etc., gives support to 
 the belief that we have here the most authentic early 
 biographical records which have come down to us, al- 
 though it cannot be expected that they have been trans- 
 mitted with perfect accuracy in all details. Leaving 
 questions of general criticism aside, we will trace the con- 
 ception of the Divine power and of religion which the 
 narratives convey. Abraham's migration from Mesopo- 
 tamia is undertaken by Divine command, and is inspired 
 
12 EARLY JE WISH HIST OR Y. 
 
 bj^ a great liope of founding a nation Avhicli sliall become 
 Abraham's a blessing to all the earth. At Sichem, in the 
 migration, centre of Canaan, it was shown to him that 
 his seed -would possess the land ; and he built an altar 
 to Jehovah, "who appeared unto him." It is impossible 
 to settle in what form the Divine manifestations to 
 Abraham' may have been made; it is equally impossible 
 to doubt that the narrative represents a genuine belief 
 His worship in their reality. Abraham built altars to God 
 of God. in various places afterwards historically famous 
 as places of worship ; and on one occasion is represented 
 as signalising a covenant with God by dividing a heifer, 
 a she-goat, and a ram, into halves, a ceremonial implying 
 the most solemn ratification. Abraham on this occasion 
 begged for a confirmation of his having an heir born to 
 him in his old age. In a deep sleep following his watch 
 over the exposed animals, Abraham saw a symbol of fire 
 pass between the divided halves, and received a promise 
 of the future greatness of his posterity, in connection with 
 which is narrated a prediction of their servitude "in a 
 land that is not theirs." 
 
 An interesting episode in Abraham's life, showing that 
 he did not feel himself cut off from the local worship of 
 Abraham and El Under different names, is his conduct after 
 Meichizedek. }^ig return from the slaughter of the confederates 
 of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam. Abraham received a 
 blessing and gave a proportion of his booty to Meichizedek, 
 whose title King of Salem (Melek-Salem) is by some 
 understood to mean "King of Peace," as his first name 
 Meichizedek means King of Righteousness. It is impos- 
 sible to be certain that by Salem the site of Jerusalem 
 was signified. "Whatever his local habitation, Meichizedek 
 officiated as priest of El-Elion, " God most high," and 
 represented El-Elion as having delivered Abraham's 
 enemies into his hand. Abraham, according to the nar- 
 rative, identified the God he worshipped with the God of 
 Meichizedek, and here again rose beyond conceptions of 
 local or tribal gods towards that of a Supreme and 
 Universal Deity. 
 All through the narrative of Abraham we have records 
 
13 
 
 DIVINE APPEARANCES. 
 describing familiar intercourse betAveen the Deity and 
 
 Abraham, whether by undefined " appearances," by the in- 
 
14 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 tervention of " the angel of the Lord," or of human figures. 
 Divine Thus we see how deep-seated was the belief 
 appearances, in direct Divine intervention and appearances 
 in the time from which these records date. In the 
 Elohistic narrative of Genesis xvii., which gives the 
 ancient authorisation for the circumcision of the Hebrew 
 males, we find the name El Shaddai, El All-Powerful or 
 Almighty, applied to God. There is evidence that cir- 
 cumcision was known and practised by other nations long 
 before this; but its adoption by Abraham was an im- 
 portant epoch in the development of the Jewish religion. 
 The idea of the Almighty as coming down from His high 
 enthronement above the earth is still prominent, as in the 
 phrase, "He went up from Abraham." The birth of 
 Isaac is promised expressly, as the heir of the covenant 
 made with Abraham. 
 
 The position of Abraham at the head of the Jewish 
 religion and in the regard of Christians is assured. To 
 Ateaham's quote Dean Stanley ("Jewish Church," i. 16): 
 cuaraoter. " j^ ig true that Abraham hardly appears be- 
 fore us as a prophet or teacher of any new religion. As 
 the Scripture represents him, it is rather as if he was 
 possessed of the truth himself, than as if he had any call 
 to proclaim it to others. . . . He was the first distinct 
 historical witness, at least for his own race and country, 
 to Theism, to Monotheism, to the Unity of the Lord and 
 Ruler of all, against the primeval idolatries, the natural 
 religion of the ancient world." No doubt he is the first 
 great exemplification of that which henceforth dis- 
 tinguished higher from lower religions, faith in the 
 Supreme Being and in -ultimate good, first for himself 
 and his descendants, and secondarily for all mankind. 
 Sacrifice His intended sacrifice of Isaac, — related pro- 
 of Isaac, bably to the frequent Canaanitish immolations 
 of the eldest son, — is explicable by his intense belief that 
 the command came from God ; and viewed in this light 
 it highly strained his belief that Isaac was the divinely 
 given heir of the future of his race. One commentator 
 puts it thus, in reference to the Canaanitish practice : 
 "The question might easily arise within, 'Wouldst thou 
 
JACOB'S GREAT STRUGGLE. 15 
 
 be able to do the like to please thy God ? ' " The sub- 
 stitution of a ram for Isaac was of fundamental im- 
 portance in establishing the antiquity of the later Jewish 
 sin-offering, and the sanctity of Mount Moriah, the subse- 
 quent site of the Jewish temple. Moral strength, mixed 
 with some moral weakness, first rises to distinct portrai- 
 ture in Abraham, whose character, clearly related to 
 features still familiar in Semitic life, has become almost 
 equally precious to Mohammedans and Christians. His 
 date, somewhere before or after 2000 B.C., we cannot 
 attempt to settle. 
 
 In the history of Jacob we find a development of the 
 personal aspect of belief. Special Providence watches 
 over his conduct, appears to favour his designs, jaoob and 
 and by the stress of events drives him into a special 
 more upright path than he had at first sought. i'^°^*^'i<=^- 
 The belief in the validity and value of patriarchal bless- 
 ings is clearly evidenced in both Isaac's and Jacob's 
 dying blessings. We note, too, that it comes upon Jacob 
 as a surprise when he becomes convinced at Bethel that 
 it too, " far from the holy places of his family, is a place 
 of Jahveh's gracious presence," whereupon he raises a 
 stone, after the manner of the Phcenicians and other sur- 
 rounding peoples, as a memorial, and pours oil upon it, 
 naming it Beth-el, the house of God, long afterwards 
 famous as a place of sacrifice and a sanctuary. 
 "We note, also, the continued use of household stones and 
 images, whether mere images of guardian spirits tousenoid 
 or of ancestors, in Laban's family, and believed ""^^^^■ 
 to ensure, or be essential to, the good fortune of the 
 household. 
 
 Of great significance in the history of Jacob is the 
 development of prayer, in reliance upon what he believes 
 to be the promises of God ; although prayer is Jacob's great 
 still mainly, if not entirely, for temporal bene- struggle, 
 fits. The memorable " wrestling " of Jacob, whatever it 
 may mean physically, has become the type and model 
 of innumerable spiritual struggles, and indicates changes 
 in moral character as the product of earnest resolution. 
 In the view of very many, it stands as a conspicuous 
 
1 6 EARL V JE WISH HIS TOR Y. 
 
 memorial of man's elevation by struggle and resolve, ever 
 blessed by the Supreme Power. To Jacob the struggle 
 was a Divine revelation : " I have seen Elohim face to 
 face, and my life was preserved." The personal guidance 
 of God is again brought into view in the later scene, 
 when Jacob goes to Egypt by the command of God, 
 received in the visions of the night — an example of the 
 powerful influence allowed to dreams and visions in those 
 times. 
 
 In all this patriarchal period polygamy is nowhere con- 
 demned, and is frequently practised ; deceit is allowei 
 towards enemies, and even towards hosts, and, 
 
 moral with various questionings, towards members 
 ciiaxaoter. pf ^\^q same household ; morals had as yet 
 become comparatively little developed as a corollary of 
 religious belief. We have no account of Divine worship, 
 except as associated with special occasions. The outlines 
 of the patriarchs are very differently drawn from those 
 of the heroes and demigods of most other religions. No 
 perfection is attributed to them. They fall again and 
 again into error and evil-doing ; yet they rise by exhibit- 
 ing a faith in the Divine superior to that of their neigh- 
 bours, and by obeying inward monitions more than others 
 did. They are in no sense raised beyond humanity ; they 
 are distinctly human all through ; and thus their histories, 
 though probably intermixed with later traditions and 
 edited to an unascertainable extent, contain highly credible 
 and valuable accounts of primitive life and of the rise of 
 religious belief. 
 
 Now comes the important period of the Israelitish sojourn 
 in Egypt, which must have had considerable effect on the 
 religious development of the people. Yet we hear little 
 of it till the great uprising which led to the Exodus. 
 
 Meanwhile the death-bed of Jacob is the occasion for 
 the delivery of characteristic blessings, often prophetic 
 Jacob's dying ill their character. One clause, "The sceptre 
 tiessings. shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver 
 from between his feet, until Shiloh come ; and unto him 
 shall the gathering of the people be," has especial signi- 
 ficance in the history of the Christian Church, as indi- 
 
THE PASSOVER IN EGYPT. 
 
 17 
 
 THE I'ASSOVER IN EOiPI. 
 
1 8 JEWISH HISTORY—MOSES. 
 
 eating the person and rule of Christ. Some modern 
 critics translate one phrase, "until he come to Shiloh," 
 in Ephraim, where the ark of the covenant "was at one 
 time. Many read " Sheloh," instead of Shiloh, meaning 
 " he whose it is," or " whose right it is." The fact that 
 the Jews themselves interpret the passage as a Messianic 
 prophecy is of moment ; and whether the pt ophecy 
 assumed its present form comparatively later or earlier, 
 it no doubt existed long before the time of Christ. 
 
 The residence of the Israelites in Egypt must be 
 esteemed of the highest importance to their religious 
 
 Israel in development, both for what it taught them to 
 
 Egypt, dislike and for what it led them to appreciate 
 and adopt. An enormous gulf separates the primitive 
 patriarchal religion, with its open-air altars, its rare saci'i- 
 tices, its memorial stones, and its sacred trees, from the 
 elaborate priestly religion which grew up on the founda- 
 tion of Moses. Although it is not expressly stated in the 
 Pentateuch, we find from Joshtia xxiv. and Ezekiel xx. 
 that the Hebrews to a considerable extent served the 
 
 Egyptian gods of Egypt, and lapsed from the purity of 
 Influences. \^^q patriarchal faith. Again and again, in 
 their wilderness-sojourn and in later times, are Egyptian 
 lapses, Egyptian longings made a subject of reproach to 
 them. Accustomed to the worship of the black calf at 
 the Temple of the Sun in On (Heliopolis), and to that of 
 other idols and deified animals, not all the sanction of 
 the Second Commandment nor all the influence of their 
 loftiest leaders could keep them from frequent outbreaks 
 of worship more or less idolatrous ; and the symbolism 
 of the Ark of the Covenant, borrowed very closely from 
 Egyptian models, was required to give them a centre for 
 their adoration, to satisfy the cravings excited by their 
 Egyptian experiences. On the other hand, the absolute 
 power of the king, and the divine worship which was 
 paid to him, may surely be credited with some part in 
 that reaction which kept the Israelites, though numerous 
 and powerful, so long without a king. Having suffered 
 the extremes of pain and misery at the hands of a god- 
 king, they can scarcely brook for the length of a short 
 
THE DIVINE COMMISSION. 19 
 
 war tlie absolute rule of a military leader ; and when at 
 length they submitted to a king, they were far from 
 worshipping him. 
 
 Again, the education of Moses, as a priest, " in all the 
 wisdom of the Egyptians," in itself implies a mighty 
 Egyptian influence upon the Israelites. The Education 
 foremost intellectual man among them found °^ Moses, 
 his force tenfold intensified by his culture. We can 
 imagine him keenly surveying the varied observances 
 and criticising the lore of the initiated priests of Egypt, 
 and selecting from them those parts which seemed con- 
 ducive to the welfare of the people, and waiting his time 
 to adopt or enforce them in legislation. Their medical 
 knowledge he absorbed and utilised largely in his 
 domestic and sanitary regulations. And since he had no 
 king in his scheme^ his priestly class had the more 
 opportunity of enforcing his ordinances and of obtaining 
 the means of support, since there was none of that heavy 
 levy of taxes and forced labour which made life a burden 
 in Egypt. Yet that Moses found much to object to, 
 much to discard in Egyptian religion, is evident from 
 the fewness, on the whole, of the points of agreement 
 between it and the Jewish religion. 
 
 But it was not only the education of Moses in the 
 wisdom of the Egyptians, but also his long isolation and 
 solitary thought in Midian, after his relinquish- g^^ j 
 ment of all his Egyptian privileges, that must residence 
 have matured his intellect and developed his inMidian. 
 moral courage. It was not an unprepared soul that 
 received the heavenly mission to redeem his people, yet 
 it was one schooled to modest self-depreciation, and capable' 
 of a forcible estimate of the difficulties in his way. We 
 need only imagine these latter, to realise how strong must 
 have been the evidence and conviction upon which Moses 
 took up his mission ; and it is only natural that The Divine 
 this should be accompanied by a deeper insight commission, 
 into the Divine nature which could carry him through 
 countless dangers and human impossibilities. The ex- 
 pression, "I am that I aizi," otherwise rendered, "I am- 
 am Who am," " I will be that I wiljl 
 
20 MOSES. 
 
 be," gives a view of the Self-existence, the Uncaused 
 Nature of the Supreme Being, which no previous state- 
 ment abotit the Divine nature had done ; and whatever 
 view be taken of the miraculous, it is at least certain that 
 the Jews profoundly believed in the miraculous signs 
 granted to Moses in proof of his Divine mission, and in 
 the miraculous nature of the plagues which afterwards 
 came upon the Egyptians. The narrative of Moses's com- 
 mission is the type of that conviction of Divine support 
 and authorisation which most great religious reformers 
 have felt intensely. 
 
 AVe pass over the actual Exodus as not directly con- 
 cerned in our object, merely noting that the plagues of 
 Tne plagues Egypt need not be deemed the less imposing 
 of Egypt Qj. effectual because they proceeded by means 
 the most natural and the most appropriate in Egypt. 
 The miraculous of one age may appear the natural to 
 another age, which may possibly discern orderly causes 
 for that which formerly terrified a people or authenticated 
 a mission. To many who view all events, all causes as 
 equally the work of the Supreme Being, it is nowadays 
 comparatively unimportant to attempt to closely dis- 
 tinguish between miraculous and non-miraculous, super- 
 natural and natural ; but that in past times enormous 
 effects were produced by events deemed miraculous, super- 
 human, supernatural, cannot in the least be doubted ; 
 and that many such events occurred, striking terror or 
 producing conviction, convincing the senses or the mind 
 in ways not to be upset, is equally certain. Thus, even 
 Passage tbough the Crossing of the Eed Sea has 
 of the recently been explained in a most plausible 
 Red Sea. manner as a thoroughly natural occurrence, its 
 effect in the great chain of events culminating in the 
 destruction of the Egyptian army, was not the less 
 striking in fact, and was handed down as a miraculous 
 interposition of Jehovah. And without taking up any 
 dogmatic position, we may be permitted to say, that for 
 human beings, with all their imperfections of power and 
 discernment, to deny that " miracles " have occurred or 
 the possibility of miracles, is to take up a position of 
 
THE DECALOGUE. z\ 
 
 superiority in relation to natural plienomena and catisa- 
 tion, and of over-confidence in present knowledge, which 
 is little warranted by past experience of changes of 
 thought and advances in knowledge. 
 
 Apart from the customs or systems which welded the 
 Israelites into a nation, we have to seek the most impor- 
 tant religious phenomena in the history of Moses. The 
 first place undoubtedly belongs to the Deca- The 
 logue, and its promulgation and enforcement Decalogue, 
 as a direct Divine revelation. Moses gave the Israelites 
 a series of positive precepts, the " Ten "Words," which 
 have kept their place at the head of legislation, and have 
 influenced a large part of the world's population. They 
 have been recognised as right by the higher conscience 
 of the most diverse peoples, and including as they do the 
 monotheistic doctrine which had previously been known, 
 they constitute the greatest contribution to practical 
 morality, apart from Christianity. Perhaps in their 
 original form the longer commandments did not contain 
 the explanatory clauses, as is indicated by divergences in 
 the versions we have ; but we still, to a large extent, fall 
 behind the theology and the morality they enshrine, and 
 thus we are still living in the period of the Decalogue. 
 Till monotheism is universal, the first commandment has 
 its mission ; till images and representations which may 
 be worshipped cease to be bowed down to or worshipped, 
 the non-Christian world falls below the Mosaic standard, 
 and such Christian Churches as permit this are behind 
 the Jews ; till irreverent or blasphemous employment of 
 the Divine name is no more heard, the third command- 
 ment speaks unavailingly to deaf ears. The fourth com- 
 mandment, like the second, has been exchanged more or 
 less by Christian Churches for another, and is but rarely 
 observed as the Mosaic code intended. The fifth com- 
 mandment might have been given to the Chinese, for 
 they observed it long before Moses gave it ; but its spirit 
 is not quite in keeping with modern democracy, which 
 reads it with qualifications. The precepts of social 
 morality which follow might be justly alleged as con- 
 demning vast numbers of professing Christians and 
 
22 MOSES. 
 
 Christian States : and breaches of them have too often 
 been condoned by Jesuits and others who consider that 
 the end justifies the means; but no man can truly say 
 that the Decalogue is outworn or dethroned. The pro- 
 gress of mankind since its promulgation has been towards 
 its realisation, especially as interpreted by the simpler 
 and wider commands of Jesus. Simple, pure worship of 
 one God, family order, justice and self-restraint between 
 man and man, with a weekly rest-day, are the elements 
 powerfully set forth in the Decalogue, which, from the 
 human point of view, forms a work of genius of the 
 highest order. Because of beliefs in the Divine truth and 
 communication of the precepts, the merit of Moses, viewed 
 as a man, must not be lessened ; the Divine message or 
 inspiration came to him, and he did not reject it, but 
 boldly promulgated it in the mqst powerful way possible 
 to him. His genius as a legislator must be based on the 
 Ten Commandments, as well as on his other achievements; 
 if we regard him as a mere channel for Divine communi- 
 cations, he becomes no more than a medium. 
 
 It may be noted that the Commandments do not in 
 any way favour breaches of morality towards persons of 
 other tribes, which were so common among early peoples. 
 On the other hand, polygamy is not forbidden. The 
 reason for the institution of the Sabbath is, in one place, 
 the Creator's rest on the seventh day, and in another, 
 " that thy manservant and thy maidservant may rest as 
 well as thou." The deliverance of Israel from Egyptian 
 servitude is further given as an incentive to keep the 
 Sabbath. 
 
 Without attempting a complete characterisation of 
 Moses, we may assign to him a position, as a religious 
 leader and originator, above that of any man we have 
 previously described. He practically created a nation out 
 of an enslaved people, and he did it not merely by 
 cuaracter adequate government, a task which he found 
 
 of Moses, difficult enough many times in his career, but 
 most of all by the elevated conception of the Divine 
 nature which he promulgated, and his strong faith in his 
 Divine mission and in the personal guidance and direction 
 
REVELATIONS TO MOSES. 23 
 
 ■wMcli he received from God. From him was derived, 
 in its essence at least, that sublime conception of a people 
 ruled directly by God, which in its developed form consti- 
 tutes the grandest ideal of human life ; for what concep- 
 tion can be more perfect than that of a race knowing the 
 laws of its Creator and voluntarily obeying them ? 
 
 As an example of triumph over natural infirmity — 
 timidity, unreadiness, want of eloquence, hesitation^ 
 Moses is not less conspicuous than as a man of true self- 
 effacement, only brought to act prominently and indi- 
 vidtially by Divine impulse and command. With all that 
 has been said as to the genius of Moses, we must couple 
 the narratives of Divine visions and communi- His Divine 
 cations to him, which no one is entitled to visions, 
 summarily reject as fabrications. Doubt is of course 
 justifiable wherever narratives can be proved to have 
 been written long after the events described ; and here 
 is the crucial point of critipism. It may be pointed oiit, 
 as regards visions and other communications, that almost 
 all great teachers and spiritual reformers have had them, 
 and in circumstances which throw no doubt upon their 
 veracity and their belief in their reality. Of all men up 
 to his time Moses may be regarded as the man who came 
 into closest relation with the Divine ; and if this be 
 granted, modes of appearance, whether sub- Revelations 
 jective or objective, are less important than to Moses, 
 the truths revealed. Who, for instance, that feels the 
 higher truths can fail to appreciate the teaching, " Thou 
 canst not see My face ; for there shall no man see My 
 face and live," or the inspiration which gives rise to the 
 magnificent declaration of Exodus xxxiv. 6, 7, respecting 
 the Name, the Essential Essence of Jehovah, " merciful 
 and gracious, long-suffering, abundant in goodness and 
 truth, forgiving iniquity, transgression, and sin, and that 
 will by no means clear the guilty." Contemplating the 
 descriptions of such revelations, we cannot wonder at the 
 consensus of earnest theologians longing to be " with 
 Moses on the mount." 
 
 What, then, are we to think of the remarkable absence 
 of direct teaching by Moses on the subject of immortality 
 
24 MOSES. 
 
 and a future state of rewards and punishments ? This 
 
 has been a subject of abundant discussion and 
 
 ret/remfeto speculation. Are we to consider that because 
 
 a future the Egyptians held strongly the belief in im- 
 state. mortality, and detailed the stages of the future 
 state, therefore Moses must be understood as consenting 
 to their beliefs, and tacitly assuming them ? Or are we 
 to regard him as to some extent a sceptic on that ques- 
 tion ? The inference has been drawn from the frequent 
 use of the phrases, " went to his fathers," " was gathered 
 to his people," etc., that they imply a belief in the con- 
 tinued existence of the fathers, and this does not seem 
 an unreasonable supposition ; but its precise value cannot 
 be ascertained. It is probable that the Israelites, sur- 
 rounded and influenced by nations who believed in a 
 future state, did not dissent from the prevailing view, 
 or else we should have had it markedly expressed. But 
 Moses was concerned especially to exalt the view of 
 Jehovah as a personal Guide and Euler in this life ; and 
 this may be the reason why the future was not dwelt 
 upon, though it would be too much to deny positively 
 that it is implied in numerous phrases. 
 
 As a prophet, Moses's position is assured by the numer- 
 ous Divine revelations he was commissioned to make, by 
 
 Moses as kis authorship — more or less — of sacred books, 
 
 a prophet, by his Law, and by his addresses, which, if 
 authentic, often refer to what will come to pass in a 
 future time in the land of Canaan. We may wonder 
 that Moses was never deified by his countrymen ; this 
 fact in itself proves that his teaching about the one God, 
 and the mode ia which He must be served, had a power- 
 ful effect, and prevented the tendencies that were so 
 strong in Egypt from having their natural effect in re- 
 lation to him. 
 
 [Among works of importance on this subject see Evvald's "History and 
 Antiquities of Israel," Stanley's "Lectures on the Jewish Church," and the 
 various Commentaries and Bible Dictionarieii ; Bobertson Smith's "Old Testa- 
 ment in the Jewish Church," and the articles " Pentateuch" and " Israel " 
 in the Eucydopcedia Britannica, ninth edition,] 
 
:ALF. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Cfje SIfiwisI) ildisioii: iLcgidation, jT^^tibale, 
 i¥i orals;. 
 
 Altars and offerings— The Ark of the Covenant— The Tabernacle— Develop- 
 ment of the Law— Modem criticism— Various offeriugrs— The trespass 
 offering — The Day of Atonement— The scapegoat— Meaning of Day of 
 Atonement — The Shechlnah— The Sahbath— Origin of the Synagogue- 
 Officials of Synagogue— Order of service— The seventh month— The Sab- 
 batic year— The year of JubUee— The Passover — Passover in later times— 
 Pentecost— Feast of Tabernacles— Feast of Trumpets— Prayer and forms 
 of worship — Vows— Fasting — Nazarites and Keohabltes — Consecration of 
 the whole people to Jehovah- Clean and unclean animals— Means of 
 purification— Burial— Marriage limits— Nature the property of Jehovah 
 — Blood-revenge— Cities of refuge— "An eye for an eye "—Usury— Slaves 
 —Treatment of strangers— Parents and children— Wives and concubines 
 —General moral condition of Israel. 
 
 ONE conspicuous peculiarity of Moses's earlier religious 
 teaching is, that religion is not made to consist in 
 so many offerings, in formal ceremonies, but in simple 
 worship and reverence to God, and obedience Altars and 
 to moral precepts. Yet, to satisfy the spirit offerings, 
 of worship, altars of earth or of unhewn stone were 
 allowed, for burnt offerings and peace offerings. The 
 phrase in Exodus xxii. 29, " the firstborn of thy sons shalt 
 thou give unto Me," is understood by some as indicating 
 that human sacrifices were still allowed to exist, while 
 the majority interpret it as meaning simply a dedication 
 to Jehovah, to be redeemed by an offering. In this way 
 Moses may be considered as adopting current forms, and 
 giving to them a pure character. 
 
 It is impossible here to discuss the complex questions 
 which arise through all attempts, such as those of Kuenen, 
 
 2a 
 
26 THE JEWISH RELIGION: LEGISLATION, ETC. 
 
 to trace the Jewish religion as a growfcli througli centuries, 
 and to assign to their respective periods beliefs and 
 observances which are considered not to have their origin 
 from Moses. In any case the institution of the Ark of 
 the Covenant, as well as the Tabernacle, must be referred 
 to Moses, with the foundation of the priestly code, and of 
 the laws of ceremonial and of practical conduct. 
 
 The Ark of the Covenant, which had a marked resem- 
 blance to arks carried in Egyptian religious processions. 
 The Ark of was an oblong chest of acacia- wood, nearly four 
 the Covenant, feet long, by two and a half broad and deep. 
 It was overlaid with gold both inside and outside, and 
 on its lid was the mercy-seat, or place of Divine com- 
 munication to Moses, and to the high priest after him. 
 At each end was a golden figure termed a cherub, a com- 
 pound creature-form with wings extended upwards and 
 faces directed "towards one another, and towards the 
 mercy-seat" ; and here ends our knowledge of the nature 
 of this symbol. Whether it had any relation to any one 
 of the numerous symbolic animal-figures of the other 
 Semitic peoples and the Egyptians we cannot tell. The 
 importance of the ark lay in two features : one, that it 
 contained the two tables of stone on which Moses had 
 written the Ten Words ; the other was expressed in 
 relation to the region above the mercy-seat, that there 
 Jehovah would meet with Moses, and commune with 
 him. The ark was provided Avitli rings at the corners, 
 through which were passed staves of acacia-wood overlaid 
 with gold, by which certain Levites carried it when it 
 was moved from place to place. Thus the Israelites were 
 furnished with a symbol of the Divine presence, satisfying 
 that demand of human nature which has been exemplified 
 in so many nations and ages, yet never seen except by 
 the high priest. 
 
 This ark formed the central. or most important object 
 
 in the Tabernacle, which was erected as the representative 
 
 The of a temple. It was forty-five feet long by 
 
 Tabernacle, fifteen broad, open at the end intended to be 
 
 pitched eastward, as if towards the rising sun, and divided 
 
 into two parts, the inner, or Holy of Holies, into which 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAW. 27 
 
 tlie priest alone entered rarely, divided by pillars and 
 curtains from the larger Holy Place, containing a golden 
 candlestick with, seven branches, a small lamp being 
 placed on the end of each, an altar for the burning of 
 incense, and a table overlaid with gold, on which twelve 
 newly baked loaves were placed every Sabbath, sprinkled 
 with incense, remaining till the following Sabbath, when 
 they were eaten by the priests in the Holy Place. 
 Whether it was thus offered weekly as a symbol of the 
 derivation of bodily nourishment from Grod, or whether 
 it had other meanings, is undecided. The strict meaning 
 of shewbread is " bread of the faces," and the table is 
 called the " table of the faces." Outside the tabernacle 
 proper was a great oblong court enclosed by screens, in 
 the western half of which was the tabernacle, while in 
 the eastern half was the altar of acacia-wood, overlaid 
 with brass, for burnt offerings, furnished with pans and 
 other utensils, and having four projections or horns at 
 the corners ; and between this and the tabernacle was a 
 laver, a vessel in which the priests washed their hands 
 and feet before entering the tabernacle. 
 
 Those critics who have separated the narratives in the 
 Pentateuch into component portions regard the tabernacle 
 which Moses erected as a much simpler structure (Exodus 
 xxxiii. 7-11) than the elaborate tabernacle- described, as 
 they assert, by the priestly narrator after the exile of the 
 Jews. They claim also that it was devised as a means 
 of' giving an ancient sanction to the elaborate ritual of 
 the second temple. According to this view, the simple 
 form of tabernacle continued in use during the migrations 
 of the ark until the building of Solomon's temple ; but 
 there is.no proof of this. 
 
 Without attempting to determine, where the most 
 learned disagree, the precise steps by which the Mosaic 
 code of laws grew to its full development, we Development 
 may yet note the very general agreement or "^ ti^^ '^^'^■ 
 admission that it did actually develop, even in the view 
 of the narrative as it stands, and that there is a great 
 difference between its presentation in the book of Deuter- 
 onomy and in previous books. Again and again we learn 
 
28 THE JEWISH RELIGION: LEGISLATION, ETC. 
 
 how certain regulations originated from particular occa- 
 sions. While there are various discrepancies between 
 Deuteronomy and the earlier books, as well as important 
 additions in the former — especially noteworthy being the 
 command to worship Grod and make all offerings at one 
 particular place— there are numerous references to Egypt 
 and Egyptian customs which Moses would be the most 
 competent and likely to make, and we have direct asser- 
 tions that Moses wrote it. Yet there is no reference to 
 the Book of the Law in the books of Judges and Samuel. 
 In the books of the Kings it comes into prominence, and 
 is very plainly described in Ezra and Nehemiah. The 
 difference of style between Deuteronomy and other parts 
 of the Pentateuch is a difficulty for those who regard 
 all as the work of Moses ; but it is not insuperable if a 
 thorough revision and incorporation of other traditions by 
 a writer in the times of the Kings or of Ezra be allowed. 
 
 From' the time of Ezra, undoubtedly, the Jews possessed 
 the complete Pentateuch very much as we have it, and 
 
 Modem they believed that it had existed from the first 
 criticism, in that form. But it is held by many modern 
 writers that various records in the books of Joshua, 
 Judges, Samuel, and Kings, as well as in the Pentateuch 
 itself, are incompatible with the complete early promulga- 
 tion of the contents of the Pentateuch. The Israelites 
 either disobeyed the extended law, or did not know of 
 it. Especially was this the case in regard to the worship 
 of Jehovah at local sanctuaries and high places, instead 
 of at the one central place, the existence of images in the 
 worship of Jehovah, and the admission of other gods as 
 at least worthy of toleration, though secondary. That 
 which defenders of the traditional view regard as simply 
 the measure of the defection and degeneration of the 
 Israelites from the truth, modern critics regard as proving 
 that the fully detailed law of the Pentateuch had not yet 
 been promulgated, that not taking place till the times 
 of Josiah and of Ezra. They in fact say that the Levitical 
 Law continued the work of .the earlier prophets, and was 
 in large part unknown to the prophets. No d"oubt, they 
 say, when made known to Ezra, it professed to be the 
 
MODERN CRITICISM. tc, 
 
 Law of Moses ; but this is explained as referring to its 
 embodying the kernel of Mosaic legislation, with old 
 priestly decisions handed down in their families, having 
 been given or arrived at as necessity arose.^ 
 
 ' It will be convenient to give liere separately Prof. Eobertson 
 Smith's groupins of the laws in the Pentateuch, in his " Old Testa- 
 ment in the Jewish Church." There is (1) Exod. xxi. to xxiii., 
 directly connected with the revelation of the Ten Commandments, 
 " containing a very simple system of civil and religious polity, 
 adequate to the wants of a primitive agricultural people : " the title 
 being, " These are the judgments which thou shalt set before them." 
 (2) Deuteronomy : the laws proper, beginning at chap. xii. 1, " These 
 are the statutes and judgments which ye shall observe to do," 
 ending at xxvi. 19 ; this is described as an independent reproduction 
 of the substance of (1), with extensions and modifications. (3) The 
 Levitical legislation, or priestly code, scattered through Exodus, 
 Leviticus, and Numbers, but capable of removal without making 
 the rest unintelligible. This includes the fully developed ritual for 
 sanctuary, priesthood, sacrifices, etc. " The form is historical, but 
 the essential object is legal. The law takes the form of recorded 
 precedent" in great part. This view assigns the first to Moses, 
 with additions by priestly decisions ; the second (it is said) was first 
 made known as the starting-point of Josiah's reformation, abolish- 
 ing all local sanctuaries ; and this reformation and the authority 
 gained by Deuteronomy were based on the teaching of Isaiah and 
 other prophets, who had so loudly called for religious reform and 
 amendment. 
 
 Prof. Eobertson Smith and others see in Ezekiel's scheme of wor- 
 ship (ch. xl.-xlviii.) the basis on which the Levitical law was fully 
 developed ; and this is alleged to be confirmed by Jeremiah, who 
 knew no law of sacrifices. In Ezekiel's scheme the Levites, who 
 had lent themselves to idolatrous practices, are lowered in functions. 
 Regular sacrifices are provided for by the prince out of the fixed 
 tribute received by him. The sin-offering and ritual of atonement 
 are made prominent, the altar requiring to be purged with sin-offer- 
 ings for seven consecutive days before burnt-offerings can be 
 properly offered on it. Ezekiel also appoints two great atoning 
 services yearly, at the beginning of the first and the seventh months, 
 to purge the temple ; and this is alleged to be the first appearance, 
 outside the Levitical code, of anything corresponding to the great 
 Day of Atonement, and Ezekiel's service falls short of its solemni- 
 ties. This is regarded as a first sketch of the priestly Torah or 
 law, resting on old priestly usage, and reshaped so as to bring it 
 into conformity with the ideas of the holiness of Jehovah expressed 
 by the earlier prophets and by Deuteronomy. 
 
 " In proportion as the whole theory of worship is remodelled and 
 reduced to rule on the scheme of an exclusive sanctit5', which 
 
30 THE JEWISH RELIGION: LEGISLATION, ETC. 
 
 Coining now to the main features of the law as affecting 
 rehgion and morals, burnt-offerings formed a prominent 
 
 Various feature of the worship. Morning and evening 
 
 offerings, a lamb was offered, with wine, oil, and flour ; 
 
 and in addition males of the herds and flocks, or turtle 
 
 doves or pigeons, were offered voluntarily as general 
 
 presents, so to speak, an armed front to every abomination of impure 
 heathenism, the ritual becomes abstract, and the services remote 
 from ordinary life. In the old worship all was spontaneous. To 
 worship God was a holiday, an occasion of feasting. Religion, in 
 its sacrificial form, was a part of common life, which no one deemed 
 it necessary to reduce to rule. Even in Deuteronomy this view 
 predominates. The sacrificial feasts ai-e still the consecration of 
 natural occasions of joy: men eat, drink, and make mei-ry before God. 
 The sense of God's favour, not the sense of sin, is what rules at the 
 sanctuary. But the unification of the sanctuary already tended to 
 break up this old type of religion. Worship ceased to be an every- 
 day thing, and so it ceased to be the expression of every-day religion. 
 In Ezekiel this change has produced its natural result in a change 
 of the whole standpoint from which he views the service of the 
 Temple. . . . The individual Israelite, who, in the old law, stood 
 at the altar himself, and brought his own victim, is now separated 
 from it, not only by the double cordon of priests and Levites, but 
 by the fact that his personal offering is thrown into the background 
 by the. stated national sacrifice. ... In Ezekiel, and still more 
 in the Levitical legislation, the element of atonement takes a fore- 
 most place. The sense of sin had grown deeper under the teaching 
 of the prophets ; and amidst the proofs of Jehovah's anger that 
 darkened the last days of the Jewish State, sin and forgiveness 
 were the main themes of prophetic discourse. . . . Now, more 
 than in any former time, the first point in acceptance was felt to 
 be the forgiveness of sin ; and the weightiest element in the ritual 
 was that which symbolised the atonement, or ' wiping out,' of 
 iniquity. The details of this symbolism cannot occupy us here. It 
 is enough to indicate in one word that the ritual of atoning 
 sacrifice was so shaped by Divine wisdom that it supplied to the 
 New Testament a basis intelligible to the Hebrew believers for the 
 explanation of the atoning work of Christ. Not, indeed, that the 
 blood of bulls and goats ever took away sin. The true basis of 
 forgiveness, in the Old Testament as in the New, lies, not in man's 
 offering, but in a work of sovereign love. It is Jehovah, for His 
 own Name's sake, who blots out Israel's transgressions, and will 
 not remember his sin. But the atoning ritual ever held before the 
 people's eyes the mysterioiis connection of forgiving love with 
 awful justice, and pointed by its very inadequacy to the need for 
 a better atonement of Jehovah's own providing."— Oif^ Testament 
 in the Jeivi'sh Church, 2'>P- 379-882. 
 
THE SCAPEGOAT. 31 
 
 atonements. The whole of these offerings was burnt, and 
 the fire on tlie altar was never to go out. Next in order 
 among usual offerings was the meat-offering, meat re- 
 ferring here to natural produce of the earth, such as 
 unleavened flour, or cakes, oil, and frankincense, of which 
 only part was burnt, the rest being given to the priests. 
 The next and less frequent offering was termed a peace- 
 offering, being either given as a thanksgiving, in fulfil- 
 ment of a vow, or as a voluntary offering. It consisted 
 of the fat of one of the herd or the flocks, the remainder 
 (excluding the blood) being eaten by the offerer. 
 
 The sin or trespass-offering had a more special import- 
 ance, but was made at any period, for sins of ignorance, 
 vows unwittingly broken, or for ceremonial im- The trespass 
 , purity, or for wilful sins, such as concealment offering, 
 of truth, lying, false swearing, etc. In this case confession 
 had to be made, and various offerings, including money, 
 might be accepted, according to the ability of the penitent ; 
 part was burnt, and the remainder belonged to the priests. 
 
 There were other special sacrifices, but that on the 
 great Day of Atonement, once a year, on the tenth day 
 of the seventh month, was the most important, The Day of 
 constituting as it did an annual atonement for Atonement, 
 all the sins of the people, made on a special day of fasting 
 and affliction of soul. On this day only the high-priest, 
 purified and dressed in white garments, might enter the 
 inner sanctum, the Holy of Holies. Besides making 
 offerings on his own and his family's account, he bought 
 two goats on account of the people, and presented them 
 at the door of the tabernacle. He then cast lots upon 
 them, one for Jehovah, the other for Azazel, or, as it is 
 usually translated, the scapegoat. The meaning The 
 of the latter name cannot be settled, many scapegoat, 
 imagining it to represent some spirit antagonistic to 
 Jehovah. The goat on which Jehovah's lot fell was 
 offered as a sin-offering ; the other was " presented alive 
 before the Lord, to make an, atonement with him, and to 
 let him go for a scapegoat (Azazel) into the wilderness." 
 The bullock offered for himself and his family having 
 been sacrificed, the high-priest took some of its blood, 
 
32 THE JEWISH RELIGION: FESTIVALS, ETC. 
 
 with a censer of burning embers and a handful of incense, 
 and went into the Holy of HoHes. Then, casting the 
 incense upon the embers, he raised a cloud before the 
 mercy-seat, and dipping his finger into the blood, sprinkled 
 it seven times before the mercy-seat. A similar ceremony 
 afterwards took place with the blood of the slain goat. 
 A further sprinkling of blood took place in the outer 
 sanctum, or Holy Place, some of the blood of both victims 
 being sprinkled on the altar of incense. Similarly the 
 outer altar in the enclosure was sprinkled, especially the 
 horns of the altar. The whole tabernacle being thus 
 purified, the hve goat was brought, and the high-priest 
 laid both his hands on its head and confessed over it "all 
 the iniquities of the children of Israel, putting them upon 
 the head of the goat"; and finally the goat was sent 
 away, in charge of a suitable man, into the wilderness, 
 that he might carry away all their sins " into a land not 
 inhabited." After bathing, the high-priest offered the 
 two rams, one for himself and one for the people, as 
 burnt-offerings. The fat of the sin-offerings was also 
 burnt, and their flesh was carried away and burned out- 
 side the camp. The traditional form of the prayer offered 
 by the high-priest over the head of the goat is thus given 
 in the later treatise of the Mishna, entitled Yoma : " 
 Lord, the house of Israel, Thy people, have trespassed, 
 rebelled, and sinned before Thee. I beseech Thee, Lord, 
 forgive now their trespasses, rebellions, and sins, which 
 Thy people have committed, as it is written in the Law 
 of Moses Thy servant, saying that in that day there shall 
 be ' an atonement for you to cleanse you, that ye may be 
 clean from all your sins before the Lord.' " 
 
 The remarkable significance of this Day of Atonement 
 is evident. In addition to continual expiations of known 
 Meaning of sins by individuals, together with various volun- 
 Day of tary offerings, the whole nation is considered 
 ■ to need confession of sin, atonement, and puri- 
 fication before Jehovah; and the high-priest, as repre- 
 senting the nation, makes atonement, and purifies the 
 sanctuary and the people. The offering of goats and 
 Other animal offerings is probably connected historically. 
 
THE SHECHINAH. 33 
 
 though perhaps unconsciously, witli the offering of human 
 sacrifices by nations around, and with Abraham's offering 
 of Isaac, and with the idea of substitution of animals for 
 human victims. In any case, such is the natural inter- 
 pretation of the laying of the hands on the head of the 
 victim while making confession. But we cannot yet, 
 with certainty, explain why there were two goats, and 
 the sending forth of one into the wilderness ; for it, like 
 the other, formed part of the sin-offering to Jehovah. 
 Many consider that it was sent into the wilderness to 
 signify the carrying of the sins of the people out of the 
 presence of Jehovah. In any case, we may find in the 
 ceremonies of the Day of Atonement the laost impressive 
 of the many solemnities we have hitherto surveyed. 
 
 Here we may fittingly refer to those visible manifesta- 
 tions in which Jehovah is recorded to have appeared to 
 His people or His priests, often referred to by The 
 the name Shfechinah (majesty or presence of shechinaii. 
 God), which word, however, is not found in Scripture, 
 and is first found in the Targums, or Jewish Commen- 
 taries. It expresses the visible presence of Grod as dwell- 
 ing among His people, said to be lacking in Zerubbabel's 
 temple, while pertaining to that of Solomon, and to the 
 tabernacle. The appearance was described as a brilliant 
 light enveloped in a cloud, which alone was for the most 
 part visible. The "glory of the Lord'' is stated to have 
 rested upon Mount Sinai, and the cloud covered it six 
 days ; and on the seventh day, " the sight of the glory 
 of the Lord was like devouring fire, on the top of the 
 mount in the eyes of the children of Israel." When the 
 tabernacle was finished, n, cloud covered it, and the glory 
 of the Lord filled the tabernacle, so that Moses was not 
 able to enter it. On occasions when he did enter it, the 
 cloud descended to the door of the tabernacle, and " the 
 Lord spake unto Moses face to face, as a man speaketh to 
 his friend." In Numbers vii. 89 we read that " when 
 Moses went into the tent of meeting to speak with Him, 
 then he heard the Voice speaking to him from above the 
 mercy-seat." 
 
 After the Day of Atonement, the two most peculiar 
 
 c 
 
■ 4 THE JEWISH RELIGION: FESTIVALS, ETC. 
 
 observances of the Israelites were the weekly Sabbath and 
 The the annual Passover. The Sabbath was no 
 
 Saijbath. doubt related to a very general Oriental prac- 
 tice, as old as Vedism and Zoroastrianism, and very early 
 in use among the Semites, of arranging their religious 
 festivals or meetings in accordance with the four quarters 
 of the moon. Abstinence from work was its chief charac- 
 teristic among the early Israelites. This became a 
 grievous burden ; no fire might be lighted on the Sab- 
 bath, and it is related that a man was once stoned to 
 death for gathering sticks on that day. Although, in the 
 writings of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Nehemiah, we read of 
 various infractions of the Sabbath having become fre- 
 quent, the general practice of the Jews was to obey the 
 law strictly ; and in the time of Mattathias (b.c. 168), 
 even fighting in self-defence was abstained from, with 
 disastrous results, until he asserted its lawfulness. The 
 minuteness with which the Pharisees and the Rabbinical 
 schools regulated Sabbath observances in the time of 
 Christ is well known, as well as the resistance which He 
 offered to this. Consequently, it is not surprising to find 
 that no regulations for its observance were given in the 
 writings of the apostles, and that Sabbath-breaking is 
 never denounced by them. The orthodox Jews still main- 
 tain the Sabbath of the seventh day, beginning on Friday 
 at sunset and ending with the next sunset. 
 
 Regular Sabbath services, such as those of the syna- 
 gogue, did not arise in Mosaic times, nor indeed till after 
 the return of the Jews from Babylon. The morning and 
 evening sacrifices by the priests were doubled on the 
 Sabbath, and there are grounds for believing that the 
 well-to-do feasted on sacrificial meat on that day. In 
 Isaiah Iviii. 13, 14, it is indicated that the Sabbath should 
 be called a delight, and should be honoured by " not doing 
 thine own ways, nor finding thine own pleasure, nor 
 speaking thine own words." The synagogue services 
 may well have arisen as an elevating influence, in reaction 
 from the debased character of the meetings and local 
 observances at a distance from the great religious centre, 
 of which the magnificent ephod made by Gideon, the 
 
OFFICIALS OF SYNAGOGUE. 
 
 3S 
 
36 THE JEWISH RELIGION: FESTIVALS, ETC. 
 
 graven and the molten images and the teraphim of 
 Micah, were some of the apparatus, while groves and 
 Origin of the high-places were some of the scenes. Although 
 synagogue, the prophets and prophetical schools appear to 
 have met for sacrifice and praise on fixed days, it is 
 probable that the Babylonish captivity, with its isolation 
 emphasising the need of frequent meetings for mutual 
 comfort and worship, witnessed the true origin of syna- 
 gogue worship, which after the return played an im- 
 portant part in preserving the Jews as a peculiar people. 
 After the Maccabaaan uprising, the establishment of local 
 synagogues spread, until almost every town had one or 
 more synagogues. Inasmuch as it was apart from the 
 temple service, and did not essentially depend on the 
 priests, the synagogue tended to establish a freer atmo- 
 sphere of study and criticism, and it is significant that 
 the first teaching of Jesus took place in country syna- 
 gogues, where He met with far less opposition than He 
 immediately received when He taught in the Temple 
 precincts. 
 
 The synagogue, of varying size, stood if possible on the 
 highest ground in or near the town, and was so arranged 
 that worshippers on entering, and in prayer, faced towards 
 Jerusalem. At its Jerusalem end was placed an ark or 
 chest containing the roll of the Law of Moses, and near 
 this were the chief seats, for which the scribes and 
 Pharisees competed. A lamp perpetually burn'ed near 
 it, while other lamps were brought by worshippers for 
 the Sabbath ; the special seven-branched candlestick was 
 only lighted up on the great festivals. Near the middle 
 of the building was a platform, on the middle of which 
 stood a pulpit. The mass of the people sat, according to 
 sexes, on either side of a low partition. 
 
 The officials of the synagogues were an elder, or rabbi, 
 or a chapter of rabbis (rulers of the synagogue), presided 
 Officials of over by a chief rabbi ; these could excommuni- 
 synagogue. cate, or "put out of the synagogue," any who 
 were held to have broken the law, and not purged their 
 offences. There was usually a chief reader of prayers and 
 of the law, who was not engaged in business, and was 
 
THE PASSOVER. 37 
 
 chosen by the congregation, and set apart by the imposi 
 tion of hands. Each synagogue also had a body of ten 
 menj making up a legal congregation, and attending all 
 the services. 
 
 The Law of Moses was read in the synagogues on every 
 Sabbath morning in regular order, so as to be gone 
 through once a year; the Prophetical books order of 
 were read as a second lesson in like manner, service. 
 Afterwards came an exposition, or sermon, drawn from 
 one of the lessons, delivered by one of the rulers, or a 
 person appointed or allowed by them. Prayer preceded 
 and benediction concluded the service. This was the 
 principal service. On the Sabbath afternoon, and also 
 on Mondays and Thursdays, there was a reading of the 
 Law, and services were of course held on festivals. 
 
 The Jewish Sabbath was the basis of a series of ob- 
 servances in which the number seven was predominant. 
 Every seventh month, the seventh year, and THe seventu 
 the forty-ninth or fiftieth (the jubilee year), month, 
 were specially sacred. The seventh month opened with 
 the Feast of Trumpets, when offerings were doubled, and 
 trumpets were blown throughout the daj'', instead of 
 merely at the time of sacrifice. This month was further 
 notable for containing the Day of Atonement, and the 
 joyful Feast of Tabernacles. In the seventh, or Sabbatic 
 year, the land was to lie fallow, " that the poor The sabbatic 
 of thy people may eat ; and what they leave y^^^- 
 the beasts of the field shall eat." The spontaneous pro- 
 duce of the fields was to be for the poor, strangers, and 
 cattle. In Deuteronomy xv. the Sabbatic year is also a 
 year for the release of debts ; but it is not certain that 
 they were abolished, and they may have been merely 
 postponed. Many think the Sabbatic year was only 
 enjoined to be observed the seventh year after the settle- 
 ment of Canaan, and that it was rarely observed until 
 after the Captivity. We may regard this law as intended 
 to signify an acknowledgment of the Divine ownership 
 of the land. 
 
 The year of jubilee was an extra Sabbatical year, an- 
 nounced on the Day of Atonement by the blowing of 
 
38 THE JEWISH RELIGION: FESTIVALS, ETC. 
 
 trumpets throughout the land. The word "jubilee" 
 The year of either means the trumpet itself, or the sound 
 jubUee. it produced. Every Israelite was to recover 
 the land originally assigned to his family, however it 
 might have been alienated. The soil was to lie fallow 
 during the year, and only the natural growth was to be 
 gathered. The law of freedom extended also to servitude; 
 all Israelites who had become bondmen recovered their 
 freedom. Houses in the open country followed the law 
 aboiit land, while those in walled cities were not- affected 
 by it. Undoubtedly this legislation had a strong tendency 
 to prevent the accumulation of great wealth in the hands 
 of a few, and was an additional feature distinguishing 
 the Israelites from surrounding nations. We have no 
 knowledge as to how far the Sabbatic and Jubilee years 
 were observed. 
 
 Next to the Sabbath the most enduring Jewish obser- 
 vance is the Passover, and the Easter festival in which 
 TUB it is represented by Christians. Thus the 
 
 Passover. Exodus from Egypt is linked with an annual 
 world-wide festival of Christianity. It combined the sig- 
 nifications of a harvest thanksgiving and an anniversary 
 of the escape from Egypt; and some critics think the 
 latter association was later than the other. To detail all 
 particulars connected with it would be too lengthy ; but 
 the narrative of the Exodus lays stress on the eating of 
 unleavened bread, because of the hurry of departure from 
 Egypt not allowing time for the slow-working leaven to 
 be used ; on the killing of a lamb or kid without blemish, 
 the sprinkling of the side-posts and the lintel of the house 
 door with the animal's blood, its being roasted whole, and 
 on keeping the bones unbroken. The haste of the meal, 
 the preparations for a journey, the staff in the hand, are 
 all graphically described; and in memory of this, and 
 the death of the firstborn of Egypt, all male firstborn 
 were consecrated to God, the animals to be sacrificed, 
 the sons to be redeemed. 
 
 In later directions for the observation of this festival 
 we find that the offering of the Omer, or first sheaf of 
 wheat harvest, a seven days' eating of unleavened bread 
 
FEAST OF TRUMPETS. 39 
 
 and a series of expensive sacrifices of buUoclis, rams, 
 lambs, etc., were ordained. Also the sacrifice of the 
 Passover was to be made only at the national sanctuary. 
 This latter regulation is regarded by those who argue 
 for the late origin of Deuteronomy and of the priestly 
 code as having only arisen when Israel was united under 
 the kings, and when a centralisation took place of all 
 great acts of worship at Jerusalem. 
 
 The later Israelitish observation of the Passover began 
 on the 14th of Nisan (part of March and April), when all 
 leaven was put away from dwellings, and every passover in 
 male Israelite repaired to Jerusalem, taking an later times, 
 offering of money in proportion to his means. As the 
 sun set, the lambs offered were slain, and the fat and 
 blood given to the priests ; the animals were then roasted 
 and eaten whole, with unleavened bread and bitter herbs 
 (endive, chicory, wild lettuce, or nettles), no portion being 
 left till the morning. On the 15th was a holy assembly, 
 and no work might be done. On this and the following 
 days additional animals were sacrificed, but it is probable 
 that these were omitted in later times. On the 16th the 
 first sheaf was waved by the priest before Jehovah, and 
 the festival ended with a solemn assembly on the 21st. 
 We do not know when the drinking of wine at the 
 Passover meal was introduced ; but it became the custom 
 to provide at least four cups of wine, mostly red, to be 
 drunk with water, the cups being passed round at certain 
 intervals. Another addition to the early forms was the 
 singing of a series of psalms of praise, known as the Hallel 
 (a shortened form of Hallelujah). Psalms cxiii. and cxiv. 
 were sung early in the meal, and Psalms cxv. to cxviii. 
 after the fourth cup had been passed round. 
 
 The next great festival, following the Passover after an 
 interval of seven weeks from the second day, was that 
 generally known as Pentecost, but also as the 
 Feast of Weeks, or of the First Fruits. This ^«^*^<=<'^'- 
 period of seven weeks included the whole of harvest time, 
 from the beginning of barley-harvest to the complete 
 ingathering of the wheat. At this feast, in addition to 
 the regular sacrifices, two loaves of leavened bread made 
 
40 THE JEWISH RELIGION. 
 
 from the new wheat were to be waved before Jehovah 
 by the priests, who afterwards ate them. At the same 
 time seven lambs, a bullock, and two rams, and other 
 oiferings were to be sacrificed. This was a more joyful 
 celebration than the Passover, and special directions were 
 given that the Levite, the stranger, the fatherless, and 
 the widow should share in it. 
 
 The principal autumn festival was the Feast of Taber- 
 nacles or of Ingathering, when the whole of the crops of 
 
 Feast of the year had been gathered in. It lasted seven 
 Tabernacles, days, followed by a special day of assembly 
 and sacrifice, sometimes called an eighth day. During 
 the seven days the people were commanded to live 
 temporarily in booths, which were made of the branches 
 of olive, palm, pine, and other trees Avith thick foliage. 
 In Jerusalem these booths were built on the fiat roofs of 
 the houses, in their courts, in the court of the Temple, 
 and in the principal streets. Specially numerous animal 
 sacrifices were offered throughout the week, including 
 seventy bullocks, in addition to private offerings, so that 
 more animals were slain at this period than at any other. 
 On the eighth morning the booths were dismantled, and 
 the people returned to their houses. The booths may be 
 regarded as a standing memorial of the Israelites' former 
 nomadic life. 
 
 We must not omit to mention that the spring festival 
 or Passover, Pentecost, and Feast of Tabernacles were 
 the three great national festivals at which every male 
 Israelite in later times was bound to go up to Jerusalem ; 
 in earlier times, to the place where the tabernacle was 
 pitched. This regular resort to a common centre must 
 have had a powerful influence in uniting the people. 
 Thus we see the rise of one of the great , systems of 
 religious pilgrimage still so powerful among the Hindus, 
 Mahometans, and Roman Catholics. 
 
 It remains to mention the Feast of Trumpets, which 
 
 took place on the day of the new moon which preceded 
 
 Feast of by ten days the Day of Atonement. It was 
 
 Trumpets, one of the seven days of special holy assembly 
 
 and sacrifice ; on it trumpets were blown all day. Pos- 
 
vows. 41 
 
 sibly" it was intended to prepare the people for the 
 solemnities of the Day of Atonement ; but it was clearly 
 a sort of New Year's Day, introducing the seventh or 
 Sabbatical month of the Jewish calendar. 
 
 To complete here the account of forms of worship, no 
 form of prayer was enjoined by the Mosaic code, and it 
 is from later history that we deiive the most prayer and 
 emphatic testimony to the habit of prayer forms of 
 among the Israelites ; and it is extremely ^o^snip- 
 improbable, seeing the abvmdance of prayers in the Egyp- 
 tian and Semitic religions, that there was any lack of 
 them in early Mosaic times. The beautiful benediction 
 of Numbers vi. 24-26 — " Jehovah . bless thee and keep 
 thee; Jehovah make His face shine upon thee, and be 
 gracious to thee : Jehovah lift up His countenance upon 
 thee, and give thee peace "■ — is a very early example of 
 the form of liturgy which arose to such high development 
 in the Book of Psalms, in which are included prayers, 
 praise, confessions, triumphal songs, and formal recitals, 
 traversing the whole field of human experience, often in 
 the loftiest strain of poetry. But in their great days the 
 Jewish people were not given to the vain repetitions of 
 prayers and sacred phrases which afterwards became 
 baneful A form for use when offering first fruits is 
 given in Deuteronomy xxvi. 5-10, 13-15. Probably 
 prayer was offered after every sacrifice. In later Jewish 
 times individuals appear to have gone up regularly to the 
 Temple to pray, and when away from Jerusalem they 
 prayed with their windows open towards Jerusalem. 
 Numerous remarkable and well-known prayers, both on 
 public and private occasions, are recorded in the Old 
 Testament, among which Ave may note the prayer of 
 Solomon at the Dedication of the Temple, and that of 
 the priests, in the second Temple, in Nehemiah's time. 
 
 Apart from the regular offerings, the consecration of 
 persons and things to Jehovah, and the making and ful- 
 filment of vows, entered largely into the Jewish ^^^^ 
 religion. Ewald ("Antiquities of Israel?') thus 
 describes the making of vows: "In order to obtain from 
 Grod some good thing, the want of which he felt with 
 
42 THE JEWISH RELIGION: LEGISLATION, ETC. 
 
 painful keenness, a man desired to give up on his part 
 something dear to himself ; but because his own weakness 
 made him despair of being able to make this sacrifice, 
 or at least because it could not be made immediately, 
 he bound himself through an oath to God, spoken out 
 clearly and with the utmost seriousness, that he would 
 fulfil it. This naturally inspired him with a strength 
 which had previously failed him, and which, perhaps, 
 without this spasmodic flight, he would never have pos- 
 sessed." The occurrence of extraordinary emergencies 
 sometimes, as in other religions, inspired the most tremen- 
 dous vows — such as the sacrifice of Jephthah's daughter 
 — which were fulfilled ; but the Law allowed of the 
 annulling of some vows, such as those of a wife or un- 
 married daughter by the head of the family, and the 
 redemption of others by a valuable offering, according 
 to a scale carefully drawn up. The last degeneration 
 of such a practice was seen in the corban custom at the 
 time of Christ, when a man might prevent himself from 
 giving to another, or even to his parent's utmost need, 
 by vowing his property to God, even without actually 
 resigning its possession and enjoyment. 
 
 In prohibiting all mutilations or tortures of the human 
 body, excepting that which constituted the rite of circum- 
 cision so largely in vogue in South-western 
 Asia and Egypt, the Jewish religion was left 
 with fasting as an important means of self-discipline in 
 addition to vows and offerings. Fasting, individual and 
 national, figured considerably in their system. The 
 annual fast on the Day of Atonement showed the recog- 
 nition granted to it, and it was often resorted to in times 
 of national danger or misfortune. Another form of self- 
 discipline was found in the offering of the hair and 
 abstinence from wine ; and the period of thirty days' 
 abstinence, during attendance at the sanctuary, became 
 specially commendable. Groups of persons who took 
 Nazarites certain religious vows were formed from time 
 and to time, such as the Rechabites and the 
 Reohabites. Nazarites (more correctly Nazirites), the latter 
 of whom consecrated their bodies and all their powers 
 
CONSECRATION OF THE PEOPLE TO JEHOVAH. 43 
 
 to Jehovah for a limited time or for life. Wine and 
 even grapes were forbidden to them ; no change in their 
 body was allowable, even the hair might not be cut ; 
 dead bodies must not be approached. At the end of the 
 period of the vow, special offerings were made in the 
 Temple. Samson, Samuel, and John the Baptist appear 
 to have all been Nazarites for life. 
 
 How far the Jewish religion was from the other 
 religions we have described can partially be judged by 
 comparing them in detail, though our brief survey leaves 
 many topics unnoticed. The deification of heroes or 
 priests, the worship of relics, monasticism, the worship 
 of ancestors, wizardry, and magic, found no home in the 
 Jewish system. And perhaps that which pre- „ 
 vented these from arising, and which elevated of the whole 
 the nation most in the religious scale, was the people to 
 declaration and the constant inward sense that 
 the nation and its individuals were holy, consecrated to 
 Jehovah, and must therefore be kept pure from all inward 
 and outward defilement, and when defiled in any way 
 must be purified by appropriate submission, repentance, 
 and offerings. The people are declared in Deuteronomy 
 to be the children of Jehovah ; and the dedication of the 
 first-born children and the offerings of firstlings and first- 
 fruits kept in memory and expressed gratitude for the 
 deliverances which Jehovah had wrought for them. 
 Special kinds of food, special laws of purification, and 
 other peculiar personal regulations were devised to 
 strengthen the feeling of separation from other nations, 
 and of exceptional elevation as the children of Jehovah. 
 The Jewish religion had as its birthright the revelation, 
 in a degree far above that which others had attained, 
 " Holy shall ye be, for holy am I." Not a human ideal, 
 but a Divine example was the standard set before the 
 nation. Thus the nation became a household united by 
 one thought, one worship, and thus it attained a strength 
 which long protected its feebleness. Rejecting an earthly 
 sovereign, the ideal of Jehovah as Sovereign was raised 
 above the nation ; and laws had so much the more the 
 sanction of public opinion, as they were believed to come 
 
44 THE JEWISH RELIGION: LEGISLATION, ETC. 
 
 direct from God, and to be enforced by temporal punish- 
 ments and calamities, apart from the decreed penalties 
 by which alone pardon and restoration could be obtained 
 by offenders. And, on the other hand, the laws were the 
 more readily enforced, as it will be seen on close study 
 that the majority of them had the soundest basis in natural 
 Jaws, and others were at least in accordance with the 
 best wisdom of the time, or represented substantial im- 
 provement on practices of the surrounding nations. 
 
 It may be astonishing at first sight to find that the 
 Jewish law regarded a large number of animals and 
 Clean and natural conditions or objects as unclean wliich 
 unclean we do not ; but in this it only followed the 
 animals, j^gtiii^ct of many peoples and religions, which 
 find certain repulsions inherent, and which create others 
 in virtue of some accidental conditions. Euminant 
 animals, finny and scaly fish, and locusts were allowed 
 to be eaten ; but the camel, hare, coney, and swine, and 
 all the smaller land animals were forbidden. The mode 
 of death, too, was important ; any mode which did not 
 allow the blood to be thoroughly drained from the flesh 
 was forbidden, for the eating of blood, in which animal 
 life was supposed especially to reside, was strictly tabooed. 
 All dead animal matter made him who touched it impure. 
 The elaboration of the regulations about impurity and 
 Means of purification is too great for iis to deal with 
 puriftcation. here ; but they had the object not only of 
 making and keeping the body of the servant of Jehovah 
 clean and pure, but of guarding carefully the purity of 
 the spirit, though, as we know, .this object, to a very con- 
 siderable extent, was not attained. We may note among 
 the means of purification, specially purified water, cedar- 
 wood, threads of scarlet cloth, the leaves and stalk of the 
 hyssop, and a red heifer. One striking particular in 
 which a difference from Egyptian practice was shown, 
 was in the discontinuance of embalming the dead. 
 
 Burial was performed at a distance from human dwell- 
 ings, and, as far as possible, in caves, natural or artificial. 
 The impurity attaching to enemies' possessions, 
 as usually polluted in some way by alien re- 
 
NATURE THE PROPERTY OF J-EHOVAH. 45 
 
 2igions, was shown by the frequency with which they 
 were entirely destroyed, instead of being utilised as legiti- 
 mate bootjr. Conversely, the touching of sacred objects 
 after they were consecrated was an ofi'ence of the deepest 
 dye, often punished by death. It is worthy of remark 
 that many of the Israelitish regulations showed a know- 
 ledge, or at least instinct, about the laws of health, which 
 would have done credit to many a nation presumedly 
 much more advanced in civilisation. 
 
 The relationships within which marriage was allowed 
 were strictly limited ; and a man was forbidden to marry 
 two sisters at the same time, although a senti- marriage 
 ment about the hereditary descent of property limits, 
 made it a duty for a man's brothers in succession to 
 marry his widow if he died childless. All unnatural lusts 
 were most strictly forbidden and heavily punished ; and 
 even the mixture of different seeds in sowing, and the 
 union of wool and linen in the same garment, were 
 iinl awful. 
 
 Through all the Jewish ideas of their relation to 
 Nature we find ruling a belief that it belongs to God. 
 Young fruit trees were not to be cropped till Mature the 
 three years had passed ; in the fourth year the property of 
 fruit was offered to Jehovah, and only after- ^^'^°^^'^ 
 wards did it come into use by man. The ox treading out 
 the corn was not to be muzzled ; eggs or young birds 
 were not to be taken from the nest while the mother was 
 there ; domestic animals were to share the rest of the 
 Sabbath ; and all this that it might be well with the 
 people who belonged to the same God whose were the 
 animal and the vegetable kingdoms. Thus we may 
 understand the depth of the feeling which inspired in the 
 60th Psalm the lines (Perowne's translation) : — 
 
 " Mine is every beast of the forest, 
 The cattle upon the mountains by thousands. 
 I know every bird of the mountains, 
 And that which moveth in the field is with Me." 
 
 The strength of that feeling in favour of the protection 
 of human life which in so many nations and religions 
 makes revenge of murder an absolute duty, was shown 
 
46 THE JEWISH RELIGION: LEGISLATION, ETC. 
 
 by the permission given to the heirs of a murdered man, 
 Blood- and especially the next heir, the redeemer, 
 
 revenge, to execute punishment upon him, though his 
 guilt was first to be determined by a regular investi- 
 gation, two witnesses at least being required. Blood- 
 money was not allowed to be accepted. "When the 
 murderer was unknown, a special mode of expiation was 
 provided, so that the people of the neighbourhood might 
 
 cities of be cleared firom Divine vengeance. Unwitting 
 
 refuge, manslaughter was only purged by fleeing to a 
 sacred city of refuge, which he could not leave, or the 
 avenger might slay him. So strongly was the right of 
 blood-revenge maintained, that even King David could 
 not prevent Joab from putting it in force without the 
 sanction of any court. There is every reason to believe 
 that the Jewish people were unstained by the practices 
 of infanticide, which were so glaring an evil in many 
 Oriental nations. 
 
 Minor injuries were to be punished in kind — " eye for 
 
 eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burning 
 
 " An eye for for burning," etc.; although later, when the 
 
 an eye." offended person consented, they could be expi- 
 ated by money payments. Injuries received in a mutual 
 quarrel were satisfied by payment for loss of time. But 
 the Jewish law took cognisance of offences which were 
 followed by no physical injury. Slander, hatred, false 
 witness, unequal honour to the rich, are unsparingly con- 
 demned ; and many positive precepts show the rise of 
 kindly feelings, of compassion, of tolerance and kindliness 
 towards strangers, as well as of true justice in word and 
 deed, in generous fulness, among the Israelites. The 
 precept, " Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and 
 honour the face of the old man," might have been written 
 in China. 
 
 The references to the year of jubilee will already have 
 explained one feature of the law of property, which aimed 
 
 Usury. ^* keeping the land in the hands of the same 
 
 families permanently. The tendency of the 
 
 Israelites to lend money for interest is strongly marked 
 
 by the stringent prohibitions of usury which are found in 
 
PARENTS AND CHILDREN. 47 
 
 the Law, and the Deuteronomic acknowledgment that 
 interest might be taken from strangers, though not from 
 fellow-Israelites. Already in Exodus the practice of 
 taking pledges for loans was in existence, and it became 
 necessary to forbid keeping a man's outer garment (used 
 as a bed-covering) beyond sunset. A widow's garment 
 might not be taken, nor a handmill, and the creditor 
 might not enter the debtor's house to seize his goods. 
 The service of the debtor who was unable to pay might 
 be demanded, or that of his wife or child ; but such 
 Hebrew bondslaves were to be released in the seventh 
 year. Yet the slave could voluntarily renounce his free- 
 dom, at the cost of having his ear bored through 
 with an awl against the door or door-post of the 
 sanctuary. Slaves, while placed in a position much better 
 than in other surrounding nations, in fact being treated 
 much as hired servants, were yet somewhat strictly kept 
 in servitude, and their emancipation only appears to have 
 been customary in the year of jubilee. Female slaves 
 also were treated as chattels with regard to marriage or 
 concubinage. After the Babylonish captivity slavery 
 went out of use among the Jews. 
 
 The elevation of the Jewish religion above most others 
 is shown in another particular — the treatment of strangers, 
 other than fellow-countrymen. Strictly fair Treatment of 
 treatment of them is enjoined; nay, in Leviticus strargers. 
 we are told, " The stranger that sojourneth with you shall 
 be unto you as the homeborn among you, and thou shalt 
 love him as thyself; for ye were strangers in the land of 
 Egypt." The widow and orphan, the poor and friendless, 
 were to be kindly received and succoured, to whatever 
 race they belonged, and they were to be made partakers 
 in the joys of sacrifice to Jehovah. 
 
 The relation of children to parents was originally one 
 of as great subordination as that of slave to master ; the 
 duty of submission on the part of the child parents and 
 was regarded as so paramount that it received ciiiidren. 
 separate mention in the Decalogue ; but this did not 
 exclude, nay, it implied a tender regard for children 
 which is exemplified in many Old Testament narratives. 
 
48 THE JEWISH RELIGION: LEGISLATION, ETC. 
 
 On the otlier hand, the disobedience of a child might be 
 punished with any severity. Death was the punishment 
 of a child that struck or cursed a parent, although m 
 Deuteronomy this punishment might only be inflicted on 
 a rebelhous son after a hearing of the case before the 
 elders of a city. Again, a child might be sold or given 
 in pledge for a debt; and in several instances a whole 
 family was destroyed lor the sin of the head. In Deut- 
 eronomy, however, we read that the children are not to 
 be put to death for the sin of the fathers ; and this is 
 interpreted by those who regard Deuteronomy as a late 
 compilation, as indicating a gradual relaxation of the 
 severity of the early law. 
 
 The marriage laws of the Israelites are on the whole 
 so well known that no extended notice is needed ; but 
 wives and with marriage the husband gained a powerful 
 concutines. command over the wife, and she was often 
 practically bought, and might be divorced with com- 
 parative ease. A husband who doubted his wife's fidehty 
 might take her to the sanctuary and demand that the 
 priest should subject her to an awe-inspiring trial by 
 ordeal, giving her a peculiarly compounded drink, "the 
 water of jealousy," which was expected to bring destruc- 
 tion upon a guilty woman. That women by no means 
 occupied the degraded position assigned to them in man}' 
 Oriental countries is evidenced by numerous instances of 
 women being prophetesses, and even military leaders, and 
 being greatly honoured even by the most renowned 
 prophets. Marriage was viewed as an honourable estate ; 
 children were a heritage from Jehovah. Violations of 
 purity cannot have been common ; and a great distinction 
 was thus maintained between the Jews and surrounding 
 nations. Concubinage and double marriages were allowed • 
 but these were very different from the licentiousness of 
 many Oriental States. The kings were commanded not 
 to multiply their wives — a command which they evidently 
 disregarded. In later Jewish times monogamy appears 
 to have become customary, although divorce was much 
 abused. Hebrew marriage was not connected with any 
 religious rite. •' 
 
THE rUENITl 
 
4BEENA0LE. 
 
GENERAL MORAL CONDITION OF ISRAEL. 
 
 49 
 
 That the moral condition of the Jews was high com- 
 pared with most other nations is evident from comparing 
 their histories. That they were largely exempt general moral 
 from the vices which found a home with condition ot 
 extreme wealth is undoubted. That they '^^'^^'^ 
 owed much to ■ the examples of their early leaders is 
 equally true. But they owed more to the vivid conception 
 and assimilation of the belief that they were Jehovah's 
 chosen people, who must therefore be holy and pure, and 
 must reject all the practices which His prophets denounced 
 as displeasing to Him. Nowhere else can we find a na- 
 tion inspired with the ideal of a Divine King, guiding 
 every step and giving every victory. And although this 
 ideal proved to be beyond their strength to realise fully, 
 and they were not skilled enough in statecraft to frame 
 a practicable republic, their ideal lived on even when 
 they had set up an earthly kingdom, and bore especial 
 fruit when an odious foreign domination controlled them. 
 When most held in subjection, they turned their thoughts 
 to a coming Deliverer, Divine yet human, who should 
 release them from bondage and place them in triumph 
 at the head of human affairs. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 CiK 3fU)i£!l) ^ncstbooU anti C^niplesi; tl)e 
 psalms anO pl)tlOE!opl)iral aaaisitionu 
 
 The priesthood— Aaron— The high priest's dress— Urlm and Thummlm — 
 Special functions of high priest— The later high priests— The hereditary 
 priests— The Levites— The temple at Jerusalem— Dimensions and struc- 
 ture—The ark and cherubim— The temple services— Zerubbabel's temple 
 —Herod's temple— Kellgious growth of Israel— Samuel— David - The 
 Psalms— Testimony of Athanasius, Luther, and Edward Irving— Inter- 
 pretation of Psalms— Messianic Psalms— Characteristics of the Psalms 
 —Future life— Growth of the Psalter— The five books of Psalms— The 
 Proverbs — Praise of utility- The eulogy of wisdom — Eoclesiastes — 
 Variety of opinions— The book of Job— Diversity of views about It— Its 
 loftiness of thought— Salient problems dealt with— Job's patience- 
 Future life and judgment.— Job and Ellhu.— The Theophany. 
 
 THE original family priests of Israel, when the pat- 
 riarch ceased to perform all religious rites himself, 
 were the eldest sons ; and it was a great change from this 
 The priest- system when a special tribe engrossed priestly 
 hood. duties. This is recorded as having been the 
 work of the new religious development which dated from 
 Moses, which, including as it did loftier ideas, more com- 
 plex observances, and numerous new laws, tended to 
 iDccome from the first associated with that family to which 
 the new ideas and their propagation had been committed. 
 Probably Aaron had, during Moses' absence in 
 Midian, been already stirring up his people to 
 revolt against the Egyptians ; but his character, much 
 less original and steadfast than his brother's, so far yielded 
 to opportunism as to become the instrument of the 
 worship of Jehovah under the image of a golden calf, 
 
 Aaron. 
 
URIM AND THUMMIM. 51 
 
 wliich led to a kind of festival very repugnant to Moses, 
 and produced one of the grandest manifestations of the 
 great leader's self-suppression and willingness to give 
 himself for his people. But Aaron's sin having sprung 
 from a desire to yield to popular sentiment in order that 
 he might turn it towards the true worship, he was not 
 therefore incapacitated for becoming the first high priest 
 of Israel ; but his ordination was through Moses. It was 
 celebrated by a sin-offering, a burnt-offering, and a meat- 
 offering, the putting on of special robes, anointing with 
 oil, the offering of a ram of consecration, and the sprink- 
 ling of its blood upon Aaron and his sons as well as 
 upon the altar and its vessels. Aaron's special priest- 
 hood was distinctly guarded by the punishment of his 
 sons Nadab and Abihu for " offering strange fire " on the 
 altar, and of Korah and the Levites for rebelling against 
 his supremacy. Aaron's tendency to presumption and 
 self-confidence is shown more than once in the Biblical 
 narrative, and it is typical of the character subsequently 
 maintained by i,he priesthood, which became conservative 
 of established tradition and of sacerdotal rights rather 
 than possessed of a reforming and elevating spirit. 
 
 The high priest wore a special dress, including : (1) A 
 tunic of linen, called an ephod, in two parts, back and 
 front, clasped together at either shoulder by a THe high 
 large onyx, with the names of six of the tribes pnest's dress, 
 engraved on it ; round the waist it was bound by a girdle 
 of gold, blue, purple, scarlet, and fine linen. (2) A breast- 
 plate, fastened to the onyx-stones and the girdle, and 
 having four rows of three precious stones, each having 
 the name of one of Israel's sons upon it. These stones 
 may themselves have constituted the " Urim and Thum- 
 mim" (Light and Perfection), which were the medium 
 through which Divine answers were obtained by the high 
 priest. Some think that it was a plate of gold on which 
 the name of Jehovah was engraved, and that by fixing 
 his attention on it, the priest was elevated into urim and 
 the prophetic spirit. A more plausible theory Thummim. 
 is, that the Urim was a symbol of Light, analogous to the 
 scarabseus similarly worn by the Egyptian priests ; while 
 
52 THE JEWISH PRIESTHOOD. 
 
 the Thummim was a symbolic image of Truth, such as 
 was worn by the priestly judges of Egypt. This Egyptian 
 origin accords with their not being described in the 
 Pentateuch, as being so well known to the people. Dean 
 Plumptre (Dictionary of Bible, Art. " Urim and Thum- 
 mim ") suggests that the high priest, fixing his gaze on 
 these symbols, concentrated his thoughts on the Light 
 and Perfection they represented, and on the holy name 
 of Jehovah. Thence he passed into an ecstatic state in 
 which all lower human elements were forgotten, and he 
 received a higher insight which was accepted as Divine. 
 (3) A blue " robe of the ephod," worn beneath it, trimmed 
 with pomegranates, in blue, red, and crimson, with a 
 golden bell between each alternate pomegranate. (-4) A 
 mitre, or upper turban, having a gold plate fastened to 
 it by a ribbon, and bearing the inscription, " Holiness to 
 Jehovah." Besides these, the high priest wore, in common 
 with the subordinate priests, an embroidered coat or tunic, 
 with girdle and drawers. A simple linen turban was worn 
 by the priests instead of the high priest's mitre. 
 
 The special functions of the high priest will already 
 have been partly gathered from the account of ceremonies. 
 Special '-^o \L\va. alone was it permitted to enter the 
 functions of inner sanctuary, or Holy of Holies, once a year 
 high priest. ^^ ^j^^ great day of atonement. During the 
 high priest's lifetime persons who had fled to a city of 
 refuge might not quit it. The high priest was forbidden 
 to rend his clothes for the dead, or to follow a funeral. 
 In other particulars his functions might vary greatly 
 with circumstances ; but so long as his character com- 
 manded the people's reverence, he was the interpreter of 
 the will of God to the people, and cast the sacred lots 
 to determine important questions. But in later times, 
 when the priesthood became more formal and conserva- 
 tive, these functions passed largely into the hands of the 
 prophets, and at times there was antagonism between the 
 priestly and prophetical classes. It is worthy of notice, 
 that in the account of the dedication of Solomon's Temple, 
 the high priest is not mentioned ; the new royal power 
 had eclipsed him. Indeed, this was largely the case 
 
THE HEREDITARY PRIESTS. 53 
 
 during the monarcliy. After the Babylonian captivity 
 the high priest again became prominent. Jaddua, high 
 priest at the time of Alexander the Great, met The later 
 him in procession, and was treated reverentially ^'^s'b. priests, 
 by him. To Simon the Just is ascribed the completion 
 of the Old Testament canon. During his brother Eleazar's 
 priesthood the Septuagint version of the Old Testament 
 was made at Alexandria for Ptolemy Philadelphus. The 
 degeneracy of Eleazar's successors was followed by the 
 brilliant revival of the priesthood in the family of the 
 Maccabees, which lasted from b.c. 153 to 35, when Aris- 
 tobulus was murdered by order of his brother-in-law, 
 Herod the " Great." Henceforward the high priesthood 
 was more degraded than it had ever been. Herod and 
 his successors made and unmade high priests at will, often 
 men of low birth ; and in the 107 years preceding the 
 destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, there had been twenty- 
 eight high priests. 
 
 The Jewish priests (Jcohen), as an order, appear to have 
 been constituted especially out of the family and descend- 
 ants of Aaron. "We only read of the consecra- ^jjg 
 tion of his sons, and afterwards the office was Hereditary 
 hereditary, until Jeroboam, in founding the P"^®^*^- 
 kingdom of Israel, appointed a fresh priesthood. They 
 wore linen garments and caps whenever they ministered 
 in the Tabernacle or Temple, where they always went 
 barefooted. No descendant of Aaron with any physical 
 defect might act as priest. They were forbidden to shave 
 their heads, or to imitate other priesthoods either in 
 asceticism or licentiousness. In every way they were 
 trained and designed to be able to clearly distinguish 
 between what was clean and unclean, sacred and profane. 
 After the Captivity, great stress was laid on genealogical* 
 proof of true descent and on examination for physical 
 blemishes before the Sanhedrim admitted a youth to take 
 part in the Temple services. 
 
 Abundant work was assigned to the priests. Besides 
 assisting the high priests, they had to keep the altar fire 
 and the golden lamp perpetually burning, to offer the- 
 regular morning and evening sacrifices, and to be in 
 
54 THE JEWISH PRIESTHOOD. 
 
 readiness to receive any worshipper and offer sacrifice, or 
 otherwise do the priest's office for him. The judgment 
 about leprosy, the ordeal of the waters of jealousy, and 
 numerous other decisions were committed to them, and 
 they were in general charged with the religious instruc- 
 tion of the people. In return they received a regular 
 maintenance of one-tenth of the tithes assigned to the 
 Levites, and large portions of the sacrificial offerings. 
 In the time of David the priests were divided into twenty- 
 four courses or sets, each of which took the services for 
 a week at a time ; but this order did not prevent others, 
 out of their turn, from taking a share in the services, 
 particularly at the great festivals. On the return from 
 the Captivity, only four of these courses remained ; but 
 the twenty-four were constituted anew out of the remnant. 
 In later Jewish times they largely increased in number, 
 and many of them were poor, ignorant, and despised. 
 It is very probable that the " high places " so often 
 referred to in Jewish history were supplied with priests 
 claiming descent from Aaron; but they went further 
 than this, and officiated as priests of Baal, of the sun and 
 moon, and of the " host of heaven," as the prophets testify. 
 The priesthood which belonged to the Levites as distinct 
 from the sons of Aaron dated apparently from their rally- 
 ing round Moses and Aaron after the Israelites 
 ■ had worshipped the golden calf, when they 
 consecrated themselves to defend the Tabernacle and the 
 pure worship of Jehovah. After that they were adopted 
 in place of the first-born as priests, and obtained a main- 
 tenance from the other tribes, and numerous privileges. 
 During the wilderness wanderings they carried all the 
 tabernacle treasures, all the appliances of sacrifice. They 
 gained increased infiuence when the Israelites had settled 
 in Palestine, became diffused in forty-eight cities and 
 their suburbs throughout the land, and received shares of 
 booty taken in war. In the times of David and Solomon 
 they appear as hymn-writers and musicians, taking a 
 prominent part in the services at Jerusalem ; but we 
 have no definite information as to how they were replaced 
 from the provincial cities. Later, they appear as scribes. 
 
DIMENSIONS AND STRUCTURE OF TEMPLE. 55 
 
 officers, judges, and teachers. In Deuteronomy the offices 
 of preserving, copying, and interpreting the Law are 
 assigned to them, and they -were to read it aloud at the 
 Feast of Tabernacles every seventh year, and to pro- 
 nounce the curses from Mount Ebal. After the formation 
 of the kingdom of Israel they left it to a' large extent, and 
 gathered closely into connection with Jerusalem and the 
 Temple, showing themselves in Hezekiah's time more 
 zealous and upright in heart than the priests ; thus they 
 acquired greater influence than ever in both Hezekiah's 
 and Josiah's reigns. They were less numerous after the 
 Captivity, and did not take any special part in the forma- 
 tion of synagogues, though they retained precedence in 
 them, and were a majority in the Sanhedrim; but the 
 Levites in general were only the inferior officers of the 
 Temple. After its destruction they sank into the general 
 mass of subdued, captive, or dispersed Jews. 
 
 TEE TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM. 
 
 The change from a wandering and a conquering life 
 to a settled and powerful dominion was marked by the 
 construction of a sacred building which, while not rival- 
 ling in architecture and magnificence the great temples 
 of Egypt and Mesopotamia, was yet a splendid monument 
 of royal devotion. The design and planning of the 
 Temple are in large part ascribed to David, who collected 
 much of the treasure and engaged many of the workmen. 
 Its site was Mount Moriah, north-east of Mount Zion, the 
 altar being placed where David offered sacrifice on the 
 staying of the pestilence which followed his census. This 
 site being uneven in its upper portion, and not squared 
 into areas suitable for the temple-courts, its dimensions 
 were corrected by Solomon, who built gigantic walls as 
 a substructure to support the upper buildings. 
 
 The idea of the new Temple was plainly borrowed from 
 that of the Tabernacle, whose dimensions it doubled. The 
 Holy of Holies measured twenty cubits every Dimensions 
 way ; the outer court was forty cubits long by and 
 twenty broad, but it was raised to thirty cubits s'"i=*"'^8. 
 in height to support three outer stories of chambers for 
 
56 THE TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM. 
 
 the priests and temple servers ; -while the east end had 
 a porch ten cubits in depth, and decorated with two im- 
 mense bronze pillars with magnificent lily-shaped capitals. 
 The roof was probably flat, and any openings for light 
 could only be made in the part of the Temple wall that 
 rose above the side stories. Probably the Holy of Holies 
 was quite dark. Outside the Temple proper was a great 
 court of similar shape. The internal ornamentation of 
 this Temple was magnificent ; but we must leave details 
 to be gathered from the narrative in 1 Kings. 
 
 Within the Holy of Holies was placed the Ark, as it 
 had been handed down for centuries ; but to accord with 
 The Ark and the greater magnificence of the Temple, two 
 Cherubim, huge cherubim were set up in it, whose wings 
 were of such dimensions as jointly to stretch entirely 
 across the building. They were placed at a height of ten 
 cubits above the floor, and could not be seen through the 
 door from the Holy Place. In this latter was a gilded 
 altar and a table for shew-bread, and, according to 2 
 Chronicles, ten tables with a golden candlestick on each. 
 There were, besides, a huge bronze altar in the fore-court, 
 and a vast laver of bronze, with vessels termed bases, in 
 which water could be conveyed thence wherever needed. 
 The consecration of this Temple, after seven years and 
 a half had been occupied in its erection, was the most 
 magnificent ceremony in Israelitish history. The sacri- 
 fices were of enormous extent, and an overpowering im- 
 pression of the presence of Jehovah awed the worshippers. 
 
 We have many evidences of the magnificence with 
 
 which some of the kings kept up the Temple services, as 
 
 The Temple well as of the riches which it contained. The 
 
 services, successive Spoliations which it underwent from 
 the Egyptians, and for tribute to other foreign powers, 
 still left sufiicient treasure in it to furnish a great booty 
 for Nebuchadnezzar ; and then it was, as far as fire could 
 effect it, completely destroyed. 
 
 The temple of Zerubbabel, erected about 620 e.g., after 
 the return of the Jews from Babylon, is but little known 
 zeruhhabers in detail. Apparently the outer buildings were 
 
 temple, increased in width, and the total length of the 
 
RELIGIOUS GROWTH OF ISRAEL. 57 
 
 courts was considerably increased ; but necessarily tlie 
 magnificence was much diminished, and, above all, it did 
 not contain the Ark of the Covenant, which had been lost 
 or destroyed, and no copy of it was made. Nor was the 
 high priest any more equipped with the breastplate, so 
 essential in the consultation of the sacred oracle. But 
 yet, so far as the machinery of routine worship and 
 sacrifice were concerned, the priests were enabled once 
 more to carry out the essentials of Jehovah's service, and 
 to lay an increased stress on the public reading and the 
 observance of the Law. 
 
 How far this temple survived the lapse of time and the 
 injuries of such tyrants and devastators as Antiochus 
 Epiphanes, cannot be ascertained ; but there Herod's 
 is some probability that the essential features temple, 
 of the structure survived and were incorporated in the 
 magnificent structure raised by Herod the Great (b.c. 20- 
 12). This monarch not only enclosed the central portion 
 in an extensive inner enclosure, reserved for Jews only, 
 about 180 cubits by 240, adorned with splendid porches 
 and gateways, but surrounded the whole with a much 
 larger enclosure, open also to Gentiles, 400 cubits square, 
 constructed with great engineering skill and splendour, 
 vieing with that of the greatest temples of other countries. 
 This was furnished with a complete series of flat-roofed 
 cloisters, supported by double rows of Corinthian columns : 
 on the outer side was the closed temple wall, internally 
 the space was open to the great outer court of the temple. 
 On the southern side, however, there was added to this 
 a great porch, or practically a nave and two aisles, the 
 whole 100 feet wide, and the nave rising to a height of 
 100 feet. In total length, this "porch" was longer than 
 our largest English cathedrals, extending to 600 feet, and 
 supported by 160 Corinthian columns. 
 
 RELIGIOUS GROWTH OF ISRAEL. 
 
 Going back now to trace some features in the religious 
 development of Israel, we need only note how thoroughly 
 the conquest of Canaan under Joshua and his successors 
 was inspired by the belief in Jehovah's divine commission 
 
58 JEWISH PROPHETS. 
 
 to the people, and in His presence and aid in battle, the 
 connection of this belief with the necessity for much 
 slaughter of the peoples whom they conquered', and the 
 destruction of their idols. After Joshua's death the nation 
 had no continuous head but the High Priest, who probably 
 presided over the Assembly of the Elders of the tribes, 
 and declared the will of Jehovah after consulting the 
 oracle. Shiloh, north of Bethel, was for many years the 
 most usual seat of the Tabernacle and residence of the 
 High Priest. The cessation of united organisation for 
 war gave place to dissolving and weakening influences ; 
 the Canaanites at various times regained power, and the 
 worship of their gods was extended ; and we hear very 
 little of the High Priests or of the Assembly of Elders for 
 a long period. The priestly character degenerated till 
 it became a byword in the sons of Eli, when there arose 
 the fii'st of the great series of Prophets to call back the 
 peopji, to the purer service of Jehovah, to denounce pre- 
 valent sins, and to elevate the national ideal. Samuel 
 appears not to have introduced any new prin- 
 ciples, but he purified the national worship, 
 established his jurisdiction as a pure judge, and when he 
 found that loyalty to an invisible ruler failed to unite and 
 preserve the people in stable order and content, he anointed 
 the most notable j'oung warrior of his time as king, and, 
 as far as in him lay, established the kingdom in right- 
 eousness. His distinction as a man possessed of insight 
 into affairs human and divine was made evident by many 
 circumstances. He is a religious leader outside the Aaronic 
 priesthood, although his training under Eli practically 
 adopted him into it ; but he exalted the prophetic teach- 
 ing conveyed through himself above the functions of the 
 priests. " To obey is better than sacrifice," he powerfully 
 asserted, and his lesson has embedded itself in the higher 
 religious conscience of mankind. 
 
 Samuel's appearance was but the first-fruit of an 
 awakening which established " schools of the prophets," 
 or religious companies, which manifested and trained gifts 
 of speech and song that soon became notable. Probably 
 David, — recognised in his early youth by Samuel as 
 
THE PSALMS. 
 
 59 
 
 Saul's successor, — in such schools matured those gifts 
 
 which have made him even more famous as the sweet 
 
 singer than as the powerful King of Israel. 
 
 David's religious importance, in addition to the study 
 
 of his character and history as impartially detailed to us 
 
 in the Old Testament, consists in his develop- 
 
 ment of public worship and his contributions 
 
 to sacred literature. Although, contrary to the notion 
 
 which has grown up among English people, the majority 
 
 of the Psalms are not the composition of David ; they 
 
 derived their original stamp, their pattern, their highest 
 
 flights from him, and are rightly associated 
 
 most distinctively with his name. No man^^^^*'™^' 
 
 has mo] e vividly or truly expressed the depths of human 
 
 experience, the heights of religious aspiration, the strength 
 
 of conviction as to God's nature, prerogatives, and care 
 
 for His people. Athanasius says of the Psalms Tesimonyof 
 
 that they are to him who sings them as a Athanasius. 
 
 mirror, wherein he may see himself and the motions of 
 
 his soul, and with like feelings utter them. Luther says 
 
 in his preface to the Psalms : " "Where will you , , ,, 
 £ij ill, J. -iof Luther, 
 
 nnd words more aptly chosen to express joy, 
 
 than in the Psalms of praise and the Psalms of thanks- 
 giving ? There thou mayest look into the heart of all the 
 saints, as into fair delightful gardens, yea, even into 
 heaven itself, and note with what wonderful variety there 
 spring up therein, like so many exquisite, hearty, delight- 
 ful flowers, sweet and gladsome thoughts of Grod and His 
 benefits. On the other hand, where canst thou find 
 deeper, sadder, more lamentable words of sorrow than 
 are to be found in the Psalms of complaint? There 
 again thou mayest look into the heart of all the saints, 
 as into death, yea, as into hell. How dark and gloomy 
 it is there with the manifold hiding of God's countenance ! 
 So likewise,- when the Psalms speak of fear or hope, they 
 speak in such manner of words that no painter could so 
 paint the fear or the hope, and no Cicero or master of 
 oratory could express them to the life more happily." 
 
 Edward Irving wrote thus of the Psalms : " For pure 
 pathos and tenderness of heart, for sublime imagination, 
 
6o THE MESSIANIC PSALMS. 
 
 for touching pictures of natural scenery, and genial 
 and Edward Sympathy with Nature's various moods ; for 
 Irving, patriotism, whether in national weal or national 
 woe ; for beautiful imagery, whether derived from th« 
 relationship of human life or the forms of the created 
 universe ; and for the illustration, by their help, of 
 spiritual conditions ; moreover, for those rapid transitions 
 in which the lyrical muse delighteth, her lightsome graces 
 at one time, her deep and full inspiration at another, her 
 exuberance of joy and her lowest falls of grief, and for 
 every other form of the natural soul which is wont to be 
 shadowed forth by this kind of composition, we challenge 
 anything to be produced from the literature of all ages 
 and countries, worthy to be compared with what we find 
 even in the English version of the Book of Psalms." 
 
 After considering very many sublime passages of the 
 Psalms, it may be safely said, that if the term " inspired," 
 as signifying a gift of language and thought in a super- 
 human way, may not be applied to them, it can scarcely 
 be applied to anything ; and the general adoption of 
 their language by Christians in devotion proves their 
 correspondence with the wants and feelings of the soul. 
 There are, however, very wide divergences of opinion, 
 interpreta- even among orthodox divines, as to the inter- 
 tion of pretation of many passages, showing that there 
 Psalms, ^g ^Q theory of inspiration sufficiently agreed 
 upon to settle all difficulties or to obviate the need of 
 either ecclesiastical or private judgment. The most im- 
 portant question about the interpretation of the Psalms 
 is their reference to the Messiah expected by the Israelites, 
 in the two characters of a victorious king and a suffering 
 prophet. While there can be no doubt that in most 
 cases there is a primary meaning of the Psalms, applicable 
 to the writer or his subject, many divines point to the 
 confessions of sin as excluding numerous so-called Mes- 
 Messianic sianic passages from having a Messianic re- 
 Psaims. ference, and maintain that in others such 
 references were not consciously in the mind of the writer, 
 although they have a broad and grand fulfilment in the 
 Person of Christ. All but a few critics agree that the 
 
THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 6 1 
 
 Psalms in many places foreshadow or pre-typify Jesus. 
 Bishop Perowne observes: "Nowhere in the Psalms are 
 the redemption of the world and Israel's final glory bound 
 up with the coming of the Messiah. . . . The Advent 
 to which Israel looks forward is the i^dvent of Jehovah. 
 It is He who is Israel's true King. It is His coming 
 which shall be her redemption and her glory." And 
 Calvin, in commenting on the 72nd Psalm, says : " They 
 who will have this to be simply a prediction of the King- 
 dom of Christ seem to twist the words very violently." ^ 
 
 Apart from this, the Psalms are distinguished beyond 
 all other sacred books by the directness of their appeal 
 to God. No circumstance of life or experience character- 
 is regarded as hidden from the Supreme Being, istios of 
 or unsuitable to be the subject of direct com- '^^^ Psalms, 
 munion with Him. Frequently life in the midst of trouble 
 or on pinnacles of greatness is associated with God in 
 such a way that the human and the Divine belong to one 
 cycle of being, inseparably related. The views of the 
 Divine greatness and majesty developed in. the Psalms 
 contain some of the sublimest of all poetic expressions, 
 and add emphasis to the frequent repudiations and denun- 
 ciations of idolatry. Worship, by songs and music, prayer 
 and praise, public and private worship, is abundantly 
 inculcated ; but there is little stress laid on sacrifices, 
 compared with the obedience of the heart to the Divine 
 law, and the consecration of the life to righteousness. 
 Sin is laid bare in its inner working in the soul, and as 
 inherent in human nature by birth; but forgiveness of 
 the true penitent's sin by Jehovah is asserted, and the 
 assistance of God's *' Holy Spirit " is besought in efforts 
 after righteousness. Evil is recompensed to the evil-doer, 
 and good will befall the righteous ; and both will, in part, 
 
 ' We may here give the Messianic foreshadowings from the 
 Psalms given in the New Testament : xxii. 18 (John xiii. 18) ; 
 xxxiv. 20 (John xix. 36) ; xli. 9 (John xiii. 18) ; Ixix. 10 (Eom. xv. 
 3) ; Ixix. 21 (John xix. 28). In addition, " In Ps. xxxv. 11 we have 
 a foreshadowing of the false testimony against Jesus ; in Ps. xxii. 
 7, 8, Ixix. 12, of the revilings ; in Ps. xxii. 16, of the piercing of the 
 hands and feet; in Ps. Ixix. 21, of the offering of the gall and 
 vinegar " (Cheyne). 
 
62 
 
 THE HEBREW PSALMS. 
 
 be handed on to their children. The instruction of others 
 by the righteous is exemplified and encouraged, and in 
 a few passages, such as Psalm vii. 4, kindness to enemies 
 is dimly suggested. But the imprecations upon wilful 
 transgressors of Jehovah's laws and defiers of His great- 
 ness are as severe as denunciations can be, affording a 
 counterpart to the Commination Service of the Church 
 
 of England. 
 
 On the other hand, 
 
 little distinct mention 
 In some of the Psalms, 
 indeed, the state of man after death is spoken 
 of as non-existence. In death there is no remembrance 
 
 Future life. 
 
 of a future life is made. 
 
 SUPPOSED FOEM OP THE SECOND TEMPLE. 
 
 of God, we are told, nor is there any access to Him for 
 them that lie down in silence. Yet, at times, there are 
 glimpses of a happy future for the righteous (Ps. xvii. 15 ; 
 xlix. 15; and if the reading "to," rather than "with," glory 
 be accepted, in Ps. Ixxiii. 24), and of a future judgment, 
 when the good will be rewarded and the evil punished.^ 
 
 So much might be said on questions connected with 
 the Psalms, — that "Bible within the Bible," as it has 
 
 ' For " The Doctrine of a Future Life as Contained in the Old 
 Testament Scriptures," see Geden's Fernlej' Lecture, 1874. 
 
GROWTH OF THE PSALTER. 63 
 
 been called, — tliat it is difficult to choose or to abstain. 
 But our main concern here is with the place of the Psalms 
 in the religious history of Israel. Their matter is uni- 
 versally known ; able criticism upon them is accessible, 
 though unfortunately at considerable cost, in "works such 
 as those of Perowne and Cheyne. Consequently, we shall 
 not discuss whether all the Psalms attributed to David 
 in the inscriptions are by him, or whether, as some say, 
 only eleven entire Psalms and portions of others are 
 certainly his. It is acknowledged that the Growth of 
 Psalms represent the growth of centuries, ex- the Psalter, 
 tending from the very early 90th Psalm, ascribed to 
 Moses, to the date of the Maccabees, according to some ; 
 that they grew out of smaller collections, made at different 
 times by zeal like that of the " men of Hezekiah," who 
 collected Solomon's Proverbs, and that it is now impos- 
 sible to ascertain when the inscriptions, which are not 
 integral parts of the Psalms, were added, or upon what 
 evidence. A considerable proportion of the Psalms, doubt- 
 less, beyond those of David, belong to his age, — to the 
 singers and poets whom he gathered round him. Only 
 two Psalms are ascribed to Solomon. The times of 
 Jehoshaphat and Hezekiah witnessed the collection and 
 arrangement of many Psalms. Others were written in 
 connection with the Assyrian and Babylonish captivities ; 
 but the greatest outpouring of sacred song, after David's 
 era, was connected with and inspired by the return from 
 Babylon. The Psalms known as Pilgrim Songs, or Songs 
 of the Groing-up, belong to this period, and one set (cxiii.- 
 cxviii.) constituted the Hallel, sung at the Passover, 
 Pentecost, etc. A strong national element marks this 
 later psalmody, with less of the anguish or exultation of 
 personal individual experience. Some of the Psalms, 
 which are most confidently referred to the .much later 
 time of the desecration of Jerusalem by Antiochus Epi- 
 phanes, are the 44th, 74th, and 79th. 
 
