TRUBNER'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE B. H. CHAMBERLAIN PL QJorttcU Utiioetsitg Sitbrary Date Due nrp 514-"*^'^ ULw O JL ■ wi^V »• ^ "^ Wif iiAAD — f JWiW , 'j ' ' ' '''4 P .j,,^^ ^ .,-,„„,.,/ Ji_l.C^^ T'"i 195 r ...->«• ..s ::^:„M^ 1 C**3 23233 ti.a.». Cornell University Library PL 535.C44 Simplified grammar of JlieJapane^^^^ 3 1924 026 913 859 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026913859 IN THE PRESS, BY THE SAME AUTHOR ROMANIZED JAPANESE READER, Paet I.— JAPANESE TEXT. Part II.— ENGLISH TRANSLATION. Paet III.— NOTES. 8 Volumes, Demy IGmo. LONDON : TEUBNER & Co. YOKOHAMA: KELLY & WALSH, Limited. TEUBNEK'S COLLECTION SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUEOPEAN LANGUAGES. EDITED BY EEINHOLD ROST, L.L.D., Ph. D. XV. JAPANESE. BY BASIL HALL OHAMBEEiAlN, YOKOHAMA : FEINTED AT THE "JAPAN GAZETTE" OEFICE, NO. 70, MAIN STREET. A SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR OF THE. JAPANESE LANGUAGE. (MODERN WEITTEN STYLE) BY BASIL HALL CHAMBEELAIN. AUTHOE OP 'THE CLASSICAL POETRY OF THE JAPANESE, Etc. London : TEUBNEE & CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL> YOKOHAMA : KELLY AND WALSH, No^ 28, MAIN STREET. 1886; I All Hghts reisened.'} PEEFACE. In Japan, as in other Eastern countries, two dialects are used simultaneously, one for speaking, the other for writing pur- poses. The spoken or colloquial dialect is that to which consuls, merchants, missionaries, and others who are brought into daily relations with the Japanese, must devote their first efforts. Their next step should be to acquire the written language, without a knowledge of which every book, every newspaper, every post-card, every advertisement, every notice in a railway-station or on board a steamer remains a mystery, even when transliterated into Eoman characters. Some of the differences affect the vocabulary. But the constantly recurring difficulties are rather in the grammar, and may be mastered in a few weeks by those to whom the colloquial is familiar. The great obstacle hitherto has been the absence of any book specially devoted to the elucidation of the modern form of the written language. Mr. Aston's admirable treatise covers a much wider field. Previous writers had left Japanese grammar a chaos. Mr. Aston brought light and order into its every part. But most persons have neither time nor inclina- tion to investigate every part. Their concern is, not with the Japanese classics and philological research, but with the language as commonly written now ; and they weary of searching through the pages of a learned work for the every-day forms, which alone to them are useful. The object of the present little book is to put before such persons, in as simple a manner as possible, just so much as will enable them to read YI PREFACE. contemporary literature and correspondence. All forms that are obsolete or purely classical have been omitted. Theoretical discussions have been dispensed with, save in a few instances (notably the passive verb), where a knowledge of theory is, for a foreigner, the only road to correct practice. A word as to the history, affinities, and written system of the Japanese language. The nearest of kin to Japanese on the mainland of Asia is Korean, the structural resemblance between the two tongues reaching down even to minutire of idiom. The hkeness of the vocabulary is much fainter, but still real. Whether both Japanese and Korean are to be classed with the Altaic tongues, must depend on the exact sense given to the word " Altaic." Judged from the point of view of syntax and general structure, they have as good a right to be included in the Altaic group as Mongol or Manchu. Traces of the law of "attraction," by which the vowels of successive syllables tend to uniformity, as in ototosJii, for atotosJii, " the year before last," point in the same direction. If the term " Altaic " be held to include Korean and Japan- ese, then Japanese assumes prime importance as being by far the oldest living representative of that great linguistic group, its literature antedating by many centuries the most ancient productions of the Manchus, Mongols, Turks, Hungarians, or Finns. Its earliest extant documents go back in their present shape to the beginning of the eighth century of our era, and its literature has flourished uninterruptedly from that time downward. Japanese as written now differs, however, considerably from the language of the eighth century. While the meagre native vocabulary lias been enriched by thou- sands of words and phrases borrowed from the more ex- pressive Chinese, many of the old native terminations have fallen into disuse. One consequence of this long and varied career of the Japanese language is the existence at the present day of a number of styles distmguished by strongly marked peculiarities. Leaving aside poetry and a certain ornamental kind of prose cultivated chiefly by a few Shinto scholars, there are four categories of style in common use, viz. I. The Semi-Classical Style, distinguished by its preference for old native words and grammatical forms. The standard translation of the New Testament is in this style. II. The Semi-Colloquial Style, into which the lower class newspaper writers occasionally fall. Its phraseology savours largely, and its grammar slightly, of the peculiarities of the modern colloquial dialect. III. The Chinese Style, or Sinico- Japanese, which is replete with Chinese words and idioms. It is founded on the hteral translations of the Chinese classics, which were formerly the text-books in every school. This style is the ordinary vehicle of contemporary literature. IV. The Epistolary Style. Almost exclusively Chinese in phraseology, this style has grammatical peculiarities which are so marked as to necessitate treatment in a separate chapter. The system of writing, that has hitherto been in use in Japan, is an extremely complicated one, semi-ideographic and semi- syllabic, founded on the ideographic writing of the Chinese. But the language may easily be written with Koman characters. Indeed the general introduction of the Eoman alphabet is the question of the day. A society entitled the " Roinaji Kai,"- or " Eomanization Society," has been formed, and includes among its members most of the leaders in science and in politics. A purely phonetic system of transliteration has been adopted, and has met with acceptance both among natives and foreigners. To this system, as being that which is likely VIII PREFACE. to supersede all others, the spelling of the following pages conforms. In conclusion, it is my pleasing duty to acknowledge my obligations to Mr. J. C. Hall, Acting Japanese Secretary to H. B. M. Legation, Tokyo, and more particularly to Mr. Ernest Satow, C.M.G., H. B. M. Minister Eesident at Bangkok, for a number of valuable suggestions. My thanks are hkewise due to Lieutenant M. Takata, I. J. N., for smoothing away certain difficulties with regard to the publication of the book in Japan. Basil Hall Chambeblain. Impeeial Naval Depaetment, Tokyo. February, 1886. EEE AT A p. 3, line 18 ; after h insert "and g." „ 52, the brace should unite, not yukazu and yuka~aru, but yuhazaru and yukanu. „ 69, line Sfi'om bottom; for "Section 6" read "Section 3." „ 70, line 14; for beski read beshi. JAPANESE GEAMMAE. CHAPTEE I. THE PHONETIC SYSTEM. SEC. 1. ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION. Japanese, when written with the Eoman alphabet, requires the same letters as English, with the exception of I, q, v and x. The letter c occurs only in the combination ch, which is sounded nearly like English ch in " church." The vowels are sounded as in Italian ; but are always short unless marked with the sign of long quantity, when care must be taken to pronounce them long, thus : — do, " a degree " ; do, " a hall." toru, " to take " ; tdru, " to pass through." JcuU, " a stem " ; fal/ra, " the air." The only long vowels of common occurrence are o and u. They are found chiefly in words of Chinese origin, where they represent such Chinese diphthongs and nasal sounds as ao, ou, ang, ung, etc. When preceded by another vowel or by n, e sounds very nearly like ye, i like yi, and o like wo. Thus ue, lion-in and shio are respectively pronounced uye, Imn-yin, and shiwo. The vowels i and u are sometimes inaudible or nearly so in the mouths of Tokyo speakers, as shite, " having done," pronounced shte; jinriM3ha,-pi-onounced.jinriksha; tsuki, "the moon," pronounced tski; takiisan, "much," pronounced taxan;' watakusU, " I," pronounced watofeAi. Initial it is silent, and JAPANESE GRAMMAE. the following m doubled in the pronunciation of the four words uma, "horse"; mimki, "tasty"; umarurii, "to be born"; ume, "plum-tree," pronounced mma, minahi, minaruru, inme. But these deviations are slight and unimportant. All the above words will be miderstood if pronounced as written. The diphthongs, such as ao, au, ei, ii, ou, call for no special comment, as each vowel retains its own proper sound. The consonants are pronomiced approximately as in English, subject to the following remarks : — /is a true labial/, not the English labio-dental. g never has the somid oij. At the beginning of a word it is pronounced hard, like the g in give. Li the middle of a word it has the sound of English 7ig in "longing." Thus Kiga, the name of a place, rhymes almost exactly with "singer" (not with " finger"). The words ga, "of," and gotoU, " like," also take the ng sound. h before i sounds nearly like the German ch in "mich," and sometimes passes almost into sJi. n at the end of a word is pronounced half-way between a true n and the French nasal n. Nomis having a final n are mostly of Chinese origin. y is always a consonant. Thus the syllable mga in myaku, "the pulse," is pronounced as one syllable, like mia in the English word "amiable." Care must be taken not to confound it with the dissyllable in such words as miyako, " a capital city." « has almost the sound of dz when preceding the vowel u ; thus miut, " water," is pronounced almost miihn. Double consonants must be distinctly somided, as in Italian, thus : — kite, " having come " ; kitte, " a ticket." koka, " an ancient poem " ; kokka, " hearth and home." PHONETIO SYBIEM. 8 Generally speaking, the Japanese pronunciation both of vowels and of consonants is less broad and heavy than that current in most European languages, and especially in English. This remark applies more particularly to the letters ch, j, r, sh, and ts. Tones, such as those of the Chinese, are entirely absent. There is little or no tonic accent, and only a very slight rhetorical accent ; that is to say, that all the syllables of a word and all the words of a sentence are pronounced equally, or nearly so. Students must beware of importing into Japanese the strong and constantly recurring stress by which we in English single out one syllable in every word, and the chief words in every sentence. All Japanese words end either in a vowel or in the consonant n. There are no combinations of consonants excepting ts and the double consonants already mentioned, among which must be counted ssh and tch, standing for double sh and double ch, as in kesshin, " resolve " ; zetcho, " peak." By some very careful speakers a iv is pronounced after k in many words taken from the Chinese. Thus kwannin, " an official " ; Owaimusho, "the Foreign Office." But the pronunciation cm'rent in Tokyo and m most parts of the country is simply kannin, Gaimushd, etc. SEC. 2. LETTEE-CHANGES. 1. — " Nigori," i.e. " muddling," is the name given by the Japanese to the substitution of sonants for surds.* The consonants affected are : — ch ■ which change into j. sh ~ In contradistinction to the sonant letters, the surd letters are said to be sumi, i.e. "clear." The two categories together are termed sei-daku, sei being the Chinese equivalent for " clear," and daku for "muddled," / h k JAPANESE GEAMMAE, which change into b. „ changes „ o- „ change „ z. ts ] t „ changes ,, d. N.B.— jF and h also often change into p, especially in Chinese compounds. This is called " han-niffori," i.e. "half muddling." The rule regarding the nigoji, stated broadly, is that the initial surd of an independent word changes into the corresponding sonant when the word is used as the second member of a compound, thus : — ku7ii-ju, " throughout the land," from kimi and chu. ivaru-jare, " a practical joke," fune-bune, " all sorts of vessels," mushiba, " a carious tooth," Jwngokii, " native country," ronzuru, " to discuss," kanzume, "tinned," kondate, " a bill of fare," The above rule is by no means an absolute one, euphony, and sometimes the varying caprice of individuals, deciding in each case whether the change shall or shall not take place. F and h, however, always change either into b or into p if the first member of the compomid ends in the consonant n, thus : — mimpTi, " the south wind," from win and^M. sfiiR-licn, " three times," ,, xkw and 7(rti. 2. — As shown in the preceding examples, n changes into m before a labial. waniki and share, fune repeated. musid and ha. hon and koku. ran and sum. kan and tsume. kon and taU\ PHONETIC SYSTEM. 3. — The following category of changea affects a large number of compound words of Chinese origin, and notably the numerals as combined with the " auxiliary numerals " : — ch it-cho. for ichi cho. "one." hat-cho. n haclii cho. "eight." jit-cho, )» ju cho. " ten." /and ft ip-puku, )> ichifuku, "one." ip-pild, 11 ichi hild, sam-buhu, sam-UU, 11 11 sanfuku, san hiki. " three." rop-pulm, 11 rokufukii, "six." rop-pihi, 11 roku MM, jip-puhu, jip-piki, jufuku, ju hiki. - "ten." Jiyap-puku, ,, hyakufuku. " hundred." hyap-piki 11 hyaku hiki, seni-buku, sem-Uki, 11 11 senfulm, sen hiki, "thousand." h ik-km, 11 ichi ken, " one." san-gen, 11 san ken. " three." rok-ken, 11 rokuL ken, "six." jik-ken, 11 ju ken. "ten." hyak-ken, 11 hyaku ken. " hmidred.'-' sen-gm, 11 sen ken. " thousand." m sam-nmi, 11 san mai. " three." sem-mai, 11 sen mai. "thousand." JAPANESE GBAMMAB. sh IS-SO, sanzo, has-so, jis-so, sen-zo, -shu, has-shu, jis-shu, t it-tsu, hat-tsu jit-tsu Similarly, as-sei, lutlc-ko, Jcessuru, for ichi so, " one." ,, sanso, "three." „ hachiso, "eight." „ juso, "ten." „ sefi so, "thousand." ,, ichi shu, "one." ,, hachi shu, "eight." ,, ju shu, " ten." ,, ichi tsu, " one." ,, hachi tsu, " eight." „ jutsU, "ten." „ atsu sei, "tyranny." „ hatsuJco, "issuing." ,, Jcetsii suru, "to resolve." 4. — The Japanese cannot pronounce all their consonants before aU their vowels. This leads to the following euphonic laws : — d, j, and z are correlated in such wise that d stands only before the three vowels a, e, and o ; j only before a, i, o, and u ; and z only before a, e, o, u. Apparent irregularities are hereby caused in the conjugation of many verbs, thus : — Lidefinite Attributive Form. Present, ide, izuni, " to go forth." dji, oxuru, " to correspond." i*" and h are similarly correlated, /standing only before «, and h only before the other four vowels, thus : — he, furu, "to pass." S and sh are correlated, sh standing only before i, and s only before the other four vowels, thus : — hashi, ]c(ist(, "to lend." PAETS OP SPEKOH. 7 T, ts, and ch are correlated, t standing only before a, e, and ; ts only before u ; and ch only before a, i, o, and u, thus : — Indef. Attrib. Negative. Causat'we. tachi, tatsu, tatazu, tatashimuru, " to stand." 5. — W is inserted before a in verbal terminations when another vowel precedes, thus : — warai; warau, warawazu, warawashimimi, " to laugh." 6. — Y disappears before e and i, thus : — hie, Uyuru, " to melt." 7. — A few monosyllables and dissyllables of pure native origin ending in e change the e into a when used as the first member of a compound, thus : — hanco-gu, " metal work," from hatw and gu. ta-mahura, " the arm used as a pillow," ,, te and vwhura. uwa-zutsimi, " an outer wrapper," ,, ueainditsutsimii.* CHAPTER II. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. The words of which the Japanese language is composed fall into two great groups, the uninfleeted and the inflected. The miinfieeted words are : I the nomi, which, besides the substantive properly so-called, includes the pronoun, the numeral, and many words corresponding to English adjectives ; II the postposition, corresponding for the most part to the English preposition. " In reality kana, ta, etc., are the original forms, which have become softened into kane, te, etc., except in compounds. 8 JAPANESE GKAMMAE. The inflected words are : I the adjective ; II the verb (including participles). This division is not an artificial one made for the sake of convenience, but has its foundation in the nature and history of the language. In the following chapters the two groups of words are treated of in the order here indicated. What we term adverbs in EngUsh are replaced partly by nouns, partly by one of the inflections of the adjective. Conjunctions are partly included under the heading of postpositions, and partly expressed by certain inflections of the verb. Interjections exist, as in other languages ; but, being mere isolated words without grammatical connection with the sentence, they call for no remark. The Japanese language has no article. From one part of speech another may often be formed by adding certain terminations. Thus, rashijd serves to form adjectives expressive of similarity, and vmhoshiU adjectives expressive of desire, while more rarely mm forms verbs expressive of action, as : — otoho, "man"; otohorasMM, "manly." tomo, "company"; tomonau, " to accompany." yuku, " to go " ; yuMma/wshiki, " desirous of going." [ 9 ] UNINFLECTED WOEDS. CHAPTEE III. THE NOUN. SEO. 1. THE SUBSTANTPPE PEOPEELY SO-CALLED, 1. — The substantive is indeclinable, distinctions of number and gender being left to be gathered from the context, and case relations being, as in English, indicated by independent words. Thus, the substantive itsJd signifies "bull," "ox," "cow," "bulls," "oxen," "cows," "cattle," according to circumstances. In such a phrase as ushi wo hau it generally signifies " to keep cattle." In mU ni noru it signifies "to ride on a bull" if one rider is alluded to, and " to ride on bulls" if several persons are spoken of. In ushi wo huu it signifies " to eat beef." In ushi wo chichi it signifies " cows' milk." In the extremely rare cases in which it is absolutely indispensable to mention the sex of an animal, this can be done by prefixing some independent word, such as o, " male " ; me, " female." Thus : — o-ushi " a bull " ; me-ushi, " a cow." What we call the singular number is occasionally indicated by the use of the word ichi or hitotsu, " one." Thus ichi-nen, " one year " ; tciTna hitotsu, " one ball." Plurality is occasionally indicated by doubling the word (the second half of the compound thus obtained usually taking the "nigori," see page 3), thus : — hobo, " a,ll sides," " everywhere," from ho, " side." huni-guni, " various countries," from huni, " country." 10 JAPANESE GEAMMAE. Or by prefixing or suffixing some word conveying the idea of number. Thus : — han-Tiolu, "all countries," "international"; from hem, "myriad," and hohu, " country." sJw-kun, "gentlemen" ; fr'om sho, "all," and kim, "gentle- man." su-nen, "many years"; fr'om su, "number," and nen, "year." desJii-tachi, " disciples"; from deshi, " a disciple," and tachi, a word expressive of plurality. onna-domo, "women"; from onna, "woman," and tomo, "companion." shin-ra, "subjects," " we"; from shin, "subject," and ra, a word expressive of vagueness. But such locutions are somewhat exceptional, distinctions of number not being dwelt upon at every turn by the Japanese as they are by the Aryan mind. 2. — Compounds are very common, and can be formed at will. As in English, the first member of the compound generally defines the second, as will be seen by the numerous examples throughout this grammar. Occasionally the two members are co-ordinated, as kin-gin, "gold and silver." This co-ordination sometimes (in imitation of Chinese idiom) assumes a peculiar form, which has been termed the " synthesis of contradictories," e.g. cho-tan, "long or short," i.e. "length"; kan-dan, " hot or cold," i.e. "temperature"; ntin-mjo, "mskn or woman," i.e. " sex " ; yoshi-ashi, " good or bad," i.e. " the moral character " of an action; ani-nasld, "there being or not being," i.e. "the question of the existence of a thing." Two contraries thus combined do duty for a single English abstract word, thus : — Inin no ato-saki, "the context (lit. the after-before) of a passage." NOUNS. 