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CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 MUSIC 
 
•II <«» JFS»"*!! ""'"ersity Library 
 ML 108.S78 1889 
 
 ^iiiHiinMiiuiiiSiiif I "' """sical terms. 
 
 3 1924 022 261 113 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022261113 
 
A DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 USICAL ilERMS 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 SIR JOHN STAINER, 
 
 M.A., MUS. DOC, MAGD, COLL., OXFORD ; PROFESSOR OF MUSIC IN THE 
 UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, 
 
 W. A. BARRETT, 
 
 MUS. DOC, TRINITY COLLEGE, TORONTO. 
 
 ^4-^m^Hmmyfi^-^ 
 
 LONDON & NEW YORK 
 
 NOVELLO, EWER AND CO. 
 
 I. 'i 1 ; f 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The Editors, owing to the rapid call for new issues 
 of' this Dictionary, have had frequent opportunities of 
 removing any inaccuracies, and they trust it may now 
 be found a reliable work of reference. They cannot but 
 feel gratified at the manner in which it has~ been received 
 by musicians and the public generally, and they venture 
 to hope that students will always find it a useful storehouse 
 of facts associated with the art, science, and archaeology 
 of music. 
 
 Oxford, November, i88g. 
 
The following gentlemen contributed articles or otherwise rendered valuable assistance 
 to the Editors : — 
 R. H. M. Bosanquet, M.A., Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford, author of the article 
 
 " Temperament." 
 J. F. Bulley, M.A., of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, author of the articles 
 
 " Licensing " and " Copyright." 
 F. Champneys, M.A., M.D. (Oxon.), F.R.C.P., F.L.S., Obstetric Physician to St. 
 
 George's Hospital, Examiner in Obstetric Medicine in the Universities of Oxford 
 
 and London, late Radcliffe Travelling Fellow of the University of Oxford, author of 
 
 the articles " Ear," " Larynx," and " Laryngoscope " ; and the explanation of the 
 
 formation of the hand given in the article " Fingering." 
 W. Chappell, F.S.A., author of the articles " Ballad " (Old English), " Greek Music " 
 
 (Ancient Systems of), and " Notation " (Early Systems of). 
 A. E. Donkin, M.A., F.R.A.S., late Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, author of the 
 
 article " Acoustics." 
 A. J. Ellis, B.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.C.P.S., F.C.P., formerly Scholar of Trinity College, 
 
 Cambridge, author of the article " Duodene." 
 Henry Gadsby, author of the account of Sonata Form in the article " Form." 
 Rev. T. Helmore, M.A., author of the article " Plain Song." 
 John Hullah, LL.D, author of a paper read before the Musical Association on 
 
 " Nomenclature." 
 W. G. McNaught, A.R.A.M., author of the article " Tonic Sol-fa." 
 W. H. Monk, Mus. Doc, author of the article " Hymn Tunes." 
 W. H. Husk, who contributed an important list of early printed music. 
 
 They also tender their thanks to — 
 
 Messrs. Broadwood, for permission to publish diagrams of their pianoforte action. 
 
 Messrs. Cassell, for permission to quote from " The Music of the Bible." 
 
 Messrs. Chappell, for permission to quote from " Popular Music in the Olden Time." 
 
 Messrs. Erard, for permission to reproduce their diagrams of pianoforte action. 
 
 A. J. Hipkins, for valuable information on the subject of Tuning-Forks and Pitch. 
 
 Messrs. Murray, for permission to quote music from Lane's " Modern Egyptians." 
 
 Rev. J. Troutbeck, D.D., Chaplain-in-Ordinary to the Queen, for permission to reprint 
 diagrams from Troutbeck and Dale's " Music Primer." 
 
 Henry Willis, for diagrams and explanations of his Pneumatic Bellows. 
 
DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 MUSICAL TERMS. 
 
 -A BATTUTA. 
 
 A. (i) The note caWed Proslambanomenos 
 in the greater perfect system of the Greeks. 
 The letter-name of Mese, the highest note 
 of the middle tetrachord; and of Nete, the 
 highest note of the upper tetrachord. [Greek 
 Music] 
 
 — (2) The first note of (a) the Hypo-Dorian 
 mode, or church-scale, commencing four 
 notes below the Dorian ; (6) the Hyper- Phry- 
 gian mode, or church-scale, commencing four 
 notes above the Phrygian ; (c)the Eolian mode. 
 [Greek Music] 
 
 — (3) The next note above Gamma Ut, 
 in the Grave Hexachord of the Guidonian 
 system, where it is A re. Also, the first note 
 of the acute and super-acute Hexachords, in 
 which it is a la mi re. [Notation.] 
 
 — (4) The normal minor scale of modern 
 music, so called because it is the relative 
 minor of C. It is sometimes also named the 
 natural minor scale, because no sharps or 
 flats are required in its signature. 
 
 — (5) The normal sound (Ger.Normalton), 
 because the instruments of an orchestra 
 tune to this note, as given by the Oboe or 
 Organ. 
 
 — (6) The key-note of the major scale 
 which has three sharps for its signature. 
 
 — (7) The name given to a string tuned 
 to the sound A. The A-string of a violin is 
 
 of a viola, its first string ; 
 its Jir?t string ; but on this 
 one octave lower in pitch 
 than the A-string of a violin or viola ; of a 
 double-bass, its third string, which is two 
 octaves lower in pitch than the first string of 
 a violoncello ; of a guitar, its Ji/th string. 
 The string tuned highest in pitch is called 
 the first string of an instrument ; the next 
 below it, the second ; and so on. 
 
 its second string 
 of a violoncello, 
 instrument it is 
 
 (8) The actual sound ! 
 
 IS m some 
 
 systems represented by A (capital letter), while 
 AA represents the note one octave below that 
 sound, and AAA the note two octaves below 
 
 it. Proceeding upwards, the note one octave 
 above A is represented by a (italic) ; that two 
 octaves above it by a (once underlined); that 
 three octaves above it, by g (twice underlined), 
 and so on. [Pitch.] 
 
 A {It.) At, by, in, for, to, with, towards, 
 &c. ; a prima vista, at first sight ; a battuta, 
 lit. by the beat, in stiict time ; a tempo, in 
 time, &c. &c; q.v. sub vocibus. 
 
 A (Fr.) For, by, on ; a deux mains, for 
 two hands, &c. ; q.v. sub vocibus. 
 
 Abacus {Lat.) afta£. (Gk.) Any square 
 tablet ; hence, a board on which calculations 
 were made ; hence, in music, a diagram of 
 the notes with their names. 
 
 A ballata {It.) (i) In the ballad style. 
 Applied to any song, duet, or chorus, con- 
 structed in the ballad or narrative form. 
 Also to a song with a refrain in chorus, as 
 is found in many old and modern English 
 songs ; for example, the song of which a 
 portion runs : 
 
 " Ich have house and land in Kent, 
 And if you love me, love me now; 
 Two pence half penny is my rent, 
 
 Ich cannot come everich day to woo." 
 
 Chorus. 
 
 " Two pence half penny is his rent, 
 He cannot come everich day to woo " 
 
 — is a song, a ballata. 
 
 (2) The term is also used to describe a 
 vocal piece, that may be danced to. [Ballad.] 
 
 Abbandonamente {It.) With self-aban- 
 donment, despondingly. 
 
 Abbandonarsi {It.) To abandon one- 
 self (to the influence of the music). 
 
 Abbandono, con {It.) With self-aban- 
 donment, passionately. 
 
 Abbassamento {It.) A lowering. Ab- 
 bassamento di mano, a lowering of the hand ; 
 abbassamento di voce, a lowering of the 
 voice. 
 
 A battuta {It.) In strict time. This term is 
 usually employed when a break in the time of 
 
ABBELLIRE ABBREVIATION. 
 
 a movement has occurred, and it is desirable 
 to resume the original pace " by the beat." 
 
 Weber. 
 . ReciL tempo a battuta. 
 
 [ Accelerando 
 
 Abbellire (It.) To overload a plain melody 
 with ornaments. 
 
 Abbellitura(7f.)0rnament, embellishment. 
 
 Abblasen (^Ger.) To sound a trumpet call. 
 
 Abbreviare {It.) To shorten. 
 
 Abbreviation. A system frequently em- 
 ployed in music, by which a portion of a 
 technical term ia made to stand for the whole. 
 The following is a list of the abbreviations in 
 most common use; the explanation of each 
 term may be found on reference to the word 
 itself in its proper place : 
 
 Accel. . 
 Accel" . 
 
 Accom'.;.U"°'"f"'- 
 Accomp.J •"^"' 
 
 Accres Accresciamento 
 
 Adg°orad°. Adagio 
 
 Ad lib':::} Ad libitum 
 
 Affett" ...Affettuoso 
 Affrett" ...Affrettando 
 
 A|uo":::}Agit^'° 
 
 All" Allegro 
 
 Allgtt" ...Allegretto 
 
 ^|;°*I;;;}Aii'ottava 
 
 Al seg Al segno 
 
 And"" Andantino 
 
 And" Andante 
 
 Anim" Animate 
 
 . f Coir Arco, or 
 
 '^'■'^ JArcato 
 
 Arp° Arpeggio 
 
 Ard° Ardito 
 
 At ) 
 
 A tem ... i-A tempo 
 A. temp .. J 
 
 Auff / ^y augmenta- 
 ^ X tion. 
 
 ( Bass (voice) 
 B } Bassoon 
 
 ( Contra basso 
 
 B.C Basso continue 
 
 Brill Brillante 
 
 C.B Cel Basse 
 
 C.D Celladestra 
 
 C.S Colla sinistra 
 
 Cad Cadence 
 
 Cal Calando 
 
 Can Cantoris 
 
 Cant Canto 
 
 Cantab . . . Cantabile 
 
 Cello Violoncello 
 
 Cemb Cembalo 
 
 Ch Choir organ 
 
 Chal Chalameau 
 
 Clar Clarinet 
 
 Clar"" ...Clarinetto 
 
 Clar Clarino 
 
 Co. So. ...Come sopra 
 
 Col C. ...Col canto 
 
 Col ott» ...Coir ottava 
 
 Cel Vo. ...Colla voce 
 
 „ f Con espres- 
 
 Con.esp.j gi„„g i' 
 
 Cor Cornet or horn 
 
 Cresc'?.'.'.t}c^«^""'i° 
 
 C.S Colla sinistra 
 
 C. 8" Coir ottava 
 
 C 1""" Canto prime 
 
 Co. !""> ...Come prime 
 C"> Concerto 
 
 „ f Destra, dreite, 
 
 " I right 
 
 D.C Da cape 
 
 Dec Decani 
 
 Decres ...Decrescendo 
 
 Delic Delicamente 
 
 Dest Destra 
 
 Diap Diapasons ' 
 
 Dim By diminution 
 
 Dim Diminuendo. 
 
 Div Divisi 
 
 Del Dolce 
 
 Dolcis Delcissime 
 
 Dopp. ped..Doppio pedale 
 D.S Dal segno 
 
 Energ Energicamente 
 
 Sres:::}^^p^^=^'^° 
 
 F. or for ...Forte 
 
 Fag Fagotto 
 
 Falset Falsetto 
 
 Ff. or Fff... Fortissimo 
 Fl Flaute 
 
 f:org.".:}p""o^g^" 
 
 p [Porzando 
 
 ■ Oberwerk 
 
 G Gauche 
 
 G. O. ...) 
 
 G. Org... }• Great Organ 
 
 Gt J 
 
 Grand" ...Grandiose 
 
 Graz" Grazioso 
 
 Gr Grand 
 
 Hauptw. ■) 
 
 Hptw \ Hauptwerk 
 
 H^ j 
 
 Haut Hautboy 
 
 H.C Haute Centre 
 
 Intro Introduction 
 
 Inv Inversion 
 
 L Left 
 
 Leg Legate 
 
 Legg" Leggiero 
 
 L.H Left hand 
 
 Lo Loco 
 
 Lue Luego 
 
 Lusing. ...Lusingando 
 
 M ] 
 
 Main. ... > Manual 
 
 Mane. ... J 
 
 Maest" ...Maestoso 
 
 Magg Maggiore 
 
 Man Manuals 
 
 Marc Marcato 
 
 C Mano diritta 
 
 M.D .j Main droite 
 
 ( Manu dextrsl 
 
 M.G Main gauche 
 
 MM I Maelzel's Me- 
 
 \ tronome 
 
 (The beat of a 
 crotchet is e- 
 qual to the 
 pulse of the 
 pendulum of 
 the Metro- 
 nome said to 
 be Maelzel's, 
 with the 
 weight set at 
 92. 
 
 Obb Obbligato 
 
 Oberst. ...Oberstimme 
 
 Oberw. .. 1 , 
 
 Obw. ... j 
 
 Oh. Ped....Ohne Pedal 
 
 Org Organ 
 
 r :::::: }°"^^^ 
 
 8™ alta ...Ottava alta 
 8" bas. ...Ottava bassa 
 
 Pianississimo 
 
 M.M. 
 J = 92. 
 
 M.P 
 MS. 
 
 Mezzo piano 
 
 {Manuscript 
 Mane sinistra 
 
 Mus Bac I Bachelor of 
 ivius.cac I j^^gjj. 
 
 Men Meno 
 
 Mez Mezze 
 
 M.V Mezzo voce 
 
 Mf. or Mff .Mezzo forte 
 Mod'° ...Moderate 
 Mus. Doc. .Doctor of Music 
 
 „, f Oboe, or Haut- 
 
 °^ 1 beis 
 
 ■P Piano 
 
 Pad Pedal 
 
 Perd Perdendosi 
 
 P.F Piii forte 
 
 4'iang Piangendo 
 
 Pianiss. ...Pianissimo 
 
 Pizz Pizzicato 
 
 Pmo. ... 1 Pianissimo 
 
 Ppp. . 
 Pppp.. 
 
 Prin Prmcipal 
 
 1™» Prima 
 
 1°"" Prime 
 
 4'K Quartet 
 
 5"8 Quintet 
 
 "Rail Rallentande 
 
 ■Raddol. ...Raddolcendo 
 
 Recit Recitative 
 
 Rf., rfz., I jj;jjj^j.^^j^j^ 
 or nni. J 
 
 R.H Right hand 
 
 ■^itar Ritardande 
 
 Riten Ritenuto 
 
 S.or Sen...Senza 
 
 ■K Segno 
 
 Scherz. ...Scherzando 
 
 2''» Secenda 
 
 2''° Secendo 
 
 Seg Segue 
 
 l:mp.:::}sen>pre 
 
 7" Septet 
 
 6" Sestet 
 
 Sfz. or Sf. Sforzando 
 Smorz. ...Smorzando 
 
 Sinf. Sinfonia 
 
 S Int f Senza interru- 
 \ ziene 
 
 illord '. } ^^"^^ ^°'^'^'"' 
 
 ies;.:::::}s°='^""'° 
 
 Spir Spiritoso 
 
 S-Tj^j. Senza tempo 
 
 Stada^ Staccato 
 
 St. Diap. I Stopped Diapa- 
 '^ \ sen 
 
 String Stringendo 
 
 Sw Swell organ 
 
 Sym Symphony 
 
 ~ f Tenor, . tutti, 
 
 \ tempo, tendre 
 
 T.C Tre corde 
 
 Tem Tempo 
 
 Tem. 1° ...Tempo primo 
 
 Ten Tenuto 
 
 Timb TimTaalles 
 
 Timp Timpani 
 
 'Tr TriUo 
 
 ( 2) 
 
ABBREVIATURE- 
 
 -A CAPPELLA. 
 
 Trem Tremolando 
 
 3° Trio 
 
 Tromb. ...Trombi 
 Tromb. ...Tromboni 
 T.S Tasto solo 
 
 U Una 
 
 U.C Una corda 
 
 Unis Unisoni 
 
 V. 
 
 .Voce 
 
 V Volti 
 
 Va Viola 
 
 Vat Variation 
 
 Velio Violoncello 
 
 Viv Vivace 
 
 Vo. ... , 
 
 Vno. ... [^Violino 
 
 Viol" ... -• 
 
 V.S Voltisubito 
 
 V"' 1, 
 
 V.V. 
 
 ► Violini 
 
 There are other abbreviations employed in 
 manuscript or printed music, the chief of which 
 are as follow : 
 
 In time, a dash with a figure above signifies 
 the length of the pause in bars, e.g.: 
 24 
 
 In notes, the trouble of writing a passage in 
 full is saved by the use of abbreviations, e.g. : 
 
 Written. 
 
 H&c. 
 
 Repetition phrases are thus shortened : 
 
 Abbreviations, by signs, of musical graces : 
 
 The Turn. ^ 
 Written ^^ 
 
 Sung ^ g ^p 
 
 The back Turn, / or i 
 Written 
 
 ^ Sung -f-^-f- 
 Passing shake, Q 
 
 Written ^ Sung 
 
 Beat, -=- 
 
 Written — a 
 
 Sung 
 
 Shake, 
 
 Written 
 Written 
 
 Played 
 
 =33= 
 
 s= 
 
 Played J | [ J 
 
 Abbreviature {It.) Abbreviations. 
 Abbreviazione {It.) An abbreviation. 
 
 Abcidiren {Ger.) (i) To use a system of 
 solmisation. A series of exercises in which 
 the names of the notes are used instead of 
 words. (2) A method of instruction for sight 
 singing. 
 
 Abbellare {It.) To decorate, ornament, or 
 embellish. 
 
 Abbellimento {It.) A decoration, orna- 
 ment, or embellishment. 
 
 Abendglocke {Ger.) The Curfew, evening 
 bell. 
 
 A bene placito {It.) At pleasure. The 
 singer or performer may alter the time, intro- 
 duce ornaments, cadenzas, &c., according to 
 fancy, or may use certain instruments speci- 
 fied, or not, without detriment to the effect 
 required. [Chamber Music] 
 
 Abenteuerlich {Ger.) Strange and uncouth. 
 The music of the new German school is so 
 called by the unthinking. 
 
 Abgestossen {Ger.) Struck off. Staccato. 
 
 AbgeleiteterAkkord {Ger.) An inversion 
 of a chord. 
 
 Ab initio {Lat.) From the beginning. [Da 
 capo.] 
 
 Abkiirzungen {Ger.) Abbreviations. 
 
 Ahnehinen6.{Ger.)Lit.takinga.wa.y,decres. 
 
 Abrege {Fr.) Shortened. 
 
 Abr^ger {Fr.) To shorten, curtail, abridge. 
 
 Abreissung {Ger.) A sudden pause. 
 
 Abrupt cadence. An interrupted cadence. 
 
 Abrupt modulation. A sudden change 
 of key for which no preparation has been 
 made. [Modulation.] 
 
 Absatz {Ger.) Cadence. [Cadence.] 
 
 Abschnitt {Ger.) Section. [Form.] 
 
 Absetzen (Ger.) \ To render music 'stac- 
 
 Abstossen^Ger.) J cato.' 
 
 Abub. [Ambubajse.] 
 
 Abwechselnd (Ger.) Alternating, mit ab- 
 wechselnden Manualen, alternately from one 
 manual to another. 
 
 Acad6roie de Musique {Fr.) An aca- 
 demy of music. 
 
 Academic Royale de Musique {Fr.) The 
 opera house in Paris. 
 
 Academic Spirituelle {Fr.) A concert 
 or performance of sacred music. 
 
 Academy of Music. A name given to I 
 an organised society of performers and 
 teachers of music; originally applied to the 
 Royal Academy of Music, founded 1824 in 
 London. 
 
 A cappella,or,AlIacappella(/i.) (i) In the 
 church style ; vocal pieces unaccompanied, 
 especially those of the Italian school, because 
 the music sung in the Sistine Chapel was never 
 accompanied by instruments. 
 
 (2) Church music in a duple time (two or 
 four minims in each bar), this being for a 
 long period considered more ecclesiastical 
 than triple measure. 
 
 (3 ) 
 
A CAPRICCIO ACCENT. 
 
 A capriccio {If.) At will, according to 
 individual fancy. 
 
 Acathistus. A hymn of praise, sung in 
 the Greek Church in honour of the Blessed 
 Virgin, upon the Saturday in the iifth week 
 in Lent, by the whole congregation stand- 
 ing. 
 
 Accarezzevole {It.) (Lit. flatteringly.) 
 Agreeable, pleasing ; used occasionally to de- 
 scribe the anticipation of notes. 
 
 Accarezzevolmente (It.) In a caress- 
 ing style. 
 
 Accelerando or Accelerato (It.) Gra- 
 dually increasing the pace. 
 
 Accent (Fr.) A sign used in old French 
 music for the Harpsichord : 
 
 Writteii 
 
 Played 
 
 The custom of employing a variety of orna- 
 ments in harpsichord music, arose from the 
 fact that the instrument was not capable of 
 sustaining tone without the use of repeated 
 touches. 
 
 Accent. — In its ancient and widest sense, 
 a sign placed over a syllable to indicate the 
 elevation of the voice when pronouncing it. 
 Hence, the term came to imply a raising up- 
 wards of the voice in the scale series from the 
 monotone or note of recitation, to a sound of 
 higher pitch. By using various forms of 
 accents, different elevations of the voice were 
 obtained, until a rude sort of chant resulted.. 
 The most ancient known accents, those of the 
 Hebrews as found in the Pentateuch, Psalms, 
 and Book of Job, were interpreted only by tra- 
 dition, not according to definite rule. Unfor- 
 tunately therefore in comparing the musical 
 rendering of them as taken down in modern 
 notation by authors in various parts of Europe, 
 it will be found that their original force is 
 now quite unknown, and that the various 
 " foliations " which are supposed to repre- 
 sent their meaning, are the growth of many 
 surrounding musical or other indirect in- 
 fluences. 
 
 2. In early Greek Church music, the accents 
 had to a great extent, a plain and definite 
 intention, and as they were fixed and adapted 
 to various poems by John of Damascus in 
 the 8th century, and their use has beeri kept 
 up in its purity to this day in Byzantine 
 music, a very good insight into early forms 
 and principles of notation can be obtained 
 by their study. 
 
 3. In mediaeval music the term accent was 
 also applied to musical nqtation, the first two 
 and most common of the signs being the 
 accentus acutus, and accentus gravis. After- 
 wards the term came to signify the system 
 generally, and so became synonymous with 
 neuma, under which head information as to 
 
 mediaeval notation will be found. [Neuma.] 
 [Old systems of notation.'] 
 
 4. In plain song, the term accent, or accen- 
 tus ecclesiasticus, was used to designate that 
 system of movement of the voice, by learning 
 the principles of which {modus legendi chor- 
 aliter), a chanter could read collects, epistles, 
 gospels, &c., from an un-noted book. Hence, 
 it resolved itself into a series of rules relating 
 to the inflexions or intonations of the voice on 
 reaching a comma, semicolon, colon, full stop, 
 and also a note of interrogation. But perfect 
 uniformity is not to be found in these regula- 
 tions regarding the puncta. According to 
 its position in the sentence, or the interval 
 covered by the movement of the voice, accent 
 was said to be (i) immutabilis, (2) medius, 
 (3) gravis, (4) acutus, (5) moderatus, (6) in- 
 terrogativus, (7) finalis. The following are 
 examples of these different species : 
 '^' immutabilis. 
 
 Lec-ti - o E - pi-sto-te Sane - ti Pau - li 
 
 medius. 
 
 et o - pe - ra - tur vir - tu - tes in vo - bis : 
 
 gravis. 
 
 =i 
 
 Be - ne - fi- cen-tur in Te om-nes gen -tes. 
 
 acutus. 
 
 -♦ — m- 
 
 Cum Spi ri tu cce pe ri - tis nunc, 
 moderatus. 
 
 cum fi - de-li, ex o - pe - ri-bus le - gis, 
 
 interrogativus. 
 
 An ex au di tu fi de i ? 
 
 Jinalis. 
 
 A ni - ma me - a ad Te De us. 
 
 But according to some authors, the epistle 
 should be on monotone, except at a point of 
 interrogation, e.g. : 
 
 Lee - ti - o li bri Sa - pi - en - ti se 
 
 Be - a- tus vir qui in-ventus est si - ne ma-cu-la, &c. 
 
 Quis est hie et lau-da - bi - mus e - um ? 
 
 4 ) 
 
ACCENT. 
 
 But in somt countries, the epistle is chanted 
 with the greatest elaboration, the note above 
 the reciting note being introduced before the 
 full stop, anil the whole of an interrogative 
 sentence being recited on a note below the 
 ut. But as these uses differ not only in 
 various places, but according to the Church 
 seasons, an exhaustive account is impossible. 
 
 In chanting the gospel, an accentus inedius 
 takes place at the fourth syllable from a full 
 stop, or thereabouts, and also the accentus 
 interromtivus. 
 
 Se- quen - ti a Sane - ti Ev- an - ge 
 
 se - cun-dum Mat -thse-um, &c. In il lo 
 
 tem-po - re dix - it Si-mon Pe-trus ad Je-sum, &c. 
 
 quid er - go e - rit no - bis ? &c. Et vi - tarn 
 
 e ter nam pos - si - de - bit. 
 
 In the chanting of collects, a fall from Ut 
 to La, or from Fa to Re takes place at a 
 pufictwn principale, and from Ut to Si, or 
 Fa to Mi once only at a semipunctiim. 
 
 The accentus ecclesiastic'us of lections and 
 prayers must not be confused with those in- 
 flexions which tradition assigns to other parts 
 of the service, such as confessions, proper 
 prefaces, and lections of the Passion ; all 
 of which are to be found noted in authorised 
 books. It should be remarked that the Belgian 
 and French uses often differ much from that 
 of the Romans, although uniformity in such 
 things is without doubt desirable. 
 
 5. In modern music, accent is the stress 
 which recurs at regular intervals of time. By 
 the proper grouping of a series of accents, 
 rhythm is produced. When music was in- 
 dissoluble from poetry, a sign for marking 
 accent was not needed, but it is necessary to 
 point out in order to avoid confusion, that 
 our word accent corresponds more to the 
 ancient ictus than to arsis. For although 
 the latter represented a raising of the voice, 
 it did not necessarily occur on a long syllable, 
 whereas it is considered a fault in modern 
 music, if a short syllable occurs on an accented 
 note. The position of the accent is plainly 
 and simply indicated by upright strokes called 
 bars [Bar], it being understood that the first 
 note inside a bar is without exception accented. 
 The measurement of the whole duration of 
 
 the notes between these accents, is recorded 
 at the commencement of a movement, and 
 constitutes what is called the time-signature. 
 In bars containing more than one group of 
 notes, as is the case in compound timeSi other 
 accents occur on the first note of each group, 
 but they are not so strong as that falling on 
 the first note of the first group. The latter 
 therefore is called the primary or principal 
 accent ; the former secondary or subordinate. 
 Besides these normal positions of accents, 
 there are others which can be produced at 
 any point by the use of a sign =» or sf. An 
 accent can also be displaced for a time from 
 its usual seat by binding an unaccented chord 
 to a like chord at a point of accent, and so 
 preventing its repercussion ; or, by both com- 
 bined. 
 
 Beethoven's Sym., No. 3. 
 
 , 
 
 »l,. I 
 
 t=i=3=^^ 
 
 V 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 1 J| Jt-j — , 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ( 
 
 S^lr^:— js 5 
 
 rlr r 
 
 tzf-^ 
 
 — m—- 
 i 
 
 
 ~r^ 
 
 fe^^ 
 
 T^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 s^^tvfrH 
 
 -pj- 
 
 
 -V- 
 
 ^ 
 
 «^-h-J— = 
 
 =^ 
 
 E^VjS-- 
 
 =¥= 
 
 \ L_ 
 
 
 
 The throwing of the accent on to an unac- 
 cented part of the bar is called syncopation. 
 A similar effect can be produced by a process 
 the converse of the above, that is by making 
 rests fall where an ictus is expected, e.g. : 
 
 Beethoven's Sym. No. 3. 
 
 I I I 
 
 -St n -^ 
 
 This intentional upsetting of our accepted 
 notions of the expected position of accent is ' 
 capable of a most remarkable and powerful 
 effect. Heard by a musician just two centu- 
 ries ago, its effect would probably not have 
 been so striking, as he would have supposed 
 the writer to have changed from triple to 
 duple time, a constant habit in those days. 
 Such accents are sometimes called cross, or 
 false. 
 
 (5 ) 
 
ACCENTUARE ACCOMPANIMENT. 
 
 Accentuare [It.) To accent. 
 Accentuation. The act of accenting, or 
 giving to certain notes their due emphasis. 
 Accessory stops and movements. 
 
 Stops and movements acting only on the 
 mechanism of an organ, not having pipes 
 in connection with them, as. Couplers, Tre- 
 molo, Signal to the blowers ; Composition 
 pedals, &c. 
 Acciaccatura(/i.) Ashortappoggiatura,e.g-.: 
 
 lightly yet clearly to be sung, or played. 
 
 Accidentals. Sharps, flats, or naturals, 
 introduced into a piece of music, beyond 
 those already in the signature. 
 A cinque {It). In five parts. 
 Accolade (Fr.,)- A brace, uniting several 
 staves, as in pianoforte or organ music, or in 
 a score. 
 
 Accommodare (It.) To tune an instru- 
 ment in agreement with another. 
 
 Accompagnamento (It.) \ [Accompani- 
 Accompagnement (Fr.) ) ment.] 
 Accompaniment ad libitum. Accom- 
 paniment at will. That is, one which can 
 be played or omitted without injury to the 
 harmonic construction of a composition, c.f. 
 ohhligato. 
 
 Accompaniment ohbligato. [Obbligato.] 
 Accompaniment. A separate part or 
 parts, for voices or instruments, added to 
 a solo or concerted piece. Accompaniment 
 may consist of a single simple instrument, 
 such as a violin or flute, or a single com- 
 pound instrument as an organ or pianoforte, a 
 combination of selected orchestral instruments, 
 or a whole band, or of voices in harmony. 
 Accompaniments are those portions of a 
 composition which are independent of the 
 principal parts, and which are added to sup- 
 port, or to produce such effects as would 
 be otherwise unattainable. Accompaniment 
 should always be subservient to the chief 
 part, so as not to overload or obscure it, 
 and should be so constructed, that the voice 
 or voices or solo instruments should be made 
 to appear to the most favourable advantage. 
 In the earliest records we possess, it is found 
 that some sort of accompaniment was gener- 
 ally employed either to assist the voice, or 
 mark the time or rhythm of the songs sung : 
 of these many examples could be quoted if 
 it were necessary. In the Bible, instances are 
 mentioned in which singing is accompanied 
 by musical instruments ; but of the nature 
 of these accompaniments we can form no 
 definite idea, beyond the fact that, from a 
 comparative knowledge of the instruments 
 spoken of, it is presumed that little, if any 
 
 ajitempt was made to gain independent effects. 
 The ancient Greek dance, and the poetry of 
 the tragedy, was always accompanied, at first 
 with the lyre, afterwards with the flute. 
 
 Donaldson, in his "Theatre of the Greeks," 
 says, that the Ancient Dorian Choral soiig, 
 the Pcean, was originally accompanied with 
 the Harp [(popfiiyi,.) 
 
 According to modern views, an accom- 
 paniment implies some construction in har- 
 mony, but the ambiguity with which the 
 terms melody and harmony are employed 
 by the ancient Greek and Latin, as well as 
 by the more modern writers, has given rise 
 to a doubt as to whether they had any know- 
 ledge of the art of combining certain concords 
 according to such rules as we now possess. 
 The science of harmony is of relatively 
 modern growth, and the art of employing 
 instruments in combination, as accompani- 
 ments to vocal music, is more recent than the 
 growth of harmony. 
 
 It has been stated that dancing is of greater 
 antiquity than singing, and that singing was 
 generally the usual accompanimentto dancing. 
 The same root supplying many words refer- 
 ring alike to dancing, singing, and playing, 
 suggests a common origin for dancing and 
 its accompaniment. Most of the words of 
 ancient ballads are set to tunes that were 
 danced to, and the practice is still observed 
 of arranging words to melodies, that were 
 originally intended to accompany the dance. 
 So that the " new " idea of singing waltzes 
 or other dance measures, is but a revival of 
 the ancient practice. Nothing seems more 
 natural than that those not actually engaged 
 in dancing, but as interested spectators, upon 
 the recurrence of a musical phrase should 
 accompany it with the voice. This would 
 form such a burden or chorus as that alluded 
 to by Shakespeare : 
 
 " Foot it featly here and there, 
 And let the rest the burden bear." 
 
 Some simple instrument would be employed 
 to play the tune, either with or without some 
 means of marking the time or rhythm; a 
 combination like that of the pipe and tabour, 
 would form an adequate accompaniment to 
 the dance, as the burden would to the song. 
 As most of the mediasval learning and accom- 
 plishments came through the Church, it is 
 very reasonable to assume that the methods 
 of the Church would be reflected in the prac- 
 tices of every-day life. And as it is known 
 that the organs employed in the service were 
 so constructed as to be adapted only for the 
 purposes of melody, it is scarcely probable 
 that harmony should have been in use as an 
 accompaniment to secular songs and tunes. 
 Although instruments were employed as ac- 
 
 (6) 
 
ACCOMPANIMENT. 
 
 cojnpaniments to the voice, there is no reason 
 for supposing that they were not at times 
 engaged in the performance of purely in- 
 strumental pieces, but on the contrary, the 
 numerous instances in which musical in- 
 struments are mentioned in ancient English 
 poetry, show that the performers were not 
 only accustomed to accompany singing with 
 their several instruments, but they also imply 
 that they were able to play independent 
 pieces. [Mediaeval musical instruments.] 
 
 In some instances we find that the accom- 
 panist was distinct from the singer, for 
 example: " In Alwyni episcopi . . . et durante 
 pietancia in aula conventus, sex ministralli, 
 cum quatuor citharisatoribus, faciebant minis- 
 tralcias suas." Regis. Prior: S. Swithini 
 Winton (c. 1374). It cannot be ascertained 
 whether the harpers did anymore than play the 
 same melody to which the poems were recited, 
 or by the constant repetition of certain notes 
 serve any other purpose but that of main- 
 taining the pitch or rhythm. 
 
 The following quotation from David Lynd- 
 say's poem, "The Dreme," 1579, implies 
 the performance ofa purely instrumental piece: 
 
 " Thay beir ane aid stok-image throu the toun, 
 With talbrone, trumpet, shahne, and clarione." 
 
 Whether this combination produced con- 
 cord, or unison, it is impossible now to de- 
 cide, for, as before stated, the loose manner 
 with which the terms melody and harmony are 
 employed helps to confuse, rather than to 
 make clear all conjecture. For example : 
 
 " And all above there lay a gay sautrie, 
 On which he made on nightis melodye.'' Chaucer. 
 
 Again, in the " Lyfe of Saint Werburge," 
 printed by Pynson in 1521, we read: 
 
 " Certa3me at each course of service in the Hall 
 Trumpettes blewe up, shalmes, and claryouns 
 Shewynge theyr melody, with toynes musycall " 
 
 and again in the same poem : 
 
 " A singuler Mynstrell, all other ferre passynge 
 Toyned his instrument in pleasaunt armony." 
 
 In the two first quoted examples, that which 
 is called melody might well be harmony, and 
 in the third, that which is called harmony 
 might well be melody. 
 
 In nearly every list of instruments of min- 
 strelsy, there are one or two pulsatile instru- 
 ments spoken of — " Tymphans, labours, 
 nacaires," whose use was to mark the rhythm, 
 sung, played, or danced to ; but where these 
 regular instruments were wanting, the clap- 
 ping of hands, the beating of a stick upon a 
 shovel, or the clashing of two sticks together, 
 or the " ancient natural instruments of our 
 islands," as Dr. Burney calls the tongs, 
 marrow- bones and cleavers, salt -box and 
 rolling-pin, with the hurdy-gurdy, were em- 
 ployed as accompaniments to rustic songs 
 
 or dances. These " natural instruments'' 
 required little skill to use, beyond a correct 
 sense of rhythm, though there are instances 
 on record where some degree of science was 
 brought to bear in their employment. The 
 butchers of Clare Market, in the parish of 
 St. Clement Danes in London, were at one 
 time noted for their aptitude in playing tunes 
 with marrow-bones upon cleavers of various 
 sizes capable of sounding a scale of notes, in 
 a manner somewhat similar to the hand-bell 
 ringing in the North of England, but their 
 performances were ultimately made independ- 
 ent, and therefore could scarcely be considered 
 as accompaniments. Addison's description 
 of a Burlesque musician, and his cultivation 
 of strange instruments for accompaniment, 
 may be read with interest in reference to this 
 subject (Spectator, No. 570.) Skelton, in his 
 description of Riot, speaks of one, who 
 
 " Counter he coulde, O Lux, upon a potte," 
 probably meaning that while he sang the 
 melody of the ancient hymn, " O Lux, beata 
 Trinitas," he would beat upon the vessel he 
 had been drinking out of, a part, in derisive 
 imitation of the florid counterpoint sung 
 by the monks during service. The poets and 
 authors of the middle ages give no lucid in- 
 formation concerning the abilities of the 
 musicians of their times, probably on the 
 presumption, that because the method of 
 their performances was well known and 
 understood by every one, no particular de- 
 scription was needed. All our knowledge on 
 the subject is derived from inference, and so 
 it is assumed that the minstrels and later 
 musicians, previously to the i6th century, 
 had little, if any, knowledge of harmony; or 
 if they had, they probably left the practice of 
 it to the Church. 
 
 There is a further reason for supposing 
 that the ancient minstrels accompanied their 
 songs by playing the same melody which was 
 sung, in the character of the majority of the 
 instruments alluded to in old writings : — 
 
 " Harpys, fythales, and eke rotys 
 Lutys, ribibles, and geternes, 
 Orguys, cytolis, monacordys 
 .... trumpes, and trumpettes 
 Lowde shaluys, and doncettes." 
 
 The drone of the bagpipe and the funda- 
 mental sound of the drum might suggest the 
 formation of harmony; the character and con- 
 struction of the earliest piece of harmony we 
 possess, " Sumer is icumen in" offering 
 curious confirmation of this notion. 
 
 All writers are agreed as to this being the 
 oldest song with musical notes extant. War- 
 ton believed it to belong to the 15th century, 
 but Sir Frederick Madden showed it to be at 
 least two hundred years older; and judging 
 by the character in which it is written, and 
 
 (7) 
 
ACCOMPANIMENT. 
 
 other evidence, fixed its date at about the year 
 1250. It is among the Harleian MSS. in the 
 British Museum. The piece is arranged as a 
 continuous melody; but by commencing that 
 melody at certain indicated places, it forms a 
 canon in the unison in four parts, with a "pes," 
 a foot, or burden for two other parts. 
 
 The first attempts at accornpaniment in har- 
 mony were arranged for the voice, in a manner 
 that to our ears would be simply barbarous [Dia- 
 phony], [Descant], [Fa burden]. It was only 
 by slow degrees that it was discovered that 
 certain instruments were capable of producing 
 complicated sounds forming harmony, and 
 were therefore especially valuable for accom- 
 paniment. The chief among these instruments 
 was the Lute, which appears to have been a 
 favourite instrument in Chaucer's time, and to 
 have continued in favourin one form or another, 
 until the virginals and spinets, being of more 
 convenient form and less trouble to keep in or- 
 der, completely superseded it. [Tablature.] 
 
 The opportunity the virginals and spinets 
 gave for the employment of both hands, 
 tended considerably towards the improvement 
 of accompaniments, as well as developing 
 the power of execution for solo purposes. 
 " Consorts of viols " were at first used only 
 " for Cantilenas and tunes for dancing," 
 though compositions were occasionally so 
 arranged as " to be apt for viols or voyces," 
 and when instruments were employed with 
 voices they generally played the same notes 
 as the voices, a practice observed until the 
 time of Handel. No doubt an organist ac- 
 companying some of the services and anthems 
 in Church, occasionally indulged in a little 
 license in the matter of fingering, and intro- 
 duced flourishes and cadences according to 
 fancy, while the choir were singing the plain 
 vocal harmonies. A copy of a portion of 
 Gibbons's service in F [1583-1624] found 
 among the old music in MagHalen College, 
 Oxford, in which such variations are written 
 down, is still preserved. Although the MS. 
 belongs to the middle of the 17th century, 
 there is no doubt but that it records a con- 
 tinuation of a custom of long standing. The 
 character of this accompaniment may be seen 
 by the following quotation : 
 
 Voices, 
 
 ACCOMP, 
 
 A comparison of the vocal with the organ 
 score, here shows that the ornaments intro- 
 duced are such as involve little, if any depar- 
 ture from the rules of harmony, while they 
 impart a distinct character to the accompani- 
 ment, such a character as most of the spinet 
 or harpsichord music of the period possessed. 
 The peculiarity of all old key-board stringed 
 instruments, their feebleness of tone and 
 their lack of sustaining power, probably sug- 
 gested to the skilful player the necessity of 
 breaking up the accompaniments to vocal 
 music, ornamentsand graces being considered 
 perfectly legitimate so long as they did not 
 interfere with the essential notes of the har- 
 mony as represented by the figured bass. 
 But as in many cases it was doubtless deemed 
 unwise to attempt display in the accompani- 
 ments during the singing, therefore all exhi- 
 bition of skill on the part of the accompanist 
 was reserved for the ritornelli, with which 
 songs of the 17th century abound. 
 
 It was Monteverde [1568-1643] who, among 
 other of his art-benefiting inventions, con- 
 ceived the idea of constructing independent 
 accompaniments for instruments, breaking 
 
 ) 
 
ACCOMPANIMENT ACCORD. 
 
 up long notes into effective repetitions, and 
 so imparting novel rhythms and striking in- 
 strumental figures. From his conception 
 arose the Italian school of accompaniment — 
 a school which influenced all musical teaching 
 for more than a hundred years, and only de- 
 cayed with the growth of a distinct style of 
 instrumentation, the result of Italian ideas 
 implanted in the German mind, after which 
 the Symphony and Sonata, retaining names 
 derived from their connection with vocal 
 music, became independent and distinct, and 
 accompaniment once more was lifeless and 
 uninteresting, a mere adventitious aid. In- 
 difference with regard to the part accompani- 
 ment should play, marked most of the 
 music produced for a long period, but the 
 power of the genius of Mendelssohn aroused 
 new thoughts and new deeds, and care as 
 great as that involved in the production of a 
 vocal piece was employed in accompaniments, 
 with true artistic effect. The followers of 
 Wagner, in imitation of him, are striving 
 to impart a new form to accompaniment, 
 by giving to every instrument employed, 
 a certain amouiit of independent work to 
 do — a practice at once laudable and in- 
 genious, but neither novel nor needful. It 
 is laudable, for the reason that it is as well to 
 interest the performer; it is ingenious, as no 
 common amount of thought is involved in its 
 production; it is not novel, for it was the 
 practice of the Italian writers, and it is not 
 needful, as accompaniment should always be 
 subservient to the thing accompanied. 
 
 Purcell was among the first of the musicians 
 in England who attempted to give colour to the 
 accompaniments in the scores of his operas, 
 but only occasionally introduced variety in the 
 organ parts of his Anthems. The works of 
 the musicians of the latter portion of the 17th 
 and the commencement of the i8th centuries, 
 show a desire to depart from the habitual rule, 
 by giving independent melodies to the accom- 
 panying parts, specimens of which may be 
 traced in Blow's Amphion, and contemporary 
 works. The scores of J. S. Bach's "Passions" 
 and other of his compositions, contain some 
 excellent specimens of free instrumental parts 
 in the accompaniments, and many of Handel's 
 ohbligati foreshadow the true use of orchestral 
 colouring, a shadow to which substance was 
 given by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. 
 
 The influence of conventionality may be 
 observed in accompaniments from the earliest 
 period to the present day. Because it was 
 the practice in olden time to accompany 
 recitative upon the " cembalo," composers 
 rarely thought of setting down more than a 
 figured bass to these parts of their scores, 
 excepting when the recitative took something 
 of the form of the " soliloquas ;" and because 
 
 the " maestro di cembalo" became an obso- 
 lete office in the orchestra, as soon as 
 conductors considered it to be undignified 
 to do other than direct with the baton, it 
 was necessary that some mode of accom- 
 panying recitative should be devised, and 
 the figured bass was interpreted by a violon- 
 cello and double bass. Trumpets and drums 
 were generally employed together, as much 
 for rhythmical, as for any other purpose ; 
 and many other instances of the thoughtless 
 practice of taking things for granted, and 
 doing that which was held to be correct, 
 because it was the custom, are to be found 
 in well-known works of the lesser lights in 
 music, the great thinkers constantly de- 
 spising ordinary forms, and inventing new 
 ones, which in their turn became models 
 for imitation, and therefore standards of con- 
 ventionality. 
 
 The bagpipe, fiddle, lute, cittern, virginals, 
 spinett, harpsichord, pianoforte, harp, and guitar 
 have each had their turns of favour and appre- 
 ciation at several times. 
 
 The use of the guitar for an accompani- 
 ment became exceedingly popular during 
 the latter part of the last century, to the in- 
 jury of the makers of pianofortes, until Kirk- 
 man gave away a number of cheap guitars to 
 milliners' apprentice girls, and so made the 
 instrument unfashionable. The portability of 
 both harp and guitar rendered them useful 
 for the purposes of accompaniment, more 
 especially at a time when the pianoforte was 
 less frequently found in dwelling-houses 
 than it is now; but improved mechanism and 
 tone, together with smallness of cost, have 
 made the pianoforte the most available ac- 
 companying instrument in private as well as 
 in public ; and the fact that one is to be found 
 in nearly every house has contributed greatly 
 towards the neglect of more portable means 
 of accompanying songs and other household 
 music. 
 
 Accompanist. The player who accom- 
 panies. The qualities necessary to form a 
 good accompanist are, (i) that he possess a 
 knowledge of reading music at sight, and of 
 harmony ; (2) that he should be acquainted 
 with the style of the music performed ; (3) 
 that he should know the characteristics of 
 those performers whom he is called upon to 
 accompany; (4) that while playing with firm- 
 ness and decision, he should notattemptto lead. 
 
 Accoppiato [It.) Joined or connected. 
 
 Accord {Fr.) (i) The series of notes to 
 which an instrument is tuned, e.g.. Accord 
 du Violon, J' » = 
 
 hence, Accord a Vouvert, open strings, q.v. 
 
 (2) A chord. Concord, hence, d'accord; in 
 tune. 
 
 (9) 
 
accord:^ — ACOUSTICS. 
 
 Accord de sixte Ajoutee (Fr.) The 
 chord of the Added Sixth. [Added Sixth.] 
 Accordamento (It.) ] . 
 Accordanza (It.) / Agreement in tune. 
 
 Accordando (It.) Tuning. 
 
 Accordare (It.) To tune. 
 
 Accordato (It.) Tuned. 
 
 Accordatura (It.) [Accord.] 
 
 Accorder (Fr.) To tune an instrument. 
 
 Accordeur (Fr.) A tuner. 
 
 Accordion. A simple musical instru- 
 ment, of oblong form, invented by Damian, 
 of Vienna, in 1829. The tone is produced 
 by the inspiration and respiration of a pair 
 of bellows acting upon metallic reeds or 
 tongues. [Free reed.] 
 
 The first instruments had only four buttons, 
 or keys, each of which acted on two reeds, 
 making the compass one octave of diatonic 
 scale, but with a separate arrangement, by 
 which these notes might be accompanied with 
 a tonic and dominant harmony. At first it 
 was used only as a toy, but the introduction 
 of a chromatic scale made the Accordion more 
 capable of producing a varied melody and 
 harmony, although the awkwardness of the 
 form was always a hindrance to its use. The 
 German Accordion or Concertina (q.v.) of 
 hexagonal form made the principle of the 
 accordion more acceptable. The English 
 concertina (5. D.)and the harmohium (g.w.) are 
 superior instruments constructed upon similar 
 principles. 
 
 Accordo (It.) Concord, agreement, har- 
 mony. 
 
 Accordoir (Fr.) A tuning key or hammer. 
 
 Accresciuto (It.) Increased. Augmented 
 as applied to intervals. 
 
 Acetabulum. An ancient instrument, 
 originally made of earthenware, afterwards 
 of metal, which, when struck with a rod, 
 produced a sweet sound. [See an allusion 
 to it in Boet. de Inst. Mus., Lib. i. cap. xi.] 
 
 Achromatic. Not chromatic. 
 
 Achtelnote (Ger.) ' A quaver J* The 
 eighth part of a semibreve. 
 
 Achtelpause (Ger.) A quaver rest 1 
 
 A chula (Port.) A dance similar to the 
 Fandango, q.v. 
 
 Acoustics. The science which treats of 
 the nature and laws of sound. 
 
 2. The sensation of ^ound consists in the 
 communication of a vibratory motion to the 
 tympanic membrane of the ear, through slight 
 and rapid changes in the pressure of the air 
 on its outer surfacey' 
 
 3. The mode of propagation of sound in 
 air may be explained in the following manner. 
 Suppose a small particle of fulminating silver 
 to be exploded in free air ; the air , particles 
 immediately contiguous are driven outwards 
 in all directions by the explosion, their motion 
 
 ( I 
 
 is almost instantaneously communicated to 
 the adjacent ones, those first agitated coming 
 at the same time to rest; the adjacent ones 
 pass on the impulse in the same way to those 
 at a greater distance, and so on ; thus the 
 explosion gives rise to what may be looked 
 on as a rapidly expanding shell of constant 
 thickness, containing at any instant between 
 its exterior and interior surfaces a stratum of 
 agitated air particles each one of which per- 
 forms a single vibration to and fro during th^- 
 passage of the shell over it ; in other words 
 the exterior and interior surfaces of the shell \ 
 are at any time the loci of all those points at 
 which the particles at that instant come under 
 the influence of the impulse^ and are left at 
 rest by it respectively, so that its thickness 
 depends both on the rapidity of their vibration 
 and the rate at which they pass on the 
 impulse, one to anotheij\* Let us suppose 
 now that immediately ai!er the first explo- 
 sion a second were to take place ; then, in 
 exactly the same way there would be a 
 second pulse propagated in all directions. 
 If a series of explosions at regular intervals 
 were to take place, there would be a regular 
 series of these expanding shells ; and if the 
 intervals were sufficiently small, the alternate 
 changes of pressure, due to the successive 
 collisions of the air particles against the tym- 
 panic membrane of an ear in the neighbour- 
 hood of the explosions would convey to the, 
 brain a sensation of a continuous note. Ex- 
 actly the same thing occurs if, for a series of 
 explosions, are substituted the vibrations of 
 an elastic body ; and it is, in general, by the 
 latter means that all sounds, and especially 
 musical ones, are produced. The motion of 
 a sound wave must not be confounded with 
 the motion of the particles which transmit 
 the wave. In the passage of a single wave 
 each particle over which it passes makes 
 only a small excursion to and fro, the semi- 
 length of which is called the amplitude of 
 the vibration, the time occupied during one 
 vibration being called its period. 
 
 4. The intensity of a sound is proportional 
 to the square of the maximum velocity of the 
 vibrating particles. It also approximately 
 varies inversely as the square of the distance 
 from the origin of the sound ; for, supposing 
 the latter to be produced at a uniform loudness, 
 the same amount of energy has to be com- 
 municated to the particles contained within 
 the external and internal surfaces of shells of 
 the same thickness but of different radii. For 
 
 * The word vibration must be taken in its full sense, 
 viz. : as meaning the whole motion of the particle dur- 
 ing the time that elapses from the instant it sets off 
 from its origina.1 position to the instant when it next 
 regains that position, and is ready to start again over 
 the same path. 
 
 or 
 
ACOUSTICS. 
 
 example, if we take a shell of air whose in- 
 ternal radius is one foot, one of the same thick- 
 ness whose radius is two feet will contain 
 four times the quantity of matter ; one whose 
 radius is three feet, nine times the quantity, 
 and so on. Thus the amount of matter 
 over which a given quantity of energy has 
 to be distributed augments as the square 
 of the distance from the origin of sound, and 
 therefore the amount of energy, or, what 
 comes to the same thing, the intensity of 
 the sound, diminishes in the same ratio. 
 
 5. At a temperature of zero Centigrade 
 sound is propagated at the rate of about 
 logo feet per second, and this speed aug- 
 ments about two feet per second for every 
 additional degree of temperature ; thus at 
 15° C. the rate of propagation would be 
 about 1 1 20 feet per second. The velocity 
 of sound in air depends on the elasticity 
 of the air in relation to its density. It is 
 also directly proportional to the square root 
 of the elasticity, and inversely proportional 
 to the square root of the density. Now 
 for a constant temperature the elasticity 
 varies as the density, hence in this case 
 they neutralise one another, and the velocity 
 of the sound is independent of the density 
 of the air. 
 
 6. One sound differs from another not only 
 in quantity, but also in quality and pitch.* 
 The pitch of a sound depends on the num- 
 ber of vibrations per second by which it 
 is caused : the greater this number is the 
 higher is the sound, and vice versa; thus 
 pitch is a more or less relative term, and it is 
 therefore necessary to have some standard to 
 which different sounds may be referred. This 
 standard is so chosen that the middle C of the 
 pianoforte shall be produced by 264 vibrations 
 per second .+ 
 
 7. Knowing the velocity of sound in air 
 we can estimate the different wave lengths 
 corresponding to notes of different pitch in 
 the following manner. The wave length is 
 the distance through which the sound tra- 
 vels while any particle over which it passes 
 describes a complete vibration; hence, if 
 we know the number of vibrations the par- 
 ticle performs per second, the required wave 
 length will be found by dividing the number 
 of feet over which the sound travels per 
 second, by that number. Now, by means 
 of an instrument invented by Cagniard de 
 la Tour, and by him named the syren, the 
 number of vibrations corresponding to a note 
 
 * For the cause of the different qualities of sound 
 see § 16. 
 
 t That is, according to German pitch ; at present 
 there is no definitely fixed standard in general use in 
 England. 
 
 of any given pitch can be determined very 
 exactly. For a detailed account of this 
 instrument and of its improvements by Helm- 
 holtz, the reader is referred to Tyndall's 
 Lectures on Sound, p. 64 ; but to describe 
 it shortly it may be said in its original form 
 to consist of two equal discs, one forming the 
 top of a hollow fixed cylinder into which air 
 can be driven, the other capable of revolving 
 concentrically upon it with the smallest pos- 
 sible amount of friction. A circle of small 
 holes equidistant from each other is bored upon 
 each disc and concentric with it ; those in 
 the upper disc being inclined slantwise to its 
 plane, those in the lower being slantwise 
 also but in the opposite direction ; there are 
 also arrangements both for driving a constant 
 supply of air into the hollow cylinder, and for 
 registering the number of revolutions the 
 upper disc performs in a minute ; thus, when 
 the upper disc is so turned that its holes co- 
 incide with those of the lower, and air is forced 
 into the cylinder, it will pass out through the 
 perforations, and by reason of their obliquity 
 will cause the moveable disc to revolve with 
 a rapidity corresponding to the pressure ; and 
 each time that the holes of the former coincide 
 with those of the latter a number of little puffs 
 of air get through simultaneously, giving rise 
 to an agitation in the surrounding atmosphere 
 which spreads round in all directions in the 
 way before described, and if the pressure of 
 the air in the cylinder is sufficient^ the series 
 of impulses thus given will link themselves 
 together, forming a continuous note. ^ 
 
 Hence, to determine the number of vibra- 
 tions per second, corresponding to a sound 
 of given pitch, we have only to maintain 
 such a pressure of air in the syren as will 
 cause it to produce the same sound for the 
 space of a minute, and note the number 
 of revolutions registered in that time. Now, 
 for every revolution of the upper disc, the 
 same number of sound waves are propagated 
 around as there are perforations, hence the 
 whole number propagated in a second will 
 be the product of the number of holes and 
 number of revolutions per minute divided by 
 60 ; and this result will evidently be the 
 required number of vibrations per second 
 caused by the given sound. 
 
 To apply this to find the wave length cor- 
 responding to the note given by the open C 
 string of the violoncello, we should adjust the 
 
 J It should be remarked that the pitch of the sound 
 would be exactly the same if there were only one per- 
 foration in the revolving disc, the number of holes 
 merely serving to increase its intensity ; if the number 
 of holes in the revolving disc is less than the number in 
 the lower one, those of the former must be situated so 
 as all to coincide simultaneously with an equal number 
 of the latter. 
 
 ( IT ) 
 
ACOUSTICS. 
 
 supply of air to the syren till it gives a note 
 of the same pitch. Supposing the number 
 of holes in each disc to be i8, the number of 
 revolutions per minute would be found to be 
 220. Hence the number of vibrations per 
 second of the string, and therefore of the sur- 
 rounding particles of air, would be "'"^^ '" =66. 
 Supposing the temperature were 16° C the 
 velocity of sound would be about 1122 feet 
 per second, and the quotient, -obtained by 
 dividing this number by 66 gives the wave 
 length corresponding to that number of vi- 
 brations per second; that is, just 17 feet ; the 
 sound then will travel through this distance 
 during the time the string takes to perform 
 one complete vibration. 
 