 Altogether, the Psalms consist of five books ; but how 
 early this division existed cannot be said : and v^^^ ^ye 
 each book consists of one or more groups, many Books of 
 ascribed to the same authors, or sets of authors, ^* ^^- 
 
64 THE BOOK OF PROVERBS. 
 
 being grouped together. "The first book," says Bishop 
 Perowne, " consists, with two or three exceptions, of 
 Psalms of David ; the second, of a series of Psalms by the 
 sons of Korah, and another series by David ; the third, 
 of two minor collections, one supposed to be by Asaph, 
 and the other by the sons of Korah. In the fifth we 
 have one group of Pilgrim Songs and another group of 
 ' Hallelujah Psalms,' each of them manifestly, in the first 
 instance, distinct hymn-books or hturgies." The first 
 book uses the name Jehovah about eighteen times, as 
 often as Elohim ; in the next two books the latter name 
 is chiefly used. From Psalm Ixxxv. to the end, and 
 especially in Books IV. aiid V., the name Jehovah is 
 almost exclusively employed. Tliere are indications that 
 chronological order has been disturbed in the existing 
 arrangement ; and in many psalms, additions, omissions, 
 and other alterations were made after their composition. 
 Specimens of such alterations are found in psalms which 
 are partially repeated either as psalms or in some other 
 Old Testament book. The inscriptions, too, " are some- 
 times genuine, and really represent the most ancient 
 tradition. At other times they are due to the caprico 
 of later editors and collectors, the fruits of conjecture, or 
 of dimmer and more uncertain traditions " (Perowne). 
 
 Similarly to the Psalms, the Proverbs ascribed to 
 Solomon are now acknowledged to form a composite work, 
 The which was probably only put together three 
 Proverbs, centuries after the age of Solomon (Plumptre) ; 
 and it is a question whether any of the actual sayings 
 of Solomon are preserved in it, for much of the matter 
 scarcely agrees with his character, or the thought of his 
 age. The central portion of the book (x.-xxii. 16) is 
 probably the earliest. This is followed by several appen- 
 dices, especially one extending from xxv. to xxix. The 
 preliminary " Praise of "Wisdom " shows many marks of 
 distinct origin from the rest of the book, but even. Canon 
 Cheyne does not date it later than near the fall of the 
 kingdom of Judah. 
 
 Perhaps the most characteristic note of the main portion, 
 of the Proverbs is its utilitarianism. The benefits arising 
 
SHAPHAN HEADING THE BOOK OP THE LAW EEFOKE KING JOSIAH. 
 65 -r. 
 
66 THE BOOK ECCLESIASTES. 
 
 from wise conduct, and the evils produced by the reverse, 
 Praise of are pointedly expressed. Jehovah and His ser- 
 utuity. vice are extolled, the king is revered, and the 
 glory of a nation is said to be its righteousness. We 
 have indications that monogamy prevails, and that women 
 are highly regarded, and good family government is 
 praised. As regards the hope of immortality, it is dis- 
 puted whether distinct reference is made to it. We are 
 told that the king's heart is plastic in the hand of 
 Jehovah, and that the glory of a nation consists in its 
 righteousness. But on the whole, we cannot say that the 
 central portion of the Book of Proverbs greatly enlarged 
 or developed the Jewish religious ideals, although it put 
 many of its ideas in a more popular form. The latest 
 appendix develops an ideal of womanhood more full and 
 detailed, more noble and attractive, than had till then 
 been found in the Hebrew Scriptures — in attributing to 
 the virtuous woman wisdom, and kindness, sympathy, 
 and help for the afflicted. 
 
 The grandest and most inspiring portion of the book 
 is undoubtedly the preliminary "Praise of Wisdom," 
 Tne eulogy (ch. i.-ix.), especially part of chapter viii. Many 
 of Wisdom, divines agree that the description of Wisdom 
 here, if not prophetic of Jesus Christ, is only applicable 
 in its full meaning to Him, especially when He is re- 
 garded as identical with the Creative Word. This Divine 
 Wisdom is represented as brought forth and set up " from 
 everlasting," before any creation existed, and as actively 
 present in all subsequent creation. Incidentally in this 
 section, we have one of those pregnant sayings which 
 have been the consolation of multitudes under suffering : 
 " Whom Jehovah loves He chastens, even as a father the 
 son in whom he delights." 
 
 The Book ' Ecclesiastes,' the Preacher or Debater 
 (Koheleth), as Dean Plumptre says, comes before us as 
 Ecciesiaates *^® sphinx of Hebrew literature. " It has be- 
 ■ come almost a proverb, that every interpreter 
 of this book thinks that all previous interpreters have 
 been wrong. Its very title has received some dozen 
 discordant interpretations, The dates assigned to its 
 
VARIETY OF OPINIONS. 67 
 
 authorship by competent experts range over very nearly 
 a thousand years, from B.C. 990 to b.c. 10." While, on 
 the one hand, many stick firmly to its apparent authorship 
 by Solomon, others, led by Luther, regard it as a later 
 book, the author of which dramatically puts himself into 
 the supposed position of the wise and experienced Solomon. 
 Luther, in his " Table Talk," says: "Solomon variety of 
 did not write the Book, ' The Preacher,' him- opinions. 
 self, but it was composed by Sirach in the time, of the 
 Maccabees." Others point to the many words in it which 
 only occur in books written after the exile, and Dr. 
 Ginsburg states that " We could as easily believe that 
 Chaucer is the author of ' Rasselas,' as that Solomon wrote 
 ' Koheleth.' " One of the most powerful evidences for 
 its late date is, that we find no external mention of it 
 before the Talmud, which speaks in a tone of doubt as 
 to its authority. Several learned critics place it in the 
 period of Persian rule over Judsea : others, among whom 
 Mr. Tyler is conspicuous, find in the book plain indica- 
 tions of the influence of the Stoic and the Epicurean 
 philosophies, which are contrasted with one another, and 
 alternately adopted or thrown aside. There can be no 
 doubt as to the parallelisms of sentiment between the 
 Greek systems and the philosophy of Koheleth, and Dean 
 Plumptre speaks of the book as " saturated with Greek 
 thought and language." Mr. Tyler and Dean Plumptre 
 date the book about b.c. 200 to B.C. 180. But many 
 experienced critics are still unconvinced, and regard the 
 author of Ecclesiastes as a comparatively early Jewish 
 thinker, whose ideas are rather the germ of systematic 
 ethical philosophy, and whose expressions have a predomi- 
 nantly Hebrew aspect. 
 
 Readers do not need reminding of the contents of 
 Ecclesiastes. It does not reveal new matter in theology ; 
 rather it tends to show that, apart from some Divine 
 explanation, the system of the world is disheartening and 
 incomprehensible, and that there is no certainty of a 
 future rectification. Dean Plumptre has drawn out a 
 highly interesting and suggestive ideal biography of the 
 Preacher, which forms a setting for his thought, indis- 
 
68 THE BOOK OF JOB. 
 
 pensable to students. Many think the last portion (xii. 
 8-14) was added by a subsequent writer as a summary, 
 with a religious precept, "Fear God, and keep His com- 
 mandments " ; but it is by no means foreign to Hebrew 
 style, that the author should have also written the 
 Epilogue. 
 
 The Book of Job is unique in the Old Testament, in 
 its poetic grandeur and in its philosophy; and this is 
 
 TUe Book of saying a great deal. It might appear that it 
 Job. should be easy to date such a book ; but it is 
 the most variously dated book, perhaps, in the Canon — 
 for some consider it to be pre-Mosaic, others that it was 
 written by Moses ; many date it in Solomon's time, while 
 another school refer it to the period of the exile. Even 
 its style and references, precise as they seem, are variously 
 viewed by different writers, some regarding the lack of 
 reference to Mosaic legislation and Jewish history as 
 proving its very early date, others seeing in this only a 
 detachment from ordinary events and concentration on 
 the problem that is studied. Many have regarded the 
 
 Diversity of book as a faithful description of actual events 
 views throughout, even as to the Divine dialogue 
 about It. ^yj^]^ Satan ; others see in it a traditional nar- 
 rative based on a real case, and expanded by a later 
 philosopher. The parallelisms discoverable between it, 
 the Proverbs, Psalms, etc., have been said to be caused by 
 the author of Job having read these books, while the 
 converse is assumed by 'others. The fact is, that on 
 many points connected with the Book of Job, no positive 
 answer can be given, for no positive proofs are now 
 attainable. We are driven to the contents of the book 
 itself, which are what is really most important. And one 
 
 Its loftiness can scarcely help admitting that it marks a 
 
 of tbought. development in thought, in conception of the 
 world and of its government, of grasp of evidence, of 
 power of discussion, of depth of insight, as well as sub- 
 limity of expression, which, taken altogether, places it. 
 later, regarded as a product of the human mind, than 
 the writings we have hitherto considered — excepting, of 
 course, the later Psalms. This view does not, of course, 
 
SALIENT PROBLEMS. 69 
 
 exclude the possibility that a work, which is later in the 
 order of thought, may have come into existence at an 
 earlier date than we should expect. And, again, it is 
 dangerous to infer that what the writer of a book does 
 not say he did not know. 
 
 The book may be regarded as a statement of the most 
 painful problems in the government of the world — the 
 physical and mental trials of the righteous, and salient 
 the justification of God's dealing with good problems 
 men. Both Job and his friends are introduced ^®^" ^"^• 
 as possessed by the idea that prosperity followed the 
 righteous as adversity overwhelmed the sinful ; and the 
 book shows — to quote the Rev. S. Cox — " in the most 
 tragic and pathetic way, that good, no less than wicked, 
 men lie open to the most cruel losses and sorrows ; that 
 these losses and sorrows are not always signs of the 
 Divine anger against sin ; that they are intended to 
 correct and perfect the righteousness of the righteous. 
 ... Its higher intention is, to show that God is capable 
 of inspiring, by showing that man is capable of cherish- 
 ing, that genuine and disinterested affection which is the 
 very soul of goodness ; . . . and that man is capable 
 of loving right, simply because it is right, and of hating 
 wrong purely because it is wrong, even though he should 
 not gain by it, but Jose." In this sublime book, as Canon 
 Cook remarks in the " Dictionary of the Bible," nearly 
 every theory of the objects and uses of suffering is re- 
 viewed ; and there are magnificent descriptions of the 
 mystery and majesty of God's works, and vindications 
 of His ways to man. In many ways the Book of Job so 
 far exhausts the subject, that what has really been added 
 since to the argument is essentially slight, with the ex- 
 ception of the Christian hope in a future existence of 
 reward and redress, which many believe to be explicitly 
 foreshadowed in the Book of Job. 
 
 Here it may be remarked that Job's patience, so pro- 
 verbial, is not what it is popularly represented to be — a 
 mere quiet endurance under suffering. True, job>s 
 he endured great physical pain and discomfort patience, 
 with patience ; but what could be the reason for it 
 
70 THE BOOK Of JOB. 
 
 tortured him almost beyond endurance, so that he com- 
 plained at times in very strong language. The doubt as 
 to Grod's providence, the feeling of being unjustly treated 
 in comparison with the wicked, as well as the unjust 
 criticisms to which he was subjected, worried him ex- 
 ceedingly, and it was only by huge efforts that he was 
 able to control the unquietness within. His was a 
 patience produced out of the utmost turbulence of spirit, 
 and by no means out of quietism or stoicism. 
 
 As to the extent of belief in a heaven and a future 
 judgment implied in the Book of Job, there is consider-' 
 
 Future life ^^^® difference of opinion. In chapter x. Job 
 and certainly represents the spirit world as " a land 
 
 judgment, ^f gloom, black as the blackness of death, 
 where there is no order, and the light is darkness." 
 Later, in chapter xiv., he has a glimpse of a possible 
 future existence ; if he had the least assurance of it he 
 would gladly endure pain till then ; and in the memorable 
 verses 25-27 of chapter xix., he rises to a solemnity of 
 conviction and expression about the future which is one 
 of the prime sentences of inspiration and comfort to 
 multitudes of the human race. In a marvellous burst of 
 confidence, after expressing the wish that his words might 
 be written down, engraved with iron, and filled in with 
 lead or rock. Job says : " I know that my God or Re- 
 deemer (or vindicator) liveth, and He shall stand, at last, 
 over this dust (or upon the earth), and after my body 
 hath thus been destroyed, yet (free) from my flesh I shall 
 see God ; whom I shall see on my side, and mine own 
 eyes shall behold, not those of another." Notwithstanding 
 all the doubts he had expressed, he was at bottom con- 
 vinced of the justice and goodness of God, and therefore, 
 failing a present vindication, he had a vision of a future 
 vindication by God Himself. So far there is widespread 
 agreement as to the interpretation of this remarkable 
 passage ; but beyond this there are diversities of opinion 
 as to its reference to a bodily resurrection upon this 
 earth, as to its specific prophetic reference to Jesus Christ, 
 and the certainty of retribution in a future life, on which 
 general agreement can by no means be attained. It is 
 
THE THEOPHANY. 71 
 
 remarkable that after such a declaration Job should be 
 represented as again falling into deep despondency ; but 
 it is claimed that he never again despairs so greatly, and 
 that his nioods are due to the natural alterations caused 
 by his physical state. 
 
 Job is depicted as having had a personal character 
 unsurpassed in the Old Testament ; and in many ways 
 his conduct is that of an eminent type or fore- job and 
 shadowing of Christ. Elihu contributes to the ^""u- 
 argument the view that suffering may be corrective and 
 for improvement, as well as punitive ; yet he charges Job 
 with secret faults which his sufferings were to induce him 
 to correct. He also supplies, in chapter xxxiii., a very 
 clear view of the ways in which, in his time, God was 
 believed to communicate with and instruct man. And 
 he, equally with Job, believes that God cannot be unjust. 
 The great question to be solved was, Should man impose 
 his law upon God, or God His upon man ? Yet in .any 
 case he shows that it is best in many ways for men to be 
 righteous ; but a man ought rather to suspect himself of 
 sin than God of injustice. Numerous critics consider 
 there are signs indicating that the speeches of Elihu are 
 a later addition to the book, especially because of the 
 peculiar words it contains, and because there is no refer- 
 ence to Elihu in later parts of the book, and especially 
 in the Divine judgment. 
 
 The speech put in the mouth of Jehovah — the Theo- 
 phany as it is generally called — is inexpressibly grand; 
 yet it is generally felt that it is not convinc- The 
 ing or fully explanatory of God's dealings with Theopiiaiiy. 
 man. Many consider that this is because no full explana- 
 tion is possible in man's present state, and because it is 
 of the essence of man's training that a fathomless mystery 
 shall be involved in and be behind his life, compelling his 
 attention to the possibilities of a future one. Job, how- 
 ever, is satisfied with the Divine revelation, perhaps 
 because he has now attained what he had so greatly 
 longed for — actual communion with, and speech from, 
 his Maker. Or, we may take it that the lesson taught 
 was to study God in Nature — a lesson which is being so 
 
72 
 
 THE BOOK OF JOB. 
 
 well learnt in tkese latter days — and not to dwell on his 
 own personal woes, but rather to contemplate the broad 
 field of existence. We cannot here discuss the questions 
 raised by many as to the Theophany, the prologue and 
 the epilogue being the work of different writers from the 
 body of the book. In conclusion, we must strongly urge 
 those who wish to gain a true idea of the full meaning 
 of the Book of Job, to read it in the Revised Version, 
 and, if possible, in some commentary like those of Dean 
 Bradley and the Rev. S. Cox. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Kuenen's views— Greatness of tlie propUets— Tlie early seers— Elijah— EUsha 
 —Amos, Hosea, and Joel — Their conception of Jenovah's nature— Vision 
 of tlio ingatliering of nations— Isaiali : two authors— Main topics of first 
 portion— "Immanuel" predictions — Isaiah and Jewish history— His 
 grand predictions— The second Isaiah or great unlmowu- Later date — 
 Prediction of return from exUe— The "Servant of the Lord"— Cyrus — 
 Description of the " Servant "-His humiliation and death— Vicarious 
 suffering— The future glory of Zlon — Other teachings of the prophet— 
 Mloah— Jeremiah— Ezeklel— Daniel— Predictions as to empires of the 
 world— Prediction of Resurrection- Zeohariah — Messianic prophecies— 
 Haggal— Malachl. 
 
 IN briefly discussing the prophets of Israel, -vve may 
 quote from Dr. Muir's Summary of Kuenen's argu- 
 ment (Introduction to Kuenen's " Prophets and Kuenen's 
 Prophecy in Israel "), as showing what those views, 
 who grant least to them say of their work. " In esti- 
 mating their action, we must take a higher standpoint 
 than the national one, and regard their contribution to 
 the spiritual development of our race as its most important 
 result. Ethical monotheism is their creation. They have 
 themselves ascended to the belief in one only holy and 
 righteous God, who realises His will or moral good in the 
 world, and they have, by preaching and writing, made 
 that belief the inalienable property of humanity. It was 
 not an intellectual or philosophical system, but a religious 
 belief, which they presented. The God of the prophets 
 bore a very different character from that of the Deity of 
 the philosophers of Greece and Rome. Holiness, righteous- 
 ness, and mercy constituted the very nature of the former." 
 
74 THE PROPHETS OF ISRAEL. 
 
 We have already spoken of Samuel and David ; now 
 
 we come to Elijah as the next name of high importance. 
 
 Greatness of -l-^ *^® prophets of Israel we witness in culmina- 
 
 tue tion a form of Divine teaching which has been 
 
 propuets. ijy. ^Q means scantily displayed in our previous 
 narrative. In the religious teachers of other forms of 
 religion we find much error, much imposture, mixed with 
 genuine belief in their mission, and genuine services 
 which they rendered to their fellow-tribesmen in their ad- 
 vance in civilisation, but the prophets of Israel as a whole 
 (though with many imperfect members) rendered services 
 and gave teaching which-place them in the highest rank 
 among religious teachers. They were the seers who, if 
 any persons did, received messages from the Divine ; they 
 were pioneers of progress, radical reformers, yet in a con- 
 servative fashion, for they sought to conserve the nation 
 by maintaining the national worship of Jehovah, and 
 deepening and strengthening it. Of their organisation 
 we know little. They formed schools or groups ; but how 
 a man was admitted to be a prophet we do not know. 
 Probably his inspiration was either self-evident, or was 
 claimed by himself, and readily admitted. But there is 
 evidence in a remarkable passage in 1 Samuel ix. that 
 
 The early the new order of prophets developed out of the 
 seers. older soothsayers or seers, honoured and con- 
 sulted on account of their knowledge of hidden things. 
 By the time of Elijah they had increased to a large 
 number ; they were known as the opponents of the calf- 
 worship and other forms of idolatry that had been intro- 
 duced into Israel, and the establishment of centres of 
 worship at Dan and Bethel, in rivalry to Jerusalem. At 
 Bethel a new sanctuary, a rival to the temple at Jeru- 
 salem, had been erected, which, during the persistence 
 of the kingdom of Israel, continued to be its great place 
 of worship. We have remarkable accounts of the denun- 
 ciations by prophets of the new order of things, and 
 predictions of the future destruction and desecration of 
 the new altars. It must be noted, however, that some 
 critics consider these narratives were written after the 
 fulfilments they describe. When Ahab, however, departed 
 
ELIJAH AND ELISHA. 7; 
 
 from even the calf-worship in which Jehovah had been 
 symbohsed, and introduced the gods of his wife ^wan 
 Jezebel's native kingdom of Sidon with many 
 impure and licentious rites, the Grileadite Elijah suddenly 
 appeared before the king and denounced God's vengeance 
 upon him, and predicted a prolonged drought. At some 
 time undefined, Jezebel had ordered the complete de- 
 struction of the prophets of Jehovah ; and it was against 
 such a persecution that Elijah had to make headway, 
 and finally triumphed. The miracles related in regard 
 to Elijah's preservation are emphatic testimonies to his 
 greatness and to the belief of a later age ; and the supreme 
 scene on Carmel is one of the most marvellous and im- 
 pressive in Biblical records. Like' Moses, Elijah was 
 privileged to obtain a nearer sight of the Divine glory 
 and power than other mortals ; and to the account of this 
 we are indebted for a phrase which has become proverbial 
 for the inward voice of conscience. But it is unnecessary 
 here to dilate on so well-known a story, especially as 
 no new truths appear to have been revealed by Elijah. 
 The impression he made upon his countrymen is shown 
 by the fact that centuries afterwards it was expected 
 that the calamities of the country were only to be 
 remedied by his reappearance. He was a hero-combatant 
 for the truth against kings and false priests — a witness of 
 the first rank for the Invisible and for the purity of 
 worship. That miracles were ascribed to him is a matter 
 of course, whether on the one hand we believe that such 
 events, in fact, took place as part of the Divine dispen- 
 sation, or whether, on the other hand, we regard it as 
 the inveterate habit of mankind to ascribe supernatural 
 deeds to those whom they stamp as supremely great. 
 
 Elisha, his successor, is an example, in some marked 
 instances, of religious tolerance, in his intercourse with 
 foreign kings, and especially in the permission 
 he gave to Naaman to continue his attendance 
 in the temple of Eimmon. But he chiefly appears as 
 " a worker of prodigies, a predicter of future events, a 
 rcvealer of secrets and things happening out of sight, or 
 at a distance." ("Dictionary of the Bible.") Thus we 
 
76 THE PROPHETS OF ISRAEL. 
 
 see ill him, to some extent, a reversion to the type of 
 diviner, sootlisayer, and seer. "It is difficult to help 
 believing" (according to the same authority), "that the 
 anecdotes of his life were thrown into their present shape 
 at a later period." And this, too, accounts, no doubt, for 
 some of the marvels related of him. 
 
 In entire consistency with the work of Elijah in de- 
 nouncing Baal-worship, but extending his denunciations 
 Amos, Hosea, to every form of departrfre or derogation from 
 and Joel, pure worship of Jehovah, we come to the cycle 
 of prophets at the end of the ninth and in the eighth 
 centuries b.c, Amos, Hosea, and Joel. They give impor- 
 tant testimony to the fact that, together with noisy feasts, 
 festivals, and sacrifices to Jehovah, there co-existed much 
 image and calf-worship in His name, as well as Baal and 
 Ash era worship, with licentious rites ; and witchcraft and 
 soothsaying abounded. Against these evils they protested 
 mightily, as their books show, meeting with great oppo- 
 sition because they predicted the downfall of Israel unless 
 THeir con ^^^^^ things were amended. Their conception 
 ception of of the character of Jehovah is most lofby. He 
 Jehovah's jg ^j^g one Grod, pure and holy, desiring spiritual 
 worship, and the practice of mercy and right- 
 eousness by His servants. Festivals and assemblies are 
 denounced. "I desire mercy, and not sacrifices," is the 
 keynote of their teaching. "Intemperance and luxury, 
 oppression of the poor, of widows and orphans, unjust 
 appropriation of another's goods, dishonesty in trade, the 
 sordid pursuit of gain, harshness towards debtors — these 
 are some of the sins which the prophets combat zealously." 
 But although judgments and calamities are announced, 
 hope is given of a glorious future. The language of Hosea 
 is quoted by St. Paul as describing the conversion of the 
 G-entiles; he speaks of a time when Israel shall be be- 
 trothed to Grod for ever. In one passage there is a pro- 
 mise of ransom from the power of the grave. 
 
 Joel was a prophet of Judah as Hosea was of Israel. 
 In view of a terrible series of calamities then occurring 
 or impending, he exhorted the people to repent and 
 return to Jehovah, when an era of prosperity would again 
 
77 
 
78 THE PROPHETS OF ISRAEL. 
 
 dawn ; after which God would extend the blessings of 
 vision of the ^is religion to all lands. A glowing vision is 
 Ingathering depicted of a future time, when the " Spirit 
 of nations, ^f ^j^^ Lord" should be poured out, attended 
 by great Wonders and a gathering of all nations. Many 
 expressions of this prophet are interpreted of the out- 
 pouring on the Day of Pentecost, and of numerous events 
 in Christian history. Amos, after all his denunciations, 
 concludes with a prediction of the future restoration of 
 Israel to power and greatness after calamity. 
 
 It is now so generally agreed that the prophetic book 
 
 entitled "Isaiah" is composed of two portions at least, 
 
 Isaiah: two written by different authors (i. to xsxix., xl. to 
 
 authors, ixvi.), that we shall only briefly note the 
 points which are regarded as deciding this. Isaiah wrote 
 at Jerusalem, and lived in the reigns of Uzziah, Ahaz, 
 and Hezekiah ; while the second writer, plainly and 
 'throughout, belongs to the period of the exile. The 
 Babylonian captivity is presupposed as having already 
 lasted a long time. The work is written to comfort the 
 exiles. In it Jerusalem is depicted in ruins, Judsea is 
 ravaged and depopulated, and the nation is captive. 
 Cyrus is spoken of as the destined deliverer of the people, 
 and as a contemporary. Although there are undoubted 
 resemblances between the two writers, it is claimed that 
 this only shows that the later writer had assimilated the 
 spirit of the former; while there are certain strong 
 divergences of style. But j'et there are serious diffi- 
 culties in explaining why the later book was incorporated 
 with the earlier, and why there is no mention of its 
 author's name. 
 
 The Book of Isaiah proper, containing discourses or 
 narratives of diverse dates, is not arranged chronologi- 
 cally, and does not appear to have been arranged by the 
 author. Many critics believe that several portions were 
 Main topics written by a different hand. The main topic 
 
 of first of Isaiah is denunciation of wickedness, both in 
 
 portion, j^fjg^];^ ^M^ in other nations, and the punish- 
 ments which will follow. Many passages describe the 
 idolatry and the image-worship of his time, and the 
 
" IMMANUEV PREDICTIONS. 79 
 
 excess of offerings and feasts to Jehovah, compared with 
 the lack of justice and mercy. He pictures a high ideal 
 of a righteous character, scorning bribes and abhorring 
 bloodshed, speaking truth, and doing justly. He has a 
 special dislike" to the lofty and proud, all of whom, he 
 says, shall be brought low. He definitely predicted the 
 captivity in Babylon to Hezekiah, 
 
 In Isaiah's view, " A marvel or miracle," says Pro- 
 fessor Robertson Smith,' " is a work of Jehovah directed 
 to confound the religion of formalism, to teach men that 
 Jehovah's rule is a real thing, and not a traditional con- 
 vention to be acknowledged in formulas learned by rote ; 
 and the mark of such a work is not that it breaks through 
 laws of nature — a conception which had no existence for 
 Isaiah — but that all man's wisdom and foresight stand 
 abashed before it. The whole career of Assyria is part of 
 the marvel that confounds the hypocrisy and formalism of 
 Judah." (See Isa. xxix. 13, 14.) 
 
 One of Isaiah's favourite phrases is " the Holy One' of 
 Israel," and his conception of God predominantly sets 
 forth His majesty and holiness. Very grand is his view 
 of the universal worship of Jehovah " at the end of the 
 days," with its accompaniment of universal peace (ii. 
 2-4); but he rises still higher in the "Im-^immanuei" 
 inanuel " predictions, in chapters vii. and ix. predictions. 
 Often held to be a clear prediction of the birth of Christ 
 of a virgin, scholars point out that the word used in vii. 
 14 is not the ordinary Hebrew word for virgin, and is not 
 exclusively applicable to one who was unmarried ; the 
 Revised Version offers in the margin the alternative ren- 
 dering " maiden." Professor Driver remarks, in his valu- 
 able "Isaiah: his Life and Times," "The language of 
 Isaiah forces upon us the conviction that the figure of 
 Immanuel is an ideal one, projected by him upon the 
 shifting future — upon the nearer future in chapter vii., 
 upon the remoter future in chapter ix., but grasped by 
 the prophet as a living and real personality, the Guardian 
 of his country now, its Deliverer and Governor hereafter. 
 
 ' Eobertson Smith, " Prophets of Israel," p. 315. 
 
So THE PROPHETS OF ISRAEL. 
 
 . . . It is the Messianic King, whose portrait is here, 
 for the first time in the Old Testament, sketched dis- 
 tinctly. Earlier prophets or psalmists had told of the 
 promises bestowed upon David, and had spoken of the 
 permanence thus assured to David's line, but by Isaiah 
 these comparatively vague hopes are more closely defined, 
 being centred upon a concrete personality, to whose 
 character we shall find fresh traits added more than thirty 
 years afterwards in chapter xi." 
 
 We cannot detail the successive prophecies and warn- 
 ings of Isaiah as relating to the history of Israel ; but all 
 through his public life he exhibited in perfection that 
 admirable character of the true statesman given four 
 centuries later by Demosthenes, in his oration " On the 
 
 Isaiah and Crown," that of "discerning events in their 
 Jewish beginnings, being beforehand in the selection 
 history. q£ movements and tendencies, and forewarn- 
 ing his countrymen accordingly ; fighting against the 
 political vices of procrastination, supineness, ignorance, 
 and party jealousy ; and impressing on all the paramount 
 importance of unity, and the duty of providing promptly 
 for their country's needs." His predictions were by no 
 means always realised ; and many of them, while not 
 receiving the contemporary fulfilment he expected, have 
 been but partially fulfilled in the Messianic kingdom, or 
 still wait their realisation. Speaking in a religious 
 sense, it may be said that the ideals he described, the 
 glowing and pure visions which he projected upon the 
 
 His grand future, are more important than the literal 
 predictions, fulfilments of them which have yet been seen, 
 and which have differed very materially from what he 
 appears to have expected. Isaiah's descriptions of the 
 majesty and holiness of the Divine Being, the certainty 
 of His pure and just judgments, the imperishableness of 
 the Divine kingdom of Zion, the exquisite consummation 
 of the Messianic kingdom, remain among the very 
 greatest treasures of the religious soul of mankind. The 
 ingathering of the Gentiles to the Divine kingdom is 
 predicted in very detailed language. The literary char- 
 acteristics of Isaiah are so well known that it is unneces- 
 
THE "-SERVANT OF THE LORD." 8i 
 
 sary to dwell on them ; by common consent, Isaiali 
 
 reaches the front rank in the Old Testament. 
 
 Although not in chronological sequence, it is convenient 
 
 to deal here with the great unknown who wrote the latter 
 
 part of the Book of Isaiah, in the period of the „^ 
 
 • • • TI16 second 
 
 Babylonish exile of the Jews, in the sixth cen- Isaiah, or 
 
 tury B.C., when, as the prophet writes, Jerusa- „"]f™^* „ 
 lem and the temple were in ruins, the Baby- 
 lonian empire was apparently secure, and the exiles were 
 in despair or indifferent, thinking God had forgotten 
 them. This period, like other critical seasons, produced 
 its great genius, able to rouse his people to 
 their mission, to raise among them a high 
 ideal, and to present pictures of a future which would 
 more than compensate for the miseries of the past. The 
 period within which those prophecies may most reasonably 
 be believed to have been written is 549-538 b.c, during 
 which Cyrus was growing in success and fame. Comfort 
 is proclaimed for the people of Jehovah, and prediction 
 God's glory and power in laying low human of return 
 pride are set forth. Israel's oppressors are from exile, 
 mortal; Jehovah will return to Zion as a Conqueror, 
 bringing back His people. A magnificent description of 
 the power of Jehovah is forcibly contrasted with the 
 impotence of the gods and idols of the heathen. Even 
 Cyrus's career of conquest was ordered and controlled by 
 Jehovah. 
 
 In chapter xlii. a new figure is introduced, destined to 
 be the most striking in the book, the " Servant of Jeho- 
 vah," an ideal personage invested with the The 
 grandest characteristics of the Israelites, and " Servant oi 
 with others in addition, and destined to exert a ^^^ °^ ' 
 world-wide influence. He is to teach the world true 
 religion, and to effectually restore Israel. Here we find 
 a full prevision of the ingathering of the non-Israelite 
 world into the true worship of Jehovah. Later we see 
 that the " Servant " lives by no means wholly in the 
 futurei, for it is said, "Who is blind, but my servant? or 
 deaf, as my messenger that I send ? " evidently referring 
 to the Israelites' supineness at the time. One of the 
 
82 THE PROPHETS OF ISRAEL. 
 
 most interesting passages to students of early customs is 
 the first half of the forty-fourth chapter, describing in a 
 satirical spirit the laborious stages of the manufacture of 
 idols. But Israel is pardoned, and Cyrus is 
 ^"^' commissioned to permit the restoration of the 
 people and the rebuilding of the temple, in order that it 
 may be known throughout the world that Jehovah is the 
 true and only God. " Unto Me every knee shall bow, 
 every tongue shall swear." Throughout Cyrus is regarded 
 favourably, and the coming humiliation of Babylon and 
 her idols is predicted and rejoiced in. Incidentally we 
 learn much about contemporary Babylonish customs. 
 
 In the second division of the prophecy (chaps, xlix.- 
 Ivii.y, Babylon, Cyrus, and contemporary history fall into 
 
 Description ^^® background, and the character of " the Ser- 
 of the vant of the Lord " is more fully developed. 
 
 "Ser,vant. Yw-oW nations are invited to listen, and a 
 careful delineation is given of the great Ideal Servant, 
 " Israel, in whom I will be glorified." The " Servant " 
 describes himself at first in the first person, and later he 
 is depicted in the third person. He is to be " a light to 
 the Gentiles," as well as the restorer of Israel. He 
 describes himself as the prophet, teaching what he is 
 taught, capable of sustaining the weary with his words, 
 receiving daily fresh inspiration, and shrinking from no 
 humiliation. " I gave my back to the smiters, and my 
 cheeks to them that plucked oif , the hair ; I hid not my 
 face from shame and spitting." 
 
 Zion is called upon to awake, and put on splendid 
 
 apparel : the waste places of Jerusalem are to rejoice ; a 
 
 gjg happy and comfortable return journey shall be 
 
 humiliation made. Then, in lii. 13 to liii. 12, we have the 
 
 and death, exquisitely pathetic picture of the Ideal Ser- 
 vant's humiliation, his lack of outward beauty and general 
 recognition, his suffering for Israel's sins, his calm and 
 humble demeanour before his accusers, his death as a 
 malefactor. " But out of death will spring a new life : 
 after his soul has been made a guilt-offering, he will live 
 again, enjoy long life, and be rewarded with the satis- 
 faction of seeing God's work, or ' pleasure,' prospering in 
 
VICARIOUS SUFFERING. S.2 
 
 his hand. Possessed of an intimate ' knowledge ' of the 
 dealings and purposes of Jehovah, he will 'justify the 
 many ' (viz., by a method or principle based upon this 
 knowledge) ; whilst his final reward for having sub- 
 mitted to the death of a transgressor will be that he will 
 be reckoned as a conqueror, and honoured amongst the 
 great ones of the earth " (Driver). Nothing is more clear 
 than that vicarious suffering, the suffering of vicarious 
 the " Servant " for the people, is here set forth, suffering. 
 " The central point," says Orelli, " is the realising of ideas 
 foreshadowed in the sacrificial ritual. There certainly 
 substitution is a common idea ; there the guiltless lamb 
 suffers for the sinner's good ; there a penitential or com- 
 pensatory offering must be given to God for transgres- 
 sions. To that which these customs and ordinances typi- 
 cally and unconsciously foreshadowed, this prophecy gives 
 a conscious reference to something future, at the same 
 time severing those great Divine ideas from the inade- 
 quate embodiment of the Levitical ritual, and holding 
 forth the prospect of their adequate expression in a higher 
 sphere." This " Servant " cannot exclusively represent 
 either Israel as a whole or in part, or any prophet ; yet in 
 some ways all of these may be found related to the con- 
 ception. It was not an abstract conception, but a concrete 
 living figtire, more perfect than any man ever had been, 
 that stood before the prophet's vision ; and the vast ma- 
 jority of students, as well as of the unlearned, who take 
 plain and not fanciful or preconceived views, hold that 
 the " Servant of Jehovah " can only be referred to and 
 find fulfilment in one great subsequent figure, the 
 Founder of Christianity. However considerably such 
 words as those of chapter Iv. may be referred directly to 
 the return of the Jews from exile, it passes the bounds of 
 reason or compulsion to induce Christians to reject the 
 application of the everlasting- covenant and the calling of 
 the Gentiles to their religion, developed out of Judaism. 
 
 When we enter tipon the third division of the prophecy, 
 we yefc again find an enlargement of view. The vision 
 of Zioii grows more and more detailed, more beautiful, 
 more glorious. In chapte." Ix. an unsurpassed picture of 
 
84 THE PROPHETS OF ISRAEL. 
 
 the future glory is drawn, when Jehovah should reign 
 
 in utter splendour, the people all righteous ; a day not 
 
 The future y®^ come, but a picture which inspires the 
 
 glory of efforts and the hopes of millions at this day, as 
 ^"■^^ connected with, and to be perfectly fulfilled 
 by, the labours of the " Servant of the Lord," as expressed 
 in chapter Ixi. "There will be new heavens and a new 
 earth," they read ; a transformed life, without vain strife, 
 bitter disappointments, or carking care, shall then be 
 lived. The continual competition of the struggle for 
 existence will be over then, and however good its results 
 may have been, few out of the earth's millions fail to 
 catch some of the prophet's exultation in reading the 
 prophecy of universal peace and happiness. In the midst 
 of his discourses, and repeatedly, the prophet lays stress 
 other teaoii- On Sabbath observance and obedience to the 
 
 lugs of laws about food ; and the book closes with a 
 
 e propnet. ggygpg denunciation of those who have refused 
 to join in Jehovah's worship. " They (the worshippers) 
 shall go forth to see the corpses of the people who fell 
 away from me : for their worm shall not die, and their 
 flame shall not be quenched ; and they shall be a horror 
 to all flesh:" a picture which, read as that of a hell of 
 torment, has had very great influence. So many are the 
 points of original theology, as well as of history, that 
 may be drawn from this great book, that we cannot do 
 more than refer to such books as those of Driver, Orelli, 
 and Cheyne, and others, for their fuller treatment. 
 
 At the same time as Isaiah, in the reign of Hezekiah, 
 Micah, a plain countryman, added to his warnings and 
 
 Micah. prophecies of destruction the vivid pictures 
 which remain in his book, revealing to us, as 
 a man of the common people himself, the sufferings of 
 the peasantry at the hands of their oppressors, men of 
 their own nation, and predicting the destruction of the 
 government and the nobles. A new Davidic king was to 
 reign over a future purified Zion, in which all nations 
 should worship, and universal peace should ensue. He 
 would be born in Bethlehem Ephratah, the home of 
 David, and put down all iniquity and idolatry. 
 
ANCIENT JEWISH SYNAGOGUE. 
 
86 THE PROPHETS OF ISRAEL. 
 
 Only brief mention must be made of Jeremiah, the 
 prophet of the later days of the Jewish monarchy, be- 
 cause, while he denounced sin, predicted events, and 
 endured bitter persecutions, he contributed little in com- 
 parison with Isaiah to the development of the 
 Jeremiah, intellectual features of the Jewish religion. 
 He affirmed in a few places the Davidic kingly ideal, 
 who is to bear the name Jehovah our Eighteousness, and 
 the introduction of a new spiritual covenant, when Je- 
 hovah's law should be written in the hearts of the people. 
 We cannot here discuss his possible relation to the Torah 
 (or Book of Deuteronomy ?), which Hilkiah, possibly his 
 father, discovered and brought out to Josiah. His influ- 
 ence on his timcj and his importance in the history of his 
 time, were very great, and his character was profoundly 
 worthy of study. 
 
 Ezekiel, the prophet of the early days of the captivity 
 (early in the sixth century b.c), was a yet more powerful 
 influence, in rousing and keeping alive the 
 national and religious feelings of the captives, 
 in predicting events concerning Israel and surrounding- 
 nations with singular vividness and truth, and by reason 
 of his visions of a restored kingdom of Israel, and a Divine 
 future. Ezekiel's marvellous opening vision, in which he 
 received his prophetic call, includes a grand description 
 of a Divine majesty and court, which had great effect 
 upon the imagery of the New Testament Apocalypse. In 
 his later prophecies he again and again speaks in lan- 
 guage of gorgeous but mysterious imagery, in describing 
 the Divine glory and wonderful works. The Davidic king 
 of the restored people, and the happy state of the future 
 Jews who serve God, are gloriously depicted; and a com- 
 plete description of a new temple, differing in many 
 details from the old, is given, with many features of a 
 newly organised State and ritual. The a,rk and the high- 
 priest are not mentioned; prominence is specially given 
 to the morning burnt-offering ; and the Passover and the 
 Feast of Tabernacles are the only great feasts mentioned. 
 No prophet more vigorously expressed the sense of sin 
 and denunciation of sin than Ezekiel. 
 
ZECHARIAH. 87 
 
 On the Book of Daniel it is necessary to be brief, be- 
 cause of the wide diversities of opinion about tlie booli, 
 and the very unsettled state of the controver- 
 sies to which it has given rise. Whether it " ^ ' 
 was written at the date which it professes to describe, and 
 was edited or added to later, or was written at the time 
 of Antiochus Epiphanes, or later, it is difficult to decide 
 with certainty. It shows a more or less accurate know- 
 ledge of Babylonia, probably some influence of Persia 
 and Zoroastrianism, and certainly an acquaintance with 
 Greek names of musical instruments. The book includes 
 besides its historical narratives, remarkable Predictions 
 predictions and visions as to the empires of the gmp^es of 
 world, which to a considerable extent were the world, 
 realised. Under the image of the " Ancient of Days," 
 in Eastern poetrj'' used of an old man, a Divine Judge 
 and Ruler is portrayed reigning in uneqiialled majesty 
 for ever ; and there is a special prophecy of the coming 
 of the Prince Messiah in seventy weeks (usually inter- 
 preted as 490, or 70 x 7 years), after which the Messiah 
 should be cut off. Other circumstantial prophecies have 
 received very various interpretations. The book also 
 contains a definite prediction of a resurrection Prediction of 
 from the dead at a future time. " And many resurrection, 
 of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, 
 some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlast- 
 ing contempt. And they that be wise shall shine as the 
 brightness of the firmament ; and they that turn many 
 to righteousness as the stars for ever and ever." 
 
 Other very distinctive prophets are Haggai and Zech- 
 ariah, who came forward in Jerusalem after the return 
 of the Jews from Babylon to encourage them 
 to rebuild the temple. The first eight chapters 
 of Zechariah deal with this period, and the coming free- 
 dom of Israel and discomfiture of the heathen. In chap- 
 ter iii. we find a description of the accuser, or " the 
 Satan " or adversary, accusing Joshua, the high-priest 
 before Jehovah. The high-priest, however, is purified, 
 and receives a promise involving the future appearance 
 of '• the Servant of God the Branch," the Messiah. In 
 
88 THE PROPHETS OF ISRAEL. 
 
 accordance with the style of many of the prophets, there 
 are visions of chariots and horses going through the earth 
 to execute Jehovah's will. The second part of the book 
 is apparently later in date and by another author, and 
 depicts Jehovah's will accomplished on Syria, Assyria, 
 Messianic and Egypt. The Messianic prophecies are re- 
 propiieoies. ^ewed and amplified. Zion is bidden to rejoice : 
 " Behold thy King cometh unto thee ; He is just, and 
 saved ; afflicted, and riding upon an ass, even upon a colt, 
 the foal of an ass " ; and a great future is predicted for 
 his people. Later is a prophecy of the domination of 
 foreign kings over Israel through native princes. Jeru- 
 salem would be destroyed, and the people dispersed into 
 all lands. At another time " they shall look upon Me (or 
 Him) whom they have pierced, and they shall mourn for 
 Him, as one mourneth for his only son. ... In that 
 day there shall be a fountain opened to the house of 
 David, and to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, for sin and 
 for uncleanness." Living waters should go out of Jeru- 
 salem, and Jehovah should be King over all the earth. 
 " In that day shall the Lord be One, and His name One." 
 Finally there is a vision of a universal annual pilgrim- 
 age to Jerusalem, when everj'thing should be sacred to 
 Jehovah. 
 
 There can be no question about the great importance 
 and the definiteness of the predictions in Zechariah about 
 a future deliverer and king of the Jews. The second 
 portion of the book appears to date from a time when 
 the Greeks had begun their conquests in Asia, for the 
 sons of Javan, /.e., the Greeks, are named as the repre- 
 sentatives of the heathen powers. 
 
 Haggai, the contemporary of Zechariah, agrees with 
 him in predicting a period when the sacred temple would 
 .have greater glory than the preceding one, by 
 ^^^ reason of the splendid offerings of the Gen- 
 tiles, and says that the calamities of heathen nations 
 would give peace to Jerusalem. Christians usually iden- 
 tify " the desire of all nations " with the Messiah ; but it 
 is significant that this passage is not quoted in the Gospels 
 as a Messianic prediction ; and in the " Speaker's Com- 
 
MALACHI. 89 
 
 mentary " it is not claimed as sucli, althougli every 
 Christian will recognise the peculiar applicability and 
 fulfilment of many of the phrases in the person of Christ. 
 Passing over the other minor prophets, "who, while 
 contributing according to their mission to the Messianic 
 tradition, the rousing and sustaining influences of patriot- 
 ism, the denunciation of sin and of wicked heathen 
 nations, did not add notably to the religious 
 ideas of the nation, we come to Malachj, who ^ ^^ ' 
 prophesied apparently in the later time of Nehemiah. In 
 a simpler and less elevated style than many of his prede- 
 cessors, he denounces the sins prevalent in his time, and 
 predicts the advent of a messenger, to prepare the way 
 for the arrival of the Lord whom they sought, evidently 
 the Messiah. He would be like a refiner's fire, who would 
 purify the sons of Levi. A Sun of [Righteousness was to 
 arise for those that feared Jehovah, with healing in his 
 wings. The prophet Elijah would be sent to them before 
 the coming of the great and dreadful day of Jehovah ; 
 and he would turn the heart of the fathers to the children 
 and the heart of the children to their fathers, "lest I come 
 and smite the earth with a curse ; " and so ends the Old 
 Testament, " the record of the period in which the 
 religion of Israel continued to grow, and develop new 
 principles, to gain new insight into the ways of God with 
 man." 
 
FEAST 01' TABEKNACLES. IN THE "BOOTH, 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ^utratsim after tbe f ropftets* 
 
 Dispersion of tlie Jews— Tlie Septuagint— The Apocrypha— Ecclesiasticus — 
 The " Wisdom of Solomon "—The Messianic hope— Influence on New Tes- 
 tament phraseology— The Psalter of Solomon— Philo of Alexandria— His 
 relation to Greek philosophy— His views on the Old Testament— His philo- 
 sophy of the Godhead— Divine Ideas— The Logos— Man's Nature— Phllo's 
 allegorical Interpretations— The Scribes— Sanhedrim -Hillel and Sham, 
 mal— Discussions on the Sahhath — Purity and impurity — The Talmud— 
 Mishna and Gemara— The Talmud and Christianity- Gems of the Talmud 
 —Unsatisfactory contents— The Pharisees— Principal beliefs— The Sad- 
 ducees— The Essenes— Later Dispersion of the Jews— Mailnonides- His 
 Creed— Later works— His beliefs— Jews in Spain and Portugal— Perse- 
 cution and isolation— Moses Mendelssohn— Keforms— Napoleon and the 
 French Jews— Jews in England— in various countries— The Beni Israel. 
 
 30 
 
ECCLESIASriCUS. 
 
 91 
 
 THE decadence of Israel paved the way for tlie coming 
 of Jesus. The fall of the temporal power fixed the 
 people's minds upon the promise of the Messiah and a 
 renewed pre-eminence for the chosen people. ^ariy 
 The same occurrences led to a growing disper- Dispersion of 
 sion of the Jews in Asia Minor, Syria, and *'^«''«^s- 
 Egypt, which prepared the way for the spread of Christi- 
 anity. In Egypt especially, the Jews came under the 
 influence of Greek culture and philosophy, and under the 
 first Ptolemies (third century b.c), possibly the entire 
 Old Testament, and certainly the Pentateuch, was trans- 
 lated at Alexandria into Greek, constituting The 
 the Septuagint version, which is so precious as septuagint. 
 an early testimony and check to the Hebrew text, and 
 which was almost exclusively used and quoted by the 
 New Testament writers. It may be regarded as the 
 result of a need felt by the foreign Jews of a translation 
 in the language they commonly used. Whether in fact 
 there is anything in the tradition which says that the 
 Septuagint was the work of seventy (or seventy-two) 
 translators, cannot now be ascertained. The books in- 
 cluded in the Septuagint, however, are more numerous 
 than those of the Hebrew Bible ; and these additions are 
 another proof of the literary activity and Greek culture 
 of the Jews, both in Alexandria and in Palestine, previous 
 to the time of Christ. Only one or two of the books of 
 the " Apocrypha," or Septuagint additions to tub 
 the Old Testament, were originally composed Apocrypiia. 
 in Hebrew. It is not necessary here to discuss the con- 
 tents of the Apocryphal books, excepting so far as they 
 illustrate the religious state or development of the Jews. 
 
 The most interesting and oldest book of the Apocrypha 
 is that known as the "Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach, 
 or Ecclesiasticus. It was first written in Hebrew in Pales- 
 tine, probably in the second century b.c, and is a con- 
 tinuation of the " wisdom-writings "of the Old Ecoiesi- 
 Testament, in a less spiritual form. Of its * astioua. 
 author scarcely anything is known, except that he was a 
 sage who had travelled much and had gone through great 
 personal dangers. The book is mainly devoted to the 
 
92 JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 praise of Wisdom, which he had sought from his early 
 daj's, and to the vindication of the ways of God to man. 
 He sees the wisdom of God in creation, in Providence, in 
 history, and in the Scriptures. The Law is to him the 
 highest manifestation of Wisdom ; and its observance is 
 the foremost duty. Wisdom is the earhesfc creation of 
 God, and the understanding of Wisdom is identical with 
 the fear of God. Hence Wisdom is true happiness. God 
 is omniscient, almighty, and irresistible ; and His pre- 
 destination determines everything. In the end, right- 
 doing will inevitably be blessed. The sorrows and 
 sufferings of the righteous are not without consolation, 
 like those of the wicked. Mercy is specially shown to 
 the poor and needy, the prayerful, penitent, and merci- 
 ful. It is singular, however, how far the son of Sirach 
 was from realising the doctrine of immortality. Man- 
 kind after death are imagined as lying in eternal sleep ; 
 and in other respects the writer of Ecclesiasticus shows 
 himself to be on a much lower level than the writers of 
 the canonical books. Almsgiving and prayer are his main 
 dependences, though he enjoins observance of the Temple 
 services. On the whole, religion is upheld as the thing 
 that is most profitable, and the reward for righteousness 
 is in the main earthly. Strange to say, we iind no trace 
 of an expected personal Messiah ; though the author 
 refers to coming judgments on the Gentiles, the ingather- 
 ing of all Israel, and their triumph. Many critics believe 
 that the book contains much th'at was not the writer's 
 own, but was derived from previous sages. 
 
 The other important religious book in the Apocrypha, 
 The "Wisdom the "Wisdom of Solomon" (written in Greek), 
 of Solomon." ]g of much later date, for the writer quotes the 
 Septuagint ; but he makes no reference to Christian writ- 
 ings or history. The date of the book has been variously 
 placed between 220 b.c. and a.d. 40, and Archdeacon 
 Farrar inclines to accept the latter date, believing that 
 the book shows traces of the influence of Philo. Some 
 have suggested that it was written by Apollos. In 
 assuming the personality of King Solomon, the author 
 was adopting a common literary device of his age, and 
 
THE MESSIANIC HOPE. ' 93 
 
 an appropriate one, as the name of Solomon had become 
 identified with Jewish proverbial wisdom. The author 
 was apparently an Alexandrian Jew, acquainted both 
 with the Septuagint and with Greek literature and philo- 
 sophy. His knowledge of various forms of nature- 
 worship is well shown in chap, xiii., but striking tolerance 
 is manifested in verse 6, where we read, " for this they 
 are the less to be blamed ; for they peradventure err, 
 seeking God, and desirous to find Him ; for being conver- 
 sant in His works, they search Him diligently, and believe 
 their sight : because^the things are beautiful that are 
 seen." Yet he tells such persons that they ought, while 
 reverencing things of beauty and signs of power, to 
 understand how much better the Lord and Creator of 
 them is. Worship of manufactured idols, or of stones is 
 crushingly denounced, as well as ancestor and king- 
 worship. Throughout, the writer is keen in exposing the 
 folly of the inferior or degraded religions he saw around 
 him, and so far reaches a high level. Neither could 
 philosophy, he maintains, teach the true ideal of God. 
 His object is to show, that, while sin leads to punishment 
 and death, wisdom is the source of all blessings of life and 
 immortality. Such expressions as " God created man to 
 be immortal, and made him to be an image of His own 
 eternity ; " " the righteous live for evermore, and the care 
 of them is with the most High. Therefore shall they 
 receive a glorious kingdom, and a beautiful crown from 
 the Lord's hand," show the essence of his teaching about 
 immortality. The evil are to undergo retribution after 
 death, in a state which is not quite clearly unfolded. 
 
 The Messianic hope, however, in the Book of "Wisdom, 
 is reduced to a hope in the temporal dominion of Israel 
 and the universal worship of Jehovah ; and there is "no 
 personal and no suffering Messiah." In many ways the 
 author reproduces conceptions made familiar in the Old 
 Testament, but in inferior language and with ^he 
 far less force. The historical allusions by Messianic 
 which the influence of Wisdom in history are '"'p*- 
 enforced are tinged by strong preconceived notions about 
 Israel, and by a limited reading of the order of Providence. 
 
54 JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 The sense given to the word " Wisdom " by this writer 
 suggests to the Christian that it is a personification of 
 Christ : but Wisdom is not even thought of by the 
 writer as an incarnate Divine Person, but as the Spirit 
 of God, 'as the Providence of God, and as the sum of 
 human trustworthy knowledge. It is evident from the 
 varying uses of the word that dogmatic precision must 
 not be sought in the Book of Wisdom ; and this no doubt 
 weakens its force, the author not having a strong, clear, 
 definite conception, but using one word in a wide latitude 
 of meanings suited to the imperfection of his mental 
 standpoint. Yet it is evident that the author of " Wis- 
 influenoe on dom " had a marked influence on the language 
 of^ew Te°u-0^ the New Testament ; at any rate both use 
 ment. a number of similar special expressions. The 
 words we translate "faith," "hope," "to love" in the 
 Christian sense, and the expression that the just man is 
 the " son of God " are found in Wisdom. The conception 
 of the " visible " as revealing the " invisible," and many 
 other words and phrases used in this book are found in 
 various books of the New Testament, and especially in 
 the Epistle to the Hebrews. Not the least of its claims 
 to regard are, that it expresses the nature of God as pre- 
 dominantly loving ; as in xi. 24, 26, " Thou lovest all the 
 things that are," and " Thou sparest all : for they are 
 Thine, Lord, Thou lover of souls." 
 
 Here we may mention a collection of Psalms not 
 included in the Apocrypha, but regarded as canonical by 
 The Psalter ofnumerous early Christian Churches, termed the 
 
 Solomon. Psalter of Solomon, apparently written after 
 the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey in 63 b.o. It depicts 
 the sad state of the city and people in a tone of earnest 
 piety based on Pharisaic observances ; and it expresses a 
 strong Messianic hope, which is for us its most important 
 feature. Thus it says : " Behold, Lord, and raise up 
 their king, the son of David, at the time that Thou hast 
 appointed, to reign over Israel Thy servant ; and gird 
 him with strength to crush unjust rulers ... to destroy 
 the lawless nations. ... He shall divide them by 
 tribes in the land, and no stranger and foreigner shall 
 
PHILO OF ALEXANDRIA. 95 
 
 dwell "witli them ; he shall judge the nations in wisdom 
 and righteousness. The heathen nations shall serve 
 under his yoke ; he shall glorify the Lord before all the 
 earth, and cleanse Jerusalem in holiness as in the begin- 
 ning. . . . He is pure from sin to rule a great people, 
 to rebuke governors and desti;oy sinners by his mighty 
 word. In all his days he is free from offence against his 
 God, for he hath made him strong by the Holy Spirit." 
 
 What Helleno-Judaism at its best could accomplish, 
 without the light of Christianity, is seen in the writings 
 of Philo of Alexandria, born perhaps in B.C. 20, pnuo of 
 and living on to the reign of the Emperor Alexandria. 
 Claudius. Little is known of his life, except that in a.d. 
 40 he was sent to Rome by the Alexandrian Jews at the 
 head of an embassy, to try and persuade the Emperor 
 Caligula to refrain from claiming divine honour from the 
 Jews. Of this embassy Philo has left a full account. 
 Philo, while well-acquainfced with the Septuagint, was 
 even better versed in Greek philosophy of all ^j^ relation 
 schools ; and while accepting the literal divine to Greek 
 origin of the Old Testament, he sought to ex- PMio^opny. 
 plain it in an allegorical fashion, so as to deduce from it 
 the most important results of Greek philosophy, and thus 
 show to the Greeks that Judaism was worthy of their 
 respect and acceptance. He is so thoroughly imbued 
 with the spirit of Plato, that it has been said that either 
 Philo platonises or Plato philonises. In his writings he 
 argues not only against scoffers amongst his own people, 
 but against believers in astrology and divina- jjis views on 
 tion, and against the Egyptians and theirtue oid Testa- 
 beliefs. His belief in the Old Testament as ™®°*' 
 Divine is so strong that he calls it usually the Sacred and 
 Divine Word, or Divine Oracles ; and he treats the Old 
 Testament as forming one inseparable whole, down to the 
 smallest letter. Thus he was not a critic of the Old 
 Testament in the .modern sense. He was rather an 
 expounder of its philosophical meaning as he conceived 
 it by the light of Greek philosophy. He claimed that 
 the Jews in the Mosaic revelation possessed the true 
 knowledge of things religious ; and he strongly believed 
 
96 
 
 JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 the doctrine of One God, and His absolute sovereignty 
 and supremacy, and that He was to be worshipped without 
 images. He went beyond the limited view that every- 
 
 thing was to be done by and for the Jews, and regarded 
 the law of Moses as rightfully the law for the whole 
 world ; and, according to him, prosperity is promised to 
 all who turn from idols to the true God. 
 
MAM'S NATURE. 97 
 
 Philo's philosophy of the Godhead is too abstruse to be 
 fully expounded here. He regards God as eternal, abso- 
 lute, unchangeable, -without limitations. Con- jjjg pnuo- 
 sequently God cannot come into direct contactsophy of the 
 with finite beings, but He acts by a multi- ^°^^^^- 
 tude of divine Ideas or Forces, produced before the visible 
 world, and termed Logoi. These he identifies with the 
 dcemons of the Greeks and the angels of the Jews. In 
 this view Philo does not get rid of ambiguity, for while 
 the Logoi are immanent in God, they are at 
 the same time regarded as distinct from "* ®^^' 
 God. Again, he regards all the individual The Logos. 
 Ideas, or Logoi, as being included in one su- 
 preme Logos, or Reason, or "Word of God, as the firstborn 
 of God, as the highest mediator between God and the 
 world, and the high-priest for the world before God. 
 Consequently it is through the Logos that the world was 
 created. Thus in one way Philo develops the idea of 
 wisdom found in all the Jewish wisdom-books, while at 
 the same time following Plato's doctrine of ideas and the 
 soul of the world. The bearing which this has upon the 
 consideration of the fourth gospel will be referred to later. 
 There is no doubt that his philosophy exercised a power- 
 ful influence on scholars, both Jewish and Christian, for 
 a long time after he wrote. 
 
 As to man, Philo treats him as a compound of soul and 
 physical body, the soul being attracted from the pure 
 souls that fill space, the body being the source of sin and 
 evil. Thus the body is a sort of prison for the , 
 soul, which longs to rise again to God. While 
 Philo considers that man's salvation lies in the direction 
 of the mortification of sensual impulses, he does not follow 
 the Stoics in throwing man upon his personal powers ; 
 but he directs him to the help which God will give to 
 men who seek to rise to Him. At death this happy 
 result happens to those who while in the body have kept 
 themselves free from the bondage of the senses and sensu- 
 ality ; while all others must after death enter another 
 body. 
 
 Philo carries allegorical interpretation very far, and, no 
 
98 JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 doubt, displays remarkable ingenuity; there is nothing 
 PMio's aUe- ^^ which he cannot discover a hidden mean- 
 gorioai inter- ing. To take some examples from his inter- 
 pretations, pxetation of G-enesis : Adam is found to repre- 
 sent pure human reason ; Eve, the senses ; the serpent, 
 desire. Enoch symbolises man retiring in penitence from 
 the world to God ; Noah is the truly righteous man. The 
 Hebrews represent pilgrims from the world of sense to 
 that of spirit ; the ark of the covenant is the intellectual 
 world, the two cherubs over it are the two chief Logoi 
 next to the Logos. Even the precepts of the law are 
 allegorised throughout. In many of the problems which 
 he stated, and of the solutions he proposes, Philo is the 
 earhest of the commentators and critics, rather than 
 expounders, of the Scriptures. 
 
 But while PhUo in many ways was an advanced reli- 
 gious thinker, — while he often uses the name Father for 
 God, — he was so far from discerning the signs of his times 
 that he makes but little reference to the Messianic hopes 
 of the Jews ; and when, he does so, it is in the way of 
 identifying the Logos with the promised Messiah, but 
 transferring all hopes based upon His coming to heaven, 
 thus in fact dissipating that which alone really consti- 
 tuted the Messianic hope of the Jews. He even shows a 
 tendency to rely on quite another kind of media.tion, for 
 he recognises as elements in the Jews' hope, in addition 
 to the kindness of God, and personal repentance, the holi- 
 ness of the patriarchs, who intercede with God for their 
 descendants. 
 
 We have already (pp. 34r-37, 41) referred to the later 
 organisation of the priests and the existence of the syna- 
 gogue. We must here briefly notice the elements which 
 developed the extraordinary atmosphere of legalism and 
 formalism which pervaded Jerusalem and Judaea in 
 the time of Christ. This was due, not so much to the 
 priests, who formed a powerful and wealthy aristocracy, 
 as to the scribes, or persons learned in the lawj 
 who fron:i the time of Ezra gradually grew in 
 influence till they attained a commanding position. The 
 law being a direct gift from God, in every detail, its com- 
 
HILLEL AND SHAMMAI. 99 
 
 plete observance being incumbent on every Israelite, it 
 became an all-important matter to have a living exposi- 
 tor of all possible cases of question. The same considera- 
 tion later became, as the canon was completed, extended 
 to all books recognised as prophetic, or as containing the 
 older history of Israel. At first only priests studied and 
 interpreted the law ; at some later period it became cus- 
 tomary for non-priestly Israelites to take up the study ; 
 and as the priests grew more wealthy, and more or less 
 influenced, consciously or unconsciously, by non-Jewish 
 ideas, the scribes became marked out as those persons 
 who were specially learned in and zealous for the law, 
 holding their opinions with fanatical strength and obsti- 
 nacy, and swaying the people by reason of their fanaticism. 
 They were habitually addressed as Rabbi (my master), 
 and required from pupils, and also from the public, the 
 most entire reverence and submission. Their decisions 
 were gratuitously rendered, and they were always persons 
 of property or practised some trade. But they always 
 regarded as their main occupation the development of the 
 law in theoretical and practical details, and especially by 
 oral discussions among themselves. 
 
 The term sanhedrim (derived from the Greek synedrium, 
 " assembly,") describes the governing and judicial assem- 
 
 %of the Jews, the native tribunal recognised „ ^ , . 
 by foreign powers m later Jewish times. It 
 included the high priest as president, chief priests (mainly 
 Sadducees), scribes, and other notables. It had not the 
 power of capital punishment. 
 
 Naturally schools of interpretation gathered about 
 leading scribes, such as Shammai and Hillel. The latter, 
 born at Babylon about 75 b.c, came to Jerusalem in 36, 
 and was chosen president of the Sanhedrim from SO b.c. 
 to A.D. 10. He had thousands of pupils, and Hiuei and 
 spent his life in endeavouring to give greater shammai. 
 precision to the law. Shammai was vice-president when 
 Hillel was president, was often his antagonist in disputes, 
 being less liberal in his views than Hillel, who taught, it 
 is said, that the great aim of life is " to be gentle, show- 
 ing all meekness to all men," and " when reviled, not to 
 
loo JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 revile again." The opinions of their two schools, strange 
 to say, were afterwards quoted by the Jews as being of 
 equal authority. It is scarcely possible without repro- 
 ducing whole sections of the Mishna to give an effective 
 idea of the detail, the ceremoniousness, the minuteness 
 of the points discussed by the scribes. A slight reference 
 Discussions to discussions on the Sabbath will give some 
 on the idea of all this. Thus Ave find that thirty-nine 
 saubatii. particular kinds of work were specially for- 
 bidden on the Sabbath, including making or untying a 
 knot, writing two letters, sewing two stitches, etc. But 
 each of these was made tlae subject of elaborate discussion 
 and regulation. For instance, no burden might be carried 
 from one tenement to another, and it was decided by the 
 scribes that it was desecration of the Sabbath to carry as 
 much food as was equal in weight to a dried fig, or as 
 much honey as could be put upon a wound, ink enough 
 to write two letters, etc. So rigidly was Sabbath obser- 
 vance kept up, that the Romans found it necessary to 
 exempt the Jews from military service. Even more 
 minute regulations were devised about cleanness and 
 Purity and uncleanness, and the removal of the latter. 
 impurity. Notwithstanding the completeness of the Old 
 Testament regulations, the Mishna contains no fewer 
 than twelve treatises on the subject, discussing the man- 
 ner in which impurity is contracted, how it may be 
 transferred, what utensils or objects may become unclean, 
 and how they may be purified. The air in an unclean 
 vessel is declared unclean ; a minute classification dis- 
 tinguishes between vessels which may and those which 
 cannot become unclean. The correct mode of pouring 
 water on the hands, and the proper modes of cleansing 
 of cups, pots, and dishes, were as zealously discussed as if 
 the whole religious character would be vitiated by failure 
 in one particular ; and this, in fact, was openly stated. 
 
 The Mishna is the core of the Talmud, the last and 
 more elaborate collection and amplification of the Tradi- 
 tions of the Jewish doctors. It is impossible 
 ■ to say how far the earliest traditional explana- 
 tions of the Jewish law go back ; but the Mishna corisists 
 
THE TALMUD AND CHIUSTIANITY. lot 
 
 mainly of the meditations and decisions of learned rabbis 
 from B.C. 50 to a.d. 150, the name of each rabbi being 
 carefully given. To this is added, in the Talmud, the 
 Gemara or oldest commentary on the Mishna, Mishna and 
 1 he discussions on the Mishna of Palestinian or Gemara. 
 Babylonian Jewish doctors. In both the Palestinian and 
 the Babylonian Talmuds the correctness and the meaning 
 and interpretation of the Mishna are discussed, introduc- 
 ing incidentally references to all other knowledge then 
 possessed. The discussions in the Palestinian Talmud 
 are comparatively simple and brief, but there is mixed 
 with them much valuable information on history, geogra- 
 phy, and archEBology ; while the Babylonian Talmud is 
 long-winded and subtle, and, while much longer than the 
 other, contains far less of outside knowledge. The Jews 
 have always given a higher value to the Mishna than 
 to the Gremara, ranking it scarcely below the Old Testa- 
 ment ; for they believe that much of it comes by an 
 unbroken chain of tradition from Moses, who is believed 
 to have received it direct from God. The Talmud was 
 put together in the fifth century a.d. 
 
 A very vexed question is the extent of the influence of 
 the Talmud upon Christianity, and the converse. Some 
 would even make out that Christianity owes ^iie Talmud 
 many of its leading ideas to the Talmud. If it and 
 were so, why was Christianity received with °'^^*^^"^*y- 
 such hostility ? If it spoke merely the language of the 
 accepted teachers of the Jews, why was it not received 
 with acclamation? We will quote the claim made by 
 one of the most ardent Talmudists, Emanuel Deutsch : 
 "Such terms as Redemption, Baptism, Grace, Faith, Sal- 
 vation, Regeneration, Son of Man, Son of God, Kingdom 
 of Heaven, were not, as we are apt to think, invented 
 by Christianity, but were household words of Talmudical 
 Judaism. No less loud and bitter in the Talmud are the 
 protests against lip-serving, against making the law a 
 burden to the people, against ' laws that hang on hairs,' 
 against Priests and Pharisees. That grand dictum, ' Do 
 unto others as thou wouldst be done by,' is quoted by 
 Hillel, at whose death Jesus was ten years of age, not as 
 
102 
 
 JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 anything new, but as an old and well-known dictum, 
 that comprised the whole Law." While not denying or 
 concealing the vast amount of idle legend and allegory 
 contained in the Haggadah or legendary portion of the 
 
 "^/f'f?^^ 
 
 commentary, Mr. Deutsch claims that it is the source of 
 much that is most remarkable in the greatest poets. He 
 extracts a metaphysical philosophy from parts of it des- 
 cribing the gradual development of the Cosmos by sue- 
 
GEMS OF THE TALMUD. 103 
 
 cessive catastrophes, out of an original created substance. 
 Miracles were primevally ordained, and " created," and 
 do not disturb the pre-established harmony of things. 
 The soul is also held to be pre-existent. The Resurrec- 
 tion and Immortality are definitely taught. The right- 
 eous continue to develop their best faculties in the next 
 world : " For the righteous there is no rest, neither in 
 this world nor in the next, for they go, say the Scriptures, 
 from host to host, from striving to striving ; and they 
 will see God in Zion." As regards eternal punishment, 
 the Talmud does not teach it, but says that idolaters, 
 apostates, and traitors will be punished for " generations 
 upon generations." There is " only two fingers' breadth 
 between Hell and Heaven " ; the repentant sinner will be 
 admitted to the latter as soon as he repents. " In the 
 next world there will be no eating, no drinking, no love, 
 and no labour, no envy, no hatred, no contest. The 
 righteous will sit with crowns on their heads, glorying in 
 the splendour of God's majesty." 
 
 A few quotations from the choicest passages of the 
 Talmud will still further illustrate its highest flights. 
 " Be thou the cursed, not he who curses. Be Gems of the 
 of them that are persecuted, not of them that Talmud. 
 persecute." "He who sacrifices a whole offering, shall be 
 rewarded for a whole offering; he who offers a burnt 
 offering, shall have the reward of a burnt offering ; he 
 who offers humility unto God and man, shall be rewarded 
 with a reward as if he had offered all the sacrifices in 
 the world." " Even when the gates of heaven are shut 
 to prayer, they are open 'to tears." " When the righteous 
 dies, it is the earth that loses. The lost jewel will always 
 be a jewel ; but the possessor who has lost it, well may he 
 weep." " Even the most righteous shall not attain to so 
 high a place in heaven as the truly repentant." " The 
 dying benediction of a sage to his disciples was : I pray 
 for you that the fear of Heaven may be as strong upon 
 you as the fear of man. You avoid sin before the face 
 of the latter ; avoid it before the face of the All-seeing." 
 " Love your -wife like yourself, honour her more than 
 yoiirself." " It is woman alone through whom God's 
 
I04 JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 blessings are vouchsafed to a house. She teaches the 
 children, speeds the husband to the place of worship and 
 instruction, welcomes him when he returns, keeps the 
 house godly and pure, and God's blessing rests upon all 
 these things. He who marries for money, his children 
 shall be a curse to him." " The house that does not open 
 to the poor shall open to the physician. Even the birds 
 in the air despise the miser. He who gives charity in 
 general is greater than Moses himself." " Let the honour 
 of thy neighbour be to thee like thine own. Rather be 
 thrown into a fiery furnace than bring any one to public 
 shame." " He who humiliates himself will be lifted up ; 
 lie who raises himself up will be humiliated. Whosoever 
 runs after greatness, greatness runs away from him ; he 
 who runs from greatness, greatness follows him." " Who- 
 soever does not persecute them that persecute him, who- 
 ever takes an offence in silence, he who does good because 
 of love, he who is cheerful under his sufferings — they 
 are the friends of God, and of them the Scripture says, 
 ' and they shall shine forth as does the sun at noon- 
 day.' " 
 
 Granting that these extracts are correctly translated, 
 we have no proof that any of them date back as early as 
 unsatiB- ^^® time of Christ. In any case the book has 
 factory had nothing like the effect of the New Testa- 
 conteuts. jjjgj^^ . ^^^ ^j^-g -g intelligible when we realise 
 the mass of puerile arguments, silly and indecent stories, 
 impossible notions and petty details that the Talmud con- 
 tains. The selection of the editor or editors, equally with 
 the minds of the scribes who are responsible for many of 
 its passages, was greatly at fault. Archdeacon Farrar, in 
 his "Life of Christ," says, "Anything more utterly un- 
 historical than the Talmud cannot be conceived. It is 
 probable that no human writings ever confounded names, 
 dates, and facts with a more absolute indifference." In 
 reading it we can understand the point of the saying of 
 Jesus, that the scribes had made the law of no effect 
 through their traditions. 
 
 The Pharisees were the party who, without necessarily 
 being scribes, devoted themselves with fanatic ardour to 
 
THE PHARISEES. lo; 
 
 tlie observance of all the minutest particulars of the 
 Mosaic law and of the traditions, which gradually ine 
 became more binding even than the law. The PHariaeea. 
 term means " one who is separated ; " and the Pharisees 
 undoubtedly formed a distinctive order of people, devoted 
 to the observance of the Levitical laws and the tradition. 
 It would appear that every one wishing to be recognised 
 as a Pharisee had to promise before three others that he 
 would pay full tithes on everything, and eat nothing that 
 had not been tithed, and that he would scrupulously ob- 
 serve all the laws of ceremonial purity. Thus, practically, 
 Pharisaism was one great system of " taboo," by which 
 the members made themselves a sacred caste. When it 
 is realised that the full tithes meant, at least, a double 
 tithe, and that the ceremonial laws of Leviticus and the 
 Mishna involved the most burdensome restrictions and 
 brought a man into continual danger of contracting cere- 
 monial impurity ; that every one who did not obey these 
 laws was reckoned as lost, we can see the force of the 
 denunciations contained in Matthew xxiii. Pharisees 
 might not become the guests of a non-Pharisee, nor re- 
 ceive him as a guest, nor buy or sell from or to him. 
 Including, as they did, a very large proportion (six thou- 
 sand) of the leading Jews at the time of Christ, it is 
 evident that they were then the orthodox Jewish party 
 by whose standard Jesus was mainlyjudged. They were 
 also the popular party, for they held high the position 
 and responsibilities of every member of the Jewish nation, 
 and disdained anj^ compromise with the foreign ruler. 
 They taught that every man might become a triie mem- 
 ber of the priesthood, though not belonging to the priestly 
 caste, by studying and conforming to the law. They 
 considered themselves the guardians of the law and the 
 customs of the Jews, and believed that they would be 
 protected as a peculiar people through all dangers. But 
 while they imposed strict rules, and severely condemned 
 their infraction, they had devised many plans for evading 
 those which they found inconvenient, and they made 
 many of their observances occasions for public display of 
 their righteousness or ostentatious claim to the highest 
 
io6 JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 regard of the common people. They were generally to 
 be recognised by the sacred tassels upon their garments, 
 and the wearing of little rolls (phylacteries) inscribed 
 with words from the law on the arm or forehead and 
 neck, and by their public demonstrations of praying in 
 the streets. The wearing of these phylacteries being sup- 
 posed to be enjoined in Exodus xiii. 9-16, they became 
 in time regarded as most valuable, protecting the wearers 
 from evil thoughts. 
 
 A few principal beliefs of the Pharisees may be men- 
 tioned. According to Josephus, they held that every 
 
 Principal soul is imperishable ; but that the souls of 
 
 beliefs, good men only pass over into another body, 
 while the souls of bad men are chastised by eternal 
 punishment. But that they believed in anything like 
 the Oriental transmigration of souls, cannot be proved. 
 Rather, from references in the New Testament, they ap- 
 pear to have believed in the resurrection of the body, 
 and a future judgment. The Mishna, which they upheld, 
 states that " he who says that the resurrection of the 
 dead is not to be inferred from the law, has no part in 
 the world to come." They believed va, angels and spirits, 
 and in the powerful influence of fate and Divine provi- 
 dence ; yet " some things depend on the will of man as 
 to whether they are done or not." Their eagerness to 
 secure proselytes to their views may be judged from the 
 expression of Jesus, that they would " compass sea and 
 land " to make one proselyte. Within their ranks was 
 to be found much sensuality, greed, and selfishness. 
 They contemned the common and degraded classes of 
 people, and shunned any communication with them, and 
 hence they were especially subject to the censure of 
 Jesus. 
 
 The great opponents of the Pharisees were the Sad- 
 The ducees, who chiefly consisted of the more in- 
 sadducees. fluential and wealthy priestly families, especially 
 those from which the high priest had been chosen for 
 many years before the time of Christ. They clung to 
 the ancient privileges of their order, and to the legal 
 observances of the law, while they rejected the Mishna 
 
THE ESSENES. 107 
 
 and the decisions of the scribes. Consistently with this, 
 they rejected the doctrines of the resurrection and of 
 future retribution, which are not found distinctly in the 
 Pentateuch ; they disbelieved in angels and spirits ; and 
 they held that man's conduct is entirely in his own 
 power, not coerced by fate or Providence, and that man 
 is ' the cause of his own prosperity and adversity. They, 
 however, conformed largely to the views of the majority 
 as formulated by the Pharisees, especially in the matter 
 of sacrifices and ritual, while they did not conceal their 
 indifference to many of the observances which yet, as 
 chief priests, they carried out. They were considerably 
 imbued with Greek culture, and, in the main, upheld 
 the Roman power. Consequently, when the Romans 
 destroyed Jerusalem and the whole Jewish State, their 
 influence fell, never to rise again, for it had within it no 
 seeds of hope or of growth. 
 
 The Essenes were a remarkable body of ascetics who 
 became numerous in the century before Christ, and who 
 endeavoured to fulfil the injunctions of the ^j^^ ^g^gj^g^ 
 law by withdrawal from the world, celibacy 
 and austerity of life. They resembled the monastic orders 
 of Christians and Buddhists rather than a sectarian party. 
 In their strict regard for the law, and their extreme care 
 for ceremonial purity, they were like the Pharisees, only 
 aiming at carrying out their views to an extreme degree 
 by forming separate communities with meals in common, 
 community of goods, and a long novitiate. They wore 
 white garments like the priests, bathed before meals and 
 at other times, repudiated marriage as a state of less 
 purity than celibacy, and in all things sought to live a 
 simple natural life. They held no slaves, swore no 
 oaths, did not anoint themselves with oil, and only used 
 the simplest food and drink. They carried on no trade, 
 but worked on the land and at handicrafts for the com- 
 mon benefit. One of the most striking distinctions be- 
 tween them and the rest of the Jews was their giving 
 up of animal sacrifices, though they still sent incense to 
 the Temple at Jerusalem. It is said that they even 
 turned towards the sun when praying, as emblematic of 
 
io8 JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 the Divine Jight, a very un-Jewish custom, and that 
 other points showed religious regard for the sun. Various 
 students and divines have traced several features of the 
 Essenes to Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and the Greek phi- 
 losophy of Pythagoras. The two latter seem especially 
 to present points of contact, and neither influence is his- 
 torically impossible. 
 
 The houses in which the Essenes lived were under the 
 control of a president, whom the members were bound 
 to obey. A candidate received at entrance a pickaxe, an 
 apron, and a white garment, and underwent a year's pro- 
 bation, after which he was admitted to the baths ; then 
 two more years' probation followed, and he was admitted 
 to the common meals, first taking a tremendous oath 
 binding him to entire openness towards the members, 
 and secrecy towards non-members. 
 
 Meanwhile there was already a preparation for that 
 dispersion which, after the fall of Jerusalem, became the 
 Dispersion principal fact about the Jews. The process, 
 of the Jews, which had begun with the captivity, was 
 greatly favoured under Alexander the Great's successors, 
 important privileges being granted to the Jews in such 
 cities as Alexandria and Antioch. Even in the second 
 century B.C. it was said that every land and sea was 
 filled with the Jews. In the time of Pompey many 
 settled at Rome, and were granted Roman citizenship. 
 In CaUgula's reign they made a grand stand against the 
 emperor-worship, which it was attempted to force on 
 them, undergoing frightful troubles in consequence. In 
 the time of the Emperor Tiberius they began to be per- 
 secuted, while the reign of Claudius at its outset was 
 marked by an edict of toleration in their favour. Yet 
 later he prohibited their assemblies. They were often 
 subsequently persecuted, but they increased notwith- 
 standing — a history which has practically characterised 
 them almost ever since. They united into distinct com- 
 munities wherever they were, cherishing their ancient 
 faith, and maintaining such of its observances as were 
 still possible ; and they gradually acquired a recognised 
 standing, and were allowed to be governed by their own 
 
MAIMONIDES. 109 
 
 laws throughout the Eoman empire. Even the rights of 
 EiOinan citizenship were conferred upon them in a con- 
 siderable number of the towns of Asia Minor and Syria. 
 They built synagogues in most of them, using Greek very 
 largely in their services. Tribute was sent to the Temple 
 at Jerusalem as long as it existed. Everywhere they may 
 be considered to have paved the way for Christianity by 
 their worship without images and by their strict obser- 
 vance of the Sabbath, while their limitations as to food 
 were a standing protest against the prevaihng undiscri- 
 minating indulgence. Many proselytes were made, and 
 no doubt would long have continued to be added, if 
 Christianity had not obtained the ascendant, and dis- 
 played greater attractions. 
 
 When, in the fourth century, Christianity became the 
 official religion of the Roman empire, the humiliation of 
 the Jews began. With an interval of favour in the 
 reign of Jiilian the Apostate, they gradually became a 
 downtrodden people. We cannot detail the successive 
 steps of the history, which simply show, in relation to 
 our subject, the persistence of religious faith among a 
 persecuted people. We must assume a general know- 
 ledge of their circumstances in successive ages, and pass 
 on to quote the confession of faith drawn up in the 11th 
 century by Moses Maimonides, perhaps the greatest of 
 the mediaeval Jews, often called the second Moses. 
 
 This remarkable man was born at Cordova, in Spain, 
 in 1135, his father being a Jewish judge and commen- 
 tator. The youth, besides Hebrew and Greek, 
 studied all the Arabic learning of their palmy™**^""^^^®^' 
 day under Averroes and Ibn-Thofeil. Under the Moslems 
 of Spain the Jews enjoyed fuU liberty, and rivalled the 
 Arabs in learning, During a reactionary period in the 
 middle of the century, when Jews were severely perse- 
 cuted, Maimonides and his family outwardly professed 
 Mahometanism ; later he travelled widely, and at last 
 settled at Fostat (Egypt) as a physician. But he found 
 time to write a great commentary on the Mishna, made 
 public in 1168 under the title, " The Book of Light," 
 and designed to simplify and explain! tlio traditional law. 
 
no JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 Ill one part of this work lie included tlie confession of 
 faith mentioned above, which, somewhat abbreviated, is 
 as follows : — 
 
 1. " I believe, with a perfect faith " (these words are 
 repeated before all the sections), "that God is the Creator 
 The creed of (whose name be blessed). Governor, and Maker 
 Maimonidea. of all creatures ; and that He hath wrought all 
 things, worketh, and shall work for ever. 2. That the 
 Creator is one ; and that such a unity as is in Him can 
 be found in none other ; and that He alone hath been 
 our God, is, and for ever shall be. 3. That He is not 
 corporeal, not to be comprehended with anj-- bodily pro- 
 perties ; and that there is no bodily essence that can 
 be likened unto Him. 4. That the Creator is the first 
 and last ; that nothing was before Him, and that He shall 
 abide the last for ever. 5. That the Creator is to be 
 worshipped, and none else. 6. That all the words of the 
 prophets are true. 7. That the prophecies of Moses, our 
 master (may he rest in peace !), were true ; that he was 
 the father and chief of all wise men that lived before 
 him, or ever shall live after him. 8. That all the law 
 which at this day is found in our hands was delivered by 
 God Himself to our master, Moses. 9. That the same law 
 is never to be changed, nor any other to be given us of 
 God. 10. That God undersfcandeth all the works and 
 thoughts of men, as it is written in the prophets ; He 
 fashioneth their hearfs ahke, He understandeth all their 
 works. 11. That God will recompense good to them 
 that keep His commandments, and will punish them 
 who transgress them. 12. That the Messiah is yet to 
 come ; and although He retard His coming, yet will I 
 wait for Him till He come. 13. That the dead shall be 
 restored to life when it shall seem fit unto God, the 
 Creator, whose name be blessed and memory celebrated 
 without end. Amen." 
 
 In 1170-80 Maimonides wrote a still more extended 
 
 work, entitled " Deuteronomy, Second Law," really a 
 
 Later works, cyclopasdia of every sort of Old Testament and 
 
 Jewish literature, sometimes described as a new 
 
 Talmud. In it he brought the rabbinical codes within a 
 
MAIMONIDES' BELIEFS. iii 
 
 moderate compass, and introduced philosophy and ethics 
 of a type little understood by the Jews before his time. 
 From this time he held, unofficially, a sort of spiritual 
 headship among his people, while at the same time his 
 fame as a doctor brought him a large and important 
 practice. He, however, was able to complete a third 
 great book, "The, Guide of the Perplexed," designed to 
 reclaim those who were sceptical a^out a future world, 
 the destiny of man, and revelation. In it he made a 
 bold endeavour to reconcile the conflicts between religion 
 and philosophy, and he may almost be counted the first 
 of the rationalists. He showed that the sensuous des- 
 criptions of the Deity and His actions in the Old Testa- 
 ment must be taken in a spiritual and figurative sense. 
 He further expounded a rational natural religion, proved 
 the existence, unity, and spirituality of God, and the 
 excellence of the Divine law, and discussed free-will, the 
 opposition of good and evil, and the questions relating to 
 the Divine providence and omniscience. As was to be 
 expected, such a work provoked much opposition, and led 
 to great controversy between religion and science, and 
 between the literal Talmudists and his own followers. 
 Finally, about the middle of the 13th century the Chiis- 
 tians burned all Maimonides' books, which led to a recon- 
 ciliation among the Jewish hostile parties. Maimonides 
 died on December 13th, 1204, and was greatly mourned. 
 To him all Jewish rehgious writers since his date are 
 greatly indebted. 
 
 Maimonides was a strong believer in the Old Testament 
 as a Divine revelation, but held that it must be explicable 
 in a rational manner. He believed that it was „, ^ ,. ^ 
 not enough to keep the law in practice, but 
 that its study was a religious duty. He believed firmty 
 in the creation of matter out of nothing, and in the 
 providential guidance of the world. He held that man's 
 will was free, but that providence ruled the destinies 
 of men and of nations in a certain broad manner. 
 Physical laws must be studied, and man must adapt his 
 life and action to them. Only the soul is immortal, he 
 taught ; and virtue is rewarded by happiness in the 
 
1 1: 
 
 /CDAIS.U .-?/ /-/'.V THE PKOPZ/ETS. 
 
 world to come. '• Po not," lie says, " allow thysolt' to bo 
 persuaded by fools that God tiist deterniines who shall 
 be righteous aud who wicked. He who sius has only 
 himself to blame for it, aud he cau do nothiug bettor 
 
 tihau speedily to clinuge his course. God's omnipotence 
 has bestowed freedom ou man, and His omniscience fovo- 
 kuows man's choice without guiding it. 'Wo shotild not 
 
 oliooso the good, like children and ignorant people, from 
 
PERSECUTION AND ISOLATION. 113 
 
 motives of reward or punishment, but we should do good 
 for its own sake, and from love to God ; still retribution 
 does await the immortal soul in the future world." 
 
 For a long time the Jews in Spain and Portugal, under 
 Moorish rule, enjoyed complete freedom and equality; 
 and their progress in culture and original work jg^g j^ 
 was great. While in the middle ages the spaiuand 
 Christians were persecuting the Jews almost ^^^'^sai. 
 everywhere, and sometimes burning them while they 
 sang hymns as though going to a wedding, in Spain 
 they were in a state of prosperitjr till the middle of the 
 14th century. Then followed persecutions and many 
 cruel outrages and martyrdoms. Finally, in 1492, Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella of Spain ordered the expulsion, within 
 four months, of all who refused to become Christians, at 
 the same time forbidding them to take either gold or 
 silver out of the country. Many then professed Christi- 
 anity ; but several hundred thousands left the country, 
 enduring the greatest privations, and many dying in 
 their journeys. In 1495 King Emanuel of Portugal or- 
 dered the Jews to leave his kingdom, but commanded 
 that their children under fourteen should be taken from 
 their mothers and brought up as Christians. "Agony 
 drove the Jewish mothers into madness ; they destroyed 
 the children with their own hands, and threw them into 
 wells and rivers, to prevent them from falling into the 
 hands of their persecutors." 
 
 The intensity and cruelty of the persecutions which 
 they suffered was perhaps the salvation of the Jews 
 as a separate nationality ; although it cannot persecution 
 be proved that their peculiar faith and rites and 
 would not have preserved them largely as a '^o^^t'o"- 
 pure race. Everywhere cut off from the rest of the 
 population, limited as to trades and places of residence, 
 forbidden to employ Christian servants or to become 
 members of trade guilds, the Jews grew more and more 
 conservative and peculiar: and their talents, concentrated 
 by isolation, furnished at last an ever-widening stream 
 of original genius to the nations in which they lived. 
 Spinoza, the Humboldts, the Mendelssohns, Heine, Nean- 
 
 H 
 
114 
 
 JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 der, Meyerbeer, the Disraelis, are a few of the remarkable 
 geniuses who have sprung from modern Judaism. Yet 
 the dawn of the modern period was preceded by an age 
 of degradation and mental inferiority which needed the 
 work of vigorous reformers to rouse it into life. 
 
 MOSES MENDELSSOHN. 
 
 The most important name in the history of modern 
 
 Jewish elevation and reform is that of Moses Mendelssohn 
 
 Moses (1729-1786), grandfather of the great composer. 
 
 Mendelssohn. The son of a copier of Biblical writings on 
 
 parchroeut, young Mendelssohn, born at Dessau in Ger- 
 
MOSES .VEXDELSSOHK. 115 
 
 many, was earlj' inspired by tLe reading of ilaimouides' 
 " Guide of the Perplexed." After a wide general educa- 
 tion, he set before himself the improvement of the moral 
 and social condition of his people. While obeying in the 
 letter the Oral Law, Mendelssohn brought into the study 
 of religion all the knowledge and philosophy of his time ; 
 and the ettect of his writings was to destroy the authority 
 of the Talmud and the rabbinical writers among those 
 who listened to him. His essay, entitled " Phsedo, or the 
 Immortality of the Soul," attempted to lay down a new 
 basis for that doctrine. His attitude towards Christianity 
 was so liberal that many of his co-religionists began to 
 look upon him as secretly a Christian himself. In his 
 "Morning Hours" he discussed the existence of God, 
 refuting pantheism, and especially Spinoza's views. He 
 also published German translations and commentaries on 
 several parts of the Old Testament, notably the Pentateuch 
 and the Psalms. In regard to what we may call Church 
 government, his ideas were remarkably liberal; all re- 
 ligion, according to him, being an affair of the heart, it 
 should not be under any control, either of State, Church, 
 or synagogue. At the same time he insisted that " the 
 law of Moses was not a law of faith, but merely of 
 statutes and prohibitions." Religion, he taught, should 
 be propagated purely by conviction, and should never 
 attempt to uphold itself by authority. He recommended 
 his people to take an example of charity from Christians, 
 and love and bear with each other, that they might be 
 themselves loved and tolerated by others. It followed 
 that his influence in promoting the idea of the religious 
 equality of all persons in the eye of the State has been 
 very great. His life and writings benefited both Jews 
 and Christians, and started new schools of thought in 
 philosophy and religious criticism among the Jews. His 
 epitaph, written by Eamler, runs thus : " True to the 
 religion of his forefathers, wise as Socrates, teaching 
 immortality, and becoming immortal hke Socrates." The 
 modern Jews have a saying that "from Moses (the law- 
 giver) to Moses (Maimonides), and Moses (Mendelssohn), 
 no one hath arisen like Moses." 
 
Ii6 
 
 JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 WEST LONDON SYNAOOGUE, CPPEE EEHKELEY SQUARE. 
 
NAPOLEON AND THE FRENCH JEWS. 117 
 
 One of the reforms which followed Mendelssohn's la- 
 bours was the revival of the obsolete office of synagogue 
 preacher ; at the same time the long prayers 
 and sacred poems of the liturgy were consider- 
 ably retrenched. Some congregations remained conser- 
 vative, while new or reformed synagogues were founded, 
 in which modern innovations were practised. Numerous 
 theological seminaries as well as schools were established, 
 and gradually general culture as well as Hebrew learning 
 became much extended among the Jews. 
 
 In 1790-1 the whole of the French Jews were admitted 
 to equal rights of citizenship with the French people. 
 One of the unique things the Emperor Napoleonuapoieon and 
 did, was to summon a meeting of the Sanhe- the French 
 drim, formally elected by the synagogues of "'®^^' 
 France and Italy. It sat in 1807, and formulated statutes 
 which were regarded as binding by the congregations 
 which sent delegates. Its principal decisions were : (1) 
 That polygamy is forbidden; (2) That divorce is per- 
 missible to Jews after legal divorce by the civil authority ; 
 (3) That no Jew may perform the ceremony of marriage 
 until legal forms have been fulfilled ; and intermarriages 
 with Christians are recognised, though they cannot be 
 performed with Jewish ceremonies ; (4) That acts of jus- 
 tice and charity are enjoined towards all mankind, of 
 whatever religion, who recognise the Creator ; (5) That 
 Jewish natives of France shall obey the laws of the land, 
 and treat it as their native country; and they are dis- 
 pensed from ceremonial observances while serving in the 
 army ; (6) That Jews shall train their children to useful 
 employments, renounce objectionable callings, and in 
 every way try to gain their neighbours' good-will ; (7) 
 That interest shall not be taken where money is lent for 
 the support of a family, but only in commercial under- 
 takings and at legal rates ; , (8) That the last article, and 
 the texts of Scripture on the subject, apply equally be- 
 tween Jews and their fellow-citizens ; and usury is alto- 
 gether forbidden. 
 
 The emperor at the close of the session established a 
 legal organisation for French Jews. Every two thousand 
 
nS JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 Jews were formed into a synagogue, and its consistory- 
 was to consist of one chief rabbi, two rabbis, and three 
 lay householders. The central consistory of Paris received 
 power to depose the rabbis, and the duties of the rabbis 
 were defined. They were to publish the decrees of the 
 Sanhedrim, to inculcate obedience to the State laws, and 
 to pray in the synagogues for the emperor and his family. 
 Since 1831 the Jewish rabbis have been paid by the 
 French State. 
 
 After the 
 Norman con- 
 The Jews in quest 
 England. Jews 
 
 settled in Eng- 
 land in con- 
 siderable num- 
 bers,' and 
 gradually be- 
 came most 
 impoj-tant aids 
 in the financial 
 arrangements 
 of kings and 
 nobles. In 
 1290, however, 
 they were ex- 
 pelled, and did 
 not return in 
 any number 
 till about the 
 close of the 
 sixteenth century. They were not formally allowed to 
 settle in this country again until 1657, when Manasseh 
 ben Israel, a rabbi from Amsterdam, obtained a decision 
 from Cromwell's Council of State in their favour. The 
 modern history of the emancipation of the Jews from 
 civil and religious disabilities is well-known. It is esti- 
 mated that there are between sixty and seventy thousand 
 Jews in England, of whom over forty thousand are in 
 London, chiefly belonging to the Ashkenazim, or German- 
 
 MANASSEII BEN ISRAEL. 
 
tEWS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 119 
 
 Polish section. The Sephardim, or Spanish-Portuguese 
 families, do not increase in number. The Ashkenazim 
 have fourteen synagogues and nineteen minor synagogues, 
 with a chief rabbi ; the Sephardim have two synagogues, 
 with an independent chief rabbi. These two differ some- 
 what in their pronunciation of Hebrew, and in several 
 minor matters of ritual. They have no distinctions of 
 seats in their synagogues, nor lines of demarcation in 
 their cemeteries. There is a still more interesting body, 
 represented by one synagogue only, that of the Reformed 
 British Jews, Upper Berkeley Street, Portman Square, a 
 body founded in 1841 in consequence of a conviction of 
 the necessity for modifying the Jewish service to suit 
 modern ideas. Services are held at later hours, such as 
 10.30 instead of at 7 and 7.30; an improved and shortened 
 ritual is used, the best portions of the Portuguese and 
 German liturgies being blended. Singing is introduced ; 
 but no service, except on the Day of Atonement, exceeds 
 two hours and a half. Sermons in English are given 
 every Sabbath and holy day at morning service. Numer- 
 ous services on holy days not appointed by Scripture are 
 given up, and only one day of each of the great festivals is 
 observed. They do not acknowledge the authority of the 
 oral law nor that of the chief rabbi. There are similar 
 congregations at Manchester and Bradford. 
 
 The Jews are most numerous in Austria (1^ million), 
 where they are now comparatively free and well treated ; 
 and in Russia (2| millions), where they are jewsin 
 more harshly treated than in any other country .various coun- 
 They number 200,000 in Roumania, many be- *'^'®^- 
 ing descendants of Spanish Jews ; and among them are 
 many farmers and handicraftsmen. They are numerous 
 in Constantinople and in Asiatic Turkey ; there are 25,000 
 Jews in Smyrna and 30,000 in Bagdad. There are 16,000 
 in Jerusalem, mainly occupied in studying the Talmud, 
 being supported by their brethren throughout the world. 
 The Jerusalem Jews, who include all branches of the 
 stock, by no means all dress alike. The Sephardim wear 
 ordinary Eastern garb, the Russian and Polish Jews have 
 long silk or cloth gowns and fur caps, while the Germans 
 
I20 
 
 JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 
 
 retain their national garb of a century ago with a fiat 
 wideawake hat. There are several hundred thousand 
 
 Jews in Morocco and Tripoli, who in some parts even 
 lead a nomadic life. In the United States they are 
 
THE BENI ISRAEL. ]2i 
 
 numerous and rich, and have many fine synagogues. 
 Some of them observe the Sabbath on Sunday, others 
 use English prayers and have disused Hebrew, and many 
 are lax in their ritual. 
 
 We must briefly notice the Beni Israel of Bombay, 
 about five thousand in number, chiefly artisans, who say 
 that they descend from a ship's company of me 
 passengers wrecked on that coast more than a ^^"^ Israel, 
 thousand years ago. They are strict observers of the 
 Sabbath, observe the great Jewish festivals, and refrain 
 from unclean fish or fiesh ; and they have a markedly 
 Jewish type of face. They have leaders who act as high 
 priests as well as civil leaders. The Beni Israel speak 
 Marathi; few know Hebrew. They seldom intermarry 
 with ordinary Jews. 
 
 [Ewald: "History of Israel," vols. 5-8. Sohiirer: " Jewish people in the 
 time of Christ" (T. & T. Clark). Hershon: "Genesis according to the 
 Talmud." " The Palestinian Talmud," translated into French by M. 
 Schwab. " Literary Eemains of Emanuel Deutsoh." M'CIintook and 
 Strong : " Cyclopaadia of Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature."] 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 iWoUein S(ett>isl^ MtmL—€\)t Karaites anU 
 Samaritans;. 
 
 Synagog:ue government— Chief rabbi — Other ofEclals— The ruler — Arrange, 
 ment of synagogue— Costume during service— Fringes— Phylacteries- 
 Form of daily services- The Shema and blessings— Sabbath services- 
 Beading the law— Sabbath observance — New moons — The New Year 
 feast— Days of repentance— Day of atonement— Feast of tabernacles- 
 Other feasts — The Passover — Feast of Pentecost— Fasts— Children- 
 Marriage— The Mezuzah— Divorce- Sickness, death and burial— The 
 Kabbalah— The Zohar— The Karaites— Their view of Jesus Christ- The 
 Samaritans — Early history— Samaritan Pentateuch— Liturgy— Principal 
 beliefs -Fasts, Sabbaths, etc. 
 
