UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Bureau of Research in Education Study No. 3 Cornell University Library HD 9940.U5S4 A survey of the garment trades in Sa 3 1924 002 278 103 A SURVEY OF THE GARMENT TRADES IN SAN FRANCISCO HD 99¥0 US' EMILY G. PALMER BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA NOVEMBER 1, 1921 PRICE 4.0 CENTS m^^Tw^n^ THE LIBRARY OF THE NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY A SURVEY OF THE GARMENT TRADES IN SAN FRANCISCO BY EMILY G. PALMER ill NOVEMBER 1, 1921 PREFACE This study of the garment trades in San Francisco was begun in September, 1919 and completed in March, 1920. The survey was made at the request of a committee composed of representatives of the Manufacturers Association, the Garment Workers' Union, the Industrial Welfare Commission, the San Francisco School Depart- ment, the State Department of Vocational Education, and the Division of Vocational Education of the University of California. The object of the survey was, in part, to study the trade to deter- mine its economic importance in the community, to study the teachable content in the trade and determine the educational requirements for success therein, and to determine whether the wages and working conditions would justify encouraging and training workers to enter this industry. Indebtedness to many persons and agencies is here acknowledged for making possible the gathering of facts and figures in their posses- sion, to Mr. Morris Ballin and his staff of forewomen who made possible an analysis of the work done in the sewing rooms, to Eloesser, Heyne- mann and Co. for the use of plates from which the illustrations are m.ade, to Miss Helen S. Watson who aided in making the greater part of the survey, and to Professor Robert J. Leonard for much time and assistance in all phases of the study. CONTENTS PAGE List of Tables 4 List of Illustrations 4 PART ONE The Survey and Repokts Made CHAPTER I. Foreword and Summary of Conclusions 7 II. The Purpose, Source, and Progress of the Survey 9 III. The History of the Making of Ready-to-Wear Garments and the Trade as an Occupation for Girls in San Francisco 13 PART TWO The Complete Findings IV. The Size and Importance of the Clothing Industry 29 V. San Francisco Garment Factories and their Products 37 VI. Facts Concerning the Workers in the Garment Factories in San Francisco 41 VII. Selection and Training of Workers 49 VIII. How Shirts and Workingmen's Wear are Made 53 IX. An Analysis of the Work Done in the Sewing Room 61 PART THREE Methods of Training and Recommendations X. Methods of Training Workers in the Garment Trades 75 XI. Recommendations for the Training of Power Sew^JEg-machine Operators in San Francisco 81 Bibliography 85 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE I. Showing the Rank of California as a State in Certain Items Relatijig to the Manufacture of Men's Clothing 31 II. Showing the Rank of California as a State in Certain Items Relating to the Manufacture of Shirts 32 III. Showing the Rank of California as a State in Certain Items Relating to the Manufacture of Women's Clothing 33 IV. The Number of Establishments and Average Number of Wage-earners, Value of the Product, and the Amount Paid in Wages for Establish- ments Making Clothing in the United States, California, and Missouri in 1914 35 V. The Number of Establishments and the Number of Wage-earners, Class- ified According to Age and Sex, in San Francisco Clothing Factories in 1914 35 VI. Showing the Value of the Products of the Leading Industries in San Fran- cisco in 1914 .- 36 VII. The Total Number of Female Factory Employes, Including the Number and Per Cent of. Learners and Minors and the Number of Infirm Licenses in Known Establishments Making Men's and Women's Clothing 42 VIII. The Months for Maximum and Minimum Number of Wage-earners in the Production of Men's and Women's Clothing in California in 1914 43 IX. The Character of the Work, the Knowledge and Skill Required, and the Training Needed in Various Occupations for Women in the Garment Trades : 72 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Felling Machine with Long Arm . , 6 Two-needle Machine Folding and Stitching a Band 23 Guards which Protect the Workers from Belts and Wheels 28 Sewing on Back Pockets with Two-needle Machine 40 Felling the Side Seam of Overalls. Two-needle Felling Machine 48 Tracing Patterns and Marking the Sizes 52 Cutting Ninety-six Layers of Denim with an Electric Cutting Knife 55 Blind Hemming 57 Two-needle Banding Machine 64 Examining Overalls „ 69 PART ONE THE SURVEY AND REPORTS MADE Garment Trades in San FroMcisco Felling Machine with Long Arm. Garment Trades in San Francisco CHAPTEE I FOREWORD AND SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS The Scope of the Survey The present survey of the garment trades in San Francisco is confined largely to the making of shirts and workingmen's wear. It includes a study of conditions in three factories which make both shirts and workingmen's wear, three which make chiefly overalls, one which makes white duck clothing, and three which make shirts only, besides four custom shops, one knit goods factory, and seven factories making women's and children's wear. Facts were gathered in regard to the size and importance of the clothing industry, the value of the product, the number of wage- earners, the kinds of factories found in San Francisco, and their products; also, many facts were gathered regarding the workers in these factories, the conditions under which they work, how they are selected and trained for their work, how some of the products are made, and how the work was done in the sewing rooms. This report is to be found in Part Two as the complete findings. Summary op the Findings It was found that the clothing industry is growing rapidly all over the country, with California leading the western states in the pro- duction of ready-made clothing. The products of the larger factories in San Francisco are chiefly of cotton materials — men's shirts and workingmen's wear, women's underwear and cotton dresses. The factories are all comparatively small, the largest one including in it^ three departments about 500 workers. Instead of increasing in size the factories are establishing branches in towns where there is a better supply of workers. The selection and training of workers is not on a scientific basis, and the factory turnover is very heavy. The working conditions were found to be fairly good, although they might be improved in respect to the comforts provided for the workers, such as larger dressing rooms, and better opportunity for air and recre- ation at the noon period. 8 Crartnent Trades in San Francisco The wages were found to be on the average 50 per cent above the established minimum wage for women. The workers are almost all over twenty years of age, many are married women, and over half are of foreign birth. The pay is on a piece-work basis, and for this reason the work is not suited to nervous women. Opportunities for advancement are chiefly opportunity to earn more through greater skill acquired through the workers ' own efforts. The teacher or assistant forewoman and the forewoman are the only, executive positions held by women in the factories making men's wear. An analysis of the work of power sewing-machine operators shows that the work is not entirely of the skill and process type, that some knowledge and judgment are required, and the educational content could be greatly enriched to the advantage of the manufacturer as well as the workers. Part Three contains a study of the various agencies which have attempted to train power-machine operators and the courses given by them. The public trade school seems to be the most successful agency at present. The factory training school is still in an experi- mental stage. It is therefore recommended that a public school trade course on either an all day or a part-time basis be established in San Francisco, or that the factory training departments cooperate with the schools in giving their learners a broader basis of trade knowledge by supply- ing courses in related subjects. Garment Trades in San Francisco CHAPTEE II THE PURPOSE, SOURCE, AND PROGRESS OF THE SURVEY In August 1919 there was an unusual shortage of power sewing- machine operators in the various garment factories in San Francisco and especially in the factories making shirts and workingmen's wear. As a result, some of the manufacturers from the largest establish- ments appealed to the San Francisco school department to assist them in securing a supply of experienced workers by giving a course of training in operating power sewing-machines. After several meetings a committee was appointed to investigate the proposition. This com- mittee was composed of the following group of people : Mr. MoEEis Baldin, member of the Pacific Coast Manufacturers' Association. Miss A. R. Power, member of the San Francisco School Board. Mr. A. J. Cloud, Deputy Superintendent of Schools. Miss Georgiana Cardan, representing the State Industrial Wel- fare Commission. Miss Sara Hagen, Financial Secretary of the Garment Workers' Union. Mr. John Beswick, State Supervisor of Vocational Education. Mr. R. J. Leonard, Professor of Vocational Education, University of California. The purpose of the survey. — Two student investigators were sup- plied by the last-named member of the committee to make a prelim- inary survey and report on October 2, 1919. The specific purpose of this survey was : 1. To determine the real shortage of operators in the garment trades and try to find the cause of the shortage. 2. To determine the teachable content in the garment-making trade. 3. To determine what educational qualifications are desirable for success in these trades. 4. To determine whether the wages and working conditions would justify training workers for this industry. 10 Garment Trades in San Francisco The Source and Progeess of the Survey To make this investigation possible a letter of introduction was supplied to some of the leading manufacturers. Upon invitation three days were spent in the first factory visited, that the various processes of garment construction and factory organization might be thoroughly learned by the investigators. Two of the largest factories were visited before the October meet- ing; also reports were obtained from cities in which courses in power sewing-machine operating were given in the public schools and from^ factory-training or vestibule schools. Reports from the following public schools were studied: Girls' Vocational High School, Minneapolis. The Manhattan Trade School for Girls, New York. The Central Evening High School, Los Angeles. The first school had done very successful work during the war, but the number wishing to take the training had fallen off since that time. The other two schools had very excellent courses and reported the work was meeting the needs of the manufacturers. The following firms were found to have their own vestibule schools, which, however, were all in an experimental stage : Brownstein-Lewis Co., Los Angeles. Joseph and Peiss, Cleveland, Ohio. H. Black & Co., Cleveland, Ohio. Printz, Biedermann, Cleveland, Ohio. Larned, Carter & Co., Detroit, Michigan. A preliminary report of the findings was made to the committee on October second. The committee voted to continue the investigation and asked for a more complete report on November sixth. The investigators felt that the entire situation could not be under- stood without some knowledge of the work in custom shops and in establishments where women's garments were made. Accordingly, seven establishments making women's clothing, three custom shirt shops, and eight factories making shirts or workingmen's wear, or both, were visited. The findings as to wages, hours of labor, etc., were verified by comparing with reports in "The Garment Worker," official journal of the United Garment Workers of America, bj^ conferences with investigators from the State Industrial Welfare Garment Trades in San Francisco 11 Commission, and with members of the San Francisco Local of the United Garment Workers' Union, as well as by conferences with many manufacturers. The investigators were courteously received in all the establish- ments visited, a letter of introduction proving to be unnecessary, and merely a statement that the school department was interested in investigating the trade with a view of considering a scheme of train- ing usually interested the owner or manager sufficiently to furnish the information desired. Some managers gave hours of their time to the interview, explaining the various processes of garment making and even opening the payrolls for inspection ; others gave the investi- gators the freedom of the factory to go where they wished and speak to any workers whom they wished to question. A few employers seemed suspicious of the purpose of the visit, and gave the investi- gators little or no view of the work rooms. Managers of union shops were invariably willing to have their work rooms visited, and some made it a point to explain every detail from cutting to pressing. This may be due in part to the fact that they are more accustomed to visitors, as union officials make frequent calls. Managers of non-union shops were in most cases willing to allow visitors in their work rooms and were glad to discuss the train- ing problem, only one refusing outright to give any information. A variety of viewpoints were found among managers and foremen. Some were interested in bonus plans for holding good operators, some were interested in the characteristics of their group of operators and the individual problems of each of them, some were interested in showing the high wages paid, and others in showing the loss that apprentices were to the establishment. Some managers considered the occupation "so feminine and much more fitting for women than running an elevator, ' ' while others admitted they would not wish their own daughters to follow the trade. In sixteen out of the twenty establishments visited the owner or manager weis interviewed, and in some factories all the forewomen also. In the other four establishments only the forewoman or fore- man was interviewed, the manager or owner being absent. A second report was made to the committee on November sixth. At this meeting the manufacturers reported that the shortage had become so acute that several had been forced to establish branch factories in Oakland and other nearby cities in order to solve their labor problem. This had proven very satisfactory as an immediate measure, but they still wished to interest possible workers in San 12 Garment Trades in San Francisco Francisco, especially the younger women and girls, in this occupation. It was suggested that a monograph describing the industry be written for use in the schools. The committee hoped that girls could be inter- ested in a course in garment making which would lead to factory work. It was asked that plans for such a monograph be presented on December fourth, which was the date set for the next meeting. The next chapter is the monograph on the garment trades which was prepared for presentation to the committee. Garment Trades in San Francisco 13 CHAPTEB III THE HISTORY OF THE MAKING OF READY-TO-WEAR GARMENTS AND THE TRADE AS AN OCCUPATION FOR GIRLS IN SAN FRANCISCO Food, shelter, and clothing are fundamental needs of all civilized people. To provide the necessary supply of clothing, many great industries have grown up in this country. These industries employ hundreds of thousands of vsrorkers — ^both men and women — in pre- paring the cloth and in making garments from it. The Fiest Ready-Madb Clothing Less than one hundred years ago garments were made entirely in the home or by a dressmaker or tailor who did the work as it was ordered by the customer. As to when and by whom ready-made cloth- ing was first made in this country there seems to be some doubt. One historian says: "The first ready-made clothing of which we have record was 'shirts for the Indians' which were made by at least one woman at Northfield, Massachusetts, about 1725, for 8d each and ' men 's breeches, ' which were made for Is 6d a pair. ' '^ Another historian writes that ready-made clothing was first made to supply the wants of New England sailors^ coming in from a voyage and not remaining long enough for the slow process of hand sewing, and for negroes on the plantations of the South. Such clothing was probably first produced in New Bedford, Massachusetts, this author says. "Whichever Massachusetts city deserves the credit for this small beginning of one of our largest industries, no systematic attempt was made to manufacture ready-made clothing in the United States before 1830. The idea had by this time reached New York, and in 1831 one of the former mayors of that city, George Opdyke,^ started a small iTJnited States Department of Labor. Woman and CMld Wage-earners. Senate Document No. 645. Vol. 9, p. 120. (Quoted from Temple and Sheldon's History of Northfield, p. 163.) 2 William C. Browning. The Clothing and burnishing Trade. In Depew, C. M., One Sundred Years of American Commerce. D. O. Haynes & Co., 1895. Vol. II, chap. 86, p. 561. 3 Department of Commerce. The Men's Factory-Made Clothing Industry. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Miscellaneous Series — No. 34. Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1916, p. 9. 14 Garment Trades in San Francisco garment factory there. He made garments of the coarsest materials and of crude workmanship. The South and "West were the chief market for this product of the early garment factories. The garments were worn by sailors, plantation negroes, and miners. The First Ready-Made Collars and Shirts As early as 1825 the wife of a blacksmith in Troy,* New York, it is related, invented separate collars for shirts. She did the family laundry and the idea came to her that her husband's shirts would not have to be washed so often if they had detachable collars. The idea seems to have been popular with many housewives in Troy, for historj' relates that the blacksmith's wife was soon making separate collars for sale. Then a retired minister, Rev. Bbenezer Brown, the proprietor of a small dry goods store in Troy, was attracted by this labor-saving scheme, and with the help of the female members of his own family supplied the trade of his little store with ' ' string collars, ' ' and soon developed a thriving business. He then engaged the help of the wives and daughters of his neighbors, who took the work home agreeing to "make, wash, starch and iron the collars" and receive pay in merchandise from Mr. Brown's store. "Except the bands, the first separate collars were generally all linen and of two thicknesses, although some were faced with cotton cloth. They were slightly stifEened, had high points extending above the chin on either side, and were tied around the neck with a string of tape attached to each end of the collar, hence the name 'string collars.' The collar was supported by a stock made of bombazine or satin, stiffened with haircloth, and this, also was tied around the neck. The, collars in assorted sizes were placed in paper boxes 16 or more inches in length, and sold at 25 cents each or $2 a dozen. ' '^ Others, seeing the success of Mr. Brown's business, followed his methods and made collar manufacture an addition to their business, but it was not until 1843 that collar making became a separate indus- try. A few years later a stock and collar manufacturer" in Troy added a laundry to his factory and laundered the collars he made as well as the goods of other collar manufacturers. The operation of a laundry in connection with collar manufacture made the business still 4 Department of Commeree. The Shirt and Collar' Industries. Miscellaneous Series — No. 36. Refers to The City of Troy and its Vioinity, by Arthur James Weise. Troy, 1886. 