11 When one member of the compound is a verb governing the other, it comes second if the word is of Japanese origin, and first if it is of Chinese origin. Thus ftma-oivshi, " a launch " ; hami-Jiasami, " hair-cutting " (Jap.) ; but U-hyo, " returning to the capital " ; «o-sew, " building a ship," "shipbuilding" (Chinese). Hyphens are used in Eomanized Japanese for the sake of clearness in very long compounds, and in those whose first member ends in n while the second commences with a vowel or with y, as gen-an, " the draft " of a document, not to be confounded with genan, " a common man." In the present work they are used a little more freely to illustrate the sense and derivation of many words. SEC. 2. NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 1. — Japanese has comparatively few true adjectives, and in a great number of cases uses nouns instead, just as in English we say " a gold watch," " a Turhey carpet." A noun may do duty for an adjective in three ways, viz. : — I. As member of a compound, thus : — Butsu-ji, "a Buddhist temple"; from Butsu, "Buddha" or " Buddhism " ; and ji, " a temple." Ei-hohu-jin, "an Englishman"; from Ei, Eng; hoku, ' ' land ' ' ; and jin, ' ' person. ' ' tei-hohu, "an imperial country," "an empire"; from fe», " emperor " ; and kohu, " country." It-ten, " rainy weather " ; from u, " rain" ; and ten, " sky." yoho-moji, " European writing " ; from yoko, " crosswise " ; and moji, " a written character." II. Followed by the Postposition no, " of," thus : — gaihohu no hosai, " foreign intercourse " ; lit, " intercourse pf foreign countries." 12 JAFAITBSB GBAMMAfi. horimono no tsuhue, " a carved table " ; lit. " a table of carvings." III. Followed by the attributive form of one of the tenses of the verb na7-ii, " to be," thus : — kenso imru michi, " a steep road ; lit." a steepness-being road; nodolca rmru tenU, "genial weather," lit. "geniality- being weather " ; shimetsu narishi Jiito, " a kind person," lit. " kindness having-been person." 2. — Words of this third class correspond to English adverbs, if the postposition ni (more rarely to) is substituted for the verb ?2arM, thus : — henso ni, "steeply"; nodohconi, "genially; sJiizen to " naturally." 3. — Many words corresponding to English adverbs are formed by reduplicating nomrs, as taU-taU, "often," from taU, " a time." Many such redupHcated words are onomatopes, similar to the English "ding-dong," "peU- mell, etc. Thus gasa-gasa or goso-goso, representing a rustling sound ; tobo-toho, descriptive of the tottering steps of an old crone. Occasionally they are derived from adjective stems, as siigo-sugo, descriptive of low spirits, from sugoJd, " Ul at ease." 4, — All Chinese words are treated as nouns by the Japanese, being used either I. as substantives proper, e.g. kin " gold "; jitsu, "truth"; ketsu, "decision"; Jiatsumei, "discovery," "invention," ; or II. adjectively, according to one or other of the three methods just mentioned, e.g.jitm-butsit, " a genuine article " ; jitsu naru osJde, " a true doctrine " ; or III, adverbially, by suffixing ni or to, e.g. jitsu ni " truly "; or IV. as verbs, by suffixing sum, " to do," e.g. kes-suru, "to decide"; Jiatsumei sum, "to discover"; "to uavent," Mnzuru, "to forbid"; or V. as onomatopes, e.g. kai-kai, supposed to represent the voice of the nightingale ; yu-yu, descriptive of the calm appearance of the distant heavens. PRONOUNS. 13 \ CHAPTEE IV. THE PEONOUN. SEC. 1. PEKSONAL PEONOUNS. The Japanese words corresponding to the personal pronouns of European languages are simply nouns whose original significations are in most cases perfectly clear, and which are indeed still often used with those significations. They answer to such English expressions as "your humble servant" (meaning "I"). Self-depreciatory terms are naturally used to represent what we should call the first person, and complimentary terms to represent the second person, thus: hoTiU, "servant" ; ses-sha, " the awkward person " ; shin, " subject" ; sho-sei, " small born," " young " ; soregashi, " a certain person " ; ware, (original meaning uncertain) ; watahusM, " selfishness " ; yo, (etymology uncertain) ; etc. etc. Hd-ka, " beneath the steps of the ^ throne" (the idea being that a subject does not dare to address the sovereign directly, but only prostrates his petition at the Im- perial Feet) ; >l. X Your Majesty, / Kah-ha, " beneath the council-cham- ber"; Your Excellenoyi 14 JAPANESE GBAMMAE. Ki-ka, " beneath augustness " ; Kimi, " prince " ; Tianji, (believed to have originally meant " renowned " ) ; soh-ha, " beneath the feet " ; etc. etc. Vyou. N.B. — Some of these are also used as titles suffixed to other nouns. Thus : — Tennd Heiha, " His Majesty the Emperor." Postpositions can be suffixed to the above, as to any other nouns. Thus: — soregasJii no, " of me," " my;" soregashi wo, "me.' Instead oi icare no, "of me," " my," the form waga (for ware go) is in common use. The plural suffixes are more often used with the quasi- personal pronouns than with any other class of nouns. Thus : — sessha-domo, shin-ra, ware-ra (or ware-ware), watakicshi- domo (sometimes also used for the singular), yo-ra, "we;" Jdnii-tachi, soTcka-tacJii, nanji ra, " you." In some cases plurality is otherwise expressed, e.g. by the term waga hai, lit. " our company," the usual equivalent for the EngUsh editorial " we." The only word closely corresponding to our pronouns of the third person is kare, " that." Periphrases, such as kano Jdto, " that person " (i.e. " he " or " she"), are sometimes employed, as are also the honorific designations mentioned above as equivalents for the second person. Very often the word sono, which properly means "that" (French ce), is used to signify "his," "her," "its," thus: — sono haha, "his mother." The word onore (plural- onore-ra), "self," may be of any person ; but it is most commonly met with in the sense of " I." The quasi-personal pronouns are very little used, the information they might supply being left to be gathered from PBONOUNS. 15 the context in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred in which personal pronouns would be used by the speakers of European tongues. SEC. 2. EEFLEXrVB PEONOUNS. The nouns corresponding to our reflexive pronouns are jibun, jishin, onore, "self"; owo^a, "own"; wa^'a, properly "my," but also used more generally in the sense of " own," " one's own." They are comparatively little used. SEC. 3. DEMONSTEATIVB AND INTEREOGATIVE PEONOUNS, The words answering to our demonstrative and interrogative pronouns are : — kore, " this " (Latin hie, French celui-ci, celle-ci, ceci.) sore, "that" ( ,, iste, „ celid-la, celle-la, cela.) to-e, "that"," "he," "she," "it," (Latin ille, French, celui-la, celle-la, cela.) tare, " who ? " nani, "what?" izure, " which ? " The foregoing are the substantive forms, before leaving which the student should note the plurals Tcore-ra, " these " fceux-ci, celles-ci), sore-ra and hare-ra (ceux-la, celles-la). The adjective forms, i.e. those that are employed to define nouns, are : — kono, " this " (Latin Mc, French ce). sono, "that" ( ,, iste, „ ce). Jtfflwo, " that " ( ,, ille, „ ce). The forms kono, sono, and kano also do duty for kore wo, " of this " ; sore no and kare no, "of that," of which they are contractions. Thus kono kuni, " this country " ; kono tame ni, "for the sake of this." Sono also frequently means " his," "her," "its," The old forms soga and taga occasionally 16 JAPAmSE GBAMMAIt. replace sono and tare no. Tare is used of persons only, nani of "things only (save in one or two compounds such as nani-Uto ovnam-pito, "what person?"), feww of both persons and things. Before words of Chinese origin, "this" and "that" are frequently expressed by to. Thus -.—tdji, " this time," " that time," " at the time in question." " What kind of ? " is expressed by ika nam, the correspond- ing adverb ika ni meaning " how ?" Note also iisM, "when?" and izwTco, "where?," words which are really nouns, though corresponding to Enghsh interrogative adverbs. Like other nouns, they take postposi- tions to modify their sense, thus : — itm no hoto ncinsU ? " lit. " it was a thing of when ? " i.e. " when did it happen ? " izuko ye, lit. " to where ? " i.e. " whither ? " izuko yori, lit. " from where ? " i.e. " whence ? " tare no, "whose?" nani no, "what?" izure no," which ? " SEC. 4. INDEFINITE PEONOtTNS. The indefinite pronouns are formed from tare, nani, and inure in the following manner : — tare mo, "anyone," "everyone"; tare Jca, "someone." nani mo, "anything," "everything" ; nani lea, "something." izure mo, " either," " both "; " all"; izureha, "one or other." SEC. 5. EELATIVE PEONOUNS. The Japanese language has no relative pronouns or relative words of any kind. The way in which their absence is made V^ood will be understood from the following examples : — yuUsM Uto, " the person who went " (ht. " the went person"); BEIjATIVES, 17 Usu-heU koto, " a thing which should be kept secret " (lit. •' a should-keep-seoret thing "). As seen by these examples, the verb or adjective of the relative clause must be put in the attributive form. If there are several relative clauses, then only the verb or adjective of the last clause takes the attributive form, all the preceding clauses having the verb or adjective in the indefinite form,* Thus :— EohorozcisJii tesseU too idaU, gi wa sdsetsu wo azmnuU, fiibo saishi wo mo on no tame ni enri shi, Msshi wo issen ni Tdwmneshi ymhi shi-ju-sJdcM nin, " Forty-seven heroes, whose determina- tion was as iron, whose devotion was not to be damped by difficulty, who for their lord's sake had left father and mother, wife and children, and who had resolved to sacrifice their lives in the attempt." Here iclald, ammuTd and shi are the indefinite forms of the verbs idaku, azamuku and suru, while Idiccniieshi is the attribu- tive form of the first past tense of kkvamuru. Occasionally the Japanese equivalents of English relative clauses appear ambiguous. Thus: — inisid hito, lit. "the saw person," may signify either " the person who saw," or " the person whom I (you, he, etc.) saw " ; idasu tokoro, lit. " the send place," may be either " the place whence something is sent, or " the place to which something is sent. But a glance at the context generally leaves no doubt as to the meaning. For instance, sa omoishi loake, cannot mean " the reason which thought so," as such a collocation of words would have no sense. It can only be interpreted to signify " the reason for whichl (he, etc.), thought so. Similarly, shuttatsu seshi toki can only mean " the time when I, (he, etc.) started " As seen by the * For an explanation and illustrations of these very important technical terms see chap. VII. and beginning of chap. VIII, 18 JAPANESE GEAMMAE. above examples, the prepositions which often aeeompany an EngHsh relative pronoun are not expressed in Japanese.* Note too that the English passive in such contexts is almost invariably replaced by a Japanese active locution. / Not infrequently the words tokoro no (more rarely mo alone) are inserted between the attributive and the noun, as mislii tokoro 710 hito instead of the shorter mhlii hito, " the man I saw " ; sitde ni nareru no noclii, for sude ni nareni nochi, " after it had already been done." These circumlocutions add nothing to the sense. Their use originated in the imitation of Chinese idiom. Sometimes, however, iw legitimately represents the English relative, thus: — onJumasJdno henkm, "the various matters mentioned by you " (lit. " the matter-matter of the honourable speaking"); go zoyo no Uhin, "the charming present you have sent me" (lit. " the beautiful articles of the august sending"). CHAPTEE V. THE NUMERAL. SEO. 1. THE CAEDINAL NIJMBEBS. There are two sets of numerals, one of native and the other of Chinese origin. The native set is now obsolete except for the first ten numbers, which are as follows : — 1. Idtotsu. 2. futatsu, 8. viitsu. 4. yotsu. 5. itmtsu. 6. imitsii. 7. nanatsu, 8. yatsu. 9. kohonotsu. 10. to. * Compare sucli English expressions as " dining-room," signifying '' a room in v>lucli people dine ; " " shaving-brush," signifying, " a, brush with which you help yourself to shave," etc. MUMEBALS, l9 These numerals may either be used as independent words, or compounded with substantives. When used independently, they may either stand quite alone, or follow or (very rarely) precede a substantive, or stand in an attributive relation to ) the substantive by means of the postposition mo. Thus : — [ futatsu ari, " there are two " ; Jiaho futatsu, or futatsu no Jmko, \ " two boxes." — -^ When compounded, they invariably precede the substantive. In this case the first nine drop the syllable tsu, which is properly a sufiSx, and long to becomes short to. Thus : — futa-tsuU, "two months" ; to-tsuU, "ten months." The set of numerals borrowed from the Chinese is : — 1. ichi (or itsu). 20. ni-jv. 2. m. 21. ni-ju-icJd. 3. san, 22. ni-ju-ni. 4. shi. etc. etc. 5. go. 30. saii-ju, 6. roku (or rihu). 40. shi-ju. 7. shield. etc. etc. 8. JiacJd. 100. hyciku, or ip-pyaJcu (lit. " one 9. ku (or kyu). [hundred"). 10. ju, 200. ni-hyaku. 11. ju-ichi. etc. etc. 12. jii-ni. 1,000. sen, ov is-sen (lit. "onethou- 13. ju-san. [sand"). 14. ju-shi. 10,000. man, or ban, or icld-'man (lit. etc., etc. [" one myriad"). These numerals cannot be used independently, but must always precede a noun, forming a sort of compound with the latter. Thus ic7»-miw, "one person"; it-ten (iovicJd'ten), "one point." As seen by these examples, the nouns with which the Chinese numerals combine are almost always of Chinese 20 JAPANESE GEAMMAE. origin. Similarly, Japanese and Chinese numerals cannot be used together. Shi, "four," is however often reijlaced by yo, the native Japanese word, as in ju-yo-nin, " fourteen persons"; ni-ju-yohka, " the 24th day of the month." SEC. 2. AUXttlAEY NUMEBAIS. " Auxiliary numeral " is the name given to a certain class of nouns with which the Chinese numerals constantly com- bine. They have English analogues in such expressions as "a hundred head of cattle," "so many panes of glass " ; but are much more extensively used. Thus " one war-vessel " is gun- lean is-so; "one soldier" is heishi ichi-mei [oi icJd-nin); "one pen " is fiule ip-pon (less frequently issd no gunkin, ichi-nin no hdshi, etc.). The following are the most important auxiliary numerals : — cho, for various things with handles, such as tools, muskets, and jinrikishas. fu, for letters. fuku, for scrolls, sips of tea, and whiffs of tobacco. Jiai, for cupfuls and glassfals. hiki, for most living creatures except human beings and birds ; also for certain quantities of cloth, and sums of money. hon, for cylindrical things, such as sticks, trees, and fans. ka or fco, for things generally, that have no auxiliary numeral specially appropriated to them. ken, for buildings. flat things generally. human beings. human beings. volumes. ships. documents. bil:dst mai, met, nin, Baisit, so, tsu, m, NUMERALS. 21 N.B. — For the euphonic changes which these auxihary numerals undergo in composition with the numerals proper, see pages 5 and 6. Wa suffers the following irregular changes : sani-ba (3), rop-pa {&),jip-pa (10), hyap-pa (100), sem-ha (1,000). By the Japanese themselves the names of weights and measures, such as hin, " a pound", are included in the same category. Thus: ik-Mn, "one pound"; hyah-Mn, "a hundred pounds." Formerly there existed many native Japanese auxiliary numerals, which were used in combination with the native numerals proper. The only words of this class that have remained in common use are : soroe, for, sets of things ; suji, „ rope-like things ; tomai, ,, "godowns" (e.g. dozo mu-tomai, "six mud go- downs"); and the isolated expressions hitori, "one person"; futari, "two persons"; &iai yottari, "four persons," which often replace ichi-nin, ni-nin, and yo-nin. Thus : suifu futari, " two seamen." The native auxiliary numerals suffer no euphonic changes. SEC. 3. ORDINAL NUMBEBS, ETC. Japanese has no separate forms for what we term the ordinals. Sometimes the cardinal numbers do duty for them, thus: — Meiji jti-Jcu-mti, " the nineteenth yearof Meiji, i.e. A.D. 1886." At other times the word dai, " series," is prefixed, or bamme suf&xed, to the cardinal numbers, as dai-ichi or ichi bamnie, " the first." Observe such locutions as san-do, " thrice." san-do me, " the third time." san-cho me, " third street." satl-nin mae, " portions for three." 22 JAPANESE GKAMMAIt. sam-bu no ichi, " one-third." sam-bu " three per cent." san icari " thirty per cent." initsu ' sam-mai ,, , ,. „ y zutsu, " three at a time ; sam-bon etc. and similarly with the other numerals. CHAPTEE VI. THE POSTPOSITION. SEC. 1. THE SIMPLE POSTPOSITION. Japanese postpositions correspond for the most part to English prepositions. But some words which we should call adverbs and conjunctions, and others for which EngUsh has no equivalents are included in this category, When suffixed to a verb or adjective, postpositions require such verb or adjective to be in one of the attributive forms, a general rule which is subject to exceptions mentioned in the course of the present chapter. Postpositions are of two kinds, simple and compound. The chief simple postpositions, with their most usual significations, are : — Ga, I "of," or the possessive ease: OisJd ga fuJcushyu, " Oishi's revenge; '\..ga tame ni, "for the sake of." II. Ga is also used, especially in low-class writings whose phrase- SIMPLE POSTPOSITIONS. 23 ology approximates to that of the colloquial, as a sign of what we should call the nominative case : Siigiura SJii ga shdhai wo juyo su, " Mr. Sugiura distributed the prizes." III. When suffixed to the attributive form of a verb at the end of a clause, it has an adversative force generally best rendered by " yet," "but," or "still" prefixed to the following clause. (See wo, which is preferred by good writers to ga in such contexts.) Ea, an interrogative particle, generally corresponding to our point of interrogation, but sometimes only to an expression of uncertainty: Aruka, "Is there?"; Naniha, "Something or other"; Sono so-dan no matomarisJd toTcanite, hondo , "An agreement having, as it would seem, been arrived at, they are now " — When repeated-, Tea usually corresponds to "either or." Followed by mi at the end .of a sentence, ha expresses a merely rhetorical question : Sldha nomi ha wa, "Is it only so?" i.e., " Of course it is not only so." — When suffixed as it occasionally is to a gerund, ha combines with the gerundial termination i« to signify "doubtless because," " probably on account of." Thus : — Sdfu mo hoko ni mini tohoro ante ha, Jwnjitsu no hanrei rannai ni am gotohu tori- shimari-hisohu wo moheraretari, " The government too, doubt- less having certain views on the subject, has drawn up regulations, as may be seen in the official column of our to- day's issue." Kara, "from," "since": horehara, "henceforward." Koso, a highly emphatic particle, corresponding to an unusually strong emphasis in English, or to an inversion which puts at the beginning of the English sentence the word to which the writer desires to draw attention. In classical Japanese each of the indicative tenses of verbs and adjectives has a special form in e, called by Mr. Aston the " perfect," which is used instead pf the conclusive or indefinite 24 JAPANESE GEAMMAE. form at the end of any sentence or clause in which koso occurs, thus : — yuke for yuku. yukitare 9f yuhitaii. yultame tt yukan. yukane »» yukazu. are )> ari. hekere (i.e. hektt are) J» besM. liaycikere (i.e. hayahu are) >J hayashi, etc. etc. Examples of the use of these forms in e are occasionally met with in the modern written style, thus : Kyolw wa sMsei no tasiike koso sure (for indefinite sM), smruttage ira seji, " A help, and not a hindrance, is what education will be to the adminis- tration." — Koso or ni koso is sometimes placed at the end of a sentence, to give an emphatic and exclamatory force to the whole, thus : Makoto ni armimliosliiki koto ni koso, " Ah ! it is indeed a thing one would like to see happen." In such cases no change is produced in any verbal or adjective form. Made, "till," "as far as," "down to," "to": Kore made, "Thus far," "hitherto." Such ]ihja,sea a,s myogonicJd made, may signify either " till the day after to-morrow ;" " or by the day after to-morrow " ; but the latter meaning is the more usual. Made sometimes has the exceptional signification of " only," "merely," thus : Kono dan kiho made, " This just as an answer," " This may suffice as an answer.'' (Epistolary style). Mo, properly " also," " even " ; but very fi-equently a mere expletive not needing to be translated : En-ryo mo naku, " Without [even] any feeling of diffidence." It is often used expletively between the two members of a compomid verb : YuU mo tsiiJcanu ucM ni, " Before he had reached " [yuhi-tsuku SIMPLE POSTPOSITIONS. 