 WE will now review some of the principal events and 
 ceremonies among the modern Jews/ with special 
 relation to the British Jews. Each synagogue constitutes 
 
 Synagogue a distinct community, independent except in 
 government, a few particulars in which all are related to a 
 central authority, composed of the Chief Eabbi and three 
 members eminent for learning and piety, nominated by 
 him and approved by the majority of the synagogues. 
 These constitute the House of Judgment, and meet twice 
 a week to settle all religious, social, and civil questions 
 brought before them. His colleagues cannot act without 
 
 Chief Rabbi. ^^® Chief Eabbi ; they act for life unless they 
 
 betray their trust. The title of Chief Eabbi 
 
 must be conferred by a meeting of at least three chief 
 
 rabbis ; and thus in most cases it is decided by foreign 
 
 ' John Mills : " The British Jews." Ginsbutg : Articles in " Kitto's Cj-clo- 
 pffidia." 
 
THE READER. 123 
 
 Jews ; but tlie synagogues vote for the candidates in 
 proportion to the money they have subscribed for the 
 m.aintenance of the Chief Rabbi. His duties are to per- 
 form all marriages of London Jews, to lecture once a 
 month at the great synagogue, Duke's Place, Aldgate; to 
 superintend all the shochet, or killers of animals for food, 
 to visit the Jewish schools and colleges, etc., and to exer- 
 cise a general jurisdiction over all the synagogues in his 
 province. In England there is a rabbi at Manchester 
 appointed by the Chief Rabbi, but no other person in 
 England has this high title. One of the strangest things 
 in the history of the Jews is the decayed condition of 
 the priesthood, who, since the destruction of the Temple 
 at Jerusalem, have had no special and exclusive functions, 
 the sacrifices being no longer offered. It does not even 
 appear to be necessary that the Chief Rabbi should be of 
 priestly descent. The Levites, too, are in many cases able 
 to trace their descent from the tribe of Levi, but they 
 no longer have any special duties. 
 
 The Sophers, or " Writers," are skilled writers of 
 Hebrew, who prepare scrolls of the law, and various 
 documents connected with Jewish ceremonies 
 and rites. The Shochet are killers of animals 
 suitable for Jews to eat, and are definitely appointed 
 after examination by three rabbis. The ofi&ce is gener- 
 ally held by the Reader of the synagogue, unless the Jews 
 are numerous in a town. He is also the circumciser, 
 except where there are many Jews, when a special official 
 is appointed. 
 
 The Reader is the minister of the synagogue : there 
 are generally a senior and a junior Reader for considerable 
 congregations. He has to read the liturgy and mj^ j, ^ 
 to attend marriages and funerals of members. 
 His duties, with that of the clerk, are minutely specified 
 and rather onerous. Elections of Readers are made by 
 the congregation, after due nomination and selection of 
 candidates by the committee. Candidates for the office 
 may be of any nation or congregation, most of the 
 readers in England being German or Polish Jews. The 
 congregation have considerable power over matters con- 
 
124 
 
 MODERN JEWISH RITUAL. 
 
 cerning them in general or members in particular, having 
 the right to attend meetings, in which everything is 
 decided by the vote of the majority. 
 
 EEMOVINU SCROLLS OP THE LAW FEOM THE AEK — 
 WEST LONDON SYNAOOQUE. 
 
 The synagogue (commonly called sc7»(Z, from the German 
 KcTiule, by the Ashkenazim) is more formally termed "Beth 
 Ilakncsseth " (house of the assembly) in documents. The 
 
FRTNGES. 125 
 
 interior of tlie building is divided into two parts, the floor 
 ■with open seats for males, the gallery (with Arrangement 
 lattice- work in front) for females, who areof synagogue, 
 not considered as belonging to the congregation and may 
 not join in the service. At the east end of the building 
 is the Ark, a large wooden chest contained in a specially 
 decorated receptacle, richly veiled. In this the Law is 
 kept, wrapped in a tentlike cover, and the ceremony of 
 taking it out for each service is very important. It is 
 written on vellum about two feet wide, and of sufficient 
 length to contain the entire Pentateuch, written in col- 
 umns. Each end is fastened to a roller, round one of 
 which it is wound as it is read, while it is correspondingly 
 unwound from the other. The writing is without vowel 
 points, and is therefore difficult to read ; the Reader is 
 expected to refresh his memory the evening before the 
 service. The reading desk is a kind of raised seat on 
 which the Reader stands, surrounded by all the officers 
 of the congregation, seated. The seats nearer to the Ark 
 are the more honourable, and are correspondingly expen- 
 sive. At the west end of the synagogue a lamp is kept 
 always burning, to represent the Shechinah of the old 
 Temple. 
 
 Jewish services are unlike those of Christians and most 
 other religious bodies in requiring the wearing of hats 
 throughout, and in kneeling forming no part of costume 
 the ritual, except on the first two days of their^'"*"^^®^^''®- 
 year and on the Day of Atonement. The males wear a 
 special scarf with fringes, known as talith, which is a 
 smaller outer representative of the " arbang 
 kanphoth " worn underneath the outer dress. 
 It has four corners, with fringes attached to each, usually 
 of eight threads nine inches long, arranged in a peculiar 
 way. The under garment which it represents was for- 
 merly the outer one worn by Jews at all times, but 
 transferred beneath in times of persecution. It is about 
 three feet long and one foot wide, with a hole in the 
 centre sufficient to let it pass over the head, so that part 
 falls in front and part behind. The necessity for wearing 
 such a garment is based on Numbers xv. 37-41. The 
 
126 MODERN JEWISH RITUAL. 
 
 fringes are so arranged and knotted that they constitute 
 a perfect symbol of the entire Law ; and the rabbis have 
 even said that the law about fringes is as important as 
 all the rest put together. More than one instance of 
 anxiety to touch the fringes (rendered " hem " in the 
 Authorised Version) of Jesus's garment is recorded in the 
 Gospels ; and He rebuked the Pharisees for enlarging 
 their fringes in the idea that they thereby served God 
 better. 
 
 The phylacteries, or tephillin, are another important 
 part of a Jew's service-costume. They are small square 
 Piiviacter'e ^°^®^ *^^ parchment in which are placed four 
 ' slips of parchment an inch wide and eight 
 inches long, containing four extracts from Exodus (xiii. 
 2-10, 11-16) and Deuteronomy (vi. 4-9, 13-21) carefully 
 written in Hebrew, the writing folded inside. In the lid 
 of the box is fixed a leather thong, about two yards long, 
 for binding the phylactery round the head and arm. One 
 of these is bound round the forehead of every male Jew 
 above thirteen years old, and another on the left arm, at 
 morning prayer, whether in the synagogue or at home, 
 except on sabbaths and on festivals. While putting them 
 on, the pious Jew repeats several forms of benediction. 
 It was these phylacteries which the Pharisees, in the time 
 of Christ, wore of unusual size that they might be con- 
 spicuous at a distance, indicating that they were at prayer 
 or engaged in religious meditation. Maimonides says : 
 " The sacred influence of the phylacteries is very great ; 
 for as long as one wears them on his head and arm he 
 is obliged to be meek, God-fearing, must not suffer him- 
 self to be carried away by laughter or idle talk, nor in- 
 dulge in evil thoughts ; but must turn his attention to the 
 words of truth and uprightness." 
 
 Devout Jews are expected to observe a very onerous 
 amount of ritual and prayer ; but the prescribed service 
 Formof dauyconsists entirely of reading and singing prayers 
 services, and portions of Scripture, without any com- 
 ment. Such sermons and lectures as are given are out- 
 side the ordinary routine. The daily service ought pro- 
 perly to be gone through three times a day- 
 
SABBATH SERVICES. izy 
 
 afternoon, and evening — at least privately. The morning ■ 
 service, as soon as may be after dawn (usually about 7 
 or 7.30), is the most important and lengthy. There are 
 special ceremonies and recitals on entering the synagogue, 
 and putting on the fringed scarf and the phylacteries. 
 The service proper begins -with the Shema, including 
 Deut. vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21, and Num. xv. 37-41 ; begin- 
 ning, " Hear, Israel : the Lord our God is one The shema 
 Lord : and thou shalt love the Lord thy God^Jia blessings, 
 with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all 
 thy might." This may be called a clear monotheistic 
 creed. It is followed by a series of eighteen (really 
 nineteen) benedictions, believed to have been composed 
 by Ezra and the members of the Great Synagogue up to 
 the time of the lioman ascendency in Palestine. It may 
 be confidently believed that Jesus and the apostles used 
 these prayers and benedictions, or some of them, when 
 they worshipped in the synagogues. They range through 
 a very striking series of praises of God, prayers for mercy 
 and forgiveness, for the re-establishment of the Israelitish 
 kingdom, and for well-being and guidance. One of them, 
 believed by many to have been added in Christian times, 
 prays for the destruction of apostates. Other prayers and 
 psalms may be interspersed in the service, which lasts an 
 hour and a half. The afternoon service, loefore sunset, is 
 held continuously with the evening service, beginning 
 at sunset. The services are similar to that of the morn- 
 ing, but shorter. On Mondays and Thursdays, certain 
 penitential prayers and portions of the Law are added, 
 and on these days some Jews fast. 
 
 The Sabbath services of the Jews are four : the first 
 about sunset on Friday, the ordinary service having some 
 special psalms and prayers added to it as a sabbatu 
 reception of the Sabbath. The principal morn- servioes. 
 ing service is at a later hour than on other mornings, 
 about 8.30, or even so late as 10.30 in reformed congre- 
 gations. The daily service is first gone through ; next a 
 considerable portion of the Torah or Pentateuch is read, 
 the whole being so divided as to be gone through once a 
 year. This is followed by a selection from the prophetical 
 
128 MODERN JEWISH RITUAL. 
 
 writings ; and tlie whole concludes with prayers and por- 
 tions of the Law relating to the former Temple sacrifices. 
 
 The Reading of the Law is a ceremony of great import 
 in Jewish eyes. Several officials are designated to assist 
 Reading tue in it, and these offices are eagerly sought and 
 Law. paid for by devout Jews, considerable sums 
 being often given in order to gain the honour. A special 
 person is deputed to go up with the Reader to the ark, 
 and carry the scroll to the reading desk ; and seven per- 
 sons are called up to stand one by one by the side of the 
 reader, as each of the seven sections, into which the Law 
 for the day is divided, is read. When the ark is opened, 
 and when the scroll is taken out, special portions of the 
 Law are recited by the congregation. There are also 
 special introductions by the Reader and attendants at each 
 stage, and responses by the congregation. The reading 
 of the Prophets is accompanied by similar, though less 
 elaborate forms. The Sabbath afternoon service is nearly 
 like that o£ ordinary days, and is separate from the Sabbath 
 evening service, when, in addition to prayers like the daily 
 service, certain psalms are read. A slight amount of music 
 is introduced into the services ; the Reader reads with a 
 certain special musical intonation having sixteen different 
 accents, constituting a sort of formal cantillation. Melo- 
 dies, some ancient, some more modern, are also sung by 
 the Reader and congregation, or by a special choir. 
 
 The observance of the Sabbath, among strict Jews, is 
 very much the same as it always has been. It is marked 
 
 Sabbath by cessation from ordinary work, bathing and 
 observance, other special preparations preceding its com- 
 mencement. The women often do not attend the syna- 
 gogue services, but repeat prayers at home. At the 
 Friday evening meal the children ask the father's bless- 
 ing, and all then join in a Sabbath hymn, referring to 
 the ministering angels, who are believed to visit and re- 
 main in the dwelling throughout the Sabbath. After this 
 a part of the thirty-first chapter of Proverbs is read as a 
 lesson to the female portion of the family. The Sabbath 
 is then consecrated by blessing the specially prepared bread 
 and wine. Two oblong loaves of fine flour are baked by 
 
THE NEW YEAR FAST. 129 
 
 the mistress and placed upon the table, to commemorate 
 the double portion of manna gathered in the wilderness 
 on Fridays for the Sabbaths. One of the loaves is 
 broken and distributed by the master, with a blessing. 
 The Sabbath morning service should be attended before 
 any meal is taken, and then not until the special " sanc- 
 tification of the Sabbath" has been said, including the 
 fourtb commandment. There are numerous other formal 
 ceremonies ; but beyond their observance and refraining 
 from prohibited actions, which is only kept up by the 
 stricter Jews, it ig the rule to spend the day in various 
 forms of pleasure and recreation. Non-Jewish servants 
 are usually engaged to do things which Jews must not do 
 on the Sabbath. 
 
 The numerous feasts and fasts of the Jewish calendar 
 are kept with a varying degree of strictness, the great 
 days being most observed. The first day of 
 every lunar month is marked by several addi- 
 tions to the ordinary services, praying for blessings for 
 the month. Some Jews hold a special meeting for the 
 salutation of the moon, sometimes between the third and 
 fifteenth of the month ; the face of the moon being looked 
 upon as a Shechinah, or symbol of the Divine glory. The 
 first month of the civil year, Tisri, answering nearly to our 
 October, is believed to be that in which the world was 
 created, and in which the destiny of all per- The New 
 sons was settled by God. The first and second Year Fast, 
 days are therefore kept much like a Sabbath, with addi- 
 tional prayers and passages of Scripture. After the first 
 service, all salute each other with " May you be writ to 
 a good year." At the first evening meal the master of 
 the house cuts up a sweet apple and divides it between 
 those present ; each then dips his piece in a cup of honey 
 and eats it, saying, " To a good year and a sweet one." 
 After the morning service there is the ceremony of blow- 
 ing the ram's horn as a proclamation to all men to repent, 
 and as a reminder of the giving of the Law, and of the 
 great day of coming judgment. Special preparation for 
 blowing the horn is needed, and a special prayer is offered 
 before it is blown. Various readings and prayers, with 
 
I30 MODERN JEWISH RITUAL. 
 
 an address by the rabbi or reader, are interspersed with, 
 the blowing of the horn. The full service lasts about 
 six hours. The second day is kept with equal strictne'ss ; 
 only slightly different extracts from the Law and the 
 prophets are read. 
 
 The first ten days of the month are days of repentance 
 
 Days of and confession of sins, which, it is said, can 
 Kepentanoe. arrest the evil decrees which fate would qther- 
 wise register. Such repentance, to bring a happy year, 
 must take place before sunset on the Day of Atonement. 
 On the ninth day, after breakfast, fowls are killed by 
 heads of families, as representing atoning sacrifices. After 
 the synagogue service visits are paid to the burial grounds, 
 to invoke the intercession of the dead on the next day. 
 The congregation return to the synagogue in the afternoon 
 and, after services, the more devout subject themselves to 
 the " whip of correction " from one another, " forty stripes 
 save one " being given with a leather thong. They then 
 return home for their last meal before the great Fast Day. 
 Every member of the family is required to be reconciled 
 if at variance, and children ask forgiveness of their parents, 
 who bless and pray for them. 
 
 The evening service which follows in the synagogue 
 ushers in the great Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). It 
 
 Day of begins with a form of absolution for all rash 
 Atonement, or unfulfilled VOWS, oaths, etc. A three hours' 
 service follows. Next morning service recommences about 
 six o'clock and lasts till the evening, no meal being taken 
 during the twenty-four hours. Appropriate prayers are 
 followed by the reading of portions of the Law. Next 
 follow the portions of the Law relating to the sacrifices ; 
 after which the priests, after ablution, pronounce the bless- 
 ing from Numbers vi. 23-27 (see illustration, p. 96), 
 standing in a row in firont of the ark, covering their 
 heads and faces with their scarves. Next follows the 
 afternoon service, very full ; and finally comes the great 
 concluding prayer {Nengildh, a closing or bolting), indi- 
 cating that the time of repentance is over and the destiny 
 of each is fixed. The trumpet is then blown, and the 
 service pi'oper closes with the words, " Next year we shall 
 
FEAST OF TABERNACLES. 
 
 isi 
 
 be in Jerusalem." But another half-hour of prayer fol- 
 lows, and the fast is over at about six o'clock. This day's 
 service is attended by very many Jews who do not keep 
 
 the other festivals or even attend the Sabbath services. 
 The Jewish Free School is used to accommodate the over- 
 flow audiences. Many wear only stockings or cloth boots 
 
132 MODERN JEWISH RITUAL. 
 
 on their feet during the service ; no leather nor any gold 
 ornaments may be worn. 
 
 On the fifteenth of the same month the Feast of Taber- 
 nacles {Succoth) begins ; booths, or representatives of them, 
 
 Feast of having been previously prepared either within 
 Tabernacles, or outside the houses. The Feast is celebrated 
 with special prayers and references to the occasion. There 
 is a special ceremony with branches of palm, myrtle, and 
 willow, held in the hand, and waved about by the Eeader 
 during the synagogue service while the Hallel is being 
 sung. Near the end of the afternoon service, the officers 
 take a scroll of the Law out of the ark and march in 
 procession— the Law being carried in front — round the 
 reading desk, and holding the branches in their right 
 hands. At every meal during the feast the account of 
 dwelling in booths from Leviticus xxiii. has to be re- 
 peated. On the seventh day (the Great Hosanna) every 
 one, male and female, attends the synagogue with branches 
 of willow ; and seven scrolls of the Law are carried round 
 the desk in procession seven times, hymns and prayers 
 being sung meanwhile. After prayers every one beats 
 the leaves off his willow branches, it being a good omen 
 if they fall off easily. The eighth day is kept as a special 
 feast, like the first two days. The ninth day is that on 
 which the last and the first sections of the Law are read, 
 and it is kept as a feast termed " the rejoicing of the 
 Law." There are processions again, in which it is a great 
 honour to join, and after service special festivities take 
 place in honour of the law. 
 
 Li the third month, on the 25th and following days, 
 the feast of dedication is held, in memory of the renewed 
 other feasts dedication of the Temple at Jerusalem by 
 ' Mattathias after its pollution by Antiochus 
 Epiphanes. A fast in the fourth month commemorates 
 the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar as the starting-point of the calamities of Israel. 
 The feast of Purim is held on the 14th and 15th of the 
 sixth month, Adar, to celebrate the deliverance of the 
 Jews as recorded in the Book of Esther, the previous day 
 (13th) being kept as " the fast of Esther." At the first 
 
THE PASSOVER. 
 
 133 
 
 service of tlie feast, on the evening of the 13th, the Book 
 of Esther is read from a special scroll, and whenever the 
 name of Haman is read the congregation stamp on the 
 floor, and say, " Let his name be blotted out." The 
 names of Haman and his sons are read very rapidly to 
 signify their sudden destruction. These days are kept as 
 special occasions of merry-making. 
 
 The Passover falls in the seventh month (Nisan), the 
 
 POTTING ON PHYLACTERIES. 
 
 phylactehies, as woen in the 
 oaeb op peayep.. 
 
 Sabbath preceding it being called the Great Sabbath, 
 when the Eabbi expounds the laws and duties 
 pertaining to the festival. During the eight 
 days no leavened bread or fermented wine is drunk. The 
 bread used is in the form of large thin wheaten cakes of 
 circular shape, and it is baked for all the United Kingdora 
 under the special superintendence of the Chief Eabbi 
 and a staff of watchers, who carefully prevent all chance 
 
134 MODERN JEWISH RITUAL. 
 
 of fermentation. The wine used in the ceremonies is also 
 carefully prepared under Jewish supervision. Some sub- 
 stitutes, a cheap raisin wine, rum, French brandy, etc., 
 are also used. On the Passover eve the houses are searched 
 for leaven, and everything is cleansed. The firstborn are 
 expected to fast on this day. The Passover feast is cele- 
 brated in the family on the evening of the first day. 
 Certain cakes called Israelite, Levite and Kohen, a shank- 
 bone of lamb, an egg roasted in hot ashes, some lettuce 
 and other herbs, some salt water and vinegar (in memory 
 of the Red Sea), and some almonds, apples, etc. (mixed 
 up like lime to commemorate the bricks and mortar of 
 Egypt), are placed on the table. Every one at table (in- 
 cluding every Jewish servant) drinks four glasses or cups 
 of wine, and special blessings are said with each. Each 
 article of food is distributed with special reference to the 
 events commemorated, as " This is the bread of affliction, 
 which our ancestors ate in the land of Egypt." A cup 
 of wine is set for the prophet Elijah (or Elias), who is 
 always expected to appear as the forerunner of the Messiah. 
 After filling the last cup of wine, the Hallel is repeated, 
 together with an account of the mighty deeds done at 
 midnight and on the days of Passover. After the fourth 
 cup of wine, the Paschal hymn is sung with great joy, 
 including frequent repetitions and variations of such 
 phrases as " The Illustrious One builds his house soon," 
 with many names of God — as the Hallowed, the Power- 
 ful, the Strong One, the Redeemer, the Just One. The 
 next evening is spent in a very similar way. Special por- 
 tions of Scripture are read at the public services, with 
 Rabbinical and Kabbalistic poems. 
 
 The Feast of Pentecost takes place on the ninth month, 
 or the fiftieth day from the second Passoverday. It. corn- 
 Feast of memorates the giving of the Law on Mount 
 Pentecost. Sinai. The synagogues are decked with flowers, 
 and the houses with flowers and fragrant herbs, as a re- 
 minder of the open country in which the Law was given. 
 There are special addresses and forms of sanctification 
 extolling the blessings given to the Jews in the Law, and 
 on the second day the Book of Ruth is read through. 
 
MARRIAGE. 135 
 
 A fast is kept in the montri of Januiuy, on the clay 
 when Moses is supposed to have broken the tables of the 
 Law, and when Jerusalem was destroyed the p^^^^ 
 second time. In the eleventh month is a strict 
 fast in memory of the destruction of the first and second 
 Temples, and the Book of Lamentations and mournful 
 prayers are read in the synagogue service. At the morn- 
 ing service even the fringes and phylacteries are laid aside. 
 
 A few particulars remain to be given about the do- 
 mestic regulations of the Jews. Circumcision of male 
 children on the eighth to the twelfth day after birth is 
 regularly performed with a religious ceremony, a Hebrew 
 name, for religious use, being then given. The firstborn 
 child of a mother, if a male, is "redeemed" when thirty 
 days old, by a ceremonial offering of him to a priest, and 
 the payment of a few shillings to the priest. 
 
 The first religious instruction given to a Jewish child, 
 to be repeated immediately after waking in the morning, 
 is the following : "I acknowledge before Thee, cjiuargji 
 the living and everlasting King, that Thou 
 hast returned my soul to me, in Thy great mercy and 
 faithfulness." He is very early dressed in the four- 
 cornered scarf with the fringes already alluded to, and 
 instructed in its significance. Children are entirely under 
 the control of their parents or guardians, till the thirteenth 
 year has been completed. A boy then becomes " Bar 
 Mitsvah," " a son of commandment," and is expected to 
 take up full personal religious duties. He is called to 
 the desk to read a portion of the Law on the first Sabbath 
 after his attaining his thirteenth year, and he now begins 
 to wear the phylacteries. 
 
 Marriage is often arranged by go-betweens or match- 
 makers. Formal betrothal precedes marriage by six or 
 twelve months or more ; and on the Friday -^^^^^^^ 
 evening before the wedding the Reader refers 
 to it in a chanted address. Fasting on the wedding 
 morning is most approved, the service taking place in the 
 afternoon at the synagogue. Ten adult persons must be 
 present. A canopy (chupah) of silk or velvet, about two 
 yards square, is erected in the middle of the synagogue. 
 
136 MODERN JEWISH RITUAL. ' 
 
 supported by four long poles ; under it the bride and 
 bridegroom are led by their friends. (The Eabbi tates a 
 
 glass of wine, pronounces an appropriate wedding bless- 
 ing, and gives the wine to the bride and bridegroom, 
 
S/C/^NESS, DEATH, AND BURIAL. 137 
 
 wko taste it, and then the bridegroom, putting a ring on 
 the bride's finger, says in Hebrew: "Behold thou art 
 betrothed to me witli this ring, according to the rites of 
 Moses and Israel." The marriage contract (in Aramaic) 
 is read aloud by the Rabbi, alter which the Reader, 
 taking another glass of wine, pronounces a blessing, and 
 hands the wine to the bride and bridegroom, who taste it. 
 An empty glass is then laid on the floor, the bridegroom 
 stamps upon it and breaks it, all present cry out " Mezal 
 Tov," (" Grood Luck,") and the ceremony is concluded. 
 
 One of the earliest duties of a Jew, after setting up a 
 house for himself, is to prepare a " Mezuzah," literally, 
 " door-post," in order to fulfil the requirement,j,jjg Mezuzan 
 in Deut. vi. 4-9, and xi. 13-21, to write the law 
 on his door-post and on his gate. A tin case or glass 
 tube is provided, in which a piece of vellum is placed, 
 with the above passages written in Hebrew. On the outer 
 side is written the word " Shaddai," one of the names 
 of God, and a hole is left in the case, opposite to this word, 
 so that it can be seen by any one passing. This case is 
 nailed in a slanting position on the right-hand side of 
 the door-post by the master of the house. Devout Jews 
 kiss the Mezuzah before going to their daily work. 
 
 Divorce is performed by the husband giving the wife 
 a formal " bill of divorcement," and can only be granted 
 for serious causes. It is pronounced in the pre- 
 sence of ten witnesses besides the parties. A ^'^°"^- 
 divorced woman may not marry again within ninety 
 days. A bill of divorcement conditional on the husband's 
 non-return from foreign parts within three or more years, 
 is also sometimes given. 
 
 "When a Jew becomes very ill, there are many prayers 
 and confessions which he is expected to repeat ; and he is 
 urged to ask pardon of any one he may have sickness 
 injured. There is a special form of public Death, and 
 thanksgiving on recovering from illness. When ^^^i^i- 
 death is imminent, the sick man blesses his children, 
 placing his hands on the head of each, and repeating 
 such passages as Gen. xlviii. 20 ; Num. vi. 24, 26 ; Isa. 
 xi. 2 ; and he exhorts them to persevere in their fathers' 
 
138 
 
 MODERN JEWISH RITUAL. 
 
 faith, and to observe the usual mourning ceremonies. The 
 Burial Society of the synagogue being notified, send four 
 members to watch in the sick room day and night, and 
 remain until the body is placed in the coffin. Various 
 prayers are chanted by them ; and finally, when the sick 
 man is at the point of death, several passages are repeated 
 
 JEWISH BUBIAL. 
 
 solemnly several times, such as " Blessed be the name of 
 His glorious kingdom for ever and ever," " The Lord is 
 the only God," and " Hear, Israel, the Lord our God is 
 one Lord." The last words " one Lord " are to be said 
 at the moment of death. After a few minutes, all make 
 a small rent in one of their garments, saying, " Blessed 
 
THE KABBALAH. 139 
 
 art Thou, Lord oiir God, King of the universe, the 
 righteous Judge." Another declaration is made in an 
 hour after death, including the phrase, " Dust thou art, 
 and unto dust thou shalt return." There are many inter- 
 esting points in regard to purification of the body and 
 preparation for the funeral, which we cannot detail. Very 
 simple deal coffins are used for both rich and poor alike. 
 The corpse is dressed in a complete set of linen garments, 
 including the fringed scarf The funeral is conducted 
 with simple but extremely appropriate ceremonies. Seven 
 days' mourning is enjoined after a funeral, during which 
 the mourners must do no work at all, nor take any amuse- 
 ment. They are comforted by the visits of friends, who 
 bring them " meals of condolence," consisting of hard- 
 boiled eggs and bread. For thirty days afterwards no 
 enjoyments or recreations must be taken ; and pleasures 
 are greatly restricted for twelve months. There is a 
 special prayer for the dead (Kaddish), or rather a form of 
 praise to God, which should be said morning and evening 
 by a devout son for eleven months after the death of a 
 parent. 
 
 The Kabbalah is a celebrated system of theosophy, 
 which, arising among the Jews in the twelfth or thir- 
 teenth centuries, has since exercised an impor- The 
 tant influence among both Jews and Christians. Kabbaiaii. 
 It is a doctrine received by oral tradition, which is said 
 to have been handed down from the times of the first 
 man. It regards God as a Being above everything, even 
 above being and thinking. He is called En Soph, "with- 
 out end," " boundless," and is absolute and incompre- 
 hensible. The world is created through the medium of 
 ten intelligences or Sephiroth, one, which was eternally 
 existent in the En Soph, becoming distinct as an ema- 
 nation of the Deity. From this emanated the second, 
 from the second the third, and so on ; and these ten form 
 a complete unity with the En Soph, and are infinite and 
 perfect when He imparts His fulness to them, and finite 
 and imperfect when it is withdrawn. Their finite side 
 is essential, being that by which they can come into 
 relation with the human, and they may even assume a 
 
I40 MODERN JEWISH RITUAL. 
 
 bodily form. The ten Sephiroth are divided into three 
 groups of three Sephiroth each, operating respectively 
 upon the world of intellect, of souls, and of matter. 
 Sephira 1 is called the inscrutable height, 2 the creative 
 wisdom, 3 the conceiving intellect. From 1 the divine 
 power proceeds, from 2 the angels and the Old Testament, 
 from 3 the prophetic inspiration. Sephira 10, called 
 Mngdom, denotes Providence, protecting the Jews in all 
 their wanderings. These Sephiroth created the lower 
 world, everything in which has its prototype in the upper 
 world ; they uphold it, and convey to it the Divine 
 mercies through twelve channels. The transmission of 
 the Divine mercies can be hastened by prayer, sacrifices, 
 and religious observances ; and it has been given to the 
 Jewish people to obtain these blessings for the whole 
 world. All human souls pre-exist in the world of the 
 Sephiroth, and must become incarnated in human bodies 
 and undergo probation. If they remain pure, they re- 
 ascend to the world of the Sephiroth ; but if not, they 
 must inhabit bodies again and again till they are purified. 
 The redemption of Israel cannot take place till all the 
 pre-existent souls have been born on earth and have been 
 purified. The soul of the Messiah is to be the last born, 
 " at the end of the days." The great interest of this 
 system is, that by it all Biblical anthropomorphisms are 
 explained as describing the Sephiroth, and that all the 
 Jewish ritual and law is raised in spiritual significance. 
 There is much resemblance between it and Neo-Platonism. 
 We have given but a mere sketch of this complex system, 
 which is said to be discoverable in veiled language in the 
 Old Testament, but only by most fanciful and arbitrary 
 methods. The arrangement of triads was made, even in 
 the Zoliar, to explain the Trinity, the Messiah and His 
 atonement ; and this has persuaded many Kabbalists to 
 become Christians. Treatises have been written to prove 
 the truth of Christianity from the Kabbalistic doctrines. 
 Pico de Mirandola, late in the fifteenth century, main- 
 tained in Rome that " no science yields greater proof 
 of the divinity of Christ than magic and the Kabbalah ; " 
 and he convinced Pope Sixtus IV. of its importance as 
 
THE KABBALAH. 
 
 141 
 
 a help in the diffusion of Christianity, so that he set 
 students to translate the Kabbalistic writings into Latin. 
 Not only Pope Leo X, but many early reformers were 
 
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 PASSOVEE EVE. 
 
 fascinated by the Kabbalistic doctrine as set forth by 
 John Eeuchlin. 
 
 The Zohar ("Light") is as a Bible to the Kabbalists. 
 
142 THE KARAITES. 
 
 It is a commentary on the Pentateuch, -written in 
 Aramaic, assuming to be written by Rabbi 
 inezonar. g-^^^^ -^^^ Yochi, about 70-110 a.d., but really 
 a thirteenth century composition. {See Ginsburg, " The 
 Kabbalah : its Doctrines, Development, and Literature," 
 1805 ; also in Encyclopmdia Britannica.) It contains, as 
 well as a commentary, a number of separate treatises, 
 with such titles as " The Mansions and Abodes," " The 
 Secret of Secrets," dealing with physiognomy and psy- 
 chology, " The Faithful Shepherd," etc. It will be evi- 
 dent that the Kabbalah has something in common with 
 the Hindu and Buddhist philosophies; and its very 
 fancifulness gives it much fascination. It is another 
 example of the irresistible fascination of speculations 
 about the unseenj 
 
 "We must here give a brief separate notice of the 
 Karaites,! one of the most distinctive sects of the Jews, 
 marked by their rejection of the oral law, or 
 tradition, and their guidance only by the text 
 of the Old Testament. They appear to have originated 
 after the publication of the Talmud, and they represent 
 a spirit of reform and reversion to a simpler faith and 
 observances. Their first notable man, Ahnan ben David, 
 arose in the middle of the eighth century, and, having 
 been rejected from the post of chief patriarch of the 
 exiled Jews in Bagdad on account of his views, he formed 
 a congregation of his own at Jerusalem. He gained a 
 large number of adherents, and spread his faith, by 
 messengers and letters, through a large part of Asia and 
 the countries bordering the Mediterranean. His main 
 tenets were the supreme authority of the Law, and the 
 worthlessness of everything in the Talmud or other 
 writings that was contrary to the Law of Moses. He 
 died in 765, leaving behind him very many adherents ; 
 and his sect grew till the fourteenth century, after which 
 they were largely eclipsed. The present number of 
 Karaites is very uncertain. There are many in the 
 Crimea and in Asia, and some would reckon among them 
 
 ' From Hebrew Karaim, readers— i.e., observers — of the written 
 Law. 
 
THE SAMARITANS. 143 
 
 the Eeformed Jewish congregations in Western Europe. 
 They appear to have been influenced to some consider- 
 able extent by Mohammedanism, laying much stress on 
 prayers, fasting, and pilgrimages to Hebron (as a tribute 
 to Abraham). They make the heads of their phylacteries 
 round instead of square, and, among other things, extend 
 the prohibition of marriage to the remotest degree of 
 affinity. They believe in the unity of God the Creator, 
 in Moses His prophet, in the perfection of his Law, in 
 the resurrection and day of judgment, in retribution 
 according to human doings, in the chastisement by God 
 of the Jews, and in hoping for salvation by the Messiah, 
 the Son of David. They accept the teachings of the 
 Talmud, where they are purely explanatory, without 
 adding to or altering the sense, but they give no credit 
 to its fanciful explanations and allegories. They believe 
 that the Messiah will issue from themselves. 
 
 The attitude of Ahnan towards Jesus is worthy of note. 
 He said that Jesus of Nazareth was " a very wise, just, 
 holy, and God-fearing Man, who did not at all Their view of 
 wish to be recognised as a prophet, but simply ^^^'^^ Christ. 
 desired to uphold the Law of Moses and do away with 
 the commandments of men." He therefore condemned 
 the Jews for having dealt with Jesus as an impostor, 
 and for having put Him to death. 
 
 The Samaritans are another community claiming to 
 be Jews, and now reduced to fewer than two hundred 
 persons, living at Nablous, the ancient Shechem, The 
 in the centre of Palestine. Historically they Samaritans, 
 are important for the circumstances of their origin, 
 several features ' in their history and worship, and their 
 preservation of very ancient manuscripts of the Penta- 
 teuch and other sacred books, and of several interesting 
 traditions. They originated after the depopulation of 
 central Palestine by the Assyrians in the eighth Early 
 century e.g., and their replacement by various history, 
 colonists from Babylonia. It appears probable that some 
 Israelites, perhaps only of the poorest class, were left 
 behind, and mingled with the settlers. The latter set up 
 their own idolatrous worship ; biit being attacked by 
 
144 THE SAMARITANS. 
 
 lions, they regarded their ravages as a warning that they 
 ought to -worship the God of the land. They informed 
 the king of Assyria of this, and he sent back to them 
 one of the captive priests of Jehovah, who settled at 
 Bethel, and taught them to worship the God of Israel 
 (2 Kings xvii.). By the time of Ezra it would appear 
 that the worship of Jehovah was in the ascendant among 
 the Samaritans, and they desired to join the returned 
 Jews in rebuilding the Temple at Jerusalem. This 
 privilege being refused, the Samaritans became actively 
 hostile to the Jews ; and they appear thenceforward to 
 have represented themselves as the true followers of 
 Moses, and Gerizim (near Shechem) as the sanctuary 
 appointed by God. The site was sacred by many asso- 
 ciations of Israelitish history. A temple was built there 
 by the Samaritans about the time of Alexander the Great, 
 and was the centre of a considerable worship till it was 
 destroyed by John Hyrcanus in e.g. 129. After this still 
 more bitter enmity reigned between the Samaritans and 
 the Jews. The Samaritans killed Galilean pilgrims to 
 Jerusalem, and once even polluted the Temple on the 
 eve of the Passover. Thus we can better realise the 
 point of the parable of the Good Samaritan, a good deed 
 done to a Jew by his direst hereditary enemy, when his 
 own people passed him by. For a long time the Samari- 
 tans continued their cruelties to the Jews, and later 
 transferfed their hatred to the Christians. Their latest 
 rising against them, in the Emperor Justinian's reign 
 (a.d. 629), led to a destructive campaign which almost 
 obliterated them. Many shared in the dispersion of the 
 Jews; and we read of synagogues of the Samaritans in 
 various places. Little more was heard of them until 
 towards the close of the sixteenth century, when the 
 renowned scholar, Joseph ScaUger, addressed the Samari- 
 tan congregations of Nablous and Cairo ; and after his 
 time the Samaritan Pentateuch and other literature 
 gradually became known in the West and copies of many 
 of the manuscripts reached Europe. 
 
 It is mentioned by early Christian Fathers that the 
 Samaritans claimed to possess a very early form of the 
 
LITURGY. MS 
 
 Pentateuch, written in a peculiarly modified Hebrew 
 writing, with special marks or signs. The Samaritan 
 oldest manuscript, which may date from the Pentateucii. 
 fourth century a.d., but is probably based on original 
 copies dating from the time of Ezra, is the present sacred 
 roll of the Samaritans, written on twenty-one skins of 
 unequal size, but now in a bad state of preservation and 
 only partially legible. A note upon it states that it was 
 made by Abishua, son of Phinehas, grandson of Aaron, on 
 Mount Grerizim, in the thirteenth year after the Israelites 
 had taken possession of the land. It shows marks of 
 an earlier dialect of Hebrew than our present Ifebrew 
 Old Testament, with certain variations which are repro- 
 duced in the Septuagint. Consequently many scholars 
 believe that the Septuagint and the Samaritan Pen- 
 tateuch were derived from Jewish manuscripts which 
 greatly resembled each other,' but differed slightly from 
 our present Hebrew Pentateuch. There are certain fac- 
 tors in the Samaritan copies which appear to be due to 
 purposive alteration by the Samaritans, to add dignity 
 to the patriarchs or to add to the glory of the Creator, 
 to introduce Mount Gerizim, to support monotheism, or 
 to remove anthropomorphism. Thus, wherever God Him- 
 self is represented as speaking directly to men, " the 
 angel of God," is substituted. There is also a Samaritan 
 version of the Pentateuch, probably made in the first 
 century of- the Christian era, in a sort of Aramaic which 
 approaches Arabic ; the names Elohim and Jehovah are 
 usually changed to angel. Various anthropomorphisms 
 are altered. This Samaritan translation is remarkable 
 for the number of glosses which it contains, making it 
 practically a Targum. 
 
 The Samaritans have also a considerable liturgy, con- 
 sisting chiefly of hymns and prayers for Sab- 
 baths and feast-days, and prayers for special "' 
 
 occasions. 
 
 Among the principal beliefs of the Samaritans may be 
 mentioned the belief in one God, in Moses as His one 
 
 ' See J. W. Nutt, " Fragments of a Samaritan Targum, witli a 
 Sketch of Samaritan History, Dogma, and Literature." 
 
 K 
 
146 FEASTS, SABBATHS, ETC. 
 
 messenger and prophet, in the perfection and complete 
 Principal ness of the Law, that Gerizim is the abode ol' 
 beUefs. Grod on earth, the home of eternal life, that over 
 it is Paradise : and that there will come a day of retri- 
 bution, when the righteous will rise again, and false 
 prophets and their followers will be cast into fire. They 
 believe also in angels and astrology. They believe in a 
 coming Messiah or " Restorer," to whom all people will 
 submit, and the beginning of whose name will be M. He 
 will establish the Tabernacle on Mount Gerizim, and will 
 live 110 years on earth. 
 
 At the present day the Samaritans observe seven feasts 
 a year, the Passover being that kept with most solemnity.' 
 Feasts, The Sabbath is strictly kept, and also the years 
 Sabbaths, etc. of jubilee and release. The senior priest may 
 nominate any naale member of his family to the priest- 
 hood, if at least twenty-five years of age, and having 
 uncut hair. Tithes and presents every half-year support 
 the two priests. They never take o£f their turban ; and 
 when they remove the roll of the Law from the ark, thej^ 
 place a cloth (talith) round their head. When a man's 
 wife proves barren, he is permitted to take a second. 
 On the whole, Jewish customs are strictly followed. At 
 the Passover time they literally encamp on Mount 
 Gerizim for a week, and slay, roast, and eat the lambs 
 with their loins girt, and with staves in their hands, ob- 
 serving the minutest details of the ritual of the Penta- 
 teuch. They keep the Fast of the Atonement in the 
 most rigid manner, remaining in their synagogue all the 
 twenty-four hours without eating, drinking, or smoking, 
 the priests and people reciting the whole Pentateuch, 
 intermingled with prayers and confessions of faith. If 
 they have not a very strong Israelitish element in them, 
 their Judaic religion and the rigid conservatism with 
 which they have maintained it, are among the most re- 
 markable religious phenomena in the world. 
 
 ' See Stanley, " Jewish Cliurcli," and Mills, " Three Months' 
 Residence in Nablous." 
 
THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Clje #ounl3fi- of Cf)risttanit|). 
 
 Divergent views— Facts well-lmown— Contrast between Jesus and otlier 
 teachers— Originality In His teaching— In His character and mode of 
 life— A new ideal of love— Power of the unseen— The Divine Father- 
 Influence of future life— Faith required— Forgiveness of sins- The de- 
 mand for truth— Law of kindness— His relation to God the Father 
 — His relation to mankind — The special affection He inspired — His 
 treatment of women and of children— His limitations— Miracles— Salva- 
 tion from sin— Liheration from lower nature— Purpose of His life and 
 death— The society He founded— The sacraments— His mode of teaching 
 — The gnomic form — The concrete and practical— His parables— His 
 predictions— His Passion— The resurrection— St. Paul's testimony. 
 
 IN attempting to portray in some fashion the founda- 
 tion and history of Christianity, the writer reaches 
 the most critical and difScult portion of his task ; first, 
 because of the numberless important facts and Divergent 
 questions which cannot be dealt with in a views, 
 limited space ; secondly, on account of the vital relation 
 the facts described have to the beliefs and conduct of 
 multitudes of persons ; and thirdly, because of the contro- 
 versies which encircle so many incidents or general 
 questions relating especially to the early history of Chris- 
 tianity. The author must repeat that no dogmatic con- 
 clusions are here enforced. Those facts and views which 
 
 147 
 
ISO THE FOUNDER OF CHRISriANITY. 
 
 teaching in the maxims of other peoples, in the teaching 
 Originality of °^ other religious founders or philosophers be- 
 curist'steaon- fore His time. If it be true, or if it were true, 
 ™s- that much of His teaching had come into the 
 world piecemeal before, it would only be in accord with 
 the principle of evolution that is now found to have been 
 working in so many spheres. That which was before 
 spoken " by divers portions and in divers manners," was 
 gathered up and consummated in the Founder of Chris- 
 tianity. But we are by no means to take this as in any 
 way detracting from His originality : it simply proves Him 
 to have been in accord with the system of the course of 
 events of the world, and to have come at the right moment 
 in the world's history, in a truly natural relation to what 
 preceded. To have spoken words utterly new, ideas for 
 which the ground had in no way been prepared, would 
 have involved His instant death or banishment from 
 among men. All who have realised the intense aversion 
 of primitive or even civilised mankind to what is wholly 
 new and uncomprehended, will see that this must be the 
 case. Every true evolution, every evolution which is to 
 last, proceeds upon prepared material, and passes through 
 natural stages. Those whose bias is against seeing what 
 is called supernatural in human affairs, may gain confi- 
 dence in Christianity by considering and realising the 
 naturalness of the stages of its evolution, while those who 
 prefer to look at everything as the direct act of a Creator 
 or Heavenly Spirit, need not quarrel with the naturalists 
 who seek to discern the steps of the working, while ac- 
 knowledging their inability to penetrate behind the veil 
 which hides the mystery of the First Cause. 
 
 But Christ was original, first and most completely, in 
 His character and in the tenor of His life. He not merely 
 Originality in taught, but He exemplified a new spirit of 
 cnaracter and action which, though we speak of it bv the 
 mode of life. ^^^^ ^f "love," requires the adjective "Chris- 
 tian," and many explanatory words, such as sympathy, 
 brotherhood, charity, to represent it at all adequately' 
 In one aspect it depends upon the raising of mankind to a 
 position of brotherhood as being all the children of one 
 
POWER OF THE UNSEEN. 151 
 
 Father God ; iut the very conception of brotherhood was 
 raised and widened and intensified, in showing this fully. 
 Not merely the mutual attachment sometimes seen be- 
 tween brothers in ancient society, not the loving affection 
 of a David and Jonathan, of a Damon and Pythias, 
 capable of dying for one another, and lovingA new ideal of 
 each other as tenderly as man can love woman, i°^e- 
 but something beyond all this, was the brotherhood 
 which Jesus exemplified and taught. Mutual affection 
 could be inspired by mutual appreciation of good qualities, 
 clannish regard by community of kindred, associations, 
 habits, interests, etc. ; but Jesus showed an unheard-of 
 affection to those most unlike Him, most distant from 
 Him in habits and associations, even to those of evil life 
 and conduct. It is in these features that He established 
 a new ideal, and has had a vast number of imitators and 
 followers, inspired by His teaching and example. A new 
 type and kind of affection was added to the repertory of 
 human character. " A new commandment give I unto 
 you," He said, " that ye love one another, even as I have 
 loved yoti " — a love which could survive ingratitude, evil 
 conduct, and repudiation of Him, and could work to an 
 extreme for the reclamation of the erring. This was a 
 love shown, not merely to those who had once received 
 His teaching, or shown Him regard, but spontaneously 
 tendered to those who had done nothing to deserve it, to 
 all those who had in them any germ of good. " And who 
 has not ? " said Jesus ; for He asserted that the Father 
 of all did not will that any one should perish ; but that 
 whosoever would have everlasting life, on such conditions 
 as alone could make it a boon, might have it, and might 
 receive a spirit which would elevate their character and 
 enable them to do the will of their Heavenly Father. 
 
 It has been seen how great was and is the power of 
 the Invisible in other religions. In some ways that in- 
 fluence has been injurious, when it has peopled power of the 
 the unseen with demons and malignant spirits, unaeen. 
 and converted deceased relatives into beings to be 
 carefully propitiated, buried, and sacrificed to, lest they 
 should do harm to their survivors, The doctrine that no 
 
152 THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 calamity happens excepb as consequence of offences against 
 deities who must be propitiated by ceremonies, charms, 
 and sacrifices, has worked great ill ; and what has been 
 termed devil-worship may be afterwards seen to have 
 invaded even Christian Churches. 
 
 In some religions, however, there has been considerable 
 elevating influence in the conceptions of the Unseen and 
 
 The Divine of the Supreme Being ; but nowhere had these 
 Father, attained the grandeur, the purity, and the en- 
 nobling power seen in Judaism. But all this was raised 
 to an immeasurable degree by Jesus in His picture of God 
 as the Father — unseen, yet ever watching the actions of 
 His children, considering, not the outward act only, but 
 the inward motive, the strength of effort, the ' difficulties 
 overcome by each one. Other religions have attained, 
 in their loftiest examples, to a high regard of control 
 over the thoughts ; some of the Psalms, as the 103rd, 
 represent God as a Father, pitying His children, remem- 
 bering their frailty and imperfections, and tenderly re- 
 garding those that fear Him ; but none had gone so far 
 to bring the Father and His children generally into in- 
 timate relationship, or to make men realise a constantly 
 present Father, who was persistently kind in giving many 
 blessings even to the evil and the unthankful. 
 
 But in another direction Jesus exalted greatly the 
 ideal of the supreme Being by His teaching about im- 
 
 influeuoe of mortality and the dispensation of future happi- 
 : Future Life, ness and punishment. The conception of 
 future existence after death, and, to a less extent, of 
 a distribution of rewards and punishments according 
 to conduct or to the way in which gods and deceased 
 relatives had been propitiated, has been common among 
 many peoples. We have seen, too, that the Jews, 
 apparently slow in arriving at a full conception of it, 
 had certainly attained a very definite belief in later 
 times. So that Jesus, in bringing a future life into pro- 
 minence, was not so much revealing a new idea as tend- 
 ing to confirm it as a human tenet by lending to it the 
 enormous sanction of His character, persuasiveness and 
 credentials. He largely dwarfed the predominant influ- 
 
FAITH REQUIRED. 153 
 
 ence of events in this life, whether favourable or painful, 
 by bringing into prominence the future judgment and 
 redress of temporal inequalities. The descriptions of the 
 Great Assize and the Last Judgment have impressed 
 themselves, one would say, indelibly upon the imagination 
 of mankind, although as to the extent to which a perfect 
 picture can have been conveyed, or intended to be con- 
 veyed, in a narration addressed to a Ipcal audience in 
 an Oriental country, there may be great diversity of 
 opinion. In any case, the belief that a future judgment 
 is to take place, at which ' the 'condition of men will be 
 determined according to conduct in this life, has un- 
 doubtedly exercised an enormous influence, both in pro- 
 ducing converts to Christianity and in elevating their 
 moral tone ; on the other hand, abuses and detriment to 
 morals have arisen where men have come to believe that 
 repentance could readily be made, or absolution granted 
 by priests for sins wilfully committed. But this is outside 
 the teaching of Christ, which raised a mighty ideal and 
 • invisible bar or judgment-seat in each man's conscience, 
 saying, " You may be honourable and honoured before 
 the world, you may appear fair and pure to men, but 
 unless the inward motive and conduct be right, you have 
 to fear a just Judge hereafter, whose judgment will have 
 tile utmost influence on a state of existence from which 
 you cannot escape." 
 
 It may be said that faith was not a teaching of Jesus 
 by which He was distinguished from many other religious 
 teachers; for they have required their pupils Faitii 
 to believe in their teaching and doctrines, and required, 
 to practise them. But in one respect His teaching about 
 faith had a pecuUarity. Salvation, forgiveness, or the 
 special boon needed, could be obtained by faith without 
 special works in most cases. The cure was mental or 
 spiritual alone, and did not require payment to the 
 teacher, going through a ceremony, joining an order, a 
 daily rite of purification, etc., though, of course, the loss 
 of faith implied loss of the state produced by faith. And 
 there was one of these states of the utmost importance to 
 the peace of the convert, in producing which by an act of 
 
1 54 THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANIl^Y. 
 
 faith, Christ effected a more astonishing revolution than 
 Forgiveness Buddha by receiving converts into his Order 
 of sins. i-,y jj^jg simple formula ; for Christ left His con- 
 verts in the world for the most part, telling them they 
 would have tribulation there, but the consciousness of the 
 forgiveness of their sins, through their faith in this as- 
 surance, was to support them ; they were to be at ease, 
 for He had overcome the world, and was superior to it. 
 That consciousness of sin which had gradually become so 
 intense in the ancient world, concurrently with increased 
 licentiousness and decay in nearly all religions, had from 
 Him the only remedy which could relieve the soul from 
 the load of guilt — its abolition, or the abolition of its 
 paralysing weight, when faith in His teaching about 
 Himself and about God had purified and elevated the 
 character so as to start it effectually on a higher course of 
 life. 
 
 In another direction, where originality was not so 
 apparent in the teaching, it yet did inestimable service. 
 The demand It may be said that all Nature tends to estab- 
 for truth, jish truth ; for the thing that only pretends to 
 be that which it is not, cannot last ; and men in conflict 
 with reality and actual force, cannot but succumb. Christ 
 not only sanctioned the Mosaic command not to bear false 
 witness, but He carried the domain of truth into the 
 most inward thought, everywhere where the world can- 
 not follow us. Perhaps this does not go beyond the 
 Psalmist's " Thou desirest truth in the inward parts " ; 
 but in practice the spiritual nature of Christ's action went 
 beyond that of His most exacting predecessor. He, it 
 may be said, established the demand, the ideal of inward 
 truth and purity, in a position beyond which it cannot 
 be carried : for what can be truer than absolute truth ? 
 It is, indeed, the fundamental element towards progress ; 
 and though man's nature is destined to ascend through 
 illusions to the truth, the progress, if any, must be to- 
 wards absolute truth in all directions. A. perfect ideal 
 has been set up, the race is started on the road ; if it do 
 not pursue it unceasingly, it will die out. And thus 
 scientific investigation— even th© severest critical study 
 
HIS RELATION TO GOD THE FATHER. 155 
 
 of tlie New Testament and Christianity in modern times, 
 which alone have possessed certain methods and powers 
 and resources of inquiry — may take its stand firmly, as 
 fulfilling Christ's own requirement, emphasised by St. 
 Paul in the words, "Prove all things:" "We can do 
 nothing against the truth, but for the truth." No 
 criticism by reasonable methods, with a pure desire to 
 attain truth, is to be discountenanced hj a true follower 
 of Christ; and bias and unconscious desire. and tendency 
 to support preconceived notions or the interests of party, 
 are not restricted either to the apologists or to the 
 opponents of Christianity. 
 
 By many precepts of varying colour, Christ discoun- 
 tenanced revenge and substituted a supreme law of kind- 
 ness. Our fellow-men are to be treated as a Law of 
 loving Father would treat his loved and erring Kndness. 
 children ; our neighbour is whoever is in need of our 
 help, and whom we can really help ; we are to put our- 
 selves in our neighbours' or enemies' place, and do to them 
 what we would be glad to have done to us in like case. 
 These precepts, as recorded, were given broadly by Jesus, 
 without a full analysis of circumstances and instances, 
 that being left to individual men to work out for them- 
 selves ; and herein, as He showed the same love Himself, 
 He created it in others, and taught men to "love their 
 enemies, to do good to them that hate them." "Who will 
 say that the world is not the richer, that human character 
 is not more noble, for the instances in which this ideal 
 has been literally followed ? 
 
 One of the most potent influences of the life of Jesus 
 is expressed in His saying, " He who hath seen Me hath 
 seen the Father." This is to be understood, his relation 
 not as contradicting the assertion, " No man can ^^°^^^^ 
 see My face and live," but as indicating what 
 Christians believe to be true, that in His person Jesus 
 revealed and exemplified the nature of the Divine Father 
 of all mankind in a way which no other man and no 
 other revelation have done. And this may be taken m 
 a sense not always thought of. If there be a Creator. 
 He must be greater than all. Every true and noble ideal 
 
156 THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 must be but apartial showing forth of that which is inHim. 
 A study of the various descriptions which Jesus gave 
 of Himself shows that He had a clear consciousness, 
 amounting to absolute certainty, of unity of will and 
 His relation Spirit with the supreme Father. At the same 
 to mankina. tij^e He represented Himself as specially related 
 to all mankind, as being "the Son of man," the repre- 
 sentative of mankind, born to enfranchise them, to teach 
 them how to attain unity with God, and to redeem them 
 from evil and the power of evil. Some statements attri- 
 buted to Him are by some critics questioned as not being 
 genuine, others are supposed to be coloured by the nar- 
 rator's mind; but that He believed and represented Him- 
 self to be in a special and unique sense both Son of God 
 and Son of man there is no reasonable ground for doubt- 
 ing. Moreover we cannot doubt that the evidence of His 
 life and character, His words and works, was sufficient to 
 convert many apathetic or hostile persons into ardent 
 believers and followers. Those who regard these beliefs 
 as delusions have a heavy task in explaining their relation 
 to a sincere character like that of Jesus, or in explaining 
 how a false belief could generate so mighty a force as 
 Christianity. Much more in accord with scientific truth 
 is it to say, that Christianity succeeded by virtue of the 
 truth that was in it, however much error became iihingled 
 with it ; and he who can separate the beliefs of and about 
 Jesus as to His divine nature from His moral teaching, 
 and show how the latter alone could have produced such 
 results, will have accomplished more than has yet been 
 done. Has any lofty moral teaching alone regenerated 
 and elevated a large portion of mankind ? Could any- 
 thing not accredited as a revelation persuade people that 
 God was not merely a distant powerful Governor, but 
 also a loving Father ? Could any revelation convincingly 
 persuade men of the latter teaching, unless it was exem- 
 plified in the perfect life of One who as man believed 
 and realised the Fatherhood of God, and who could gener- 
 ate a conviction that He was so intimately in union with 
 God that He could reveal the mind and nature of that 
 Father ? 
 
''ECCE HOMO:' 
 
 157 
 
 As a human being, Jesus inspired the most powerful 
 affection in a large number of people that had ^^. ,„,^,„ 
 ever been known, an affection which in many affection He 
 disciples became stronger tkan all the ties of inspired. 
 
 " ECCE HOMO " (after GUIDO). 
 
 kindred, and that too in persons whose affection for 
 kindred was unusually strong. What could have inspired 
 such affection except the realisation that in Jesus a greater 
 
158 THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 love than any man had previously shown claimed their 
 admiration and won their hearts ? And this aiFection_ was 
 manifested in all kinds of human conditions and relations, 
 excepting that of marriage, wherein men and women 
 have simply to rise, in their true spiritual unions, to the 
 degree of love and helpfulness which Jesus manifested 
 for all mankind. In physical weakness, in joys and sor- 
 rows, Jesus showed Himself not merely sympathetic with 
 others, but intensely desirous of sympathy, craving such 
 His treatmentbrotherly sympathy from His beloved friends 
 of women, as He gave them lavishly Himself. Towards 
 women He was so tender, so considerate, so charitable 
 that He raised an ideal of helpfulness and tenderness 
 towards the most degraded of the sex such as no Christian 
 people has ever yet fully exemplified, but which must 
 be practically realised before any people can be said to 
 be Christlike. And when He spoke of the marriage 
 union, it was in words which made no distinction of 
 subjection between the parties. 
 
 Towards children Jesus was exceptionally and specially 
 tender. Few records of other religions show any par- 
 
 And of ticular bias towards children ; but Jesus on all 
 
 children, occasions spoke of and to* them with special 
 appreciation, and, indeed, raised out of them and their 
 innocent simplicity an ideal of the Christ-like spirit 
 which has had an enormous influence in moulding the 
 characters of Christians. " To become as a little child," 
 in simplicity, in reverence, in acce^Dtance of and com- 
 pliance with the paternal will, in reliance upon the fatherly 
 blessing and good- will, has been engraved upon the hearts 
 of multitudes as the ideal, the test, the goal beyond 
 which, in its fullest realisation. Christian life could not 
 pass, but towards which it must ever unrestingly press. 
 This is one of Christ's phrases which contains within |it 
 the elements of transcendent discipline, just like those 
 other phrases : "as I have loved you," "the baptism I 
 am baptised with," " it is My meat and My drink to do 
 the will of My Father." 
 
 A matter of the utmost importance may here be re- 
 ferred to. At one time the belief in the Divinity of 
 
MIRACLES. 159 
 
 Christ had so intensely impressed itself on a large part 
 of Christendom that it obscured His true man-nis voluntary 
 hood. At the present day Christ's humanity is limitations, 
 very generally and fully realised, and attention is widely 
 given to the question what limitation that manhood in- 
 volved. There is emphatic testimony in the New Testa- 
 ment to the fact of the existence of many ordinary human 
 limitations ; and in the view of Pauline theology this took 
 place by a voluntary renunciation or "emptying" (kenosis) 
 on the part of the Son of God. But what this involved 
 and how far it extended, while no human being seems 
 competent to pronounce, many have taken in hand to 
 discuss. All such theorising must be doubtful, and it is 
 often carried to just that point which the theorist' needs 
 to explain his own particular theory of inspiration or of 
 the fallibility or infallibility of Jesus as a human being. 
 We will merely suggest that a humanity which, in regard 
 to mere htiman knowledge, gave Jesus a nature out of 
 touch with the intellectual grade reached by the men by 
 whom He' was surrotinded, would have caused Him to be 
 regarded as a madman. The insight His pure nature 
 displayed into spiritual things, into the invisible things 
 of God, was sufficient to cause His teaching to be re- 
 ceived in most cases as an idle tale ; and if to that 
 spiritual insight the knowledge which has only been 
 attained in late years had been superadded, it would 
 surely have been impossible for Him to gain any hearing 
 at all. It seems most reasonable that in things of merely 
 human learning the Messiah should only have the or- 
 dinary equipment of humanity,^ while as a pure soul 
 (leaving out of consideration the question of His divine 
 nature) He should see indefinitely farther into the mean- 
 ing of nature and its underlying realities than any 
 human being had previously penetrated. 
 
 That Jesus worked miracles, or at least professed or 
 appeared to do so, is evident on the face of jij^acies. 
 the New Testament narratives. Those who 
 
 ' This gives a keynote by which many explain the accord of 
 Jesus's expressions about Satan, demonology, demoniac possession, 
 etc., with current opinions. 
 
i6o 
 
 THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 have imagined a Divine and yet non-miraculous Jesus 
 have to perform extraordinary operations upon the nar- 
 ratives or invent equally strange hypotheses to make out 
 a case. Even those who regard Christ as simply a human 
 
 CHUKCa OF THE HOLY SEPULCHUK, JEEHSAIiEM (eXTEHIOB). 
 
 teacher, may readily admit the working of many signs 
 and wonders as due to His extraordinary will power, and 
 the physical and moral effect of His unique personality. 
 What many scientific men refuse to admit is, that any 
 
MIRACLES. i6i 
 
 miracle can have been worked by Him whicli contravened, 
 suspended, or neutralised physical laws, or which broke 
 through the established order of nature. To the faith of 
 most Christians even such an apparent breach of con- 
 tinuity presents no stumbling-block, for that Power which 
 established the order could surely provide also for the 
 exceptional occasions when "miracle" was needed in order 
 to establish some fact or produce some belief. A view 
 which would reconcile the scientific with the Christian 
 attitude is, that a character so intensely in accord with 
 the Divine power in moral and spiritual questions as that 
 of Jesus, may also be supposed to have a deep insight 
 into the springs of physical nature and the influence of 
 mind on matter ; and that it involves no greater stretch 
 of probability that He should work physical miracles by 
 or in virtue of the deeper laws of the universe, than that 
 He should work moral miracles by virtue of a similar 
 insight into mental and moral laws. It was His mission 
 to endeavour to heal all the evils He saw, to restore man- 
 kind to mental, moral, and physical sanity and reasonable- 
 ness, to elevate their entire nature, so that they might 
 realise a right relationship to God. What wonder that 
 He should have benefited their bodies as well as their 
 souls ? Often He used what we call appropriate " means " ; 
 at other times we have no record of anything but will- 
 power, or prayer to God, preceding cure or miracle. Be- 
 hind these records we cannot penetrate. Those who can 
 find their full aspirations after goodness and the Divine 
 satisfied without the necessity of believing in miracle, have 
 a difficult task to eliminate the miraculous from the New 
 Testament without destroying the historical credibility of 
 the other portions. The majority of Christians will not 
 cease to believe in the miracles of Jesus because they are 
 told that they could not have been ; they believe that the 
 fallibility of man has not yet generated infallibility in 
 the scientific man ; and they find it easier to believe in a 
 miraculous Christ than in the marvellous growth and 
 general beneficence of Christianity upon a fabric of de- 
 lusion. 
 
 To give relief from bodily disease was, however, but a 
 
 L 
 
102 THE POUNDER OE CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 minor aim of the Son of man. His deep impulse and de- 
 sire to deliver men from the evils which degraded their con- 
 duct and thought, was ever prominent. By a multitude 
 
 Salvation of methods He sought to make men realise their 
 
 from sin. state of alienation from God, their need of re- 
 conciliation, of purification, of forgiveness. The realisa- 
 tion of the truth about themselves was the first, the great- 
 est step to rectification, to amendment. Often it was 
 accomplished by a very short interview, almost by a look 
 on the pure face which h^ contrast revealed the impurity 
 elsewhere. At other times arguments were needed. Some- 
 times the light of truth was successfully resisted ; but 
 every seeker after truth gained ready access to Him and 
 abundant and suitable teaching. Every man and woman 
 found an intelligible condition at the gate of the new life, 
 the " kingdom of heaven," as Jesus called it. Some test 
 was imposed, varying greatly with circumstances — such 
 as a belief in the forgiveness of sins, a belief that a cure 
 would be accomplished, an act of practical' beneficence, 
 an act of renunciation, etc. — rarely anything like a belief 
 in a lengthy or a complete creed ; but compliance with 
 the test secured Jesus's assurance of pardon or blessing. 
 As far as can be judged from the narratives, the new 
 state of deliverance from evil passions or from sin was to 
 be evidenced by " works meet for repentance," a con- 
 tinual advance in well-doing, a continual practice of those 
 good deeds which He taught. 
 
 It was this passionate desire to free mankind from the 
 chains of the lower nature, from the pains due to an- 
 
 Liberation fagonism to or ignorance of God, that gave 
 from lower Jesus His most binding influence on men. A 
 nature. ^^^^^ .^^^^ -^^^^ ^^ Selfish aim, no personal object 
 to gain, but who cared supremely to know and to relieve 
 the troubles of those whom He met — this was the man 
 whom the common people heard gladly, and whom they 
 would have forcibly made a king. When He made de- 
 mands upon them which seemed irksome about the pure 
 Rnd holy life they were to lead, or taught them doctrines 
 which were difficult for them to comprehend or believe, 
 many shrank back ; but the germ of faith remained in 
 
THE SOCIETY HE FOUNDED. 163 
 
 many, Avhich later events quickened into vigorous life, 
 and which soon made the foundations of Christianity 
 broad and strong. At first inclined to accept Him as 
 the long-looked-for Messiah who was to restore the tem- 
 poral kingdom to Judsea, the people afterwards turned 
 against Him because He refused to lead a national move- 
 ment ; but when His death and the subsequent events 
 were felt and reflected upon, they realised and never 
 doubted that He was the true Messiah of the Jews, a 
 belief which the antagonism of the mass of the Jews them- 
 selves has no weight in weakening. 
 
 His intimate disciples — a body of men admirably chosen 
 as witnesses of His actions and as propagators of His teach- 
 ing — had no lack of teaching which indicated ^-^^ purpose 
 to them the part which His life and death were of His life 
 to play in raising mankind to a condition of ^'i^'i^^.tiL 
 freedom from sin and conscious accord with God. We 
 have various forms of this teaching handed down to us, 
 such as that He came to seek and save the lost, that 
 belief on Him was to secure salvation and heaven, that 
 He gave His blood for the life of the world, that His 
 going away secured the Holy Spirit as a continual com- 
 forter for His disciples ; but there is nothing which defi- 
 nitely gives any one of the theoretic statements drawn 
 up later by theologians. The precise mechanism of sal- 
 vation by Himself Christ nowhere expounds — it is so 
 simple, as He states it, as hardly to need any definition ; 
 and it is questionable whether all the discussion which 
 has taken place about the "atonement," "justification," 
 " vicarious suffering," " substitutional punishment," and 
 " forgiveness," has advanced knowledge at all beyond the 
 simple statements of Christ as given in the gospels. 
 
 It is obvious that Christ designed to found a society 
 which should last after His death, and that He chose 
 His disciples as fitting agents for establishing The society 
 and continuing that society. As to the mode ^® founded, 
 in which that society should be governed, no definite 
 regulations were given. The object of His servants was 
 to be holiness, beneficence, and unity of spirit. Most of 
 the details bearing on the conduct of His servants were; 
 
l64 THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 given specially to the twelve disciples, but they have 
 been adopted by the general instinct and consent of the 
 majority of Christians ; such are the Lord's Prayer, the 
 special efficacy of united prayer, and the two special 
 The observances termed Sacraments, modes of con- 
 
 sacraments. secration. It has been elsewhere seen that 
 most religions had " mysteries " and festivals. The 
 highest examples of these are the Christian initiation 
 ceremony of " Baptism," and the Eucharist, or " Supper 
 of the Lord," in which His death is perpetually ' remem- 
 bered as a pledge of pardon, a bond of union, and a 
 means of renewal of strength. Of the Lord's Supper it 
 may be remarked that nothing like transubstantiation 
 can have been denoted by it ; for the bread was broken 
 and given in the presence of the complete body of Jesus, 
 and the cup of wine was declared to be the new covenant, 
 or the blood of the covenant, when as yet Christ's blood 
 had not been shed. The ideas of magical conversion of 
 substance, or of magical efficacy of the material of the 
 supper, find no support in the earliest accounts ; in fact, 
 they seem to be negatived by the words, " This do in 
 remembrance of Me." His blood was shed, said Christ, 
 for many, unto remission of sins ; and the remembrance 
 of that supreme act of sacrifice is ever kept fresh in the 
 heart of His followers by the rite which He instituted on 
 the eve of His death. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary here to enlarge upon the charac- 
 ter of Christ's addresses and teaching. Their superiority 
 
 His mode of to those of any other teacher is well established. 
 
 teaching, j^ j^ay be granted that the most striking things 
 
 He said have been preserved, and these show an abundant 
 
 use of proverbs, parables, similitudes, parallelism, paradox. 
 
 The gnomic and even hyperbole. " The gnomic form, in 
 form, which each thought is rounded off concisely, 
 leaving no cause for further amplification, and thus 
 making it easy for the memory to retain it . . . readily 
 takes the form of Hebrew parallelism (Matt. vii. 2), at one 
 time antithetical (Luke xiv. 11), at another carrying for- 
 ward the idea on a parallel line (Matt. x. 40), and yet 
 again so presenting one part as an illustration of the 
 
THE GNOMIC FORM. 165 
 
 other (Mark ii. 17) that in order to its apprehension it is 
 essential to perceive which side contains the real pith of 
 the idea. A gnome is enlivened by a play upon words, 
 sometimes by the same words being repeated in different 
 meanings in the various sections (Matt. x. 39), at others 
 by different phases of the idea being placed in relation 
 to each other through the choice of a consonant expres- 
 sion (Matt. X. 32). A special peculiarity in the gnomic 
 form, however, is its giving one phase of an idea with 
 great acuteness and force without adding the necessary 
 precautions for its proper application (Matt. vii. 1) ; it 
 does not consider the inevitable exceptions (Matt. x. 24), 
 nor the precise circumstances in which the saying holds 
 good, and which we can only guess at (Matt. xx. 16, xxv. 
 29). This is why it so often presents an appearance of 
 one-sidedness (Matt. vii. 7), of paradox (John ix. 39), of 
 exaggeration (Matt. xii. 30; Mark ix. 46), and even of 
 contradiction (comp. John v. 31 with viii. 14, iii. 17 with 
 ix. 39). Out of these apophthegms are formed collections 
 of sayings which revolve round one principal idea or have 
 reference to one definite object." ^ 
 
 In true adaptation to His hearers' capacities and modes 
 of thinking, Jesus was everywhere definite, concrete, 
 practical in His teaching. These details, of ^iie concrete 
 which the most unlearned take hold, were and 
 always used by Him as a means of instruction. P'^^''t''=^i- 
 His imagery in most cases deals with what is well known ; 
 His metaphors transfer the sensuous to the spiritual 
 sphere ; He connects His instruction with nature with a 
 sure touch which itself testifies to a deep underlying 
 oneness with nature and its cause. From nature He 
 teaches God's all-embracing Providence, and the symbolic 
 meaning underlying the commonest events. Every 
 circumstance in the spiritual life is shown to have 
 its analogue in the life of sense, in the phenomena of 
 nature. 
 
 In His parables Jesus gave His most original and unique 
 form of instruction. Almost every circumstance of life is 
 
 • Weiss, '• Life of Christ," ii. 108. (Clark's Foreign Theological 
 Librarj-.) 
 
l66 THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 abundantly illustrated by them. " No standing or rela- 
 His parables *^°^ °^ ^^^ '^^ wanting. They are all there, the 
 ' builder and merchant, the general, doctor, baker 
 and tailor, the wine-drinker and cooper, the rich man and 
 the beggar before his door, the creditor and his debtor, 
 the watchman and the thief, the blind man and his 
 guide, the master of the house exhibiting his treasures, 
 the mother in her sorest need, the maidservant carrying 
 the lamp, the little ones who cast the crumbs from their 
 tables to the dogs, the children at play and the sons 
 at work, the free son and the purchased slave, the servant 
 and the labourer, the bridegroom and his friends, the 
 bride and her maidens, the honoured guests who occupy 
 the best places at the feast, and the man in rags who is 
 thrust forth " (Weiss). And by a free use of the principle 
 of striking contrast, the most powerful rhetorical or 
 emotional effects are produced. 
 
 That Jesus predicted future events can only be denied 
 by those who reject the narratives in the gospels, or who 
 Hi3 predio- "believe that they represent misunderstandings 
 tions. Qf ^jjat He said. But it would be most natural 
 for any one who believed himself to be a prophet to 
 refer to future events ; and that He predicted His own 
 sufferings, painful death, and resurrection on the third 
 day seems to us most certain. It was not merely a vague 
 foreboding of coming ill, but a definite consciousness of 
 what must inevitably come, that inspired His numerous 
 references to these events ; and although the narratives of 
 the gospels appear to obscure several points, the destruc- 
 tion of Jerusalem and the Temple was definitely pre- 
 dicted, together with certain phenomena attending the 
 end of the world and the final judgment of mankind. 
 Many claim that the fulfilment of near events proves 
 that we may rely on what He foreshadowed of the last 
 days. Others qualify this by saying, that of such tran- 
 scendent events only a merely approximate notion can be 
 given by any verbal description. But the tremendous 
 picture of the great assize remains as a most potent force, 
 ever working on the religious conscience of mankind. 
 
 When we come to speak of the Passion in Qethsemane, 
 
HIS PASSION. 
 
 167 
 
 we feel how inadequate all discussion of it must be. "Who 
 but the Son of Man could feel the burden He ^^^ passion 
 was bearing ? "With entire determination to 
 do the will of Grod, the human frame of weakness had to 
 bear the consciousness of the pain involved, the mental 
 
 
 R^li-'^^ 
 
 
 Chukoii op the holy sbpulohbe, jeeusalem (inteeiok). 
 
 sorrow for the Jews who were rejecting Him, for the sin 
 of the world. "With as much certainty as His death is 
 recorded, there is narrated His prayer for relief from the 
 death that was coming. Yet, " Not what I will, but 
 what Thou wilt." The cruel details which follow are 
 
i58 THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 intensified by fuller knowledge and reflection respecting 
 them. Bitter taunts of enemies, desertion by His disciples 
 in the hour of need, prolonged physical torment of an 
 overwrought and sensitive nature, a lingering painful 
 death — what wonder that exhausted humanity, left as 
 man to bear the extremest trial, implored God as having 
 forsaken Him ? Yet even at this crisis He prayed for 
 His murderers, and commended His soul to God ; and 
 His demeanour convinced the Roman centurion who stood 
 by, that He was certainly a righteous Man. Few indeed 
 have ever impugned that testimony. 
 
 The Resurrection of Christ, in addition to the actual 
 history of the triumphs of Christianity, constitutes an 
 The Eesur- element essential to Christianity as hitherto 
 rection. understood. A Christianity without a resur- 
 rection would be something different ; it would lack that 
 which constitutes the supreme stimulus for most people 
 to noble action or patient resignation, the belief that a 
 reappearance after death has taken place, such as to 
 guarantee the possibility or the certaintj'- of life after 
 death. If no resurrection has taken place, Christians may 
 well adopt the words of St. Paul : then is their faith void, 
 and without its chief support, though it may be contended 
 that the rightness of Christian conduct and the perfection 
 of the Christian ideal are independent of a future life and 
 are capable of being realised in the present. "Without 
 discussing, so complex a matter as the evidence for the" 
 resurrection, it may be said that if the evidence we have 
 for its real occurrence cannot be believed, we can believe 
 no remarkable event of ancient times that is not proved 
 in some way not depending on human testimony. Per- 
 haps the most cogent of all is the testimony of St. Paul, 
 St. Paul's who wrote nearest to the events of which he 
 testimony, spoke, as to the numerous occasions on which 
 Jesus was seen after His death. He was imbued with 
 the most exclusive doctrines of the Pharisees, so antagon- 
 istic to the claims of Jesus; he was a most bitter perse- 
 cutor of the new sect ; he was educated to sift evidence 
 in the best way then possible, and in many ways he 
 showed capacity in that art ; yet, when we cannot but 
 
THE CROWN OF THORNS. 169 
 
 believe that he made the most careful inquiries possible 
 
 THE CnOWN OF THORNS. 
 
 to avoid being deceived, he records a number and a 
 
lyo THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 variety of appearances which we must take as being 
 the most matured belief, founded on the best evidence 
 examined by one of the acutest minds of the age, a very 
 short time after the dates at which they occurred ; and 
 this behef, with other more internal influences, sufficed 
 to make him the most devoted, the most persevering, the 
 most successful of the founders of Christianity. We can- 
 not doubt that without this belief St. Paul would have 
 regarded his faith as void, his hope vain, and hence 
 we come to a dilemma, only second to that in which 
 w6 are placed by the nature of Jesus — either this man 
 was deluded or he was dishonest. If he was either, 
 could he have so moved the minds of his contemporaries ? 
 Of those who answer that he was deluded, we may ask. 
 Why was no attempt ever made to produce the dead body 
 of Jesus after His burial ? Is it conceivable that the poor, 
 scattered, insignificant adherents of Jesus could have 
 stolen and hidden that body in the face of Roman guards 
 and a Pharisaic majority, so that all trace of it or its 
 conveyance should have vanished ? Yet, in pursuance of 
 our plan of non-dogmatism, we must leave the question 
 to be determined by each reader for himself. We may 
 note, however, how entirely the recorded appearances 
 of Jesus accord with the spiritual nature of Christianity, 
 in strong contrast to the gross and coarse character of 
 most of the so-called incarnations of Vishnu and other 
 Hindu gods. To quote Dr. Geikie, " Even when most 
 closely touching the material and earthly. He is always 
 seen speaking and acting only as a spirit — coming sud- 
 denly, revealing Himself in an imperceptibly increasing 
 completeness, which culminates at last in some unmistak- 
 able sign, and presently vanishing as suddenly as He ap- 
 peared." It is worthy of remark, that numerous and 
 varied interpretations are possible, and have been put 
 forward, as to what it was that underlay the phenomena 
 seen by Christ's disciples after His death, and that in 
 going beyend the assertion that essentially the same Jesus 
 — glorified in some indefinable way — appeared, whom thev 
 had known before, and proved Himself so by unmistak- 
 able signs, no means exist of deciding between rival 
 
ST. PAUL'S testimony: 171 
 
 hypotheses. The Ascension is the natural culmination of 
 the resurrection appearances ; but here again, if we travel 
 beyond the simple record, we enter a region of speculation 
 which cannot admit of proof. 
 
 Here we must leave the greatest subject in the world's 
 history, having but glanced at a few of its aspects very 
 briefly. Men are almlost all agreed that the life of Jesus 
 was one of pure beneficence and sinlessness. They are 
 less agreed as to the deeper meaning and effect of His life, 
 and still less agreed to follow His example. That His life 
 has not yet won all its triumphs may be seen by the daily 
 increasing infliience of Christian philanthropy as a prin- 
 ciple guiding the efforts of those who do not recognise 
 Jesus as Divine. The ideals of citizenship, of care for 
 the poor, weak, and sick, owe to Him far more than can 
 easily be gauged. "We cannot imagine what the world 
 would have been without Him. 
 
 We cannot here discuss the views held of the birth and 
 the person of Christ. Each theological school has its 
 own standards on these questions, and every man's belief, 
 founded upon careful investigation, is to ' be respected. 
 We would suggest that the importance of doctrines about 
 Christ is less than the influence of His words and life, and 
 that where these fail to amend and elevate life and char- 
 acter, definitions, dogmas, and doctrines will seldom avail. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 CI)c ^th) Ccstamtnt. 
 
 Origin of the gospels— Probably written years after events— The Pauline 
 epistles — Repetition of the sayings and doings of Jesus— Early partial 
 narratives — Synoptic gospels — Theories of their origin — Papias — 
 Clement of Rome— Epistles of Ignatius, Poly carp, and Bamahas— Justin 
 Martyr- Internal evidences — Date of the synoptic gospels— The Fourth 
 Gospel— Distinctions of style -Doctrine of the Logos— Early testimonies 
 —Internal evidence— Acts of the Apostles— Apocryphal gospels and Acts 
 —Epistle to Hebrews— Epistles of Peter, James and Jude— The Revelation 
 —Manuscripts of New Testament— Sinaitic and other Manuscripts- 
 Versions. 
 
 IN the opinion of the great majority of Biblical students 
 the documents recording the life of Jesus proceeded 
 Origin of the either from His immediate disciples, or from 
 
 gospels, those who learnt the facts directly from them. 
 For those who believe in the entire accuracy of every 
 word of the gospels there are still left the problems, which 
 of the many diversities in the existing manuscripts are 
 correct, and also how the apparently or reallj'' contradic- 
 tory features in the various narratives are to be explained. 
 We can here only take a brief view of a few of the 
 questions surrounding the growth of the gospels and 
 other New Testament books. 
 
 Two circumstances prevented the writing of lives of 
 Christ in the very earliest period after His death ; viz., 
 
 Probably *^^ facts (1) that the verbal testimony of those 
 written years who had seen and known Him was attainable; 
 after events, g^^^^ ^^2) that Owing to certain of His expressions, 
 there was a general expectation of His early second coming 
 to judge the world, and to assume the rule over mankind. 
 
THE PAULINE EPISTLES. 173 
 
 When the death of many had thinned the ranks of those 
 who could bear personal testimony, and when the lapse 
 of time made it appear that Christ's second coming might 
 be deferred to a later period, the need for records began 
 to be felt. But before this period had arrived, Tiie Pauline 
 a series of letters, the Epistles of St. Paul, were episties. 
 already in existence, having been written on the spur of 
 particular occasions, which are for the most part specified. 
 Thus 1 Thessalonians was written in a.d. 52 or 63, on the 
 return of Timothy, whom Paul sent from Athens to the 
 Thessalonian Christians. 2 Thessalonians followed some 
 years later. The Epistles to the Romans, Corinthians, 
 and Gralatians are obviously written soon after the circum- 
 stances related in them, and must be ascribed to dates 
 about A.D. 57 and 58. Several other epistles were written 
 during the apostle's imprisonment at Rome. The so- 
 called Pastoral Epistles (Timothy, Titus) are those on 
 whose authenticity most doubt has been thrown ; for al- 
 though their recognition by orthodox Fathers was wide- 
 spread and early, some heretical teachers, such as Marcion, 
 rejected them, or did not mention them. They have some 
 peculiarities of phrases and words which do not occur in 
 the other Pauline epistles ; and it is not easy to harmonise 
 them with the narrative in the Acts. It is suggested that 
 they were written after St. Paul's release from imprison- 
 ment at Rome — a release of which there is an independent 
 tradition. In that case the Acts of the Apostles would be 
 already written before their date, for it appears probable 
 that the record of the apostolic labours was written during 
 St. Paul's imprisonment, and this affords the most satis- 
 factory reason for the sudden ending of the Acts — be- 
 cause nothing more of importance had then happened. 
 Already before any one of the gospels, as we have them, 
 had been written, the Pauline epistles were in existence, 
 and many confidently assert that all the essentials of the 
 character and teaching of -Christ can be put together 
 from these alone.^ Thus we certainly have some docu- 
 ments which substantially, in their present form, have 
 ' See Rev, Prof. Beet, "Epistles to Eomans, Corinthians and 
 Ephesians " (Hodder and Stonghton). 
 
174 THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 come down to us from the apostolic age, wlien the facts 
 and persons mentioned were known, and wlien critics, 
 who were quite as hostile and as eager to destroy at that 
 time as now, would sharply examine and unsparingly de- 
 nounce any statements known to be untrue. 
 
 When the gospels as we have them began to be written, 
 
 the narrations given by the apostles and evangelists had 
 
 already long been current ; and as the most 
 
 Te1ay??g° striking sayings of Jesus would be often re- 
 
 and doiBgs of peated, they must have become widely and 
 
 Jesus, ggjj^erally known. Therefore it is inconceiv- 
 able that accounts which were largely at variance with 
 the apostles' teaching should have become accepted. It 
 could only be those which were in accord with them that 
 gained general acceptation ; and when we find early 
 Fathers as well as some heretics quoting phrases from 
 and referring to the gospels in the second century, we 
 cannot doubt that the gospels which survived them 
 were genuine products of the apostles or their immediate 
 hearers. 
 
 Nothing seems more likely than that various early 
 hearers of the apostles should have written down what 
 Early partial they had heard; and this is indeed definitely 
 narratives, stated in the preface to St. Luke's gospel, which 
 reveals to us its own genesis. Out of fragmentary or 
 partial records, more or less accurate, as well as by per- 
 sonal inquiry, he " traced the course of all things accu- 
 rately from the first," and wrote them "in order." And 
 this may be taken as the process of construction of the 
 other gospels, with variations dependent upon the writer, 
 his circumstances and his opportunities. 
 
 It is evident that many passages are narrated substantiT 
 ally in the same words, though often in a different order. 
 
 Synoptic bj'' the three first gospels, which are conse- 
 
 gospeis. quently termed synoptic. Their accounts of 
 the life of Jesus are very similar, even to their recording 
 the majority of the same events and discourses." In 
 
 - " Of a total of 1,071 verses, Matthew lias 387 in common with 
 Mark and Luke, 130 in common with Mark, 184 in common with 
 Luke, and 870 peculiar to himself. Of Mark's 662 verses, 406 are 
 
TESTIMONV OP PA PI AS. trs 
 
 many instances they use precisely tlae same words, even 
 to the use of rare words or expressions, sometimes quoting 
 from the Old Testament in a form different from either 
 the Hebrew or the Septuagint. 
 
 The principal hypotheses on which it is sought to ex- 
 plain the facts are three. The first is that the second 
 evangelist (in order of time) borrowed from the Theories of 
 first, and the third from the other two. Thus tueir origin. 
 Mark has been 'supposed to have condensed his nan'ative 
 from Matthew, and Luke to have had both before him 
 when he wrote. The second hypothesis is that of a 
 primitive written gospel, not now in existence, but more 
 or less traceable in the words and passages common to 
 all three synoptists. The third is that there was a common 
 oral gospel, generally diffused in practically identical terms, 
 of which each evangelist made independent use. It can 
 be shown that no one of these views satisfactorily explains 
 every discrepancy or difference. Some regard a combina- 
 tion of all the hypotheses as furnishing the best explana- 
 tion. In fact, there is a tendency to consider that there 
 were two primary documents : that from which St. Mark 
 may have borrowed, and another described as the " Logia," 
 —sayings or discourses of Jesus. 
 
 Here we may quote from Papias, bishop of Hierapolis 
 in Phrygia, in the first half of the second century. All 
 we have from him is contained in half-a-dozen Testimony of 
 sentences quoted by Eusebius ; but their mean- Papias. 
 ing has been unduly strained, and also very insecure 
 inferences have been drawn from what he does not say in 
 these sentences, and from what it is thought Eusebius 
 would certainly have quoted if Papias had said it. Papias 
 wrote an exposition of the oracles (or discourses) of the 
 Lord, and in the fragments quoted by Eusebius and 
 Irenseus we find the earliest extant mention of Matthew 
 
 •common to all three synoptists, 145 common to Mark and Matthew, 
 no common to Mark and Luke, and 51 (on a liheral estimate) poculiav 
 to himself. Luke out of 1,151 verses shares 390 with Matthew and 
 Mark, 176 with Matthew, 41 with Mark, and has 544 peculiar to 
 himself. They often agree in a remarkahle manner in the order in 
 which they give the events they relate . . ."—Chambers's Ency- 
 clopedia, vol. v., 1890; art. "Gospels." 
 
176 THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 and Mark as evangelists. He says : " If I met anywhere 
 with any one who had been a follower of the elders, I used 
 to inquire what were the declarations of the elders ; what 
 was said by Andrew, by Peter, by Philip, what by Thomas 
 or James, what by John or Matthew, or any other of the 
 disciples of our Lord ; and the things which Aristion and 
 the elder (or presbyter) John, the disciples of the Lord, 
 say ; for I did not expect to derive so much benefit from 
 the contents of books as from the utterances of a living 
 and abiding voice." On the aiithority of John the elder 
 (whether this is the Apostle John or not cannot be de- 
 cided), Papias writes : " And this also the elder said : 
 Mark, having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote ac- 
 curately all that he remembered of the things that were 
 either said or done by Christ ; but, however, not in order. 
 For he neither heard the Lord, nor followed Him, but 
 subsequently, as I said, Peter, who used to frame his teach- 
 ing to suit immediate wants, but not as making a con- 
 nected narrative of our Lord's discourses. So Mark com- 
 mitted no error in thus writing down particulars just as 
 he remembered them ; for he took heed to one thing, to 
 omit none of the things that he had heard, and to state 
 nothing falsely in his narration of them . . . Matthew 
 wrote the oracles (or discourses) in Hebrew, and each one 
 interpreted them as he could." These sentences give the 
 chief basis for the belief that Matthew wrote in Hebrew, 
 and that Mark's gospel represented the teaching of Peter. 
 But in recent times some incline to think that a primitive 
 Mark and a primitive book of discourses are here referred 
 to ; but without any evidence but supposition. 
 
 A still earlier document which quotes, though not with 
 
 absolute precision, from our gospels or from tradition, is 
 
 Clement of the Epistle of Clement of Rome, addressed to 
 
 Kome. the Church of Corinth, probably as early as 
 A.D. 96. The principal passages are these : " E-emember 
 the words of our Lord Jesus, for He said, ' "Woe to that 
 man ; it were better for him that he had not been born 
 than that he should ofiPend one of My elect. It were 
 better for him that a millstone should be tied about his 
 neck, and that he should be drowned in the sea, than that 
 
EPISTLES OF IGNATIUS. 177 
 
 lie should offend one of My little ones ' " (Clem. Eom. 46). 
 "Especially remembering the words of our Lord Jesus, 
 ■which He spake, teaching gentleness and long-sufifering. 
 For thus He said, ' Be ye merciful, that ye may obtain 
 mercy ; forgive, that it may be forgiven to you. As ye 
 do, so shall it be done unto you ; as ye give, so shall it 
 be given unto you ; as ye judge, so shall ye be judged ; 
 as ye show kindness, so shall kindness be shown unto you ; 
 with what measure ye mete, with the same shall it be 
 measured unto you.' " Whether or not Clement had our 
 gospels when he wrote this, he had documents or traditions 
 which substantially agree with them, and he assumed (by 
 saying ' Remember ') that the Church he was addressing 
 had similar sources of knowledge. 
 
 Another kind of testimony to the early existence of 
 the synoptic gospels is found in the Epistles of Ignatius, 
 second bishop of Antioch (a.d. 70 to 107 about), Epistles of 
 written probably in the first years of the second igiiatiua. 
 century. He employs the words of Matthew x. 16, almost 
 verbatim, and has several short but striking phrases pecu- 
 liar to St. Matthew ; but all these passages are mingled 
 with the writer's own words, and not marked as quotations. 
 The authenticity of the varioiis versions of Ignatius is 
 doubted by some, though their early date renders them 
 of great value in any case. They do not refer to any 
 common or authoritative collection of books of the New 
 Testament, but quotations from the Old Testament are 
 prefaced by " It is written." There are frequent refer- 
 ences 1 to Christ's life, including His baptism, crucifixion, 
 resurrection, and His miraculous incarnation. There is 
 no reference, however, to any written records of the nature 
 of a gospel. There is, however, one saying of Christ 
 quoted, not included in our gospels, and which indicates 
 the existence of oral tradition. Thus Ignatius says in the 
 Epistle to the Smyrnseans: " For I know and believe that 
 He was in the flesh even after the resurrection ; and when 
 He came to Peter and his company, He said to them, 
 ' Lay hold and handle Me, and see that I am not a demon 
 (daimonion) without body ' (or ' an incorporeal spirit ')." 
 ' See Lightfoot's great work on " The Apostolic Fatliers." 
 
178 THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 The writer also knows several of the Pauline epistles, 
 for he writes to the Ephesians that the Apostle mentions 
 them in every letter, but he does not quote exactly from 
 any one. 
 
 The Epistle of Barnabas (variously dated' from 70 a.d. 
 to 120 A.D.), without giving a precise reference, appears to 
 The Epistle quote from a written book of the New Testa- 
 ofBarnaDas. ]32ent thus: "Let us beware, lest we be found, 
 as it is written, many called, but few chosen." There is 
 an allusion to the language of Matthew ix. 13, " I came 
 not to call the righteous, but sinners " ; and there is a 
 saying of Christ not found in our gospels : " Even so," 
 saith He, " they that would see Me, and touch My king- 
 dom, must take Me through persecution and suffering." 
 These quotations are of value as showing (1) that the 
 writer was acquainted with passages found in St. Matthew, 
 and (2) that he knew of records or traditions of Christ 
 which have not come down to us. Many believe the 
 epistle not to be genuine because it contains numerous 
 mistakes as to the rites and ceremonies of the Jews. 
 
 The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians (bishop of 
 
 Smyrna, born about a.d. 70, martyred a.d. IBB or 1B6, the 
 
 Epistle of disciple of St. John) uses New Testament lan- 
 
 Poiyoarp. guage to a considerable extent, without formal 
 quotations, though the fact of St. Paul having written 
 to the Philippians is mentioned ; and his quotations in- 
 clude passages (twenty-two in all) from Ephesians, and 
 both Epistles to Timothy, as well as other Epistles. The 
 form in which Polycarp quotes differs considerably from 
 that used by Clement, and probably shows that in his 
 time there was not yet an accepted canon of the gospels. 
 
 The writings of Justin Martyr ("Apologies, Dialogues 
 with Trypho"), (a.d. 14&-7), contain abundant mention 
 
 Justin of written accounts of the Life of Christ, though 
 
 Martjrr. -without any author's name being assigned. He 
 speaks of the " Gospel " or " Gospels," the memoirs or 
 recollections of the apostles, and in reference to St. Mark's 
 Gospel, the recollections of Peter. He quotes largely the 
 language of our extant gospels and epistles without much 
 variation, so that the gospel narrative might be fairly 
 
DATE OF THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS. 179 
 
 well reconstructed fronx tliem ; and lie says that in his 
 day the memoirs of the apostles were read in the Church 
 service as well as the prophetical books. And from this 
 time onward there is full testimony to the existence of 
 the first three gospels, while a fourth was so well known 
 and approved by Irenseus, writing at the end of the second 
 century, that he was convinced that it was essential that 
 there should be four and only four gospels. 
 
 With the majority of readers the force with which a 
 document speaks to them personally will outweigh proofs 
 from external sources, and there can be no doubt internal 
 that the force of the words of Jesus as recorded Evidences, 
 by the synoptic gospels is such that with most persons it 
 compels belief in their genuineness. Even Eenan speaks 
 of the " naturalness, the ineffable truth, the matchless 
 charm of the synoptic discourses ; their profoundly Hebrew 
 turn ; the analogies they present to the sayings of Jewish 
 doctors of the same time ; their perfect harmony with the 
 scenery of Galilee." " In all Christian literature," says 
 Salmon (" Introduction to the New Testament "), " there 
 is nothing like them. If, instead of simply reporting these 
 discourses, the first disciples had invented them, they could 
 have invented something else of the same kind. Actually, 
 it is a little surprising that the men who were so deeply 
 impressed by our Lord's teaching, and who so fully imbibed 
 the spirit of it, should never have attempted to imitate 
 its form. In point of style, we travel into a new country 
 when we pass from the synoptic gospels to the apostolic 
 epistles." 
 
 As to the date of the synoptic gospels, probably that 
 of Mark was written before the fall- of Jerusalem (a.d. 70), 
 and possibly considerably earlier. He omits Date of the 
 genealogies, the birth and infancy of Jesus, and synoptic 
 His appearances after the resurrection. The ^°^^^ ^' 
 last twelve verses are not found in the two oldest Greek 
 manuscripts and in some others, and are rejected by many. 
 This appendix was quoted by Irenseus as early as a.d. 170, 
 showing that it had already acquired authority ; but in the 
 fourth century Eusebius says that most of the copies in 
 his time omitted these verses. There are many arguments 
 
i8o THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 in favour of Mark's indebtedness "to St. Peter ; and we 
 may well say with Renan that " Mark is full of minute 
 observations, which, without any doubt, came from an 
 eye-witness. Nothing forbids us to think this eye-witness, 
 who evidently had followed Jesus, who had loved Him, 
 and looked on Him very close at hand, and who had 
 preserved a very lively image of Him, was the Apostle 
 Peter himself." Many small details indicate the originality 
 of the narrative. 
 
 There are strong reasons — especially the abundant testi- 
 mony of the Fathers — for believing that St. Matthew's 
 Gospel was originally written in Hebrew. Yet the Greek 
 work, as we have it, appears like an original, not a trans- 
 lation; there are many explanations of Jewish terms, 
 customs, etc., as to a non- Jewish people. As to the date 
 at which he wrote, we find in the last two chapters the 
 expression " even to this day " twice over, signifying 
 that a considerable space of time had elapsed since the 
 events recorded. It is implied that the Jews still had a 
 national existence, and from other indications it can 
 scarcely have been written much before a.d. 70. 
 
 In St. Luke there are numerous signs of a later date, 
 possibly at least a.d. 80. The tradition of eye-witnesses 
 is spoken of in the past tense ; the attempts of " many " 
 to furnish gospel narratives are mentioned ; there is a 
 manifest attempt to raise the style of such records ; Jesus 
 is frequently referred to as "the Lord," etc. But if we 
 accept an early date for the Acts, it seems to involve also 
 an early date for the Third Gospel. 
 
 We come now to the most important and most diificult 
 
 of all New Testament questions — the authorship of the 
 
 The Fourth Fourth Gospel, together with that of the Epistles 
 
 Gospel, of gt,_ John. It is clear from numerous coinci- 
 dences of phrase and of spirit that the author of the 
 Fourth Gospel also wrote the First Epistle of St. John. 
 The earliest writer who mentions St. John in connection 
 with a quotation from the Fourth Gospel is Theophilus, 
 bishop of Antioch, who wrote about a.d. 170-180. He 
 quotes from John i. 1-3, mentioning the Evangelist as one 
 of the men inspired by the Spirit by whom the Holy 
 
DISTINCTJONS OF FOURTH GOSPEL. 
 
 i«i 
 
 Scriptures were written. The Muratorian fragment 
 (a.d. 170) names the Fourth Gospel as by John, one of 
 the disciples. It states that being requested by his fellow- 
 (Jisciples and bishops to write, he said to them " Fast 
 with me three days, and let us narrate what shall have 
 been revealed to each one of us. The same night it was 
 revealed to Andrew, one of the apostles, that John should 
 describe everything in his own name, all (the rest) calling 
 the past to mind (or revising)." And this agrees with 
 the confirmation given in John xxi. 24, which implies 
 something approaching to joint authorship or some kind 
 of revision. This view is confirmed by the opening of 
 St. John, where " we " is used, followed by the resump- 
 tion of the first person. Consequently it has been sug- 
 gested that the gospel was dictated by John, in extreme 
 old age, to an amanuensis, who put it into form after- 
 wards ; or even that it represents the work of the disciples 
 of St. John, reproducing the effect of his teaching. The 
 argument drawn from diff'erences between the style of 
 the gospel and of the Apocalypse, that they cannot both 
 have been written by the same author, is not very strong, 
 in the view of those who believe the Apocalypse to have 
 been written not later than a.d. 68, before the fall of 
 Jerusalem, and the Grospel not before 98, an interval of 
 thirty years, sufficient to produce a most marked change 
 of style. It is easy to realise St. John's Gospel as the 
 work of a ripe old age, when every thought of a long 
 life had been perfected and purified, and when affection 
 could give forth its richest geniality. 
 
 There can be no doubt, however, that the sayings of 
 Christ recorded in the Fourth Gospel differ noticeably in 
 style and words from those found in the synop- Distinctions 
 tics, and also that they greatly resemble the of style, 
 author's own style and words, so that it is sometimes 
 difiicult to determine where one ends and the other 
 begins. Moreover the whole gospel has a marked unity 
 of object and mode of presenting thought, and has a 
 construction apparently designed to set forth certain as- 
 pects of truth not presented in th-e previous gospels. It 
 may be inferred that it was written with full knowledge 
 
1 82 THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 of the other gospels, from the absence to a large extent 
 of- repetition of narratives, and from the things added. 
 While the writer writes as an eye-witness, he writes as if 
 many years had elapsed since the events took place. It 
 is notable how the universal aspect of Christ's mission 
 is dwelt upon, and how the writer repeats the words in 
 which Christ described the nature of His person and 
 mission. Christ is set forth as the Truth, the perfect 
 revelation of God the Father, the perfect pattern of life, 
 the uniter of the finite and the infinite. Great prominence 
 is given to the idea of various forms of witness to the 
 truth, such as that of God the Father, of Christ Him- 
 self, of works, of Scripture, of John the Baptist, of the 
 disciples, of the Holy Spirit of Truth sent from God after 
 Christ's death. 
 