5 Department of Commerce. The Shirt and Collar Industry. Miscellaneous Series— No. 36, p. 7. 6 Arthur L. Hunt. Collars and CufEs. In Census Bulletin No. 188. Twelfth Census of the United States, p. 8. Garment Trades in San Francisco 15 more flourishing and caused others to engage in the business. This first Troy laundry seems to have been the parent of the hundreds of Troy Laundries ' ' throughout this country. In 1832 the first shirt factory in America was founded at the corner of Cherry and Market Streets in New York City by Judson Brothers.^ They supplied the rich planters of the South with a very good quality of shirts. In 1845 a shirt factory was opened in Troy, and the manufacture of separate cuffs began about the same time. As the clothing industry first developed women were paid pitifully small wages for this work which they eagerly sought. In order to make two dollars a week, they worked from fourteen to sixteen hours a day. For making shirts they were paid sometimes as little as six cents apiece; and, sewing by hand, few could make more than two shirts in a day. Duck trousers and overalls brought eight and ten cents each, and only one or two could be made in a day. But hand sewing was a slow process, and a machine was needed to make the ready-made garment industry serve any large number of the possible consumers of its product. The Transition from Hand to Machine Sewing Many years before Elias Howe invented his sewing-machine, an Englishman had invented a machine for embroidering, but it was of no use in ordinary plain sewing.^ Before the middle of the centurj^ many others in England and France worked on inventions to take the place of hand sewing. But none were successful until in 1845 a machine-shop worker in Boston perfected his invention of a machine with a needle, which, unlike the hand tool, was threaded through the point. His machines also had an automatic feed. The public as usual was skeptical of the new invention, and it was many years before the sewing-machine came into general use. Manufacturers at first had little faith in the new sewing-machines ; and employees, who already made so little and were often out of work, objected to the use of machines, because they feared they would be deprived of work. This objection was so strong that one manu- facturer opened a training school in his home where he had placed several machines. Here he taught girls to use the machines, and as a girl became skilled her machine was transferred to the factory." 7 William 0. Browning. The Clothing and Furnishing Trade. In Depew, O. M., One Hundred Years of American Commerce, p. 565'. 8 F. Gr. Carpenter. Eow the World is Clothed, p. 328. 9 Arthur L. Hunt. Census Bulletin No. 188. Twelfth Census of the United States. Government Printing Office, June 12, 1903. Article on Collars and Cuffs, pp. 7, 8. 16 Gar merit Trades in San Francisco The period of transition from hand to machine sewing was a most wretched experience for the hand sewers who could not compete with machine operators. As late as "1870 one speaker before a working women's convention in Boston stated that she had known overalls to be given out for five cents a pair, at which price twenty cents could be earned in ten hours. ' ''^° The Beginning of Modern Factory Methods Up to the time of the Civil War, the amount of ready-made cloth- ing was not extensive. ^^ The first sewing-machines were cumbersome and slow, were run by foot power, and the stitch often ripped. Instead of factories as we know them, ready-made garments were cut by the manufacturer, who sent the cheapest grades out in the country to. farmers' wives, who sewed during spare time in the winter. The better grades were sewed by city workers, usually in their homes. The entire garment was made by one worker. When the Civil War broke out, a large amount of clothing was needed immediately; some was bought from Austria because the local factories could not supply the sudden demand on such short notice. But the continued demand during the war put the ready-made cloth- ing industry on a secure footing. At first there were no large factory buildings, and army uniforms were made in the homes of the workers ; but, as the demand continued and increased, factories were built to house the workers. It would have been impossible to have met the demand for uniforms without sewing-machines. One wonders how the fortunes of 'that war might have been changed but for this invention of Elias Howe. The manufacturers under the pressure of war demands learned many things. They found it saved time to divide up the making of a garment into various parts, some workers doing the machine sewing, others the basting, and others the finishing. Up to this time there had been no standardized sizes for men's garments, but the large number of measurements taken for uniforms gave manufactiirers a basis for standard sizes. The restoration of peace did not lessen the demand for ready-made clothes, for all the returning soldiers had to have civilian clothes, and the factory buildings erected during the war were used for the manu- facture of civilian ready-made clothing. ' It was a long time before 10 United States Department of Labor. Woman and Child Wage-E earners. Senate Dooument No. 645, Vol. 9, p. 149. 11 United States Department of Commerce. The Men 's Factory-made Clothing Industry. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Miscellaneous Series — No. 34. Government Printing Office, 1916, p. 9. Garment Trades in San Francisco 17 manufacturers could supply the great demand. Then came the pioneer days, whole caravans moved to the West and Southwest, taking a supply of ready-made clothing to the new country. And again the clothing industry grew by leaps and bounds to supply the needs of the western home-seekers. Clothing was purchased in large quantities without regard for quality and the profits of the business were large. In the larger manufacturing centers the sales of some manufacturers were from a half million dollars to two and one-half million in a year. "It was at this time that Chicago, due to the opening up and rapid growth of the West, became an important clothing center. "'^- Beeause the use of power machines was of peculiar advantage in making garments of heavy, closely-woven material such as denim, "the manufacture of overalls and workingmen's garments is the branch of the clothing industry into which the factory system was. first introduced, and in which it is now most largely employed. As early as 1871 there was in Wappinger's Falls, New York, the nucleus of the establishment that claims to have been the first overalls factory in the United States. By 1876 this factory had 250 employees, largely women, engaged in making overalls and workingmen's suits on machines run by steam power. "^' The manufacture of women's ready-made clothing has developed much more recently than the manufacture of men's clothing. Cloaks were the first popular ready-made garments for women. In the early eighties ladies' ready-made suits were introduced and later shirt waists. By 1900 all articles making up women's wearing apparel,, from the simplest apron to the most elaborate gowns, were on the market. Improvements in Machinery Increased demands for clothing stimulated the invention of labor- saving devices. The long cutting-knife, which worked through a slot in the table and could cut eighteen thicknesses at once, was an early device; then came the electric cutting-knife which, as it is now per- fected, will cut one hundred layers of denim or several hundred layers of thinner material. Steam power for running sewing-machines" was tried before the Civil War, but foot power was generally used until the eighties, when electric power was introduced. 12 United States Department of Commerce. The Men's Factory-made Clothing Industry. Miseellaneoua Series — No. 34, p. 11. 13 Mabel H. Willett. The Employment of Women in the Clothing Trade. Columbia XJniversity, New York, 1902, p. 134. 11 Arthur L. Hunt. Collars and Cuffa. In Census Bulletin No. 188. Twelfth Census of the United States. Government Printing Oflfiee, June 12, 1902, p. 8. 18 Cnarment Trades m San Francisco The buttonhole machine was first patented during the Civil War, but made an inferior kind of buttonhole. The Reese patent twenty years later is the machine most widely used at present. ^^ The Immigrant in the Garment Trades Up to the early seventies women had been the chief sewing-machine operators in this country, just as they had been the chief hand sewers. The great increase in immigration during the seventies brought the German and Austro-Hungarian Jews, many of whom entered the clothing industry as sewing-machine operators and took the places of many of the women. During the eighties large numbers of Russian Jews came and settled in the larger clothing centers. The men in the families, rarely their wives and daughters, entered the garment trades. Overcrowding and unsanitary conditions were to be found every- where in the clothing industry among immigrant workers. It took little money to buy a few machines and pressing irons, and contractors crowded a large number of workers into one small, unsanitary tene- ment room to work under most unwholesome conditions. This was known as the ' ' sweatshop ' ' system. In the early nineties or latter part of the eighties, Italians began to come to this country in great numbers. They settled in New York, and the women, unskilled in all lines except sewing, entered the needle trades, followed later by Italian men. They lived in even more crowded quarters than had earlier immigrants, and because they could be obtained for wages lower than others,- have become the chief source of labor in the larger clothing centers. The Jews have become the contractors and employers. Improvements in Working Conditions Agitation by those who realized the miserable conditions under which the garment workers were living and working resulted in the Tenement House Act of 1892 in New York. This Act prohibited con- tractors from manufacturing in their homes and led to the establish- ment of larger shops. ^^ The larger establishment made the subdivision of labor an economy, as the unskilled worker could soon be taught one operation, thus lessening the need for highly skilled labor. This subdivision has become the method of large establishments manufac- turing every kind of product. 15 United States Bureau of the Census. Census of Manufactures. Government Printing Office, 1919. Vol. II, p. 182. 16 United States Department of Commerce. The Men's Faotory-^made Clothmg Industry. Miscellaneous Series — No. 34, p. 15. GQ.rment Trades in San Francisco Ift Better sanitary conditions, better light, and better air have all come- with the growth of the large factory. Better goods and better working cenditions have been the result of these and other forces also. People have demanded finer goods, and firms have tried to make a standard quality to be recognized by their trade mark. Thousands of dollars, have been spent in advertising the quality of their goods. To keep the quality up to a certain standard, manufacturers found it necessary to have all their workers within the factory building instead of giving' out work to contractors or to home workers. The work of such organizations as the Consumers' League and of labor unions within the garment trades has led to legislation regulat- ing wages, hours of work, sanitarj' conditions, and regular inspection of factories, and has made the garment trades in manj^ ways a far better occupation for women than it was twenty-five years ago. Shorter hours, better pay, and clean workrooms have been demanded for the workers by those who bought clothes as well as by those who- made them. The Beginning of Clothing Manufacture in San Francisco The early days in California were days of big fortunes quickly made and quickly lost. People came and went, and the populatioii was shifting and scattered. Under these conditions there was little interest in manufacturing when there was no steady market to depend upon and no settled supply of labor. Attempts were made to manu- facture silk, woolen, and cotton cloth in San Francisco in the early days, but only one firm was able to meet the ups and downs success- fully and establish a permanent business. But some of the present firms now manufacturing men's shirts and overalls date back to the fifties as textile manufacturers, or drygoods merchants, importers, or- retailers of men's furnishing goods. If the census and the city directories of the middle of last century can be relied upon, there was no clothing manufactured in San Fran- cisco in 1860. The first shirt manufacturer was a woman, Mrs. C. Plummer, who opened a shop in Clay Street the next year. She- seems to have been the only manufacturer for two years ; then her- name does not appear again. In 1864 another woman, Mrs. Evaline- Morris, advertised as a shirt manufacturer, taking premiums at fairs, held in 1864 and 1865, and thereafter advertising as the manufacturer- of the Premium Brand of Shirts. Even as late as 1870 the census lists only 8 sewing-machine factorj- operatives and 11 shirt, cuff, and collar makers in the whole state of 20 Omment Trades in San Francisco California. But by 1875 there were 19 shirt manufacturers and 19 clothing manufacturers in San Francisco. This list includes the names of some of the present manufacturers. The contract system of manufacture was used in the early days in San Francisco. In the seventies overalls as well as shirts were made through contractors, and many workers carried bundles of work home for sewing. Neither the contractor nor home worker has entirely disappeared, but only a small part of garment manufacture is now done in this way. At the time of the fire and disaster in 1906, many of the clothing factories were destroyed. Some firms opened up quarters temporarily in some of the smaller towns of the state, one going to Petaluma and bearing ever since in its trade-mark a symbol of that sojourn in the city of poultry. "When the factories were rebuilt in San Francisco, no one was sure that the city would regain its position of industrial leadership in the state, and therefore the structures put up were not the permanent, modern factory buildings which would otherwise have been built. However, most of the buildings were constructed with provision for plenty of light and air in the sewing rooms and some comforts for the employees, including lunch and rest rooms. The Garment Teades as an Occupation foe Girls in San Francisco Factories Clothing manufacture is now a growing enterprise in California, which as a state makes more ready-made clothing than any other western state. San Francisco has many factories making both men's and women's clothing. Where the work is dane. — The equipment for a garment factory may be very simple and inexpensive, and for that reason many small factories are found occupying only a single room and employing only one or two workers. Out of twenty factories in San Francisco, only ten have more than fifty female factory employees. The factories usually have an of&ce department, a cutting department, a sewing department, a pressing or laundry department, and a shipping depart- ment. In the factories which make shirts, workingmen's wear, waists, neckwear, underwear, and cotton dresses, only women are employed in the sewing departments as operators on power sewing-machines. In the cloak, suit, and skirt industry and in custom tailoring a large number of men are employed. If one should visit the various garment factories in San Francisco, he would find girls and women sitting on either side of long tables. Garment Trades in San Francisco 21 sewing on machines which run by electric power. Beside each worker is a bundle of cut pieces of cloth or of partially made garments upon which she is working. She feeds the garments rapidly through the machine, not stopping even to cut the threads between them until the entire bundle is completed. If the factory is a large one, each worker does only a small part of each garment, such as putting in sleeves or sewing on cuffs. When the noon hour comes, a bell rings and the power is shut off. The operators go to lunch rooms or cafeterias for lunch. Some factories have victrolas and the younger women dance at noon, but there is little time for recreation and usually little floor or outdoor space for it. What the workers produce. — Perhaps as many as three thousand women and girls in San Francisco are doing this kind of work. The greater number are to be found in factories making men's shirts — all kinds from work shirts to handsome silk shirts — men's underwear and pajamas, white duck clothing such as cooks' aprons and caps, waiters' coats, and butchers' aprons, men's work pants, men's and women's khaki riding suits, men's overalls, and children's play garments. In other factories they make women's suits, cloaks and skirts, waists, dresses, neckwear and underwear, children's wash dresses, aprons, and middies. In addition, garments are made to order by many tailors and dressmakers, who employ in all several hundred more women workers. The machines used. — The sewing machines used in factories are not like the home sewing-machines, for, besides being run by electric power, many of the machines are made to do just one particular kind of work. One machine makes buttonholes, another sews on buttons, and a similar one sews on snaps. Other machines are made for scal- loping, hemstitching, barring, and serging. The scalloping machine makes an embroidered scallop on ruffles ; the work of the hemstitching