25 means " to arrive at a place one is going to "). Mo likewise serves to form the hypothetical concessive mood of verbs. mo mo repeated signifies " both " : Mulcashi mo ima mo, " Both in ancient and modern times." Motte, " thereby," " and thus." See wo motte, page 37. Nagara, suffixed to nouns, signifies "just as it is," " without change," "tel quel," thus: Mendd tuigara, " Tedious as it is," " though a bore." More often it follows verbs (always in the indefinite, not in the attributive form), and then has the sense of " while," " during," thus : yuM-nagara, " while going." Ni, "in," "into," "to." Ni has a great number of idiomatic uses, of which the following are the most note- worthy:— I. What in English is called the subject of a sentence is often marked by ni followed by wa or oite. This gives the expression an honorific tinge, which is general- ly emphasized by putting the verb in the potential form, it being considered more polite to say that such and such a thing is able to happen in a person, than bluntly to assert that the person did it. Thus : — Eaigmikyo ni wa sannuru mikha Mkyo seraretari, " the Minister of Marine returned to Toky5 on the 3rd instant." II. With a passive verb, ni corresponds to " by," denoting as it does the person by whom the action is performed : Zoku ni ohiyahasaruru, " To be scared by thieves." III. With a causative verb, ni denotes the person who is caused to perform the action, thus : lin ni hoto wo gisesMmuru, " To cause the committee to deliberate upon a matter," i.e. " To leave a matter to the committee to deliberate upon." IV. Following the attributive form of a verb at the end of a clause, ni serves to indicate a contrast or difference between two consecutive actions or states. "Whereupon" or "on," prefixed to the following clause, is the most literal English rendering, thus : Suiren no tassha wo shite saguraseshi ni, ni-nan 26 JAPANESE GBAMMAE. iohi-jo no shikahane ivo JiiU-agetari, " Tliey caused search to be made by competent divers, whereupon the bodies of two men and one woman were recovered." But more frequently ni in such contexts must be rendered by "but," there being hardly any difference between it and wo similarly placed, thus : Zenjitsu oyobi yokujitsu kou narishi ni, kono hi nomi u-a kinrai mare nam kotenki nite, " Both the day before and the day after were rainy ; but on this day only was the weather finer than almost any we have had of late, and so ". V. Xi suffixed to nouns sometimes means "and besides," "and." VI. Ni sometimes follows a word which according to English ideas should be in the accusative case, as: Hito ni au, " To meet a person." VII. Suffixed to the indefinite form of the verb, ni signifies " in order to" "to " : Tori ni yuku, " To go to fetch." Nite (sometimes corrupted into de) 1. " by means of," " by," "with": Kore nite sJiiru-besJd, " It may be hereby known." II. "in," "at": Osaka nite, ".at Osaka." N.B. — The postposition nite must not be confounded with 7iite, the indefinite form of the verb luiru, which signifies " being." No " of," or the possessive case, thus : Tokyo no jvmin, "the inhabitants of Tokyo"; bokii no znnjiyori, "my humble opinion"; kimi wo osamuru no konnan, "the difficulty of governing the country"; kishu no tsuko sum,, " the passing of the train," " the train passing." In examples Hke the last, the word followed by 9io almost comes to correspond to our nominative or accusative rather than to our geni- tive case, and the noun to which it is suffixed must often be turned into the subject of a clause in English. Thus : — Waga hcd no tsxinc ni ikan to sum tokoro nari, " It is a thing which we constantly regret." Totsu;:en dempo no Utaru SIMPLE POSTPOSITIONS. 2? ari, " A telegram suddenly came " (lit. " Suddenly there was the coming of a telegram"). Hito no onore wo liyo suru wo kiku, " To hear others talk about oneself." While always retainingX a trace of its proper meaning of " of," no is used in two other noteworthy idiomatic manners : — I. Between two nouns in apposition : Issaku ju-ni-nicJd no nichiyObi," " The day before yesterday Sunday the twelfth." II. Either in lieu of, or suffixed to, the other postpositions, it being a rule that none of them except no and ga can show the relation between two nouns without the intervention of a verb. Thus a Japanese says : Kono ura ni ike ari, " There is a pond at the back of this." But he must, if the verb be omitted, say Eono um no ike, " The pond at (lit. of) the back of this." Similarly : Ean-in no kymokujo, " A resting-place /or the officials ; Ei-Ro no kankei, " The relations &fifo()e«re England and Kussia." In the following instances wo is suffixed to the other postpositions; — Hokkin yon no dempo, " a telegram from Peking"; taiyo to cliihyu to no kan- kei, " the relations between the sun and the earth." Similarly when to in the sense of " that " or of inverted commas ia followed, not by a verb, but by a noun, no must be inserted after it. Thus : — Hyaku-him ik-ken ni shikazu to no kakugen ari, "There is a golden saying to the effect that hearing a hundred times is not so good as seeing once." (See also relative pronouns, page 18, and compound postpositions, page 35 etseq). To, I. "that" (the conjunction), or inverted commas, or " to " followed by the infinitive. Thus : — Nashi to omou, " I think that there are none." [To can never, like the English word " that," be omitted in such contexts.) Yorimasa no jihitsu nari to ii-tsutau, " It is traditionally said to be an autograph of Yorimasa " (lit. [they] hand down the saying ' it is an autograph of Yorimasa'). Ichi-daitai to sUruseru hata, " A flag ^8 JAPANESE GKAMMAlt. with the inscription ' First Eegiment ' ". In the semi- Chinese style, to is often found at the end of a sentence in the sense of "it is said that," "he thought," etc., some such verb as iM, omou, or Mku being understood after it. Sometimes one of the verbal forms in ahu, as iwahu, " said" ; omoerahu, "thought," is placed at the commencement of the sentence which ends with to. Thus the above example might be abbreviated to Torimasa wo ji-hitsu nan to. For the sake of emphasis, to is occasionally followed by the emphatic particle zo. To, in this its first sense, is usually preceded, not by an attributive, but by a conclusive verb or adjective, as seen in the above example {nari, not naru). The reason is that, as it simply corresponds to inverted commas placed after a clause or sentence complete in itself, it does not in any way govern the preceding word. If that word is, as it generally must be, a verb or adjective in the conokisive form, that form remains unaffected by the presence of to. But the fact that the postpositions generally are preceded by an attributive verb or adjective, has influenced the grammar of to in such wise that many writers substitute the attributive for the conclusive form when to follows. This happens especially in the case of the first past, whose attributive termination shi constantly replaces the conclusive hi before to. Thus : — Kobe ni tdchahu seshi (for sldki) to iu, "It is said that they have arrived at Kobe." II. Though retaining somewhat of its force of " that," to must often be otherwise rendered (e.g. by "to," "into," "with"), or altogether dropped in English, thus: Aware naru arisama to imreii, " He fell into a pitiful plight." Oruru to Jdtoshiku, " As soon as we alighted" (more lit. " together with alighting "). Miisume to ni-nin, " Two counting my daughter." III. " and." In this sense it is, like the Latin que, generally repeated after each of the words enumerated. SIMPLE POSTPOSITIONS. 29 Tote, a oompoimd of to, " that,", and te, the termination of the gerund, so that it literally signifies " ing that." It is used as an equivalent of to Hie, "saying that" ; to omoite, "thinking that"; to toite, " asking whether," and of similar gerundial phrases. Thus : Furmato ni haeran tote, wakare wo iu, " He bade adieu, saying that he was going home." Very frequently tote follows a verb in the conditional mood. It and the conditional termination eha then together signify "because said (thought, believed, etc.) to be," "on the strength of (something said done or imagined"), thus : Hito to shite mizukara i-sJioku-ju wo kyu suru wa kataki koto ni arazu. Kono koto wo naseba tote, aete hokorn-beki ni arazu, "It is not a difficult thing for a human being to provide himself with clothing, food, and shelter. He must not dare to be proud on the strength of his doing so." Wa, originally I. a noun signifying "thing" ; "that which," "he, she, or they who," is now chiefly used as II. an emphatic or separative particle corresponding to the French quant a, or, when repeated, to the Greek men and de. " With regard to," "so far as is concerned," are its most explicit English equivalents. But its force is generally sufficiently indicated in an English translation by an emphasis on the word to which it is suffixed, and by the placing of that word at or near the beginning of the sentence. Examples of I : Te ni tazmoni wa, " The thing he holds in his hand." Kotae-keru wa, " He answered," (lit. " the thing he answered, [was] "). Examples of II. Nishi wa Fuji, kita wa Tsukuba nari, " To the west stands Fusiyama, to the north Mount Tsukuba." Kono jiken wa betsu ni go hodo itasazu, " Concerning this matter I send no special information." Kono liyomen ni wa sJiukusho seimei wo kagiri shitatamu-beshi, " On this side nothing must be written but the name and address," Saran to suru 30 JAPANESE GKAMMAE. toU wa, " When about to depart." Sorw jin-in wa nen-nen han ni oite lore wo sadamu, " The number is fixed each year by the authorities" (lit. "as for that number, yearly in the officials, [they] fix it " ). As shown in the last example, it is often convenient to render the noun followed by wa as a nominative in English ; but it is never a nomina- tive properly so-called in the Japanese construction. It is simply a word isolated and generally placed at the head of the clause for the sake of emphasis. True nominatives or subjects are rare in Japanese, most sentences being subjectless. (See Syntax, par. 2). Wo. I. A sign of what is in European languages named the accusative case : Kami wo shinzuru, " To beheve [in] God." Kaze no tuigu u'o matsu, " To await the getting calm of the wind," i.e. " to wait till the wind goes down." II. When suffixed to the attributive form of a verb or adjective at the end of a clause, u-o has an adversative force, which is generally best rendered by " yet "or " but " : Sdyd-zuhuii no mikomi narishi wo, kondo aratamete Nihon-zukuri to sadamerai'U, " It had been intended to build [the palace] in European style, but it has now been decided to erect a Japanese build- ing instead." Occasionally the adversative force is softened to a mere intimation of dissimilarity between two successive states or actions, and then wo must be rendered by " and so," or " and." But this shade is more often mdicated by the use of ni. Inferior writers, foUowing the usage of the colloquial, use eithei ga or no ni for uv in all the cases included under II. The connection between the two chief uses of wo is found in the fact that this postposition was originally nothing more than an interjection serving, as it were, to interrupt the sentence, and draw particular attention to the word to which it was suffixed. For the same reason, it is not attached to SIMPLE POSTPOSITIONS. 81 every noun which, according to European ideas of grammar, is in the accusative case, tlius : Meshi huu told, " When eating rice," " when taking a meal." Before the verb suru, "to do," it is generally absent, thus: Hon-yciku suru, "To make a translation," " to translate." Under I may be classed some apparently anomalous uses of wo, by which the student is often greatly perplexed. They are 1. Such phrases as Tenno Hciha wo hajime-tateviatsuri, " From His Imperial Majesty downwards." Here the literal rendering would be : "respectfully placing His Majesty the Emperor at the beginning," a construction which we should call accusative. 2. Such phrases as Wabohu wo ri mm to omoeba , " Think- ing that peace would be advantageous " Here the literal rendering of the Japanese construction is " thinking [of] peace, ' it will be advantageous.' '' Wabohu is therefore really an accusative, though rendered in English by a nomi- native. 3. The use of wo after what corresponds to the subject of an English passive verb. Thus : Minami ni miyuru shima wo Oshima to in, " The island visible to the south is called Oshima." In all such sentences the Japanese con- struction is really an active one, the present example signifying literally, " [People] call the island lying to the south Oshima." (See also the remarks on the nature of the Japanese passive verb. Chap. VIII, Sect. 5). 4. Wo at the end of a sentence. In such cases there is an inversion of the usual construction, the verb being placed at the beginning of the clause instead of at the end, for the sake of emphasis and in imitation of Chinese idiom. Thus : Kou yoyahu no shoTnimU u'a dai-shihyu go Tcamei aran koto uv (for Yoyahu no hoto wo hou), "We trust that gentlemen will hasten to add their nam€S to the list of subscribers." " 5. Such elliptical phrases as Kampisei uv mekeraretmi, lit. " [They] have 32 JAPANESE GRAMMAE. been commanded official expense students," i. e. " They have been commanded to become students at government expense," or more freely, " They have been notified that the expenses of their education will be defrayed by the government." Ya, a particle of interrogation, doubt, or exclamation. I. As a directly interrogative particle, its use is chiefly con- fined to sentences which contain some other interrogative word, and to those in which the question asked is a purely rhetorical one, i.e. not a question properly so-caUed, asked in order to elicit information. Thus : Kono told ni atatte, waga Nikon no jimmin loa ihaga su-hehi ya ? " In such a case how would our Japanese compatriots act ? " Karada wa horomo yori mo WMsareru 7nono narazti ya? "Is not the body more than raiment ? " II. Its more frequent use is as a dubitative particle. Thus: Mosld ya, "If perchance." to iu ga, sono jitsu ika 7ii ya, " It is ssbid that , but we know not whether it is true." Udba iw aida ni ai-miru ni itaru ya mo Jiakaru-belcarazu, "Who knows? perhaps we may encounter each other on the field of battle." III. At the end of a sentence ya is sometimes a mere exclamation : Mnkoto nnru kana kono koto ya, "Oh! how true these words are!" {kana is another exclamation or interjection, generally best rendered, as here, by " how ! "). IV. Good writers sometimes (in imita- tion of Chinese idiom) use ya in a half emphatic half exclama- tory manner. Thus : Kono ku taru ya, kare n-o hyd shi-etari to iu-beshi, " How exactly the phrase may be said to paint his character ! " (more lit. " This phrase, — how exactly [one] may say that it has been able to paint his character ! ") In such cases ya is equivalent to icn, plus a certain exclamatory force. But sometimes it sinks into a mere expletive, as inia ya, "now"; kanarazu ya, "positively." — The syntax of ya pre- sents some anomalies, ya being occasionally preceded by the SIMPLE POSTPOSITIONS. 33 conclusive instead of by the attributive form of the verb or adjective, especially in the case of the present tense of adjec- tives, of the present tense of the verb m-u, " to be " (conclusive ari), and of the present tense of the negative voice of verbs and adjectives in general. This happens chiefly when the question asked is a rhetorical one, as in the example from the New Testament on the previous page (concl. narazu for attrib. narazaru). The final verb or adjective of a sentence containing ya is also often put in the conclusive, contrary to the general rule whereby interrogative words govern the final verb or adjective in the attributive form. The exception is more apparent than real, as it occurs almost exclusively in cases where ya is not properly interrogative, but has one of the meanings given above under headings II. and III., where an example will be found (concl. hekarazu for attrib. hekara- ^aru). In IV the Conclusive is always. used. I'e, "to," less often "towards," sometimes "at": Tokyo ye kuru, " to come to Tokyo " ; Yokohama ye tochaku sum, " to arrive at Yokohama." Yori, "from," "since," "than": Bdkoku yori, "from America." Sakujitsu'yori, " since yesterday." Tsukihana yori utsukushild loa naM, nan, " There is nothing more beautiful than the moon and the flowers." Yori always means " since" when it is suffixed to a gerund. The Japanese often usfe yori in the sense of " from" where English idiom uses " in," "at," "on," or "by," or drops all prepositions, thus : Gozen Jiachi-ji yori kaijo," lit. " From forenoon eight o'clock open place," i.e. " To open at 8 o'clock " the idea being that the place will be open from 8 o'clock till some other hour not mentioned. Un-im NdsJw-mushd yori tasseraretari, " Such and such a thing has been notified by (lit. " from ") the Depart- ment of Agriculture and Commerce." Preceded by a negative, 84 JAPANESE GEAMMAE. yori sometimes means "unless," " except by," " -without " : KenshiU aru ni arazaru yori wa, Icesshite taiko Tcekkyo no iseld to mitomuru wo ezaru-heU ni itareri, " They are reduced to such a state that it would be quite impossible, except for an expert, to recognize in them the remains of very ancient cave- dwellings." When thus used, j/on is almost always strengthened by the addition of iva. Zo, an emphatic pai-ticle less intense than hoso, but best rendered in English by either of the means mentioned mider teo, page 28. In classical Japanese, the final verb or adjective of any clause or sentence in which zo occurs is put in the attri- butive instead of in the conclusive form. Examples of this construction are occasionally met with in the modem written style, thus : Kore zo jitsu ni honniclii ToropjM ni oite gahwnwn no 6i ni shimpo seru yuen naru (for the conclusive nan), " It is this which is really the cause of the great progress of science in Europe at the present day." SEC. 2. THE COMPOUND POSTPOSITION. I. — Many of the postpositions can be combmed, in order to particularize or emphasize the sense, as made ni, " until," for made, " till " ; yori wo, " even than." TTo iva is changed into woba, and is used to denote a particularly emphatic accusative, thus : Ware mo sliogai Tdnu woba mi ni matou-maji, " In sUk will I too never array myself all my life long." In such com- binations as no wa, no ni, to wa, an ellipsis must be supphed, thus : YoU hito ga tanin u-o tasulciini no [koto] tea, kesshite toaga tame wo hakarite sum koto ni wa aratani, nan, lit. " As for the act of a good man's helping others, it is certainly not a thing he does calculating his own interest," i.e. " "When a good man helps others, he never does so out of regard to his own interest." Ten to [iumono] tva, " What is called heaven," " What is meant by the term heaven," COMPOUND POSTPOSITIONS. ' 33 II- — There is a large class of compound postpositions form- ed from nouns by prefixing m (less often ga), and generally suffixing ni. Thus : — no kage ni, " behind " (lit. " in the shadow of"). no kawari ni, " instead of," "in return for," " as compensa- tion for," " on the other hand." MO tame ni, " for the sake of," "by." noueni, "above" (lit. "on the top of"), " on," "_Jb,e"' sides," " after," " in relation to." ga ue ni, " over and above," " besides." Examples : Iwa no kage (ni), " Behind the rocks." TJma no tame ni keraruru, " To be kicked by a horse." Zanji kyusoku no ue, " After a short rest." lya ga ue ni, " On the top of one another," " Ever more and more." After verbs, the chief member of these compound postpositions is sometimes used alone, without either no or ni, as : Eien ni tsutoru tame, " In order to hand it down for ever." III. There is a class of compound postpositions formed by ni or wo and a verb, the verb generally appearing as a gerund or else in the indefinite form. The most important postposi- tions of this class are : — ni oite, "in," "on," "at." This compound postposition often serves to denote what we should call the subject of the sentence (conf. ni). Ni oite tea sometimes signifies " in the event of," "if," thus : Shina Seifuni oite kore wo shdclaku sezaru ni oite wa, " In the event of the Chinese government not consenting, " If the Chinese government should not consent." (In this sentence the first ni oite serves to mark the word which corresponds to the English nominative, while the second means "if"). Ni oite wo ya at the of a sentence has a very strong exclamatory force. It is generally preceded by iioan ya at the beginning of the sentence or clause, and should be 86 JAPANESE OBAMMAE. rendered, according to circumstances, by " how much more " or "how much less.'' Thus: Jiji im kafaru mo nao katsu gakiisha no hombun ni arazu; iwan yajiji ivo okonau ni oite wo ya! "Even to discourse on passing events is not the proper occupation of a scholar ; how much less is it for him to tlirect passing events ! " ni okeru, "in," "position in," "relations with," "compared with": Ei no Inch ni okeru ga gotokii, "Like England's position in India." ni shite, "being," "as," " in the capacity of " : Gaikoku- jin ni shite, "As a foreigner." It is also used m many contexts where it must be translated by an adverb or adverbial phrase : Saiwai ni shite, "fortunately"; zanji ni shite, " After a little while." ni tsuki, "with reference to" "owing to": wo gi ni tsuki, " With reference to the matter of " niyori i "owing to," "because of," "by means of," ni yotte J '"according to " : Reiniyori, " According to prece- dent," "as usual." Zbre wi i/oiie, " On account of this." to shite, "as": Sliarei to shite, " As a token of gratitude." tt'o mo Jte, (lit. " having held ") "through," "by," "with," "by means of," "owing to" "because"; Tegami wo motte, "by letter." Sikunen no henran okorishi ivo mvtte, "Owing to the occurrence of disturbances last year." Sometimes wo motte sinks into being a mere sign of what we should term the accusative case, as : Inoue Haku wo motte Tokulm Zenken Daishi to nashi , "Appointing Count Inoue as Special Envoy Plenipotentiary." Motte without wo generally signifies " and thereby," " and thus." But both ico motte and motte may often be neglected in translating, though some trace of their proper meaning generally lingers in the origiualJapanese, thud : Gundan wo moke, motte kokku uv hoyo su, " \\e raise troops to COMPOUND POSTPOSITIONS. 