 8. If the number of vibrations per second 
 be increased, the pitch of the sound caused 
 by them is raised, and vice versa, as can easily 
 be illustrated by driving more qr less air into 
 the syren, and observing the sound it pro- 
 duces. Dr. Wollaston has shown (Phil. Trans. 
 1820, p. 336) that if the number be increased, 
 beyond a certain limit the sound becomes 
 inaudible, although this limit is not the same 
 for all ears, some persons being perfectly 
 sensible of sounds inaudible to others. In 
 general it is probable that no sound is heard 
 when the number of vibrations per second 
 exceeds 40,000 ; while on the other hand the 
 perception of pitch appears to begin when 
 the number of vibrations is somewhere be- 
 tween 8 and 32, the wave length being in 
 the former case about 0-03 of an inch — in 
 the latter ranging from 140 feet to 35 feet. 
 
 9. Sounds are primarily divided into two 
 classes, musical and unmusical ; the former 
 being defined as those produced by regular 
 or periodic vibrations, the latter by such as 
 are irregular or non-periodic. These defini- 
 tions require some explanation, since, by 
 sounding together a sufficient number of notes 
 sufficiently near in pitch, it is plain that we 
 could produce as unmusical a sound as we 
 pleased, although the components would be 
 themselves due to periodic vibrations, and 
 would be therefore musical. The answer to 
 this is found in the fact that when two or 
 more sets of sound waves impinge on the 
 ear at the same instant, since each one cannot 
 impress its own particular vibration on the 
 tympanum contemporaneously with those of 
 the others, the motion of the latter membrane 
 must be in some way the sum of all the 
 different motions which the different sets of 
 waves would have separately caused it to 
 follow ; and this is what in fact does happen, 
 i.e., the vibrations due to each set combine and 
 throw the tympanum into a complicated state 
 of vibration, causing the sensation of the conso- 
 nance or combination of the different sounds 
 from which the sets of sound waves proceed. 
 
 Now the unassisted ear is only able to dis. 
 tinguish the separate notes oiat of a number 
 sounded at once up to a certain point; beyond 
 this it fails to distinguish them individually, 
 and is conscious only of a confused mixture 
 of sounds which approaches the more nearly 
 to the character of noise the more components 
 there are, or the nearer they lie to one another. 
 A noise, then, may be defined as a, sound so 
 compHcated that the ear is unable to resolve 
 or analyse it into its original constituents. 
 
 10. As the character of a sound, depends 
 upon that of the vibrations by which it is 
 caused, it is important to know of what kind 
 the latter must be in order that they may give 
 the sensation of a perfectly simple tone, i.e., 
 one which the ear cannot resolve into any 
 others. Such a vibration is perhaps best 
 realised by comparison with that of the pen- 
 dulum of a clock when it is swinging only a 
 little to and fro. Under these circumstances 
 it is performing what are called harmonic vi- 
 brations, and when the air particles in the 
 neighbourhood of the ear are caused by any 
 means to vibrate according to the same law 
 as that which the pendulum follows, and also 
 with sufficient rapidity, a perfectly simple 
 tone is the result. Such a tone is, however, i. 
 rarely heard except when produced by means 
 specially contrived for the purpose. If a note 
 on the pianoforte is struck, the impact of the 
 hammer on the string throws it into a state 
 of vibration which, though periodic, is not 
 really harmonic ; consequently we do not hear 
 a perfectly simple tone, but one which^ is in 
 reality a mixture of several higher simple 
 tones with that one which corresponds to the 
 actual length of the string. The former are, 
 however, generally faint, and become associated 
 by habit with the latter, appearing to form 
 with it a single note of determinate pitch. 
 These higher tones are the harmonics of the 
 string, and are produced by vibrations whose 
 numbers per second are respectively twice, 
 three times, four times, &c., as great as those 
 of the fundamental tone of the string (§ 13). • 
 The same may be said of the notes of all ' 
 instruments, including the human voice, which 
 are usually employed for the production of 
 musical sounds. 
 
 11. Since the consonance of two or more 
 such simple tones always gives a more or 
 less musical sound, and since also the ear 
 is always more or less capable of resolving 
 the latter into its components, the question 
 naturally arises whether all sounds are not, 
 theoretically at least, resolvable into simple 
 tones. The answer to this is contained in a 
 celebrated theorem due to the French mathe- 
 matician Fourier. He has shown that any 
 periodic vibration is the result of combining 
 together a certain number of simple harmonic 
 
 ( 12) 
 
ACOUSTICS. 
 
 vibrations whose periods are aliquot parts of 
 that of the former ; and we have conclusive 
 reasons for supposing that, in the same way 
 as a compound periodic vibration gives rise 
 to a compound sound (§ 9), so the simple tones 
 into which the ear resolves the latter are re- 
 spectively due to the simple harmonic vibra- 
 tions which, as the above mentioned theorem 
 proves, make up the former.* 
 
 12. The theorem of Fourier referred to in 
 the preceding article is of such great impor- 
 tance in all questions connected with acoustics 
 that a few words illustrative of it may not be 
 out of place.f 
 
 If a peg is fixed into the rim of a wheel 
 capable of revolving about a fixed centre, and 
 at right angles to the plane of the wheel, and 
 if the latter is caused to rotate uniformly and 
 is looked at edgeways the peg will appear to 
 move up and down in a straight line, its velo- 
 city being the greatest at the middle of its 
 course, and diminishing as it approaches each 
 end. Under these circumstances the peg 
 appears to perform harmonic vibrations. 
 
 Now suppose a second wheel, also fur- 
 nished with a peg in its rim, is made to 
 revolve about the peg of the first as an axis. 
 If the latter is at rest the peg of the second 
 will appear, looked at as above, to perform 
 harmonic vibrations ; but if the former is also 
 caused to revolve these vibrations are no 
 longer harmonic, but are the result of adding 
 together the separate harmonic vibrations of 
 the two pegs, in other words of superposing 
 the harmonic vibrations which the second peg 
 performs if the first wheel is at rest, upon 
 those which the first peg performs when it is 
 itself in motion. Now it is evident that by con- 
 tinuing this process indefinitely, and by giving 
 the wheels different radii, and different uniform 
 velocities of rotation, the final motion of the 
 last peg looked at sideways as before, would 
 be an exceedingly complicated one, and that 
 an infinite number of different vibrations could 
 be produced by varying the number, position 
 at starting, radii, and velocities of the wheels, 
 though it could not be assumed without proof 
 that every possible variety could be so pro- 
 duced. This however is what Fourier's 
 theorem asserts, provided that the velocities 
 of rotation of the several wheels of the series 
 
 * A periodic vibration is any movement which recurs 
 after equal intervals or periods of time, such as that of 
 a uniformly working punching machine, or of the ham- 
 mer of a clock bell when it is striking, and so on. It 
 should be observed that though all harmonic vibrations 
 are periodic, it is by no means the case that all periodic 
 vibrations are harmonic. See foot note to § 3. 
 
 ■f For a complete discussion and demonstration of 
 the theorem, the reader is referred to the work on 
 Acoustics by the late Professor Donkin, published in 
 the Clarendon Press series. 
 
 are in the proportion of i, 2, 3, 4, &c. \ In 
 other words, every periodic vibration is the re- 
 sultant of a certain number of harmonic vibra- 
 tions whose periods are one-half, one-third, 
 one-fourth, &c., &c., that of the former. 
 
 13. A harmonic scale is formed by taking a 
 series of notes produced by vibrations whose 
 numbers in a given time are respectively as 
 I, 2, 3, 4, &c. 
 
 If we take as fundamental tone the open C 
 string of the violoncello, the series of tones 
 which with it form a harmonic scale will be 
 as follows : — 
 
 * 
 
 The notes marked with an asterisk do not 
 exactly represent the corresponding tones ; but 
 are the nearest representatives which the 
 modern notation supplies. All the notes of the 
 harmonic scale can theoretically be produced 
 by either a single string, or by a simple tube 
 used as a trumpet. If we lightly touch the 
 string of a violin, without causing it to come 
 in contact with the finger board, at any one of 
 a series of points dividing it into a number of 
 equal parts, and excite it by means of a bow, 
 it no longer vibrates as a whole, 'but separates 
 into the number of equal vibrating segments 
 which is the least possible consistent with 
 that point forming one of their points of di- 
 vision ; the latter remain stationary, or ver)- 
 nearly so, and are called nodes, their number 
 being evidently just one less than that of the 
 segments. It is plain that if the point of ap- 
 plication of the bow be one of a series of 
 nodes, no sound will be produced, provided, 
 of course, the finger remains on any other of 
 the same series, and this may serve to ex- 
 plain why it is sometimes difficult to bring 
 out the higher harmonics of a violin, as the 
 bow may, unconsciously to the performer, 
 be passing exactly over one of the corres- 
 ponding nodes. The first harmonic, as it is 
 called, of the open string is produced by 
 touching it while in a state of vibration at its 
 middle point, and thereby dividing it into two 
 equal portions, both of which vibrate twice as 
 fast as the whole, and accordingly give the 
 octave. The second harmonic, or the twelfth 
 of the fundamental, corresponds to a division 
 of the string into three equal portions, and so 
 on. And generally, in order to produce the 
 «'h harmonic the finger should touch the 
 string at any one of the series of points 
 which divide it into n equal portions. § In 
 
 X The order in which the wheels are arranged with 
 respect to their velocities is quite arbitrary. 
 
 § That is supposing n to be a prime number {i.e. 
 having no divisors). If such is not the case, it is plain 
 that some points of the series when touched would give 
 harmonics of lower pitch. 
 
 ( 13 ) 
 
ACOUSTICS. 
 
 practice, however, the finger should always 
 touch the string at the point of division adja- 
 cent to either end. 
 
 14. The harmonics of a simple tube used as 
 a trumpet are the same as those of a vibrating 
 string, viz., the octave, twelfth, fifteenth, &c., 
 and are produced by modifications of the breath 
 and lips ; but there is a great difference be- 
 tween the nature of the vibrations which 
 produce sound, in the case of strings and 
 pipes. In the former case the vibrations are 
 executed at right angles to the length of the 
 string, that is, are lateral, while in the latter 
 they are in the direction of the pipe, or longi- 
 tudinal, and are the vibrations of the air itself 
 within it. 
 
 15. When an open organ pipe is sounding 
 its fundamental tone, the particles of the 
 column of air within it are all, more or less, 
 in a state of vibration parallel to the length 
 of the pipe, of which the intensity is at its 
 maximum at the two ends, growing less and 
 less towards the middle, where there is a 
 node, that is, a point of no disturbance. The 
 harmonics of an open pipe follow the same 
 law as those of a simple trumpet, or vibrating 
 string. 
 
 The fundamental note of a stopped organ 
 pipe is an octave below the fundamental note 
 of an open one of the same length. When it 
 is sounding this note there is no node, and 
 the first harmonic is a fifth above the octave, 
 the second a major sixth above the first, the 
 third a diminished fifth above the second, and 
 so on. Or, more simply, the successive tones 
 of the harmonic scale of an open pipe are 
 produced by vibrations which are as i, 2, 3, 4, 
 &c., those of a stopped pipe by vibrations 
 which are as i, 3, 5, 7, &c. 
 
 16. It was stated (§ 10) that the sound of a 
 vibrating string was in general compounded 
 of a number of simple tones, and a well 
 trained ear can detect a considerable number 
 of them. If it were not for these harmonic 
 components the tones of strings, pipes, of 
 the human voice, or in short, of every instru- 
 ment most generally used for the production 
 of sound, would be flat and uninteresting 
 like pure water. Each harmonic compo- 
 nent is by itself a simple tone, ' and is due 
 to the vibration of the corresponding seg- 
 ment of the string superposed upon that 
 of the whole. The same statement applies, 
 mutatis mutandis to pipes, whether open 
 or stopped. That the harmonics of different 
 instruments greatly influence their several 
 characters is observable in the difference of 
 the tones of a flute, and clarinet. A flute 
 is an open pipe, a clarinet a stopped one ; 
 in the former, therefore, the harmonics follow 
 the order of the natural numbers i, 2, 3, 4, 
 and in the latter the order i, 3, 5, 7; — the 
 
 intermediate notes being supplied by opening 
 the lateral orifices of the instrument. 
 
 17. When two simple tones, that is (as ex- 
 plained above), notes deprived of all the har- 
 monic components which under ordinary 
 circumstances accompany them, are sounded 
 together very nearly in unison, there are heard 
 what are called heats succeeding one another 
 at regular intervals, their rapidity depend- 
 ing inversely on the smallness of the interval 
 between the two tones. Their origin may 
 be explained thus : Suppose the tones to be 
 produced by vibrations numbering 500 and 
 501 per second respectively, then every 
 500th sound wave of the former will strike on 
 the tympanum at exactly the same instant as 
 every 501st of the latter and will reinforce it; 
 while at the 250th of the first the correspond- 
 ing wave of the other will be just half a period 
 in front of it. Now a sound wave consists 
 of a condensed and rarefied stratum of air par- 
 ticles, and therefore the condensed portion of 
 one wave here coincides with the rarefied por- 
 tion of the other and neutralises it. Thus there 
 will be an alternate reinforcement and dimi- 
 nution of sound, every second, from the maxi- 
 mum intensity when both waves impinge on 
 the tympanum at the same instant to the 
 minimum when they counteract each other 
 as much as possible and vice versa. 
 
 In the above case it was supposed that the 
 number of vibrations of one tone were only 
 one more per second than those of the other; 
 but if the difference of the numbers had been 
 two, for instance, then in one second the first 
 tone would have gained two vibrations on the 
 other, and there would have been two beats ; 
 and in general the number of beats per second 
 is always equal to the difference between the 
 two rates of vibrations per second. 
 
 18. In the preceding section, the cause of 
 beats due to two simple tones of nearly the 
 same pitch was explained, and it was seen 
 that the number of beats per second was 
 always equal to the difference of the numbers 
 of vibrations per second of each tone ; so 
 that as the interval between them increased so 
 would the number of beats increase in a given 
 time. Hence it is obvious that if the interval 
 became sufficiently large, the beats would suc- 
 ceed each other so rapidly as to become un- 
 distinguished. For instance, in the case of the 
 fifth whose lower and upper tones are pro- 
 duced by vibrations numbering 264 and 396 
 per second respectively, the number of beats 
 per second would be 132 and would therefore 
 be undistinguishable — and still more so sup- 
 posing the upper tone to have 397 or more 
 vibrations per second; but, on the other hand 
 it is a well-known fact, that if an imperfect 
 fifth, octave, or any other tolerably simple 
 interval is played on a violin or violoncello, 
 
 ( 14) 
 
ACOUSTICS. 
 
 the beats are most distinctly heard succeeding 
 each other at perceptible intervals — whereas 
 according to what was said above they should 
 occur so rapidly as not to be heard at all. 
 Two explanations of this phenomenon have 
 been given, of which by far the most simple 
 is due to Helmholtz — and which here follows. 
 It appears that when the tones are simple 
 and at a sufficiently large interval the beats 
 should occur too rapidly to be heard, whereas 
 when the interval is played on a violin they 
 are easily distinguishable. The reason of 
 this fact is that in the latter case the tones 
 are no longer simple but compound — and 
 the beats which are heard are not due to 
 the fundamental tones themselves but arise 
 from two of their harmonic components 
 which are nearly in unison. Suppose the 
 ratio of the interval between the fundamental 
 
 tones to be — , that is, let — be the fraction, re- 
 n n 
 
 duced to its lowest terms,, which is formed by 
 putting in the numerator the number of vibra- 
 tions per second of the upper tone, and in the 
 denominator those of the lower. Then it is 
 plain that the »*•> harmonic component of the 
 tone m, will be of the same pitch as the m*'> 
 harmonic component of the tone n ; for they 
 will, each have exactly mn vibrations per 
 
 secohd."^ Now let jj be the ratio, expressed in 
 
 the same way, of another interval, nearly, but 
 
 not quite, equal to — ; then the «"> harmonic 
 
 component of M will have Mn vibrations per 
 secondjWhile the m*^ component of N will have 
 
 Nm. Now since -rr is nearly equal to — , the 
 
 difference between Mn and Nm will be a 
 small number; and when the two notes are 
 sounded together the number of beats per 
 second will be equal to that difference. 
 
 For example, let — be the ratio of a fifth, 
 
 M 
 that is the fraction f , and let -r^ represent very 
 
 nearly the same interval, say JfJ; then the dif- 
 ference between Mn and Nm, or 794 and 792, 
 is 2; hence if two strings tuned apart at an inter- 
 val represented by |^ are sounded simultane- 
 ously there will be two beats heard per second, 
 ig. When the vibrations of the air due to 
 a number of different sounds which co-exist 
 at the same time are infinitely small, they are 
 merely superposed one on another, so that 
 each separate sound passes through the air 
 as if it alone were present ; and this law of 
 superposition holds, though only approxi- 
 mately, until the vibrations have increased 
 up to a certain limit, beyond which it is no 
 longer true. Vibrations which give rise to a 
 large amount of disturbance produce secon- 
 
 dary waves ; and it is to these that the phe- 
 nomena of resultant tones are due. 
 
 Thus if two notes a fifth apart, for in- 
 stance, are forcibly sounded together, a third 
 tone is heard an octave below the lower of 
 the two, and this ceases to be perceptible when 
 the loudness of the concord diminishes. In 
 general the resultant tone of any combination 
 of two notes is produced .by a number of vi- 
 brations per second equal to the difference of 
 the numbers per second of the notes. This 
 fact formerly led to the supposition that the 
 resultant tone was produced b y th e beats due 
 to the consonance, which, wKffn they occurred 
 with sufficient rapidity, linked themselves to- 
 gether so as to form a continuous musical 
 note. If this were so it is cl ear th at the re- 
 sultant "ought to be heard when the original 
 notes are sounded gently as well as forcibly ; 
 and it was the failure of this condition that 
 led Helmholtz to the re-investigation of 
 their origin. These resultant tones have been 
 named by him difference tones; he has also 
 discovered the existence of resultant tones 
 formed by the. sum of the numbers of vibra- 
 tions of the primaries. These summatioti 
 tones as they are called cannot be explained 
 on the old theory. 
 
 20. The theory of beats explains the law that 
 the smaller the two numbers are, which express 
 the ratio of their vibrations, the smoother 
 is the combination of any two tones. When 
 two simple tones are sounded together whose 
 rates of vibratibn per second differ by more 
 than 132, the beats, according to Helm- 
 holtz, totally disappear. As the difference 
 grows less the beats become more and more 
 audible, the interval meanwhile growing pro- 
 portionately dissonant, till they number 33 
 per second, at which point the dissonance 
 of the interval is at its maximum. 
 
 This, however, depends upon the position 
 of the interval as regards its pitch. For it 
 should be remembered that though the ratio 
 of any given interval remains the same what- 
 ever the absolute pitch of its tones may be, 
 yet the difference of the actual numbers of 
 their vibrations, and therefore the number of 
 beats due to their consonance, alters with it. 
 And vice versa, if the difference of the number 
 of vibrations remains constant, the interval 
 must diminish as its pitch rises. For in- 
 stance, either of the following combinations 
 
 would give rise to 33 beats per second, since 
 the numbers of vibrations of their tones 
 per second, are 99-66, and 528-495, respec- 
 tively. Now it is obvious that in the latter 
 case the dissonance would be far greater than 
 in the former. 
 
 ( IS) 
 
ACOUSTICS ACT. 
 
 The above explanation of the cause of dis- 
 sonance is also due to Helmholtz, and com- 
 pletely solves a question which had remained 
 unanswered since the time of Pythagoras, al- 
 though that philosopher made the important 
 discovery that the simpler the ratio of the two 
 parts into which a vibrating string was divided, 
 the more perfect was the consonance of the 
 two sounds. 
 
 21. The sound of the piano, vioHn, &c., 
 is only in a small measure due to the actual 
 vibration of the strings themselves. The 
 latter communicate their own motion to the 
 sound board of the piano, and to the front, 
 back, and enclosed air of the violin. In the 
 latter instrument communication is made to 
 the surrounding air from that within it by 
 means of the / holes. 
 
 If a string were merely stretched between 
 two pegs firmly fixed in a stone wall and 
 caused to vibrate, scarcely any sound would 
 be heard at all, owing to the mass and rigidity 
 of the wall, which would refuse to be thrown 
 into vibration by so small an amount of energy 
 as that which the string would possess. On 
 the other hand, the sound board of a piano 
 readily answers to the vibrations imposed on 
 it when the string is struck, and having a 
 large surface in contact with the air, every 
 point of which originates a system of waves, 
 it causes a full and powerful sound. 
 
 22. The vibrations of straight rods may be 
 either longitudinal or transversal. The former 
 have not been generally employed for the 
 production of musical sounds ; the latter are 
 such as take place when a tuning fork is 
 struck, or when a musical box or triangle is 
 played. In the case of a curved rod the 
 vibrations are more complicated, but there is 
 one interesting case, namely, that in which 
 the curved rod takes the form of a circular 
 ring. In this case the fundamental tone is 
 obtained by suspending it horizontally by 
 four strings attached at equidistant points in 
 the circumference, and by lightly tapping it 
 midway between any two. If the number of 
 vibrations then given be 2« per second, those 
 of the successive harmonics are proportional 
 to 3M/v/^ 4'*v'l3, 5«V22", &c. 
 
 23. The nature of the vibrations of a bell 
 may be partly inferred from those of a ring, 
 as the bell may be considered as consisting of 
 a connected series of rings of different dia- 
 meters all vibrating simultaneously ; thus the 
 fundamental tone of a bell would cause it to 
 divide itself longitudinally into four equal 
 segments, corresponding to the four quadrants 
 into which the suspended ring divides. The 
 period of its vibrations could not, however, be 
 similarly inferred. 
 
 24. The vibration of plates is not, musically 
 speaking, a subject of niuch interest, as the 
 
 only instruments which depend upon it directly 
 for the production of their sounds, are gongs 
 and cymbals, and the same may be said of 
 membranes. Chladni was the first to show 
 the positions of the lines of nodes on a plate, 
 by clamping it horizontally in a vice, and 
 causing it to vibrate by passing a violin bow 
 over one edge, having previously sprinkled 
 it with a little sand. The lines of nodes being 
 those parts of the plate which, like the nodes of 
 a string (§ 13), are not thrown into vibration, 
 remain covered with the sand which collects 
 there from the vibrating portions, and in this 
 way very curious and interesting figures are 
 produced. 
 
 Act (Acte, Fr.; Akt, Ger.; Atto, It.) A 
 distinct division in the plot or design of a 
 drama or opera, forming an incident complete 
 in itself, but bearing reference to the general 
 idea of the whole. Every dramatic plot natu- 
 rally divides itself into three portions : the 
 exposition, the development, and the conclu- 
 sion ; and this division would seem to point 
 to the separation of a dramatic design into 
 three acts, but where the piece is in four, 
 five, or more acts, it will be found on exami- 
 nation that the tripartite division is essenti- 
 ally the same, greater prominence or care in 
 detail being given to one or more of the 
 sections. Thus the exposition may be spread 
 over two or three acts, the development over 
 one or two, and the conclusion or unravelling, 
 reserved for the final act. 
 
 The classical trilogies — groups of three tra- 
 gedies— 'were most frequently united by a 
 common idea, each forming a complete in- 
 cident, connected by a bond of sympathy, 
 sentiment, or subject with j:he grand design. 
 
 Bartholome Torres Naharro, of Torre in 
 Spain, who wrote at the commencement of 
 the 1 6th century, is said to have been the 
 first who suggested the division of plots into 
 acts, or jornados, although Cervantes claims 
 the invention for himself. It is certain that 
 Naharro's printed dramas are not so divided. 
 
 Donaldson, in speaking of the ^schylean 
 Trilogy (the Agamemnon, Choephoroe, and the 
 Eumenides), says, that the three plays mutu- 
 ally cohere, is plain ; and as they were actu- 
 ally brought on the stage in sequence, they 
 may be regarded as so many acts of one 
 grand heroic drama. This is mentioned, in 
 order t6 vindicate the practice of Shakspeare 
 and other modern dramatists, in compressing 
 into one drama an extensive cycle of human 
 destinies ; Decause the very objection that 
 has been made to the practice is the alleged 
 example of the ancients to the contrary. 
 
 Wagner's Nibelungen trilogy, though stated 
 to be " new from end to end" in idea and 
 design, bears a close affinity to the ancient 
 Greek drama. For the subject is mythical 
 
 ( 16) 
 
 ^ 
 
ACT MUSIC ADDED SIXTH. 
 
 and " the mythical subject has a plastic 
 unity; it is perfectly simple and easily com- 
 prehensible, and it does not stand in need of 
 the numberless small details, which a modern 
 playwright is obliged to introduce to make 
 some historical occurrence intelligible. It 
 is divided into a few important and decisive 
 scenes, in each of which the action arises 
 spontaneously from out of the emotions of 
 the actors ; which emotions, by reason of 
 the small number of such scenes, can be 
 presented in a most complete and exhaustive 
 manner." In many modern operas, the di- 
 vision of the work into acts is made, less 
 with reference to dramatic principles, than to 
 the requirements of the stage-manager. 
 
 Act Music in Oxford. Cantatas com- 
 posed by the Professor of Music, to words 
 written by the Professor of Poetry, and per- 
 formed at grand commemorations in the 
 University. 
 
 Act tunes. [Playhouse tunes.] 
 Acta de Cadence {Fr.) Certain chords by 
 means of which the final cadence is introduced. 
 Action. The mechanism of an organ or 
 pianoforte, or other compound instruments. 
 
 Acuta. The accent attached to certain 
 letters in the Greek system of musical no- 
 tation, thus, M' 
 
 Acuta (Lat.) An organ- stop of high pitch. 
 
 (It.) High, sharp. 
 
 AcutcC claves, acuta loca, acutse voces. 
 Those keys, places, and sounds which lie be- 
 tween 'alamire acutum'and'alamire superacu- 
 tum' of the hexachords, that is between little a 
 
 and A 
 
 m 
 
 Acute. High as to pitch ; opposed to grave. 
 Adagietto (It.) A diminutive of Adagio. 
 Adagio (It.) Slowly ; also a name given 
 to a movement written in that time. 
 Adagio assai 1 ^r ,„ , 
 ^dimoltor^^y'^°^'^- 
 
 cantabile. Very slow, and sus- 
 
 tained, as if being sung. 
 
 patetico. Slow and with pathos. 
 
 pesante. Slow and weighty. 
 
 sostenuto. Slow and sustained. 
 
 Adagiosissimo(/^) (superlative of Adagio) . 
 
 More than usually slow, very slow indeed. 
 
 Added Sixth, Chord of the. This 
 dissonant combination of sounds is so called 
 because it has the appearance of a common 
 chord of the Subdominant of the key in which 
 it occurs, with the addition of a sixth from the 
 bass note, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 
 
 The above example being in the key of C, 
 the Subdominant of the scale is F, and a 
 common chord of F consists of F, A, and C, 
 to which is found added at * the sixth of the 
 bass note : namely, D. Although as a mere 
 name, the expression added sixth may not be 
 without value, it is by many authors con- 
 sidered very doubtful whether the notes, F, 
 A, C are really the constituents of a Sub- 
 dominant common chord ; and the fact that 
 the apparent fifth of this chord (C) is nearly 
 always treated as a discord, and made to 
 descend, is rightly cited as the cause of their 
 doubt. 
 
 This naturally leads to the second explana- 
 tion of the chord, which is, that it is an 
 inversion of the chord of the seventh on the 
 supertonic, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. : 
 
 Seventh on ist Inversion. 
 Supertonic. 
 
 w 
 
 But, the system of constructing chords on 
 eveiy degree of the scale, though once much 
 adopted, is daily losing ground ; and justly, 
 because by it, the particular progression of 
 each component note of a chord, either has 
 to be ignored, or else treated of with an 
 amount of detail which is puzzling to the 
 student, owing to the impossibility of laying 
 down several laws as to the usual progression 
 of stated intervals. 
 
 A third explanation is, that it is a dominant 
 chord — consisting of the fifth, seventh, ninth, 
 and eleventh from that root, e.g. : 
 
 Ex.3. 
 
 The objection to this is, that the bass note 
 of the chord (F), in nine cases out of every 
 ten, ascends in the resolution, as seen in 
 Ex. I. But, on the other hand, it will be 
 found that the ninth (A), and the eleventh 
 (C), descend properly, and it is a fact well 
 known to careful analysts of harmony, that 
 when several discords are heard simultane- 
 ously, the regular resolution of part of them 
 often completely satisfies the ear ; and also, 
 that when the root or generator of a chord 
 is omitted, there is more license in its treat- 
 ment. 
 
 A fourth explanation has been offered : it 
 is to the effect that the chord contains two 
 
 ( 17 ) 
 
ADDED SIXTH AD LIBITUM. 
 
 minor sevenths, namely, F and C, derived 
 from two roots, G and D respectively: 
 
 Ex. 
 
 If both sevenths were properly resolved, 
 consecutive fifths would ensue, therefore one 
 (and generally the lower one) is made to 
 ascend, on the principle just mentioned 
 above. It is also urged that the lower 
 seventh, F, is practically resolved, if the pro- 
 gression be followed to the cadence in C. In 
 favour of this view, it is also stated that 
 chords built upon the dominant of a scale 
 and its fifth are not uncommon, as for in- 
 stance chords of the augmented sixth, &c. 
 
 Whatever explanation be accepted, it is 
 
 manifest that as this chord is made up of 
 
 four notes, it can occur in as many positions, 
 
 each note forming it being in turn placed in 
 
 the bass, e.g. : _ 
 
 ^ Ex. 5. 
 
 It is resolved generally as in the above 
 example, but many other resolutions are 
 occasionally met with, e.g.: 
 
 
 When the other positions of the chord are 
 used, greater scope for varied resolution will 
 be found. 
 
 The chord of the Added Sixth is also to be 
 found in the minor series of chords amongst 
 those authors who accept, though perhaps 
 under protest, the exigencies of the tempered 
 scale, e.g. : 
 
 ri^ 
 
 From this source a vast number of resolu- 
 tions of the chord of the Added Sixth will be 
 attainable, the tracing of which in the works 
 of great masters will be found as instructive 
 as interesting. 
 
 Additato(/i.) Fingered; having signs point- 
 ing out what fingers are to be used for certain 
 passages. [Fingering.] 
 
 Addition. The old name for a dot or 
 point. 
 
 Additional accompaniments. Parts not 
 in an original score, but added by another 
 hand. Such additions may be made for the 
 following reasons: i, because the author acci- 
 dentally left his score in an incomplete state: 
 2, for the supposed purpose of beautifying the 
 original, by supplying parts for instruments 
 either unknown or imperfectly known in the 
 author's time: 3, to enable modern performers 
 to play such parts as were intended for in- 
 struments now obsolete, or those of a similar 
 tone now in use : 4, in order to compensate 
 for the altered constitution of the orchestra, 
 in which the number of stringed instruments 
 is now larger in proportion to the number of 
 reed wind-instruments, than formerly : 5, that, 
 when for the sake of adding to the power or 
 volume of tone other instruments must be 
 added, they should be of varied qualities of 
 tone instead of a mere numerical reinforce- 
 ment of those already used in the original. 
 
 Additional keys. Keys added to enlarge 
 the compass of any instrument. 
 
 Addolorato (7^) In an afflicted manner, 
 sorrowfully. 
 
 A demi.jeu (Fr.) With half the power of 
 the instrument. 
 
 A demi voix {Fr.) With half strength 
 of voice. [Mezzo voce.] 
 
 For two voices or instruments. 
 When the parts of two instru- 
 ments are written on one line 
 
 A deux(Fr.) I the portion to which this term 
 
 A due [It.) \ is prefixed is intended to be 
 performed by both in unison ; 
 the opposite term is divisi 
 q.v. 
 
 A deux temps {Fr.) In common time of 
 two in a bar. 
 
 A deux valse {Fr.) [Valse.J 
 
 Adirato (It.) In an angry manner. 
 
 Adiaphonon. An instrument of the 
 Pianoforte class, not hable to get out of 
 tune. Invented by Schuster of Vienna in 
 1820. 
 
 Adjunct notes. Short notes, not essen- 
 tial to the harmony, occurring on unaccented 
 parts of a bar. [c./. Auxiliary notes. Passing 
 notes.] 
 
 Ad libitum {Lat.) At will, (i) In pas- 
 sages so marked, the time may be altered at 
 the will of the performer. 
 
 ( 18 ) 
 
ADORNAMENTO AIR, 
 
 (2) A cadenza ad libitum is a cadenza, the 
 construction of which is left to the performer. 
 
 (3) Accompaniments ad libitum are addi- 
 tions to a piece, which may be performed, or 
 not, at discretion. 
 
 (4) The word is also used to indicate the 
 point at which a cadenza may be introduced 
 in a concerto. 
 
 Adornamento {It.) An ornament, or grace. 
 
 Ad placitum {Lat.) At pleasure. A free 
 part. A part added to a strict Canon, which 
 does not come under the laws which govern 
 that class of composition. 
 
 Adue corde(/^.) On two strings. [Adeux.J 
 
 stromenti {It.) For two instruments. 
 
 A due voci {It.) For two yoices. 
 
 A dur {Ger.) The key requiring three 
 sharps to complete the major scale. The 
 key of A major. 
 
 Ad videndum {Lat.) A species of coun- 
 terpoint, which was written down or noted, 
 as opposed to that which was alia mente or 
 improvised. 
 
 .ffiolian harp. [EoHan.J 
 
 .ffiolian mode. [Eolian.] 
 
 ^olian piano. A piano having wooden 
 bars, instead of strings, which, when struck 
 by the hammers, produced a tone of peculiar 
 quality. 
 
 ./Eolodicon. jEolodion. A'musical instru- 
 ment, the sounds of which are produced by 
 the striking of steel springs by hammers set 
 in motion by an ordinary key-board. 
 
 .ffiolomelodicon, called also a Choraleon ; 
 an ^olodicon having brass tubes over the 
 metal springs, for the purpose of giving more 
 power to the tone. 
 
 .^olopantalon, a pianoforte in connection 
 with the jEolodicon. 
 
 .^quisonae voces {Lat.) Equal sounds, 
 but not unison ; that is, such .a consonant 
 combination as, a note and its octave ; or a 
 note and its super-octave. 
 
 AEVIA. The vowels in the word Alle- 
 luia, used in mediasval " prick song" as an 
 abbreviation for that word, especially in An- 
 tiphons and endings of chants. 
 
 fs — 2 — g— 5 ■■ — ♦— ■ — : — _ _ n 
 
 
 . _ i_ n 
 
 ■— rH 
 
 
 
 No-tum fe - cit Do - mi-nus, 
 
 rs — = ^V — ■ ■ 
 
 AEVIA. 
 
 
 t^ ■ ■ ■— ■ ■"! 1— 
 
 1 — ^Ni 
 
 
 J ' II 
 
 Sa - lu - ta - re 
 
 of. EWOWM. 
 
 Su - urn. AEVIA. 
 
 AfFabile {It.) In a pleasing kindly manner. 
 Affannato {It.) In a distressed manner. 
 AfTannosamente {It.) Restlessly. 
 Affannoso {It.) Mournfully. 
 Affetto, con {It.) With affection. 
 AfTettuosamente {It.) Affectionately. 
 Affettuoso {It.) Affectionately. 
 
 Affinity. Connection by relation. Keys of 
 affinity. [Relative Keys.] 
 
 Afflitto, or con afflizione {It.) Af- 
 flictedly, with sadness. 
 
 Affrettando {It.) -j 
 
 Affrettato {It.) \ Hastening the time. 
 
 Affrettore {It.) ) 
 
 A fofa {Port.) A dance, like the Fandango, 
 q.v. 
 
 Agevole {It.) \ With facility and light- 
 
 Agevolezza {It.) J ness. 
 
 Aggraver la fugue {Fr.) To augment 
 the subject in a fugue. 
 
 Agilita, con {It.) With sprightliness. 
 
 Agilite {Fr.) Lightness and freedom in 
 playing or singing. 
 
 Agilmente {It.) \ Cheerfully, in a lively 
 
 Agilmento (7^.) / manner. 
 
 Agitamento {It.) Restlessness. 
 
 Agitato {It.) An agitated or restless style 
 of playing or singing, in which the time and 
 expression is broken and hurried. 
 
 Agitazione, con. {It.) With agitation. 
 
 Agnus Dei {Lat.) [Mass.] 
 
 Agoge {Gk.), ayuyii. {Lat. ductus; It. con- 
 ducimento.) The name of one of the sub- 
 divisions of Melopceia,5.a.,amongthe Greeks. 
 The order in which successive notes of the 
 scale followed each other, with regard to 
 their pitch, in a melody. It is thus defined 
 by Aristoxenus : 'aywyi) jxev oiv, earlv ri Sid riuv 
 e^ije (I>d6yyu)v oSoc rov fiikovs. There were three 
 kinds of Agoge: ist, svdaa (ductus rectus), 
 when the melody proceeded from a grave to 
 a higher sound by single degrees, evde'ia jikv 
 KoXCirai ii diro jjapvTtjTOS cle o^vrriTa (Aristides, 
 Quin) ; and, avaKafiwrovaa (ductus revertens), 
 when a higher sound was followed by a 
 lower ; 3rd, vepiip^tpriQ (ductus circumcurrens), 
 when a modulation was introduced in an as- 
 cending, and afterwards, descending succes- 
 sion of notes, by making one of the notes, 
 which was flattened in ascending, sharp on 
 descending ; or, vice versa, e.g. : 
 
 I. Direct. _ 2. Reversed. 
 
 Agoge rhythmica. The succession of me- 
 lodic sounds viewed with regard to their 
 accent, and rhythm. 
 
 A grand chceur {Fr.) For the full choir or 
 chorus. 
 
 A grand orchestre {Fr.) For the full 
 orchestra. 
 
 Agremens {Fr.) Turns, graces, and 
 embellishments in harpsichord music. 
 
 Aigu {Fr.) Acute, high. 
 
 Air. In its modern sense, a tune, or the 
 tune. The word air was formerly used to 
 
AIS ALLA STRETTA. 
 
 describe dance tunes, as " Court Ayres, Pavins, 
 Corants and Sarabands," also melodies for 
 instruments ; for before the invention of the 
 Sonata, the music for concerts (concertos) of 
 violins, consisted altogether of airs in three 
 and sometimes four parts. The word air 
 (aria), first used by Italian writers in the i6th 
 century, was, when translated into English, re- 
 presented by the word " fancy." Lord Bacon 
 in his essay on " Beauty," uses the word air, 
 and perhaps unintentionally describes its cha- 
 racter thus — "the sweetest airs in music are 
 made by a kind of felicity, and not by rule." 
 The air was formerly assigned to the middle 
 voice part or medius, corresponding to our 
 tenor. The practice of giving the air to the 
 soprano, or upper part, arose from the custom 
 of the Italian theatres, where the "musico," 
 while being supposed to sing the air in the 
 tenor, really sang it in the soprano range. It 
 was afterwards adopted by the composers of 
 instrumental music, and the habit of giving 
 the principal melody to the highest voice or 
 instrument has continued until now. [Ballad.] 
 [Sonata.] [Song.] 
 
 Ais {Ger.} The note A sharp. 
 
 Akkord (Ger.') A chord, as Nonen-akkord, 
 chord of the ninth, &c. 
 
 A la, Al, Air, Alia (It. and Fr.) Like, 
 in, at, in the style of. 
 
 A la meme (Fr.) In the original time. 
 
 A la mi re. The name of the note a in 
 the acute and super-acute hexachords of the 
 Guidonian system. [Notation.] 
 
 Alamoth (Heb.) This word occurs in 
 Ps. Ixviii. 25. "First go the sharim (singers), 
 then follow the neginim (kinnors), in the midst 
 are alamoth (damsels playing on the timbrels)." 
 Gesenius and others understand the word to 
 signify treble music, " vox clara et acuta, 
 quasi virginum." But, on the other hand, in 
 I Chron. xv. 20 the names of men are given 
 as players of " nebels on alamoth." It is one 
 of the many obscure musical terms which 
 are met with in the Bible. It however seems 
 to have been associated with nebels, much as 
 the expression sheminith is with kinnors, and 
 may therefore be supposed to refer to the pitch 
 or method of playing on those instruments. 
 
 Alarum, AU'armi (It.) A call to arms. 
 
 " Alarums sounded, and ordnance shot off." 
 
 (Shakspeare.) 
 
 Originally a general shout; afterwards, a 
 recognised signal by trumpets and drums. 
 
 Alberti Bass. A bass consisting oi arpeg- 
 gios or broken harmony, e.g. : 
 
 Z&C. 
 
 so-called after its reputed inventor, Domenico 
 Alberti, who died in 1739. 
 
 Alcuna licenza, con (It.) With a little 
 license; that is, the power of altering the time 
 at will. 
 
 Aliquot tones. Overtones or harmonics. 
 [Acoustics, § g.] 
 
 A livre ouvert (Fr.) At sight. 
 
 Alia breve (It.) A direction that the notes 
 are to be made shorter; that is, the pace taken 
 quicker than usual. It is generally found 
 attached to movements having four or eight 
 minims in a bar, and is expressed in the sig- 
 nature by (j;. The following unusual sign 
 for alia breve is found in the signature of one 
 of the exercises "pour le Clavecin," by J. S. 
 Bach, as published about 1760 : 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 
 E ^^U^fZliing^ 
 
 [Time.] 
 
 Alia caccia (It.) In the hunting style. 
 
 camera (It.) In the style of cham- 
 
 ber music, q.v. 
 
 cappella (It.) [A Cappella.] 
 
 — '■ — diritta. By direct intervals. 
 
 hanacca. In the style of the hanaise, 
 
 a sort of polka, or polacca polonaise. 
 
 ■ marcia. In the style of a March. 
 
 Alia mente (It.) A barbarous species of 
 counterpoint in' thirds and fifths, improvised 
 upon the plain song, called in France " Chant 
 sur le livre," and in England " Fa burden." 
 This peculiar harmony is said to have had its 
 rise in the 12th century, but it is probably 
 older, as Hucbald, who was living about the 
 year 880, describes it, as also did Odo, Abbot 
 of Cluny, in his Enchiridion [c. 920.] While 
 the. use of this hideous harmony was encour- 
 aged by the church, musicians of feeling never 
 failed to protest against it, therefore we find after 
 Hucbald, Odo, and Franco of Cologne — ^Johan- 
 nis de Muris, and others complaining of its 
 use, and suggesting various measures for its 
 reform, and by degrees paving the way to the 
 modern system of counterpoint. The decree 
 of the Pope John XXII, dated at Avignon 
 1322, had some effect in checking its use, but 
 did not entirely suppress it, as it was sung as 
 late as the middle of the 15th century. 
 
 Alia militare. (It.) In a military manner. 
 
 moderno(/i.) In the modern method. 
 
 All' antico (It.) In the old style. 
 
 Alia polacca (It.) Like a polonaise. 
 
 quinta (It.) At the fifth. 
 
 ^ rovescio (7f.) By contrary motion. 
 
 [Rovescio.] 
 
 siciliana (It.) A species of melody 
 
 in §, i^, or f , having the longest note at the 
 accented pulse. Handel's Pastoral Symphony 
 is alia siciliana. 
 
 Alia stretta(/i.) Bringing closer and closer, 
 alike as to subject and movement. 
 
 20 ) 
 
ALLA ZOPPA ALLEMANDE. 
 
 Alia zoppa (It.) Lamely, halting, against 
 time, syncopation. 
 
 Allegramente (It.) Joyfully. 
 
 Allegretto (It.) (Diminutive of allegro.) 
 (i) Slower than allegro. (2) A movement in 
 this time. 
 
 AUegrettino {It.) (Diminutive of alle- 
 gretto.) (i) Not so fast as allegretto. (2) 
 A short allegretto movement. 
 
 Allegro (It.) [Lit. joyful.) Quick, lively. 
 The word is occasionally employed to describe 
 a whole movement of a quartett, sonata, or 
 symphony. In music it is sometimes qualified 
 as : — 
 
 Allegro agitato {It.) 
 » assai ,, 
 
 commodo ") 
 or [ 
 comodo ) 
 con brio 
 con fuoco . 
 con moto 
 con spirito 
 di bravura 
 
 di molto ,, 
 
 furioso „ 
 
 giusto „ 
 magrazi- 1 ,, 
 
 osa J 
 
 ma non \ 
 
 o ;■• 
 
 }■• 
 }■■ 
 
 Quick and in an excited manner. 
 
 {Lit.) Fast enough. A quicker 
 
 motion than simple allegro. 
 
 An easy, graceful allegro. 
 
 Quickly and with spirit. 
 
 Rapidly and with fire. 
 
 With sustained joyfulness. 
 
 Joyfully and with spirit. 
 
 A movement full of executive 
 difficulties intended to exhibit 
 the capacity of the singer or 
 player. 
 
 Exceedingly quick. 
 
 Rapidly and with fury. 
 
 In quick but steady time. 
 
 Lively and with graceful 
 motion. 
 
 Rapidly, but not too fast. 
 Quickly, but not too much so. 
 
 Lively, but not too fast. 
 
 Moderately quick. 
 
 Very quick. 
 
 Lively and with firmness and 
 
 decision. 
 Lively and with speed. 
 Lively and brisk. 
 Quick and lively. 
 
 Allein (Ger.) Alone, as Sanfte Stimmen 
 allein, soft stops only. 
 
 Alleluia. Latin for Hallelujah. {Heb.) 
 Praise ye the Lord. An invitation to praise, 
 , used in every Christian community with vary- 
 ing regularity. St. Augustine says that the 
 African Church used it between the feasts of 
 Easter and Pentecost, and it is at that time 
 that its use is more prevalent in the ritual of 
 the Eastern and Western churches than at 
 other seasons of the Christian year. In the 
 Roman Catholic Church it is not employed 
 from Septuagesima to Easter, but in the 
 Anglican Church it is said twice at least every 
 day throughout the whole year, the English 
 form, "Praise ye the Lord," being substituted 
 
 prest( 
 ma non 
 
 tanto 
 ma non 
 
 troppo 
 moderate 
 molto 
 risoluto 
 
 veloce 
 vivace 
 vivo 
 
 in the present Prayer-book for the ancient 
 Hebrew word which was inserted in the first 
 Prayer-book of Edward VI. The word Halle- 
 lujah being a short, musical, and rhythmical 
 word, is frequently used by many anthem- 
 writers — apparently without a just understand- 
 ing of its meaning — to eke out an idea in 
 music ; but at other times the word has been 
 set to music with sublime effect, as by 
 Beethoven in his " Mount of Olives," and by 
 Handel in his " Messiah." Carl Engel, in 
 "The Music of the Most Ancient Nations," 
 gives examples of melodies sung by the Copts, 
 and the women of Syria, Arabia, and Persia, 
 to the word. 
 
 AUemande {Fr.) Alemain, Allemaigne, 
 Almain. A dance in duple time, said to have 
 been invented by the French in the reign of 
 Louis XIV. as a symbolical allusion to the 
 newly-acquired German provinces. It was re- 
 vived and frequently performed at the theatres 
 during the time of the First Napoleon, during 
 whose rule it became exceedingly popular. 
 The measure was slow, and the steps were 
 made in a rapid sliding manner as in the 
 modern waltz, but there was no turning, only 
 a peculiar entwining and unloosening of the 
 arms of the dancers in the various steps. It 
 is said by some that the AUemande was 
 invented in the lesser provinces of Germany 
 or Switzerland. Scarlatti, Corelli, Bach, 
 Handel, and other composers of the period 
 they represent, incorporated the measure of 
 this dance in their Suites, Sonatas, and 
 Lessons, in which it was written in common 
 time of four crotchets in a bar. 
 
 The tradition concerning the origin of its 
 invention, mentioned above, is very pic- 
 turesque, but it is not founded in fact. Louis 
 XIV. took Strasbourg by surprise in the time 
 of peace, in the year 1681, and the treaty of 
 Ryswick which confirmed his possession was 
 not made until 1697. ^^ '^ quite possible to 
 believe that the fulsome flattery of his flippant 
 court would magnify an act of rapine into a 
 worthy victory, and that empty-headed adu- 
 lators would find heels light enough to dance 
 their joy at the same; but unfortunately for 
 the story, there were Allemandes in exist- 
 ence before the time of the illegal seizure. 
 In England, Almaines as musical composi- 
 tions were published in 1662, in a book called 
 " Courtly Masquing Ayres," and there were 
 those by Lully, issued in France, bearing 
 date 1670 ; the subjoined one, by Dumont, is 
 even earlier, as it is to be found in " Meslanges 
 a 2, 3, 4 et 5 parties, avec la basse continue, 
 contenante plusiers chansons, motets. Mag- 
 nificat, preludes et allemandes pour I'orgue 
 et pour les violes ; livre i"" ; Paris, Robert 
 Ballard, 1649." It is not even possible to refer 
 the origin of the dance to the recovery of the 
 
 (21 ) 
 
ALLEMANDE ALTERATA. 
 
 towns in the Low Countries, as Turenne did 
 not win them until six years after Dumont's 
 publication. 
 
 The mention of the word as a dance is to 
 be found in earlier writings than either of the 
 above-mentioned, for there is a passage in 
 Ben Jonson's play, " The Devil is an Ass," 
 first acted in 1610, which proves the dance to 
 have been known in his time : 
 
 " He may, perchance, in tail of a sheriff's dinner, 
 Skip with a rhyme on the table, from New-nothing, 
 And take his Almain-leup into a custard, 
 Shall make my lady mayoress and her sisters 
 Laugh all their hoods over their shoulders." 
 
 The old Almains probably had leaping 
 steps, as the foregoing passage, and another 
 from George Chapman's "Alphonsus, Em- 
 peror of Germany," would imply : 
 
 " We Germans have no changes in our dances. 
 An Almain and an Up-Spring — that is all." 
 
 This play was printed in 1599. 
 ALLEMANDE. 
 
 Henri Dumont, 1610-1684. 
 
 ;-_Jc^r¥ ^c ^ 
 
 J'l ^' L^^ut' ^ 
 
 ^-^ ,^^ '^ y \ 
 
 AUentamento (^^■) 1 ^'thJ" time^'' eivinf 
 
 Air improvvista {It.) Without prepara- 
 tion, extemporaneously. 
 
 Al loco {It.) {Lit. in the place.) (i) A term 
 which is used to counter-order a previous 
 direction to play an octave higher or lower. 
 
 (2) A direction to a violinist to return from 
 a shift to his previous position. [Shift.] 
 
 AUonger I'archet {Fr.) To prolong the 
 stroke of the bow. 
 
 Air ottava (It.) At the octave, a direc- 
 tion to play an octave higher, or lower, than 
 is written. 
 
 Air unisono {It.) In unison or octaves. 
 
 Alphorn. Alpine horn. A long tube of 
 fir- wood played by the herdsmen of the Alps, 
 It has the same natural series of sounds as a 
 trumpet, but does not possess any means of 
 reducing the tenth harmonic to the ordinary 
 pitch of our scale. [Ranz des Vaches.] 
 
 Al piacere {It.) At pleasure. 
 
 Al rigore di tempo {It.) ) ^^ strict time 
 
 Al rigore del tempo {It.) ) 
 
 'By contrary motion, that 
 
 Al riverso {It.)\ ''' ,^."swering an as- 
 
 Al rovescio {It.)] ''^''^fS interval by 
 
 ^ '' one descendmg a like 
 
 ^ distance, e.g. : 
 
 Answers al rovescio are found in Imitation, 
 Fugue, and Canon. 
 
 Al segno {It.) To the sigh. Dal segno 
 {It.) from the sign :§. Directions that the 
 performer must return to that portion of the 
 piece marked with the sign g, and conclude 
 with the first double bar which follows, or go 
 on to the word Fine, or to the pause /r\. 
 
 Alt {Ger.) Alto voice, part, or instrument. 
 
 Alta {It.) High or higher. As, 8"« alta, 
 an octave higher. 
 
 Alterata {Lat.) A name given to those 
 scales into which notes were introduced 
 foreign to the old church modes. 
 
ALTERATIO ALTO VOICE. 
 
 Alteratio (Lai.) In mediseval music, the 
 doubling of the value of a note. " Alteratio 
 est proprii valoris alicujus notae duplicatio" 
 (Tinctor). This alteratio only took place when 
 a note was in a certain relation to those near 
 it; e.g., if two longs preceded a maxim "in 
 modo majori perfecto " [Modus] the latter of 
 them underwent alteration : and if two breves 
 " in modo minore perfecto " preceded a long, 
 the latter underwent alteration ; and so on. 
 A perusal of the eight general, and four par- 
 ticular rules which governed alteration, will 
 cause the reader to be thankful that modern 
 music has been relieved of such complica- 
 tions. 
 
 Alterato (It.) \ Altered, augmented (with 
 
 Alterfe (Fr.'^ J reference to intervals). 
 
 Alternamente {It.) ") Changing by turns. 
 
 Alternando {It.) V To choose one of 
 
 Alternativo {It.) J two ways of per- 
 forming a passage. 
 
 Altgeige {Ger.) The tenor violin, the 
 viola. [Viola.] 
 
 Altieramente (If.) Proudly, grand'.v. 
 haughtily. 
 
 Altisono {It.) Sonorous, ringing. 
 
 Altissimo {It.) The highest. 
 
 Altista (It.) A name formerly given to an 
 alto singer. 
 
 Alto-basso {It.) An ancient Venetian 
 stringed instrument, a Hackbret, q.v. It 
 was formed of a square box of pine-wood, 
 supported on legs and strung with cat- 
 gut. The player struck the strings with a 
 sort of bow, which was held in the left hand, 
 the right hand being engaged in holding a 
 sort of flute or flageolet with which a melody 
 was performed. The instrument was only 
 used by the lower class of people, and is now 
 obsolete. 
 
 Alto clef. The C clef, placed upon the 
 third line of the stave, in order that the notes 
 proper to the Alto voice may be conveniently 
 represented : 
 
 The Alto clef is used for the tenor violin or 
 viola and the alto trombone. [Clef.] 
 
 Alto viola {It.) The tenor instrument of 
 the violin family, called Alto, Tenor, or Viola. 
 {Ger.] Bratsche or Altgeige. [Viola.] 
 
 Alto voice. Called also counter-tenor, 
 when used by men, and counter-alto or con- 
 tralto, when used by women. It is the deepest 
 tone of voice among women and boys, to 
 whom it may be said to be natural, and it is 
 called the highest voice among men for lack 
 of a better term to describe it. Properly 
 speaking, the tenor voice is the highest 
 man's voice, the alto or counter-tenor voice 
 being entirely an artificial production, and 
 
 simply a development of the falsetto. The 
 register usually written for this voice lies 
 between tenor G and treble C, 
 
 As the best notes of the alto voice are within 
 the octave from B flat, those notes are most 
 generally employed, for the higher notes are 
 harsh and discordant, and the lower of small 
 musical quality, and therefore ineffective. 
 The alto voice in man is mostly formed 
 upon an indifferent bass voice, and there 
 is always a break between the chest and 
 the head voice; this break varies between 
 
 and the careful union 
 
 C and E : 
 
 of the chest and head qualities of voice, and 
 the judicious employment of the " mezza 
 voce" are characteristic of every good alto 
 singer. The alto voice is almost peculiar to 
 English singers, not one of the continental 
 nations possessing the capability of producing 
 the quality or of appreciating it when pro- 
 duced; the consequence is, that there is no 
 music written for this voice by any but 
 English composers, and the majority of 
 writers of the present day forming their style 
 upon the foreign model, neglect and ignore 
 the voice, disregarding its claim to useful- 
 ness, in places and at times, when and where 
 female voices are unavailable. The value of 
 the voice, its flexibility, sympathetic quality, 
 and harmonious power, when carefully culti- 
 vated, are well displayed in cathedral music, 
 and glee singing: a great number of melodious 
 compositions by the most noted English 
 writers, depend upon the alto voice for their 
 proper eff"ect. Many of the songs in Handel's 
 oratorios were assigned to this voice, which 
 are now, in consequence of the heightened 
 pitch at present employed, sung by females : 
 for instance, the part of Solomon in the 
 oratorio of that name; of Barak and Sisera in 
 the oratorio of "Deborah;" and of Daniel in 
 " Belshazzar;" are each given to an alto voice. 
 As this practice is of quite recent growth, it 
 is but reasonable to conclude that Handel 
 intended the music of the wisest king, and 
 that of the two brave warriors to be sung by 
 men altos, rather than by women, for the 
 sake of appearance, if for no more powerful 
 reason. The fact before alluded to, of the non- 
 recognition of the voice by foreigners, has 
 given an advantage to English musical 
 literature not enjoyed by any other people, 
 in the cultivation and sole possession of the 
 Glee and the Anthem. 
 