 Another aspect of the Fourth Gospel is the prominence 
 it gives to the doctrine of the Logos, or "Word. Here we 
 Doctrine of come to the two most opposite schools of thought 
 the Logos, on the gospel. Some see in the Fourth Gospel 
 a development of Philo's doctrine of the Logos, such that 
 none but a Hellenic Jew versed in Alexandrian learning 
 could have written it, while some even attribute the gospel 
 to Philo as author. Others, seeing that Philo's Logos is 
 impersonal, regard the use of the idea of the " Word" of 
 God in the Old Testament as representing the personal 
 action of God, as sufficient to suggest the forms of teach- 
 ing in the Fouirth Gospel. Many now consider that Philo's 
 influence on the Fourth Gospel is evident, but that in 
 seizing and presenting the idea of the "Logos made flesh" 
 the latter is strikingly new and original. 
 
 IrensBUS, Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian (end 
 of second and beginning of third century) quote from 
 Early the Fourth Gospel freely, and Eusebius (third 
 testimonies, and fourth centuries), who had access to many 
 works and much knowledge now lost, spoke of it without 
 reserve as unquestionably written by St. John. In the 
 latter part of the second century it was accepted even 
 by heretics and opponents of Christianity. Athenagoras 
 (about 176) plainly us.es the language of the gospel as 
 one thoroughly familiar with it. Tatian (about 160 a.d.) 
 
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. 183 
 
 quotes words from the gospel as being well known. The 
 Ignatian epistles contain several of the same phrases, such 
 as " bread of heaven," " bread of life, which is the flesh 
 of Jesus Christ," " the spirit knoweth whence it c'ometh 
 and whither it goeth." Polycarp, the disciple of St. John, 
 in the epistle which has been preserved, uses a striking 
 verse from 1 John, which must be by the same author 
 as the gospel. Papias, according to Eusebius, used testi- 
 monies from " the former epistle of John " ; and both 
 these facts, by confirming 1 John, confirm the authorship 
 of the Fourth Gospel. Justin Martyr shows in his writings 
 the infiuence of its teaching about the Word. 
 
 But for Christians the internal evidences that St. John 
 wrote the Fourth Gospel (whether it was afterwards edited 
 or not) are full and strong. The author was internal 
 evidently a Jew, with full knowledge of everyr evidenoe. 
 thing, Jewish, — opinions, observances. Old Testament, 
 language, style of thought. He was a resident in Pales- 
 tine, familiar with minute details of time and place. He 
 was an eye-witness of what he described, an apostle ; and 
 if an apostle, he could only have been John, for John is 
 the only apostle not named, except by special phrases 
 upon which the subject of them would love to dwell. 
 He alone completely satisfies all the indications. 
 
 We cannot here analyse and compare the contents of 
 the gospels ; but it may be remarked that the simplest 
 way of accounting for divergences and diversity is by 
 looking at the recorders as human beings capable of mis- 
 take or misinterpretation, and the editors or copyists of 
 their works as not exempt from the same frailties. Just 
 because precisely the same picture is not given by each 
 narrator, each biography gains in value, and by careful 
 study and combination it is possible to obtain a much 
 more vivid notion of the character and life of Christ than 
 if none of the narratives varied in style or matter. 
 
 That the "Acts of the Apostles" was written by St. 
 Luke is so well attested and so generally received that 
 we need here only note the fact. Its early Acts of the 
 propagation and acceptance is well established, Apostles, 
 even though it is doubtful whether writers so ea.rly as 
 
1 84 THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 Clement of Eome, Ignatius and Papias make distinct 
 references to it or its contents. Dr. Davidson says of the 
 sections in which the narrator uses the first person plural, 
 that they are " characterised by a circumstantiality of 
 detail, a vividness of description, an exact knowledge of 
 localities, an acquaintance with the phrases and habits 
 of seamen, which betray one who was personally present " 
 — who must therefore have been an intimate companion 
 of St. Paul. Eenan admits that the similarity in style 
 throughout the book is such that the same author must 
 have written the whole. The book breaks off abruptly, 
 and it is surprising that nothing has been added describing 
 the later life and death of St. Paul ; but this is explicable, 
 if the book was written within the two years after the 
 apostle's arrival at Eome (61-63). It may be granted 
 that the matter of the "Acts " does not altogether justify 
 the title, as it gives a partial account only of the deeds of 
 some of the apostles ; but it is not certain that this was 
 the original title, though it is undoubtedly very ancient. 
 It is more properly described as a history of the most 
 important facts in the growth of the early Christian 
 Church. 
 
 The New Testament books are not the only narratives 
 we have which purport to describe the life of Christ and 
 the early days of Christianity. There are both 
 Gospels and apocryphal gospels and apocryphal Acts. The 
 Acts. " Gospel of James," which is known to have 
 existed early in the fourth century and probably earlier, 
 not only supplements our gospels in many particulars, 
 but expands them in many places, especially in regard to 
 events preceding Christ's birth. The most obviously 
 legendary matter is largely included. There is also an 
 early " Gospel of St. Thomas," giving accounts of extra- 
 ordinary and foolish miracles performed by Christ in His 
 boyhood. The " Gospel of Nicodemus " (a modern title) 
 contains a full account of the trial of Jesus, and of His 
 descent into Hades. Various gospels were in use by the 
 Gnostic sects, one known as the Gospel of the Egyptians, 
 others forbidding marriage. The most important heretical 
 gospel is that known as the Gospel of Marcion, who taught 
 
EPISTLE TO HEBREWS. 1S5 
 
 in the first lialf of the middle of the second century. He 
 formed a gospel out of the Gospel of St. Luke, omitting 
 every part which was inconsistent with his peculiar doc- 
 trines and views. This gospel has not come down to tis, 
 but there are sufficient early testimonies by the Fathers 
 as to what it contained. Some have even conjectured 
 that Marcion's gospel was the original out of which Luke's 
 was subsequently constructed, but this has been decisively 
 disproved, and it is evident that his gospel testifies to the 
 early existence and acceptance of St. Luke's. Marcion 
 also rejected the Acts and the Pastoral Epistles of St. 
 Paul, including only ten Pauline Epistles in his " Apos- 
 tolicon." There were numerous apocryphal Acts of the 
 Apostles, such as " the preaching of Addai " (Thaddseus) 
 " to Abgarus, king of Edessa," " the Acts of Paul and 
 Thecla," exalting virginity and condemning marriage, 
 the Acts of St. Thomas, of St.- Philip, of St. Peter, of 
 St. John, and the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin. All 
 these are so plainly fabulous in their contents that it is 
 not worth while to give details. 
 
 The Epistle to the Hebrews, ascribed in our Authorised 
 Version to St. Paul, in the oldest manuscripts bears the 
 simple title " To the Hebrews." The anonymous Epistle to 
 author has been singularly successful in suppres- Hebrews, 
 sing his identity, for to this day there is the greatest 
 diversity of opinion on the subject. Its early date and 
 ajjthenticity are not however questioned, and it is be- 
 lieved to have been written before the Fall of Jerusalem. 
 It is quoted abundantly in the Epistle of Clement of 
 Eome ; and it was believed to be by St. Paul throughout 
 the Eastern Church. But the diflferences in style between 
 it and the Pauline Epistles have strongly impressed many 
 since the second century ; and in the "Western Church it 
 was long regarded as doubtful whether it was St. Paul's. 
 Apollos and Barnabas are the two possible authors whose 
 claims are viewed with the greatest favour. TertuUian 
 names Barnabas as the author with great confidence. 
 Careful analysis shows that there are very many words 
 and expressions common to this Epistle and St. Paul's 
 writings and used nowhere else in the New Testament. 
 
IS6 THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 The First Epistle of Peter was thoroughly accepted 
 and attested as genuine early in the second century ; but 
 Epistles of it gives internal evidence of its own compara- 
 Peter. tively late date in its language about persecti- 
 tions, and can scarcely be dated earlier than a.d. 64, being 
 possibly written at Eome. It shows St. Peter as a strong 
 supporter of the Pauline theology, but with many personal 
 characteristics. As to the Second Epistle ascribed to 
 Peter, there was much doubt as early as the time of 
 Eusebius and Jerome: later, the Church agreed to accept 
 it ; since Erasmus and Calvin many have rejected it. 
 This epistle is of special interest as being the only New 
 Testament writing which predicts the entire future de- 
 struction of the heavens and the earth by fire. 
 
 The Epistle of James has also been much doubted, 
 both Eusebius and Jerome reckoning it doubtful, though 
 
 Epistle of Eusebius quotes it as the work of an apostle. 
 James, j^g contents indicate plainly that it was written 
 early in the history of Christianity by a Jew for Christian 
 Jews. There are numerous indications in it of the direct 
 influence of Christ's discourses, as given by a personal 
 follower. The dispute as to whether the second half of 
 the second chapter is an attack upon St. Paul's doctrine 
 of justification by faith, is answered by saying that " he 
 has denied nothing that Paul has asserted, and asserted 
 nothing that a disciple of Paul would care to deny." 
 St. James's doctrine of works is really found fully expressed 
 by St. Paul. The epistle is characterised by abundance 
 of moral maxims rather than by teaching about Christ. 
 
 The Epistle of , Jude was accepted as genuine earlier 
 than the preceding. It is remarkable that neither of them 
 
 Epistle of claims distinctly to be written by an apostle, 
 Jude. and it is inferred that James and Judas', the 
 " brothers " of Jesus, were not apostles. Jude quotes 
 twice from apocryphal books, viz., the contest for the 
 body of Moses, from " The Assumption of Moses," and the 
 words of Enoch (verse 14) from the book of Enoch. In 
 several points the contents of the Epistle, such as the 
 reference to the fallen angels, are such as to make it diffi- 
 cult of reception. 
 
MANUSCRIPTS. 187 
 
 The_"Eevelation of Jotin" is the most valuable specimen 
 of a kind of literature which was abundant in the later 
 Jewish and early Christian period, purporting The 
 to reveal the history of manliind and of Jews Revelation, 
 and Christians. Many -believe it to have been written 
 before the fall of Jerusalem, a.d. 68 to 70. Many, how- 
 ever, prefer to accept the testimony of Irenseus, the friend 
 of Polycarp, St. John's disciple, who writes that " the 
 Revelation was seen no long time since, but almost in 
 our own generation, towards the end of the reign of 
 Domitian " (a.d. 81-96) ; and Clement of Alexandria, 
 Origen, and Jerome agree that St. John was banished 
 to Patmos during the reign of Domitian. In language 
 of grand imagery, the author gives a picture of the 
 future history of the Church, including the destruction 
 of the Roman empire, the chaining of the devil, the reign 
 of Christ. The glory of the heavenly Jerusalem is set 
 forth in the later chapters in language which is indelibly 
 written in the hearts of Christians, and which has com- 
 forted and strengthened multitudes in the trials of life 
 and in the hour of death. There are many arguments 
 which support the belief that St. John wrote the Revela- 
 tion earlier than the Fourth Gospel ; both contain many 
 of the same ideas, though widely divergent in style and 
 matter. The diversity of style is to most persons explained 
 by the state of prophetic ecstasy in which it was written. 
 The interpretation of the book in detail is too complex, 
 and a subject of too great differences of opinion, among 
 orthodox and heterodox alike, to be entered into here. 
 
 We will now briefly give an account of the manuscript 
 sources from which the New Testament is derived. Early 
 manuscripts of any important book are rare. Manuscripts 
 and there is no complete copy of Homer of of nbts- 
 earlier date than the thirteenth century : where- Testament, 
 as the manuscripts of the New Testament are compara- 
 tively abundant and ancient, testifying to their early im- 
 portance, and the prolonged care taken of them, codex 
 Apparently, the oldest now existing is the sinaiticus. 
 Codex Sinaiticus, discovered in the convent of St. Cather- 
 ine on the supposed Mount Sinai on the 4th of February, 
 
i8S THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 1859, by Tischendorf, and now deposited in the Imperial 
 Library at St. Petersburg. It contains, besides a Jarge 
 portion of the Septuagint Old Testament, the whole of 
 the New, together with the Epistle of Barnabas and 
 part of the Shepherd of Hermas. Though some have 
 attributed it to a later date than the next manuscript, 
 there is a very general assent to its being a true relic 
 of the middle of the fourth century— a view depending 
 on many details of evidence. Its text does not agree pre- 
 cisely with any other. 
 
 The Codex Alexandrinus, in the British Museum, derived 
 early in the seventeenth century from Alexandria, contains 
 
 Codex the whole of the Septuagint, and most of the 
 Alexandrinus. New Testament, except a great part of St. 
 Matthew, and parts of St. John, and of 2 Corinthians ; 
 also the Epistle of Clement of Eome. It dates from the 
 
 Codex beginning or middle of the fifth century. The 
 vaticanus. Codex Vaticanus of the Vatican Library, Rome, 
 has been there since the midde of the fifteenth century 
 (excepting when it was transferred to Paris by Napoleon). 
 It contains the greater part of the Septuagint, and the 
 New Testament down to Heb. ix. 14; the concluding 
 
 Codex portion was added, probably, in the fifteenth 
 Epiiraemi. century. The manuscript dates from about the 
 middle of the fourth centurJ^ The Codex Ephraemi, at 
 Paris, is a specimen of a palimpsest, or manuscript made 
 out after having been partially erased to receive a newer 
 manuscript. Vellum or parchment being valuable in early 
 days, previous manuscripts Avere often erased and written 
 over. Portions of every part of the New Testament have 
 been recovered from it, amounting in all to two-thirds 
 of the whole. It dates from the fifth century, or even 
 somewhat earlier. The Codex Bezse, in the 
 ex ezse. "University Library, Cambridge, presented by 
 Theodore Beza, in 1501, contains the gospels and Acts 
 in Greek and Latin. It exhibits many bold and even 
 extensive interpolations, some of them supported by the 
 Old Latin and Syriac versions : all other Greek manu- 
 scripts are of the seventh or later centuries. The earliest 
 dated manuscript yet discovered bears the date a.d. 94'J, 
 
SYRIAC AND OLD LATIN VERSIONS. 189 
 
 and the dates of others have to be inferred from various 
 kinds of evidence. There are also some very early manu- 
 scripts of parts of the New Testament. All before the 
 tenth century are written in uncial characters, or capital 
 letters, each formed separately, and in the earlier manu- 
 scripts without any space between the words. 
 
 Seeing that all the earliest manuscripts differ consider- 
 ably in details, the earliest copies of versions in other 
 languages than Greek become of great impor- 
 tance. Consequently, the Peshito Syriac, used 
 by the Eastern Church long before the separation,^ and 
 the old Latin translations, are in the first rank as author- 
 ities, for they apparently represent a text of the New 
 Testament which existed in the middle of the peshito 
 second century a.d. There are other versions, syriac and 
 the Egyptian, the Curetonian Syriac, the Latin ° ^ ^* 
 Vulgate, the Gothic, Armenian and Ethiopian, which are 
 of high value, some having been made as early as the 
 third or fourth century. The Peshito is the most valu- 
 able, being extremely faithful where it can be judged, 
 remarkable for ease and freedom, and seldom loose. 
 
 Quotations in the early Fathers are of much less value 
 than might have been expected, for accuracy and precision 
 in quotation were evidently not much considered by them ; 
 and what they quoted has often been altered in copying. 
 
 The autographs of the New Testament authors appear 
 to have perished early, and the early Fathers refer to 
 ancient and approved copies, never having apparently 
 seen any originals. Some critics still hope to recover 
 an original text, either by the discovery of new manu- 
 scripts, or by comparative and minute study of all the 
 evidence supplied by existing manuscripts. Many of these 
 have as yet not been carefully collated or criticised. It is 
 evident that the true readings cannot be derived from 
 any one set of authorities, but must be the result of a 
 patient comparison and weighing of the evidence of all 
 taken together. 
 
 ^ This version is now used a]ike by tlie Nestorians in Kurdistan, 
 the Monophysites in Syria, the Christians of St. Thomas on tlie 
 coast of Malabar, and the Maronites of Lebanon. 
 
PETER'S CHAIR AT ROME. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Cfte aipostolic Cimes, 
 
 Difflonlty of founding' the Churcli— St. Peter— The Rock and the Keys— First 
 Buccesses— Martyrdom of Stephen— Persecution — Admission of GentUes 
 —His later actions and influence— St. Paul— His early life— His conversion 
 — His labours at Antiooh, Corinth, and - Ephesus— Arrest at Jerusalem — 
 Imprisonment at Kome— His character- His writings- His theology — 
 His teaching about Christ— Human faith — Penalty for sin— The new 
 spirit of the Christian— Jewish ideas of sacriflce—The Church as the 
 Body of Christ— Ministry— Baptism and the Lord's Supper— Lofty out- 
 bursts— Teaching as to women— St. John— His first Epistle— St. James 
 Faith and works— The first general persecution— Pliny and Trajan — 
 Ignatius— His epistles and martyrdom at Rome- Polycarp— His martyr, 
 dom at Smyrna. 
 
 THERE can be no manner of doubt that the life and 
 death of Christ, combined -with the preaching of His 
 
 I'JO 
 
ST. PETER. I9[ 
 
 disciples, founded the Christian Church. But a careful 
 consideration of the gospels will show that sur- Difficulty of 
 prisingly little in the way of a definite Church founding tue 
 existed at the time of the Crucifixion, and that ^^'^^^'^'^■ 
 it almost entirely lacked formal doctrines and organisation. 
 Thus an enormous work was left to be accomplished by 
 those who had received and assimilated the direct teach- 
 ings of Jesus. Deprived of the inspiration of His bodily 
 presence, they had to act, in order to succeed, as boldly 
 and courageously and wisely as if they still had the 
 stimulus of His presence and encouragement ; . and it is 
 claimed by the Christian Church that it was only in 
 virtue of a realisation of His invisible aid and the inspi- 
 ration of the Holy Spirit which He had promised to them 
 that they accomplished what they did. 
 
 Everything appeared to be against the chances of the 
 establishment of the new religion. The Founder was 
 dead under circumstances of shame and of desertion by 
 His disciples. A prominent disciple, Peter, had denied 
 knowing Him with oaths and curses. The triumphant 
 enemies of Jesus were ready to crush His followers if 
 they dared to show themselves. Yet, by some extra- 
 ordinary stimulus, which is most rationally referred to 
 their absolute certainty of having seen their risen Master, 
 and to their feeling an overpowering impulse to tell what 
 they had experienced in their companionship with Him, 
 they succeeded in drawing to their ranks within a few 
 weeks many thousands of adherents in Jerusalem, the 
 scene of the Crucifixion ; and the recreant dis- g^^ seXec. 
 ciple became the most prominent of the apostles, 
 bold, fiery, and eloquent. According to the extant narra- 
 tives, he had been distinguished by a special appearance 
 of Christ to him after His resurrection, and he had 
 received from Him a special pastoral charge over His 
 " sheep " and "lambs." Previously to his denial of Christ 
 he had made a notable and full confession of belief in 
 Him as " the Christ the Son of the living God,"Tiie Rock and 
 and had received a blessing containing the tueKeys. 
 words, " Thou art Peter, and tipon this rock I will build 
 My Church. ... I will give unto thee the keys of 
 
192 
 
 THE APOSTOLIC TIMES. 
 
 the kingdom of heaven ; and whatsoever thou shalt bind 
 on earth shall be bound in heaven," etc. These words 
 are relied upon by the Church of Eome as constituting 
 
 STATUE OF ST. PETEE, IS ST. PETER's, AT ROME. 
 
 Peter the head of the Church, and as giving him power 
 to transmit his headship ; and in other ways they are 
 regarded as establishing the powers claimed by Roman 
 Catholicism. It is held by opponents of this view (1) 
 
MARTYRDOM OF STEPHEN. 193 
 
 that Christ spoke of -Himself, not Peter, as the Eock ; 
 (2) that Peter's confession of faith was the rock ; or (3) 
 that Peter is addressed in a representative capacity as 
 chief disciple. Whatever may have been the meaning, 
 we find Peter taking the lead on the day of Pentecost 
 as the chief preacher and exponent of the new teaching. 
 Yet we have no sign of a dictatorship or even primacy on 
 his part ; he did not act apart from the other apostles ; 
 at a later time, St. James occupied the leading position 
 at Jerusalem ; and there is no record that St. Peter 
 transmitted or assigned his position to any one at his 
 death. 
 
 A wonderful enthusiasm was excited by the first preach- 
 ing of the Gospel and the signs and wonders which 
 followed it. A tendency to live in social unity, First suc- 
 witli a common fund, was manifested, and the cesses, 
 only care of the first Christians was to continue pray- 
 ing and worshipping in the Temple and testifying to the 
 truth. Soon, however, the high priest and the Sadducees 
 grew alarmed at the success of the new party, especially 
 as it condemned their own recent action, and before long 
 they stoned to death a convert named Stephen, Martyrdom 
 who himself was preaching with great power, of Stephen. 
 Stephen had proclaimed at the end of his defence that he 
 " saw the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing 
 on the right hand of God," and we may trace some affinity 
 between this vision and that which subsequently converted 
 Saul, afterwards Paul, a young man who took part in the 
 stoning by protecting the clothes of the witnesses to 
 Stephen's so-called blasphemy. Stephen's dying utter- 
 ance, " Lord, lay not this sin to their charge," reminds 
 us of his Master's similar prayer for the forgiveness of 
 His murderers. 
 
 This tragedy was followed by a persecution which, 
 scattering the infant Church, was a means of its spread. 
 Saul took violent action in entering houses and persecution, 
 forcibly dragging Christian men and women to 
 prison. Among the places to which the Gospel was carried 
 by Philip the evangelist was Samaria, and the Samaritans 
 readily accepted his teaching. Peter, going down with 
 
194 THE APOSTOLIC TIMES. 
 
 John to establish the converts,! ^^^ besought by Simon, 
 a magician, to impart to him for money the power which 
 attended his laying his hands on the believers, and received 
 a crushing rebuke. By this incident traffic in holy things 
 for money was once for all condemned, and from it we 
 have derived the term "simony." Another important 
 Admission of event was the call of Peter to teach Cornehus, 
 Gentues by a devout Roman centurion at Cassarea, and his 
 Peter. g^^^ opening the teaching of the Gospel to 
 Gentiles. His action in baptising him and his household 
 is recorded to have been based on their " having received 
 the Holy Ghost " like the Jewish converts. Peter had 
 learnt the great truth that God is no respecter of persons, 
 and that " in every nation he that feareth Him and 
 worketh righteousness, is acceptable to Him." The 
 apostles and other Christians at Jerusalem, who at first 
 objected to Peter's action, when they heard the details 
 found their objections silenced, and said, " Then to the 
 Gentiles also hath God granted repentance unto life." 
 
 After this period, and his deliverance from prison, 
 when the Apostle James had been killed by Herod 
 Peter's later J^gi"ippa (^.D. 40), we have little direct infor- 
 actions and mation about Peter, except when he took the 
 influence. \q^^ ^i^ ^^ so-oalled council of Jerusalem, and 
 maintained the conditions of equality on which he had 
 admitted Gentiles to the Church. But he did not call, 
 preside at, or pronounce the decision of the council, and 
 these facts appear fatal to the Eoman claims as to the 
 primacy of St. Peter. From this time Peter mainly 
 preached to Jews, and still remained so far attached to 
 Jewish practices that he incurred a sharp rebuke from 
 Paul at Antioch for withdrawing from eating with the 
 Gentile converts. It is believed that Peter visited Corinth, 
 and by many that he visited Rome, and was martyred 
 there, probably a.d. 67. His impressive energy, power of 
 rapid decision and action, and practical tendency, if at 
 
 ' This occnrrenoe marks the institution of " confirmation " by 
 laying on of hands ; which the Western Church has always main- 
 tained should be performed by a bishop. 
 
LABOURS OF ST. PAUL. 195 
 
 times too strongly inclined to follow apparent expediency, 
 had a powerful effect in establishing the early Church. 
 
 But a greater light arose out of the martyrdom of 
 Stephen. The first martyr of Christ had a distinct in- 
 fluence in developing the Apostle to the Gentiles. But 
 here also the great teacher was a 'Jew of the 
 purest lineage, though born a Roman citizen 
 in a city distant from Palestine. The Semitic element 
 was all powerful in founding the new Church. Taught 
 by Gamaliel, a leading rabbi, Paul at first far outdid his 
 teacher in his fanatic regard for Jewish usages. His early, 
 It appears that St. Paul had never seen Jesus ^^■ 
 before the date of his vision while on the way to Damascus 
 to extend the area of his persecution of the Christians. 
 His religious life was early of a very intense kind ; and 
 after he had seen, as he was certain, the living Christ, just 
 as evidently as He was seen by the apostles after His 
 death, he became even more energetic as a his con- 
 preacher of Christianity than he had been as version, 
 a persecutor. Even if this vision is regarded as one of 
 ecstasy, and as describing an inward and not an objective 
 vision, nothing can get rid of the fact that something 
 sufficiently powerful transformed a violent persecutor into 
 an ardent believer and a zealous preacher of Christianity 
 against the severest difficulties and opposition. Paul him- 
 self solemnly declared that his commission to teach, and 
 the matter of his teaching, had been directly received 
 from Christ ; and those who even think they can account 
 for the success of his preaching by various natural causes, 
 have to charge Paul with being either a deceiver or a 
 visionary, which will not readily fit in with his practicality 
 of method all through. His preaching rested upon no 
 human commission ; he was the Apostle of the Gentiles, 
 " not from men, neither through man." 
 
 "We shall not attempt to describe the events of his well- 
 known life, his indefatigable labours, his extraordinary 
 successes among the most diverse peoples, his 
 terrible sufferings, his heroic fortitude, his 
 dauntless courage. It is evident that the Acts of the 
 Apostles records but a small portion of his labours. We 
 
196 THE APOSTOLIC TIMES. 
 
 derive a faller notion of them from his own epistles, 
 
 where he describes his numerous whippings by 
 
 HiB labours, ^j^g jg^g^ j^jg beating by the Roman lictor's 
 
 rods, his being stoned, his three shipwrecks, his many 
 perils, his sufferings from hunger and thirst, from cold 
 At Anti s ^^^ nakedness. He was prominent in the found- 
 ing of the Church at Antioch, where the name 
 " Christian " was first applied to the converts, and where 
 the G-entiles and the Jews first lived in common. He 
 also planted the Grospel throughout Asia Minor, in Mace- 
 donia and Greece. Although he always seems to have 
 preached first to the Jews in any place he visited, it 
 became obvious and acknowledged that his chief mission 
 was to the Gentiles, and he insisted that no burdensome 
 or ceremonial obligations of the Mosaic law should be 
 laid upon them. 
 
 Paul had less success in philosophic Athens than among 
 the crowded masses of industrial cities, where the sensu- 
 At Corintii ality of the rich and the wretchedness of the 
 and Ephesus. poor and the slaves afforded him full scope 
 for his fiery preaching. Corinth and Ephesus were two 
 such centres. 1 Cor. iv. 11-13 gives a vivid picture of 
 his painful life in Ephesus, an object of scorn and humili- 
 ation, a suffering, hungry worker of uncertain habitation, 
 " dying daily." At one time he had to fight with beasts 
 in the arena ; at another he was barely saved by Prisca 
 and Aquila, " who for his life laid down their own necks." 
 One noticeable effect produced at Ephesus was the falling 
 off of the trade of the silversmiths who made models of 
 Artemis and of her temple for sale to worshippers ; and 
 this led to a disturbance, which was followed by his 
 second visit to Europe. During this journey he described 
 himself (2 Cor. vi. 9, 10) as dying yet living ; as sorrowful, 
 yet always rejoicing ; as poor, yet making many rich ; as 
 having nothing, yet possessing all things. Then, as al- 
 ways, he remembered the poor and suffering, and took 
 especial pains to obtain a large contribution for the 
 Christians of Palestine, which he himself took to Jeru- 
 salem. On his way he touched at Ephesus, and in his 
 farewell address to the Ephesian elders quoted a saying 
 
CHARACTER OF ST. PAUL. 197 
 
 of Jesus not given in the Gospels, " It is more blessed to 
 give than to receive." At Jerusalem he was Arrest at 
 soon attacked as a molester of Jewish customs Jerusalem, 
 and a polluter of the temple. The Eoman governor, 
 who had seized him in order to protect him, was con- 
 strained to grant him the appeal to the Eoman Emperor 
 (Nero), and to send him to Eome, where, according to the 
 Acts, he was kept in a quaUfied state of im-imprisonment 
 prisonment for two years, having opportunity ^* Eome. 
 to teach those who came to him, making converts among 
 the Jews, the Praetorian guard, and even the Imperial 
 household. Whether he was released after this and 
 afterwards preached in Spain, whether he was in fact 
 martyred at Eome in a,d. 64 is by no means certain, 
 though generally believed. He is described iii the "Acts 
 of Paul and Thekla" as "a man small in stature, bald- 
 headed, bow-legged, stout, close-browed, with a slightly- 
 prominent nose, full of grace ; for at one time he seemed 
 like a man, at another time he had the face of an angel." 
 Occupying, by common consent, the second place in 
 the history of Christianity, St. Paul is surpassed by no 
 
 man in the variety of his experiences, and only„, ^ 
 
 , i-Ti/r, -"^i- T T VHls character. 
 
 by his Master m his readiness and power 01 
 
 adaptation to every circumstance. Intensely human, his 
 natural impulse was to gain and exert a predominant 
 influence ; his disciplined aim was to use his influence 
 entirely to propagate the most important truth, and to 
 elevate and strengthen mankind. It is impossible to con- 
 ceive a man undertaking such labours and perils without 
 an inner conviction amounting to certainty of his Divine 
 commission ; and no one impeaches his sincerity. Equally 
 impossible is it to explain away his achievements. Few 
 will deny that Paul was one of the greatest men who 
 have ever lived. By turns practical administrator, or- 
 ganiser, conciliator, pleader, orator, reasoner, original 
 thinker and writer, he was actuated in everything by an 
 absorbing devotion to the end he had in view, to persuade 
 men to union with God through Jesus Christ. And if 
 in the fervour of his advocacy he perhaps too lightly 
 assumed that his view of human nature included every- 
 
igS THE APOSTOLIC TIMES. 
 
 tiling, and was too urgent in pressing every one into his 
 own mould, it was because of the strength and sincerity 
 of his beliefs, and because, if all he thought was true, 
 every man and woman was in imminent danger of eternal 
 death. 
 
 In his teaching about Divine things, while very largely 
 practical, Paul was intensely theological — the founder of 
 ms writings f Geology as now understood. Not having been 
 a companion of Jesus, he was not surcharged 
 with His personal teachings, and rarely quotes Him. He 
 rather comes before us as one who had absorbed the spirit 
 of Jesus, and superadded to it the conceptions of a mind 
 persistently endeavouring to gain definite ideas of the 
 system of Divine and human relationships. Thus the 
 matter of his epistles is quite different in style and form 
 from that of any other New Testament writer. It is as 
 if he had laboured to arrive at a clear understanding of 
 man's nature and dreadful sinfulness and the remedies 
 for it, and had spent his utmost effort to express this. 
 He did not possess all the highest literary gifts, and is 
 sometimes complex and involved ; sometimes his analogies 
 are imperfect ; sometimes his thoughts do not seem logi- 
 cally to grow out of one another. His impulsiveness 
 sometimes hurries him rapidly through a high flight of 
 thought ; but he is essentially a theologian for the most 
 part, and tries to present a sort of mathematical view of 
 salvation. 
 
 His theology' was based upon the universal fact of sin, 
 wrong-doing, and the tendency to do wrong, a state of 
 disobedience to God's law, assumed to be known 
 His tiieoiogy.^y every man. This is so far personified that 
 we seem to verge near something like the Zoroastrian 
 Ahriman, a personality constantly suggesting evil actions 
 and seeking to antagonise and crush good impulses. The 
 fact of death coming iipon all men is adduced as a proof 
 that all have sinned. The fact that Adam sinned is put 
 forward as involving the necessary sinfulness and death 
 of all his descendants. There was for the, Jew a law 
 
 ' See Dr. Hatch's -valuable article on St. Paul iu the Encijclo- 
 pcBclia Britannica, 9th edition. 
 
ST. PAUL'S TEACHING ABOUT CHRIST. 199 
 
 given by Moses -vvhicli it was impossible for him perfectly 
 to obey ; there was for the Gentile an inner law of the 
 heart telling him what was right and rebuking his trans- 
 gressions ; but his fleshly desires were in permanent 
 captivity to sin. 
 
 Thus, without God's intervention, which, however, was 
 foreordained and as much part of the general scheme as 
 sin had come to be, man's state was one of hopeless ruin. 
 This intervention was in the form of His Son Jesus Christ, 
 made a true man, freely given and giving Himself, in- 
 tended to die for man on the cross and to be raised again. 
 This latter event was the guarantee of the truth of the 
 Gospel, of man's forgiveness by God. The varying ex- 
 pressions of Paul about the way in which the death of 
 Christ saved man have afforded the basis for various 
 theories of redemption. Christ " became obe- his teaciimg 
 dient unto death," He was "made to be sin ^'""^"^^"^*- 
 for us," " Christ our Passover is sacrificed," " we were 
 reconciled to God through the death of His Son," " God 
 was in Christ reconoihng the world unto Himself," " ye 
 were bought with a price." The sinner, as a condemned 
 criminal, might be acquitted by the favour of God through 
 the death of Christ. Christ and His followers are repre- 
 sented as having together died to sin, and together risen 
 to righteousness. Thus men might once more become 
 righteous by the gift of God, might receive a new life, 
 might be adopted as the sons of God. 
 
 Although this salvation was intended and prepared for 
 all men, they could only enter into its enjoyment by the 
 co-operation of their own mind and will, fhroughg^j^g^^ j^^mj 
 faith, that faculty by which one is convinced of 
 and mentally appropriates that which is not immediately 
 tangible. Thus men are said to be saved by their faith, 
 as well as by Christ's blood ; and their new righteousness 
 is the result of faith. They can only do this by an act 
 of repentance, of grief for past sins, and a resolute turning 
 away from them. 
 
 Great objections were evidently raised against this doc- 
 trine, as one which condoned all sins without the payment 
 of a personal penalty; it appeared to pass over crimes 
 
20O THE APOSTOLIC TIMES. 
 
 too readily, and no State, has refrained from punishing 
 Penalty for men for crimes because of their becoming 
 ^""^ Christians afterwards. Nor is Paul able, in 
 the imperfect knowledge of his time, to lay full stress on 
 the physical and social punishment which attends and 
 follows wrong-doing in this world, and on the doctrine 
 of physical heredity, which explains much that is most 
 striking in his theory of sinfulness and death through 
 "Adam." The view that the Christian doctrine of for- 
 giveness wrongly condones crimes, and that it is immoral 
 to conceive of a guiltless person as suffering the penalty 
 due to the guilty, has not yet lost its influence, and forms 
 a perpetual question for the Christian philosopher. St. 
 The new ^^^ describes the saved man as actuated, even 
 spirit of the filled, by a new spirit. Christ's Spirit dwells 
 Christian, -j^ ]iini. It is impossible for him to sin, so long 
 as he realises his new state ; and after lapses, repentance 
 brings reinstatement. The new life of mankind is inti- 
 mately connected with the hope of the general resurrec- 
 tion, of which Christ's resurrection is a pledge. The 
 advent of Christ, which Paul conceived as near at hand, 
 was to be followed by a reign during which He will put 
 all enemies under His feet. Sometimes unbelievers are 
 threatened with eternal destruction ; at others we are 
 told that in Christ all will be made alive. On this 
 subject, as on numerous others, we may account for the 
 variety of presentation by the fact that the work and 
 influence of Christ had various bearings, and could only 
 be adequately stated by using such variety. It was so 
 great that no one form of words sufficed to describe it 
 fully. 
 
 There is much in Paul's theology which is closely — too 
 closely and pedantically, according to some — linked with 
 Jewish ideas Jewish ideas of the nece.'^sity of sacrifice — 
 of sacrifice, especially if we regard the Epistle to the He- 
 brews as his. It was also related to philosophy, the free- 
 will and necessity controversy. Epicureanism, Stoicism, 
 and Asceticism. The doctrine of predestination has been 
 founded very largely on certain expressions of his, while 
 others, displaying the freewill of man, are equally quoted 
 
BAPTISM AND THE LORD'S SUPPER. 201 
 
 by its opponents. The question whether salvation is by 
 works or by grace alone is largely a matter of discussion 
 from his writings. 
 
 The body of a Christian was described by Paul as 
 "the temple of the Holy Ghost." Every believer was 
 part of Christ's body. The whole number of j^g ciiuroii 
 bshevers constituted a collective "body," the as the uody 
 Church of Christ ; and the members each had °^ ciirist. 
 their function, without the due discharge of which the 
 whole body suffered. We gain a good idea of the local 
 communities from his epistles, and the way in which their 
 diversities of gifts were utilised. Every man had the 
 right to speak in the assemblies, but this right was with- 
 held from women, as among the Jews. A system of 
 government, depending sometimes upon the vote of the 
 assembly, sometimes upon the authority of the apostles 
 or elders, was gradually built up ; and in various ways 
 the new life showed itself in original composition, in 
 teaching, and in works of mercy and hospitality carried 
 to an extent little practised before. Every such work 
 was part of the ministry (diakonia), and every jjj^jgt 
 worker was so far a deacon. The special fixing 
 of the name deacon, presbyter, bishop, on particular 
 individuals, arose by natural evolution as the churches 
 became organised. "What is known as the priestly power 
 is little manifested in St. Paul's references to any but 
 himself, the other apostles, Timothy, and Titus, and it 
 shows no tendency to assume a power to forgive sins, 
 or to pass beyond the declaration of forgiveness through 
 Christ. Baptism was the mode of formal admission to 
 the Church, and believers were regarded by Baptism and 
 Paul as bu.ried with Christ through baptism, the Lord's 
 and rising with Him in newness of life. Bap- ^^pp^"^- 
 tism made all men brothers in Christ Jesus, so that after- 
 wards he recognised no distinction of persons — Jew and 
 Greek, slave and freeman, were all equal. All partook of 
 a common meal, the Lord's supper, thus realising the 
 unity, and participating mystically in the body and 
 blood of Christ, as symbohsed by bread and wine. 
 
 In the midst of doctrinal elaborations, St. Paul again 
 
202 THE APOSTOLIC TIMES. 
 
 and again breaks into lofty outbursts like the unsurpassed 
 Lofty out- description of Christian love in 1 Corinthians 
 
 bursts, xiii., and the apostrophe to the wisdom and 
 knowledge of God (Rom. xi. 33-36). By such passages, 
 quite as much as by his powerful doctrinal statements, 
 going to the root of human difficulties, St. Paul still 
 influences the world far more than it knows. 
 
 In one important direction many hold that St. Paul 
 falls behind the loftiest ideal — namely, in the position he 
 Teaciiing as assigns to women. Many of his references to 
 to women, them emphasise their subjection and subordin- 
 ation to men. As regards wives, he flnds an analogy be- 
 tween the relation of the Church as subject to Christ, 
 and that of wives to husbands. 
 
 The Apostle John also ranks among the foremost of the 
 founders of Christianity ; but we are singularly ignorant 
 
 St John ^^ *^° ^^^ personal history, with thcj exception 
 of the incidents recorded in the gospels. The 
 name given by Christ to him and his brother James, 
 " Boanerges," sons of thunder, implies something different 
 from the idea of gentle feminine affection so generally 
 associated with St. John, and was justified by several 
 actions and sayings of the brothers. But he is specially 
 distinguished as "the disciple whom Jesus loved," and as 
 having been entrusted by his Master with the care of His 
 mother after His death. From this time forward we 
 have no trace of his special individual action, though be- 
 took part in the general proceedings of the infant Church 
 at Jerusalem. According to tradition, he spent most of 
 his later life at Ephesus, and lived to a great age, having 
 among his disciples Polycarp, Papias, and Ignatius, and 
 
 His first dying about the close of the first century. His 
 
 Epistle. £j.gt epistle is one of the most important books 
 in the New Testament. It nowhere deals with the Chris- 
 tian life in the tone of St. Paul, but bears strong testimony 
 to the reality of Christ's history. It gives a view of the 
 nature of the Divine Being, " Grod is light," which adds 
 to the repertory of Biblical descriptions of God, and he 
 applies the image in a number of ways. Christians have 
 confessed their sins and are forgiven, and the " blood of 
 
FAITH AND WORKS. 203 
 
 Jesus " cleanses them from all sin. They are the sons of 
 God, and the proper fruit of that relationship is sinless- 
 ness. Their true life is to be manifested by love. Christ 
 had laid down His life for them, and they ought to be 
 willing to lay down their lives for their brethren. It was 
 only by mutual love that the real Christian life could be 
 shown. With matchless simplicity, directness and clear- 
 ness, the apostle describes the place love occupies in the 
 Christian life and evidences. 
 
 It cannot be precisely decided what is meant by the 
 designation of "brethren of the Lord," in which the 
 authors of the Epistles of James and Jude are 
 included. They naturally had great influence ^'- ■^^"'^'• 
 in the early Church ; and the Epistle of James is a robust, 
 weighty document, addressed to Jewish converts to Christi- 
 anity, designed to elevate their standard of practical life. 
 It appears to have been written in a time of difficulty 
 and persecution, and contains many expressions bearing 
 specially upon such a season. He condemns the lack of 
 ' full trust in God, and a too great regard for temporal 
 possessions, and reminds his readers of the perfection of 
 God's gifts, and the unchangeableness of His nature. 
 It is a matter still under dispute whether it was written 
 before or after St. Paul's epistles, and whether it makes 
 any reference to his doctrines. Many regard Faith and 
 the epistle as directed against mistaken infer- works, 
 ences from St. Paul's teaching. " The argument turns 
 mainly on the interpretation of the doctrine of faith and 
 works in James ii. 24, which formally, at least, is in 
 direct opposition to Romans iii. 28. Now it is certain 
 that the antithesis between Paul and James is not really 
 so sharp as it appears in the verses just cited, because the 
 two do not attach the same meaning to the word " faith." 
 In fact, James's faith without works is not Paul's justify- 
 ing faith, but the useless faith without love spoken of in 
 1 Corinthians xiii. We have to deal with two 'types of 
 doctrine using the same terms in different senses, so that 
 it is not inconceivable that the two may really be_ capable 
 of such reconciliation in the practical Christian life as to 
 make their divergences unimportant." (Prof. Lumby.) 
 
204 THE APOSTOLIC TIMES. 
 
 The persecution under which the apostles Peter and 
 Paul have both been generally believed to have been 
 martyred became known as the first general persecution. 
 The first •'-* *°°^ place (a.d. 66) under Nero, who, having 
 general set fire to Rome, charged the Christians with 
 persecution, i^^^ crime. Those who were arrested were 
 horribly treated, some being crucified, others set on fire, 
 others clothed in wild beasts' skins and torn by dogs ; 
 and such cruelty gained compassion for the victims even 
 from the Romans. The persecution was widely extended 
 through the provinces, and the Christian religion was 
 proscribed by laws and edicts. Fortunately for the young 
 Church, before the siege and capture of Jerusalem by 
 Titus, in a.d. 70, the Jerusalem Christians had with- 
 drawn to Pella, a village in Decapolis beyond the Jor- 
 dan. There was no cessation, however, in the spread 
 and progress of the new religion, and about 95 or 96 
 the Emperor Domitian set on foot the second great perse- 
 cution. 
 
 The third persecution of which we have any account is 
 that of Trajan, dated about 112. We learn from a well- 
 PUny and known letter of Pliny the younger, as proconsul 
 Trajan, of Bithynia, that he had put to death those Chris- 
 tians who were informed against and obstinately refused 
 to recant ; those who denied that they were Christians 
 were compelled to invoke the gods, and supplicate the 
 emperor's image with incense and wine, and to curse the 
 name of Christ. Pliny's testimony as to the early Chris- 
 tian practices is very valuable. He says, " They affirmed 
 this to have been the utmost of their crime or error, that 
 they were accustomed on a fixed day to assemble before 
 daylight, and sing a hymn alternately to Christ as to a 
 god ; and they bound themselves by a sacred oath, not to 
 some crime, but to commit neither thefts, nor robberies, 
 nor adulteries ; not to break their word, not to deny a 
 deposit when called upon : which being over, they de- 
 parted, but came together again to take food, in common, 
 and without any guilt." The meeting day here spoken 
 of is generally believed to have been " the Lord's day," 
 or first day of the week, and the common meal is iden- 
 
THE MARTYRDOM OF IGNATIUS. 205 
 
 tified with the love-feast eaten in connection with the 
 Lord's Supper. 
 
 Pliny's measures brought back many to the worship of 
 the temples. Trajan, in reply to him, directed that while 
 informers and anonymous accusations were to be dis- 
 couraged, those convicted must be punished; but those 
 who renounced Christianity and supplicated the gods 
 were to be pardoned. The death of Ignatius, bishop of 
 Antioch, who has been previously mentioned (p. 177), is 
 referred to the persecution under Trajan. Ignatius is 
 said to have been one of the disciples of St. John, and at 
 any rate was contemporary with some of the apostles. 
 He appears to have been condemned to death about a.d. 
 107, and to have been sent to Rome, where he jgnatiua. 
 was killed by beasts in the sports of the arena. 
 A good many details of his journey to Eome are preserved 
 in his celebrated epistles. 'That addressed to the Romans 
 contains some striking meditations on his approaching 
 martyrdom ; indeed, it has been called a martyr's manual, 
 and from early times had a great influence on others. 
 He rejoiced in the prospect of his death. "Let me be 
 given to the wild beasts," he wrote," for through his 
 them I can attain unto God." His journey had martyrdom, 
 been a constant struggle with wild beasts (the guards who 
 accompanied him). "Let fire and cross, and grapplings 
 with wild beasts, wrenching of bones, hacking of limbs, 
 crushings of my whole body come. . . . Only be it 
 mine to attain unto Jesus Christ. It is good for me to 
 die for Jesus Christ rather than to reign over the farthest 
 bounds of the earth. Him I seek, who died on our behalf ; 
 Him I desire, who rose again. The pangs of a new birth 
 are upon me. When I am come thither, then shall I be a 
 man. Permit me to be an imitator of the passion of mj' 
 God." Parts of his epistles attack the docetism of the 
 time, which denied Christ's humanity. His evidence is 
 also important as to the early appointment and recognition 
 of bishops. 
 
 His friend Polycarp, another disciple of St. John, was 
 also martyred, but many years later. He was learned, of 
 spare diet and simple clothing, a liberal almsgiver. At 
 
2o6 THE APOSTOLIC TIMES. 
 
 an advanced age he was chosen bishop of Snij'rna, and 
 Poiycarp ^^^ ^ companion of Papias and Ignatius, who, 
 indeed, charged him to write to the churches 
 eastward of those to whom he had written. His only- 
 extant letter to the Philippians has already been referred 
 to. Various testimonies show that Poiycarp exercised 
 very wide influence. Irenssus, afterwards bishop of Lyons 
 (a.d. 177), a pupil of his, has described many characteristics 
 of his person, teachings, and character. 
 
 Poiycarp, in his later years, visited Rome, where he 
 conferred with Bishop Anicetus about the time for cele- 
 brating the death of Christ, which, Poiycarp said, accord- 
 ing to the practice of St. John and the other apostles with 
 whom he had spoken, should be kept on the day of the 
 Jewish Passover, the 14th Nisan, on whatever day of the 
 week it might fall. Polycarp's end came as a consequence 
 of a popular demand for victims for the public games in 
 Smyrna. The cry " Away with the atheists ! " (disbe- 
 lievers in the Greek and Roman gods) "Let search be 
 His made for Poiycarp," led to his apprehension, 
 martyrdom, -^lien, after a simple " Grod's will be done," he 
 stood and prayed for two hours, and then went steadfastly 
 before the authorities and refused to recant. "When pressed 
 to revile Christ, he said, " Fourscore and six years have I 
 served Him, and He hath done me no wrong. How then 
 can I speak evil of my King, who saved me ? " He was 
 led to a stake and burnt to death (a.d. 155 or 156). With 
 his sufferings, it is said, the persecutions of the Christians 
 for a time ceased. 
 
 It is evident from these examples that the men who- 
 immediately succeeded the apostles were inspired by the 
 same spirit, endued with the same love for the truth they 
 had received, and resolute to die rather than deny their 
 Lord and Master. It was this spirit, this resolution to 
 face death rather than do, say, or acknowledge anything 
 they believed untrue to Christ and to their religious belief, 
 which laid the foundation of the Christian Church so 
 broadly and strongly during the early centuries, when the 
 vast power of the Roman empire was continually occupied 
 in discouraging and often in trying to exterminate it. 
 
TUE SEVEN SONS OP ST. I'ELICITAS, SAID TO HAVE BEEN MAUTITKED 
 UNDEU MARCUS AURELIUS. 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 Cfiiisti'am'ti) f ersietuteti : ^tcontj aiiD Cftirli 
 Centuries. 
 
 Persecution by Marcus Aurellus— A Eoman senator martyred— Wide spread 
 of Christianity in second century.— Persecution by Septlmius Severus— 
 Period of toleration — Pesercutlon by Declus— Cyprian on flight- The 
 martyr spirit at Rome— GalUenus's edict of toleration- Persecution of 
 Diocletian— Galerlus's decree of toleration— Constantine grants religious 
 freedom — " Teaching of the Twelve Apostles "—Justin Martyr— His first 
 apology— Second apology— Dialogue with Trypho — Justin's character- 
 istics— Melito—Tatlan—Athenagoras—TheophUus of Antiooh— Irenseua 
 — The Pseudo-Clementine writings— Clement of Alexandria- Orlgen— 
 His works—" First Principles "— " Answer to Celsus "— Hippolytus— Ter- 
 tulllan— Cyprian— Heretical baptism— The unity of the ChurcH—Ebionlsm 
 — Gnosticism- BasUides— Valentinus— Marcion— Tatian— The Encratites 
 — Manichaeism- Manes, orManl — The Monarchiaus — Paul of Samosata — 
 The Patripasslans — Sabellius — The Montanlsts — The Millenarians— 
 Churches— The Church — Catechumens — Baptism — Confirmation- Wor- 
 ship- The Lord's Supper— Love-Feasts— Eucharistic doctrine— Discipline 
 — Fasting— Easter— The Quartodeoimans— Whitsuntide -Growth of the 
 priestly order— Bishops— Popular election— Parish and diocese- Metro- 
 politan, archbishop, patriarch— The bishopric of Kome— Unity of the 
 Church. 
 
 207 
 
208 
 
 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 IN dealing very briefly with the vast amount of inter- 
 esting history pertaining to the first ages of tlie 
 Church, we shall first refer to the general course of the 
 history, then to the great teachers and writers, and the 
 chief heretical movements affecting the Church, and finally 
 describe the main features of Church life and organisation 
 in the first three centuries. 
 
 The philosophic emperor, Marcus Aurelius (b.c. 161-180), 
 a sceptic about the gods he upheld, strangely enough 
 was a more severe persecutor of Christianity than his 
 predecessors. Adopting from the Stoics their incrediility 
 
 about marvels, and contemn- 
 ing what he thought the' obsti- 
 nacy or tragic airs of the 
 Christians, he was not unwill- 
 ing to see in their refusal of 
 homage to the gods to whom 
 
 rerseoution li® V^"^^ outward 
 by Marcus homage an act of 
 Aureuus. treason against his 
 own majesty. The calamities 
 which occurred during his 
 reign were followed by fresh 
 outbreaks of persecution more 
 or less throughout his empire. 
 Some of the inscriptions in the 
 catacombs of the Christians 
 at Rome record the severity of 
 their lot, and the fact that 
 they resorted even to caverns to worship, without being 
 able to escape martyrdom. During the time of M. 
 Aurelius, Justin Martyr was beheaded at Eome (about 
 166), Polycarp suffered at Smyrna, Melito at Sardis, 
 Pothinus, bishop of Lugdunum (Lyons), in Gaul (177). 
 In the latter province Christian slaves were crucified, 
 natives of Gaul were thrown to wild beasts, and Roman 
 citizens beheaded by order of the emperor. Dogs were 
 allowed to eat the bodies, and what they left was burnt 
 and the ashes thrown into the Rhone in contempt for the 
 
 The famous Irenseus, after- 
 
 MARCnS AUKELIUS. 
 
 belief in the resurrection 
 
PERSECUTION BY SEPTlMtUS SEVERUS. 
 
 2og 
 
 wards successor of Pothinus, carried a letter from the 
 Gallic churches to those of Asia and Phrygia describing 
 these events. 
 
 During the reign of Commodus (180-192), there is 
 recorded the striking fact of the martyrdom of a Eoman 
 senator, ApoUonius, who, however, was per- a Roman 
 mitted to read a full apology for his faith be- senator 
 fore the whole Senate. By the close of- the ™"ty"d- 
 second century Christianity had been preached with 
 success in every province of the Roman empire, even 
 possibly in Britain, though we cannot trust the tradition 
 relating that a British 
 
 king, Lucius, „,^ ^ , 
 
 p ' T-, ' wide spread oi 
 sent to Pope Christianity 
 Eleutherus m second 
 , . p century, 
 
 begging lor 
 
 instruction in Christi- 
 anity. Beyond the 
 Roman dominions, 
 Parthia, Media, Persia, 
 and various barbarous 
 tribes of Europe had 
 been evangelised with 
 more or less success. 
 
 In 202 the emperor 
 Septimius Se- persecution 
 verus, -wholjy Septlmlua 
 
 had at first ^^^«™^- 
 been favourable to the 
 Christians, issued an edict forbidding his subjects to em- 
 brace Judaism or Christianity, and this edict started the 
 fifth general persecution. In Egypt and the African 
 province the Christians suffered severely. Leonidas, the 
 father of Origen, and PotamisBua, a virgin of great beauty 
 and courage, were among the martyrs at Alexandria. 
 Potamisena is related to have been first cruelly tortured, 
 and then killed by immersion in boiling pitch. Her be- 
 haviour so affected Basilides, the officer who led her to 
 death, that he treated her with humanity, and afterwards 
 declared himself a Christian. In Africa, possibly at 
 
 
 
 SEPTIMIUS SEVEBUS. 
 
210 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 Carthage, Perpetua, a young "wife, Felicitas, a slave, and 
 others suffered at a show on the birthday of Geta, son of 
 Severus. The persecutions diminished under Caracalla 
 (211-217); while Elagabalus (218-222), absorbed in his 
 
 Period of own idolatrous projects, appears to have toler- 
 toieration. a^gfj all forms of religion, and to have proposed 
 to celebrate, in the universal temple which he built on the 
 Palatine Hill, the rites of Jews and Samaritans, as well 
 as Christians. His successor, Alexander Severus (222-235), 
 tolerated both Jews and Christians, and in his private 
 chapel for daily worship he had statues, not of the gods, 
 but of deified men, among whom were Abraham, and 
 Christ, with Alexander the Great and Apollonius of Tyana. 
 He had inscribed on his palace and on public monuments 
 the negative form of the golden rule. His mother, Julia 
 Mamsea, was decidedly favourable to Christianity, and 
 invited Origen to the court at Antioch. In the reign of 
 Severus the laws against Christians were codified by the 
 famous jurist Ulpian. 
 
 Under the next emperor, the Thracian Maximin (235- 
 238), occurred the sixth general persecution. The next 
 Persecution emperors were of a milder type, and Philip 
 by Decius. the Arabian (244^249) was so favourable to the 
 Christians that he has been claimed as the first Christian 
 emperor. Decius (249-251) followed with a systematic 
 attempt to destroy the Christian Church, and the bishops 
 and clergy were especially sought out and punished. 
 This (called the seventh) was the first really general 
 persecution. Decius appears to have thought that the 
 luxury and social evils which prevailed were due to the 
 new superstition, and it is said that the lives of some 
 Christians at least gave colour to the idea. Christianity 
 had gained in social repute, and the clergy and members 
 were taking up social arts and practices. Decius is re- 
 ported to have said that he would rather have a second 
 emperor at his side than a bishop at Rome ; and conse- \ 
 quciitly Fabian, the bishop of Eonic, and many other 
 bishops throughout the empire, were among the martyrs 
 of this time. Origen was imprisoned and tortured in 
 various ways, and only regained freedom to die in the 
 
PERSECUTION OF DIOCLETIAN. 
 
 211 
 
 second year after Decius. Many of those perseciited 
 yielded and offered sacrifice and incense to the gods ; 
 others by money payments gained certificates to the same 
 effect. _ Many, even bishops and priests, fled, either from 
 cowardice or from prudential motives. The cyprianon 
 later course was defended by Cyprian, bishop ^^■%^'^- 
 of Carthage, in these words : " Our Lord commanded us 
 in times of persecution to yield and fly. He taught this, 
 and practised it Himself. For since the martyr's crown 
 comes by the grace of God, and cannot be gained before 
 the appointed hour, he who retires for a time and remains 
 true to Christ does not deny his faith, l^ut only bides his 
 time." The Christians in prison at Eome wrote to their 
 African brethren in a noble strain of martyrdom : "What 
 more glorious and blessed lot can fall to man ^he martyr 
 by the grace of God than to confess the Lord spirit 
 God amidst tortures and in the face of death atEome. 
 itself; to confess Christ the Son of God with lacerated 
 body and with a spirit departing yet free ? . . . 
 Though we have not shed our blood, we are ready to do 
 so." Persecutions continued under the reign of Gallus, 
 and in the fifth year of Valerian (257-8) there began an 
 eighth persecution in which Cyprian perished, as well as 
 Sixtus II., bishop of Rome, and his deacon Laurentius, 
 related to have been slowly roasted to death on caiuenus's 
 a gridiron. The martyrdoms under Valerian Edict of 
 were followed by the First Edict of Toleration, Toleration, 
 issued by his son Gallienus, and addressed to the bishops. 
 He recalled Christian exiles, restored to them their 
 cemeteries, and acknowledged their religion as "per- 
 mitted." The bishops were informed that the officials 
 had been ordered to evacuate the consecrated places, and 
 that they were to reoccupy them ; and the edict was to 
 suffice as their authority. Thus the right of the Church 
 to hold property was effectively granted. 
 
 His successor, Aurelian, despised the Christians, being 
 a devotee of the Sun, and he had prepared an persecution 
 edict for a persecution of the Christians, wrongly ^ 
 termed the ninth, when he was assassinated. 
 The edict was revoked by his successor, Tacitus. Diocle^ 
 
U2 
 
 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 tian, a tougk Illyrian soldier (Emperor, 284-30B), even 
 liad a Christian -wife, Prisca ; and Valeria, his daughter, 
 married to Galerius, his associate Cassar, is credited with 
 having been able to check hostility to Christianity. Many 
 important state ofifices at this time were held by Chris- 
 tians, churches Were built in every important city, and 
 that at Nicomedia, in Asia Minor, then the seat of 
 Diocletian, was especially fine. The opponents of Chris- 
 tianity were stirred to make a great effort to crush it. 
 It was represented that profane persons (Christians in 
 the Emperor's service) prevented the proper results of 
 
 divination from being attained; 
 all such persons were ordered by 
 Diocletian to sacrifice in person. 
 At last, after several prehminary 
 steps, on February 23, 303, an 
 edict was issued commanding the 
 demolition of all Christian 
 churches, the burning of all sacred 
 books, the degradation of Chris- 
 tians from all of&ces and their 
 deprivation of civil rights, and 
 the rediiction of non-official Chris- 
 tians to a state of practical slavery. 
 The church of Nicomedia was 
 destroyed. Diocletian's wife and 
 -J daughter were compelled to join 
 in sacrifice to the gods. Perse- 
 cution was extended far and wide. Very many Christians 
 were burnt or drowned ; many were imprisoned in dun- 
 geons. Every person who pleaded in a court of justice 
 was compelled to sacrifice before his plea was heard. 
 Great ingenuity was shown in devising new tortures. 
 Only in Gaul and Britain, then under Constantius Chlorus 
 as CsBsar, was there any toleration for Christians, and even 
 here some martyrdoms took place, as that of St. Alban 
 at Verulam. Elsewhere cruelty raged. All officials of 
 Christian churches were seized and tortured to make 
 them give up their sacred books, and no doubt at this 
 time many invaluable manuscripts perished. In the 
 
 DIOCLETIAK. 
 
"TEACHING OF THE TWELVE APOSTLES." 213 
 
 language of Eusebius, executions went on till the swords 
 were dull and shattered, and the wearied executioners 
 had to relieve each other. Strangety enough, Diocletian 
 was the last Emperor deified by the Eoman Senate,- and 
 the last who celebrated a triumph at Rome. In 305, 
 Diocletian, worn out by ill-health, abdicated at Nicomedia, 
 and Maximin did the same at Milan, Galerius and Con- 
 stantius succeeding them, with Severus as Caesar in Africa, 
 and Maximin in Syria and Egypt. Galerius, seconded by 
 Maximin, continued the persecution, which was even in- 
 creased in rigour. All imperial subjects were compelled 
 to sacrifice, and food exposed in the markets was sprinkled 
 with the libations to the gods in order that Christians 
 should find it impossible to avoid pollution with idolatry. 
 At last, when dying of loathsome disease, Valerius' 
 Galerius in 311 issued a decree of toleration, decree of 
 which acknowledged the failure of previous ^oi^ratioiL 
 edicts to suppress Christianity. It was pretended that 
 the edicts had been inspired by a desire to bring back 
 Christians to their own primitive faith. Permission was 
 granted to them to rebuild their churches and resume 
 their meetings, on condition that they did nothing to 
 disturb the State ; and finally they were begged to pray 
 to their God for the health and welfare of the emperors. 
 In 312, Constantine, after his victory over Maxentius near 
 Rome, proclaimed toleration for the Christians, and in 
 June, 313, he granted freedom of religion and Constantino 
 its exercise throughout the empire. In 327 he grants 
 professed Christianity, and urged all his subjects f/eedom^ 
 to embrace the Christian religion. Thus ended 
 the first great period of the history of Christianity. 
 
 Before beginning to review the early Apologetic Litera- 
 ture, we may refer to a book which has only in recent 
 years been discovered and published in Con- Teaching of 
 stantinople by Bryennius, namely, " The Teach- tue Twelve 
 ing of the Twelve Apostles," probably dating Apostles." 
 from the end of the first century a.d., and exhibiting a 
 notable relation to the Epistle of Barnabas. The first six 
 chapters deal with the Two Ways, of Life and Death ; 
 the former summed up in the precepts " Love God who 
 
214 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 made thee," and " Love thy neighbour as thyself, and 
 do not to another what thou wouldest not have done 
 to thyself." The Sermon on the Mount is quoted, the 
 Decalogue is enforced, and evils resulting from breach 
 of the spirit of the Commandments are denounced. 
 Directions are given for baptism, to be preceded, by 
 fasting ; for modes of prayer, and the form of the 
 Eucharist (which consists of very simple thanksgivings, 
 not like those now associated with that office). The 
 blessing of the cup precedes that of the bread. The 
 wine is identified with " the vine of David " made known 
 through Jesus. The first thanksgiving is directed to be 
 said " after being filled," which apparently excludes any- 
 thing like the modern type of Communion, but which 
 would be applicable rather to the early Love-feasts. Due 
 honour and respect for apostles and prophets are enjoined. 
 In chapter xv. the instruction is given, "Elect therefore 
 to yourselves bishops and deacons," apparently to conduct 
 the weekly services. Those only may attend who have 
 confessed their sins in the church. The last chapter (xvi.) 
 exhorts the Church to watch for the Lord's second coming. 
 It is conjectured that the book was produced by Christian 
 Jews living to the east of the Jordan after the fall of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Very early in Christian history began that series of 
 "Apologies'" or answers to objections to Christianity 
 which has never since ceased. The earliest of which we 
 hear were addressed to the Eoman Emperor Hadrian about 
 125, by Quadratus, Bishop of Athens, and Aristides, an 
 Athenian philosopher. At first it was very necessary 
 to show the distinctions between the Christians and the 
 Justin Jews. The first great apologist whose Apology 
 Martyr. }^a,s come down to us is Flavins Justinus, com- 
 monly known as Justin Martjrr, born at Neapolis in Pales- 
 tine (now Nablous) about the end of the first century. 
 After studying Greek philosophy and becoming a Plato- 
 nist, he adopted Christianity, partly by study of the 
 sacred books and partly through witnessing the stead- 
 fastness of the Christians under pprsecution. We have 
 already mentioned his martyrdom at Rome. HLs fii-st 
 
JUSTIN MARTYR. 215 
 
 Apology was addressed to the Emperor Antoninus Pius, 
 and refutes the false charges brought against His first 
 Christianity, declares its principal truths, and ^poiosy- 
 describes Christian worship and practices. His courage 
 is very marked. " As for us Christians," he says, " we 
 .do not consider that we can suffer any ill from any one, 
 unless we are convicted of wickedness or evil-doing. 
 You can kill us, indeed, but damage us you cannot." 
 Against the charge of setting up a new kingdom, he says, 
 " Surely we are the best friends a ruler could desire, — 
 we who believe in a God whose eye no crime can escape, 
 no falsehood deceive, — we who look for an eternal judg- 
 ment, not onlj' on our deeds, but even on our thoughts." 
 He alleges as proofs of the truth of Christianity that its 
 chief events had been predicted in the Old Testament, 
 and that it had produced moral conversion in second 
 all kinds of offenders. His second Apology, Apology. 
 written apparently not long after the first, was instigated 
 by some atrocious condemnations of Christians to death, 
 showing that a future day of retribution would come, and 
 that Christianity was far above the State religion in its 
 moral character, and above the philosophical systems in 
 vogue. Bold protests of innocence were made, and Justin 
 shows that Christians had nothing to withdraw or give 
 up. 
 
 In his " Dialogue with Trypho," a Jew, Justin proves 
 the Christian position from the Hebrew Scriptures. Trypho 
 wonders how the Christians could profess to Dialogue with 
 serve God, and yet break the Mosaic law which Trypho. 
 God had given, and how they could believe in a human 
 Saviour. Justin in reply shows that the binding nature 
 of the Jewish law passed away with the coming of Christ, 
 who, while human, was truly divine, pre-existent, yet 
 subordinate to the Father, then became incarnate, was 
 crucified, rose again and ascended to heaven. He defends 
 himself against the charge of advocating a plurality of 
 gods by bringing numerous passages of the Old Testament 
 to show that they involved the existence and manifesta- 
 tion of such a person as Christ (e.g. in the Theophanies). 
 This dialogue has great value as s^^owing the mode of 
 
2i6 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 interpreting Scripture at a very early date, and as cover- 
 ing a great part of the ground of theology. Justin is also 
 remarkable for his allowing that the Divine Being was 
 revealed in part to the Gentiles, and especially to such 
 philosophers as Socrates, who, he says, was martyred for 
 Christ. As regards the Holy Spirit, Justin was less 
 definite, but he holds Him worthy of Divine honour, as 
 being concerned in creation and in inspiration. He holds 
 mainly the Pauline view of original sin and its remission 
 through Christ ; believes in the resurrection of the body, 
 and eternal (seonian) punishment of sinners. 
 
 It is admitted that Justin interprets Scripture in a 
 way very antagonistic to Judaism, and that many of his 
 Justin's cha- reasonings will not stand the tests of strict 
 raoteristios. Jogic or fuller knowledge. The number and 
 minuteness of his references to Christ's life and words 
 give evidence that he knew substantially the same history 
 that we have. The same body of facts is referred to, 
 with but some few additions and alterations, such as that 
 Christ was born in a cave, was not comely of aspect, and 
 made ploughs and yokes, emblems of righteousness ; that 
 the Jews ascribed His miracles to magic, that Christ said, 
 "There shall be schisms and heresies," and "In whatso- 
 ever I find you, in that will I judge you." He calls the 
 records that he refers to "Memoirs of the Apostles," 
 records of Christ's sayings and doings written by the 
 apostles or their followers. There is strong reason to 
 believe that he knew St. Matthew's and St. Luke's Gos- 
 pels ; but his inexactness of quotation prevents our being 
 certain that he did not use some gospel or original docu- 
 ment which has not come down to us. There is much in 
 common between his ideas of the word and the Fourth 
 Gospel, but he has no direct quotation from it. One or 
 two passages, however, seem only compatible with a 
 knowledge of this gospel. He has distinct references to 
 1 Corinthians and 2 Thessalonians, and makes other allu- 
 sions only compatible with knowledge of other books of 
 the New Testament. Further, it must be remembered 
 that Justin apparently wrote other books which are lost, 
 and which, probably, contained many of the things we miss. 
 
TAT I AN. 217 
 
 Melito, bishop of Sardis, in the third quarter of the 
 second century, wrote an Apology (addressed to the 
 Emperor Marcus Aurelius), as well as numerous jigmo 
 other works mentioned by Eusebius. In one of 
 his works he gave a list of the acknowledged books of 
 the Old Testament, 
 
 Tatian, born in Assyria about 120, was a hearer of 
 Justin Martyr, at Eome, and wrote a Discourse to the 
 Greelcs, which is practically an "Apology for 
 Christianity," in which he denounced the im- 
 morality and absurdities of the Greek stories of the gods, 
 and vindicated the "barbaric" (i.e. the Christian) writings. 
 He evidently used the Logos philosophy of the Fourth 
 Gospel, often in almost identical language, and developed 
 the idea of the Spirit beyond Justin. The Spirit of God, 
 he says, takes up His abode with those who live justly, 
 and proclaims truth in the form of prophecies. Tatian 
 was the first who is recorded to have made a harmony 
 of the gospels (the Diatessaron), which has been in 
 modern times recovered and reconstructed by Zahn from 
 an Armenian version of a commentary on it by Ephraem 
 the Syrian in the fourth century. It is deduced from 
 this th^t Tatian accepted and affirmed the historical 
 character of the four gospels, though he does not regard 
 them as infallible in their chronology, but re-arranges it 
 according to probabilities. After the death of Justin 
 Martyr, Tatian was considered to have become unortho- 
 dox, and to have adopted gnostic views. His extant 
 works only discover certain tendencies which may have 
 led him from the Christian standards ; but he was con- 
 demned by Irenseus as " puffed up as if superior to other 
 teachers, and forming his own type of doctrine." 
 
 Athenagoras, of Athens, was a philosopher who studied 
 Christianity in order to write a refutation of it, but be- 
 came a teacher of the faith. His " Apology " Athenagoras, 
 (which he calls an " embassy " concerning 
 Christians, addressed to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius, 
 Antoninus, and Commodus) defends Christians against 
 the current charges of atheism, incest, and cannibalism 
 at their feasts. Its date is probably about 176. Another 
 
2i8 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 work of his " On the Eesurrection o£ the Dead," argues 
 the question mainly from philosophy, and from the nature 
 of God and of man. He strongly upholds the unity of 
 the Godhead, while teaching that in God there dwelt Irom 
 eternity the Logos, His Son. He quotes numerous phrases 
 f roYn the New Testament without mentioning their source. 
 
 Theophilus of Antioch, Bishop of Antioch in the latter 
 part of the second century, wrote an Apology addressed 
 Theophilus to an Unbelieving friend named Autolycus, 
 of Antioch. which is perhaj)s most notable as being the first 
 book in which the Trinity in the Divine nattire is re- 
 ferred to. The first three days of creation, he says, were 
 types of the triad — God, His Word, and His Wisdom ; but 
 the personality of the Holy Spirit still remains indistinct 
 in his account. 
 
 IreiiEeus, Bishop of Lyons, a native of Asia Minor, in 
 his youth a pupil of Polycarp, and thus connected with 
 
 irenffius ^^- Jo^^i "^^^ chosen as the successor of Pothinus 
 at Lyons, in 178, and probably held that see 
 for twenty-five years. He was a zealous preacher, both 
 to the heathen and against heretics, and was notably eager 
 to preserve peace within the Church. Already in his time 
 the Roman Church, through Bishop Victor, was seeking 
 to compel the Churches of Asia Minor to keep Easter on 
 the same day as the Eomans did, and IrentEus remon- 
 strated against Victor cutting them off from his com- 
 munion, and his circular letter probably prevented other 
 Churches from following the Eoman example. It is 
 doubtful whether Irenseus was martyred. The great 
 work of Irenseus is usually known by the brief title 
 "Against Heresies," but its complete designation is 
 " Detection and Upsetting of falsely-called Knowledge " 
 (Gnosis), written in Greek against the gnostic heresies. 
 We have the greater portion of a Latin version, and 
 fragments of the original Greek. 
 
 Here we may refer to the works known as the pseudo- 
 The Pseudo- Clementines, written probably in the second half 
 Clementine of the second century, in the name of Clement 
 
 writings, of jjoj^g_ rphe HomiUes, described as " a philo- 
 sophico-religious romance, based on some historical tradi- 
 
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA. 219 
 
 tions," profess to give an account of the discourses of 
 St. Peter on Ms apostolic journeys, as given to Clement. 
 The author puts into the mouth of Peter a mixture of 
 Ebionite and Gnostic teaching, seeing in Christianity 
 merely a restoration of the pure primitive revelation. 
 Much of its teaching is interpreted as a veiled attack on 
 St. Paul. The Recognitions purports to be an autobio- 
 graphy addressed by Clement to James, bishop of Jeru- 
 salem. The books resemble one another in many points, 
 and are regarded as diverse forms of one original. To 
 Clement were also ascribed the Apostolical Constitutions 
 and Canons^ the former consisting of eight books of 
 Church laws, customs, liturgies, and moral exhortations, 
 an early work, and the latter, probably collected in the 
 fourth or fifth century, containing a system of discipline 
 for the clergy. All the four gospels, principally St. 
 Matthew, are quoted in the Clementines, with consider- 
 able verbal differences from our present text ; and a few 
 passages not found in our gospels are quoted. 
 
 Clement of Alexandria was the earliest great teacher at 
 Alexandria devoted to the instruction of catechumens or 
 those preparing for Christian baptism, from clement of 
 about A.D. 190 to 203. He was followed by the Alexandria, 
 still more notable Origen. Of the three chief works of 
 Clement, the Exhortation to the Greeks shows the folly 
 and immoral character of the Greek religion ; the second, 
 the Tutor, inculcates Christian morality, and the third, 
 " Stromata" or Patchwork, gives the deeper Christian 
 teaching in an unsystematic fashion. Clement represents 
 that in his teaching he is reproducing original unwritten 
 tradition, derived from the apostles, and constituting a 
 true guide to knowledge or gnosis, in opposition to the 
 false gnosis then abundant. He quotes with emphasis the 
 Epistle of Barnabas, and also "the Preaching of Peter," 
 and the " Gospel according to the Hebrews," as well as 
 the books of the canon ; but he quotes loosely and inaccu- 
 rately. He describes the philosophic believer as compre- 
 hending the complete truth of God, and becoming as far 
 as possible like God. Man is born for God's service, for 
 which he is fitted by painful training, and by receiving 
 
220 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 the Holy Spirit. He recognised and valued highly the 
 good side of heathenism and of Greek philosophy. '' The 
 training of the Jews and the training of the Greeks were 
 in different ways designed to fit men for the final mani- 
 festation of the Christ. . . . The various schools of 
 philosophy are described as rending in pieces the one 
 truth, like the Bacchants, who rent the body of Pentheus, 
 and bore about the fragments in triumph. Each one, he 
 says, boasts that the morsel which it has had the good 
 fortune to gain is all the truth. . . . He that again 
 combines the divided parts and unites the exposition in 
 a perfect whole, will, we may be assured, look upon the 
 truth without peril " (Westcott, in Diet. Christ. Biog.). 
 
 A pupil of Clement, Origen (in full, Origenes Adam- 
 antius) was destined greatly to excel his master in fame. 
 
 ori'^en Horn at Alexandria in 185 of Christiaij. parents, 
 and baptised in infancy, he early studied both 
 the Bible and Greek literature. During the persecution 
 of A.D. 202, his father Leonidas was martyred, and Origen 
 would have suffered the same fate but that his mother 
 hid his clothes. He afterwards supported himself and his 
 mother and family by teaching Greek and copying manu- 
 scripts. In 203, at the age of eighteen, he was made head 
 of the catechetical school vacated by Clement. To further 
 qualify himself for this office he studied under Ammonius 
 Saccas, the founder of Neo-Platonism, a teacher who no 
 doubt greatly broadened his views. He lived a most ascetic 
 life, and to guard himself against temptation, throtigh 
 having numerous female catechumens, he emasculated 
 himself ; and by his teaching and life made many con- 
 verts. About 211 he visited Eome, where ideas of a visibly 
 united Church, made up of baptised persons, were already 
 strong, while the Alexandrians regarded the Church as 
 composed of all holy people both in heaven and on earth. 
 Eeturning to Alexandria, Origen made a fresh study of 
 Hebrew, and started a great commentary on the Bible, 
 for which Ambrose, a rich convert, provided a library, 
 shorthand writers and copyists. In his numerous foreign 
 journeys to instruct princes and notable people who sent 
 for him, the bishops of Jerusalem (Alexander) and Csesarea 
 
THE WORtiS OF ORIGEN. 221 
 
 invited him to preach in their churches, though he was 
 still a layman. Later, he was ordained a presbyter by 
 the same bishops (a.d. 228), which excited the anger of 
 Demetrius, bishop of Alexandria, who in 231 and 232 
 held two councils at Alexandria, at which Origen was 
 accused of having mutilated himself, of having been or- 
 dained without the consent of the bishop under whom 
 he worked, and of teaching erroneous doctrines, such as 
 that the devil would be finally saved, etc. He was for- 
 bidden to teach, and excommunicated, a sentence which 
 was confirmed by the jRoman and Western Churches, but 
 rejected in Palestine, Phoenicia, and Greece. Origen with- 
 drew to Csesarea, where he continued to teach. Afterwards 
 he again travelled widely, partly owing to persecution 
 by Roman emperors and by Christians. Meanwhile he 
 continued to work at his commentary and other writings. 
 During the persecution of Decius, Bishop Alexander of 
 Jerusalem was martyred, and Origen was condemned to 
 death and cruelly tortured. But the death of Decius freed 
 Origen, who however was shattered in strength, and died 
 a few years later at Tyre, about 255. 
 
 The Church of Rome refused to Origen the titles of 
 Saint and Father, in common with Clement of Alexandria 
 and TertuUian ; but he was certainly one of the greatest 
 scholars and most powerful intellects of his time. He 
 was very fond of allegorical and mystical interpretation, 
 and also of literal following of ascetic teaching. He was 
 the first to attempt a complete study of and 
 comment on the Bible, and to endeavour to 
 settle its text by a Polyglott Old Testament (called 
 Hexapla), including six versions side by side ; namely, 
 the Hebrew, the same in Greek letters, the Septuagint, 
 Aquila's Greek version, the text of Symmachus (possibly 
 an Ebionite), and that of Theodotion, an Ephesian. This 
 great work, kept in the library at Csesarea, was still in 
 use in Jerome's time. Only a few portions have survived. 
 Of his other numerous writings we have little beside the 
 "Answer to Celsus," an important work, and the "De 
 Principiis," a work on the first principles of Christian 
 doctrine ; but these suffice to show Origen to have been 
 
223 
 
 CHRISTIANITY PEkSECVTED. 
 
 the greatest Christian writer who had appeared since the 
 "First apostolic times. His work on "First Principles" 
 Principles." ^as the first attempt to fashion a philosophy 
 of the Christian faith. The object or end of life, he 
 says, is the progressive assimilation of man to God by the 
 voluntary appropriation of His gifts. Rational beings 
 are endowed with freewill, and with responsibility for 
 their actions ; they can never cease to be. They have the 
 
 ST. APOLLINAIilS IN CLASSE, KAVENNA (538-549). 
 
 power of learning from the revelation of God's will in 
 the Scriptures, upon which a rational faith is to be 
 founded. Bishop Butler, in the introduction to his " An- 
 alogy," quotes a fam6us sentence from this book as having 
 supplied an important hint for his own work. " He who 
 believes the Scripture to have proceeded from Him who 
 is the Author of Nature, may well expect to find the 
 same sort of difficulties in it as are found in the constitu- 
 tion of Nature." 
 
 Origen's "Answer, to Celsus " is a powerful reply to 
 the "True Discourse" of Celsus, an Epicurean philosopher, 
 
HIPPOLYTUS. 223 
 
 who in it attacked the whole idea of the supernatural, 
 the incarnation and resurrection of Christ, and "Answer to 
 the intellectual and moral character of the ceisus." 
 Christians. Origen's answer is close, and in many parts 
 conclusive ; but his lack of the true historic sense mars 
 much of his work. He maintained the true and perfect 
 manhood of Christ, subject to the conditions of natural 
 growth, and the true and perfect divinity of the "God 
 Word," which was so united with the Man Christ Jesus, 
 through the human soul, as to be one person. He re- 
 garded the Son as less than the Father, and as reach- 
 ing only to rational beings ; while the Holj^ Spirit was 
 still less, and extended only to the saints. The work of 
 Christ was for all men, and for the whole of man. His 
 life and death was a vicarious sacrifice for sin, and was 
 even of value to heavenly beings. The future consum- 
 mation of the world would include the restoration of all 
 beings to unity in God. Future punishment, proportionate 
 to sin, awaited all sinners. " His gravest errors," says 
 Westcott, "are attempts to solve that which is insoluble." 
 He has been so far misunderstood as to be charged with 
 being the forerunner of Arianism, and with holding many 
 other heresies. For his own age he is a remarkable ex- 
 ample of boldness and freedom of thought arising in the 
 new Church. Among the followers of Origen who can 
 merely be mentioned are Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, 
 A.D. 248-265 ; Gregory Thaumaturgus, bishop of Neocses- 
 area in Pontus, 244-270; Pamphilus of Csesarea, the friend 
 Eusebius ; and Hesychius, an Egyptian bishop, martyred 
 in 311 ; while Methodius, bishop of Patara, in Lycia, 
 attacked his views of the creation and resurrection of 
 the body in three dilogues. 
 
 Going back to the contemporaries of Origen, we must 
 briefly mention Hippolytus, bishop of the port of Rome, 
 at the mouth of the Tiber, whose statue was Hjppoiytus 
 dug up in 1551 in Eome, inscribed with the 
 names of his works, including one " against all heresies," 
 of which the greater part only became known by a dis- 
 ■covery in the monastery of Mount Athos, in 1842. It is 
 entitled "Philosophoumena," and describes heathen philo- 
 
224 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 Sophies, and all the heresies since the apostles' times, 
 and incidentally gives considerable information about 
 the author's life and beliefs, and the history of the 
 Roman Church. He strongly censured the laxity of the 
 contemporary Roman bishops Zephyrinus and Callistus. 
 He was probably martyred near Rome, near the close of 
 the first half of the third century. 
 
 The earliest great Latin Christian writers flourished in 
 the Roman province of Africa, chiefly in the old territory 
 of Carthage. Tertullian, born between 150 and 
 TertuUian. ^^g^^ ^^^ trained as a lawyer, and only became 
 a Christian about a.d. 192, after which he was a presbyter 
 of the Church. He joined the Montanists about the end 
 of the century. His death took place somewhere between 
 220 and 240. While still remaining an orthodox Chris- 
 tian, Tertullian wrote several important works, such as 
 his Address to the Martyrs, and his Apology, his greatest 
 writing. After he became a Montanist, he wrote many 
 books defending the special doctrines of the sect, though 
 without giving up any of what he considered to be the 
 true teaching of Christianity. The character of his writ- 
 ings is described as " abrupt and impetuous, eloquent and 
 stern," though often with tender and beautiful passages. 
 He vehemently denounced flight in persecution, second 
 marriages, ostentatious and elaborate dressing by Christian 
 women, and enjoined severe fasts and other ascetic prac- 
 tices. 
 
 Cyprian, the second great African father, was born at 
 Carthage, about a.d. 200, of a wealthy family, was highly 
 educated, and became a famous teacher of 
 ^ *°" rhetoric. He was baptised a Christian in 245 
 or 246, and studied the Scriptures and Christian writers 
 so successfully that in 248 he was called by popular 
 acclamation to take the bishopric of Carthage, though 
 still only a layman. When the Decian persecution broke 
 out, he fled as a matter of expediency. On his return, he 
 had to deal with many cases of those who had fallen 
 away under persecution and now sought restoration to 
 the Church. Many had even obtained indulgences in the 
 name of martyrs, who while in prison under sentence of 
 
CYPRIAN. 225 
 
 death were allowed to recommend the restoration of 
 persons under condemnation by the Church. Conse- 
 quently, many lax and disorderly persons obtained ad- 
 mission into the Church, and occasioned difficulty and 
 scandal. Cyprian in 251 called a council of African 
 bishops, which voted in favour of restoring only those 
 of the lapsed who were truly penitent. After this, 
 Novatus, a presbyter, with a rich layman named Felicis- 
 simus, raised an outcry against Cyprian's election as 
 irregular and illegal, and the latter set forward Fortunatus 
 as bishop of Carthage, and obtained his ordination by 
 five bishops, all of whom were either condemned heretics 
 or had lapsed under persecution; but this schism soon 
 vanished. 
 
 Another great controversy in which Cyprian took an 
 active part, was about the acceptance of Christian baptism 
 as valid when performed by heretical teachers. Heretical 
 He held that no such baptism was valid, and iiaptism. 
 that its efficacy depended not only upon the minister 
 being a priest of the orthodox church, but on his personal 
 holiness. In this matter Stephen, Bishop of Rome (253- 
 257), took the broader view that the validity depended on 
 following the institution of Christ, not on the state or 
 belief of the minister. Those baptised by heretics only 
 needed confirmation. Stephen appears to have shown 
 more than a dawning of the high pretensions of the 
 see of Home, having even refused to receive those who 
 brought the decisions of the African council to E-ome, 
 denouncing Cyprian as " a false Christ, a false apostle, and 
 a deceitful worker." This harshness was followed by the 
 rejection of all communion with the African and the 
 Eastern Churches ; and gradually the broader view pre- 
 vailed, and was accepted by the Church generally at 
 the Council of Nicsea. Cyprian's martyrdom under the 
 persecution of Valerian has already been mentioned. He 
 left behind him eighty-one epistles, giving most valuable 
 accounts of ecclesiastical questions in his age. He also 
 wrote a work " On the Unity of the Church," which is 
 the first full assertion of the principle of a great united 
 visible Church. He says that " the Church was founded 
 
 p 
 
226 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 from the first by Christ on Peter alone. . . . She has 
 "The Unity of ever since remained one, in unbroken episcopal 
 tiie cnuroh." succession. . . . He is not a Christian who 
 is not in the Church of Christ. Whoever separates him- 
 self from the Church is a foreigner, a profane person, an 
 enemy. '■Extra ecclesiam nulla solus'" (outside the 
 Church there is no salvation). Through Cyprian's in- 
 fluence the Church Council first became of prime impor- 
 tance to the life of the Church, and episcopacy acquired 
 a greatly increased power. He also strongly asserted 
 the independence of bishops when once elected. 
 
 During the first three centuries the successive setting- 
 up of different forms of opinion, which their advocates 
 thought compatible with Christianity, led to the discussion 
 EiDioniam ^"^^ settlement by the Church of numerous ques- 
 tions of the highest moment. Ebionism was the 
 first important development, a movement full of zeal for 
 the law of Moses, and tending to exalt the old at the ex- 
 pense of the new Covenant. The Ebionites,i who first 
 came into prominence about the beginning of the second 
 century, regarded Jesus as the son of Joseph and Mary 
 without any supernatural conception, and as a mere man. 
 Only after His baptism did He become anointed as Christ 
 and endued with His mission as Messiah. They neither 
 believed in His pre-existence nor in His divinity ; they 
 looked for His future coming, when the earthly Jerusalem 
 would be restored, and the Jews would return there to 
 take their place in the Messiah's millennial kingdom. 
 They insisted that the Jewish law should be observed by 
 all Christians, and they strongly opposed the teaching and 
 the claims of St. Paul. There was a further type of 
 Ebionism which was specially ascetic in its tone, and 
 identified Christianity with what was called genuine or 
 primitive Mosaism. The Ebionites only accepted the 
 Pentateuch, and even rejected parts of that. They did 
 not define the precise moment of union of Jesus with the 
 Messiah, who, they held, was ordained to combat and 
 conquer the devil. As the latter was their special enemy 
 
 ' Ebion, poor; hence Ebionite, a follower of Christ's teaching 
 about poverty. 
 
GNOSTICISM. 227 
 
 they refused every kind of worldly indulgence, except 
 that they recommended early marriages. They observed 
 both the Jewish Sabbath and the Christian Lord's day, 
 but they had no regard for the Jewish sacrifices and 
 temple ; yet they refused all communion with the un- 
 circumcised. Many of them sought to propagate their 
 views. They exerted much influence in the second and 
 third centuries in Syria, but did not succeed in establish- 
 ing themselves elsewhere. The teaching of Paul pre- 
 vailed, and' the bishops of Palestine, as well as those of 
 Rome, showed their disregard for Jewish customs in the 
 settlement of the Paschal controversy in the second cen- 
 tury. The Ebionites gradually died out without having 
 exerted any wide influence. No formal pronouncement 
 of a council against them was necessary. Their doctrines 
 died a natural death, though a few Ebionites were still 
 heard of up to the middle of the fifth century. 
 
 Gnosticism, though it fills a vast space in the religious 
 history of the first centuries of Christianity, is in many 
 features not directly its product. It appears gnogticism. 
 to have been related largely to Greek and 
 many other non-Christian philosophies, and it attempted 
 to add to the Christian faith a knowledge which was 
 superior to faith. It also claimed to be the depository of 
 a secret tradition of early Christianity. The term Gnostic 
 is used to cover many diverse sects, the more important 
 of which did not arise till the second century. The 
 principal general features of gnosticism as a philosophy 
 are the idea of the essential antagonism of spirit and 
 matter, the conception of a Demiurgus or eflfective creator 
 of the world, distinct from the supreme God, and the idea 
 that Christ's human body was but a phantasmal appear- 
 ance. The Divine being was supposed to become mani- 
 fested in the form of seons, a term applied to all spiritual 
 powers. The Demiurgus, or maker of the visible world, 
 was supposed to be produced by the iinion of the lowest 
 aeon with matter. The liberation of human nature from 
 evil was effected by the work of Christ, the most perfect 
 of the a3ons. Two principal views of morals were held 
 by various gnostic sects : one, that all matter, including 
 
228 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 human nature, was corrupt, and every material pleasure 
 "was consequently to be avoided ; the other, that the pure 
 spirit could not be defiled by any material thing or act. 
 We can but briefly refer to a few of the leaders of gnostic 
 sects. 
 
 Basilides, who flourished at Alexandria in the reign of 
 
 Hadrian (117-138), is best known to us by the extracts 
 
 given from his writings in the work of Hippo- 
 
 Easiudes. ^y^^g against all heresies. His high philosophical 
 teaching is too complex to be detailed here. The sect he 
 founded lasted in Egypt tUl about the end of the fourth 
 century. Its members professed to possess a hidden know- 
 ledge, reckoned themselves more than Christians, claimed 
 and exercised great freedom about contact with heathen- 
 dom, indulged in magic and invocations, and were reputed 
 to practise much immorality. Their ideas were very differ- 
 ent from those of their founder. 
 
 Valentinus, a much greater man, was probably also an 
 
 Alexandrian. He is known to have taught at Koine 
 
 about 138-160, and to have died in Cyprus in 
 
 aientinus. -j^gQ^ -g^g system became the most general form 
 of gnosticism, and was widely spread through Egypt, Syria, 
 Italy, and Southern Gaul. Early in the third century 
 the Valentinians were the most numerous of heretics ; in 
 the fifth they were quite extinct. 
 
 Marcion (first half of the second century), son of a 
 
 bishop of Sinope in Pontus, but excommunicated by his 
 
 father, went to Eome, and sought restoration 
 
 Maroion. ^^^^ t^^ presbyters there. Failing to obtain 
 his object, he formed a sect of his own, by whom he was 
 recognised as bishop, and became the founder of a line of 
 Marcionite bishops. His sect was very widely diffused 
 by the end of the second century, and their strict asce- 
 ticism, which included celibacy and abstinence from meat 
 and wine, and their ardent spirit of martyrdom, made 
 them strong and gave them much success. They still 
 existed in the seventh century, but they had been largely 
 eclipsed by the newer Manichsean heresy. MarcioiT re- 
 cognised three ruling powers: the good Grod, first made 
 known by Christ ; evil Matter, ruled by the devil • and 
 
MANICHA£ISM. 229 
 
 the rigMeous Demiurge, or world-maker, the angry god 
 of the Jews. He rejected the authority of the Old Testa- 
 ment entirely, and regarded Christ as having suddenly 
 descended from heaven to reveal God, His body being a 
 mere appearance and His death an illusion. By His 
 work He cast the Demiurge intp Hades, secured the 
 redemption of humanity, and commissioned St. Paul to 
 preach it. The Marcionites observed the usual church 
 rites, though their Eucharist excluded wine. They fasted 
 on Saturdays. Marcion's canon is referred to at page 
 185. 
 
 Tatian, of whom we have already spoken (pp. 182-3), the 
 convert of Justin Martyr, during Justin's lifetime showed 
 in his writings tendencies to gnosticism, and Tatian. 
 later became pronouncedly an ascetic gnostic. The 
 founding a sect known as the Encratites (the Encratites. 
 abstemious), which lasted until the fourth century. 
 
 Our space is quite inadequate to deal with Manichseism, 
 which may be briefly defined as an attempt to combine 
 Christianity with Zoroastrianism. Ormuzd and maniciixism. 
 Ahriman appeared as Light and Darkness, each 
 presiding over a distinct kingdom and engaged in perpetual 
 contest. Manes, or Mani, a Persian magian converted to 
 Christianity, was its founder, about 270, and Manes, 
 was cruelly martyred in 277. His teaching orMani. 
 spread widely through Asia, and reached Africa and 
 Eome. Although repressed by the Christian emperors, 
 Manichseism survived as a distinct sect till the sixth 
 century. 
 
 Manichseism resembled the gnostic sects in describing 
 Christ's body as only an appearance, and consequently 
 rejecting the accounts of His birth and early life. As 
 primal man He dwelt in the sun by His power and the 
 moon by His wisdom. Hence these two were worshipped 
 as being His habitations. The Old Testament was re- 
 jected, and the Gospels were only partially accepted, as 
 having arisen much later than the time of Christ and 
 the apostles, and as having been greatly corrupted. 
 Mani himself claimed to be the- Paraclete, and pro- 
 pounded bis teaching as a revelation. In morals the 
 
230 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 higher order of Maiiichseans, "the perfect," professed 
 asceticism, idleness, and ceHbacy ; the hearers might live 
 an ordinary life, though they might not destroy animals. 
 
 The ManichEBans had an elaborate organisation — a chief 
 priest, successor of Mani, twelve apostles, seventy-two 
 bishops, and priests, deacons and evangelists. Their very 
 simple worship included turning to the sun in prayer ; 
 anointing with oil instead of baptism of the " perfect," 
 to whom the Eucharist was administered ; and fasting on 
 Sunday. 
 
 These were rather teachings conflicting with Christi- 
 anity than heresies within its pale. We now come to 
 heresies which claimed to express the true view regarding 
 most important aspects of truth about the Divine Being 
 in His various manifestations. The discussions upon 
 these developed the Catholic doctrine about the Trinity 
 of the Godhead, and about the union of the Divine and 
 The human natures in Christ. The Monarchians, 
 MonaroUlans.-^vlio rose into prominence towards the end of 
 the second century, denied the divinity of Christ, or else 
 described it as a power which filled the human Jesus. 
 Yet they mostly believed in His miraculous birth by the 
 power of the Holy Spirit, and in the residence of Divine 
 power in His nature from His conception. Theodotus of 
 Byzaiitium was an early leader, and was excommunicated 
 at Rome by Bishop Victor (about a.d. 200). 
 
 A distinct form of Monarchism originated with Paul 
 of Samosata, bishop of Antioch from a.d. 260. He de- 
 
 Pauiof scribed both the Logos and the Holy Spirit as 
 Samosata. powers or manifestations of God, not distinct 
 Persons. The Divine Logos, he taught, dwelt more fully 
 in Christ than in any previous teacher. He was deposed 
 in 269 by a council of Syrian bishops, but was protected 
 by Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, and only finally deposed 
 after his sentence had been confirmed by the Italian 
 bishops. 
 
 A form of Monarchism which explained the three 
 Persons of the Trinity as only the threefold aspect of 
 the Divine Being, was termed Pafripassian by Tertullian, 
 because it was infeiTed that this view logically involved 
 
SABELLIUS. 231 
 
 the belief that it was Grod the Father Himself who 
 suffered upon the cross. Praxeas brought this tub Patn- 
 doctrine to Eonie from Asia Minor near the P^ssians. 
 end of the second century, and was at the same time 
 a strong anti-Montanist. He urged that the doctrine of 
 the Trinity was a belief in three Gods ; and his mode of 
 explaining his own teaching was that the one God, who 
 as Father was Spirit, as Son was flesh ; and that the 
 Father sympathised and suffered with the Son. He was 
 condemned by the Eoman Church, and went to Carthage, 
 where Tertullian wrote a book against him. Noetus of 
 Smyrna had his own special form of this heresy, to 
 which Zephyrinus, Callistus (Calistus I.), and Sabellius 
 were won. Callistus thus expressed his view : " The 
 Father, who was in the Son, took flesh and made it 
 God. Father and Son were therefore the name of the 
 one God, and this one person cannot be two ; thus the 
 Father suffered with the Son." 
 
 Sabellius, however, went farther than Callistus, by 
 whom he was excommunicated a.d. 218, and was the 
 most original and profound of the Monarchians. g ^ ,y 
 He taught that the unity of God unfolded itself 
 in three different forms at successive periods, and after 
 the completion of redemption returned into unity. The 
 Father is revealed in the law, the Son in the incarnation, 
 the Holy Spirit in inspiration. The Logos he imagined 
 as the One God in transition to the Trinity, the three 
 Persons being only successive aspects of the Logos, or 
 world-ward side of the Divine. His views led to the 
 enunciation of the Nicene Creed. After his excommuni- 
 cation at Rome, he appears to have preached in Egypt, 
 where he was condemned in 261, at a council called 
 by Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria ; and it is signifi- 
 cant that the terms of his condemnation declared the 
 subordination of the Son to the Father in a form almost 
 identical with the subsequent Arian heresy. 
 
 The Montanists, an ascetic sect, arose in Phrygia about 
 the middle of the second century, under the preaching 
 of Montanus, a priest of Cybele. He believed, or gave 
 out, that he was himself the medium of the Paraclete or 
 
232 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 Comforter promised by Christ ; and during the persecution 
 The by Marcus Aurelius he proclaimed the im- 
 Montanists. mediate coming of the Holy Spirit, and the 
 commencement of the millennial kingdom of Christ, and 
 he and his followers prepared for it by a life of severe 
 discipline and a spirit of enthusiastic martyrdom. Most 
 of the Asiatic Churches regarded this announcement as 
 made by demoniacal influence, and excommunicated the 
 Montanists. In the West it met with more favour, being 
 supported by Tertullian, and many Africans and Roman 
 Christians, by Irenseus and the Churches of Gaul. Praxeas 
 and Caius, however, obtained its condemnation at Rome ;' 
 but the powerful advocacy of Tertullian greatly raised 
 its importance, and led to renewed and enlarged belief 
 in the work of the Comforter. On other than these 
 special views, the Montanists were orthodox in doctrine, 
 acknowledging the entire authority of both Old and 
 New Testaments, and agreeing with the Church in their 
 views of the Trinity. 
 
 By a natural transition we come to the Millenarians 
 or Chiliasts, who believed in the speedy second coming of 
 The Christ to reign in person a thousand years 
 Mmenarians. before the general resurrection and last judg- 
 ment. The Montanists were among the most fanatical 
 believers in this, but it gradually died after the adoption 
 of Chiiitianity by Constantine, to be revived again in 
 more recent times. 
 