machine is to be found on many ready-made waists at present; the barring or tacking machine makes an extra strong fastening for pockets and straps. A serging machine is used to cover raw edges of garments instead of binding the edges to prevent them from raveling. Besides these special machines there are two, three, and four-needle, machines which make parallel rows of stitching. Attachments to these machines make felled seams or put on facings or belts, turning in and stitching both edges at the same time. On pages 6 and 23 are pictures of two-needle machines. The first one has a long arm extending toward the machine operator. This arm slips through the sleeve and body as the sleeve and underarm -2 Garment Trades in- San Francisco seams are sewed. The second machine is shown sewing on a band which is fed through the frame above. A small but heavy wheel behind the needle helps to keep the garment in position. Even the single-needle machines have attachments for making special kinds of seams. One gathers the back of a shirt while sewing it on the yoke, and otjiers have folders which turn under hems or plaits. The el-ectric power sewing-machines are started by pressing the toe on the treadle, and stopped by pressing the heel. A knee press at the right side makes it possible to raise the presser foot of the machine, and with this foot raised the machine will run backwards. This is done to double-stitch the end of a seam to keep it from ripping. Some machines have bobbins like ordinary sewing-machines, but a special attachment winds the bobbin all the time the machine is running, so the operator always has a full bobbin to put in her machine. Other machines use no bobbin but are threaded below from the spool, just as the needle is threaded above. WJiat the v)orhers do. — A sewing-machine operator in a shirt fac- tory, for example, may do any one of the following operations: she may make either the left front or right front of the shirt, she may put the yoke on the back, sew on the label, piece the sleeves, put the placket in the sleeve, join the sleeve to the shirt, sew the underarm and sleeve seam, make cuffs, sew them on, make collar bands, sew them on, -put in buttonholes or sew on the buttons. Even this list does not include • all the workers who help to make one shirt. There is the neck sloper, band folder, button marker, and the girl who buttons up the shirt after every part has been carefully examined. Each factory-made garment passes through a series of operations similar to this. Who the workers are. — At the present time a great many of the workers in garment factories are women and girls who were born in Europe, and coming to this country have entered the garment trades, because they had learned to sew at home and could do this kind of work without knowing how to speak many words in English. In some factories Spanish and Mexican women are doing some of the beautiful handwork on waists, underwear, and children's dresses. A girl cannot be employed in any factory in California if she is under sixteen years of age, and most of the employees in garment factories are twenty years old or older, many of them being married women. However, there is no reason why a girl seventeen or eighteen who is interested in the work should not be employed in a garment factorj^ Some of the "younger women are among the highest paid operators. Garment Trades in San Francisco 23 Two-Nee3le Maahine Folding and Stitching a Band. 24 Garment Trades in San Francisco What the workers are paid. — Most of the factories begin work at eight o'clock in the morning and close at four forty-five in the after- noon with forty-five minutes for lunch at noon. On Saturday the factory closes at noon. The workers are paid by piece-rates, each operation having a fixed rate per dozen. If a worker under eighteen years of age is inexperienced in factory work, she is paid apprentice wages, which are at least $9 a week for the first three months while she is learning. The next three months she will receive $10 a week, the third three months $12, and after that $13.50 per week. If the apprentice is over eighteen years of age, she receives $10 a week the first three months, $12 a week the second three months, and after that $13.50 a week. These are the minimum wages set by the Industrial Welfare Com- mission for workers in all manufacturing establishments. Many of the clothing manufacturers pay more than the minimum wa^e to begin- ners. Since the pay is by piece-rate, the wages paid to the different workers vary greatly. Some workers make only the minimum wage of $13.50, and some very rapid workers make $35 or even $40 a week. Those who use^ the special machines often are paid the highest wages, as these machines are hard to care for and require more mechanical skill. _ Examiners, forewomen, and assistant forewomen are also to be found in the sewing department of a factory. These women are usually paid by the week, and their wages depend upon the size of the establishment and the responsibilities they have. How workers are selected and trained. — To secure work in a gar- ment factory application is made in answer to an advertisement, which may be found in the newspapers almost any week, or in response to a sign on the factory building. The manager or superintendent inter- views the applicant briefly, and then sends her to talk to one of the forewomen. The forewomen are apt to select a girl whose clothes look neat, who is used to sewing on a machine at home or in school, and who looks as though she would be willing to keep trying even if her work went slowly at first. An easy operation may be learned in two or three months, but the most skilled operations require a year or two before the maximum speed is reached. The apprentice is first taught how to start and stop a power machine, how to thread it, how to M'ind the bobbin, and how to place it or remove it. Then she is given scraps of cloth on which she is taught to sew, trying to guide the cloth and stitch in a straight line. SJie may learn this in an hour or in a half day, and then she is put Garment Trades in San Francisco 25 on some simple sewing, such as cuff running or label sewing. If the a,pprentic6 is needed for a two-needle operation, she is soon given work on that machine. This requires more skill and takes much longer to learn, but pays well when learned. There is at present no way of receiving training in the garment trades in San Francisco except by working in one of the factories. Some cities have night-school courses and some have all-day courses in schools which are equipped for giving girls an all-round knowledge of the entire trade and then training them for special lines. How promotion is secured. — A power machine operator in a factory is usually not required to learn more than the one process which has been assigned to her ; but if she is looking for an opportunity for pro- motion, she must not only be skillful in her own part of the work, but learn how the entire garment is constructed, how other kinds of seams are made, and how to use other machines and other attachments. When an operator has learned how to make many parts of a garment and what the standards of the factory are, she may become an examiner. In some factories these workers are paid by the week, and operators prefer the work for that reason. This is a responsible position, as the standard that the factory maintains as to well or poorly made gamients depends on the care with which the examiners do their inspecting. If an operator has the ability to show others how to operate power machines, she may become a teacher in the sewing department or an assistant forewomen. If she has sufficient grasp of the factory organ- ization to direct the work of a department, keep the records, make the reports, and make the spirit of the department such that workers will do their best work and keep up the standard of production, a worker heis an opportunity to become a forewoman. There is, however, only one forewoman and one assistant in a department employing as many as 100 operators, so the opportunities for promotion do not occur often. Sometimes operators trained in factories start small shops for themselves, doing hemstitching or making waists or custom shirts. What the oonditiwis of work are. — In California, as in other pro- gressive states, an Industrial Welfare Commission has been established to secure for workers in manufacturing and business establishments proper working conditions, reasonable hours, and a living wage, especially for women and minors. Due to their rulings and occasional inspection of establishments, a girl may safely enter almost any gar- ment factory in San Francisco. But some factories have much better accommodations than others. In most factory sewing rooms there is 26 Garment Trades in San Francisco plenty of light; in some there is good ventilation, but in others the air is full of lint. The lint should be carried off by a fan system, as is the case in a few factories. Some factories provide lunch rooms or even cafeterias where a good lunch can be had at small cost. Seasanahle character of the work. — In maxij' places the garment trades employ many workers at one season and few at other seasons of the year. This is true to a small extent in San Francisco. But the dull season in the manufacture of some lines is the rush season in others, so that a worker who can shift from one type of work to another can be assured of a place. Manufacturers in San Francisco are trying to avoid rush and dull seasons by keeping a smaller number the entire year. Qualifioations for operators. — The work of sewing, in a garment factory where the same operation is repeated over and over, seems very monotonous to some people; but on the other hand there are people who enjoy knowing just how a piece of work should be done and doing it over and over, always keeping the work up to a certain standard of excellence. Different materials and different styles of garments necessarily vary the work somewhat. The noise of machinery and the piece-work system of payment make other people very nervous, and some women are apt to drive themselves at such a pace that they lose their health. A worker should learn the speed which she can com- fortably keep up, and not overexert herself just because she can earn more money by doing so. No unusually nervous woman should enter this trade. The qualifications for a power machine operator are in general: speed and manual dexterity, ability to stand the nervous strain of noisy machinery, ability to understand and run a power machine, adaptability, neatness and system in her work, and — if she wishes to secure promotion — an interest in factory system and tact in managing people. The Ixdustrt as a Public Necessity As an industry supplying a public need, clothing manufacture ranks very high. During the war many entered the industry to help fill war orders for clothing for the soldiers. Since the war there has been an increasing demand to secure clothing enough for the returned soldiers and for export to the countries where home industries have been destroyed. Workers in the garment trades are in great demand, therefore, not only in San Francisco, but in all the larger cities of the country. PART TWO THE COMPLETE FINDINGS 28 Garment Trades in Sa/)i Francisco Guards ivhich Protect the "Workers from Belts and Wheels. CHAPTER IV THE SIZE AND IMPORTANCE OP THE CLOTHING INDUSTEY In the United States and in Califoenia The great clothing centers are east of the Mississippi River. The states of New York and Illinois together produce nearly 60 per cent of all the ready-made clothing for men. In New York alone 95 per cent of all collars and cuffs are made, and all but 5 per cent of these are the product of the city of Troy. The establishments making women's clothing show an even more marked concentration than those making men 's clothing, as about 80 per cent of the product is made in New York and Pennsylvania. Over a half-million wage-earners were engaged in making clothing for the hundred million wearers of ready-made clothing in this country, according to the Census, of Manufacturers for 1914. For their work these wage-earners received $250,000,000 in wages in that year or an average of $500 each. Of the half million wage-earners 45 out of every 100 were engaged in making men's clothing, including shirts ; 34 were engaged in making women 's clothing, and the other 21 were engaged in makuig straw hats, caps, knit underwear, etc. The men's clothing industry. — "Among the manufacturing indus- tries of the United States in 1914, men's clothing ranked thirteenth in the value of products and seventh in the average number of wage- earners The industry includes establishments engaged chiefly in the manufacture of men's and youths', and of boys' clothing, such as overcoats, suits, coats, trousers, raincoats, and smoking and other jackets, and all other covering outer gai-ments, such as overalls, market frocks, butchers' aprons, uniforms, bathing suits, knee pants, gym- nasium and sporting clothes, etc. "^ More than 5000 establishments^ over the United States made men's garments, whose product had a total value of approximately $460,- 000,000. California was reported as having only 71 establishments 1 Census of Manufactures, 1914, voL II, p. 179. 2 According to the Census the term establishment does not include made-to- measure or custom shops, regardless of their size. 30 Garment Trades in San Francisco making men's clothing. There were employed a few more than 2000 wage-earners who received an average wage of $500 a year each for making a product whose total value was over four and one-half million dollars. Among the states California ranks eighth in the number of estab- lishments which make men's clothing; ranks fourteenth in the average number of wage-earners ; ranks eleventh in the total wages paid ; and ranks twelfth in the value of the product. These rankings are shown in Table I. The distribution of the states of higher ranking is worthy of note, as no western state is to be found in the list. The shirt industry. — In addition to the establishments making men's clothing (as classified by the census), there are nearly 800 other establishments in the United States which make shirts. An average of 52,000 wage-earners are employed in this branch of the clothing industrj'. California ranks seventh in the number of establishments making shirts, with 25 reported in 1914 ; but in the number of wage- earners the California ranking drops to thirteenth, showing that the establishments in this state are comparatively small. In the amount paid for wages and the value of the product California ranks thir- teenth and fourteenth respectively. A chart of these rankings among the fifteen states in which the manufacture of shirts is of most impor- tance is shown in Table II. The women's clothing industry. — The manufacture of women's ready-made clothing has become an important industry much more recently than the manufacture of men's clothing. The women's cloth- ing industry includes ' ' the manufacture of a great variety of clothing for women, girls, and children; not only complete suits, but also dresses, skirts, petticoats, kimonas, dressing-sacks, wrappers, jackets, cloaks, capes, underwear (except knit underwear), infants' and chil- dren's clothing, shirt-waists, linings, corsets, bathing suits, belts, dress shields, and similar articles."^ 3 Census of Manufactures, 1914, vol. II, p. 187. Garment Trades in San Francisco 31 Showing the Rank of THE TABLE I Califohnia as a State in Certain Items Relating to- Manufacture of Men's Clothing 10 11 12 13 14 Number of Establishment^ NEW YORK 2,357 Illinois 578 Pennsylvania 504 Maryland 253 Ohio 224 Massachusetts 213 New Jersey 118 California 71 Average Number Wa?e-earners NEW YORK 65,000 Illinois 34,000 Maryland 13,000 Pennsylvania 10,000 Ohio 8,000 Massachusetts 5,700 Missouri 5,500 New Jersey 4,700 Wisconsin 3,000 Indiana 2,600 Kentucky 2,500 Minnesota 2,100 Michigan 2,090 California 2,037 Massachusetts $3,000,000 Total Wages NEW YORK $35,000,000 Illinois $19,000,000 Maryland $5,000,000 Pennsylvania $4,900,000 Ohio $4,000,000 Missouri $2,000,000 New Jersey $1,800,000 Wisconsin $1,288,000 Indiana $1,177,000 California $1,000,000 Value of Product NEW YORK $197,000,000 Illinois $87,000,000 Maryland $29,000,000 Pennsylvania $28,000,000 Ohio $24,000,000 Massachusetts $16,000,000 Missouri $13,000,000 Wisconsin $7,900,000' New Jersey $5,900,000 Indiana $5,300,000 Minnesota $4,738,000 California $4,728,000 32 Garment Trades in Swi Francisco TABLE II Showing the Rank op California as a State in Certain Items Relating to THE Manufacture of Men's Shirts Number of Establishments Average Number Wage earners Total Wages Value of Product 1 New York 270 New York 16,443 New York $6,600,000 New York $41,000,000 2 Pennsylvania 195 Pennsylvania 10,000 Pennsylvania $3,400,000 Pennsylvania $12,000,000 3 Maryland 48 Maryland ^ 5,000 Maryland $1,700,000 Maryland $10,000,000 4 New Jersey 34 . New Jersey 3,500 New Jersey $1,300,000 New Jersey $5,500,000 5 Ohio 33 Indiana 2,593 Missouri $990,000 Missouri $3,800,000 6 Illinois 26 ■ Missouri 2,547 Massachusetts $778,000 Ohio $3,500,000 7 California 25 Ohio 2,000 Indiana $773,000 Indiana $3,400,000 8 Massachusetts 1,800 Ohio $735,000 Massachusetts $3,300,000 9 Illinois 967 Illinois $440,000 Connecticut $2,100,000 10 Connecticut i 914 Connecticut $404,000 Illinois $1,600,000 11 Maine 617 Maine $260,000 Maine $1,100,000 12 Vermont 526 Vermont $243,000 Minnesota $877,000 13 California 431 California $215,000 Nebraska $869,000 14 California $834,000 Ltarmeni iraaesin owKmrnmc'lsco 33 TABLE III Showing the Rank of California as a State in Certain Items Relating to THE Manufacture of Women's Clothing 11 Number of Establishments 1 New York 3,835 2 Pennsylvania 483 3 Illinois 241 4 Massachusetts 202 5 New Jersey 183 6 Ohio 170 7 Maryland 90 • 8 California 86 9 10 Average Number Wage-earners New York 108,000 Pennsylvania 17,000 Ohio 9,000 Illinois 8,000 Massachusetts 6,000 New Jersey' 5,000 Maryland 3,000 Missouri 2,000 Michigan 1,600 Connecticut 1,300 California 1,000 Total Wages New York $64,128,000 Pennslyvania $8,000,000 Ohio $5,000,000 Illinois $4,500,000 Massachusetts $2,900,000 New Jersey $2,000,000 Maryland $1,170,000 Missouri $1,000,000 Michigan $715,000 California $600,000 Value of Product New York $345,000,000 Pennsylvania $37,000,000 Ohio' $22,000,000 Illinois $20,000,000 Massachusetts $13,900,000 New Jersey $6,700,000 Maryland $6,000,000 Missouri $5,500,000 California $2,700,000 34 Garme^vt Trades in San Francisco In 1914 the number of establishments making women's garments exceeded 5500. They made a product valued at nearly a half mil- lion dollars, and employed 