 As many of the principal effects are obtained 
 in these two species of composition through 
 the medium of the alto voice, if only for the 
 sake of the performance of the many noble 
 
 ( 23 ) 
 
ALTRA AMBROSIAN TE DEUM. 
 
 specimens of art in these two styles, the 
 alto voice will always be cultivated in Eng- 
 land until such time as the Glee and Anthem 
 cease to exist." The cultivation of the Part- 
 song has almost superseded the use of the 
 alto voice in modern music, for the upper 
 part in this class of composition is given 
 to tenor voices, and the difficulty in pro- 
 ducing the notes of the higher register so 
 far influences the character of the music 
 written, that many of the part-songs for male 
 voices are of a bold, boisterous style, entirely 
 different to that of the glee, which by reason 
 of the peculiarity of the alto voice is of a 
 more quiet character, depending in a great 
 measure for its effect upon delicate and 
 expressive singing. Many composers of 
 eminence have completely ignored the alto 
 voice, whether male or female, a quantity of 
 music for Church use being written for treble, 
 tenor, and bass, as by Cherubini and others. 
 
 In quality and power of expression the 
 female alto voice is peculiar, and unlike any 
 other voice. Its character is grave, tender, spi- 
 ritual, and moving, and is admirably adapted 
 to express emotions of dignity, grandeur, and 
 piety. The male alto being an artificial voice, 
 its usefulness is of limited duration, for when 
 the singer is past fifty years of age the voice 
 becomes harsh, reedy, nasal, and the break is 
 painfully apparent. 
 
 Alt-Posaune (Ger.) The alto trombone. 
 
 Altra, fern., Altri, pL, Altro, mas. {It.) 
 Other, another, others. 
 
 Altschliissel {Ger.) Alto clef. 
 
 Altviole {Ger.) [Alto Viola.] 
 
 Alzamento di mano {It.) Raising the 
 hand in conducting. 
 
 Alzando {It.) Lifting up, raising, elevating. 
 
 Altzeichen {Ger.) The alto clef, ]g^^^^ 
 
 Amabile {It.) Lovely, gentle, tender. 
 Amabilita, con {It.) With gentleness, 
 tenderness. 
 
 Amarevole {It.) Sad, bitter. 
 Amarezza, con (7^) With sadness. 
 Amarissimamente {It.) } ^j .... . 
 Amarissimo j^^j } Very bitterly. 
 
 In a mournful, sorrowful style. 
 
 Amateur {Fr.) A lover of music; one 
 who pursues the practice of any art for pure 
 love, in distinction to one who is engaged 
 in its employment for pay. 
 
 Ambira {Afr.) A kind of drum or pulsatile 
 instrument, made of wood, in cylindrical 
 form, upon which a series of tongues of iron, 
 cane, or wood are so arranged that they may 
 be made to vibrate upon pressure. The 
 Ambira is used by the negroes of Senegambia 
 and Guinea. 
 
 Ambitus {Lat.) {lit. circuit.) The com- 
 pass of an ancient church tone. The word is. 
 
 however, used sometimes in a more extended 
 sense than our word compass, as it is made 
 to signify the proper steps which lie between 
 the extreme limits of the tone — "Toni debitus 
 ascensus et descensus." The rules (regulse) 
 which govern the ambitus depend upon the 
 position oith.e final of the tone, and although 
 much elaborated in mediseval treatises, their 
 force seems to be that the proper ambitus 
 should (regulariter) not exceed the octave 
 (diapason) included between the highest note 
 of the mode above the final and the lowest 
 below it, except " by licence" (licentialiter). 
 These dispensations only allow the intro- 
 duction of three notes outside the ambitus in 
 each direction, an authentic mode being 
 allowed a descent to the lowest note of its 
 corresponding plagal tone ; a plagal tone 
 being allowed to ascend to the highest note 
 of its corresponding authentic. This fact, 
 simple enough in itself, is cleverly put into a 
 shape as unintelligible as possible in the 
 following hnes, framed for the supposed 
 assistance of the student : 
 
 " Undenis gradibus vult juste vadere prothus. 
 Per sex et quinas claves vult deuterus ire. 
 Octo tribus gradibus vult juste cepere tritus. 
 Per sex quinque gradus juste capit ire tetrardus." 
 
 Ambo or Ambon {Gk., Hfijitov from 
 avaj^aLvb).) A desk or pulpit. The raised 
 platform in Eastern churches, on which the 
 singers mounted when they sang. A canon 
 of the Council of Laodicea (a.d. 360-370) 
 decreed that no one should sing in the church 
 besides the regular singers (ttX^v twv navoviKiav 
 \^a\Tb)v), who ascended the ambo and sang 
 from the parchment (dTro Sifdepae). This early 
 attempt to bring about the separate perform- 
 ance of trained choir-singers did not obtain 
 any favour in the Western churches of that 
 period, and with the introduction of congre- 
 gational song, the ambo became disused. 
 
 Ambrosian Chant. The system of church- 
 song introduced by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, 
 in the fourth century. It formed the basis of 
 the Gregorian system. [Plain Song.J 
 
 Ambrosian Hymn. The " Te Deum" 
 so-called, because, by some, its authorship 
 is attributed to Bishop Ambrose. 
 
 Ambrosian Te Deum. A musical set- 
 ting of the Te Deum in plain-song, called after 
 Bishop Ambrose because of its antiquity 
 and the possibility of its having been the first 
 setting of the Hymn after the introduction of 
 properly-regulated song into Christian wor- 
 ship. Marbecke, who adapted it to English 
 words, chose a simple setting, and a com- 
 parison between his version and others will 
 be found interesting. Meibomius (in his well- 
 known work. Ant. Mus. Auct. Septem. 1652), 
 published it with Greek notation, as an ex- 
 
 (24) 
 
AMBUBAJiE ANCIA. 
 
 lonent of his own principles, not as a copy 
 (f any authorized edition. [Plain Song.] 
 
 Ambubajse [Lat.) Companies of immoral 
 Syrian women, who attended festivals and 
 gatherings among the Romans as minstrels. 
 Their instruments were called ahub, or ambub, 
 vhence their name. 
 
 Ambulant (Fr.) Wandering. Applied to 
 strolling musicians. 
 
 Ame (Fr.) The sound-post of a violin, or 
 Jther stringed instrument of its kind. 
 
 American Organ. An instrument having 
 3ne or more manuals, and registers which 
 :ontrol series of free reeds. It is, in its 
 principles of construction, diametrically 
 Dpposed to the Harmonium, for v/hereas 
 in this, air is forced through the reeds from 
 a bellows, — in the American Organ the 
 action of the treadle exerts suction. When 
 it is required to shut off a row of reeds, 
 the putting in of the stop-handle places a 
 thick air-tight covering of felt over the outside 
 of the row of reeds, so that the air cannot be 
 sucked through them, — the drawing of the 
 stop, by removing this obstruction, allows the 
 free passage of the air through the reeds. In 
 short, in the Harmonium, air is blown from 
 the bellows through the reeds ; but in the 
 American Organ, air is sucked through the 
 reeds into the bellows. There are, however, 
 other differences. The reeds of the American 
 Organ are thinner than those of the Har- 
 monium, and are slightly curved in shape, by 
 which greater quickness of speech is insured. 
 A very beautiful undulating tone is obtained 
 by setting in motion a rotating fan, imme- 
 diately above one of the rows of vibrators. 
 This, by producing a variable pressure of air 
 just outside the reeds, affects also their vibra- 
 tion as they draw it in. The mechanism 
 which sets the fan in motion is called the 
 Vox Humana stop. When there is an 
 Expression stop it gives the player some 
 control over the pressure of suction, and thus 
 it is the converse of the stop of the same 
 name in the Harmonium ; but the effects 
 which can be produced by its use are more 
 striking in the latter instrument. The tone 
 of American Organs is extremely melodious 
 and sweet, but it does not travel well. For 
 chamber music these instruments are emi- 
 nently qualified, not only because of the 
 character of their tone, but because they 
 possess the enormous advantage of remaining 
 for a longer period and under varying circum- 
 stances — in tune. 
 
 A mezza aria [It.) A compromise be- 
 tween Air and recitative. [Aria parlante.] 
 
 A mezza voce {It.) With half the strength 
 of the voice. (2) The quality between the 
 chest and head voice, (3) The subdued tone 
 of instruments. 
 
 A moll {Ger.) A minor, the tonality of 
 the relative minor to the key of C. 
 
 A monocorde {Fr.) On one string. 
 
 Amore, con {It.) With love, affection, 
 tenderness, ardour. 
 
 Amorevole {It.) Affectionately. 
 
 Amorevolmente {It.) Tenderly. 
 
 A Moresco {It.) In the Moorish style. 
 
 Amorosamente {It.) Lovingly. 
 
 Amoroso {It.) In a loving style. 
 
 Amor-schall. A horn of peculiar con- 
 struction invented in the year 1760, by Kolbel, 
 one of the musicians of the Emperor of Rus- 
 sia. It was intended as an improvement upon 
 the ordinary French horn, but the introduction 
 of the cylinder and valve system led to the 
 disuse of the Amor-schall. A duet for these 
 instruments was composed by Cherubini, and 
 dedicated to Lord Cowper. 
 
 Amphibrachys. A metrical foot consisting 
 of a long between two short syllables, - — . 
 [Metre.] 
 
 Amphimacer. A foot consisting of a 
 short between two long syllables, - - -. 
 [Metre.] 
 
 Amplitude of vibration. The distance 
 from the point of rest of a particle, to either 
 end of its journey, when a sound-wave passes 
 over it. [Acoustics, §3.] 
 
 Ampollosamente (it.) | In a bombastic, 
 
 AmpoUoso {It.) ) inflated style. 
 
 Ampoule {Fr.) Bombastic. 
 
 Amusement {Fr.) A short and lively 
 piece of music. {It.) Divertimento. 
 
 Anabasis {Gk.), dvajiaaiQ, a succession of 
 ascending sounds. 
 
 Anabathmi {Gk.), a.vajia&fj.ol, the name 
 given to certain antiphons in the Greek 
 Church ; so called because their words were 
 selected from the Psalms called in the Sep- 
 tuagint alal tUv avafjadfiSv (Ps. 120-134 m 
 Eng. version), " Songs of degrees," the gra- 
 dual Psalms of the Roman use. 
 
 Anakampsis {Gk.), ayaKafi\j.iQ, a succes- 
 sion of descending sounds. 
 
 Anakamptos. {Gk.) [Anakampsis.J 
 
 Anakara {Gk.) The ancient kettledrum. 
 A larger sort was used for battle purposes, 
 and there was a smaller drum which a woman 
 could hold with one hand and beat with the 
 other. [Drum.] [Nacchera.] 
 
 Anakarista {Gk.) A drum player. 
 
 Anapaest. A foot consisting of a long pre- 
 ceded by two short syllables, ^ - - . [Metre.] 
 
 Anaploke {Gr.) amirXok-q. A combination 
 of notes ascending the scale; opposed to 
 KarairXoKii, a descending series of combined 
 sounds. 
 
 Anche {Fr.) The reed in the mouth-piece 
 of a hautboy, bassoon, &c., the name also 
 applied to a reed in an organ. [Reed.] 
 
 Ancia {It.) [Anche.] 
 
 ( 25 ) 
 
ANCORA ANTECEDENT. 
 
 Ancora (It.) Again, once more, encore. 
 
 Ancor piu mosso (It.) Still quicker, 
 more motion yet. 
 
 Andacht (Ger.) Devotion. 
 
 Andachtig (Ger.) Devotionally, devoutly. 
 
 Andamento (It.) (i) An accessory idea, 
 or episode ; an accessory part, in a Fugue. 
 (2) In the style of an Andante. 
 
 Andante (It.) Walking. In the early part 
 of the last century, music so marked was un- 
 derstood to be of a grand yet cheerful style, but 
 in the present day it implies a movement 
 which is slow, graceful, distinct and peaceful. 
 The word is sometimes used as. a substantive, 
 in speaking of that portion of a symphony or 
 sonata so marked. The many modifications 
 both of pace and style are expressed as below: 
 
 Andante affettuoso. Slow, and in an easy, 
 pathetic style. [style. 
 
 Andante cantabile. Slow, and in a singing 
 
 Andante con moto. With energy or 
 emotion.- Faster than andante. [motion. 
 
 Andante grazibso. Slow, and in graceful 
 
 Andante maestoso. Slow, and with 
 majesty. 
 
 Andante non troppo. Moderately, but 
 not too slow. 
 
 Andante pastorale. Slow, graceful, and 
 with pastoral simplicity. 
 
 Andantementef {It.) Easily, fluently, 
 without interruption, in the manner of an 
 Andante. 
 
 Andantino (li.) .A diminutive of Andante, 
 unfortunately interpreted in two directly oppo- 
 site ways. By some it is understood to mean, 
 not so slow as andante ; by others, rather slower 
 than andante. This difference of opinion 
 results from the ambiguity of an expression 
 which literally means "rather going." 
 
 Andante sostenuto. Moderately slow, 
 and very smoothly. 
 
 Andar diritto (It.) Go straight on. 
 
 An dare in tempo (It.) To go in time. 
 Keep to the time. 
 
 Anelantemente (It.) Ardently, eagerly, 
 pantingly. 
 
 AneHto^^ (/i.) I Shortness of breath. 
 
 Anemochord. A variety of the Eolian 
 harp, made by Jacob Schnell, in Paris, 1789. 
 [Eolian harp.] 
 
 Anemometer. [Wind-gauge.] 
 
 Anesis (Gk.) aveing, from avir^fu, to loosen, 
 (i) The progression from a high sound to 
 one lower in pitch. (2) The tuning of strings 
 to a lower pitch [aveaiq j^opSwi'.) 
 
 Anfangs-ritornel (Ger.) Introductory 
 symphony. [Symphony, §4.] 
 
 Anfangs-griinde (Ger.) Rudiments, prin- 
 ciples, beginnings 
 
 Angelica {Ger.) 1 ^^^^ angelica.] 
 Angelique {Fr.) J ■■ ^ -■ 
 
 Angenehm {Ger.) Pleasing, agreeable. 
 
 Anglaise {Fr.) \ The English country 
 
 Anglico {It)i dance, 5.0. 
 
 Anglican Chant. [Chant.] 
 
 Angore {It.) Anguish, grief, distress, 
 passion. 
 
 Angosciamente {It.)'} Sorrowfully, 
 
 Angosciamento {It.) J anxiously. 
 
 Angosciosissamente {It.) With extreme 
 sorrow. 
 
 Angoscioso {It.) Anxious, painful. 
 
 Anhaltende Cadenz {Ger.) A lengthened 
 cadence, an organ or pedal point, 
 
 Anhang {Ger.) A coda. [Coda.] 
 
 Anima, con (it.) With animation, spirit. 
 
 Animate {It.) Lively, animated. 
 
 Animazione (7^) Liveliness, animation. 
 
 Animo, con {It.) With courage, spirit, 
 dash, and fire. 
 
 Animo Corde {It.) [Anemochord,] 
 
 Animosamente (7^) Spiritedly, ener- 
 getically. 
 
 Animosissimanaente(7^)Lfj^'/^^g^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 Animosissimo {It.) |and spirited. 
 
 Animoso {It.) Lively, energetic. 
 
 Anklang (Ger.) Tune, harmony, accord. 
 
 Anklingeln {Ger.) To sound or ring a bell. 
 
 Anklingen {Ger.) To accord in sound, to 
 be in tune. 
 
 Anlage ' {Ger.) Indication of talent : 
 the sketch of a musical thought ; also the 
 plan or design of a composition. 
 
 Anlaufen {Ger.) To increase or swell in 
 sound. 
 
 Anleitung {Ger.) Instruction, guidance, 
 direction, preface. 
 
 Anmuth {Ger.) Charm, sweetness, grace, 
 agreeableness. 
 
 Anonner {Fr.) To stutter, to hesitate. 
 To stumble in performing, to play in an un- 
 skilful style. 
 
 Anpfeifen {Ger.) To whistle at, to hiss 
 at ; in music, to condemn. [Fiasco.] 
 
 Ansatz {Ger.) (i) Attack, q.v. (2) The 
 adjustment of the mouth to the position 
 required for the production of the voice in 
 singing. (3) The adjustment of the lips 
 necessary for the proper production of the tone 
 of wind instruments, as in French, "embouch- 
 ure," and in English, "lipping," q.v. 
 
 Anschlag {Ger.) (i) Touch, or the pro- 
 duction of tone upon such keyed instruments 
 as the organ, pianoforte, or harmonium. 
 
 (2) The clash of a discord before resolution. 
 [Percussion.] 
 
 Ansingen {Ger.) To welcome with song, 
 
 Ansprechen {Ger.)\l!o sound, to sing, to 
 
 Anstimmen {Ger.) J give out tone. 
 
 Anstimmung {Ger.) Intonation, sound- 
 ing, smging. 
 
 Antecedent, (i) A phrase or point pro- 
 
 (26 ) 
 
ANTHEM. 
 
 ised for Imitation. (2) Any passage which 
 answered. (3) The subject of a Fugue. 
 Anthem. — A composition for voices, with 
 
 without organ or other instrumental ac- 
 impaniment, enjoined by the Ritual of the 
 aglican Church to be sung at Morning and 
 vening service, " in choirs and places where 
 ey sing." The words are generally selected 
 pm the Psalms, or other portions of the 
 ible, but paraphrases of Scripture, and 
 ords in prose and metre, of less authority, 
 e sometimes used. It is the one ornament 
 
 the Service, reserved for the Choir, in 
 hich the congregation takes no part. 
 
 2. Anthems may be divided into various 
 nds, according to'the character of the words ; 
 It with this division it is not our province to 
 ial. The form of the music suggests four 
 visions, namely: the Full, the Full with 
 irses, the Verse, and the Solo. When 
 tithems were accompanied with instruments 
 her than the organ, they were formerly 
 tiled Instrumental Anthems., 
 
 3. A Full Anthem, which is the earUest 
 odel, consists entirely of chorus, with or 
 ithout Organ accompaniment. A Full and 
 srse Anthem is one in which certain parts 
 e assigned to voices soli, with choruses to 
 immence and conclude. A Verse Anthem 
 
 one that begins with portions intended to 
 : sung by a single voice to a part, the word 
 rse probably meaning a turn of thought 
 be forcibly or clearly expressed, a change 
 treatment or sentiment properly echoed 
 the style of the music. The words of 
 e verse are often chosen from portions of 
 :ripture other than the main body of the 
 nthem, by way of gloss. The chief voices 
 1 one side, Decani or Cantoris, usually 
 ng the Verse, and the whole choir, both 
 ies, the chorus or Full part. The £haracter 
 the Solo Anthem is sufficiently obvious, 
 rough its title ; in every case there is, how- 
 ■er, a concluding chorus, even if it be 
 dy the word Amen once sung. An Instru- 
 ental Anthem may partake of either or all 
 e characteristics of the Anthems above 
 :scribed. At the end of the 17th and the 
 iginning of the i8th centuries the Instru- 
 ental Anthem was in frequent use at the 
 lapel Royal, St. James's ; and, until thirty 
 ars ago, the whole of the music sung at the 
 sstival of the Sons of the Clergy, at St. 
 lul's Cathedral, was regularly given with 
 s accompaniment of a full orchestra. This 
 stom was revived on the like occasion in 
 73 with fine effect. 
 
 The Anthem is especially an English pro- 
 ction, a development of the Motett; but the 
 itifona of the Italians, the Antienne of the 
 ench, and the Wechselgesang of the Ger- 
 ms, preserve to this day the character of 
 
 the same prototype. The Antiphon was a 
 special selection of words intended to be 
 suitable to the semce for the day, and was 
 invariable, but the words of the Anthem in 
 the Anglican Church were chosen by the 
 composer, with or without reference to any 
 particular Season, the early composers very 
 rarely mentioning the special season for which 
 they intend their music. The ignorance of 
 PrsEcentors and other rulers of the choir, or 
 their partiality for some one class of compo- 
 sition has often led them into having Anthems 
 performed that are ludicrously inappropriate 
 to the Season. 
 
 4. The history of the Anthem may be com- 
 prised within a period of little more than 
 three centuries, and falls into three divisions, 
 namely : the Motett period, the Verse period, 
 and the Modern period. The Motett period 
 lasted from the time of the Reformation to the 
 death of Henry Lawes, say from 1550 to 1650. 
 During the troublous times of the Common- 
 wealth, the Anthem, in common with nearly 
 all other Church music, excepting hymn tunes, 
 had little or no life or character. The Verse 
 period existed from 1670 to about 1777, the 
 time of the death of the elder Hayes. To 
 this succeeded another lapse of more than 
 forty years, during which time Church needs 
 in this matter were supplied by a series of 
 adaptations from Oratorios and Masses, which 
 were greatly favoured, — even Madrigals were 
 laid under forced contribution. The absence 
 of proper encouragement to original com- 
 posers prevented many able writers, the 
 elder Samuel Wesley among others, from 
 employing their talents towards relieving the 
 want of the Church. That Wesley was a 
 writer of no mean order of genius the 
 existence of his Latin Motetts " Omnia 
 Vanitas," " In Exitu Israel," " Exultate 
 Deo," sufficiently proves. 
 
 The modern period commenced with 
 Thomas Attwood, and was continued by 
 the younger Samuel Sebastian Wesley, and 
 John Goss. The earliest composers of 
 music for the Reformed Church have left 
 no examples of either solo or verse Anthems, 
 their contributions to this order of music 
 being similar in character and construction 
 with the Motett of the Italian Church. 
 The greater portion of the Anthems, by the 
 early English writers, were adaptations of 
 English words to music formerly set to Latin 
 words, a proceeding both useful and needful 
 in the shifting period immediately succeeding 
 the Reformation. The first music set to Eng- 
 lish words for the service of the Church — 
 exclusive of Marbecke's plain-song — was the 
 work of Thomas Tallis, organist to the Court, 
 in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., 
 Queens Mary and Elizabeth ; and much of his 
 
 (27) 
 
ANTHEM. 
 
 music, which is still extant, is a mere collection 
 of dry contrapuntal exercises without much 
 attempt at musical or religious expression, 
 although some of it exhibits great origin- 
 ality and an agreement with the character 
 of the words. The next writer of importance 
 was William Byrde (1543-1623.) His An- 
 thems, set to Latin words, and first published 
 in 1589 under the title of " Cantiones Sacras," 
 were afterwards adapted, probably by himself, 
 to English words of like character. One of 
 them, still frequently in use, " Bow Thine 
 ear," or " Be not wroth, very sore," for there 
 are two versions of the same composition, 
 was originally sung to the words, " Civitas 
 sancti Tui," the second part of the Motett, 
 "Ne irascaris;" and the music beautifully 
 expresses the sentiment of the text. It is 
 only occasionally that such a happy com- 
 bination is found in the works of Anthem 
 writers up to the period of the restoration of 
 Charles II.; for, although the compositions of 
 Tye, Tallis, Farrant, Allison, Morley, Hooper, 
 Byrde, Bull, and Gibbons, are models of 
 constructive skill, there is little that could be 
 fairly called musical expression to be found 
 in any one of. them. Neither was there any 
 distinction of stylo between sacred and secu- 
 lar music at this period. For example, the 
 madrigal by Gibbons, "The Silver Swan," 
 and his Anthem, " Hosanna," might change 
 places, so that the madrigal might be made an 
 anthem, and the anthem a madrigal, without 
 any violation of character, and yet each would 
 be counted a noble specimen of its class. It 
 was not until men's manners and modes of 
 thought had undergone- the change brought 
 about by the emancipation necessarily suc- 
 ceeding a reformation in religion, that a special 
 and marked difference was made between the 
 style of music used for the Church and that 
 for secular purposes. For nearly twenty 
 years, that is, from the death of Lawes in 
 1645, to the time when Pelham Humphreys 
 was writing, Church music was represented 
 by such writers as Child and Rogers, the best 
 of whose compositions are but pale reflections 
 of old styles. The pause in church matters, 
 during the Commonwealth, had its bad effect 
 upon Church music, until the new interest 
 aroused by the works of foreign writers 
 produced fresh vitality. When Humphreys 
 began to supply the want in Church music 
 caused by the revival of the service ac- 
 cording to the Ritual of the Prayer-book, 
 some degree of difficulty arose, for it was 
 impossible to pursue the practice formerly 
 in vogue, of making little, if any, difference 
 in the style of sacred and secular music, for 
 secular music had now assumed a character 
 unfitted for the dignity and solemnity of 
 Divine worship. To meet this difficulty a 
 
 sort of compromise was effected ; the secular 
 style of a preceding generation was adopted 
 as the prevailing standard character for 
 Church music, a practice which has con- 
 tinued in use to this day. Now, as then, 
 recently acquired ideas were used in com- 
 bination with old fashioned notions, and at 
 the period of the history of the Anthem, now 
 being treated of, the novelty introduced was 
 the Verse, modified by French and Italian 
 influence upon English music. The best 
 Verse and Solo Anthems are those by 
 Humphreys, Purcell, Wise, Weldon, Blow,' 
 Croft, and Greene ; and, with the last named 
 writer, the verse Anthem proper culminated, 
 and then decayed, for the poor productions 
 of Nares, Kent, Pring, and others, although 
 popular in their day, simply lumber the shelves 
 upon which they are placed. Boyce and the 
 elder Hayes were more successful in their 
 Full, than in their Verse Anthems, some of 
 which are models of beauty and effective 
 writing. It is a singular fact that for many 
 years there was a hiatus in the supply of - 
 original Anthems, the exigencies of the 
 Church service being supplied by a series of 
 bad arrangements, for, counting the single 
 contributions furnished by men of genius like 
 Battishill, who were living between the time of 
 Boyce and Wesley, the majority of these con- 
 tributions were the weak repetition of themes 
 that had been better treated before. Thomas 
 Attwood, a pupil of Mozart, and organist at 
 St. Paul's Cathedral, was the first who made 
 the laudable endeavour to supersede bad 
 arrangements by attempting to give some 
 adequate and connected expression to the 
 words set as Anthems; and, although his 
 works are to a great extent valueless as 
 Church music, his intention should be men- 
 tioned with respect, especially as his writings 
 and mode of thought aroused the emulation 
 of a worthy series of followers. 
 
 It is interesting in reviewing the history of 
 the Anthem to notice to what an extent organ 
 accompaniment has developed and expanded. 
 The Anthems of the first period are as effective 
 without organ support as with it, and in those 
 choirs in which an unaccompanied service is 
 sometimes performed, they form the repertory 
 from which selections are made. The organ 
 part to Anthems of the second period is 
 almost indispensable, by reason of the fre- 
 quency with which ritornelli, and solos and 
 duets are introduced. In the Anthems of the 
 more modern period the organ is exalted 
 almost to the dignity of a solo instrument, 
 many Anthems being written less for vocal 
 than for instrumental effect. The variety of 
 stops, improved mechanism of the organ, and 
 the advanced skill of cathedral organists form 
 a combination too tempting to the composer, 
 
 (28) 
 
ANTHEM. 
 
 tio is, in most cases, himself an organist, 
 le tendency of most of the music written 
 r the organ is to treat it as an imitation of 
 1 orchestra ; this improper use of the instru- 
 ent is influencing the character of the 
 nthems of the present day; and, unless 
 mposers are wise in time, the Church music 
 
 the latter part of the igth, will be as feeble 
 id as useless to future generations as that 
 
 the latter part of the i8th century. 
 
 5. The first published collection of Anthems 
 score was that made in 1724 by Dr. W. 
 
 •oft, of his own compositions, the only piece 
 Church music which had been previously 
 sued in this style, being a service by Henry 
 ircell. The old practice of printing each part 
 parately not only led to the loss of the 
 veral parts, but also increased the difficulty 
 a correct understanding of the effect, for 
 ant of a score. Of Barnard's Church music, 
 inted in this manner, no perfect copy is 
 lown to exist, as even the parts intended 
 r the several voices on the Decani and Can- 
 ris sides of the choir were published in 
 parate and distinct books. 
 
 6. Many suggestions have been made as to 
 e derivation of the word Anthem, of which 
 e following are the chief : — 
 
 (a). From the word Antiphon, it being 
 iderstood that the Anthem was the suc- 
 ssor of the more ancient Antiphon. If it 
 as the intention of the framers of the Prayer- 
 •ok to continue the use of the Antiphon it 
 Duld probably have been expressed, and 
 table of the Antiphons proper to the Church 
 ;asons would have been compiled and in- 
 rted among the directions for order of the 
 rvice, in like manner with the table of 
 3Sons and the division of the Psalms. If, 
 iwever, this direction was omitted, the 
 idition of their retention would doubtless 
 main, and so it would be found that the 
 rly Anthem writers would have been saved 
 e trouble of making their own selection 
 words, and would have set to music the 
 )rds of the Antiphons, all of which were 
 ken from Scripture, and therefore in con- 
 :mity with the principle of the Reformation ; 
 t this was not done, as a reference to the 
 ithems in Barnard's Collections, and to 
 i words in Clifford's Anthem-book, suffi- 
 tly shows. 
 
 (6). From apriftavos, or according to some, 
 ; mediffival avdvfivog, on the supposition 
 It the Anthems or Antiphons were sung 
 m side to side of the church. The choir 
 ing still divided according to ancient custom, 
 i practice of antiphonal singing is apparently 
 lintained, if by such a term alternation is 
 plied. But Antiphony means classically, 
 ging at the octave, and anthem singing is 
 ; reverse of such antiphonal singing. 
 
 Durandus gives another meaning to the word, 
 when he says, that the sentences which 
 precede the Psalms and Canticles are called 
 Antiphons " non quia alternatim a diversis 
 choris cantentur; sed quia sicut claves et 
 indices, ad quorum modulationem ac sonum, 
 sequens canticum psalmusque alternatim 
 cantatur. Tonus enim totius psalmi ex tono 
 antiphonas sumitur" — "not because they 
 are sung by two choirs alternately, but because 
 they are as keys and indices to the tone and 
 mode, to which the Canticle or Psalm fol- 
 lowing ought to be chanted antiphonally. 
 For the tone of the whole Psalm is taken 
 from that of the Antiphon." When the 
 Prascentor of ancient times started the Tone 
 for the psalms some sort of antiphonal 
 singing was practised between him and 
 the Choir, in singing the Antiphons ; and the 
 connection of the word Anthem with responds 
 and invitatories in the preface to the Prayer- 
 book, vi^ould seem to imply alternate singing. 
 The word Anthem is used three times in 
 the Prayer-book, to the Venite, to the portions 
 of Scripture appointed to be sung in place oi 
 the Venite on Easter-day, and in the Rubric 
 after the third Collect. In two out of these 
 three cases the word is used in the same 
 sense as the old Antiphon. An antiphonal 
 character (in the sense of alternating) is 
 implied by the use of the words in the 
 Office for the Communion of the Sick in 
 the Liturgy of King Edward VI., a. d. 1549, 
 but as the office does not comprise singing, 
 it may be inferred that the words Anthem 
 and Antiphon in this case refer to other than 
 a musical meaning. It may be here mentioned 
 that the word Anthem was at one time 
 applied to texts of Scripture — Bishop Scory's 
 text for his sermons preached at St. Paul's 
 Cross, being called his Anthem — and also 
 to secular compositions as well as sacred. 
 In the Prioress's Tale, of Chaucer, the 
 words — 
 
 *' bad me for to synge 
 
 This antym veraily. in my deying," 
 
 refer to the ancient Hymn, " Alma re- 
 demptoris." Shakspeare makes Falstaff use 
 the word with a very different application ; 
 and the "Boar's Head Carol" annually sung 
 at Queen's College in Oxford, was until 
 recently, called an Anthem in the printed 
 copies. 
 
 (c). A derivation from the word avaBefia has 
 been suggested, under the impression that an 
 Anthem is an invocation; and it is curious to 
 note in confirmation of this conjecture, that 
 in the original edition published in 1663, of 
 CliffiDrd's words of Anthems, the first book of 
 its kind ever issued, the majority of the se- 
 lected verses set as Anthems — 144 out of 167 
 — are of an invocatory character. 
 
 (29) 
 
ANTHEMA ANTIPHON. 
 
 (rf). Lastly, the word has been derived from 
 avOrifia (a flower), from whence the word an- 
 thology. The ancient and still existing name 
 for the book containing the words and notes 
 of the anthems or antiphons, is Anthologium 
 or Antiphonarium, probably from the idea that 
 a collection of such words might reasonably 
 be considered as a series of choice i flowers 
 from Holy writ, as the Anthem was formerly 
 held to be the flower of the service, by those 
 who attended church for the sake of listening 
 to it only, and who left in an unseemly man- 
 ner at its close, — a vicious habit which is 
 scarcely yet extinct. 
 
 Anthema (Gk.) Avdefia, short poetic form 
 of avaBriixa, literally anything set up {avuTldrjfii), 
 hence ornaments or apparatus of a feast ; 
 hence music and dancing. 
 
 Anthologium {Gk.) A collection of anti- 
 phons set to music. A term used in imitation 
 of the word avdokoyiai, collections of small 
 Greek poems, selected and made up, as it 
 were, into a nosegay, from avOog, a flower, \iyu>, 
 to pick. [Antiphonarium.] 
 
 Anthropoglossa {Gk.) [Vox Humana.j 
 
 Antibacchius. A foot consisting of two 
 long syllables, followed by one short, . 
 
 Anticipation. The introduction of notes 
 before the time in which they are naturally 
 expected in the harmony, e.g. : 
 
 Antico {It.) Ancient. 
 
 Ant1ra^5^:j}Antiphon. [Anthem.] 
 
 Antifonario {It.) I r a i- i. t 
 
 Antiphonaire (k) I [Antiphonary.] 
 
 Antiphon. (i) In ancient Greek music 
 antiphony {avTKJxiivf), or avriipiovoi) meant 
 " sounds in octaves " as being responsive to, 
 or over against each other. The relation 
 between sounds at the interval of an oc- 
 tave was thus implied by avrupiovti, while 
 the actual interval of an octave was called 
 diapason. 
 
 (2) From the above meaning of the word 
 it came in time to be applied to the alternate 
 singing of choirs, as being similar in some 
 respects to the cTripprifia and avTewLpprnia of the 
 old Tragedy. The word Antiphony is the 
 more appropriate for recitation alternatim if 
 it be remembered that in the earliest public 
 services of Christianity a choir of women and 
 children was often responded to by a choir of 
 
 men : Suo ylvovrai TO irpdrov XOpoi, fiev avCfiay, 
 
 6 Si yvvaiK^v (Philo de Vita, cont.). The 
 custom of antiphonal singing seems to have 
 been first introduced at Antioch by Diodorus 
 and Flavian : oIitoi irpairoi di\rj duXovree roiie 
 tUv xpaWoyTbiv ^(epovQ ix TrapaSoj^^ ^Seiv ttji' 
 AaiitSiK^v eSiSa^av fxeXuSictv Kai tovto cv 
 'AvTW)(iq irp&TOV ap^a/ievov iravTOire SieSpafiE koi 
 Kar«\a/3£ r^e OLKOvfiivrie ripfiara (Theod. Hist. 
 Eccl.). Afterwards, through the musical 
 ability of Ambrose, the same system of psalm- 
 singing became general in theWestern chtrch. 
 Although Christian authors give accounts of 
 antiphonal singing as something new, there 
 can be no doubt of its great antiquity. There 
 are sufficient allusions to it in the Old Testa- 
 ment to show that it was well known to the 
 Jews ; and the very structure of many of the 
 Psalms implies its existence. In our own 
 times, the choirs of cathedrals and churches 
 are usually (when seated in the chancel, — not 
 in a west gallery) divided into two sides, one 
 called Decani, from the fact that it is on the 
 Dean's side of the choir (south) ; the other. 
 Cantoris, because it is placed on the Pre- 
 centor's or Succentor's side (north). The 
 Psalms are sung by alternate verses from 
 side to side, both sides joining in the Gloria 
 Patri. In some foreign churches, the Anti- 
 phony consists of the chanting of one verse 
 by a single voice, the next being sung by the 
 full choir, in response. This is not a correct 
 system, ritualistically speaking, although, in 
 the Church of England, in those rare places ^ 
 where they do not sing, the minister and 
 congregatipn go through an exactly similar 
 process. The Antiphony, which was once 
 common in this country, between the minister 
 and parish-clerk, who rivalled each other in 
 the uncommon phases of meaning which their 
 particular method of "saying" the Psalms 
 often rendered prominent, is now happily 
 almost obsolete. Miraculous stories of the 
 introduction of responsive choir-singing are 
 not wanting. Socrates, in his ecclesiastical 
 history (Book vi. chap, viii), says : " Ignatius, ' 
 third Bishop of Antioch in Syria from the 
 Apostle Peter, who had also conversed fami- 
 Harly with the Apostles themselves, saw a 
 vision of ang:els hymning in alternate chants 
 the Holy Trinity ; after which he introduced 
 the mode of singing he had observed in the 
 vision into the Antiochian Churches, whence 
 it was transmitted by tradition to all the other 
 churches." 
 
 (3) A short sentence, generally from Holy 
 Scripture, sung before and after the Psalms 
 for the day, or the Canticles, selected for its 
 appropriateness to the Church season in 
 which it is sung. As an example, one of the 
 Antiphons used on the fourth Sunday in 
 Advent is here given : 
 
 ( 30 ) 
 
ANTIPHONARIUM ANTISPASTUS. 
 
 qui -a pro-pe est 
 
 di-es Do -mi-ni : ec-ce ve -ni-et ad Sal-van-dum nos 
 
 Al - le - lu - ia, Al - le - lu 
 
 (Then follows Ps. 
 
 ex. to Tone !.)• 
 
 ' " Dixit Dominus." 
 
 phonier 
 
 {Fr.) j 
 
 Antiphonjary. 1 A service book of the 
 Antiphoner. J Roman Church, which 
 ontained originally the antiphons sung in 
 he services of the Hours, properly arranged 
 nd noted, to which, from time to time, other 
 ortions of music and words were added, 
 uch as Invitatories, Hymns, Responses, &c. 
 'he advantage, perhaps necessity, of refer- 
 ing to ancient copies of service-books for 
 le true restoration of plain-song, which has 
 ver had a tendency to vary in its character 
 
 The use of the Antiphon in this manner, 
 las no doubt grown out of the frequent re- 
 urrence of Alleluia, and other devout excla- 
 nations as found in the Psalms, which have 
 iver been used in the Church as " Respon- 
 oria." The Galilean " Liturgy," which may 
 vith probability be ascribed to the second 
 lentury, commences with an Antiphon. 
 But the word Antiphon is used in many 
 (ther senses, sometimes even given to a 
 ;omplete set of Versicles and Responses ; 
 hus Augustine and his followers are said 
 o have entered Canterbury singing as an 
 \.nthem (Antiphona) one of the Litanies, 
 i^ertain of the hymns sung at the end of 
 i^ompline are also called Antiphons. 
 
 (4) The greater Antiphons (Antiphona 
 najores) are sung on the eight days pre- 
 :eding Christmas-day, before the Magnificat. 
 The first of them commences with the words, 
 ' O Sapientia," which is still found in the 
 :alendar of the English Prayer-book, on 
 December i6th. It will be found interesting 
 o compare the text of these greater Anti- 
 )hons as found in the Sarum use, and in the 
 /esperal now issued from Mechlin. 
 
 (5) In the early Greek Church, in the 
 services of which, hymns and canticles of all 
 dnds were sung by two alternating choirs, 
 he word Antiphon was specially applied to 
 he three canticles which preceded the lesser 
 ntroit. 
 
 (6) Antiphona (Lat.) An Anthem. The 
 inglish word is supposed to have been 
 orrupted from the Latin. But several other 
 :xplanations, which have been brought 
 orward from time to time, will be found 
 ub voce. [Anthem. j 
 
 Antiphonarium (Lat.) ] 
 Antiphonaire. Anti- > [Antiphonary.] 
 
 by unauthorized additions, or foliations, was 
 felt as much one thousand years ago as it 
 is now. For we read that the good lessons 
 in plain-chant given to the French clergy, 
 when Pope Stephen II. was the guest of 
 Pepin, King of France, were soon forgotten ; 
 and that in the time of his son, Charlemagne, 
 the church-song had become exceedingly 
 corrupt. Charlemagne, for the purpose of 
 remedying this, obtained the services and help 
 of Theodore and Benoit, who carried with 
 them from Rome a copy of the Antiphoner of 
 Gregory, which the Pope himself (Adrian) had 
 noted. Other accounts are to be found of these 
 reformations of plain-chant, all of which how- 
 ever point to the importance of the preser- 
 vation of, and reference to, old antiphoners. 
 And later on, in the 12th century, we find 
 St. Bernard the Abbot making efforts to stem 
 the tide of innovations, by publishing his 
 tract — " De Cantu seu correctione Antipho- 
 narii" — in which he says, " take the anti- 
 phonary used at Rheims, and compare it 
 with that of Beauvais, or Amiens, or Soissons, 
 which are almost at your doors, and see if 
 they are the same, or even like each other." 
 
 The number of service-books seems to have 
 rapidly increased ; for, by the constitutions 
 of Archbishop Winchelsey (a.d. 1305) it was 
 required that every church in the province of 
 Canterbury should be provided with a Legend, 
 an Antiphonary, a Grail, a Psalter, a Troper, 
 an Ordinal, a Missal, and a Manual. In 1549, 
 when all such books were abolished to make 
 way for the "Booke of Common Praier," they 
 appear to have been still more numerous : 
 being described as " Antiphoners, Missals, 
 Grayles, Processionals, Manuals, Legends, 
 Pies, Portuasses, Primers in Latin or English, 
 Couchers, Journals, and Ordinals." The 
 Grayle, or Gradual, contained tracts, se- 
 quences, hallelujahs, creeds, offertories, the 
 sanctus, and the office of sprinkling with holy 
 water. Legends, or Lectionaries, contained 
 the Lessons, which were not in the Anti- 
 phonary. It is unnecessary here to enter 
 into an explanation of all these terms; suffice 
 it to say, that the copying of choir-books was 
 a matter of great labour, and that the books 
 themselves were in consequence very costly. 
 It is related by Spelman that two anti- 
 phonaries cost the Monastery of Crabhuse, 
 in Norfolk, twenty-six marks in the year 
 1424 ; and it is also related that a common 
 Missal cost five marks — a year's income of a 
 cleric at that time. Upon the dissolution of 
 monasteries, valuable books of this sort were 
 dispersed throughout the country, and, from 
 carelessness or wanton waste, destroyed in 
 large numbers. 
 
 Antispastus. A foot, consisting of two 
 long between two short syllables, ^--^ 
 
 ( 31 ) 
 
ANTISTROPHE APPLAUSE. 
 
 Antistrophe. [Strophe.] 
 
 Anwachsend (G.er.) Swelling, crescendo. 
 
 Aperto (It.) Open. The use of the 
 damper-pedal in pianoforte music. 
 
 Apfelregal (Ger.) A reed stop in the 
 organ now no longer made ; the pipes, which 
 were small, had a round hollow nob at the 
 top like an apple, whence the name. 
 
 Antode(GA.) arr^S^. Responsive singing. 
 
 Aoidoi (GA.), plural of aoiSoc Minstrels, 
 bards. (Lat.) Vates. [Bard.] 
 
 A piacere (It.)} (i)Atpleasure. Not 
 
 A piacimento (7^.) ) strictly in time, ad 
 libitum. (2) The introduction of a cadenza. 
 
 Aplomb (Fr.) Steadiness, self-possession. 
 
 A poco a poco (7^.) More and more. 
 By degrees. Applied to the increase of time 
 or expression. 
 
 A poco piu lento (It.) A little slower. 
 
 A poco piu mosso (7^.) Somewhat faster. 
 
 ApoUo-lyra. [Psalmmelodicon.] 
 
 Apollonicon. An organ, invented in 1800 
 by John Henry Voller, of Hesse Darmstadt, 
 and manufactured in London by Messrs. 
 Flight and Robson in 1828 ; it consisted of 
 about 1900 pipes, with six sets of keys, so 
 that half a dozen performers might play 
 simultaneously. The action was so ar- 
 ranged, that it might be performed upon by 
 six players in the ordinary manner, or the 
 various effects might be elicited by the revo- 
 lution of certain cylinders which set the wind 
 in motion, and regulated the stops according 
 to the character of the music played. An 
 imitation of an orchestra, with the usual 
 instruments, including kettle-drums, was the 
 object sought to be gained by the invention. 
 
 Apolutikion (Gk.) cittoXv-Ikiov. A hymn 
 sung at the close of Vespers in certain seasons 
 of the Greek Church. The word is probably 
 derived from the opening sentence of the 
 Nunc Dimittis, " vvv SnroXvcic tov ZovKov (tov," 
 and signifies a hymn of dismissal. 
 
 Apopemptic Song. An ancient farewell 
 or parting hymn usually sung to a stranger 
 about to return to his own land. Apopemtic 
 strains were sung to the gods on certain days 
 on which it was believed that the several 
 deities returned to their original countries. 
 
 Apotome (Gk.) 'AwoTOjxri. A major semi- 
 tone. " Major pars toni : quae semitonium 
 majus vulgariter dicitur" (Tinctor.) "Id quod 
 vere semitonium nuncupatur, pars toni minor 
 est quam dimidia. Rehqua igitur pars, quae 
 major est, apotome nuncupatur a Gracis, a 
 nobis vero potest vocari decisio." (Boethius 
 De Inst. Mus., Lib. ii., cap. 29 et 30.) 
 
 Appassionato (7^) 'With feeling, passion, 
 or affection. 
 
 Appassionamento {It.) With passion, 
 love. 
 Appassionatamente (It.) Passionately. 
 
 Appenato (It.) With an expression of 
 suffering, with bitterness or grief. 
 
 Applause. Praise or approbation ex- 
 pressed by clapping the hands, stamping 
 the feet or the utterance of certain cries, as 
 bravo, encore. In the ancient Greek theatre, 
 Donaldson says, that "the conduct of the 
 audience was much the same as that of the 
 spectators in our own theatres, and they seem 
 to have had little scruple in expressing their 
 approbation or disapprobation, as well to the 
 poet as to the actors. Their mode of doing 
 this was sometimes very violent, and even in 
 the time of Machon it was customary to pelt 
 a bad performer with stones." 
 
 Hissing, as an expression of disapproval or 
 contempt, is of very ancient use, and it was 
 the custom to augment the power of the hiss, 
 by blowing through reeds and whistles, a 
 custom not altogether unrepresented in later 
 times, when cat-calls, introduced into an 
 English theatre, gave Addison a subject for 
 an amusing paper (No. 361) in the Spectator. 
 The hollow pipe of a key serves the purpose 
 of the ancient calamus or fistula, in modern 
 Italy, and the frequency with which indifferent 
 operas are received " colla chiave," proves 
 that the spirit of old times still lives and is 
 active. [Fiasco.] 
 
 History shows us that applause was not 
 confined to secular performances, but was 
 allowed and even looked for in churches as 
 well as theatres. Hone, in his " Ancient 
 Mysteries described," quotes the following 
 passage relative to this custom : Jerome de- 
 sired Gregory Nazianzen to explain to him 
 what was meant by the second Sabbath after 
 the first, in St. Luke vi. i. Gregory answered, 
 " I will teach you that at Church, where, 
 when all the people shall applaud me, you will 
 be forced to know, what you do not know; for 
 if you only keep silence, you will be looked 
 upon as a fool." 
 
 At one time encores were not permitted in 
 France, neither were calls allowed for the 
 author of a piece which had given pleasure. 
 When reforms were takingplace, opportunities 
 were found to break through this rule, Jean 
 Baptiste Lemoine or Moyne, in 1789, being 
 the first composer called upon the stage in 
 France after the performance of his opera, 
 " Nepht6." A few years later in Italy, Paisiello 
 was the means of removing the prohibition on 
 the audience from applauding at all in San 
 Carlo, for he induced the King to set the ex- 
 ample of the change, by applauding an aria 
 sung by Carlo Raino, in the opera " Papirius," 
 produced in the year 1805. 
 
 It has been happily said that " II piu 
 grand 'omaggia alia musica sta nel silenzro," 
 and, influenced by some such principle, the 
 better sort among a mixed audience refrain 
 
 (32) 
 
APPLICATUR ARETINIAN SYLLABLES. 
 
 from indiscriminate applause, encores in- 
 tended as cpmpliments often becoming an 
 oppressive tax, levied by the unthinking, or 
 those who care little for true art. The gene- 
 ral opinion of the reasonable on this subject, 
 is expressed in the following epigram :— 
 
 " The ' sovereign people ' rule all things, 
 So levellers would say ; 
 But all ' encores' in concert-rooms. 
 The ' shilling people ' sway." 
 
 [Claque, j 
 
 Applicatur (Ger.) (i) The art of using 
 the fingers freely upon- a musical instru- 
 ment of any kind, (2) shifting, q.v., and re- 
 covering the original position. 
 
 Appoggiando (It.) Drawing out, length- 
 ening, leaning upon. 
 
 Appoggiato (It.) Supported. Appoggiato 
 notes are those notes which suspend the 
 resolution, or that supply gaps in passages 
 of intervals. See also passing note, sus- 
 pension, and SYNCOPATION. 
 
 Appoggiatura (7^) A note leant upon 
 in singing or playing, applied to beats and 
 grace notes, q.v. 
 
 Apprestare [It.) To make ready, to pre- 
 pare for playing, to set in tune. 
 
 A premiere yue {Fr.)) ^^ ^^^^ ^.^^_ 
 
 A prima vista (It.)} " 
 
 A punta d'arco (it.) With the end of 
 the bow near the point. 
 
 A punto (It.) In exact time, precise, strict, 
 accurate. 
 
 Apycni (Gk.) (airvKvoi). The notes Pros- 
 lambanomenos (wpoaXaiJ.IBavofiEi'oi;), nete sy- 
 nemmenon (vrirrj o-i/vjjju/ztVwy), and nete hyper- 
 boleon (v^t-j/ vTrspPoXaiwv) of the Greek system 
 of music. The notes are so named because 
 of their remoteness from each other (from 
 u-vKvnc, not close, not dense). 
 
 A quattro mani (It.) A quatre mains (Fr.) 
 For four hands ; as a duet for two performers' 
 on the pianoforte or organ. 
 
 A quatre seuls (Fr.)} p„^ f„^^ g^iojsts. 
 
 A quattro soli (It.) J 
 
 A quattro parti (It.) In four parts. 
 
 A quattro voci (If.) A quatre voix (Fr.) 
 For four voices in harmony. 
 
 Arbitrio (7^) Will, pleasure, a siio ar- 
 ■ bitrio, at his pleasure. 
 
 Arcato (7^) With the bow, as opposed 
 to pizzicato, plucked with the finger. Coll' 
 arco is a direction to the same effect. 
 
 Arched viall. An instrument somewhat 
 in fashion like a hurdy-gurdy, invented about 
 A.D. 1664, and thus described by Pepys in his 
 Diary, under the date October 5th, in that 
 year": " To the Musique meeting at the 
 Post Office, where I was once before. And 
 thither anon came all the Gresham College, 
 and a great deal of noble company ; and the 
 
 ( 33 
 
 new instrument was brought, called the 
 Arched Viall, where being tuned with Lute- 
 strings, and played on with kees like an 
 organ, a piece of parchment is always kept 
 moving ; and the strings, which by the kees 
 are pressed down upon it, are grated in imi- 
 tation of a bow, by the parchment ; and so it 
 is intended to resemble several vyalls played 
 on with one bow, but so basely and so harshly, 
 that it will never do. But after three hours' 
 stay it could not be fixed in tune ; and so they 
 were fain to go to some other music of instru- 
 ments." Pepys had probably no design in 
 writing the word viall in the manner in which 
 hehas done; but, in doing so, he has intimated a 
 connection with ancient vielle or hurdy-gurdy, 
 which the Arched viall somewhat resembled ; 
 the parchment was doubtless " always kept 
 moving" by means of a wheel. 
 
 Archeggiamento (7*.) (i) The same as 
 arcato, or coll' arco. (2) The use of the bow. 
 
 Archet (Fr.) Arco (It.) The bow with 
 which stringed instruments are played. [Bow.] 
 
 Archicembalo (It.) Archicembalum(Lat.) 
 A cembalo with an enharmonic scale, sup- 
 posed to have been invented about the year 
 1537 in Italy, described by Salinas as having 
 each tone divided into parts, of which three 
 were given to the greater semi-tone and two 
 to the less, the whole octave being divided 
 into thirty-one parts. 
 
 Archlute, Arciliuto (It.) Archiluth 
 (Ger.) [Theorbo.] 
 
 Arco (It.) The bow. ColV arco, with the 
 bow, as opposed to Pizzicato, pinched by the 
 finger. 
 
 Ardente (It.) (Fr.) Ardently, with fire. 
 
 Arditezza,con (It.) With boldness,energy. 
 
 Ardito (It.) Bold and energetic. 
 
 Aretinian syllables. The names Ut, 
 Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, given to the Hexachordby 
 Guido d'Arezzo (Guido Aretinus). These 
 syllables happen to occur in consecutive notes 
 of the scale, in an ancient hymn to S. John 
 Baptist. 
 
 UT que -ant la 
 
 xis 
 
 RE - so - na- re ti-bris, 
 
 MI ra ge - sto - rum FA- mu - li tu or - urn, 
 
 SOL ve pol - lu 
 
 =1^=5= 
 
 LA - bi - i re - a - turn. 
 
 Sane - te Jo - an -nes. 
 
 From the system of over-lapping Hexa- 
 chords, arise the compound names of notes 
 such as E-la-mi, A-la-mi-re, &c., which are 
 explained under Notation. 
 
 ) c 
 
ARGHOOL ARIA FUGATA. 
 
 Arghool. A simply constructed wind in- 
 strument, now used in Egypt. It is made of 
 common cane, and is played by mouth-pieces 
 containing reeds. There are two species of 
 arghool ; the first (Fig. i) consists of two 
 tubes both pierced with holes, so that the 
 performer may play in thirds and sixths ; the 
 second (Fig. 2) consists also of two tubes, but 
 one only is pierced with holes, the other being 
 longer and used as a drone. The pitch of the 
 drone can be altered by the addition of eitra 
 pieces, which are attached to the instrument, 
 as are also the mouth-pieces, by waxed 
 thread. 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 ■^T 
 
 Aria (It.) An air, tune, song, or melody 
 in rhythmical proportion, now understood to 
 mean a movement for a single voice or instru- 
 ment, with an accompaniment. [Air.] 
 
 Aria d'abilita (It.) A song of diificult 
 execution, requiring great skill in its proper 
 and satisfactory performance. 
 
 Aria buffa (It.) A song with some degree 
 of humour in the words, or in the treatment 
 of the music. 
 
 Aria cantabile (It.) An air in a graceful, 
 flowing style, capable of much musical ex- 
 pression. 
 
 Aria concertante (7^.) An air in the con- 
 cert style, that is a melody for a single voice, 
 accompanied by instruments having ohbligato 
 or solo passages assigned to them. 
 
 Aria di bravura {It.) A melody with 
 florid, bold, and energetic passages and phra- 
 ses for the voice. An aria di bravura is more 
 or less an aria d'abilita. 
 
 Aria fugata {It.) A song or air, in which 
 the accompaniment is written in fugal style, 
 or in imitation. The difficulty of expressing 
 dramatic emotions in this species of compo- 
 sition led to its ultimate disuse, though at 
 one time it was greatly in favour. The sub- 
 joined specimen, perhaps one of the most 
 expressive of its class, is said to be the work 
 
 of Bononcini, usually called the rival of 
 Handel, but it may be the production of 
 either of the other writers concerned in the 
 opera of Thomyris, from whence it was taken. 
 This opera, produced under the direction of 
 Heidegger, at the " King's Theater, in y' Hay- 
 market" in 1709, was a pasticcio of melodies 
 and compositions selected from the works of 
 Albinoni, Gasparirii, Steffano, Scarlatti, and 
 Bononcini. The opera was called English, 
 though the singers delivered some portions in 
 Italian, and others in English. The libretto of 
 the opera was by no means of a high poetical 
 order. 
 
 " Aria fugata" out of the Opera of Thomyris. 
 
 \ 
 
 $ 
 
 Z-T [llr^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Pi - ning, 
 
 m^-r. — ^^=^-H^=E 
 
 (34) 
 
ARIA PARLANTE ARMONISTA. 
 
 P^ f r : -[iJi ^ ^ 
 
 Fine. 
 
 all my hours employs, grief all my hours employs. 
 
 Aria parlante (It.) (i) Vocal music suit- 
 able to, and designed for, a proper declamation 
 of the words. 
 