 The Christian Churches (assemblies of Christians) only 
 gradually acquired fixed local habitations, and the word 
 Churches " ^^clesia " was applied to meetings of be- 
 lievers from its current use for other meetings. 
 1 Cor. V. 18, which speaks of the Christians " coming 
 together in the church," shows how the meeting place 
 became identified with the meeting. Still for a long 
 time the Church met anywhere it could, and private 
 houses were generally used, though it was often neces- 
 sary to assemble in desert places, and at catacombs and 
 other burial places. We do not find mention of special 
 buildings for Christian worship until about the end of 
 the second century, when, in addition to the name 
 
INTERIOR OF ST. CLEMENT'S, ROME. 233 
 
 INTERIOR OF S. CLEMENT'S, EOME {TWELFTH CENTURT). 
 
 (Built above a sixth-century basilica. The choir, -prohahly dating from the sixth 
 
 century, is here an enclosure within the nave,) 
 
234 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 ecclesia, they were called "the Lord's houses," and "houses 
 of God." The name "Lord's house" referred specially 
 to the Lord Jesus Christ. In French ecclesia appears as 
 6gUse, in Welsh as eglwys ; but the Anglo-Saxon cyrice, 
 cyrc, English church, Scotch kirk, Grerman Kirche, sup- 
 planted it. Whether this word is derived from the 
 Greek word for "Lord's house," or from a primitive 
 Aryan word meaning enclosure, is doubtful. 
 
 During the second half of the third century many 
 churches were built, often of considerable architectural 
 pretensions, and provided with gold and silver vessels. 
 The church at Nicomedia, destroyed by Diocletian, was 
 one of the grandest. 
 
 In its application to persons, the " Church " signified 
 the whole body of Christians, those dwelling in any town 
 n ^^ neighbourhood constituting the Church in 
 ' that place. Of course admission to the Church 
 had to be guarded, and exclusion had to be practised as 
 necessity arose. Baptism constituted the rite of admission, 
 accompanied by a profession of faith. To ensure the 
 soundness of the latter, previous instruction was needed, 
 
 „„t„„^ and in the second century classes of " eatechu- 
 
 mens were iormed, m which two or three 
 years might be spent before baptism. The latter rite 
 
 Baptism ^^® often administered on the eve of Easter 
 and Whit Sunday. A confession of faith had 
 to be made at baptism, including the chief heads of the 
 Christian faith, and the devil was formally renounced. 
 The sign of the cross was made upon the forehead, the 
 kiss of peace was given by the minister, and usually 
 baptism was by immersion. The rite was not restricted 
 to_ adult converts, but was also administered to the 
 children of Christian parents, this practice being derived 
 from the apostles. TertiiUian was a prominent opponent 
 of infant baptism, behoving that it brought children too 
 soon into a condition of responsibility, and that deadly 
 sins committed after baptism could not be forgiven. But 
 the tendency to very early baptism (on the second or third 
 day) was strongly marked in the middle of the third 
 century. Sponsors not only took the vows on behalf of 
 
WORSHIP. ■ 235 
 
 infants, but appeared as sureties for adults. Of course in 
 the case of children the catechumen stage had to follow 
 baptism. 
 
 Confirmation, in the case of adults, originally followed 
 baptism at once, the presbyters laying their hands on 
 them and anointing them with holy oil. In confirmation 
 the second century this rite was usually per- 
 formed by bishops, but infants as well as adults were 
 confi-rmed, and afterwards the Lord's Supper was ad- 
 ministered, even to infants in some churches. 
 
 Simplicitj'' characterised the Christian meetings during 
 the first two centuries. The meeting places had an 
 elevated seat for the minister to read and . 
 
 preach, a plain table for the communion, and 
 a basin of water for baptism ; but during the second 
 century the table came to be called the " altar," and it 
 was enclosed within raihngs, together with the reading 
 desk and the seats for the clergy. Justin Martyr in his 
 Apology gives the following most interesting account of 
 Christian worship in his time. " On Sunday a meeting 
 is held of all who live in the cities and villages, and a 
 section is read from the Memoirs of the Apostles, and the 
 writings of the Prophets, so long as the time permits. 
 When the reader has finished, the president ' in a dis- 
 course (homily) gives the admonition and exhortation to 
 imitate these noble things. After this, we all rise and 
 offer prayer. At the close of the prayer, bread and wine 
 and water are brought. The president offers prayers and 
 thanks for them as he is able, and the congregation 
 answer Amen. Then the consecrated elements are dis- 
 tributed to each one and partaken of, and are carried by 
 the deacons to the houses of those absent. The wealthy 
 and the willing then give contributions, according to 
 their free will, and this collection is deposited with the 
 president, who therewith supplies orphans and widows, 
 the poor and needy, prisoners and strangers, and takes 
 care of all who are in want." Other accounts give 
 fuller descriptions of the singing of Psalms, of the songs 
 in the New Testament, and of specially composed hymns, 
 ' The presiding presbyter, or bishop. 
 
236 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 both of praise and doctrine. Antiphonal or responsive 
 singing was early introduced. Of these hymns there 
 remain the fine hymn by Clement of Alexandria, and 
 the morning and evening hymns of the Apostolical 
 Constitutions. 
 
 In the latter part of the second century the Lord's 
 
 Supper was separated from the ordinary Sunday service, 
 
 The Lord's and Only full members were allowed to remain. 
 
 Supper. Both bread and wine were given to all com- 
 municants, water being mixed with the latter. The 
 Love-feasts of the early Churches originated out of the 
 common social meal, but soon became more or less per- 
 verted to occasions of ostentation on the part of the richer 
 members. They at first combined a meal with a special 
 religious service. Collections were made for the poor 
 or for necessitous Churches ; the " kiss of love " preceded 
 the breaking up of the meetings. As special buildings 
 came into use for worship, it was felt that they should 
 not be used for such common meals; and this practice 
 was forbidden by councils in the fourth century. The 
 Love fe Bt Love-feasts continued to be held in the evening, 
 ' after the Eucharist had been transferred to the 
 morning ; and they often became little more than a meal 
 given to the poor. 
 
 The great controversies which have surrounded the 
 
 Eucharist or Holy Communion date in essence from 
 
 Eucharistio near the apostolic age. Thus Ignatius, in 
 
 doctrine, answer to those who denied that the Eucharist 
 was the body of Christ, affirmed that it was " the flesh of 
 the crucified and risen Lord, a medicine of immortality, 
 an antidote to death, giving eternal life in Jesus Christ." 
 Both Justin Martyr and Irenseus speak of the descent of 
 Christ into the consecrated elements as being like His 
 incarnation. Tertullian says that the words of Christ, 
 " This is My body," mean " This is the figure or symbol 
 of My,body " ; but he also says that the body and blood 
 of Christ are really received into the body of the com- 
 municant. Clement of Alexandria describes the wine as 
 a symbol or allegory of the blood of Christ, explaining 
 that the recipient receives the spiritual, not the physical, 
 
QUARTODECIMANS. 237 
 
 blood of Christ. But the early fathers in general were 
 strongly influenced by Jewish ideas, and regarded the 
 Eucharist as in some sense a sacrifice, which superseded 
 the former sacrifices. In the second century the fathers 
 mainly regarded it as a thank-offering ; but the African 
 fathers, and especially Cyprian, in the third century, 
 inclined to look upon it as a sin-offering. 
 
 Discipline was, on the whole, strict in the early Church. 
 Excommunication was the great weapon against offences ; 
 but it might almost always be taken off, after 
 a shorter or longer period of probation, instruc- °° ^ 
 tion, fasting and prayer. Tertullian expresses the view 
 that this penance was a satisfaction rendered to God. 
 Sometimes penance was continued throughout life, and 
 full restoration was by some of the stricter bishops 
 denied to some offenders even in the hour of death. 
 But ultimately it was agreed that the Church should 
 grant absolution and restoration to any penitent upon 
 his deathbed. 
 
 Fasting early became an aid to prayer and a means of 
 self-discipline. Partial fasting on AVednesdays and Fri- 
 days, and the great fast before Easter, in me- 
 mory of the forty days' fasting of Jesus, were ^^ ^' 
 observed in the second century. At first this was of very 
 varying length ; and it was only later that a forty days' 
 fast was settled, through the influence of the Roman 
 Church. The Montanists often fasted fourteen days at a 
 time, eating only bread and salt and drinking water. 
 
 Tertullian is the first writer who records the giving up 
 of ordinary business on the Lord's Day : but fasting was 
 forbidden on that day of joy ; also prayer was ^^^^^-j. 
 made standing, not kneeling, as on other days. 
 Many Christians kept both the Jewish and the Christian 
 Sabbath. Easter was of course the most important 
 festival, combining the influence of the Jewish Passover 
 and the Christian resurrection. This double significance 
 led to a long dispute as to the proper time of keeping 
 Easter. One party held to the Passover date, Quarto- 
 the 14th of Nisan, irrespective of the day of deoimans. 
 the week ; these were termed the Quartodecimans. The 
 
238 CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 other party, and especially the Roman Church, insisted 
 on the fact that Christ was crucified on a Friday, the 
 day preceding the Jewish Sabbath, and rose again on the 
 Sunday, on which therefore the anniversary ought always 
 to be kept. About a.d. 160 it was agreed between 
 Polycarp and Anicetus, bishop of Rome, to permit differ- 
 ences of practice on this point. About 170 theLaodiceans, 
 opposed by other Asiatic Churches, observed the Jewish 
 Passover by eating the Paschal lamb ; and the controversy 
 became so acute that in 196 the Roman bishop Victor 
 tried to get the whole question of Easter settled, and 
 councils of bishops in various countries adopted the 
 Roman practice ; but the Asiatic Churches maintained 
 their usage till the Council of Mcsea. 
 
 The period between Easter and Pentecost (Whitsuntide) 
 was observed as a. con tinned festival, during which prayer 
 was always made standing, the communion was 
 wni sun e. j,gQQiyQ^ daily, and fasting was given up. As- 
 cension Day was apparently first observed in a special 
 manner in the third century. Christmas and saints' days 
 were not kept till later. 
 
 Coming now to the official members of the Church, 
 the growth of a hierarchy or governing priestly class 
 (}j.(,^t]joj^;jjg followed a natural and rapid course of evolution 
 
 priestly in these early centuries. At first the exercise 
 
 order. q£ ^j^^ ministry (outside the ranks of the apostles) 
 was a direct consequence of gifts, believed to be imparted 
 by the Holy Spirit. Those marked out as specially 
 qualified for giving instruction, leading worship, and 
 administering the affairs of the Church were inducted 
 to their ministry by the laying on of hands by the 
 apostles and the elders already appointed, in a Church 
 meeting. Various expressions describing these ministers, 
 such as prophets, evangelists, pastors, teachers, bishops 
 or overseers, presbyters or elders, deacons, etc., are found 
 in the New Testament, but not as yet quite defined in 
 their functions or rank. The terms bishop and prusbyter 
 (elder) are mostly used interchangeably; but the latter 
 term alone is used in the Acts of the Apostles; and 
 where we read of bishops of a Church it is always in 
 
POPULAR ELECTION OF BISHOPS. 239 
 
 the plural. The emergence of the office of bishop as the 
 chief officer of a large Church or group of 
 chiTrches was, however, very speedy, although 
 the two terms, bishop and presbyter, are used as synony- 
 mous by Clement of Rome, Polycarp, and even by Irenseus. 
 Out of various possible modes of organisation, one gradu- 
 ally emerged which appeared best su.ited to the conditions 
 of the Church. But the idea of the priesthood of all 
 Christian believers remained active for a considerable 
 time ; and Tertullian says that where there were no 
 ministers, any Christian administered the sacraments, as 
 a priest to himself alone. 
 
 But Ignatius, in his epistles, already recognises the 
 full dignity of the office of a bishop, and the three 
 orders of bishop, priest and deacon; and by the begin- 
 ning of the third century the ministry, the priestly 
 order, the clergy, are ranked as a distinct order, to which 
 admission could only be had by ordination. Minor orders, 
 such as those of sub-deacon, acolyte, exorcists, reader, 
 were also in existence. In proportion as the clergy 
 were distinguished from the people, they were main- 
 tained' at their expense, by means of weekly collections 
 and other gifts. With all their ideas of commission by 
 Divine calling, yet the people chose their own ministers, 
 though they might accept the nomination of the bishop 
 or priests ; and it is remarkable how the consent Popular 
 of the entire congregation was held necessary election, 
 to an appointment during the first three centuries, and 
 the election of Cyprian to the bishopric of Carthage by 
 popular acclaim is a strong case in point. By the end 
 of the third century the power of the bishops was largely 
 increasing ; the episcopal office in its entirety was re- 
 garded as the continuation of the apostolical office, and 
 the bishop -was the " vicar of Christ " to the churches he 
 ruled. " Blessed are they who are one with the bishop, 
 as the Church is with Christ and Christ with the Father," 
 says Ignatius. An unbroken episcopal succession was most 
 highly valued. Cyprian describes bishops as the channel 
 or medium through which the Holy Ghost is bestowed on 
 the Church in unbroken succession. " The bishop," he 
 
240- CHRISTIANITY PERSECUTED. 
 
 says, " is in the Church, and the Church is in the bishop, 
 and if any one is not with the bishop, he is not in the 
 Church." But he regards the entire order of bishops as 
 exercising an undivided episcopate, and each bishop as 
 representing in his diocese the authority of the whole 
 order. So the way was prepared for the idea of the 
 visible unity of the Catholic Church. 
 
 The word which we render "parish " at first signified 
 
 the sphere of a bishop's action ; the term diocese arose in 
 
 Parisn and Constantine's time. Bishops of central meeting- 
 
 Diooese. places were termed metropolitans, and those of 
 the most important churches, such as those of Antioch, 
 Alexandria, and Eome, were early known as archbishops 
 or patriarchs. Gradually the superior influence of the 
 Metropolitan, Church and Bishop of Rome grew in accord 
 Archbisnop, with its Central position and its being the seat 
 Patriarch. q£ ^j^q empire, and of the supposed bishopric 
 of St. Peter, and also its supposed- foundation by St. Paul. 
 IrensEus, at the end of the second century, gives the 
 The Bishopric Chvirch of Rome precedence as being the chief 
 
 of Rome, centre of apostolical tradition derived from 
 Peter and Paul. Cyprian calls the Church of Rome " The 
 chair of St. Peter and the chief church, the source of 
 the unity of the priesthood, the root and mother of the 
 Catholic Church," yet he writes to the Bishop of Rome 
 as his brother and colleague, not as Father (Papa, or 
 Pope). This latter was not used as the special title of 
 the bishops of Rome till the fifth century. 
 
 The unity of the Holy Catholic Church was held by the 
 
 great fathers of the second and third centuries as an 
 
 Unity of the indisputable and natural fact, springing from 
 
 Church, unity with Christ. During the conflicts with 
 heresy, the need for the exclusion of the heretics became 
 prominent. Tertullian's sentence, " Outside the Church 
 there is no salvation," has already been quoted. Irenseus 
 wrote : " The Church is the dwelling-place of the Holy 
 G-host on earth ; where the Church is, there is also the 
 Spirit of God ; and where the Spirit of God is, there is 
 the Church and all grace." As yet this unity had not 
 been evidenced in any universal council ; but it was be- 
 
UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 241 
 
 lieved that tlie Councils or synods which were assembled 
 -from time to time in important centres were specially- 
 guided by Divine grace in their decisions. In some of 
 these presbyters and even the laity took part. Thus in 
 the first ages the main outlines of the whole scheme of 
 the Church were elaborated as necessity arose ; and it is 
 astonishing to find how much the ground of recent con- 
 troversies on Church organisation was anticipated by the 
 wisdom of the first three centuries. 
 
INTEEIOK SECTION OF ST. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 Cftn'sti'ani't)) as a ^tate COiurb: jToiutl) 
 
 The Emperor Conatantine— The Edict of Milan— Constantinople— The Dona- 
 tlsts— Arlus and Arlanlsm— The Council of Niosea—AthanasiUB— Later 
 victories of Arianism— Death of Arlus— Exile of Athanaslus- Julian 
 the Apostate— Athanaslus In power — His writings and character— The 
 Athanaslan Creed— Arianism In the West— Council of Constantinople 
 — Ambrose— Hermits— St. Anthony— St. Symeon Stylites— Pachomius, 
 Founder of Monasteries— St. Martin of Tours— Eusehius— Basil— Gregory 
 of Nyssa— Gregory Nazianzen— St. John Chrysostom— Epiphanius, Cyril, 
 Ephraem—Lactantius— Jerome— Christianity beyond the Empire— The 
 Goths — Ulfllas — Christianity as a State Church— Influence of the 
 Emperors— Power of Bishops— Power of Clergy— Deacons— Exarchs and 
 Primates— The See of Borne- Blse of the Papal Power. 
 
 THE Emperor Constantine had strong leanings to the 
 old gods and the old Eoman religion, and it was 
 not till 324 that he formally professed Christianity, and 
 The Emperor recommended his subjects to adopt it. Yet he 
 Constantine. dedicated his new City of Constantinople (324) 
 jointly to the God of the Martyrs and the Goddess For- 
 tune, while his coins, stamped on the one side with the 
 monogram of Jesus, on the other bore an image of the 
 Sun God. He kept the Roman title of Pontifex Maxir-iiiT 
 
EDICT OF MILAN. 243 
 
 (Chief Pontiff), and was not baptised till he was near 
 death. Consequently some deny to Constantine the title 
 of Christian ; yet he undoubtedly was its steadfast pro- 
 tector and promoter. For details of his celebrated (and 
 probably fabulous) dream, in which he saw a cross in 
 the heavens with the legend, " By this conquer," followed 
 by the appearance of Christ, we must refer to secular 
 history. To this dream is traced his adoption of the 
 monogram-cross on his standard called Laharum, 
 the cross representing the two leading letters 
 X (CH) and P (R) in the Greek name of Christ. 
 This monogram was very largely used on the 
 shields and helmets of soldiers, on coins and guns, as an 
 amulet, etc., but it almost certainly dates from an earlier 
 time than Constantine's. 
 
 We may here give some of the clauses of the Edict 
 of Milan (313) which first granted universal toleration 
 in religion. It granted " both to the Christians The Edict of 
 and to all, the free power of following the MUan. 
 religion which each chose, and that none who should 
 give his mind to the rites of the Christians, or to that 
 religion which he thought fittest for himself, should at 
 all be denied its exercise." Later, Constantine exempted 
 Christian ministers from all military or civic services, 
 abolished numerous laws and customs that were specially 
 objectionable to Christians, gave facilities for setting 
 Christian slaves free, made bequests to churches legal, 
 and contributed largely to their building ; had his sons 
 educated in Christianity, ordained the civil observance 
 of Sunday, and removed the symbols of the Roman gods 
 from his coins. Among his principal advisers were Hosius, 
 Bishop of Corduba (Cordova), in Spain, as early as 313 ; 
 and later, Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea, the great church 
 historian, and Lactantius, often called the Christian 
 Cicero. 
 
 Constantinople was from the first a Christian city, 
 adorned with churches and crucifixes, and pictures from 
 sacred history. Constantine not only attended constanti- 
 Christian worship, but himself wrote and de- nopie. 
 livered addresses strongly in favour of Christianity, calliug 
 
244 CHRISTIANITY AS A STATE CHURCH. 
 
 himself the Bishop of bishops. We must Pf ^ HgWfy over 
 ,, „ „ , Constantine's action in reference to the Do^^tasJ 
 TheDonatists ^ . jjis intervention was hrst 
 
 ^"-o^A-^A0-A'^^^^*^^B 
 
 ST. ATHANASIUS. 
 
 sought by the Donatist party, and after the Council of 
 Aries (314), and the Emperor himself at Milan (31B), had 
 pronounced against the Donatists, and for the Catholic 
 
ST. ATHANASIUS. 245 
 
 party whicli held tlie Eomisli Church, yet he was so far 
 tolerant, when they stood firmly to their principles, as to 
 grant them full liberty of faith and worship. 
 
 A more famous controversy led to the summoning of 
 the first of the great Christian Councils known as cbcm- 
 menical, that of Nicsea, in 326. This was the Arius and 
 Arian controversy, which centred about the Arianism. 
 teaching of Arius (256-336), a native of Libya, who first 
 became notable by attacking the moderation of Peter, 
 Bishop of Alexandria, towards the lapsed. Arius, then 
 a deacon, was excommunicated by Peter, but was restored 
 and ordained presbyter by his successor, Achillas. A 
 still later bishop of Alexandria, named Alexander, was 
 charged with Sabellianism by Arius, who brought forward 
 views which may be traced to those of Paul of Samosata, 
 and maintained that the Son was created by God out 
 of nothing, and afterwards created the world, and was 
 invested in large measure with Divine power. Against 
 him Alexander maintained the unity or identity of sub- 
 stance {Homoousia) of the Father and the Son. Having 
 been condemned by a Council of Egyptian and Libyan 
 bishops, Arius went to Nicomedia, where . the Bithynian 
 bishops declared his views orthodox. Thence he issued 
 works of various kinds in support of his belief, and the 
 whole Church was shaken so much, that in 324 the 
 Emperor Constantine addressed the Alexandrian Church 
 in terms of great solicitude, begging for the return of 
 peace. This proving unavailing, Constantine me Conncu 
 conceived the plan of calling a general council, °^ Nicsoa. 
 which assembled at Nicsea in 325. The Latin Churches 
 sent only seven bishops, and Sylvester, of Eome, was 
 not present, though represented by two presbyters. In 
 all there were over 318 bishops at Nicsea, including the 
 Patriarchs Alexander of Alexandria, and Eustathius of 
 Antioch. In the debates which followed, Athanasius, 
 Archdeacon of Alexandria, became conspicuous athanasius 
 as an antagonist of Arius. The party of Arius 
 was in a great minority, but he defined his doctrine with 
 great clearness, not only maintaining the finite existence 
 of the Son, but also denying that He Avas immutable or 
 
245 
 
 CHRISTIANITY AS A STATE CHURCH. 
 
 incapable of sin. A moderate party, led by Eusebius of 
 Csesarea, was in favour of declaring the divinity of Cbrist 
 in words derived from the New Testament ; biit the 
 
 ,-1. 3KEG0Ky 
 
 majority insisted on declaring the full Plomoousian doc- 
 trine, and embodied it in the famous Nicene Creed as 
 far as the words " and in the Holy Ghost " ; the rest of the 
 "Zreed having been added by the Council of Constantinople 
 
JULIAN THE APOSTATE. 247 
 
 in 381. Arius was banished to Illyria, his books were 
 burnt, and other severe penalties were decreed against 
 him and his followers. The power of the State was thus 
 formally used against heretics for the first time. Yefc 
 when Constantino was approaching death, Eusebius of 
 Csesarea induced him to recall Arius, who drew ^g^^er 
 up a creed which satisfied the Emperor, and victories of 
 the semi-Arian party of Eusebius regained their onanism, 
 influence at Court. At Alexandria, Athanasius became 
 bishop on the death of Alexander, and refused to re-admit 
 Arius to communion, as he had been condemned by the 
 oecumenical council. But after several attacks had been 
 made against him, Athanasius was banished by the Em- 
 peror to Treves (336) ; his Church still refused to receive 
 Arius. The latter was about to be received back by the 
 Church of Constantinople, when he was sud- Death of 
 denly taken ill and died (336). He was acknow- Arius. 
 ledged to be of an unblemished moral character, modest 
 in demeanour, and ascetic in life. The controversy became 
 even fiercer after his death; an Arian bishop was after- 
 wards appointed to Alexandria, and Athanasius was con- 
 demned by successive synods and councils, and Exile of 
 exiled more than once (343, 356), while the Athanasius. 
 Arians violently persecuted the Catholics. Meanwhile 
 the followers of Eusebius of Csesarea, after his death, 
 became a distinct party called the /Towioiousians, the term 
 expressing the belief that the essence or substance of the 
 Son was Wte, though not the same as that of the Father ; 
 they also held that the Son was like the Father in all 
 things, and was not a creature, but begotten as a Son 
 before all worlds. This doctrine was adopted by the 
 majority of Eastern bishops. The Arians became more 
 pronounced than Arius, emphasising the view that the 
 Son was a creature, and unlike the Father both in sub- 
 stance and in will. A series of councils vainly endeavoured 
 to compose these theological differences. 
 
 The Emperor Julian, a grandson of Constantius Chlorus, 
 though educated in Christianity, renounced it juiianthe 
 before being named Ctesar in 356, and when he Apostate, 
 succeeded to the empire in 361, he proclaimed his pagan 
 
COUNCIL OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 249 
 
 " Orations against the Arians," a treatise on "the Incar- 
 nation of the Word," and " Epistles in defence ^is writings 
 of the Nicene Creed," all written in a clear and 
 and cogent style. All historians bear testimony <=i»araoter. 
 to his singular ability, conscientiousness, and judicious- 
 ness, his fearlessness in the midst of opposition, his patience 
 and perseverance, which was fitly summed up in the motto 
 " Athanasius against the "World." The creed to which his 
 name is attached probably expresses his views, but it is not 
 known to have existed before the sixth century or even 
 later, and it was first used in Church services in The 
 Gaul in the seventh century, at Eome in the tenth Athanasian 
 century. The Greek Church only received it ^^^ ' 
 after altering the article on the Procession of the Holy Ghost. 
 
 After many fluctuations and much controversy, Arianism 
 was suppressed within the Roman empire by the end of 
 the fourth century by the coercive action of Arianistn m 
 the Emperors Theodosius and Valentinian II. ; t^« west, 
 but many of the Teutonic converts to Christianity adopted 
 Arianism, which they only slowly gave up, the Lombards 
 retaining it till 662. 
 
 Theodosius the Great (379-395) on his baptism (380) 
 issued an edict that none should be recognised as Catholic 
 Christians but those who adopted the faith in counou of 
 the co-essential Trinity. Gregory Nazianzen, constanti- 
 who had distinguished himself as an orthodox '*°*'^®" 
 teacher, was made bishop of Constantinople (but soon 
 resigned) at the council of Constantinople (381), to which 
 none but believers in the Nicene Creed were summoned. 
 This council added to the creed the paragraph describing 
 the nature of the Holy Ghost, as proceeding from the 
 Father (the words " and the Son " were added at the 
 council of Toledo in Spain, a.d. 689), and His equality 
 with the Father and the Son. This council also con- 
 demned the ApoUinarian heresy, which taught that Christ 
 possessed a real body, but that the "rational soul " in Him 
 was replaced by the Divine Logos. 
 
 In the West a remarkable man, Ambrose, prefect of 
 Liguria, was called to be bishop of Milan in 374 by the 
 popular voice, though only a layman and a catechumen. 
 
:io 
 
 CHRISTIANITY AS A STATE CHURCH. 
 
 He thereupon sold his 
 
 Amtoose. Property for 
 the poor, and 
 led an ascetic life. He 
 was the first bishop who 
 censured, withstood, and 
 overawed emperors, and 
 maintained the superior 
 rights of the Church. 
 Miracles are reported in 
 connection with his im- 
 portant actions. He 
 refused to receive the 
 Emperor Theodosius to 
 communion after his 
 massacre of the Thes- 
 salonians in 390 until 
 after he had spent eight 
 months in penance and 
 seclusion, and had 
 granted an edict for- 
 bidding capital punish- 
 ment to take place till 
 at least thirty days after 
 the sentence. He died 
 in 397, two years after 
 Theodosius. His influ- 
 ence on Christian hymn- 
 ology and liturgical say- 
 ings was great, and 
 several of his hymns 
 are extant. He procured 
 the confiscation of the 
 revenues of heathen 
 temples and the with- 
 drawal of most of the 
 privileges of their priests 
 and vestals. In 882 the 
 emperor Grratian re- 
 moved from the meet- 
 
 si. ANTHOKY. 
 
ST. ANTHONY. 251 
 
 ing-place of the Eoman senate the altar of the goddess 
 Victory, on -which the senators took the oath of fealtj^, 
 and on which offerings were made at every meeting. 
 The old sacrifices were forbidden, and many temples were 
 destroyed. In Alexandria the Serapeum and most other 
 teniples throughout Egypt were destroyed. In 392 Theo- 
 dosius issued a comprehensive edict against heathenism 
 of every description throughout the empire, and he also 
 exercised strict discipline against Christian heretics, the 
 Manichseans, Arians, and all others not recognised as true 
 Catholics. The old religion however continued to have 
 many adherents, as is made evident by the frequent de- 
 crees against them during the first half of the fifth 
 century; and the Goths, who had become Christians, 
 when they invaded Greece and Italy, destroyed many 
 temples and altars which survived, and were more zealous 
 against heathenism than the Roman Christians. 
 
 During all this period monasticism had been spread- 
 ing. From the earliest times of Christianity there had 
 been a strong tendency towards withdrawal 
 from public life to attain greater sanctity. Some 
 of the gnostic sects strongly believed in asceticism, celi- 
 bacy, and solitude. Hermits were not infrequent, es- 
 pecially in Egypt and Syria, in the third century. Paul 
 of Thebes was the first who was very noted, having 
 retired to the desert of Upper Egypt in 251 in his twenty- 
 third jj^ear ; he is said to have lived ninety years alone. 
 
 St. Anthonj' is the great founder of monasticism. 
 Born of Coptic parents about 251, in Lower Egypt, in 
 270 he sold the estate left by his parents and gave the 
 proceeds to the poor, and adopted an ascetic life, with 
 the rule, " Pray without ceasing," though continuing to 
 work. Later he lived in a tomb, in a ruined castle 
 near the Bed Sea, and in a cave between the g^ Antnony 
 Nile and the Red Sea. In all these retire- 
 ments he was attacked by sensual temptations, and was 
 said to be personally assailed by the devil. Ever cheerful, 
 he gave advice and consolation to all comers, and was 
 said to have worked many miracles. Ha hated heresy, 
 especially Arianism, and in 351, when 100 years old, 
 
252 CHRISTIANITY AS A STATE CHURCH. 
 
 appeared in support of Athanasius, at Alexandria, and 
 converted many heretics and heathens. He died in 356 ; 
 and his hfe, written by Athanasius, proved a powerful 
 stimulus to the monastic life. 
 
 St. Symeon Styhtes was the first of a type of soKtary 
 
 St. Symeon monks who practised forms of voluntary pam. 
 
 styiites. He was a shepherd who is said to have fasted 
 
 throughout Lent for twenty-six successive years. In 
 
 ST. GREGOUY NAZUNZEN. 
 
 423 he betook himself to a solitary place forty miles east 
 of Antioch, where he stood for thirty-six years on the 
 top of a pillar surrounded by a railing, sometimes leaning, 
 and often bowing in devotion. The pillar was gradually 
 increased in height, till at last it was thirty-six cubits 
 high. Food was taken up to him by his disciples by 
 means of a ladder. Here he preached twice a day to 
 those who resorted to him, and gave counsel to kings 
 and emperors. He died in 459. 
 
BASIL 253 
 
 Developing the idea of monasticism to wHcli St. An- 
 thony had given such vivid life, Pachomius, also born in 
 Lower Egypt, founded in 325 a society of Paonomius, 
 monks on an island in the Nile. The order founder of 
 grew till, when the founder died, in 348, there'"'"''^"*""'""- 
 were eight or nine societies, numbering 3,000 members. 
 The members were not bound by rigid vows, and varied 
 manual labour was mingled with religious exercises. 
 Three lived in each cell, eating in common but in silence, 
 making their wants known by signs. Pachomius also 
 established a cloister of nuns under his sister, whom he 
 did not allow to visit him, saying that she should be 
 content to know that he was still alive. In the East, 
 especially in Pontus and Cappadocia, monasticism grew 
 rapidly, and Basil and Gregory Nazianzen made the 
 monasteries centres of religious education. In the West 
 Athanasius first started monasticism into vigorous life, 
 and it was attended with fewer vagaries of st. Martin of 
 asceticism than in the East. St. Martin of Tours. 
 Tours, a zealous destroyer of temples, founded the first 
 monastery in Gaul, near Poitiers, and while Bishop of 
 Tours, led a monastic life at the head of eighty monks. 
 He was reported to have conflicts with the devil, and to 
 have three times raised the dead to life. 
 
 We cannot dwell on the many names of eminent 
 Churchmen during the fourth century, who by their 
 writings and teachings settled the great Catholic E^ggbjug 
 doctrines. Eusebius of Caesarea (270-340) was 
 the great ecclesiastical historian of his time. His Life of 
 Constantine is extremely eulogistic. His " Praeparatio 
 Evangelica" and " Demonstratio Evangehca" are of high 
 importance, and storehouses of learning. Basil ^^^^ 
 the Great (329-379), Bishop of Cffisarea in Cap- 
 padocia, an ascetic, and founder of a hospital for lepers, 
 whom he did not fear to kiss, was a noble example of 
 Christian fortitude. When threatened with confiscation, 
 banishment, and death by the Emperor Valens for his 
 resistance to Arianism, he said : " Not one of these things 
 touches me. His property cannot be forfeited who has 
 none. Banishment I know not, for I am restricted to no 
 
254 CHRISTIANITY AS A STATE CHURCH. 
 
 place, and am the guest of God, to whom the whole earth 
 belongs. For martyrdom I am unfit ; but death is a 
 benefactor to me, for it sends me all the quicker to God, 
 in whom I live and move." Among his writings were 
 365 epistles. Though Catholic as to Arianism, he did 
 not take the highest ground about the Deity of the Holy 
 Ghost, and thus incurred the displeasure of the high 
 Catholics. 
 
 Gregory of Nyssa was the younger brother of Basil, 
 and a voluminous and acute writer. Among his more 
 
 Gregory of important works were a great catechism of 
 Nyssa. Christian doctrine, and a book on " The Soul 
 and the Resurrection." He believed in the final redemp- 
 tion of all intelligent creatures. Gregory Nazianzen 
 Gregory (330-391), the bosom friend of Basil, was most 
 
 Nazianzen. noted for the eloquence of his orations, especi- 
 ally five delivered at Constantinople in defence 'of the 
 Mcene belief. He is esteemed only second to John 
 St. John Chrysostom, who was born at Antioch a.d. 347, 
 
 chrysostom. and chosen Patriarch of Constantinople in 398. 
 His eloquence won him his surname Chrysostom (golden- 
 mouthed) ; and he was unsparing in denouncing the 
 hypocrisy of the court of the Emperor Arcadius, suc- 
 cessor of Theodosius I., and the vices of his age. He was 
 more than once banished by court influence, and died 
 during a compulsory journey to the east of the Black Sea, 
 in 407. He wrote more than 600 homilies, 242 letters, and 
 many other works. 
 
 Epiphanius (died 403), a Jewish convert, wrote three 
 important works against heresies. Cyril, Bishop of Jeru- 
 
 Epiphanius, ^alem (died 386), wrote an important catecheti- 
 cyru, ' cal work on Christian theology. Ephraem the 
 
 Ephraem. Syrian, the great divine and poet of the Syrian 
 Church (died 379), wrote commentaries in Syriac on the 
 whole Bible, and hymns that were long popular. 
 
 Lactantius (died 330) was the earliest great Father 
 of the Latin Church, and the tutor of Constantine's son 
 
 Lactantius. ^rispus in Gaul. His " Divine Institutes " is a 
 
 great refutation of heathenism and defence of 
 
 Christianity, full of eloquence. Hilary of Poitiers (died 
 
JEROME. 
 
 25s 
 
 368), called the Athanasius of the West, wrote a great 
 ■work on the Trinity. Hieronymus, commonly known as 
 St. Jerome (340-420), one of the greatest and jgyome 
 most learned of the Fathers, combined with his ^^°'^^- 
 great ability and zeal, much bitterness, pride, love of 
 power, and irritability. Born on the borders of Dalmatia 
 and educated at Eome in profane learning, on receiving 
 Christian baptism about 370 he became an ascetic, and 
 
 ST. JOHN CHKYSOSIOM. 
 
 travelled to the East, coming under the influence of 
 Gregory Nazianzen, and acquiring much Greek and 
 Hebrew learning. In 882 he went to Eome and assisted 
 Bishop Damasus in his correspondence. By this bishop's 
 suggestion Jerome began to revise the Latin version of 
 the Bible, which became the foundation of the Vulgate, 
 and which he afterwards completed at Bethlehem, tran- 
 slating the Old Testament directly from the Hebrew. He 
 
256 CHRISTIANITY AS A STATE CHURCH. 
 
 was a successful promoter of monasticism at Rome, and 
 had many disciples among noble ladies wliom he incited 
 to ceUbacy, beneficence and asceticism, and whom he 
 praised extravagantly. The widow Paula and her maiden 
 daughter Eustochium were among his intimates, and were 
 made the occasion for reproaching him. He left Rome 
 for the East in 385, followed by these ladies, and in 386-7 
 they settled at Bethlehem, already a centre of religious 
 devotees. His Latin version of the Scriptures was de- 
 nounced as a corruption, and as a daring innovation. He 
 died in 420, leaving, besides his translations, commentaries 
 on many books of the Bible and numerous letters and 
 religious tracts. 
 
 Early in the fourth century Christianity was introduced 
 into Ethiopia (Abyssinia), and Frumentius, ordained by 
 
 chriatianity Athanasius, became the first bishop of Axum. 
 
 beyond tiie In the middle of the century the Gospel was 
 Empire, preached in Arabia, and even reached India. 
 In Persia it maintained the ground gained in earlier 
 centuries, and Christians were tolerated for long periods 
 or persecuted, according as peace or war prevailed between 
 Persia and the Roman Empire. The Groths, first evan- 
 gelised by Roman captives, were represented by a bishop, 
 Theophilus, at the Council of Nicaea. Ulfilas, his suc- 
 
 The Goths ^^^'^^'^ (348), descended from Cappadocian cap- 
 tives, led a large number of Christian Goths 
 across the Danube to ask protection from the emperor 
 (355) from tyranny at home ; and his labours in McEsia 
 uifii "^ere invaluable. He invented an alphabet for 
 the Mceso-Gothic language, reduced it to writing, 
 partially translated the Scriptures into it, and was largely 
 instrumental in , spreading Arianism among the Gothic 
 people, who, when they conquered Rome, cruelly perse- 
 cuted the orthodox Catholics. 
 
 Christianity as a State Church largely influenced politics, 
 and was itself in turn influenced by the State. It was 
 
 chriBtianity ^^\ that, as in so many other cases, State and 
 
 as a religion rested upon one common basis, the ruler 
 
 state Church, i^g-^g either ex-ofacio priest or inseparably 
 
 connected with the priestly class. The Christian priest 
 
POWER OF CLERGY. 257 
 
 based his claims upon the unseen, upon a Divine revela- 
 tion independent of any earthly power, and had a stand- 
 point from which he could impartially judge, censure, 
 denounce, or approve of earthly potentates : and he did 
 not fear death or temporal penalties in comparison with 
 his hope of heaven and dread of hell. Naturally the 
 clergy wished to direct public events to favour the ends 
 they believed righteous ; but they not infrequently fell 
 under the temptation to gain court influence by influence of 
 servile behaviour. Consequently the emperors^^^^'^P^'^o^^- 
 assumed a sort of guardianship of the Church, and an 
 attitude of watchfulness against the spread of erroneous 
 opinions, which really acted as a check to freedom of 
 thought and opinion. But the emperors were seldom 
 original thinkers in rehgion, and depended upon one 
 or other party in religious thought or political questions. 
 Yet they did not hesitate to summon councils of the 
 Church and even to preside at them, and to Power of 
 enforce their decisions as if they were State wsnops. 
 laws. Religious disputes were again and again brought 
 for decision to the imperial courts, and one party at least 
 always found it advantageous to have the support of the , 
 physical force wielded by the Empire. The bishops even 
 gained a sort of civil authority in regard to religious 
 ■ questions referred to them, for the governors and magis- 
 trates were ordered to carry out their decisions. 
 
 With this influence it is not surprising that the clergy 
 began to claim exemption from civil law, and to demand 
 that they should be judged only by their spiri- power of 
 tual peers. But they also exerted a humanising clergy, 
 effect over the laws and their administration, and often ' 
 interceded for offenders, gaining respite for them that 
 they might by prayer and penance make peace with 
 heaven, protecting those who resorted to the churches 
 for asylum. Even in these respects abuses crept in, and 
 some made gain out of their intercessions, or protected 
 gross criminals without reason. As the Church increased 
 in wealth and influence, many entered the ministry from 
 motives of ambition, especially in the great cities, and 
 there was a tendency to seek gifts, legacies, etc., from the 
 
 E 
 
258 CHRISTIANITY AS A STATE CHURCH. 
 
 wealthy. Bub many bishops and clergy showed con- 
 spicuous munificence and self-denial, and by their labours 
 for the poor, by building hospitals, redeeming captives, 
 
 Dea s ^^^ other pious works, showed the reality of 
 their Christian profession. Deacons gained more 
 and more influence, and had enlarged spiritual functions, 
 being sometimes permitted to preach and baptise, though 
 as yet forbidden to administer the Eucharist. One of 
 their number presided in each Church, was termed arch- 
 deacon, and often succeeded to the bishopric. The 
 marriage of the clergy became less frequent in this 
 century, especially in the West. 
 
 As the clergy rose in esteem, so the bishops became 
 more and more elevated above the clergy, and were less 
 Exarchs and subject to popular election. Emperors, other 
 Primates, bishops, canons which fixed the qualifications 
 of bishops, accusations by factions, all had much influence 
 in these appointments. The superior bishops of Con- 
 stan tine's thirteen dioceses" gained the title of Exarchs in 
 the East and Primate in the West. We have already 
 seen that the bishops of Eome, Antioch, and Alexandria 
 were recognised by the Council of Nicasa as presiding 
 over the Western, the Eastern and the African Churches 
 respectively. The Council of Constantinople (381) as- 
 signed to that diocese precedence next to Eome. It was 
 not till 461 that the Council of Chalcedon gave to these 
 four chief bishops the title of Patriarch and Pope (Papa). 
 The See of The See of Rome at first gained its dignity 
 
 Rome, more as being the bishopric of the ancient 
 capital of the Empire than as the See of St. Peter. The 
 council which met at Sardica in Illyria in 343 granted 
 that bishops might appeal, if they desired it, from a 
 synod to Julius, Bishop of Rome, but if this required to 
 be granted, it was not generally acknowledged as a right. 
 In the fourth century the Churches generally held to 
 their local and provincial rights against all attempts of 
 the Roman bishops to exercise authority over them and 
 the Eastern and African bishops took their own inde- 
 pendent course. But the transfer of the seat of empire 
 to Constantinople and elsewhere made the bishop of Rome 
 
RISE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 
 
 -59 
 
 more prominent, and by reason of frequent appeals for- 
 advice and decision from conflicting parties in the East, 
 by the habit of referring questions to Rome throughout 
 the West, and by constantly taking the orthodox side, the 
 Eoman bishop became more and more a pontiff, exercising 
 a sort of imperial power in the Church. Letters (decretal 
 epistles), sent from Eome in answer to applica- Rise of the 
 tions, gave directions and even commands, andi"^?^ Power, 
 were written in the name of the bishop, who gradually 
 became known as the Pope. The fourth century placed 
 the Church in a very different position as an established 
 Church from that which it had occupied in the preceding 
 three centuries. 
 
 ANCHOr.lTE. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 €t)t €\)md) in tl)t Sitt\) anti J'inti) CfiittuifS, 
 
 St. Au^stlne— His "Confessions"— His conversion— Made Bishop of Hippo— 
 His influence — Pelagius — Ccelestius — Pelagianlsm condemned — Semi- 
 pelagrianism— Theodore of Mopsueatia—Nestoriua— Cyril— The Council 
 of Ephesus— The Nestorians— Eutyches and Dioscurus— The Monophysite 
 controversy— The " Robber-synod "—Council of Chalcedon— Later Mono- 
 physite proceedings-Theodoric— Justinian— Fifth general council— The 
 Monothelites— Sixth general council— The Syrian Jacobites— The Copts 
 — The Abyssinian Church — The Armenian Church — Doctrines — The 
 Maronltes— Christian progress among Goths, etc.— Conversion of Clovis 
 —Increased power of the Pope— Leo I. — The Pope above human judgment 
 — Relations with emperor— Development of Clericalism— Monastic life 
 — St. Benedict- The Benedictine Order— BasUican churches— Memorial 
 churches— Consecration-Relics— Crosses and crucifixes- Pictures and 
 images— Worship of the Virgin— The Saints— PUgrimages— Opposition 
 to new practices —Jovinlan — Vigilantlus— The Creeds — Eastern Liturgies 
 —Western Liturgies. 
 
 FROM this time forward we find a marked distinction 
 between tlie questions agitating the Church in the 
 St. Angus- East and in the West, presaging the separation 
 tine. which took place later. We will speak first 
 of the controversies which surround the famous name of 
 St. Augustine, since he partly belongs to the fourth cen- 
 tury. Aurelius Augustinus was born not far from Hippo, 
 in Numidia, in 354, his mother, Monica, being one of the 
 most devout, affectionate, and intellectual women who 
 have ever lived. His education was considerable, but his 
 wayward life had more influence upon his subsequent 
 thoughts. It is recounted in the deeply-felt " Confessions" 
 His "Con- written about 400, and acknowledged as a 
 fessions.", masterpiece of truthfulness and enthralling 
 interest. " Thou hast made us for Thyself," it begins 
 
ST. AUGUSTINE. 
 
 261 
 
 " and our heart is restless till it rest in Thee." From 
 nineteen to twenty-six he was a ManichEcan, but at last 
 
 SI. AUGUSTINE AND MONICA. 
 
 found the doctrines untenable, and the lives of the leaders 
 insincere. After teaching grammar and rhetoric at Car- 
 thage he went to Eome in 383, where he became scepti- 
 
262 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 cal, in 384 migrating to Milan, still teaching rhetoric. 
 Here he was a hearer of Ambrose, became a catechumen, 
 studied St. Paul's writings, heard of the lives of St. An- 
 thony and other recluses, and finally (in September, 386) 
 
 His con- was suddenly converted by the reading of Eom. 
 
 version, xiii. 13, 14, " Pat ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, 
 and make not provision for the flesh to fulfil the lusts 
 thereof." While on her way back to Africa with her son, 
 Monica died at Ostia; and Augustine, after a stay at 
 Rome, returned to Carthage in 388, was ordained pres- 
 Made Bishop byter in 391, and Bishop of Hippo in 393, which 
 
 of Hippo, bishopric he held for thirty-five years, gaining 
 a position second to none in the African Church. He 
 died in 430, during the siege of Hippo by the Vandals. 
 Among his voluminous works, personal, philosophical, 
 apologetic, doctrinal, practical, and polemic, we must 
 mention, besides his " Confessions," his " Retractations," 
 written in 427, his " City of God," contrasting the tran- 
 sitory cities of earth with the eternal city of God, his 
 " Discourse on the Apostles' Creed," his books " On the 
 True Religion," and on " Heresies," and many contro- 
 versial tracts and discourses. 
 
 Under the infltience of St. Augustine the canon of 
 Scripture was settled in its present form (including the 
 
 His influ. Apocrypha) at the Councils of Hippo (393) and 
 ence. Carthage (397). His exposure of Manichseism 
 gave that system its deathblow ; and through him the 
 doctrine of the double procession of the Holy Ghost from 
 the Father and the Son completed the Nicene view of 
 the Trinity. He took the Catholic side against the Dona- 
 tists, with their strict exclusiveness and painful asceticism, 
 and was in favour of using compulsory measures to re- 
 claim them fi-om their errors. His influence on the 
 development of almost all the main Catholic doctrines 
 was great, and has never ceased. Against Pelagius, he 
 asserted the supreme importance of the Divine influence 
 on man's redemption, deriving all human desire for good 
 from divine grace, so that the entire glory belonged to 
 God. 
 
CHURCH OF THE VIRGIN MARY. 
 
 263 
 
264 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 Pelagius, a British monk, born about O")!), was an astol ic 
 who especially exalted the human sell-ioliant elumrnt and 
 
 Peiaei ^^® power of man's free will in his cirvation. 
 .' He visited Rome, Africa, Palestine, etc., and 
 was opposed by both Jerome and Augustine, and by 
 Orosius, a pupil of Jerome's. Th(? latter accused Pelagius 
 at a Synod in Palestine ; but the dispute was referred to 
 Home. Ccelestius, a convert of Pelagius at Rome, de- 
 yeloped his system intellectually, and the heresies with 
 
 Ccelestius '^^i'^^^ ^^ '^^s charged were as follows : that 
 Adam was created mortal, and would have died 
 if he had not sinned ; that Adam's fall injured only him- 
 self, and that children were born uninfiuenced by his fall ; 
 and that though unbaptised, children dying in infancy 
 receive eternal life ; that there were sinless men before 
 Christ; and that the human race does not die through 
 Peiagianism Adam's fall. Ccelestius was condemned twice 
 condemned, fey African synods, and Pope Innocent I. en- 
 dorsed the condemnation. Zosimus, his successor, at first 
 approved of Ccelestius and Pelagius, and later condemned 
 them, ordering all who maintained their views to be ex- 
 communicated. Ccelestius was further condemned by the 
 third oecumenical Council at Ephesus (131). But the 
 Eastern Church did not adopt Augustine's views, and 
 held a position (semi-polagian) midway Ix-tween Pela- 
 semi-peia- gianism and the Augustinian doctrine of free 
 
 gianism. and irresistible grace and absolute predestina- 
 tion. John Cassian, a founder of cloisters for men and 
 women at Marseilles, was the leader of semi-pelagianism 
 in the West, and it obtained wide favour in the Gaulish 
 Church. 
 
 The Christological controversies of the fifth and sixth 
 centuries, which absorbed so much attention in the East, 
 though they also affected theology in the West, wore 
 attended by so much non-religious intrigue, and w(>ro so 
 intimately connected with affairs of civil history, that it 
 is impossible to recount them even in outline. We must 
 barely mention the most notable names connected with 
 them, and the conclusions settled by ronneils of the 
 Church. 
 
THE NESTORIANS. 26; 
 
 In contradistinction to the Apollinarians (p. 249), who 
 represented Christ as having the divine Logos in place 
 of a rational human soul, Diodor us, Bishop of Theodore of 
 Tarsus, and Theodore, Bishop of Mopsuestia in Mopsuestia. 
 Cilicia (from 393 to 428), ascribed to Christ a two-fold 
 personality, with perfectly distinct divine and human 
 natures. Nestorius, however, who became patri- 
 arch of Constantinople in 428, gave Ms name ^^^'''^"^■ 
 to this party, the Nestorians. Their views led to the 
 naming of the mother of Christ " Theotokos," " mother 
 of God," while the opposite party termed her "mother 
 of man." Nestorius proposed the term "mother of Christ," 
 but was quite as bitterly attacked as the Arians 
 had been. Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, was ^ 
 his unbending opponent. The turbulent but indecisive 
 oecumenical Council, which met at Ephesus in 431 under 
 Theodosius II. and Valentinian III., stigmatised Xestorius 
 as a heretic, and he was deposed ; and two years The coimcu 
 later, 433, the more moderate Nestorians agreed °^ Ephesus. 
 to accept the term " mother of God," in consequence of 
 the union without confusion of the divine and human 
 natures in Jesus ; and at the same time condemned Nes- 
 torius, who died in 439. His doctrines were still taught 
 in the theological school of Edessa in Northern Mesopo- 
 tamia until its dissolution by the emperor Zeno in 489. 
 
 After their virtual expulsion from the empire, the 
 Nestorians travelled widely, disseminating their rendering 
 of Christianity in Persia, India, and China, and The 
 later in Arabia, Syria, and Palestine. In the Nestorians. 
 sixth century their hturgy was translated from Greek 
 into Syriac, as still in use. They were considerably 
 favoured by the Moslems, and had much success among 
 the Mongols. In the thirteenth century the Roman 
 Church began a long series of more or less successful 
 missionary efforts among them, by which many were 
 converted, especially in 1551, and these are under a patri- 
 arch of the Chaldajans, nominated by the Pope. Those 
 who remain true to their ancient theological position are 
 under a patriarch of their own ; the Church is but a 
 remnant of its former self, numbering about 70,000 in 
 
266 
 
 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 the Kurdish mountains and around Lake Urumiah. They 
 reject the name and the doctrine of Nestorius, and call 
 themselves Chaldseans. American missionaries have, in 
 the last fifty years, made great efforts to counteract the 
 Romish propaganda, and have printed a translation of 
 the Bible and other books in their Aramaic language ; 
 and there are now a number of self-supporting Protestant 
 Churches formed hy Nesfcorian converts. 
 
 NESTOKIAN CliOSS. 
 
 Although in past times the Nestoriaus produced a con- 
 siderable literature, little has survived except the Rituals 
 and hymns. There are three liturgies — those of Nesto- 
 rius, of Tlieodore, and the Apostles. Forms for daily 
 Avorship are appointed to be said four times a day, con- 
 sisting mostly of prayers, psalms, and readings of the 
 Scriptm-es. In all essentials the Nestorians conform to 
 
THE "ROBBER SYNOD." 267 
 
 theCatholic doctrines, except in those points affected by 
 their special beliefs as to the twofold personality of 
 Christ. They recognise the Bible as their sole rule of 
 faith ; and they have never practised image-worship and 
 confession, or believed in purgatory. Their patriarch 
 and bishops abstain from animal food, and are celibates. 
 They have a special annual commemoration of the dead. 
 They have many and prolonged fasts during the year, 
 which are strictly observed. They believe in apostolical 
 succession, and derive their orders from the original 
 foundation of the Church in Persia by two of the seventy 
 disciples sent forth by Christ. In recent years cordial 
 communication has been opened up between the Church 
 of England and the Nestorians, in order to instruct the 
 latter in Anglican doctrines, in the hope of inducing them 
 to mahe acknowledgments such as would enable the two 
 Churches to enter into cordial communion. An interesting 
 body of Nestorians still exists on the Malabar coast of 
 India, named after St. Thomas, to whom they attribute 
 their conversion. They use a Syriac liturgy, and acknow- 
 ledge the spiritual headship of the Nestorian patriarch. 
 
 The next great controversy, the Eutychian, had for its 
 theological leader Eutyches of Constantinople, who held 
 that Christ after His incarnation had only one Eutyches 
 nature, which was the nature of God become and 
 man. Thus it might be said, " God is born, Diosourus. 
 God suffered, God was crucified and died." Dioscurus, 
 Bishop of Antioch (444-451), was the leader in action of 
 this " Monophysite " (one nature) party. Eutyches, at- 
 tacked by Theodoret, was deposed by a synod .^^ 
 at Constantinople (448), which declared that MonopUysite 
 Christ after His incarnation consisted of two controversy, 
 natures in one substance and one person. This belief was 
 approved by Leo I., bishop of Rome (4i0-461). A Council 
 held at Ephesus in 449 was so turbulent as to be called 
 " the Synod of Robbers " ; it absolved Eutyches The "Bobber 
 on his repeating the Nicene Creed, and deposed synod." 
 and excommunicated Theodoret and even Leo, its decrees 
 being ratified by the emperors Theodosius and Valentinian. 
 After further intrigues, the fourth oecumenical Council was 
 
268 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 held at Chalcedon, opposite to Constantinople, in 451, and 
 The counou was attended by about 600 Eastern bishops, 
 of ciiaicedon.and by two delegates sent by Leo of Eome. The 
 proceedings of the "Robber Synod" were annulled, Dios- 
 curus andEutyches were banished, and the Nicene Creed 
 was adopted, with an addition which acknowledged Christ 
 "in two natures, without confusion, without severance, and 
 without division." Finally, the Patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople was declared to rank second to the Bishop of Eome, 
 but with equal rights. Leo, however, claimed supremacy 
 for the See df Eome, in virtue of St. Peter, its alleged 
 founder. 
 
 The Chalcedon declaration was at once impugned widely, 
 and its opponents, who maintained the oneness of Christ's 
 nature, though acknowledging that it was composite, were 
 
 Later known as Monophysites. They proclaimed that 
 Monophysite " God has been crucified," and altered the 
 proceedings. q^^j^qJ-^ Sanctus to this form: "Holy God! 
 Holy Almighty ! Holy Immortal ! who hast been crucified 
 for us, have mercy upon us ! " New commotions and 
 divisibns arose ; an attempted compromise by the emperor 
 Zeno, tacitly giving up the Chalcedon declaration, failed ; 
 and fresh division of parties arose. Meanwhile the Arian 
 Theodoric Theodoric, the great Gothic king of Italy, had 
 proclaimed the tolerance of all religious rites, 
 and asserted that "we cannot impose religion by com- 
 mand, since no one can be made to believe against his 
 will." 
 
 Justinian, who came to the throne of Constantinople 
 in 527, aimed at restoring the glories of Church as well 
 tini ^^ Empire, reclaiming heretics, and settling the 
 orthodox doctrines. He rebuilt the church of 
 St. Sophia, and again rebuilt its dome after an earthqtiake 
 in 657 ; for its service he appointed sixty priests, one 
 hundred deacons, forty deaconesses, and other officials in 
 proportion. 
 
 The decrees of the four general councils were made part 
 Fiftn general of the imperial laws. Justinian condemned the 
 
 councu. Nestorian Theodore of Mopsuestia and the 
 writings of Theodoret against Cyril, in the decree of the 
 
THE SYRIAN JACOBITES. 269 
 
 " Three Articles," which ultimately led to the summoning 
 of the fifth general Council at Constantinople in 563, with 
 no Western representatives ; but its most important result 
 was to assert the independence of the Eastern empire and 
 Church of the bishop or Pope of Eome. The Monophysites 
 were not reconciled to the Catholics ; but when Justin II. 
 (B65-578) issued an edict of toleration, the party gradually 
 died out within the empire, though it remained active 
 beyond the empire in the Coptic, Syriao, and Armenian 
 Churches. 
 
 The Monothelite (one will) controversy in the next cen- 
 tury turned on another subtle attempt to define the nature 
 of Christ. Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, The 
 and Theodore, an Arabian bishop, put forward Monotheiitea. 
 the view that in Christ there was but one will, and one 
 life-giving operation, the Divine, controlling the human. 
 In 649 Martin I., Pope from 649 to 655, held a council, at 
 which the doctrine of two natural wills and operations, 
 the Divine and the human, in Christ was declared ; and 
 at the sixth general Council, held at Constanti-sixtu general 
 nople in 680-1 — the last recognised as such by couucu. 
 all Christendom — the Monothelite doctrine was condemned, 
 and the doctrine of two wills was finally affirmed. 
 " These two natural wills are not contrary, but the human 
 follows the Divine and Almighty will, not resisting or 
 opposing it, but rather being subject to it." At the same 
 time the Pope Honorius I. (625-40) was condemned for 
 his declaration in favour of one will. 
 
 Of the Monophysite Churches still existing, the Jacobite 
 is the least numerous. It accepts the decrees of the 
 " Eobber Synod " of Ephesus, and' rejects the The Syrian 
 Chalcedon declaration. It is scattered over Jacobites. 
 Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia, numbering fewer than 
 260,000 members. It was founded by Jacobus Baradseus 
 of Telia, consecrated bishop in 541 or 643, and thencefor- 
 ward an active propagator of Monophysite doctrines for 
 forty years. The head of the Church, called Patriarch 
 of Antioch, lives at Diarbekir. The members and indeed 
 the clergy are as a rule very illiterate and ignorant. 
 Many Jacobites h^ve in recent years entered into the 
 
2/0 
 
 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 Eoman Catholic communion, under patriarchs at Aleppo 
 and Damascus, and these have improved greatly in educa- 
 tion and religious knowledge. 
 
 ABYSSINIAN TABOT, OB AEK. 
 
 The Copts of Egypt are very closely connected with the 
 
 Syrian Jacobites, dating the origin of their 
 
 T e op 3. jjionophysite faith from Baradasus. They have 
 
 now about 130 churches and monasteries. They have a 
 
THE COPTS. 
 
 271 
 
 patriarch, bishops, arch-priests, deacons, and monks. They 
 practise circumcision at the age of eight years. They 
 are but a remnant of the ancient Coptic Church, having 
 undergone very severe persecution from their Moslem 
 conquerors, and many having embraced Islam. As early 
 
 ABYSSINIAN PRIEST AND liIiACOK. 
 
 as the time of Pachomius, the Psalms and other Scripture 
 books -were translated into Coptic ; and a large portion of 
 the Bible, several apocryphal gospels, gnostic works, ho- 
 milies, martyrologies, etc., exist in that language. 
 
 The Abyssinian Church was founded by Frumentius, 
 
272 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 a Tyrian merchant, ordained by Athanasius in 327, and 
 The Abyssin- afterwards first Bishop of Axum, in Abyssinia. 
 Ian churoii. Perhaps owing to the long residence of Jews in 
 Abyssinia, Christianity is there more mingled with Judaic 
 elements than anywhere else. Circumcision of male in- 
 fants, as well as infant baptism, is practised ; the Jewish 
 Sabbath is kept in addition to Sunday ; a great annual 
 festival is kept, when the whole nation is re-baptised ; 
 and pork and other " unclean " food is strictly abstained 
 from. 
 
 The Abyssinian Christians are zealous for the Mono- 
 physite doctrine. They revere saints, religious pictures, 
 and the cross, but not the crucifix or images. The com- 
 mon people are very ignorant, and their religious notions 
 are almost entirely superstitious, and their morals are 
 little influenced by Christianity. Yet religious contro- 
 versy is rife among them, and it is said that there are 
 something like seventy different opinions held in Abj'ssinia 
 respecting the union of the two natures in Christ. The 
 churches in the province of Tigre are square buildings, 
 while in Lasta and Amhara they are circular. Men and 
 women enter by separate doors. There is an outer court 
 formed by the projecting eaves of the roof, and supported 
 by posts outside the main wall ; in this the congregation 
 meet to sing psalms. There is a chamber on the north- 
 west termed the " house of bread," in which the priests 
 make the bread and wine for the sacrament. There is 
 a second court decorated with paintings of the Virgin 
 and saints, and Scripture scenes ; and an inner court, to 
 the east, which only the priests may enter, containing 
 the ark, usually of four upright wooden posts, with a shelf 
 midway, on which one or more volumes of the Bible, and 
 crosses and censers are kept, and a stone slab at the bot- 
 tom, carved with mystic lines, and inscribed with the name 
 of the patron saint of the church. The ark is kept screened 
 from view by a curtain, and it is specially reverenced. 
 Bells are not used, but the congregation is summoned by 
 two pieces of stone hung in the churchyard being knocked 
 together. 
 
 The Abyssinian " Abuna," or chief bishop, is appointed 
 
DOCTRINES. 273 
 
 and consecrated by the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria. 
 He must be celibate, though the priests generally are 
 married. The numerous monasteries and churches have 
 valuable endowments ; and the priests also receive large 
 gifts and fees for the numerous offices they perform in 
 relation to almost every department of life. They are 
 on the whole unlearned, and do not allow the people to 
 read the Gospel for themselves, but confine them to the 
 Psalms. Funerals are celebrated with much religious 
 pomp. The whole of the Psalms are recited ; the funeral 
 procession halts seven times on its way to the church- 
 yard, when incense is burned and prayers are offered ; 
 and prayers for the dead are repeated frequently within 
 forty days after burial. Anniversary memorial services 
 are obligatory, and are gone through with a dummy figure 
 on a bier. Altogether the Abyssinian Church is one of 
 the most degraded forms into which Christianity has 
 degenerated. 
 
 The Armenian Church was founded by Gregory " the 
 Illuminator," prince of the reigning family of Armenia, 
 at the end of the third century. His successors The Arme- 
 took the title of Patriarch, and later of Catho- ni^n Churou. 
 licos. The Bible was translated into Armenian in the 
 first half of the fifth century, and does not follow any 
 known text of the Septuagint or the New Testament. 
 Armenian bishops fook part in several of the Church 
 Councils. Being unrepresented at the Council of Chal- 
 cedon (451), the Armenian Church never accepted its 
 decisions, and in 491 their Patriarch annulled them. 
 From this point the Armenian gradually lost touch with 
 the orthodox Church, though they in later times denied 
 that they held the Eutychian doctrine. Their bishops, 
 however, attended the 5th, 6th, aiid 7th general Councils. 
 In the fifteenth century the entrance of Jesuits into 
 Armenia, who made many converts, occasioned much 
 dissension. The Catholic Armenians became a distinct 
 community at the end of the sixteenth century. 
 
 The Armenian Church now receives protec- Doctrines, 
 tion from the Czar of Russia, and its doctrines 
 are almost identical with those of the Greek Church, deny- 
 
274 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 ing the special doctrines of tlie Roman Catholics. They 
 have the seven sacraments : (1) baptism by immersion, 
 with anointing with holy oil, followed by the eucharist ; 
 (2) confirmation, at once after baptism ; (3) the eucharist 
 administered in both kinds to all, without mixture of 
 water with the wine ; (4) penance — confession with fast- 
 ing; (5) ordination by anointing with holy oil; (6) marriage; 
 (7) extreme unction — the anointing being only for priests, 
 while others only have prayers said over them. The lit- 
 urgy, of very early origin, contains the Nicene Creed 
 with a damnatory clause, and prayers of John Chrysostom 
 and Basil. The dead are prayed for, though the Church 
 does not believe in purgatory nor grant indulgences. Be- 
 sides Sundays and the usual holy days of the Eastern 
 Church, the Armenians observe ten national saints' days. 
 They keep Christmas on the 6th of January. The priest- 
 hood, strangely enough in a Christian Church, is here- 
 ditary ; during the lifetime of the father or grandfather, 
 the heir of a priestly family may follow a secular call- 
 ing, leaving it at the death of the priest he is heir to. 
 But he may only marry before, not after ordination. 
 Only the monks, called black clergy, can obtain the 
 higher offices. The four Armenian patriarchs have their 
 seats at Constantinople, Jerusalem, Sis (Nisibis) in Cilicia, 
 and Etchmiazin, near Mount Ararat. The Church is en- 
 tirely maintained by voluntary ofiferi^s of the people. 
 
 The Maronites, of Lebanon, numbering a quarter of a 
 million, originated mors especially from the Monothelite 
 The development of the " one nature " controversy. 
 Maxonites. The name is derived from Maro, a fourth-cen- 
 tury saint, to whom a great monastery in the valley of 
 the Orontes was dedicated, presided over in the latter 
 part of the seventh century by another John Maro. His 
 preaching and zeal diffused Monothelite doctrines through- 
 out the Lebanon district, in which many Christian refu- 
 gees from the Mahommedans gathered together. In tlie 
 latter part of the twelfth century the Maronites were for 
 the most part reconciled with Rome, but they retain their 
 own Syriac ritual, communion in both kinds, and married 
 priests. They have a large number of monasteries and 
 
THE MARONITES. 275 
 
 convents. The people are very superstitions, and have 
 
 CARVED STONE WITH OEOSS, THE QOSH M. EHITHAK MONASTERY, 
 ARMENIA. 
 
 suffered much from the Druses, who massacred them 
 
276 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CEhTURlES. 
 
 cruelly in 1860. The College founded at Eome for the 
 
 education of Maronites has produced a remarkable family 
 
 of Oriental scholars, the Assemanni. A small remnant of 
 
 the Maronites still reject communion with Rome. 
 
 In the West the Goths, Vandals, and other Teutonic 
 
 peoples had accepted Christianity to an extent which 
 
 was considerably softening their ferocity, and 
 Christian pro- , . -i i j.i • • -i-i. j-i, t j.- 
 
 gress among making possible their union with the L/atm 
 
 Goths, etc. nations. Retaining many of their old super- 
 stitions, often accepting Christianity merely at the bid- 
 ding of their princes, and professing Arianism for the 
 same reason, they persecuted and plundered the Catholics 
 wherever they went. Belisarius (634), the great general 
 of Justinian, in turn destroyed the Arian Yandals, es- 
 pecially in Africa. 
 
 Clovis, king of the Franks, was baptised in 496 by 
 
 Bishop Remigius (died 533), at Eheims, and took the 
 
 Conversion Catholic side. Being at this time the only 
 
 ot Clovis. Catholic monarch, all other Christian sovereigns 
 being Arians or Monophysites, his successors on the Frank- 
 ish and afterwards on the French throne received the 
 title of Eldest Son of the Church. Clovis was not much 
 less scrupulous in serving the ends of the Church than 
 he had been before his conversion, but thought to atone 
 for crimes by liberal gifts to churches and monasteries. 
 He died in 511, the year in which the first Frankish 
 Church Council met at Orleans. But the purity of re- 
 ligion degenerated greatly in the Frankish kingdom. In- 
 credible miracles were alleged, superstitious and showy 
 worship increased, while crime did not diminish. 
 
 Meanwhile the Popes of Rome, at first oppressed by 
 the power of the Exarchs of Ravenna, who now acted 
 
 Increased ^^ imperial viceroys in Italy, were raising their 
 power of the pretensions and consolidating their power, be- 
 Popes. ^j^g ^j^g Qj^iy gtj.Qjjg authority left in Rome it- 
 self. Innocent I. (400-417) asserted jurisdiction over 
 Eastern Illyricum, and claimed that all the Western 
 Church should conform its usages to those of Rome. 
 Zosimus (417-8), Boniface I. (418-423), and Celestine I. 
 (423-432), still further advanced their claims; but Leo I., 
 
LEO THE GREAT. 
 
 277 
 
 the Great (410-461), was the most successful asserter of 
 the papal rights, claiming unbroken apostolic , . 
 tradition on behalf of everything done by the 
 Church at Rome, gaining the submission of the African, 
 Spanish, and Gaulish Churches, and procuring from the 
 
 Emperor Valentinian III. a law which declared the Bishop 
 of Eome ruler of the whole Church (445). At the Council 
 of Chalcedon his legates took equal presidency with the 
 Patriarch of Constantinople, and in other ways he paved 
 the way for the most advanced claims of medieval Popes. 
 During the Gothic rule over Italy, the Popes became 
 
278 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 more evidently the pivot of the Catholic Church.- Theo- 
 doric, called upon to decide between rival Popes, Symma- 
 chus and Laurentius, decided for the former ; and when 
 moral charges were brought against Symmachus, sum- 
 moned a Council of Italian bishops in 501 or B03, which 
 acquitted Symmachus, because of difficulties which " must 
 be left to the Divine judgment." Ennodius, afterwards 
 Bishop of Pavia, in a Defence of the Council, developed 
 The Pope *^® principle that the successor of St. Peter 
 above human was above human judgment, and only respon- 
 judgment. ^^^^ ^^ q.^^ . ^^^ ^j^-g ^^^ ^^g adopted by 
 
 the sixth Roman Council, held by Symmachus. The papal 
 elections, with their intrigues, bribery, and strife, gave 
 little countenance to the idea of human perfection sur- 
 rounding the papacy. The Popes became dependent upon 
 Relations ^^® Emperors for their confirmation in power, 
 ■with the in return for which the Popes received new 
 Emperors, -temporal privileges. The papal ascendency 
 was maintained by appeals from all quarters, answered 
 by " decretal epistles," given as from apostolical tradition, 
 and asserted as being of universal authority. These 
 epistles, together with the decisions of the Councils of the 
 Church, were collected about the middle of the sixth cen- 
 tury by Dionysius Exiguus, forming a standard text of 
 Church law. Dionysius also framed the new cycle for 
 the dates of Easter, adopted at Rome in 625, and settled 
 the system of dating from the Christian era, which he 
 placed four or five years too late. The most important 
 events in Christian history at the end of the sixth century 
 are the renunciation of Arianism by the Spanish Church 
 at the Council of Toledo in 589, the election of Gregory 
 the Great as Pope in 590, the mission of Augustine to 
 Britain, in 596, and the baptism of Ethelbert kino- of 
 Kent, in 597. But these events usher in the dawn of 
 the medieval period, contemporary with the rise of Mo- 
 hammedanism. 
 
 There are a multitude of interesting details about the 
 development of Church order, government, and practice 
 in the fifth and sixth centuries, which we must pass 
 lightly over. The tonsure, a shaving of more or less 
 
ST. BENEDICT. 279 
 
 of the crown of the head, was commonly adopted by the 
 clergy in the sixth century. Schools of divinity Development 
 arose at Alexandria, Antioch, Edessa, and othero^ oierioauam. 
 great centres, as well as in important monasteries. Bishops 
 alone ordained ministers, and largely appointed them to 
 their churches. Lay patronage, however, was granted by 
 Justinian to founders of churches in 541. Celibacy of the 
 clergy became common; though not required by any 
 general Council, there was a growing assumption that 
 no man could marry after becoming a deacon. Abuses 
 soon arose which had to be corrected by special laws. 
 Unfortunately, monasticism itself, with its strict profes- 
 sions, had a prejudicial influence on general Christian 
 morality, it being thought that it was not necessary for 
 ordinary people to aim at the correct conduct required' of 
 a monk. As the Chui'ch grew in State favour, it became 
 infected by the worldliness of courts, and increased the 
 pomp of its worship and the dignity of its surroundings, 
 while too often showing glaring imperfections and im- 
 purity in conduct. 
 
 Monasteries naturally became the refuge of those who 
 sought purity. The person of monks impressed the Goths 
 and Teutons, who endowed monasteries in com- 
 punction for their sins, and from fear or venera- ™°°^^*''' ^®- 
 tion held monastic buildings and revenues as well as 
 monks sacred from spoliation and injury. Yet even in 
 the monastic life degeneracy crept in ; and when St. Bene- 
 dict (born in 480 near Nursia, in Italy) began his re- 
 markable career, there was much need of reform. In 
 early youth he became an ascetic, and his piety 
 grew famous and was associated with many 
 wonders and reputed miracles. Resorted to by many 
 desiring instruction, Benedict founded twelve monasteries 
 of twelve monks each in the hills forty miles east of Rome. 
 Driven by envy to leave this localitj'', Benedict in 528 
 founded the monastery of Monte Cassino, which became 
 the most famous and powerful in the Roman communion. 
 Never ordained a priest, his influence far transcended his 
 nominal position, and his system was established all 
 through Western Europe before his death, in 543. 
 
28o 
 
 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 Benedict was the first wlio enjoined a vow of permanent 
 monastic residence and discipline, marked by ceaseless 
 The Beuedic- striving after perfection of character and con- 
 tine Order. (Jact, chastity, labour, poverty, great moderation 
 in food, and entire obedience to the abbot, the superior of 
 the monastery. The giving up of all private property to 
 the monastery formed a nucleus of corporate property, 
 which rapidly increased, and enabled the Order to be hos- 
 
 ST. BENEDICT, 
 
 pitable to strangers and the poor, and to set on foot many 
 works of mercy as well as ecclesiastical and literary en- 
 terprise. The education of the young by the monks was 
 made very important. Benedict had the judgment to allow 
 in his " Rule " for different modes of life suitable for 
 different chmates, races, and circumstances. Episcopal 
 supervision and the abbot's rule being granted, all the 
 monks were held equal, and they chose their own abbots. 
 
DASILICAN CHURCHES. 281 
 
 The monasteries were so planned that every necessity of 
 life could be provided for within its walls, and no monk 
 might quit the building except by special leave. Vanity 
 was checked by forbidding a monk to do any work in 
 which he showed a tendency to pride himself on his skill. 
 
 Withia three centuries there were scarcely any monks 
 in Western Europe who had not adopted the Benedictine 
 rule. They were not organised as a body corporate, but 
 gradually individual monasteries formed societies or "con- 
 gregations," of which there were at one time more than 
 150, in addition to the monasteries remaining indepen- 
 dent. Fifty Benedictine monks have become popes, the 
 first being Gregory the' Great (590-604). In the 14th 
 century it was reputed that there had been 37,000 Bene- 
 dictine monasteries, and in the fifteenth there were 15,000. 
 After the Reformation they were reduced to 5,000, and 
 now do not number more than about 800. The congre- 
 gations of Benedictines differ in many respects from one 
 another, being only united by the essential vows of the 
 order. In Protestant and heathen countries their princi- 
 pal activity is missionary. 
 
 The temples of the old gods did not furnish the models 
 for the new, Christian churches, one reason perhaps being 
 that their small and dark inner sanctuaries were Basiiioan 
 ill-adapted to the public nature of Christian churcnes. 
 rites. The Roman law courts and business places known 
 as Basilicas, open from end to end, were more suitable, 
 and were either actually given to the Church by Con- 
 stantine. or were taken as the models of new buildings. 
 We cannot give details, but the general style of these 
 churches is seen in the figures we give of St. Paul's out- 
 side the walls at Rome and St. Apollinaris in Classe at 
 Ravenna. The apse, the semicircular recess at the upper 
 end in which the judges' and officials' chairs were set, was 
 used for the bishop's and priests' seats and the Lord's 
 table. It was known as the sanctuary or presbytery, and 
 its wall Avas often covered with mosaic pictures of sacred 
 subjects. The " Lord's table " was already in the fourth 
 century termed " the place of sacrifice," translated by 
 Jerome "altar," wood being gradually replaced by stone 
 
282 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 in its construction, and the space beneath it being often 
 used to receive the relics of the saint or martyr to -whom 
 the church was dedicated. Raised on steps, enclosed by 
 pillars, with veils hung between, covered with a canopy 
 or baldachino, decorated with gold, silver, and precious 
 stones and carvings, it is not surprising that the altar on 
 which the mysterious consecration of the elements of the 
 Eucharist was performed, was specially venerated, and 
 that the laity were kept at a distance from it by rails. 
 The part next to it, the choir, had a raised floor, was set 
 apart for the readers and choir, and included the desk or 
 Memorial pulpit. Memorial churches, on the model of 
 churcHes. Roman circular tombs, were circular or poly- 
 gonal, often domed, and from these the Byzantine type of 
 architecture developed, of which the beautiful church 
 Consecration, ('^ow' mosque) of St. Sophia at , Constanti- 
 nople is the finest 'representative. All churches 
 were specially consecrated to divine service ; and the 
 possession of relics of some saint was early held of primary 
 importance. The consecration service, at first simple, 
 EeUcB became a complex one, with special ritual, and 
 it was essential that the Eucharist, consecrated 
 by the bishop, should be placed with other relics in a 
 chest. The sacredness of churches was further assured 
 by forbidding arms to be worn in them ; hence they 
 became places of asylum from violence ; but ordinary 
 criminals, Jews, slaves, and other special classes were 
 excluded from its protection. The loss of the relics took 
 away the sacredness of the building. 
 
 Crosses, carved and sculptured in various forms, were 
 conspicuous ornaments of churches, and, as the material 
 Crosses and symbol of redemption, became venerated and 
 crucifixes, even worshipped as having some mystic virtue ; 
 and in obedience to the same tendency to believe in 
 charms, the sign of the cross was often made in order 
 to preserve from danger. The Emperor Julian sneered 
 at the Christians for reverencing the cross, and in the 
 sixth to the eighth centuries numerous Christian writers 
 defended its adoration, and adduced marvellous narratives 
 to show the benefit of so doing. In fact, forms of service 
 
PICTURES AND IMAGES. 283 
 
 for the adoration of the cross are to be found in ancient 
 liturgies, both Roman and Greek. With the figure of 
 Christ crucified added, the cross became a crucifix, though 
 in the beginning purely symbolical and not realistic in 
 its representation. At first the type of the " Lamb of 
 God " was used, and the crucifix was only ordained to be 
 set up in churches at the Council of Constantinople in 
 691. Even before the fourth century pictures had come 
 into use in churches ; but separate pictures and pictures ana 
 images of Christ and sacred personages, at first images, 
 regarded as contravening the second commandment, in 
 the fifth and sixth centuries were commonly set up, 
 especially those of the mother of Jesus with her infant 
 son. Leontius, bishop of Neapolis in Cyprus, thus de- 
 fended image-worship in the latter part of the sixth 
 century : " I, worshipping the image of God, do not wor- 
 ship the material wood and colours ; God forbid ; but 
 laying hold of the lifeless representation of Christ, I seem 
 to myself to lay hold of and to worship Christ through 
 it." 
 
 We have already recounted the controversies about the 
 veneration of Mary as " Mother of God," which developed 
 a tendency to think of her on the same level worship of 
 fis Jesus Himself; and it was a Monophysite tue virgin. 
 Patriarch who first placed her name in all the prayers 
 of his liturgy. In Justinian's reign she was invoked for 
 the prosperity of the State ; and the tendency to pray 
 for the aid of a female mediator, which had been strong 
 in the Greek and Roman religions, was transferred to the 
 Virgin Mary. The surviving feeling for the old religion, 
 too, welcomed the veneration of saints and martyrs in 
 the place of the deified heroes ; and prayers and vows 
 to them became common. Eelics were manufactured to 
 meet the demand, as well as stories of spurious miracles ; 
 and marvellous biographies of saints, some with a founda- 
 tion of fact, others entirely fictitious, were written and 
 circulated. The title of " saint," at first and of ^^ ^^^^^ 
 right belonging to every Christian, as separated 
 from a worldly life, was gradually confined exclusively to 
 those who were conspicuous for their holy life or roartyr'$ 
 
284 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 death. Names were inscribed in the roll of saints, and 
 read out as deserving of commemoration, by aiithority of 
 the bishop, and later of the metropolitan, synod, or even 
 Emperor. Days were set apart for commemorating them, 
 often the anniversaries of their martyrdom, and thus 
 ecclesiastical calendars came into use. 
 
 Holy places also grew into reverence, beginning with 
 the scenes of Christ's life and death. Constantine's build- 
 Piigrimases. "^S of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and 
 ' the " finding of the true cross " by his mother 
 Helena powerfully stimulated the idea of pilgrimage to 
 Jerusalem. Fragments of the supposed true cross were 
 spread throughout Christendom, and were venerated as 
 most sacred relics. 
 
 •There were not wanting opponents of the new practices 
 of monasticism, invocation of saints, worship of relics 
 
 Opposition ^^^ images, etc. ; but their voices were over- 
 to new powered by the strength of the supporters of 
 
 practices, ^.j^g tendency of the times. Aeriiis, an Armenian 
 (fourth and fifth centuries), Helvidius, Jovinian and 
 Vigilantius in the "Western Church are the 
 most notable of these early Protestants. The 
 three latter were all violently attacked by Jerome, who 
 was very indignant at the success of Jovinian at E,ome, 
 who taught that all baptised Christians, if their conduct 
 was consistent with their professions, were equal in Chris- 
 tian privileges, and that neither celibacy nor monasticism 
 jDlaced them on a special pedestal. Jovinian was excom- 
 municated and banished from Rome about 390 ; and he 
 
 vieiiantius ^PP^^i'^ ^0 have died before 406. Vigilantius, 
 born just north of the Pyrenees, became ac- 
 quainted with Jerome in his house at Bethlehem, and 
 excited his ire by his opposition to the worship of departed 
 saints and their relics. Vigilantius thought it was better 
 for a man to seek objects of charity around his own home, 
 rather than give his property entirely to the poor or to 
 the monks. The strength of Jerome's antagonism is a 
 measure of the difficulty such a teacher had in getting 
 heard by those who were most influential in tlie Church ; 
 and Vigilantius and his fellows were doomed to failure. 
 
THE CREEDS. 285 
 
 The creeds of the Church were practically settled in 
 this period. The Nicene Creed, though mainly deter- 
 mined as we have already related, was based ^j^^ creeds 
 on an ancient baptismal creed found in the 
 "Apostolical Constitutions," and it was as a baptismal 
 creed that it continued to be used before it was inserted in 
 any liturgy. In 511 Timotheus, bishOp of Constantinople, 
 ordered that it should be recited at every congregation; 
 and about this time it was inserted in the principal Eastern 
 liturgies. The Council of Toledo in 689 ordered that it 
 should be recited before the Lord's Prayer in the liturgy. 
 
 The Apostles' Creed, often regarded as the oldest, from 
 its name, was only adopted as a written creed, in the 
 Western Church, later than the Nicene. It no doubt 
 represents a very early baptismal creed, having various 
 versions, which do not appear to have been early put into 
 writing. 
 
 The AthaHasian Creed, which is rather an argumentative 
 and declaratory psalm, declaring the necessity of holding 
 the Catholic faith as essential to salvation, was never a 
 baptismal creed, nor was it the product of a Council. It 
 is of Western though unknown origin, probably in the 
 fifth century ; it is first met with in the Gaulish Church, 
 where its use spread into the whole Latin Church and 
 part of the Greek. In 676 we find it required of every 
 cleric that he should assent to this creed, at the Council 
 of Cressy (Christiacum). 
 
 No fewer than a hundred ancient liturgies are known, 
 the majority belonging to the Eastern Churches, centring 
 round the metropolitan Churches of Jerusalem, Eastern 
 Antiooh, Alexandria, Constantinople, Ephesus, liturgies, 
 and Rome. There are none which ascend to the apostolic 
 age, though ascribed to apostles or evangelists, such as 
 St. James or St. Mark ; but they mostly took written 
 form in the fourth to the sixth centuries. The Liturgy 
 of St. Clement, probably the oldest, dates from the be- 
 ginning of the fourth century. It is given in the " Apos- 
 tolical Constitutions," and contains distinct services for 
 catechumens and full members, very simple services, 
 without even the Lord's Prayer, any creed, or the mention 
 
286 THE FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 of saints' names. The Liturgy of St. James is the oldest 
 of those proceeding from Jerusalem, and arose in the 
 fourth century ; it inchides the Nicene Creed, with the 
 terms Homoousios and Theotokos, and with commemora- 
 tion of the mother of God and all saints, "that we through 
 their prayers and intercessions may obtain mercy." From 
 this were developed the liturgies named after St. Basil 
 and St. Chrysostom — the latter, not originally associated 
 with his name, being still regularly used in the Sunday 
 services of the Greek Church, while that of St. Basil, a 
 longer form, is reserved for Lent and some special occa- 
 sions. A free translation into Syriac from the Liturgy 
 of St. James is still used in various forms, in the mono- 
 physite Eastern Churches. The Liturgy of St. Mark 
 (Alexandrian), used in Egypt till the twelfth century, 
 contains the Nicene Creed as enlarged at Constantinople, 
 and is probably derived from the Liturgy of Cyril. The 
 Liturgy of Edessa, also termed that of Thaddaaus, origin- 
 ated with and is used by the Nestorians. 
 
 The Western liturgies include the Ephesian forms, con- 
 nected with the name of St. John, and used in the early 
 
 Western Churches of Spain, Gaul, and Britain ; the 
 Liturgies. Liturgy of St. Ambrose, still used in the diocese 
 of Milan, and containing many of Ambrose's compositions, 
 as well as others by Simplicius, his successor ; and the 
 Eoman, or Petrine. The latter is very ancient in its 
 leading features, but extant copies are not found of earlier 
 date than the 46L The whole liturgy constitutes the 
 Missal. The edition ascribed to Pope Gregory the Great, 
 modified more than once, obtained precedence over every 
 other, and was adopted by the Council of Trent. 
 
 We have thus traced the Church through the early 
 stages of conflict, and its establishment as part of the 
 Eoman imperial system, to its gradual elevation above 
 the civil power. We are now at the dawn of the medieval 
 period, terminated by the Eeformation. The greatest 
 facts of this period are the final separation between the 
 Eastern and Western Churches, the encroachments of 
 Mohammedanism, and the evangelisation of the heathen 
 peoples of Europe. 
 
CHAPTER YII. 
 
 Cfti-t'gti'anitp to tl)e ^fparati'on bettoeen Cast 
 anil Mest. 
 
 (seventh to tenth centuries.) 
 
 Pope Gregory I.— Mission of Augustine to England— The early British 
 Churcli— St. Patrick— St. Columba— Independent spirit of Celtic Churcli 
 — Columban and St. Gall— St. Boniface, tlie Apostle of Germany— CSiar- 
 lemagne and the Papacy— The Holy Eoman Empire- Alculn— The Eastern 
 Church— The Controversy about Images— John of Damascus— Seventh 
 (Ecumenical Council— The Caroline Books against Images— Council of 
 Frankfort— Leo the Armenian— Theodore the Studlte— The Empress 
 Theodora— Fhotius and Ignatius — Eighth Council (Roman)— Eighth 
 Council (Greek)— Last disputes between East and West— Adoptionlsm— 
 The Isidorian Decretals— The Real Presence— Paschasius—Eatramn— 
 John Scotus— Predestination— Gottschalk—Scotus on "Predestination" 
 —Hincmar— Council of (Juiercy— Christianity in Nqrth and East Europe 
 —Anskar—Olaf— Cyril and Methodius— Vladimir— St. Stephen of Hun- 
 gary—the Wends, Lithuanians, and Pomeranians. 
 
 THE chief doctrines of the Christian Church being- 
 settled, and the ground plan of its organisation being 
 complete, it enters upon its " middle age," lasting till the 
 Eeformation, and marked in the central point by the 
 final separation of the Eastern from the Western pope 
 Church. The great period of the Papacy begins Gregory i. 
 with the remarkable Pope Gregory I., the Great. Born 
 at Eome in B40, he was elected Pope in 590, when assaults 
 of heretics, corruptions of members, etc., had greatly 
 weakened the Church. In his own words the Church 
 was " an old and shattered ship, admitting the waters 
 on all sides, its timbers rotten, and shaken by daily 
 
 287 
 
23S 
 
 SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 storms." He literally reorganised the Church, re-arranged 
 the liturgy, established the Gregorian form of chanting, 
 and asserted the supreraacy of Eome throughout the West 
 and in Africa. While recognising the Patriarchs of Alex- 
 andria and Antioch as his equals, he strictly objected to 
 the Patriarch of Constantinople calling himself cecumeni- 
 cal bishop, and also renounced the title for himself; yet 
 at the sixth general council, 681, the title was granted 
 
 ^^^ to the Patriarch of 
 Vi^f^ffi. #1^ ( Constantinople, was 
 claimed by the then 
 Pope, and usually 
 taken by succeeding 
 Popes. 
 
 On the whole, 
 Gregory was toler- 
 ant towards heretics, 
 and succeeded in 
 reconciling several 
 Arian Churches by 
 emphasising the 
 first four councils 
 and reckoning the 
 fifth as less impor- 
 tant. He was, how- 
 ever, zealous against 
 the Donatists and 
 in uprooting the re- 
 mains of heathen- 
 ism. He was a 
 strong supporter of 
 monasticism, and 
 his "Pastoral Eule" long guided the Western bishops. His 
 Mission of ^^^ letters show remarkable practical wisdom. 
 Augustine Before his death, in 604, he had heard of the 
 to England, g^ccess of the mission to England on which 
 he had despatched Augustine in 596. Ethelbert, king 
 of Kent, was baptised at Canterbury on Whitsunday, 
 597, followed by many of his subjects. Augustine became 
 the Archbishop of Canterbury and metropolitan of Eng- 
 
 rOPE GEEGORY THE GKEAT. 
 
ST. COLUMBA. 289 
 
 land, and the old British church near Ethelbert's palace 
 was his cathedral. Augustine also founded the Bene- 
 dictine Abbey of St. Peter and St. Paul, at Canterbury, 
 afterwards more famous under the name of Augustine 
 himself. 
 
 Long before the Anglo-Saxon invasion, Christianity had 
 been widely diffused in Grreat Britain, probably from 
 Gaul ; and we find it recorded on undoubted Tiie early 
 authority, that three British bishops, Eborius British 
 of York, Restitutus of London, and Adeliius ^^'^''^■ 
 of Caerleon, attended the Council of Aries in 314, and 
 others were present at the Council of Sardica in 347, and 
 of Ariminum in 860 ; and after this time various notable 
 churchmen, such as St. John Chrysostom and St. Jerome, 
 refer to the British Church. We have already mentioned 
 that the originator of the Pelagian heresy was a British 
 Christian, and bishops from Gaul visited Britain in 429 
 and 447 to counteract his influence, and to spread the 
 gospel among the native Britons, now being deserted by 
 the Roman legions. Gaulish monks from the great abbey 
 founded by St. Martin of Tours at Marmoutier, preached 
 the monastic life in Cornwall, Wales, Ireland, and Scot- 
 land. 
 
 Christianity was introduced into Ireland in the latter 
 part of the fifth century by Patricius, or Patrick, a Briton 
 born near Dumbarton, in Scotland, of Christian g^. pajriok. 
 parentage. In Ireland the tribe became the 
 unit of ecclesiastical life. In fact, the chief became a 
 sort of abbot, and the converted tribesmen and women 
 devoted themselves to fasting and prayer, and often to 
 celibacy. The chiefship and abbacy went together by 
 hereditary descent. It is remarkable how the monastic 
 life took hold of the Celts, who were so much in love with 
 it that they went far and wide to propagate it, visiting 
 many parts of Britain, and leaving their mark from 
 Naples to Iceland, and extending as far as Franconia and 
 Carinthia. St. Columba (521-597), a native of g^ coiumta. 
 Donegal, of Irish blood royal, founded monas- 
 teries and churches in Ireland, and in 663 went to Scot- 
 land to convert the Picts. He received a grant of the 
 
290 SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 island of lona in 563, and there set up the famous church 
 and monastery which for 150 years was the head of the 
 national Church of Scotland. His Church, established at 
 first outside the influence of Eome, became opposed to the 
 Roman Church in several points, such as the date of 
 keeping Easter, a matter held to be of great importance, 
 and refused to yield obedience to the Roman pontiff. 
 The abbot of lona, though usually only a presbyter, 
 exercised the authority as of a pope over the numerous 
 bishops under his jurisdiction. 
 
 Scotland, Ireland, and Wales produced numerous saints 
 in the seventh and eighth centuries, and they converted a 
 considerable portion of England which had not yet been 
 reached directly from Rome. The monks of the Celtic 
 Church are credited with having been better missionaries 
 than parish priests, and their Church gradually waned 
 before the more systematic efforts of the Roman emis- 
 independent saries. In the seventh century the Irish ac- 
 
 spirit of cepted the Roman date for Easter, followed by 
 Celtic ciiurcii.^.j^g Welsh in the middle of the eighth. The 
 monasteries of the Celtic foundations long kept up their 
 independence of diocesan bishops ; but in the eleventh 
 century their subjection was finally accomplished. The 
 interesting details of medieval English Church history 
 must be sought in more extended works, especially the 
 conflicts of the temporal with the ecclesiastical power, 
 and of England with Rome; but England did not in 
 these times do anything in development of the main 
 features of Christianity. 
 
 Meanwhile the Scoto-Irish monks were represented on 
 the Continent by such men as Columban, who established 
 coiumban monasteries under strict rule in the Vosges, 
 and St. Gall, maintaining his independence of the Pope ; he 
 afterwards travelled widely in Europe, dying in 615. His 
 disciples also founded monasteries, the most famous being 
 that of St. Gall in Switzerland. Other British mission- 
 aries evangelised Frisia in the seventh and eighth 
 centuries. 
 
 The greatest missionary sent out from England in 
 Anglo-Saxon times was Winfrid, afterwards known as 
 
ST. BONIFACE, THE APOSTLE OF GERMANY. 291 
 
 St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany (680-755), gj Boniface 
 born at Crediton in Devonshire. In 716 he the apostle' 
 began to preach in Frisia, and in 718 received °' Germany. 
 
 STATUE OF ST. BONIFACE. 
 
 authority from Pope Gregory II. to preach to all the 
 German tribes. This he did with great success, destroy- 
 
292 SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 ing objects of heathen worship, and founding churches 
 and monasteries. Gregory III. in 732 made him arch- 
 bishop and primate of Germany. After the great victory 
 of Charles Martel over the Saracens in 732, that monarch 
 seized church treasures and possessions to reward his 
 followers ; and the imperfection of the hold which Eome 
 had on the Frankish "Church, as well as the numerous 
 disorders that were prevalent, induced Pope Zacharias in 
 741 to commit to Boniface the task of reforming it. He 
 secured the assent and authority of the State for his 
 reforms, but was not able to enforce the obedience of the 
 Frankish bishops to metropolitans or to the Pope. The 
 Scoto-Irish preachers, too, gave him much trouble; and 
 we learn that, in addition to their rejection of Roman 
 obedience, they discountenanced saint and relic worship, 
 and pilgrimages. He is said to have crowned Pepin 
 King of the Franks in 742 ; but this is doubtful. On June 
 5th, 755, his tent at Dokkum in "West Friesland was 
 surrounded by armed pagans, who massacred the whole 
 party of fifty-two, Boniface having forbidden resistance. 
 
 The connection of the Frankish kingdom with the 
 Papacy had in 764 been strengthened by Pepin's accept- 
 chariemagnei'^S coronation at the hands of Pope Stephen 
 
 and the H., who in 755 received from that king the 
 
 Papacy, famous Donation of Pepin, conquered from As- 
 tulfus, king of the Lombards, and constituting the begin- 
 ning of the Papal States. Karl the Great (Charlemagne) 
 in 774 extended the Donation to correspond with the 
 old Exarchate of Ravenna, and at his several visits to 
 Rome paid the utmost respect to the See of St. Peter 
 and to the Pope. Pope Leo III. on his accession (795) 
 offered to Karl the allegiance of the Roman citizens, 
 sending him the banner of Rome and the keys of St. 
 Peter's alleged tomb. Only a few years later (800) Karl 
 was called on to pronounce judgment on serious charges 
 against the Pope ; and his court declared the Pope above 
 
 The Holy ^^ human judgment. On Christmas Day, 800, 
 
 Eoman Em- Leo crowned Karl in St. Peter's, and did 
 
 P^^- homage to him as Emperor of the West, thus 
 
 reno\incing all connection with Constantinople, and 
 
CHARLEMAGNE. 293 
 
 setting up what became afterwards known as the Holy 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 From this point we shall not follow the details of 
 ecclesiastical relations with the civil power, which de- 
 
 CHAELEMAGNE. 
 
 veloped into forms utterly alien to the spirit of Christ's 
 teaching. "We can only note those points in which further 
 developments were given to the constitution of the Church 
 or the forms and appurtenances of religious observance or 
 creeds. 
 
394 SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 Karl successively forced Christianity on the Saxons, 
 the Frisians, the Bavarians, the Avars of Pannonia, and 
 
 J, . the Bohemians ; and missionaries followed_ in 
 the wake of the conquerors. Alcuin, an English- 
 man, directed these latter efforts. Karl did_ much _ to 
 spread education and reform religious administration 
 according to the Eoman system. He built among others 
 the cathedral of Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), where he died 
 in 841. 
 
 Meanwhile, in the East, Mohammedanism had been 
 
 making rapid progress, and winning from Christian do- 
 
 The Eastern minion and profession large territories. The 
 
 churon. patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alex- 
 andria, and the bishoprics dependent on them, became 
 merely nominal. In the eighth century the great con- 
 rpjjg troversy on images rose into prominence, and 
 controversy the Emperor Leo III. followed his edict of 723 
 about iinage3.|Qj, the forcible baptism of Jews and Montanists 
 bj'- one forbidding the growing worship of images or 
 pictures by Christians (724), which the followers of Ma- 
 homet charged against them as idolatry. The so-called 
 images were mostly mosaics or pictures on a flat surface, 
 sometimes appearing in relief by the arrangement of 
 silver or other metals by which they were set off ; and 
 image-worship in the East by no means . signifies wor- 
 ship of modelled or carved figures. The decree of Leo 
 led to a rebellion, which was suppressed, and all images 
 were then ordered to be taken down or coated over with 
 plaster. 
 
 John of Damascus, author of the " Correct Exposition 
 of the Orthodox Faith," came forward as an able defender 
 
 John of of images. He urged that the revelation of 
 Damascus. God in the flesh in the person of Christ had 
 made images lawful, in order to represent to those of later 
 times what His disciples and hearers had seen. Images, 
 he said, were for the unlearned what books were to the 
 learned. He did not adore the matter of the images 
 but the Author of matter, who for his sake became 
 material that by matter He might work out man's salva- 
 tion. Images of saints were lawful as memorials. He 
 
THE CATHEDRAL, BAMBERG. 
 
 295 
 
 refused to acknowledge the Emperor's right to interfere 
 in the matter ; the ordering of the Church belonged to its 
 pastors. Popes Grregory IE. and III. similarly attacked 
 
 Leo, who in return transferred G-reece and Illyria to the 
 patriarchate of Constantinople (733). A council held at 
 Constantinople in 754, but unattended by any patriarch 
 
296 SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 or any Western representatives, utterly condemned the 
 use of images and pictures for religious purposes, _ but 
 declared it lawful to invoke the Virgin and the Saints. 
 The then Emperor Constantino V. substituted paintings 
 of secular subjects for sacred images and pictures, and 
 cruelly treated all who disobeyed his edicts. On his death 
 in 775 the chief influence in the East came to Irene, wife 
 of Leo IV., his successor. She was a great supporter _ of 
 images ; and during the minority of her son, Constantino 
 VI., 780-797, she proclaimed liberty of conscience. A 
 
 sevenm general council (the seventh cecumenical and 
 (Ecumenical second of Nicsea) was summoned, and Pope 
 
 Council, ^(jpia^;^ I_ Hot only recognised the newly ap- 
 pointed Patriarch of Constantinople, Tarasius, but sent 
 legates to the council (7S7). This council declared that 
 images and pictures of Christ and the Virgin, as well as 
 of angels and saints, should be set up for kissing and 
 reverence, although not for true worship, which belonged 
 to God alone. They were, however, to be honoured like 
 the Cross, the Gospels, etc., with incense and lights, be- 
 cause the honour paid to the image passed on to the 
 original. There was still a strong iconoclast element 
 among the clergy and laity, and especially in the army, 
 which had served under the iconoclast emperors. 
 