87 [thereby] protect our native land." Chin yojahu wo motte midari ni taitd wo tsugi ■, " Succeeding, young and feeble as We are, to the great inheritance of Our Ancestors." Uanahada motte, "very"; Ima fnotte, "now," "down to .the present." Wo watte sjH'it, . properly means " to use," but it can often be dropped in translating : Waga hai no mini tohoro wo motte suru ni, "Looking at it from our point of view" (lit. "Using the seeing place of our company "). Wo motte nari means " it is because of." Wo shite, with a causative verb, serves to denote the person who is caused to perform the action. Thus : Chin wo shite kimi-tarii michi ivo ushinawashimuru n/jnd tiarazu, shitagatte resso no tenka wo usJdnawasJdmuru wtri, " This is not only to make Us untrue to Our duty as Sovereign, but to make Us lose the Empire handed down by Our ancestors." Occasionally the noun corresponding to the English nominative is marked by the addition of ico shite : Moshi hairiku un-yu no arisama wo shite, haku no gotokufukanzen nam koto nakumba, " If the state of com- munications by sea and land were not so imperfect as they are." wo ya, a strong exclamation, nearly answering to the English colloquial "why!" (not "why?"): Shintei wa Burisson shi imada Naikakii wo soshiki sezaru m,ae ni oite slide ni wagi wo hatsugen shi, Futsutei kore ni ojite kowa no yoyaku wo kettei shitaru wo ya! " Why ! the Chinese government had already made overtures of peace, and the French government had signed a preliminary treaty of friendship before Monsieur Brisson formed his cabinet ! ' ' (Do not confound this ivo ya with the more usual ni oite wo ya). Note also the following compound postpositions : ya mo, "whether may (might) not": niitaru ya mo shiru-hekarazu, "We cannot tell whether it may not result in " ya wo ; in this combination ya has its original interrogative 38 JAPANESE GBAMMAR. sense, and wo serves to show that the whole clause preceding it is the object of the following verb : Nani ga yue ni furuwa- zarishi ya wo jinkyu suru ni, ht. " On investigating [this thing :] because of what did it not exercise influence ? " i.e. " On enquiring into the reasons of its want of success."' N.B. — The general rule, according to which postpositions must be preceded by the attributive form of the verb or adjec- tive, admits of a few exceptions in special locutions, besides those noticed above under ka, ni, to, etc. Thus an no mama (for aru mama), "just as it is," (" tel quel ") ; nashi ni [{oinaU ni), " without ; " and such idioms as furi mo sede or fun iva sede, "not raining;"' kuwashiku wa zonzezu, "[I] know not exactly," where the indefinite form precedes mo and wa. 89 INFLECTED WOEDS. CHAPTEE VII. THE AJDECTIVE. SEO. 1. PEIMAEY ADJECTIVE FOEMS. The inflections of Japanese adjectives do not, like the inflec- tions of English adjectives, serve to distinguish the degrees of comparison. Neither do they, as in French, indicate number or gender. As has been stated in the chapter on nouns, num- ber and gender are considerations to which the Japanese gram- matical system pays little or no heed. The object of the inflections of Japanese adjectives (and verbs) is primarily : to show whether the force of the adjective (or verb) is attributive or predicative, indefinite or conclusive ; and secondly : to mark distinctions of tense and mood. All adjectives contain the verb " to be " implicitly. Thus : — Umifukashi, " the sea [is] deep." In its simple state, a Japanese adjective has four forms, viz.: I. The Stem which is used only in compounds and occa- sionally in exclamations, as kata-gi, " hard-wood ; " hoso- nagaki, "narrow-long," i.e. slender ; yo-suguru, " to be too good." II. The Indefinite or Adverbial Form, which is obtained by adding hu to the stem. It is used in two distinct manners, viz. 1, To qualify a verb as; Haya](u hui-u, "To come quickly," 40 JAPANESE GBAMMAE. In this case it corresponds to the English adverb in ly. But the Japanese use this form even before such verbs as "to be," and " to become," where Enghsh idiom requires the corresponding adjective. Thus : — Betsu tio kuni tco mini ga r/otohu naru-beshi. " It must be like finding oneself in another country." 2. As itself a predicative verb in every clause of a sentence except the last. -Thus :■ — Yama tctkciku, kiko smnuku, jinlta suhimashi, " The mountains [of a certain country] are high, its climate is cold, and human dwellings few." In such cases each Japanese adjective in lai must be rendered by the corresponding English adjective preceded by some tense of the verb "to be." The essential characteristic of the indefinite form is that it is of no tense or mood. In order to know by what tense or mood to translate it into EngHsh, it is necessary to ascertain the tense or mood of the adjective or verb nearest after it which is not also in the same indefinite form. Sometimes this will be the last adjective or verb of the whole sentence, sometimes only the adjective or verb of the last of a set of similar clauses. Thus in the above example, takahi. and scmmku must be translated by the English present indicative, because the final adjective sukunaslii makes a general assertion, and may therefore be considered to be in the present tense. Again, take the example : — Toshi wakahu, karada mo sukoyaka narrha, i/H ni teli su-hcsld, " Being young and robust, he will do for the work." Here the intervention of the verb nureha in the conditional mood at the end of the succeeding clause shows that wakaku also must be construed as a conditional (=w/ikiiki'rfha). The construction is often a little more complicated. Thus : — Func aredumo Idto naku, hito am mo kikui nasld, "We have ships, but no men ; and even if we had the men, we have no machinery." Here the rhythm of the sentence shows that we must go to the end of ADJECTIVES. 41 the clause Mto am mo Tdhai nasU to find the adjective (verb) corresponding to nahu. The aru of the second clause has to be passed over. III. The Conclusive Form, which is obtained by adding M to the stem. It is used only as a predicatve at the end of a sentence, as in the case of sukunashi in the first example given in the preceding paragraph, or as in the following example : Omou ni cMko hi asciku, naiji no koto masa ni shinsaku kocho m-held mono sukunasJd to sezu, "On reflection it is seen that the interval since the restoration is short, and that not a little remains to be originated or reorganized in the internal administration." (In this example all three inflections of the adjective are seen, — asakii, beki, sukunashi. Note too that sukunashi is at the end of a sentence grammatically speaking, the words to sezu, lit. " do not consider that," being another short sentence serving to introduce the first after the manner of a quotation.) N.B. — Those adjectives whose stem ends in shi or ji do not add another shi to form the conclusive, the one shi being held to suffice. Thus : — mezurashiku, conclusive mezurashi, " strange " ; aru-majiku, conclusive aru-maji, " should not be." This exception is sometimes disregarded by ignorant writers ; and such ungrammatical forms as (ishishi (for ashi), " bad," are therefore occasionally met with. IV. The Attributive Foi-m, which is obtained by adding M to the stem. It is used in three distinct manners, viz. 1. To qualify a noun, as Yoroshiki ho, " A good method " ; Aru-majiki koto, " A thmg that ought not to be " (lit. " an ought-not-to-be thing.") 2. * When the adjective is followed by a postposi- tion, thus : Ho no yoroshiki ni yori (coUoq. shikata get yoroshii kara), " Owing to the excellence of the method." San-itsu naki * For exceptions see chapter VI. 42 JAPANESE aHAMMAB. WO yosu, "None must be allowed to get lost" (lit. "[the authorities] require the absence of losing"). Vn-im nasu- held ha to ton,, "He asked whether he should do so and so." It will be noticed that the attributive form of the adjective, when thus used, ceases to be an adjective according to European ideas, and corresponds rather to an English abstract substan- tive, or to an adjective preceded by the verb " to be." The abstract substantives in sa, so common in the colloquial, are almost always replaced in the written language by the attribu- tive adjective form, as s«.?»Mfci for samusa, "the cold." 8. At the end of a clause or sentence, when one of the precedmg words of the clause or sentence is an interrogative or the emphatic particle zo, thus : Ximji no tsumi yurusaru to iu to, oMte aijume to iu to, iziire lea yasulei? " Whether is it easier to say. Thy sins be forgiven thee ; or to say Else up and walk ? " This use is rarely met with in modern books, except in the semi-classical style. N.B. — Originally there was a fifth form, obtained by adding here (for hio are) to the stem. Thus hayahere, hehere. See under heading koso, page 23. The paradigm of the primary forms of adjectives is as follows ; — STEM. INDEFINITE CONCLUSIVE ATTRIBUTIVE FORM. FOKM. FORM. fJiaya Tiayaku liayashi hayaki "early" \ goto gotolcu gotoshi gotoki "like." The maiority j , , , i ,.• i ,. 1 " ... able." i J- *■ < 6e hem besTii hek% ' <, ^ tf of adjectives. ) ("must. I ma naliu nasM nati ? . °?°-"' ^■^i^,, ^ ( tent, IS not. Adieotives f ,. ,., ,. , ., . ,, , ,, •'. , \yorosm yoroshiKU yorosM yorosMla 'good. ends in s/ii ) .. ... .. .... ("unable." ovji. (""J^ "'"J^'"' "»J* ''»«3"'" i" must not." ADJECTIVES. 43 N.B. — There are in written Japanese no such forms as the colloquial hayed, yorosJdi, hayo, etc. Their equivalents are hayashi or hayald, yorosJd or yorosJuki, Jiayakw, etc., according to circumstances. SBC. 2. TENSE AND MOOD IN THE ADJECTIVE. Being of the nature of a verb, the Japanese adjective is inflected to indicate tense and mood. The conclusive and attributive forms explained above may be termed its present tense, while the indefinite form is of no tense in particular, serving as it does to suspend the meaning until the end of the sentence be reached. The memory will be assisted by noting that most of the tenses of the affirmative voice and all the tenses of the negative are formed by agglutinating the various inflections of the verb aru, " to be," to the indefinite form (Jiayahu), the vowel u of the latter being dropped, and the vowel a of the former being in some tenses changed into e ; further- more that beku, beki, beshi, the suffix forming the potential mood, is itself an adjective regularly conjugated through most of the tenses. SEC. 3. OOMPABISON OF ADJECTIVES. Comparison in Japanese is more often implicit than explicit. Thus, when referring to the relative height of Fusiyama and Asamayama, a Japanese will not say " Fusiyama is the higher," but simply " Fusiyama is high " (Fuji wa takasid,), viz., in comparison with the other momitain mentioned. Indeed even in English the so-called positive is often a comparative by implication ; for when we say, for instance, that " Such and such a person is old," we mean that he is older than most other people. Comparison may, however, be made explicit in Japanese by using the postposition yori, " than " (properly 44 o >> "b fH bfl ■9i_rSPSP3 g s a \^'^ 5 "C -« -= q' 1) s 3 S 3 p OJ ^^ c3 cd rf cfl rf "^ "^ 1.0 to rf cd c3 rt rf rt - ■ c3 cj __ -w i.y iu ^ hS J3 /= -a J3 ^^"^^3 j3 -= ^ ja ^ -* ^ ■ ? rf c3 C3 a : : : : : : 15 • : : H : : : 1 — I ID -, O ., O ii" j< ^ ^ ^ ^ i IVIXiiaiOd •aOIOA aAlLLYHHM^V •saAMoarav ^o KOKtvava 45 t-^ 0) f-, 13 as 1— r <1) ■3 O •S CD -4J 1 1 — P 3 —1 t-i c] 1 — 1 <0 rf o >^ a B 'ca I— I CO o 1 — 1 ^ s>> P ■+^ ^ 60" o .11 a 03 c tao o 3 ra .°° 3 S « S N S C8 ca cS 03 cS TO ^« K3 ™ I.U l» to n c3 OS TO 03 cS c8 k» >, >. >^i^ ^i^ Co c3 c3 ro c3 rf nl QQ ^^1 ?.& 0.5 a S'C "-C "-C E o -t^ o +^ o -t.' 3 3 p-( 3 f^ yoojn gai^voipuj 'Spoojn snBiiqo 'siiiivoipuj 'snbtiqQ •sjiaoa iviiNSiioa o i I •aoioA aAiivaaK 46 JAPANESE GRAMMAK. " from "). Thus : — Fuji ica Asama yori takasJii, or Asama yori (wa) Fuji wa takashi, lit. " as for Fuji, than Asama, it is high"; i.e. " Fusiyama is high as considered from the standpoint of Asamayama." Again : — Asama wa Fuji yoii (or Iwdo) tahakarazu, " as for Asama, it is not high as considered from the standpoint of Fuji," i.e. " Asama is less high than Fusiyama." If three or more mountains were spoken of, we should have what in English is termed the superlative, the Japanese idiom remaining the same. Here is another example : — Tenka no wazcnvai kore yon oi nam tea naslii, " There is no greater misfortune than this " (lit. " world's misfortunes, this than, great-being thing is-not "). When not simply implied, or expressed by yori, the comparative and superlative may be indicated by prefixing to the positive some such word as nao, " still more " ; itatte "extremely"; 6i ni, "greatly"; sukoburu, "very." The superlative is also sometimes indicated by suffixing the word sem-ban, " a thousand myriads ; " thus ; Kinodoku semban, "Inexpressibly sorry." Excess of a quality is, like the comparative and superlative, generally denoted by the adjective in its simple form. Thus, " This is too high " will be in Japanese simply " This is high " {Eore im takashi), viz., by implication, higher than it ought to be. The expression may be rendered more explicit by suffixing the verb suguru, to the adjective stem, as taka-sur/unt, Ht. " to go past in height." The word amari, " excessive ," may also be used, prefixed to the simple adjective, thus : Amari takashi, " Altogether too high ; " but this is rare. N.B. — Eemember that vast numbers of the words we are obhged to render in English by adjectives are in reality nouns, as explained on page H. 47 CHAPTEE VIII. THE VERB. SEC. 1. INTBODUCTOEY EEMAEKS. The fanctions of the Japanese verb differ in some important respects from those of the verbs of European languages. Distinctions of person and number are utterly foreign to it. On the other hand, many of the tenses have two forms, — an attributive and a conclusive, — while there is a general indefinite form which does duty for all the tenses.* The veeb and ADJECTIVE THUS CLOSELY EESEMBLE EACH OIHEE ; AND IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO tJNDEESTAND THE GEAMMAE OF THE VEBB, UNLESS THE CONSIDEEATIONS ADVANCED IN THE CHAPTER ON ADJECTIVES HAVE BEEN THOKOUGHLY MASTERED. To recapitulate briefly what has there been set forth : — I. The indefinite form stands at the end of each member of a set of clauses excepting the final member ; and the tense or mood by which it should be rendered can only be known when the verb or adjective of that final clause is reached. Thus : — Natsu kitari, Jwru yuku, " Summer comes and spring goes." Here the indefinite form kitan must be rendered by the present, because the final verb yukii is in the present. The indefinite form of verbs is likewise used to form compounds '■■ Many grammarians give the name of root to tbe indefinite form of the verb. As, however, the latter is but one of several inflections, theory and practice are ahke confused by such a misnomer. It is convenient to use the word " stem " to designate that part of the verb (or adjective) which sufEers no alteration, and to which all the terminations are suffixed. Sometimes this stem coincides with the real root, as sam, the stem of samuru, " to grow cool." More often it is a lengthened form, as samas, the stem of samasu, "to make cool," 48 JAPANESE ORAMMAB. (in adjectives it is the stem that performs this function), as Mtari-tou, "to come and ask." * n. The conclusive forms stand only at the end of a sentence, Thus : — Hito Idtareri, " The people have come." III. The attributive forms serve to quahfy nouns, herein resembling the participles of European languages. Thus : — Kitareru hito, lit, " the have-come people," i.e. "the people who have come." They are moreover themselves used sub- stantively, followed by postpositions, and also instead of the corresponding conclusive forms at the end of sentences when an interrogative word or the postposition zo precedes, thus : Hito no kitareru ivo mite, lit. " Seeing the having come of people," i.e. "seeing that people had come." li-lceru wa, " What he said [was] ". N.B. — Verbs, like adjectives, originally had other forms in e, as yuhe, homure, sure, used only after Jcoso. See hoso, p. 23. What obscures this threefold distinction and thereby per- plexes the beginner, is the fact that some of the tenses which are capable of being used both as conelusives and as attribu- tives have but one inflection to perform the two functions. Furthermore, the modern colloquial of Tokyo has dropped all distinctively conclusive forms, thereby introducing a second element of confusion for those who acquire the colloquial before commencing the study of the written language. The student acquainted with the colloquial should specially note that the written language has no such forms in the present tense of verbs of the second and third conjugations as *" Many nouns coincide with the indefinite form of verbs, as tanoshimi, "gladness" (tanoshimi, u, "to rejoice"); mi-harashi, "a view " {mi-harashi, u, " to view from a distance "). They are how- ever, so far as modern usage is concerned, true substantives, felt to be distinct words from the like sounding verbal indefinite forms. VEEBS. 49 homeru, ireru, or siigint. These are replaced, according to circumstances, by iru, I Conclusive ; ii-iini, ■ Attributive. When there are two Verbs derived from the same stem, such as iru, "to go in" and iriim (Colloquial iirni), " to put in," one belonging to the first conjugation, and the other to the second, the conclusive form of the present tense is therefore identical in both. Thus iru, at the end of a sen- tence, may signify either " goes in " or " puts in," according to circumstances. In the case of the attributive form there is no ambiguity, as it is iru, "goes in," in the first conjuga- tion, and iruru, "puts in," in the second. Note also from the above example of hitareru and from the examples given on pages 16 and 17, how the existence of the attributive form of verbs (and adjectives) supplies the absence of relative pronouns. The regular conjugations are four in number. SBC. 2. CONJUGATION OF VEBBS. All the inflections are added to the stem, which is itself invariable. Some of the inflections consist of a single vowel, whose original meaning is obscure, as ]iuTd, yuku, yuJce. But by far the greater number are obtained by agglutinating fragments of old auxiliary verbs, and in some few cases postpositions and adjectives, to the single vowel forms, thus ; yuh'M, yuMsM, yuhi-besJd, yukeba. It is for this reason that grammarians have given to the simple vowel forms and to one or two others the name of " Bases ". The paradigms of the verbal forms in common vreitten use are as follows. Note that mo may be omitted from the terminations of the yaripus concessive fprms, thus : yukcdo, for yiikedomo. 50 VEEBS. Form for all 'Present Perfect Indefinite Tenses . Conclusive Attributive ( Conclusive ( Attributive ionclusive Attributive G 1 T) i ( Conclusive oecond rust -^ . , , -v , ■ I Attributive El iu T> 1. ( Conclusive Fourth Past < . .^ ■, .■ ( Attributive FIRST REGULAR Yuku, " To go." (Stem Yiik.) First Past -I' f Co ■• jAt ) [I, you he, she, it, j we, you, they] gn. lyuki yuku yuku yiikeri H yukeru ) gone, or had gone. yukiki } [I, etc.] Avent, have yukishi | gone, oj- had gone. yukitari ) [I, etc.] went, have yukitaru j gone, or had gone. yukitariki ... ) [I, etc.] went, have m O o o p M O Future Present Conditional i Conclusive Attributive gone or liad gone. [I, etc.] went, have gone, or had gone away. [I, etc.] shall pro- bably go. ,(yukeba I as since or when r J [I, etc.] go. ^ j'ukitarishi yukinu yukinuru fyukan, yuki- 1 < nan, or j'uku J- (^ naran J Past Conditional. Present Hypothetical. Tyukaba '1 < yukinaba ... J-i ( yuku naraba.. J as, since, or when [I, etc.] went, have gone or had gone. Past Hypothetical Oi^ative Present Actual Concessive Present Hypothetical Con- cessive _Past Concessive . Imperative . Gerund ,.. J yukishikaba... 1 yukitareba y ukaba yukinaba ... [-if [I, etc.] go. yuku naraba.. 5 yukitaraba ...lif [I, etc.] had I yukishi naraba | gone. yukabaya oh that I could go ! f yukedonio ...) though [I, etc.] \ yuku to iedonio j do actually go. ( yuku mo ... ) ( yukite mo ... 'yukishikado- mo yukitaredomi) yukitari to ie- donio yukishi to iii- doniii .yukishi mo ... yuke even if [I, etc.] go. though [ I, went, have or liad gone. etc. ] gone. yulce go ! yukite I [by] having gone, ■^ ( [by] going. VEBBS. 51 CONJUGATION. Affirmative Voice. 'Indefinite Form, . ( Conclusive. Present "3 I I Attributive Past , f Conclusive. ■■ I Attributive 'Conditional Ilypotlietioal Actual Concessive ... Hypothetical Conces- sive yuku-beku '\ [I, etc.] will, shall, yuku-beshi ... ( would, should, may, ynku-beki ... T might, can, could, ) must, or ouglit to go. yuku-bekariki i ^t ^ i i 1 1 i yuku-bekari-U?''