 (2) A style of song-writing invented to- 
 wards the close of the i6th century by those 
 Florentine dilettanti who, imbued with the 
 spirit of Renaissance which had already 
 revolutionized other arts, turned their atten- 
 tion to the necessity of ridding music of 
 cold formalities and restoring it to its proper 
 function, which indeed it held among the 
 Greeks, of being a just vehicle of the ever- 
 varying emotions which poetry calls forth. 
 Monteverde, Peri, Corsi, and Caccini, were 
 the musicians who made the first attempts at 
 aria parlante, several operas being composed 
 by them individually or in combination, to 
 words by Rinuccini, in which the aria par- 
 lante occupied an important position. The 
 aria parlante was not a recitative, but was 
 sung in strict time. The latter, however, 
 very soon grew out of the former, and assumed 
 a separate existence in the works of Carissimi. 
 
 In the preface to the first Opera printed 
 with the music, "Le Musiche de Jacopo Peri, 
 Nobil Fiorentino, sopra L'Euridice de Signor 
 
 Ottavio Rinuccini, Rappresentate nello Spon- 
 salizio della Christianissima Maria Medici, 
 Regina di Francia e di Navarra. In Venetia, 
 MDCViii," the author states that the ground- 
 work of the imitation proposed " usassero 
 un armonia, che avanzado quella del parlare 
 ordinario." 
 
 The character of this harmony, which was 
 intended to be a medium between common 
 speech and singing, will be seen in the fol- 
 lowing Aria parlante for Pluto, in answer to 
 Orpheus seeking Euridice : 
 
 
 Plutone. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■frh-^ f^- — 4 H~ 
 
 — 1 J^^i- 
 
 -J M J 1 
 
 - 
 
 -Kr — - — !- — \ £^ • J 
 
 — J • J — ^ == ^-=^ 
 
 • 
 
 On -de 
 
 CO - 
 
 tan -,toar- di 
 
 re Chi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IWl 
 
 
 
 c^ 
 
 
 i ^^^ j"j^ri J J o J J 
 
 le, Scend' a miei 
 
 [Opera.] [Recitative.] 
 
 Aria Tedesca {It.) An air in the German 
 style — that is to say, in which the accompani- 
 ment is inseparable from the melody. 
 
 Arie aggiunte {It.) Supplementary songs 
 introduced into a work after the first perform- 
 ance or representation. 
 
 Arietta {It.) The diminutive of aria; a 
 short air or melody. 
 
 Ariette {Fr.) [Arietta.] 
 
 Arioso {It.) In the style of an air. (i) A 
 direction that the music to which it refers is 
 to be performed tunefully, sweetly. 
 
 (2) An intimation that recitative form has 
 more or less been incorporated into, or perhaps 
 superseded by, a smooth and melodious treat- 
 ment of the words. The Arioso is found in its 
 perfection in the works of Mendelssohn, but 
 examples of it are not wanting in older writers, 
 although they are simply called recitative, e.g., 
 "Behold and see" ("Messiah") and in Nos. 
 17 and 74 of Bach's Passion (St. Matthew). 
 
 Aristoxenians. The followers of the musi- 
 cal system of Aristoxenus. cf. Pythagoreans. 
 
 Armer la clef {Fr.) To indicate the key 
 by the number of sharps or flats in the 
 signature. 
 
 Armoneggiare {It.) To harmonise, to 
 sound in chords. 
 
 Armonia {It.) [Harmony.] 
 
 Armonista {It.) A harmonist. 
 
 ( 35 ) 
 
ARMONICA ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 Armonica {It.') Harmonica, Armonicon, 
 Harmonicon. (i) The musical glasses, a 
 series of glass cups of various sizes and thick- 
 nesses, capable of producing the different 
 notes of th* diatonic scale by friction upon 
 the edges. The name armonica was given 
 to this instrument by Benjamin Franklin, to 
 Vi^hom also the credit of the invention is 
 sometimes given, but the idea was suggested 
 by a Mr. Pickeridge, an Irish gentleman, and 
 first carried out by M. Delaval, and was in 
 use long before the name armonica was given 
 to it by Franklin. 
 
 (2) An instrument now used by children, 
 consisting of a flat oblong box, containing 
 free reeds so arranged that when applied 
 to the mouth, inspiration and respiration 
 through the orifices in the side, produce 
 different sounds of the scale, in a series. 
 [Cheng.] [Harmonium.] 
 
 Arpa {It.) [Harp.] 
 
 Arpa doppia (7<.) A double harp. [Harp.] 
 
 Arpanetta or arpanella {It.) A small 
 harp. 
 
 Arpege {Fr.) [Arpeggio.] 
 
 Arpeggiando (it.) Playing arpeggio, q.v. 
 
 I To strike the notes of a 
 chord in succession in 
 the manner of harp 
 playing. 
 Arpeggiatura {It.) [Arpeggio.] 
 Arpeggio {It.) In the style of a harp. A 
 term applied to the notes of a chord when they 
 are struck consecutively, instead of simul- 
 taneously. 
 
 In pianoforte music a waved line is written 
 beside a chord intended to be played arpeggio : 
 
 !-m- i^m- 
 
 Arrangement. A selection or adaptation 
 of the parts of a composition, to fit them for 
 performance by other voices or instruments 
 than those originally designed. 
 
 There are very few examples existing of 
 acknowledged arrangements in the earliest 
 musical publications ; for few ever thought of 
 tampering with an author's compositions so 
 far as to divert them from their original in- 
 tentions. The adaptation of new words. 
 
 although it occasionally involved a slight 
 alteration in the time-value of some of the 
 notes, was a matter of small importance ; 
 and the musician who undertook such a 
 matter rarely gave himself the credit of 
 having done so clever a thing as modern 
 arrangers would have us believe such an 
 alteration to be. Thus Nicolas Yonge, in his 
 collection of Madrigals, " Musica Transal- 
 pina," London 1588, leaves it to the judg- 
 ment of the reader to infer the part he took 
 in giving his book to the world, calling his 
 work " Madrigales translated of four, fine, 
 and sixe parts, chosen out of diuers excellent 
 Authors, with the first and second part of 
 La Verginella, made by Maister Byrd, out of 
 two Stanz's of Ariosto, and brought to Speak 
 English with the rest. Published by N. Yonge 
 in favour of such as take pleasure in Musick 
 of voices." For a somewhat lengthened period 
 arrangements were described as " brought to 
 light," "framed," "figured," "fitted," "made 
 proper," and " newly set forth," for example : 
 "Lessons for Consort, madeby sundry excellent 
 authors, and set to sixe severall instruments. 
 Namely, the Treble Lute, Treble Violl, Base 
 VioU, Bandora, Citterne, and the Flute. Now 
 newly set forth by Philip Rossetor, 1609." 
 
 Richard Alison, in his book " An Howres 
 Recreation in Musicke, apt for Instruments 
 and Voyces" (1606), describes his arrangement 
 as "Framed for the delight of gentlemen and 
 others which are well affected to that qualitie." 
 A Dutch edition of Gastoldi's ballets for "5 en 
 6 stemmen, te singen of speelen," 1648, is 
 "gestelt" — that is, arranged or accommo- 
 dated — " of 3 en 4 stimmen," and this is 
 perhaps one of the earliest instances of an 
 alteration of an original design. Arrangements 
 such as these could only be called into exist- 
 ence by the desire to possess condensations 
 of larger works. 
 
 The " Modulorum Hortus ab excellentis- 
 simas Musics auctoribus " is described as 
 being merely collected by R. Floridus, Ronie, 
 1647, — "in lucem curavit edendam." A few 
 years later arrangements are described as 
 "transpositions." Thus, in the Mercurius 
 Musicus for i6gg, the " New teaching songs, 
 compos'd .... With a Thorow Bass 
 for the Harpsichord or Spinett," we have the 
 further intimation of "The songs htmgTrans- 
 pos'd for the Flute at the end of the Book." 
 In the " Orpheus Britannicus, a collection of 
 all the choicest songs for One, Two, and Three 
 Voices, composed by Mr. Henry Purcell ; 
 together with such Symphonies for Violins or 
 Flutes as were by him designed for any of 
 them, and a Thorow-bass to each song, figur'd 
 for the Organ, Harpsichord, or Theorbo Lute 
 (1698-1702); also, in "Suits of the mostCele- 
 brated Lessons for Viols, collected and fitted 
 
 (36) 
 
ARRANGEMENT ARSIS. 
 
 to the Harpsichord or Spinett, by William 
 Babell (1702) ;" and in "A choice Collection 
 of Lessons, being excellently Sett to the 
 Harpsichord, viz. Old Simon the King, Mote- 
 ley's Maggot, Mortlack's Grounds, and several 
 others (by Blow and Purcell) 1705." In " A 
 Collection of the Newest Minuets, Rigadoons, 
 and French dances perform'd att Court and 
 Publick entertainments," 1716. The tunes 
 are made " proper for the Violin, Hoboy, or 
 Flute," and in " Six Setts of Choice Opera 
 Songs or Arietts, with their Symphonys fitted 
 for two Flutes. The Second Parts being com- 
 pleat and airy as the first, not thin and heavy 
 as Second Trebles usually are ;" in both parts 
 their proper Variations for the Humour of the 
 Flute (17 12.) 
 
 A little later in date, we find, " Song in the 
 Opera of Flora, with the Humorous Scenes 
 of Hob, designed by y° celebrated Mr. Grave- 
 lot, and engrav'd by G. Bickham, Junr. The 
 Musick proper for y° Violin, German and Com- 
 mon Flute, Harpsichord, or Spinet, with a New 
 Base, and thoro' Base to each Song" (1737). 
 The business of arrangement, that is to Say, 
 of altering music intended for one purpose, 
 so that it might serve another — more or less 
 hinted at in the preceding collections — arose 
 with the popularity of Handel's works ; thus, 
 copies of " favourite Choruses" out of Mr. 
 Handel's celebrated oratorios " adapted for 
 the Harpsichord or organ and a single voice," 
 began to appear soon after his death. Such 
 " arrangements" being part and parcel of the 
 system of piracy which was most ingeniously 
 and unblushingly carried on during the last 
 century. A chorus arranged for a single voice 
 ceasing of course to be a chorus ; but, as a 
 double security, many of these pieces were 
 made cleverly incorrect. Thus Pitt, organist 
 of Worcester, evaded all copyright that might 
 have existed by arranging his " Church 
 music" from the sacred works of Handel, 
 by a system of dove-tailing and occasional 
 alteration of key. 
 
 " The beauties of Handel, consisting of his 
 most favourite Songs, Duets, and Trios ; ar- 
 ranged with a separate accompaniment for 
 the pianoforte, and figured from the MS. scores 
 ofthe author, by Jos. Corfe"(c. 1782) is perhaps 
 one of the earliest collections of confessedly 
 '• arranged" music. In 1795, J. W. Holder, 
 Mus. Doc, Oxon, one of the most talented 
 pianoforte players of his time, published an 
 arrangement of the choruses of Handel for 
 four hands, which were the standard pieces 
 of their kind for many years, being frequently 
 played by two perform.ers on one organ also. 
 Giambattista Cimador (1750-1810) was pro- 
 bably the first who was employed by the 
 publishers of London on purpose to make 
 arrangements of large works for the piano- 
 
 forte, or small bands, his arrangement of 
 Twelve Symphonies by Mozart, as sestetts 
 with a seventh part, ad libitum, being con- 
 sidered at the time they were made as of 
 more than ordinary excellence. These were 
 undertaken by Cimador out of pure love for 
 Mozart's works, and a desire to communicate 
 that love to the musicians of his time who 
 thought " Mozart's symphonies too arduous 
 and difficult." 
 
 About the same time J. S. C. Possin (1755- 
 1822), a musician of such singular modesty 
 that he never would have his name printed 
 with his works, arranged for Salomon the 
 twelve symphonies of Haydn, known as the 
 " Salomon set," for the pianoforte, in " an 
 admirable manner;" indeed, says his bio- 
 grapher, " they were the first adaptations of 
 orchestra music worthy of notice." From 
 that time to the present " adaptations, 
 arrangements, and transcriptions," have been 
 issued in unlimited quantities, of tnore or 
 less value. 
 
 Arranger {Fr.) To arrange a piece of 
 music. [Arrangement.] 
 
 Arrangiren (Ger.) To arrange a piece of 
 music. [Arrangement.] 
 
 Arsis {Gk.) apaic (from a'Lpto), a raising, 
 an elevation, as opposed to thesis [deaic, from 
 Tidmii), a depression or lowering. 
 
 There are two kinds of Arsis, (i) of 
 accent ; (2) of metre. 
 
 The former of these does not perhaps call 
 for special attention from musicians, unless 
 it be looked upon as a subject into which 
 their educated ear qualifies them to enter; or 
 unless it be considered (as it undoubtedly was 
 by the Greeks) as an essential part of the 
 education of those who attempt to set words 
 to music. The latter has been explained 
 from two opposite points of view, both of 
 which, however, are closely connected with 
 the former, — a slight sketch of the whole sub- 
 ject is therefore subjoined: 
 
 (i) Though not accepted without dispute, 
 the following facts seem generally to be 
 admitted ; first, that in speaking, the voice is 
 constantly varying slightly in pitch, that is, 
 is not absolutely on monotone; next, that the 
 component syllables of polysyllabic words 
 are not exactly of the same duration ; lastly, 
 that there is an emphasis on particular 
 syllables, which is independent ahke of the 
 raising or depression of voice, and of the 
 length of time during which any syllable is 
 held. 
 
 The elevation, or pitch of the voice is 
 classically termed Accent (from ad and cantus, 
 just as irpoaidSia is from irpoc and wSi)) ; the 
 duration of syllables is called Quantity ; and 
 the metrical emphasis is called Ictus. 
 
 Accent is of two kinds, vocabular and 
 
 (37 ) 
 
ARSIS AS DUR. 
 
 oratorical. The former is that method of 
 pronunciation which a word receives if it 
 stands alone in a vocabulary or dictionary ; 
 the latter that which it receives in con- 
 sideration of its position in a sentence, words 
 being of course influenced by the meaning to 
 be expressed in a sentence of prose, or by 
 their metrical position in verse. 
 
 There can be no doubt that a nice ear and 
 appreciation of pitch is required before accent 
 and quantity can be distinguished from each 
 other in modern languages. With regard to 
 ancient languages the same difficulty does 
 not exist, because, putting aside the question 
 of the correctness of our pronunciation of 
 them, quantity is governed by either known 
 laws of syllabic structure and position, or by 
 the actual shape of the letters. Hence, many 
 have thought that quantity does not exist in 
 modern languages, and all that we possess is 
 accent (elevation of the voice) and emphasis, 
 and that these two always coincide, and are 
 commonly included in the one term accent. 
 But as a matter of fact, the pitch of voice is 
 in modern languages quite independent of 
 quantity, e.g., precarious, request, &c., in 
 which the voice is high for the short syllable, 
 drops in pitch for the long, yet no one can 
 doubt that there are long syllables in these 
 words, just as much as in such others, 
 as probable, symmetry, pendant, &c. The 
 pronunciation of English in the common 
 conversation will give but a very slight clue 
 to the intricacies of our language in this 
 respect. For, in addition to the acute accent 
 already spoken of, we certainly have a flat 
 accent corresponding to the Greek '', e.g., 
 cumbersdme, where the voice drops a little 
 below what might be termed its key-note. 
 We have also the up-and-down slide indi- 
 cated by the Greek circumflex, e.g., feirful, 
 loathsome. But with us these are always 
 oratorical, never vocabular. 
 
 Having said thus much as to elevation and 
 depression of the voice, it is now time to show 
 how arsis is used as a musical term. Ac- 
 cording to Scaliger, when the voice is raised 
 on a syllable it is called arsis, when it returns 
 to its original position it is called thesis. 
 Priscian (see Foster on Accent, p. 8i, note) 
 not only says the same thing, but gives as 
 an example the word natura, pointing out 
 that there is an arsis at the syllable tu, and 
 thesis on ra. In this sense arsis is evidently 
 the accent, or elevation of the voice, which 
 has been already spoken of. 
 
 (2) But arsis and thesis are not only applied 
 to the elevation and depression of voice, but 
 also to the strong and weak parts of metrical 
 scansion. But unfortunately, scholars have 
 used these terms in two ways. For instance, 
 Tate says (see Donaldson, Theatre of the 
 
 Greeks, p. 371), "those syllables which have 
 the metrical ictus are said to be in arsi ; those 
 
 which have it not, in thesi the latter 
 
 is sometimes called the debilis positio." In 
 this he follows Bentley, who makes ictus (or 
 percussio), elevatio, and arsis synonymous. 
 
 To this other scholars object, and say truly 
 that a syllable often is in arsi as^ regards 
 metre, when it is in thesi as regards accent 
 (elevation of voice). Also, Victorinus says 
 distinctly that "arsis and thesis, as used by 
 the Greeks, refer to the movement of the foot 
 (significant pedis motum), and that the former 
 is ' the elevation of the foot ' without sound, 
 the latter the 'lowering of the foot' to the 
 ground, with a sound, the sounds marking the 
 metrical ictus. To this Foster (on Accent, 
 p. 166) agrees. With these authors, there- 
 fore, ictus and thesis are synonymous. 
 
 Hence, musicians who agree with the 
 former of these opinions and make arsis and 
 ictus synonymous are justified in saying that 
 there is an arsis on the down-beat of every 
 bar, and its up-beats are in thesi, for if thesis 
 is debilis positio, it would be absurd to say 
 that this occurs on the down-beat, except in 
 some rare cases of syncopation. 
 
 Those musicians, on the other hand, who 
 believe that ictus and thesis coincide, because 
 the thesis of the foot marked the ictus of the 
 metre, have a perfect right to say that the 
 down-beat of a bar is in thesi, and an up-beat 
 in arsi. 
 
 Inasmuch as the confusion among mu- 
 sicians in using these terms has resulted 
 from the disagreement of scholars as to their 
 proper application, it is much to be hoped 
 that they will be allowed to sink into disuse. 
 The expressions, strong position and weak 
 position of the bar, imply all that is under- 
 stood by arsis and iAesw, without the risk, by 
 their use, of calling forth absolutely con- 
 tradictory opinions as to their meaning. 
 
 Art (Ger.) Species, kind, sort, as auf 
 polnischeArt, a sort oi polonaise, &c. 
 
 Articulation, (i) In singing, the art of 
 distinct pronunciation. (2) In instrumental 
 music, the art of producing proper tone by a 
 right adjustment of the fingers, or the lips. 
 The latter application of the term is less 
 commonly met with than the former. 
 
 Artist. One who possesses in a high 
 degree that appreciation of the beautiful and 
 that refined temperament, which, when duly 
 trained and educated, become active faculties, 
 and render their owner an able and influential 
 exponent of Art. 
 
 As {Ger.) The note A >. 
 
 Asamentata, Assamenta, or Axamenta 
 {Lat.) The songs or hymns sung by the Salii, 
 q.v. 
 
 As dur {Ger.) The key of A flat major. 
 
 (38) 
 
ASHANTEE TRUMPET AUBADE. 
 
 Ashantee Trumpet. An instrument 
 formed of the tusk of an elephant carefully 
 hollowed. Its peculiarity consists in the 
 fact that the embouchure is not at the end, 
 but in the side, a short distance from it. 
 
 As moll (Ger.) The key of A flat minor. 
 
 Asor. [Azor.] 
 
 Asosra (Heb.) [Chatzozerah.J 
 
 Ascaules (Gk.) a^KavXriQ, a player on the 
 ascaulos. 
 
 Ascaulos {Gk.) aaKavXos, a bagpipe, from 
 aaxos, a leathern bag, and avKos, a pipe. 
 [Bagpipe.] 
 
 Aspiration {Fr.) (i) The sign ' for short- 
 ening the duration of a note. [Spiccato.] 
 
 (2) A former name for an appoggiatura. 
 
 Aspirare (It.) To take breath audibly, 
 bad management of the breath in singing. 
 
 Asprezza {If.) Harshness, severity. 
 
 Assai (It.) Very. Allegro assai, very fast. 
 
 Assemblage {Fr.) (i) A series of rapid 
 passages executed on wind instruments. (2) 
 Double tongueing on the flute or cornet. 
 
 Assez {Fr.) Enough, very; as, assez lent, 
 rather slow. 
 
 Assonance. Agreement of tone, con- 
 sonance. 
 
 A string. [A §7.] 
 
 A suo arbitrio {It.) At one's pleasure 
 or judgment. 
 
 A suo comodo {It.) At one's leisure. 
 
 A suo bene placito {It.) At one's 
 pleasure. 
 
 A suo luogo {It.) At one's position or 
 place. 
 
 Atabal. A Moorish tambour. 
 
 A table sec {Fr.) The performance of 
 vocal exercises without the accompaniment 
 of an instrument. Sec. lit. dry, cf. Lat. assa 
 vox, an unaccompanied voice, and assee tibice, 
 flutes used without a voice accompaniment. 
 
 A tempo {It.) In time. [A battuta.] 
 
 A tempo comodo {It.) In a convenient, 
 easy, moderate time. 
 
 A tempo di Gavotta {It.) In the time of 
 the Gavotte, q.v. 
 
 A tempo di Minuetto (It.) In the time 
 of the Minuet, q.v. 
 
 A tempo giusto (It.) At a just pace, 
 (i) In general, an indication that the move- 
 ment should be taken at a moderate tempo. 
 (2) A direction (in older writers) to return to 
 strict time after irregular declamation. 
 
 A tempo ordinario (It.) At an ordinary 
 pace. 
 
 A tempo primo {It.) In the time first 
 given. 
 
 A tempo rubato {It.) Robbed time ; time 
 made slightly irregular for the sake of ex- 
 pression. 
 
 A tre {It.) For three voices, instruments, 
 or parts. 
 
 A tre mani {It.) For three hands upon 
 an organ or pianoforte. 
 
 A tre parti {It.) For three parts. 
 
 A tre soli {It.) For three principals, 
 either vocal or instrumental performers. 
 
 A tre stromente {If.) For three instru- 
 ments. 
 
 A tre voci {If.) For three voices, or parts. 
 
 Attacca {It.) Commence at once, without 
 a pause. 
 
 Attacca subito {It.) [Attacca.J 
 
 Attaccato subito {It.) To be begun at 
 once. Go on. 
 
 Attack, (i) A vigorous entry of voices or 
 instruments at a leading point. (2) A coura- 
 geous rendering. 
 
 Attacco (7^.) (Lit. sticking, cleaving to.) 
 A term given to a short and well-defined 
 theme, or passage, in fugal imitation. 
 
 Attendant Keys. Relative keys, keys of 
 af&nity. Attendant keys in a scale are the 
 relative minor or major, the dominant and 
 subdominant, and their relative minors or 
 majors. [Relative Key.] 
 
 Atto [/i.] An act in an opera. [Act.] 
 
 Attore or Attrice {It). An actor or 
 actress, the chief singers in an opera. 
 
 Aubade {Fr.) (i) An open air morning con- 
 cert, the antithesis of a serenade. (2) The word 
 is derived {rom aube, day-break, and was similar 
 in character to the EngHsh " Hunts up" {q.v.) 
 Sometimes unmusical noises were made for 
 an aubade, and so the word came to be em- 
 ployed as a term for an insult. The Aubades 
 de Calene occupied in France the position of 
 the Waits {q.v.) in England, as they were 
 performed in the evening for a month or so 
 before Christmas. Although doubtless of 
 religious origin, the performers gradually 
 introduced secular melodies. The players, 
 like the Waits, were officially licensed. The 
 word Caline is a French provincial form of 
 the word Calendes, Christmas Day being for- 
 merly called " le jour des Calendes." 
 
 { 39 ) 
 
AUDACE, CON AUSSERE STIMMEN. 
 
 Audace, con [It). With vigour, boldness. 
 Auditory nerve. [Ear.] 
 Auferions {Old Eng.) Wire strings. 
 
 Aufgeweckt(G«j-.) Brisk, lively, sprightly, 
 
 cheerful. 
 
 Aufgewecktheit {Ger.) Sprightliness, 
 liveliness. 
 
 Aufhalten {Ger.) To stop, to keep back, 
 retard. 
 
 Aufhaltung(Gej'.) Suspension. [Harmony.] 
 Auflosung {Ger.) Resolution of a discord. 
 Aufschlag {Ger.) Unaccented beat. 
 Aufstrich {Ger). An up bowf in violin 
 playing. 
 
 Auftakt {Ger.) The unaccented part of 
 a bar. 
 
 Augmentatio {Med. Lat.) The lengthen- 
 ing of a note by the addition of half its length, 
 thus corresponding to the use of the modern 
 dot. 
 
 Augmentation. The introduction of the 
 subject of a fugue or canon, in the course 
 of its progress, in notes of longer duration 
 than those in which it was first proposed. 
 [Fugue.] 
 
 . Stlh. 
 
 Av,. -pr • 
 
 Augmented interval. [Interval.] 
 Augmented subject. [Augmentation.] 
 Auletes {Gk.) AiXijrijs. A player on the 
 Aulos or Flute. [Aulos.] 
 Auletrides {Gk.) Plural of avXriTpig. Fe- 
 , male players on the Aulos or Flute, q.v. 
 
 Aulaeum {Lat.), avXaia {Gk.) The curtain 
 of a theatre. 
 
 Aulos {Gk.) av\6c, derived from ar/fii, to 
 blow, as flute is from the Lat. flo. The 
 most important wind instrument of the 
 Greeks. The aulos was sometimes double, 
 the two tubes being called dextra and sinistra, 
 and sometimes male and female. Though 
 generally xtnAere,& flute, there is much reason 
 for supposing that it was a reed-instrument, 
 or, at the least, that the term, used generally, 
 included instruments of the ohoe family. The 
 fact that the two tubes were often of different 
 lengths {impares)ha.s been explained by saying 
 that they were tuned in different modes. But 
 it is far more probable that they were con- 
 structed like the arghool, and that the longer 
 tube gave out a drone. The double flute 
 was not unknown to the ancient Egyptians 
 and Assyrians, as shown in figs, i and 2, 
 but they were divergent, or perhaps actually 
 separate from each other. Fig. 3 represents 
 
 ( 40 
 
 two ancient Greek flutes, preserved in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Fig. 3- 
 
 A una corda {It.) With, or on, one string. 
 A direction (i) in pianoforte music, to use the 
 soft pedal. (2) In music for stringed instru- 
 ments to play the passage so marked on one 
 string only, by the shift. [Shift.] 
 
 Ausarbeitung {Ger.) The working out of 
 a theme, the climsix of a composition. 
 
 Ausdruck {Ger.) Expression, q.v. 
 
 Ausfiihrung {Ger.) (i) Performance or 
 execution. (2) The working out of a subject 
 in composition. 
 
 Aushaltung {Ger.) The time a note oc- 
 cupies in sounding, the duration of sound, 
 sustaining a sound. 
 
 Aushaltungs-zeichen {Ger.) A pause rrs 
 
 Aussere Stimmen {Ger.) [Extreme parts.] 
 
 ) 
 
AUSWEICHUNG AZOR. 
 
 Ausweichung fGey.") Change, modulation. 
 Authentic cadence. A final close, in 
 which the common chord of the Tonic is im- 
 mediately preceded by the common chord of 
 the dominant. [Cadence.] 
 
 Authentic mode. The name given to 
 those modes on which were afterwards con- 
 structed other modes called Plagal, by an 
 alteration of the pitch to a fourth below. 
 [Plain Song.] 
 
 Authentic part of the Scale, in Counter- 
 point and Fugue, is that which lies between a 
 note and its Dominant, whilst that which lies 
 between the Dominant and its superior Tonic 
 is termed Plagal. The terms are used chiefly 
 in connection with Subject and Answer. 
 [Fugue.] 
 
 Autos Sacramentales {Sp.) One of the 
 early forms of Spanish drama, similar in some 
 respects to the mysteries and moralities in 
 England, but in which music and dancing 
 formed an important part. The Autos had 
 reference to the adminstration of the Sacra- 
 ments according to the ideas received by the 
 people. 
 
 Auxiliary Notes. Notes not essential 
 to the harmony, introduced for the sake of 
 breaking monotony, or of giving freedom of 
 motion to one or more of the parts. They 
 may occur on either the accented or the unac- 
 cented 'part of the bar, and if introduced 
 below the melody should be only a semitone 
 from the proper note of that melody, but if 
 above they may be either a tone or a semitone 
 as the position in the scale would warrant, or 
 taste suggest. 
 
 Beethoven. No. 4 Symphony. 
 Violini. 
 
 $ 
 
 PP.. 
 
 ^ 
 
 j:,jjJ2LU^jm 
 
 ^£— si^jataSjtjL-'^ 
 
 Examples of extended auxiliary notes, and 
 of auxiliary notes, on the accented part of 
 the bar. 
 
 Verdi. Core " Vedi le fosche " (Trovatore). 
 
 tr 
 
 AuBER. Core " En bons militaires buvons" 
 (Fra Diavolo). 
 
 Auxiliary Scales. The scales of relative 
 or attendant keys, q.v. 
 
 Ave Maria (Lat.) (Hail ! Mar}'.) The 
 angel's salutation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, 
 used in the Roman Catholic Church as an 
 Antiphon. 
 
 Avena (Lat.), lit. oats. An oaten pipe, 
 hence (i) any simple reed used as a shep- 
 herd's pipe — "est modulatus avena Carmen," 
 TibuU, 2, I, 53. (2) The syrinx or pan-pipes, 
 reeds joined together with wax — "pastor junctis 
 pice cantat avenis," Ovid, Tristia 5, 10, 25. 
 [Pan's pipes.] 
 
 A vista (It.) At sight ; at iirst sight. 
 
 Away. A direction in Mace's Musicks 
 Monument, published in 1676, signifying a 
 return to the original time. 
 
 Azione Sacra (It.) Sacred dramas; 
 [Autos Sacramentales. Oratorio. Passion 
 Music] 
 
 Azor (Heb.) This word which occurs in 
 the Book of Psalms and elsewhere, is vari- 
 ously rendered according to the view which 
 is taken of its association with nebel. In 
 Psalm xxxiii., 2, " Sing unto him with a nebel 
 and azor " some drop the " and " and under- 
 stand azor as qualifying K«6eZ,making the com- 
 pound word to signify a " ten-stringed nebel" 
 (psalterium decern chordarum). Whether the 
 azor was a distinct instrument, or not, it is 
 impossible to say, although Engel, Fetis, and 
 some other authors have so considered it, and 
 have ventured to assign to it a definite number 
 of strings. 
 
 (41 ) 
 
-BAGPIPE. 
 
 B. (i) The name of the note above Pros- 
 lambanos, in the greater perfect system of the 
 Greeks. The first note of the lowest Tetra- 
 chord (Hypaton). [Greek Music.] 
 
 (2) The third note of the grave hexachord 
 of the Guidonian system, in which it is B mi. 
 [Notation.] 
 
 (3) The seventh note of the normal scale C, 
 the note Si [Si], in Tonic Sol-fa system Te. 
 
 (4) The major scale having five sharps in 
 its signature. 
 
 (5) The note Bj? in Germany, where Bja is 
 known as H, whence the possibility of makmg 
 the letters B, A, C, H, into a fugue subject, 
 
 as has been done by Bach, Schumann, Liszt, 
 and others. 
 
 (6) In old solmizations this note was called 
 a Mi. [Solfeggio.] 
 
 There is no authentic church-mode com- 
 mencing on this note, owing to the imper- 
 fection of its fifth when unraised by the 
 signature. 
 
 B. Abbreviation of Bass voice. Bassoon, 
 and Double-bass. 
 
 Baar-pyp. The name of a stop in some 
 of the Dutch organs ; (lit.) the Bear-pipe, 
 written also Bar-pfeife and Baren-pfeife, so 
 called from the instrument played as an ac- 
 companiment to dancing bears. 
 
 Baas or Base Dance. A dance or slow 
 movement, similar to the Measure, q.v., or the 
 Minuet, so called probably in contradistinction 
 to the vaulting dances in which greater agility 
 was displayed. 
 
 "And then came downe the 1. prince and the lady 
 Cecill, and daunced two baas daunces, and departed up 
 againe ; the 1. prince to the King, and the lady Cecill 
 to the Queene." — Wright's Provincial Dictionary. 
 
 Baccalaureus Musicae [Lat.) Bachelor 
 in Music. 
 
 Bacchanalian Song, (i) Songs sung in 
 procession during the worship of Bacchus. 
 (2) Any song in praise or defence of wine 
 drinking, of which there are numbers belonging 
 to the i8th century. 
 
 Bacchia. Kamschatdale dance, in | time. 
 
 Bacchius. A metrical foot consisting of 
 one short and two long syllables. [Metre.] 
 
 Bacciocolo (It.) Tuscan musical instru- 
 ment of the guitar kind. 
 
 Bachelor of, or in, Music. The first of 
 the degrees in music at the Universities of 
 Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin. At Cam- 
 bridge the degree is conferred next in seniority 
 to that of Master of Arts. In Oxford and 
 Dublin it is the lowest step in the Scale of 
 Graduates. The hood worn by the Oxford 
 and Dublin Bachelors is of blue silk, trimmed 
 with white fur ; at Cambridge the hood is the 
 same as that worn by Masters of Arts. The 
 degree is not conferred by any foreign Uni- 
 versity. \ 
 
 Backfall. A Turn in Lute or Harpsichord 
 
 music, written thus J flayed J*j : 
 
 Back fall. [Organ, § 10.] 
 
 Badinage (Fr.) Playfulness. 
 
 Bagana. The ten - stringed lyre of the 
 Abyssinians. It has only five different notes, 
 but each note has its octave-string. 
 
 Bagatelles {Fr.) Sketches, short pieces, 
 trifles. 
 
 Bagpipe. The ascaulus {&(TKav\og) of the 
 Greeks (from aanos, a leathern bag, and avXag, 
 a pipe) ; the tibice utricularice or utricularium 
 of the Romans ; sampogna or zampogna of 
 Italy; the cornemuse of France ; the chifonie 
 or symphony of the middle ages ; the souggu- 
 rah or zouggarah of the Arabians. An ancient 
 wind instrument of almost universal adoption, 
 formerly in common use in every part of 
 Europe, but now only found in parts of Italy, 
 Sicily, Calabria, Brittany, Poland, and Scot- 
 land, in form more or less varied ; in Ireland 
 the bagpipes under the name of the Union 
 pipes, are yet to be met with, but as a 
 musical instrument among the English it has 
 completely disappeared, in consequence of the 
 advance in musical taste. A form of bagpipe 
 is probably meant by the word syniphonia 
 (Dan. iii. 15) translated in the Italian version of 
 the Bible zampogna. In its general construc- 
 tion the bagpipe consists of a leathern bag fre- 
 quently formed of the whole skin of a kid or 
 other small animal, which contains the wind 
 conveyed from the mouth of the player 
 through a tube, a small valve preventing its 
 rapid escape. The sound comes from four 
 
 ( 42 ) 
 
BAGPIPE BALCKEN. 
 
 pipes, three of which united are called the 
 drone, and are capable of producing only one 
 note each, subject to tuning. These notes 
 are heard throughout the performance. The 
 fourth pipe, the chanter, furnished with a 
 reed, is bored with six or eight holes which 
 are stopped by the ends of the fingers of the 
 performer. The scale of some of the Scotch 
 bagpipes, with eight ventages, is in the minor 
 mode with the seventh flat : 
 
 in others with six holes, 
 seventh are omitted : 
 
 the fourth and 
 
 that of the Calabrian bagpipe is the diatonic 
 scale : 
 
 The bagpipe was known to the Anglo-Saxons, 
 and that it was at one time in England a 
 popular instrument, may be inferred from the 
 frequent mention made of it in mediaeval 
 times. Strutt quotes a MS. recording many 
 payments made to bagpipers in the reign of 
 Edward III., about 1335, both for their per- 
 sonal performance and as an allowance to 
 enable them to visit the foreign minstrel 
 schools. The same authority also records a 
 payment to another bagpiper in 1494. The 
 manner in which the instrument is mentioned 
 by Chaucer, and other poets, shows it to have 
 been exceedingly popular and of frequent use 
 in England in their days ; and a large number 
 of tunes quoted or alluded to in William Chap- 
 pell's" Popular Music" bear evidence of having 
 been of bagpipe character. There is no proof 
 that the bagpipe is a national Scottish instru- 
 ment, for its introduction into Scotland only 
 dates from the time it began to be disused in 
 England. 
 
 There is a tradition that bagpipes were used 
 at the Battle of Bannockburn, and there is a 
 tune, " Hey taitti, taittie," said to be the 
 identical march played by them. Ritson, in 
 his preface to a collection of Scottish songs, 
 doubts whether the Scots had any martial 
 music, and quotes Froissart's account of each 
 soldier in the army wearing a little horn, on 
 which, at the onset they would make such a 
 horrible noise " as if all the devils in hell had 
 been let loose." He further notes that as these 
 horns are the only instruments mentioned by 
 Barbour the Scottish chronicler, it must re- 
 main a moot point whether Bruce's army was 
 ever cheered by the sound of a bagpipe. 
 
 The earliest mention of the bagpipe as 
 forming part of the military music of the 
 
 Scotch was at the Battle of Balrinnes (1594), 
 though the oldest known pibroch is called 
 the " Battle of Harlaw," but it could not be 
 contemporary with the event (141 1). There 
 is mention of trumpets and drums in the old 
 ballad relating to the battle, but none of the 
 bagpipe : 
 
 " The armies met, the trumpet sounds, 
 The dandring drums alloud did touk." 
 
 The Irish.or Union pipes are furnished with 
 a pair of bellows (worked with the elbow) 
 with which to inflate the bag. There are 
 three drones, two tuned in unison, and one 
 an octave below ; most pipes have a valve 
 by means of which the drone can be silenced, 
 and there is also a contrivance for sounding 
 at will the common chord of the key note 
 in which the pipes are set. The quality of 
 the chanter is more like that of the clarinet 
 than the oboe, and the general tone of the 
 Irish pipes is softer and less piercing than 
 the Scottish bagpipe. The native Irish pipers 
 call the instrument " ullan piobe," the pipes 
 of the elbow. Shakespeare's mention of 
 " woollen pipes " in the " Merchant of Venice," 
 Act. iv. sc. I : 
 
 " Why he, a harmless necessary cat 
 Why he, a woollen bagpipe," 
 
 refers probably to the "ullan pipes ;" and the 
 word " union," as applied at the present day, 
 may be only a modern substitute for the right 
 word, for it is difficult to see the force of the 
 application of the term " union " to bagpipes, 
 unless the word be a corruption of a proper 
 term. 
 
 It is supposed that the bagpipe came 
 originally from the East ; it is still to be met 
 with in use among many Eastern nations. 
 In India, China, Persia, and Egypt, it is 
 the subject of frequent mention by many 
 travellers. 
 
 Baguettes (Fr.) Drumsticks. 
 
 Baisser (Fr.) To lower. 
 
 Balafo. A musical instrument popular 
 among the negroes of Senegambia. It is 
 made of a series of graduated pieces of wood, 
 placed over gourds, which act as resonance- 
 boxes, is struck with hammers, and has a 
 scale of two octaves, sometimes tuned in ac- 
 cordance with the white notes of a pianoforte. 
 
 Balalaika (Russ.) A Russian instrument, 
 in form like a guitar, but narrower and of less 
 depth ; it has two strings. With it the Rus- 
 sian Moujiks accompany their popular songs. 
 
 Balancement (Fr.) Tremolo. 
 
 Balcken or Balken (Ger.) The bar under 
 the belly of a violin. 
 
 ( 43) 
 
BALG BALLAD. 
 
 Balg (Ger.) Bellows, wind-chest. 
 
 Balgentreter {Ger.) The bellows-treader. 
 In old organs the blower worked the bellows 
 by standing on them in turns. 
 
 Ballad. A song designed to suit a popu- 
 lar audience. A varied derivation has been 
 claimed for the term, which doubtless meant 
 originally a dance song. Hence its connec- 
 tion with the Mediaeval Latin word ballare, 
 (fiaWbi, jiaWiZia), As a poem, the ballad has 
 undergone so many transmutations that it is 
 difficult to describe it properly, many pieces to 
 which the term is applied having little or 
 nothing in common with the primitive form, 
 and poems of exactly similar character being 
 described at one time as romances, at another 
 ballads, at another lyric-epics. The Italians — 
 among other writers, Dante — gave the title hal- 
 lata to short lyrical pieces of inartistic con- 
 struction allied to the sonnet or madrigal. It 
 was against the French equivalent for these 
 hallate that MoliSre wrote. The Spanish ro- 
 rnances, erroneously called ballads, belong to 
 epic poetry. The ballad, as we now understand 
 its meaning and application, is confined to 
 the people of Northern Europe, the Germans, 
 following Burger, the creator of the modern 
 ballad, have given it an artificial character by 
 the introduction of reflections arising out of 
 the incidents. A ballad, properly speaking, 
 is a simple narrative of one or more events, 
 told without gloss, commentary, or deduction, 
 set to a tune sufficiently rhythmical to act 
 as one of the original purposes of a ballad, 
 namely, a dance tune. The old ballad tunes still 
 existing are nearly all of this character. In 
 fact, the majority of the melodies have been 
 recovered from having been preserved in col- 
 lections of them made by dancing masters 
 at various periods. The title of Ballet or 
 Ballad — says Warton — ^was often applied to 
 poems of considerable length, of various 
 subjects, sometimes to prose compositions, 
 sometimes to plays or interludes, sometimes 
 to religious verses or discourses. 
 
 Ballad (Old English). The English have 
 ever been a ballad-loving people, and although 
 the taste was more widely diffused among all 
 classes in former days than now, yet there is no 
 present sign that it will soon die away. Ballads 
 were embodied into our earliest histories, be- 
 cause the bards or minstrels — called Scopes 
 in the language of the country* — were the 
 earliest of our historians. The Scope was 
 both poet and musician. He recorded deeds of 
 ancient valour, and enlarged upon them in 
 order to stimulate the warlike spirit of his 
 hearers. He adopted ancient stories of adven- 
 tures, and re-applied them to some more 
 recent hero, in order to give greater interest 
 
 * Anglo-Saxon " Scop" or " Sceop." 
 
 in them to those who were assembled around 
 him. In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle we 
 have about a dozen fragments of historical 
 ballads, but these commence only from Athel- 
 stan's victory over the Danes. When \yilljam 
 of Malmesbury was writing the history of 
 King Edward, son of Alfred the Great, he 
 said : " Thus far I have written from trust- 
 worthy testimony — that which follows I have 
 learnt more from old ballads, popular through 
 succeeding times, than from books' written 
 expressly for the information of posterity. I 
 have subjoined them, not to defend their 
 veracity, but to put the reader in possession 
 of all I know."t 
 
 Again, after recounting the pride of King 
 Edgar in having compelled subject kings to 
 be his oarsmen, while he sat at the prow, 
 William says : " For this he is justly blamed 
 by history, but the other imputations which 
 I shall mention hereafter, have rather been 
 cast upon him by ballads." % 
 
 It may be asked, "what kind of music 
 had these ballads?" The answer will be 
 that, although we have no existing specimen 
 of ballad music of such early dates, yet we 
 have hymns to Latin words, some of which 
 have more tune in them than would be ex- 
 pected, and that they are our only existing 
 means of forming a judgment. It was not 
 mere natural song with indefinable sounds, 
 but with regulated notes upon the diatonic 
 scale. In the year 951 the double organ at 
 Winchester Cathedral had 400 pipes and re- 
 quired two organists. It was intended to be 
 heard all over Winchester, in honour of Saint 
 Peter, to whom the Cathedral was dedicated. 
 Wolstan, or rather Wulfstan, of Winchester, 
 who describes it fully in his Life of Saint 
 Swithun, was himself the author of a treatise 
 on Harmony {De tonoruni Harmonid), which 
 was a standard book, and remained in use 200 
 years after it had been issued. William of 
 Malmesbury, writing after iioo, describes this 
 book as "very useful" (valde utile). It is 
 quoted (or else some second treatise on music 
 by the same author) as the Breviloqumm 
 Wolstani, at the end of the 13th century. 
 We have Winchester hymns with music 
 on four lines and spaces in the time of 
 Ethelred II. (978 to 1016), and even the 
 words of these hymns are not to be found in 
 any foreign collection. They are, however, 
 by no means solitary specimens of English 
 hymnology of the same kind, and as they 
 
 t Sequentia magis cantilenis per successiones tera- 
 porum detritis, quam libris ad instructiones posteriorum 
 elucubratis, didicerim." {De Gestis Regum Anglorum, 
 Lib. z, cap. 6.) 
 
 J "Indemerito, jureque, culpant eum literae; nam 
 ceteras infamias, quas post dicam, magis resperserunt 
 cantilenas." (De Gestis Regum Anglor., Lib. 2, cap. 8.) 
 
 (44) 
 
BALLAD. 
 
 are before the time of Guido d'Arezzo, 
 they must be considered as proofs that the 
 English used lines and spaces before other 
 nations. The only difference between this most 
 ancient English notation on lines and spaces, 
 and that which came into use after Guido's 
 system had been relinquished (for he em- 
 ployed only red and yellow lines for F and C, 
 which was incompatible with the use of four 
 lines and spaces because C was under F), was 
 that the English placed any letter of the scale 
 at the signature, and in the later use of lines 
 and spaces only F, C, or G, were so placed. 
 We have also an extant Kyrie composed by St. 
 Dunstan, which, when rendered into modern 
 notation, will be found a favourable specimen 
 of early music. As to secular music, we find 
 in the Gesta Herwardi, or the Life of Here- 
 ward, who was son of Leofric, Earl of Mercia, 
 and the Lady ^diva (the Lady Godiva of popu- 
 lar fable), thaf; he seized the harp and sang 
 " with correct musical intervals " (for that is 
 the meaning of "per discrimina vocum"*), 
 sometimes alone, and at other times in three 
 parts with his companions after the manner 
 of the Gyrwians.f These Gyrwians were the 
 inhabitants of the fenny districts between 
 East Anglia and Mercia, including Peter- 
 borough (then called Medeshamstede) in the 
 north, and the Isle of Ely in the south. This 
 was not a district likely to be in advance of 
 the rest of England, and yet, even here, we 
 read of singing in three parts as customary. 
 
 When Archbishop Alfric wished to trans- 
 late the Latin word "Concenter" for his 
 vocabulary of Latin and English words, he 
 rendered it by " mid-singend," which seems 
 sufficiently to express singing in three parts, 
 for there would be no middle in two or four. 
 It might perhaps have been taken to mean 
 "singing all together," or in "chorus," if 
 Alfric had not also given two different trans- 
 lations of " Chorus," t besides others for 
 " Song," " Duet," " Tune for an instrument 
 alone," " Harmony," " Discord,"§ &c., all 
 which, taken together, are sufficient to prove 
 the very early cultivation of music in England. 
 
 These notices of early music may not 
 appear, at first sight, to be immediately 
 
 " it is a quotation from Virgil's " septem discrimina 
 vocum," and one frequently employed to express the 
 seven intervals of the diatonic scale, viz., A, B, C, D, 
 E, F, G. 
 
 t " Multipliciter cum ea [cythara] canendo, et per 
 discrimina vocum, nunc solitarie, et nunc tripliciter 
 cum suis sociis, more Girwiorum, cantavit." (From a 
 photographic copy of the Peterborough Manuscript.) 
 
 + " Singende heap " and " Hluddra sang." 
 
 § " Sang," " tviregra sang," " answege sang,'' " gei 
 — waere sang," and "ungeswege sang." {Vocabularies 
 edited by T. Wright, F.S.A., p. 28, privately printed by 
 Joseph Mayer, Esq., of Liverpool, F.S.A., &c ) 
 
 connected with our text of " Old English 
 Ballads," but the arts of music and poetry 
 were then united, all poetry being intended to 
 be sung ; and there is so much new matter to 
 be adduced in the history of music, especially 
 in that of our own country, of which Dr. 
 Burney's account is most inaccurate, that 
 it is difficult to avoid the temptation of refer- 
 ring to the subject. If we desire to prove 
 that music was cultivated by the working 
 classes as well as by those above them, we 
 may quote the fact of the Watermen of 
 London having made a round for three voices, 
 in honour of Sir John Norman, Lord Mayor 
 of London, who, in 1453, commenced the 
 custom, which became afterwards established, 
 of going to Westminster in his barge to be 
 sworn into his office of Lord Mayor, instead 
 of riding both to and fro with a procession on 
 horseback as before. The music of the Round || 
 is like the chiming of bells from one church 
 steeple to another, and might be sung by 
 hundreds of men together to the words, 
 
 " Heave and ho, rumbelow, 
 Row the boat, Norman, row. 
 Row to thy Leman." 
 
 The idea of representing the taking charge of 
 the City of London, as a " leman " or " loved 
 one," was quite watermanic. 
 
 The people were then fond of singing, and 
 altogether more cheerful than after the advent 
 of that severe puritanism which told them, in 
 the words of Prynne, to "go about chattering 
 like cranes, and cooing like doves for their 
 own and others' sins."^ Solomon thought 
 that there was a time for everything — "a time 
 to dance, a time to sing, and a time to play ; " 
 but these wise-acres did not. They put down 
 the Maypoles and the dances on the village 
 green, and thus reduced the people to drinking 
 and to earnest politics as the only excitements 
 left to them. 
 
 The character of " Merry England " will com- 
 pare favourably with that of " Old England" — 
 for England had not the title of " Old " until 
 a " New England " had been planted in 
 America, and puritanism had become both 
 rampant and dominant at home. 
 
 " The merry, free, and frank disposition of 
 the Old English," says Camden, " was thus 
 described by Alfred of Beverley" (who died 
 A.D. 1 136): " England, /mZZ of sports, a free 
 people, delighting in jokes."** In the same 
 
 II The easy music of this little Round is printed in 
 Popular Music of the Olden Time, Vol. II. p. 783. 
 
 V Prynne was parodying Hezekiah's words when 
 he thought himself dying : " Like a crane or a swallow, 
 so did I chatter : I did mourn as a dove : " but Hezekiah 
 was mourning for his sickness, and not for the sins of 
 others. 
 
 *♦ " Anglia, plena jocis, gens libera, et apta jocari." — 
 Camden's Remaines. 
 
 (45 ) 
 
BALLAD. 
 
 strain runs William of Malmesbury, referring 
 to the Norfolk and Suffolk men, or East 
 Anghans: "they are a merry, pleasant, jovial 
 race, but apt to carry their jokes to an irrita- 
 tmg excess." * For a third testimony we may 
 take an extreme part of England : " Merry 
 Michael, the Cornish poet, piped this upon 
 his oaten pipe, for Merry England," says 
 Camden : 
 
 " For money, dinners, varied drinks, no land will e'er 
 he found 
 
 Like England, famous England, where the fertile soil 
 IS crown d 
 
 With countless flocks and herds, and where all social 
 joys abound. " f 
 
 We know from another source that there was 
 no lack of tunes when the Normans came, 
 for Thomas, the first Norman Archbishop of 
 York (1070), set about collecting those which 
 he heard from the minstrels, and wrote hymns 
 to them.J Richard de Ledrede, a Londoner, 
 who was Bishop of Ossory, from 1318 to 1360, 
 did the same thing ; but carried the tunes to 
 Ireland with him. We know the names of 
 the ballads, because they are written in the 
 Red Book of Ossory over his Latin hymns. 
 Among them are "Sweetest of all, sing!" 
 "How should I with that old man?" "Do, 
 do, nightingale, sing full merry," and " Good 
 day! my leman dear." Thus he anticipated 
 the Rev. Rowland Hill, or whoever else 
 may have said, that "the Devil should not 
 have all the pretty tunes." And yet there 
 was some danger from this appropriation of 
 secular words, lest they might become so 
 fixed in the memory as to crop up unexpectedly 
 and unwittingly. Giraldus Cambrensis relates 
 a case that should have been a warning. It 
 is of a priest in Worcestershire, who had 
 been listening to choral singing and dancing 
 near the church during the night, and who, in 
 pure forgetfulness, sang one of these popular 
 burdens in the morning, instead of greeting 
 the people with " Dominus vobiscum." 
 
 As to London, the first good description of 
 the city and of its customs was written in 
 1 174 by Fitz-Stephen (Stephanides), the 
 friend and biographer of Thomas Becket. 
 He says that "in summer evenihgs the young 
 people danced till dark, to the sound of the 
 harp (or cittern), and that some of the 
 
 * " Gens Iseta et lepida, facetaque festivitate jocorum 
 ad petulantiam pronior." {Gesta Reg. Anglor., Book 2, 
 cap. 13.) 
 
 t " Nobilis Anglia pocula, prandia donat, et aera, 
 Terra juvabilis et sociabilis, agmine plena: 
 Omnibus utilis, Anglia fertilis est et amoena." — 
 Camden^s Remaines. 
 
 \ " Si quis in auditu ejus arte jocularia, aliquid vocale, 
 sonaret, statim iUud in divinas laudes effigiabat." — W. 
 Malmesbury. 
 
 maidens acted as the musicians. "g Also 
 that, on festival days, the boys of the London 
 schools attached to the three principal 
 churches " contended with each other in 
 verse," and wound up their contests " by 
 recitations of epigrams, ballads, and rhymes, 
 in which the foibles and frailties of their 
 fellows were sarcastically exposed, without 
 naming the individuals." At this "the audi- 
 tors, who were prepared to enter into the jest, 
 shook the assembly with peals of laughter," 
 
 These are gayer pictures and of more content, 
 than are common now. Examples might be 
 continued to the extent of a volume, but one 
 more, from Oxford in the reign of Queen Eliza- 
 beth, will suffice. It was written by the learned 
 Dr. John Case, whose Speculum nioralium 
 QucEstionum in universam Ethicen A ristotelis, 
 was the first book printed at the new press at 
 Oxford in 1585. The extract is from The 
 Praise of Musiche, printed at Oxford by John 
 Barnes, in the following year : " Every 
 troublesome and laborious occupation hath 
 musick for a solace and recreation, and hence 
 it is that the wayfaring men solace themselves 
 with songs, and ease the wearisomness of 
 their journey ; considering that musicke, as 
 a pleasant companion, is unto them instead 
 of a waggon on the way. And hence it is 
 that manual labourers and mechanical arti- 
 ficers of all sorts keep such a chanting and 
 singing in their shoppes — ^the tailor on his 
 bulk, the shoemaker at his last, the mason at 
 his wall, the shipboy at his oar, the tinker at 
 his pan, and the tiler on the house-tops." 
 Even the proverbially merry cobler has now 
 almost ceased to sing, and tailors seek only to 
 mend the State. A tuneless tailor, in former 
 days, was such a rara avis as to become at 
 once an object of suspicion. " Never trust a 
 tailor that does not sing at his work," says 
 Fletcher, "for his mind is of nothing but 
 filching." The treatment of the poor was 
 perhaps less considerate than now ; but 
 the people having their amusements were 
 certainly more content. The number of 
 ballads left for entry at Stationers' Hall at 
 the end of year 1560 was 796, and only 44 
 books. 
 
 We have still a large number of extant 
 ballads, such as were printed on one side of a 
 sheet of coarse paper, to be sung about the 
 streets and villages in the i6th and 17th 
 centuries. Their tunes are also to be found, 
 being included in early collections of country 
 dances. Ball and ballad are words derived 
 from the same root, and when the people 
 danced country - dances Ihey accompanied 
 them with song. Nearly every old ballad 
 
 § " Puellarum cithara chores ducit usque imminente 
 luna, et pede libero pulsatur tellus." (Descrifi. bond.. 
 ed.T. Pegge.) 
 
 (46) 
 
BALLAD. 
 
 has the name of the tune printed upon it 
 for which it was intended, and it has been 
 owing to this combination of circumstances 
 that so many of our national airs have been 
 recoverable, and that words and tune could 
 be re-fitted together in authentic forms. Mere 
 tradition is the frailest of guides in music, 
 for hardly do any two untaught singers sing 
 an air alike, and they often vary the tune 
 between one stanza and another. 
 
 Captain Cox, the Coventry mason, is the 
 first recorded collector of old printed ballads. 
 He is mentioned by Laneham in his letter , 
 from Kenilworth in 1575. The next in order 
 of date is the learned Selden. He lent his 
 collection to Samuel Pepys, the amusing 
 diarist, who did not return it. We are, in all 
 probability, indebted to that circumstance for 
 its preservation ; for Pepys left his library, in- 
 cluding his collection of ballads and those 
 borrowed from Selden, to Magdalene College, 
 Cambridge, where they remain under the 
 strictest custody, owing to the terms of the be- 
 quest. Old Pepys took the greatest care to 
 prevent others from indulging in his own 
 little habit of filching. 
 
 The united collections of Selden and Pepys 
 (or of Pepys including those ballads that he 
 borrowed from Selden) are bound in five folio 
 volumes containing 1785 ballads, mostly with 
 second parts. Sometimes two ballads were 
 printed upon one page, and these would enlarge 
 the above named number. In addition to the 
 broadsides there are three volumes, lettered 
 " Penny Merriments," which were also col- 
 lected by Pepys, and which include a large 
 number of " Garlands," that are in themselves 
 collections of ballads, but printed in octavo 
 or other small size, instead of "in broadside," 
 i.e., on one side of a folio page. 
 