 The Churches north of the Alps felt the decision in 
 favour of images as a great blow to their efforts at up- 
 The Caroline ^ootiiig fbe worship of the old Teutonic idols ; 
 books againstand Alcuin, as it is believed, wrote the famous 
 
 images, u Q^roline books " in Karl's name, refuting the 
 arguments of the council and exposing the fallacy of 
 its position. He took the strong intellectual position that 
 " those persons must have faulty memories who need to 
 be reminded by an image, and cannot raise their minds 
 above the material except by the aid of a created and 
 material object." These lessons, he said, cannot be taught 
 by the images themselves, for the merits of the saints are 
 not external and cannot be seen ; and the unlearned are 
 the very class who will be drawn to pay real divine 
 worship to the images. Great objection is taken to the 
 adoption of opinions without apostolic warrant, which 
 
r 
 
 
 f 
 
 I 
 
 ST. BONIFACE SETTING OUT FOK ROME TO BI 
 
N TO GEKMAN7 FKOM POPE GKEQOKY 11. 
 
PHOTIUS AND IGNATIUS. 297 
 
 were condemned by the Fathers and early councils. The 
 moderate conclusion reached is, that these images should 
 be permitted and not destroyed, but that their worship 
 ought not to be enforced. The Council of counoUof 
 Frankfort (794), presided over by Karl, aided Frankfort, 
 by Alcuin, at which German, English, and Lombard, as 
 well as Frankish bishops were present, with two legates 
 from Eome, condemned what is termed " the late synod 
 of the Greeks," and refused all adoration and service of 
 images. Thus the path was paved for the Roman Church 
 to throw in its lot completely with the new Western 
 empire, and sever itself definitely from the East. 
 
 The iconoclast controversy was once more revived by 
 Leo v., the Armenian, Emperor of the East (813-820), 
 who in 814 ordered a general removal of images, Leo the 
 and seated an opponent of images in the patri- Armenian, 
 archate of Constantinople. Theodore, head of the Studite 
 monastery at Constantinople, strongly opposed Theodore tue 
 the Emperor, was scourged, imprisoned in a studite. 
 dungeon, and threatened with death. Appealed to by 
 him. Pope Paschal I. strongly supported the image- 
 worshippers, and ordained priests for the Eastern Churches 
 which refused the iconoclast priests. Leo V., in return, 
 persecuted the image-worshippers most rigorously, and 
 in consequence lost his life by a conspiracy which seated 
 Michael II. on the throne, who recalled the image-wor- 
 shippers, and replaced Theodore, though forbidding dis- 
 cussions and allowing each party to follow their own 
 views. Finally Michael asked the aid of Louis, son of 
 Karl the Great, in discouraging image-worshippers at 
 Rome (824). Yet after several fluctuations, the The Empress 
 worship of images was restored in Constanti- Theodora, 
 nople in 842 by the empress Theodora, mother of the 
 infant Michael III. ; and the first Sunday in Lent, the 
 anniversary of the restoration, is celebrated at the present 
 day in the Greek Church as the Feast of Orthodoxy. 
 
 There was yet another controversy in the East about 
 images, which led to a dispute as to two rival photius and 
 patriarchs of Constantinople, Photius and Ig- Ignatius, 
 natius, who were required by Pope Nicolas I. (858-867) to 
 
298 SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 come to Rome for a decision between them, the Pope 
 claiming that the Eoman Church was " the head of all, 
 on which all depend." The conversion of the Bulgarians 
 was complicated by the doubt about image-worship, the 
 king receiving different advice from East and "West. 
 Finally the Latin clergy were driven out of Bulgaria, and 
 a Greek archbishop was sent by the iconoclast patriarch 
 Ignatius, and Bulgaria became firmly attached to the 
 Greek Church. Meanwhile Photius held a council which 
 anathematised Pope Nicolas ; in his letter of invitation 
 he accused the men of the "West of corrupting the gospel 
 with pernicious novelties, teaching a different system of 
 fasting, forbidding the clergy to marry, and denying the 
 right of presbyters to confirm. The greatest objection, 
 however, was the "adulteration" of the creed with spurious 
 additions, affirming that the Holy Ghost proceeds from 
 the Son, which he called blasphemy against God the 
 Father. The violence of Photius is further shown by his 
 calling the Romans apostates and servants of Anti-christ. 
 But later Photius was himself deposed and anathematised. 
 The eighth general council, according to the Romans, held 
 Eignth ^* Constantinople in 869, at which the Pope 
 counou was represented by two bishops, and at which 
 (Roman). ^^^ ^j^g patriarchs of Antioch, Jerusalem, and 
 Alexandria were represented, again condemned the icono- 
 clasts, and finally established image-worship in the East. 
 This council agreed that pictures and images were useful 
 for the instruction of the people, and ought to be wor- 
 shipped with the same honour as the books of the Gospel. 
 The strange whirligig of Eastern affairs, however, in 878 
 restored Photius once more to the patriarchate ; and while 
 he requested the co-operation of Rome in another council, 
 he strongly asserted his independence in that council 
 Eighth (called the eighth by the Greek Church, 879) 
 Councu which rejected the acts of the council of 869 
 (Greek), against Photius. A little later, communion was 
 again restored between the Greek and Roman Churches. 
 
 No other event of supreme interest marks the history 
 of the Eastern Church for some centuries ; it had to make 
 strenuous efforts to maint9,in itself against the advancing 
 
ADOPTIONISM. 299 
 
 power of Mahometanism. In the eleventh century the 
 Emperor Basil K. proposed to Pope John XVIILtagt disputes 
 that the conflicting claims of Rome and Con- between East 
 stantinople should be met by allowing to ^'i*^^^*- 
 each patriarch the title universal or cecumenical bishop ; 
 but the Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael, denounced 
 the heresies of the Eoman Church, and especially the use 
 of unleavened bread in the Eucharist, and in 1053 closed 
 the Latin churches and monasteries at Constantinople, 
 while Pope Leo IX. was a prisoner with the Norman 
 conquerors of Naples and Sicily. In 1054 he sent legates 
 to Constantinople to seek a settlement, but Michael would 
 not even discuss with them, and they left Constantinople 
 after laying a solemn excommunication of him on the 
 altar of St. Sophia. No later efforts of reconciliation 
 were successful, and from this point no inter- commu- 
 nion has existed between the Roman and the Eastern 
 Church. 
 
 In the "West the controversy about images continued 
 both in writing and in the discussions of councils, and 
 there was considerable opposition to images within the 
 Frankish Church till the end of the ninth century. 
 
 Before proceeding to mention the chief doctrinal con- 
 troversies of the medieval Church, we must briefly notice 
 the Western discussion about the Sonship of . 
 
 Christ, which was distinct in its type from the 
 Eastern disputes. During the reign of Karl the G-reat, 
 Felix, bishop of Urgel in Catalonia, taught that Christ 
 was the Son of God by adoption only, not by partaking of 
 the Divine substance. After much controversy, Alcuin 
 wrote a treatise against Felix, and discussed with him 
 for six days in 799. Felix declared himself convinced, but 
 was kept under supervision till his death in 818, when 
 he left behind him a paper reasserting the principal 
 points of his teaching ; but he gained few adherents. 
 
 "We cannot follow all the varying attitudes of the 
 "Western empire and the papacy in the ninth and tenth 
 centuries, in which now one, now the other, emerged as 
 temporarily supreme, nor the disastrous fall of successive 
 Popes into gross immorality and arbitrary conduct. The 
 
298 SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 come to Rome for a decision between them, the Pope 
 claiming that the Eoman Church was " the head of all, 
 on which all depend." The conversion of the Bulgarians 
 was complicated by the doubt about image-worship, the 
 king receiving different advice from East and West. 
 Finally the Latin clergy were driven out of Bulgaria, and 
 a Greek archbishop was sent by the iconoclast patriarch 
 Ignatius, and Bulgaria became firmly attached to the 
 Greek Church. Meanwhile Photius held a council which 
 anathematised Pope Nicolas ; in his letter of invitation 
 he accused the men of the West of corrupting the gospel 
 with pernicious novelties, teaching a different system of 
 fasting, forbidding the clergy to marry, and denying the 
 right of presbyters to confirm. The greatest objection, 
 however, was the "adulteration" of the creed with spurious 
 additions, affirming that the Holy Ghost proceeds from 
 the Son, which he called blasphemy against God the 
 Father. The violence of Photius is farther shown by his 
 calling the Romans apostates and servants of Anti-christ. 
 But later Photius was himself deposed and anathematised. 
 The eighth general council, according to the Romans, held 
 Eighth ^* Constantinople in 869, at which the Pope 
 Councu was represented by two bishops, and at which 
 (Roman), ^jg^ ^j^^ patriarchs of Antioch, Jerusalem, and 
 Alexandria were represented, again condemned the icono- 
 clasts, and finally estabHshed image-worship in the East. 
 This council agreed that pictiires and images were useful 
 for the instruction of the people, and ought to be wor- 
 shipped with the same honour as the books of the Gospel. 
 The strange whirligig of Eastern affairs, however, in 878 
 restored Photius once more to the patriarchate ; and while 
 he requested the co-operation of Rome in another council, 
 he strongly asserted his independence in that council 
 Eighth (called the eighth by the Greek Church, 879) 
 councu which rejected the acts of the council of 869 
 (Greek), against Photius. A little later, communion was 
 again restored between the Greek and Roman Churches. 
 
 No other event of supreme interest marks the history 
 of the Eastern Church for some centuries ; it had to make 
 strenuous efforts to maintain itself against the advancing 
 
ADOPTIONISM. 299 
 
 power of Mahometanism. In the eleventh century the 
 Emperor Basil II. proposed to Pope John XVIII.Last disputes 
 that the conflicting claims of Rome and Con- between East 
 stantinople should be met by allowing to a'^^^^^at. 
 each patriarch the title universal or oecumenical bishop ; 
 but the Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael, denounced 
 the heresies of the Roman Church, and especially the use 
 of unleavened bread in the Eucharist, and in 1063 closed 
 the Latin churches and monasteries at Constantinople, 
 while Pope Leo IX. was a prisoner with the Norman 
 conquerors of Naples and Sicily. In 1054 he sent legates 
 to Constantinople to seek a settlement, but Michael would 
 not even discuss with them, and they left Constantinople 
 after laying a solemn excommunication of him on the 
 altar of St. Sophia. No later efforts of reconciliation 
 were successful, and from this point no inter- commu- 
 nion has existed between the Roman and the Eastern 
 Church. 
 
 In the West the controversy about images continued 
 both in writing and in the discussions of councils, and 
 there was considerable opposition to images within the 
 Frankish Church till the end of the ninth century. 
 
 Before proceeding to mention the chief doctrinal con- 
 troversies of the medieval Church, we must briefly notice 
 the Western discussion about the Sonship of . . 
 
 Christ, which was distinct in its type from the 
 Eastern disputes. During the reign of Karl the Great, 
 Felix, bishop of Urgel in Catalonia, taught that Christ 
 was the Son of God by adoption only, not by partaking of 
 the Divine substance. After much controversy, Alcuin 
 wrote a treatise against Felix, and discussed with him 
 for six days in 799. Felix declared himself convinced, but 
 was kept under supervision till his death in 818, when 
 he left behind him a paper reasserting the principal 
 points of his teaching ; but he gained few adherents. 
 
 We cannot follow all the varying attitudes of the 
 Western empire and the papacy in the ninth and tenth 
 centuries, in which now one, now the other, emerged as 
 temporarily supreme, nor the disastrous fall of successive 
 Popes into gross immorality and arbitrary conduct. The 
 
300 SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 Prankish Church meanwhile kept considerably aloof from 
 Rome, and even condemned or excommunicated a Pope 
 when culpable. Pope Leo IV. in 852 built a wall around 
 the suburb of Rome beyond the Tiber, enclosing the 
 basilican church of St. Peter (on the site of the present 
 St. Peter's) and the site on which the Vatican Palace 
 now is ; and from him it derived its name of the Leonine 
 The isidoriancity. During this century a forged collection 
 
 Decretals, purporting to be Papal Decretals gained cur- 
 rency under the name of Isidore, bishop of Seville, in the 
 first part of the seventh century, and was adopted by 
 the Frankish and the Roman Church generally. It pur- 
 ported to contain nearly 100 decretal letters of bishops of 
 Rome, some dating as far back as the apostolic times, 
 and giving accounts of chiirch councils which never took 
 place ; and the forgery was favoured by quotations from 
 genuine materials. These forged letters exalt the power 
 of the clergy, and raise bishops almost above any human 
 judgment ; also the Pope's power is carried beyond anything 
 previously written. They were quoted and used in councils 
 and by Church writers for centuries ; and even when de- 
 monstrated to be forgeries, still continued to have influence. 
 For what the clergy desired and believed, they readily ac- 
 cepted a plausible authority, without critical examination. 
 
 The belief in the material presence of the body and 
 blood of Christ in the Eucharist was taught in 831 by 
 
 The Real Paschasius Radbert, a monk of Corbie. He 
 
 Presence. \i^\(]^ that after the consecration of the elements 
 
 nothing was really present but the flesh and blood of 
 
 Paschasius '-'^'^i^^) '^^ same in which He was crucified and 
 
 rose from the dead. Many Frankish Churchmen 
 
 denounced the doctrine, the most eminent being Ratramn, 
 
 Eatramn ^^'^'^ ^^'^^ *^^^* *^^® ^°'^y ^'^^ blood of Christ 
 were only figuratively presented to the faithful 
 soul in the Eucharist, the change being not material but 
 John scotus. spiritual. John Scotus, the great Irish theologian 
 of the ninth century, taught that the Eucharist 
 was only a commemorative ordinance, and thus anticipated 
 many Protestants. But this was denounced as heretical, 
 and the doctrine of Paschasius was generally accepted. 
 
PREDESTINA TION. 
 
 301 
 
 Another great controversy, which has not yet died out, 
 was that on predestination. Tire famous G-ottschalk, a 
 pupil of Alcuin (786-866), son of a Saxon count, predestina- 
 appears to have been the first to teach that tion. 
 not only were the good predestined to happi- ^""sciianr. 
 
 TnE CATHEDEAL OP AIX-LA-CIIArELLB. 
 
 ness but also the wicked to damnation. This was going 
 beyond St. Augustine, who, while terming those finally 
 lost " reprobates," did not say they were predestined to 
 destruction, but that they were left to the just judgment 
 on their sins.. Gottschalk, though accused of it, denied 
 that he represented God as the ordainer of evil, for His 
 
302 SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 double predestination was "good" in either case; God's 
 just judgments must be good, and to those just judgments 
 the wicked were predestinated, and their persistence in 
 sin was foreknown. He held that Christ died only for 
 the elect. Gottschalk had to go through the usual perse- 
 cution suffered by those who bring forward any novelty 
 in doctrine, being condemned by councils, rigorously 
 treated by the inflexible Hincmar (Archbishop of Eheims 
 from 845 to 884), and cruelly flogged in the presence of 
 King Charles the Bald ; but he maintained his opinions. 
 
 John Scotus, at the request of Hincmar, wrote his great 
 treatise "on Divine Predestination," a work so subtle 
 sootus on pre-and free in its inquiries that it caused him to 
 destination, jjg accused of Various heresies. He said it was 
 improper to speak of Divine predestination or foreknow- 
 ledge, because to God all time is present ; but if the term 
 be used, predestination must be eternal, and only to good. 
 But the number of those who will be saved or lost is 
 known by God, and therefore may be called predestined. 
 At the same time Scotus asserts that the human will is 
 Hincmar: f^®® ^o choose good or evil. After the publi- 
 counoii of cation Hincmar held a council at Quiercy (853), 
 
 Quieroy. -^^rj^idj^ asserted that man fell by the abuse of 
 his free will ; that God by His foreknowledge predes- 
 tinated some to life whom He chose by His grace ; but 
 those whom He by His righteous judgment left in their 
 lost estate. He did not predestinate to perish, but predes- 
 tinated punishment to their sin. The free will, lost by 
 the Fall, was recovered through Christ ; God would have 
 all men saved, and Christ suffered for all ; and the ruin of 
 those who perished is their own fault. After much 
 further controversy, Hincmar wrote an elaborate work on 
 the whole matter, addressed to Charles the Bald (" Epis- 
 tola ad Eegem "). Gottschalk was kept in prison twenty 
 years by Hincmar's influence, who refused him the last 
 sacrament unless he would agree to his own statements of 
 doctrine. The old theologian steadfastly maintained his 
 views, and died without sacrament ; and burial in uncon- 
 secrated ground was given to this maintainer of indepen- 
 dent thought. 
 
CYRIL AND METHODIUS IN MORAVIA. 303 
 
 A brief note must suffice to indicate the successive 
 introduction of Christianity into the northern and eastern 
 countries of Europe. In 826 Anskar, a monk Christianity 
 of Corbie, was sent to evangelise Denmark and in Nortii and 
 Scandinavia, and became one of the most famous ^^^* Europe, 
 and successful of missionaries. By his influence Denmark 
 and Sweden formally tolerated and recognised Christianity. 
 Anskar built hospitals, founded monasteries, redeemed 
 captives, and did much to diminish the slave trade. When 
 miracles were ascribed to him, he said, " If I were worthy 
 in the sight of my Lord, I would ask Him to 
 grant me one miracle — that He would make ^ ' 
 me a good man." He died in 865, and his work was 
 well carried on by his friend iiimbert. A reaction took 
 place under Gorm the Old, king of Denmark, who how- 
 ever was compelled by Henry the Fowler to put down 
 human sacrifices. Cnut (Canute) as king of Denmark 
 established Christianity on a sure basis, and definitely 
 placed the Danish Church under the Roman. Heathen 
 worship was not put down in Sweden till towards the 
 end of the eleventh century. In the twelfth and thir- 
 teenth the Finns were converted ; in the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth centuries some progress was made among the 
 Lapps. Norway, partly evangelised by Anskar's efforts, 
 long retained much heathenism. Haco the Good (934- 
 961) followed Christian rites and brought English clergy 
 to Norway, but was afterwards forced by his people to 
 take part in the old heathen worship. Olaf 
 Tryggvason at the end of the century came 
 forward as the Christian champion, and enforced the 
 acceptance of baptism all through Norway. His great- 
 nephew Olaf Haroldson (1015-1030), promoted Chris- 
 tianity by similar drastic measures. Under his son, St. 
 Magnus, the new religion was fully established. 
 
 The Apostles of Moravia in the ninth century were 
 Cyril and Methodius, sent from Constantinople in 803. 
 They knew the Slavonic language, and tran- cyru and 
 slated the liturgy into it, and adopted it in Methodius 
 public worship. Bohemia became Christian in ^ Moravia, 
 the ninth and tenth centuries, and the Slavonic liturgy 
 
304 SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 was introduced there, but was violently opposed by the 
 Eoman clergy, who ultimately maintained the Latin form. 
 Christianity advanced into Poland through Bohemia, and 
 thus Poland became connected with the Eoman Church, 
 while the Eussians were evangelised from Constantinople 
 in the latter part of the tenth century. Vladimir the 
 Vladimir In Russian destroyed the national god Perun at 
 
 Russia. Kief, and compelled his people to be baptised 
 Christians. From this time the Greek form of the 
 Church was rapidly spread, and the Bible became known 
 in Cyril's Slavonic version. 
 
 The Magyars and Slavonians of Hungary, while they 
 first received Christianity through the Greek Church, 
 St. Stephen eventually were connected with Rome through 
 of Hungary. Walk, baptised Stephen, who was king of Hun- 
 gary in 1000. He organised and endowed Christianity 
 throughout his kingdom, built hospitals and monasteries, 
 and for these and many other services was canonised as 
 the patron saint of Hungary. 
 
 The "Wends and Lithuanians of the Southern and 
 
 Eastern Baltic, cut off by language and race from their 
 
 THe Wends, Christian neighbours, long resisted the efforts 
 
 Lithuanians, gf missionaries, and even the compulsion of 
 
 nianscon- sword. In the sacred island of Rligen the 
 
 verted, idolatrous worship continued after it had been 
 expelled from the mainland. The Lithuauians, Finns, 
 Pomeranians, Esthonians, etc., offered a stubborn resist- 
 ance in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and were 
 largely massacred, rather than converted, by soldiers of 
 the cross. The Pomeranians were almost exterminated 
 by the Teutonic Knights. In Lithuania heathenism was 
 re-established in the thirteenth century. Despite the 
 strenuous efforts of both Greek and Eoman clergy, it was 
 not till the end of the fourteenth century that they were 
 successful. The Roman Church prevailed on the union 
 of Lithuania to Poland by a dynastic marriage. 
 
 During its first thousand years the Church of Christ 
 was nominally united, though already practically split up 
 into numerous divisions. A strong body of doctrine and 
 an elaborate system of practice had been created, at the 
 
NOMINAL UNITY. 
 
 305 
 
 cost of miicli division of opinion, of many bloody wars, 
 of much excommunication and heart-burning. The 
 struggle to create a Universal Church had very largely 
 felt the influence of national tastes and tendencies. The 
 tempting idea of securing unity by force and under one 
 spiritual head had seized many minds. Opinion was 
 developed into dogma and thrust on the unwilling by 
 force. 
 
ST. ISAAC S CATHEDBAL, ST. PETEBSBCEO. 
 
 CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 Cfte O^asitern Cftuid)— Busfsiian anti ^greefe. 
 
 The OrtUodox Church in Greece, Bulgaria, Koumanla, etc. — Its History lii 
 Russia— Vladimir II.'s dying Injunctions— Moscow: The Kremlin— The 
 Patriarchs— The Troltza Monastery— Russians and Poles— The Patri- 
 arch Nicon— Peter the Great — The Holy Synod— Oath of the Bishops — 
 Ambrose— Plato— Phllaret— Missions— Doctriues—Sacraments—Memher- 
 Bliip— The Hierarchy- Liturgy and Servloes— Monks— Parish Priests- 
 Style of Churches— Icons, or Images— The Altar Fasts— Yearly Com- 
 munion-Extreme Unction— Burial— The Czar's Position— Dissenters- 
 The Old Believers— Other Sects— The SabbatnlM— The Molokanl— The 
 Duchoborzl— Mount Athos. 
 
 306 
 
HISTORY OF THE ORTHODOX CHURCH. 307 
 
 THE " Orthodox" Eastern or Greek and Eussian 
 Church, although claiming to represent the stock 
 from which all Christendom has originated, is to-day the 
 smallest of the great divisions of Christianity ;The orthodox 
 and unlike the Roman Church, it is subdivided church, 
 by national boundaries. The Greek Church in a limited 
 sense includes the Greek populations of Greece, Turkey, 
 Asia Minor, and elsewhere, with Constantinople for its 
 ecclesiastical centre and Mount Athos for its holy mountain. 
 The patriarch of Constantinople is elected by a synod of 
 bishops, but the selection must receive the approval of 
 the Sultan. The Church of the kingdom of , „ 
 Greece is now acknowledged as independent of 
 Constantinople, and is organised with a synod of five 
 bishops, as m Russia. The Servian Church, with some 
 intervals of subjection to the see of Carlowitz in Austria, 
 and to the patriarch of Constantinople, has been inde- 
 pendent since 1830, with a patriarch at Belgrade. The 
 Bulgarian Church, long semi-independent of Constanti- 
 nople under an exarch, is now completely so ; but the 
 Bulgarian exarch lives at Constantinople, and Bulgaria, 
 claims jurisdiction over Bulgarians outside Bui- Roumania', 
 garia. The Roumanian Church, though it was **''• 
 founded from Rome, was long governed from Constanti- 
 nople ; but one of the first proceedings of the Roumanian 
 Government in 1861 was to declare the independence 
 of the National Church, which is now under a primate 
 living at Bucharest. There are also veiy many members 
 of the Greek Church in the Austrian Empire ; the great 
 body of the Eastern Church is, however, that within the 
 Russian dominions. 
 
 We have already referred to the conversion of Vladimir 
 (buried at Kief anc^ afterwards canonised), followed by the 
 adoption of the Greek faith as the national faith its history 
 of Russia, as it expanded from a small State to "^^ Russia, 
 its present enormous extension. The spread of Chris- 
 tianity was easier in Russia than in any other country 
 of Europe, a fact with which the early translation of 
 the Scriptures and liturgies into Slavonic by Cyril and 
 Methodius doubtless had much to do. The close relation 
 
3o8 THE EASTERN CHURCH. 
 
 of t'he Russian Church to Constantinople has been shown 
 by the fact that for five centuries the metropolitans of 
 EiUssia "were either Byzantines or closely related to Con- • 
 stantinople. Jaroslaft' early in the eleventh century intro- 
 duced into Russia the canon law and Christian education 
 from Constantinople. 
 
 Vladimir the Second (who ■ began to reign in 1113) 
 Vladimir II. 's'^s.s a notable combination of fierceness with 
 dying devotion, who left to his sons the following 
 injunctions. ^jj^Q^g Q^jjgj, dying injunctions :— 
 
 " Ta.Y children, praise God and love men. For it is not fasting, 
 nor solitude, nor monastic life, that wiU procure you eternal life, 
 but only doing good. Forget not the poor, nourish them ; remember 
 that riches come from God, and are given you only for a short time. 
 Be fathers to orphans. Be judges in the cause of widows, and do 
 not let the powerful oppress the weak. Put to death neither inno- 
 cent nor guilty, for nothing is so sacred as the life and the soul of 
 a Christian. Never take the name of God in vain ; and never break 
 the oath you have made in kissing the crucifix. . . Be not envious 
 at the triumph of the wicked and the success of treachery. Fear 
 the lot of the impious. Do not desert the sick ; do not let the sight 
 of dead corpses terrify you, for we must all die. Receive with joy 
 the blessing of the clergy ; do not keep yourself aloof from them ; 
 do them good, that they may pray to God for you. Drive out of 
 your heart all suggestions of pride, and remember that we are all 
 perishable — to-day full of hope, to-morrow in the coffin. Abhor 
 lying, drunkenness, and debauchery. Love your wives, but do not 
 sufier them to have any power over you. . . Never take off your 
 arms while you are within reach of the enemy. And to avoid being 
 surprised, always be early on horseback. When you are on horse- 
 back say your prayers, or at least the shortest and best of all : 
 'Lord, have mercy upon us.' " 
 
 For centuries the metropolitan of Russia lived at Kief ; 
 but in 1320 his seat was transferred to Moscow. Here on 
 Moscow: Tiiethe Kremlin hill was gradually built that vast 
 Kremlin, aggregation of palaces and churches which is 
 the centre of Russian reverence. The patriarchal cathe- 
 dral in its centre is the crowning-place of all the Czars, 
 and contains the most sacred pictures in Russia. Already, 
 in the middle of the fifteenth century, the metropolitan 
 The was elected without guidance from Constanti- 
 Patriarcus. nople. One notable metropolitan, Philip, suffered 
 martyrdom from Ivan the Terrible, that strange mixture 
 
RUSSIANS AND POLES. 309 
 
 of cruelty and temporary fanaticism in religion, for pi'o- 
 testing against Ivan's many cruelties. In 1682 the patri- 
 arch Jeremiah created Job, the metropolitan of Moscow, 
 a patriarch ; and it ^was asserted that thus the place of 
 Rome in the patriarchate, vacated by its schismatic 
 conduct, was filled. 
 
 The extensive foundation of monasteries in Russia 
 during the period of the Tartar invasions proved a great 
 factor in preserving the liberties and religious life of the 
 people. The most famous monastery in Russia, that of 
 the Troitza (Holy Trinity), about sixty miles me Troitza 
 from Moscow, was founded in 1338, and became Monastery, 
 in addition to a monastery, a cathedral and group of 
 churches, and a university protected within walls like 
 those of a fortress ; it has been enriched by successive 
 Czars and multitudes of pilgrims, and it is now the 
 greatest place of pilgrimage in Russia. It was first made 
 sacred by the pious hermit Sergius, who in later life 
 stimulated the Grand Prince Demetrius to his victory 
 on the Don in 1880. And this tradition of patriotism 
 was well kept up by later generations of prelates and 
 clergy. 
 
 The same spirit was evoked against the encroachments 
 of the Poles, who, being of the Roman Church, con- 
 tributed largely to make the Russians dislike Russians 
 the Western Communion. The Poles were ^^^ ^°^^^- 
 declared to be more debased and wicked than idol- 
 worshippers, for their cruel conduct to members of the 
 orthodox (Russian) Church. They were even said to 
 have subjected them to Jews, who would not let them 
 build churches, and deprived them of their priests. 
 Church and State were identified in the contest between 
 the two nations. When Moscow was in the hands of 
 the Poles, and Roman masses were celebrated in the 
 Kremlin, when patriarch and archbishop were done to 
 death or carried captive, the monastery of Troitza held 
 out, and its defenders were encouraged by Dionysius, 
 the abbot. When it conquered, Russia was practically 
 saved, and the future of the orthodox Church secured. 
 From the priest Philaret, afterwards patriarch of Moscow, 
 
3IO THE EASTERN CHURCH. 
 
 sprang the present imperial line. Philaret and his son 
 Michael Romanoff, the first Czar of the line, practically 
 ruled the nation jointly. Seven years after Alexis came 
 to the throne, in 165'2 Nicon was made patriarch, and 
 proved himself the greatest reformer of the Russian 
 Church. 
 
 Nicon has been called a Russian Chrysostom, Luther, 
 and Wolsey ; but he was of a rougher. type than these, 
 The Patriarchgrim-faced, of red hue, with bloodshot eyes, 
 Nicon. and seven feet high. Of peasant stock, he 
 showed virtues not specially due to his origin, but to a 
 rare spirit of discernment and courage. He endeavoured 
 to root out abuses, and especially intemperance, which 
 had obtained a great hold on the clergy. He founded 
 hospitals and almshouses, visited prisons, and relieved the 
 famine-stricken. At his bidding the seclusion of women 
 was made less stringent, and the empress was, for the 
 first time, allowed to go to church publicly by day. 
 He recognised the baptisms of the Roman Church, had 
 Greek taught in the schools, spread the study of vocal 
 music for church services, and set about obtaining the 
 best Slavonic translation possible of the Bible. But 
 among his most striking reforms was the introduction of 
 preaching. His homilies and sermons at first astounded 
 and tried the patience of the unaccustomed worshippers ; 
 and indeed his style seems to have been by no means 
 perfect, in excuse for which his having no model to learn 
 from may be pleaded. But his methods of discipline were 
 too rigorous, and not framed in the spirit of the Founder 
 of Christianity. His agents scourged, imprisoned, and 
 otherwise cruelly treated priests and monks found drunk ; 
 and he showed no mercy to those who violated his decrees 
 or his views of Church discipline. His enforcement of 
 the Church ritual was rigid, and he banished foreigners 
 relentlessly who refused baptism in the Church, or respect 
 to the sacred pictures. But with all his austerity, he 
 had instincts for magnificence, as shown by his monas- 
 teries, his patriarchal palace, and the state he kept up. 
 At last, even his most faithful friend, the Czar, was 
 alienated, chiefly, it must be owned, by the intervention 
 
CHURCH OF THE ASSUMPTION, MOSCOW. 311 
 
 7l 
 
 
 
 CnUKCII OF TUE ARSUllIPTrOX, MUSUUW. 
 
 PartoJ intenor, i^homng Icons on inUm. 
 
312 THE EASTERN CHURCH. 
 
 of Nicon's enemies. Nicon resigned his office, apparently- 
 expecting to be invited back ; but the see was declared 
 vacant (1658). It was not, however, till 1667 that he con- 
 sented to the election of a new patriarch. But his enemies 
 were not satisfied without his formal condemnation. 
 They assembled a council of the Eastern patriarchs — the 
 first that had ever met in Russia — together with the most 
 distinguished bishops. He was degraded from his rank 
 to that of a simple monk, and banished to 'the monastery 
 of Therapontoff to spend the rest of his life in penance. 
 In 1681 the new Czar, Theodore, consented to a scheme 
 for his recall ; but Nicon died on the journey to his own 
 church of the New Jerusalem (a copy of the Church of 
 the Sepulchre at Jerusalem), in which he was finally 
 buried.^ 
 
 Czar Peter the Grreat accomplished a more remarkable 
 change in the Russian Church, namely the abolition of 
 
 Peter the the Patriarchate. Adrian (1690-1702) was the 
 Great, j^st patriarch ; on his death a guardian was 
 appointed. The archbishops in Russia and the Eastern 
 patriarchs agreed to recommend the abolition of the 
 office ; and in 1720 it was definitely abolished, and in its 
 stead a synod of prelates was instituted, as a governing 
 body, appointed by the Czar. This body acts as the 
 
 The Holy highest court of appeal in Church matters, ex- 
 syaod. amines and censures theological books, super- 
 intends all churches and convents, and conducts trials 
 for ecclesiastical offences, etc. The Czar is represented in 
 the synod by a lay procurator general, and on receiving 
 the Czar's confirmation the decisions of the synod have 
 the force of law.^ 
 
 Peter had to encounter much opposition from the Ras- 
 kolinks, or Russian Dissenters, who had bitterly opposed 
 the reforms of Nicon. Peter's introduction of pictures 
 by "Western artists, his improvements in Church singing 
 and in the calendar, and his attempts to forbid wearing 
 
 ' See Dean Stanley's vivid account of Nicon in liis " Eastern 
 Church." 
 
 ^ See " The Eussian Church and Clergy," North British Review, 
 vol. liii. 
 
PHILARET. 313 
 
 beards, met with their most strenuous opposition on 
 religious grounds. But Peter in the main carried his 
 people with him, and the rebellions which arose were 
 put down. He was able to introduce some oath of the 
 remarkable provisions into the oath taken by Bishops. 
 the Russian bishops at consecrations, pledging them to 
 put down pious frauds and culpable indolence. It is a 
 striking commentary on the state of the Church as he 
 found it, that such provisions should have been needed : — 
 
 " I promise and vow that I will not suffer the monks to run from 
 convent to convent. I -will not, for the sake of gain, bviild, or suffer 
 to be built, superfluous churches, or ordain superfluous clergy. I 
 promise 3-eaiiy, or at least once in three years, to require on my 
 visitations that there may be erected no tombs of spurious s'aints. 
 Impostors who go about possessed, with bare feet and in their shirts, 
 I will give up to the civil authorities, that they may drive out the 
 evil spirits from them with the knout. I will diligently endeavour 
 to search out and put down all impostures, whether lay or clerical, 
 practised under show of devotion. I will provide that honour 
 be paid to God only, not to the holy pictures, and that no false 
 miracles be ascribed to them." 
 
 Peter was aided in his reforms by Theophanes, Metro- 
 phanes, and Demetrius of Eostoff, the author of " Lives 
 of the Russian Saints." Another saint in the j^^j.Qgg 
 next generation was Ambrose, archbishop of 
 Moscow, who made a new translation of the Psalms from 
 the Hebrew. His death (1771) was violent and tragic, 
 owing to his having ordered the removal of a sacred 
 picture to which the people had crowded in such numbers 
 as to endanger the public health, during a severe pesti- 
 lence. In the empress Catharine's time Plato, pj^^^^ 
 the metropolitan of Moscow, with whom two 
 such unlike men as Eeginald Heber and Diderot were 
 glad to converse, was famous throughout Europe, pjiuaret. 
 Philaret, who became metropolitan of Moscow 
 in 1826, revived the spirit of asceticism, and of religious 
 warfare and propagandism. The conquest of Poland 
 afforded opportunities, which were taken advantage of, 
 for reclaiming to the orthodox religion the Uniats, who 
 had acknowledged the supremacy of the Pope, though 
 they had changed in little else from the principles of the 
 
314 
 
 thk 
 
 A S r£A;v CI I IJKCH. 
 
 Missions. 
 
 Eastern Church. Missionary enterprise was aroused, anfl 
 in recent years missions to Siberia, Kamschatka, 
 and Japan have been successfully organi.sed. 
 Even in Western Europe and in the United States, 
 Russian priests have gathered the members of the Eastern 
 Church into congregations ; and in 1870 a bishop was 
 appointed to San Francisco, to supervise the congregations 
 of the Pacific coast of North America. 
 
 The Greek Church, as regards its main doctrines, is 
 
 very much in the position of 
 
 the early Church, 
 Doctrines. -, , . u i 
 
 and accepts the de- 
 crees of the first seven coun- 
 cils as we have already 
 described them. Its great 
 difference from the Western 
 Church relates to the pro- 
 cession of the Holy Spirit, 
 which, in accordance with the 
 Nicene and Constantinople 
 decisions, is from God the 
 Father alone. On the ques- 
 tion of Redemption, it holds 
 that Christ has redeemed 
 mankind, who had fallen by 
 one original act of Adam ; 
 but God's grace is requisite 
 to enable man to accept re- 
 generation. It repudiates and 
 censures the idea of priestly 
 " indulgences.'' It also rejects 
 the Romish doctrine of purgatory, believing in the exis- 
 tence of two separate places for the souls of the dead, 
 where they await the resurrection and the final judgment. 
 But prajers for the dead are admitted in hope that they 
 may benefit them, through the mercy of God. The Greek 
 Church also allows prayer to the Virgin Mary and to 
 saints and martyrs, for their intercession, although it is 
 by no means held that they have already attained heaven. 
 Tlie Sacraments recognised by the Greek Church are 
 
 rECTOnAL ORNAMENT OF EDBSIAN 
 BISHOP. 
 
THE HIERARCHY. 
 
 315 
 
 seven, the same as those of the Latin Church. Four of 
 these — Baptism, the Eucharist, ordination by laying on of 
 hands, and penance — they regard as directly 
 instituted by Christ. The other three are mar- 
 riage, confirmation, and extreme unction, wliich are de- 
 rived from the New Testament and the primitive Churcli. 
 Baptism is by immersion of the body three times in 
 succession ; infants are baptised on the eighth day. It 
 is believed that baptism entirely destroys original sin. 
 Confirmation takes place at once after baptism, with 
 anointing by holy ointment. In the Eucharist both 
 (leavened) bread and wine are partaken of by all com- 
 municants, excepting infants, who receive only the wine. 
 It is believed that the elements are changed into the 
 body and blood of Christ, which are really received by 
 the faithful. The consecrated bread does not, however, 
 receive the same special veneration as in the Romish 
 Church ; when it is carried to the sick, the priests do 
 not prostrate themselves before it, nor do they carry it in 
 procession. The sacrament of penance is preceded by 
 confession of individual sins to the priest, and absolution 
 is given, on condition of the discharge of penances imposed, 
 in the form " May the Lord absolve thee ! " 
 
 The Church is regarded as composed of those who 
 profess and believe the articles of faith. Outside the 
 visible Church it is declared that there is 1^0 Membership 
 salvation. The Church being under the con- 
 tinual inspiration of the Holy Spirit, cannot err in matters 
 of faith. Bishops, priests, and deacons form the ministry. 
 Four patriarchs — of Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, 
 and Alexandria — equal in rank, constitute the upper 
 circle of bishops. The patriarchs may agree to The 
 issue directions for the whole Church, but their werarchy. 
 decisions are not held universally binding unless ratified 
 by a general council of bishops. Bishops alone confer 
 the sacrament of Orders. They must be unmarried, while 
 priests or deacons must be married, and maj' not marry a 
 second time. 
 
 The term liturgy is specially given to the services of 
 the mass, Avhich, as we have already mentioned, are in 
 
3i6 THE EASTERN CHURCH. 
 
 two forms, the shorter, named after St. John Chrysostom, 
 Liturgy and and the longer after St. Basil. These are, 
 
 Services. £^ ^g true, in Greek or Slavonic according to 
 the country, but in such antiquated dialects that they 
 are but little understood by the people. The daily 
 services vary enormously, consisting mainly of prayers 
 adapted to each day, in all filling many large volumes, 
 and so intricate that few priests are perfect in them. 
 They are read in a low and indistinct voice, so as to be 
 almost entirely inaudible to the congregation ; and this 
 goes with an absence of devotional behaviour in the 
 congregation, and not infrequently in the clergy. What 
 we should term sermons are little known, the principal 
 substitute for them being the recital of the life of some 
 saint, often full of fabulous details and miraculous stories. 
 
 All the bishops are monks, and the entire ecclesiastical 
 administration is in Russia in the hands of the monks, or 
 
 Monks " ^^^^^ clergy." Although in the last century 
 a large portion of the property of the monas- 
 teries was confiscated by the State, the monasteries which 
 survive are well-to-do, receiving, besides State grants, large 
 sums in the form of voluntary offerings. The monks are 
 mainly conservative ; their rules are still those of St. Basil, 
 enjoining religious ceremonies, prayer, and contemplation, 
 very unlike the active labour, either in industry, art, letters, 
 or philanthropy, often incumbent on Western monks. 
 The upper classes of the laity call the monks in most 
 frequently to perform marriages, funerals, etc., and pay 
 them proportionately higher fees than the "white clergy" 
 can exact. There are still many hermits in Russia, greatly 
 revered. 
 
 The parish priest (called papa, or pope,) is usually the 
 son of a parish priest ; and being kept in a strictly sub- 
 
 Parisii ordinate position by the monks, he is antagon- 
 
 priests. igtic to the latter and little considerate of any- 
 thing but the number of social or necessary religious 
 ceremonies he can perform for fees. Of intellectual or 
 spiritual knowledge he has usually very little; All wear 
 long beards, with long hair parted down the middle, long 
 over-garment with loose sleeves, and a longer under-gar- 
 
ICONS, OR IMAGES. 317 
 
 ment reaching to the feet. They are collectively known 
 as " white clergy." 
 
 Almost every Eusso-Grreek church is built in a form of 
 the Byzantine style,i with a cupola or dome, surmounted 
 by a cross, over the east end, and a belfry at style of 
 the west. There is a large antechapel or en- clinches, 
 trance-hall ; a main building in which the worshippers 
 stand (there being no seats) ; and an altar enclosure, 
 raised two or three steps above the rest of the building, 
 with a wall or screen near the front completely covered 
 with icons or pictures of the saints within silver or chased 
 metal plates, representing the clothing of the saints, 
 through which the painting of the face, hands, icons, or 
 and feet is visible.* The four main pillars of images, 
 the church are also completely covered with icons. (See 
 our illustration p. 311.) In front of each icon is a can- 
 delabrum of great size, capable of containing thirty or 
 forty candles. In the centre of this screen is a large 
 double door, which is open during service, and behind 
 which the priest stands during the liturgy. The whole 
 space behind this is called the altar, containing a square 
 table called the throne, which corresponds with the altar 
 
 ' We can only briefly mention the magnificent Kremlin in Moscow 
 in which are united all the elements of the ancient religious life of 
 Eussia. " Side by .side stancf the three cathedrals of the marriages, 
 coronations, and funerals of the Czars. Hard by are the two con- 
 vents, half palatial, half episcopal. Overhanging all is the double, 
 triple palace of czar and patriarch. Within that palace is a laby- 
 rinth of fourteen chapels, multiplied by sovereign after sovereign, 
 till the Imperial residence has been more like the dwelling-place of 
 a ]Dope than of a prince." — Stanley's Eastern Church. 
 
 ^ Respecting the adoration of images. Dean Milman wrote : " The 
 ruder the art, the more intense the superstition. . . . There is 
 more direct idolatry paid to the rough and ill-shapen image, or the 
 flat unrelieved and staring picture — the former actually clothed 
 in gaudy and tinsel ornaments, the latter with the crown of gold 
 leaf on the head, and real or artificial flowers in the hand — than to 
 the noblest ideal statue, or the Holy Family with all the magic of 
 light and shade. They are not the. fine paintings which work 
 miracles, but the coarse and smoke-darkened boards, on which the 
 dim outline of form is hardly to be traced. Thus it may bo said 
 that ic was the superstition which required the images, rather than 
 the images which formed the superstition." 
 
3i8 THE EASTERN CHURCH. 
 
 of the Roman Church ; on this are placed the gospels, 
 a gilt cross for the congregation to kiss, the box 
 containing the elements of the Eucharist, and a 
 silk handkerchief containing a very special piece of silk 
 or linen about fifteen inches square, having stamped on 
 it a representation of the burial of Christ. This emblem 
 is called an antimins, and is essential to the existence of 
 the church, being consecrated by the archbishop of the 
 diocese, and conveying his blessing to the building. A 
 minute portion of some holy relic, anointed with conse- 
 crated oil, is fixed on that side of the antimins which is 
 turned towards the east. The altar coverings are of 
 special value and symbolical importance ; one complete 
 linen covering, made in the form of a cross, symbolises 
 the linen clothes of the Saviour in His tomb ; another 
 very rich one signifies the glory of God. Within the 
 altar there is another table, on the north side, called the 
 altar of sacrifice, on which are placed the holy vessels, 
 together with a spear, in memory of that which pierced 
 the Saviour's side, which is used for cutting small trian- 
 gular portions of bread for the sacrament, the spoon for 
 administering the sacrament, etc. The priests even put 
 on their canonicals in the altar, and perform most of the 
 service standing and moving about in it, little heard by 
 the congregation. Infants are. baptised and anointed, 
 when the ceremony is not performed in the parents' house, 
 in front of the central doors of the altar. The sacrament 
 is administered at the steps. Confessions are heard, not 
 in an enclosed box, but in corners of the building, face 
 to face. Priests are ordained in the altar ; marriage and 
 burial services take place in the body of the church. The 
 priestly garments include the alb, a kind of frock with 
 loose sleeves, laced cuffs, belt, stole, chasuble, and a special 
 square piece of brocade worn by older priests, hanging 
 from one shoulder (the epigonation). 
 
 The fasts of the Greek Church are numerous, and far 
 more rigorously kept than in Western Europe. During 
 the whole of Lent every article of food that 
 can be traced to any animal, except fish, is pro- 
 scribed ; and many abstain even from fish. Even milk 
 
CHURCH OF ST. BASIL, MOSCOW. 
 
 319 
 
 CHUEOn OF ST. EASIIi, MOSOOTT. 
 
320 THE EASTERN CHURCH. 
 
 and butter are not used. In the fourth week of Lent 
 special preparation is made for the communion by those 
 who only communicate once or twice a year, and long 
 services, confessions, and special fastings are indulged in. 
 Yearly All government officials are obliged to attend 
 commiuiion. confession and communion at least once a year, 
 and the marriage ceremony cannot be legally performed 
 if either party has failed to attend communion during 
 the preceding year. There are many crimes and sins 
 which are punished by exclusion from communion from 
 one year to twenty years, such as marrying a second time 
 (one year's exclusion), marrying a third time (four years), 
 overlaying an infant (seven years), fortune-telling (six 
 years), manslaughter (ten years), wilful murder (twenty 
 years), etc. Before the administration of the sacrament, 
 the communicants have to repeat after the priest a special 
 form of creed, which indicates clearly the essential belief 
 of the Grreek Church : — 
 
 " I believe, Lord, and confess that Thou indeed art Christ, the 
 Son of the living God, who earnest into the world to save sinners, of 
 whom I am chief. I also believe that this is indeed Thy most pure 
 body, and this Thy holy blood. I therefore pray Thee to have 
 mercy on me, and to forgive me all my sins, voluntary and involun- 
 tary, by word, by deed, by knowledge or ignorance ; and grant me 
 worthily and blamelessly to partake of Thy most pure Sacrament, 
 for the remission of sins and for life everlasting. Receive me this 
 day, O Son of God, as a partaker of Thy last supper. For not as a 
 secret enemy, I approach, not with the kiss of Judas, but like the 
 thief I confess Thee, ' Lord, remember me in Thy kingdom.' And 
 may the communion of Thy holy sacrament be not to my judgment 
 and condemnation, but to the healing of my soul and body. Amen." 
 
 The priest then takes a morsel of the consecrated bread 
 in the spoon, with a little wine, and puts it in the com- 
 municant's mouth, with the words, " The servant of God 
 (So-and-so) communicates in the name of the Father," 
 etc. ; while the choir sings, " Receive ye the body of 
 Christ ; taste ye the fount of everlasting life." The 
 deacon holds a handkerchief under the chin of the com- 
 municant to catch any stray drop, and wipes his mouth, 
 afterwards. The communicant kisses the edsje of the 
 cup, and then goes to a side table and takes a little warm 
 
FALM SUNDAY IN ST. PETERSBURG. 
 
 321 
 
 wine and water as a rinsing, giving an offering according 
 to his means; he then goes to private devotion till all 
 
 have communicated. The second general communion is 
 during the Assumption I'ast, which extends from August 
 
322 THE EASTERN CHURCH. 
 
 Isfc to 13tli. There are two other fasts : one, the Petroffsky, 
 from Trinity Monday to St. Peter's Day, 29th of June ; 
 the other, the Christmas or Philip Fast, from 15th No- 
 vember (St. Philip's Day) to Christmas Day. Wednesdays 
 and Fridays almost throughout the year are also fast 
 days. 
 
 The sacrament of extreme unction is administered to 
 adults, followed by confession and communion. It should 
 Extreme be performed by seven priests, but one priest 
 unotion. may perform it where there are not seven to 
 be found. It may be performed in church, when a person 
 suffers from an incurable disease which does not prevent 
 his leaving the house. The service is very long ; the 
 oil (mixed with wine, in remembrance of the Good 
 Samaritan) is specially blessed, and the sick person is 
 anointed, with the sign of the cross, on forehead, nostrils, 
 cheeks, lips, breast, and hands, while a prayer for his 
 recovery is read. This ceremony is gone through seven 
 times, each time by a fresh priest if seven are present, or 
 by turns if there are two or more ; the epistles and gospels 
 read differ for each occasion. Mercifully, after so long a 
 service, the confession and communion services which 
 follow are greatly shortened. Later there may be said 
 a unique service termed " A form of prayer to our Lord 
 Jesus Christ and to the most pure Mother of our Lord, 
 at the separation of the soul and body of every orthodox 
 believer." It largely consists of short psalms or their 
 first verses, and other texts of Scripture, with a commen- 
 datory prayer in which, however, the Virgin Mary is not 
 mentioned. "When the patient is very near death, a saint's 
 picture is placed behind his pillow ^ and a lighted taper 
 at the head of the bed. Violent sobbing and weeping, 
 by both men and women, follow death. 
 
 ' Dean Stanley thus describes the influence of sacred pictures in 
 Russia : " Everywhere, in public and in private, the sacred picture 
 is the consecrating element. In the corner of every room, at the 
 corner of every street, over gateways, in offices, in steamers, in 
 stations, in taverns, is the picture hung, with the lamp burning be- 
 fore it. In domestic life it plays the part of the family Bible, of the 
 wedding gift, of the birthday present, of the ancestral portrait. In 
 
BURIAL. 323 
 
 Many interesting details accompany preparation for 
 burial. A crucifix and tall candlesticks are fetched from 
 the church, and priest and deacon perform a 
 requiem twice a day, and a reader with an "^"^^ 
 assistant reads prayers incessantly over the corpse till 
 the day of burial. Visits of condolence are very numer- 
 ous ; alms are distributed to beggars by the well-to-do. 
 The shallow cofSn, broad at the head, narrows to the 
 other end, and stands on four little feet. A final requiem 
 is performed in the house on the morning of the funeral, 
 and the body is often put into the coffin then, by the 
 nearest relatives, not by the undertaker or servants. 
 Every friend and member of the family attends the 
 funeral. The relatives kiss and take leave of the deceased 
 at home ; the coffin lid is not yet put on, for it is carried 
 in the funeral procession next behind the cross. The 
 priests, singers, etc., precede the coffin, all males bare- 
 headed in the severest frosts. The coffin is taken to 
 church, and mass is said, followed by a very long service, 
 at the end of which the priest places in the deceased's 
 hand a printed prayer, a sort of absolution, in Slavonic, 
 after having read it aloud. Then again mourners, friends, 
 priests, etc., in turn kiss the deceased for the last time. 
 The coffin is carried to the grave, and only then is the 
 hd fixed on the coffin, generally by two pegs. The priest, 
 taking a handful of earth, throws it on the coffin, with the 
 words, " The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof, 
 and the wide world, and they that dwell therein." After 
 a very short chant, and a blessing, all is concluded by 
 each member of the family throwing a handful of earth 
 on the coffin. 
 
 Persons of means have evensong, matins and mass per- 
 formed every day for forty days after a death, and there 
 
 the national life it is the watchword, the flag which has supported 
 the courage of generals and roused the patriotism of troops. . . . 
 Enter within any church such as those at Moscow, which best repre- 
 sent the national feeling. There the veneration has reached a pitch 
 which gives an aspect to the whole building unlike any European 
 church. From top to bottom, from side to side, walls and roof and 
 screen and columns are a mass of gilded pictures ; not one of any 
 artistic value, \svX all cast in the same ancient mould." 
 
324 THE EASTERN CHURCH. 
 
 are special requiems on the ninth, twentieth, and fortieth 
 days at the grave. On the last occasion the funeral 
 proceedings are almost entirely repeated. Requiems are 
 again performed on the name-day and anniversary of the 
 death ; but requiems are not performed at all for little 
 children before the age for confession. As a fee to 
 priests, deacons, etc., accompanies each of the celebra- 
 tions, which are only a type of many more, it will be seen 
 how interested they must be in keeping up the formal 
 ceremonies of the Church, and how full their lives are of 
 professional routine. 
 
 In Russia the Czar- is the real head of the Church, and 
 
 his personality is most sacred. At his coronation, pre- 
 
 The Czar's ceded by fasting and seclusion, he first recites 
 
 position, tlie confession of the faith of the Church, then 
 oflfers up the prayer of intercession for the empire, places 
 the crown on his own head, and then enters the sanc- 
 tuary and himself takes from the altar the sacred elements, 
 and communicates with bishops and clergy. This takes 
 place in the patriarchal cathedral, the church of the As- 
 sumption or Repose of the Virgin, crowded with the most 
 sacred pictures in Russia, the burial-place of the primates 
 (see p. 311). 
 
 Yet in Russia there are millions of dissenters from the 
 
 Orthodox Church.' These Raskolinks, or Separatists, to 
 
 some extent date from earlier times, but were 
 
 most largely reinforced in the time of Nicon 
 
 by antagonism to all his innovations. The most numerous 
 body of them, the Staroviertz, or Old Believers, regard 
 themselves as the really orthodox, who follow the Bible 
 The Old and acknowledge only the early councils. They 
 BeUevers. re-baptise their converts from the State Church, 
 which they regard as the Babylon of the Revelation ; and 
 it is essential that they should repudiate the heresies of 
 Nicon, especially his form of benediction with three fingers 
 instead of two. They restore the word " holy " in the 
 Nicene Creed, before the description of the " Lord and 
 Giver of life," and maintain the unauthentic expression, 
 
 ' See " The Sects of the Russian Church," North British Review 
 •vol. liii. 
 
THE SABBATNIKI. 325 
 
 "one baptism hy fire for the remission of sins." They 
 reverence the patriarchal cathedral at Moscow, which 
 contains the icon of no saint later than Nicon, and once 
 a year many of them come to gaze on it at Easter. Many 
 of them still receive ordained priests from the State 
 Chiirch, while otherwise excluding all innovations. The 
 greater number of the conservative dissenters live along 
 the Volga and the Don. The total number of the Staro- 
 viertz may be several millions, and they far outnumber 
 all the other sects, who may be counted by hundreds. 
 
 Some sects of dissenters have no ordained priests, and 
 their members only conduct services so far as they can 
 be carried without an altar and a priest. They 
 still possess a few drops of ancient consecrated " ^^^ ^' 
 oil and eucharistic elements. It is disputed whether they 
 should be regarded as the extreme wing of the Old Be- 
 lievers ; but they themselves reject the latter, as well as 
 the Orthodox Church, as Antichrist. A number of the 
 sects are extremely ascetic. One is known as the Skopzi, 
 or Eunuchs, who believe that Christ took the form of the 
 Czar Peter III., was a member of their sect, and has never 
 died, but will one day return and will reign over them. 
 They disbelieve in the resurrection of the body, meet 
 secretly on Saturday nights, and keep Easter as then- 
 only festival, by eating bread consecrated by having been 
 buried in the grave of one of their apostles. They believe 
 that God has revealed Himself in Christ, who was not. 
 Himself Grod, and that He also reveals Himself continually 
 as the Holy Ghost in themselves, who are the true Chris- 
 tians. One peculiar sect, the Dumb, become speechless 
 on conversion, but retain their other habits, though they 
 refuse the sacraments. There are other sects named 
 Flagellants and Self-Burners. , 
 
 The spiritual or spiritualistic sects are also numerous. 
 Many conform outwardly to the orthodox worship, but 
 really care nothing for its forms and ceremonies. The 
 The Sabbatniki, who keep Saturday instead of saDbatniM. 
 Sunday, regard the Mosaic law as the sole Divine revela- 
 tion, consider Christ as only a divinely inspired prophet, 
 and look for a Messiah to come. The Duchoborzi and 
 
326 THE EASTERN CHURCH. 
 
 Molokani sprang from a common stock, but are now at 
 The variance. The name Duchoborzi means warriors 
 MoiokanL for the light or Spirit ; that of the Molokani 
 signifies milk-consumers, from their taking milk on fast 
 days. " The Molokani," says Sir D. Mackenzie Wallace, 
 in his " Eussia," " take as their model the early Apostolic 
 Church, as depicted in the New Testament, and uncom- 
 promisingly reject all later authorities. They have no 
 hierarchy, and no paid clergy, but choose from among 
 themselves a presbyter and two assistants, men well known 
 among the brethren for their exemplary life and their 
 knowledge of the Scriptures, whos^ duty it is to watch 
 over the religious and moral welfare of the flock. On 
 Sundays they hold meetings in private houses, and spend 
 two or three hours in psalm-singing, prayer, reading the 
 Scriptures, and friendly conversation on religious subjects." 
 Severe moral supervision is exercised over the members, 
 who, however, mutually assist one another in a most 
 praiseworthy manner. They baptise their children, but 
 only as a symbolical cleansing, have no confirmation, and 
 although they celebrate the communion in memory of 
 Christ, do not require participation in it. Penance, mar- 
 riage, and extreme unction are not counted sacraments. 
 The The Duchoborzi have tenets much more specu- 
 Duchohorzi. lative and mystic than the Molokani, which we 
 have not space to detail. They recognise neither priest- 
 hood nor sacraments, keep neither Sundays nor festivals, 
 but meet on fixed days for very simple prayer and wor- 
 ship. They have a strong tendency towards socialism, 
 and are reputed to be very moral, and admirable in their 
 family relations. 
 
 There are other sects in which nervous excitement is 
 the main phenomenon of religion ; but as these add very 
 little 'to our ideas about religion beyond showing how in 
 advanced communities we may meet with the character- 
 istics of lower religious grades, we do not detail their 
 practices. Some other sects, such as the Mennonites who 
 are widely distributed in other countries besides Russia 
 are truly Protestants, and we therefore do not mention 
 them licre. 
 
MOUNT ATHOS. 327 
 
 We have already referred to the monasteries and black 
 clergy of Russia. Those of Greece follo-w the same rule, 
 that of St. Basil, the monks performing all the 
 chief occupations between them. The most 
 celebrated monasteries of the Eastern Church are, how- 
 ever, those of Mount Athos, or the Holy Mountain, some 
 of which were founded in the time of Constantine. Each 
 nation professing the orthodox faith is represented by 
 one or more monasteries of its own, twenty in all, and 
 to it come pilgrims from all "orthodox" Eastern Churches. 
 The mountain is almost selfgoverned, by twenty deputies, 
 one from each convent, and four presidents, changed 
 every year. Only a small number of the monks are in 
 holy orders, the rest being lay monks. Ten of the mon- 
 asteries are coenobite, all members living in common. 
 Nearly half the days in the year are fast days, on which 
 only one meal is taken, of bread, vegetables, and water. 
 The abbot, chosen for life, governs the coenobites; but 
 ±he other monasteries are Administered by two or three 
 wardens elected annually, and each member adds to the 
 common fare what he can afford to buy. There are 
 also many places of ascetic retirement on the mountain, 
 every nook being either occupied by a hermitage or a 
 small chapel. The services in the convent churches last 
 six or seven hours a day, while on great festivals and 
 fasts they occupy twelve hours or more. The entire 
 number of monks on Mount Athos is about 3000. 
 
ST. M.UIK'S, VJKNICE. 
 
 {Mainhj Bytantine in style.) 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 mn ^omnn €l)iml) in tbe mmit ^^ts, 
 
 ™*Gre^r7vn ^?>r??^ ?°"?f^ °^ CardlnaJs-HUdebrand made Pope 
 vl^ Vn.-THe Dictate-Heniy IV. at Canossa-Concordat of Worms 
 r^Jf.L^^^^''^ CounoU-Lanfranc and Anselm-Second and Sd 
 J;^h^?^«°?l^°"'7S''P* Innocent m.-Fourth Lateran Council-Tra^- 
 substmtlatlon and Conlession-Samt Louis-Second Council of Tvn^t^ 
 Pope Boniface VIII,_Tbe BulI"Unam Sanctam °-Tlie Ba wK?: 
 
THE COLLEGE OF CARDINALS. 329 
 
 Uvityat Avignon— Heresy of Jolm XXII.— The "beatific vision"— Kival 
 Popes— Jolin Gerson— CouncU of Pisa— Dawn of tlie Eeformatlon— Tlie 
 dispensing power— Papal legates -Power of tlie keys— Penance-Indul- 
 gences — Supererogation— Relics as charms — Pilgrimages— Miracles- 
 Marlolatry — The " real presence "—Elevation and adoration of the Host- 
 Noble Christian works— Scholastic Theology— Abelard— Thomas Aquinas 
 —Duns Scotus — Roger Bacon— WUliam Durand— William of Occam- 
 Degeneracy of Monastlclsm— Clunlac congregation— Carthusians and 
 Cistercians— Hospitallers— Brethren of St. John— The Templars— Car- 
 melites— Mathurins— Order of Mercy— St. Dominic— The Dominicans— 
 St. Praucis of Asslsl— St. Clara- The Franciscans or Minorites— The 
 Sacred Stigmata— Bonaventura— Corruptions— The Spirituals— Millen- 
 nial Prophecy— The PratlceUi- Conventuals and Observants— The Minims 
 — Beguines and Beghards. 
 
 FROM the tentL. century onward tliere were many 
 important events in Churcli history, but they were 
 largely of a political nature, concerned with the 
 control the Church sought to exercise over * ^^^ ' 
 princes and States. The first great name is that of Hilde- 
 brand (afterwards Pope Gregory VD!.), born in Italy eaily 
 in the eleventh century, becoming a monk of Clugny, 
 in France, and thence developing the policy of the sub- 
 serviency of the State to the Church. He was at first the 
 chief minister of Pope Leo IX., who held ^p j^^^jj;^ 
 councU of French bishops in 1049, at Eheims, 
 which acknowledged him as apostolic pontiff and primate 
 of the whole Church, and accepted the false Isidorian 
 decretals as Church law. Leo carried his assertion of 
 Church power and rights very far ; but Hildebrand, as 
 the active spirit under several succeeding Popes, in 1061 
 greatly reduced the Emperor's influence in the choice 
 of a Pope by the establishment of the elective body at 
 Rome, afterwards so well known as the College The college 
 of Cardinals. The cardinals, or chief bishops of 
 and clergy, had been so named, even in Gregory cardinals, 
 the Great's time ; and in Rome the title was applied to 
 the priests of the parish churches. They were the car- 
 dinal priests, to whom were added the cardinal bishops 
 (seven) of the Pope's own province, who assisted at St. 
 Peter's. The cardinal bishops were appointed to consult 
 together about an election, and then consult the cardinal 
 priests ; and the Emperor's right of confirming the elec- 
 tion was recognised in a very qualified manner, as a grant 
 given him personally by the Apostolic See. 
 
330 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Hildebrand became Pope in 1073, and at once asserted 
 boldly the Churcb's independence of all outside control, 
 
 FOPE OEEaOEY VII. (hILDBBBAND). 
 
 her sovereignty over all worldly powers, as well as the rule 
 of the Papacy over the whole Church. In the " Dictate '' 
 
FIRST LATERAN COUNCIL. 331 
 
 which represents his attitude, it is affirmed that " the 
 Eoman pontiff alone is universal bishop. To HUdeUrand 
 him alone it belongs to depose or to reconcile made Pope 
 bishops ; and he may depose them in their ^'^^^°^ vii. 
 absence, and without the concurrence of a synod. He 
 alone is entitled to frame new laws for the Church — to 
 divide or unite bishoprics, or translate bishops. 
 He alone may use the insignia of empire ; all "^^ "i°t»'*«- 
 princes are bound to kiss his feet; he has the right to 
 depose Emperors, and to absolve subjects from their 
 allegiance. His power supersedes the diocesan authority 
 of bishops. He may revise all judgments, and from his 
 sentence there is no appeal. All appeals to him must 
 be respected, and to lum the greater causes of every 
 Church must be referred. No Council may be styled 
 General without his command. The Eoman Church 
 never has erred, and as Scripture testifies, never will err. 
 The Pope is above all judgment, and by the merits of St. 
 Peter, is undoubtedly rendered holy." 
 
 Gregory exerted himself vigorously to put down simony 
 and enforce celibacy among the clergy. He was successful 
 in putting down the Emperor's right to confer Henry iv. at 
 investiture on bishops; and he had the triumph Canosaa. 
 of seeing the Emperor Henry IV. at Canossa, waiting 
 three days, barefooted, in an open court, in winter (Jan. 
 1077), to tender his submission to him. Gregory died 
 (1085) after ' excommunicating the Emperor and the anti- 
 pope Clement III., whom he had set up. The next Popes 
 made the Crusades turn to their advantage in enforcing 
 their high claims ; and the clergy generally gained re- 
 newed hold on nobles and people by the vows and penances 
 laid on them. The Concordat of Worms (1122), concordat of 
 between Pope Calixtus II. and the Emperor worms. 
 Henry V., was a compromise which gave the real victory 
 to the Papacy, while allowing prelates to receive their 
 temporalities from the Emperor. The pact pirst Lateran 
 was confirmed by the first Lateran Council councu. 
 (ninth oecumenical of the Eomans), 1123. 
 
 In England Lanfranc supported William I. in his resis- 
 tance to Eoman encroachment ; but Anselm, an Italian 
 
333 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 like Lanfranc, who succeeded him as Abbot of Bee, in 
 
 Lanfranc and Normandy, and afterwards as Archbishop of 
 
 Anseim. Canterbury (1093), maintained and secured the 
 
 full Papal claims, although he had to leave to Henry I. 
 his power of nominating bishops and his feudal rights 
 
POPE INNOCENT III. 333 
 
 over the clergy. In power of thought Anselm was almost 
 a second Augustine, and has been termed the founder of 
 natural theology. He held that belief must precede know- 
 ledge, and that the truth concerning God is the foundation 
 and end of all knowledge. His " Proslogion," with the 
 motto, " Faith seeking Understanding," sought to demon- 
 strate the existence of God from the following thesis: 
 " God is that than which none greater can be conceived ; 
 and he who well understands this will understand that 
 the Divine Being exists in such a manner that His non- 
 existence cannot even be conceived." His " Cur Deus 
 •Homo ? " is a treatise of fundamental importance on the 
 question of the Incarnation. His "Meditations" and 
 "Letters" show sympathy, fervour, and humble faith. 
 He died in 1109. He is by some termed the founder of 
 Scholastic Theology, by others the founder of modern 
 Systematic Theology. 
 
 "We must only briefly note some of the further stages 
 in the progress and decline of the Papal supremacy. 
 The Second Lateran Council (1139), among second 
 other acts, condemned Arnold of Brescia, who Lateran 
 preached in favour of a spiritual Church, main- Counou. 
 tained only by spiritual means, and hence advocated 
 the confiscation of the wealth of the Church. Pope 
 Alexander III. (1159-1181), in rivalry with successive 
 anti-popes, showed great art and patience in carrying out 
 the views which Hildebrand had enforced more violently. 
 In alliance with him, Thomas Becket subdued Henry II., 
 of England, to the Roman claims. The Third Lateran 
 Council (1179) settled that the election of PopesThird Lateran 
 was to be entirely in the hands of the cardinals, councu. 
 to whom were added certain officials among the Roman 
 clergy. Two-thirds of the votes were required for an 
 election. This council was the first which sanctioned 
 crusades against heretics, the Albigenses, and others. 
 (See next chapter.) 
 
 Pope Innocent HI., elected in 1198, carried the Papal 
 power to its highest elevation. He was extraordinarily 
 skilful in adapting or quoting Scripture to sup-pope innocent 
 port any of his pretensions. In his books "On i'^- 
 
334 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 the Sacred Mystery of the Altar" he took the highest 
 ground as to the superiority of St. Peter and his successors 
 at Eome over all the Apostles and bishops. Privately 
 he was bountiful, magnanimous, hot-tempered, but easily 
 appeased, a lover of poetry and music ; publicly, though 
 he affected extravagant humility, he upheld the sternest 
 and proudest claims ever put forward in the Papacy. 
 Over the rulers as well as Churches of Germany, England, 
 France, Spain, and other countries he successfully asserted 
 unlimited supremacy. Even the Armenian Church en- 
 tered into communication with Eome, and its patriarch 
 accepted a bull from Innocent, and agreed to take part in 
 Papal councils. The fifth crusade (1199) led to the capture 
 of Constantinople, and setting up of a Latin Empire there, 
 which, however, only increased the hostility between the 
 Greek and Roman Churches. He encouraged the military 
 orders, which added to the dominions of Christianity, 
 the crusade against heretics, and the foundation of the 
 mendicant orders. He not only endorsed the putting 
 down of heresy by persecution and even death, but was so 
 illiberal as to forbid the use of vernacular translations 
 of the Scriptures by the laity, and to order them to be 
 burnt. It had been found that the people, when they 
 read the plain teaching of the Bible, readily pointed it 
 against the pretensions, the luxury, and the corruption of 
 the clergy, and hence such reading was found dangerous. 
 In 1215 Innocent held the Fourth Lateran Council, which 
 included in its 2283 members the (nominal) Patriarch of 
 Fourtu Jerusalem and claimants of the (Latin) patri- 
 Lateran archate of Constantinople. This council, besides 
 councu. supporting the highest Papal claims, formally 
 declared the doctrine of Transubstantiation, affirming that 
 Transutstan- *^® body and blood of Christ are truly contained 
 tiation and in the sacrament under the outward appear- 
 confession. ^^^^ gf i^j-ead and wine, their very substance 
 being changed by the power of God through the instru- 
 mentahty of a priest duly ordained. The Council also 
 fully sanctioned auricular confession, and made it obliga- 
 tory on every Catholic to confess to his own parish priest 
 at least once a year. Innocent died in 1216. 
 
THE BULL "UNAM SANCTAM." 335 
 
 Gregory IX. (1227-1241) and Boniface VIII. (1294- 
 1303) were great popes who, with varying success, up- 
 held the ideal of Innocent; but Louis IX. of France 
 (1226-1270), who, though a layman, was canonised, and 
 has received from Voltaire the testimony, " It is not given 
 to man to carry virtue to a higher point," successfully 
 asserted the liberties of the Gallic Church, and „ . ^, 
 that " the king of France holdeth of no one save 
 God and himself." His famous " Pragmatic ^ Sanction " 
 (1269) forbad exactions by the pope, unless sanctioned 
 by the king and the Gallic Church, and asserted the 
 rights of Churches to elect their own . bishops, and of 
 patrons to exercise their patronage, without papal inter- 
 ference. He drove out the Jews and forbade usury, but 
 did not confiscate their property. Though he believed 
 heresy should be put down by the sword, he had no part 
 in the cruelties practised in Languedoc. Gregory X., 
 pope from 1271 to 1276, endeavoured to unite second 
 the Eastern and Western Churches at the councuof 
 Second Council of Lyons (1274), which was ^y°^^- 
 attended by ambassadors from Michael Paleologus, the 
 Greek Emperor then seated at Constantinople. They 
 agreed on his behalf to the Roman doctrines and cere- 
 monies, accepted the primacy of the pope, and chanted 
 the Nicene Creed with the " Filioque " article; but all 
 this was fruitless in producing a formal or real union. 
 The- Council also established a fixed rule for the papal 
 election by the assembly of cardinals, who were to be shut 
 up in one room {conclave, a room under lock and key), 
 each with one attendant, and confined until the election 
 was made. 
 
 Benedict Gaetani, who as pope took the title Boniface 
 Vin., was a learned but arrogant and passionate prelate, 
 who by a succession of " Bulls " reasserted thepope Boniface 
 highest claims of the papacy. His famous viil 
 Bull, entitled, from its first words, "Unam TheBuii 
 Sanctam," asserted the unity of the Church "Unam 
 under one head, the Vicar of Christ, wielding sanctam." 
 
 ' The term " pragmatic" signified an edict issued after consulta- 
 tion {pragma) xvith the king's counsellors. 
 
336 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 SI. LOUIS DErOSITINQ IN THE SAINTE CHAPELLE AT PiltlS THE HELICS BEOUGni 
 FEOM THE EAST. 
 
RIVAL POPES. 337 
 
 the " two swords " wliioh Christ declared to be " enough," 
 namely the spiritual and the temporal ; and that the 
 temporal power is to be subject to the spiritual. The 
 Bull concluded with the declaration that " it is absolutely 
 necessary to salvation for every human creature to be 
 subject to the Eoman pontiff! " This extreme straining 
 of the papal power was the precursor of its declension, 
 and of the long "Babylonian captivity" whichijjg „Babyion- 
 followed (1304-1378), during which the popesian Captivity" 
 were seated, not at Rome, but at Avignon, and ^* Avignon, 
 tlie papal court was practically in subjection to France. 
 One of the popes of this time, John XXII. Heresy or 
 (1316-1334), incurred a charge of heresy on a '"'•^ ^^^'• 
 new ground in our subject, the doctrine of the inter- 
 mediate state between death and the resurrection. He 
 held with several early Fathers, that the souls of the 
 righteous do not see God or attain perfect bliss till after 
 the resurrection of the body ; and he was reported to 
 have said that the Virgin Mary could only behold the 
 humanity, not the divinity, of her Son, until the end of 
 this dispensation. The Paris theological faculty gave a 
 decision on this point which stated that the souls of the 
 faithful dead (on their release from purgatory, if they 
 needed purgation) are caught up to the " beatific vision " 
 of the Trinity, and perfectly enjoy the Blessed The "Beatific 
 Deity. While this was being discussed, the vision." 
 pope died, at the age of 90 (1334). The return of the 
 pope to Rome in 1377, at the entreaty of St. Catherine 
 of Siena, was followed by the great papal schism (1378- 
 1417), during which rival popes at Rome and Avignon 
 
 divided the allegiance of the faithful. Gross „. , „ 
 
 ., « n • , 1 n 1 • 1 Rival Popes, 
 
 evils increased m the papacy and hierarchy, 
 
 and already the Reformation was dawning in the persons 
 
 of "Wyclif, Jerome of Prague, and John Huss. The 
 
 famous John Gerson in 1404-9 contributed to , j^ „ 
 
 settle the schism by suggesting that when there 
 
 were rival popes, the Church, by the cardinals or even 
 
 by faithful laymen, might resume the power to call a 
 
 general Council to settle the difficulty; and he greatly 
 
 lowered the papal claims. The council, which met at Pisa 
 
338 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 in 1409, deposed both popes, and thus struck vitally at 
 
 Council of the papal authority by asserting that a general 
 
 Pisa. Council was superior to the papacy. But while 
 
 the two deposed popes continued to act, the new pope, 
 
 Alexander V., lavished offices on the Franciscans, and 
 
 gave the mendicant orders the right to hear confessions 
 
 and administer the sacraments independently of bishops 
 
 Dawn of the and parish priests. The accession of John 
 
 Reformation. XXIII. in 1410, followed by the Council of 
 
 Constance in 1414, at which John Huss was condemned, 
 
 brings in the period of the Reformation. 
 
 We have sufficiently indicated the growth of the papal 
 and priestly claims, together with the wealth of the 
 ■jjjg Church. Perhaps the most injurious action of 
 dispensing the papacy in reference to the welfare of man- 
 power. YmA. was in its assumption of the " dispensing 
 power," as it was termed, by which the pope not only 
 granted indemnity for past offences, but even for future 
 ones. The marriage laws and the sacredness of oaths 
 were thus placed at the mercy of a man who too often 
 showed himself venal. And when the papal legates in 
 various countries usurped the papal functions, and acted 
 as autocrats wherever they went, it is not wonderful 
 that the people revolted. In the letters of St. Bernard 
 Papal we find such pictures as these : " Your legate 
 legates. Jias passed from nation to nation, everywhere 
 leaving foul and horrible traces among us. . . . He 
 is reported everywhere to have committed disgraceful 
 deeds, to have carried off the spoils of the Church, to 
 have advanced pretty little boys to ecclesiastical honours. 
 . . . Many have bought themselves off, that he might 
 not come to them ; those whom he could not visit, he 
 taxed and squeezed by his messengers." The Roman 
 court became full of rich prelates and priests, whose 
 worldliness and evil practices were worse than the worst 
 things recorded of the Pharisees. The superstition of 
 the people, especially the rich, led them to give or 
 bequeath their projjerty to the Church, either in remorse 
 ibr thi.'ir misdeeds, or to secure benefits in the. world to 
 come. The crusades, about which we cannot speak 'in 
 
INDULGENCES. 339 
 
 detail, ministered to this increase of wealth ; for the 
 Church often bought lands at a low price from crusaders 
 in want of money. Tithes on land were paid for Church 
 purposes from the eighth century onwards, and were also 
 largely paid on the earnings of trades and professions. 
 Pluralities became frequent, and the holders lived in state 
 at courts ; and there were many clergy occupied as the 
 chaplains of great men, who rejected the discipline of 
 bishops, and contributed to bring the Church into ill 
 repute. The people came to despise the regular clergy 
 for the most part, and to accept only the ministrations of 
 the monks, and later of the mendicant orders. The 
 Scriptures were little studied, though copies were highly 
 valued, and the people knew more of the lives of the 
 saints than of the Bible. One of the chief sources of 
 popular religious knowledge was the performance of 
 Miracle-plays or Mysteries. 
 
 Sacramentalism of the mechanical sort became a sub- 
 stitute for heart-felt religion. The prescription of auricular 
 confession, at least once a year, threw enormous power of the 
 power into the priests' hands. Previously to ^*y^- 
 the thirteenth century, the form of absolution had been 
 in the form of a prayer, which marked that the power 
 of forgiveness belonged to God alone ; but the change 
 from "May God grant thee absolution and remission," 
 to "I absolve thee," made all the difference in the in- 
 fluence of the priest on the mind of the person confessing; 
 and this was further increased by the doctrine that remis- 
 sion was given, in spite of any evil in the priest. The 
 power of imposing penances as satisfaction for pgua^gg 
 sin, in addition to the merits of Christ, and the 
 Church's absolution, gave rise to vast abuses. Penalties, 
 beneficial, burdensome, or trivial, were imposed at the 
 will of the priest, and correspondingly relieved the mind 
 of the sinner. Pilgrimages, gifts, the founding of churches 
 and monasteries, fasts, flagellation, and various forms of 
 self-mortification, were among the penalties thus imposed. 
 But perhaps the worst form which the priestly indulgences 
 power took was the granting of indulgences, at 
 first for specific oficnces, but afterwards for all sins, in 
 
340 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 consideration of special services or gifts to the Church. 
 Gregory VII. in 1080 promised plenary indulgence for all 
 sins to those who supported Henry IV. 's rival, Eudolf ; 
 and Urban II., in 1095, granted the same to all who 
 should join the First Crusade. The idea that priests could 
 remit penalties, not only in this world, but in the world 
 to come, grew apace, and brought back or condoned a 
 state of things which began to rival the worst state of 
 heathen Rome. And beyond even the granting of indul- 
 gences, there grew up a theory that the Church could 
 grant to deserving penitents some of the merits accumu- 
 lated by the sufferings and good deeds of the faithful, 
 and of Christ Himself. The scholastic divines, of whom 
 Super- we shall presently speak, elaborated this into 
 erogation. \^q " Treasury of Supererogation," on which 
 the Church could draw, in virtue of the power of the 
 keys, not only for the benefit of the living, but also of 
 the dead in purgatory ; though they laid most stress on 
 the merits of Christ Himself as availing in this respect. 
 As to purgatory (or the state of those who die imperfect 
 Christians), the sufferings of the departed therein were 
 held to be mitigable by the faith and the prayers of their 
 living friends and of the Church ; and the prayers of the 
 latter were largely secured by payments and works of 
 charity or of value to the Church. Indulgences were 
 granted for limited periods and on very shght proof of 
 penitence by many monks and mendicant friars, and the 
 Dominicans introduced the use of the rosary, a string of 
 beads for counting the number of prayers, the recitation 
 of a fixed number sufficing to procure an indulgence. 
 The open sale of indulgences, followed by the increase 
 of impostors who assumed the garb of mendicant friars, 
 and offered the pardon of all sins for the merest trifle, 
 while by their clever talking they deceived the ignorant, 
 at length proved to be one of the most powerful in- 
 fluences which started the Eeformation. The sale of 
 KeUos as relics, often supposed to be brought back from 
 charms, the Holy Land, attained large proportions, and 
 pugrimages. supplied the masses with charms supposed to 
 ward o£P or cure diseases and protect from other evils. 
 
AMIENS CATHEDRAL. 341 
 
 Pil^Timages, not merolv to Palestine, but to Rome, or to 
 
 A5IIEN3 CATBEDBAI, (1220). 
 
 famous shrines, such as that of St, James at Oompostella 
 
342 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 in Spain, were a common mode of atoning for crimes, or 
 obtaining plenary indulgences ; but not infrequently these 
 vows, made in danger or illness, were commuted, for 
 money payments, in favour of less onerous ones. At the 
 shrines of the saints, many miracles were reported and 
 believed to be performed on the sick who 
 waited and prayed. It would be fruitless to 
 detail the long list of marvellous phenomena reported 
 to have been displayed by sacred pictures and statues, 
 miraculous appearances, and phenomena of bleeding 
 wounds, stigmata, etc., produced on believers. Mental 
 impressions, hysterical imaginings, credulity, and deceit, 
 all combined to render the belief in such phenomena 
 almost universal. Thus it was natural that the worship 
 before such pictures and statues as were reputed miracu- 
 lous, should in many cases become indistinguishable from 
 Morsliip of the pictures and statues themselves ; and 
 that the saints represented by them, or the patron saints 
 of churches and places, should be regarded almost as 
 divine. 
 
 Every exaltation of the saints was reflected in a further 
 exaltation of the honour paid to the Virgin Mary. The 
 use of the term " Mother of God " (see pp. 265, 
 Marioutry. 233^ powerfully promoted the tendency to pray 
 to her as a female mediator, and festivals in her honour 
 were multiplied. The "Annunciation " festival, popularly 
 "Lady Day," was established probably in the fifth cen- 
 tury ; then followed the Nativity of the Virgin (Sept. 8). 
 Instead of the Presentation of Christ in the Temple, 
 Mary's " Purification " was celebrated, and still later her 
 imagined " Presentation," or dedication to the Temple 
 service, was kept as a festival. It was conjectured in 
 the fourth and fifth centuries that she had never died ; 
 and in 813, at the Council of Mainz, the "Assumption" 
 of the Virgin was instituted as a festival. One order after 
 another of monks took her for their patron saint. Preachers 
 vied with one another in extolling her merits, and exciting 
 the people to worship her. She was described as " the 
 Queen of Heaven," and the language of the Song of 
 Solomon was freely applied to her, The scheme of 
 
MARIOLATRY. 343 
 
 creation and redemption by Christ was brought about 
 " through her, and in her, and of her, and with her," so 
 that " as without Him nothing was made, so without 
 her nothing should be made." The Assumption is de- 
 scribed as " that sublime day on which the royal Virgin 
 was carried to the throne of God the Father, and en- 
 throned on the very seat of the Trinity." Her mediation 
 was represented as all-powerful, and even authoritative. 
 " Thou approachest to that golden altar of man's recon- 
 ciliation, not only asking, but commanding." So preached 
 Peter Damiani, the great friend of Pope Gregory VII. 
 And St. Bernard says that " God has willed that we 
 should have all things through Mary. . . . Have 
 recourse to Mary. He will hear her as a son his mother, 
 and the Father will hear the Son ; " and a new technical 
 term was invented to signify the adoration that might 
 be paid to her. The monasteries and the churches gener- 
 ally adopted special forms of service in her honour, and 
 to pray for her intercession and help, known as the 
 "Office of St. Mary." Saturday was a special day for 
 masses in her honour ; and in 1095 Urban II., at the 
 Council of Clermont, appointed her " Hours " to be said 
 daily, and her " Office " on Saturdays. The Salutation 
 of the angel to her, "Ave Maria," was repeated continually, 
 and was gradually expanded in later centuries to its pre- 
 sent form. The Dominicans brought in the use of the 
 rosary, for counting by means of beads the number of 
 " aves " recited with prayers for the Virgin's intercession 
 in the hour of death. The rosary of 150 beads was 
 divided into sets of ten ; each bead passed signified an 
 " ave " recited, and after every ten " aves " the Lord's 
 Prayer (" Pater Noster ") was said : the whole concluded 
 with the Creed (" Credo "). The thirteenth century pro- 
 duced the "Marian Psalter," lesser and greater, in which 
 the Psalms and Scriptures generally were adapted to 
 express the perfection of the Virgin. Thus, " The Lord 
 said to our Lady, Sit, Mother, on My right hand . . . 
 thou shalt reign with Me for ever." As early as the 
 sixth century she had been regarded as free from actual 
 sin, though not from " original sin." About the end of 
 
344 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 the thirteenth century it was proposed to establish a 
 festival of her " Conception " as being holy and sinless ; 
 but St. Bernard strongly censured this, though he says 
 that " beyond all doubt the Mother of the Lord was holy 
 before she was born." The University of Paris declared 
 the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin a probable 
 opinion in 1387 ; but it was reserved for the present 
 century to see this elevated into an article of faith, when 
 in 1854 Pope Pius IX. declared dogmatically that the 
 Virgin had been conceived immaculately, and was abso- 
 lutely exempt from both original and • actual sin, and 
 that to contradict this is heresy. 
 
 We have already noted the enunciation of the doctrine 
 of the "real presence" and of " transubstantiation " in 
 The "Real the Eucharist, and cannot here note all the 
 Presence." stages and forms which the discussion assumed, 
 especially in connection with Berengarius of Tours, in 
 the eleventh century, and his followers. "When the doc- 
 trine had been finally settled by Thomas Aquinas in' its 
 materialistic form, greater sanctity attached to the ele- 
 ments of the Eucharist. Infant communion became less 
 frequent, and was at last discontinued. Special pre- 
 cautions were taken against spilling or profaning in any 
 way the wine changed into the very blood of Christ ; and 
 in the twelfth century the withholding of the cup entirely 
 from the laity began, justified by such a principle as that 
 of Anselm, "that the whole Christ is taken in either 
 kind," and gradually this became the rule. In the eleventh 
 Elevation and^^^^^^J *^^ elevation of the consecrated bread 
 adoration as the "Host," after consecration, was intro- 
 oftiie"Host."^ygg^. ^^(j ^£(.g^ ^j^g Lateran decree, in 1215, 
 
 this act was the signal for " adoration " of the present 
 Christ, and all persons were bidden to kneel before it, 
 whether in church or when it was carried to sick persons 
 through the streets. Finally a special festival in honour 
 of the Consecrated Host (Corpus Christi) was instituted, 
 in 1264. The reverence and mystery attaching to the 
 Sacrament caused the laity to communicate less frequently 
 and it became sufficient to communicate once a year • 
 while masses said by the priests, for money payments' 
 
ST. BONirACE SETTING OUT FOK HOME TO I 
 
ISSION TO GEKMANT FKOII POPE OREQOBY II. 
 
ABELARD. 345 
 
 were supposed to be efficacious, whether the persons 
 paying were present or not. 
 
 Yet we must do justice to the piety that hved in these 
 ages, to the noble works that many Christians then 
 achieved in the founding of hospitals, in service uo^ig 
 to the poor, in the foundation of colleges and christian 
 schools, and in the erection of magnificent mo- '^'"^''^• 
 nastic and ecclesiastical buildings. To these ages we owe 
 our finest churches, in the successive styles of Gothic 
 architecture — Norman, Early English, Decorated, and 
 Perpendicular — which it is the despair of modern archi- 
 tects to rival. Art took refuge in the monasteries, and 
 produced statuary and carving in profusion, not deeming 
 it profane to decorate churches with subjects of a secular 
 nature. Stained glass, illuminated manuscripts, embroi- 
 dered vestments and altar cloths, testify to the growing 
 appreciation of art, zeal in artistic work, and consecration 
 01 it to divine service. No one should imagine that be- 
 cause some of the forms it took are not such as we 
 appreciate, and many Churchmen of the middle ages 
 were corrupt, that therefore piety was extinct or less real 
 than in early or later days. Good men achieved marvels 
 then as now, in spite of their imperfections and the 
 corruption by which they were surrounded. 
 
 The steps by which the Scholastic Theology was de- 
 veloped and connected with Arabian and Aristotelian 
 learning would demand a lengthy recital : we scholastic 
 can but note that medieval theologians based Theology, 
 their systems very largely upon Aristotelian logic. The 
 controversies of the Nominalists and Realists, of the 
 Thomists (disciples of Thomas Aquinas) and Scotists (fol- 
 lowers of Duns Scotus), if of minor interest now, A\ere 
 both necessary stages in the evolution of the present, 
 and of great importance in their time. Somehow a defici- 
 ency was felt in the old presentations of doctrine, and 
 it was sought. to re-dress theology in a scientific logical 
 form, granting the authority of Scripture and of the 
 general councils. Peter Abelard (1079-1142), ^^^^^ 
 whose renown did much to promote the growth 
 of the University of Paris, was the first great rationalist 
 
346 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 theologian, teaching " that nothing could be believed 
 unless it was first understood, and that it was ridiculous 
 for any one to preach to others that which neither he 
 himself, nor those whom he taught, comprehended." His 
 "Introduction to Theology" caused him to be denounced 
 as a tritheist, and he had to stand alone against varied 
 types of holy men, such as Eoscellin, Narbert, and Ber- 
 nard of Clairvaux. All through his theological teaching 
 he called in question received opinions, without desiring 
 to be unorthodox. He made a collection of 1B8 contro- 
 verted questions, with the varied opinions of theologians 
 contrasted and set opposite one another under the head- 
 ings Sic et non. As a destructive critic his tendencies 
 were rightly censured by the Church from its own point 
 of view ; but his teaching had considerable germinal influ- 
 ence, though overlaid by the more powerful orthodoxy of 
 Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 The Schoolmen, properly so called, were the unflinch- 
 ing advocates of orthodox faith, and at the same time 
 devoted to its reconcilement with or explanation by reason- 
 ing. Briefly noting the priors of the abbey of St. Victor, 
 outside Paris, in the twelfth century, with their mottoes, 
 "We can only know God by loving Him," aiid "You 
 have just as much power as you have grace"; John of 
 Salisbury; Peter Lombard (died 1164), author of Four 
 Books of "Sentences," containing the teachings of the 
 Latin Fathers, arranged so as to support the dogmas of 
 the Church, which became a text-book of theology for 
 three centuries ; Alexander Hales (died 124B), surnamed 
 "the Irrefragable Doctor," author of a complete Summary 
 of Theology; and Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), "the 
 Universal Doctor," who wrote 21 folio volumes which 
 THomas survive, besides many that are lost, and taught 
 Aquinas, a kind of eclectic philosophy; we come to 
 Thomas Aquinas (1226-1274), the prince of scholastics, 
 whose teaching has by Pope Leo XIII. been declared to 
 represent most perfectly the mind of the Church, and is 
 still mastered by all who pretend to theological learning 
 in the Roman commiinion. He was a son of a count of 
 Aquino in Apulia, Italy, and at the age of sixteen, having 
 
^7-. THOMAS AQUINAS. 347 
 
 already shown extraordinary ability, entered the Domi- 
 nican order. After pupilage under Albert the Great, he 
 was, m his twenty-third year, appointed second professor 
 m the Dominican school at Cologne, and in 1257 was 
 inducted into a theological chair at Paris; afterwards, at 
 the pope's command, lecturing through several univer- 
 sities of Italy, advising the pope on difficult questions, 
 and writing continually, at last settling at Naples, dying 
 early of his asceticism 
 and immense intellec- 
 tual activity. His 
 " Summa Theologica " 
 is an encyclopaedia of 
 divinity, discussing the 
 arguments for the 
 existence of God, the 
 Divine nature and at- 
 tributes, the Trinity, 
 the end and nature of 
 man, virtues and vices, 
 the Incarnation of 
 Christ, the Sacraments, 
 etc. Its plad is to pre- 
 sent for discussion some 
 question or proposition, 
 to state as strongly as 
 possible the arguments 
 urged for a wrong so- 
 lution, and then to give 
 the orthodox decision 
 and the authorities or 
 reasons for it, from the 
 Bible, the Fathers, Aristotle, etc. Every imaginable dis- 
 cussion is gone through concerning all the terms, such as 
 essence, spirit, personality, substance, etc. ; and the whole 
 is an astonishing feat of logic. In fact, it sums up all 
 the knowledge and thought about the universe which had 
 then been attained. He also wrote voluminous commen- 
 taries on Aristotle, on large portions of the Bible, treatises 
 against all kinds of errors and heresies, and against the 
 
348 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Greek Church, tracts in favour of the monastic life, etc. 
 He was known as " the Angelic Doctor," and was canon- 
 ised by John XXII. in 1323. 
 
 Yet there were many who dissented from Aquinas on 
 
 numerous points, and the Franciscans in par- 
 
 DU113 scotuB. ^.^^j^^ followed Duns Scotus, the "Subtle 
 
 Doctor," a British member of their order (1274-1308), 
 many of whose works were written in answer to Aquinas. 
 He taught at Oxford, Paris, and Cologne, where he died. 
 He followed Plato in many points, was accused of being 
 a semi-Pelagian, and was a supporter of the growing 
 dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin. 
 He has been termed " the acutest and most penetrating 
 spirit of the middle ages." Milman calls him " an Aris- 
 totelian beyond Aristotle, a Platonist beyond Plato; at 
 the same time the most orthodox of theologians." 
 
 How insufScient the systems of the Schoolmen were 
 to settle everything upon heaven and earth had already 
 Roeer Bacon ^^^^ discovered by the great Franciscan, Roger 
 'Bacon (1214-1294), who besides his wonderful 
 researches in physical science was no mean theologian, 
 and in 1292 wrote a compendium of theology, in which 
 he exposed the prevalent lack of study of the Scriptures, 
 and the too great use of philosophy in discussing theology, 
 and the neglect of practical studies, such as languages, 
 mathematics, and physical sciences, most calculated to 
 aid theological studies. He discoumged the high methods 
 of scholastic theology, while he pointed out that many 
 things most conducive to salvation were easy to be under- 
 stood, and that a simple friar who had not heard a 
 hundred lectures on theology, and had not cared for them 
 if he had, yet preached incomparably better than the 
 greatest masters of theology. 
 
 A man of a different type was a Dominican, "William 
 Durand, a professor at Paris and Avignon early in the 
 
 William fourteenth century, who boldly settled any 
 
 Duiand. question, and not infrequently tended to heresy. 
 Thus he showed that it was an early opinion that the 
 sacraments have no inherent power of giving grace ; but 
 that the recipient receives grace from God, unless he 
 
CLUNIAC CONGREGATION. 349 
 
 interposes an obstacle. William of Occam, or Ockham, in 
 Surrey, a Franciscan and a pupil of Duns wmiamof 
 Scotus, took the novel side for an ecclesiastic, oooam. 
 of supporting the rights of kings against the pope, to 
 whom he denied any authority in secular affairs, after the 
 example of Christ. In discussing the central doctrines 
 of the Church, he guarded his orthodoxy carefully, as in 
 the case of transubstantiation, in which he pronounced 
 for one theory as " most reasonable, had not the Church 
 determiaed the contrary." In these discussions, however 
 much the Schoolmen stuck by the Church's doctriae, 
 the fact of the discussion was gradually accustoming 
 men's minds to regard questions as open which later 
 were to be the subject of striking new developments. 
 A dawn of more exact study is to be seen in the labours 
 of Nicolaus de Lyra, to whose commentaries on the sacred 
 text Luther was much indebted, and of Raymond Lully, 
 who travelled widely, acquiring various languages, and 
 in 1311 securing the establishment of chairs of Hebrew, 
 Chaldee, and Arabic in the universities of Paris, Bologna, 
 Oxford, and Salamanca. 
 
 In the ninth and tenth centuries monasteries had grown 
 numerous and rich, and sometimes corrupt. With the evil 
 came the reaction, and younger and more Degeneracy 
 saintly men founded new monasteries or sought of monas- 
 to reform old ones. The monks kept them- *i«i™- . 
 selves distinct from the secular clergy, calling themselves 
 specially " religious," as if religion could be most really 
 pursued in retirement from " the world." Each monas- 
 tery usually elected its own head or abbot, and professed 
 allegiance specially to the pope, as far as possible rejecting 
 episcopal control. Indeed, in most cases the popes ex- 
 pressly exempted them from it, and granted the abbots 
 the right to wear the episcopal ring and other insignia, 
 exemption from tithes, and from interdicts and from sen- 
 tences of excommunication except by themselves. 
 
 Early in the tenth century a reformed society was 
 founded at Clugny in Burgundy, which was ciuniac con- 
 destined to have a wide influence. Its strict sregation. 
 rule and good administration made it so famous that 
 
350 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 most of the Frencli monasteries adopted its rule and 
 placed themselves in connection with it, I'orming the 
 Cluniac congregation, which in the middle of the twelfth 
 century numbered 2,000 cloisters. The abbey grew 
 wealthy and powerful ; its vast basilica, built between 
 1089 and 1131, was the largest in Christendom till the 
 construction of St. Peter's at Rome. The foundation was 
 finally suppressed in 1790. Pope Gregory VII. (Hilde- 
 brand) was a monk of Clugny, and received from the 
 Cluniac order most important support. 
 
 Among numerous minor reforming congregations, such 
 as those of Hirschau in the Black Forest (1069), and 
 
 carthuaians Grammont (1074), the Carthusian and Cister- 
 
 andcister- cian orders became pre-eminent. The Car- 
 ciana. thusians took their name from the monastery of 
 the Grande Chartreuse (1084), founded by Bruno of 
 Cologne. This order, while very ascetic, devoted itself 
 to literature and art, and is said " never to have needed a 
 reformation." The Cistercians were founded at Citeaux 
 (Cistercium), near Dijon, by Robert of Champagne (1098), 
 and were distinguished by their white garb, simpler ser- 
 vices, and more ascetic life, from the Cluniacs. In 1115 
 the famous Bernard founded the affiliated monastery of 
 Clair vaux, and by 1161 there were BOO monasteries in 
 association, and the order became the most popular of aU, 
 until the rise of the Mendicants. But with the growth 
 of their wealth the Cistercians gradually sank into insig- 
 nificance, and many of their monasteries did not last till 
 the Eeformation. 
 
 Several orders were founded for the relief of disease 
 and suffering. In 1095 the Hospitallers of St. Anthony 
 
 HoscitaiierB '^^'^^ founded in consequence of an epidemic of 
 
 'St. Anthony's fire (erysipelas): in 1178 the 
 
 Brethren of the Hospital were founded at Montpellier by 
 
 Guide ; and these were followed in the beginning of the 
 
 Brethren of twelfth century by the Hospital Brethren of St. 
 
 St. Joiiu. John, started in connection with the service 
 
 of sick aiid destitute pilgrims at Jerusalem. The brethren 
 
 were, vowed to pnvertv, obedience, and chastity, aud 
 
 beg!;i"l for the poor. They beeiune rich, and in 1118 
 
THE TEMPLARS. 
 