*°']'''°"''^''*°-' glii j have gone. ( yuku - bekere- 1 as, since, [I etc.] X ba ) should, etc., go, (yuku beku-)i£ [I, etc.] should,, \ (m)ba j etc., go. ( yuku-bekere - \ ) domo (though [I, etc.] \ yuku-beshi to T should, etc., go. ( iedomo ) j yuku-beku mo t«7" , j^ J I' «'°^ J I •' j should, etc., go. Indefinite Form yuki-taku Present i '-'°"'''"^'^'^' yu^-t^-shi ...Kr i resent | ^tti.ibut;i^,e yuki-taki ... ] L^^' etc.] want to go. Past ' Conditional . yuki-takariki 1 [I, etc.] wanted to jre- ) as, since, or when [I, ....j etc.] ( Conclusive. I Attributive yuki-takarishi ( yuki - takere- I ba f etc.] want to go. Hypothetical | ^ba'"*''™^"'^" } ' go^' '^"'^ '''°* ^° ( yuki - takere - \ Concessive ' ^°^° (though [I, etc.] want concessive lyuki-tashi to r to go. ( iedomo J Past f Conclusive ' I Attributive ynki-keri yuki-keru ! Conditional. Concessive . • jy« ki-kereba ) mo . 1 as, since, or ... > etc. ] we J gone, or hi :o-|« ■-- ■■■J i [I, etc.] went, have gone, or had gone, when [I, ent, have had gone. lOugh [I, etc.] went, have gone, or had gone. 62 VEEES. O Present .. ( Conclusive ... (Attributive... f Conclusive ... I Attributive... V Conclusive ... Future... -< I Attributive... Present Conditional (yukazu l [I, lyukazaru .... V w yukanu ^ I Past. Q H P Past Conditional. 02 Q O o c M o Present Hypothetical. Past Hypothetical Present Actual Concessive Present Hypothetical Con- FIRST REGULAR Yuhi, " To go." (Stem Tuk) you, he, she, it, , we, you, they] do J not go. , ., . 1 ri, etc.l did not go, yukazariki ... (Lj^^^^^ not gone, or yukazanshi...J i,^,i ^ot gone. ( yukazaran or ^ } ^"^^^' i [I, etc.l shall not go. 1 yukazaran or f '- ' -■ ° ( yukaji 3 f yukazareba ... I as, since, or vehen I yukaneba ... C [I, etc.] do not go. C yukazarishi - "^ as, since, or wlien ) kaba ( [I, etc.] did not go, J yukazarishi ni f have not gone, or (^ yotte 3 had not gone. yukazu(m)ba. if [I, etc.] do not go. if [I etc.] had not gone. f yukazaredomo 1 yukanedomo .. I though [I, etc.] do yukazu to iedo- [ not go. mo J ai yuKazui^m^oa. i Tyukazariseba..^ ■ -! y ukazarislii >- ( naraba J ^ yuka Past Concessive . azaru mo. ) even if [I, etc.] do not go. though [I, etc.] did not go, have not gone, or had not ffone. Imperative , (Jerund yukazarishika-'" domo yukazarishi to iedomo yukazarishi naredomo .... yukazarishi mo "yukazare yuku nakare... yuku-na j-go not, do not go ! yuku koto na- i kaie J i yukazu yukazu ni ... yukazu shite yukade , [by] not having gone, [by] not going. VEEBS, 53 CONJUGATION. Negative Voice. 'Indefinite Form O (■Conclusive Present < (Attribufve" yuku-bekarazu yulcti-bekara- zu yuku-bekara- zuru r Conclusive T yuku-bekara- Past ...-< J zariki ( Attributive j yuku-bekara- (^ zarishi .„ ,.^. , ( yiiku-bekara- rConditional f zareba „ ii i- 1 \ yuku-bekara- Hypothetical |%.u(m)ba ... (yuku-bekara- zaredomo ... yuku-bekara- zu to iedomo ( yuku-bekara- I zaru mo Hypothetical Conces- sive Present Past ( Conclusive. \ Attributive f Conclusive. -1 ( Attributive Indefinite Form yuku-majiku 'yuku-maji .... yulra-majiki... yuku-inajika - riki yuku-majika - rishi 'yuku-mtijike- reba yuku-.majiku- (m)ba yuku-raajike- redomo [I, etc.] will, shall, would, should, may, might, can, could, must, or ought not to, go. [I, etc.] should not, etc., have gone. I as or since I [etc.] I should not, etc., go. I if [I, etc.] should not, [ etc., go. ► though [I etc.] should not, etc., go. even if [I, etc.] I should, etc., not go. f Conditional ... § I ^-i Hlypothetioal S L Concessive ... Past , ( Conclusive ' I Attributive ' yukazari-keri yukazari-keru en (/; p.- S: bn It c c d. „ ,. . , I yukazari ■ "Conditional V reba ... ke- _ Concessive yukazari - ke- I redomo 3f^ [I, etc.] did not go, have not gone, or had not gone. as, since, or when [I, etc.] did not go, have not gone, or had not gone. though [l, etc.] did not go, have not gone, or had not gone, 54 VEBBS, SECOND REGULAR To iiriiise." (Stem horn). a O O o M R Ilomiirii, Indefinite Form for all K ^^^^ Tenses \ ! Conclusive ? hoinu .. Attributive \ homuru (Conclusive (lioineki ) [ I, etc, _ I Attributive ( houieslii ) have or had praised. ( Conclusive ( Attributive \ Conclusive j hoiiietariki ... ) [ I, etc. ] praised, I Attributive ( honietarishi... j have or had praised. (Conclusive (homenu |[ I, etc. ] praised, I Attributive I homennru ... | have or had praised. r n 1 • f hoiiien, home- ) pt ^ ^ in •r, , ( Conclusive ) ' , [ \1, etc.l shall pro- Future ■! jii-u i- •; nan, or liomu- > LI j . f ■" bably praise. Present., First Past... ■ Second Past ■ Third Past.. - Fourth Past - . ) [I, you, he, she, it, we, . ) you, they] praise. ) [ I, etc. ] praised, y have or had praised. ( hometari | [ I, etc.] praised, 1 1 honietaru ... f have or had praised. ( Attributi Present Conditional homureba "{ nan, or liomu- ru naran Past Conditional ) homeshikaba.. ' 1 hometareba... jas, l [I, ihomeba . homenaba homuru n; ba rhometar Past Hypothetical \ homesi " I ba Optative homebaya homuredomo Present Actual Concessive < since, or when etc.] praise. as, since, or when [ I, etc. ] praised, have or had praised. Present Hypothetical >if [I, etc.] praise. iraba... ) .„ li nara- >- i r [I. praised. Pi'esent Hypothetical Con- cessive etc. ] had oh that I could praise ! do though [I, etc.] actually praise. even if [ I, etc. J praise. homu to iedo mo " homuru mo... homete mo ... 'homeshikado- mo hometaredorao .Past Concessive { horaetari to ie- J- I domn I houioslii to ie- I (lomn Lhomeshi mo... J Imperalive homeyo praise! Gerund .., homete | [by] having praised, ( [by] praising. though [ I, etc. ] praised, have prais- ed, or had praised. VEEES. 55 CONJUGATION. Affirmative Voice. "Indefinite Form. 8 ■{ Present Conclusive Attributive homu-beku liomu-besiii... liomu-beki p , 1 Conclusive '■^''^^■" I Attributive ■ Conditional Hypothetical Actual Concessive .., Hypothetical Con- . oessivo L homu-bekariki bomu - beka - rishi 5 homu-bekere - I ba ( homu - beku - I (m)ba {homu - beke - redomo homu - beshi to iedomo .. ( homu - beku I mo [I, etc.] will, shall, would, should, may, might, can, could, must, or ought to praise. [I, etc.] should, etc., ( have praised. ) as, or since [I, etc.] ) should, etc., praise. ) if [I, etc.] should, j etc., praise. I though [■ I, etc. ] should, etc., praise. 1 even if [ I, etc. ] 3 should, etc., praise. PI « M 02 p Indefinite Form home-taku Conclusive home-tashi Attributive ( Conclusive Present - ...HI, ... ) praise. L or when want to etc. ] want to home-taki ... J home-takariki 1 n- , , ^ j j. -I Attributive home - takari - i ^ ?*«•] ^^"^^^^ ^° ^ Shi J praise. j home - takere- i ba ( home taku- ) if [I, etc.] want to \ (m)ba J praise. {home - takere- 'J domo hhough [I, etc.] want home-tashi to (" to praise, iedomo ) Past. ' Conditional Hypothetical ") as, since, -\ [I, etc.] ■ J praise. o > Hi H < Past ( Conclusive ■■ (Attributive home-keri home-keru [ I, etc. J praised, have praised, or had praised. as, since, 'or when [I, etc.] praised, have or had praised. S I hnmp keredo ) tho"gh [ I, etc. ] O Concessive \ 'ifJ^e-keredo- ( .^^^^ j^^^^ ^^ j^_^^j I. / "'° ) praised. Conditional < home-kereba , . 56 VERBS, R o o ^< EH O tH ft !2; r Conclusive Present ...| Attributive Past f Conclusive I Attributive ( Conclusive Future < I Attributive Present Conditional Past Conditional Present Hypothetical ... Past Hypothetical Present Actual Concessive Present Hypothetical Concessive ( honiezaru ( homenu .... homezariki . homezarishi. SECOND REGULAR Homuni, " To praise.'' (Stem Horn). homezu ") [I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they] do not praise. [I, etc.] did not praise, have not praised, or had not praised, honiezaru or J homeji ([I, etc.] shall not homezaran or C praise. homeji } f homezareba... ) as, since, or when I homeneba ,., j [I, etc.] do not praise. ! homezarishi - 1 as, since, or wlien kaba ( [I, etc.] did not praise, homezarishi ni Thave not praised, or yotte 3 had not praised. ' if [I, etc.] do not praise. , J — -' J , homezu(m)ba ■] 'homezariseba homezarishi Past Concessive . ''^f"'""' f praised, naraba J ^ homezaredo - mo homenedomo.. homezu to ie- domo honiezaru mo.. if [I, etc.] had not though [I, etc.] not Draise. homezarishika domo homezarishi to do even if [I, etc.] do not praise. ] I I ■i though ri, etc.] did . J not praise, have not ledomo V _,...^ , ' u.j _.* Imperil tive . frerund praised, or had not praised. praise not, praise. do not homezarishi na- redomo _ homezarishi mo, homezare ] homuru nakare liomuru-na ... homuru koto nakare J f homezu ni;;;:: 1 t^j] nothavlngprais- 1 homezu shite., f ?'^' ^^y^ "°* F'"^" [homede J '°S' VEEBS. 57 CONJUGATION. Negative Voice. 'Indefinite Form r Conclusive Present < I Attributive liomu-bekara- zu honiu-bekara- zarn shall, .Past, rConclu O r— ( ■< liomu-bekarazu [I, etc.] will, would, should, may, might, can, could, must, or ought not to, praise. homu-bekara- '\ zariki ( [I, etc.] should not, (Attributive homu-bekara- f etc., have praised. zarishi 3 homu-bekara - 1 as or since, [I, etc.] zareba j should not, etc., praise. homu-bekara- 7 if [I, etc.] should not, zu(m)ba ... | etc., praise. homu-bekara - ^ zaredomo ... ( though [I,etc.] should homu-bekara - C not, etc., praise. zutoiedomo. 3 1, I, 1 ) even if homu-bekara- I , ,, J- should, zarumo f • ' J praise. 'Conditional Hypothetical Actual Concessive Hypothetical Conces- sive [ I, etc. ] etc., not m n* ^ .5^ P^ « u « h TS f^ ►^ ^ "1 fH m 1— 1 W &( n f^ o Indefinite Form Present I Conclusive rresent | Attributive Past r Conclusive (_ Attributive Conditional Hypothetical .Concessive ... g i Past C Conclusive \ Attributive homu-majiku homu-maji ... homu-majiki.. homu-majika- riki homu-majika- rishi homu-majike - reba homu-majiku- (m)ba homu-majike - redomo homezari-keri ' homezari - ke- P o ^ Conditional . Concessive [I, etc.] did not praise, have not praised, or ru J had not praised. ias, since, or when, [ I, etc. ] did not praise, have not or had not praised. homezari -ke-l*''°"S^ P, fo.] did , > not praise, nave not j or had not praised, 58 VEEBS. O o ;> &^ O M P Indefinite Tensea Present . First Past... Second Past Third Past Form for all {Conclusive Attributive ( Conclusive ( Attributi-'e i Conclusive Attributive ( Conclusive \ Attributive ' Conclusive ^^"'■'hP^^ti Attributive ( Conclusive ' \ Attributive Future . sugi sugu suguru sugiki sugislii .. sugitari . . sugitaru .. sugitariki sugitarishi suginu suginuru .. sugin, sugi nan, or sugu- ru naran. r sugin, sugi - j < nan, or sugu- > (_ ru naran J THIRD REGULAR Suguru, "To pass." [I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they] pass. [I, etc.] passed, have or had passed. [I, etc.] passed, have or had passed. [I, etc.] passed, have or had passed. [I, etc.] passed, have or had passed away. [I, etc.] shall pro- bably pass. 'Present Conditional ■] sugureba M W o Past Conditional sugishikaba sugitareba Present Hypothetical Past Hypothetical Optative Present Actual Concessive Present Hypothetical Con- cessive J or ] i Past Concessive . as since, or when [I, etc.] pass. since, or when etc.] pass, have had passed. sugiba 1 suginaba >if [I, etc.] pass. suguru naraba J sugitaraba ... | if [I, etc.] had pass- sugishi naraba I ed. sugibay a oh that I could pass ! suguredonio..-)^j^^^^g^^ [I, etc.] do actually pass. sugu to iedo- mo suguru mo ... sugi te mo sugishikado- mo sugitaredomo, sugitari to ie- domo sugishi to ie domo sugishi mo .. -even if [I, etc.] pass. though [I, etc.] pass- ed, have or had passed. Imperative sugiyo. Gemnd , , sugite . 1 [by] having passed, [by] passing. VERBS. 59 CONJUGATION. (Stem Sug.) Affirmative Voice. 'Indefinite t'orm sugu-beku o H o Ph r Conclusive Present ■! (Attributive Past, ( Conclusive ' ( Attributive sugu-beshi sugu-beki sugu-bekariki "j sugu - bekari - v sla 3 [I, etc.] will, shall, would, should, may, might, can, could, must, or ought to -Conditional | sugu - bekere- 1 Hypothetical { ^'Jg^ba'!'^ " } C sugu - bekere- "J Actual Concessive ... J domo I j sugu-beslii to | (^ iedomo Hypothetical Con- f ^^ j l cessive ( ^ ) [I, etc.] should, etc. have passed. as. Of since [I, etc.] should, etc., pass. if [I, etc.] should, etc., pass. though [ I, etc. ] should, etc., pass. even if [ I, etc. ] should, etc., pass. «3 O ft M p 'Indefinite Form sugi-taku p , ( Conclusive sugi-tashi =1 -HI, e Attributive sugi-taki J pass. p ,, f Conclusive sugi-tariki ... ) ^^ ■■■ I Attributive sugi-tarishi ... } etc. ] want to [1, etc.] wanted to smce, or when etc.] want to r • i. -1 i as, sii Conditional ] T .".'!.: [ P' ' Hypothetical } 'bf *.'.'^.'!?.-I: } ' pa£. ^^'^ "^""^ *° Concessive ' sugi-takeredo- '\ I mo (though [I, etc.] want I sugi - tashi to [ to pass, iedomo ) LO ( Conclusive p , 1 vjuui-iuo.Yo sugi-keri ) [I, etc.] passed, have (Attributive sugi-keru ) or had passed. since, or when , etc. ] passed, have or had passed. 1 Tmie-i keredo ) though [I, etc.] pass- ( Concessive V mo ' ^d, have or had pass- r Conditional sugi-kereba ^ as, s ■\ [I, J hav •) ed. CO VEEBS, THIRD REGULAR ft o o <1 O M P Present.. Past. Future . r Conclusive ■ 1 Attributive f Conclusive ■ I Attributive f Conclusive Suguru " To pass.' sugizu 1 [I, you, he, she, it, ; sugizaru \ we, you, they] I siiginu J not pass. ... 1 n, etc.] did not pass, sugizanki - Ph'ave not or had not sugizansUi . P O O p c P m o t Attributive Present Conditional Past Conditional Present Hypothetical. Past Hypothetical Present Actual Concessive sugizaran sugiji , sugizaran or sugiji {sugizareba ... ) sugineba j ( sugizarisliika- ) ) ba ............ [ J sugizarishi ni C ' yotte 3 sugizu(m)ba V rsugizariseba \ ■ X sugizarishi na- V (^ raba J f sugizaredomo '^ suginedomo... sugizu to iedo- Present Hypothetical Con- cessive lUO . suaizaru mo do [I, etc.] shall not pass. as, since, or when [I, etc.] do not pass. as, since, or when [ I, etc. ] did not, have not, or had not passed. if [I, etc.] do not pass. if [I, etc.] had not passed. though [I, etc.] do not pass. 1 even if [I, etc.] do ) qxlt pass. 'sugizarisliika- ] domo I sugizarishi to | though [I, etc.] did Past Concessive ■{ iedomo J- not, have not, or had sugizarishi na- not passed, redomo _ sugizarishi mo _ ' sugizare '^ suyuru nakare ] Imperative \ suguru-na ... J- pass not, do not pass ! I suguru koto I [ nakare J ( sugizu "J Gerund \ ^"§''^" °' i ^^^'^ °°* having pass- J sugizu shite... C ed, [by] not passing. (sugide .., J ^•EEBS, 01 CONJUGATION. (Stem Sug). Negative Voice. f o ^1 o W o Indefinite Form. f Conclusive , Present ■< g -j (Attributive C Conclusive LPast ...-^ (_ Attributive Conditional sugu-bekarazu sugu - bekara- zu sugu - bekara- Bugu - bekara- zariki sugu - bekara- zarishi I sugu - bekara- zareba Hypothetical Actual Concessive . Hypothetical Conces- sive "Indefinite Form....^.. T, , ( Conclusive P'-«s'^°t I Attributive LPast ... r Conclusive (^ Attributive 'Conditional... Hypothetical ^Concessive ... o > (H EH <1 Hi i'ii > li T, , 5 Conclusive ^°'^^- I Attributive Conditional . Concessive ', sugu - bekara- [ zu(m)ba ... sugu - bekara- zaredomo.... I sugu - bekara- zu to iedomo I sugu - bekara- i zarumo sugu-majiku.. sugu-maji .... sugu-majiki .. sugu - majika- riki sugu - majika- rishi f sugu - majike- [ ■ reba isugu-majiku- (m) ba [ sugu - majike- [ redomo sugizari-keri sugizari-keru I sngizari-kere- I ba [I, etc.] will, shall, would, should, may, - might, can, could, must, or ought not to, pass. ( [I, etc.] should not, f etc., have passed. I as, or since [I, etc.] > should not, etc., J pass. ■)if [I, etc.] should j not, etc., pass. ) though [ I, etc. ] V should not, etc., I pass. ) even if [ I, etc. ] I should, etc., notpass. 1 . . m bo bS) S S .'d ^ CO g g. o 1 [I, etc.] did not pass, J. have not or had not j as, since, or when [I, etc.] did notpass, ^ have not or had not I sugizari-kere- I domo though [I, etc.] did ► not pass, have not or had not passed. 62 VERBS, FOURTH REGULAR Ifrrii, "To see." O O E-i -^ O Q Indefinite Tenses.. Present .. First Past., Form for all all I ( Conclusive ■ \ Attributive f Conclusive " I Attributive o J -n i ( Conclusive Second Past I ^jj^j^^^i^.^ Third Past I ^.T^T" I Attributive ■c ii -D 1. f Conclusive Fourth Past < a ix -i i- ( Attributive T, , t Conclusive f .^^'^"'■^ {Attributive I mi iniru iiiiru miki .... mishi .... mitari .... mitaru .... mitariki . iiiitarisbi . mitsu .... mitsuru . min or i naran :"} [I, you, he, she, it, j'ou, they] see. [I, etc.] saw, have seen, or had seen. [I, etc.] saw, have seen, or bad seen. [I, etc.] saw, have seen, or had seen. [I, etc.] saw, have seen, or had seen. [I, etc.] sliall pro- bably see. 'Present Conditional Past Conditional 02 P o o si M m o Present Hypothetical. Past Hypothetical Optative Present Actual Concessive Present Hypothetical Con- cessive Past Concessive . mireba J misbikaba ... 1 initareba fmiba < minaba (miru naraba... ( mitaraba I mishi naraba.. mibaya 'miredomo ... miru to iedo- mo miru mo mite mo ' misbikadomo mitaredomo... mitari to iedo- mo mishi to iedo- as, since, or when [I, etc.] see. as, since, or when [I, etc.] saw, have seen or had seen. if [I, etc.] see. ■ if [I, etc.] had seen. oh that I could see ! though [I, etc.] do actually see. > even if [I, etc.] see. I though [I, etc.] saw, ► have seen, or had nio mishi mo. Imperative niiyo Gerund mite I [by] having seen. [by] seeing. TOBBS. C8 CONJUGATION. ' (Stem Mi.) AffiriiKitive Voic 'Inrleftnite Form P5 O 01 O t> H E-i < P M CO O Hi Present I. Past ;2 -! f Conclusive ( Attributive r Conclusive (Attributive 'Conditional Hypothetical Actual Concessive ... Hypothetical Con- cessive 'Indefinite Form Present j^°°':l"7'' I Attributive p. qt- i Conclusive '" \ Attributive Conditional o Hypothetical Concessive ... Past ( Conclusive " I Attributive ' Conditional Q f Concessive ■e. mi(ru)-beku "I [I, etc.] will, shall, mi(ru)-beshi | would, should, may, i- might, can, could, mi(ru)-beki.,. | must, or ought to, J see. mi(ru)- beka- J riki ([I, etc] should, etc., mi(ru) - beka- C have seen. rishi J nii(ru) - beke- ) as, or since [I, etc] reba | should, etc., see. mi(ru)-beku- 1 if [I, etc.] should, (ra)ba 3 etc., see. rmi(ru) -beke-") ) redomo or (though [ I, etc. ] j mi(ru) - besbi f should, etc., see. ( to iedomo ... J I mi(ru) - beku 1 even if [ I, etc ] I too ) should, etc., see. mi-taku mi-tashi Jrr ii j.4. mi-taki I [I, etc.] want to see. mi-tariki ) [I, etc] wanted to mi-tarishi ... ) see. • . 1 1 ) as, since, or when rai-takereba... }- r\ in 1.4. 3 [I, etc.] %vanttosee. • , 1 / s, j if fl, etc! want to mi-taku(m)ba f '- -' fmi-takeredo - \ ) mo ( though [I, etc.] want J mi-tashi to ie- C to see, [ domo 3 mi-keri 1 [I, etc.] saw, have mi-keru 3 seen, or had seen. 1 as, since, or when mi-kercba ... > [I, etc.] saw, have J seen, or had seen. ^ though [I, etc.] saw, mi-keredomo > have seen, or had J seen. 04 VERBS. Q O O Q I— ( fi |Z5 'Present Past. r Conclusive ■■■ 1 Attributive < {Conclusive Attributive FOURTH REGULAR Miru, "To see.'' niizu ■) [I, you, he, she, it, mizaru > we. you, tlieyl do ininu [Future . r Conclusive ( Atti'ibutive miznriki . mizarisbi mizaran miji .... mizaran miji .... we, you, tbey] not see. [I, etc.] did not see, have not seen, or had not seen. P O o M Hi o Present Conditional Past Conditional Present Hypothetical.. Past Hypotlietioal Present Actual Conces sive Present Hypothetical Con- cessive Past Concessive . Imperative , ( mizareba ' I mineba I mizarisbikaba . < mizarisbi ni I yotte , mizu(m)ba... fmizariseba ... , -? mizarisbi na- (^ naraba Tmizaredomo .. -J minedomo ... . ] mizu to iedo- ( mo ■j mizaru mo ... pmiz.irishika- donio I niiz;irishi to iedomo mizarisbi na- redomo iiiizarislii mo luizaiu miru nakare .. ■{ niiru-na miru koto na- L kare - [I, etc] shall not see. I as, since, or when j [I, etc.] do not see. ) as, since or when f [I, etc.] did not see, [ have not seen, or ) had not seen, if [I, etc.] do not see. I if [I, etc.] had not (though [I, etc.] do C not see. i even if [I, etc.] do \ not see. 1 though [I, etc.] did ! not see, have not seen, or bad not seen. ■ see not, do not see ! Gerund Tmizu J 3 mizu ni ( [by] not having seen, ■ "j mizu shite ... f [by] not seeing, ("li^'^-' •■ J VERBS. 65 CONJUGATION. (Stem Mi.) Negative Voice. 'Indefinite Form mi(ru)-bekarazu o M EH |Zi EH O Ph ( Conclusive Present < (_ Attributive C Conclusive LPast ...^ (_ Attributive mi(ru)*beka razarishi ... Conditional mi(ru)-beka- razareba Hypothetical mi(ru)-beka- razu(m)ba... |'mi(ru)-beka- I razaredomo . -j mi(ru) - beka- razu to iedo mo mi(ru) - beka- razaru mo ... [I, etc.] will, shall, would, should, may, - might, can, could, must, or ought not to, see. mi(ru)-beka- 'J razariki ( [I, etc.] should not, etc., have seen. mi(ru)-beka- razu mi(ru)-beka- razaru ( as, or since, [I, etc.] Actual Concessive . Con- should not, etc., see. if [ I, etc. ] should not etc., see. though should [I, not, etc. ] etc., r Hypothetical cessive "Indefinite Form mi(ru)-majiku^ T, , ( Conclusive mi(ru)-maji ■'^''''^®"' j Attributive I Conclusive Past ...