 A second great collection of broadside ballads 
 is that which is now called the Roxburghe 
 Collection. John, Duke of Roxburghe, was 
 only one of several proprietors through whose 
 hands the collection successively passed ; but 
 his name became especially connected with 
 it, owing to the notoriety of the comparatively 
 large price it produced at the sale of his 
 library. The collection had been purchased 
 for the Duke at the auction of Mayor Thomas 
 Pearson's library in 1788 for £36 14s. 6d., 
 and was resold in 1813, with the duke's addi- 
 tions, for £477 153. It was originally formed 
 by Robert Harley, who was raised to the 
 peerage as Earl of Oxford and Mortimer in 
 171 1, the same whose magnificent collection 
 of manuscripts, known as the Harleian Col- 
 lection, is one of the wonders of the British 
 Museum. 
 
 This collection consists of four volumes, 
 containing 2133 pages of ballads. Sometimes 
 one ballad takes two • pages including its 
 
 second part, and sometimes two ballads 
 are printed on the same page. It was pur- 
 chased for the British Museum at the sale of 
 the library of the late Benjamin Heywood 
 Bright, M.P., in 1845. 
 
 Another important collection of ballads in 
 the British Museum is that formed by Bag- 
 ford, who was agent in purchasing for Harley, 
 Earl of Oxford. It is bound in three volumes. 
 There are also many minor collections in the 
 same library, and a large number of political 
 ballads and songs among "The King's 
 Pamphlets." 
 
 For early date there are no extant collec- 
 tions to compare with those of Mr. Henry 
 Huth, Mr. S. Christie-Miller, and of the 
 Society of Antiquaries of London. These are 
 unrivalled for rarity, but they are not of so 
 large an extent as some others. 
 
 The Bodleian Library at Oxford is particu- 
 larly rich in ballads, and the Public Library 
 at Cambridge particularly poor, if, indeed, it 
 possess any collection at all. Oxford can 
 boast of the Douce collection, which is, per- 
 haps, next in extent to the Roxburghe and 
 Pepys, but rather later, as to average date, than 
 either. It contains 877 ballads bound in 4 vols., 
 the fourth volume being later than the rest. 
 The Bodleian also possesses Anthony Wood's 
 famous collections, both in print and in manu- 
 script, as well as a smaller number of printed 
 ballads collected by Rawlinson. Wood's 
 printed collection is of 279, and the Rawlinson 
 of 2i8 black-letter ballads, and (as a rough 
 guide to the number of duplicates to be found 
 in the great public libraries) it may be stated 
 that although the Roxburghe Collection con- 
 tains about ten times the number of the 
 Rawlinson, yet the latter includes 130 ballads, 
 of which no edition whatever is to be found 
 in the Roxburghe. Yet they are generally of 
 coeval dates. 
 
 The Cheetham Library, Manchester, pos- 
 sesses an extensive collection of ballads pre- 
 sented by James Orchard Halliwell, F.R.S. 
 Of other collections in private hands, it may be 
 sufficient to name first, that of the late W. 
 Ewing, F.S.A., Scot., which, according to the 
 printed catalogue, contains 408 ballads ; a 
 collection at Osterley Park; and a rare col- 
 lection formed by Mr. J. Payne Collier, and 
 now in the possession of Frederic Ouvry, Esq., 
 Treasurer to the Society of Antiquaries. 
 
 There are, no doubt, many more collections 
 in private hands, as well as many ballads 
 scattered in collections of pamphlets, both in 
 public and private libraries ; but even in those 
 already named, the number of extant English 
 ballads dating from the reign of Heniy VIII. 
 to the year 1700 cannot be computed at less 
 than ten thousand. It would be much larger, 
 if ballads printed with music were taken into 
 
 (47) 
 
BALLADE BALLET. 
 
 account, or even if manuscripts, like the Percy 
 folio, and 'Wood's collection, were included in 
 the calculation. The tunes for some thou- 
 sands of them have been traced, and many 
 are printed in the " History of Popular Music 
 of the Olden Time." " In a virord," says an old 
 writer, " scarce a cat can look out of a gutter, 
 but up starts a halfpenny chronicler, and 
 presently a proper new ballad of a strange 
 sight is indited." 
 
 Ballade {Ger.) A dance, also a ballad. 
 
 Ballata {It.) The melody of any song which 
 may furnish a tune for dancing. [Ballet.] 
 
 Ballatetta {It.) Diminutive of Ballata. 
 
 Ballematia. 1 r, • , ^ , 
 
 Ballistia. I ^°"S' '" dance-style. 
 
 Ballet. A Madrigalian part-song with a 
 fa la chorus. The " Ballets " or " fa las " of 
 Giovanni Gastoldi [1532-1598] the reputed 
 originator of this form of vocal music, are in 
 most cases in simple counterpoint — note 
 against note — but the rhythm, strongly marked 
 and well defined, is admirably suited to the 
 purposes of the dance which these vocal har- 
 monies were intended to accompany. There 
 are many examples of Ballets to be found in 
 the writings of the Elizabethan madrigal com- 
 posers. 
 
 Ballet {Fr.) A representation in dancing 
 and gesticulation, of some story, without words. 
 
 The rise of the Ballet is almost coeval with 
 dancing itself, for it is difficult to believe that 
 any number of dancers could have so dis- 
 ported themselves as to give delight to the 
 spectators, if there had not been some definite 
 and organised arrangement. The dances 
 described as having been led by Miriam, 
 David and Jephtha's daughter, the Emmeloeia, 
 the Pyrrhic dances, the Motions of the Mimes,' 
 Minstrels, and Joculators, and the homely 
 dances popular among the peasantry, besides 
 the more stately measures favoured by people 
 of high degree, were all ballets — in which 
 certain motions were made to the sound of 
 music, and whose gestures and actions had 
 meanings and intentions that were commonly 
 understood. When these dances were trans- 
 ferred from home circles to the stage, the 
 gestures and actions made were such that 
 could be readily interpreted by the lookers-on, 
 and even when great skill was acquired by 
 the performers in following ages, the old con- 
 ventional signs, attitudes, and. motions were 
 retained, that all who chose might understand. 
 The first ballets on the stage were those that 
 were introduced into the oratorios, masques, 
 and comedies, each being a development of 
 portions of certain entertainments, from which 
 they arose in common. 
 
 The oratorio and the drama arose from the 
 ancient sacred and classical plays and the 
 mediaeval mysteries and moralities, and cir- 
 
 cumstances gave importance to particula'r 
 parts of those productions, so that from 
 forming a continued or dependent whole, they 
 became detached and separate, and made what 
 seemed in later years distinct things of those 
 that had a common origin. The splendour 
 of the Court Masques, the glory of the unity 
 of the genius of the poet, architect, painter, 
 and musician, are matters of history. Give 
 prominence to the music, let the poetry fade 
 away from inanity, retain the skill and genius 
 of the machinist and scene painter, and you 
 .have opera. Let your poet write prose, have 
 as little music as possible, respect the scenic 
 effects and mechanical means, and drama is 
 the result. Dispense with poetry or words of 
 any kind, make music subservient, but do all 
 that can be done with scenery and machinery, 
 and make the dramatis personse bound, caper, 
 and gesticulate, and ballet is the product. 
 
 The Ballet had its origin in the Masques, 
 which were written for and often performed 
 by princes and other distinguished personages. 
 In England, Italy, and France, it arose almost 
 simultaneously out of the remains of the 
 Masque. Count Aglio, at Turin, invented 
 pieces that were at the same time pastoral, 
 mythological, allegorical, and fantastic, in 
 which the princes of the Court took part. 
 In France Louis XIII. danced in a ballet, and 
 his successor, Louis XIV., did the same in 
 his turn, these ballets being portions of spec- 
 tacles that were operatic, dramatic, and terpsi- 
 chorean by turns or in combinations. Antoine 
 de la Motte improved the ballet, and made it 
 distinct, and independent of other means 
 for explanation and elucidation ; he also en- 
 couraged the introduction of female dancers, 
 till then almost unknown in Europe, and from 
 that time the ballet gradually sank from im- 
 portance and consideration, and became a 
 mere exhibition of artificial agility and natural 
 comeliness. It is not many years since it 
 was a very considerable item in the evening's 
 entertainment at th^ opera in England, rival- 
 ling in spectacular splendour the famous 
 ballets of Milan, the absence of vigour and 
 intellectual power in the operas produced 
 being counterbalanced by the so-called glory 
 of the ballet. But as people began to be 
 alive to the fact that contortions, dislocations, 
 and indecent postures were the reverse of ele- 
 vating or instructive, and not really amusing, 
 the patronage of the ballet as a distinct enter- 
 tainment fell away and finally ceased alto- 
 gether, and an attempt to revive it apart from 
 and out of the course of the situations of an 
 opera, during the season of 1871, met with so 
 little encouragement that it was silently aban- 
 doned. The ballet was once a poem and a 
 power : kings did not scorn to exhibit trained 
 and practised personal skill for the edification 
 
 (48) 
 
BALLETTO- 
 
 -BAR. 
 
 of their loyal subjects, and the exaltation of 
 'the exercise in which they indulged ; but the 
 "improvements" of De la Motte introduced 
 an element which was at once the cause of 
 its glory and of its shame, its culmination 
 and contempt. [Dance.] 
 
 Balletto (It.) A ballet, a dance. 
 
 Ballet-master. One to whom is entrusted 
 the direction of the motions of the ballet, and 
 the order of the performers. 
 
 Balli Inglesi (It.) English dances. 
 
 Balli della Stiria (It.) Styrian dances. 
 
 Balli Ungaresi (It.) Hungarian dances. 
 Dances in the Hungarian style. 
 
 Ballo (It.) A dance, a ball. 
 
 Ballonchio (It.) [Passamezzo.] 
 
 Ballonzare (It.) To dance wildly, reck- 
 lessly, without rule. 
 
 Band [Ger.) A part, a volume, any thing 
 sewn together. 
 
 Band. Instrumentalists collected together 
 for the performance of music. 
 
 (i) Brass Band. A collection of players 
 on brass wind-instruments. 
 
 (2) String Band, {a) That portion of an 
 orchestra which consists of players on 
 stringed-instruments of the violin family. 
 (6) A band consisting only of instruments 
 played with a bow. 
 
 (3) Wind Band. Stromenti di fiato (It.) 
 That portion of an orchestra which consists 
 of players on flutes, oboes, clarinets, bas- 
 soons, and horns ; but not on trumpets, trom- 
 bones, and other loud brass instruments, these 
 being included only under the sign " tutti." 
 
 (4) Wood Band. The players on the wood 
 wind-instruments, flutes, oboes, clarinets, 
 bassoons ; but not on the serpent, which is 
 usually classified with brass instruments. 
 
 (5) Military Band. A number of musicians 
 belonging to a regiment in the service of the 
 King or Queen of a country. In England, 
 those who perform upon instruments pro- 
 vided by the officers of the corps to which 
 they belong, the military regulations only 
 recognising side drums, fifes, bugles, and 
 trumpets, as necessary ; these are supple- 
 mented by clarinets, flutes, cornets, bassoons, 
 horns, trombones, ophicleides, bombardons, 
 triangles, cymbals, big drums, &c., and the 
 combination is known as a military band. 
 The band is conducted by some one skilled 
 in directing and arranging, who is usually 
 a civilian, but the bandsmen over whom he 
 presides are in every other respect the same 
 as private soldiers. Military bands are some- 
 times used upon the opera stage, for the 
 purpose of gaining an increased effect. 
 
 Banda (Jf.) A military band. [Band §5.] 
 Bandora (Fr.) [Bandore.] 
 Bandore. An English form of the ancient 
 Greek Pandoura, having twelve strings of 
 
 steel-wire. The Bandore is said to have been 
 invented by John Rose, of London, in 1561. 
 
 Bandurria (Sp.) A form of guitar, strung 
 with wire instead of cat-gut. 
 
 Banja or Banjo. A stringed instrument 
 of supposed African origin, popular with the 
 negroes of America, and one of the most im- 
 portant musical instruments employed by 
 troupes of fictitious negroes. The instrument 
 consists of a handle, which, running the whole 
 length, serves at once as finger-board, as sup- 
 port for the hoop, over which a skin, acting 
 as sounding board, is stretched, and also as a 
 hold for the pegs which tighten and keep the 
 strings in tune. The banjo is strung with 
 five strings, so arranged that they may be 
 stopped in the ordinary way to vary the melody 
 or harmony, together with an octave string 
 which is never stopped. The tuning, which 
 may be in any key, is generally according to 
 the following plan : 
 
 Octave string. 
 
 The character of banjo music is sprightly and 
 well adapted for dancing, for which it is as 
 often used as it is for accompanying the voice. 
 Bar. A line drawn from the top to the 
 bottom of the stave to denote the division of 
 the time in a piece of music, and the place of 
 the strong accent. Each portion comprised 
 within two of these lines is also called a bar. 
 In mediaeval music the bar, also called the 
 lesser bar, to distinguish it from the greater 
 or double bar, was often used solely for the 
 purpose of showing the end of a line or sen- 
 tence of the words, hence it was said " to give 
 time for the whole choir together to draw 
 breath " (Nievers, sur le Chant Gregorien) ; 
 whereas the two great bars or the double bar 
 is " the most efficacious contrivance that can 
 be thought on to remedy all the cacophonies 
 and contrarieties in the voices of the singers, 
 who without them could not guess when to 
 rest." (Ibid.) Mr. Chappell (" Popular Music 
 of the Olden Time ") remarks that the Tunes in 
 the "Dancing Master," printed in 1651 in 
 only a single part, have no bars, but that the 
 score of the moral play, " The four elements " 
 (to which Dr. Dibdin has ascribed the date 
 1510), is barred. He further adds, that so far 
 as he has observed, all music in the ordinary 
 notation, even for one voice or one instrument, 
 was barred after 1660. It is probable, how- 
 ever, that the regular barring of music had its 
 origin in the system of Tablature, in which 
 its efficacy as a means of pointing out the 
 position of accent must have been generally 
 observed. But for a considerable period after 
 the introduction of the bar, its use in eccle- 
 siastical music was veiy irregular, two, four, 
 
 (49) 
 
BARBET BARITONE CLEF. 
 
 six, or even eight minims being included in a 
 bar which, by the signature, should contain 
 only four. In modern music-printing 'and 
 engraving, care is taken that the bars in the 
 separate lines forming a score shall stand 
 exactly over one another. The neglect of this 
 in early publications in score adds greatly to 
 the difficulty of reading them. 
 
 Barbet. [Barbiton.] 
 
 Barbiton. An ancient Greek instrument 
 said to have been invented by Anacreon; it 
 was in the form of a lyre, and had seven 
 strings. The name was applied to instru- 
 ments of the violin class in the i6th and 17th 
 centuries. 
 
 Barcarolle (Fr.) A simple melody, com- 
 posed in imitation of the songs of the Venetian 
 gondoliers, many of which are of striking 
 beauty. Apolloni Salvadore, a Venetian barber 
 and fiddler in 1720, is named as the com- 
 poser of several popular tunes of this class. 
 
 Bard. A name given to hereditary poets 
 and minstrels by all the Celtic nations. In 
 their songs and poems the bards recorded the 
 deeds and prowess of the warriors, kings, and 
 people, at festive and social gatherings ; and 
 at religious assemblies they celebrated the 
 acts and fame of the gods and heroes, accom- 
 panying their songs with the harp and crowd 
 or crwth. The power, reputation, and in- 
 fluence of the bards were very great, and the 
 favour of kings, princes, and nobles was 
 accorded to them. They, like the Aoidoi of 
 ancient Greece, were the historians, poets, and 
 chroniclers of their time; they incited their 
 armies to courage in the hour of battle, and 
 by their heroic strains roused the fury and 
 valour of the warriors. In time of peace they 
 were ambassadors, heralds, and the deposi- 
 taries of all historical tradition, and of much 
 of the learning that was at that time possessed 
 by the community. As an institution they 
 kept longest influence in England, Scotland, 
 and Wales. In the last-named country their 
 privileges were fixed by King Howel Dha, 
 A.D. 940, and a century and a half later 
 Griffith ap Conan revised and reformed the 
 whole system. The Eisteddvodau, as the 
 congregations of Welsh bards are called, 
 were held from time to time until the con- 
 quest of Wales by Edward I., in 1284, when 
 the bards were persecuted, and as some 
 authors declare, were put to death. Although 
 the power of the bards was broken, still their 
 Eisteddvodau were encouraged by the rulers 
 of succeeding generations, until the time of 
 Queen Elizabeth, who was the last monarch 
 who made any concessions to the bards of 
 Wales. The preservation of such of their 
 literature that has survived them is owing to 
 several learned societies who have made this 
 object their peculiar study. An Eisteddfod as 
 
 now understood is a curious compound of 
 heterogeneous matter, for although it is held 
 for the purpose of encouraging national art 
 in music and poetry, its judges appear to be 
 satisfied with the least worthy effusions com- 
 mon to London concert-rooms, provided they 
 are given through the medium of the Cambrian 
 tongue. Little is known of the bards in 
 Scotland beyond the fact that they were 
 similar in constitution to the bards in Ireland, 
 who, like those of Wales, were a hereditary 
 community. The Irish bards were divided 
 into three classes, the Filhedha, the Braithea- 
 main, and the Senachaidhe. The first sang 
 the sacred and heroic songs, and were 
 employed as heralds and counsellors, the 
 second recited and expounded the laws, and 
 the third were the chroniclers and recorders. 
 They were endowed with many privileges 
 and had great influence, and their power over 
 the minds of the people was so strong that 
 severe measures had frequently to be resorted 
 to, to check their sway. In England bardism 
 took a more refined and less exciting form 
 than that which was acceptable to those 
 nations of more strictly Celtic origin. [Min- 
 strel.] [Ballad.] 
 
 Bardone. [Viola di Bardone.J 
 Barem (Ger.) An organ-stop, consisting 
 of closed flute- pipes of 8 ft. or 16 ft. pitch, of a 
 soft character of tone. 
 
 Barginet, Berginet, Bargaret, or Ber- 
 geret. Shepherd's songs, to accompany 
 dances. Songs relating to pastoral matters. 
 
 " A bargaret in praising the daisie. 
 For, as methought, among her notes swete, 
 She said, ' Si douce est le Margarite.' " 
 
 Chaucer. — Floure and Leafe. 
 
 Baribasso. A deep bass voice. 
 
 Bariolage {Fr.) A medley. A cadenza, 
 or series of cadenzas, whose appearance forms 
 a design upon the music paper, " a waistcoat 
 pattern" as it is called by performers. 
 
 Baritenor. A deep tenor. 
 
 Baritone. A brass instrument of deep 
 tone. [Metal Wind-instruments.] 
 
 Bariton, or Baryton. [Viola di Bardone.] 
 
 Bariton Clarinet. An instrument used 
 in military bands, the tone of which is between 
 the clarinet and bassoon. 
 
 Baritone Clef. The F clef placed upon 
 the third line of the stave. 
 
 ^ 
 
 It is not now used, but was frequently em- 
 ployed in vocal music of the i6th and 17th 
 centuries. Purcell's Song, " Let the dreadful 
 engines," was originally written in this clef, 
 and it was also used occasionally for horn 
 parts by Handel, Cooke, and other writers in 
 the 18th century. 
 
 ( 50) 
 
BARITON BASSE FONDAMENTALE. 
 
 (Iti 1 '^^^ barytone voice. 
 
 Bariton 
 
 Baritono 
 
 Baritone voice. [Barytone.] 
 
 Barocco (/*.)"| Unusual, singular, eccen- 
 
 Barock (Ger.) \- trie, whimsical, irregular. 
 
 Baroque (Fr.) ) Applied to a composition 
 nth over-chromatic harmonies, or unrhyth- 
 aical melodic phrasing. 
 
 Barpfeife (Ger.) [Baarpyp.] 
 
 Barquarde {Fr.) An obsolete term for 
 JarcaroUe, q.v. 
 
 Barre (Fr.) In guitar or lute playing, the 
 jressing of the fore-finger of the left hand 
 icross all the strings, so as to alter temporarily 
 he pitch of the instrument, the remaining 
 ingers being at the same time engaged in 
 brming a chord. The first finger, therefore, 
 aerforms the duties of a capotasto, q.v. 
 
 Barre de luth (Fr.) The bridge of the lute. 
 
 Barre de mesure (Fr.) [Bar.] 
 
 Barre de r6p6tition (Fr.) A double bar 
 with points, marking a repeat. 
 
 Barrel. A revolving cylinder of wood or 
 metal. 
 
 (i) Barrel-organ. An organ in which a 
 wooden cylinder furnished with pegs or staples, 
 when turned round, opens a series of valves 
 to admit a current of air to a set of pipes, pro- 
 iueing a tune either in melody or harmony. 
 The barrels are sometimes made moveable, 
 in order to obtain a variety in the tunes, as 
 the capability of a single barrel is necessarily 
 limited. Barrel organs furnished with hymn 
 ind psalm tunes, or even voluntaries, were 
 sometimes used in places of worship, but the 
 increased knowledge of music, even in remote 
 places, has led to the introduction of the har- 
 monium, which has superseded the use of 
 Darrel organs to a great extent. The tone of 
 Darrel organs is incapable of expression or 
 /ariety, and has consequently been found 
 seriously monotonous. The only advantage 
 Delonging to the instrument is its portability, 
 md this renders it available for street musicians, 
 ffho generally hire one at a small charge, 
 :he cost of the instrument (from £20 to £70) 
 aeing beyond their means. Many of the poor 
 lirers are cruelly used by the Padrone from 
 whom they obtain their instruments. The 
 jarrel-organ, as a street entertainment in 
 London, dates from about the year 1790. 
 The stops in a barrel-organ generally consist 
 jf a stopped diapason and flute or principal, 
 which is sometimes added a reed stop of 
 :oarse quality. The compass rarely exceeds 
 :wo octaves and a half. 
 
 (2) Barrel of a musical box is constructed 
 n a manner somewhat similar to that of an 
 >rgan, but is of metal, and instead of openmg 
 
 a series of valves, the pegs and staples set in 
 vibration the teeth of a steel comb, which 
 produce the sounds. [Musical box.] 
 
 'Barypycni {med. Lat.jhom Gk.jSapvg deep, 
 and wvKudg close), (i) Lowest strings of tetra- 
 chords in the chromatic or enharmonic scale. 
 (2) In ecclesiastical music, those modes which 
 have the pycnon or semitone at tke bottom of 
 the tetrachord, e.g. : 
 
 Phrygian. 
 
 Hypophrygian, 
 
 see mesopycni, oxypycni. 
 
 Barytone voice. A voice of fuller quality 
 than a tenor and lighter than a bass, having a 
 compass partly included in both, namely. 
 
 mi 
 
 to 
 
 This is the extreme compass, and both limits 
 are rarely reached. 
 
 This voice has only been distinguished by 
 name, as being of a separate character, within 
 the present century. Early writers indicate 
 its existence by the use of its special clef. The 
 term Barytone is unmeaning, unless it be 
 looked upon as a corruption of Barytenor, but 
 it is quite possible it was borrowed from the 
 instrument Barytone or Bardone, which occu- 
 pied a place between the tenor and bass viols. 
 Rousseau calls this voice Basse-chantante, or 
 Basse-taille ; and Shield, in his " Introduction 
 to Harmony," having used the word Barytone, 
 thinks it necessary to explain in a foot-note 
 that it is " a voice between a tenor and a bass." 
 
 Bas-dessus (Fr.) Mezzo soprano, or 
 second treble. 
 
 Base. Old form of the word Bass. 
 
 Bass. Low, as bass trombone, bass viol, 
 bass voice, &c. 
 
 Bassa ottava {It.) At the lower octave. 
 
 Basse {Fr.) Bass. 
 
 Basse chantante {Fr.) A barytone voice. 
 
 ^ L-rc ' /T? \ 1 ^ figured bass, 
 
 Basse chiffree {Fr.) L bals part, the 
 
 Basse continu6e {Fr.) | accompanying 
 harmonies of which are expressed by numbers. 
 
 Basse contrainte {Fr). [Ground bass.] 
 
 Basse centre {Fr.) A deep bass voice, 
 capable of singing below the ordinary bass 
 part. 
 
 Basse de cremone (Fr.) The bassoon. 
 
 Basse de hautbois (Fr.) Corno inglese. 
 
 Basse d'harmonie {Fr.) The ophicleide. 
 
 Basse de viole {Fr.) The violoncello. 
 
 Basse de violon {Fr.) Double-bass. 
 
 Basse double {Fr.) Large double-bass. 
 
 Basse figuree {Fr.) Figured bass. 
 
 Basse fondamentale {Fr.) Root-bass or 
 generator. [Harmony.] 
 
 (5O 
 
BASSE RECITANTE BASSOON. 
 
 Basse recitante (Fr.) [Basse chantante.J 
 Basse taille {Fr.) The Barytone voice. 
 Basset-horn, Corno di Bassetto (It.) 
 A transposing instrument of the clarinet 
 order, of a beautiful, soft, and rich quality, 
 invented in Passau about the year 1770, and 
 improved by Lotz of Presburg twelve years 
 later. In form like a long clarinet, with a 
 curved and bell-shaped metal end. The 
 compass extends from F below Gamut to 
 C in Alt, 
 
 with all the intermediate semitones, except 
 the F sharp and A flat in the lower range. 
 
 ^ 
 
 S 
 
 The music is written for it in the bass and 
 treble clefs a fifth higher than the real sound. 
 Mozart has written with brilliant effect for 
 the basset-horn in his " Nozze di Figaro," in 
 "Clemenza di Tito," and in the "Requiem." 
 
 Bassetto (If.) (i) The diminutive of 
 Basso. A name sometimes given to the tenor 
 violin. (2) A reed stop in the organ of 8 ft. 
 or 16 ft. in length. 
 
 Bass Flute. The lowest in pitch of in- 
 struments of the flute family, now obsolete. 
 
 Its compass was ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 It was a flute 
 
 a bee, not a flaut^ traverso ; that is, it was 
 blown at the end (like a flageolet), not at a 
 hole in its side. In order to enable the player 
 to reach the remote holes with his fingers, 
 a bent tube turning upwards conveyed the 
 air from his lips to the mouthpiece of the 
 instrument. 
 
 Bassgeige {Ger.) Bass Viol. 
 
 Bass Horn, (i) Deep Bt? Horn. (2) An 
 instrument which was a precursor of the 
 Ophicleide. 
 
 Basslaute (Ger.) [Bass Lute.] 
 
 Bass Lute. [Theorbo.] 
 
 Basso [If.) A bass singer, also the double- 
 bass, and the bass part. 
 
 Basso buffo (It.) A comic singer, with a 
 bass voice. 
 
 Basso cantante (It.) [Basse chantante.] 
 
 Basso concertante (It.) The principal 
 bass, that Which accompanies solos and 
 recitatives. 
 
 Basso continue (It.) A bass' part figured 
 for the organ or pianoforte. 
 
 Basso figurato (It.) (i) Basso continuo. 
 (2) A bass part, with running passages. 
 
 Basso fondamentale (It.) The funda- 
 mental ground bass, or root. 
 
 Basson (Fr.) [Bassoon.] 
 
 Basson quinte (Fr.) A bassoon, the 
 
 pitch of which is five notes higher than that 
 of the common bassoon. The part given to 
 it must therefore be written five notes lower 
 than the actual sounds required. Its written 
 
 compass is 
 
 E sounding 
 
 including all the intervening 
 
 semitones. Its tone is more powerful, but less 
 sympathetic, than that of the corno inglese. 
 
 Basso numerato (It.) A bass, the accom- 
 panying harmonies to which, are indicated 
 by numbers. 
 
 Bassoon. Basson (Fr.) Fagotto (It.) A 
 reed wind-instrument of deep pitch, with a com- 
 pass of more than three octaves from low B flat. 
 
 This compass includes all the intermediate 
 semitones, with the exception of 
 
 which are as yet to be obtained only from 
 instruments of improved construction. Some 
 performers can produce three notes higher 
 than the B flat, but for all common orchestral 
 purposes they are unnecessary. The bassoon 
 ordinarily forms the bass or deepest tone 
 among wood wind-instruments, and is capable 
 of excellent independent effects, among which 
 the grotesque ought not to be forgotten, as in 
 Beethoven's " Pastoral Symphony," and the 
 " Clown's March," in the music to the '' Mid- 
 summer Night's Dream," by Mendelssohn. ;,. 
 
 It is customary to write for the Bassoon j 
 in the Bass clef, and as the instrument is 
 usually employed in pairs, one stave serves 
 for the two parts. The tenor clef is often 
 employed for the higher notes of the register 
 of the Bassoon, sometimes in a separate stave. 
 
 Some writers assert that the Bassoon is the 
 invention of Afranio of Ferrara in 1540, and 
 that he gave it the name Fagotto from its 
 resemblance to a bundle or fagot of sticks (his 
 instrument being made of several pieces laid 
 together), but it was known long before under 
 the name of Buisine, Buzaine, Courtal, Bom- 
 bard, or Wait. 
 
 There is reason to believe that the Bassoon 
 is of Eastern origin, introduced into western 
 Europe in the twelfth century, and that it is 
 an improvement of the drone-pipe of the Bag- 
 pipe. The Egyptian word for a pipe of deep 
 tone, and for the drone of the Bagpipe is, ac- 
 cording to E. W. Lane (" Modern Egyptians"), 
 Zummarah-bi-soan, and the manner in which 
 the word Buzaine, Buisine, is used in mediae- 
 val MSS., shows a possible connection with 
 
 (52) 
 
BASSO OSTINATO B CANCELLATUM. 
 
 this origin. The instrument ^vas introduced 
 into the orchestra about the commencement 
 of the 1 8th century ; for a long time it was 
 employed to strengthen the voice parts only. 
 Handel generally makes it double the bass 
 voice part, or treats it as a bass to the oboe ; 
 he has, however, made excellent use of it 
 as a solo instrument in the scene of Saul 
 and the Witch of Endor, in his oratorio of 
 " Saul." 
 
 Bass-Bar. A piece of wood fixed inside 
 the belly of violins, &c., to support the pres- 
 sure of the left foot of the hridge. 
 
 Basso ostinato (It.) Ground bass. 
 
 Basso ripieno {It.) The bass of the full 
 or chorus parts. 
 
 Basspommer (Ger.) A deep-toned in- 
 strument of the oboe family, precursor of the 
 Bassoon. 
 
 Bass-Posaune (Ger.) Bass trombone. 
 [Trombone.] 
 
 Bass-Schlussel (Ger.) The bass clef. 
 
 Bassthema (Ger.) [Ground bass.] 
 
 Bass Trumpet. An old instrument, now 
 superseded by the trombone. 
 
 Bass Tuba. A brass instrument, a 
 species of bombardon, not capable of such 
 rapid execution as a bass ophicleide, but 
 producing a much finer quality of tone. The 
 name now given to the lowest of the sax- 
 horns; there are two kinds, one is in Et?, 
 another in B|7; the former shaped like a large 
 euphonium, the latter circular and passing 
 round the neck of the performer. The 
 lowest note of the El? instrument is the 
 Et* in the i6 ft. octave; that of the Bi?, a 
 fourth lower. 
 
 Bass Viol, (i) A familiar name for the 
 violoncello. (2) The largest and deepest in 
 tone among a chest of viols, which had five 
 and sometimes six strings, and a fretted 
 finger-board. The manner of tuning the 
 open strings varied according to the music to 
 be played. 
 
 Playford (Introduction to the Skill of Music) 
 mentions three sorts of Bass viols " as there 
 are three manners of ways in playing." 
 "First, a Bass viol for consort must be one 
 of the largest size, and the strings propor- 
 tionable. Secondly, a Bass viol for divisions 
 must be of a less size, and the strings accord- 
 ing. Thirdly, a Bass viol to play Lyra.way, 
 that is by Tablature, must be somewhat less 
 than the two former, and strung proportion- 
 ably." 
 
 The common accordatura of the six-string 
 instrument was as follows : 
 
 human voice, having a compass ranging 
 between two octaves from lower D : 
 
 m 
 
 The whole of the bass voice should be pro- 
 duced from the chest, and the most useful notes, 
 and those generally written are between G 
 and tenor C : 
 
 Bass Voice. The lowest register of the 
 
 A bass voice rarely reaches full perfection of 
 quality or sonorousness before the possessor 
 is thirty years of age, and a true bass voice 
 has seldom much flexibility. 
 
 Batillus. An instrument formerly em- 
 ployed by the Armenians in their Church 
 service to supply the place of bells, which 
 they were forbidden to use. A board struck 
 with a hammer. 
 
 Baton {Fr) (i) A stick used in beating 
 time. (2) The method of a conductor is 
 called his baton. (3) A pause of two or more 
 
 bars is also so named, e.g. =1-1 -'= a baton 
 
 of five measures or bars. 
 
 Battement (Fr.) An ornament in singing, 
 opposed to the Cadence {Fr.) e.g. : 
 
 is called a cadence, whereas the following 
 
 is a battement. [Beat.] 
 
 Battere, il {It.) The down-stroke in 
 beating time. 
 
 Batterie {Fr.) A roll upon the side drum. 
 
 Battery. An effect in harpsichord music, 
 
 written 
 
 and played : 
 
 Battimento {It.) [Battement.] 
 
 Battuta {It.) (i) In correct time. (2) A bar. 
 
 Bau {Ger.) The structure of musical 
 instruments. 
 
 Bauernleyer {Ger.) [Hurdy-gurdy.] 
 
 Bauerpfeife {Ger.) An organ stop of 8 ft. 
 length of a small scale. 
 
 Baxoncillo {Sp.) An organ stop like an 
 open diapason. 
 
 Bayaderes. Dancing girls attached to a 
 Hindu temple. 
 
 Bayles {Sp.) Comic dancing songs, in 
 the Spanish gipsy dialect. [Ballad.] 
 
 B cancellatum {Lat.) The cancelled B. 
 The note Bt7 as altered by means of a l] or J 
 in old music. Up to the middle of the i8th 
 century the j$ frequently had the force of the 
 Ij as now used. 
 
 (53 ) 
 
B DUR- 
 
 -BELLS. 
 
 B dur {Ger.) The key of B\> major. 
 
 B durum {Lat.) B natural. [B quad- 
 ratum.] 
 
 Bearings. Those few notes which a tuner 
 accurately tunes or lays down before pro- 
 ceeding to adjust the whole compass of the 
 instrument. 
 
 Beat, (i) A short shake, or transient 
 grace note, played or sung before the note 
 it is desired to embellish. The beat is 
 always a semitone lower than the ornamented 
 note. 
 
 Written. Played. 
 
 (2) The portion of a bar of music occupied 
 by the movement or supposed movement of 
 the h-and in counting time. Thus, a beat in 
 I time is equal to three quavers ; a beat in 
 f time is equal to a minim. 
 
 (3) The peculiar "throbbing" heard when 
 sounds not quite identical in pitch are sounded 
 together. [Acoustics, § 17.] 
 
 Bebung (Ger.) The tremolo stop in an 
 organ. A repeated note in pianoforte music. 
 
 Bebisation. A series of syllables recom- 
 mended by Daniel Hitzler, a Fleming, in 
 1630, as a means of teaching the notes. He 
 proposed to substitute the syllables la, be, ce, 
 de, mi, fe, gi, for ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, 
 already in use. 
 
 Becarre (Fr.) The sign t]. 
 
 Bee {Fr.) \ A mouth-piece, lit., a beak. 
 
 Becco {It.) j [Flute a bee] 
 
 Becco polacco {It.) A large bag-pipe. 
 
 Becken {Ger.) A cymbal. 
 
 Bedon {Fr.) An obsolete term for a drum, 
 or tambour. 
 
 Begeisterung {Ger.) Spirit, excitement, 
 enthusiasm. 
 
 Begleiten {Ger.) To accompany. 
 
 Begleitende Stimmen {Ger.) Accom- 
 panying voices or parts. 
 
 Begleitete Fuge {Ger.) A Fugue with 
 free parts. [Free parts.] 
 
 Begleitung {Ger.) Accompaniment. 
 
 Beitone {Ger.) Aliquot tones. [Harmonics.] 
 
 Beleht,'Belshend{Ger.)Animato,animando 
 
 Bell. The lower termination of any tubu- 
 lar musical instrument which by the outward 
 turning of the rim assumes the form of a bell. 
 Fr. Pavilion, Ger. Schallstuck . 
 
 Bell diapason. An organ stop consisting 
 of open metal pipes with bell mouths. Its 
 tone is more reedy and powerful than that 
 of an ordinary open diapason. Generally of 
 8ft. length. 
 
 Bellezza {It.) Beauty of expression and 
 tone in playing and singing. 
 
 Bell Gamba. An organ-stop, the pipes 
 of which are conical and surmounted by a 
 
 bell. It was ihtroduced by Mr. Hill, organ- 
 builder, of London. Its tone is remarkably 
 sweet, not unlike that of a stringed instru- 
 ment, though somewhat more reedy. The 
 pipes speak rapidly. 
 
 i^^oiT{!t;'^''-^^-^^^^'-^--^- 
 
 Bell metronome. A metronome in which 
 the recurrence of a set number of beats is 
 marked by the sound of a bell. [Metronome.] 
 
 Bell Open Diapason. [Bell Diapason.] 
 
 Bellov^S. In the harmonium, organ, con- 
 certina, &c., that contrivance by means of 
 which wind is supplied to the pipes, tongues, 
 or reeds. [Organ.] 
 
 Bell Piano. [Glockenspiel.] 
 
 Bells. I. Musical instruments of per- 
 cussion, consisting of a series of metal basins 
 or cups, the outline of which has from time 
 to time been modified. The materials of which 
 bells are usually made ar.e copper and tin, the 
 proportions varying in several countries and 
 even among the manufacturers. 
 
 The various parts of the bells are a, the 
 Canons; b, the Shoulder; c, the Waist; the 
 thick part between d and e, the Sound Bow ; 
 E, the Rim or lip ; f, the Clapper. 
 
 The following analyses of English and 
 some foreign bells, will give a correct idea of 
 the composition, of the ancient bells. 
 
 English Bells. 
 
 Copper 8o-o 
 
 Tin lo-i 
 
 Zinc 5'6 
 
 Lead 4-3 
 
 Rouen Bells. 
 
 Copper 72'o 
 
 Tin 25-0 
 
 Zinc 1-8 
 
 Lead 1.2 
 
 Paris Bells. 
 
 Copper 72-9 
 
 Tin 25-56 
 
 Iron i'54 
 
 Swiss Hour Bells. 
 
 Copper 75'0 
 
 Tin 25*0 
 
 Mr. Denison recommends 
 on theoretical grounds 
 the following proportion 
 
 Copper 76-5 
 
 Tin 23-5 
 
 2. The use of bells to call worshippers to- 
 gether is supposed to be of Christian origin, 
 but it is said that the feast of Osiris in 
 Egypt was announced by the ringing of 
 bells. Aaron and the Jewish high priests 
 had bells attached to their vestments, and 
 
 (54) 
 
BELLS. 
 
 Plutarch says that small bells were used in 
 the mysteries of Bacchus, and the priests of 
 Cybele at Athens employed bells in their 
 rites. The Greeks sounded bells in their 
 camps, and the Romans indicated the hours 
 of bathing and business by the tintinnabulum. 
 It is also said, that in some places large 
 gongs were suspended in the air, and as 
 the wind brought them together, so was the 
 character of the sounds made, interpreted 
 as an unfavourable or favourable augury. 
 Trumpets were employed among the Jews to 
 call th(S faithful to worship (Exodus xx., 13; 
 Numbers x., 2 ; Joel ii., 15). Plates of iron 
 are still used in the Levant, and a plank of 
 wood is occasfonally employed for the same 
 purpose that we use bells in some of the old 
 Wallachian monasteries. In the East the 
 call to prayer is made by the Mueddin of each 
 mosque, who, having ascended the gallery of 
 the mad'neh or minaret, chants the "hadan" 
 or call to prayer, apparently in opposition to 
 the Christian use of bells. [Hadan.] 
 
 The introduction of bells into churches is 
 attributed to Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, in 
 Campania, about the year 400, but there is 
 an epistle of that bishop still extant in which 
 he describes his church, but makes no men- 
 tion of either tower or bells ; indeed, it is 
 believed that towers were not constructed 
 until two centuries later. Yet it is not a little 
 remarkable that the general name for bells 
 was Noise or Campanas, and hence the words 
 knoll as meaning the sound of a single bell, 
 and campanile a bell tower. Sabianus, who 
 was Pope in 604, ordered the bells to ring the 
 horcB canonicce at the proper times during the 
 day, and Benedict, Abbot of Wearmouth, 
 brought his bells from Italy about the year 680. 
 Bells were hung in towers in the East in the 
 gth, and in Germany in the nth century. 
 Those that were in use before are supposed 
 to be hand bells ; several examples, as old as 
 the 6th century, are still preserved in some 
 parts of Europe and the United Kingdom. 
 St. Patrick's bell, St. Ninian's bell, St. Gall's 
 bell, and others are plates of iron rivetted 
 together. St. Gall's bell (about 646) is still 
 shown in the monastery of the city called by 
 his name in Switzerland. In the 13th century 
 larger bells were cast, but it was not until the 
 end of the 15th century that they began to 
 assume great proportions. St. Dunstan, in 
 the loth century, seems to have the credit of 
 havingestablishedthe first foundry in England, 
 Glastonbury, Malmesbury, and other places 
 having been furnished with bells by him. 
 Bells were rung not only to indicate the com- 
 mencement of certain services, but also were 
 tolled to mark certain stages in those services. 
 Thus we find mention made of the Saints or 
 Sanctus bell, the Compline bell, the Judas 
 
 bell, the Pardon or A ve bell, the Passing bell, 
 the last tolled to warn all " Christen soules " 
 to pray for the parting soul of the dying. 
 Bells, being thus intimately connected with 
 the services of the Church, have been supposed 
 to possess a certain sacred character. They 
 were founded with religious ceremonies, con- 
 secrated, baptised, and were anointed with 
 holy oil (see Schiller's " Lay "). St. Colomba, 
 in the 6th century, made use of a bell whose 
 name was " Dia Dioghaltus," or " God's ven- 
 geance," to test the truth of assertions made, 
 as it was believed that the wrath of God would 
 speedily overtake any who swore falsely by it. 
 Pious inscriptions are frequent on bells of the 
 middle ages, and inscriptions, not always 
 pious, are found on those of later date. Bells 
 were often rung to allay storms, there being 
 a special endowment belonging to Old St. 
 Paul's, "for ringinge the hallowed belle in 
 great tempestes and lightninges." Tlie curfew 
 bell, still sounded in many parts of England 
 and Scotland, is of more ancient practice than 
 the period usually assigned as its commence- 
 ment, the reign of William the Norman ; and 
 there are many social practices announced by 
 the ringing or tolling of the church bells. 
 
 3. Change ringing, or campanology, is fre- 
 quently practised when there are more than 
 three bells, such changes being known by the 
 names of bob-majors, bob triples, Norwich 
 court bobs, grandsire bob-triples, and caters. 
 The number of changes a set of bells is cap- 
 able of, may be known by in-multiplying the 
 numbers of the set. Thus, three bells may ring 
 six changes, 123, i 32, 213, 23 i, 32 i, 312; 
 four bells will give 24 changes ; 5 bells, 
 120 changes ; 6 bells, 720 changes ; 7 bells, 
 5,040 changes ; 8 bells, 40,320 changes ; 
 9 bells, 362,880 changes ; 10 bells, 3,628,800 
 changes; 11 bells, 39,916,800 changes; 12 
 bells, 479,001,600 changes. To ring the 
 changes that 12 bells are capable of, would 
 take 91 years at two strokes per second, while 
 a peal of 24 bells can make so many changes 
 that it would occupy 1 17,000 billions of years 
 to ring them all. 
 
 The technical terms for the various peals, 
 on sets of bells of different numbers, are the 
 following : 
 
 Rounds On three bells. 
 
 Changes or singles , four „ 
 
 Doubles or grandsires five „ 
 
 (Bobs) Minor „ six „ 
 
 Triples , seven „ 
 
 (Bobs) Major „ eight „ 
 
 Caters „ nine „ 
 
 (Bobs) Royal „ ten „ 
 
 Cinques , eleven „ 
 
 (Bobs) Maximus twelve „ 
 
 4. A bell is said to be " set " when she is 
 mouth upwards, at " hand stroke " when the 
 " sallie " or tuft on the rope has to be pulled. 
 
 (55 ) 
 
BELLS BELL FOUNDING. 
 
 at "back stroke" when the ringer has to pull 
 the end of the rope. A bell is said to be "going 
 up "when she moves her position in the change 
 from "treble" towards that of "tenor," and 
 "down" when she is changing her position 
 from that of "tenor" towards that of "treble." 
 A bell is said to be "behind" when she is the 
 last of the changing bells, and at "lead" 
 when she is the first. Thus the progress 
 from " lead " to behind is said to be " going 
 up," and from behind to lead is called "going 
 down." " Dodging ".is moving a place back- 
 wards out of the ordinary hunting course. A 
 bell is said to be " hunting up" when she is 
 pulled after the one which previously pulled 
 after her. A bell is said to " make a place" 
 when she strikes two blows in succession at 
 any one place. To "lie a whole pull" is 
 synonymous with " making a place." Two 
 blows at " lead " and " behind " are a part 
 of " hunting," in making these therefore a bell 
 is not said to be " making a place." " Bob " 
 and " singles" are words used to produce a 
 certain series of changes by disturbing the 
 ordinary system of "hunting." The full 
 knowledge of the meaning of these and many 
 other technical terms used in ringing can 
 only be learnt in the belfry. The method of 
 Doubles named after Stedman (1640) is, in 
 principle, as follows : while three of the bells 
 are ringing changes, the other two are dodging 
 behind, but at the completion of each set of 
 six changes one bell comes down from behind 
 to take part in the changes, one, of course, 
 at the same time going up behind to take 
 part in the dodging. 
 
 5. Bells are occasionally employed as or- 
 chestral instruments — small bells, tuned to a 
 certain scale, being most favoured — as in 
 Victor Masse's " Les noces de Jeannette," a 
 whole peal of small bells being used with 
 great effect. These, as in Mozart's " Magic 
 Flute," are so arranged as to be played with 
 keys, like a pianoforte. [Glockenspiel.] 
 
 Auber employs a single bell in the finale to 
 " Fra Diavolo." Rossini has introduced a bell 
 sounding 
 
 in the opening of the second act of " William 
 Tell." Donizetti also, in the finale to " Lucia 
 di Lammermoor," has written for a bell tuned 
 to the same note. Meyerbeer, in his " Hu- 
 guenots," employs a bell in 
 
 Mz 
 
 with clarinets and bassoons. In " Dinorah," 
 in what is popularly known as the " Goat 
 Trio," a bell with the note 
 
 i 
 
 clever harmonies for the orchestra in his opera 
 " Hamlet," while a deep-toned bell strikes the 
 midnight hour. Flotow, in " Martha," uses 
 a bell, as does Gounod , in "Jeanne d'Arc," 
 tuned to the following note : 
 
 and there are numerous other instances where 
 bells of all grades of tone have been used with 
 skill and effect. 
 
 Bell founding. The shape and propor- 
 tions of the intended bell having been decided 
 upon according to a certain scale, the first 
 part of the process of casting,is commenced, 
 by constructing an inner mould called the core, 
 by which the form of the inside of the bell is 
 determined. This core has a foundation of 
 rough brickwork or iron, hollow in the centre, 
 afterwards plastered over with loam or soft 
 clay. A guage of wood, called a crook, made 
 to revolve or sweep round on a central pivot 
 by the hand of a workman, gives the clay the 
 exact form required. This process will be at 
 once understood on reference to the following 
 diagram. A is the core, B the crook, which is 
 fastened to c, the pivot on which it revolves : 
 
 SE^f^E 
 
 is used. Ambroise Thomas has a series of | 
 
 The core is hardened by a fire made in its 
 hollow, and when it is sufficiently " set," it is 
 covered with grease and tan, over which is 
 placed a coating of haybands and loam, of 
 the thickness of the intended bell, and upon 
 this the cope or outer mould is shaped. When 
 this is dried it is removed, the thickening of 
 haybands and loam which represented the 
 shape of the bell to be cast, is destroyed, and 
 the two moulds, the core and the cope, are 
 examined and finished. 
 
 The core is sometimes made on an iron 
 foundation, instead of brickwork, in which case 
 it can be dried in a furnace, instead of by the 
 fire in its hollow. The cope hstving been care- 
 fully adjusted over the core, the head and the 
 staple to hold the clapper are then fitted on, 
 
 (S6) 
 
BELLY B QUADRO. 
 
 and the whole mould is firmly imbedded in 
 the earth, leaving only the holes at the top 
 visible. 
 
 The above diagram shows the position of 
 mould ready for the metal, a is the core, b 
 the. co^e, f the channel for the metal to run 
 in, E the hole for the air and gases to escape 
 during the casting, and the thick black line 
 the section of the bell. When the metal is 
 quite ready, the furnace-door is opened, and 
 the molten mass rushes down a channel, pre- 
 viously prepared, into the moulds sunk in the 
 pits, and excepting mishaps, from insecure 
 " bedding," the splitting of the cope, or other 
 accidents, the bell is cast, and, when cold, is 
 dug from the pit, the clay mould destroyed, 
 and the bell is ready for the next process, that 
 of tuning. The tuning is effected by means 
 of a lathe and some simple machinery. If 
 the bell requires sharpening, the diameter is 
 lessened in proportion to its substance, if it is 
 too sharp, the sound-bow is thinned by the 
 same means ; but, as a rule, bells are now so 
 accurately cast, that little if any tuning is 
 necessary after the bell leaves the mould. It 
 is stated in " Knight's Encyclopaedia, 1854," 
 that the German bell-founders made the vari- 
 ous dimensions of the bell to bear certain 
 ratios to each other. The thickest part where 
 the hammer strikes is called the "Sound Bow." 
 If this thickest be called one, then the diameter 
 of the mouth equals 15, the diameter of the 
 top or shoulder 7^, the height equals 12, and 
 the weight of the clapper -^ of the weight of 
 the bell. 
 
 Denison recommends that the sound bow 
 of the three or four larger bells of a peal should 
 be of the thickness of a thirteenth of the dia- 
 meter, and that the smaller bells may gradually 
 increase in thickness up to the twelfth in a 
 peal of six, the eleventh in a peal of eight, 
 and to the tenth in a peal of ten or twelve, 
 greater thickness impeding the freedom of the 
 sound. 
 The bells of the Cathedral at Exeter, one of 
 
 the largest peal of bells in England, the greater 
 number of which were cast in 1676, have the 
 following weights, diameters, and tones ; — 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 DIAMETER. 
 
 TONE. 
 
 Cwt. qr. 
 
 lb. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 
 67 I 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 IlJ 
 
 Bflat 
 
 46 3 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 4i 
 
 C. 
 
 38 I 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 D. 
 
 30 I 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 Eflat 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 F. 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 G. 
 
 12 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 4i 
 
 A. 
 
 10 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 ij 
 
 Bflat 
 
 9 3 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 8 3 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 9J 
 
 D. 
 
 The relative diameters of a peal of eight 
 tuneable bells should be according to the 
 following proportion : 60, 53|., 48, 45, 40, 36, 
 32, 30. The relative weights being generally 
 in the proportion, 100, 70-23, 5i"2, 42-2, 29-63, 
 21-6, I5'i8, 12-5. 
 
 Belly. The upper plate of the resonance- 
 box. In instruments of the Violin and 
 Guitar family the strings are stretched over 
 the belly, and the bridge across which they 
 pass is so placed as to set the belly, and by 
 its means, the air contained in the resonance- 
 box, into vibration. In instrum.ents of the 
 Pianoforte class, the belly is that thin plate 
 of fir-wood which, placed behind the strings, 
 acts as a sound-board. Instead of an upper 
 plate of wood, the guitars of many of the less 
 civilized nations have a stretched parch- 
 ment. The belly thus formed answers all the 
 purposes of resonance for which it is in- 
 tended; the Kissar of Nubia, the Banjo of 
 the American negroes, the Nanga or Negro 
 Harp which shares the combined designs of a 
 guitar and harp, may be quoted as examples. 
 
 Bemes or Beemes. Saxon Trumpets or 
 Bugles. 
 
 " Of brass they broughten beemes and box, 
 Of horn and bone, in which they blew and pouped, 
 And therewithal they shriked and they houped ; 
 It seemed as that the heven shulde falle." 
 
 Chaucer. " Nonne preestes tale." See also the 
 " Romaunt of the Rose." 
 
 Bemol (Fr.), Bemolle (It.) The note Bb. 
 
 Ben (It.) Well. Ben marcato, well and 
 clearly marked. 
 
 Bene (It.) Well. Used as an expression 
 of approval during a performance. 
 
 Benedictus (Lat.) [Mass.] 
 
 Bene placito (It.) At pleasure, ad libitum, 
 e.g., " Bassani's Ballate corrente, Gighe, e 
 Sarabande, a violino, e violone, overo spinetta, 
 con il secondo violino a bene placito " (1684). 
 
 B quadro (It.) The square B or t], that 
 is, B durum or natural, as opposed to the 9, 
 soft B, B molle, or rounded b which, in its 
 slightly altered outline, is now known as a 
 flat. That the note B was the first note 
 altered by an accidental, accounts for the fact 
 
 (57 ) 
 
BEQUADRO BIS. 
 
 that signs of b and tj are of general appli- 
 cation. 
 
 Pequadro (7^) ) „ 
 Bequarre (Fr.) \ ^^^ ^"S" t|- 
 
 Berceuse [Fr.) A cradle song. 
 
 Bergomask. Burgomask. Berga- 
 masca. A lively dance in triple time, for 
 two clumsy performers, in imitation of the 
 dances of the country people of Bergamo, 
 who were considered the least graceful of the 
 Italians. 
 
 " Will it please you to see our epilogue, or to hear a 
 Bergomask dance, between two of our company ? " 
 
 Shakespeare, 
 
 Bes {Ger.) The note B double flat. 
 
 Besaiten {Ger.) To string an instrument. 
 Bestimmt {Ger.) With decision. 
 Bewegung {Ger.) Motion. 
 Bhat. A Hindu Bard. 
 
 Bianca {It.) A minim, cj. The white 
 note, as opposed to the J, or black note {nerd). 
 
 Bichord. Havmg two strings to each 
 note. 
 
 Bicinium {Lat.) A duet, from his and 
 cano. " Cum duo canunt, bicinium appellatur; 
 cum multi, chorus." 
 
 Bifara {Lat.) An organ-stop, with two 
 pipes to each note, producing a tremulant 
 effect. [Vox Angelica.] 
 
 Bilancojel. An Indian flute with seven 
 holes, played by a mouthpiece. 
 
 BimmoUe {It.) The note Bb. [See 
 Quadro.] 
 
 Bina, or Vina. An Indian guitar, with a 
 long finger board, and a gourd attached to 
 each end. Seven strings or wires wound 
 round pegs in the usual way are attached to 
 the finger board, four on the surface, and 
 three at the sides. There are about twenty 
 frets, some standing up as high as an inch 
 from the finger board ; these are fastened 
 with wax, and the performer regulates the 
 positions of them at his , pleasure. In the 
 performance one gourd is rested on the left 
 shoulder, and the other on the right hip. Its 
 scale consists of a series of small intervals 
 lying between a note and its octave, in the 
 bass-stave. 
 
 Binary Form. The form of a movement 
 which is founded on two principal themes or 
 subjects. [Sonata Form.] 
 
 Binary Measure. Common time. [Tonic- 
 Sol-fa,] 
 
 Bind, (i) A curved line, ' — -, a sign 
 which, when placed over two notes of the 
 same name or same pitch (enharmonically 
 changed), directs that the two are to be sus- 
 tained as one. It is of frequent occurrence 
 at points of Syncopation and Suspension. 
 
 ^u^.i> a I J J i^ i-^ii — H 
 
 '^ " " r, rp V ■ " 
 
 
 
 W 'J r r'F^-^fr'i' - - V'-W 
 
 Enharmonic change, or Modulation. 
 
 feb^ 
 
 4 -^ 
 
 ei=f^ 
 
 Suspension. 
 
 Syncopation. 
 
 When a curved line is placed over two notes, 
 not of the same name or pitch, it is called a 
 Slur, and directs that they aire to be played 
 smoothly, e.g. : 
 
 It is to be regretted that the horizontal 
 line introduced by Sir W. S. Bennett as a 
 hind, so that no confusion can exist between 
 the Bind and Slur, has not been generally, 
 adopted, e.g.: 
 
 (2) A Brace {Fr., Accolade) which binds 
 together the separate parts of a score. 
 
 Binde {Ger) [Bind.] 
 
 Bindebogen (Ger.) Thebind-bow. [Bind.] 
 