168,000 wage-earners, who received over $92,000,000 in wages. Eighty-six of these establishments were in California. With only a few more than 1000 wage-earners they made a product whose total value was between 2i^ and 3 million dollars. A chart of the ranking of California as a producer of women's clothing relative to the number of establishments, average number of wage-earners, total wages paid, and value of the product will be found in Table III. A summary of all the figures relative to the clothing industry in the United States and in California will be found in Table IV, together with similar figures for Missouri, which is the state west of the Mississippi which produces the greatest amount of clothing. In San Francisco More than 70 per cent of all men's clothing (including shirts) which is made in California is the product of San Francisco factories. According to the 1914 census, this industry ranks tenth, in the value of its products. The manufacture of women's clothing ranks twen- tieth. The two industries combined have a product whose value is over $5,000,000, which gives it eighth place in the list of industries of San Francisco, putting it just ahead of shipbuilding. A list of twenty-two leading industries of San Francisco, classified according to the value of their products, showing the increase of this value over the production of 1909, is given in Table VI. There were 89 establishments in San Francisco in which ready- made clothing was produced, according to the figures for 1914. Of these, .36 made men's clothing, including shirts, and 53 made women's clothing. They employed in all about 2100 wage-earners, two-thirds of whom made men's clothing and the other third women's clothing. Only one-fourth the wage-earners were males, and very few were under 16 years of age. These figures are shown in Table V. Garment Trades in San Francisco 35 TABLE IV The Number of Establishments and Average Number of Wage Earners, Value of the Product and the Amount Paid in Wages for Establishments Making Clothing in the United States, California, and Missouri in 1914 Place Kind of Product Number of Estab- lish- ments Average Number of Wage- earners Value of Products Total Wages United States Men's clothing Shirts 5,622 792 4,830 5,564 225,719 51,972 173,747 168,907 $553,025,998 95,815,013 458,210,985 473,888,354 $105,997,708 19,169,697 86,828,011 92,573,642 Outer garments.... Women's clothing.... California Men's clothing Shirts 96 25 71 86 2,468 431 2,037 1,060 5,563,511 834,616 4,728,895 2,732,867 1,243,795 215,119 1,028,676 611,227 Outer garments... Women's clothing.... Missouri Men's clothing Shirts 90 19 71 74 8,140 2,547 5,593 2,355 17,300,109 3,815,735 13,484,374 1,093,312 3,212,911 990,161 2,222,750 5,517,015 Outer garments.... Women's clothing.... TABLE V The Number of Establishments and the Number of Wage-Earnehs, Class- ified According to Age and Sex, in San Francisco Clothing Factories in 1914 Number of establish- ments Wage-earners Kind of Product Average number December 15 or nearest representative day Total Over 16 years Under 16 years Male Female Male Female Clothing 89 36 53 2088 1394 694 2062 1314 748 550 292 258 1500 1010 490 2 2 10 Men's 10 Women's 36 Garment Trades in San Francisco TABLE VI Showing the Vai/TJE op"" the Products or the Leading Industries in San Fbancisoo in 1914 Industry Value of Products of Leading Industries, 1914 Amount Per cent of indus- try total for State Increase over 1909 Amount Per cent 1 Printing and publishing 2 Slaughtering and meat packing... 3 Foundry and machine shop prod'cts 4 Canning and preserving 5 Cofifee and spice, roasting and grind- ing 6 Bread and other bakery products... 7 Copper, tin and sheet-iron products 8 Shipbuilding, inc. boat building.. 9 Lumber and timber products 10 Clothing, men's, including shirts.. 11 Liquors, malt 12 Leather tanned, curried and finished 13 Flour-mill and grist-mill products. 14 Food preparations, not elsewhere specified 15 Furniture and refrigerators 16 Tobacco, cigars and cigarettes 17 Confectionery 18 Cooperage and wooden goods, not elsewhere specified 19 Marble and stone work 20 Clothing, women's 21 Patent medicines and compounds and druggists' preparations... 22 Mattresses and spring beds 15,031,038 14,661,233 8,332,417 8,312,743 7,270,374 6,683,359 5,851,998 4,950,120 4,179,246 3,955,215 3,951,462 3,436,976 3,115,756 3,097,430 2,782,224 2,438,527 2,365,420 1,748,342 1,728,884 1,725,202 1,591,363 1,184,869 43.2 29.3 26.3 13.6 75.9 30.6 61.1 7.9 71.1 31.7 34.3 12.9 38.7 61.0 61.2 40.3 74.8 47.6 63.1 63.8 48.4 2,829,806 4,391,321 -1,289,984 3,536,788 2,297,635 1,415,227 2,207,140 2,850,194 -198,399 272,747 468,970 -185,195 334,402 661,863 -275,176 605,324 647,822 144,417 93,902 500,639 602,301 148,573 23.2 42.8 -13.4 74.1 46.2 26.9 60.6 135.7 ^.5 7.4 13.5 -5.1 12.0 27.2 -9.0 33.0 37.7 9.0 5.7 40.9 60.9 14.3 Garment Trudes in San Francisco 37 CHAPTER V SAN FRANCISCO GARMENT FACTORIES AND THEIR PRODUCTS The Products Shirts and workingmen's wear are the chief products of the men's clothing industry in San Francisco. As far as could be discovered there are seven factories making overalls, work pants, jumpers, mack- inaws, etc. ; one factory making market frocks, butchers ' aprons, waiters ' coats, cooks ' aprons and caps, and other white duck garments ; and nine factories making men's shirts.^ The factories which make shirts usually include all grades of product from work shirts to fine silk shirts, and a few add men's cotton underwear, pajamas, and night shirts. Overalls of various kinds are made, including painters', carpenters', and engineers' over- alls, as well as carpenters' and teamsters' aprons, engineers' coats, and children 's play garments. The women's clothing made in San Francisco, aside from that made in the homes and by dressmakers, is made in small establish- ments. Coats, suits, and skirts are made in 13 factories, waists in 17, underwear in 9, dresses in 10, and 9 other establishments make neck- wear, costumes, or children's clothing. The Factories Size of establishments. — In 1914 the factories in California which made men's wear employed anywhere from 6 to 500 female workers, and those making women's wear employed from 1 to 100 female workers. The factories making men's garments are as a rule larger than those making women's garments. In this survey, in San Fran- cisco the range in the number of female employees was found to be from 17 to 550 and from 2 to 98 in factories making' men's wear and women's wear, respectively. 1 Three of the factories making shirts also make overalls and work pants, and so are included tirice in the above list. 38 Crarment Trades in Smi Francisco The huilddngs. — ^Many of the factories visited were housed in build- ings made for the purpose. Those factories which occupied a part of an old office building had few conveniences for their employees. In no case, though, was it necessary for a worker to climb more than two flights of stairs to her work. Few factories had inviting entrances. One factory which proved to be a very well conducted establishment, so far as personal interest in the employees was concerned, had a most forbidding entrance into a dark hall, and the visitor had a choice of climbing two flights of dark stairs or using a crude service elevator. The work rooms. — ^All the factories housed in their own buildings had light on two sides of the sewing rooms, and some had overhead light besides. Some small establishments, occupying only one or two rooms, had a long sewing room with windows in the narrow end only, so that some workers had to use artificial light almost the entire day. In every factory visited shaded electric lights were found placed over the machines. Not all the work rooms were well ventilated ; some had high ceilings and a good supply of fresh air. One had a fan system for removing lint from the air. Other work rooms were ill-ventilated, with the air full of lint. This condition was especially bad in factories making cotton-flannel gowns. Usually the most unsatisfactory conditions were found in those factories which were located in lofts or old of&ce buildings. The sewing rooms contain racks or bins for cut materials and for completed garments. Long tables on which are placed two rows of sewing-machines connected with a power shaft under the table extend the length of the room. The operators sit at these tables all day, leaving their places only to exchange bundles of materials. The aisles between the tables are often narrow and become crowded with piles of partially made garments. Plain wooden chairs with backs are provided for all machine operators; but pressers and examiners were found to have no seating provisions in any of the factories visited. Their work does not seem to be of such a nature that workers should be required to stand all day. Becreaiimi amd lunch rooms. — The lunch hour from 12 to 12 :45 was not often used by the employees as a time for relaxation or exer- cise in the fresh air. This was due in part to the fact that many factories were on business streets and there was no place for from fifty to five hundred women to go for exercise. One factory had a roof garden where employees were encouraged to take an airing at noon. Many of the workers spent the noon period, after a hastily Garment Trades in San Francisco 39; eaten lunch, in crocheting or in doing other wort for themselves,. During the war a great deal of knitting was done by these women at noon and after factory hours. Some factories served a cafeteria luncheon at a nominal cost ; others had a gas plate where hot tea could be prepared by the workers themselves. The ".inside shop." — At one time contract labor was very commoja in the clothing industry in San Francisco, Chinese and prison labor and work in the homes being used by the contractors. The introduc- , tion of special machines and the adoption of the ' ' inside shop ' ' work were simultaneous movements in the nineties, and most of the estab- lishments are now proud of having no contract or "out-work" done on any of their products. Factory orgmdzation. — The larger factories, regardless of product, were found to be organized on about the same plan. There is an office department, a cutting department, one or more sewing departments, a pressing and packing department, and in many cases a separate wholesale and shipping department in a down-town building. The office is under the direct supervision of the superintendent, who is also sometimes the owner and manager. In all the factories making men's clothing the superintendent was a man. In some of the small waist shops the owner and manager was a woman. Clerks, stenographers, and bookkeepers were in the office. The cutting department is under the direction of a head cutter, who may also be the designer and manager of the entire factory. Men, almost exclusively, are employed in the cutting department of an estab- lishment making either men's or women's clothing. Sometimes women were employed in cutting lace or trimmings. In the sewing department women were found to be the power sewing-machine operators in every case. Men are employed as mechanics in this department to keep the machinery in order. In some factories bundle boys are employed to carry bundles of materials to the workers ; but so few bundle boys are employed that the workers often do not wait for the carrier for fear of losing time from their piece-work. The sewing departments were rarely in charge of a fore- man, a woman usually being in charge with an assistant forewoman or teacher. In the pressing department the heavy work is done by men and the lighter work by women. Women press and box shirts and some- times do ^ome of the lighter pressing on work pants. It rarely happens that there is any interchange of workers among any of these departments, especially among the female employees. A 40 Om-ment Trades in San Frmicisco sewing-machine operator rarely becomes a starcher or presser or an office assistant. The divisions are not so distinct in small shops. Summwy. — The clothing made in San Francisco factories is of the simpler type, chiefly shirts and workingmen 's wear and women's underwear and other cotton garments. The buildings housing these establishments are not the most up-to-date factory buildings. Even those built for factory purposes were rather hastily put up after the fire of 1906. None of the factories visited are of the "sweat-shop" type, and all must comply with the sanitary regulations fixed by the Industrial "Welfare Commission. Sewing on Back Pockets with Two-Needle Machine. Garment Trades in San Francisco 41 OHAPTEE VI PACTS CONCERNING THE WORKERS IN THE GARMENT FACTORIES IN SAN FRANCISCO The number and sex of the workers. — Since 1890 the census has shown that the clothing industry employed more females than males. Most of the designing, cutting, and pressing is done by males, and the hand and machine sewing by females. In San Francisco, as in other cities, the number of females employed in garment making exceeds the number of males. Nearly 1500 females are employed in making shirts and workingmen's wear, and perhaps 1000 others are employed in making women's wear. This is exclusive of all females employed in the 350 custom tailor shops, in the sewing depart- ments of knit goods factories, in cap and hat making, and in dress- making shops. Figures relative to the number of female factory employees, and the number and kinds of factories employing them, are shown in Table VII. The facts in this table were obtained through various sources; names of establishments, from city directories, tele- phone books, chambers of commerce, and advertising material ; figures, from counting time cards in factories, from manufacturers ' estimates, and from the State Industrial Welfare Commission. It can be seen from the table that the number of learners is a very small proportion of the total number of employees in a factory, and is much lower, than the minimum of 331/3 per cent allowed by the rulings of the Industrial Welfare Commission. "Infirm licenses" are issued to women who are "physically disabled by age or otherwise," and their employment is authorized "for a wage less than the legal 'minimum wage."^ It can also be seen that the number of minors is almost negligible. Only two minors were observed in the entire survey — ^one a bundle boy and the other a garment presser. NationaUty of the workers. — It is generally believed among San Francisco clothing manufacturers that American-bom girls will not work in a garment factory because of the social status of such workers. Instances were related by foremen of power-machine operators Who claimed to be stenographers in the factory, or who passed by the fac- tory rather than be seen going into it. Even some of the forewomen 1 The Oommission fixes a special nxinimum wage for such women. ^42 '^Garmbni Trades in San Francisco admitted that unless asked about it directly they never mentioned their occupation. No doubt the avoidance of this work by American- bom girls is also due (1) to the nature of the surroundings, which are often very plain, if not actually ugly and crude; (2) to the nature of the work, which demands the entire attention of the worker, gives little time for conversation with other workers, and does not demand pretty clothes; and (3) to the age and natipnality of the workers to be found already in the garment factories. TABLE VII The Total Number of Female Factory Employees, Including the Number AND Per Cent of Learners and Minors and the Number of Infirm Licenses, in Known Establishments Making Men's and Women's Clothing Known Establishments ^ Female Factory Employees Kind of Product Total No. Visited Total Number Learners Minors Number Percent Number Percent Licenses Men's clothing Workingmen's wear Shirts 15 8 7 13 7 6 1420 884 536 233 140 93 16.4 15.8 17.3 16 4 12 1.1 0.4 2.2 26 15 11 Women's clothing Coats . 54 13 16 6 2 2 10 5 7 ■ 1 2 2 1 1 1005 142 293 198 111 9 71 81 152 7 53 56 9 18 9 15.1 8 1 4 2 1 0.7 9 Underwear 6 Costumes Dresses 3 It was impossible to obtain figures in any establishment as to what per cent of the workers are of foreign birth; but the general im- pression is that 75 per cent is not too high an estimate. In many factories nearly half the women are Italian, but there are also Mex- ican, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, German, Austrian, and Irish women. Age. — It appears that a large number of the workers are between 25 and 30 years of age. Very few were under 20 years of age. The forewomen said that most of their operators are married women, and it was observed that many were wearing wedding rings. Some women who had been with the factory for a long time are more than sixty Oarment Trades in San Francisco 43 years old. Stories were gathered of young bridegrooms calling at the factories with their brides and securing for them ' ' good jobs " as a wed- ding present. Some women are the entire support of their husbands. Many of the women had worked in the factory before their marriage and then returned after a year or two. Education. — Since so many of the workers are foreign-born, it is not surprising that many do not read or write English or even speak or understand it. The investigators spoke to some bright, intelligent- looking workers, asking about some detail of their work, and were surprised to find not only that they did not speak English, but that they could only smile and shake their heads, being unable to under- stand it. The assistant forewoman was sometimes selected for her ability to speak Italian, and so give directions to those who could not understand English. Some of the women could not sign their own names, and one was noted who could not recognize her own record book, but the forewoman claimed that she always knew if her pay- envelope were, by any mistake, short a single cent. S&asonableness. — The shirt and workingmen's wear industries are less seasonal than most of the other branches of the clothing industry. Table VIII shows the fluctuations in the number of wage-earners in various branches of the clothing industry during the year in Cali- fornia. TABLE VIII The Months for Maximpm A>fD Minimum Number of Wage-Eahners in the Production of Men's and Women's Clothing in California in 1914 Kind of Clothing Wage-earners Average number Number 15th day of Maximum month Minimum month Per cent minimum of maximum Men's clothing Women's clothing Suits, skirts, cloaks Shirt-waists, dresses (except house dresses) Undergarments, petticoats, etc.. Wrappers and housedresses Contract work — undergarments, petticoats 1394 694 182 273 106 77 56 March 1440 Oct. 229 March 287 April 117 August 80 Dec. 1312 Jan. 140 July 252 Oct. 92 March 73 July 61 Jan. 51 91.1 61.1 87.8 78.6 91.2 83.6 44 Garment Trades