 351 
 
 undertook the defence of the Holy Sepulchre, their knights 
 becoming the rivals of the Knights Templars. They 
 took Ehodes in 1319, gained a large part of the property 
 of the Templars when these were suppressed in 1312, 
 held Ehodes till 1522, when they retired to Crete, and 
 afterwards to Sicily. In 1583 they were transferred to 
 Malta, and in recent years they have rendered important 
 aid to the sick and wounded in war. The Templars 
 themselves, though 
 
 engaged in military 
 service for the protec- 
 tion of pilgrims to the 
 Holy Land, took a vow 
 of monastic discipline 
 on the model of St. 
 Augustine. Later a 
 more strict rule was 
 imposed (1127), and the 
 slaying of the unbe- 
 liever was laid down 
 as their foremost duty. 
 St. Bernard drew up a 
 code, subjecting every- 
 thing to the Grand 
 Master of the order. 
 Their purity was to be 
 guarded by avoiding 
 the kisses even of mo- 
 ther and sisters; they st. cATnEiuNE of siena:(p. 337). 
 were to receive no letters or presents, and have no 
 locked trunks, etc. Innocent VII. relieved them from 
 submission to bishops, and Gregory X. exempted them 
 from all contributions to the Holy War, and from tithes 
 also. But by 1180 they had greatly degenerated, and in 
 the next century they were noted for their bad morals, 
 character, and habits ; and at last they formed an im- 
 perium in intpeiio too troublesome to be endured, and the 
 order was formally sujjpressed by the council of Vienne 
 
352 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 (1312). Other military orders with more or less monastic 
 organisation were the Teutonic Knights, who Conquered 
 the Pomeranians ; the orders of Calatrava, Alcantara, the 
 knights of Evora, etc., protected Christians from the 
 Moors, whose lands they constantly laid waste ; the order 
 of St. James was founded 1161 to protect pilgrims to 
 Compostella. 
 
 BT. TEBESA. 
 
 The Carmelite order grew out of a small society of 
 hermits, founded by Berthold, a Crusader, in 1156, on 
 The carmel- Mount Carmel, which they quitted on the ex- 
 ites. pulsion of the Latins from the Holy Land 
 (1238). Each hermit at first lived in a cell by himself ; 
 fasting was imposed from September till Easter ; the 
 possession of property was forbidden ; and manual labour 
 
Sr. DOMINIC. 353 
 
 and silence were recommended. On settliug in Europe 
 they adopted community of life, and mitigated their rules ; 
 and Innocent IV. in 1247 confirmed the order by the title 
 of " The Friars of Our Lady of Mount Carmel." They 
 adopted a brown habit, with a white cloak and shoulder 
 covering (scapular), and hence were known as White 
 Friars, a name preserved by the site of their London 
 monastery. During the papal schism they were divided ; 
 in the fifteenth century relaxations of discipline were 
 allowed, those who adopted the latter being known as 
 the Shod or Conventual Friars, while the stricter members 
 were called Barefooted Friars, or Observantines. Their 
 numerous English monasteries were dissolved at the 
 Reformation. In Spain, Carmelite monasteries were 
 founded in the fifteenth century; St. Teresa, a nun of 
 Avila, reformed her convent in the face of much opposi- 
 tion, and successfully carried her reforms into the fr'ars' 
 houses. 
 
 The Trinitarians, or Mathurins, in 1198 systematically 
 undertook the ransom of Christian captives in Barbary, 
 at least one-third of their revenue being set Bjathunfls 
 apart for this work. They at one time had 250 
 houses ; and in the seventeenth century it was computed 
 that they had rescued more than 30,000 cap- order of 
 tives. The military order of Our Lady of Mercy Me^y- 
 was formed at Barcelona in 1218, with the same general 
 objects, and later it devoted itself to mission work in 
 America. 
 
 The Fourth Lateran Council (1215), as we have seen, 
 forbade the further multiplication of monastic orders ; 
 but at that very time two orders, not so completely 
 separate from the world as the other societies, were 
 arising, which soon obtained recognition and gained enor- 
 mpus influence in the later middle ages : these were the 
 Dominicans and the Franciscans. The Dominicans, 
 founded by Domingo Guzman of Old Castile g^ jj^^j^ij 
 (St. Dominic), aimed at popular preaching and 
 instruction, and the combat of heresy ; while the Fran- 
 ciscans, founded by St. Francis of Assisi, sought to revive 
 spiritual life among the people by their preaching ; and 
 
354 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 both aimed at making evident by their poverty and self- 
 sacrifice the ideals which the cloistered monks too often 
 failed to attain. Dominic, born in 1170, studied theology 
 
 ST. DOUINIO. 
 
 at the university of Palencia (afterwards transferred to 
 Salamanca), sold his clothes and books to feed the poor 
 during a famine, and flogged himself nightly with an 
 iron chain, but was unflinching against heretics. In \ 205, 
 
ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI. 355 
 
 with Diego, bishop of Osma, he combated the Albigensian 
 and other heresies in Languedoc. In 1215 he 'obtained 
 Pope Innocent III.'s consent- to the foundation of his 
 order, despite the Lateran Council, by adopting the 
 Augustinian rule, with vows of perpetual silence, except 
 by permission of the superior, abstinence from The Domin- 
 meat, almost incessant fasts, woollen garments, ic^ns. 
 strict poverty, etc. At first they wore a black cassock, 
 but soon adopted the black mantle over a white habit 
 and scapular (Black Friars). In 1216 the order was con- 
 firmed by Honorius III., under the title of "Preaching 
 Friars," the right of preaching and hearing confessions 
 everywhere being at the same time granted. The order 
 spread everywhere. It soon relaxed its vows of poverty, 
 accepting land and monasteries. Dominicans became 
 confessors to great men and counsellors of princes. They 
 administered the Inquisition, and thus wielded a terrible 
 power ; and their antagonism to the Franciscans, both 
 in policy, and in theological argument, often furnished 
 material for history. The famous Dominicans, Albert the 
 Great and Thomas Aquinas, as we have seen, ultimately 
 fixed the tone and text of the Roman Catholic system, 
 in one point only falling short of the Franciscans in re- 
 jecting the Immaculate C&nception of the Virgin, which 
 the Franciscans strongly supported. In the fourteenth 
 century the mystic John Tauler was a Dominican ; at the 
 end of the fifteenth the bright light of Savonarola illu- 
 minated the order ; but it furnished the strongest antago- 
 nists to the Reformation. 
 
 The Franciscan order was founded by Francis, son of 
 Peter Bernardini, born at Assisi in Umbria, Italy, in 1182. 
 After" a pleasure-loving youth, he voluntarily st. Francis of 
 took a vow of poverty and mendicancy, at- ■'^^^i^'- 
 tending to lepers and discharging other menial offices. 
 Renouncing property of every kind but the coarsest vest- 
 ment, he gathered a band of twelve disciples in 1212, and 
 boldly set forth to convert the world. Innocent III. 
 (1215) and Honorius III. (1223) gave the brethren authority 
 to preach everywhere. A church at Assisi, and later a 
 grand conventual church of St. Francis at Assisi, became 
 
356 THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 the centre of the order. The dramatic and sentimental 
 preaching of the founder were most effective ; and one 
 of his converts, Clara Sciffi, became the foundress of the 
 rigid sisterhood of Poor Clares. St. Francis preached 
 without success to the Mohammedans in Egypt, while 
 other brethren went to Germany, Italy, and 
 ■ ^^ Spain. The humility of the order was signified 
 by their title "Fratres Minores," whence they were often 
 
 called Minorites. 
 The The or- 
 Franciscans, (Jer, like 
 or Minorites, ^j^g' -p^, 
 
 minican, owed 
 obedience directly 
 to the Pope ; but it 
 was governed by a 
 "General Minister," 
 appointed by a 
 general chapter 
 every third year. 
 Although the strict- 
 est poverty was en- 
 joined by St. Fran- 
 cis, he was so far 
 sociable that he con- 
 formed to ordinary 
 customs when in 
 society, and he dis- 
 couraged extreme 
 asceticism, as pro- 
 moting spiritual 
 pride, and because the body needed sustenance and care 
 in order to be capable of full devotion. Cheerful himself, 
 he maintained that cheerfulness was a duty, and a great 
 defence against the devil. In many of his acts and 
 expressions he showed a singular Christian spirit and 
 great judgment, so that it was not difficult for his dis- 
 ciples after his death to elevate him almost to a level 
 with Christ, especially in consequence of the marks which 
 appeared in 1224 on his hands, feet, and side, resembling 
 
 BT. FRAKCIS OF ASSIST. 
 
BONAVENTURA. 357 
 
 Christ's wounds, and known as the " Sacred Stigmata 
 of St. Francis." It is said that he tried to me sawod 
 conceal them, but that many miracles were stigmata, 
 wrought by their power. He died in 1226, having wit- 
 nessed the addition to the two orders of monks and 
 nuns, of a third, consisting of lay members known as 
 Tertiaries, who everywhere fulfilled the functions of the 
 lay adherents in Buddhism, supporting the friars and 
 living a religious life in the world. Dean Milman terms 
 St. Francis " the most blameless and gentle of all saints," 
 " emphatically the saint of the people." " The lowest 
 of the low," he says, " might fiind consolation in the self- 
 abasement of St. Francis even beneath the meanest." 
 His poetry is worthy of note ; it is " one long passionate 
 ejaculation of love to the Redeemer in rude metre." 
 But his ordinary speech is more poetical than his poetry. 
 "In his peculiar language he addresses aU animate, even 
 inanimate creatures, as his brothers. ... In one of 
 his Italian hymns he speaks of his brother the sun, his 
 sister the moon, etc. . . . When he died, he said with 
 exquisite simplicity, ' Welcome, Sister Death.' . . . 
 His life might seem a religious trance." 
 
 Men following in the footsteps of such a master were 
 well adapted to win the people. Theii* numbers in- 
 creased, and they became rich and powerful by the gifts, 
 buildings, and endowments forced upon them. From 
 acting under bishops, they acted independently, despised 
 the secular clergy, administered sacraments, and heard 
 confessions. The " General " of the order who succeeded 
 St. Francis, Elias of Cortona, mitigated many rules, and, 
 being ambitious, favoured the growth of large monasteries. 
 Again and again attempts were made to reform the order. 
 John of Parma, the seventh General Minister (1247), was 
 hailed as a second St. Francis ; John of Fidanza, 
 eighth General (1265-1274), famous under the 
 name of Bonaventura, the " Seraphic " Doctor, was as 
 learned as he was blameless, and steadfastly sought to 
 amend the corruptions of self-indulgence, importunate beg- 
 ging, assumption of undue clerical functions, and extrava- 
 gant buildings, in addition to moral scandals, which were 
 
35S THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 making tlie friars a byword. The indulgences promised 
 Corruptions to a]l who visited tlie church of the Portiun- 
 o: tne Order, cula at Assisi on August 1st, and the sure 
 salvation to all who died in the garb of the order, even 
 though only assumed just before death, were but speci- 
 mens of the evils which arose. Fierce rivalry arose be- 
 tween Dominicans and Franciscans, and also between 
 The the " Spirituals " and the less spiritual among 
 Spirituals, i^q latter. Following the prophecies and mil- 
 lennial outlook of Joachim, a Cistercian abbot (1145-1202), 
 who foretold that the millennium would begin in 1260, 
 the "Spirituals "put forward about 1254 an "Introduction 
 to the Everlasting Gospel," developing these ideas, which 
 Muienniai was condemned by the University of Paris and 
 propneoy. -^y Pope Alexander IV. It was written by a 
 Franciscan named Gerard ; and after his condemnation 
 and imprisonment the Spiritualists called them- 
 TheFraticeiiLgg^^gg Fraticelli (Little Brothers), instead of 
 I'ratres, separated themselves markedly from the rest, and 
 found a new leader in Peter John of Olivi, author of a 
 famous Apocalyptic work, " PostiUa in Apocalypsin." 
 Pope Celestine V. in 1294 formed the Fraticelli into a 
 new order, the Celestine- Eremites, together with his own 
 hermits ; but the next pope dissolved the order, and 
 banished them in 1302 to a Greek island. Eenouncing 
 the papal authority, they elected a pope of their own, 
 and spread themselves in Greece, Sicily, and other coun- 
 tries, everywhere working against the papacy. In the 
 time of Pope John XXII. a new point was given to the 
 denunciations of papal luxury and apostasy by the Spirit- 
 uals: the pope retaliated with vigour, and, aided by the 
 general of the order, held an Inquisition, which burned, 
 degraded, and imprisoned many. In this case the Fran- 
 ciscans aided the evil work of the Dominican Inquisition, 
 of which it was said by one of its victims in 1319 that 
 if St. Peter and St. Paul were to return to earth, the 
 Inquisition would lay hands on thein as damnable heretics. 
 So far did intolerance proceed, that a Beghard (see p. 359) 
 was tried for asserting the poverty of Christ and His dis- 
 ciples, and Berenger of Talon, who maintained the con- 
 
BEGUINES AND BEGHARDS. 359 
 
 trary, was arrested ; the Dominicans eagerly condemned 
 the Franciscans who took his side, and the University of 
 Paris elaborately condemned the Franciscan teaching. 
 The schism among the Franciscans widened^ and by the 
 end of the fourteenth century the Franciscan Conventuals 
 were distinct from the Observants, who still (.gj^^g^t^jg^j 
 kept the founder's rule. In the fourteenth cen- and obser- 
 tury the Franciscans established missions in '^nts. 
 Bulgaria and Georgia, in the fifteenth in the Canary 
 Islands and on the Congo, in the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 in South America and Mexico. Francis, of Paqla in 
 Calabria, late in the fifteenth century, founded " the 
 Hermits of St. Francis of Assisi," better known as the 
 "Minims," from their title of "Fratres Minimi." 
 They were noted for their adoption of a per- 
 petual Lenten rule: viz., to abstain always from animal 
 food. The Augustinian Eremites (or Austin Friars), 
 formed into a society in 1256 under the rule of St. Augus- 
 tine, numbered 30,000 at the time of the Eeformation. 
 Another mendicant order was that of the Servites (the 
 slaves of the Virgin Mary), founded in 1233. The 
 Beguines were societies founded in Flanders about 1180, 
 to attend to the sick and poor while working at their 
 ordinary employments ; and they have lasted till the 
 present day. The members are widows and single 
 women, living, not in convents, but in a group of small 
 houses surrounded by a wall, and known as aB^guiaes and 
 "Beguinage." The Beghards were associations Beguards. 
 of men founded with a similar object ; but their character 
 degenerated, and the name became synonymous with 
 mendicancy and heresy, and they were placed under the 
 authority of the Franciscans by Pope Innocent X. In 
 such varied forms the monastic spirit tried to keep alive 
 true Christianity, but proved extremely liable to corrup- 
 tion and corrupt use. The reign of monasticism, as once 
 understood and submitted to, passed away with the Eefor- 
 mation. 
 
MAETIN LtlTHEK. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 3^eIigiou5 ^9er£(efutions anti tbe Reformation. 
 
 Intolerance and persecution— Maniclissan sects— Faulicians—Petrobruslans 
 —Catharl—Alblgenses— Their tenets— Waldo— The Waldenses— The In- 
 quisition — Torquemada — Ximenes— The mystics — Nicolas of Basle— 
 Tauler— Thomas & Eempls— Brethren of the Common Life— WycUf— The 
 Lollards— John Huss —The Council of Constance— Hubs and Jerome burnt 
 —Religious War— The United (Moravian) Brethren- Council of Basle— 
 The Greek Church— The Renaissance— Savonarola— Luther— His ninety- 
 five theses— Papal Bull against him— Diet of Worms— Luther translates 
 Bible— Zwingll— His sixty-flve theses- The Reformation in Zurich- 
 Anabaptists — Conference of Marburg — Diet of Spires — Protest of 
 Lutheran princes— The Augsburg Confession— The Theses of Berne— 
 Zwlngli's distinctive doctrines— Confessions of Basle. 
 
 3G0 
 
MANICH^AN SECTS. 361 
 
 DIFFERENCES of opinion and of interpretation were 
 never lacking, from the earliest ages of the Church, 
 as we have seen. They changed their ground intolerance 
 from age to age ; often they reverted to former and perseou. 
 opinions, sometimes in a new dress. But the *'°°- 
 human mind, naturally believing that of two seeming 
 contradictions, both cannot be true, tends to set up one 
 set of opinions or form of doctrine as certainly true, and 
 to denounce any other as evil, and consequently to be 
 suppressed ; never imagining that there may be other 
 truths which would reconcile seeming contradictions, or 
 that the whole truth may be something greater than, and 
 inclusive of, all the partial truths already known. The 
 idea of tolerating diversity of opinion on matters inca- 
 pable of direct proof, or of tolerating free thought, has 
 been exceedingly slow of growth and acceptance. For- 
 getting that Christ presented His gospel to different 
 persons in very diverse aspects, and did not demand of 
 each follower the understanding and acceptance of all 
 that He taught, theologians gradually evolved from their 
 reading of Scripture a creed, or series of creeds and 
 explanations of those creeds, which, together with the 
 sacraments and sacramental doctrine and their system 
 of Church government, they held to be entirely true and 
 divine, and forced indiscriminately upon all who came 
 under their power, as absolutely necessary to salvation, 
 and rejection of which deserved punishment in this world 
 and hereafter. It was inevitable in these circumstances 
 that " heresies " should arise again and again. Human 
 nature could not be forcibly deprived of its inherent 
 tendency to "vary in every direction," to produce new 
 forms of thought and speculation, to be tested, to be 
 stamped out, or to survive by dint of the value they had, 
 or perchance by the insidiousness and attractiveness of 
 the evil they contained. 
 
 Manichseism, though apparently crushed in earlier 
 centuries, survived in later heresies, such as that of the 
 Paulicians, who originated in Armenia in the Manicbsean 
 seventh century. They selected St. Paul's ^''°*^- 
 teaching as their special guide, rejecting St. Peter as 
 
362 RELIGIOUS PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 Christ's betrayer, retaining at the same time some 
 Pa uoans j^^iiicli^Ein principles. They were persecuted by 
 successive emperors, but lasted long in various 
 quarters. Some of them settled in Thrace in the middle 
 of the eighth century ; and in the tenth they were rein- 
 forced by another settlement, and occupied considerable 
 tracts in Thrace and Macedonia. They appear to have 
 had some influence, throiigh the intercoTxrse arising during 
 the Crusades, upon sects which spread in France, Northern 
 Italy, and in Germany during the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries, and were often marked by fanaticism. Peter 
 T. t „v-„>.„„»of Bruis, founder of the Petrobrusians in Dau- 
 phmy, m the beginning or the twelith century, 
 taught that only believers (not infants) should be baptised, 
 and rejected the use of churches and crosses, the efficacy 
 of the Eucharist, prayers and oblations for the dead, and 
 the singing of hymns. He was burnt to death by the 
 people of St. Gilles in Provence, after twenty years' 
 successful preaching. He was succeeded by Henry of 
 Lausanne, whose adherents were named Henricians. 
 St. Bernard undertook a very successful mission against 
 them in 1147, and the leader was given up in chains to the 
 cathari ^i^^op 0^ Toulouse. The so-called Manichseans 
 were chiefly known as Cathari (or Puritans) in 
 Germany, and as Publicani in France, until they were 
 generally termed Albigenses (from Albi). Even in the 
 twelfth century the popular feeling was strongly excited 
 against them, and many were burnt, though not with the 
 sanction of such men as St. Bernard. 
 
 It was in Languedoc and around Toulouse that the 
 heretical sects spread most vigorously, holding a council 
 Albigenses. °^ t^eir Own in 1167 of bishops and representa- 
 tives under a so-called Pope Niquinta, who 
 taught that all Churches should be independent of each 
 other. They became so formidable that the third Lateran 
 Council, in 1179, called on all the faithful to protect 
 Christian people against them by arms. "We cannot go 
 into the details of the crusades which followed (1198- 
 1229), and which crushed the power of Eaymond, Count 
 of Toulouse. We will briefly glance at some of the prin- 
 ciples of the Albigensian sects. 
 
WALDO. 363 
 
 They lield certain ManichsBan tenets, sucli as the an- 
 tagonism between spirit and matter, the creation of the 
 material world by the evil principle, together Aibigensian 
 with a disbelief in the righteousness c3f the Old tenets. 
 Testament dispensation. Christ they regarded as the 
 highest angel, and His bodily appearance and actions 
 were explained as spiritual only. The whole world was 
 to be saved by an escape from bodily imprisonment into 
 spirit life. They considered marriage as at best a 
 necessary evil, rejected the entire sacramental system, 
 and destroyed churches and their apparatus. They had 
 a priesthood and bishops of their own, with a sacrament 
 called '* Consolation," by which the Paraclete or Comfor- 
 ter was bestowed, iDy any one who had received it : by 
 this the heavenly soul, lost at the Fall, was restored to 
 the believer. Those who had received this were the 
 Elect or Perfect, and had to live a completely ascetic 
 life, unmarried, and to labour only to propagate the truth, 
 renouncing all property. Their other sacraments were 
 the blessing . of bread at meals (thus making all meals 
 eucharistic), penance, and ordination. There are very 
 diverse reports about the actual lives of the Albigenses, 
 their rigidly pure lives, according to some, securing them 
 great influence, and inducing many nobles to entrust 
 their children to them for education ; while their enemies 
 charge them with many crimes, loose living, and want of 
 charity. No doubt, as in most other sects, there were 
 black sheep among them, with many of the better sort. 
 What is certain is, that they were indiscriminately perse- 
 cuted and cruelly treated and that in many cases they 
 retaliated on their persecutors. 
 
 Often confused with the Aibigensian sects, the Wal- 
 denses are quite distinct, being in no way infected with 
 Manichseism, and owing their name to Waldo, ^iraido. 
 a wealthy merchant of Lyons in the latter part 
 of the twelfth century, who employed two priests to 
 translate many books of the Bible and selections from 
 the Fathers into the Romance vernacular. Selling all 
 his property and giving it to the poor, he aimed at a life 
 of Christian perfection, and began preaching throughout 
 
364 RELIGIOUS PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 the towns and villages ; and his followers did the same, 
 under the name of Humiliati, or poor men of Lyon?. 
 "Waldo was excommunicated, not for heresy, but for un- 
 authorised preaching, and anathematised by Pope Lucius 
 III. and the Council of Verona. By their simple, earnest, 
 scriptural preaching Waldo and his followers made many 
 converts in Southern France, Northern Italy, and Spain. 
 The In many ways they showed themselves true 
 
 waidenses. evangelists and helpers of the people, and taught 
 a primitive Christianity, gradually rejecting prayers for 
 the dead, priestly powers, penances, purgatory, and the 
 ecclesiastical miracles. Their high character is attested 
 even by their enemies — their moderation, sobriety, and 
 hard work in their employments, their truth-speaking 
 and avoidance of oaths. During the Dominican Inquisi- 
 tion which oppressed the Albigenses, the Waldenses also 
 suffered severely ; and they gradually took refuge in 
 Alpine valleys in Piedmont, giving to the district the 
 name of Vaudois, where they long remained safe from 
 attack. In 1487 Pope Innocent VIII. ordered their exter- 
 mination ; and the consequent attacks made upon them 
 greatly reduced their strength. In 1530 deputies from 
 the Vaudois in Dauphiny and Provence met the German 
 and Swiss Reformers, and the result was the adoption of 
 some of the distinctive tenets of the latter, and a complete 
 break with the Roman Church. In 1655 they were bar- 
 barously treated by an army authorised by the Roman 
 Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, which 
 roused Protestant indignation against the persecutors. 
 In 1685 a new era of persecution followed the revocation 
 of the Edict of Nantes. A remnant of them now form 
 a separate Protestant Church ^ in Italy, largely supported 
 by contributions from Protestant countries. 
 
 It had always been a function of the bishops to inquire 
 
 into the prevalence of erroneous teaching and to stamp 
 
 The it out, largely by the aid of "the secular power " 
 
 Inquisition, of obedient princes. In 1163 the Council of 
 Tours first used the title of Inquisitor in reference to 
 
 ' See Gilly, Excursion to the. Valleys of Piedmont, and Besearches 
 on the Waldenses. 
 
XIMENES 365 
 
 inquiries into orthodoxy; and in 1184 the Council of 
 Verona directed the bishops to put down the Cathari 
 and the Poor Men of Lyons (Waldenses), cursing all 
 heretics and those who sheltered them. The Inquisition, 
 properly so called, was, however, started by Pope Gregory 
 IX., who in 1232 constituted the Dominicans inquisitors 
 into heresy in Toulouse, with appeal only to the Pope. 
 " The suspicion of heresy was sufficient cause for im- 
 prisonment ; accomplices and criminals were deemed com- 
 petent witnesses ; the accused was never informed of his 
 accusers, nor confronted with them ; confession was often 
 extorted by torture." Of course it would have been im- 
 possible to carry out the cruel system of punishments 
 devised, but for the aid of the secular power ; but this 
 was usually granted readily, either through fear or wil- 
 lingly. Often the populace rose against the Inquisition ; 
 and in some places, as at Toulouse, it was suppressed. 
 "We have not space to recount the deeds of the Inquisition 
 in France and Italy in the thirteenth century, and in 
 Germany in the fourteenth. From 1232 onward it was 
 active in Spaiu, often with every kind of tyranny and 
 cruelty. In 1480 it was more elaborately organised ; and 
 before the end of 1481 298 persons had been burnt in 
 Seville alone. In 1483 the Dominican Thomas of Tor- 
 quemada was appointed Inquisitor-general for Castile and 
 Leon ; and by his rigid and cruel system the Torque- 
 Jews, Moors, and Moriscoes were tortured, killed , ™ada. 
 or banished from Spain. On the death of Torquemada, 
 in 1498, Cardinal Ximenes succeeded him as Inquisitor- 
 general. He utterly opposed the translation of the Bible 
 into the vernacular, as a profanation, and also refused 
 publicity to the proceedings of the Inquisition, 
 or any alleviation of their harshness. Yet he is 
 famous in scholarship for his publication of the Complu- 
 tensian Polyglott Bible. The Inquisition was established 
 in Portugal and in all the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. 
 After the beginning of the seventeenth century its ac- 
 tivity diminished ; in the eighteenth century torture was 
 abandoned.' Down to 1809 it is said that 31,912 persons 
 had been burnt alive in Spain. Napoleon put it down 
 
366 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 wherever he gained power ; but it lingered Jater, and a 
 Jew was burnt and a Quaker schoolmaster hanged in 
 Spain in 1826. The Inquisition was active in Italy up 
 to the time of the consolidation of the kingdom in 1859-60; 
 and the central agency of the Inquisition is still in exis- 
 tence at Rome, and many Romanists hope for its re-estab- 
 lishment in full activity. It was never established in 
 England. 
 
 Before referring to the more active uprisings which 
 
 preceded the Reformation, we must notice certain re- 
 
 The ligious writers and teachers whose influence 
 
 Mystics, certainly prepared the way for it. Henry 
 Eckart, a Saxon, Dominican vicar-general in Bohemia in 
 1307, was strikingly mystic and even pantheistic in his 
 teaching. Nicolas of Basle (1308-1393), the chief leader 
 of the " Friends of God," having completely renounced 
 Nicolas of the world and his own will, and attained in- 
 
 Basie. ward intercourse with God, devoted himself to 
 leading others into the same state. He never received 
 ordination, but did not deny any doctrine of the Church. 
 He was thus the first great Quietist, believing in a resig- 
 nation to the Divine will only parallel to the Moham- 
 medan's. Their direct " inspiration " from God rendered 
 the mystics independent of the Church, which conse- 
 quently was hostile to them. Several of the leaders were 
 burnt, Nicolas in 1893, at Vienne. John Tauler^ (1290- 
 1361) was a follower of Eckart on the speculative side, 
 and of Nicolas on the mystic, and one of the 
 * ^^' most influential preachers of his time. He as- 
 serted that "he who confesses the true faith of Christ, 
 and sins only against the person of the Pope, is no 
 heretic." Suso, Ruysbroek, Gerson, Gerard Groot, and 
 
 THomas i Thomas a Kempis, in different ways carried on 
 
 Kempis. ^}jg inward religious life and speculation, pro- 
 ducing works remarkable for their spirituality, and also 
 taking part in noble philanthropic movements. In exalt- 
 ing personal communion with God through faith, they 
 developed a form of religious life which has had enormous 
 
 ^ See Lifo and Sermons of John Tender. Translated by C. Wink- 
 worth, 1857. 
 
JOHN WYCLIF. 
 
 367 
 
 influence. Gerard Groofc, in particular, by foundinfi- the 
 self-supporting society of "Brethren of the Common Life," 
 at Deventer, for spiritual profit and evangelisation, set 
 the mendicant friaxs an example which they Brethren of 
 greatly resented. Groot was loyal to the Church, the common 
 enjoining the daily hearing of mass, but studied '^"*- 
 chiefly the Gospel and the writings of the Fathers. His 
 follower, Florentius Eadewin, completed the organisation, 
 which was approved by some popes. It was ultimately 
 absorbed by the Ee- 
 formation. 
 
 John "Wyclif 
 (1324-1384) is hon- 
 ourably 
 distin ^^=1*^- 
 guished as the most 
 original and influ- 
 ential Reformer of 
 the Church irt the 
 fourteenth century. 
 He was an Oxford 
 scholastic theologian 
 of the highest abil- 
 ity, and largely in 
 accord with Eoger 
 Bacon: a strong sup- 
 porter of England 
 against Eome, and 
 of the temporal 
 against spiritual 
 power. His great 
 works on Divine and Civil Dominion maintained that 
 God had given no supreme authority to any vicar on 
 earth, whether priest or king, but to each his own 
 province; while all God's people must obey Him rather 
 than man. Thus he supplied arguments against all ex- 
 cessive papal and spiritual claims. He founded an order 
 of poor preachers, without mendicancy, who went through 
 the diocese of Lincoln and elsewhere preaching the gos- 
 pel. Their followers became known and persecuted as 
 
 JOHN WYCLIF. 
 
i68 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 Lollards, and connected with people similarly termed in 
 the Low Countries and "Western Grermany. About 1380 
 "WycHf commenced and largely carried out an English 
 translation of the Bible from the Vulgate. In 1381 he 
 enunciated the doctrine of consubstantiation, as against 
 the transubstantiation of the Church, in a form similar 
 to that of Berengar of Tours, asserting that the bread and 
 wine remain in the sacrament after its consecration. His 
 teaching was condemned by the University of Oxford, 
 and by a council in London. Wyclif continued to work 
 and write with great vigour, and died in 1384 when under 
 citation to appear before Urban IV. at Rome, to whom 
 he replied that he ought not to follow the pope, except 
 so far as he himself followed Christ. The Council of 
 Constance (1414-8) impotently sentenced him to death; 
 and in 1428 Pope Martin V. had his bones burnt and 
 the ashes thrown into the river Swift. The 
 
 e ax s-LQiij^j.(jg -were fiercely persecuted, and many 
 were burnt, but some remained to join in the later Refor- 
 mation. 
 
 In distant Bohemia a movement for purifying the Church 
 and studying the Scriptures at first hand was making 
 headway. The University of Prague, founded in 1348, 
 aided this. Mathias of Janow was one of the most no- 
 table forerunners of Huss. While loyal to the Church, 
 he paid more regard to the study of the manuscripts of 
 the Bible than to the teaching of the Fathers. 
 _ "^ ■ John Huss (1369-1416), who had read the writ- 
 
 ings of Wyclif for many years, became Rector of the 
 University of Prague in 1403. His eloquent friend, Jerome 
 of Prague (1379-1416), a greater theologian, did much to 
 make Wyclif 's works known in Bohemia. Huss main- 
 tained the doctrine of transubstantiation ; but asserted 
 the supreme authority of Scripture, the spiritual nature 
 of the Church, whose head was Christ, and the supremacy 
 of the believer's conscience. He exposed pretended miracles 
 and corruptions in the Church. The Papal party tried to 
 prevent Huss from preaching, charging him with heresy, 
 and burnt Wyclif's books. Huss appealed to John XXIIL, 
 then (1410) made pope after a long career of tyranny and 
 
THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE. 
 
 369 
 
 misconduct. John (1412) offered large indulgences to all 
 who aided a crusade against Ladislaus, King of Naples. 
 Huss_ preached against it, but had to leave Prague to 
 save it from the papal interdict of all religious functions 
 (1413). He then wrote his great work De Ecdesia, defin- 
 ing the Church as the whole body of believers, past, pre- 
 sent, and future, predestined to life, with Christ as its 
 Head, and the pope as His Vicar, if he follows the ex- 
 ample of St. Peter. His powerful tracts in the Bohemian 
 language formed 
 complete expositions 
 of Christianity, as 
 consisting in faith 
 and belief in the 
 truth, obedience to 
 the Divine law, and 
 prayer to God. Many 
 false charges of her- 
 esy and other offences 
 were made against 
 Huss, and he was 
 summoned, with a 
 guarantee of safe re- 
 turn from the Em- 
 peror Sig- TneCouncU 
 ismund, to °^ ''""^t^'^'^B- 
 the Council of Con- 
 stance in 1414 (the 
 sixteenth cecumeni- 
 cal, according to the 
 Roman reckoning). 
 At this, demands for a reformation of the papacy was 
 made by such men as Peter d'Ailly, Archbishop of Cam- 
 bray, and John Gerson, Chancellor of the University of 
 Paris, who yet were most rancorous in their opposition 
 to Huss. He denied the false charges made against him, 
 and refused to abjure what he had never held or taught. 
 The Emperor's safe conduct was not respected ; he was 
 told that his power could not save a heretic from the 
 punishment due to his errors, and that his pledge could 
 
 2a 
 
 JOHN HUSS. 
 
370 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 not bind the council, which was greater than the Em- 
 peror ; and that the Doctors of the Church had taught 
 that no faith should be kept with heretics. The trial 
 was a farce ; no witnesses were heard on behalf of Huss ; 
 his condemnation was a foregone conclusion. He was 
 burnt on July 6, 1416, and in the next year the same 
 
 Huss and fate awaited Jerome of Prague, although from 
 Jerome bumt.f ear and physical weakness he recanted and 
 renounced Wyclif's doctrines and acknowledged the jus- 
 tice of Huss's condemnation. Yet afterwards he recanted 
 his recantation, though declaring that he held all the 
 
 Eeugious articles of the Christian faith. A fierce re- 
 war, ligious war followed in Bohemia. In 1420 a 
 compact with the Hussites granted freedom of preaching, 
 the administration of the Eucharist in both kinds, and 
 reform of the Church ; but this was accepted only by 
 the more moderate or calixtine party (from caUx, the 
 cup). They received further concessions from the Council 
 of Basle (1433) ; but the more radical Hussites (Taborites) 
 held out, formed the Bohemian Brethren (1450-1627), 
 and ultimately were absorbed in the Moravian Brethren 
 (Unitas Fratrum, United Brethren), revived by Count 
 Zinzendorf early in the eighteenth century. They pro- 
 fessed obedience to the Scriptures and the law of love, 
 The United regarded the Eucharist as simply commemo- 
 
 Moravian rative, and rejected the lieal Presence. Towns 
 
 Brethren. ^^^.^^ founded in Moravia and elsewhere in 
 Germany for exclusive occupation of the brethren ; and 
 missions were established through Europe and in North 
 America, which attained great fame and success. By 
 them the later movement of John Wesley in England 
 was largely influenced. They retain government by 
 bishops, who are not diocesan but universal in their 
 scope; they ordain presbyters and deacons. Their wor- 
 ship IS simple, liturgical, and primitive, and they use a 
 rich hymnology, largely composed by their own leaders. 
 
 The deposition of Pope John XXIII. for heresy fol- 
 lowed the burning of Huss. His successor, Martin V. 
 (1417-1431), did little in the way of reform and revived 
 the highest claims of his predecessors. The Council of 
 
THE RENAISSANCE. 
 
 371 
 
 Basle, in 1432, renewed the declaration of Constance that 
 a general council was above the pope, elected councu of 
 its own president, passed many decrees for re- Basio. 
 forming the Church and the papacy, and deposed Pope 
 Eugenius IV. in 1439. A counter-council atFerrara (1438) 
 excommunicated those who attended at Basle and annulled 
 its acts ; it was afterwards removed to Florence, and is 
 now recognised by the Roman Church as the seventeenth 
 oecumenical. At this council a last fruitless effort was 
 made to reunite the Greek and the Roman Churches, 
 by the (Greek) Emperor, 
 John Paleolo- The Greek 
 gusll.; but the cnurcu. 
 accommodation which 
 was devised, and which 
 granted the supremacy 
 of the pope, was repudi- 
 ated by the people, and 
 finally by himself; and 
 a little later the Greek 
 Empire fell before the 
 victorious Turks, by 
 whose favour alone the 
 Greek Church continued 
 to exist in Moslem terri- 
 tory. Eugenius IV. re- 
 tained power as pope in 
 spite of the Council of 
 Basle, and before his 
 death, in 1447, had ar- 
 
 ranged terms with the Emperor Frederick III. and the 
 German electors; and the Council of Basle ended in 
 1449 in failure. 
 
 The Renaissance of Art and Letters was now mfluenc- 
 ing Italy and the Universities ; and several popes so far 
 yielded to its influence as to become classical The Eenais- 
 rather than Christian, while some were con- ^^'^■ 
 spicuous for their vices and crimes. Pope Pius II. (^neas 
 Sylvius Piccolomini) issued from the Congress of Mantua 
 the Bull Execmbilis, declaring that an appeal from the 
 
 HELANCHTHON. 
 
372 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 Pope to a general CouEcil was punishable by excommuni- 
 cation, in direct opposition to the side he had formerly 
 taken. The greater part of the Vatican and the Sistine 
 Chapel are among the works due to the popes of the latter 
 part of the fifteenth century. The criminality of the 
 papal government at this time was thrown 
 Savonarola. ^^^^ relief by the appearance of the striking 
 figure of Savonarola (1452-1498), a Dominican, who, 
 without bringing forward any heretical doctrine, power- 
 fully preached against the corruptions of the age, and 
 denounced Grod's vengeance on the Church. In Florence 
 he effected a striking Puritan reform, as also in his own 
 monastery. In 1497 a great "sacrifice of vanities" was 
 made under his influence; but the infamous Pope Alex- 
 ander VI. (Borgia) excommunicated him, and on May 30, 
 1498, he was hanged and burnt. . 
 
 While the popes in the early part of the sixteenth 
 century were quarrelling with the French king, and 
 while Leo X. (1613-1521) was revelling in the 
 culture and art of the Renaissance, Martin 
 Luther (1483-1546), the man who was to upset much of 
 the work of the papacy, the son of a Saxon miner, was a 
 devout Augustinian friar, working out for himself the 
 problem of personal religion, and studying St. Augustine's 
 writings more than any of the Fathers. A visit to E-ome 
 in 1510 showed him something of Che prevailing corrup- 
 tions. He had studied Tauler and the German mystics 
 deeply ; but an external event, the extremely mercenary 
 sale of indulgences, for the benefit of the building of St. 
 Peter's at Eome, by John Tetzel, a Dominican, in the 
 neighbourhood of Wittenberg, where Luther was teaching 
 theology, led to the opening of his active warfare for 
 reUgious reform. On October 31, 1617, he nailed on the 
 His ninety- door of the Castle church at Wittenberg ninety- 
 five theses. £ye theses denying the power of the Pope to 
 remove the guilt of the smallest transgression, and assert- 
 ing that the obtaining of grace was a matter of immediate 
 relation between God and the soul. The theses went 
 through Germany instantly. Luther wrote several tracts 
 and sermons on the subject, still maintaining that the 
 
LUTHER TRANSLATES THE BIBLE. 373 
 
 pope could not know of the false doctrines that were 
 being taught. In November, 1618, Pope Leo X. con- 
 demned the attacks on indulgences, and claimed full 
 power of releasing sinners from punishment. Luther 
 appealed to a general Council, denying the supremacy of 
 the Pope, and asserting that- the power of the keys re- 
 sided, not in him, but in the Church collectively, and 
 also that the Council of Constance had condemned as 
 heretical things entirely Christian. His fame as a 
 teacher drew crowds of students. In his book on the 
 Babylonish Captivity of the Church (1520) he de- 
 manded the total abolition of indulgences and the giving 
 of the cup to the laity, and expressed his doctrine of 
 " consubstantiation," viz., that the bread and wine of 
 the sacrament remain bread and wine, though, after 
 the consecration they truly contain the flesh and blood 
 of Christ in union with them. In September, 1520, 
 a papal Bull was pubhshed in Germany con- papaiBuii 
 demning forty-one heretical propositions from *sainst Mm. 
 Luther's writings, ordering his works to be burnt, and 
 himself to retract his errors within sixty days. Luther, 
 in response, publicly burnt the papal Bull, together with 
 the decretals and the whole Roman canon law, on Decem- 
 ber 10, 1520. He was speedily excommunicated and 
 summoned to a Diet at Worms before the Diet of 
 Emperor and Electors of Germany. Here he worms, 
 defended himself boldly, claimed freedom of conscience, 
 denied the right of the clergy to control men's religious 
 convictions, and withdrew from none of his positions. 
 He was outlawed on May 25, 1521, and concealed in the 
 castle of Wartburg, where he translated theiuther trans- 
 New Testament into German, a translation latesBiwe. 
 which made German a literary language and powerfully 
 aided the Reformation. During his absence his rival 
 Carlstadt had celebrated the Communion with the omis- 
 sion of all the distinctive Eoman features, giving it to 
 all in both kinds ; and he was proposing other violent 
 changes. Luther, on returning to Wittenberg, in 1522, 
 pursued a more moderate course, but gave up monastic 
 and ascetic life in 1524, and married in 1525. 
 
374 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 Meanwhile another great reformer had arisen in Swit- 
 zerland, Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), pastor of Glarus 
 from 1506-1516, a learned man who had become 
 disgusted with the corruptions of the Church 
 and especially with the indulgences granted to pilgrims. 
 In 1619 he became preacher in Zurich cathedral, taking 
 as his first subject the life of Christ as he interpreted it, 
 apart from human authority. In 1521 he began to be 
 called a heretic, and preached on 1 Tim. iv. 1-5, to the 
 effect that it was no sin to eat flesh on a fast day, but a 
 great sin to sell human flesh for slaughtering (alluding to 
 the hiring of Swiss mercenary soldiers then prevalent). 
 In 1522 he published tracts on reform which caused 
 the local authorities to arrange a public disputation in 
 Zurich with the vicar of the bishop of Constance (January 
 His sixty-five 29, 1623). Zwingli presented sixty-five theses, 
 
 theses, asserting that Christ is the only way to sal- 
 vation, independent of the papacy, mass, absolution, 
 indulgences, intercession of the saints, etc. ; that Scrip- 
 ture is the only authoritative guide, and the Eoman 
 system a dangerous delusion ; that the congregation, not 
 the priesthood, properly constitutes and rules the Church, 
 subject to the State ; but if the State authorities go 
 beyond Christ's teaching, they must be deposed. His 
 demonstration was so powerful that he was completely 
 The Eefor- victorious, and the council of Zurich reformed 
 
 mation In public worship in accordance with the Eefor- 
 
 zurich. jj^gj-'s teaching. Convents were closed ; the 
 cathedral chapter was converted into a theological stu- 
 dents' college. Zwingli and other priests married, images 
 were given up as unlawful, the mass was declared to be 
 not a sacrifice, the relics and the organ disappeared from 
 the cathedral, various festivals, processions, and other 
 ceremonies were discontinued, and at Easter 1526 the 
 Communion was celebrated as the Lord's Supper, with 
 the table spread with a white cloth and the cup was given 
 to the laity. 
 
 Meanwhile the Anabaptists had appeared in Saxony 
 and in several other parts of Germany, declaring especially 
 against infant baptism, on the ground of the incapacity 
 
PROTEST OF LUTHERAN PRINCES. 375 
 
 of infants to exercise faitli, and enforcing adult bap- 
 tism. In Zurich they appeared in 15'2.3, de-j^^^^^^^ ^^^^ 
 manding the formation of a holy congregation, ^ ^^ 
 from which all should be excluded who were • not rebap- 
 tised and truly holy. About the same time Zwingli 
 began to write against the doctrine of Luther on consub- 
 stantiation; and their views were found to diverge so 
 much that in September 1529 a conference conference of 
 was held at Marburg between Luther, Me- Marburg, 
 lanchthon, Zwingli, (Ecolampadius, Osiander, and other 
 Reformers, to endeavour to come to a complete agree- 
 ment ; but after three days this was found to be impossi- 
 ble, Zwingli protesting his desire for union, but Luther 
 proving unyielding. Zwingli's doctrines had gained 
 largely in Switzerland, at the same time exciting the bitter 
 hostility of the Romanist cantons, when he was killed on 
 October 11, 1B31, while acting as chaplain to the army of 
 Zurich, defeated on that day at Kappel. 
 
 Before the death of Zwingli, however, the decisive 
 establishment of the Lutheran Church in Germany had 
 takeif place. The Diet held at Spires in 1526 Diet of 
 had resolved in favour of tolerance in religious spires, 
 matters ; but the adhesion of the Bavarian dukes had 
 by 1629 restored the majority to the Roman side ; and 
 the Diet of Spires in that year forbade the preaching of 
 Zwingli's doctrine about the Eucharist, and that of the 
 Anabaptists, and ordered that the reformers should teach 
 nothing in their sermons contrary to the received doc- 
 trine of the Church. The Lutheran princes, headed by 
 John, Elector of Saxony, then handed in their celebrated 
 Protest, from which the term Protestant is protest of 
 derived. They declared themselves ready to Lutheran 
 obey the Emperor and the Diet in all reason- p™i<!6s- 
 able matters ; but they appealed from all past, present, or 
 future vexatious measures to the Emperor, and to a free 
 and universal council. They maintained the supreme 
 authority of the Bible, which was to be explained by 
 itself, and not by tradition. The conference of Marburg, 
 already spoken of, followed, and if it did not produce 
 entire union, its fourteen articles of united belief were 
 
376 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 of the greatcsb service in manifesting essential unity as 
 against Eome. But henceforth the history of Protes- 
 tantism became markedly national. 
 
 The principal document of Lutheranism, the Augsburg 
 Confession, was drawn up by Philip Melanchthon (1497- 
 The Augsi)urgl560), the learned and gentle companion of 
 Confession. Luther, and his helper in the translation of the 
 Bible into German. The Emperor Charles V., at the Diet 
 of Augsburg, commanded the Lutheran princes to draw 
 up a statement of their faith ; and Melanchthon wrote it, 
 basing it on Luther's teaching, but with studious modera- 
 tion. This Confession may be taken as establishing the 
 Lutheran Church. It affirms the ancient doctrines of 
 the Church as laid down in the oecumenical creeds, and 
 repudiates Unitarianism, Arianism, and all the heresies 
 denounced by the early councils. It maintains the 
 Augustinian doctrine of original sin, and condemns 
 Pelagianism ; teaching that men are justified freely for 
 Christ's sake through faith, when they believe that they 
 are received into favour ; and their sins are forgiven for 
 Christ's sake, " who by His death hath satisfied for our 
 sins." The Church is defined as the congregation of 
 saints or assembly of all believers, in which the gospel is 
 purely preached and the sacraments are administered 
 according to the gospel ; and it is sufficient for the true 
 unity of the Church to agree concerning the doctrine of 
 the gospel and the administration of the sacraments ; nor 
 is it necessary that human traditions, rites, or ceremonies 
 should be everywhere alike. Baptism is declared neces- 
 sary to salvation, and the baptism of infants is held 
 to be right. Luther's doctrine of consubstantiation is 
 declared, but the Communion only avails wh^n joined 
 with faith in the recipient. Saints are not to be invoked 
 or prayed to, for Christ is the sole Mediator. Good works 
 are not discountenanced, but are necessary, though not 
 the means of salvation. Various Eomish errors are repu- 
 diated, such as Communion in one kind, celibacy of the 
 clergy, masses celebrated for money, and the mass as a 
 sacrifice, the enumeration of sins at confession, special 
 mortifications and peculiarities of abstinence, rigidity and 
 
ZWINGLPS DISTINCTIVE DOCTRINES. 377 
 
 special merits of monastic vows, and jurisdiction of bishops 
 beyond wliat is plainly taught by the gospel. Luther's 
 remaining years were devoted to the settlement of the 
 German Churches, too often in an exclusive and masterful 
 spirit ; but we cannot here detail his labours. He died on 
 Feb. 18, 1546. 
 
 We must now briefly sum up the position taken by 
 Zwingli so far as distinctive, and as definitely character- 
 ising the earliest Swiss Reformed Churches ; THe THeses 
 leaving Calvin's work and the Reformation in °^ Berne. 
 England, for later chapters. Next to Zwingli's sixty- 
 five articles (p. 374) stand his ten Theses of Berne, 1528. 
 which rejected tradition, accepted the Scriptures as the 
 only authority, and Christ as the sole redemption and 
 satisfaction for the sins of the world, rejected the corporeal 
 presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist 
 as incapable of proof from Scripture, the mass as a sacri- 
 fice, and all mediation except that of Christ, together with 
 purgatory, masses and prayers for the dead, image wor- 
 ship, and celibacy of the clergy. He more fully elaborated 
 his doctrine in a confession sent to the Diet of Augsburg 
 in 1530. In July, 1631, he wrote a further exposition to 
 Francis I. of France, begging him to give the gospel free- 
 dom in his kingdom and to judge the Reformed faith by 
 its fruits when established. In these confessions zwingU's 
 he taught the unconditional election or predes- distinctive 
 tination of those who are to be saved, faith 
 being the means by which it is appropriated. Those 
 who hear the gospel and reject it are fore-ordained to 
 eternal punishment. God by His providence controls and 
 disposes all events ; the fall of man with its consequences 
 happened under His foreknowledge and fore-ordination. 
 It is this doctrine especially which was more fully de- 
 veloped by Calvin. 
 
 As to the Lord's Supper, Zwingli holds that it is the 
 visible sign of an invisible grace, there being a clear dis- 
 tinction between the sign and the thing signified. Com- 
 munion with Christ is not confined to the sacrament, nor 
 do all who partake of it really commune with Christ. 
 The priestly act is of no avail, the faith of the recipient 
 
27^ THE REFORMATION. 
 
 being the only means of its efficacy. The sacraments aid 
 and strengthen faith, and are public testimonies of it. 
 The Lord's Supper is a commemoration, not a repetition 
 of Christ's sacrifice ; the bread and wine represent, but 
 are not really, the body and blood of Christ, who is pre- 
 sent only to the eye of faith ; His human body, which is 
 in heaven, cannot be everywhere at the same time ; and 
 the eating and drinking of the sacrament is a spiritual 
 partaking only. He shows that the figiirative interpre- 
 tation of Christ's words of institution is Hke a great 
 number of His other expressions, which cannot be liter- 
 ally true. Zwingli further went beyond Romans and 
 Lutherans in his doctrine of the salvation of children 
 dying unbaptised, by the merits of Christ. He also be- 
 lieved in the salvation of many adult heathen. 
 
 The First Confession of Basle (1534) was first drawn up 
 by John CEcolampadius, the principal reformer of Basle, 
 Confessions before his death in 1B31, and put into its pro- 
 of Basle, sej^t shape by his successor, Oswald Myconius. 
 It asserts briefly the main Zwinglian doctrines, terming 
 Christ the food of the soul to everlasting life, and repu- 
 diates the views of the Anabaptists. The Second Con- 
 fession of Basle (1536) is also termed the First Helvetic 
 Confession, from its having been drawn up by a confer- 
 ence of the leading Swiss divines, and intended to be 
 laid before the general council of the Church. It chiefly 
 differs from the Zwinglian Confessions in laying more 
 stress on the significance of the sacramental signs and 
 the real spiritual presence of Christ. The Eeformed 
 doctrines had by this time received their remarkable 
 Calvinistic development in the publication by Calvin, in 
 1534, of his Institutio Chrktiancn Eeligmiis, generally 
 known as Calvin's Institutes. The Council of Trent, 
 however, by its decisions entirely precluded any hope of 
 accommodation with the Reformers. 
 
 ^^ 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 €i)e Cnimcil of Crtnt anti iBot«ern aaomaiueim. 
 
 The Council of Trent— The Creeds and the Bible— Original sin and Baptism 
 — Justifloation— Penance — The seven sacraments — The " Real Presence " 
 — Transubstantiation and the adoration of the Host— Confession— Long 
 intermission of the Council— The Mass — Orders— Marriage and divorce- 
 Purgatory — Prayers to saints — Relics and images — Tridentine profession 
 and Roman Catechism— Bellarmine — Bossuet — Mohler — Perrone — Ig- 
 natius Loyola — Faher and Xavler— The Jesuit Order— Jansen's "Augus- 
 tinus" — Amauld-Pascal-Quesnel- Jansenists— Causes of Jesuit suc- 
 cesses— Moral defects— Recent history — "The Immaculate Conception" 
 — Vatican Council, 1870— Papal infallibility— Number of Roman Catholics 
 — The Roman Congregations-*-Roman service boolcs— The Old Catholics 
 —Theses of TTnion Conference- Swiss Old Catholics. 
 
 THE Council of Trent, the most important modern 
 Council of the Roman Catholic Church, was distin- 
 guished by the protracted length and interrup- Tue council 
 tion of its sittings, and by the extent and of Trent, 
 variety of its pronouncements. It was first summoned 
 for 1637, by Pope Paul III., but various causes led to its 
 postponement ; and it at last met at Trent {Tridentum), 
 in the Italian Tyrol (under Austrian rule), on Dec. 13, 1546. 
 Its avowed objects were the extirpation of heresy, the 
 re-establishment of ecclesiastical discipline, the reforma- 
 tion of morals, and the restoration of peace and unity. 
 To it were invited the princes and divines who supported 
 the Eeform movement ; but they declined to attend, as 
 they were not even to discuss controverted questions. 
 They said that the Council would be neither free, nor 
 Christian, nor oecumenical, nor ruled by the word of God, 
 and that it would only confirnj the authority of the Pope. 
 After several preliminaries, in February, 1646, the 
 
 379 
 
38o THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 
 
 Nicene Creed was adopted, and Luther's exclusive ad- 
 The Creeds besion to the Scriptures was rejected, it being 
 andtheBiiiie.added, that saving truth of equal authority 
 with the Scriptures was also contained in the traditions 
 of the Church, handed down from Christ or the Apostles 
 through the Fathers. It was also decided that all the 
 canonical books, including the Apocrypha, were authentic 
 and to be received. The Latin Vulgate version, regarded 
 by the Reformers as full of errors, was declared authentic. 
 In opposition to the right of private judgment, it was 
 ordered that no one should presume to interpret the Scrip- 
 tures in senses contrary to that of holy mother Church, 
 whose function it was to judge of their true sense and 
 interpretation. 
 
 In June, 1546, the doctrine of " original sin," trans- 
 originai sin mitted to all mankind through Adam, was 
 andBaptiam. a£[ij.j^ed, and also its remedy and removal by 
 the merit of Jesus Christ, applied both to adults and to 
 infants by baptism, rightly administered in the form of 
 the Church. Infants, even newly bom, need baptism for 
 the remission of sins, that they may be cleansed from the 
 taint of original sin ; after baptism original sin is taken 
 away, and they are made iiinocent, immaculate, pure, and 
 harmless. The question as to the immaculate conception 
 of the Virgin, who is mentioned as " the blessed and 
 immaculate Virgin Mary, the Mother of God," was left 
 open, though the Franciscans strongly desired that she 
 should be declared free from the taint of original sin. 
 
 In January, 1547, decrees were passed relating to justifi- 
 cation by the redemption of Christ — first, through the 
 T ♦«= *. prevenient grace of God, disposing men to con- 
 
 Justlfioatlon. ^ , . ^ , ' ■ , 1 ^, 1 * e r^ -, 
 
 sent to and co-operate with the grace of God, 
 they being able to reject grace, while not able, without 
 the grace of God, to turn to righteousness. Justification 
 is declared to be, not merely remission of sins, but also 
 the sanctification and renewal of the inward man ; the 
 efficient cause being the mercy of God, the meritorious 
 cause the suffering of Christ upon the cross, whereby He 
 made satisfaction for us to God the Father, the instru- 
 mental cause the sacrament of baptism, and the formal 
 
POPE SI XT US THE FIFTH. 38 1 
 
 cause the justice of God, the communication of the merits 
 
 POPE BIXTDS THE FIFTH (1585-90). 
 
 of Christ's passion justifying men and infusing into them 
 
■J2 THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 
 
 faith, hope, and charity. Men are justified by faith, be- 
 cause it is the beginning and root of all justification, and 
 freely, because nothing done before justification merits it; 
 but this justification cannot be possessed, for a certainty, 
 by those who simply settle within themselves that they 
 are justified (as the heretics and schismatics do). Faith, 
 co-operating with good works, increases justification, but 
 no one is exempt from keeping all the commandments ; 
 but it is heretical to say that the just man sins in all his 
 good works, venially at least. No man can be absolutely 
 certain that he is predestinate to salvation, or that he 
 shall finally persevere. Those who have fallen after jus- 
 tification may be restored through the sacra- 
 enance. j^^gj^^ ^f penance, including sacramental con- 
 fession of sins, and sacerdotal absolution, and satisfaction 
 by fasts, alms, prayers, and other pious exercises, for the 
 temporal punishment due for the sins. Thirty-three 
 canons were appended to these declarations, censuring 
 and anathematising the doctrines of justification by works, 
 the Pelagian teaching on the power of man's free will, 
 the beliefs that man's free wiU is lost, that God works any 
 evil, that a man can be justified without the merits of 
 Christ, that when once justified he cannot fall from grace, 
 or that if he sins he was never really justified, that there 
 is no mortal sin but infidelity, that he who sins after bap- 
 tism cannot regain grace, or that he- can regain it by faith 
 alone, without the sacrament of penance, that after justifi- 
 cation there is no receiving punishment, to be discharged 
 either in this world or in purgatory, that a man cannot 
 by good works merit and gain increase of grace and glory, 
 and the converse of other doctrines enuriciated above. 
 
 In March, 1547, thirty canons on the sacraments were 
 adopted, anathematising those who maintain that the 
 
 The seven seven sacraments were not all instituted by 
 sacraments. Christ, or that any is superfluous ; that one 
 sacrament is of more value than another ; that the sacra- 
 ments do not confer grace through the act performed 
 (ojjMS operaium) ; that baptism, orders, and confirmation 
 do not imprint an indelible character ; that all Christians 
 may preach and administer the sacraments ; that the sin 
 
TRA NS UBS TA NTIA TION. 383 
 
 of the minister makes the sacrament invalid, or that the 
 minister may change or omit sacramental rites at pleasure. 
 On the question of baptism, among the fourteen canons, 
 one asserts the validity of baptism by heretics in the 
 name of the Trinity, and when intending to do what the 
 Church does. It is asserted that baptism is essential to 
 salvation, that the baptised may lose grace, that they are 
 required to observe the whole law of Christ and of the 
 Church, and that it need not be repeated after lapse into 
 heresy and repentance. Confirmation has a special vir- 
 tue, and is to be administered by bishops only. 
 
 In the middle of March, 1547, the Council was ordered 
 to meet at Bologna, as contagious disease had broken out 
 at Trent; but in consequence of a quarrel be- THe-Reai 
 tween the Pope and the Emperor it was sus- Presence." 
 pended for four years, during which Pope Paul III. died 
 (1549) and Julius III. succeeded him. The Council was 
 reopened in 1551, and in October a most important decree 
 concerning the Eucharist was adopted. It was declared 
 that after the consecration of the bread and wine, " our 
 Lord Jesus Christ, true God and man, is truly, really, and 
 substantially contained under the appearance of these 
 ensible objects," and that His presence thus can be 
 conceived by faith, in a mode of existence which can 
 scarcely be expressed by words. It is the spiritual food 
 of souls, and a pledge of glory to come. Each kind con- 
 tains both the body and blood of Christ, in the ^ransub- 
 smallest particle, as well as His divinity; and stantiatiou 
 in another article it is stated that the whole^'^^^^"^^*^'"" 
 substance of the bread is converted into the 
 body of Christ, and the whole substance of the wine into 
 the blood of Christ. Wherefore the adoration of latria 
 (worship) which is due to God, is due to the sacrament ; 
 and it should be specially adored on a yearly festival 
 (Corpus Christi), and borne reverently through streets 
 and public places, and also reserved in the sanctuary and 
 carried to the sick. Preparation for its reception is to be 
 by sacramental confession and penance in the case of any 
 one conscious of mortal sin. A series of canons condemns 
 all who hold opposite opinions. 
 
384 THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 
 
 In November 1551 decrees on penance and extreme 
 uQction Avere passed. It was declared that Christ insti- 
 tuted penance, principally when He prohounced the words, 
 " Whose sins ye shall forgive, they are forgiven them," etc., 
 for the reconciling of those who fall after baptism ; and 
 that the priest in the sacrament of penance exercises the 
 office of a judge. The form of the sacrament is in the 
 words of the priest, " Ego te absolvo," I absolve thee, 
 while the penitential acts are contrition, confession, and 
 satisfaction ; and penance does not confer grace without 
 any good motive on the part of those who re- 
 confession. ^q^^q i^_ Confession should be made once a 
 year at least, preferably in Lent. Unworthy priests can 
 still minister this sacrament by virtue of their ordination. 
 Certain atrocious crimes ought to be reserved for popes 
 and bishops to deal with ; though there may be no re- 
 servation when the sinner is at the point of death. With- 
 out derogation from the efficacy of Christ's merit, the 
 voluntary penances, or those imposed by the priest, as well 
 as the patient bearing of temporal scourges inflicted by 
 Grod, do make a satisfaction for our sins. Extreme unction 
 is said to have been instituted by Christ, but only pro- 
 mulgated by the apostle James (James v. 14, 15). The 
 oil blessed by a bishop is its agency ; and its effect is to 
 cleanse away the remains of sin and comfort the soul of 
 the sick. The canons on these subjects anathematise 
 those who repudiate confession to a priest alone secretly, 
 or the judicial or the absolving function of the priest, or 
 the efficacy of penance, or who reject extreme unction as 
 a sacrament. 
 
 A long discussion about questions of episcopal juris- 
 diction and about holy orders followed ; but the Council 
 Long inter- ^^^ prorogued early in 1552, in consequence of 
 mission of disputes between the Emperor's ambassadors 
 the counca ^^^ 1^^ papal legates. The suspension lasted 
 nearly ten years, and in the meantime Pope Pius IV. had 
 succeeded to Julius III. in 1555. When the Council 
 again reassembled, in 1562, ambassadors from the French 
 king proposed that the decisions of the Council should 
 not be reserved for the Pope's approval, but that the Pope 
 
THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 385 
 
 should be compelled to submit to the decision of the 
 
 Council; that the Council should begin with reforming 
 
 2 B 
 
386 THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 
 
 the Churcli in its head and in its members; that arch- 
 bishops and bishops should be compelled to reside in their 
 sees, that bishops should only ordain priests to definite 
 charges, etc. Little attention was paid to these demands. 
 In July, 1562, it was resolved that laymen, as well as 
 priests when not celebrating, are not bound to receive 
 the sacrament in both kinds, and communion in either is 
 sufficient ; nor are little children bound to receive the 
 sacrament. In September, 1562, it was declared that 
 the mass is a propitiatory sacrifice, continuous with that 
 of Christ on the cross, and may not only be 
 oifered for the sins of the faithful who are 
 living, but also for the faithful who are dead, but not 
 yet fully purified. Masses are to be said in honour of the 
 saints, not as sacrifices to them, but to implore their 
 patronage, " that they may intercede for us in heaven." 
 The rites and ceremonies, lights and incense, vestments, 
 etc., used in the mass are derived from apostolical tradi- 
 tion, and both honour the majesty of the sacrifice and 
 excite the minds of the faithful to the contemplation of 
 the sublimities hidden in the sacrifice. The mass is not 
 iisually to be celebrated in the vulgar tongue, but it is 
 frequently to be explained in sermons. The contraries 
 of these doctrines were anathematised in nine canons. 
 Seven orders, besides bishops, were recognised by the . 
 Orders Council in 1663: viz., priests, deacons, sub- 
 deacons, acolytes, exorcists, readers, and door- 
 keepers. Orders are indelible, and the priesthood cannot 
 be possessed by all Christians. No consent of the civil 
 power is requisite for orders, or their conferment, or for 
 the authority of the bishops. Marriage was 
 
 Mamage andaffirmed as a sacrament; but the Church as- 
 divorce. - • . 
 
 serted its power to dispense with certain limits 
 
 of the Levitical law, and to create others. Divorce is 
 
 forbidden, even for adultery. The marriage of priests is 
 
 illegal, and celibacy is extolled as better than marriage. 
 
 In December, 1563, the doctrine of purgatory was 
 
 Purgatory ^.ffirmed, and' that the souls there detained are 
 
 helped by the prayers of the faithful, by masses 
 
 ou their behalf, and by alms. It was declared that the 
 
TRIDENTINE PROFESSION. 387 
 
 saints in heaven offer up prayer to God for men, through 
 Christ. The bodies of martyrs, and their relics, ought 
 to be venerated, honoured, and visited. Images of Christ, 
 the Virgin, and the saints are to be retained prayers to 
 and honoured, though no worship is to be paid saints. 
 to them ; but the honour shown to them, when they are 
 kissed, or otherwise honoured, is referred to their prototype. 
 A strong desire was expressed to put down abuses con- 
 nected with images, and all superstition, lasciviousness, 
 or revellings in connection with them. No unusual image, 
 no new miracles, no new relics were to be hon- Keiics and 
 oured, unless after full consideration of bishops, images, 
 and reference of doubtful cases to the pope. Indulgences 
 are still authorised, with moderation and correction of all 
 abuses. The final act of the Council was to pronounce a 
 curse upon all heretics. The decrees were signed by 256 
 bishops and others, and confirmed by a Bull of Pius IV. 
 on the 20th January, 1564, reserving the exclusive right 
 of explanation to the pope. 
 
 The Council undoubtedly felt and yielded considerably 
 to the prevalent deme^nd for reforms, and passed many 
 decrees, such as those forbidding the non-residence of 
 bishops, and a number of irregularities in the conduct 
 and education of bishops and priests, which have been 
 very beneficial. 
 
 ' Its decrees were acknowledged in Italy, Spain, Portugal, 
 France, the Netherlands, the Roman Catholic German 
 States, and Poland ; the royal prerogatives being usually 
 reserved. They were never formally accepted in France, 
 and they were never introduced in England or Scotland. 
 
 A brief summary of the Tridentine decrees was pre- 
 pared by order of Pius IV. in 1564, as a profession of faith 
 to be taken by all Catholic dignitaries and 
 teachers, including an acknowledgment that profession 
 "The Holy Catholic Apostolic Eoman Church ^^^^^ 
 is the mother and mistress of all Churches." 
 The decrees of Trent were further arranged in a popular 
 form as the Eoman Catechism, issued in 1566, subsequently 
 charged with heresy by prominent Jesuits, who framed 
 catechisms of their own. 
 
388 THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 
 
 "We may here briefly refer to a few of the great theo- 
 logians of the Romish Church since the Council of Trent. 
 Beuarmine Cardinal Bellarmine (1542-1621) became a 
 Jesuit in 1560, and librarian of the Vatican in 
 1605. His great work " On the Controversies of the Chris- 
 tian Faith" (1587-90) is a storehouse of Protestant doc- 
 trines, which he gives in full from the original authorities, 
 and of Roman refutation. It was at first proscribed by 
 Pope Sixtus v., from a fear that by giving the teaching 
 of the Reformers in their own words, the infection might 
 
 Eossuet spread in the Roman Church. Bellarmine 
 allowed only an indirect control by the pope 
 over temporal matters. In the seventeenth century, the 
 eloquent French prelate Bossuet (1627-1704) wrote two 
 great theological books — (1) An " Exposition of the 
 Catholic Church Doctrine on Matters of Controversy," 
 in which he presents the dogmas in their most plausible 
 form, and conciliates Protestants as much as possible; 
 and (2) "A History of the Variations of the Protestant 
 Churches." He did not support papal infallibility, nor 
 supreme Roman control of foreign States. He was genu- 
 inely desirous of reunion with Protestants, and proposed 
 to Leibnitz a suspension of the Tridentine anathemas, 
 and the summoning of a general council in which Protes- 
 tants should have votes. Adam Mohler, the greatest Ger- 
 
 Moiiier. ™^'^ Catholic divine (1796-1838), wrote a book 
 entitled " Symbolics," which both defended 
 Romanism and attacked Protestantism, giving an ideal 
 and spiritual portraiture of the former, and making great 
 use of Luther's private and unguarded utterances. He 
 deplored the corruptions of the Church, acknowledged 
 the sinfulness of many popes and priests, and ignored the 
 question of papal infallibility. John Perrone (born in 
 
 Pen-one ^'^^^ i'^ Piedmont, and for many years professor 
 of theology in the Jesuit college at Rome) wrote 
 a large work on dogmatic theology, which is very widely 
 used in the Roman Church, and which includes the later 
 developments of Romanism. The Romish doctrines and 
 discipline are described in the " Catholic Dictionary " 
 of W. E. Addis and Thomas Arnold, 1884. 
 
IGNATIUS LOYOLA, 
 
 3S9 
 
 To properly understand the pronouncements of the 
 
 
 IGKATIOS LOYOLA. 
 
 popes against the Jansenists, we must first review the 
 
390 MODERN ROMANISM. 
 
 remarkable organisation and work of the Jesuits, founded 
 Ignatius by Don Inigo or Ignatius de Loyola, a Spanish 
 
 Loyola, nobleman, born in 1491. He took religious 
 vows as a Benedictine in 1621, and made the first draft 
 of his famous " Spiritual Exercises." He conceived the 
 idea of founding an order which should support the 
 papacy against the German heretics, and spread the 
 gospel among the heathen. He was twice imprisoned 
 in Spain on suspicion of heresy ; but from 1528 to 1534 
 he studied at Paris, and in the latter year he founded 
 Faberand his society, with Peter Faber, a priest, and 
 
 Xavier. Francis Xavier, afterwards the celebrated 
 
 missionary to India, in 1637 taking the title of " The 
 
 Company of Jesus," whence they were afterwards termed 
 
 THe Jesuit " Jesuits " by Calvin. In 1540, after much 
 
 Order, opposition, the new Order was confirmed by 
 papal bull. The employments assigned were to be preach- 
 ing, spiritual exercises, works of charity, teaching the 
 catechism, and hearing confessions ; but the work to be 
 done by any member was to be chosen by the general, 
 and a long probation was prescribed before full admis- 
 sion. Francis Xavier and Rodriguez were sent to the 
 King of Portugal to act as missionaries in his possessions. 
 In 1541 Loyola was chosen superior or general, and 
 immediately sent out his adherents on various special 
 missions — two to Ireland to encourage the people in their 
 resistance to Henry VIII., one to the Diet at Worms. A 
 college was founded in 1642, to supply preachers for the 
 Indian mission founded by Xavier. The Jesuits had much 
 success both in Spain and Germany, where they proved 
 themselves able opponents of the Protestants. Privileges 
 and gifts flowed in upon them ; but Loyola wisely stipu- 
 lated that his members should not be compelled to take 
 outside dignities and offices, or become monastic confessors. 
 They were also placed completely at the general's dis- 
 posal, and the final vows were made unchangeable. 
 Loyola would not have his members wear a special habit, 
 designing that they should mix freely with the world. 
 Candidates had to renounce their own will, their family, 
 and all that they held most dear, In 1646 free day schools 
 
THE JANSENISTS. 391 
 
 were established in connection with all the- Jesuit colleges. 
 During the sittings of the Council of Trent, three mem- 
 bers of the Order were strong advocates for the papal 
 power, viz., Laynez, Faber, and Salmeron, and had con- 
 siderable influence in framing its decrees. When Loyola 
 died, in 1556, the society included over 2,000 members in 
 twelve provinces, and more than a hundred colleges and 
 houses. Laynez, the next general, added to the great 
 powers of his office. Pope Pii;s V. granted still more 
 extended privileges, and made them irrevocable at any 
 future time. In the latter part of the sixteenth century 
 the Jesuits had great success in counteracting the Reform 
 movement, though they were expelled from England, 
 France, and Antwerp. 
 
 In 1640 was published the celebrated Augustinus of 
 Cornelius Jansen (1685-1638), Bishop of Ypres, who had 
 taught against the Jesuits' influence at Lou- jansen's 
 vain. A large part of this book is devoted to Augustinus. 
 an exposition of the Pelagian errors and of the Augus- 
 tinian doctrine of Divine grace, in a sense approaching 
 the teaching of Calvin ; but its epilogue by implication 
 compared the errors of the Jesuits to those of the early 
 semi-Pelagians, and drew down their violent antagonism. 
 The Inquisition prohibited it, followed by a Papal bull to 
 the same effect in 1643. Arnauld, a famous 
 French theologian, wrote two Apologies for *" ' 
 Jansen, and many Catholic theologians supported the 
 Augustinus. Finally, the Jesuits succeeded in getting a 
 papal condemnation of several teachings of Jansen as 
 heretical, which proceeding called forth the pascal 
 celebrated Provincial Letters of Blaise Pascal, 
 which dealt severe blows at the Jesuits. Arnauld, how- 
 ever, was expelled from the Sorbonne, and the Jesuits 
 for years carried on a bitter persecution of the 
 Jansenists, especially in France, in the latter "*™^ ' 
 part of the seventeenth and first half of the eighteenth 
 centuries. Quesnel's "Moral Eeflections on the New 
 Testament " being a popular work, was especially ob- 
 noxious to the Jesuits as containing Jansenist views. In 
 Holland a considerable section, with the deprived Arch- 
 
392 MODERN ROMANISM. 
 
 bishop of Utrecht, stuck to the Jansenist teaching, and 
 succeeded in maintaining a separatist Church, with a 
 succession of bishops, which still exists at 
 Utrecht, Deventer, and Haarlem, though its 
 members do not exceed six thousand. They claim still 
 to be members of the Catholic Church under the pope, 
 though denying his infallibihty. 
 
 What were the main elements of the success of the 
 Jesuits, and the causes of the opposition they aroused ? ' 
 
 Causes of ■'-^ ^^® ■^^''^ place, the vow of indiscriminating 
 Jesuit obedience to orders from headquarters, and the 
 
 successes, extent to which that obedience has been ren- 
 dered. Secondly, their continual intercourse with society, 
 mobility, and adaptability to local circumstances. This 
 has gone to the extent that multitudes have met with 
 and been iniluenced by Jesuits without the slightest 
 suspicion of their identity. Thirdly, the subjugation of 
 will, understanding, and even moral judgment, to the 
 superior and to what is considered to be the good of the 
 Order or the Church. Fourthly, a complete system of 
 checks, not to say spies, and a spirit of resistance to the 
 papacy when not in accord with the Order. Many popes 
 have condemned their actions fruitlessly ; for instance, 
 although nine popes condemned their adoption of Chinese 
 heathen methods and rites in their Chinese missions, they 
 maintained their course successfully. Their missions, their 
 colleges, spread almopt throughout the world ; and their 
 influence successfully hindered the spread of Protestantism 
 in many countries and provinces. The personal and pri- 
 vate character of the Jesuits has in general been remark- ' 
 ably pure and free from ill-repute. Yet both the doctrines 
 and the acts attributed ■ to the Jesuits have caused them 
 to be widely suspected and disliked. The motto of the 
 order, " Ad majorem Dei gloriam," " To the greater glory 
 
 Moral of God," was interpreted in a sense which more 
 
 defects, or less overpowered moral distinctions; and 
 three principles— (1) that of probabilism, or that probable 
 opinions may be lawfully followed, even if they conflict 
 
 ' See Qvarte7-ly Review for October, 1874, and January, 1875, 
 
iIE. 
 
RECENT HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. 393 
 
 witli the agent's opinion ; (2) that of mental reservation ; 
 and (3) that the end justifies the means — have been -with 
 more or less justice identified with the spirit of Jesuitry. 
 In a fully authorised and widely diffused " Compendium 
 of Moral Theology," by Father Gury, we have such Jesu- 
 itical principles as these : " Temptation, when greatly 
 protracted, need not be positively withstood continuously " ; 
 " The Pope can dispense from God's precepts for a just 
 cause in cases where Divine law comes into action through 
 human will, as in vows or oaths." As to the necessity 
 of belief in the Trinity and Incarnation before absolution, 
 one can be " validly absolved if only he be living in in- 
 vincible ignorance." This might be used to cover the 
 case of so-called converts in China accepted without any 
 behef in the distinctive doctrines of Christianity. " For 
 grave reasons " it is declared lawful at times to use latent 
 reservations and equivocal terms ; and this is illustrated 
 by cases which practically justify many kinds of deceit. 
 Clandestine conversions with postponed professions are 
 permitted. The maxim that the end justifies the means 
 has been again and again expressed by Jewish theologians. 
 All kinds of objects and proceedings have been justified 
 by these maxims. 
 
 The failures and mistakes of the Jesuits in the early 
 part of the eighteenth century led to the dissolution of 
 the Order by Pope Clement XIV. in 1773 ; but Their 
 some members continued their society in Prussia recent 
 and Eussia, and in 1801 Pope Pius Vll. recog- ^^^°'^- 
 nised the Order in Russia ; in 1804 it was restored in 
 Naples and Sicily, and in 1814 it was completely re-estab- 
 lished by the same pope. But the Jesuits' reception was 
 not unanimously favourable. From Eussia they were 
 finally expelled in 1820. They were expelled from 
 Portugal in 1834 ; from Spain in 1835. They did not 
 succeed in getting legally acknowledged in France, though 
 tolerated and by turns favoured and expelled. They 
 regained very great influence in Belgium, and consider- 
 able strength in Prussia and Germany. In 1872 the 
 Jesuits were banished from Germany, and in 1880 from 
 France. We cannot wonder that States have very gene- 
 
394 
 
 MILAN CATHEDRAL. 
 
PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. 395 
 
 rally seen in the laxity of moral principle so often 
 exhibited by the Order a very real danger. 
 
 We need only briefly note the terms in which Pope 
 Pius IX., on December 8th, 1854, formally proclaimed 
 the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception „^^^ 
 of the Virgin Mary. It was " that the most immaculate 
 blessed Virgin Mary, in the first moment of °°"<=^P"°"-" 
 her conception, by special grace and privilege of Al- 
 mightyGrod, in virtue of the merits of Christ, was pre- 
 served immaculate from all stain of original sin." This 
 is to be believed by all the faithful on pain of excom- 
 munication. A new mass and a new office for the 
 festival of her conception were promulgated in 1863. 
 
 The Vatican Council of 1870, to which the Eastern 
 patriarchs and Protestant leaders were invited, in terms 
 which none of them could accept, was attended Vatican 
 by 764 cardinals, archbishops, prelates, abbots,coimcu, i87o. 
 and generals of monastic orders, 641 belonging to Europe 
 (276 to Italy), 83 to Asia, 14 to Africa, 113 to America, 
 and 13 to Oceania. On April 24th, 1870, the Council 
 adopted a revised " Dogmatic Constitution of the Catholic 
 Faith," in which the position of the Council of Trent 
 was substantially affirmed in more modern language. It 
 forbids all interpretation of the Bible that does not agree 
 with the Vulgate version, the Roman traditions, and the 
 imaginary " unanimous consent of the Fathers." All 
 modern results of science which appear to conflict with 
 this, all rationalism, materialism, and pantheism, were 
 condemned, thus endorsing the previous condemnation 
 they had received in the Papal Syllabus of Errors, 1864. 
 Modern rationalism and infidelity are said to be the evil 
 results of Protestantism. 
 
 On July 18th, 1870, the most important decree of the 
 Council was passed, declaring the apostolic primacy of 
 St. Peter, the continuance of his primacy in papai 
 the pope, his episcopal supremacy over all mfauibiiity. 
 bishops, and his supreme judicial authority, from which 
 there is no appeal. Finally, it was declared that " the 
 Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, that is, 
 when, in discharge of the office of pastor and doctor of 
 
396 MODERN ROMANISM. 
 
 all Christians, he defines a doctrine regarding faith or 
 morals, is possessed of infallibility ; and that therefore 
 such definitions are irreformable (irreversible) of them- 
 selves, and not from the consent of the Church." 
 
 It would be unprofitable to attempt to describe Eoman 
 ceremonies or the religious life of a Eoman Catholic. 
 The ceremonies can be seen in almost any town, the re- 
 ligious life can be judged to a certain extent by that of 
 persons known to most readers. As a general rule, it may 
 be said that religion suffers in the Roman Church by 
 the use of prayers in a dead language as regards the 
 mass of the people, although translations are used by 
 many; repetitions and mechanical services count for too 
 much ; and the devotion of the unlearned to the Vu-gin 
 Mary and to the saints verges on practical polytheism, 
 or at any rate on belief in a multiplicity of spirits more 
 or less powerful. The idea of the repeated sacrifice of 
 the mass, the peculiarities of priestly absolution, the Papal 
 Syllabus and infallibility, the granting of indulgences, 
 and the discord between Romanism and the great move- 
 ments of the age are among the points in which it is 
 most open to criticism, and, according to Protestants, to 
 reprobation. 
 
 It has been estimated that there are 155 millions of 
 Eoman Catholics in Europe, eight millions in Asia, two- 
 Number of and-a-half millions in Africa, 52 millions in 
 Roman America, and half a million in Australia and 
 catnoucs. Oceania ; in all, 218 millions. But in this esti- 
 mate 35 millions are assigned to France, a large estimate, 
 considering the antagonism to the Church on the part of 
 so many Frenchmen. Over 21 millions are put down to 
 Spain and Portugal, 20 millions to Austria Hungary, 16 
 millions to Germany, and 26 millions to Italy. 
 
 The main administrative functions of the papacy are 
 
 discharged by groups or committees of cardinals, forming 
 
 The Roman congregations, with prelates and other distin- 
 
 congrega- gtiished ecclesiastics and officials appointed by 
 
 tions. ^]^Q pope. That of the Consistory supervises 
 
 affairs of church buildings, bishops, etc.; that of the Holy 
 
 Office of the Inquisition endeavours to extirpate heresies. 
 
STRASBURG CATHEDRAL. 
 
 397 
 
 STnASBUKO CAinEDEAL. 
 
398 MODERN ROMANISM. 
 
 to put down blasphemies, and many other crimes, and 
 in theory claims universal jurisdiction ; that of Bishops 
 and Regulars looks after the government of monasteries 
 and their differences with bishops ; that of the Index 
 examines newly-pubhshed books reported to be contrary 
 to faith or morals, and publishes at intervals a list of 
 prohibited books ; that of the Propaganda, more correctly 
 De Propaganda Fide, manages foreign missions, and 
 supervises a college at Rome for training missionaries. 
 The total number of Roman bishoprics is nearly 1,100. 
 
 The Missal is the most important Roman service book. 
 Including traditional matter derived from the early 
 Roman ser- Church and early popes, especially Gregory I., 
 vice books. \!^ -^3,3 thoroughly revised after the Council of 
 Trent, and issued in 1570 ; it has since been revised more 
 than once. It includes (1) the Mass services for Sundays, 
 and (2) the Masses for saints' days and festivals. The 
 Breviary, issued in a revised form in 1568 and brought 
 into its present shape in 1631, contains prayers, psalms, 
 hymns, Scripture lessons and comments by the Fathers, 
 for every day of the year, together with narratives about 
 the saints and martyrs, thus forming a complete manual 
 of devotion. There are appropriate services for each 
 "Hour" proper for service, there being matins, lauds 
 (3 a.m.). Prime (6 a.m.), tierce (9 a.m.), sext (noon), nones 
 (3 p.m.), vespers (6 p.m.), and compline (midnight). Of 
 great importance also are the Roman Ritual, or book of 
 priests' rites, and corresponding books for bishops and for 
 papal ceremonies. 
 
 The " Old Catholic " movement began in a revulsion 
 from the dogma of Papal Infallibility. Being called upon 
 The Old by the Archbishop of Munich to submit to this 
 Catholics, dogma, Dr. Ignatius von DoUinger, one of the 
 most learned men of this century, rector of the University 
 of Munich in 1871-72, declined, on the ground that the 
 Vatican decrees were inconsistent with the spirit of the 
 gospel and the clear teaching of Christ and the Apostles, 
 and contradict the genuine traditions of the Church. He 
 was excommunicated on April 17th, 1871, and the same 
 sentence was passed on his colleagues Friedrieh and 
 
THE OLD CATHOLICS. 
 
 399 
 
 others. They were followed in their dissent by one 
 hundred congregations in the German Empire, centring 
 in Munich and Bonn. In 1873 they formed a separate 
 Church with legal status, and Professor Joseph Eeinkens 
 was elected bishop by clergy and people, and was conse- 
 crated by the Jansenist bishop Heykamp of Deventer. 
 At a congress at Constance, a synodal and parochial 
 system was adopted, in which the laity are represented 
 equally with the 
 clergy. At first 
 taking their stand 
 on the Tridentine 
 standards, they 
 have somewhat 
 progressed to- 
 wards Protestant- 
 ism. Bishop Rein- 
 kens, in his address 
 to the Old Catholic 
 Council at Con- 
 stance, inculcated 
 the reading of the 
 Bible as the means 
 of the most inti- 
 mate communion 
 with God. In a 
 letter addressed to 
 a Protestant as- 
 sembly they 
 strongly asserted 
 their desire to es- st. vincent de paul, philanthhopist (1576-1660). 
 tablish a union of 
 
 all Christians by means of a really oecumenical council. 
 A Conference was held at Bonn in 1874 be- Theses of 
 tween leading Old Catholics, orthodox Russians union 
 and Greeks, English and American Episco- conference, 
 palians, and various Lutherans and Protestants, which 
 agreed to fourteen theses advocating the reading of the 
 Bible and the Liturgy in the vernacular, asserting that 
 salvation is not gained by merit, but by faith working 
 
40O 
 
 MODERN ROMANISM. 
 
 by love, and that the doctrine of works of supereroga- 
 tion is untenable, that the number of seven sacraments 
 was first fixed in the twelfth century, allowing the 
 authoritative value of the tradition of the undivided 
 Church, and the unbroken episcopal succession of the 
 Anglican Church, rejecting the doctrine of the Immacu- 
 late Conception of the Virgin, and that of the sacrifice 
 of the Mass, acknowledging the Eucharist only as the 
 permanent representation and presentation on earth of 
 
 Christ's sacrifice, 
 allowing confes- 
 sion and absolu- 
 tion and prayers 
 for the dead, but 
 limiting the gran- 
 ting of indul- 
 gences to penalties 
 imposed by the 
 Church. A fourth 
 conference in 1875 
 adopted a form of 
 agreement on the 
 Filioque clause, 
 granting much to 
 the Greek Church, 
 and agreeing that 
 " the Holy Spirit 
 proceeds from the 
 Father through 
 the Son." Pope 
 Pius IX. mean- 
 while had excom- 
 municated all 
 these " soils of perdition," and termed Bishop Eeinkens' 
 address " impious and most impudent." 
 
 A distinct Swiss Synod of Old Catholics has been 
 
 formed, and Edward Herzog was elected first bishop, 
 
 Swiss Old and consecrated by Bishop Eeinkens in 1876 
 
 catuoiics. The Old Catholics of Switzerland are more 
 
 radical and anti-papal than those of Germany. 
 
 ST. FRAKOIS DE SALES, PEEAOHER (15G7-1G22). 
 
INFLUENCE OF PROTESTANTISM. 
 
 401 
 
 We cannot but note that the Roman Church has been 
 greatly influenced by Protestantism, in spite of itself. 
 This can only be properly estimated by comparing the 
 Church as it was in the' time of Wyclif and Huss with 
 its present state. The abuses and evils then existing 
 have to a large extent disappeared, many doctrines are 
 more simply taught, the poor are far better looked after, 
 and great skill is displayed in adapting the Church to the 
 local circumstances of each country. To a large extent 
 the Roman Catholic clergy are in the van of social and 
 philanthropic movements. But the doctrines of papal in- 
 fallibility and of Mariolatry must place a permanent 
 barrier between the Roman Church and those who are iu 
 touch with Protestantism or with modern science. 
 
 2 
 
CALVIN. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 €i)t 3lutt)ci'an, i^cformelr, anU ^itsbgtcrian 
 
 Lutberan Cliurcli — Melanclitliou's Apology— Luther's Catechisms— Articles of 
 Smaloald- The Phlllppists— Form of Concord— Lutheran Church organl- 
 zatlou— Calvin— His " Institutes "—Teaching on Predestination and the 
 Lord's Supper— Calvin's Church government— Calvin and Servetus— 
 Second Helvetic Confession— The Helvetic Consensus— The Swiss Re- 
 formed Churches— The Heidelberg Catechism- John Knox— The Scotch 
 Reformation— Scotch Confession— The National Covenant— The West- 
 minster Assembly — The Westminster Confession — The Westminster 
 Catechisms— Patronage— The Cameronlans— Reformed Presbyterians- 
 United Presbyterian Church— Free Church of Scotland— Presbyterian 
 Worship— Government— Dutch Reformed Church— The Belglc Confession 
 —Armlnlus— Synod of Dort— Reformation in France— Gallioau Confession 
 —Edict of Nantes— Revocation of Edict— Modern French Protestantism 
 ^The Reformed Churches of Hungary, 
 
LUTHER'S CATECHISMS. 403 
 
 THE Lutheran Church, more properly the Protestant 
 Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession, 
 due to the labours of Luther, his comrades and Lutheran 
 followers, is predominant in Prussia, Wurtem- cnuicii. 
 berg, Saxony, and many German principalities, in Den- 
 mark, Norway and Sweden, in Finland, Livonia, and 
 some other Russian provinces; while the Lutherans are 
 numerous in the United States, in Hungary and France. 
 They are estimated at more than forty millions. 
 
 The Augsburg Confession of 1B30 is the basis of the 
 Lutheran Church. In 1530-31 Melanchthon wrote a 
 much longer and very learned " Apology " inMeianoiithon's 
 answer to the Eoman Catholic " Refutation," Apology, 
 accepted in 1530 by the Emperor and the Diet ; it has 
 high value as the interpretation of the Augsburg Confes- 
 sion by its author, and was embodied in the Book of 
 Concord, 1580. Li 1540 Melanchthon published, with an 
 improved edition of the Apology, a modified form of the 
 Augsburg Confession, known as the Altered or Variata 
 edition, containing modified views on absolute predestina- 
 tion, and on the Real Presence, tending towards the views 
 of the Swiss Reformers, and laying more stress on the 
 necessity of repentance and good works. It was adopted 
 by several Lutheran conferences, and taught in many 
 Lutheran Churches and schools ; but after 1660 it was 
 attacked by strict Lutherans, while the followers of Me- 
 lanchthon approached nearer to the Calvinists. This is 
 but one of many controversies in the Lutheran Church 
 about the middle of the sixteenth century. Luther's 
 views remained predominant, especially as given Luther's 
 in his Longer ahd Shorter Catechisms of 1539. cateohisms. 
 The latter especially has become a sort of second Bible 
 for the German Lutherans. In 1531 Luther added a 
 section on confession and absolution, to which he attached 
 much importance. " True absolution," he says, " insti- 
 tuted in the Gospel by CJirist, affords comfort and support 
 against sin and an evil conscience. Confession or absolu- 
 tion shall by no means be abolished in the Church, but 
 be retained, especially on account of weak or timid con- 
 sciences, and also on account of untutored youth, in order 
 
404 THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 
 
 that they may be examined and instructed in the Chris- 
 tian doctrine. But the enumeration of sins should be 
 free to every one, to enumerate or not such as he wishes." 
 He also added some short family prayers, a table of 
 duties in Scripture language, and marriage and baptismal 
 manuals. 
 
 The next important Lutheran Confession (Articles of 
 Smalcald, 1537) was intended as a basis for discussion at 
 Articles of the Council which afterwards met at Trent. 
 Smalcald. ^\q articles were prepared by Luther, and 
 couched in aggressive terms against the mass, purgatory, 
 the invocation of saints, monasticism, and popery. The 
 mass is denounced as " the greatest and most horrible 
 abomination " ; purgatory as a " satanic delusion " ; and 
 the Pope as Antichrist, having no conscience, and caring 
 only about gold, honour, and power. Melanchthon wrote 
 an appendix, in which he admitted that the pope, " if he 
 would admit the Gospel," might be allowed to exercise, 
 by human right, his present jurisdiction over bishops ; 
 but at the same time refuting powerfully the divine right 
 of the pope over bishops, an^- his right to temporal power. 
 The assembly of Smalcald resolved not to send any dele- 
 gates to the Papal Council. 
 
 The theological differences between Luther and Me- 
 lanchthon, which grew more marked after this, did not 
 break their friendship, though Melanchthon approached 
 the Calvinists very considerably. Luther died in 1546, 
 Melanchthon in 1560 ; but the latter did not attempt 
 to found a Church of his own. The strict Lutherans, 
 after Luther's death, made his doctrines more rigid, and 
 tended to make Lutheranism a narroT^'' sect. The followers 
 The of Melanchthon, who were termed Philippists 
 PMUppists. (from his Christian name) and Crypto-calvinists, 
 maintained the right of progressive development in theo- 
 logy, and desired to enlarge the basis of Lutheranism. 
 The Lutherans exalted Luther almost to apostolic rank. 
 In the Preface to the Magdeburg Confession, 1550, Luther 
 is termed " the third Elijah," " the prophet of God," and 
 his doctrine the doctrine of Christ. The Philippists had 
 more moderation and reasonableness. Numerous contro- 
 
LUTHERAN CHURCH ORGANISATION. 405 
 
 versies as to the mode of regarding original sin, man's 
 freedom in relation to the converting grace of God, justi- 
 fication by faith, good works, the Eucharist, Hades, etc., 
 made G-ermany a camp of theologians. At last AndresB, 
 Professor of Theology at Tubingen, Martin Chemnitz, 
 Melanchthon's greatest pupil, and Nicholas Selnecker, also 
 a Melanchthonian, after a long series of conferences, 
 secured the adoption of " The Form of Con- Form of 
 cord," 1577, published with the Augsburg and concord, 
 other Lutheran creeds, in the " Book of Concord," 1580. 
 It embodies a series of concessions of the disputing parties, 
 mainly deferring to Luther's authority, and states his 
 doctrines of the total depravity of man and of his will, 
 of salvation only by God's grace, with no co-operation 
 of the human will, of justification by Christ's imputed 
 righteousness, consubstantiation and the ubiquity of 
 Christ's body ; while dropping his view of absolute pre- 
 destination and recognising the universality of the offer 
 of divine grace. It goes into and decides many questions 
 utterly beyond the power of man to decide, and did not 
 attain anything hke the authority of the Augsburg Con- 
 fession. It was, however, adopted in most of the German 
 Lutheran States, in Sweden, Hungary, and generally in 
 the United States. A number of principalities afterwards 
 adhered mainly to the Reformed or Zwinglian doctrine. 
 The Form of Concord produced more controversy than it 
 settled ; and its doctrines were ably assailed by Cardinal 
 Bellarmine. It is now regarded by many as almost dead, 
 or at least not representing what would now be unitedly 
 accepted. 
 
 Following the separatist organisation of Germany, the 
 Lutheran Church does not form one strong body even in 
 Germany, but consists of separate and inde- L^^^J^gJ,gJl 
 pendent Churches in each principality. These cnuron 
 Churches have one common character — they organi- 
 dispense with episcopacy, and are governed by 
 councils (consistories) including both clergy and laymen 
 appointed by the civil rulers, with very varied plans 
 of Church discipline. The growth of the Reformed 
 Churches, with their antagonism to Lutheranism, greatly 
 
4o6 THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 
 
 weakened Protestantism in the seventeenth century. 
 Many efforts were made to unite them under one govern- 
 ment, and at last this was effected in Prussia, Nassau, 
 Baden, and Hesse (1817-1823), thus forming a " Church 
 Union," in which each congregation adopts either the 
 Augsburg or the Heidelberg Confession. In Prussia a 
 considerable number of Lutherans separated from the 
 main Church in consequence of this union, and took the 
 title of "Old Lutherans." In Prussia, Wurtemberg, Hesse, 
 and Oldenburg the Protestant element prevails, with from 
 23 to 33 per cent, of Eoman Catholics. In Saxony and 
 eighteen minor German States the people are almost all 
 Protestants. Various movements in recent years have 
 been termed " New Lutheranism," partly tending to 
 revive pure Lutheranism, partly approximating to the 
 Church of Rome, and to higher interest in ceremony and 
 its surroundings, partly tending in a rationalistic direction. 
 In Norway, Sweden, and Denmark the Lutheran Church 
 is governed by bishops. In America there are numerous 
 synods, some of which have united to form " Unions " 
 or Conferences ; but not a little diversity of opinion or 
 doctrine prevails among them, preventing the union of all 
 the Lutheran Churches. 
 
 The services of the Lutheran Church, while allowing 
 considerable place to extemporaneous prayer, are largely 
 in accord with that of the Church of England. The 
 singing of psalms and hymns, in which Lutheranism is 
 rich, forms a prominent element. Preaching occupies a 
 position of prime importance. 
 
 After Zwingli, the greatest name in the Swiss Re- 
 formed Church is that of John Calvin, a Frenchman born 
 
 Calvin. ^^ Picardy in 1B09, educated in the Universities 
 of Orleans, Bourges, and Paris, and already re- 
 markable for his classical and general literary knowledge, 
 when, at the age of 23, he was suddenly converted to the 
 evangelical doctrines. So powerful was his character, that 
 in a year he had become the leader of the Protestant 
 party in France. But the authorities began to persecute 
 the Reformers, twenty-four being burnt in the winter" of 
 
CALVIN'S INSTITUTES. 407 
 
 1534-B ; and Calvin had to wander from place to place. 
 At Poictiers, in 1534, he with a few friends celebrated the 
 Lord's Supper in a cave, known as Calvin's cave, accord- 
 ing to the evangelical rite. In 1536 he published at 
 Basle the first edition of his " Institutes of the Christian 
 Religion," attacking the Eomish errors from the Reformed 
 standpoint, and setting forth the special doctrines of Cal- 
 vinism. During the same year, while Calvin was passing 
 through Geneva, William Farel, a prominent Reformer, 
 detained him, and charged him to undertake the work of 
 the Lord in Geneva. Calvin complied with the entreaties 
 of Farel and other Reformers, and began preaching and 
 lecturing on divinity ; and before the end of 1536 a plan 
 of Church government had been drawn up, which was 
 sanctioned by the civic authorities in 1537. The system 
 'thus introduced proved too stringent, and Calvin and 
 Farel were expelled from Geneva (Easter, 1538). Calvin 
 spent the next three years teaching and preaching at 
 Strasburg, where he wrote several works which Luther 
 valued, and became an intimate friend of Melanchthon, 
 Their affection was most touchingly expressed by Calvin 
 after Melanchthon's death. "A hundred times, worn 
 out with fatigue and overwhelmed with care, thou didst 
 lay thy head upon my breast and say, ' Would to God 
 that I might die here, on thy breast.' And I, a thousand 
 times since then, have earnestly desired that it had been 
 granted us to be together." Calvin was recalled trium- 
 phantly to Geneva in 1541, where he lived ascetically for 
 the remaining twenty-three years of his life, the virtual 
 head of the Church and Republic of Geneva. His labours 
 in writing, teaching, interviews, councils, etc., were enor- 
 mous. At his death, his able successor was Theodore Beza. 
 Calvin, whom Renan characterises as " the most Chris- 
 tian man of his generation," had a more powerful influence 
 than Zwingli in moulding the final form of the caivms 
 Reformed Churches. His " Institutes " is both institutes, 
 a literary and a theological masterpiece. Its first section 
 deals with theology (the knowledge of God), the second 
 with Christology, the third with soteriology (the salvation 
 of man through the work of the Holy Spirit), the fourth 
 
4o8 THE REFORMED CHURCH. 
 
 with the Church and the sacraments. It is most original 
 
 on the doctrines of predestination and the Lord's Supper. 
 