 Bindung (Ger.) Syncopation, suspension, 
 so called because the notes forming it are 
 hound, or at least might be so written. 
 
 Bindungszeichen (Ger.) A slur or bind. 
 
 Birn {Ger.) That portion of a clarionet or 
 similar instrument in which the mouth-piece 
 is inserted, so called from its pear-like shape. 
 
 Bis {Lat.) Twice, (i) A direction that 
 the passage over which it is placed shall be 
 twice played or sung. Its use is generally 
 limited to short passages, marks of repeat 
 
 (58) 
 
BISCHERO BOMBARDO. 
 
 being written for a long repetition, 
 placed under or over a slur, e,g. : 
 
 It is 
 
 (2) Again. Encore. 
 
 Bischero (It.) The peg, or pin, with which 
 the strings of an instrument are secured. 
 Biscroma (It.) 1 . • fe 
 
 Biscrome (kj I ^ semiquaver, J^. 
 
 Bisdiapason. The interval of a double 
 octave, or fifteenth. 
 
 Bissex. A kind of guitar with twelve 
 strings {Ger. Zwolfsaiter), invented by Van- 
 hecke in 1770. Of the twelve strings six 
 were over the finger-board, six below, hence 
 the name twice-six. Its compass was three 
 and a half octaves. 
 
 Bis unca {Lat.) A semiquaver ^, or 
 note with two hooks. 
 
 Bit. A small piece of tube, generally fur- 
 nished with two raised ears. It is used for 
 supplementing the crook of a trumpet, cornet- 
 a-piston, &c., so as to adapt the instrument 
 to a slight difference of pitch. 
 
 t Fantastically, won- 
 
 Bizzarramente (7i.) \ derfully. 
 
 Bizzarria (It.) < Singularity, affecta- 
 
 Bizzarro (7^.) i tion. 
 
 ( Odd, droll. 
 
 Blanche (Fr.) A minim J [Bianca.] 
 
 Blanche pointde (Fr.) A dotted minim. 
 
 Blasebalg {Ger.) The bellows of an organ. 
 Saxon bles-belg, a wind-bag. 
 
 Blase-instrument (Ger.) Wind instru- 
 ment. Flute, oboe, bassoon, cornet, trumpet, 
 trombone, &c. 
 
 Blase-musik ( Ger. ) Music for wind 
 instruments. 
 
 Blatt (Ger.) A vibrating tongue or blade. 
 [Reed.] 
 
 Blech-instrumente (Ger.) [Metal wind 
 instruments.] 
 
 B moll (Ger.) The key Bb minor. 
 
 B molle {Lat.) The note B \>, cf. B quad- 
 ratum. 
 
 Bobibation or Bocedisation. Solfeggi 
 :aught by Huberto Walraent at the end of 
 ;he i6th century for scale practice, which 
 vere bo, ce, di, ga, la, mi, ni. [See Bebisation.] 
 Bobibation or Bocedisation, in which the 
 syllables bo, c6, di, ga, lo, ma, ni were sub- 
 stituted for those attributed to Guido, was 
 ntroduced and taught in many schools in 
 Glanders, and so this peculiar use came to 
 )e called Belgian solmisation. Walraent's 
 nethod was adopted in Italy in 1599 by 
 ienri de la Putte, who wrote an elaborate 
 L,atin treatise in defence of it; and a few 
 'ears later Calwitz, ignoring its invention and 
 
 taking the credit to himself, introduced it into 
 Germany. In Spain and France the method 
 was proposed by Pietro de Ureno and John 
 Lemaire, but without success. To the last- 
 named musician the addition of the syllable 
 Si for the leading note is attributed. Bobiba- 
 tion was accepted by some musicians and 
 rejected by others, and the result was a petty 
 war, which lasted until the commencement of 
 the 1 8th century. Hitzler, a few years later, 
 suggested the use of the syllables la, be, ce, 
 de, mi, fe, gi — this system he called bebisa- 
 tion or labecedation ; and Graun recommended 
 da, me, ni, po, tu, la, be, from which his plan 
 was called damenisation. 
 
 Bob major. Bob maximus, Bobs. [Bells.] 
 
 Bocal {Fr.) The mouth-piece of the horn, 
 serpent, trombone, &c. 
 
 Bocca {It.) The mouth. Con bocca chiusa, 
 with closed mouth, humming. 
 
 Bocca ridente {It.) Smiling mouth, the 
 position of the mouth needful for the pro- 
 duction of pleasing tone. 
 
 Bocchino {It.) A mouth-piece of wind 
 instruments. 
 
 Bockpfeife {Ger.) Bagpipe. 
 
 Bockstriller {Ger.) A goat-like tremolo 
 upon one note, a bad shake. [Vibrato.] 
 
 Boden {Ger.) [Body.] 
 
 Body. The resonance box of a string 
 instrument. That part of a wind instrument 
 which remains after the removal of mouth- 
 piece, crooks, and bell. 
 
 Bogen {Ger.) Bow. 
 
 Bogenclavier {Ger.) [Tetrachordon.j 
 
 Bogenfiihrung {Ger.) The art of play- 
 ing with a bow upon stringed instruments. 
 
 Bogenstrich {Ger.) The stroke of a 
 bow. 
 
 Bolero {Sp.) A Spanish dance in triple 
 measure with strongly-marked accent, also 
 called Cachuca. It is accompanied with 
 singing and castanets, and the performer 
 assumes in the course of the dance all the 
 various feelings supposed to be excited by 
 love, from the greatest shyness to the highest 
 ecstasy. [Chica.] 
 
 Bombard. Bombarde {Fr.) A reed stop 
 on the organ, usually among the pedal regis- 
 ters, of large scale, rich tone, and often on a 
 heavy pressure of wind. 
 
 Bombardino {It.) A small bombardo, q.v. 
 
 Bombardo {It.) A mediaeval wind instru- 
 ment, the precursor of the oboe, of which it 
 was no doubt a large and coarse species. 
 The word Pommer, applied to these instru- 
 ments, was a corruption of the Italian name. 
 The chalameau or shawm {Ger.Schalmey) was 
 the smallest of this class, the bombardons the 
 largest. Clarinets, oboes, and bassoons, now 
 so clearly defined, grew out of one common 
 parentage. The clarinet has but one vibrating 
 
 (59) 
 
BOMBARDON BOW. 
 
 reed ; the oboe and bassoon double vibrating 
 reeds. 
 
 Bombardon. A brass instrument, in tone 
 not unlike an ophicleide. It is not capable of 
 rapid execution. The compass is 
 
 ^ 
 
 Music for it is written without transposition, 
 although it is in F. 
 
 Bombaulius, /3o/ij3ai\tos(G^.) A facetious 
 name for a bag-piper. A pun on the words 
 avXriTije, a flute-player, and PofijSvXioQ, a buz- 
 zing insect, whence our word, bumble-bee ; 
 £./., Latin, Bombus. 
 
 Bombyx (Gk.) /3oju/3j/S. A Greek flute, 
 perhaps so named from its supposed resem- 
 blance to the silk-worm. It was probably 
 a reed-instrument of powerful tone. The 
 following illustration is given by Burney from 
 a sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum, at 
 Rome. 
 
 Bones. Four pieces of the ribs of horses 
 or oxen, held in the hands and struck together 
 for the purpose of marking time, in accompa- 
 niment to the voice or an instrument. The 
 bones are of ancient use in England, and are 
 alluded to by Shakespeare in the fourth act of 
 " A Midsummer Night's Dream, "as formingone 
 means of rustic music. And in figures designed 
 by Inigo Jones for the Court Masques one is re- 
 presented playingupon knicky-knackers of bone 
 or wood. The word knicky-knackers, by which 
 the bones are known to the country people, 
 may have its origin from the word "nakeres." 
 In Strutt's " Sports and Pastimes," a payment 
 is recorded as being made tojanino leNakerer, 
 among the minstrels of King Edward II. The 
 nakerer was probably the drummer; but, as 
 the minstrels frequently indulged in burlesque 
 music, Janino may have been the performer 
 on that primitive orrustic instrument, the bones. 
 
 Bon temps de la mesure (Fr.) The 
 accented portion of the bar. 
 
 Bordone {It.) [Bourdon.] [Viola di Bar- 
 done.] 
 
 Boulou. A harp used by the negroes of 
 Senegambia and Guinea, in shape like the 
 Oriental harp. Its strings are of fibre. 
 
 Bourdon {Fr.) (i) A drone bass, a 
 burden such as that produced by a ba'gpipe, 
 or a hurdy-gurdy. [Burden.] (2) An organ 
 stop, consisting of stopped wooden pipes, 
 generally of 16 ft. tone. Sometimes, but 
 rarely, the upper part is of metal. It is 
 found on manuals as a "double" stop, and 
 also on the pedal organ as a soft foundation- 
 
 stop. It was formerly made of a large scale 
 in England, but from a better knowledge 
 of scientific principles organ builders are now 
 able to produce a strong and pure body of 
 tone from a pipe of moderate scale. As a 
 rule, it is important that it should be free 
 frgm a preponderance of harmonics or over- 
 tones, but sometimes they are purposely 
 produced with the fundamental note, in which 
 case the stop is called quintaton, because the 
 first harmonic or over-tone of a stopped pipe 
 is its twelfth, or octave fifth. Hence a 
 Bourdon was sometimes said to heffthy. 
 
 Bourr6e (Fr.) A dance tune in common 
 time,said by Hawkins to come from Auvergne. 
 Other writers give Biscay as its birthplace. 
 The earliest mention of it is probably about 
 1580. It is still popular with the peasants 
 of Lower Brittany. It often forms one of 
 the movements of the earlier Sonata. 
 
 Boutade (Fr.) A dance which was sup- 
 posed to be impromptu. 
 
 Bow. An instrument of wood and horse- 
 hair, employed to set the strings of the violin, 
 &c., in vibration. The bow, originally curved. 
 as its name implies, has been subject to many 
 changes of shape from time to time, from a 
 large curve to an almost flat form. 
 
 Fig: .. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig- 3- 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 5- 
 
 The bow shown in fig. i is that still used 
 with the rebab of Algeria. Fig. 2 is given by 
 Gerber from a MS. of the 8th or gth century. 
 The bow now used for the violin is about 
 29 inches in length (almost straight, but 
 with a slight curve inwards, not outwards, as 
 in the older bows), the violoncello bow being a 
 little shorter, fig. 5. Christopher Simpson(i676) 
 
 ( 60 ) 
 
BOW BOWING. 
 
 says that twenty-seven inches was the length 
 ofthebowin his time, the "sonata bow," fig. 3, 
 according to tradition, being only twenty -four 
 inches, the common " fiddle-stick " being 
 still shorter. The form of the bow, which was 
 anciently employed for all stringed instru- 
 ments of the violin kind, known now as the 
 " Coielli bow," fig. 4, is to a certain extent 
 preserved in the double-bass bow as at present 
 employed in England. 
 
 Most of our stringed-instruments can be 
 traced to an Eastern source, but as the earliest 
 figure of the bow is found in MSS. relating to 
 this country, it has been supposed that it is of 
 British origin. There are many representa- 
 tions of it in MSS. as early as the Anglo- 
 Saxon period (see Sandy's " History of the 
 Violin," pp. 52, 53, &c.), and later through 
 successive generations, besides existing speci- 
 mens of actual ancient bows, all of which par- 
 take of the bowed character, as seen in fig. i. 
 The curved bow was still in fashion until the 
 death of Handel, if any trust is to be placed 
 in contemporary pictures and drawings. 
 
 The little that is known of the early bows 
 gives the notion that they were incapable of 
 producing anything like delicacy of tone ; and 
 it was not until the early part of the 17th 
 century, when violin-playing began to be cul- 
 tivated, that we find that any attempt was 
 made to improve either the form of the bow 
 or the means of stretching the horse-hair, 
 so that an even pressure might be obtained. 
 The alteration from the bowed form is said to 
 have been made after a suggestion by Tartini 
 [1692-1770]. There is every reason to believe 
 that the improvement in violin-playing due to 
 him could only be effected by means of a better 
 bow than the clumsy one of his time. The 
 earliest improvement was made when a metal 
 band, with teeth-like edges, was introduced, 
 with the design of regulating the position and 
 tension of the hair at or near the handle. This 
 helped to prevent the hair assuming the cord- 
 like form which players found to be awkward 
 and clumsy. But it was reserved for Francois 
 Tourte [1747-1833] to devise the plan of keep- 
 ing " the hair flat by means of a clasp." 
 Tourte also introduced the screw and button 
 for slackening or tightening the hair at plea- 
 sure, and was the first to choose Brazil-wood 
 as a material in bow-makihg. It was the 
 father of Tourte who attempted the first im- 
 provements in bow-making, but it was the 
 son above-mentioned who introduced the most 
 valuable inventions. The bows of the younger 
 Tourte are almost as much sought as those of 
 the elder Dodd [1705-1810], who lived to the 
 great age of 105 years, but the works of the 
 last-named are most highly valued. Panormo, 
 Tubbs, and Chanot are counted among the 
 chief of modem bow-makers. 
 
 Bow-hand. The term is employed by 
 violinists to describe the power and skill with 
 which a player produces the tone of his 
 instrument. 
 
 Bowing. The art of managing the bow, 
 so as not only to bring out the best tone the 
 instrument is capable of, but also so to phrase 
 the passages played that the best possible 
 character may be imparted to the music. 
 The importance both to a violinist, and a 
 composer of music for the violin, of a thorough 
 knowledge of the art of bowing, cannot be 
 overrated. By varying the system of bowing, 
 a simple musical sentence may be changed in 
 its character, almost indefinitely. Formerly, 
 very little attention was paid to this subject, 
 the system of bowing being left very much to 
 the discretion of the players, who only occa- 
 sionally had such general directions as legato 
 or staccato. There always, however, existed 
 certain traditional rules, e.g. that the down- 
 bow should be used at the first beat of a bar, 
 or where any great emphasis was required (as 
 in some cases of syncopation); also, that 
 where no directions are given, the passage 
 should be bowed, that is, the notes should be 
 alternately played by an up and down bow. 
 But it is evident that in simple music, of triple 
 measure, these rules will clash, for, alternate 
 bowing will lead to the recurrence of an up- 
 bow on every alternate down-beat. Hence, 
 even if an excellent band is playing music up 
 to the date of, and including that by Handel, it 
 must have often been observed that the bowing 
 is far from being uniform. In modern music, 
 every direction is given to the performers 
 which is requisite for the production of abso- 
 lute uniformity, and more than this, the various 
 effects which are capable of production by the 
 different systems of bowing are used as part 
 of a composer's material. The prominent 
 features in modern bowing are the more fre- 
 quent antithesis between legato and staccato, 
 and the use of at least three kinds of the latter. 
 When notes have the ordinary dot placed 
 above them they are bowed staccato ; when 
 the dots are under a slur, they are played with 
 one how (that is by the movement of the bow 
 in one direction) the short length of the sounds 
 being brought about by keeping the bow always 
 lying on the string, so that any movement of 
 the bow which has produced a sound shall be 
 followed by absolute silence. The third kind 
 of staccato is produced by holding the bow as 
 lightly as possible and allowing it almost to 
 dance upon the string. In this manner rapid 
 passages may be played either by one bow up 
 or down, or by an alternate bowing, during 
 which the movement of the bow at right angles 
 to the string is so slight that it seems to rise 
 and fall almost perpendicularly. A favourite 
 division of four rapid notes is to make two 
 
 (61 ) 
 
BOWING BRAWL. 
 
 legato and the following two staccato. The 
 well-known Var. II. of Beethoven's Sonata for 
 Violin, known as the " Kreutzer," is a good 
 illustration of this : 
 
 The effect which results from moving the 
 bow on an unaccented part of the bar is most 
 striking and beautiful, e.g. (from the same 
 Sonata) : 
 
 and in the following (Beethoven Symphony, 
 
 Groups of three notes are often divided into 
 two legato and one staccato, e.g. : 
 
 less often into one staccato and two legato, 
 e.g.: 
 
 Two notes out of eight are often made legato, 
 e.g.: 
 
 The above few examples may serve to give 
 some idea of the inexhaustible resources of 
 the art of bowing. It will of course be under- 
 stood that what is here said of the violin 
 applies equally to the viola and violoncello. 
 But, in consequence of the thickness of the 
 strings, the double-bass is not so capable of 
 rapid contrasts of bowing as the rest of its 
 family. In studies and exercises it is usual 
 now to direct a down-bow by the sign |— i ; and 
 an up-bow by a. The French terms corres- 
 ponding to these signs are tir6 (draw) ; pousse 
 (push), sometimes abbreviated by p and i. 
 
 The quality of tone produced depends not only 
 on the nature and quantity of pressure exer- 
 cised by the bow upon the strings, but also 
 upon the position of the point of impact. 
 Thus, if played very close to the bridge {suV 
 ponticello), the tone is of peculiar brightness 
 and shrillness; as the bow is used further 
 from the bridge, the tone passes through a 
 stage of great purity and strength, until, at 
 close proximity to the finger-board, it becomes 
 soft and somewhat dull. The practised per- 
 former chooses that part of the string capable 
 of producing the tone best suited to the pass- 
 age he is playing, and he draws it forth with 
 that part of bow most suitable for the purpose. 
 As a general rule, from the heel to about the 
 middle of the bow, is the part naturally used 
 {ox forte or sforzando passages ; and from the 
 middle to the point for those of a more delicate 
 character. But actual experience is the only 
 method of learning the intricacies and beauties 
 of the art of bowing. 
 
 Boyau (Fr.) _ Cat-gut strings. 
 
 B natural. The 
 name of B quadra- 
 tum or B square 
 was given by reason 
 of its shape, which 
 was originally that 
 of a gothic B. [B 
 cancellatum.] 
 
 Belgian patriotic 
 
 B quadratum 
 B quadrum 
 B quarre 
 
 [Lat.) 
 
 (Lat.)' 
 
 (Fr.) 
 
 Brabangonne. The 
 
 song first sung at the time of the revolution 
 of 1830. The words were written by an actor 
 named Jenneval, at that time engaged at the 
 theatre at Brussels, the music being set by 
 a singer named Campenhout. Upon the 
 death of Jenneval at Berghem his mother was 
 allowed a pension of 2400 fr. Campenhout 
 was appointed director of the Royal Chapel. 
 
 Brace, (i) A mark connecting two or 
 more staves together. 
 
 (2) The leather slides upon the cords of a 
 drum, used for raising or lowfring the tone 
 by tightening or loosening the head. 
 
 Bransle (Fr.) [Brawl.] 
 
 Brawl. An old round dance in which the 
 performers joined hands in a circle. A country 
 dance. 
 
 " Then first of all he doth demonstrate plain 
 The motions seven that are in nature found, 
 Upward and downward, forth, and back again, 
 To this side, and to that, and turning round ; 
 Whereof a thousand brawls he doth compound, 
 Which he doth teach unto the multitude. 
 And ever with a turn they must conclude." 
 
 Sir John Davier. Orchestra, 1607. 
 
 (62) 
 
BRATSCHE BREVE. 
 
 The brawl and the bransle were the same 
 dance. Douce gives an account of " le 
 branle du bouquet,' from " Deux dialogues 
 du nouveau langage Francois, Italianize," 
 Anvers, 1579, in which, kissing the whole of 
 the ladies, by each of the gentlemen in turn, 
 seems to have been one of the chief features 
 in the dance. 
 
 The following Braule from Delaborde's 
 specimens (of the 15th or i6th century) shows 
 the rhythm of this dance : 
 
 W <■ J -J 1 JJH 1 1 J J 1 J IJ J J=Ji 
 
 if ' '* iJ^J d " — ' — ■ " 
 
 d d J J -^J J d ... 
 
 FT^I ilfj f\\i y \r I'ill 
 
 1/' J h 1 u H 
 
 ~1 — S 1 1 
 
 1 J J 1 
 
 - J Ji-:|| 
 
 li»)B — — i 
 
 
 U ^ -' J 
 
 
 ^ f — ifLi 
 
 T r 
 
 -(^ — ^ — 
 
 ■-1 ; 
 
 --J — I— ^ 
 
 Bratsche {Qer.) The Tenor Violin, Alto, 
 or Viola. So called from the Viola da braccia, 
 or viola held on the arm, as distinguished 
 from the viola da gamba, or viola held be- 
 tween the legs, the precursor of the violoncello. 
 
 Brava, fem. {It.) ~| 
 
 Bravi, pi. (It.) vWell, or bravely, done. 
 
 Bravo, mas. (It.) ) 
 
 Bravura (It.) Dash, briUiancy. Con bra- 
 vura, with dash or brilliancy. Aria di bravura, 
 an air, distinguished from a simple melody 
 by the introduction of florid passages. [Aria.] 
 
 Break, (i) The point of junction in the 
 quality of tenor, soprano, and alto voices. A 
 genuine bass voice has no break. The lower 
 range is called voce di petto, or chest voice; 
 the upper, voce di testa, or head voice ; and 
 the place of junction is called the break. A 
 properly-cultivated voice should have the 
 break so under control, that the union of 
 the two qualities should be imperceptible. 
 [Larynx.] 
 
 (2) In the clarinet the break in the tone 
 of the instrument occurs between B flat and 
 B natural, 
 
 
 Hence, rapid passages containing frequent 
 transitions from one register to the other are 
 impossible on that instrument. In trumpets 
 
 and horns, when from imperfect lipping, the 
 note produced is other than the tone intended, 
 such note is called a break. A similar result 
 often occurs in imperfectly formed or unset 
 voices. 
 
 . (3) Break, in an organ stop, is the sudden 
 alteration of the proper scale-series of the pipes 
 by returning to those of an octave lower in 
 pitch. A break becomes necessary in the 
 smaller compound stops, for, when proceeding 
 far upwards in pitch, it is found that the pipes 
 would be so small as to be inaudible. As 
 mixtures, sesquialteras, and other stops of the 
 same class, are generally formed of several 
 ranks of high harmonics, breaks in them are 
 frequent. The break generally takes place 
 between C and Cjf, or F and FJ; but organ - 
 builders do not act with uniformity, either as 
 to the position of the break, or the exact series 
 of sounds to be produced on the return. 
 
 Breast. [Old Eng.) The voice. 
 
 " Trulye two degrees of men, which have the highest 
 offices under the Kinge in all this realme, shall greatly 
 lacke the use of singinge, preachers, and lawyers, be- 
 cause they shall not, withoute this, be able to rule their 
 breastes for everye purpose." — Ascham's Toxophilite. 
 
 " By my troth, the fool has an excellent breast." — 
 Shakespeare, Twelfth Night, ii., 3. 
 
 " The better brest, the lesser rest, 
 To serve the queer, now there, now heer, 
 For time so spent, I may repent 
 And sorrowe make." 
 TtJSSER (Five hundred points of good husbandry, 1540), 
 
 Breit (Ger.) Broadly, largamente. 
 
 Breve. In Mediaeval music, the note equal 
 to half the value of a long, and one quarter of 
 the double long or maxima. Its shape was ■. 
 " Quandocunque punctus quadratus invenitur,, 
 qui caret omni tractu brevis dicitur" (Franco, 
 of Paris.) Breves like other notes in the early 
 attempts at mensurable music, affected the 
 length of other notes, and were in turn affected 
 by other notes according to their relative 
 position. A long " in modo perfecto " was 
 reduced by one third or made imperfect by 
 having a breve next to it on either side. A 
 breve " in tempore perfecto " was made im- 
 perfect, that is, was reduced from three to two 
 beats, by juxtaposition with a semibreve. A 
 breve was also subject to " alteratio " that is, 
 being made longer when between two longs. 
 When so altered it was called alterata or 
 shortly altera. All these laws and many 
 others of a like character were drawn up by 
 writers in the fifteenth century, in the dawn 
 of " mensurable " music. Having discovered 
 the utility of showing the relative length of 
 notes by their shape, authors seem to have 
 revelled in constructing new compUcations. 
 These were gradually dropped by succeeding 
 writers, until the breve became the unit of 
 duration, a position which it held for nearly 
 
 (63 ) 
 
BRETT-GEIGE BUGLE, 
 
 two centuries. The Semibreve is now our 
 recognized unit, the Breve being a double note 
 and of rare occurrence. But these changes 
 have been a slow growth, not sudden altera- 
 tions of existing opinions or practices. 
 
 Brett-geige. Bret-Geige [Ger.) A pocket 
 fiddle ; hence, Fr. pochette, Ger.Taschengeige. 
 It. sordino, from the small quantity of tone 
 it is capable of producing. Eng. kit. 
 
 Bridge. A piece of wood which, on in- 
 struments having a resonance-box, performs 
 the double duty of raising the strings above 
 the belly, and of terminating at one end their 
 vibrating portion. In instruments played 
 with the bow, the bridge is arched, in order to 
 allow the bow to impinge upon any one string 
 without touching others. In instruments, 
 such as the guitar and pianoforte, its upper 
 edge runs parallel to the belly. In violins, 
 the material and adjustment of the bridge are 
 of great importance. Some instruments re- 
 quire a bridge made of coarse-grained wood, 
 others of close-grained. It stands on two 
 legs ; that on the right hand should rest on 
 the belly at a short distance behind the sound 
 post. The legs should lie flat on the surface 
 of the belly, in order that the vibrations of 
 the strings should be duly transferred to the 
 resonance-box. The tone of an instrument is 
 largely influenced by the position of the bridge, 
 and only great experience and nice handling 
 can discover where it is best set up. 
 
 Brillante {It. and Fr.) Brilliant, in a 
 showy sparkling style. 
 
 Brillenbasse (Ger.) " Spectacle basses," 
 music for the drum, so called from its resem- 
 blance to a pair of spectacles. gT: ,J"*~p ^ 
 
 Brindisi (It.) A drinking song. Often of 
 a florid character, so arranged as to exhibit 
 the change from the chest to the head voice 
 in rapid succession, something similar to the 
 German jodl, q.v. The air " Libiamo" in 
 Verdi's " La Traviata," is called a brindisi. 
 
 Brio, con (7^.) With spirit, vigour, and 
 force. 
 
 Brioso (It.) Joyfully, vigorously, forcibly. 
 
 Bris6 (Fr.) [Broken chords, arpeggios.] 
 
 Brisk. Lively. A term frequently used 
 by writers of the last century before the 
 general adoption of the term vivace. 
 
 Broderies (Fr.) Ornaments with which 
 it was the fashion in a past age to cover any 
 simple melody ; these were generally left to 
 the caprice of the performer, until Rossini set 
 the fashion of writing those ornaments which 
 he wished his music to bear. 
 
 Broken cadence. An interrupted cadence. 
 
 Broken chords. [Arpeggio.] 
 
 Broken music. Probably music played 
 on harps, guitars, or lutes, because the sounds 
 of these instruments cannot be sustained at 
 
 will. Shakespeare, " Troilus and Cressida," 
 Act iii. sc. I : 
 
 " Fair prince, here is good broken music.'' 
 Also " Henry V," Act. ii. sc. i ; "As you 
 like it," Act i. sc. 2. 
 
 Brontium {Lat.) jipovrtiov. A contrivance 
 for imitating thunder, used in the Greek 
 theatre. Sheets of copper were laid out in 
 the hyposcenium over which were rolled 
 bladders filled with pebbles. 
 
 B rotundum (Lat.) B flat. 4fe— h rj See 
 B cancellatum. 
 
 Brummeisen or Maultrommel (Ger.) 
 Jew's-harp. From Maul, the mouth. [Jew's- 
 harp.] 
 
 Bruscamente {It.) Coarsely, roughly, 
 strongly accented. 
 
 Buccina. Bucina {Lat.) A crooked horn 
 or trumpet, tuha being the straight trumpet. 
 It was used as a signal for changing the 
 night-watches, hence the expressions ad pri- 
 mam bucinam, secundam, &c., at the first and 
 second watches. Public assemblies were 
 also summoned by it in early Roman times. 
 Poets and sculptors- have represented Triton 
 as blowing through a bucina, from bucinum, 
 a shell called the sea-trumpet. 
 
 Buccinator. A muscle situated in the 
 fleshy part of the cheeks. It is so called 
 because, when the cheeks are filled with air, 
 the contraction of the buccinator muscles 
 forces it out. It derives its name from 
 buccinare, Lat., to blow a trumpet. 
 
 Buccolica {It.) "1 Rustic, a la bucolique, 
 
 Bucolique {Fr.) J in a rustic manner. 
 
 Biichse {Ger.) The boot or foot of an 
 organ pipe. 
 
 Buffa {It.) fern, \ Comic. Aria buffa. 
 
 Buffo {It.) mas. J a humorous melody ; 
 opera buffa, a comic opera. 
 
 Buffare {It.) To trifle, joke, to play the 
 fool. 
 
 Buffet {Fr.) An organ case. Key-board 
 case. 
 
 Buffone (/i.) A comic singer in the 
 opera. 
 
 Buffonescamente {It.) In a burlesque 
 or humorous style. 
 
 Bugle, (i) A hunting-horn of a straight 
 or curved form. (2) A copper instrument of 
 the horn qua:lity of tone, but of less compass, 
 furnished with keys. The tone is sweet, 
 powerful^ and distinct ; it has rarely been em- 
 ployed in the orchestra. There are bugle 
 horns in C, B flat, and Eflat, each capable 
 of producing its generator and 7 harmonics. 
 The ventil-horn is an improvement upon the 
 bugle. The word Bugle, from the Anglo- 
 Saxon buge, to bend or curve, was anciently 
 applied to many things of a curved shape, 
 thus, the head of a bishop's crozierwas called 
 
 ( 64) 
 
BUONACCORDO BYSSYNGE SONGES. 
 
 e bugle, and the crozier itself the bugle-rod. 
 he handle of a kettle, basket handles, and a 
 ;culiar sort of elongated glass-bead are each 
 Jled by the name bugle. Some writers de- 
 ve the word from bowgle or bougie, a bull, 
 1 the ground that the earliest horns were 
 ill's horns, and that the earliest representa- 
 3ns of hunting horns are in shape like bull's 
 am. [Metal wind instruments.] 
 
 Buonaccordo [It.) A small triangular 
 )inet for the use and amusement of chil- 
 ren, the notes of which were made small to 
 lit the length of their span. 
 
 Buonamente {It.) Justly, truly. 
 
 Buona nota (It.') Accented note. 
 
 Buon gusto {It.) In good taste. 
 
 Burden, (i) The chorus or refrain of a 
 3ng. [Ballad.] (2) The drone of the bag- 
 'PS- (3) The tune sung as an accompaniment 
 3 a dance when there were no instruments. 
 
 " Foot it featly here and there. 
 And let the rest the burden bear." 
 Belike it hath some burden then." 
 And clap us into Light n' love, that goes without a 
 burden, 
 lo you sing it, and I'll dance it." — Shakespeare. 
 
 " This sompnour bear to him a stiff bordoune 
 Was never trompe of half so gret a soun." 
 
 Chaucer. 
 
 Burla {It.) A jest. | ^g^f^^-, 
 
 Burlando. Burlescamente. J '- ■' 
 
 Burlesca {It.) A jest, a movement in a 
 jocular style, c.f. scherzo. 
 
 Burletta {It.) A comic operetta, a farce 
 interspersed with songs. 
 
 Busaun. Busain. Buzain. A reed- 
 stop on the organ. Generally of 16 ft. length, 
 and on the pedal organ. Its quality of tone 
 is soft. It is not improbable that this word is 
 connected with bassoon. 
 
 Bussone {It.) An obsolete wind-instru- 
 ment, cf. bassoon. 
 
 Button, (i) A small round piece of leather 
 which, when screwed on the tapped wire of a 
 tracker, prevents it from jumping out of place. 
 [Organ.] (2) The keys of the first-made 
 accordions. [Accordion.] 
 
 Buxus. Buxea tibia {Lat.) A flute made 
 of boxwood. 
 
 " Tympana vos buxusque vocant Berecyntia matris 
 Idjeae."— Virg. M. ix. 619. 
 
 Byssynge songes {early Eng.) Lulla- 
 byeSk, cradle songs. 
 
 (65) 
 
-CADENCE. 
 
 C. (i) The note Ut in the Guidonian 
 system and in modern French and Italian 
 nomenclature. 
 
 — (2) The letter whose original form was 
 afterwards modified into the C clef. 
 
 — (3) The first note of the Hypo-Eolian 
 mode. The first note of the Ionian mode. 
 
 — (4) The first, or key note of the modern 
 normal scale, so called because if it be desired 
 to write down the scale now used, C is the 
 only note from which the series can start 
 unless sharps or flats be added. 
 
 — (5) A capital letter C signifies the note 
 in the second space of the bass stave (Tenor C). 
 A small c signifies the note one octave above 
 this, middle C. [Pitch.] 
 
 Cabaletta {Sp.) {Lit. a little horse.] A 
 melody in rondo form, at first sung simply, 
 afterwards with variations, probably so called 
 because accompaniments to cabalettas were 
 in triplet form like the noise made by a horse 
 cantering. 
 
 Cabinet d'orgue {Fr.) Organ case. 
 
 Cabinet Pianoforte. An old-fashioned 
 upright pianoforte, about six feet in height. 
 [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Cabiscola (Lat.) A corruption of the 
 words caput scholee. The precentor in a 
 choir (Precentor). In Narbonne and many 
 parts of Italy, the office of capischol was held 
 by the Dean. 
 
 Caccia (It.) Hunting, (i) Music accom- 
 panied by horns, or in praise of field sports, is 
 said to be alia caccia, in the hunting style. 
 
 (2) Instruments used in hunting are called 
 da caccia, as oboe da caccia, hunting oboe, a 
 large kind of oboe ; corno da caccia, hunting 
 horn. 
 
 Cachucha (Sp.)A Spanish dance. [Bolero. J 
 
 Cacophony (Gk.) "j Harsh sounding music 
 
 Cacophonie (Fj*.) > — not necessarily incor- 
 
 Cacofonia (It.) J rect, but often treated 
 as though it were, because of its unusual 
 appeal to imperfect judgment. The word is, 
 however, generally used in a bad sense. 
 
 Cadence. (i) A vocal or instrumental 
 shake or trill, run or division, introduced as 
 an ending, or as a means of return to the 
 first subject. 
 
 (2) The end of a phrase, formerly called a 
 fall, either in melody or harmony. 
 
 " That strain again 
 It had a dying fall." — Shakespeare. 
 
 (3) There are four principal forms of cadence 
 in harmony, the whole, or authentic, the 
 half, the interrupted, and the plagal cadence. 
 When the last chord — the major or minor 
 chord of the key note — is preceded by the major 
 chord of the dominant, such cadence is called 
 whole or perfect. If the last chord is the 
 dominant and is preceded by the chord of the 
 tonic, the cadence is called half or imperfect. 
 When the last chord of the phrase is other 
 than ths tonic chord and is preceded by that 
 of the dominant, the cadence is said to be 
 interrupted, false, or deceptive. The cadence, 
 called plagal, is that in which the chord of 
 the tonic is preceded by the major or minor 
 chord of the subdominant. The whole ca- 
 dence is used to conclude most modern 
 music ; the half and the interrupted cadence 
 in the progress of a harmonised melody. 
 The plagal cadence was frequently employed 
 as a close by the old contrapuntal writers. 
 
 Whole or Perfect Cadences. Half or Imperfect Cadences. 
 
 ■ ^ [ II l > I I I P. b= 
 
 Interrupted, False or Deceptive Cadences, 
 
 By some authors, cadences are divided into 
 two kinds, perfect and imperfect ; the authentic 
 and plagal being considered perfect ; all other 
 cadences, imperfect. From another point of 
 view cadences have been divided into simple 
 
 (66) 
 
CADENCE IMPARFAITE CADENZA. 
 
 d compound; a cadence being simple when 
 ith the penultimate and final chords which 
 rm it are plain common chords ; and com- 
 lund when suspensions or other devices are 
 troduced, e.g. : 
 
 [nple Cadence. Compound Cadence. 
 
 . series of cadences can be constructed by 
 taking any one of the relative chords (or its in- 
 ersions) precede the final tonic chord, a 
 slative chord being a common chord which 
 an be made up out of the notes of any given 
 cale. The relative chords of C are therefore 
 ) minor, E minor, F major, G major, A 
 linor, but not B major or minor, as there is 
 o F J in the key of C. We shall, therefore, 
 et this series : 
 
 D to c. E to c. 
 
 FtoC. 
 
 G toC. 
 
 .nd from the relative chords of the minor 
 :ale : 
 
 El? to c. 
 
 Ab to c. 
 
 t will be observed that there is no relative 
 hord on the second or seventh degree of the 
 linor mode owing to the imperfection of the 
 iterval of the fifth. For further information 
 ;e Stainer's "Treatise on Harmony." 
 
 Cadence imparfaite {Fr.) An imperfect 
 adence. 
 
 Cadence parfaite {Fr.) A perfect cadence. 
 
 Cadence perlee (Fr.) A brilliant cadence. 
 
 Cadence rompue (Fr.) A broken or in- 
 ;rrupted cadence. 
 
 Cadenz (Ger.) [Cadence.] 
 
 Cadenza (It.) (i) A passage introduced 
 jwards the close of the first or last move- 
 lent of a concerto, either actually extempore 
 r of an impromptu character. (2) A running 
 assage at the conclusion of a vocal piece, 
 olo performers in times past were accus- 
 )med to display their skill and invention in 
 
 final flourish, apparently extempore, but 
 Pten the result of careful study and prepa- 
 ition. In some cases, however, the attain- 
 lent of the performer was the object of the 
 
 display, and hence the added cadenza was 
 often so inappropriate and incongruous, espe- 
 cially in vocal music, that composers felt 
 bound to write down all the ornaments or 
 embellishments they considered their music 
 capable of bearing. Purcell is said to have 
 so acted with regard to many of his songs ; 
 and it has been supposed that the run's or 
 divisions so common in music of the i8th 
 century were introduced as concessions to the 
 custom of the time of ornamenting a plain 
 melody. Every performer considered him- 
 self at liberty to alter an air to suit his own 
 peculiarities, and singers were estimated ac- 
 cording to their vocal agility. An extract 
 from a diary kept at Rome in 1697, by a 
 young Scotch gentleman, speaking of Corelli 
 and his playing, says : " This is his manner 
 in adagios, to which he adds innumerable 
 graces ; not crowded in confusion as some 
 do, but gentle, easy and sliding, and suited 
 withal to the composition of the other parts, 
 which no man but he who has taste and 
 knowledge of the composition, can perform." 
 When a great master in art sets the example, 
 followers are always found, and what is pleas- 
 ing in a man of genius becomes the reverse 
 when imitated. Although cadenzas were 
 fashionable in the time of Handel, instances 
 of fully written examples bj' him are rare. 
 The conclusion of the duet, " O lovely peace," 
 in "Judas Maccabasus," is one of the few 
 specimens he has left. Many of the songs in 
 his oratorios were constantly so changed by 
 the singers by means of graces, notes, and 
 turns, that their form was completely dis- 
 guised. But while the custom existed there 
 were not wanting some musicians who con- 
 stantly protested against w'hat they considered 
 the ill-usage of an author's ideas, forgetting 
 that the composer, probably knowing the bad 
 habit of his singers, had constructed his melo- 
 dies so that they might not suffer by the 
 overlading oi fioriture. Rubinelli the singer, 
 on his first appearance in England, was cen- 
 sured for embellishing and changing his airs. 
 On his second appearance in this country, 
 he determined to sing without introducing a 
 single ornament not written, and so fickle was 
 the taste of the time (c. 1780), that when he 
 sang " Return, O God of Hosts," from " Sam- 
 son," in Westminster Abbey, his hearers 
 thought the song and his style of singing 
 alike insipid. 
 
 The omission of ornaments in a musical 
 performance was a matter for surprise a cen- 
 tury earlier than that just named. Richard 
 Lygon, in his " History of Barbadoes, 1687," 
 describes his satisfaction at hearing a min- 
 strel sing a song, " savouring much of an- 
 tiquity — no graces, double relishes, trillos, 
 grupos, or piano-fortes, but plain as a pack- 
 
 (67 ) 
 
CADENZA D'INGANNO 9A IRA. 
 
 staff; his lute, too, was but of ten strings, 
 so that the rarity of this antique piece pleased 
 me beyond measure." 
 
 Cathedral chants, services, and anthems 
 — even psalm and hymn tunes — were writ- 
 ten with every possible florid turn, as shown 
 by existing examples of the Church compo- 
 sitions of the latter part of the last century. 
 
 The story told of the elder Dubourg and 
 Handel's comment upon his cadenza is well 
 known ; and there is another anecdote illus- 
 trating the absurdity of a misplaced cadenza, 
 told concerning the trombone player at the 
 first performance of Mendelssohn's " Lobge- 
 sang." The composer met the player and 
 asked him if he had looked at his part, as he 
 had given him plenty of important work to 
 do. " O yes, Herr Director, I have studied it 
 carefully." The astonishment of Mendels- 
 sohn may be imagined when at the rehearsal 
 he heard the result of the careful study of the 
 trombonist in the announcement of the initial 
 phrase of the symphony as follows : 
 
 Maestoso con moto. 
 
 
 Mendelssohn, in his sweet manner, told the 
 performer that he would rather have the phrase 
 played as he had written it. Other musicians 
 of less agreeable dispositions have sarcas- 
 tically thanked performers for taking " so 
 much trouble to sing or play notes that were 
 not written ;" and it is on record that Beet- 
 hoven repeatedly quarrelled with vocalists for 
 not adhering to his text, and it is also well 
 known that Rossini wrote every cadenza out 
 in full, " for he thought it better so to do than 
 to trust to the gaucheries of conceited voca- 
 lists." 
 
 In instrumental compositions the habit of 
 leaving a space for the ad libitum fancies of 
 the performer opened a door for the admis- 
 sion of eccentricities and absurdities, which 
 the better sort of musicians have sought from 
 time to time to remedy, by the composition 
 of suitable cadenzas as much as possible in 
 accordance with the original composer's de- 
 sign. Clement! wrote cadenzas for the whole 
 of Mozart's concertos, and Dr. Hiller and 
 others have done like things for other works 
 in which spaces have been left. 
 
 The cadenza has been made the vehicle for 
 the expression of musical humour, as by 
 Mendelssohn in the Music to " A Midsummer 
 Night's Dream," and of quaintness in instru- 
 mentation, as in Beethoven's No. 5 Concerto, 
 and in other works needless to particularise. 
 " It is usual," says Jousse in his "Dictionary 
 of Music," " to commence a cadenza with a 
 plain note or chord sung or held out, so that 
 
 ( 
 
 the accompanying performers may know when 
 it has been begun ; and it is also customary 
 to make a long shake at the end of the ca- 
 denza, as a signal that the accompaniment is 
 to be resumed." 
 
 Cadenza d'inganno (It.) A deceptive 
 cadence. 
 
 Cadenza fioritura (It.) An ornamental 
 cadence. 
 
 Caisse {Fr.) A drum. 
 
 Caisses claires(Fr.) Snare-drums ;5-ro5jff 
 caisse (Fr.), big drum. 
 
 Caisse roulante (Fr.) Tenor-drum, 
 larger than a snare-drum. 
 
 Calamus. (Gk. icaXa^ing) A reed-flute. 
 Probably a simple rustic instrument like our 
 oaten-pipe. But some suppose it to have been 
 similar in construction to the syrinx, or pan's- 
 pipes, and to have been synonymous with 
 arundo. From catoraws is derived the post-clas- 
 sical calamaulos, a flute made of reed, whence 
 calamaulis [Ka\afxav\r]c and KaXa/iauXjjrjjc) a 
 player on reed-pipes ; hence too, chalameau, 
 schalmey, shawm, the precursor of the modern 
 clarinet, one of the registers of which is still 
 said to be of chalameau tone. 
 
 Calando (li.) (Calare. To descend, de- 
 crease.) A passage marked calando is to be 
 sung or played with decreasing volume of 
 tone and slackening pace. 
 
 Calandrone (It.) (Calandra, a woodlark.) 
 A small reed instrument of the shawm or 
 clarinet character, with two holes, much used 
 by the Italian peasantry. 
 
 Calascione. [Colascione.] 
 
 Calata (It.) An Italian dance in | time, 
 of a sprightly character. 
 
 Calcando (It.) Hurr}'ing, pressing the 
 time. 
 
 Calcant (from Lat. Calcare.) Treading. 
 The bellows-treader (Balgentreter) of the old 
 German organs. 
 
 Calcanten-glocke {Ger.) Bells sounded 
 by means of pedals. 
 
 Call. A militarj' term for the variations of 
 certain musical notes played on a trumpet 
 or bugle, or a special sort of beat upon the 
 drum, each call being the signal for a definite 
 duty. 
 
 Call. A toy instrument made by winding 
 a narrow tape round two small oblong pieces 
 of tin, so that one fold of the tape may be set 
 in vibration when blown through. The call 
 is used by men who work the drama of 
 " Punch and Judy." 
 
 Ca ira {Fr.) 'That will do.' The refrain 
 of 'a song popular during the revolution m 
 France in 1793. The melody to which it was 
 sung was a favourite with the unhappy Queen 
 
 68 ) 
 
CALMA, CON CANON. 
 
 Marie Antoinette. Tlie song was called the 
 " Carillon national." 
 
 Le refrain. 
 
 Ah ! fa ira, ca ira, 9a ira, 
 
 Le peuple en ce jour sans cesse repete- 
 
 Ah ! 5a ira, 9a ira, 9a ira, 
 
 Malgre les mutins, tout reussira. 
 
 Calma, con [It) With calmness. 
 
 Calmato {It.) Calmed, quieted, appeased. 
 
 Calore, con {It.) With heat, warmth. 
 
 Caloroso {It.) Warmty, full of passionate 
 feeling. 
 
 Cambiare {It.) To turn, change, alter. 
 
 Cambiata {It.) [Nota.] 
 
 Camera, musica di (/f.) [Chamber Music] 
 
 Camminando {It.) Walking, flowing, 
 andante. 
 
 Campana (7f.) A bell. [Bells.] 
 
 Campanella.-o, {It.) A small bell. 
 
 Campanellino {It.). A very small bell. 
 
 Campanista {It.) A bell-ringer. 
 
 Campanology. The knowledge of the 
 construction and use of bells. [Bells.] 
 
 Campanetta {It.) A set of bells tuned to 
 a scale, and played with hammers or keys. 
 [Glockenspiel.] 
 
 Canaries. A dance probably of Enghsh 
 invention. The melody was a lively air of 
 two phrases. Purcell introduced a Canaries 
 tune in his opera of " Dioclesian." 
 
 The following example (from Delaborde) 
 shows the rhythm of this dance : 
 
 Cancrizans. [Canon Cancrizans.] 
 Canon {Gk. KavQv). A rule, — a term ap- 
 plied to the measurement of the ratios of 
 intervals by means of the monochord, hence 
 the system of Pythagoras was called the 
 canon of Pythagoras ; that of Euclid, the canon 
 of Euclid. Hence, too, the science of calcu- 
 lating musical intervals is called canonik. 
 Sectio canonis {Lat.), a division of a string, or 
 monochord, formed by a moveable bridge or 
 frets. 
 
 Canon. Owing to the various forms which 
 canons assume it is almost impossible to give 
 a general definition which will be intelligible. 
 The essence of a canon is this, that the music 
 sung by one part shall, after a short rest, 
 be sung by another part note for note. The 
 simplest form is when there are only two 
 parts, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. I. 
 
 -o- 
 
 The above is called a canon 2 in i at the 
 octave, because two parts are singing one 
 thing at that interval. The part which com- 
 mences is called the subject or antecedent 
 (guida) ; that which follows, the answer or 
 consequent (consequenza). The above is also 
 an infinite canon, because, anyone having 
 such a remarkable desire as to play it for ever, 
 could do so. The pause shows where it may 
 be concluded. 
 
 r^ 
 
 The above (Ex. 2) is also 2 in i, but at the 
 under-fifth. 
 
 f > rr i rr rf 
 
 Ex. 3 is a canon 2 in i at the upper sixth, 
 the upper part being the consequent. 
 
 Ex. 4. Schubert. " Song of Miriam.'* 
 
 SoPnANI AND ALTI. 
 
 r ' r_ _ ^ 
 
 Dreadful sea . so deep . . and 
 Bassi and Tenori. ''i^ 
 
 The above example (4) shows a canon 2 in 
 I at the octave, with a. free accompaniment. 
 Any part of a canon which is not an ante- 
 cedent or consequent is said to be a. free part 
 {ad placitum). It is also _/j««7« because there 
 is no repeat, the canon being dropped at the 
 close of the theme. The same decsription 
 will apply to the next example (5). 
 
CANON. 
 
 Ex.5. 
 
 Clarinet. 
 
 Beethoven. Symphony, No. 4. 
 
 Ex. 6. (Transposed.) 
 
 Non no - bis Do - mi - ne, non 
 
 bis, 
 
 \J(h — 1 
 
 sed 
 = j- 
 
 Non 
 no-mi - ni, 
 
 [ J J J 1 
 
 no - bis 
 tu 
 — ^ 
 
 no 
 
 —& s — 
 
 sed 
 
 no - mi - ni 
 
 ^ t 1 1 — 
 
 -^ P- 
 
 
 1 1- 
 
 Do - mi ne, Non 
 
 da glo ri am. 
 
 bis, 
 
 g'^^' "- i j- r^ l ^y^ 
 
 glo 
 
 am, 
 ■ p 8 
 
 - ri 
 
 am, 
 non 
 
 no - 
 
 Sed 
 bis 
 
 no-mi-m 
 Do mi -^ 
 
 1 1 1 =1 
 
 if: 
 
 (5) * _ 
 
 
 ^=^^ 
 
 J- J i 
 
 : 
 
 D 1^ 
 
 glo 
 
 r 
 
 n 
 
 am, 
 
 non 
 
 — p !•- 
 
 ^ r 
 
 no - bis 
 
 i-i : 
 
 
 t^HiJf ^ 
 
 
 ■ 1 1 -1 
 
 ^=— 
 
 — 1- 
 
 
 t 
 
 da 
 
 glo 
 
 ri - am. 
 
 The above well-known canon by Byrde is 
 3 in I, because there is only one theme which 
 all the three parts sing. 
 
 J. S. Bach. Mass in B minor. 
 
 lQJ!^_4^^4^ 
 
 
 
 
 Z3 
 
 &c. 
 
 <^t ^ ■ * 
 
 
 The above example (7) is a finite canon 
 4 in I. 
 
 Ex. 8. Attwood. Service in F. 
 
 
 to the tjon, , i i ' i , , 
 
 The above example (8) shows a canon 4 
 in 2 because it is in four parts and there are 
 two themes. Enough has been given to show 
 the exact meaning of the numerical descrip- 
 tions of canons ; the first number giving the 
 number of the parts in which it is composed ; 
 the second number, the number of themes 
 sung by therti, thus 16 in 4 signifies that 16 
 parts have 4 subjects ; 8 in i that 8 parts sing 
 in turn the same theme, &c. A canon by aug- 
 mentation is when the consequent is double 
 the length of the antecedent, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. g. 
 
 From Cherubimi. 
 
 A canon by diminution is when the conse- 
 quent is half the value of the antecedent, 
 e.g.: 
 
 Ex. 10. From Cherubini. 
 
 (70) 
 
CANON- 
 
 -CANON CANCRIZANS. 
 
 Fragments of canon by augmentation and 
 diminution are not uncommon in fugal writing, 
 e.g.: 
 
 Ex. II. I J^ , { , Handel. 
 
 J 
 
 J. J. 
 
 A canon by triple or quadruple augmen- 
 tation is when the three or four parts of which 
 it is composed are each twice the time-value 
 of its predecessor. A canon is said to be 
 strict when the consequent follows the ante- 
 cedent at an exact interval (say a major fifth 
 or fourth, &c.) regardless of key tonality. The 
 canon in Ex. 3 is not therefore strict. If it 
 were so, the consequent must be in the key of 
 the sixth above, which would be impossible. 
 A canon by inversion is when the consequent 
 follows the inverted intervals of the antece- 
 dent, e.g. : 
 
 T-- — r 
 
 The above (Ex. 12) is a canon 4 in i, because 
 there is only one antecedent. The part ap- 
 pearing like a second antecedent being only 
 the inversion of the first. A canon by retro- 
 gression is when the parts forming it (generally, 
 only one is antecedent and one consequent) 
 sing each other's notes backwards. An ex- 
 ample will be found under " canon cancrizans." 
 
 Originally canons were a kind of musical 
 riddle, the antecedent, and the number of 
 parts, only being given ; and the student 
 being required to solve the problem. Thus, 
 Ex. I would be put forth : 
 
 " Non nobis Domine " would be given 
 thus : 
 
 03 Voci. 1-^ 
 
 From this method of enunciating canons, 
 the name is probably derived, as the reader 
 had to discover the rule or canon on which the 
 composition was constructed. A canon written 
 out in full was called canone aperto, and one 
 written in riddle -form canone chiusa. A 
 canon at the unison becomes a round, if the 
 antecedent has a cadence before the entry of 
 the consequent. Thus every round is a canon 
 at the unison, although a canon at the unison 
 is not necessarily a round. [Round.] Some 
 of the early writers have left canons of the 
 greatest ingenuity. Some very good speci- 
 mens are to be found in Hawkins. It had 
 been well if the labour and perseverance which 
 must have been requisite for their production 
 could have been more profitably directed. 
 The constant study of canon-writing is much 
 to be deprecated, as it checks the inventive 
 faculty, and at most only teaches the student 
 how to force themes into cohesion. It is 
 probable that much of the ugly and crabbed 
 part-writing of the 17th and early part of 
 the 1 8th century is due to the over estimation 
 of canons. Canonical imitation with free 
 accompaniment is, however, capable of very 
 beautiful effects. Specimens of this style have 
 already been given in Ex. 4 and 5, and the 
 fine example in Mendelssohn's g5th Psalm 
 may be studied with advantage. The highly 
 dramatic effect of the canon in two parts, 
 afterwards breaking into four, at the words, 
 " And the sea was upheaved," in No. 34 of 
 Mendelssohn's " Elijah," is so well known 
 that it need not be quoted here. 
 
 Canone al sospiro {It.) A canon, the 
 subject of which is answered at one beat 
 of time : 
 
 s)- ' ^ ' ■ s i ' - t l 
 
 The answer to any subject is said to be 
 close when it enters shortly after the subject. 
 A canon al sospiro is therefore the most close 
 of all canons, as it is impossible to answer 
 at less time than the beat. 
 
 Canone aperto (It.) A canon written out 
 in full. 
 
 Canon cancrizans. A canon by retro- 
 gression. A canon practically consisting of 
 two parts in double counterpoint, that is, parts 
 which are grammatically interchangeable, so 
 constructed that they may read actually back- 
 wards, hence probably the derivation of can- 
 crizans, walking backward like a crab. The 
 following example will be found to consist 
 only of four bars, at the close of which, hav- 
 ing exchanged lines, the parts proceed back- 
 wards. A canon cancrizans may of course 
 be accompanied by free parts : 
 
 ( 71 ) 
 
CANONE CHIUSO CANTO A CAPPELLA. 
 
 From Ahde£'s " Lehrbuch der Tonkunst," 1832. 
 
 The following is a canon cancrizans with a 
 bass part per recte et retro : 
 
 ^^1HV^-^ ^ =P^^^ ^^^F^^ 
 
 Productions of this class are utterly value- 
 less as contributions to art. 
 
 Canone chiuso (It.) A close canon. 
 [Canon.] 
 
 Canone infinite or perpetuo (It.) Never 
 ending canon. Infinite canon. 
 
 Canone sciolto (7^.) A free canon, not 
 strict. 
 
 Canonici. A name given to followers of 
 the Pythagorean system of music, as opposed 
 to Musici, the followers of the Aristoxenian 
 system. [Pythagoreans.] 
 
 Cantabile (It.) In a singing style. 
 
 Cantamento [It.) The air or melody of 
 a phrase. 
 
 Cantando (It.) [Cantabile.] 
 
 Cantadour (O^^^Fr.)! A street singer. 
 
 Cantambanco (It.) j A mountebank. 
 
 Cantante (It.) A singer. 
 
 Cantare (It.) To sing. 
 
 Cantare a aria (It.) To sing with a cer- 
 tain amount of improvisation. [Penillion 
 singing.] 
 
 Cantare a orecchio (It.) To sing by ear. 
 
 _ ^ J. . /,. , C To sing in a 
 
 Cantare di maniera (It.) ) „„ ., „°„^„„ 
 
 Cantare dimanierata\7/)|^;;;J---- 
 
 Cantata (It.) A cantata consisted origin- 
 ally of a mixture of recitative and melody, and 
 was given to a single voice, but the introduc- 
 tion of choruses altered the first character of 
 the cantata, and gave rise to some confusion 
 in the manner of describing it. So that it has 
 been variously defined as "an elegant and 
 passionate species of vocal composition for a 
 single voice," " a long vocal composition, the 
 
 text of which is Italian," " a kind of short 
 oratorio, or opera not intended for the stage," 
 " a short piece of vocal music of a pathetic 
 character," " one of the Psalms or portions 
 of Scripture set to music for voices and in- 
 struments," according to the work the de- 
 scriber had in his mind at the time, but a 
 cantata is now understood as a short work in 
 the musical form of an, oratorio, but without 
 dramatis personce. 
 