in Smi Francisco It appears that March, July, and October, which are dull seasons in three branches of the clothing industry, are rush seasons in three others, so a knowledge of how to make more than one kind of garment would assure an operator work at all seasons of the year. It was found that manufacturers were making an effort to keep their workers the year round,avoiding rush and dull seasons. The health of the workers. — There is no doubt that sewing by piece-work is a nervous strain vipon most workers, and no nervous woman ought to engage in this trade while it is on its present basis. The tense, steady look of the operators showed that constant attention was demanded. Managers of factories said they had no idea how much illness might be due directly either to nerve strain or from lint in the air. Some workers were pointed o\it who had been in a single factory for thirty years or more. Hazards. — An operator is no longer allowed to care for any trouble which may arise from the slipping of a belt. She must call for the mechanic who is employed for that purpose. Protection from the shafts and belts under the tables is regulated by law. Some factories had only oil cloth protectors, while others had metal protectors, as is shown in the photograph on page 28. Sometimes operators com- plain of the effects of the 'knee-press, with which some machines are equipped. The knee-press can also be seen in the picture just referred to. Rarely accidents occur from a needle running into the finger of an operator. Monotony of the work. — ^When once an operation is thoroughlj' learned, the monotony can be relieved only by varied materials, new styles or cuts of garments, or by changing to some new operation. Some operators, who had made shirts in the days when each operator made an entire garment, said they preferred the present system, as they liked the feeling of completing a whole bundle rapidly. There seem to be many people who enjoy monotony and abhor change and new adjustments. This may be one reason that operators often refuse to change to a new machine when given the opportunity. Orgmiization. — About 800 of the female workers in the garment factories in San Francisco are organized into unions. Those who make shirts and workingmen's wear are known as the United Garment Workers of America, Local Union No. 131, and those working in tail- oring establishments are organized with the tailors as the Ladies' Garment Makers. The former organization has many more female members than the latter. It was first organized in San Francisco in 1901 in the Eloesser-Heynemann factory, and is now in .five of the Garment Trades in San Francisco 45 other factories. They insist upon the closed shop, and the firms using their labor advertise that their goods are union-made. The friendliest relations have alv^ays existed between the employers of the union operators and the union itself. There has never been a strike in the nineteen years of the existence of the union. Hours and wages. — The union when formed insisted upon the eight- hour day and the forty-eight-hour week for women. Then came the half holida,^' and a minimum wage of $9 a week for experienced workers. Sixteen years was made the minimum age. With the pass- age of the state-wide eight-hour law for all women workers, there was, for a short time, a return to the forty-eight-hour week. But the Satur- day half holiday is again the rule. The minimum wage, the regulation of sanitary conditions, and the age limit for minors are now regulated and enforced by the State Industrial Welfare Commission. But the union does not feel that its work is yet over. Infirm permits are carefully scrutinized by union officials, who also lead the agitation for changes in piece-rates and minimum wage. Some members of the union would like to see the work established on a week-work basis instead of a piece-work basis, but all are not agreed upon this. According to the rulings of the Industrial Welfare Commission, the minimum wage now (March, 1920) stands at $13.50 per week ($58.50 per month) for experienced operators, and many of the factories offer a 10 per cent or other bonus on this sum for full-time attendance. The minimum wage during, apprenticeship for those over 18 years of age is $10 and increases to $12, but many factories were found offering $12 to beginners as a special inducement. The rulings of the State Industrial Welfare Commission relative to wages for learners are as follows : Learners The rate of wages for learners may be less than the minimum rate prescribed for experienced workers, provided : (a) Minor learners. — That learners, male or female, entering em- ployment under eighteen years of age, be paid not less than the following scale : Schedule of Apprenticeship eor Minors TTT . fi-_t Wage second Wage third Thereafter not Length of 3 months 8 months 3 months less than apprenticeship 9 00 per week $10.50 per week $12.00 per week $13.50 per week 9 montlis 9 00 per month $45.50 per month $52.00 per month $58.50 per month 46 Garment Trades in. San Francisco (h) Adult learners ieginning eighteen years- of age and over. — That female learners entering employment eighteen years of age and over be paid not less than the following scale : Schedule op Apprenticeship for Adults Beginning over Eighteen Wage first Wage second Thereafter not Length of 3 months 3 months less than apprenticeship $10.00 per week $12.00 per week $13.50 per week 6 months $43.33 per month $52.00 per month $58.50 per month The total number of female learners in any establishment shall not exceed 33% per cent of the, total number of females employed, and the total number of male learners shall not exceed 33% per cent of the total number of males employed. In computing the total num- ber of employees, part-time workers shall not be included. In the fall of 1919 the wages of experienced workers were found to have a range of from $13.50 to $35 per week, including the bonus which is paid in most factories. But since that time (March, 1920) there has been a 20 per cent increase in wages, and some operators are now earning $40 a week. The average wage is not much over $20 a week, however.'' Men, whether cutters or pressers, were paid on a week-work basis. In some factories the examiners were paid by piece-work and in others by the week. Starchers and pressers were, in most factories, also paid by the week, as well as a few others whose work was of the least skilled type, such as folding strips, marking for 'buttons, or turning cuffs. Apprenticeship. — At present there is only one way to enter the garment trade, and that is by becoming an apprentice in one of the factories. The average age of beginners cannot be stated, as it depends upon the demand for workers. The younger women are preferred, for "they have less to unlearn," as one manufacturer expressed it. They are more adaptable. But older women are taken if there is a shortage of operators. Learners are always an expense to the establishment. It is estimated that the training of each oper- ator costs the factory at least $50. This includes loss in wages paid, the time of the instructor, and spoilage of material. The turnover among the learners is very high, being estimated at from 4 out of 5 to 14 out of 15. But the only way experienced workers can be secured by the manufacturer is by attracting back to the factory 2 I. W. C. Order No. 11, effective September 25, 1920, has a new schedule of rates for manufacturing industries for the same periods as above — for minors $10, $12, $14, and $16 ; for adults $12, $14, and $16. Garmeni Trades in San Francisco 47 those wlio have learned the trade previously, drawing workers from other factories where working conditions are less pleasant, or by estab- lishing a training school. Promotion. — Opportunities for promotion within the factory are not frequent. In a room where there are one hundred operators there may be one forewoman and one teacher or assistant forewoman. The teachers and forewomen are, in most cases, selected from the factory workers, because they were expert operators with some education, tact, and executive ability. In some of the smaller factories there is no woman in an executive position, a man directing the work of the entire establishment. Advancement may come through promotion to examiner, then teacher, and then forewoman. Also advancement in pay may come through an opportunity to use a special machine which is accompanied by a liigher piece-rate. Occasionally a worker who has learned the construction of entire garments has left the factory and started an independent shop. The making of women's garments offers a better opening for the worker who wishes to start a small shop of her own. Sunvmary. — Women are employed exclusively by San Francisco garment factories in their sewing departments as operators on power machines. These workers are largely of foreign birth and many are married women. Education is not a necessary requirement for machine operating, and some workers do not speak English. The shirt, workingmen's wear, and women's cotton-garment factories are not markedly seasonal. Piece-work causes a nervous strain, and gar- ment making is not the proper kind of employment for those who havB weak lungs or unsteady nerves. The working hours are only 44 per week, and the average wage is perhaps 50 per cent above the present minimum wage for women. Promotional opportunities in the occupation are few; and due to the specialized character of the work, operators must make a persistent effort to learn enough about the entire trade to secure advancement. 48 Garment Trades in Smi Francisco Garment Trades in San Francisco 49 CHAPTEE VII SELECTION AND TRAINING OF WORKBES Means of obtaining neiv workers. — New operators in garment factories are secured by advertising in the newspapers and by posting on the factory walls such signs as this: "Bring in your friends, we- will find jobs for them." Factory managers rarely call on employ- ment agencies for applicants when they need more operators. How applioatimi is made. — ^A new worker, whether experienced or inexperienced, upon answering an advertisement makes application to the manager, superintendent or head foreman, who in turn sends her to one of the forewomen if he thinks she "will do." The appli- cant may be sent to the department for which she seems best fitted or to the department where the need for help is greatest. The fore- woman after a short conversation may decide to keep the applicant or to pass her on to another department. In no factory visited was there an employment manager whose chief business was the selection of workers. If the applicant taken is inexperienced, she is first taught to use the power sewing-machine, sewing on rags or scraps. Forewomen complained that many of those who apply have never used an ordinary sewing-machine. The beginner is usually afraid of the power machine, partly because of its high speed. Discouragement and a failure to> return often follow the first week's work. Qualities desirable for operators. — One manager, when asked what qualities were most desirable in the worker, said instantly — courage. And under the present system of training that quality seems to be a prime requisite, although the trade is a modest, peaceful, apparently unheroie occupation. The roar of machines, the vibration caused by the high power, and the steady, even movements of nearby workers^ all tend to make the beginner afraid — not only of the machine, but of her inability to acquire the speed of those about her. None of the managers used any conscious system in the selection of operators, but through experience had acquired facility in judging- the applicant — sometimes giving her only a glance. From the bulletin. Training for Shirt Makers, the following paragraph on general quali- fications demanded bv the trade is auoted : 50 Garment Trades in Sun Francisco Workers should be selected with, a view to alertness, intelligenoe, neatness, good health, and reliability. Girls who aie nervous or excitable do not usually prove successful at machine operating. The work is also likely to prove harmful to them. Good eyesight is important. A noticeable desire for frequent changes of work or preference for one kind of work with few variations, interest in a par- ticular type of work, in mechanical processes involved, or in the finished product, may be indications of the worker's temperament which, if carefully studied, will give valuable information regardng her proper place in the faotory.i Though many foreign-bom women in the garment factories can neither read nor speak English, it is highly desirable that they should be able to do so, in order to read the communications to workers that are from time to time posted on the bulletin boards, to read the ticket on each bundle of material, and to understand the oral instructions of the teacher or forewoman. Training the apprentice. — Some attempt is made to grade the work for the apprentice, but if the sewing room needs a two-needle operator, the learner is hurried on to this work. The apprentice is first taught how to control her machine in starting and stopping it. After becom- ing familiar with the machine through a little practice in making stitchings and then seams, the beginner is taught the following : 1. To thread the machine. 2. To start and stop it. 3. To raise the presser foot. 4. To wind the shuttle or bobbin, to place it and remove it. 5. To oil and care for the machine. 6. To make straight seams. 7. To sew close to the edge of material. 8. How to hold the material when sewing. 9. To remove the material from the machine. The use of the power-machine is sometimes learned in a few hours, sometimes in a half-day. After a little practice the simplest operation on a garment, such as cuff running, is given the learner. Usually the apprentice was found on production material by the close of the first day. To prevent waste of materials she must be watched very carefully, but after the product from her hands is found to be satisfactory, little attention is paid to her to see that her materials are handled in the most efileient way. In many cases the operator works out a system for herself in order to increase her output. 1 United States Department of Labor, United States Training Service, Train- ing Bulletin No. 19, p. 29. Washington, Government Printing (Miee, 1919. Garment Trades in San Francisco 51 Forewomen and teaehel's are quick in detecting the worker who is trying hard to learn her new work, as well as the one who is not anxious to learn, and the former are often encouraged through weeks of slow progress, because the forewoman sees the possibility of making a good operator. In the case of work on a special machine, the operator may or may not have learned to use the single-needle machine first. For example, the button-sewing machine has little relation to the regular sewing- machine, and requires a technique of its own. Upgraddng and reirmning. — No system of upgrading seemed to be used in any of the factories visited. Any upgrading for efficiency was only incidental. Changes on the part of operators which required retraining usually followed upon the request for a better paying operation, when such vacancies occurred. These requests are very infrequent. Operators are afraid they cannot learn to operate the untried machines as well as their old ones and will thereby suffer a loss in wages. When work is short in her own line, an operator will often take a day off ratlier than try to learn a new operation. This is due, in part, to the fact that most of the workers cannot see the advantage it would be to them to learn more than one operation or more than one machine. Summary. — Power sewing-machine operators are secured in an incidental way, the factories depending upon their own employees to bring' in other workers or relying upon answers to newspaper adver- tisements. There is no definite source of supply of workers upon which factory managers can depend. An applicant is not received in a formal manner and does not go through a set routine of filling out blanks or of answering questions, but is employed or not depending on the decision of the manager or forewoman. An operator should be rapid, but not nervous or excit- able; she should have good eyesight and some mechanical sense. Ability to use an ordinary sewing-machine and to handle materials deftly in sewing will give her an advantage in beginning her train- ing. Interest in the work and in learning all she can about the trade are essential for promotion. The training itself is rather incidental and very limited in scope. The amount of attention the learner receives depends on the number who are learning at the same time and upon the kind of machine first given her. Beginners find it hard to stay through the first few weeks,, as progress is very slow. 52 Garment Trades in San Francisco \ Tracing Patterns and Marking the Sizes. Garme)\t Trades in San Francisco 53 CHAPTER VIII HOW SHIRTS AND WOEKINGMEN'S WEAR ARE MADE The subdivision of processes in making any factory-made garments differs in different factories, depending on the size and policy of the factory, and even varies in a given factory from time to time. The following descriptions are given as found in one of the larger factories in San Francisco. The Making of Overalls The materials used. — In the overalls department of a garment factory there are made all kinds of denim and drill garments for men, such as various kinds of overalls, engineers' coats and blouses, car- penters' and teamsters' aprons. They are made of light and heavy denim, blue and white check or stripe material, white drill, and heavy white duck. Cutting the overalls. — On one of the long tables in the cutting room usually as many as forty-eight bolts of cloth, say blue denim, are laid out for one cutting. The cloth is spread by a spreading machine which keeps the material smooth. Bach bolt of cloth makes two layers from twenty-four to twenty-seven yards long. The entire "spread" will then be ninety-six layers high. The marker, from his order sheet, notes the various sizes desired and selects his patterns. He places them in the most economical way on the top layer of cloth, and with tailors ' chalk traces around them as is shown in the photograph on page 52. The size is inarked on each piece as the pattern is traced. Bolts of cloth of the same color sometimes differ in shade, so it is important to have all the parts for. one garment from the same bolt. Since one bolt makes two layers of the "spread," care is taken that these two layers shall be the right and left sides of the same pairs of overalls. This is done by numbering as described later. The cutter uses an electric cutting knife, such as is shown in the picture on page 55. The base of the machine is a thin metal standard which slides under the spread. The knife which cuts the material works vertically, cutting the cloth slowly as the machine is pushed forward. Any imperfections in cutting are smoothed up by hand. 54 Garment Trades in San Frwncisco using a sharp knife. Before the invention of the electric cutting knife, a long knife which worked through a slot in the table was used, but is rarely seen now. When the cutting is finished, piles of cloth ninety-six layers deep , lie on the table. From the top down they are then numbered : 1, 1 ; 2, 2 ; 3, 3 ; and so on to 48, 48. They are then separated into bunches of from two to four dozen pairs each. The bundles are tied up with the ticket bearing the size and lot number, and carried to the sewing room. When a pair of overalls is completed, as described below, each piece of it will bear the same number as every other piece. Sewing the overalls. — Following through the entire list of opera- tions on one pair of overalls takes the observer to many operators, all working simultaneously, perhaps on parts of the same pair. Each style of overalls demands a slightly different series of operations. Take, for example, the engineers' overalls as made by one San Fran- cisco establishment. This garment has a bib, with watch-and-pencil pocket on the left side, and rings in the top of the bib, into which suspenders hook. The suspenders maj' be cut in one piece with the back or attached separately, The making of the overalls may be divided into five groups of operations : bib making, front making, back making, joining, and finishing. Bib and front making. — The bib is made in two operations: (1) putting on the pockets, and (2) felling the front seam. Before the fronts can be made, two parts must be ready, the button- hole fly must be made and buttonholed, and the large "side swing ' ' pockets of white drill must be faced at the top with the material of which the overalls are made. Sometimes an extra watch pocket is set on this facing. Front making is the work of one operator, and consists of the following operations: (1) putting in the front pockets, (2) putting in the buttonhole fly and hemming back the button stay, (3) joining the fronts from waist-line to placket and from placket to crotch. The bib and fronts are joined on a two-needle banding machine. A photograph of this machine appears on page 23. The entire fronts are then flnished by (1) hemming the sides from pocket to top of bib, (2) facing the top of the bib and inserting the loops which hold the metal rings, (3) making the buttonholes in the band and top of the bib. The one buttonhole in the top of the bib is made for the watch-chain. Garment Trades in San Francisco 55 Cutting Ninety-six Layers of Denim with an Electric Cutting Knife. 