\ ( Attributive even if [ I, etc. J should, etc., not see. mi(ru)-majiki mi(ru) - maji- kariki mi(ru) - maji- karislii Conditional mi (ru) - maji- kereba ;f'.| Hypothetical mi(ru)-maji- S I ku(m)ba ... '^ LConcessive mi(ru) - maji- keredomo ... ' •- ' ( Conclusive mizari-keri •r; bo g -) Past ... -j Attributive -keru.. "^ J ^^ M > 1J H Si-{ <^ h-l fO l-H o Conditional mizari-kereba Concessive I mizar I dome [I, etc.] did not see, have not seen, or had not seen. as, since, or when [I, etc.] did not see, have not seen, or had not seen. i kere ) ^'^''^^^^ ^^' ®'°-J ^'^ y not see, have not J or had not seen. 66 JAPANESE GRAMMAE. SEO, 3. EEMAEKS ON THE PABADIGMS. I. The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, conjugations include verbs of any number of syllables, as korosu, "to kill," 1st conjugation; aratamuru, "to rectify," 2nd conjugation; Jwroburu, "to perish," 3rd conjugation. The 4th conjugation consists of the following ten dissyllabic verbs only : — hiru, " to dry in the sun." hiru, " to winnow." hiru, " to sneeze." iru, " to shoot with a bow and arrow." iru, " to fuse or cast metal." iru, " to dwell." kiru, " to wear," " to put on," " to have on." miru, " to look," " to see." nirii, " to resemble." niru, " to boil." N.B. — Kaerimiru, " to look back," " to consider," follows mine from which it is compounded. Eokoroniuru (colloquial hohoromiru), " to test," though also derived from ndru, follows the 3rd conjugation. II. Japanese verbs have no infinitive properly so-called. The present tense and such expressions as yuhu Tcoto, "the act of going"; ynkishi koto, "the act of having gone," supply its absence. III. The use of the indefinite forms is explained on page 47. Li the negative voice the germid supplies the absence of an indefinite form. IV. The fundamental distinction between the indicative and the oblique moods is that each tense of. the indicative contains a conclusive form which is used to terminate sentences, and an attributive form which is used like an VERBS. 67 adjective prefixed to nouns (see page 48), whereas no oblique mood can end a sentence, or be prefixed to a noun. In fact the obhque moods are verbs pure and simple, ■whereas the tenses of the indicative mood are of the nature of participles. The gerund, like the oblique moods, is verbal only ; and the name of past participle applied to it by some grammarians is a misnomer. V. The Japanese use the present tense more commonly than we do. Not only do they employ it for general asser- tions, but they frequently denote by it past events, unless the fact of such events being past is the most noteworthy thing about them. Future events are also sometimes indicated by the present tense, if there is no doubt as to the certainty of their occurrence. VI. The first past is the original and true past tense,''' expressing, as it does, past tinie and nothing more. The other pasts, when analysed, are fomid to be compounds formed by means of auxiliary verbs, a trace of whose proper significa- tion still survives. Thus yukitaii is for yuUte ari, lit. " is having gone."+ Yukitariki is the same as yukitari, with the sign of the first past tense added. Both these are generally best rendered by the English perfect, but sometimes by the present, thus : Chichi ni nitari, " He is like his father."— ** Ignorant writers are a'pt to use the attributive for the conclusive form of this tense, e.g. yuhishi at the end of a sentence, where correct grammar requires yukiki. f Do not confound it with the colloquial frequentative forms in tari, such as ittari Mtari ; or with tari, taru, tareba, etc., contrac- tions of to ari, to aru, to areba, etc., suffixed to nouns. The most literal rendering of these latter forms is the verb "to be "; but they are often best omitted from an English translation. Thus : Oikai taran mono, " Those who may constitute {lit. be) the assembly," i.e. " The members in the f ature." Chichi chichi tarazu to iu to mo, ko motfe ko tarammba aru-beharam, " Even if a father does not act ia a fatherly manner, his child must not fail to act ia k> filial manner." 68 JAPANESE GEAMMAK. Inu and inuru, the terminations of the fourth past, are them- selves the present of an old verb signifying "to go away." The use of the fourth past therefore indicates that the action of the verb is completely finished and done with. Thus sugi- nurii, means "it has passed away." The only verbs of the fourth conjiigation which possess the fourth past are Iciru, "to wear"; nirit, "to boil"; and niru, "to resemble." Some verbs form the fourth past by means of the termina- tions nu, nuru ; others by means of tsu, tsuru, as will be seen by reference to the paradigms. A few verbs take either set of terminations indifferently, thus : Iwmenuru or honietswu, " [I] have praised. — Do not confound nu, the conclusive termination of the fourth past, with mi, the attributive termination of the negative present. The one being con- clusive and the other attributive, they can never occupy the same place in the sentence. In the first conjugation the two are further distinguished by the preceding vowel, which is i in the fourth past and a in the negative, thus : yukinu, " went away "; yukanu, " do not go." The perfect, which exists only in verbs of the first conjugation and in the irregular verb suru, "to do," replaces the past, and some- times the present, when the action mentioned is a specific one. VII. The so-called future indicates, not so much futurity, as uncertainty, and may therefore be used in speaking even of present or past events if they are doubtful, thus : Ju-hak- ku-nen mae no koto naran, " It must have been some eighteen or nineteen years ago. VIII. The conditional and hypothetical, which are con- founded together in the modern colloquial dialect of Tokyo, are sharply distinguished in the written language. Thus the conditional phrase Karada sukoyaka nareba, yo ni teki su-heslii means " As he ia robust, be will dp for the work "; whereas VEEBS. 69 the hypothetical Karacla sukoyaka naraha, yd ni teki su-beshi means "If he is robust, he will do for the work." The hypothetical mood is sometimes emphasized by the use of the word moshi, " if percliance," placed at the begimimg of the clause. The conditional followed by ncai means "it is because." Thus: Awaremi am mono loa saiwai nari: sono Into wa awaremi wo u-heltereha nari, " Blessed are the merciful : for (Jit. it is because) they shall obtain mercy." IX. The concessive mood is sometimes emphasized by the use of the word tatoi, " even though," at the beginning of the clause. Occasionally the concessive words to iedoma are used in the sense of " even if," " even in," thus : Bummeikohu to iedomo, imada sono gai wo tiianitkaruru atawazu, " Even in civilized countries, [people] cannot escape its ravages." X. The potential and prohibitive forms commonly replace the future and the imperative. Thus : yuku-beshi, " I will go," rather than yukan; yuku-bekarazu, or yuku-maji, "you must not go," rather than yukazare, " go not." XI. The desiderative forms are used in two slightly different ways.- Thus, while yuhi-taku means " I want to go," on ide nasaretaku means " I want you to go." When suffixed to an honorific verb, the termination taku always refers to the writer, while the verb itself refers to the person addressed. When suffixed to a humble verb, the entire compound refers to the writer. In other cases a glance at the context generally shows whether taku should be referred to the subject or to the object. Thus : Qo rairin kore aritaku machi-tatematsuri-sdro, "I am waiting respectfully, wishing for your august approach," i.e. " I hope you will come." See also Chapter IX, Section 6. XII. The illative tenses have been so designated because their distinctive termination keri was originally the perfect of 70 JAPANESE GEAMMAB. the irregular verb Icuru, " to come." Such a word as mi-keri therefore literally signifies "I have come having seen" {je viens de voir), and corresponds exactly to the colloquial mite Umashita. The forms in keri may practically be con- sidered to be equivalents of the first past, past conditional, and past concessive respectively. XIII. Besides the more usual verbal forms given in the paradigms, there may sometimes be met with : Archaic verbal forms in aJm, which are used to introduce quotations. Thus : iivaku " [he] says " (sometimes better rendered by " namely ") ; ierahu, " [he] said," both from iu, " to say "; omoeraltu, " [I] thought," from omou, " to think." Ahit indicates the present, erahu the past. Potential forms such as arinu-besTd, okarinu-besJii derived from a fourth past, which is not itself in use. They do not differ in meaning from the ordinary potentials aru-beshi, "must be " ; okarii-besJd, "must be numerous," etc. Futures formed by adding rmi to the attributive present, as aruran, " shall be " ; miruran " shall see." A sort of periphrastic future denoting intention or being on the point of performing an action, formed by sufSxing the ■words to sum, to the future proper. Thus : yukan to swu, "to make to go," "to be on the point of going," "to be about to go"; sen to sum, "to be about to do." Suru, thus used, may be inflected through most of its tenses, as yukan to seshi, " was about to do," yukan to shite, " being about to do," etc. Occasionally this periphrastic future is corrupted into one word, and is then easily mistaken for a negative, thus : yukcinzu or yu,kazu (for yukan to suru). Still more corrupt forms pf the same are yukozu and yukozuru. They occur only in the semi-colloquial style. Forms indicating simultaneity, by means of tsutsu suffixed lEEEGULAR VEEBS. 71 to the indefinite form, as yuMtsutsu, " while going '" ; mitsutsu, " while looking." Frequentatives in mi, thus : naJdmi waraimi, " Now crying, now laughing." Forms in taran derived from the second past, and nearly corresponding to the English future past, thus : yukitarm, " will probably have gone." Such compound expressions as yukan naredomo, for yuku mo, the hypothetical concessive. Such negative potential expressions as yuhazaru-beshi, for yuku-bekarazu. Yukazaru-beshi leans more to the sense of " may not go " than to the other senses of the potential. Such expressions as yukaziimba aru-bekarazu, " camiot but go," " must go," used to convey the sense of necessity. SEO. 4. lEREGULAE VEEBS. I. Apparent irregularities are caused in large numbers of verbs by the inability of the Japanese to pronounce certain consonants before certain vowels, and by the euphonic changes resulting from this inability. Thus from the stem tat, " to stand," we have tatsu, tacJii, instead of tatu, tati. For a list of these important euphonic changes, see page 6. II. Such verbs of the 2nd conjugation as kotayuru, "to answer "; otoroyuru, " to decay," mostly contract this at- tributive present into kotdru, otordrw, and the conclusive present into koto, otoru. in. Verbs of the 1st conjugation whose stem ends in x, such as iiokosu, " to leave "; tsuMwasu, " to send," are some- times conjugated in certain tenses as if they were com- pounds of the irregular verb suru, " to do." Thus we come across such forms as nokosesld for nokoshisJd. IV. Colloquial contractions, such as atte for mite, " being " ; 72 JAPANESE GEAMMAE. kaute or hote, the Kyoto colloquial corruption oihaite, "buy- ing," etc., are sometimes met with. V. The verbs afo«, " to be satiated "; Uru, "to borrow"; shimu, " to penetrate "; and torw, " to suf&ce," belong in the written language to the 1st conjugation, — not, as in the Tokyo colloquial, to the 3rd, {aUru, htriru, sJdmiru, and tariru). Thus: SUnzumni tarazu, (not tarizu), "It is not worthy of credence." VI. The only genuinely irregular verbs in modern written use are the following : Aru, "to be," conclusive present mi (identical with the indefinite form), instead of aru. No perfect tense. Otherwise conjugated regularly according to 1st conjugation from stem ar. Eeru, to kick, conclusive and attributive present both keru (instead of ku and kuj-u respectively). Iniiections in u replaced by inflections in e, thus : conditional kereba, conces- sive kei-edomo, potential ke-leku, negative imperative keru nahare. Otherwise conjugated regularly according to 2nd conjugation with the single letter k as its stem. Kuril, "to come," conjugated according to 8rd conjugation from stem k, except in the following tenses. Affirmative voice : attributive form of first past kisJd or koshi ; conclusive forms of first and second past not in use ; future kon ; past conditional kisMkaha or kosliikaba ; present hypothetical A-o6« ; optative fcoinyn ; past concessive Mshikadomo or kislnkadomo ; imperative koyo. Irregularities of negative voice : all the tenses down to first form of imperative have o instead of i, thus kozu, kozaru, konu, etc. ; fourth imperative iorra ku-na; illative forms also have o for i, as ko:ari-ker>, etc. Kiiru is frequently supplanted by kitiini, properly the second past of kuru, but used as an independent verb of the 1st conjugation, lEEEOULAE VERBS. 7S and inflected regularly through all the moods and tenses, thus : Utareri, UtariM, Jdtaritari, etc., etc. Nam, "to be," indefinite form and gerund nite; present conclusive nari (instead of naru). No perfect tense. Other- wise conjugated regularly according to 1st conjugation from stem imr. Do not confound the irregular verb miru, " to be," with naru, " to become," which latter is a regular verb of the 1st conjugation. They are easily distingushed, as naru " to be !' is never preceded by one or other of the post- positions ni and to, whereas naru, " to become," is always so preceded, thus : Hanjo nam tofu, " a prosperous town "; more lit. " a pros- pers town," i.e. " a town which prospers." (This is the attributive form of naru, " to be.'') Hanjo ni naru tofu, " a town which is becoming prosper- ous." (Attributive form oimiru, " to become.") Tofu hanjo nari, " the town is prosperous." (Conclusive form of nuvu, " to be.") Tofu hanjCi ni nam, "the town is becoming prosperous." (Conclusive form oinam, " to become.") iS/iikaru, " to be thus." Being a contraction of sJiika aru, it is conjugated like am. The like-sounding shiknm, "to scold," is a regular verb of the 1st conjugation. Shiniiru, " to die," present attributive shinum (for shinu). Otherwise conjugated regularly according to 1st conjugation from stem shin'. It is not much used, the Chinese equivalent shi xufu being preferred. Sard, see Chapter X. Sitru, "to do," conjugated according to the 3rd conjugation, except in the following tenses : Affirmative : conclusive perfect seii ; attributive perfect seru : conclusive first past seshi ; future sen ; past conditional seshihaha or shitareha ; present 74 ' JAPANESE GEAMMAB. hypothetical sei« or senaba; optative sebaya ; past concessive sesJiikcidomo, seshi to iedomo, etc. ; imperative seyo. Negative : all the tenses down to first form of imperative have e instead of i, thus sezu, sezaru, senu, etc. ; fom-th imperative su-iui ; illative forms also have e for ?', as sezaii-heri, etc. — In many compomids suru is niyori'ed (see page 3), that is to say that s is changed into z, and sh into j throughout the whole conjugation, thus: ronzuru, "to discuss"; indefinite roiiji ; conclusive present ronzu ; perfect ronzeri and ronzeru, etc. — Do not confound the irregular verb swu, " to do," with suru, " to rub," which is a regular verb of the 1st conjugation. Uru, " to get " (colloquial em). Its sole irregularity is that it has (in appearance at least) no stem, the real stem being the single letter y, which has vanished. It consists of the mere terminations of the paradigm of the 2nd conjugation given on pages 54 to 57, thus : indefinite form e ; present tense u and uru, etc. It must not be confounded with uru, " to sell," which is a regular verb of the first conjugation. Urydru, " to grieve," indefinite form itree oi urn; attribu- tive present urydru ; conclusive present uryo ; potential tenses uryd-beku, etc. Otherwise it is conjugated regularly as a verb of the 2nd conjugation from the stem urc. SBC. 5. PASSIVE AND POTENTIAL \TERBS. The Japanese language has no special conjugation for the passive voice. All so-called passive verbs belong to the second active conjugation, and are inflected according to the paradigm given on pages 54 to 57. They are derived from the corresponding active verbs according to the following rule : — In verbs of the 1st conjugation add arum, in the 2nd conjugation emruru, in the Srd intruru, and in the 4th rururu, to the stem, Thus in the 1st conjugation ; PASSIVE VEKBS, Active. Passive. kiru, "to cut" ; Uraruru, 76 " to be (more lit., to get) cut." tiuitsu, "to wait"; mataruru,* " to get waited for." icarau, " to laugB "; luaraiearuru, " to get laughed at." In the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th conjugations : Jiomuru, " to praise "; Jiomerarwu, " to get praised." uramuru, " to hate "; urainirarifm, " to get hated." mirn, " to see "; viiraruru, "to get seen." (The corresponding colloquial forms are Urareru, matareru, li'cirawareni, etc.). The following passives (or potentials) in common use are formed irregularly : koraruru, from kuru, " to come." seraruru, (or sciniru) ,, suru, " to do." sliinaruru, ,, sldnuru, " to die." Though formed irregularly from their stems, they are con- jugated regularly, like all other passives and potentials, as verbs of the 2nd conjugation. A glance at the origin of the Japanese passive will furnish the student with a key to all the difficulties connected with it. Properly speaking, the so-called passive is not a passive at all, but simply an active in disguise. Such a form as utaruru, for instance, was originally iiclii ari uru, as literally as possible " to get being beating," i. e. "to get a beating," or "to get beaten." Hence its place in the 2nd active conjugation along with the verb wk, "to get"; and hence the fact that intransitive verbs can have passive forms, as : Oite ho ni shitia- ruru ijori kanasJdki uri nasJd, "There is nothing sadder than to have one's child die when one is old." (The Japanese idiom * For such eupbonio changes as the ornission of the s ia matararu, and the insertion of the w in waraviaruru, see page 7. 76 JAPANESE GEAMMAE. seems at first sight to be " to be died by one's child.") Hence too the frequent use of the postposition uv with these so- called passive verbs. Thus : Shin-Futsu jiken ni tmnashii u-o idmwarete, " Their whole attention being absorbed by the Franco-Chinese comphcation," more literally "Having got their whole spirit absorbed, etc." In this and all similar contexts where passive verbs are used, what is the subject of the true English passive is the object of the Japanese quasi-passive. The sentence may, or may not, have another subject expressed. Generally, as here, it has not, few Japanese sentences of any sort having subjects properly so- called. (See Syntax, sect. 6 and also page 31). The word " by " in English passive phrases is expressed in Japanese by ni, thus : Inu ni ashi wo hui-tsukaruru, "To be bitten in the leg by a dog,'' more literally, " To get one's leg bitten by a dog." To the origin of the passive verb m an active form can likewise be traced the alternative use of the passive as a potential. Take for instance miraruru, lit. " to get a seeing." This form is naturally susceptible of two shades of meaning, which are : either I " to get a seeing from someone else," i.e. "to get seen"; or H "to get a seemg oneself," i.e. "to be able to see." Similarly with seraruru, the passive of the irregular verb sMi-M, "to do." Signifying originally " to get a doing," it may mean either " to have something done to one," or "to be able to do." From its use as a potential the use of the passive as an honorific is but a step, it being naturally considered more polite to intimate that an exalted personage is able to perform a certain action, than bluntly to assert that he does it himself. This honorific use is the commonest use of the forms under consideration. Thus ; Warja seifu «•« kanarazu SIdna seifu ni INTRANSITIVE VEEES. 