 Cantatilla ,r. ■. l The diminutive of Can- 
 
 Cantatina ^ ' J tata. 
 
 Cantatore (It.) A male singer. 
 
 Cantatrice (It.) A female singer. 
 
 Cantatorium. A music book. 
 
 Cantellerando (It.) Singing in a sub- 
 dued voice, trilling. 
 
 Canti carnascialesci ,j^ ^\ ^^^j^j^^ ^"j^| 
 
 Canti carnivali ^ '^1 carnival. 
 
 Cantici (It.) Another name for the Laudi 
 spirituali, or songs sung in the old Romish 
 church in praise of God, the Blessed Virgin 
 and Saints, and Martyrs. 
 
 Canticle (i) A song or hymn in honour of 
 God, or of some special sacred event. 
 
 (2) The word is also applied to certain de- 
 tached psalms and hymns used in the service 
 of the Anglican Church, such as the Venite 
 exuUemus, Te Deum laudamus, Benedicite 
 omnia opera, Benedictus, jfubilate Deo, Mag- 
 nificat, Cantate Domino, Nunc dimittis, Deus 
 misereatur, and the verses used instead of the 
 Venite on Easter-day. 
 
 Canticum (Lat.) (i) A song. (2) A song 
 in the Roman comedy, accompanied by music 
 and dancing. Sometimes one person sang 
 the song while another went through the ap- 
 propriate gesticulation. 
 
 Cantilena (It.) (i) An oft-repeated, old 
 song. (2) In- mediaeval music, singing exer- 
 cises, in which were introduced all the inter- 
 vals of the scale, &c. (3) In old church-song 
 the plain-song or canto-fermo sung in unison 
 by one or more persons to an organ accom- 
 paniment. (4) A ballad. 
 
 Cantilenare (It.) To sing without ac 
 companiment. 
 
 Cantilenaccia (It.) Bad singing. 
 
 Cantillatio (Lat.) Declamation in a sing- 
 ing style, applied to a method of reading the 
 Epistles and Gospels in the church. [Ac- 
 centus Ecclesiasticus.] 
 
 Cantino (It.) The smallest string upon the 
 violin. The E string. (Fr.) chanterelle. 
 
 Cantique (Fr.) A sacred song or melody, 
 a canticle. 
 
 Canto (It.) The upper voice-part in con- 
 certed music, so called because it has the 
 melody or air. [Air.] 
 
 Canto a cappella (It.) Sacred music; 
 cantore di cappella, the precentor. 
 
 (72) 
 
CANTO ARMONICO CANTUS MENSURABILIS. 
 
 Canto armonico (It.) A part-song. 
 Canto cromatico (It.) A scale or song 
 in chromatic style. 
 
 Canto fermo (li.) [Cantus firmus.] 
 
 Canto figurato {It.) Florid melody, or 
 melody varied. [Cantus figuratus.] 
 
 Canto Gregoriano (It.) Gregorian chant. 
 
 CantoUano (Sp.) Plain chant. 
 
 Canto piano [It.) Plain chant. 
 
 Canto primo [It.) First soprano. 
 
 Canto recitativo (7^) Declamatory sing- 
 ing, recitative. 
 
 Canto ripieno (It.) Additional soprano 
 chorus-parts. [Ripieno.] 
 
 Canto secondo (It.) Second soprano. 
 
 Cantor. [Precentor.] 
 
 Cantor choralis (Lat.) Chorus master. 
 
 Cantore (It.) A general name for a singer. 
 
 Cantoris (Lat.). (From the virord Cantor.) 
 The cantoris side in a cathedral choir is the 
 side upon which the Precentor sits, usually 
 the north side, opposite to Decani. 
 
 Cantus Ambrosianus {Lat.) Ambrosian 
 chant. [Plain-song.] 
 
 Cantus coronatus (Lat.) [Cantus fractus.] 
 
 Cantus durus (Lat.) Music which modu- 
 lated into a key having one or more sharps in 
 its scale. Such keys were at one period 
 strictly proscribed by church-musicians. 
 
 Cantus ecclesiasticus (Lai.) (i) In a 
 general sense, plain-song and other early 
 church-melodies. (2) The method of singing 
 as opposed to saying Lections, Collects, Gos- 
 pels, and special offices, such as the Impro- 
 peria, &c. See Accentus ecclesiasticus under 
 Accent § 4, and "Passion Music." 
 
 Cantus figuratus (Lat.) Florid church 
 song, that is, in which more than one note of 
 music was sung to a syllable. The purest 
 system of ancient church-song prescribed only 
 one note to each syllable. [Plain song.] 
 
 Cantus firmus (Lat.) (i) The tenor or 
 chief melody, originally sung by the tenor- 
 voices, afterwards transferred to the treble- 
 part, hence called Canto. (2) A fragment of 
 plain-song, to which counterpoint has been 
 added. (3) Any subject chosen for con- 
 trapuntal treatment, generally a short dia- 
 tonic passage of semibreves or other long 
 notes. 
 
 Cantus fractus (Lat.) A broken melody, 
 a term applied to a tune which proceeded 
 either by perfect or imperfect consonances. 
 When accompanied by a Faburden, or Faux- 
 bourdon, it was called Cantus coronatus. 
 
 Cantus Gregorianus (Lat.) The Gre- 
 gorian system of church-song. [Plain song.] 
 
 Cantus mensurabilis (Lat.) Mensurable- 
 song. The very name of this art explains at 
 once its scope and the probable date of its 
 birth. The indissoluble association of music 
 and poetry, or of music, poetry, and dancing, 
 in ancient times, rendered a system of nota- 
 tion, by which the comparative duration of 
 sounds could be exhibited to the eye, un- 
 necessary. If the metre of the poetry were 
 duly appreciated, the length of the musical 
 notes to which the poetry was set would be 
 undoubted. If dancing accompanied the mu- 
 sic and poetry, it would be, of course, impos- 
 sible to sing to any other rhythm than that 
 prescribed by the movement of the feet. As 
 long as music of this kind was unisonous, or, 
 at most, consisted of a series of chords, the 
 component parts of which were of equal 
 length, no difiBculty or doubt as to the length 
 of notes could occur. But when prose-writ- 
 ing was set to music, and still more when, in 
 polyphonous compositions, it was desired that 
 a particular voice should sing two or more 
 notes to one note of another, it became an 
 absolute necessity that the signs used should 
 be so formed as to direct the performer, with- 
 out a chance of doubt, as to how long he 
 should hold any note with reference to that 
 held in another part. Hence, the formation 
 of Cantus mensurabilis. As to the date of its 
 invention, learned and reliable authors differ 
 much in their opinion. Having been ascribed 
 to Johannes de Muris (circ. 1330) for many 
 centuries by writers who have been but too 
 ready to copy from each other, asking no 
 questions, it seems that the laurel must be 
 taken from his brow, and that the credit is 
 due to authors who lived — some say a few 
 years, others two centuries at least — be- 
 fore him. It is, however, certain that Robert 
 de Handlo wrote on the subject before Jo- 
 hannes de Muris, and equally certain that 
 Robert de Handlo had the benefit of the labours 
 of Franco. But here a new difficulty arises : 
 not only was Franco so common a name that 
 many learned Francos existed at the same 
 date, but at Ipast three of this name were 
 musicians — Franco of Paris, Franco of Co- 
 logne, Franco of Liege. Nor is this all — two 
 distinct dates are attributed to the Franco 
 who wrote on Cantus mensurabilis, which 
 differ by about 200 years ! The reader who 
 cares to enter deeply into this question may 
 refer to Fetis, Kiesewetter, Hawkins, Burney, 
 Forkel, and Coussemaker, all of whom 
 have bestowed much thought on the subject ; 
 having done so, he will find that he is still in 
 ignorance. The truth is, that mensurable 
 music, like many other highly important in- 
 gredients of our intellectual life, was a. growth, 
 not a sudden invention. There are evidences 
 that in the twelfth century a proportionate 
 
 (73 ) 
 
CANTUS PLANUS CANZONCINA. 
 
 subdivision of the length of sounds was 
 reached after, and naturally enough, the first 
 step was, that two sounds might be sung to 
 one, hence the long and short, or long and 
 breve, as they were called. The shortest note 
 or minim found its way into use, probably, in 
 the thirteenth century, and was in time fol- 
 lowed by other subdivisions. Then followed 
 the triple division of notes, a threefold division 
 being called perfect on theological grounds ; 
 then rapidly followed, in the 14th and 15th 
 centuries, a complication of mensurable signs, 
 which now baffles the most enthusiastic 
 interpreter of music of that period, — the 
 value of notes varying according to their 
 position with regard to other notes ; or, ac- 
 cording to the position of the tails, if up or 
 down, or on the right or left sides ; or, as to 
 the complete blackness or open outline {evacu- 
 atio) of the notes ; or as to the manner in which 
 consecutive sounds to one syllable were writ- 
 ten in continuous lines, forming ligatures. 
 Happily, from the i6th century a genuine 
 taste for part-music led to an unremarked dis- 
 use of these utterly useless conceits, a full 
 account of which can only be found in ancient 
 learned treatises, where any one having more 
 taste for music than antiquities, will do well 
 to leave them. 
 
 Cantus planus. (Lai.) Plain song. 
 
 Cantus Romanus (Lat.) Roman chant 
 or song, (i) The Gregorian system of music. 
 (2) The early attempts at harmonizing a 
 melody known as the organum. 
 
 Canun or Kanoon (Turkish). An instru- 
 ment strung with cat-gut, in form like a 
 dulcimer, with which the women in the 
 harems accompany their singing. The sound 
 is brought out by means of plectra — thimbles 
 made of tortoiseshell pointed with cocoa- 
 nut wood, and worn upon the ends of the 
 fingers. 
 
 Canzona {It.) (i) A short song, in which 
 the music is of much more importance than 
 the words. It is one of the ancient forms 
 of measured melody, and when the older 
 writers employed it, it was usually made the 
 vehicle for the display of skill and contrivance 
 in the treatment of the phrases in fugal imi- 
 tation. A secondary meaning of the word, 
 scoffing or banter, perhaps accounts for the 
 use of a form in which a musical imitation 
 or mocking was shown. 
 
 (2) In the early part of the last century the 
 word was used to describe an instrumental 
 composition, similar to the sonata as then 
 known. 
 
 (3) It was also understood to mean the same 
 as allegro, " for it denotes that the movement 
 of the part to which it is fixed ought to be 
 after a lively, brisk, or gay manner." 
 
 CANZONA.* 
 
 GinoLAMo Frescoealdi (1591—1640). 
 
 ^^''-jfrrireMftianiailr 
 
 < Sfn>nTn I li-^^-rr 
 
 ih-d 1— 1 
 
 -1 
 
 giJ.irrrri 
 
 
 
 
 ^—4: 
 
 ^^SW^^^^. r - - B^ r 
 
 j.^ — >^ , 
 
 Canzonaccia (It.) A commonplace song. 
 Canzoncina (It.) A short poem or air. 
 
 • From " II secondo libro di Toccate, Canzone versi 
 d'Hinni Magnificat, Gagliarde, Correnti, et Altri Par- 
 tite, di Cembalo et Organo." Rome, 1637. 
 
 (74) 
 
CANZONET CARILLON. 
 
 Canzonet, Canzonetta (7<.) A diminu- 
 tive of canzona, " denoting a little short song, 
 tune, cantata, or suonata." Originally applied 
 to a short song in parts. Luca Marenzio, 
 Giovanni Ferreti, and Horatio Vecchi are said 
 to have excelled in this species of compo- 
 sition. The title was also employed by poets 
 to describe verses either of a trifling character 
 or subject ; and musicians, when they set 
 such words, repeated the poet's title without 
 reference to the musical meaning of the word. 
 Brossard, " Dictionnaire de Musique, 1703," 
 speaks of two sorts of canzonets — the Neapo- 
 litan, with two phrases, and the Sicilian, a 
 sort of jig in ^-^ or | time, each in rondo 
 form. Thomas Morley (1597) describes a 
 series of madrigals as " Canzonets, or Little 
 Short Songs to Four Voyces ; celected out 
 of the best and approued Italian Authors ;" 
 and Haydn's use of the word with refer- 
 ence to his well - known examples will be 
 familiar. 
 
 Canzoniere (It.) A lyric poem or song. 
 
 Caoinan (Irish.) A funeral song (Keeners). 
 
 Capellmeister (Ger.) Maestro di Cappella 
 (It.) (i) The musical director of a church or 
 chapel. A post of considerable honour, espe- 
 cially when connected with a royal or ducal 
 chapel. The list of eminent musicians, from 
 Palestrina to Mendelssohn, who have held 
 such offices is very large, and the fact that 
 men of general musical ability have thus been 
 necessarily brought into contact with sacred 
 music, has probably greatly influenced the 
 character of the compositions of the i6th, 
 17th, and 18th centuries. There is no post 
 in the English Church or at our Court which 
 exactly corresponds to that of Capellmeister, 
 incliiding as it does the duties — as circum- 
 stances may require — of conductor, accom- 
 panist, choir-trainer, and composer. The 
 choir-master — an office lately instituted or re- 
 vived in this country — is perhaps the nearest 
 approach to the Capellmeister. By the com- 
 bination, which not unfrequently took place, 
 of the offices of " Composer to his (or her) 
 Majesty " and " Master of the Children of 
 the Royal Chapel," a veritable Capell meister 
 was created. In our cathedrals the precentor 
 and organist practically divide the duties of 
 this post. 
 
 (2) The title has sometimes been applied 
 to a conductor of a band or an opera. 
 
 Capellmeister Musik {Ger.) A term of 
 contempt for music made and not inspired. 
 
 Capiscolus (Precentor) Cabiscola. 
 
 Capistrum [Lat.) A muzzle. A sort of 
 bandage wound round the head and face of 
 the ancient trumpeters, to protect the cheeks 
 while playing their instruments, on account 
 
 of the unusual exertion necessary for the 
 proper production of tone. 
 
 Cappella, alia [It.) In the ecclesiastical 
 style. In duple time. [A cappella.] 
 
 Capo (It.) Head, commencement. 
 
 Capo, da (It.) A direction to return to the 
 first or other indicated movement. 
 
 Capo d'opera (It.) (i) The principal song 
 or piece in an opera. (2) A chef d'osuvre. 
 
 Capo tasto (It.) (Lit. head-stop.) A me- 
 chanical arrangement by which the pitch of 
 the whole of the strings of a guitar is raised 
 at once. The capo tasto, or capodastro as it is 
 sometimes called, is screwed over the strings 
 on to the finger-board and forms a temporary 
 nut, e.g. con capo tasto sulla ^i Poz. 
 
 Capriccietto (It.) A little caprice, or 
 fancy. 
 
 Capriccio (It.) A freak, whim, fancy. A 
 composition irregular in form. 
 
 Caprice (Fr.) [Capriccio.] 
 
 Capriccioso (It.) Whimsical, humorous. 
 
 Caractbres de musique (Fr.) The signs 
 used in music. [Notation.] 
 
 Caral (old Eng.) Kyrriole (Ang.-Sax.) 
 [Carol.] 
 
 Carattere (It.) Character, dignity, quality. 
 
 Carezzando (It.) \ Caressingly, singingor 
 Carezzevole (It.) J playing with a frequent 
 
 introduction of notes of anticipation or ap- 
 
 pogiatura. 
 
 Caricato (It.) Loaded, over displayed. 
 
 Carillon. A set of bells so arranged as to 
 be played by hand or by machinery. The 
 word has by some authors been connected 
 with (Fr.) clarine, a little bell, virhich is pro- 
 
 (75 ) 
 
CARILLON. 
 
 bably connected with (JLat.) clarisonus ; but 
 others derive it from the word quadrille, or 
 quadriglio, on the ground that this dance was 
 popular, and probably " set " to bells, in the 
 1 6th century. There can be no doubt as to 
 the antiquity of thus using small bells. They 
 were probably graduated in size so as to 
 produce a diatonic scale, and were called a 
 Tintinnabulum. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Fisr. 2. 
 
 Fig- 3- 
 
 Fig. I is given by M. Coussemaker as being 
 from a MS. probably of the gth century. 
 Fig. 2 is from an ancient Psalter in the 
 British Museum. Fig. 3 is from a MS. 
 in the Royal Library of Brussels. Five 
 seems to have been the number of bells 
 usually employed in earliest times, but they 
 were afterwards increased to six or seven. It 
 is to the bell-founders of the Low Countries 
 we owe the perfecting of the art of bell-found- 
 ing and the construction of carillons, during 
 the 15th, i6th, 17th, and i8th centuries. Pre- 
 eminent among them stands the Van den 
 Gheyn family, whose works are to be found 
 in almost every Belgian belfry. Originally of 
 Mechlin, they afterwards removed to Louvain, 
 where Matthias Van den Gheyn (b. 1721) 
 deservedly attained the highest fame, as or- 
 ganist, composer, carillon-maker, and caril- 
 loneur. The brothers Von Aerscholdt, the 
 great bell-founders, now living in Louvain, 
 are lineal descendants of Matthias Van den 
 Gheyn. The finest carillons, namely those 
 at Antwerp, Mechlin, Bruges, Ghent, and 
 Namur, consist of about forty bells, extending 
 from huge specimens of several tons in weight 
 up to little bells weighing only a few pounds.* 
 
 * The fine chimes in Mechlin consist of 45 bells, the 
 largest of which weighs between g and 10 tons. This 
 rich-toned bell was cast by Aerscholdt in 1844. At 
 Ghent there are 48 hells (44 above and the 4 heaviest in 
 the lower storey), the largest of which was cast by Du 
 Mery, 1744, and weighs about 5J tons. At Antwerp 
 there are in reality two carillons — one connected to the 
 machinery, and in use, the other disused. That in use 
 consists of 48 bells, the largest of which weighs about 
 7 tons. At Bruges there are 48 bells, the largest nearly 
 10 tons. At Namur there are about 50 bells, the largest 
 about 4 tons. Many of the bells in the Belgian chimes 
 are found to be of Dutch make, and (by their inscrip- 
 tions) have been issued from old foundries in Amsterdam, 
 Rotterdam, Zutphen, and elsewhere. 
 
 ( 76 ) 
 
CARILLON CAROL. 
 
 They are in most cases arranged as follows : 
 the smaller bells are fixed to strong timbers 
 and arranged in rows, according to size, the 
 largest being nearest to the floor — the bells 
 and framework thus representing the outline 
 of a pyramid. Where there are many spe- 
 cially large bells, these are generally placed 
 in a lower storey, not uncommonly below the 
 chiming machinery. To each bell is attached 
 one or more hammers on the outer side, and 
 a clapper in the inside. To the lever-end of 
 the hammers thick wires are attached, which 
 pass down to long iron rods. The lever-end 
 of these rest on the tambour, or barrel, on 
 which are arranged projecting staples. When 
 the barrel is turned (which is done by ordinary 
 clockwork) the staple forces up the end of the 
 iron rod, the other end at the same time pull- 
 ing down the wire and raising the hammer. 
 When the barrel releases the iron-rod, it drops 
 suddenly and causes the hammer to strike the 
 bell. Some time is of course required for the 
 raising of the larger hammers, hence the 
 necessity of having several hammers to some 
 of the bells, so that if a quick repetition of the 
 sound is required, one hammer shall be ready 
 to strike while another is being brought into 
 position. There are, therefore, always a 
 larger number of staples on the barrel than 
 there are bells in the carillon. The clapper, 
 before-mentioned as being in every bell, is 
 held by a wire-loop, within an inch or two of 
 the side of the bell ; this wire passes down 
 to the clavier, or keyboard — a series of small 
 round sticks, arranged in an order similar to 
 that of the black and white keys of a piano- 
 forte, but separated from each other by a 
 sufficient distance to allow each one to be 
 struck with the fist without fear of that on 
 either side of it being also struck. The clap- 
 pers of the heaviest bells are, owing to their 
 weight, generally attached to a pedal-board, 
 and the carilloneur usually guards his hand 
 with a thick glove when playing. 
 
 It will be understood from this short de- 
 scription that the mechanism by which these 
 beautiful bells are chimed and played is of 
 the roughest description. Vast improvements 
 have, however, been lately made, chiefly in 
 England ; and Messrs. Gillett and Bland have 
 invented an ingenious piece of mechanism, 
 by which the hammers are held up constantly, 
 and only have to be released by the action of 
 the barrel. This insures a regularity in the 
 striking which cannot on the old system be 
 attained, and does away with the necessity 
 for multiplying hammers to a single bell. 
 
 The higher octaves contain generally a com- 
 plete chromatic scale. But the heavier bells, 
 owing to their great cost and the large amount 
 of room they occupy, are limited to such import- 
 ant fundamental basses as tonic, subdominant, 
 
 and dominant ; or, at most, to the first five 
 degrees of the diatonic scale. A short 
 "flourish" is played at the half-quarter, a 
 slightly longer phrase at each quarter, a tune 
 at each half hour and hour. It is to be re- 
 gretted that we in England are but just begin- 
 ning to appreciate the beauty of the effect 
 produced by carillon - music. But, on the 
 other hand, nowhere but in England can 
 genuine change-ringing be heard, in which, 
 the tone produced by the bells as they swing 
 completely round is totally different in cha- 
 racter from that obtained by the dead stroke of 
 a hammer. But bells can be easily arranged 
 so as to do the double duty of chiming and 
 change-ringing, and it is to be hoped that they 
 will often in future be so arranged. 
 
 Carillonneur(Fr.) Bell-player. [Carillon.] 
 
 Carita, con [It.) With tenderness. 
 
 Carmagnole. A dance accompanied by 
 singing, named from Carmagnola in Pied- 
 mont. Many of the wildest excesses of the 
 French revolution of 1792 were associated 
 with this dance. It was afterwards applied 
 to the bombastic reports of the French suc- 
 cesses in battle. The song commenced with 
 " Madame Veto avait promis," and each verse 
 ended with the burden " Dansons la car- 
 magnole, vive le son du canon." 
 
 Carol. To sing or warble, to celebrate in 
 song. 
 
 Carol. A song of praise, applied to a 
 species of songs sung at Christmas-tide. It 
 originally meant a song accompanied with 
 dancing, in which sense it is frequently used 
 by the old poets (perhaps connected with 
 choraula). It appears to have been danced 
 by many performers, by taking hands, form- 
 ing a ring, and singing as they went round. 
 It will be readily imagined that a dance of 
 this character would lead to a certain wildness 
 if not rudeness of behaviour, so that the warn- 
 ing contained in the following verse addressed 
 to those of gentle blood who indulged in the 
 exercise, might not be altogether unnecessary : 
 
 " Fille quant ferez en karolle 
 Dancez gentiment par mesure 
 Car, quant fille se desmesure 
 Tel la voit qui la tient par foUe." 
 
 Bishop Taylor says that the oldest carol 
 was that sung by the heavenly host when 
 the birth of the Saviour was announced to 
 the Shepherds on the plains of Bethlehem. 
 It is probable that the practice of singing 
 carols at Christmas-tide arose in imitation of 
 this, as the majority of the carols declared 
 the good tidings of great joy; and the title of 
 Noels, nowells, or novelles, applied to carols, 
 would seem to bear out this idea. 
 
 Carol singing is of great antiquity among 
 Christian communities, as the carol by Aure- 
 lius Prudentius, of the 4th century, will show. 
 
 (77 ) 
 
CAROLA CATCH, 
 
 This poem contains twenty-nine stanzas, 
 commencing : — 
 
 " Quid est quod arctum circulum 
 Sol jam recurrens deserit, 
 Christusne terris nascitur, 
 Qui lucis auget tramitem ? " 
 
 Carols were both serious and humorous in 
 the 14th and 15th centuries. Mr. Chappell 
 quotes a tune that might be sung to words of 
 either character, but bearing reference to the 
 observances of the season of Christmas. 
 (Popular Music, i. 42.) 
 
 In later times carols were written of a more 
 sober character, and we find in 1630 the pub- 
 lication of " Certaine of David's Psalmes in- 
 tended for Christmas carols fitted to the most 
 sollempne tunes everywhere familiarlie used, 
 by William Slayter, printed by Robert Yong." 
 Upon a copy of the later edition (1642), pre- 
 served in the British Museum, a former 
 possessor has written the names of some of 
 these tunes ; for example, Psalm 6, to the tune 
 of Jane Shore, Psalm g to Bara Forster's 
 Dreame, Psalm 43 to Crimson Velvet, Psalm 
 47 to Garden Greene, &c. Shakspeare alludes 
 to the Puritan practice of adapting religious 
 words to secular melody in his " Winter's 
 Tale :" 
 
 " There is but one puritan among them and he sings 
 psalms to hornpipes." 
 
 After the Restoration, carols of the old kind 
 became again popular, and from that time to 
 the present the singing of carols at Christ- 
 mas became steadily encouraged. 
 
 Warton supposes the religious carol to have 
 been introduced by the Puritans, but this is a 
 mistake, as a reference to Mr. Wright's col- 
 lection, made for the Percy Society, will show. 
 
 The earliest printed collection was made by 
 Wynkyn de Worde, 1521, but all these are of 
 a convivial character. 
 
 Many of the old carols had scraps of Latin 
 intermixed with English, as — 
 
 " Puer nobis natus est de Maria Virgine 
 Be glad lordynges, be the more or lesse, 
 I bring you tydinges of gladnesse 
 As Gabriel me bereth witnesse." 
 
 Compare also " In dulci jubilo," in which 
 Latin and German were used. 
 
 Carola (It.) A dance accompanied by 
 singing, which grew into unenviable notoriety 
 during the Republic of 1792 in France, cf. 
 Carmagnole. 
 
 Cartellone (It.) The prospectus of an 
 operatic season. 
 
 Carnyx (Gk.) An ancient Greek trumpet 
 of a shrill tone, known afterwards to the 
 Celts and Gauls, xapw^ {Gk.) 
 
 Cassa-grande (It.) The big drum. 
 
 Cassatio. [Gassatio.] 
 
 Castagnette (It.) Castagnettes (Fr.) 
 
 Castanuelas (Sp.) Castanets. 
 
 Castanets. A musical instrument of per- 
 cussion introduced into Spain by the Moors. 
 The castanets were originally dried chestnut 
 husks, from whence their name is derived, 
 but were afterwards made of hard wood, by 
 which means the tone was rendered more 
 defined. The ancient KporaXov, was a species 
 of Castanet (knicky-knackers). [Bones.] 
 
 Castrato (If.) A male singer with a. 
 peculiarity of voice, produced by a natural 
 deprivation procured in early youth for the 
 purpose of preserving the normal tone. 
 
 Catch. A species of canon or round for 
 three or four voices, in which the words are 
 so contrived that by the union of the voices a 
 different meaning is given by the singers 
 catching at each other's words. Poems of a 
 trivial character, similar in style to nursery- 
 rhyme doggrels, were also called catches. 
 For example, there is a poem by " the learned 
 clarke, Lewis Wager," printed in 1567," be- 
 ginning : 
 
 " I have a pretty titmouse 
 Come pecking on my toe ;" 
 
 and one of John Lyly's songs from " Endy- 
 mion," 1591, is distinguished by the title of 
 " a catch." The musical catch originated 
 about the early part of the 17th century, the 
 first collection of catches being made by 
 Ravenscroft in 1609, under the title of" Pam- 
 melia, Musicks miscellanie, or mixed varieties 
 of pleasant Roundelays and delightfull Catches 
 of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 parts in one ; none so 
 ordinarie as musicall ; none so musicall as 
 not to be all very pleasing and acceptable." 
 These, and others contained in later publica- 
 tions are little else than rounds, without the 
 humour, so called, of the catch as it was after- 
 wards accepted. William Jackson, of Exeter, 
 says that " they are three parts obscenity and 
 one part inusic. If they are not indecent, 
 they are nothing. There is no particular ob- 
 ject in them, but they are a species of musical 
 false wit." Of the few catches which may be 
 yet sung in a mixed company, " Would you 
 know my Celia's charms ?" by S. Webbe, and 
 " Have you read Sir John Hawkins's History ?" 
 and " Ah 1 how Sophia," by Callcott, are the 
 most favourable specimens. The words of 
 the first are as follows : 
 
 " Would you know my Celia's charms, 
 Which now excite my fierce alarms ? 
 I'm sure she has fortitude and truth 
 To gain the heart of every youth. 
 
 She's only thirty lovers now, 
 The rest are gone I can't tell how ; 
 No longer Celia ought to strive, 
 For certainly she's fifty-five." 
 
 The humour of this catch consists in the 
 emphasis placed upon the words fortitude, 
 thirty, and fifty -five, by which it appears to 
 the hearers that each singer is contending in 
 
 (78) 
 
CATENA DI TRILLI CATHEDRAL MUSIC. 
 
 turn to uphold his notion of the age of the 
 lady. In the second, the words " Burney's 
 History " are made to sound like " burn his 
 history," and in the third, one voice cries, " a 
 house a fire," another, "go fetch the engines," 
 while one apparently indifferent exclaims, 
 " I'm but a lodger," from the following words : 
 
 ' Ah ! how, Sophia, could you leave 
 Your lover, and of hope bereave, 
 Go fetch the Indian's borrowed plume, 
 But richer far than that you bloom. 
 I'm but a lodger in her heart, 
 Where more than me I fear have part." 
 
 There were formerly a number of clubs sup- 
 ported for the purpose of encouraging the 
 production and performance of this species of 
 musical trifle, only one or two of which are at 
 present in existence, a better feeling having 
 diverted the main object of these societies into 
 the encouragement and execution of glees, 
 part-songs, &c. [Round, canon.] 
 
 Catena di trilli [It). A chain, or succes- 
 sion, of short vocal or instrumental shakes. 
 
 Catgut. Boyau (Fr.), Minugia (7^), Darm 
 (Ger.) The name given to the material of 
 which the strings of many musical instru- 
 ments are formed ; it is made from the intestines 
 of the sheep, and sometimes from those of the 
 horse, but never from those of the cat. 
 
 Cathedral Music. A term applied to 
 that music which has been composed to suit 
 the form of service used in our cathedrals 
 since the Reformation. It includes settings 
 of canticles and also of anthems. The first 
 writers of this class of music were Marbecke, 
 Tallis, Tye, and Byrd, and the works of the 
 two last named especially illustrate the state 
 of cathedral music at the period in which 
 they lived, for they employed Latin and 
 English words to the same music, so that it 
 might be available whether the service was 
 according to the ancient or reformed usage. 
 The style of the earliest cathedral music was 
 formed on the model of the Italian motets 
 and other sacred compositions, and with the 
 exception of a difference in the words was 
 identical with the secular music of the period. 
 
 It was feared that the Commissioners ap- 
 pointed by the Statute 27 Henry VIII. to 
 compile a body of ecclesiastical laws " as 
 should in future be observed throughout the 
 realm," taking into consideration the abuse of 
 music in the Church, would forbid its use 
 altogether. As the King was fond of music 
 they deemed it politic to retain it for the service 
 of the Church, but they implied a return to 
 simple forms, in directing certain parts of the 
 service to be sung by the "ministers and 
 clarkes " in a plain, distinct, and audible 
 manner. The rubric of the First Book of 
 Edward VI. prescribes the saying or singing 
 of "itiattens and evensong; " and in the minis- 
 
 tration of the Communion that the clerks shall 
 sing in English for the office or " Introite as 
 it is called," a psalm appointed for that day. 
 And again it directs that the clerks shall sing 
 one or many of the sentences therein mentioned, 
 according to the length and shortness of the 
 time that the people be offering. In John 
 Marbecke's " Booke of Common Praier noted " 
 1550, it will be seen that the whole of the 
 service was sung either to some general kind 
 of recitation or intonation with small inflec- 
 tions, to an adaptation of the ancient cantus or 
 accentus ecclesiasticus, or to some modification 
 of the old use by Marbecke himself. Queen 
 Elizabeth in her injunctions concerning the 
 clergy and laity of this realm, published in 
 the first year of her reign, 1559, desired the 
 " continuance of syngynge in the Churche " 
 and " that there bee a modeste and destyncte 
 song so used in all parts of the Common 
 Prayers in the Churche, that the same may 
 be as playnely understanded as if it were 
 read without syngynge." 
 
 Notwithstanding this injunction the use of 
 singing and of organs in the Church was 
 only maintained by a majority of one in the 
 Lower House of Convocation, a strong objec- 
 tion to Cathedral music existing even in that 
 early period. After Marbecke's book, which 
 has music in one part only, John Day (1560) 
 published a service in four parts, adding five 
 years later, those " offices " which had been 
 omitted in the former collection. These pre- 
 served to a certain extent the prescribed or 
 adopted " use " in those parts of the service 
 which were always intended to be performed 
 simply, the publication also indicated the 
 places where a more elaborate musical setting 
 might be allowed, and composers taking ad- 
 vantage of the licence wrote original music 
 forthe Venite, Te Deum, Benedictus, Jubilate, 
 Communion Service, the Canticles used at 
 evensong, and " such godly praiers and psalmes 
 in the like form to the honor and praise of 
 God," — " so they may be songe as anthems." 
 The use of organs and singing in the Church 
 was nevertheless a sore grievance to the 
 Puritans ; they did not, however, object to 
 metrical psalms, and employed them when- 
 ever and wherever possible; but the cathedrals 
 always objected to their introduction, as not 
 being cathedral music properly so called ; it 
 is within the last ten years only that hymns 
 or psalm tunes have been sung in cathedrals 
 as an integral part of the ordinary service. 
 In the time of the Commonwealth metrical 
 psalms were the only things sung in the 
 churches, but they were also sung at other 
 times, and it was not until the Restoration of 
 Charles II. that Cathedral service was re- 
 sumed, this time in a considerably altered 
 form. The Communion Service or Mass, in 
 
 (79) 
 
CATHEDRAL MUSIC CAVATINA. 
 
 times past held to be the most important act 
 of worship, was placed in the back -ground, 
 and was, when celebrated, given without the 
 aid of music. Church composers did not 
 take the trouble to set those parts of the 
 service which were never performed, and con- 
 sequently there is not a single " Gloria in 
 excelsis " produced by any cathedral writer 
 between 1660 and 1840, other than as an 
 anthem. When so set, it was considered 
 allowable to omit some sentences and add 
 others at discretion, so that it would be 
 scarcely available for the Communion Ser- 
 vice. The " Sanctus " was set to music, 
 as it became the habit to sing it in the 
 place of the Introit, a fashion not yet dead 
 in many cathedrals. When the Communion 
 Service was restored to its true importance 
 about twenty-five years since, adaptations of 
 Marbecke's arrangements were freely and 
 properly used, until a new generation of com- 
 posers employed their talents to supply the 
 deficiency. At the time of the Restoration, 
 the character of cathedral music also under- 
 went a change. The influence of the French 
 school may be traced in the writings of Purcell, 
 Humphries, Blow, Wise, Weldon, and others. 
 It is not a little strange that while most tem- 
 porary influences can be seen in the various 
 periods of cathedral music, there are few in- 
 stances of any church composers copying 
 Handel's style, and none in which it was done 
 with success. Dr. Greene, his contemporary, 
 has a special character of his own. Dr. Boyce 
 has also his individuality, and the elder Hayes 
 shows no leaning towards the great oratorio 
 vv^riter. Handel's oratorios, though not writ- 
 ten for the cathedral, are often laid under con- 
 tribution, whei-eas the anthems composed by 
 him for the service of the Church are com- 
 paratively neglected and unknown. 
 
 At the latter part of the last century and 
 the beginning of the present, cathedral music 
 was at its weakest point ; adaptations, arrange- 
 ments, florid melodies, with paltry accompani- 
 ments, chants of a gay and undignified style, 
 and all music used in the service, showing 
 the influence of a general indifference and 
 carelessness, which, to a certain extent, still 
 exists, though happily in no strong degree, 
 for a more reverent feeling abounds and is 
 nourished. Cathedral music, like every other 
 branch of art, should increase and be pro- 
 gressive, should take advantage of every new 
 discovery or admitted truth in music. All 
 styles should be fairly represented, and no 
 one style should be considered as indicative 
 of special doctrinal views. There are few 
 who seriously object to a building in which 
 successive styles are seen, but on the con- 
 trary think that all that is good should be 
 retained. The many who have spoken in 
 
 music in past ages should have their sayings 
 preserved when they are worthy of being 
 kept, but it would be folly to insist upon the 
 retention of all that could be gathered of the 
 works of a writer, because he has said one 
 happy and lasting thing. It is not given to 
 men to be wise at all times, and the best of 
 cathedral musicians have written unworthy 
 stuff. Taste and good sense, free from pre- 
 judice, will guide to a proper and useful 
 selection, so that cathedral music for ordinary 
 purposes may include the thoughts uttered 
 under all influences in many ages. 
 
 The small number of voices considered suf- 
 ficient for the usual services of our cathedrals 
 is a bar to grand effects. This has been felt 
 by composers, who have been compelled so to 
 arrange their music that it may produce ade- 
 quate effects from the usual small choirs. 
 Probably with a prophetic view of the future 
 augmentation of the musical staff of a cathe- 
 dral, many modern composers have so con- 
 structed their works, that while they are not 
 ineffective with a small body, they are nobly 
 grand when given by increased numbers. So 
 that there is reason to believe that in the days 
 of the future, when cathedral choirs shall be 
 in numbers and skill worthy of the service to 
 which they minister, cathedral composers will 
 be equal to the task of writing music suitable 
 to the time and place. The grand effect pro- 
 duced by a large body of voices in a cathedral 
 during the performance of an oratorio upon 
 the occasion of a festival is never without 
 some influence in turning men's minds to 
 higher things. Music is the handmaid of re- 
 ligion, and there can be no reasonable objec- 
 tion to the introduction of oratorios and other 
 extensive sacred compositions, with all the 
 effects that a trained choir and orchestra can 
 produce, provided always, that such perform- 
 ances are made an integral part of an act of 
 worship. In the metropolis such perform- 
 ances have been given with the most satis- 
 factory results at stated times, and the day 
 may not be very far distant, when they may be 
 made of more frequent occurrence, and so, our 
 cathedrals, by calling into requisition all musi- 
 cal talent, inventive or executive, will become 
 again what they once were, the nurseries and 
 centres of musical culture and knowledge. 
 
 Catlings. The smallest sized lute-strings. 
 
 Cauda {Lat.) The tail of a note. 
 
 Cavaletta {It.) [Cabaletta.] 
 
 Cavaletto (It.) (i) A little bridge. (2) 
 The break in the voice. 
 
 Cavalquet {Fr.) A trumpet- signal to 
 cavalry. 
 
 Cavata (If.) [Cavatina.] 
 
 Cavatina (it.) A melody of a more sim- 
 ple form than the aria. A song without a 
 second part and a " Da capo." The term is, 
 
 (80) 
 
C.B. — -CELERITA, CON. 
 
 owever, applied with less strictness to airs 
 f other kinds. (See " Be thou faithful," in 
 Mendelssohn's " St. Paul," and " Salve di- 
 lora," in Gounod's " Faust," &c.) 
 
 C.B. Abbreviation for Contra-basso. 
 
 C barre (Fr.) The term for the time indi- 
 ator C, with a dash through it, 0. 
 
 C clef. The clef showing the position of 
 niddle C, in which are written the alto, tenor, 
 .nd (in old music) other parts. 
 
 Soprano Clef. Mezzo-Soprano Alto Clef Tenor Clef. 
 Clef. 
 
 Clef.] 
 
 C dur (Ger.) C major. 
 
 Cebell. The name of an air or theme in 
 ommon time of four bar phrases, forming a 
 ubject upon which to execute " divisions " 
 ipon the lute or violin. This style of air, 
 ilthough frequently found in books for the 
 riolin in the 17th century, is now obsolete ; 
 ts principal feature was the alternation of 
 jrave and acute notes which formed the 
 several strains. The following are examples : 
 
 Tho. Mace, 1676. 
 
 ^^^ ^ 
 
 f:i±^=^^ E^^^^^ ^^i J J ^,| 
 
 fr^^ r r^^^ 
 
 g^^a 
 
 J. A 
 
 ^^T-T^ ^^^^ E ^ ^^^^ 
 
 j-=^-g-^'=^fe^^£^^^^ 
 
 nf^rrTfr^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Ei 
 
 1 mFm'f ' 
 
 ^-^ 1- 1- r — 
 
 r 
 
 i.p.r^^r -,>-i 
 
 =^fE£^ 
 
 W=^Y^ff^^qic: Y^^ffff :f^ ^^^^_^f._ |- 
 
 Celere {It.) Quick, swift. 
 Celerita, con {It.) With speed, haste. 
 Quickly. 
 
 1 ) 
 
CELESTE CHAMBER MUSIC. 
 
 C61este {Fr.) A direction for the use of 
 the soft pedal. 
 
 C61este, voix {Fr.) A stop on the organ 
 or harmonium, [Vox Angelica.] 
 
 Celeusma {Gk.) dXevafia, or Ki\evfia (from 
 iceXevia, to urge on, to command). The word 
 or sing-song of the KeXevariiQ (fugle-man or 
 leader), by which oarsmen were encouraged 
 to row rhythmically, and by which, to this 
 day, sailors pull uniformly and simultaneously 
 at a rope. 
 
 Celli. .466. of violoncelli. 
 
 Cello. .<4 66. of violoncello. 
 
 Cembalista (It.) A pianoforte player. 
 
 Cembalo. Clave - cembalo, cimbalo. A 
 harpsichord. [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Cembanella (It.) [Cennamella.] 
 
 Cennamella (It.) A pipe, or flute. 
 
 Cento (Lat.) ] (In Greek KEvrpwv.) 
 
 Centone (/i.)J Patch-work. A musical work 
 made up of extracts from an author's compo- 
 sitions, as a cento was from an author's poems. 
 cf. pasticcio. 
 
 Cercar la nota [It.) To feel for a note, 
 to reach it by slurring. 
 
 Cervalet or Cervelat (perhaps dim. of 
 cervus, signifying a little stag-horn). An an- 
 cient wind-instrument of a small size, from 
 which, by means of a reed, tones similar in 
 character to those of the bassoon could be 
 produced. 
 
 Ces [Ger.) C flat. 
 
 Cetera [It.) A citara or guitar. 
 
 Chacona (S/>.) ^ A slow dance in | time, 
 
 Ciaccona (It.) ^frequently constructed 
 
 Chaconne (Fr.) j upon a ground bass, and 
 sometimes formerly introduced as a move- 
 ment of a sonata. [Chica.] 
 
 It is usually stated that the chaconne is in 
 the major mode, and that the passacaille, 
 which is somewhat similar to it in rhythm, 
 is in the minor. This is not the case, as the 
 following theme, on which Bach's celebrated 
 ciaccona for violin solo is founded, will show: 
 
 Chair organ. A name given to the Pre- 
 stant or choir-organ, from a notion that it 
 formed the seat of the organist, when placed 
 behind him. 
 
 Chalameau (Fr.) ■ Stem, or straw-pipe, 
 from the Latin calamus, a reed. The lower 
 register of the clarinet and the basset-horn is 
 called the chalameau tone, from the obsolete 
 instrument shawm, schalmey, precursor of the 
 oboe and clarinet. 
 
 Chamber music. Kammermusik (Ger.) 
 Musica di camera (It.) Vocal or instru- 
 mental compositions suitable for perform- 
 ance in a chamber, as opposed to a concert- 
 
 room. The performance in private upon single 
 instruments of any class constituted the first 
 chamber music properly so-called. Strictly 
 speaking, any music vocal or instrumental 
 played in private is chamber music ; but the 
 term is now applied not only to perform- 
 ances upon a single instrument, with or 
 without accompaniment, but also to any 
 combination of different instruments, with 
 only one player to each part — duets, trios, 
 quartetts, &c., for voices or instruments. It 
 is probable that the first chamber music con. 
 structed as such was entirely vocal, and not 
 of much earlier date than the end of the 15th 
 or the beginning of the i6th centuries — the 
 Scolia of the Greeks, the music of the min- 
 strels, and of public and private musicians of 
 later date, including among the former " the 
 waits," " noises," and other private bands, 
 not being of a character that could fairly be 
 called by the title chamber music. Therefore 
 the Madrigal will be regarded as among the 
 first specimens of chamber music. The titles 
 of more than one collection, for example, 
 " Madrigali di Tavolina," " Madrigali di 
 Camera," " Madrigali Concertati," " Madri- 
 gali et Arie per sonare et cantare," and so 
 forth, together with the peculiar style in which 
 many of the early books are printed, — two 
 parts on one page intended to be read by two 
 persons seated opposite to each other at the 
 same table — would show conclusively that 
 they were intended as chamber music. 
 
 The addition of instrumental accompani- 
 ments to madrigals probably arose out of a 
 desire to support the voices and keep them in 
 tune, as well as to give employment to those 
 who could play and not sing, but who were 
 desirous of taking part in that which was 
 going on. This practice — ^at first a mere 
 conciliation to the instrumentalists — sug- 
 gested the use of instruments alone for the 
 purposes of concert. Thus we find attached 
 to the early productions, instructions to the 
 effect that they are " apt for Instrumentes 
 and Voyces," as in Alison's "An Howres 
 Recreation in Musicke," or as in Boflaffino's 
 " Madrigali," that they are available. " per 
 cintar e sonar nel Clave cimbalo, Chitarrone ci 
 altro simile Instrumento," or as in the later 
 editions of Byrd's Psalmes, Songs, and Son- 
 nets, framed to be " fit for Voyces or Viols." 
 
 Doubtless from such small beginnings the 
 writers of the time were induced to compose 
 "Consort lessons," "Ayres," "Fancies," 
 " Canzone da Sonare," and the like, often 
 written in six parts, the number of viols in a 
 " chest." These compositions at first differed 
 very little in point of form and treatmenit from 
 the madrigals from whence they were derived, 
 until the demand arose for pieces of less dig- 
 nity, in obedience to which demand we find 
 
 (82) 
 
CHANGEABLE CHANT CHANT. 
 
 nice tunes, "Almaines, Ayres, Corants, 
 arabands, Moriscoes, Jiggs, &c.," hitherto 
 ily set for a single instrument, arranged in 
 arts for "Viols or Violins;" and these and 
 ther dance-tunes issued in suites made into 
 le first sonatas, and the symmetrical shape 
 1 which each was necessarily written for the 
 urposes of the dance gave rise to that which 
 1 known as Form. The word Sonata, at 
 rst applied to pieces for a solo instrument, 
 s well as to those for several, became gradu- 
 lly to be used as a term for compositions 
 f a certain character for a single compound 
 istrument, as the organ, harpsichord, or 
 ianoforte. 
 
 The most important era in the history of 
 hamber music was the final quarter of the 
 ist and the first of the present centuries ; 
 tie labours of Boccherini, whose trios, quar- 
 stts, and quintetts are form-like, easy, and 
 :raceful, as well as those of Fiorillo, Giardini, 
 'ugnani, and Viotti, leading to the foundation 
 f the school in which Pleyel, Haydn, Mozart, 
 ,nd Beethoven were such apt pupils and 
 nasters. 
 
 Changeable chant. A single or double 
 hant which can be sung either in the'major 
 r minor mode without other alteration than 
 he substitution of the minor third and sixth 
 f the scale for those of the corresponding 
 lajor. 
 
 W. Turner. 
 
 Change of voice. [Larynx.] 
 
 Change ringing. [Bells.] 
 
 Changer de jeu (Fr.) To alter the stops 
 n an organ or harmonium. 
 
 Changes. The altered melodies produced 
 y varying the sounds of a peal of bells. 
 Bells.] 
 
 Changing notes. Passing notes or dis- 
 ords which occur on the accented parts of a 
 ar. 
 
 Chanson (Fr.) (i) A song. (2) A national 
 lelody. (3) A part-song. 
 
 Chansonnette (Fr.) A little song. 
 
 Chant. A short musical composition to 
 hich the Canticles and the prose version of 
 le Psalms are sung, either in unison or in 
 lur-part harmony. There are two kinds of 
 lant in common use — the Anglican and the 
 -regorian. 
 
 (i) A Gregorian chant consists of five parts ; 
 the intonation; the first reciting note or domi- 
 nant ; the mediation ; the second reciting 
 note or dominant ; the ending, e.g. : 
 
 Intonation, ist Mediation. 2nd Ending. 
 
 Dominant. Dominant. 
 
 The intonation is used generally to every 
 verse of a canticle, but only to the first verse 
 of a psalm, unless a special psalm be used on 
 a solemn occasion, as for instance the Mise- 
 rere (Psalm li.) during Lent. 
 
 With regard to the pointing of the Pra3'er- 
 book version of the Psalms, several important 
 facts have to be considered. The undoubted 
 object of the chants as originally used in the 
 Roman Church was to enable, as far as pos- 
 sible, a pure syllabic recitation of the words, 
 so many of the words of a verse being recited 
 on the dominants as would leave one syllable 
 only to each note of the mediation and end- 
 ing. As these chants were in use many 
 centuries before the invention of cantus men- 
 surabilis, it is quite impossible that they were 
 ever sung rhjrthmically at the close of each 
 recitation. But there is a growing tendency 
 to treat the Gregorian chants Anglican-wise, 
 and either by accents or bars, to definitely 
 shape out their rhythm. If any proof were 
 wanting of this fact, it is only necessary to 
 give the following : 
 
 Ex. I. ». 4th Tone. 
 
 b. 
 
 The ending of the first of these is evidently 
 intended to be in triple measure, that of the 
 second in duple. But to force the ending into 
 either one of these measures is to wilfully 
 cast aside the invaluable property it possesses 
 of bearing an accent on any note, as the words 
 require. A like desire for modern chant-form 
 has led to the following differences of accent : 
 
 Ex. ^, u. 
 
 From Sargent's Psalter. 
 
 Ex. 3. o. 
 
 
 ^^=^ In J J J ^^ II 
 
 It will be seen from the above, that in pro- 
 
 (83) 
 
CHANT. 
 
 portion to the adoption of strict time in the 
 ending, the true use of chants for syllabic 
 treatment becomes lost. In short, " Gre- 
 gorians," as used for the most part in England 
 at the present time, are nothing more than 
 ordinary chants, not, however, having an 
 uniform number of bars of music. Hence 
 the same difficulties present themselves which 
 will be explained below in the account of 
 Anglican pointing, e.g. : 
 
 Ex, 4. H. 
 
 at the presence | 
 
 the God of Jacob. 
 
 at the presence of the | God of Ja - cob. 
 
 It is generally understood that when the 
 number of notes exceeds the number of syl- 
 lables, the notes not required may be omitted, 
 e.g.: 
 
 ix. 5. From Sargent. 
 
 '^theFatVer}^"'^'°"'°^°° and to the Ho-Iy Ghost. 
 
 This is a negative proof of the original 
 syllabic tendency of Gregorian pointing, it 
 being merely a corollary of the law that there 
 should be " one syllable to one note," to say, 
 " if only a few syllables are left, let the notes 
 not wanted be omitted." This rule is now 
 generally neglected ; and, even in canticles 
 with such short verses as the Te Deum, the 
 syllables are slurred to the superfluous notes, 
 lest the hearers' notion of " the tune " should 
 be disturbed. 
 
 In 1843, the Rev. F. Oakeley published his 
 Gregorian Psalter, carrying out, in its integrity, 
 the principle of the syllabic system, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 6. From Oakeley. 
 
 and the tongue that speak eth proud things. 
 
 Notwithstanding its merits, this Psalter 
 seems not to have been largely used, and 
 where used has been superseded by others 
 in which the tones have been " anglicanized " 
 and made more palatable by the unjustifiable 
 introduction of fixed accent and rhythm. 
 
 Another danger which presents itself to the 
 advocates of Gregorian chants is their limited 
 
 number. It is out of the question that new 
 Gregorian chants should be " expressly com- 
 posed " for Psalters, but it is absolutely neces- 
 sary to provide a variety 'of chants to avoid 
 the monotony of over-repetition. Hence it is, 
 (i) that endings heard on the Continent, what- 
 ever be their modern growth or their incom- 
 patibility with the Gregorian scale, are greedily 
 seized and made use of in this country ; and 
 (2) that foliations or the vicious introductfion 
 of auxiliary notes, above or below the genuine 
 notes of the chant, are as readily welcomed 
 by Gregorian editors, e.g. : 
 
 Ex.8. 
 
 Ex. g. 
 Ex. 10. 
 
 Ex. 8 is called a form of the 5th tone, No. 
 9 a form of the 4th. 
 
 Ex. 10 shows a foliated form of the media- 
 tion of the ist tone. The division of the plain " 
 tones and foliated tones into ferial and fes-,. 
 tival does credit to the ingenuity, but not to 
 the historical integrity, of Psalm-pointers. 
 
 The French and Belgians have ever been 
 celebrated as clever adulterators of plain-song ; 
 and as their manuals now form the chief text- 
 books of English Gregorianizers, it is not 
 difficult to prophecy a general decadence of 
 the art of Gregorian chanting in this country. 
 
 (2) An Anglican chant is of two sorts, single 
 and double. A single chant is in two strains, 
 the first of three, and the second of four bars 
 in length : 
 
 Pelham Humphreys. 
 
 A double chant has the length of two single 
 ones :* 
 
 Robinson. 
 
 * It has been stated, and the statement is often re- 
 peated, that the double chant was suggested by the 
 accidental performance of two single chants in succes- 
 sion by a nameless pupil of Hine, who was organist of 
 Gloucester Cathedral between the years 1710 and 1730. 
 In "Boyce's Cathedral Music," published 1760— 1778, 
 is a double-chant by John Robinson, who was organist 
 of Westminster Abbey from 1727 to 1762, dying at the 
 ripe age of eighty ; and as there exists a MS. copy of 
 the same chant in the handwriting of Dr. Turner, the 
 father-in-law of Robinson, with the date 1706, in one 
 of the old MS. service-books belonging to St. Paul's 
 Cathedral, there is reason for questioning the story 
 concerning the accepted origin of the double chant. 
 
 (84) 
 
CHANT. 
 
 The two strains are also called halves; one 
 half is sung to that part of a verse of the 
 Prayer-book version of the Psalms on each 
 side of the colon, whether the number of words 
 be many or few, whether the sentence is com- 
 plete or not ; as : 
 
 When the company of the spearmen and mul-'\ 
 titudeot the mighty are scattered abroad I . , silver- 
 
 among the beasts of the people, so that ( P'^"^^^ °' silver, 
 they humbly bring - _ - - -J 
 
 i 
 
 ^^ j-i-^j-^L^_i 
 
 And when he hath scattered\ ,. „. -.^ r„i,«. ■„ 
 the people - - -I "'=" ^^ ' '■S'^' '" 
 
 My tongue is the pen 
 
 rea - dy writer. 
 
 The opening chord of a chant, and also the 
 first chord after each double bar, may be sus- 
 tained at will, to accommodate the number of 
 syllables contained in each part of the verse. 
 These chords are called reciting notes, those 
 which follow are called the inflections; or, 
 according to some, the first half of the chant 
 is the mediation, and the second the ca- 
 dence. The fitting of the words to the music 
 is called pointing. The pointing of the 
 Psalms and Canticles is a matter concern- 
 ing which there are diversities of opinion. 
 The principal object to be aimed at in 
 pointing is " the apportioning out of the 
 emphasis of the words to be sung, after the 
 manner that an eloquent speaker would recite 
 them ;" but as sentences are capable of as 
 many accents more or less sensible as there 
 are words, the diversity of opinion on the sub- 
 ject is not to be wondered at. The words are 
 divided in the Prayer-book not always in the 
 best manner as regards their complete gram- 
 matical sense ; and as it is at present deemed 
 unwise to adopt any plan but the one therein 
 suggested, difference of opinion will exist until 
 a change is made in its system of stops. The 
 varieties of pointing arise from the desire to 
 unite an oratorical with a musical accent ; and 
 the many ways in which this is attempted 
 will be best seen by the following quotations 
 from pointed Psalters in frequent use. 
 
 [The lines after each set of v/ords indicate the place 
 of the bar in the chant.] 
 
 Psalm cxxxvii. 
 No. I. Dr. Wesley's Psalter. 
 ■ For they that led us 
 away captive required 
 of us then a s&ng and melody in our heaviness. 
 
 No. i. The Cathedral Psalter. 
 For they that led us 
 
 away captive required 
 
 of us then a song and 
 
 melody 
 
 heaviness. 
 
 No. 3. The Congregational Psalter. 
 
 For they that led us 
 away captive required 
 of us then a song and 
 
 melody in our heaviness. 
 
 No. 4. Monk and Ouseley's Psalter. 
 