56 Garment Trades in San Francisco Back nvaking. — The backs are made by four different operators, whose work is as follows: (1) putting on the side facing and sewing on the ticket, (2) hemming the side and suspenders, (3) felling the back seam, and (4) putting on the back packets. A photograph showing an operator putting on back pockets is shown on page 40. The front and back are first joined by felling the side seam as shown on page 48, and joined again by felling the inseam. The felling of the inseam is done on the machine shown on page 6. Fimshmg. — Finishing consists of (1) hemming the bottoms, (2) tacking, barring or riveting the pockets, (3) examining, (4) fastening on buttons and buckles, and (5) folding. The photo- graph on page 69 shows the line of examiners watching for defects, clipping threads, folding, and making up bundles of one dozen each. The Making op Work Pants Work pants are made of khaki, cottonaide, corduroy, etc. The spreading and cutting are done in the same way as in making overalls. Semng operations. — Little or no felling or two-needle work is done on work pants. The groups of operations fall into the following divi- sions: (1) front making, (2) back making, (3) joining, (4) finishing, (5) examining, and (6) pressing. Frmit making. — In making a pair of corduroy pants the front maker receives the buttonhole fly, which has been faced and completed with buttonholes, and a pair of "side swing" pockets of white drill. The front maker's work consists of the following operations: (1) putting in the side swing pockets, (2) setting in a small watch pocket in the left front, finishing the edges with a narrow piping, and (3) putting in the buttonhole fiy and facing the button-stay. Back making. — The backs are made by another operator, and her work consists of the following operations: (1) facing, piping, and setting in the back pockets, (2) joining the back seam. Joining. — The fronts and back are joined at the side seams, but as the two fronts have not been joined as yet, the garment may be laid out flat for the next operation of putting in the belt or "curtain" and putting on the belt loops. The joining is continued by (1) stitching the fronts together from placket to crotch, (2) making the inseam, and (3) staying and lining the crotch. Garment Trades in San Francisco 57 Blind Hemming. 58 Garment Trades in Saoi Fra)icisco Finishing. — Finishing the pants at the bottom is done (1) by- means of a blind hem which is made on a machine with a curved needle. In the photograph on page 57 this machine can be seen in operation. (2) The cuff at the bottom is turned up and tacked by hand. This is the only hand-sewing operation in the making of the entire garment. The other operations in finishing the pants are (1) barring the pockets and belt loops, (2) sewing on buttons, (3) examining, and (4) pressing. In making khaki pants the operations differ only in minor details : the back pockets are of khaki, and so it is not necessary to face the top ; the back seam is felled ; the side seam is made with a ' ' bead ' ' ; and the placket flies are not faced, but are merely two thicknesses of the khaki material. The Making of Shiets Styles mid materials. — The shirts made in San Francisco factories are negligee, golf, and work shirts. Some of the materials used are soisette, silk, khaki, flannel, percale, chambray, and pongee. Cutting shirts. — The "spread" is laid on long tables as described before, but the materials used are so much thinner that it is possible to cut may more layers at a time. One of the problems in cutting shirt materials is to keep the stripes in perfect line. This is accomplished by putting on the pattern and marking one layer when only a few bolts have been spread. Through points between the pieces marked out, spikes are driven from under the table, and these are made to pass through corresponding stripes in each layer of the spread. The layer which has been marked is then removed and placed on top of the entire spread. Another problem is cutting the pocket so the stripes will match the front, and making the fronts match each-other. Sewing operations. — The operations in shirt making are not so clearly divided as they are in making the garments described above, but roughly they consist of (1) front making, (2) back making, (3) sleeve making, (4) joining, (5) neck flnishing, (6) buttonholing, (7) button- ing, (8) examining, and (9) buttoning up. Starching, pressing, and boxing follow the sewing of the shirt. Front nmking. — In making a golf shirt the order of operations differs somewhat from the making of other styles of shirts. Front making in golf shirts consists of a number of different operations, which will be differently distributed among oper- ators in- different factories or at different times in the same Garment Trades in San Francisco 59 factory. These operations are as follows: (1) pxitting on box plait or buttonhole stay, (2) putting on the button-stand, (3) hemming the bottom and attaching one side of the gusset, (4) pocketing, and (5) neck sloping. Bach making. — Back making consists of only two operations: (1) hemming the lower section of the back at the top as well as at the bottom, and (2) putting on the yoke. A special attachment gathers the back as the yoke is put on. Sleeve making. — The sleeves are almost always pieced, even in the best quality of shirts. This is done by a felled seam made on a two-needle machine. Other operations in sleeve making are: (1) making the sleeve-placket, (2) running the cuffs, (3) turning them, (4) stitching the cuffs again, and (5) after two other operations which are described later, putting on the cuffs. Neck finishing. — The fronts are joined to the yoke of the back, making the shoulder seams; then the neck is completed as fol- ,lows: (1) making the collar band, (2) buttonholing the back of the bajid, (3) putting on the ticket inside the back of the yoke, and (4) putting on the collar band. Joining. — The sleeves are put in the armhole by means of a felled seam; then the underarm, seams, including body and sleeve, are closed, taking in the other side of the gusset mentioned above. The latter operation is done on a machine which has a long arm extending toward the , operator. It is similar to the machine shown on page 6. In the better grade of shirts the cuffs, as indicated above, are put on after the underarm seam is sewed up. In work shirts the cuff is put on before the sleeve is attached to the body and therefore before the sleeve is made. Buttons and buttonholes. — Buttonholes are put in the front plait and neckbajid by means of a buttonhole machine, which stitches and then cuts the buttonbole. A button marker indicates with a pencil the position for the buttons. Buttons are also put on by a special machine which sews through the holes in the button. Examining. — Examining consists of (1) looking the shirt over care- fully for any defects in making, and (2) clipping off any loose ends of thread. After the shirts are examined they are buttoned up and sent to the laundry. 60 Garment Trades in San Francisco Starching and pressing. — The collar band and cuffs of the shirt are dampened with starch and ironed on curv^ed presses. The shirt then goes to the front presser, who folds and pins the shirt on a board of the proper size, presses the front, slips out the board, and the shirt is ready for boxing. Summary. — Garments are made rapidly and accurately in factories by dividing up the nixmber of operations so that an operator can become very proficient in a single operation, but subdividing the num- ber of operations too much results in a loss of time through handling the goods too often. The number of operators handling a single gar- . ment depends upon the individual factory. A change in style or a new attachment on a machine may change the division of operations. All sewing operations on these factory-made garments may be classed as either single-needle, multiple-needle, or special-machine work. Garment Trades in San Francisco 61 CHAPTER IX AN ANALYSIS OF THE WORK DONE IN THE SEWING ROOM In the sewing department of a garment factory are found power- machine operators, examiners, a forewoman, and in a large factory an assistant forewoman or teacher. The work of operating a power sewing-machine in a factory differs from the work of operating an ordinary sewing-machine in some respects. The power machine is started or stopped by a slight pressure of the foot, and has many attachments which require more than ordinary skill in using. The work of the different power-machine operators may be classified under the following headings : (1) the work common to all operators, (2) the work of the single-needle operators, (3) the work of the multiple- needle operators, and (4) the work of the special-machine operators. Facts Common to the Work op all Operators What all operators do. — Regardless of the kind of machine an operator uses, her work includes the following steps : 1. Going to the shelves or bins and getting the proper bundles of materials. 2. Taking the bundles to the desk to be registered. 3. Placing the materials beside her at the machine, in position for assembling. 4. Picking up the pieces to be joined and placing them in posi- tion under the needle. 5. Guiding the sewing. 6. Removing the garment from the machine. 7. Cutting the thread between the completed sections. 8. Tying up the finished work in a bundle and returning it to its proper place. 9. Detecting and reporting mistakes in the construction of gar- ments which come to her. 10. Ripping out and repairing any mistakes in her own work. 11. Keeping account of the dozens she completes each day. (This is not required of an operator, but is almost uni- versally done.) 62 Garment Trades in San Francisco An operator must also know her machine well enough to do the following : 1. Thread the machine. 2. Wind, place, and remove the shuttle. 3. Clean and oil the machine. 4. Set the needle. 5. Adjust the tension. 6. Report repairs needed on machines. Special knowledge required. — The operator needs a thorough under- standing- of her machine; she must know where to find the bundles of material upon which she is to work and where to return them ; what thread or threads to use and where to get the spools; and be able to distinguish the right and wrong side of the cloth. Not only must she know how to make her part of the garment, but she should have a general knowledge of the construction of the entire garment, and understand in particular the operations which immediately precede and follow her own work. An operator is an asset to a factory if she can detect errors in construction of all garments which come to her or leave her, to avoid spoilage of material. It is also essential that the operator have a knowledge of the methods of handling different kinds and weights of material, cut either straight or bias. And finally the operator should know enough arithmetic to keep an account of her work and check up the computation of her wages, including bonus percentages. Skill required. — Skill in making shirts and workiagmen's wear on power machines consists in keeping up the speed best suited to the particular work in hand, dexterity in handling sewing materials in a way to save time and motion, and skill in assembling and sewing the material without the use of pins or bastings. Single-Needle Machine Work What the operator does. — In making shirts and work pants the greater number of operations are done on single-needle machines. In making overalls there are many two-needle operations. Shirt-making consists of the following single-needle operations, named in approxi- mately the order of difficulty : Garment Trades iw San Francisco ^''^ 1. Label sewing. 2. Cuff running and making. 3. Henmiing. 4. Pocketing. 5. Sleeve-plaeket making. 6. Making button-stand. 7. Neck-band making. 8. Collar making. 9. Putting band on collar. 10. Putting cuffs on sleeves. 11. Shoulder joining. 12. Yoking. 13. Sewing on collar band. In making overalls the single-needle work may consist of one or more of the following operations, which are also named in the order of difficulty: 1. Facing the top of the swing pockets. 2. Sewing on labels. 3. Making suspenders. 4. Making side facings. 5. Hemming bottoms. 6. Hemming sides of the front and bib. 7. Setting on small pockets. 8. Making flies. 9. Facing top of bib. 10. Joining fork and fly. 11. Making front placket. ^ The single-needle work may consist of one or more of the follow- ing operations in making work pants, which are named in the order of construction : 1. Pacing and making the side swing pockets. 2. Making the buttonhole fly. 3. Putting in the side swing pockets. 4. Making the button-stay. 5. Putting in the buttonhole fly. .6. Putting in the front watch-pocket. 7. Putting in the back pockets. 8. Joining the back seam. 9. Making the side seams. 10. Putting in the belt or curtain. 11. Putting on belt loops. 12. Joining the fronts. 13. Making the inseam. 14. Staying and lining the crotch. 15. Hemming the bottoms. 64 Garment Trades in San Francisco Two-needle Banding Machine. Garment Trades in San Francisco 65 Special skill required. — In addition to the various skills listed as necessary for all operators, the single-needle machine operator must be able to sew straight seams, keep close to the edge of the material, gauge widths of hems without stopping to measure, handle small pieces, turn corners, fold hems, or turn in raw edges and baektack to keep seams from ripping. Multiple-Needle Machine Woek Multiple-needle machines commonly have two, three, or four needles, the distances between them depending upon the work to be done. These machines usually have no bobbin, but thread from the spool. In the photograph on page 64 four spools may be seen, two spools instead of bobbins and two spools to thread the needles. What the operator does. — If the operator makes shirts her work may be one of the following operations: 1. Making the front plait. 2. Piecing the sleeve. 3. Sewing in the sleevei. 4. Felling the underarm seam. If the operator is in the overalls department, her work may be any one of the following operations : 1. Putting on back pockets. 2. Felling the bib. _3. Joining the backs. 4. Felling the side seams. 5. Felling the inseam. 6. Back banding. 7. Joining bib and front. The simplest two-needle work is that of sewing on pockets with a double stitching. The operator turns in the edges of the pockets and places them in position as marked on the goods. The most dif- ficult part of pocket stitching is turning the corners. The photograph on page 40 shows an operator putting on pockets. It can be seen that she does not cut the thread between pockets until the work on one pair of overalls is completed, and that she turns in the edge as she sews. The most difflcult two-needle operation is putting on bands. The back band is put on by a machine which folds the banding material and stitches it to the backs with a double stitching. The band which is to be attached to the backs is shown folded by the machine in the photograph on pag-e 64. Another banding machine joins the fronts 66 Garment Trades in San Francisco and bib by turning under the lower edge of the bib and stitching a band on the wrong side. A similar machine which turns in a raw edge and stitches on a flat band, as in children's play-garments, is shown an page 23. Special skill required. — Felling and banding are among the most difficult operations. Skill in holding the materials so that they will pass through the folders with all raw edges turned in, and skill in holding both straight and bias materials so they feed evenly into the machine; are required. Speed is one of the essentials in this oper- ation, and efficiency depends, to a great extent, upon keeping the machine running smoothly. Special Machine Work Work on any of the special machines is considered more difficult than that on the ordinary machines, because it requires ability to understand and operate a copiplieated machine. There are many kinds of special machines in use in San Francisco garment factories : hemstitching, embroidering, scolloping, button-sewing, snap-sewing, buttonholing, button-fastening, tacking or barring, riveting, serging, and blind hemming. In making overalls the following operations are performed on special machines: 1. Tacking, barring or riveting. 