77 tsuite Tiore wo yoTtyu serarum (for suru) ni soi nasJii, " There is not the slightest doubt but that our government will demand this of the Chinese government." Alternative methods of expressing potentiality are by prefixing the indefinite form, or suffixing the various in- flected forms of mj-m, "to get," used in the sense of "to be able." Thus: e iwazu, or ii-ezu, "I cannot say." Some- times uru is used quite independently, as : Eanzezaru ivo ezu, "We cannot but feel astonished" (lit. "We do not get not wondermg ") ; ...yamu koto wo en ya, "Can one help...?" The Verb atoM, "to be able," is suffixed to the attributive present of other verbs to express potentiality, (or, in its negative voice, impossibility) as yicku atawazu, " cannot go." The verb hanuru, " to be unable," is suffixed to the indefinite form to express impossibility, as : yuU-kanuru, " cannot go." SEO. 6. ON OEETAIN INTRANSITIVE VEEBS. There is a large class of verbs which it is generally con- venient to translate by English passive or potential idioms, but which are properly intransitive in Japanese, and must be carefully distinguished from passives or potentials. Even in English, we feel a difference between two such assertions as " The gold is melting in the furnace," and " The gold is being melted in the furnace." In the first case, the action is repre- sented as a spontaneous one ; in the second case, it is exphcitly the work of some outer agent. The verb of the former corresponds to the Japanese tokuric, to melt, (intransitive) ; that of the latter to tok'n'uru (passive " to get melted," derived from the transitive toku, " to melt.") Simi» larly the intransitives wdyuru, "to be visible," and obiyuru," " to start with fright," correspond very nearly, but not quite, to the passive-potentials miraruni, "to get seen" 78 JAPANESE GEAMMAE. or "to be able to see," and obiijahasaruru, "to get frightened (by some one.") Such intransitives are never used honorifically. SEO. 7. ON TBANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE PAIRS OF VERBS. In English the same word commonly does duty both as a transitive and as an intransitive verb. Thus "to melt," "to burn," " to stand," may be either transitive or intransi- tive according to the context. In Japanese the two meanings are expressed by different verbs derived from the same root, thus: Intransitive. hiru f4th conj.), " to dry " (intrans.). narabu (1st conj.), " to be in a row." ohiyuru (2nd conj.), " to be frightened." oruru (8rd conj.), " to descend." sadawaru (1st conj.), " to be fixed." sazukaru (1st conj.), " to receive." tatsu (1st conj.i " to stand " (intrans.). ur/ohu (1st conj.), •' to move " (intrans.). y'akuru (2nd conj,), " to burn " (intrans.). Transitive. hosu (1st conj.), " to dry " (trans.). narahuru (2nd conj.) " to put in a row." obiyakasu (1st conj.), " to frighten." orom (1st conj.), " to lower." sadamuru (2nd conj.) " to fix." sazukuni (2nd conj.), "togive." tatsuru (2nd conj.), " to set up." wjokasu (1st conj.), " to move " (trans.). yaku (1st conj.), " to burn " (trans.). The derivation of these pairs of verbs from the same root follows no fixed rule ; but the stem of the transitive frequently ends iu ,v. Many Japanese intransitive verbs must be trans- lated by English reflective verbs, &s asobu, "to amuse one- seli" ; ji«atmswio, " to kill oneself " ; manzoku sum, "to con- tent oneself." The Japanese language has no reflective verbs. CAUSATIVE VEEBS. 79 SEC. 8. CAUSATIVE VEEBS. Causative verbs are derived from transitive or intransitive verbs according to the following rule : — In verbs of the 1st conj. add ashimuru, in the 2nd conj. eshimuru, in the 3rd ishiinuru, and in the 4th seshimuru to the stem, thus : "to cause) to make,' tsukurashimuru, . . niotomeshimuru, . , from tsukuru, ... " to make." tsuMshimuru, Tdseshimuru, ' to cause \ to seek," j 'to cause] to come to I an end," J f"to cause) I to wear,"] — M^sShcTS:" C(colloq. tsukiru) tsukuru, .A "to come to an i end." kiru, " to wear." AU causatives are conjugated according to the paradigm of the 2nd conjugation, and are, like other verbs, susceptible of the passive inflections, as tnotomeslmneraruru, " to be caus- ed to seek." There is an alternative way of forming the causative, of which the following are examples : tsukurasuru, motomesasurii, tsukisasicru, Msasiiru. These alternative forms are chiefly used in the passive, not as causatives proper, but as honorific substitutes for the simple intransitive or transitive verbs from which they are derived, e.g. araseraruru for aru, "to be"; tazunesaserarwu for tazunuru, " to enquire," etc. The causatives of kiiru, shinuru, and suru are kosashimuru (or hosasuni), sliinasliimuru (or shinasuru), and seaJiimuru (or sasuru) respectively. Causative verbs are formed from adjectives by adding arashimuru to the stem, as hay akar ashimuru, " to cause to be early," from hayaki, " early." Causatives are formed from negative verbs and adjectives 80 JAPANESE GEAMMAB. by adding arashimuru to the letter z in the termination of the present tense, as motomezarasJuinwru, " to cause not to seek," from niotomezu, "[I] seek not"; hayaharazarasMmuru, " to cause not to be early," from Jiayaharazu, " not early." Such forms obtained from negatives as motomezarasliimuru, "to cause not to seek," must be distinguished from the negative of the causative, as motomesMmezu, " not to cause to In causative constructions the name of the person who is made to perform the action is marked by the postposition wo shite (very rarely 7ii sliite or ivo) ; and the name of the person or thing the action is performed upon is marked by wo. Thus : Hei ivo shite hydhehi wo MzuJcashimu, " He made the soldiers build a parapet." The passive converse of this would be : Kyoheld wa hei no tame ni Jdzuhashimerani. But such passive-causative constructions are scarcely ever used. In general the Japanese are less scrupulous than we are in distinguishing the causative from the ordinary active idiom. Even in English, however, we often say that, for instance, we are building a house, when what we really mean is that we are having one built. Notice too that the causative verbs include many shades of meaning. Thus tsukurashimuru must be rendered sometimes by " to cause to make," sometimes by " to allow to make," or " to let make." The fundamental idea of the causative is that, while the action is actually performed by one person, the question as to whether it shall be performed at all is in some way or other decided by another person. Some- times the causation is merely hypothetical, not real, thus : Himitsu-joyahu no Jcoto hatasliite shin narashimebii, lit. " If finally we cause to be true the existence of a secret treaty," i.e. " If we decide to believe in the existence of a secret treaty." OBNAMENTAL VERES. 81 Ima yori san-ju nen zen ni arashimweba, lit. " If one caused it to be thirty years before now," i.e. "Supposing it had happened thirty years ago." Such transitive verbs as ohiyakasu, " to frighten " ; tatsiirii, "to set up," etc., mentioned in Sec. 7, must not be con- founded with the corresponding and almost synonymous causatives obiesJiimuru, " to cause to take fright "; tatashi- muru, " to cause to stand up," etc. The transitives do not take the postposition ivo shite, and are never used honorifically. SEC. 9. COMPOUND VERBS. Many complex assertions are made by means of compound verbs, which correspond either to the prepositional verbs of European languages, or to whole phrases, thus : mi-trjsu, "to look through,"... more lit. V'^° put through (by) ' ° ' I seeing. t.Jci-t6s.,... "to thrust through," „ „ | '' ^'J.P^ttiS"^'' ^'''^ tsiiJci-horosii, " to thrust to death," „ „ -j . „ ^ •'^ M-saru, ... " to fly away," „ „ {"'^'JfP^^' ^^^^ ^^- As seen by these examples, the first verb is put in the indefinite form, and generally stands in an adverbial relation to the second, which alone is inflected. Very rarely the two are otherwise related, as Imi-inodosu, " to buy and give back," i.e. " to return (a thing) after buying it"; yuM-hwnt, " to go and come back." Some compound verbs consist of more than two members, as tohi-agari-saru, "to fly away in an upward direction "; inoshi-age-tatematsuri-sord, " I have the honour to state." SEC. 10. ORNAMENTAL VERBS. Many verbs are used ornamentally, that is to say without 82 JAPANESE GEAMMAE. regard to their proper signification, and as mere embellish- ments of style. Thus iwhi-emu, ai-sumu, and mahari-tjuku mean no more than the simple verbs emu, " to smile "; simm, " to come to a conclusion "; and yuku, " to go," the prefixes being meaningless in modern usage. Similarly when an ornamental verb is suffixed, as in itasld-oru, or itashi-soro, for itasu, "to do"; imshi-age-mairase-sdro, for niosu, ["I have the honour] to say"; shirase-niosii, ioi shirasuru, "to inform." The verb tammi, properly " to give to an inferior," imparts an honorific tinge to the preceding verb, thus : mesaserare- tamau, hr mesu, " to summon," used when speaking of the Mikado. [Mesasi'inre is the indefinite form of the potential of. the causative of mesu, used honorifically.) The verb tntemaUuru, properly " to give to a superior," is used as a respectful suffix, especially in letters, thus : gasJii-tatenuttsuri- sord, " I beg to offer my humble congratulations." Nari (the conclusive present oiiuuu, " to be ") is the most usual ornamental verb, it being considered elegant to sub- stitute for the conclusive forms of verbs and adjectives a periphrasis consisting of the corresponding attributive forms followed by nari, e. g. : aru nan, hehifiiztiyu nari, mi.slii nari, 7iam nari, sorU nari, sum nari, tatsu imri, tatsuru. nari, yold ii/iri, for J>cl;ara~n. miki. nam. Sard. su. tatm. (1st conj.l tatm (2nd conj. yoslii. Thus : Banxei chUsIiin no kagarni to iu-heki miri, " They may bo termed a mirror of loyalty for all ages." {Bcki nari is much more elegant than the plain conclusive Leshi would be.) SDESTANTIVE VERES. 03 SEC. 11. THE VARIOUS SUBSTANTIVE VERBS. The following is a list of the Japanese verbs in modem vpritten use corresponding to the English " to be ": — .Jnt signifies "to be" when it forms part of an adjective, as meeurasJdkariJd, " was strange "; mezurasJdkeredomo, "though it is strange." The adjective proper and the verb aru are occasionally written separately, thus : wezurasJdhu ariki, mezurashiku aredomo. In almost all other cases aru cor- responds to "there is," "there are," "there were," etc., thus: Ni-shii ari, "There are two kinds"; — an assertion to be scrupulously distinguished h'om Xi-shu nari, " They are two (i.e. different) kinds." Similarly urazu (generally, how- ever, replaced by the negative adjective «fls/ii) signifies " there is not," while ««»■««» signifies " (it) is not." Araseraruru, the potential-causative form of aru, is used honorifically both for aru, and for yuku, " to go," when the actions of exalted personages are mentioned. Goza SOTO, the same as soro, but more honorific. Iru, " to dwell," " to live," " to be " (in the sense of living); hence only used when speaking of living creatures, especially human beings. It may often be omitted when trans- lating. Thus : Yokohama ni iru ijaikoku-jin, " the foreigners [dwelling] in Yokohama." Naru is the usual equivalent of the copula. " to be," thus : Jaku no nihil, va kyo no shoku nun, " The flesh of the weak is food for the strong." It is used to turn nouns into adjectives (p. 12), and also very frequently as an "ornamental verb " (p. 82). Occasionally the circumlocution ni aru or nite aru is used instead of naru. Thus : Toki imada ogon no toki ni arazu (for nara^u), " It is not yet the golden age." In such cases ni is not properly the postposition ni, but an old indefi- nite form oinaru, " to be," now almost disused. Nite is the 84 JAPANESE GEAMMAE. , I gerund oinaru, "to be." In some cases naru stands for nl (the postposition " in ") and am, and must tlien be rendered by "in" or "at." Thus: Osaka 'rmru (for ni am) Dai Ju-sJdchi Eokiiritsu Ginku, " the Seventeenth National Bank [which is] at Osaka." Nakit, nashi, naki (sometimes called the "negative adjec- tive '") " there is not," " there was not," etc., thus : Soi nashi, " there is no doubt." Orii, same as int.. Soro (see Chapter X), when used alone, is equivalent to both n?7cand naru. More frequently it is an ornamental suf&x to other verbs and to adjectives. Smi'm, properly " to do," sometimes means "to be," as in Oto sum, " There is a noise." ho-behc shite, okonait-hekamzu, lit. "Being that one may talk, and that one may not do," i.e. " It may be talked of, but it cannot be done." Yiikazii shite, for yukazu, " [being] not going." Often, as in the last of these instances, it is most convenient to look on it as on expletive. Xihonjin ni shite, " Being a Japanese." Most fre- quently suru simply serves to verbalize nouns, as ai sum, ... " to love "; from fli, ... "love." shisuru,... " to die "; ,, shi,... "death." kaika suru, " to be civilized "; ,, kaika, "civilization." The resulting verb, as seen by these instances, is sometimes active, sometimes neuter, sometimes passive, usage alone deciding in each case which it shall be. To obtain an equi- valent for the active verb "to civilize," we must use the causative form kaihi scshiinum. — Sum sometimes means "to be about to," as ; Sen to suru, " 1 am about to do." Some* times it means " to consider," as : Kin-yd nan to suru, " To consider important." VERBS USED EXCEPTIONALLY. 85 SEC. 12. VERBS USED AS OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH. Some few verbs (mostly in the gerundial form) are used as postpositions. Thus: [ni] oite, "in" [oite stands for oUte, gerund of ote, " to place"); [too] motte, "by means of" (motte stands for mochite, gerund oimotsu, "to hold.") Others correspond to English adverbs, adverbial phrases, or con- junctions, thus : hajimete, "for the first time"; j " und of hajimuru, to beein." . , n >, ( fi-erund of motomuru. motomete, "on purpose' ; |6 n (.^ ggg]j_.> ' ""■•g^^^ly"; {^''"ToVesi" nohorazu, "without exception," all;-? ^'to remain" '''""' sareha, "that being so," '' then - { <=°°'Jti°°^l^^ °f, ^«™' ffrom 80, "thus," and so shite, " having done so," "and";-< sAite, gerund of sui'm, { " to do."<> shibaraku shite, "after a little while," "shortly." shikarazu shite, " on the contrary." The attributive form of the present tense is sometimes doubled and used adverbially. Thus: kaesu-gaesu, "over and over again," from kaesu, "to turn over"; miru-miru," " before one's very eyes," from miru, " to see." The attributive forms of verbs and adjectives, foUovsred or not by koto, often correspond to English abstract nouns, or to English infinitives or present participles. Thus : shimpo suru, or shimpo suru koto, " progress " " to progress," " maldng pro- gress "; naki koto, or in the past tense nakariski koto, "absence." Shimpo suru mono would mean "a thing (or person) that progresses "; naki mono, " an absent thing " ** So shite is used only to connect verbs, not nouns. Nouns are connected by to, or simply placed beside each other without any word signifying " and," 86 JAPANESE GKAMBIAB. (or person). For though both hoto and mono are most liter- ally rendered by the English word "thing," Tcoto always refers to abstract things, facts, affairs, matters, etc., while mono generally refers to actual tangible objects, and even to persons. CHAPTEE IX. SYNTAX. 1. — The fundamental rule of Japanese construction is that qualifying words precede the words they qualify. Thus the adjective or genitive precedes the noun which it defines, the adverb precedes the verb, and explanatory clauses precede the principal clause. The object likewise precedes the verb. The verb (or predicative adjective) of each clause is placed at the end of that clause, the chief verb (or predicative adjective) rounding off the entire sentence. N.B. — By an exception, which is merely apparent, post- positions follow, instead of preceding, the words which they define. Similarly, the interrogative particles follow the words whose sense they modify, 2. — Most sentences are snbjectless, the verb expressing rather a coming to be uitli irfeivncc to some person, than an act explicitly declared to be performed bi/ him. Should there be a subject, it is generally placed at the head of the sentence. More frequently the word which it is wished to lay stress on is isolated by wa and heads the sentence. 3.— The predicative verb or adjective of the final clause of a sentence is put in the conclusive form (subject to a few excep- tions caused by the presence of interrogative words and of certain postpositions "), while the predicative verbs or <• Seo pages 24, 34, 42 und 48. ~ ~~ SYNTAX. 87 adjectives of all the preceding clauses meant to express the same tense or mood as the verb of the final clause are put in the indefinite form. Similarly in the case of a set of clauses having an attributive, conditional, hypothetical, or gerundial signification, it is only the verb of the last clause of the set that appears in the attributive, conditional, hypothetical, or gerundial form, all the preceding verbs being put in the indefinite form. The following examples will serve to illustrate rules 1, 2, and 3 (see also pages 17 and 40). Tori naU sato no Icoinori, " The bat of a village without birds." Ahiyd no moiio iru-hehirazu, lit. "Persons of no business may not enter," i.e. "No admittance except on business." {Mono is the subject, defined by m«j/o, which accordingly precedes.) FiitatdU Tiore wo jiseba, fuka ncmi-besld tote, tsiii ni sono met ni sJdtagau, " He ended by obeying the command, thinking that it would be improper for him to refuse again." (No sub- ject). As here shown, the clauses forming a Japanese sentence must often be translated in inverse order, English construction generally preferring to place the chief statement first, and the explanatory phrases after it. The above is literally " Twice this if- [ I ] refuse, improper will-be thinking-that, [he] at last that command obeys." [Sldtagcm, historic present, instead of j)a,st sJdtar/aiM, "obeyed.") Keiivu-o hofjeU shi, FuhusM woarasln, Tansui wo seme, NeiJia wo osoi, Tonldii no salad wo hoete, Kosei ni seme-iri, jvu munin no (hi u-o yuku (ja (jotoshi, " Having^ bombarded Keelung, ravaged Foochow, invested Tamsui, attacked Ningpo, and crossed the frontiers of Tonquin, [the French] pressed forward into Kwangsi, and seemed to march in every direction through 88 JAPANESE GEAMMAE. an uninhabited territory " (i.e. through one which might as we''! have been uninhabited for all the resistance the natives offered). Here the indefinite verbal forms of the first four clauses, viz. shi, arasM, seme, and osoi, have the meaning of gerunds, because the fifth verb Icoete is a gerund ; the indefinite verb seme-iri has the meaning of a present indicative (histori- cal present used for the past), because the final adjective gotosJii is in the ordinary conclusive form. Joto wa ichi-en, kato wa go-jis-sen tmri, " The first class is a dollar, and the second fifty cents," lit. " As for the first class, [it] is a dollar ; as for the second, fifty cents." Seito wa cjali^islii to shite mai/jetsu Jdn sldchi-en ivo osameshimu, " The pupils are to pay seven doUars a month as school-fees," lit. "As for the pupils, [the authorities] cause [them] to pay every month seven dollars money as school-fees." After what has been said on page 30, the student will of course not fall into the clumsy error of taking the postposi- tion iva in ' the two preceding examples for a sign of the nominative case. The difficulty of finding a subject may frequently be eluded by substituting an English passive for the Japanese active construction, as the version can then be vague without ceasing to be grammatical. For example : Siide ni fukoltu seshi tori, " As has already been notified." (The Japanese verb, though active, does not state by whom.) At other times the translator must invent a subject appropriate to the context, such as "it," "they," "the persons in charge," "the government," etc. Note also such constructions as the following, which cannot be parsed at all according to European rules : — Hito iw Jcolcoro no shiri-gatald, hatachi vo motte sadamui'u koto hanau-beharuzy, lit, " The difficulty of knowing the hearts of men, — settling SYNTAX. 89 [it] by means of faces will not suit," i.e. " The difficulty of Imowing the hearts of men cannot be solved by an appeal to their faces." Or the following, taken from the notice-board of a steamer : Go shoji no shina banji go yojin arasmrire-tahu soro, " Passen- gers are requested to be very careful of their effects," lit. " Articles of august possession, everything are wanting to be able to cause to be august care." Here the verb aru belongs to yojin, "care"; the causative-potential termination aserare, honorifically used, indicates respect towards the passengers, who however are not explicitly mentioned ; talai refers to the managers of the steamship company also not mentioned, and son is a merely ornamental suffix. Comprehension of such constructions, which are common in the epistolary style, will be facilitated by noting that, in the case of an honorific verb with the desiderative termination toJrti, the verb itself always refers to the honoured person, and the termination to the writer. Thus : On icle lnulasare-taku soro means lit. "[I] am wishing [you will] condescend august coming," i. e. " I hope you will come." Soro in such con- texts is often omitted for brevity's sake. Another common construction violating European rules is that in which a quotation is both prefaced and rounded off by some verb meaning " to say," thus : Iwalui : " " to iu ni, i. e. He said: " " was what lie said, and thereupon To make sense in English, we must sup- press either the first " said," or the second. 4. — As in the case of verbs only the final verb of the sen- tence is put in the conclusive form, so also in the case of nouns, it is only the last of a set of nouns that takes the post- position common to the whole set. Thus : Tsiiki, yuld, hana no nayaim, " The sight of the moon, the snow, and the blossoms," 90 JAPANESE GEAMMAE. 