 His teaching on the former is, that part of the human race, 
 
 Predestin- without any merit of their own, are elected to 
 
 ation. hohness and salvation, and part are doomed 
 to eternal death for sin. "Adam fell, God's providence 
 having so ordained it ; yet he fell by his own guilt ;" and 
 although Calvin felt this to be a horrible doctrine, yet he 
 believed it was so clearly supported by Scripture that he 
 had no choice but to believe it, although it involved the 
 damnation of multitudes of little children. Much of 
 Calvin's argument was based on the ninth chapter of St. 
 Paul's epistle to the Romans. One of his great objects 
 was the uprooting of all human pride in free will or in 
 voluntary efforts, and the strengthening of gratitude and 
 courage in "the elect." The Calvinistic doctrine was 
 carried by Beza and others into a " supralapsarian " ex- 
 treme, making every particular man before the fall, or 
 before creation, the object of election, either to salvation 
 or damnation; but the "infralapsarian" view has been 
 incorporated in all Calvinistic confessions, namely, that 
 man fell and became condemned by his own voluntary 
 sin, rejecting the view that God has decreed the existence 
 of sin. This is essentially the view adopted in the Swiss, 
 the French, the Scotch, the Dutch, and the "Westminster 
 Confessions ; while the English Thirty-nine Articles, the 
 Heidelberg Catechism, and the other German Reformed 
 confessions expound only the positive side of the doctrine, 
 namely, the fore-election of all who believe, without 
 asserting the damnation by election of unbelievers. 
 
 As to the Lord's Supper, while rejecting all materialistic 
 
 conceptions of the presence of Christ's body and blood. 
 
 The Lord's Calvin went beyond Zwingli in asserting a 
 
 Supper, spiritual presence and reception of Christ's body 
 and blood, giving to believers by faith the benefit of 
 Christ's sacrifice on the cross and the vivifying influence 
 of His glorified humanity in heaven; unbelievers who 
 might partake, he said, received only bread and wine. 
 This doctrine was accepted in all the leading Reformed 
 confessions. 
 
CALVIN AND SERVETUS. 409 
 
 Calvin's Commentaries on tlie Bible have furnished a 
 rich store of matter to theologians. He was not so rigid 
 in his view of the inspiration of the Bible as caivin'a 
 many of his followers have been. His idea ciiurcii 
 of the Church was a vigorous and living one, government, 
 but very different from that of Romanism. The Church 
 was to exercise rigid discipline over its members, to 
 maintain self-government independently of the State, 
 and to be governed largely by lay-representatives. Ac- 
 cording to him all ministers were equal, though he did 
 not object to the retention of episcopacy in England. 
 In his idea of the independence of the Church, he really 
 aimed at the Church and the State being but two branches 
 of Divine order, complementary and useful to each other. 
 
 The most unpleasing features in Calvin's character and 
 actions are those in which the rigidity of his principles, 
 and his consistency in carrying them out to caivinand 
 their logical conclusion, led him to sanction acts servetus. 
 now universally condemned. The case of Servetus is the 
 worst. Servetus was a brilliant young physician and 
 man of learning, who had anticipated some of Harvey's 
 discoveries about the circulation of the blood ; but his 
 intellectual analysis of the. Christian faith led him to 
 publish a book in 1553, " Christianismi Restitutio" in 
 wliich he aimed at restoring it to its pristine purity. He 
 regarded the doctrine of the Trinity as involving tritheism 
 and leading to atheism ; he believed in a Trinity of mani- 
 festation only. He was passionately devoted to the person 
 of Christ, was an Anabaptist, and strongly relied on the 
 Bible as his authority. Servetus had already been con- 
 demned to be burnt in France, but escaped to Geneva, 
 where he was accused, under Calvin's influence, of blas- 
 phemy and erroneous teaching. When brought to trial, 
 Servetus used strong expressions against the right of the 
 civil power to decide in matters of faith ; and he also 
 announced further opinions tending in a pantheistic 
 direction. Calvin approved of his being condemned to 
 death, though he wished him not to be burnt. But his 
 death by fire took place, to the great discredit of Calvin 
 and Geneva, on October 27th, 1553. This event, however, 
 
4IO THE REFORMED CHURCH. 
 
 is a mark of the veliemence of belief with which the 
 theology of reform as well as that of conservatism was 
 held at that time. It is not fair to judge the Genevese 
 Reformers by the more enlightened views which now 
 prevail. The right of private judgment, often claimed 
 as a signal property of Protestantism, was but a slowly- 
 evolved product. If the standards adopted by the Church, 
 whether Roman or Reformed, were true, every other view 
 was evil, and ought to be condemned and suppressed : 
 for was it not right to suppress the false, wrong to allow 
 its propagation ? So men argued then. 
 
 After Calvin's' death, the first important Reformed 
 
 Creed, or Confession, was the " Second Helvetic," pub- 
 
 seoond fished in 1566, drawn up by Henry Bullinger, 
 
 Helvetic Zwingli's succcssor at Zurich, and adopted or 
 
 Confession, approved by nearly all the Reformed Churches 
 on the Continent, as well as in England and Scotland. 
 It is very long and theological, but well deserves the study 
 of theologians. In many points it is more liberal in its 
 statements than Calvin or Luther. It rejects priesthood, 
 priestcraft, and priestly exclusive control of the Church. 
 Among the duties of the civil power it includes punish- 
 ment of blasphemers and incorrigible heretics, if they 
 are really heretics. 
 
 The last general Swiss Confession is that known as the 
 Helvetic Consensus of 1675, which was abandoned in 
 The Helvetic about half a century, in consequence of the 
 
 Consensus, criticism caused by its extreme character. It 
 was to counteract several modifications of teaching intro- 
 duced by professors in the theological academy of Saumur 
 in France, La Place, Cappel, and Amyrant. Cappel had 
 taught that the perfect inspiration claimed for every 
 particular of the Hebrew scriptures could not be held, for 
 the system of vowel-points was due to late Jewish gram- 
 marians; and that the different readings must be consulted 
 in order to fully understand the text. The new Helvetic 
 Consensus insisted on the literal inspiratioi'i of the Scrip- 
 tures and the traditional Hebrew text, vowels as well as 
 consonants. This doctrine, held in its extreme form by 
 some persons to-day, has led to violent reaction, and has 
 
THE HEIDELBERG CATECHISM. 411 
 
 partly led to the modern study of the Scriptures by every 
 method of common sense, historical and archseological 
 study, and literary criticism. Amyrant had taught that 
 God foreordained and desired universal salvation, but 
 through faith in Christ as a condition, foreknowing and 
 foreordaining however that many men would reject it. 
 The Helvetic Consensus denied that the call to salvation 
 was ever absolutely general, asserting that Christ died 
 only for the elect, and not indiscriminately for all men. 
 Man was naturally as well as morally unable to believe 
 the gospel of himself. Against La Place of Saumur the 
 Consensus affirmed, not only the condemnation of all 
 Adam's posterity as a consequence of his sin (mediate 
 imputation), but also the direct or immediate imputation 
 of his sin to all his descendants, as if they had themselves 
 committed it. It cannot be wondered at that sharp re- 
 action and rebellion against such teaching took place. 
 
 For a long time religious divisions, and reaction towards 
 Catholicism, were prominent in Swiss religious history. 
 At present the majority (over a million and a -^^^ g^^g 
 half) of the inhabitants belong to the Reformed Reformed 
 Church, under the control to a certain extent of <'^'^'^<='i8=- 
 the authorities in each canton. Calvin's system of mixed 
 lay and ministerial government is adopted, but every 
 citizen has full liberty of conscience and creed, and can 
 incur no penalties for his religious opinions. 
 
 We have only space to notice the most famous product 
 of the Reformed Churches of Germany, the Heidelberg 
 Catechism, published in 1663, the joint work ^iie 
 of Ursinus (Baer) and Olevianus (Olewig), at Heidelberg 
 the command of Frederick HI., Elector of the catechism. 
 Palatinate. It is acknowledged as a most able and in 
 many ways attractive production. It was translated into 
 many languages, and used by Churches in many lands. 
 It is unlike many others in its first question, which is, 
 " What is thy only comfort in life and in death ? " The 
 answer is : " That in soul and body, whether I live or 
 die, I am not mine own, but I belong unto my most 
 faithful Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ: who by His 
 precious blood, most fully satisfying for all my sins, hath 
 
4l2 
 
 THE REFORMED CHURCH. 
 
 delivered me from the -whole power of the devil ; and 
 doth so preserve me, that without the will of my heavenly 
 Father, not so much as a hair can fall from my head : 
 yea, all things are made to serve for my salvation. Where- 
 fore by His Spirit also, He assureth me of everlasting life, 
 and mabeth me ready and prepared, that henceforth I 
 maylive unto Him." On many points the extreme forms 
 of Calvin's doctrines are modified ; and several paTts are 
 
 regarded as gems of theological statement. It presents 
 the doctrines of Calvinism in a comforting, not a for- 
 bidding aspect. 
 
 Travelling further from Geneva, we find Calvin's 
 
 teaching carried to Scotland by his pupil John Knox ; 
 
 joimKnox ^^* already Lutheran students and converts 
 
 had been martyred in Scotland when Knox, 
 
 ordained a Romish priest in 1B30, became converted to 
 
 Reformed doctrines by study of the Bible and the writings 
 
THE NATIONAL COVENANT. 413 
 
 of Augustine and Jerome. He denounced the mass as an 
 abominable idolatry and profanation of the Lord's Supper, 
 and the pope as the " man of sin " and " Antichrist." 
 After some years' work as a reformer in England (1549- 
 1564), where he became one of Edward VI.'s chaplains, he 
 spent some years with Calvin at Geneva, which he called 
 " the most perfect school of Christ that ever was since the 
 days of the apostles." Knox returned to Scotland in 1559, 
 and largely under his influence Parliament The scotch 
 abolished the Roman Catholic worship and the^®^°^™^*^°''' 
 rule of the pope, adopted a Confession of Faith drawn 
 up mainly by Knox and others, and later adopted a Book 
 of Discipline prepared by them. 
 
 The Scotch Confession of 1560, in twenty-five articles, 
 is a vigorous statement of the reformed doctrines, dis- 
 tinctly Calvinistic in tone, yet with great scotch 
 breadth of view and moderation (for instance, confession, 
 those who may note in the articles anything contrary to 
 G-od's "Word are begged in the preface to give information 
 of it to the authors, who will either prove their case or 
 reform the articles). No particular form of Church govern- 
 ment or worship is laid down (" not that we think that 
 one policy and one order of ceremonies can be appointed 
 for all ages, times, and places ; for as ceremonies, such as 
 men have devised, are but temporal, so may and ought 
 they to be changed, when they rather foster superstition 
 than edify the Church using the same "). Knox prepared 
 a form of liturgy (" Book of Common Order "), following 
 the Genevan, which was approved by the General As- 
 sembly of the Scotch Church, in 1564, and long used. 
 The Scotch aversion to liturgy is of later date, when 
 Laud tried to force English episcopacy and liturgy upon' 
 Scotland. 
 
 The striTggle of the Reformation in Scotland includes 
 many interesting features. One, which strikingly illus- 
 trates the strength of the reaction against theme National 
 papacy, is the " National Covenant," drawn up Covenant, 
 in 1580 by John Craig, endorsing the Confession of 1560, 
 but fiercely repudiating all "Papistry." It especially 
 denounces the " usurped tyranny of the Roman Anti- 
 
414 
 
 THE REFORMED CHURCH. 
 
 Christ upon the Scriptures of God, upon the Kirk, the 
 civil magistrate, and consciences of men ; all his tyran- 
 nous laws made upon indifferent things," with much 
 more about the evils censured by Protestants. 
 
 The "Westminster Assembly," which drew up the 
 
 KNOX'S PULPIT. 
 
 celebrated " Confession," was intended by the Long 
 .pjjg Parliament to frame a code of doctrine, wor- 
 westminster ship, and discipline for the three kingdoms. 
 Assembly, rpj^g members were all nominated by Parlia- 
 ment, excei-it those chosen by the General Assembly of 
 
THE WESTMINSTER CONFESSION. 415 
 
 the Scotch Church ; and it would have included many 
 representatives of the Episcopal Church if they would 
 have attended. As a matter of fact, those who actually 
 attended were mostly Presbyterians, though nearly all in 
 episcopal orders ; but they formed two divisions, one re- 
 garding Presbyterian government as lawful, but based 
 on human right, and liable to change if desirable; the 
 other considering it as based on Divine right, and in- 
 stituted in the New Testament as the only and unchange- 
 able form of Church government. The Assembly sat 
 from 1643 to 1649. The "Confession" was completed 
 in December, 1646, and adopted by the Scotch General 
 Assembly in 1647, the Scotch Parliament endorsing it 
 in 1649. It follows very considerably the lines ^he 
 of the Anglican Articles of Religion, givingwestmiuster 
 them a Calvinistic completeness and fuller confession, 
 logical statement. It declares that there is in the Bible 
 a full and intelligible scheme of salvation, and that no- 
 thing is to be added thereto, whether by new revelations 
 of the Spirit or traditions of men. Scripture is only to 
 be interpreted by Scripture, and " the Holy Spirit speak- 
 ing in Scripture " is to settle all religious controversies. 
 The Old and New Testaments are declared to be "imme- 
 diately inspired by God, and by His singular care and 
 providence kept pure in all ages," and they are there- 
 fore " authentical." The chapters on the Trinity and on 
 the person of Christ follow closely the lines of the Nicene 
 and Chalcedon Councils. As to predestination, it adopts, 
 not the supralapsarian but the infralapsarian view, which 
 it states very fully and clearly, the fall being permitted 
 only, and God being declared neither the author nor ap- 
 prover of sin. It grants the freedom of the human will 
 in these terms, " God hath endued the will of man with 
 that natural liberty that it is neither forced, nor by any 
 absolute necessity of nature determined, to good or evil." 
 The doctrine of " covenants " made by God with man 
 is introduced : (1) of works, made with Adam and his 
 posterity on condition of perfect and personal obedience, 
 (2) of grace through Christ, offered under the Law by 
 forms and ordinances all typifying Christ, and under the 
 
4i6 THE REFORMED CHURCH. 
 
 Gospel, by the preaching of the word and the admin- 
 istration of the sacraments of Baptism and the Lord's 
 Supper. This idea of covenants, developed by various 
 divines, was mainly of sixteenth-century growth. Salva- 
 tion by Christ is clearly set forth on evangelical lines ; 
 " the Son of God, the Second Person in the Trinity, being 
 very and eternal God, of one substance and equal with 
 the Father, did, when the fulness of time was come, 
 take upon Him man's nature, with all the essential pro- 
 perties and common infirmities thereof, yet without sin ; 
 ... so that two whole, perfect, and distinct natures, the 
 Godhead and the manhood, were inseparably joined to- 
 gether in one person, without conversion, composition, 
 or confusion." A very sweeping clause is found in the 
 chapter on repentance, which has contributed very 
 considerably to strengthen Scotch severity and austerity. 
 " As there is no sin so small but it deserves damnation, 
 so there is no sin so great that it can bring damnation 
 upon those who truly repent." The great strength of the 
 latter clause has sometimes been obscured by the terrors 
 of the former. 
 
 The doctrine of the Sacraments in the Westminster 
 Confession is that of the Calvinistic and of the Anglican 
 Churches, at least before modern High Church develop- 
 ments. Baptism is declared to be not so inseparable from 
 salvation, that no person can be saved without it, or that 
 all baptised persons are regenerate. The Lord's Supper 
 is no sacrifice, but a' commemoration, and there is no 
 change of the substance of the elements. An elaborate 
 description is given of what is lawful in public worship, 
 corresponding to Presbyterian practice. The proper ob- 
 servation of the " Christian Sabbath " is defined as " an 
 holy rest all the day from men's own works, words, and 
 thoughts about their worldly employments and recrea- 
 tions." The whole time is to be taken up in public and 
 private worship and in diities of necessity and mercy. 
 Another particular in which the Westminster Confession 
 seems to contravene its own principle of liberty of con- 
 science, is when it allows that persons who publish 
 opinions against the civil or the ecclesiastical power, or 
 
57: GILES'S CHURCH, EDINBURGH. 
 
 417 
 
 '11 < v^? im^iimimijiif^ 
 
 1 ',■ {i^- yC^' 
 
 
 BT. Giles's cnunoH, EDiNBunon ; isiEr.ior.. 
 
 2d 
 
41 8 THE REFORMED CHURCH. 
 
 maintain such practices as are contrary to the light of 
 nature or the known principles of Christianity, concerning 
 .faith, worship, or conversation, or destructive of peace 
 and order in the Church, may be proceeded against by 
 tlie censures of the Church or the power of the civil 
 magistrate. The latter may see that unity and peace are 
 kept, blasphemies and heresies suppressed, corruptions 
 and abuses in worship and discipline prevented or re- 
 formed, and may call synods and be present at them. 
 These synods may determine matters of faith, conscience, 
 and worship ; but all synods and councils may err, and 
 many have erred ; as also, the purest Churches are subject 
 both to mixture and error. 
 
 The Confession acknowledges no intermediate state; 
 the souls of the righteous return to God, into the " highest 
 heavens, where they behold the face of God in light 
 and glory, waiting for the full redemption of their bodies ; 
 and the souls of the wicked are cast into hell, where 
 they remain in torments and utter darkness, reserved to 
 the judgment of the great day." At the day of judgment 
 " all persons that have lived upon earth, shall appear 
 before the tribunal of Christ, to give an account of their 
 thoughts, words, and deeds." The righteous will then 
 enter into everlasting life ; the wicked into eternal tor- 
 ments. 
 
 In addition to the Confession, the Assembly prepared 
 two Catechisms, a Longer and a Shorter, the latter more 
 The especially for children, though containing much 
 Westminster matter which many consider unsuitable for the 
 cateoMsms. young. The Apostles' Creed is only contained 
 in the shorter form, as an appendix, with a caution that 
 it was not composed by the Apostles, nor to be received 
 as though it were canonical scripture. The Larger Cate- 
 chism is especially minute in its specification of what 
 is commanded and forbidden in the Ten Commandments. 
 Many regard the Shorter Catechism as better than 
 Luther's or the Heidelberg ; and its adoption by Presby- 
 terians, Congregationalists, and many Baptists, in Great 
 Britain, America, and elsewhere, proves its adaptation to 
 their beliefs. 
 
UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. 419 
 
 Meanwhile the Church of Scotland had been settled, 
 not altogether to the liking of Knox and the other refor- 
 mers, on a basis of lay patronage of benefices, 
 and of considerable governmental control. ^ ^°^^s^- 
 Lay patronage was abolished in 1649, restored in 1660, 
 abolished again in 1690, restored in 1712, and again 
 abolished in 1874. During the first 130 years of its 
 history the Scotch Church went through so many muta- 
 tions and trials that it is quite impossible to record them 
 here. Prom 1662 to 1689 Presbyterianism only existed 
 in opposition to the Government, which re-established 
 Episcopacy. On the accession of William III., it again 
 became the national Church, though with much Govern- 
 ment control. In the eighteenth century a series of 
 schisms began, due chiefly to the ignoring of the wishes 
 of congregations in the appointment of ministers. The 
 first separation was that of the Cameronians, really the 
 continuing remnant of the Covenanters of 1643, The 
 who rejected all interference of the State with Camerouians. 
 religion. They organised a Church early in the eighteenth 
 century, and in 1743 formed the " Reformed Presbytery." 
 In 1859 there were six presbyteries, containing Reformed 
 36 ministers. In 1876 they had 7,500 mem-Presbyterians, 
 bers, and still maintained the binding force of the National 
 Covenant. In that year they amalgamated with the Free 
 Church of Scotland. There is still a residual body known 
 as "Auld Lichts," or Original Seceders, who stick to the 
 Covenants and protest against the defections of modern 
 times. 
 
 The United Presbyterian Church of Scotland, formed 
 in 1847, is the result of the unioji of two Churches, the 
 " United Secession," dating formally from 1820, united 
 but in its elements from 1732, and the " Relief Presbyterian 
 Church," which had been formed after the Churoii. 
 deposition of Thomas Gillespie by the Established Church 
 in 1752. The United Presbyterians believe in free com- 
 munion with other Churches, and Church independence 
 of the State, and reject all compulsory or persecuting 
 or intolerant teachings of the Westminster Confession. 
 Ministers of congregations are chosen by the members ; 
 
420 THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. 
 
 but tliey are ordained by imposition of hands by the 
 presbytery. 
 
 The Free Church of Scotland was formed in 1843 as 
 the result of a legal decision that the Established Church 
 Free Church General Assembly could not prevent the intru- 
 of Scotland, gjoii on unwilling congregations of ministers 
 appointed by lay patrons. This, with other interferences 
 of the State with the Church, so moved the Scotch people 
 that 474 ministers with a great part of their congregations 
 left the Establishment and formed a Free Church, aban- 
 doning their endowments but no religious tenet. Thus 
 we have in Scotland the spectacle of three powerful 
 Churches professing almost precisely similar tenets ; and 
 since the passing of the Scotch Patronage Act in 1874 the 
 original question on which they split has been greatly 
 reduced in force. We must only mention that Presby- 
 terianism is strong in the United States, Canada, and 
 North Ireland, and has very considerable strength in 
 England. 
 
 We need say little, in conclusion, about Presbyterian 
 forms of worship, which are extremely simple, including 
 Freahyterian the reading of portions of Scripture, extem- 
 worship. poraneous prayers (often carefully prepared), 
 the singing of psalms and hymns, and a sermon, usually 
 long. Of late years some Presbyterian Churches have 
 adopted choirs and organs, long strictly proscribed and 
 condemned. The minister wears the black Genevan gown 
 and white bands. All signs and symbols which may be 
 supposed to indicate superstition are eschewed ; and so far 
 is this carried, that the Lord's Supper is received sitting, 
 either in pews or at long tables. The Churches are 
 governed by elders, the minister or teaching 
 overmnen . ^I^g^ administering "the word" and the sacra- 
 ments, with a number of " ruling elders " to assist him in 
 the inspection and government of the congregation, and 
 deacons to attend to its financial business. These consti- 
 tute the " Kirk" or church session ; above this is the pres- 
 bytery of a district, including all the ministers and one 
 elder from each Kirk session ; the Synod consists of the 
 members of several presbyteries, The General Assembly 
 
SYNOD OF DORT. 421 
 
 includos representatives of all the presbyteries in the 
 Church. In late years there have been numerous move- 
 ments of liberalism, some tending to rationalism, in the 
 Presbyterian Churches, and much more latitude has been 
 allowed in the interpretation of the confessions, and in 
 speculation and criticism on theological matters. 
 
 The Dutch Reformed Church sprang from early study 
 of the Scriptures by professors such as Gansevoort and 
 Agricola, in the fifteenth century, and even Dutch 
 more from the tyranny and persecution of the Keformed 
 Spanish power in league with the Inquisition, '^'^^rcn. 
 Two Augustinian monks, Henry Voes and John Esch, 
 were burnt in Brussels in IB'23 ; and the succeeding 
 martyr-roll in the Netherlands was longer than that of 
 any other Protestant Church. The Belgio Con- tub Beigic 
 fession was drawn up in 1561, mainly by Guido confession, 
 de Bres, who in 1567, at the age of twenty-seven, was 
 hung for his Protestantism ; it was adopted at a synod 
 at Antwerp in 156,6, and finally at the famous Synod of 
 Dort, in 1619. It follows in the main the French Con- 
 fession of 1559, but is fuller and less polemical. 
 
 The most interesting controversy in the Dutch Church 
 was that which was decided (though not settled) by the 
 Synod of Dort. James Arminius (1560-1609), ^^ ^,^, „„ 
 a student under Beza at Geneva, professor of 
 theology at Leyden (1603), saw reason to moderate several 
 of the Calvinistic doctrines ; and his views were adopted 
 by his successor Episcopius, and by John van Barneveldt 
 and Hugo Grotius. The Arminians set forth their views 
 in five Articles in 1610, under the name of " Eemon- 
 
 strance;" the Calvinists put forward a Counter-o^„., „, n^^ 
 -f-k rrn c^ t p T\ synoa 01 Dort. 
 
 Kemonstrance. The oynod 01 Dort was sum- 
 moned to decide between them, and met from Nov. 13, 
 1618, to Ma;y 9, 1619. It included, besides a majority 
 of Dutch divines, representatives from the Anglican, 
 Swiss, and German Reformed Churches. The Remon- 
 strants were in a great minority, and Calvinism triumphed, 
 followed by the deposition of about 200 Arminian clergy- 
 men, and the arrest of Grotius and Barneveldt, and their 
 condemnation by the State. The -points asserted by the 
 
422 
 
 THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. 
 
 Arminians will be mentioned in the next chapter. The 
 defeated party gradually declined in Holland ; but their 
 
 niLSBlTEEIAN CliUKCn, DD^EDIN, NEW ZEALAND, 
 
 doctrineswere renewed by the Methodists, and also widely 
 adopted m the Anglican Church. The Canons of Dort 
 
• THE EDICT OF NANTES. 423 
 
 represented the victory of a narrow orthodoxy and scholas- 
 ticism ; but a more liberal and even rationalising tone 
 gradually spread widely in the Dutch Church. 
 
 The history of the Reformation in France is one of deep 
 interest, with many tragic details which we cannot give 
 here. The French Church had always main- Kef ormation 
 tained a certain independence of Eome, and the m France. 
 University of Paris had been the nursery of much theo- 
 logical development and of demand for reforms in the 
 Church discipline. In 1621 the first reformed congregation 
 was formed at Meaux, but in the same year Luther's 
 doctrines were condemned by the Sorbonne. Martyrdoms 
 began, and the Lutherans were generally persecuted, while 
 Francis I. expressed himself in favour of a religious refor- 
 mation, and entered into communication with the German 
 reformers. His sister, Queen Margaret of Navarre, favoured 
 the Reformation, but did not separate from the Roman 
 Church. Regular congregations met for reformed worship 
 in spite of persecution ; and in 1659, a general synod, held 
 at Paris, agreed to the French or Gallican Confession of 
 faith, drawn up by Calvin, and revised andGaiiican con- 
 enlarged by his pupil Antoine Chaudieu. The Session. 
 French reformers became known as Huguenots ; and 
 their subsequent history belongs mainly to general politics. 
 The terrible massacre of St. Bartholomew's eve, 1572, 
 marked the beginning of an outburst of fanatical cruelty 
 against them, during which over 30,000 men, women, and 
 children were slain. 
 
 The organisation of the French Protestant Church was 
 strictly Presbyterian, with lay elders and provincial and 
 national synods. Deacons, however, had a more important 
 sphere than in Scotland, the office being regarded as a 
 preparation for the full ministry ; but the congregations 
 had comparatively little influence in Church government. 
 The Reformation in France received another severe blow 
 by the " conversion " of Henry IV. to Romanism in 1593; 
 but in 1698, by the Edict of Nantes, he practically granted 
 full liberty of conscience to the Presbyteri- Edict of 
 ans. They, however, did not concede the same Nantes, 
 liberty to others ; and in process of time they became 
 
424 THE. PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. 
 
 more embittered against the Papal Church, and more 
 austere in their own discipline. In 1603 they had 760 
 churches and 560 ministers. By the skilful management 
 of Richelieu, their political influence diminished, and they 
 came more and more under royal control. Their privi- 
 leges were gradually restricted ; they entered into close 
 union with other Protestants, accepting the decrees of 
 the Synod of Dort, and also holding fellowship with the 
 
 Revocation Lutherans. In 1685 the Edict of Nantes was 
 
 of Edict, revoked. Horrible «persecutions and civil wars 
 
 followed, and it is estimated that several millions of 
 
 Protestants left France. In the next century Presby- 
 
 terianism was gradually restored by the skill of Antoine 
 
 Court: persecution followed, but later tolerance gained 
 
 the day. Under the Revolution Presbyterianism spread 
 
 again ; and in 1801-2 Napoleon framed a constitution for 
 
 the Protestant Churches, under State control, abolishing 
 
 the national synod and practically checking their progress. 
 
 After an imperfect but continuous existence, in 1871 the 
 
 consistories were authorised to elect deputies to a general 
 
 synod, which met in Paris in 1872. It was soon evident 
 
 that the Galilean Confession was no longer 
 
 French fully held by the majority ; but the medium 
 
 Protestant- course was adopted of declaring " the sovereign 
 authority of the Holy Scriptures in matters of 
 faith, and salvation by faith in Jesus Christ, the only 
 begotten Son of God, who died for our sins, and was 
 raised again for our justification." The Apostles' Creed, 
 the Confession of Sins, and the Order for the Lord's 
 Supper were also emphatically adopted. A large minority 
 had rationalistic views, and, in the opinion of some, de- 
 served to be called Unitarians. They asserted the right 
 of each pastor or member to hold whatever creed he might 
 think proper. There is also a Free Church, or Union of 
 Evangelical Churches in France, independent of State 
 payment or State control. 
 
 A brief note must suffice for the Lutheran and Ee- 
 
 The Refonnedfo^'^®'^ Churches of Hungary, whose early 
 
 churciies of establishment was due to the Waldenses and 
 
 Hungary. Bohemian Brethren who took refuge there. 
 
THERE FORMED CHURCHES OF HUNGARY. 425 
 
 Luther's writings had great influence in Hungary, and 
 the G-erman population have largely remained Lutherans. 
 The Magyars were more influenced by Melanchthon and 
 Calvin, and adopted a Calvinistic Confession at the Synod 
 of Czenger in 1567 or 1558 ; this was superseded by the 
 second Helvetic Confession of 1566, subscribed in Hungary 
 in 1567. A Presbyterian organisation was adopted, and 
 at the end of the sixteenth century almost all the Mag- 
 yars, nobility as well as peasants, had accepted the Refor- 
 mation. In the next two centuries the Jesuits and the 
 persecutions of the Hapsburg princes brought continual 
 disasters upon the Reformed Church ; but in 1781 the 
 Edict of Toleration secured liberty of conscience and 
 public worship to the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, 
 and other restrictions were removed in 1848. The Protes- 
 tants of Hungary number about three millions, two-thirds 
 being of the Reformed Church. 
 
 DUONTHEIJI CATHEDRAL, NOBWAY. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Cfte Cburcl) of (SnglanU antr tlje 
 ^onronfonm6t5. 
 
 Early Independence of Engllsli Church— Keslstanoe to Papacy— The Lollards 
 —Henry VIII. and Luther— English brealc with Rome— Henry excom- 
 municated— Tyndale's Bible— Later Translations— English Prayer-Books 
 —The Thirty-nine Articles -Gradual restriction of English Church— 
 Evangelicals- High Church and Ritualist party— Broad Churohmon— 
 The Baptists— Mennonites-Purltans-Independents— Emigration to New 
 England-Savoy Conferonoe-Congregatlonal Union— Society of Friends 
 — Hlolisite Friends— Armlnlanism— John Wesley- George Whltefleld— 
 Methodist Episcopacy— Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion — Welsh 
 Calvlnistio Methodists— Emanuel Swendenborg— New Church— Edward 
 Irving — Catholic Apostolic Church— Unltarians-Soclnus-Priestley - 
 Channlng— Rationalism— Agnosticism. 
 
 CLAIMING a history dating from apostolic or sub- 
 apostolic times, Christianity in Great Britain is only 
 partially derived from the papal mission of Augustine in 
 Early inde- ^^"- ^"^ry soon after the organisation of the 
 pendence of Church by the Roman missionaries, a strong 
 Sifrc* spirit of independence of Rome was found in 
 Britain ; and as early as 717 a synod of English 
 bishops ordered that the Creed and the Lord's Prayer 
 should be taught to the people in the vulgar tongue. We 
 have already referred to many famous British missionaries 
 and theologians ; to these mi.cht be added many more. 
 There was always an extensive practice of explaining 
 the Scriptures in the vernacular, and a A-ery moderate 
 statement of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist. 
 Anselm introduced a higher doctrine of the Eucharist, 
 
 420 
 
THE LOLLARDS. 427 
 
 as well as of the papal power. The power and abuses of 
 the monastic orders and celibacy of the clergy, the exac- 
 tions and oppressions of papal legates, and the claims of 
 clerical exemption from ordinary law again and again 
 roused the nation, and there was seldom a com-Keaistance to 
 plete subjection of the kingdom to the Papacy, Papacy, 
 the Inquisition never having been introduced. The 
 statute of Mortmain (1279) restrained the gifts of lands 
 to monastic orders and the Church ; the statutes of 
 Provisors (1351) and Praemunire (1353), more strongly 
 enacted in 1393, forbade the excessive drain of Church 
 and monastic money to the pope, and to aliens, and papal 
 appointments to sees and benefices. The clergy were 
 compelled to pay taxes to the Crown ; and Wyclif, in the 
 thirteenth century, both rotised the people against the 
 corruptions of the Church, and promulgated a teaching 
 which to a considerable extent anticipated the Reforma- 
 tion. His translation of the Bible could not, however, 
 obtain wide circulation before the era of printing. 
 
 It is worth noting here how, in 139J:, the Lollards 
 (followers of Wyclif) brought forward a Bill in Parlia- 
 ment, setting forth such advanced views as the „j^ , u h 
 following: (1) that when the Church of England * ° ^ ^■ 
 accepted endowments, faith, hope, and charity began to 
 disappear, and pride and mortal sins to prevail ; (2) that 
 the priesthood, as conferred by the Church ritual, is a 
 sham ; (3) that the vow of chastity leads to sin ; (4) that 
 the pretended miracle of the sacrament leads all rnen, 
 save a few, into idolatry ; (5) that exorcisms and blessings 
 of various things are practices of necromancy rather than 
 theology; (6) prelates and clergy ought not to hold secular 
 offices ; (7) the offering of prayers for special dead persons 
 is wrong as a foundation for almsgiving ; (8) pilgrimages, 
 prayers, and offerings to crosses and images are very near 
 to idolatry; (9) auricular confession and absolution pro- 
 duce many evils. The fastening of this Bill upon the 
 doors of St. Paul's and "Westminster Abbey in 1304 
 anticipated by 123 years Luther's theses at Wittenberg. 
 After this followed the cruel persecutions of the Lollards, 
 beginning with the killing of Wilham Sawtrey in 1401 ; 
 
428 THE ENGLISH CHURCH. 
 
 but this only intensified the poptilar dislike and the 
 resistance to papal tyranny, which continued active during 
 the weak reign of Henry VI., and increased during the 
 Wars of the Roses and reign of Henry VII. 
 
 Early in the sixteenth century, the monks and monas- 
 teries were in ill repute ; the clergy preached little, and 
 Henry VIII. many of them lived immoral lives ; the sale 
 and Luther, of indulgences made the people scoff at the 
 Church; and a reform was greatly needed, though it 
 came about in a way which brought many evils along 
 with it. At first, antagonism to Luther was prominent. 
 Wolsey had Luther's books burnt at St. Paul's in 1521 ; 
 and Henry VIII. wrote a book in favour of the seven 
 sacraments and abusing Luther, who responded in a 
 violent tone. The king was gratified by receiving from 
 Pope Leo X. the title of Defender of the Faith, still re- 
 tained by the English sovereigns. But the opinions of the 
 Continental reformers were widely diffused in England, 
 and prepared the way for the reforming Parliament of 
 1529, in which Henry compelled the clergy, besides paying 
 
 English large sums of money in lieu of penalties for 
 break with breaking the Praemunire statute, to accept his 
 ''°™°' supremacy over the English Church, " as far 
 as is permitted by the law of Christ," thus practically 
 breaking with Rome. The " submission of the clergy" 
 in 1532 granted that no new canons should be made or 
 published without the king's consent, and that a revision 
 of the old ones should take place. In 1533 all appeals 
 to Eome were forbidden, as well as all papal dispensations 
 and appointments. In 1536 the suppression of the smaller 
 monasteries was authorised, and in 1639 that of the greater 
 monasteries. Thus, not without bloodshed, the Church 
 was made national, under royal supremacy, and its reform 
 was made possible and partially accomplished without 
 the introduction of any new doctrine beyond orthodox 
 Eomanism. 
 
 After Cranmer, in May, 1533, had pronounced the 
 divorce of Catherine from Henry, the pope threatened to 
 excommunicate him. Cranmer claimed an appeal from 
 the pope to a general council. On March 23rd, 1534, the 
 
LATER TRANSLATIONS OF THE BIBLE. 
 
 429 
 
 pope proclaimed Henry's marriage witli Catherine lawful, 
 and excommunicated him. But liberal views Henry 
 were not enthroned in England if the pope was excommuni- 
 dethroned. Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas °**^'*- , 
 More were executed in 1B35 for denying the royal supre- 
 macy ; Anabaptists were also burnt ; and the Eeal 
 Presence in the Eucharist was proclaimed as a vital 
 doctrine. 
 
 Meanwhile William Tyndale had translated and printed 
 
 on the Continent 
 the New Testament 
 (1526), and the Pen- 
 tateuch (1530). In 
 
 1534 and Tjmdale's 
 1535, he Biwe. 
 issued revised edi- 
 tions, enlarged. In 
 
 1535 he was seized 
 in the Netherlands, 
 and after a year and 
 a half's imprison- 
 ment was strangled 
 
 and then burnt, on 
 Oct. 6, 1536, under 
 the decree of the 
 Emperor Charles V. 
 In 1536, Henry 
 VIII. obtained the 
 approval of Convo- 
 cation to his " Ten 
 Articles, which 
 have been termed " popery with the pope left out." 
 Meanwhile Coverdale's translation of the Bible Later 
 into Enghsh was published in 1635. In 1537 translations. 
 " Matthew's " Bible appeared, edited by John Rogers, 
 mainly from Tyndale ; and a copy was ordered to be set 
 up in every church. A revised edition, the " Great " 
 Bible, was issued in 153,9 ; and thus a beginning was 
 made in the popular diffusion of the Scriptures. The 
 injunctions issued by the king's vicar-general in 1538 
 
430 THE ENGLISH CHURCH. 
 
 enjoin the reading and study of the Bibh on every 
 Christian man ; and the clergy are bidden to preach, 
 at least once every quarter, a sermon, "in which they 
 are to declare, purely and sincerely, the very gospel of 
 Christ, and to exhort their hearers to works of mercy 
 and religion, and not to trust in works devised by man's 
 fantasies, as in wandering to pilgrimages, offering of 
 money, candles, or tapers to images or relics, kissing 
 or licking the same, saying over a number of bedes not 
 understanded, or in such-like superstitions." But these 
 injunctions mark the high-water mark of the JEleformation 
 under Henry VIII., who became more bigoted and in- 
 tolerant as he grew older. In 1639 he issued the " Six 
 Articles," affirming transubstantiation on penalty of the 
 stake, the necessity of private masses and auricular con- 
 fession, celibacy of the clergy, and the obligation of vows 
 of chastity. Many were tried and punished under the 
 Act passed in pursuance of it, and many for denying the 
 roj'al supremacy in religion. 
 
 Early in Edward VI.'s reign the " Six Articles " were 
 repealed ; and Parliament, on the recommendation of the 
 Convocation of the Church, ordered that the Communion 
 should be administered to all persons in both kinds. In 
 Edward vi.'b 1548-9 the First Prayer-Book of Edward VI. 
 First was issued in English, being really a revised 
 Prayer-Book. translation of the best of the old Latin service 
 books used in England, with the omission of many things 
 strongly objected to by reformers. About the same time 
 the marriage of the clergy was permitted by law. Later, 
 it appeared that many were applying or adapting parts 
 of the new service-book in a Roman sense, and injunc- 
 tions to the contrary were issued. In reaction Protestant 
 doctrines came more into favour among the people. 
 
 The Second Prayer-Book of Edward VI. (1B52), which 
 is substantially in force at present, was largely influenced 
 Edward vi.'s ^y ^^ progress of reforming opinions. The 
 
 Second Order of Morning and Evening Prayer was 
 Prayer-Book. (jj^g^jjgg^^. ^he Sentences, Exhortation, Confes- 
 sion, and Absolution were prefixed to the Lord's Prayer, 
 with which Services had previously begun, and prayers 
 
THE THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES. 431 
 
 were added after the third collect. In the Communion 
 Service important alterations were made ; the reading of 
 the Commandments was introduced, the name of the 
 Virgin was omitted from special mention, the invocation 
 of the "Word and the Holy Grhost, the sign of the cross, 
 and the mixture of water with the wine were omitted ; 
 instead of the long comprehensive Prayer of Consecration, 
 three prayers were substituted, those for the Church 
 Militant, of Consecration, and the first form of the Prayer 
 after Communion ; at the delivery of the elements to the 
 communicants, the second clauses of the present form 
 were substituted for the first clauses. In the rite of 
 Baptism the exorcism, anointing, and triple immersion ; 
 in the Service for the Visitation of the Sick, the anointing, 
 directions for private confessions, and for reserving por- 
 tions of the elements from the public Communion ; in the 
 Burial Service, prayers for the dead, were omitted. The 
 most important change was in the Communion Service, 
 supporting the view that the elements had no new virtues 
 imparted in consecration, thus allowing the full adhesion 
 of the extreme Keformers. Forty-two Articles of Eeligion 
 were agreed to and promulgated in 1552-3. 
 
 We must pass over the restoration of Romanism under 
 Queen Mary, and the persecution and martyrdoms asso- 
 ciated with it. In 1559 the Second Prayer-Book Revised 
 of Edward VI. was again restored, with slight ^'^ayer-Book. 
 alterations, one being that the clauses used in both 
 Prayer-Books of Edward VI. in delivering the elements 
 in the Communion were combined as at present in use. 
 Several minor alterations went counter to the desires 
 of the Puritans, especially in restoring some ceremonies 
 and vestments. 
 
 In 1663 the Forty-two Articles of Edward VI. were 
 revised and amended, and condensed into Thirty-nine. 
 They have been the subject of an astonishing ^-^^ 
 variety of interpretation and latitude of sub- Tiirty-nine 
 scription, some representing them as mainly -Ar^oi^^- 
 Lutheran, others reading into them much of the theology 
 of the Council of Trent ; Calvinists finding in them sub- 
 stantially their own creed, whilst those possessing a much 
 
432 THE ENGLISH CHURCH. 
 
 less positive and dogmatic belief than any of these have 
 been content to subscribe them. We will briefly state 
 their effect, mainly following Dr. Schaff's analysis as that 
 of a competent outside judge. The Articles are Catholic 
 as to the doctrines of the Trinity and the Incarnation, 
 agreeing with all the Protestants of the Eeform period ; 
 indeed, these are partly given in the words of two 
 Lutheran confessions, the Augsburg and the Wurtemberg; 
 they are Augustinian on free-will, sin, and grace, agreeing 
 with the Continental Reformers; they are Protestant 
 and Evangelical, in rejecting the errors and abuses of the 
 Roman Church, and teaching the doctrines as to Scrip- 
 ture and tradition, justification, faith and good works, and 
 the number of sacraments, held in common by Luther, 
 Zwingli, and Calvin ; they are moderately Calvinistic as 
 to predestination and the Lord's Supper ; they are Eras- 
 tian' in teaching the close union of Church and State, 
 and the royal supremacy in ecclesiastical as well as civil 
 affairs. Article XXXVI., in reference to the Prayer-Book 
 and orders, being purely Anglican and Episcopalian, has 
 always been opposed by the Puritans. The Articles have 
 been adopted by the American Episcopal Church, with 
 the omission of the Athanasian Creed from Article VIII., 
 and modifications applicable to the separation of Church 
 and State. 
 
 The " Bishops' " Bible, issued under Archbishop Parker, 
 
 in 1568, not being entirely satisfactory, a committee of 
 
 Bishona' divines was appointed to draw up a new transla- 
 
 Autnorise'a, tion, which was published in 1611, and has ever 
 
 ^8™^'^^*^ since been recognised as a masterly work. It 
 
 was revised in 1870-1885, by a commission 
 
 containing representatives of Nonconformists as well as 
 
 ' Thomas Erastus, 1524-1583, author of a treatise on the power 
 of excommunication, advocated the infliction of penalties by the 
 civil magistrate, not by the Church, and regarded it as out of place 
 for the Church to excommunicate. But it became the popular idea 
 that he maintained the power of the magistrate over the conscience 
 of individuals, and the subjection of all religious bodies to State 
 regulation and control. Thus the term Erastian is identified with 
 the control of the Church by the State, and with the principle of 
 Established Churches. 
 
LOH^ AND HIGH CHURCH. 433 
 
 American divines ; but the revised translation has not yet 
 been " authorised " for use in churches. 
 
 Without following the stormy history of the English 
 Church in the seventeenth century, it may be said that 
 nearly all alterations, though comparatively 
 slight, were in an anti-Puritan direction, with restriction, 
 strict State control. The attitude of the Eoyal °[,J°fgJf^ 
 Government and of the Church authorities 
 became such, that at successive periods very many who 
 desired to remain in the National Church were excluded, 
 until at the present time it is claimed that only one-half 
 of the nation is really attached to the Established Church. 
 Towards the end of the last century a number of clergy- 
 men who had at first sympathised with the Methodist 
 revival adopted a strict Calvinism which separated them 
 from Wesley's movement. They remained in the Church, 
 and formed the "Evangelical" party, I'emark- ^^ g^^^jg 
 able for their earnest spiritual sermons, their 
 philanthropy, and their missions. They founded the 
 Church Missionary Society, and (with the Baptists, Pres- 
 byterians, and Independents) the Religious Tract Society, 
 and the British and Foreign Bible Society. As a reaction 
 from their moderate statement of the claims of the 
 Church, and inattention to form and supposed incomplete- 
 ness of teaching on sacramental subjects, the High Church 
 and Tractarian party arose (1-833), and in " Tracts for the 
 Times," insisted on the Divine authority and mission of 
 the Church of England as a branch of the^j j^pj^^^jj 
 Church Catholic, possessing continuity from and 
 apostolic times, unbroken succession of the ^pa^y^* 
 ministry, and true episcopacy. They directed 
 fresh attention to the Fathers and to the traditions and 
 decisions of the undivided Church. As to the Papacy, 
 many of them were more inclined to revere than to 
 censure it, and the name of Protestant became hateful 
 to them. They endeavoured to re-introduce the doctrine 
 of the mass as a sacrifice. The cry arose that they 
 were Eomanists at heart and wished to betray the English 
 Church to Roman Catholicism ; and this appeared to be 
 justified by the secession of many prominent Tractarians 
 
 2e 
 
434 ENGLISH CHURCH AND NONCONFORMISTS. 
 
 to Rome. Later, various legal decisions have allowed 
 the holding within the Chi^rch of England of certain 
 sacramental doctrines deemed by the Evangelicals to be 
 contrary to the meaning of the Articles, and susceptible of 
 a direct Roman interpretation ; and this view appears to 
 be confirmed by the Romanised ceremonial introduced by 
 the " Ritualists," together with habitual confession, sister- 
 hoods, limited communions, gorgeous vestments, etc. The 
 rise of the High Church party was almost simultaneous 
 Broad with that of a Broader school of thought, 
 cnurchmen. which, partly under the influence of German 
 rationalism, partly under that of modern science, ascribed 
 a lower place to the authority of the Bible than the 
 Reformers, and allowed that its verbal infallibility was 
 not necessary to its acceptance as containing all that was 
 essential to salvation. While some of them firmly believed 
 in the supernatural aspects of Christianity and the Deity 
 of Christ, others qualified these to a varying extent. 
 Some few Broad Churchmen have left the Church and 
 become Unitarians ; but on the whole they retain their 
 positions, giving in some cases a special interpretation to 
 the Thirty-nine Articles. 
 
 The Church of England is by some called a bundle of 
 divergent sects; but there is a very large number of mem- 
 bers who hold to the distinctive dogmas of no one school, 
 but are attached to the plain teaching of the Prayer- 
 Book. Next to these the High Churchmen are apparently 
 the most numerous and active section. 
 
 The first important body of Nonconformists in England 
 were the Baptists, sometimes called Anabaptists (rebap- 
 Tue Baptists. I^^^®.^^)' ^^ requiring those who had been baptised 
 in infancy to be baptised again (by immersion) 
 in adult life, on making a voluntary profession of Chris- 
 tianity. Their fanaticism on the Continent against all 
 who supported infaait baptism, as well as against papal 
 errors, led to bitter persecutions by all parties, leading to 
 revolts, such as the Peasants' AVar in Saxony (1534). The 
 earliest confession of Baptists is given by Zwingli and 
 includes baptism on profession of repentance, belief in 
 and forgiveness of sins through Christ, accompanied with 
 
THE BAPTISTS. 435 
 
 change of life. Those who fall into sin after baptism 
 are to be excommunicated. Their other doctrines agree 
 ■with the Calvinistic Reformed Churches. They appeared 
 in England in Henry VIII.'s reign, and some were burnt. 
 In Elizabeth's and James I.'s reign no tolerance was 
 allowed to Baptists ; and during the greater part of the 
 seventeenth century, except during the Commonwealth 
 time, they were persecuted. It was not till after the 
 Revolution of 1688, and the passing of the Toleration Act 
 in 1689, that their worship was free. Their tenets gradu- 
 ally spread ; and as each Church adopted its creed without 
 control by any organisation, a distmction gradually arose 
 between the Particular or Calvinistic Baptists, particular 
 and the Greneral or Arminian Baptists. The Baptists, 
 former are the majority, and are Calvinists in doctrine, 
 while independent in their Church organisation. While 
 rejecting infant baptism, they believe in the salvation 
 of all children dying before the age of responsibility. In 
 their eyes baptism is not a regenerative act, but an out- 
 ward sign of a grace already conferred. They are opposed 
 to all State Churches, and advocate voluntaryism and 
 religious freedom. No Church has any power over any 
 other Church. No minister has any authority in any 
 Church except that which has called him to be its pastor. 
 Deacons are the Church administrators and General 
 pastors' assistants. The General Baptists are Baptists, 
 those who reject unconditional election to salvation, and 
 maintain the freedom of man's will and the possibility 
 of falling from grace. Some of the congregations in the 
 last century tended towards Socinianism and have joined 
 the Unitarians. A number of Particular Baptists have 
 become more moderate in their Calvinism, and more 
 liberal in their theology. 
 
 The Mennonites represent the original Anabaptists, 
 collected into a peaceful, unobtrusive bodj'' in Holland and 
 Western Germany, by Menno Simonis, about The 
 1536. The Confession of Waterland, which Mennonites. 
 they for the most part acknowledge, shows their affinity 
 with the Quakers. Agreeing with the other Baptists as to 
 adult baptism, they differ in using sprinkling instead of 
 
436 THE PURITANS. 
 
 immersion. They admit hereditary sin, but deny the 
 individual's guilt for it. They believe in universal re- 
 demption and conditional election. Taking oaths and 
 holding secular offices is forbidden, together with law- 
 suits, revenge, violence, and worldly amusements. They 
 have spread very considerably in Russia and the United 
 States. 
 
 The term " Puritans " sometimes covers all who dissent 
 from the Church of England, and adopt a narrow principle 
 The Puritans °^ Church government and more strictly avoid 
 E-oman doctrine and ceremonies ; but it properly 
 designates a more definite party in the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries. The introduction of Calvin's fol- 
 lowers into important positions in the latter part of Henrj- 
 VIII.'s and in Edward VI. 's reign, had much influence 
 in spreading the doctrines of the Swiss Reformers ; and 
 during the Marian persecutions many English divines 
 went to Geneva and other Protestant centres, and on 
 their return, in Elizabeth's reign, brought back a strong 
 attachment to Genevan simplicity and hatred of Romish 
 vestments and ceremonies. Some of their proposals were 
 accepted, but others, especially about vestments, were 
 rejected ; and in 1560, those who refused to conform began 
 to be deprived of their cures, but great difficulty occurred 
 in supplying their places. Some of the Puritans chose to 
 remain within the Church, conforming as little as might 
 be to the regulations they disliked, while others separated 
 themselves, though not supported by Knox, Beza, and 
 BuUinger. Thomas Cartwright, a notable Cambridge 
 professor, became their chief literary exponent, his " Second 
 Admonition," addressed to Parliament in 1672, being a 
 powerful attack upon the Church ; and the " Book of 
 Discipline " drawn up by him and Travers about 1B80, 
 contains a complete organisation for Church government 
 on the Genevan model. Several Churches with presby- 
 terian discipline were formed from 1572 onwards, but soon 
 suppressed, or only carried on in secret. The troubles 
 of those who desired to continue Puritans within the 
 Established Church, and of those who left it for the sake 
 of Puritan principles, increased during the latter part 
 
THE INDEPENDENTS. 437 
 
 of Elizabeth's and the early Stuart reigns. Many took 
 refuge in America, the first ship, the Mayflower, leaving 
 Plymouth on 6th Sept., 1620. Their numbers were 
 greatly increased by Laud's arbitrary discipline in Charles 
 I.'s reign, and they constituted a powerful basis Emigration 
 for the new free reformed Churches of America, to New 
 Under the Commonwealth the National Church ^"eiand. 
 was largely given up to freedom and irregular proceed- 
 ings, the surplice being extensively discarded and extem- 
 poraneous prayer being frequent in the parish churches. 
 The old Puritanism now became extinct, and the oppo- 
 nents of the Established (Jhurch fell into two main groups, 
 the Presbyterians and the Independents. After the pass- 
 ing of the Act of Uniformity (1662), the name of Non- 
 conformist was generally applied to those clergymen 
 (with their adherents) who refused to conform to the 
 Church of England. Nearly 2,000 ministers w6re then 
 ejected as Nonconformists. 
 
 The origin of the Independents is traced to the reign 
 of Elizabeth, and more especially to Kobert Browne (1650- 
 1631), who wrote strongly against the evils of The 
 Churches containing evil hvers and preachers,^'^'^^P^'i^^'i*^- 
 and the interference of the civil power with religion ; but 
 after suffering much from persecution and imprisonment, 
 he returned to the ministry of the English Church. Many 
 others by private study of the Bible came in his time to 
 believe in the separate organisation and equal authority 
 of every congregation of believers. They endured much 
 persecution for their opinions, and formed many private 
 Churches or assemblies. Many took refuge in Holland, 
 and formed Churches at Amsterdam and Leyden. In 
 1606 Henry Jacob returned to England from Leyden and 
 formed an Independent Church in Southwark, having 
 previously defined his position in a petition to King 
 James, that every particular Church ^should be allowed 
 to elect, ordain, and deprive her own ministers, and to 
 exercise all other lawful ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Grow- 
 ing apace, though constantly drained of their best blood 
 by the New England emigration, the Independents exer- 
 cised considerable influence in the AVestminster Assembly. 
 
438 THE CONGREGATIONALISTS. 
 
 Under the Protectorate of Cromwell they became the 
 most important religious body, and in 1658 ministers and 
 Savoy delegates of more than 100 congregations met 
 Conference, at the Savoy and subscribed a " Declaration," 
 which set forth, besides the Westminster Confession in a 
 slightly modified form, a "Declaration of the Institution 
 of Churches and the Order appointed in them by Jesus 
 Christ." It stated that " a particular Church consists of 
 officers and members ; the Lord Christ having given to 
 His called ones, — united in Church order, — liberty and 
 power to choose persons fitted by the Holy G-host to be 
 over them in the Lord. The o|[icers appointed by Christ 
 to be chosen and set apart b;^ the Church are pastors, 
 teachers, elders, and deacons." The call to the ministry 
 by the Church is to be followed by fasting and prayer, 
 and the imposition of hands by the eldership of the 
 Church. A Church furnished with officers has full power 
 to administer all Christ's ordinances. Admonition and 
 excommunication are within the power of the Church. 
 These Savoy Declarations have no binding power upon 
 any Church, but were substantially approved by most 
 Independent Churches. The Independents were fiercely 
 persecuted under the Conventicle Acts of 1663 and 1670, 
 and other oppressive regulations. In 1689 they gained 
 toleration, and flourished considerably in the 18th cen- 
 tury. In 1833 an impulse towards united action led to 
 .jjjg the foundation of the Congregational Union of 
 congrega- England and "Wales, which drew up a moder- 
 tionai Union, ^tely Calvinistic declaration. It is not imposed 
 on any Church, and the Union does not assume legislative 
 authority or the functions of a Court of Appeal. A num- 
 ber of ministers hold opinions considered to be " liberal " 
 if not rationalistic. The term "Congregational " has been 
 adopted by the majority of Independent Chiirches, to 
 emphasise their positive aspect, rather thant he opposition 
 to establishments, popery, prelacy, parliament, signified 
 by the word " Independent." 
 
 The Society of Friends, popularly known as the 
 " Quakers," takes its rise from George Fox, son of a 
 weaver, who in 1648 began to preach repentance and 
 
THE FRIENDS. 439 
 
 the universality and sufficiency of the light of the 
 Holy Spirit. The term Quakers was given to society of 
 his followers by a magistrate whom Fox had Frienda. 
 bidden to "tremble at the word of God." He taught that 
 the gift of preaching came directly from the operation 
 of the Holy Spirit in the soul, and needed no other 
 authorisation. Thus every one, male or female, might 
 preach when " moved by the Spirit." Fox gave up all 
 rites, ceremonies, and forms of worship, holding that 
 silent communion with God was as acceptable as the 
 utterance of prayer and praise. Naturally the Quakers 
 were opposed by men of all parties ; but their principles 
 made way against much persecution, notwithstanding 
 many eccentricities and extravagances. They have never 
 become a Church imposing by numbers, though the 
 character of individual members has had remarkable 
 influence. The doctrines of the Friends, other than 
 those already given, are the universal love of God to 
 man, revealed to the soul of the heathen as well as the 
 Christian ; denial of the lawfulness of war, oaths, amuse- 
 ments ; the use of the plainest language and dress. They 
 recognise in a modified way the offices of minister, elder, 
 and overseer ; but in their meetings they frequently sit 
 silent unless any member is " moved " to speak or pray. 
 All members are entitled to watch over one another for 
 good. It is in assigning supremacy to the " Inward 
 Light" that they most differ from the Reformers. In 
 America they became very numerous ; and owing to the 
 views put forward by Elias Hicks, approaching nearly 
 to Arianism, a large body seceded in 1827, and are known 
 as Hicksite Friends. They assert their belief HioUsite 
 in the Divinity of Christ, "the immaculate Friends. 
 Son of God," but they do not hold the orthodox doctrine 
 of the Trinity. They affirm that " the Scriptures do not 
 teach that we inherit any fault from Adam or any of 
 our ancestors ; nor do we feel any compunction for their 
 sins. The language of our Saviour clearly implies that 
 little children are innocent, for, He says, ' of such is the 
 kingdom of heaven.' " 
 
 We will here summarise the leading points of Armin- 
 
440 
 
 ARMIiWIANISM. 
 
 ianism (see p, 421), which have been to a large extent 
 Arminianism ^'^opted t)y the Methodists. They are, (1) that 
 'predestination is conditioned by God's fore- 
 knowledge of the faith or unbelief of men. (2) That 
 Christ died for all men, and His salvation is intended for 
 all ; but (3) God's grace is not irresistible, and only those 
 
 JOHN WESLEY. 
 
 who accept it by faith are saved. (4) Man can only attain 
 saving faith by regeneration by God in Christ. {b) 
 Believers are capable of falling from grace. Arminianism 
 was held to a considerable extent in the Church of 
 England (and still is), before Wesley adopted it. 
 
 John Wesley (1703-17!J1), the founder of Methodism, 
 was a learned Oxford graduate and Church of Eno-land 
 
WESLEY AND WHITEFIELD. 441 
 
 clergyman, who in 1729 formed a small society for culti- 
 vating personal religion at Oxford, on some- j^^j^^^ ^^^^^ 
 -what High Church principles, and nicknamed ^' 
 
 "Methodists." It was not till after he had been on a 
 mission to Georgia, that he realised his need of " con- 
 version," and through the teaching of Peter BShler, a 
 Moravian, gained a personal trust in Christ and a con- 
 scious assurance of his sins being forgiven (1738). Mean- 
 while, George Whitefield, one of the Oxford George 
 Methodists, had become an open-air preacher, 'wiiitefleid. 
 and produced wonderful effects by his eloquence. The 
 two joined heartily in evangelistic work, and formed 
 societies, at first intended solely to be within the Church 
 of England. But in numerous cases Wesley's converts 
 were repelled from communion by the Anglican clergy, 
 and Wesley was generally prohibited from preaching in 
 parish churches. In 1740 Wesley separated both from 
 the Moravians and from Whitefield, the latter adopting 
 Calvinistic views. Perhaps the point most insisted on in 
 early Methodism, was the necessity of distinct, usually 
 instantaneous, "conversion," after repentance from sin; 
 but the possession of a consciousness of forgiveness and 
 of the Divine favour (known as " the witness of the 
 Spirit "), justification by faith alone, and Christian per- 
 fectibility, or the possible attainment of a state of sin- 
 lessness, or freedom from the power of sin (though not 
 from " involuntary transgressions "), are almost equally 
 prominent. Wesley set himself " to reform the nation, 
 more particularly the Church, and to spread Scriptural 
 holiness over the land." To his " genius for godliness " 
 he added a remarkable power of organisation, which, well 
 seconded by his successors, has made the Methodist bodies 
 as important and active as any section of Protestantism. 
 The doctrinal standard rather than the creed of Method- 
 ism is contained in fifty-three of Wesley's sermons and 
 his " Notes on the New Testament." It was not till 1784 
 that Wesley, though long convinced that the office of a 
 bishop was originally the same with that of a presbyter, 
 ordained the Rev. Dr. Coke as superintendent or bishop 
 for America, Coke, in his turn, ordaining Francis Asbury 
 
442 WELSH CALVINISTIC METHODISM. 
 
 as presbyter and bishop. Asbury was an indefatigable 
 Methodist evangelist, and largely instrumental in building 
 Episcopacy, up the Methpdist Episcopal Church in America, 
 whose bishops, however, are but chief among the pres- 
 byters they superintend. "In 1788 Wesley ordained a 
 number of his lay preachers to assist him in administer- 
 ing the sacraments to his societies ; and in 1795 the 
 "Conference" of his ministers authorised the adminis- 
 tration of the sacraments wherever desired. In 1836 the 
 practice of ordination of ministers by imposition of hands 
 of senior ministers was adopted. In the present century 
 there has been a gradual growth of the power of the 
 laity in Methodism, after several exciting controversies, 
 attended by considerable secessions and the formation of 
 large but minor Methodist bodies. The tendency now is 
 towards reunion. Class-meetings of a few members for 
 religious conversation under " leaders," lay local preachers, 
 quarterly meetings of leaders and office-bearers in every 
 society, district committees with ministerial chairmen, 
 and annual conferences of ministers and laymen, consti- 
 tute some of the special features of Methodism. Various 
 minor modifications are found among the Primitive 
 Methodists, the United Methodist Free Churches, the 
 " New Connexion," the Bible Christians, etc. An (Ecu- 
 menical Methodist Conference (without legislative power) 
 was held in London in 1881. 
 
 Whitefield became closely associated with Selina, Coun- 
 tess of Huntingdon, who from 1748 set up chapels under 
 Countess of i^^r ^^"^ management, appointing her numerous 
 Huntingdon's" chaplains " to be their ministers. At first 
 Connexion, (j^siring to remain in connection with the 
 Church of England, she found it necessary, in 1781, to 
 claim the privileges and status of Dissenters. She adopted 
 Calvinistic views, and her society was known as the 
 Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion. In 1791, when she 
 died, it included 64 chapels, most of which since her death 
 have become Independent or Congregationalist, though 
 retaining a portion of the English Liturgy. 
 
 Welsh Calvinistic Methodism arose about 1735-6 in 
 several counties of Wales, Howel Harris, Daniel I^o-w- 
 
SIVEDENBORG. 443 
 
 lands, and Howell Davies being its cHef leaders, at 
 first in connection with the Church of England, waign 
 Extemporaneous preaching and revivalism caivinistio 
 became its prominent characteristics. The first Methodists. 
 Calvinistic Methodist Conference was held at Waterford, 
 in Glamorganshire, under Whitefield's presidency, in 
 1743. It was not till 1811 that the preachers became 
 pastors and were ordained to administer the sacraments, 
 although an Order of Church Government and Rules of 
 Discipline had been adopted in 1801. The present form of 
 government is described as " modified Presbyterianism." 
 
 Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772) was a Swede, son of 
 a Lutheran bishop, who in 1745 gave up secular pursuits, 
 believing himself called in a miraculous man- Emanuel 
 ner to a holy office, after having had spiritual swedenborg. 
 revelations and talk with spirits and angels. He promul- 
 gated a series of " revelations," including many dicta on 
 spiritual things which only his followers can accept as 
 authoritative. One of his chief doctrines is that of " cor- 
 respondences " between the natural and spiritual worlds, 
 leading him to discard much of the Old Testament and 
 all the New except the Gospels and the Revelation ; others 
 are, that the last judgment has already taken place (in 
 1757), and that the New Jerusalem has already come 
 down in the shape of the " New Church." His views on 
 the Trinity resembled those of the Sabellians (p. 231). 
 Rejecting the doctrine of justification by faith only, he 
 said, " To fear God and to work righteousness is to have 
 charity ; and whoever has charity, whatever his religious 
 sentiments may be, will be saved." In 1787 the " New 
 Church " was first formed in London, with an New- 
 elaborate creed, depending mainly upon the Churoii. 
 members' discernment in the Scriptures of a "spiritual 
 sense heretofore unknown, whence it is Divinely inspired 
 and holy in every syllable, as well as a literal sense which 
 is the basis of its spiritual sense." On the whole, the 
 creed of the New Church is an Evangelical Christian one, 
 qualified by its own peculiarities. The Church is admin- 
 istered by conferences of ministers and laymen. 
 
 The " Irvingites," or Catholic Apostolic Church, arose 
 
444 
 
 EDWARD IRVING. 
 
 mainly in connection with the ministry of Edward Irving, 
 Edwaxd a singularly gifted and earnest minister of the 
 Irving-. Scotch Established Chiirch, in Eegent Square 
 
 EJIANUEL SWEDENBOEG. 
 
 Church, London, who had preached largely on the hope 
 of Christ's speedy coming, and the revival of the miracu- 
 
UNITARIANS. 445 
 
 lotis gifts of the Spirit manifested in the early Church. 
 In 1830, in his own Church and in western Scotland, 
 prophetic utterances and speaking in unknown cathoUo 
 tongues occurred to several members and caused ApostoUo 
 great excitement. Irving was expelled from °''^'^<!''- 
 the ministry of the Church of Scotland in 1833, and in 
 1834 was re-ordained by one of the " apostles " of the 
 new system. The main tenets of the New Church are 
 that all the gifts of the Apostolic age are revived, and 
 that they have apostles, prophets, evangelists, angels or 
 bishops, presbyters, and deacons ; all except the deacons 
 being " called " by the Holy Spirit through the mouth 
 of its prophets. They hope for the speedy coming of 
 Christ. The Church has ritualistic worship and an 
 elaborate liturgy, going in several respects beyond the 
 Church of England. It believes in baptismal regeneration 
 and the spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist, 
 which is not only a sacrament, but also a sacrifice of 
 thanksgiving, connected with the memory of the dead. 
 In many points they agree with the Church of England. 
 The}"- adopt ihe term " Catholic Apostolic," not as an ex- 
 clusive one, but to signify that they are a part of the one 
 Church, adopting the literal teaching of the New Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 The Unitarians claim that their beliefs accord with 
 primitive Christianity, and have always been held by 
 larger or smaller sections of the Church. Their unitarians, 
 modem origin has been traced to Faustus 
 Socinus (1539-1604), an Italian, who in the sixteenth 
 century taught that Christ did not exist before His birth ; 
 that Grod is One, and that Christ, and the Holy Spirit are 
 not God ; that Christ died for the infirmities of human 
 nature, which He had assumed ; and that He gocmus. 
 did not become immortal till His ascension ; that 
 the good will have eternal happiness, while the evil will 
 be punished for a limited time. No definite organisation 
 on this basis was formed in England; but many Anti- 
 Trinitarians suffered for their opinions. Unitarian views 
 were adopted by a number of English Churchmen in 
 the eighteenth century ; many of these resigned their 
 
445 RA TIONALISM. 
 
 benefices. Josepli Priestley, in tlie latter part of the 
 Priestley ^^'^'^ century expressed the belief that the Bible 
 
 was not an inspired book, that Christ was no 
 more than a man, and that it was idolatry to worship 
 Him. It was not till 1813 that the Unitarians were 
 placed by law in the same position as other Dissenters, 
 it having been previously reckoned blasphemy to speak 
 against the doctrine of the Trinity. Many Independent 
 and Presbyterian Churches in England and America 
 
 iDccame more or less Unitarian. "William EUery 
 cuaiining. channing (1780-1842) was the great apostle of 
 Unitarianism in the United States. Unitarians conspicu- 
 ously a'dvocate free inquiry and criticism of the Bible 
 and all religious beliefs, with progressive modifications 
 according to the advance of knowledge. They believe in 
 the fatherhood and benevolence of God, who wills the 
 salvation of all who will accept it. Man's nature they 
 regard as not essentially corrupt, but imperfect, needing 
 regeneration and renewal by that Divine influence called 
 the Holy Spirit. Jesus Christ they term at once Son of 
 God and Son of Man, man's true Teacher, Leader, Life, 
 and Example. Many shades of belief, with a claim of 
 valid Christianity, are included in Unitarianism. Lack 
 of space prevents us from referring to such bodies as 
 the " Brethren," the Sandemanians, the Mormons, the 
 Shakers, the Salvation Army, and many others. 
 
 In concluding this survey of religions, we may take 
 note of modern rationalism, seeking to explain every 
 RationaUsm f^^*^^^® of religion on natural principles, apart 
 ■ from any supernatural manifestation. Its 
 growth during the present century, since the laws of 
 nature have become better known, has been enormous, 
 both in Germany and in Great Britain. Its determination 
 to accept no explanation involving an unknown law or 
 cause, when a known law or cause will satisfactorily 
 account for the phenomenon, has been carried by some 
 into the extreme of refusing to believe in any unknown 
 or " supernatural " cause of religious phenomena. 
 
 Lastly, in reaction from over-credulity, bibliolatry, and 
 papal infallibility, men have professed themselves " Agnos- 
 
AGREEMENT ABOUT JESUS CHRIST. 447 
 
 tics" in religion, believing that nothing can be trulj' 
 linown beyond facts perceptible by the senses, AgnoBticism 
 or principles deducible therefrom. The old 
 biblical utterance, " Canst thou by searching find out 
 Grod?" has been converted by them into a dogma, that 
 " Man cannot know God," and even into an assumption 
 that God cannot reveal Himself to the rational creature 
 He has made. Yet in the testimonies they furnish to 
 Christ, "we find some of the strongest statements as to His 
 teaching. The following quotation from one of the most 
 notable recent works against miracles and the super- 
 natural in religion contains the following expressions : — • 
 
 " The teacMng of Jesus carried morality to the sublimest point 
 attained, or even attainable, by humanity. . . . Such morality, 
 based upon the intelligent and earnest acceptance of Divine law, 
 and perfect recognition of the brotherhood of man, is the highest 
 conceivable by humanity ; and although its power and influeaice 
 must augment with the increase of enlightenment, it is itself be- 
 yond development, consisting as it does of principles unlimited 
 in their range and inexhaustible in their application. . . . No 
 supernatural halo can heighten its spiritual beauty, and no mysti- 
 cism deepen its holiness. In its perfect simplicity it is sublime, 
 and in its profound wisdom it is eternal." — Supernatural Religion, 
 ii. 487-489. 
 
 Such a confession as the above, which all Christians 
 will agree in, is surely a great gain. The ages since 
 Christianity arose are but a small portion of the life of 
 the earth, even since man appeared ; and in spite of con- 
 tradictory appearances and movements, we may safely 
 say that human progress in all philanthropy has been 
 far greater during these ages than in any equal period 
 before. Therefore we may be reasonably certain that the 
 same cause, the same Divine Cause, will in future ages 
 bring about still further progress and enlightenment. 
 
 THE END. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 Aaron, oO. 
 AbeliirJ, 315. 
 Abiubam, li. U. 
 Abj-Sbiiiian Cliurcb, 272. 
 Acts of the Apoftlc-s, 183. 
 
 The Apocryphal. IS t. 
 Adam, iJr'.^ceiMlrnitd of, 7. 
 Adoptiouism, 2:il'. 
 Agnosticism, 417. 
 A Kempis, Thouia.s, ."CG. 
 Albigenses, .302, :j(J.j. 
 Alcuin, 294. 
 
 Altar, Easteru Church, 318. 
 Ambrose, 25U, 313. 
 Amos, 7t>. 
 Anabaptists, o~o. 
 Animals, cleaa and unclean, -11. 
 Anselm, 332. 
 Anskar, 302. 
 Anthony, St., 2.jl. 
 Apijcrypba, 91. 
 Apostles, Acts of. See Acts. 
 Apostolic times, 190. 
 Aquinas, Thomas, 34G. 
 Archbishop, 2 In. 
 Arianism, 245, 217, 249. 
 Arins, 245, 24/. 
 Ark of the Covenant, 20, 5G. 
 Armenian Church, 27-1. 
 Arminianism, 440. 
 Arminius, 421. 
 Arnauld, 391. 
 Articles of Smaleald, 404. 
 
 The Six, 430. 
 
 The Thirty-nine, 431. 
 Arvan<, 170, 182, 183, IS.S. 
 Atban:i-ian Crc'td, 249. 
 Athanasius, 245, 247. 
 AtbenapToras, 217. 
 Athos, Mount, 327. 
 Atonement, Day of, 31, 32, 130. 
 Augsburg Confession, 370. 
 Augustine, 260, 2.38. 
 Aurelius, The Emperor IXarcus, 2vS. 
 
 B. 
 
 Babylonian Captivity, 337. 
 Bacon, Ko<::pr, 343. 
 li.ijitism, 225, 234, 3MI. 
 U.iptists, General, 434. 
 
 I'articubr, 435. 
 Barnabas, Epistle of, 178. 
 Basil, 253. 
 
 Basili._aii churches, 281. 
 Basilides, 228. 
 Basle, Confessions of, 378. 
 Beatihc vision, 337- 
 Beghards, 358. 
 Beguines, 359. 
 liolgic Confession, 421. 
 liellarniine, 38.S. 
 Benedictine orders, 2bO. 
 Benedict, St., 279. 
 Ileni Israel, 121. 
 IJerne, Theses of, 37". 
 BiMe, The, .3811. 
 
 Authorised Version, 133. 
 
 Bishops' The, 432. 
 
 Pvcvised Yersiou, 432. 
 
 Tyndale's, 429. 
 Bishopric of Borne, 210. 
 Bi,shops, 2.39, 257, 313. 
 lonavcntura, ^157. 
 J niface yilX. , 335. 
 ioiiiface, St., 290. 
 H.rneo, Dyaks of, 39. 
 io.ssuet, 388. 
 Brethren of St. John, 350. 
 
 of the Comtnon Life, 307. 
 Broviaiy. Bonian, 398. 
 British 'Cljurch, Early, 2Sr). 
 Broad Church, 4.34. 
 Bu]L.^ariaii C'burcb, 307. 
 Burial, EListern Church, 323. 
 
 Jewish, 44, 137. 
 
 C. 
 
 Calvin, 400. 
 Institutes of, 407. 
 
 2p 
 
450 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Calvinistic Methodism, Welsb, 443. 
 Cameronians, 419. 
 Cardinals, College of, 329. 
 Carmelites, 352. 
 Caroline books, 29G. 
 Carthusians, 350. 
 Catechisms, Heidelberg, 411. 
 
 Luther's, 103. 
 
 Roman, 387- 
 
 Westminster, 418. 
 Catechumens, 234. 
 Cathari, 362. 
 
 Catholic Apostolic Church, 445. 
 Catholics,/rhe Old, 308. 
 Celsus, Oi'igen's "Answer" to, 223. 
 Celtic Chur.'li, 290. 
 Centuries, Secnnd and Third, 208-241. 
 
 Fourth, 21 2-2.:o. 
 
 Seventh to Tenth, 287. 
 Chalcedou, Council of, 208. 
 Channiiicr, 44G. 
 Charlemnc,rno, 292. 
 Cherubim, The, 56. 
 Children and Jesus, 158. 
 
 Jewish trc;itmeut of, 135. 
 Cbvist. See Jesus. 
 
 Christian religion, History of, 117-417. 
 Christians — 
 
 Persecution of, in Fli-.-t century, 
 193, 201-, 208. 
 in Second and Third centuries, 
 208-241. 
 Christianity — 
 
 Advance of, in Seventh to Tenth 
 centuries, 300. 
 
 Spread of, in Fourth century, 250. 
 
 and the Talmud, 101. 
 
 Spread of, in Second century, 2n9. 
 
 as a State Church, 242-259. 
 Chrysostom, 25 !■. 
 Church, The, 234. 
 
 Admission of (! entiles to, 194. 
 
 Celtic, 290. 
 
 Early British, 289. 
 
 Early, foundation of, 191. 
 
 Eastern, 294. 
 Church, English. See EiiRlish. 
 
 in Fifth and Sixth centuries, 200. 
 
 Persecution of, 193. 
 
 Unity of, 240. 
 Churches, Christian, 232, 317, 345. 
 Cistercians, 350. 
 Clara, St., 350. 
 Clement of Alexandria, 219. 
 
 of Rome, 176. 
 Clementine, pseudo-writings, 218. 
 Clergy, Power <if, 257. 
 Clericalism, 279. 
 Clovis, 270. 
 
 Cluniac Congregation, 349. 
 Codex, Alexandrinns, 188. 
 
 BeziE, 188. 
 
 Ephraemi, 188. 
 
 Sinaiticus, 187. 
 
 Vaticanus, 188. 
 Coalestius, 264. 
 Columba, St., 2S!'. 
 Columban, 290. 
 Communion, Holy, 236, .?,15. 
 Concord, Form of, 405. 
 Concordat of Worms, 331. 
 Concubinage, 48. 
 Confession, 334, 384. 
 " Confessions" of St. Augustine, 260. 
 Confirmation, 235. 
 Congregationalists, 438. 
 Consecration of churches, 282. 
 
 Jewish, 4^3. 
 Constantino, 213, 2 12. 
 Constantinople, 243. 
 
 Council of, 219. 
 Conventuals, 359. 
 Copts, 271. 
 Cosmogony, 
 
 of Genesis, 3. 
 C^ouncil, Fifth (General, 208. 
 
 Sixth General, 271. 
 
 Seventh CEcumenical, 296. 
 
 of Franlifort, 297. 
 
 Eighth (Roman), 298. 
 
 Eighth (Greek), 298. 
 
 of Quiercy, 302. 
 
 The First Lateran, 331. 
 
 The Second Lateran, 333. 
 
 The Third Lateran, 333. 
 
 The Fourth Lateran , 334. 
 
 Second of Lyons, 335. 
 
 of Constance, 369. 
 
 of Basle, 371. 
 
 of Trent, 379. 
 Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion, 
 
 +12. 
 Covenant, National, 413. 
 Cranmer, 428. 
 Creation — 
 
 Jehovist narrative of, 6. 
 Creeds, 285, 380. 
 Crosses, 282. 
 Crucifixes, 282. 
 Cyprian, 224. 
 
 Cowardice of, 211. 
 Cyi'il of Alexandria . 265. 
 
 of Jerusalem, 254. 
 
 of Moravia, 303. 
 Cyrus, 82. 
 Czar, 324. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 45' 
 
 D. 
 
 Daniel, 87. 
 
 David, 59. 
 
 Day of Atonement, 31, 32, 130. 
 of Bepentanoe, 130. 
 
 Deacons, 258. 
 
 Dead- 
 Jewish treatment of, 137. 
 
 Decalogue, 21. 
 
 Decius, 210. 
 
 Decretals, Isidoriau, 300. 
 
 "Dictate," The, 331. 
 
 Diocese, 240. 
 
 Diocletian, 211. 
 
 Dioscurus, 2li7. 
 
 Discipline, Kavly Christian, 237. 
 
 Dissenters, 32-1. 
 
 Divorce, 137, 380. 
 
 Doctrine of the Logos, 1S2. 
 
 Dominic, St., 353. 
 
 Dominicans, 355. 
 
 Donatists, 241. 
 
 Dort, Synod of, 421. 
 
 Driver, Prof., on Isaiah, 79. 
 
 Duchoborzi, 326. 
 
 Duns Scotus, 348. 
 
 Durand, William, 348. 
 
 Dutch Reformed Church, 421. 
 
 E. 
 
 Easter, 237. 
 
 Eastern Church, 306. 
 
 Ebionism, 226. 
 
 Ecclesiastes, CO. 
 
 Ecclesiasticus, 91. 
 
 Edward VI.'s Prayer-Books, 430. 
 
 Articles, 430. 
 Egypt, Israelites in, 18. 
 
 Plagues of, 20. 
 Elihu, 71. 
 Elijah, 75. 
 BUsha, 75. 
 Blohim, 3. 
 Emperors, 278. 
 Empire, Holy Roman, 292. 
 Encratites, 229. 
 England, Churcli of, 42C. 
 Ephesus, Council of, 205. 
 Ephraem, 254. 
 Epiphanius, 254. 
 Episcopacy, Methodist, 442. 
 Episcopal Church, 42G, 433. 
 Epistle to Hehi-cws, 185. 
 
 of James, 186. 
 
 of Jude, 186. 
 Epistles of Barnabas, 178. 
 
 of Iguatms, 177. 
 
 Pauline, 173. 
 
 Epistles of Peter, 186. 
 Erastianism, 432. 
 Erastus, 432. 
 Bssenes, 107. 
 j Eucharistic doctrine, 236; and passim 
 throughout Christianity. 
 Euaebius, 253. 
 Eutyches, 267. 
 Evangelicals, 433. 
 Exarchs, 258. 
 Ezekiel, 86. 
 
 Paber, 390. 
 
 Faith, 153, 191, 203. 
 
 Fall, Tlie, 6. 
 
 Past, New Year, 129. 
 
 Pasts, 42, 135, 237, 318. 
 
 Pather, The Divine, 152. 
 
 Peast of Tabernacles, 40, 132. 
 
 of Trumpets, 40. 
 Feasts, Jewish, 40, 132. 
 
 Samaritan, 147. 
 Prance, Reformation in, 423. 
 Franciscans, or Minorites, 356. 
 Francis, St., of Assisi, 355. 
 Praticelli, 358. 
 
 French Protestantism, Modern, 424. 
 Friends, The, 439. 
 Future life an d Judaism, 24. 
 
 Jesus on, 152. 
 
 Job on, 70. 
 
 Psalms on, 02. 
 
 G. 
 
 Galerius, 213. 
 
 GiiUioan Confession, 423. 
 
 Gallienus, 211. 
 
 Gall, St., 290. 
 
 Gemara, 101. 
 
 Gerson, John, 337. 
 
 Gnosticism, 22/. 
 
 Goodwin, Bishop Harvey, on Genesis, 4. 
 
 Gospels, Origin of, 172-175. 
 
 "when -written, 172. 
 
 synoptic, 174, 179. 
 
 The internal evidence to, 179. 
 
 the Fourth, 180, 1S3. 
 
 the Apocryphal, 184. 
 
 Versions of, 189. 
 
 First successes uf, 193. 
 Goths, 256, 276. 
 Gottschalk, 301. 
 Greek Church, 307, 371. 
 Gregory Nazianzen, 25 1. 
 
 of Nyasa, 25 1. 
 Gregory I., Pi.)pe, 287. 
 
 VII., Pope, 330. 
 
453 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Haggai, 87, 88. 
 
 Hebrews, The Epistle to, 185. 
 Heidelberg Catechism, 411. 
 Helvetic Confession, The Second, 410. 
 
 Conseneas, 410. 
 Henry IV., The Emperor, 3.31. 
 Henry VIII., 128. 
 Hermit^, 251. 
 Hicksile Friends, 4.'!ri. 
 Hierarrliy of Eastern Charch, 015. 
 High Church, 433. 
 Hildebrand, 329. 
 Hillcl, 99. 
 Hincmar, 302. 
 Hippolytus, 223. 
 Hosea, 70. 
 Hospitallers, 3.".0. 
 
 " Host, the," Adoration of, 34 1. 333. 
 Hungary, Rrfi.rmed Churches of, J2i. 
 Huss, John, oljy. 
 
 Ignatius, 20.",, 2:)7. 
 
 Epistles of, 177. 
 
 Jlartyrdoni (>f, 205. 
 Images, Chinese, 
 
 in churche?, 2.S3, 29-1, .117. 
 
 lioman, 3^7. 
 Immaculate conception, 395. 
 Immanue), 79. 
 Immortality — 
 
 .lesus and, 152, 1C3. 
 
 Job and, 70. 
 
 Closes and, 21. 
 
 the Psalms and, C2. 
 Independents, 437. 
 Infallibility, Papal, 395. 
 Innocent III., .';33. 
 Inquisition, 3G1. 
 IreiLneus, 218. 
 Irving, Edward, 59, 411. 
 Irvingite.s, 443. 
 Isaac, Sacrifice of, 14. 
 Isaiah, 78-81. 
 
 The second, 81-84. 
 Tsidorian Decretals, 300. 
 Israel, History (<f, 11. 
 
 Prophets of, 73-89. 
 
 lleligious growth of, 57. 
 
 Jacob, 15. 
 Jacobite.^, Syrian, 
 James, St., 203. 
 
 Epistle of, 180. 
 JaMECn, 391. 
 
 Jehovah, 3. 
 Jeremiah, 80. 
 Jer ime, 387. 
 
 of Prague, 841. 
 .Tesnits, 3.'<9, 390-393. 
 Jesus, 143, 147. 
 
 Histoi-y of, 147-171. 
 
 contrasted with other teachers, 1 19. 
 
 the originaUty of His tr aching, 15o. 
 
 thoonginality of Hi= character, 150. 
 
 His ideal of love, 151. 
 
 His teaching of a Divine Father, 152. 
 
 and the future life, 152. 
 
 His teaching abcut faith, 153. 
 
 and forgiveness of sin, 154. 
 
 and the truth, 154. 
 
 and the law of kindness, 155. 
 
 His relation to God the Father, 155. 
 
 His relation to mankind, 15(!. 
 
 the affection He inspired, 157. 
 
 His treatment of women, 153. 
 
 His treatment of children. 158. 
 
 ^'oIuntary limitation of, 159. 
 
 His miracles, 159. 
 
 and salvation from sin, 102. 
 
 !uid liberation from lower nature, 
 102. 
 
 the purpose of His life and death, 103. 
 
 the Society He founded, 1C3. 
 
 the Sacraments, 104. 
 
 His mode of teaching, IGl, 105. 
 
 His parables. Kit;. 
 
 His predictions, lOG. 
 
 His passion, 167. 
 
 His resurrection, 108. 
 
 St. Paul's testimony to, 103. 
 
 His ascension, 171. 
 Jewish modern ritual, 122. 
 
 religion, 25, 147. 
 Jews, Dispersion of, 91, 103. 
 
 Moral condition of, 19. 
 
 Persecution of, 113, 114. 
 Job, Book of, 03-72. 
 Joel, 70. 
 John, St., 202. 
 
 St., Gospel and Epistles of, 180. 
 
 Chrysostom, St.. 251. 
 
 of Damascus, 291. 
 
 XXII., Heresy of, 337. 
 Jciviuian, 284. 
 Jubilee, Year of, 37. 
 Judaism after the Prophets, 90-121 
 Jude, Epistle of, 180. 
 Judgment, Day of, 70. 
 Julian the Apostate, 217. 
 JustiQcation, 380. 
 Justinian, 208. 
 Justin Jlartyr, 173, 211-217. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kiibbal:ili, i:5;i. 
 
 Karaitos, 11.2. 
 
 Knn\, John, 412. 
 
 Jvrcnilin, .'HtS. 
 
 Kuoneu ou tlic Proplictp, T'<- 
 
 L. 
 
 Laofiint.Iu.s. -7) \. 
 Ijaul'raiic, -V-yi. 
 Law, Jlosaic, ^7- 
 
 KcadiiiE; of, lliS. 
 Loo T., :i7r. 
 
 IX., 32!). 
 
 tlie Avmcuian, 29". 
 Levites, ol. 
 Litliua.nian?;. 70*^. 
 Lilurgii'S, 3ti.">, 2S(;. 
 Lopfos, The, !I7, 1H2. 
 LollarJ.-i, 3US, Jl:7. 
 Lord'.i Supper, iV,, 408. (Sec al,--o 
 
 Communion.) 
 Louis, St., .".3.'). 
 Tjovc-foasfc, '-M\. 
 Lovo1;i, iKiiatius, 3!)0. 
 Lullicr, 5!), 372 .".77, 127. 
 LuUiei-an Churcli, l(i:;- 12."i. 
 Ijyons, Second L'cnincil of, 'V>.">. 
 
 M. 
 
 Maimoiiides, 109. 
 
 JIahu-lii, H:». 
 
 Man OS, 229. 
 
 .■\taniolia.nsm, 229, .".r.l. 
 
 Miirbur^, Confevcnce of, •j7-j. 
 
 ]\raroion, 22>'. 
 
 .Mai-iolatry, 2s:l, 312. 
 
 Maronito.^, 2; .">. 
 
 MarvKii,'os. \:,, IS, 13.-,, .^sn. 
 
 jMortin of 'J'onrs, St., 2.',3. 
 
 Marhr.s Christian, 1U3, 201, 2l)C, 2IH, 
 
 211. 
 Jla^K, ii.sr,. 
 
 JMathurins, 3.'')3. 
 Melanclitliou, 103. 
 Jlol,4iizodolc, 12. 
 Molilo, 217. 
 
 Mondolss.ihn, Moses, 114. 
 Monnonites, 43.'>. 
 iloseianio prtipliocio.^, SS. 
 
 hope, 9;>. 
 "liiHTy, Onlovn of, "ui'',. 
 Molhodists, 111,413. 
 MoLhodin.'i, 303. 
 Metropolitan, 21(1. 
 J\[o/.n/,;i.h, 137. 
 ]Mioah,.Sl. 
 
 Milan, BaictoF, 213. 
 Jtillenarianw, 232. 
 Minims, 3ri9. 
 Miracles, l.V,), 312. 
 Mishiia, 101. 
 Missnl, .39H. 
 Missions, ;'>1 I. 
 IMiililer, .3,s,M. 
 
 Molol;;ini, 32G. 
 
 Monarch ism, 230. 
 
 Monastorii's, 300. 
 
 Monastic life, 27!'. 
 
 i\tonasticisrfl, 31!). 
 
 Monks of Eastern Church, 316. 
 
 Mouophysite controversy, 20S. 
 
 Monotholites, 270. 
 
 Montanists, 232. 
 
 Moon, Now, Jewish observation of, 
 
 12!). 
 Moravia, 303. 
 Moravians, 370. 
 i'doscow, 30.S. 
 Moses, 121. 
 Mysties, 3ii(i. 
 
 N. 
 
 Xantos, Edict of, .123. 
 Napoleon and the .lews, 117. 
 NatioTial covenant, 41.'i. 
 Nazarites, 42. 
 Ne'storians, 20."). 
 Nostorius, 2(i.">. 
 New ClJurcb, 411!. 
 ^ Year fast, 12!). 
 Nica'n., Council of, 215. 
 Nioeno Creed, 3S0. 
 Nicolas of IJaslo, 3G6. 
 Niooi.', 310. 
 Noali, S. 
 Nonconformists, I2G. 
 
 0. 
 
 Oaths, 313. 
 f)bsorvanls, 339. 
 Occam, William of, 319. 
 Offerings, Jewish, 30. 
 
 Trespass, 31. 
 Olaf, 303. 
 Old Believers, The, 321. 
 
 Catholics 3!).s. 
 Orders, Homan Catholic, 3SC. 
 Oi-igen, 220. 
 Original sin, 380. 
 
 P. 
 
 Tachomius, 2.-)3. 
 I'apacy, 21)2. 
 
454 
 
 LVD£X. 
 
 Pnpal iufallibility, 395. 
 
 ie:^;ites, 33S. 
 Papias on the origin of tlio Gospels, 
 
 175. 
 Pav.iblos, 160. 
 Pixscal, 391. 
 Paschasius, 300. 
 Passover, 38, 133. 
 Patv:avehs, Ki, 210, 30S. 
 Patrick, St., iJ^i. 
 Patripassiaus, --jl. 
 Patronage, 419. 
 Paul, St., lt!s, 195. 
 
 liis early life, 195. 
 
 bis convei'sion, 195. 
 
 Lis labours, 195. 
 
 at Antioeli, 190. 
 
 at Corinth .oad Epliesus, 19((. 
 
 is arrested at Jerusalem, 197. 
 
 imprisoned at Rome, 197. 
 
 bis cbaracter, 197. 
 
 bis writings, 19S. 
 
 his theology, 19^. 
 
 bis teaching about Christ, 199. 
 
 his teaching: about faith. 199. 
 
 on the jieiialty of sin, ilOO. 
 
 ou the Christian spirit, iliJO. 
 
 on saciitiee, -tli). 
 
 on the church, 201. 
 
 ou the sacraments, ilul. 
 Paul of Samosata, 2.jtl. 
 Paulicians. 30:2. 
 Pauline epistles, 173. 
 l*elaQ:iauism, 20 1-. 
 Pelagius, Hi; L 
 Penance, 339, Toi;. 
 Pentateuch, 2, ■".. 27- 
 
 Samaritan, 115. 
 Pentecost, 39, 134. 
 Perowne, Dean, on Genesis, 4. 
 Perrone, 388. 
 
 PeshiLu versiiiii of ("tuspels, 189. 
 Peter, Kpistlrs uf, 180. 
 
 St., 191, 194. 
 Peter the Great, 312. 
 Petrobusians, 362. 
 Pharisees, 105. 
 Pbilaret, 313. 
 Philippists, 4tll. 
 Philo of Alexandri 
 Photius, 297. 
 Phylacteries, 120. 
 Pictures in churches, 
 Pilgi'ima.r^es. 281. 
 Pisa, Council of, '■'>'■ 
 Plato, 313. 
 Pliny, 211 1. 
 Poles, 309. 
 Polyearp, 206. 
 
 , 95 97 
 
 , 283. 
 
 Pomemnians, 304. 
 Popes, The, 270, 333, 335. 
 Prayer Book, 431. 
 Prayers, Jewish, 41. 
 
 to saints, 387. 
 Predestmation, 3111, 3112, 408. 
 Presbyterians, Reformed, 419. 
 
 UuiVeJ, 419. 
 Priestley, 446. 
 
 l^riestiy • irJers in Early Church, 2:18 
 Priests, Hereditary, 53. 
 
 Jewish, 50, 51, 53. 
 
 Parish, 316. 
 Primates, 258. 
 Prophets of Israel, 73-89. 
 Protestantism, 421. 
 Proverbs of Solomon, 01, G6. 
 Psalms, 59-64. 
 Psalter of Solomon, 94. 
 Pseudo-Clementine writings, 21S. 
 Punishment, Future, 4US. 
 Pargatory, 380. 
 Purification, 4-1. 
 Puritans, 430. * 
 Purity and impurity, Jewish, 100. 
 
 Q- 
 
 Quakers, -Vi'J. 
 (.,),uartodecimans, 237. 
 (Juesnel, 391. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabbi chief, 122. 
 Rationalism, 416. 
 Katramu, 300. 
 
 Real Preseuee. 300, 344, 383. 
 Ueehabites, 42. 
 Red Sea, Passage of. 20. 
 lleformatitni, The, 33S, 30tt. 
 Refuge, Cities of, 46. 
 Relics, 282, SIO, 387. 
 Relii^ious persecution, 360. 
 Keuaissauee, ;!'>71. 
 Ke]K^ntance. P.tys of, 130. 
 i;e\ elation, The," 187. 
 Revenge, 46. 
 Ritual, 122, 147. 
 llituahsts, -133. 
 Uoni.in books, :>90. 
 
 t^ithoUcs, Kuniber of, 390. 
 
 Cliureh iu middle ages, 328-359. 
 
 Congregations, 396. 
 
 Empire, 292. 
 Romanism, Modern, 379- ItH. 
 
 Bishopric of, 239. 238. 
 Rouinaniau Church. 3t)7. 
 Russian Cliurch, 3U6, utl7. 
 llussiauSj 309. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 455 
 
 S. 
 
 Sabbath, The, 34, 100, 12S, 147. 
 Sabbatic year, 37- 
 Sabbatniki, 325. 
 Sabellius, 231. 
 
 Sacraments, 10-1, 315, 339, 382. 
 Sacred stigmata, 357- 
 Sadducees, 106. 
 Saints, Prayers to. .jS7. 
 
 Worship of, 283. 
 Samaritans, 143, 145. 
 Samuel, 58. 
 Sanhedrim, 99. 
 Savonarola, o72. 
 Savoy Conference, 438. 
 Scapegoat, The, 301. t 
 Scotch Confession, 413. 
 Scotland, Free Church of, J^O. 
 Scottish Reformation, 413. 
 Scotus, John, 300, 3U2. 
 Scribes, 98. 
 Scriptures, Christian, 172-189. 
 
 Jewish, 28, 60-89. 
 Semi-peiagianisra, 264. 
 Septimius Severus, 209. 
 Septuagint, 91. 
 
 " Servant of the Lord," 81-81. 
 Servetus, 409. 
 
 Services of Eastern Cliurch, 310. 
 Seven Sacraments, 382. 
 Seventh month of the Jews, 37- 
 Shammai, 99. 
 Shechinah, 33. 
 
 Sick, The treament of, by Jews, 137. 
 Sin, Forgiveness of, 154. 
 
 Original, 380. 
 
 Salvation from, 162. 
 Slaves, Jewish, 47. 
 Smalcald, Articles of, 404. 
 Smith, Prof. Robertson, on Isaiah, 79. 
 
 on the Pentateuch, 29. 
 Socinus, 445. 
 Sophers, 123. 
 Spiers, Diet of, 375. 
 Stanley, Dean, on Abrahara, 11. 
 
 on Russian pictures, 322. 
 Stephen, Martyrdom of, 193. 
 Stephen, St., of Hungary, 30 !■. 
 Suffering, Vicarious, 83. 
 Supremacy, Royal, 428-430. 
 Swedenborg, Emanuel, 443. 
 Swiss Old Catholics, 400. 
 
 Reformed Churches, 411. 
 Symeon Stylites, St., 252. 
 Synagogue, 36, 37, 125. 
 
 government, 122. 
 Synod, Tho Holy, 312. 
 
 " The Robber," 207. 
 
 Synoptic gospels, 171, 179. 
 Syriac version of gospels, 189. 
 Syi'ian Jacobites, 271. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tabernacle, The, 2G. 
 Feast of, 40, 132. 
 
 Talmud, 100-103. 
 
 Tatian, 217, 329. 
 
 Tauler, 366. 
 
 "Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," 
 213. 
 
 Templars, The, 351. 
 
 Temple of Herod, 57. 
 
 Temples at Jerusalem, 55, 57. 
 
 Tertullian, 224. 
 
 Testament, New, 172. 
 Manuscripts of New, 187. 
 ' Old, 2. 
 
 . Theodora, The Empress, 297. 
 I Theodore of Mopsuestia, 205. 
 
 Theodore, the Studite, 297. 
 
 Theodoric, 268. 
 
 Theology, 345. 
 
 Theophany, 71. 
 
 Theophilus of Autioch, 218. 
 
 Theses of Union Conference, 399. 
 
 Thirty-nine Articles, 431. 
 
 Thummim, 51. 
 
 Tongues, Confusion of, 10. 
 
 Torquemada, 305. 
 
 Tractarians, 433. 
 
 Trajan, 204. 
 
 Trausubstantiation, 2'JG, 334, 387. 
 
 Trent, Council of, i579. 
 
 Tridentine profession, 387. 
 
 Troitza monastery, 309. 
 
 Trumpets, Feast of, 40. 
 
 Typho, 215. 
 
 U. 
 
 Ulfilas, 250. 
 
 Unam Sanctam Bull, 335. 
 
 Unction, Extreme, 322. 
 
 Unitarians, 445. 
 
 "Unity of the Church," 225. 
 
 Urim and Thummim, 51. 
 
 Valentinus, 228. 
 Vatican Council, 395. 
 Vigilantius, 284. 
 Virgin worship, 283, 312. 
 Vladimir, 301. 
 II., 308. 
 
 Vows, Jcwiplr, -II. 
 
456 
 
 IMDEX. 
 
 Waldenses, 3G1. 
 
 Waldo, 363. 
 
 Welsh Calvinistic Methodism, 1 13. 
 
 Wends, 30i. 
 
 Wesley, John, 441. 
 
 Western Church, 2:19. 
 
 Westminster Assembly, 414. 
 
 Catechism, 41 S. 
 
 Confession, 415. 
 Whitefield, Goorgo, 411. 
 Whitsuntide, 2:!S. 
 " Wisdom of Salomon," 92. 
 Woman, and Je.sus, l."i8. 
 Worms, Concordat of, .j3I . 
 
 Worms, Diet of, 373. 
 Worship, Early Christian, S-J.'i. 
 ■Wyclilf, .Vu. 
 
 Xavier, 390. 
 Ximenes, 365. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zechariah, 87. 
 Zion, 82, 81. 
 Zohar, I4», 142. 
 Zurich, 374. 
 Zwingli, 374, .377. 
 
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