2. Serging, flies. -3. Button fastening. 4. Making buttonholes. In making work pants the following operations are performed on special machines : 1. Serging flies and making belt loops. 2. Button fastening. 3. Blind hemming. In making shirts only two operations are performed on special machines : 1. Button-sewing. 2. Buttonhole making. Wfiat the harrmg machine operator does. — ^A barring machine is used to put a tack or bar on pockets and straps to strengthen the fastening where there is most danger of tearing or ripping. Some- times on very heavy overalls a brass rivet is used instead. There are Garment Trades in Sa7i Francisco 67 ten or more bars to be ptit on a given garment. The operator has the completed overalls to handle, and saves time in working out a routine which requires the least turning of the garment. She places the garment under the needle in such a position that the bar will nm in the desired direction. The machine makes the bar, cuts the thread, and stops automatically. Special knowledge and skill required. — The barring machine is one of the simplest of the special machines to operate, and requires only a knowledge of where the bars are to be placed, in which direc- tion they are to run, the best order in which to make the bars, and skill in following the routine. What the serging-nmchine operaior does. — ^The serging machine finishes raw edges with a stitch which covers the edge so it will not ravel. It is used in making flies for plackets. The operator guides the edge through the machine as in making an ordinary seam. The same machine is also used with a folder attachment, and is then sometimes called a retainer. It is used in making belt loops. The operator feeds long strips of denim or other material into the machine, and the raw edges which just meet are covered by the serging stitch. Special knowledge and skill required. — In using the regular serg- ing machine the special skill required is in guiding the material so the stitch will just cover the edge. In making belt loops the special skill consists in guiding the material through the folder. What the button-sewing machine operator does. — Button-fastening machines are of various kinds: some sew on the button with thread, others with wire, and some put on a patent button with a clamp. The button-sewing machine has a specially constructed foot which holds the button in position while the needle sews through the holes in the button. Some machines are made to sew on two-hole buttons, and others sew on four-hole buttons. The operator of a button-sewing machine places the button in the foot of the machine in such a way that the needle will not strike the button but pass through the holes. She places the garment which has been marked for buttons under the foot of the machine and starts the power. The needle sews through the holes back and forth, an attachment cuts the thread, and the machine stops automatically. Special knowledge and skill required. — The operation of a button- sewing machine requires skill in placing the button with one motion so the holes will be in the right position, a knowledge of where the buttons are to be placed on the garment, and ability to detect mistakes in marking the position for buttons when such mistakes occur. Since 68 Garment Trades in Sa/n Francisco this machine is easily put out of order, it would be well if the oper- ator knew how to use some other machine while hers is being repaired. What the buttmihole machine operator does. — Buttonholes are made on a very complicated machine, which can be set to make buttonholes of any desired size. The machine stitches the buttonhole, cuts the buttonhole, cuts the thread, and stops automatically. A gauge on the machine measures the distance between the buttonholes. The operator places the material in position under the needle, taking care that the buttonhole will run in the desired direction ; and while the buttonhole is being made, takes hold of the material in a way to place it' most quickly for the next buttonhole. However, she must watch the button- hole which is being made to detect any defects in the stitching and stop the machine, if necessary, before the hole is cut. Special knowledge and skill required. — The operator of a button- hole machine must thoroughly understand her machine, as it is very easily put out of order. A thorough training is needed for buttonhole making, as there is great danger of injuring the material. The oper- ator must know how to set her gauges for size and distance, and know where and in which direction to make the buttonholes. Due to the fact that the special machines, and particularly the buttonhole machines, are often out of order and the operator must wait while repairs are made, it would be well for her to know some other oper- ation on the garment in order to lose no time. What the blind-hemming operator does. — Blind-hemming is done on a machine which has a curved needle and sews the hem on the inside of the bottom of corduroy pants without showing any stitches on the right side. The operator receives the pants turned wrong side out, turns the hem, puts the material under -the needle, and guides the material in a straight line. Special knowledge and skill required. — The operator must know the proper width of hem to turn, and be able to turn the correct width without measuring. She must be able to sew in a straight line, turning the garment as the hem is made. The Examinee What the eomminer does. — The examiner in a sewing room receives the bundles of completed garments. She stands before a broad shelf or table in a good light, and scrutinizes each garment carefully for defects. If mistakes are found, she retui-ns the garment to the oper- ator who made the mistake. In some cases the work is turned over to a repairer. The inspector cuts threads left at the ends of seams, Garment Trades in San Francisco 69 70 Garment Trades in San Francisco inspects overalls and work pajQts to see that the materials are all of the same shade or, in case of corduroy, the same way of the nap, and ties up the garments one dozen in a bundle. Special knowledge and skill required. — The examiner must know the construction of every part of the garment, though she need not have attained speed in operating a machine. She must be able to trace the route of each bundle of garments through the sewing room, in order to return to the proper operator any imperfect work. The work requires quick observation and a knowledge of the standard the particular establishment wishes to maintain. The Sewing Room Forewoman " WJiat the foreivoman does. — The forewoman receives instructions from the superintendent or head foreman. She reports the number of new operators needed, and in most factories passes on all applicants. She, with the aid of the teacher or assistant forewoman, instructs the new workers and directs the production of the whole department. She keeps track of the lot numbers to make sure the work is not piling up in one section and running out in another. She makes a report of the production and keeps an accurate account of the work done by each operator, or directs her clerk in doing this. She meets the inspectors from the union (if the factory employs union labor), and the investigators from the Industrial Welfare Commission, and helps to adjust any difficulties which may arise. She must by her attitude and tact keep friendly relations between the workers and the firm. Special knowledge and skill required. — A number of the forewomen in San Francisco garment factories made shirts and workingmen's wear when each operator made an entire garment, and so they have a thorough knowledge of garment construction. The forewoman must know how to teach the various processes in construction as well as make a garment herself. She must know how to keep the production work balanced, and so far as possible prevent an operator from run- ning out of her kind of work. She must know all the work of the examiners and also of the machine operators, and be able to fill any of these positions in an emergency. The Assistant Forewoman The assistant forewoman or teacher helps the forewoman of her department, especially in directing new workers. When not other- wise employed, she works on regular production work. Garment Trades in San Francisco 71 Summary The work of the power sewing-machine operator is partly process work, depending for its success upon the manual skill of the operator, but it also depends upon a knowledge of textiles, of garment construc- tion, and upon judgment used in their application to the various styles and cuts of garments made. A summary of the character of the work, the knowledge and skill required, and the necessary training will be found in Table IX. 72 Garment Trades in San Framckco I a> c Pt tx! 0-^ . ^-2 O 'a K =* .9-"i=H=H « cj cj "■; s s ._ o o -i^ q5 -a '-^ •J3 J o 7 2 ti ce a te t:! c3 ffi CD ^ -t^ -w ^§1 a no™ O fl OJ <» _, S| « " a P< -tJ ID fe d-2 2"*^ g o o 3 ?.S rt ° tn DISS'S =H s -S a OSS I fcUD ra P4 o q p| o ta -iH r-* nj H on vj - j3 a S « . - P< bo c « _ a '3 be 5; f^ " fl S -^ a -^ S)^ a S -«= rt _. d3 5: " " CO q a°" bi)3 'S 2 5 -s i- a .g o "-g 2 .g g o o -e g o g S a o 3 ^ s -43 o Sot* IT i "^ 2 2 a to o ^ -9 ^ ■a § bt'S,5 ^ • a M a Ai fk^ in li a s !:< "o ^ ■btlii a ^1^ ^ o3 3 O m a ^ PART THREE METHODS OF TRAINING, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Garvient Trades in San Francisco 75 CHAPTER X METHODS OF TRAINING WORKERS IN THE GARMENT TRADES Early Apprenticeship and Training Ttie entrance of women into the garment trades came about very naturally, as women in colonial days made most of the clothing for the family. Women made the first ready-to-wear garments in New England two hundred years ago. Their training was obtained in the home, every girl learning to sew as a part of her preparation for marriage. But sewing was not taught as a trade. The report on "Conditions of Woman and Child Wage-earners in the United States" reviews the history of the industrial training of girls as follows ; Apprentioeship for girls has never meant any thorough training. Even in colonial days girl apprentices were rarely taught a trade, though sometimes their indentures specified that they were to be taught to spin and sew. But generally, apprenticeship meant simply a hiring out at domestic service tOl of age. In manufacturing, too, apprenticeship has usually meant to girls merely work and no industrial education, i As early as 1853 there was some agitation for the training of women for various trades. The report continues: In the same year (1853) there was a 'Girls' Industrial School' in New York, but nothing of real importance along this line appears to have been done until after the war when schools were opened in Philadelphia, New York, Boston and other cities to teach girls variou^ industrial arts A little later Miss Jennie Collins proposed to establish a Boston an institution to be called the 'Young Woman's Apprentioeship Association' for the education of girls in needlework, machine work, and scientific housework. In 1871 she petitioned the state legisla- ture for aid for this iustitution, but nothing appears to have been done.2 One of the earliest instances of a factory training department or vestibule school is found in Troy, New York, in a collar and "cuff factory. Objection was raised to the introduction of sewing-machines, when it was first attempted by manufacturers, as was also the case with the electric cutting-machine later. The workers feared it would deprive them of their work. It is related that Mr. Edson' led in the 1 Bureau of Labor. Report on Conditions of Woman and Child Wage-earners in the United States. Senate Document No. 645. Government Printing Office 1910. Vol. 9, chap. I, p. 30. 2 Loc. cit., p. 31. 3 Hunt, Arthur L. "Collars and Cuffs." In Twelfth Census of the United States. Census Bulletin No. .188. Government Printing Office, 1902, p. 8. 76 Garment Trades in San Frmicisco introduction of sewing-machines in his collar and cuff factory in Troy. To overcome the objections of the factory workers he placed in his home a number of sewing-machines which he had purchased, and here trained girls in his employ to use them. As soon as a girl had learned the use of a machine, she and her machine were transferred to the factory. Present Methods of Training The "catch-on" metlvod. — The most common method of instruction in the making of shirts and workingmen 's wear is the unsystematic method similar to that described in Chapter VII. A few preliminary instructions, a little watching, the confusion of the large sewing room, and, after a few hours, work on the factory product are the steps in the usual method of training. "The number who make good under this system is estimated at about one in seven. The tragic phase of this condition is that failure is almost invariably attributed to stupid- ity, carelessness, and indifference. As a matter of fact, the surprising thing is that any make good with ,such training. The result is loss of time, energy, diseoiiragement to the workers through misdirected effort, and loss to the industry through the resulting incompetency of a large proportion of employees, and consequent heavy turnover."* Other results of this "catch-on" method of training are a supply of workers who cannot adapt themselves to new work, and a failure on the part of the operators to secure promotion through an opportunity for upgrading or broader training. The public school trade courses. — The usual courses in school sewing in the department of domestic art do not prepare for factory work, for the reason that school courses still put a strong emphasis on hand sewing and no emphasis on speed. Neither does the ordinary school course give even a suggestion of the factory method of produc- tion. But a number of schools are now giving trade courses in power machine-sewing. The Manhattan Trade School for Girls in Bro^lyii giv^ an excel- lent course in power-machine operating. According to the statement of the director of the school, Mary Schenck Woolman, the aim of the course- is : To train girls to work on sewing-maeMnes run by electric power and to put a thinker behind every machine as its operator This training must be given while the girls are in the formative period, to develop habits of thought and 4 United States Department of Labor. TJnited States Training Service. Indus- trial Training in the Overalls Industry. Training Bulletin No. 18. Government Printing Office, 1919, p. 6. Garment Trades in San Francisco 77 aotion which will counteract the bad effects upon the worker that follow division and subdivision of work, with consequent subdivision of ability, which takes place in all factories today. When a pupil has been thoroughly trained in the intelligent uso of her tool, when she has learned to construct complete garments, if she is then, through force of circumstances such as modern production entails, compelled to carry out one process on the machine indefinitely, or to make one part of a. garment, she still holds the balance of power in being prepared to do something else when opportunity or necessity demands The department is divided into five classes, three of which must be taken to make an all-round operator, namely : Elementary, two months ' course ; Inter- mediate, four months' course; Advanced, six months' course The other two classes train specialists on the electric machines, special machines of various kinds, straw-sewing machines. Special machine work requires from three months to one year in addition to the full course of all-round operating.^ The training of power-machine operators has been done success- fully for so many years in this school that the course is given in outline as an example of an efficient system of instruction. Course in Power-Machine Operating, Manhattan Trade School FOR Girls Regular operating course : 1. Control of power — learning names and uses of parts of machines. Making bags, clothes, and operators' equip- ment. 2. Straight and bias stitching, equal distance apart. 3. Spaced bias stitching from given measurements. 4. Making and turning square corners, stitching heavj^ edge for tension practice. 5. Machine table apron, using former principles. This is used to protect operator from shafting and oil. 6. Seams : Plain seam, plain and band seam ; French seam ; bag seam on warp ; bag seam, one warp and one bias ; bag seam, two biases. 7. Hemming : Different sized hems turned by hand for correct measurements; hems run through hemmer to learn the use of attachment and give speed; seams through hem- mer — ^bag seam, flat fell. 8. Quilting : Following designs made by pupils in Art Depart- ment. Practice for control of power, starting and stop- ping machine at given point. 9. Banding: Straight and bias bands placed by measurement from design made in Art Department. Practice for edge stitching, turning corners, accuracy of measurement. 5 Woolman, Mary S. The Making of a Trade School. Whiteomb and Barrows, 1910, p. 65-68. 78 Garment Trades in San Francisco i 10. Advanced seams on cloth and silk: Flannel seam, slot seam, umbrella seam.^ 11. Yokes made and put on. 12. Tucking. General Construction : Trade Stock and Order "Work. Special Machine Work : Buttonholes; tucking; two-needle work; hemstitching; Bonnaz (Cornell) embroidery; machine hand emproidery, scallop- ing. Students of special ability only are fitted to take this course. In addition to the trade work, courses in civics, industries, arith- metic, and English are given, all in aspects which relate to the trade, and also courses in physical education, including corrective gymnastics and hygiene. Another type of public school course in power-machine operating is that given by the Boston, Continuation School. This course is for employed girls who wish to receive training in the garment trades, and is given together with the related subjects work in the four hours a week provided. Half the time is given to trade training and half the time to related subjects. In brief the course for power-machine operators is as follows : 16 lessons (or 32 hours) on the use of the machine and straight seaming. 12 lessons on different kinds of seams, hemming, and correct methods of handling material. 5 lessons on the care and adjustment of the machine. 