5. — Negatives destroy each other, as in English, thus : Kimyd to iioazaru-hekarazu, " [We] cannot but call it strange," " It must be allowed to be strange."' Onore nofusohu wo shi- razumha aru-heharazu, " [One] must not fail to know one's own deficiencies." 6. — Japanese has no negative pronouns or adverbs, like the English words "none," " neither," " never." Their absence is supplied by the negative forms of the verb, combined with positive pronouns and adverbs. Thus, for the English "I know nothing," a Japanese will write 'Xnni mo sliirazu, "I know-not everything," more lit. (so far as the grammatical expression is concerned), "I ignore everything." The following examples will show how the various kinds of English negative or quasi-negative assertions are expressed in Japanese : — Kitiiru koto imahi, or Hito-tahi mo Mtanizu, " He never comes." The first form means literally " Coming thing is not "; the second is " Even once comes not." K'ltnru toki mo ari, or Kituriikoto mo ari, " He sometimes comes "; more literally " There are also times when [he] comes," " There is also such a thing as [his] coming." Kititrnzaru toki mo ari, or Eitarazaru koto mo an, " He sometimes does not come,'' i.e. " He does not always come." Muttaku shiirnu, "I do not know at all," lit. "Quite know not." Kuwaskiku uri ^hiraztt, " I do not quite know," lit. " As for minutely, [I] know not." Shim hito naxld, " No one knows," lit. " There is not a knowing person." Shim hito su]ama>.lii, " Few know," lit. " Knowing people are few." Shiniznm hito mo uri, " Every one does not Imow," lit, " There are also people who know not." SYNTAX. 91 The difficulty of using negative constructions correctly will disappear, if it is borne in mind that in Japanese the negative and the verb are not conceived of as two separate ideas, as is mostly the case in English, but as a single idea. Even in English, however, there are plenty of parallels to this Japan- ese idiom. Thus, "incapable" for "not capable"; "to dislike," for "not to like"; "difficult," for "not easy." If, for instance, instead of rendering mattaJai sJdrazu by " I do not know at all," we render it by " I am entirely unaware," the Japanese construction ceases to appear abnormal. Occasionally a negative is limited by suffixing im or sld mo [shi is a meaningless expletive), thus : Eanunizu Tdtaram, " He certainly will not come "; but Eanarani. sld mo hitarazu, " He is not certain to come." 7. — Interrogation is marked, not as in English by an inver- sion of the construction, but by the use of interrogative particles (see Tui, page 23, and ya, page 32). The conclusive form of the verb is, in interrogative sentences, changed to the attribu- tive form (see pages 42 and 48). Li a rhetorical question, where a negative reply is expected, the word ani is placed at the beginning of the sentence, and ya at the end, thus : Ani hakanmya, " Would anyone suppose so?" (i.e. "Of course no one would have supposed so."), 8. — The scanty use of subjects with the verb, and the absence of persons in the verb, are made good to some extent by an abundant use of humble and honorific expressions, thus : gufu, "my father," lit. " the stupid father." settakii, "my house," ,, " the awkward house." heisJia, "our firm," ,, " the broken-down firm." (JO sompu, " your father," ,, " the august venerable father." on taku, " your house," ,, " the honourable house." kisha, "your firm," ,, " the exalted firm." These and other honorific expressions, though naturally 02 JAPANESE GRAMMAR. mostly used with reference to the person addressed, may also refer to others, — i.e. they may represent, not only what we should call the second person, but the third. Humble terms are only applied to the third person, when he is in some way connected with the writer. In many cases different words are chosen, according as low- class persons (e.g. myself) or high-class persons (e.g. you) are spoken of. Thus, while yuku is the plain verb meaning "to go," it is polite to use the respectful synonym mairu, or some such circumlocution as scmhan tsiikamatsuru (lit. "to go respectfully to the abode"), when writing of oneself ; onide nasant (lit. "to be able to do an august outing"), when writing of the person addressed ; araseraruru (lit. " to be able to cause to be "), when referring to the Mikado. The honorific use of passive and causative verbs is particularly frequent. See p. 76 and 79. Occasionally it would at first sight appear as if the writer were applymg honorifics to himself, e.g. in such a phrase as Go slmsen tsulcanmtsuru-heku son, lit. " I will respectfully give ■ you august assistance," i.e. " I will have the honour to assist you." The idea is that the assistance itself becomes honour- able because you deign to accept it, and therefore cast a sort of reflected glory on your humble servant's efforts. 9. — In Japanese all quotation, whether of one's own thoughts or of the words of others, is direct. The manifold changes of person and tense which are entailed in English by the use of indirect quotation are consequently unknoivn. A Japanese does not say, " They promised that they would come." He says, "They promised that ''We will come'"' C {Ware-ral Tdtamn to chihaislii mm), thus repeating the actual words used by the speakers quoted. Quotation ia toarkedby suffixing the postposition to, "that," or tote, and SYNTAX. 93 occasionally by prefixing some such expression as oinoerahu, " I thought "; ii-keru wa, " as for what he said, [it was] ..." 10. — Verbs are sometimes omitted at the end of a sentence, especially in the higher Chinese style. They must be sup- plied from the context, thus : Tobtm no ucM kyugyo [su] " Closed for the present." Kasliiho ni itaru Tcoto sukai liutt'i] , lit. " My going there [was] several times," i.e. " Several times did I go there." RencJioku wo 7iwtte seika wo en to tsutomuru ni ya \aru\ ? " [Is it] perchance that they are endeavouring to obtain a reputation for moderate charges ?" After the word Kowi, "only," the final verb nari is generally thus omitted, as : Nani no nasu-heki yd naku, tansoku sum nomi [nari] , " It cannot be helped, and all I can do is to sigh," more Ht. " There is not any way that one may do, [and it is] only sighing." 11.— Passive constructions are very rarely used. They -are almost always replaced by the subjectless active construc- tions explained on pp. 88 and 31. The grammar of the passive is peculiar. See p. 75. 12.— Inanimate objects are rarely, if ever, personified. It is hardly permissible even to use the name of an inanimate object as the subject of an active verb. Thus a Japanese will not say or write, " The rain delayed me "; but "I have become late on account of the rain," Ame no ixime ni chikoku sen. J 13. — Languages differ greatly in the degree of integration of their sentences. Thus, Chinese and Pidjin English simply put assertions side by side, like stones without cement, as " He bad man^ My no likee he." Our more synthetic Eng- lish would generally subordinate one of such a couple of assertions to the other, as " I don't like him, because he is & 94 JAPANESE GBAMMAK. bad man." Now one of the most essential cliaracteristics of the Japanese language is the extreme degree to which it pushes the synthetic tendency in the structure of sentences. Except when modified by Chinese or other foreign influence, Japanese always tries to incorporate the whole of a state- ment, however complex it may be, and however numerous its parts, within the limits of a single sentence, whose mem- bers are all grammatically interpendent. In fact the normal Japanese sentence is a paragraph, or (so to say) an organism, as much more complicated than the typical English sentence just quoted, as the English sentence is more complicated than the Chinese or the Pidjin English. For this reason it is difficult to translate literally into English, so as to show what is meant. The following must suffice as an extremely simple example. It is from a story,* the hero of which per- suades his wife to kill their infant child, in order to have more ample means of supporting his own aged mother, — an act of filial piety which heaven rewards by the gift of a golden pot. In ordinary English, the passage would run thus : Said he : " What think you of burying our child alive, in order to have ampler means of making my mother's existence comfortable ?'■ His wife, being as filially minded as himself, raised no objections. So they carried out this plan with tears, and dug a hole, and in it they found a golden pot. The Japanese sentence is as follows : " Ika nl mo bin nahi koto nagard, Ico wo uzume-sutete, liaha no yashinai wo kokoroijoku sen wa ika ni?" to aru ni, tswiid mo onnjiku koshin nriru mono nareha, isasaka imimu kokoronaku; naku-naku kore ni sldtagaite, tomo ni ana wo Jiori-kcru ga, hitotsu no kogane no kama wo hori-etaii. *>' Borrowud from the Chinese, EPISTOLABY STYLE. 96 i.e., as literally as may be : On his saying " While ever so piteous a thing, how would it do, having buried our child, to make my mother's nourish- ment comfortable?", the wife, as she too was a person of filial heart, ha... not (i.e. had not; hut, as the indefmite form is used, the tetwe camiot be hnown until the verb of the next clause, to ivhich it is nmmmnticalli/ subordinated, is reached) the slightest intention of refusing ; they, having followed this plan with tears, together dug a hole, whereupon (the word rendered " ii'hereupon" is in the original the particle ga attached to the preceding clause in such wise as to subordinate it to ivhat follows) they obtained by digging a golden pot." Grammatical interpendence between clauses is secured chiefly by the application of rule 8 of syntax, by the incorpo- ration of quotations as in the above example, by the use of the conditional and concessive moods, and by the use of the correlating particles ga, ni, and too suffixed to verbs. In translating a Japanese sentence into idiomatic English, it is generally necessary to break it at several of these hinges, as they may perhaps be termed. CHAPTEK X. THE EPISTOLARY STYLE. The epistolary style, as its name indicates, is that em- ployed in letters and despatches. Its use is not, however, limited to these. It is frequently inet with in notices and advertisements, and occasionally in books and newspapers. In the latter it chiefly appears as a conventional substitute for the colloquial, that is to say that it is used when it is desired to re]produee, as exactly as may be, the actual words spoken by some person quoted. To give these words in the ae JAPANESE GEAMMAE. colloquial would be considered an infringement of the dignity of written speech. The peculiarities distinguishing the epistolary style from the ordinary written style, treated of in the preceding pages, are very marked. They fall into two categories, viz. : SEC. 1. A PECULIAE CONJUGATION OF VEEBS AND ADJECTIVES. Almost every verb is turned into a compound by means of the irregular verb soro, which is suffixed to the indefinite form. Originally an independent verb signifying "to be in attendance on " (conf. samurai, " an attendant on a feudal lord"), aOro now signifies nothing more than "to be" when used alone, and is a meaningless sufBs when added to other verbs. Its conjugation is irregular and defective, the follow- ing being the only tenses in ordinary modern use : Present (also used for the past, and without"! any distinction of conclusive and attributive I soro. f orm s ) j Future sorawan. Conditional soraeha. Hypothetical sdratvuha. Actual Concessive soraedomo. Hypothetical Concessive sorote mo. Gerund surute. Soro having no indefinite form, the indefinite form of the plain verb is used instead to mark the end of a subordinate clause. The gerund or the indefinite form of the plain verb is also generally preferred to the gerund sdrutr. The future svrawtin is rare, being almost always replaced by the (properly potential) termination hi'lcu soro. The conditional sorachii is not infrequently used for the hj'pothetioal sorau-aha. In the negative voice soro is suffixed to the gerund of the plain verb. Li adjectives it is suf&xed to the indefinite form. The ordinary conjugation of a verb in the epistolary style is therefore as follows ; EPISTOLARY STYLE. 97 EPISTOLARY CONJUGATION. Itaau, " To do.'' 'Indefinite Form itaBhi Present or Past itashi-soro [I] do, or did. Future or Potential itasu-beku soi'o ... [I] shall do. Conditional itashi-soraeba as [I] do. Hypothetical itashi-sorawaba ... if [I] do. Actual Concessive ... itashi-soraedomo ... { *''°"/'^ tl] actually ^Lo.Vo ^ °' Mtashi-sorote mo... even if I do. Gerund itashite having done, doing. . Desiderative itashi-taku soro ... [I] want to do. Gerunf '..!°™:::::: } j^^^^^" } "IJn'?' °°*^'^'"s Present or Past itasazusoro [I] do not do. Future itasu-majiku soro.. [I] shall not do. Conditional itasazu-soraeba ... as [I] do not do. Hypothetical itasazu-sorawaba... if [I] do not do. Actual Concessive.... itasazu-soraedomo. though [I] do not do. cessive " I ^'^sazu sorote mo. even if I do not do. Of the conjugation of adjectives, the following examples may suffice : Present : ybroshihu soro, [it] is good. Concessive : yoroskiku soraedomo, though [it] is good. Soro is often dropped after adjectives, especially after tahu and beJcu. Thus : Shosei slmttatsu mae baihyaJeu itashi-tahu [soro] ni tsuTd, "As I am desirous of selling it before my departure." The Chinese nouns, which are verbalized by means of sim-u in the ordinary style of books and newspapers, are in the epistolary style mostly verbalized by means of itashi-sord, or of the more polite tsiikamatsuri-sdro for the first person, and kudasare-soro or nasare-soro for the second. Thus : Toehaku itasld-soro, or tocliaku tsukamatsuri-soro, " I (or some other humble person) have arrived "; Oo tdchahu kudasare- 98 JAPANESE GBAMMAE, soro, " You (or some other honourable person) have arrived." Conf. Honorifics, page 92. Sometimes soro is suffixed directly to nouns, without the intervention of itasu or sum, as Kikan haidoku soro, " I have had the honour to peruse your letter." SEC. 2. A PECTJLIAE PHEASEOLOGY. Besides its actual conjugational forms, soro combines with a number of nomis to form peculiar idioms. These and others, such as hore mi and Tcore nahit, will be found in the list of idioms given at the end of the present author's " Eoma- nized Japanese Eeader," under the headings of aida, dan, gi, goza, jo, hata, hore, koto, and tokoro. Politeness also reqmres the constant repetition of honorifics and of ornamental verbs. Letters always open with some such polite phrase as Shokan wo matte keijo itashi-soro, " I have the honour to address you by letter"; iijpitsu keijo, "one respectful stroke of the pen"; liaikei, " I beg to state"; or, in replies. On tec/ami rakiishu tsukamatsuii-soro, " Your honourable letter is to hand "; kakan Jiaiten [tsukamatsuii-soro] , I have opened your flowery epistle "; etc., etc. Then (at least in private letters) comes a sentence in which the correspondent is congratulated on the good health which he enjoys notwithstanding the adverse state of the weather, — this, despite of the fact that the writer probably has no information on the subject. Thus : Reiki ai-tsunon-sdro tokoro, masu-masu cjo seifuku kciga tatcmatsuri-soro, " I beg to congratulate you on the perfect way in which you keep your health, notwithstanding the increasing coldness of the season." The real subject of the letter is then introduced by the words clnn wa or sJdkareba, for which see the list of idioms already referred to. Sometimes, especially in post-cards, the intro- ductory compliments are superseded by some such apologetic EPISTOLARY STYLE. 99 phrase as Zmryahu; go kaiyo hmlasaru-beku soro, " I omit com- pliments ; pray excuse me for so doing." Letters are closed by some such phrase as Kono dan kii e-talcu, or Migi nidsJd-age- taku, kaku no gotoku goza-soro nari, " I beg to bring the above to your favourable notice "; On kotae katagata kii e-sdro, " I take the occasion of this reply to bring the above to your favourable notice." To these some such expression as tonshu, " I bow my head"; kotsu-kotsu, "carelessly written "; /m^m, "insuf- ficient," is usually added. In official despatches, the introductory phrases, down to shikareba or chin wa inclusive, may be freely rendered by "I have the honour to inform you that...," or, in the case of answers, by " I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your communication of the . . .th instant, and to state in reply that..." Such English paraphrases of the opening words may also be held to include the resumptive final phrase Kono dan kii e-taku, while tonshu, kotsu-kotsu, etc., may be paraphrased by " I have the honour to be, etc." With obvious slight changes, the same remarks apply to the trans- lation of private letters. Some of the difficulties of parsing, which are specially prominent in the epistolary style, wUl be found explained on page 89. PRINTED AT THE "JAPAN GAZETTE" OFFICE, YOKOHAMA, JAPAN. INDEX PACJE. Abstract Nouns - - - 10 Accent - - . .. - 3 Adjectives ... 11^ 39 Adjectives in s/^j and Ji - 41,42 Adjectives (Nouns used as) 11 Adverbial Form - 39 Adverbs 8, 12, 85 Ai • - 82 Aku (Terrain.). - 70 Aku (Verb) 72 Alphabet 1 Altaic Pref. VI Araseraruru 83 Arinu-beshi - 70 Articles - - 8 Aru . - - 72, 83 Atau ... 77 Atawazu - - 77 Attraction Pref. VI Attributive Form ... 41, 48, 85 Auxiliary Numerals - 5, 20 Bases - - 49 Beku, beki, beshi 43, 69 Causatives - 79 Chinese Words - 12 Colloquialisms -43, 48, 67, 71, 72 Compounds - - 4, 10, 11, 19 Compound Verbs - 81 Concessive Mood - 69 Conclusive Form 41, 48, 86 Conditional Mood - - 68 Conjugations - 49 Conjunctions - - - 8 Construction ... 86, 94 Demonstrative Pronouns - 15 Desiderative Forms 69 103 INDEX. PAOE. Domo - - - - - 10, 14 Double Negatives 71 E (Potential) 77 E (Letter) 1 Ellipsis - 93 En ya 77 Epistolary Style - 95 Braku - 70 Ezu - - 77 First Conjugation 50, 66, 71, 72 Fourth Conjugation 62, 66 Frequentatives 71, 67 Future . 68^ 69 Ga - 22, 35 Gender 9 Gerund 66, 67 Goza soro 83 Honorifics - - 13, 91, 92 Honorific Potentials - - 76 Humble Expressions - 13, 91, 92 Hyphens - - H Hypothetical Mood . 68 leraku - 70 Illative Forms 69 Imperative 69 Indefinite Form .39, 47^ 66, 86, 87 indefinite Pronouns 16 Infinitive 66, 85 Interjections - g Interrogative Words - - 15 16 86 Intransitive Verbs - '77' 73 Irregular Verbs- ' 71 I™,- 66,83 Iwaku - 70 89 Iwan ya - . . 35 Ka - - . . 23 Kanarazu - - - gj Kanuru - - . - 77 Kara 23 J^a''^ 14, 15 Karu 72 Keri, Keru (Suffix) - 69 Keiu, " to kick. ... 72 Kitaru . 72 Kokoromuru 66 Kono --.-.,, 15 INDEX, 103 PAGE. Kprean . . . . pj-gf. yi Koso - . . . 23 Koto . . 85 Kuru - - - 72 75 79 Kyoto Colloquial . . ' ' 72 Letter Changes . 3 Literature - . . Pref. VI Made - - - 24 Mahoshiki . g Makari . . §2 Mi - . . 71 Mo . 24, 49 Mono - ... 85 Motte . . 25 Nagara - - . . . . 25 Naku, naki, nashi . 83 84 Naredomo- - - . . . 71 Nari , 73 82 Naru, "to be" ..-..". 12,73^83 Naru, "to become'' - - 73 Nan - - . . . 8 Negatives - - . . . . 99 Si - ■ - - - 25,35,76 Ni aru 83 Ni oite - - . . . 35 Ni okeru ... 33 Ni shite - . 35,80 Ni tsuki . 3g Ni yori . . 33 Ni yotte - . 33 Nigori - . 3 Nite - . 26, 73, 83 Nite aru - 83 No - . 11, 18, 26, 35 Nomi Nouns - - . Nu Nu-beshi ... . 7Q Number 9 Numerals - . . I8 Nuru . . . . 68 Nzu ... . , 7Q Oblique Moods - - . 66 Ono ga - . - ... 15 Onomatopes - .... 12 Onore 14 I5 93 9 68 104 Ornamental Verbs Oru Participles Parts of Speech Passives - Past Tenses Perfect Perfect in e Personal Pronouns Personification Phonetic System Plural Postpositions Potential Forms Potential Verbs Preserit Tense Prohibitive Forms Pronouns Pronunciation Quotation Ea Ran Rashiki Reflective Verbs Reflexive Pronouns Relative Pronouns Romanization Roots Second Conjugation Seraruru - Seshimuru Shi mo Shikaru Shimu Shinuru Singular - Sinico-Japanese Soga Sono Soro Stem Styles Subject Substantives Substantive Verbs Buru 81 82,84 67,85 7 74, 88, 93 67 68 23,42,48 13 93 1 9,14 22, 85, 86, 89 69 76 67 69 13 1 89, 92 10,14 70 8 78 15 16 Pref. VII 47 54, 66, 71 75 79,84 91 73 72 73, 75, 79 9 VII 15 14, 15 82, 84, 89, 96 39,47 Pref. VII 30, 86 9 83 70, 71, 84, 73, 75, 79 INDEX. lOS PAGE. Syntax - - 86 Synthesis of Contradictories - 10 Taohi - . . . . . 10, 14 Taga . - - . . 15 Taku, taki, tashi - ... 69, 89 Tamau - - 82 Taran - . .... 71 Tari ... . - 67 Taru (Suffix.) ... 67 Taru (Verb) 72 Tatematsuru - - 82 Third Conjugation 58, 72 To - - 27 To, "this" - 16 To iu - 89 To shite - - 36 To suru - . . . _ 70 Tokoro no ' 18 Tones • - ... 3 Tote .... . _ 29 Transitive Verbs - - - . 78 Tsu - - - . 68 Tsuru - - - . 68 Tsutsu - - - - 70 Uchi ■ ■ 82 Uninfleoted Words 9 Uru - - 74 Uryoru ... - 74 Verbs ... . - 47 Wa - - - - - . 29, 88 Waga - - - 14, 15 Wo- - 30,35,76 Woba - 34 Wo motte- - 36 Wo shite - - - . 37, 80 Wo ya . 37 Written Characters - Pref. VII Ya - 32 Ya mo - - - - 37 Ya wo . . - . 38 Ye ... . - 33 Yori. - . - - 33 Zaru-beshi * - - 71 Zo - - - - - 34 Zu - - - . . 70 Zumba aru-bekarazu ..... 71 A ^ HI m A mm + + ^^ + B m. :^ + /% . m % B T g + 1^ M ^ )tS * ;i^ T + V It CATALOGUE OF IMPORTANT WOEKS, PUBLISHED BT 57 AND 59 LUDGATE HILL. ABEL.— Linguistic Essay.?. 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