44 lessons in the use of special attachments, shirring, hemming, tucking, buttonholing, etc. 5 lessons in pressing and examining. At the end of the eighty-two lessons outlined above, advanced pupils are put on better grades of work. The related subjects work consists of lessons in arithmetic, civics, hygiene, and problems related to employment, such as "laws relating to factory work," "opportunities in the power-machine trade," etc. Among the advantages to the worker which are to be gained from such courses as the two just outlined are: (1) that a good foundation for the entire field is given, (2) that the worker can readily adapt herself to a change of style or of materials, (3) tliat she has a better background for her work and a vision of the opportunities there are Garmeni Trades in San Prancisoo 79 for her in the trade, and (4) that she has been taught how to care for her health. The employer gains in having more intelligent and adaptable workers, and loses less through under-production. One difficulty is that the girls are tempted to leave the training school before they have had the entire course, as they are paid more while learning in the factory. This condition was reported by the Central Evening High School in Los Angeles and by the Girls' Voca- tional High School of Minneapolis, so it seems to be a widespread difficulty. It could be remedied by a trade agreement between the school, the factory, and the Garment Workers' Union. Trade union iraining courses. — The garment trades themselves have recognized the need for a better system for training new workers, and have established training classes on their own initiative. For example, in Los Angeles classes are conducted after working hours in one of the factories as a part of the Labor Temple Evening High School." Brief courses in English and arithmetic are given here, as well as instruction in power-machine operating. The enrollment in this class is over seventy. The "vestibule" school. — Manufacturers themselves have felt the inadequacy of the usual system of training, and some individually, and others through an association, are studying the best methods of training new workers through a separate training department or "vestibule" school. Such a training department has been found most successful in many industries other than garment-making. The train- ing department is an integral part of the factory, but separate from the production department. Separate instructors train the women in the use of the machines, in the relation of one part of the production to other parts, in the most efficient methods of handling materials and in correct work habits. After learning the use of the machine, the beginner uses the same materials as are on the production floor, certain portions of the garments being routed through the training depart- ment. After a certain amount of skill and speed are acquired, the learner is put on the production floor for tinal training in speed. Employees, who are to be changed to other parts of the production requiring higher skill, are retrained in this same department. In the small factory a separate training room is impracticable, but a portion of the production room with separate equipment and teachers is used. To the worker the- advantages of a training department are : a gradual introduction to the factory organization, and all the training « The name of this school has recently been changed to the ' ' Maple Avenue Evening School," and is now supported as a, public school. £0 Garment Trades in San Francisco advantages of the public school courses, except the related subjects work. The advantages that accrue to the employer who maintains such a department are : the misfits are soon discovered, an operator can be trained quickly for an- operation for which there is special need, and the labor turnover is lessened. Summary There never has been a systematic apprenticeship for girls in any trade. Although the garment trades were among the first industrial pursuits entered by female workers, there is even now no generally accepted scheme of training for the learner who desires a real trade training. In most cases the operator receives all her training from the forewoman or assistant forewoman of the sewing department of the factory in which she is employed. This is usually an unsystematic, narrowly specialized form of training and incidental to the work in the production room. Sporadic attempts have been made to improve the training for this trade by instituting part-time or all-day courses in power-machine operation on the part of the public schools, evening courses on the part of the union within this trade, and systematic training depart- ments on the part of the manufacturers themselves. This last means of training was used by some manufacturers during the war to train the large number of new workers needed at 'that time and is recom- mended by the United States Training Service for this as well as for other trades. Garment Trades in San Francisco 81 CHAPTER XI EBCOMMENDATIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF POWER SEWING-MACHINE OPERATORS IN SAN FRANCISCO It is due every worker, whether male or female, that upon entering a trade he should receive training with as broad an educational content as possible. The recent report of the Committee on Women in Indus- try of the National Society for Vocational Education, of which Miss Cleo Murtland is chairman, in discussing the solution of the problem of industrial education for women, says in part : One fundamental aim of both general and voeational education should be to give girls an understanding of the conditions of wage-earning work, and the possibilities available for the protection of health, morals, earning capacity and promotion to higher levels of employment. The fundamental aim of vocational education should be to fit the worker to pursue effectively some specialized work, to assure advantageous entrance to a wage-earning occupation, and to make it clear that employment in one phase of specialized work is but one stage from which she should advance as experience, maturity, and additional training justify advancement. One of the primary aims of up-grading vocational education should be to fit the worker for promotion to more advanced stages of operative work, or for directive work, or positions of leadership. An important aim of vocational education at the later stages should be to fit women, who expect to remain in wage-earning work and those who return to wage-earning when their children have passed beyond the need of mother care, for productive work in occupations which demand maturity, experience, and special training. This should be done in order that these women may not be brought into sharp competition with every young woman worker, no matter what may have been the special training of the latter. Educators, employers, and others interested in or responsible for the education of wage-earning girls and women must recognize the weight of social prejudice against industrial occupations and actively engage in the dissemination of intelli- gent information which shall bring about a realignment of attitudes among em- ployers, workers, and the community at large toward women in industrial callings and develop a demand for education and vocational training which shall result in knowledge of the job, and group consciousness and working integrity among women workers. This task is urgent, and necessarily a part of the working program, for the development of aU-day^ part-time and evening courses for girls and women of all ages and grades of experience depends largely upon a measure of social approval. 82 Garment Trades m San Francisco Since outside of the factory workrooms no provisions are made in San Francisco for the trade training of women or girls, a beginning could well be made in the garment trades for two reasons. A rela- tively large proportion of the women who go into industry are to be found in the garment trades, and the educational content places the garment trades among the highest of semi-skilled trades for women. There are several ways in which this might be given : by prevoeational courses, by a girls' trade school or trade course, and by the vestibule school. Prevocational Courses In those sections of the city in which girls leave school early to go into some form of industrj^ they might be partially prepared for the garment trades by modifying the existing courses in sewing to conform more nearly to factory methods, by installing power machines, and putting more emphasis on machine sewing. A Trade School Course In a centrally located down town building the nucleus of a girls' trade school might be established with a unit for training power machine operators. In such a school as this, the conditions should as closely resemble those of the factory as possible, making all the equipment as up-to-date as is found in the best equipped factory. The courses given should include both trade training and related subjects, and be open to women above school age as well as of school age. The training should be broad enough for the worker to adapt herself readily to any line of work in the trade, but specialized training along some narrower line should also be given. For example, an operator might specialize in felling and other two-needle work or in putting on collars and cuffs, in order to be well prepared for a definite place in the factory. This specialized training should be determined by the aptitude of the individual. Since the products of San Francisco garment factories are chiefly of cotton materials, the greater emphasis should be put on this phase of the work. Opportunity for workers to return to the school or for anj^ in the trade to come to the school for further training should also be made, so that advancement may be secured. The general course. — The more general course in power-machine operating should include (1) a thorough understanding of the power machine and its attachments for hemming, felling, gathering, etc., (2) Garment Trades in Ban Francisco 83 a knowledge of the materials used in relation to cut and weave, (3) a knowledge of the basic types of seams and the problems involved in making these seams from combining cuts of cloth of various kinds, and (4) a knowledge of garment construction and the relation of well- made seams to style and fit. The special courses. — The special courses should include specializa- tion in some line of garment making which would still give the oper- ator a fairly broad field. The following are merely suggestive : felling, finishing, garment trimming, examining, pocketing, hemstitching, em- broidering by machine, etc. Belated, subjects. — English, arithmetic, citizenship, industrial his- tory and problems, health, and design are all sub jeets' which relate to the garment trades and will help to give the learner a knowledge of her own relation to her trade and to society in general, as well as a knowledge of her trade in its proper setting as an occiipation of basic importance in the present economic order. Coordination. — Any course in power-machine operating which is intended to prepare the learner for factory work should be closely coordinated with factorj^ methods and keep pace with factory im- provements, if not lead in such improvements. The entire plan would necessitate some sort of trade agreement between the school, the manu- facturers, the Garment Workers' Union, and possibly the Industrial "Welfare Commission to determine the entire scope and character of the course, its approximate length, and the preferential rating in apprenticeship given those who had completed the course. Agreements as to the method of disposing of the garments made, the price for which they should sell, and the number of workers who should be trained each year should also be made. The Vestibule School Another opportunity for training women and girls in the garment trades might be made by a movement on the part of the manufacturers who need the greatest number of new workers. They might establish in their own buildings training departments conducted in a systematic way, be responsible for the technical training of the learners, and include in this department a scheme for upgrading and retraining of their present workers. The public school could supplement this work either in part-time or evening classes by giving courses in related subjects as suggested for the trade school. 84 Garment Trudes in San Francisco Either of the two latter plans would accomplish several desirable ends. Many of the manufacturers' problems as to heavy turnover and under-production would be solved, women entering this trade would have a better understanding of their trade and of the oppor- tunities for them in it, and public recognition of the trade as one of sufficient importance to aid in the instruction of the learners would give it a social recognition which it deserves. BIBLIOGEAPHY I. TECHNICAL Bryneb, Edna. The Garment Trades. The Survey Committee of the Cleveland Foundation. 1916. (Cleveland Eoundation Publications. Vol. 19.) Butler, Elizabeth B. Women and the Trades. New York Charities Publications Committee. 1908. (The Pittsburgh Survey; findings in 6 vols., edited by P. TJ. Kellog. Vol. 1.) The Gai-ment Trades, p. 101-140. Leonard, Egbert J. Seport of the Bichmond, Indiana, Survey for Vocational Education. Indiana State Board of Education, Educational Bulletin. Voca- tional Series No. 15. Indiana Survey Series No. 3. Indianapolis, 1916, Chapter XII, Industrial Employment: Underwear, Glove and "Working- men's Wear Manufacturing, p. 193-231. i MuRTLAND, Cleo. A Study of the Dress and Waist Industry for the Purpose of Industrial Education. (Reprint of Appendix I, Bulletin of the II. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 145). 1914. p. 155-189. MuRTLAND, Cleo. Garment Mailing Industries. (Industrial Survey of Cincin- nati Vocational Section.) 1917. Schwab, S. I. Neurasthenia Among Garment WorTcers. American Labor Legis- lation Review, "jan. 1911. Vol. 1, p. 27-33. VoN" Der Nienburg, Bertha. Employment of Women and Minors in the Garment Trades of California. Second Biennial Report, Industrial Welfare Com- mission of the State of California. 1915-1916. p. 77-168. Warren, Benj. S. Health of Garment Workers. The Relation of Economic Status to Health. Government Printing Office, 1916. Reprint No. 341 from Public Health Reports, Vol. 31, No. 21, May, 1916. WooLMAN, Maky Schenck. The Malting of a Trade School. Whitcomb and Barrows, 1910. The Power Machine Operating Department, p. 65-69. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Compulsory Continuation Schools, 4 Circular of Information on the Boston Compulsory Continuation School. Bulletin of the Department of Education. Division of Vocational Educa- tion. No. 2, Whole No. 111. 1919. Power Machine Class, p. 116-119. The Garment Worker. Official Organ of the United Garment Workers of America. New York (General Executive Board, United Garment Workers of Amer- ica. ) Weekly. United States Bureau of the Census. Census of Manufactures, 1914. Reports for Selected Industries and Detail Statistics for Industries. By States; Government Printing Office, ]919. Vol. II. The Manufacture of Clothing, p. 173-192. 86 Garment Trades in San Francisco United States Department of Commerce. The Men's Factory-made Clothing Industry. Miseellaneous Series No. 34. Government Printing Office, 1916. The Women 's Muslin Underwear Industry. Miscellaneous Series No. 29. Government Pi-inting Office, 1915. The Shirt and Collar Industry. Mseellaneous Series No. 36. Government Printing Office, 1916. United States Bureau of Labor. Eeport on Condition of Woman and Child •Wage-earners in the United States. Senate Document No. 645. Vol. 2. Men's Beady-made Clothing. Government Printing Office, 1911. Vol. 9. History of Women in Industry in United States. Government Print- ing Office, 1910. Chapter 3. Clothing and the Sewing Trades, p. 11.5-171. Vol. 18. Employment of Women in Selected Industries. Government Print- ing Office, WIS. p. 285-295. United States Department of Labo". United States Training Service. Train- ing in the Men 's Suit and Overcoat Industry. Government Printing Office, 1919. Training Bulletin No. 16. Training Workers in the Women's Cloak., Suit and Skirt Industry. Government Printing Office, 1919. Training Bulletin No. 17. Industrial Traininr; in the Overalls Industry. Government Print- ing Office, 1919. Training Bulletin No. 18. Training for Shirt Makers. Government Printing Office, 1919. Training Bulletin No. 19. How to Start a Training Department in a Factory. Government Printing Office, 1918. Training Bulletin No. 1. The Foreman. Government Printing Office, 1919. Training Bul- letin No. 26. Descriptions of Occupations Prepared for the United States Em- ployment Service by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. Govern- ment Printing Office, 1918. Textiles and Clothing. Federal Board for Vocational Education. Opportunity Monograph. The Gar- ment Trades. Government Printing Office, 1919. Vocational Eehabilitation Series, No. 35. Library of Congress Bibliography. Select List of Eeferences on the Clothing Industry. In Training for Shirt Makers. Trainiug Bulletin No. 19, p. 53-59. II. GENEEAL Abbot, Edith. Women in Industry. D. Appleton and Co., 1910. Clothing In- dustry, p. 215-245. Loms, Henry W. Advantage to Industry of Vocational Training. Progress, 1919. Annual of Labor Temple Evening High School. Labor Temple Evening High School Student Body, Los Angeles, California, Dec, 1919. p. 29. (jrarment Trades in San Francisco 87 Odencrantz, Louise 0. Italian Women in Industry. Eussell Sage Foundation. New York, 1919. Univeesity of CALiroaNiA. Division of Vocational Education. Syllaius of an Introductory Course in Part-time Education. General Vocational Education Series No. 1. Bulletin No. 1. Berkeley, 1920. Van Kleeok, Maey. Women and Children who Malce Men's Clothes. Survey, A^ril, 1911. Vol. 26, p. 65-69. III. HISTORICAL Beowning, Wm. C. The Clothing and Furnishing Trade. In Depew, C. M., One Hundred Years of American Commerce. Vol. 2. D. O. Haynes and Co., 189.5. p. 561-565. Carpentek, Prank G-. How he World is Clothed. American Book Co., 1908. (Readers on Commerce and Industry.) Hackett, Feed H. The Industries of San Francisco. Payot, Upham, and Co. San Francisco, 1884. Hunt, Arthur H. Collars and Cuffs. In Twelfth Census of the United States. Census Bulletin No. 188. Government Printing Office, June 12, 1902. Pope, Jesse E. The Clothing Industry in New York. University of Missouri Studies, 1905. (Social Science Series. Vol. I.) United States Bureau of the Census. Manufactures of United States in 1860. Clothing. Introduction lix. Government Printing Office, 1865. Date Due ^ Cornell University Library m 9940.U5S4 ... A survey of the 93'''"^"} *I,?Slf,S,!" ' 3 1924 002 278 103 .J