 For they that led us 
 away captive required 
 of us then a song and 
 
 melody in our heavi- 
 
 The fonn of the chant has been the real 
 cause of the difficulties of pointing. An 
 ordinary melodic sentence consists of two, 
 four, or eight bars, but the chant has first 
 three, then four bars. This peculiarity does 
 not, however, offend the ear so much as 
 the eye, for in reciting, the rhythmical 
 cadence is to a certain extent completed. 
 
 Various theories have been put forth to ac- 
 count for the 7-bar or twice 7-bar form of the 
 Anglican Chant, all writers being agreed that a 
 7-bar phrase is not actually presented to the 
 ear in the process of chanting. The theorists 
 may be divided into two classes — those who 
 would add a bar to the commencement of the 
 chant, that is, to the reciting note ; and those 
 who would add a bar at the half cadence and 
 whole cadence. The following is the method 
 in which the former would write out Robin- 
 son's Chant : 
 
 Those who lean to the latter opinion would 
 write it thus : 
 
 In opposition to the first view taken, it may 
 be urged that in music the chords of cadence 
 precede the final chord, and in Ex. i, they fall 
 on the final accent, as is shown by doubling 
 the bars, e.g. : 
 
 Except in rare forms of dance-tunes the 
 above rhythm would be unbearable. In favour 
 of the second form (Ex. 2), it may be stated 
 that in al! the best pointed Psalters an accent, 
 a larger fount of type, or a bar, marks the 
 close of the Recitation and commencement of 
 the musical rhythm, and that the syllable or 
 syllables so made prominent only occupy one 
 bar of time. In opposition to the second 
 
 (85 J 
 
CHANT. 
 
 form , it may De remarked that the final bar of 
 both halves of a double chant is not in prac- 
 tice held out for the length of two bars. One 
 or the other of these theories may be true, 
 and the reader is left to decide on their re- 
 spective merits. 
 
 Certain writers have assumed that the 
 Anglican Chant is a highly tractable collection 
 of sounds, bound by no laws of rhythm ; and 
 acting on this notion, have attempted to unbar 
 some modern chants. This view has led 
 to a system of pointing by which as many 
 words as possible are collected on the reciting 
 note, e.g. : 
 
 Praise Him upon „.,„ ,.,,,, Praise Him 
 the well-tuned I ':ym-|bals|| ^p^^ the | 
 
 loud-|cym-|bals]! 
 
 The above system (known as the " Sud- 
 bury ") is said to be smooth, but the number 
 of slurs involved would produce this effect, 
 although opposed to the true principles of 
 chanting. 
 
 It has been said " that the best practical 
 solution of the difficulty of chanting would be 
 offered by selecting a set of the most appro- 
 priate chants, whose melodies, within the 
 range of all voices, would not suffer by being 
 sung by a whole congregation, and to have 
 every word set to a note of relative length, so 
 as to ensure evenness of tone and accuracy 
 of accent." Some of the early church com- 
 posers have left examples of the Venite set 
 to distinct music, often chant-like, so that 
 the thing here suggested would not be so great 
 a novelty. But it would be difficult to make 
 such a plan general, for, leaving out of the 
 question the additional time such a service 
 would occupy, none but educated choirs could 
 perform it, and the ordinary chant is so easy 
 that there is little if any trouble needed to 
 teach it to unskilful choristers. The chant at 
 present in use might be retained, and if elocu- 
 tion is the main object of chanting, a different 
 system of pointing might be devised, by em- 
 ploying the present authorised division of the 
 verses only when convenient. Alterations 
 might be made in a verse (i) when the sense 
 is incomplete in it, (2) when a verse contains 
 two distinct subjects, (3) when the present 
 colon interrupts the logical sequence, e.g. : 
 
 (i) Psalm xvii. 
 8. Keep me as the apple of an eye : hide me under 
 the shadow of thy wings, (g) from the ungodly that 
 trouble me. 
 
 {2) Psalm Ixxxix. 
 49. Remember Lord the rebukes that thy servants 
 have : and how I do bear in my bosom the rebukes of 
 many people; (30) wherewith thine enemies have blas- 
 phemed thee, and slandered the footsteps of thine 
 anointed. 
 
 Praised be the Lord for evermore : Amen and 
 Amen. 
 
 (3) Psalm xiv. 
 
 II. Who shall give salvation unto Israel out of 
 Sion ? (:) when the Lord turneth the captivity of his 
 people, then shall Jacob rejoice, and Israel shall be 
 glad. 
 
 In some of the numerous editions (issued 
 between the years 1655 and 1730) of Play- 
 ford's "Introduction to the Skill of Musick," 
 there is an appendix containing the " order of 
 singing the Divine Service in Cathedrals." 
 In these it is said that " the Venite is begun 
 by one of the choir, then sung by sides, ob- 
 serving, to make the like break or close in the 
 middle of every verse, according as it is 
 shorter or longer." The use or tune for each 
 day in the week is given to the first verse of 
 the Venite, and these tunes are such as are 
 now called Gregorian. There are two others 
 ^" Canterbury tune " and " Imperial tune" 
 — " proper for Choir ; to sing the Psalms, Te 
 Deum, Benedictus, or Jubilate, to the organ 
 or sometime without it." The manner in 
 which the words are disposed will be seen by 
 the following copy of the first-named of these 
 tunes : 
 
 re - joice in the strength of our sal - va - ti - on. 
 
 Dr. Turner, 1706, gives the pointing of the 
 same verse as follows : 
 
 heart- i - ly re-joice in the strength of our sal - va - ti - on. 
 
 It will be seen that this chant contains only 
 five complete bars of four crotchets each. 
 The bars in it do not indicate the place of 
 accent, or even the best division of the chant 
 for the purpose of pointing. The earliest 
 printed copy of a now well-known chant by 
 the same author, is given in the following 
 form (from " Fifty double and single chants 
 being the most Favourite as performed at St. 
 Paul's.Westminster, and most of the Cathe- 
 drals in England. London : Printed for C. 
 and S. Thompson, at No. 75, St. Paul's 
 Churchyard"). 
 
 (86) 
 
CHANT CHANTERRES. 
 
 ■ez. \ \ III 
 
 In the following example (from the " Har- 
 nony of Sion ") the chant is compressed into 
 "our bars. 
 
 
 We pralaQ Thee, O God: we acknowledge Theo to be the Lord, 
 
 A.nd Dr. Boyce, in his " Cathedral Music," 
 writes the Venite to the chant ascribed to 
 Tallis thus : 
 
 Let us heartily rejoice in the strength of our sal - va tion. 
 
 The method of chanting the Psalms adopted 
 in the present day is for each of the two di- 
 visions of the choir to sing a verse alternately. 
 In some places where a double chant is used 
 the whole of the chant is sung to two verses 
 by each side in turn. In one cathedral (Ox- 
 ford) each side sings one half of a verse only. 
 In consequence of this custom of the alternate 
 chanting of the Psalms, it is supposed that 
 wherever alternate singing is mentioned in 
 ancient records, chanting is meant. The ob- 
 jections entertained against chanting by the 
 followers of WickHffe, and in later time by 
 those ofCalvin, were expressed in violent terms, 
 not altogether necessary to repeat here. It is 
 true these reformers approved of the people 
 joining " with one voice in a plain tune, but 
 not of tossing the Psalms from one side to 
 the other with intermingling of organs." I^ess 
 moderate in their deeds than in their words, 
 the Puritans, when in power during the Com- 
 monwealth, destroyed all organs and every 
 music-book they could lay their h^nds upon. 
 Metrical psalmody supplied the place of chant- 
 ing, the Psalms were rarely if even sung, and 
 so, in contradistinction to Sternhold and Hop- 
 kins, or Tate and Brady, were called the 
 •' Reading Psalms," a practice continued as 
 lately as the year 1873, when the Psalms for 
 the day sung at the meeting of the Charity 
 Children in St. Paul's Cathedral were so called. 
 Chanting was regarded as essentially Popish, 
 and alternate singing an abomination even 
 among church people. It was never heard in 
 
 parish churches in the last century, the ca- 
 thedrals alone retaining the traditional use. 
 By degrees a change was effected ; the un- 
 clean thing was handled without any alarming 
 effect, and even Dissenters changed their 
 opinions upon the subject. Instead of con- 
 demning chanting, they adopted it. Dr. Chan- 
 ning thought it " the most purely Protestant 
 music;" Mr. Newman Hall considered it "a 
 homage to the Bible, calculated to make the 
 Word of God better known, appreciated, and 
 loved;" others would "by no means have 
 it banished ;" and the preface to the fourth 
 edition of a little book called " Euphonia " 
 (1870), designed to familiarise Non-conform- 
 ists with the principles of chanting, states 
 that " the objections entertained by many to 
 the ancient practice of chanting having been 
 much diminished, there is now a growing 
 feeling in favour of singing portions of the 
 Bible in the very words of Scripture, rather 
 than through the medium of metrical versions 
 exclusively." This book, which is historically 
 valuable, contains one hundred portions of 
 Scripture pointed for chanting, together with 
 a selection of familiar, if not good, Anglican 
 chants ; the principle guiding the choice being 
 liveliness of melody and general tunefulness. 
 These facts tend to show that the usefulness 
 of chanting is in process of general recog- 
 nition by " all who profess and call themselves 
 Christians ;" that it is no longer held to be 
 the type of a peculiarity of religious opinion ; 
 that there is a mutual interchange of means 
 towards a spiritual end ; that whereas one 
 side does not disdain to encourage the use of 
 metrical psalmody in its services, the other 
 borrows chanting, defending it as " a simple 
 but impressive mode of worship." 
 
 Chants have been found convenient means 
 of rendering hymns of irregular metre, or any 
 hymn of which a simple musical treatment 
 is required. 
 
 Chant (Fr.) (i) Song, tune, (a) The voice 
 part or melody. 
 
 Chantant (Fr.) Singing, musical, as cafi 
 chantant, a musical coffee-house. 
 
 Chant en ison, or chant egal {Fr.) (i) 
 The name of a species of chant, consisting of 
 two sounds only, which was adopted by many 
 of the old religious orders. (2) Monotone. 
 
 Chanter, (i) A name given to the singing 
 priest on duty. (2) A lay vicar. 
 
 Chanter a livre ouvert {Fr) To sing at 
 sight. 
 
 Chanterelle {Fr) (i) The first or highest 
 string upon instruments played with a bow. 
 The E string of the violin, and the A of the . 
 viola and violoncello. (2) The highest string 
 of a guitar or lute. 
 
 Chanterres {Fr) A name given to ballad 
 
 (87 ) 
 
CHANTEUR CHEF D'ORCHESTRE. 
 
 or poem singers in mediaeval times, originally 
 applied to the Provengal Cantadours. 
 
 Chanteur ,p ,1 A male singer. 
 
 Chanteuse *■ '■'J A female singer. 
 
 Chant Gregorien {Fr.) Plain song. 
 
 Chant pastoral {Fr.) A shepherd's song, 
 or melody in imitation of one. 
 
 Chantries. E;idowed foundations in the 
 Romish Church, instituted for the due per- 
 formances of requiem masses for the repose 
 of the soul of the founder and his family. 
 Chantries were attached to existing parish 
 churches, or more frequently to monastic 
 establishments and cathedrals. At the Refor- 
 mation the practice of soul-masses and the 
 chantries became disused, and their revenues 
 absorbed. 
 
 Chant-royal {Fr.) A certain form of early 
 French poetry set to music. Pasquier de- 
 scribes it as a song in honour of God, the 
 Virgin, or the saints, or any other " argument 
 of dignity, especially if coupled with distress." 
 The chant-royal was written in heroic stanzas, 
 and closed with a L' envoy or stanza containing 
 a dedication, recapitulation, or moral. 
 
 Chantry priest. A chaplain or singing 
 priest attached to a chantry. One whose 
 duty it was to sing masses for the speedy 
 deliverance of the soul of a founder or bene- 
 factor from purgatory. 
 
 Chant sur le livre {Fr.) A system of 
 descant by which the part sung by one voice, 
 as written in the open book, could be accom- 
 panied by another voice in counterpoint, more 
 or less free, according to the movement of 
 the canto fermo, which was sung generally by 
 a bass voice, the dichant being taken by a 
 tenor or other high voice. It was necessary 
 that the singer of the canto fermo or plain- 
 song should render it a la rigueur, that is, 
 should not make those slight changes of the 
 length of the notes which would be justifiable 
 and usual when singing alone ; nor could he 
 hold out the rests {tenere punctum) as he other- 
 wise would, lest the dechanteur should be 
 upset in his calculations. The full rules of 
 this system are to be found in early treatises. 
 It was called in Italy contrappunto di mente, 
 or alia mente. 
 
 Chapeau Chinois (Fr.) A set of small 
 bells arranged in the form of a Chinese hat. 
 Pavilion chinois. 
 
 Characteristischer Ton {Ger.) The 
 leading note. {Fr.) Note sensible. 
 
 Characters. A general name for the signs 
 employed in music, such as brace, bind, bar, 
 sharp, flat, natural, clef, stave, shake, turn, 
 beat, and the signs of v/ords indicating time 
 and expression, e.g. -« =- C (t' '^'^■ 
 
 Characterstiicke {Ger.) Pieces of music 
 written with the intention of describing cer- 
 tain impressions by means of sound. Beet- 
 hoven's Pastoral Symphony, Mendelssohn's 
 Reformation Symphony, and the overture and 
 music to " A Midsummer Night's Dream," ~ 
 are specimens of this style of composition^ 
 
 Charivari {Fr.) Mock music, clatter. 
 
 Chasse {Fr.) Hunting ; a la chasse, in 
 the hunting style. 
 
 Chatzozerah {Heb.) The chatzozerah is 
 generally thought to have been a straight 
 trumpet, with a bell or " pavilion " as it is 
 termed. Moses received specific directions 
 as to making them. " Make thee two trum- 
 pets of silver ; of a whole piece shalt thou 
 make them : that thou mayest use them for 
 the calling of the assembly, and for the jour- 
 neying of the camps." In Ps. xcviii. 6, the 
 chatzozerah and shophar are brought into 
 juxtaposition : "With chatzozerah and sound 
 oi shophar make a joyful noise before the Lord 
 the King ;" or, as it incorrectly stands in the 
 Prayer-book version, " With trumpets also 
 and shawms, &c." In this passage the Sep- 
 tuagint has it, ''Ev aaXwiyi,Lv iXaraig, icai (jiwvi} 
 aaXTTLyyoQ KEpativrjc, " With ductile trumpets, 
 and the sound of horn-trumpets." So, too, 
 the Vulgate : " In tubis ductilibus et voce 
 tftbse corneas." The word mikshah, which is 
 applied to the description of the chatzozerah 
 in Num. x. 2, which means "rounded" or 
 " turned," may either apply to a complete 
 twist in the tube of the instrument, or, what 
 is more probable, to the rounded outline of 
 the bell. But if the former is the real inter- 
 pretation of the epithet, it would make it more 
 like a trombone, and similar in form to that 
 depicted on the Arch of Titus. But, on the 
 other hand, the account given by Josephus 
 points out the latter characteristic of shape. 
 He says, " Moses invented a kind of trum- 
 pet of silver ; in length it was little less than 
 a cubit, and it was somewhat thicker than a 
 pipe ; its opening was oblong, so as to permit 
 blowing on it with the mouth ; at the lower 
 end. it had the form of a bell, like a horn." 
 It seems chiefly to have been brought into 
 use in the Hebrew ritual, but was also occa- 
 sionally a battle-call, and blown on other 
 warlike occasions. 
 
 Check-action. [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Check-spring. A small spring added for 
 the assistance of any weakness in the return 
 of action in the mechanism of an organ. 
 
 Chef d'attaque {Fr.) The leader of an 
 orchestra, or chorus. 
 
 Chef d'oeuvre {Fr.) The master-work of 
 any composer. 
 
 Chef d'orchestre {Fr.) (i) The leader. 
 (2) Conductor of an orchestra. 
 
 (88) 
 
CHELIDONIZING CHICA. 
 
 Chelidonizing (from the Gk. ■x^EKiSoviiw, to 
 twitter like a swallow). Singing the swallow- 
 song (xEXtSdviff/ja), a popular song sung by 
 Rhodian boys in the month Boedromian, on 
 the return of the swallows, and made into an 
 opportunity of begging. A similar song sur- 
 vives in modern Greece. A crow was also 
 carried about by begging boys who sang ; 
 whence Gk. KopajW^w. Examples of both songs 
 are given by Athenseus. Pamphilicus of Alex- 
 andria, in his chapter on names, calls the men 
 making collections for the crow, coronistce, 
 and their songs, coronismata. There was a 
 similar custom in Ireland on St. Stephen's 
 day. A number of young men carried a furze- 
 bush on which a wren was tied, and stopping 
 before the houses of the gentry, repeated the 
 following lines : 
 
 " The wren, the wren is the king of all birds, 
 Was caught on St. Stephen's day in the furze, 
 Although he's little, his family's great, 
 Then pray, kind gentle folks, give him a treat." 
 
 In England and Scotland there are many 
 customs of a like character, as for example, 
 " going a gooding " on St. Thomas's day ; 
 singing the Hagmena on the three days pre- 
 ceding Christmas day ; the children's May-day 
 march, when they carry garlands of spring- 
 flowers and boughs, and stopping at the doors 
 of people of the better sort, sing a long song, 
 one verse of which runs : 
 
 A branch of May we have brought you, And 
 
 be dispensed with, as is the case in a har- 
 monium. 
 
 well bud-ded out, The works of our Lord's hands. 
 
 Chelys. {Gk.) x^vc, lit- a tortoise (Lat. 
 testudo). (i) The lyre of Mercury, supposed 
 to have been formed by strings stretched 
 across a tortoiseshell. (2) In the i6th and 
 17th centuries a bass-viol and division-viol 
 were each called chelys. 
 
 Cheng. The Chinese organ, which con- 
 sists of a series of tubes having free reeds. It 
 is held in the hand and blown by the mouth. 
 The introduction of this instrument into Eu- 
 rope led to the invention of the accordion and 
 harmonium. Kratzenstein, an organ-builder 
 of St. Petersburg, having become possessed 
 of one, conceived the idea of applying the 
 principle to organ-stops. The tone of free 
 reeds is enforced by tubes, as in the cheng 
 and in certain organ-stops, but the tubes can 
 
 Cherubical hymn. The ter sanctiis, or 
 irisagion in the service of the Holy Commu- 
 nion, " Holy, holy, holy," &c. 
 
 Chest of viols. An expression signifying 
 a set of instruments necessary for a " consort 
 of viols." They were six in number, namely 
 two trebles, two tenors, and two basses. A 
 chest of viols, with a harpsichord or organ, 
 with an occasional hautboy or flageolet, formed 
 an ordinary orchestra in the early part of the 
 17th century. 
 
 Chevalet (Fr.) The bridge of a stringed 
 instrument. 
 
 Cheville (Fr.) A peg for a violin, guitar, 
 lute, &c. 
 
 Chevroter (Fr.) To skijj, quiver, to sing 
 with uncertain tone, after the manner of goats 
 Alia vibrato. 
 
 Chiara {It.) Clear, distinct, pure, e.g., 
 chiara voce, clear voice ; chiara quarta, a pei'- 
 fect fourth. 
 
 Chiaramente {It.) Clearly, purely, dis- 
 tinctly. 
 
 Chiarezza, con {It.) With brightness, 
 clearness. 
 
 Chiarina {If.) A clarion or trumpet. 
 
 Chiave (/f.) (i) Key or clef. (2) A failure. 
 [Fiasco.] 
 
 Chica. The name of a dance popular 
 among the Spaniards and the South American 
 settlers descended from them. It is said to 
 have been introduced by the Moors, and to 
 have been the origin of the Fandango, which 
 some writers declare to be the Chica under 
 a more decent form. It is of a similar cha- 
 racter with the dance of the Angrismene per- 
 formed at the festivals of Venus, and still 
 popular among the modern Greeks. The 
 English jig is said to be one form of the Chica. 
 It is not a little singular that the word came 
 into use soon after a free intercourse with 
 Spain was opened. The words Chaconne 
 
 (S9) 
 
CHIESA CHORDS ESSENTIALES. 
 
 (Fr.), Ciaccona {It.), Cachuca (Sp.), Czardasch 
 (Hungarian), describe modern modifications 
 oftheChica. [Bolero.] [Country Dance.] 
 
 Chiesa {It.) Church. Sonata di Chiesa, 
 a sacred sonata. 
 
 Chiffres {Fr.) Figures, basse chiffree, 
 figured bass. 
 
 Chime, (i) To play a tune on bells, 
 either by machinery or by hand, by means of 
 hammers, or swinging the clappers, the bell 
 remaining unmoved. It is opposed to ring- 
 ing in which the bells are raised, that is, 
 swung round. (2) A carillon. 
 
 Chirimia {Sp.) An oboe (from Chirimoya, 
 a pear), the portion of the oboe in which the 
 mouth-piece is inserted, called in German 
 Birn, a pear. 
 
 Chirogymnast. Finger-trainer. A con- 
 trivance for strengthening the fingers, consist- 
 ing of a cross-bar, from which are suspended 
 rings attached to springs. The term is also 
 applied to any apparatus designed for a like 
 object. 
 
 Chironomy. Gk. xcipovofiia. (1) Gesticu- 
 lation by the use of the hands. (2) Directions 
 given by movements of the hand, especially 
 to a chorus. In the early church of the West 
 such a system was rnuch in vogue ; and some 
 have maintained that the signs of sounds, as 
 then written, were merely pictorial represen- 
 tations of the movement of the hand. 
 
 Chiroplast. Finger-former. An instru- 
 ment invented by Logier in 1810, to facilitate 
 the proper method of playing the pianoforte. 
 It consisted of a position-frame, finger-guides, 
 and a wrist-guide. The position-frame con- 
 sisted of two parallel rails extending from one 
 extremity of the keys to the other, and fastened 
 to the pianoforte. This frame served as a 
 line upon which the finger-guides travelled ; 
 these guides were two moveable brass frames, 
 with five divisions for the fingers, and to each 
 guide was attached a brass wire with a regu- 
 lator, called the wrist-guide, by which the 
 position of the wrist was preserved from in- 
 clination outwards. With the instructions for 
 the use of the chiroplast, progressive lessons 
 on the pianoforte were given ; and in the suc- 
 cess attending the use of the hand-guide, these 
 lessons, which were cleverly designed, had 
 doubtless as much to do as the machine itself, 
 which, however, soon fell into disuse. 
 
 Chitarra (It.) A guitar. 
 
 Chitarra col arco {It.) A violin with 
 sides gently curved, as in a guitar ; without 
 corners, as in an ordinary violin. 
 
 Chitarrina {It.) A small Neapolitan guitar. 
 
 Chiudendo {It.) Closing, ending. The 
 word is generally employed in connection with 
 another, chiudendo colla prima strofe, ending 
 with the first verse. 
 
 Chiuso {It.) Close, hidden, concealed, 
 
 e.g., canone chiuso, a close canon, [Canon] ; 
 con hocca chiusa, with the mouth closed 
 humming. 
 
 ChcEur {Fr.) [Chorus.] 
 
 Choir, (i) A part of the building in a 
 cathedral or collegiate chapel set apart for 
 the performance of the ordinary daily service. 
 The choir is generally situated at the eastern 
 end of the building, and is frequently enclosed 
 by a screen, upon which the organ is placed. 
 
 (2) The minor canons, choral vicars, and 
 choristers, or other singers taken collectively, 
 are spoken of as the choir. The choral body 
 is usually divided into two sets of voices, the 
 one sitting on the north and the other on the 
 south side of the chancel, and are known by 
 the respective titles of Cantoris and Decani 
 from their nearness to the Cantor (or Pre- 
 centor) and to the Decanus (or Dean). In 
 most cathedrals and collegiate chapels, the 
 Decani side is held to be the side of honour, 
 the best voices are placed there, and all the 
 " verses" or soli parts, if not otherwise directed, 
 are sung by that side, which is also considered 
 the " first choir " {coro primo) in eight-part 
 music. 
 
 Choir-man. An adult member of a choir. 
 
 Choir Organ. [Organ, § i.] 
 
 Chor {Ger.) Chorus. Choir of a church 
 or concert room. 
 
 Choragus. {Lat.) , (i) The leader of the 
 chorus in the ancient Greek drama. [Chorus.] 
 
 (2) The title of a musical official at Oxford 
 University, whose duties are described in the 
 Statutes. 
 
 Choral, (i) Of, or belonging to the choir, 
 concert, or chorus. Choral service, a service 
 with music. (2) A hymn or psalm tune. 
 
 Chorale {Ger.) [Hymn tunes.] 
 
 Choraliter {Ger.) In a choral form. 
 
 Choralmassig {Ger.) [Choraliter.] 
 
 Choral Music. Vocal music in parts, as 
 opposed to instrumental. 
 
 Choral Service. A service of song ; a 
 service is said to be partly choral, when only 
 canticles, hymns, &c.,are sung; wholly choral, 
 when in addition to these, the versicles, re- 
 sponses, &c., are sung. 
 
 Choral Vicars. [Lay Vicars.] 
 
 Chor-amt {Ger.) Choral service. Cathe- 
 dral service. 
 
 Choraules {Gk. ^opaiXrjt from x"P°s ^^^ 
 avXEU).) (i) A player on the flute in the 
 Greek Theatre. (2) One who keeps a chorus 
 and plays in it himself. 
 
 Chord. A combination of musical sounds, 
 consonant or dissonant. [Harmony.] 
 
 Chord. A string. 
 
 Chorda characteristica. A chord of the 
 7th in which a leading note appears. 
 
 Chordae essentiales {late Lat.) The 
 tonic and its 3rd and 5th. The key-chord. 
 
 ( 90 ) 
 
CHORDAULODION CHORISTER. 
 
 Chordaulodion. A self-acting musical in- 
 strument, invented by Kauffmann, of Dresden, 
 in 1812. 
 
 Chor-dienst {Ger.) [Chor-amt.] 
 
 Chordometer. A gauge for measuring 
 the thickness of strings. 
 
 Chords etou£F6s {Fr.) (i) Chords played 
 on the pianoforte with the sordino pedal held 
 down. (2) Chords on the harp, lute, guitar, 
 or dulcimer, damped by placing the hand 
 gently on the strings. 
 
 Choriambus. A metrical foot consisting 
 of two short between two long syllables. 
 
 Chorister. A member of a choir whether 
 juvenile or adult. At the present day the 
 children of the choir of a church or cathedral, 
 are those usually distinguished by the term, 
 but so recently as the commencement of the 
 present century, all who were engaged in 
 taking part in the musical portion of the 
 service, were called choristers. The word 
 derived from x°po£> ^Y metonomy came to 
 signify a band of singers or dancers, or any 
 member of such a band, and hence the term is 
 often applied to a singer in a chorus not 
 necessarily belonging to a church, just as 
 choir is applied to the place in which church 
 singers sit, as also to any body of singers of 
 sacred or secular music. For example, Les 
 enfans de chceur, children of the choir or 
 chorus ; Dom-chor, cathedral choir or chorus, 
 and Coro del chiesa, church choir or chorus ; 
 Choristers, or boy singers, called " clerks of 
 the third form," in some places, are attached 
 to every cathedral in England, and receive 
 advantages of more or less value, in exchange 
 for their services as members of the choir. 
 In addition to necessary instruction in music, 
 they have an education in other matters, 
 varying in many places according to the con- 
 struction put upon the Statutes by the deans 
 and chapters of the cathedrals. The interpre- 
 tation of these Statutes has been the subject 
 of grave dispute, as the advantages accruing 
 to the choristers have been from time to time 
 most shamefully ignored. In days past, the 
 children have been shut out from the enjoy- 
 ment of preferential privileges made con- 
 cerning them, and their education and moral 
 training has been so little cared for, that many 
 a child who in early years was familiarised 
 with the most sacred matters, has acquired for 
 them the proverbial result of familiarity. A 
 better state of things is now being brought 
 into existence with a result which cannot be 
 considered other than hopeful. 
 
 In some places private instructors have 
 been engaged to teach cathedral choristers a 
 few matters besides music ; in others they 
 are admitted into the chief grammar schools 
 of the several cities. The course of instruc- 
 tion also varies, for in some cases they are 
 
 taught the simple elements of reading and 
 writing, in others they learn as much of the 
 higher branches of education as is possible 
 in addi'non to the duties of their profession. 
 In many instances their musical instructors 
 impart no more than is absolutely needful for 
 the exercise of cathedral duty, and in some 
 music is taught scientifically as well as practi- 
 cally, not only in connection with the immediate 
 work in hand, but also with reference to future 
 use. In very few instances are the boys 
 boarded and lodged within the precincts of 
 the cathedral, or placed under the immediate 
 care of the cathedral authorities out of the 
 -hours devoted to duty — a matter of much 
 regret. The organist is sometimes music- 
 master of the choristers, sometimes the office 
 is distinct, and is held independently of the 
 organist. In many cathedrals a sum of money 
 as apprentice fee is paid to a chorister on 
 leaving the choir; this is instead of the money 
 at one time set apart for the maintenance of 
 the chorister as a student at the universities. 
 For instance, in the Statutes of Stoke College, 
 in Suffolk, founded by Parker, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, are these words: " of which said 
 queristers, after their breasts be changed 
 (their voices broken) we will the most apt of 
 wit and capacity be holpen with exhibition of 
 forty shillings, the rest with lesser summe." 
 
 In olden times, choristers were privileged 
 to demand a fee from every newly installed 
 officer of the church, and to levy "spur money" 
 from all who attended the service in riding 
 gear. In the former case the fee varied 
 according to the position of the installed 
 officer, and was paid without conditions being 
 imposed in return ; in the latter, the wearer of 
 spurs could require the youthful tax-gatherer 
 to repeat his " gamut " perfectly ; if he hesi- 
 tated, he lost his spur-money. The boys ot 
 the Chapel Royal were the last to keep up 
 the custom which has now fallen into disuse 
 with many others equally absurd. For ex- 
 ample : the choristers in many cathedrals and 
 collegiate establishments were permitted to 
 rule over their superiors for a short period 
 once a year, generally from December 6th, 
 the Feast of St. Nicholas (the patron saint of 
 sailors, parish clerks, thieves, and boys) until 
 Innocents-day, December 28th. From the 
 aptitude acquired in these ludicrous ceremo- 
 nies, the choristers gained such a skill in 
 acting that they were selected to perform in 
 the mystery plays of old time, and later to 
 represent the masterly conceptions of such 
 writers as Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and 
 others. It was not alone to the choir boys 
 attached to unimportant establishments that 
 these matters were entrusted, but also to the 
 children of " Powle's churche " and of the 
 "Chapel Royale" of Her Majesty Queen 
 
 ( 91) 
 
CHORISTER CHORUS, 
 
 Elizabeth. The possession of such powers 
 and privileges may have been exceedingly 
 pleasing while it lasted, but the ill sorted 
 union of the theological and the theatrical is 
 happily dissolved, it is hoped for ever. 
 
 The life of a chorister in these remote days 
 was, however, not all bhss, as the owner of a 
 good voice would probably find to his cost, 
 more especially if he was not fortunate enough 
 to belong to St. Paul's Cathedral, or the 
 Chapel Royal, for there were officers armed 
 with the awful warrant of the Royal Court, 
 empowering them to roam the country, to 
 visit all churches and cathedrals of the lesser 
 sort in which choral singing was practised, 
 and to select and take away all boys "with 
 good breasts," that is to say, all with voices 
 of more than ordinary excellence, for the 
 serviceof the privileged choirs. The " placard " 
 or warrant was often used illegally, and chil- 
 dren were impressed for choirs other than 
 those above mentioned. There is reason for 
 believing that choristers so gained were in 
 general badly used, if we may trust Thomas 
 Tusser (1523-1580), the author of " Five 
 hundred points of good husbandry," for he 
 speaks of his good fortune in having been 
 assigned to John Redford, organist of St. 
 Paul's, in terms which prove that choristers 
 were not so kindly used in other places. His 
 situation at Wallingford, from whence he was 
 impressed, he laments in the words : 
 
 " O shameful time ! for every crime 
 What toosed ears, like halted heares. 
 What bobbed lippes, what yerkes, what nips, 
 What hellish toies ! 
 
 What robes, how bare, what colledge fare. 
 What bread, how stale ; what penny ale, 
 Then Wallingford, how wert thou abhor'd 
 Of silly boies." 
 
 In another verse he contrasts his treatment : 
 
 " But marke the chance, myself to vance, 
 By friendships lot to Pauls I got. 
 So found I grace a certayn space 
 Still to remaine 
 
 With Redford there, the like no where, 
 For cunning such, and vertue much ; 
 By whom some part, of musicke art 
 So did I gain." 
 
 On the Continent choristers are attached to 
 many cathedrals, but their duties and educa- 
 tion are based upon a different system to 
 that in general use in Great Britain at the 
 present time. Before the time of the dissolu- 
 tion of the monasteries the position of choristers 
 was much the same as that enjoyed abroad 
 by them, and it was no uncommon thing to 
 find " the children of the choir " in after life 
 occupying stations of eminence and trust in 
 both Church and State. The venerable Bede, 
 St. Swithun, St. Hugh of Lincoln, William 
 of Wykeham, William Wainfleet, Erasmus, 
 and his friend, Dean Colet, the founder of St. 
 
 Paul's School, and scores of other distin- 
 guished men were choristers. The musicians 
 who have gained the first knowledge of their 
 art within the walls of a church are many, 
 and comprise among others the names of 
 Palestrina, Frescobaldi, Orlando di Lasso (im- 
 pressed from Hainault into Italy as a child), 
 Padre Martini, John Sebastian Bach, Haydn, 
 WilHam Byrd,Tallis, Dr. Bull, Dr. Rogers, Dr. 
 Blow, Elias Ashmole, Henry Purcell, Dr. Croft, 
 Pelham Humphreys, Dr. Greene, Battishill, 
 Dr. Burney, Attwood, and many famous living 
 musicians whose names it is not necessary 
 here to catalogue. 
 
 Chorton [Ger.) (i) The ancient ecclesi- 
 astical pitch in Germany. It was supposed 
 to be higher than that employed for secular 
 music by about a tone. The terms Kam- 
 merton and Chorton were used to signify the 
 difference between a high and a low pitch for 
 the same denominated sound. (2) The melody 
 of a hymn or psalm tune. 
 
 Chorus. Chor(Ger.) Choeur (Fr.) Com {li.) 
 (i) A band of singers and dancers employed 
 on certain occasions in the ancient Greek 
 theatres, and other public places. It was the 
 custom for the whole population of a city to 
 meet on stated occasions, and to offer thanks- 
 givings to the gods for any special advantages 
 obtained, by singing hymns accompanied with 
 dances. Donaldson derives the word from 
 Xopoi, the name of the place where these exer- 
 cises were performed in Sparta, and shows 
 the connection between the civil and religious . 
 ceremonies of the ancient Greeks, saying that 
 music and dancing were the basis of the re- 
 ligious, pohtical, and military organisation of 
 the Dorian States. The choral songs were 
 always written in the Doric dialect, and the 
 choral dances were Dorian also. In course 
 of time, as the fine arts became more culti- 
 vated, the duties of the chorus as a branch of 
 worship devolved upon a few, and ultimately 
 upon one, who bore the whole expenses, 
 when paid dancers were employed. This 
 person was called the choragus and it was his 
 business to provide the chorus in all plays, 
 whether tragic or comic. His first duty after 
 collecting his chorus was to find and pay a 
 teacher {x°P°^^^^<^'^"-^°^) ^^° instructed them 
 in the songs and dances which they had to 
 perform. The choragus was allowed to press 
 children, if their parents did not give them up 
 of their own accord. He lodged and main- 
 tained the chorus until the time of performance 
 and provided them with such aliments as 
 conduce to strengthen the voice, he had also 
 to find masks and dresses. The honour was 
 much coveted among the wealthy Athenians. 
 The choragus who exhibited the best theatrical 
 entertainment generally received a tripod as 
 a reward of praise. 
 
 (92) 
 
CHORUS. 
 
 The choral dance reached its perfection in 
 the xopoe KvicXiicoe at Athens. This chorus 
 consisted of 50 persons. The number of the 
 chorus varied in later times according to the 
 performance. The ^opos rpayitoe consisting of 
 from 12 to 15, the x°pos Ko/xa-ds of 24, and the 
 Xopos aaTvpiKoe of the same number as the 
 rpayiKOQ. The chorus in the time of the Attic 
 tragedy consisted of a group of persons, male 
 and female, who remained in the theatre as 
 witnesses as well as spectators. When they 
 spoke, it was to offer reflections on the scene 
 passing before them, taking part with or 
 against the dramatis personcs by offering 
 advice, comfort, exhortation, or dissuasion. 
 At times the chorus was divided and spoke 
 antiphonally. These divisions moved accord- 
 ing to a pre-arranged order, which movement 
 probably originated the naming of the stanzas 
 which were called strophe, antistrophe and 
 epode. When not engaged in singing, the 
 chorus grouped itself upon a platform called 
 the Thymele, which was in the centre of the 
 building, and from whence all measurements 
 were made, the semicircle of the amphitheatre 
 being described from it as its centre. Of 
 the exact part music played, whether elaborate 
 compositions were employed or not, little is 
 now known. It is supposed that a simple 
 rhythmical declamation analogous to chanting 
 was used. The accompaniment of flutes in 
 unison was made use of for the choruses. 
 The chorus declined with the ancient tragedy, 
 . and the few attempts made by modern writers 
 to revive the manner of the ancients, as in 
 Schiller's " Braut von Messina" have not been 
 successful. The well-known Antigone and 
 CEdipus Colonasus of Mendelssohn can 
 scarcely be regarded as a reproduction of the 
 ancient Greek chorus, owing to the insuperable 
 difficulty of adapting modern instrumentation 
 to the spirit and observances of the older 
 customs. 
 
 (2) An ancient instrument variously de- 
 scribed by different writers. A bagpipe must 
 have been signified when the word was used 
 in the loth century, as a chorus or corus is 
 described as "pellis simplex cum duobus 
 cicutis." The word is supposed to be connected 
 with cornemuse, as it is sometimes written 
 cormusa and corusa. In the Promptorium 
 Parvulorum, 15th century, the word is used 
 to describe "a crowde, an instrument of 
 musyke"; — the drone of the bagpipe and the 
 unstoppable strings of the "crowde" bearing 
 a sort of burden or chorus to the melody 
 played on the other pipes or strings. Busby 
 in his "Dictionary of Music," 1810, says 
 that the word is the old Scottish name for a 
 trumpet of loud tone. 
 
 (3) A personage in some of Shakespeare's 
 plays, who between the acts utters reflections 
 
 upon scenes that are past, and describes 
 scenes to come. 
 
 (4) A composition for a number of singers, 
 with or without accompaniment, intended as 
 the expression of the united sentiments of a 
 multitude. A chorus may be independent and 
 complete in itself, or may be a portion of a 
 large work either sacred or secular. It may 
 contain opposed sentiments interwoven, as in 
 the Kermesse scene in Gounod's "Faust;" in 
 Meyerbeer's "Huguenots," and "L'Etoile du 
 Nord;" Wagner's "Tannhauser"and "Lohen- 
 grin ;" according to the purposes of the drama. 
 Choruses with opposed subjects are not in- 
 frequent in oratorios, as in Handel's chorus, 
 " Fixed in his everlasting seat," in " Samson." 
 The union of independent themes may be 
 traced by the student with advantage, in the 
 choruses of such compositions as Bach's 
 Passion music, &c. Double, triple, or even 
 quadruple choruses are often found in the 
 works of the old Italian church writers, as 
 well as in the sacred compositions of Bach, 
 Handel, and later musicians. 
 
 The choruses in the early Italian operas 
 were devoid of dramatic character, and in 
 fact, were often independent of the action 
 of the opera in which they were inserted. As 
 they contained occasional reflections on pass- 
 ing events they were in some sort connected 
 with the ancient Greek chorus, the stage direc- 
 tions enjoining the dancers to accompany the 
 singingwith motions and gestures, also formed 
 another link binding them to their ancient 
 model. The invention of the operatic chorus, 
 or rather the introduction of combined voices 
 as a necessary part of the dramatic action is 
 claimed by the French. Many of the lesser 
 musical dramas, burlettas, interludes, &c., had 
 no choruses properly speaking, a glee or some 
 concerted piece for the principals being all 
 that is found in them. The choruses of 
 Lully are not very dramatic, and those of 
 Rameau are very badly constructed, and often 
 incorrect as to their harmony, so that the im- 
 provements introduced by these two masters 
 were not extended to the chorus. Among the 
 followers of Lully, Campra (1660-1744) is the 
 most distinguished ; he treated his choruses 
 in a more advanced manner than his model, 
 not onlyinthe development of harmonic effects, 
 but also by the introduction of novel rhythms. 
 Gluck invented morceaux d'ensemhle, grand 
 indeed, when compared with the choral effects 
 by other composers of his own and preced- 
 ing times ; Spontini added new instrumental 
 colouring ; Cherubini employed the graces of 
 form to clothe the musical outlines suggested 
 by his predecessors; Rossini did as little com- 
 paratively for the chorus from a dramatic point 
 of view, as Meyerbeer did much. Some of 
 Bellini's choruses are conceived in fine dra- 
 
 (93) 
 
CHORUS. 
 
 matic spirit ; Verdi's, though occasionally- 
 vulgar in detail, are by no means wanting in 
 general force and appropriateness ; the faults 
 they exhibit are due to the influence of the 
 fetters of tradition, and a wearying use of 
 simple tonic and dominant harmonies ; Gou- 
 nod's are often admirable, but as the expression 
 of the voices and opinions of a multitude, 
 Wagner's choruses are nearest the true ideal. 
 In many of the early English operas the 
 chorus is an inconsiderable item. Exception 
 must, however, be made in favour of those by 
 Henry Purcell, whose works of this class 
 exist, while many of the other portions of his 
 operas have fallen out of memory. Neither 
 Lampe,Arne, nor Storace paid much attention 
 to the development of chorus, but its improve- 
 ment in smaller dramatic works is due to Sir 
 Henry Bishop. As conductor of the music at 
 Covent Garden Theatre for many years, he 
 produced a series of compositions of more or 
 less value, some of which live, while the 
 dramas and plays for which they were written 
 have fallen completely into oblivion. His 
 earlier choruses have the glee attached, the 
 part for the multitude of voices being as easy 
 as possible. It is presumed that operatic 
 chorus singing was not in its highest state of 
 perfection in the days of Mozart or Beethoven, 
 for neither of these composers has given the 
 chorus much that is difficult or important in 
 their operas — a matter of necessity perhaps, as 
 it was hard to find a body of singers in those 
 days, who would be so far content with the 
 gifts they possessed as to accept an inferior 
 position. Chorus singing was very little culti- 
 vated in London so recently as the time when 
 the Sacred Harmonic Society was established, 
 for it was found necessary to invite a con- 
 tingent of singers from the North of England 
 to take up a residence in the Metropolis, 
 employment being found for them for the 
 hours when their vocal services were not 
 required. 
 
 If it is necessary to account for the slow 
 growth of operatic chorus, when compared 
 with the progress made in other portions of 
 the musical drama, a very simple reason 
 can be found, in the fact of the difficulty 
 attending the first performance of a variety of 
 works when the singers have to commit the 
 whole of their parts to memory. Straight- 
 fonvard as many of Handel's choruses are, 
 it was found necessary to make some slight 
 alterations in the choruses of such a work as 
 " Acis and Galatea " when given on the 
 stage. It is not difficult to gain the most 
 sublime effects from chorus singing when 
 the performers have the copies before their 
 eyes, as the performance of oratorios and 
 similar works by large choral societies can 
 sufficiently testify. 
 
 In the Oratorio, the chorus is of the greatest 
 importance, and the number of voices to a 
 part is generally larger than it was in the 
 time 'of Handel, though some writers ques- 
 tion the advantage gained by multiplying 
 the forces, as it is supposed by them that a 
 greater number of voices does not necessarily 
 produce a proportionate power of tone, and 
 the difficulty of moving a large body in con- 
 cert may involve a change of tempi, but this 
 need not be the case with a trained body well 
 acquainted with the works performed. It is 
 said that " a chorus of thirty-five voices from 
 the Pope's chapel who sang at the Coronation 
 of Napoleon I., in the Cathedral of Notre- 
 Dame, Paris, produced a far greater and more 
 wonderful effect when they entered singing the 
 Tu es Petrus, than another chorus of hundreds 
 of voices, and eighty harps, that had been 
 assembled and trained for the same occasion, 
 in expectation of surpassing all that man 
 could imagine." As the knowledge of music 
 is more general in the present day, this ob- 
 jection cannot with reason be entertained 
 now, otherwise the choruses at the Handel 
 Festivals could not be held to be the most 
 attractive features of such gatherings. 
 
 (5) The union of a number of voices for the 
 joint performance of a composition. The 
 whole of the male and female singers other 
 than the principals whether in the oratorio, 
 drama, or at a concert. 
 
 (6) The refrain or burden of a song whether 
 sung by one or by many voices. As for 
 example : 
 
 (a) I lov'd a lass, a fair one, 
 As fair as e'er was seen ; 
 She was indeed a rare one. 
 Another Sheba Queen. 
 But fool, as then I was 
 
 I thought she lov'd me too. 
 But now, alas ! she's left me. 
 Chorus. Falero, lero, loo. 
 
 George Wither. 
 
 (b) Lisette, dont I'empire 
 S'etend jusqu'a mon vin, 
 J^prouve la martyre 
 D'en demander en vain. 
 
 Pour souffrir qu'a mon age 
 Les coups me soient compt^s, 
 Ai-je compte, volage, 
 Tes infidelit^s ? 
 
 Chceur. Lisette, ma Lisette, 
 
 Tu m'as trompfi toujours, 
 Mais vive la grisette 
 Je veux, Lisette, 
 Boire a nos amours. 
 
 Beranger. 
 
 {c) Lasst tanzen uns und springen, 
 Hier, wo die Blumen stehn ; 
 Und frohe Lieder singen, 
 Im Freien klingt es schon. 
 Chor. Und frohe Lieder, &c. 
 
 Uhland, 
 
 (94) 
 
CHRISTE ELEISON CITTERN. 
 
 (7) The name given to the mixture and 
 compound stops in an organ. 
 
 Christe eleison (Gk.) A portion of the 
 Kyrie in the Mass. [Mass.] 
 
 Christmas Carol. [Carol.] 
 
 Christmas Music, (i) Cantatas, the words 
 of which are suitable to Christmas-tide. (2) 
 Music played by waits. [Waits.] 
 
 Chroma (Gk. j^pwjua, colour or complexion). 
 The name of one of the modifications of the 
 Greek musical scale. The principal chroma- 
 tic scale of the Greeks was called XP'^H-'^ 
 rovaiov ; its chief characteristic is the omis- 
 sion of the 4th and 7th. [Greek Music] 
 
 Chroma duplex (Lat.) (i) A semiquaver. 
 (2) A double sharp. 
 
 Chromatic. That which includes notes 
 not belonging to a diatonic scale. 
 
 (i) A chromatic chord is that which con- 
 tains a note or notes foreign to diatonic 
 progression, e.g.: 
 
 (2) Chromatic harmony is that which is 
 made up of chromatic chords. 
 
 (3) A chromatic interval is that which is 
 augmented or diminished, e.g. : 
 
 (4) Chromatic modulation is a passing into 
 an extreme key, by means of chromatic 
 harmony. 
 
 (5) A chromatic scale is one which consists 
 
 of a succession of semitones. 
 
 Chromatique (Fr.) ] chromatic 
 Chromatisch [Ger.) \ '-'aromatic. 
 
 Chrotta. [Crowd.] 
 
 Church modes. [Plain Song.] 
 
 Ciaccona (It.) [Chaconne.] 
 
 Cicogna (It.) The mouth piece of a wind 
 instrument ; lit. a stork. 
 
 Cicuta (Lat.) A flute or pan-pipes, made 
 from the stalks of the hemlock plant. 
 
 Cimbalo(/i.) (i) Harpsichord. [7) cimbali, 
 cymbals. (3) A tambourine. 
 
 Cimbel {Ger.) A mixture-stop in German 
 organs. 
 
 Cimbelstern {Ger.) Lit. cymbal-star. A 
 mechanical contrivance in some German 
 organs, consisting of star-shaped cymbals 
 attached to a wheel set in motion by a pedal. 
 
 Cink {Ger.), Cinq {Fr.) A reed organ stop. 
 
 Cinque {It.) A fifth part in concerted music. 
 
 Cinyra. An old term for a harp. 
 
 Cipher. The sounding of a note on an 
 organ caused by mechanical derangement. 
 
 Circular Canon. A canon so constructed 
 that it closes in the key one semitone above 
 
 that in which it commences. As, at each 
 repeat, it begins, not at the original pitch, but 
 at the pitch at which it closed, it is evident 
 that twelve repetitions would take it through 
 all the known keys. 
 
 Circulus {Lat.) A circle. One of the 
 time signatures of early music. It was only 
 applied to tempus perfectum and tempus im- 
 perfectum, that is to the division of a breve 
 into semibreves. When the breve was divi- 
 ded into three semibreves (tempus perfectum) 
 a complete circle was placed at the signature 
 " quia forma rotunda perfecta est." When the 
 breve was divided into two semibreves (tempus 
 imperfectum) a broken circle or semicircle 
 was used. This last sign is now corrupted 
 into a C which is erroneously said to stand 
 for common time. [Time.] 
 
 Cis {Ger.) The note C sharp. 
 
 Cis-cis {Ger.) The note C double sharp. 
 
 Cis dur {Ger.) The key of C sharp major. 
 
 Cis moll {Ger.) The key of C sharp minor. 
 
 Cistella {Lat.) A dulcimer, lit. a little 
 box. [Citole.] 
 
 Cistre {Fr.) [Cittern.] 
 
 Cistrum. [Sistrum.] 
 
 Citara {It.) A cittern, guitar, cither. ■ 
 
 Cithara {Gk. Ktdaoa). The ancient lute. 
 It probably differed from the lyre in having 
 something behind the upper part of the strings, 
 whereas the lyre-strings were open on both 
 sides. [Guitar.] 
 
 Cithara bijuga. A guitar or lute having a 
 double neck. Some of the strings passed along 
 the side of the finger-board and could not 
 therefore be stopped, and some of the higher 
 strings were tuned in pairs in unison. Some- 
 times it was strung with wire and played with 
 a plectrum like a cithara ; at others, it was 
 strung with cat-gut and played like a lute. 
 
 Citharcedus. Onewho sings whilst playing 
 the cithara, whereas a citharisia only played. 
 
 Citole. An instrument similar in form to 
 the dulcimer. The name is supposed by some 
 to be derived from cistella a little box ; by 
 others, from cithara, a guitar. It is frequently 
 mentioned by early poets, apparently with 
 various meanings. William Guiart (1248) 
 says : — 
 
 " Qui le roi de France a celle cree 
 Enveloppa si de paroUes 
 Plus douces que son de citoles." 
 
 Chaucer's allusion to it would imply that it 
 was a kind of guitar : — "A citole in hir right 
 hand had sche." 
 
 Cittern. An old English name for a guitar 
 strung with wire instead of with gut. It had 
 eight strings tuned to four notes g, h, d, and 
 e, or corresponding intervals. The instru- 
 ment was at one time very popular, a cittern 
 being part of the furniture of a barber's shop, 
 the customers amusing themselves with it 
 
 f 95 1 
 
CIVETTERIA, CON CLARICHORD. 
 
 while waiting. The music for the cittern was 
 written in Tablature. There were several 
 instruction books for the instrument issued, 
 while it was still in use. The title of the 
 earliest known is " The Cittharn Schoole, by 
 Antony Holborne, Gentleman, and servant to 
 Her Most Excellent Maiestie. Hereunto are 
 added six short Airs, Neapolitan like to three 
 voyces without the Instrument : done by his 
 brother William Holborne. London, 1597." 
 [Guitar.] 
 
 Civetteria, con [It.) In a coquettish 
 manner. 
 
 Clairon {Fr.) [Clarin.] 
 
 Clang, (i) Timbre {Fr.) Klang [Ger.) 
 Quality of tone. (2) The peculiar "ringing" 
 noise or din produced by the clash of metals, 
 or the blast of loud wind instruments. Lat. 
 clangor. The Gk. KXayyfi is also applied to the 
 ■whiz^oi^twang caused by the discharge of an 
 arrow, &c. 
 
 Clapper. [Bells.] [Bones.J 
 
 Claque {Fr.) A body of hired applause- 
 makers, openly employed in France and some- 
 times secretly resorted to in England. The 
 " claque " in France is divided into several 
 ranks ; rieurs, pleureurs, chatouilleurs, bisseurs, 
 and so forth. These oificers distributed in 
 several parts of the theatre, laugh, weep, 
 gossip with their neighbours, cry encore, &c., 
 under the direction of a fugle-man whose 
 business it is to study the work produced, 
 and after consultation with the author, the 
 performers, and the stage manager, to direct 
 and regulate the reception of certain portions 
 of the entertainment. 
 
 Claque-bois {Fr.) A gigelira. [Ligneum 
 Psalterium.] 
 
 Clarabella. An organ stop consisting of 
 open wood pipes, invented by Bishop. It is of 
 a soft and sweet quality of tone. It is gene- 
 rally merged into a stopped diapason below 
 middle C, as the larger pipes do not produce 
 a clear tone. It is usually of 8 ft. pitch. 
 
 Clara voce {It.) A clear voice. 
 
 Claribel Flute. An organ stop of similar 
 construction to the clarabella, but generally 
 of 4 ft. pitch. 
 
 Clarichord. A stringed instrument of 
 mediaeval times, by some writers presumed to 
 be identical with the clavichord, the precursor 
 of the spinet, harpsichord and pianoforte. 
 
 The earliest stringed instrument with a key- 
 board for the fingers, is said to have been 
 invented about the year 1300, in Italy, and 
 to have been called Clavycytherium, the 
 cithara or harp with keys. In the Musurgia 
 of Luscinius, printed in 1536, a picture of 
 this early instrument is given, but as there is 
 no statement that it had been drawn from 
 an existing example, and moreover, as it 
 appeared nearly two centuries and a half after 
 
 the supposed invention, its likeness is at the 
 least rather doubtful. Trustworthy represen- 
 tations of keyed instruments are very rare 
 before the' latter of the above dates, and a 
 consequent amount of confusion exists, as 
 well with regard to forms as to names. In 
 the few early English glossaries extant, no 
 clear or lucid description of the majority 
 of instruments in existence can be obtained, 
 and many modern writers, misled by varied 
 spelling, and the number of different names 
 for the same thing, have exercised their wits 
 in finding a variety of forms, shapes, and 
 uses for that which was after all but of one 
 character, and probably the same thing des- 
 cribed variously. To speak of the older 
 names of instruments of the kind now under 
 consideration, the words clavichord, mono- 
 chord, manichord, clavycymbal, cembalo, 
 clavecin, all have the same meaning, a 
 stringed instrument with keys played by hand. 
 Some writers explain the words clavichord to 
 be so called, because the strings were wrested 
 in tune with a key (clavis) ; — this description 
 would also apply to the clarichord, called also 
 claricols, clarigold, &c., for that was kept in 
 tune by a wrest, as William Cornishe in his 
 poem, " A treatise betwene Trouthe and 
 Enformacion." 1500, tells us. He says: 
 
 " The clarichorde hath a tunely kinde 
 As the wyre is wrested hye and lowe 
 So it tuneth to the players mynde. 
 For as it wrested so must it nede showe. 
 Any instrument mystuned shall hurt a trewe song, 
 Yet blame not the clarichord the wrester doth 
 wrong." 
 
 By this it would appear that the clarichord 
 was a kind of harp, tuned as it was required 
 to be used, and it is somewhat singular that 
 as the words clarichord, clarigols, clarigold, 
 &c., are only used in ancient English writings, 
 no form of them being found in old French or 
 Latin, the derivation of the word from an 
 ancient British etymon, such as clar, to grip 
 or bend, would be applicable to the harp as 
 an instrument whose strings were plucked or 
 gripped, the modern Irish word for playing 
 on harps is cl<aixeD)1*e|V (clarediser), and the 
 harp itself is called cldUfCd'C (clarscat) , gripped 
 or clawed string. The word •)*C47; might be 
 compared with the German Saite. 
 
 Dr. Rimbault, after quoting the definitions 
 of the word clarichord given by a few of the 
 lexicographers of the 17th century, observes 
 that they make " no distinction between the 
 terms clarichord and clavichord, but the one 
 can hardly be a corruption of the other." He 
 adds that the " words suggest a totally 
 different etymology," and he then proposes 
 that it might be from the French word claire, 
 denoting a transparent tone; but in the earliest 
 musical dictionaries clarichord is said to be 
 
 (96) 
 
CLARIN CLARINETTO. 
 
 " called also the Dumb spinnet, on account of 
 the cords being covered with pieces of cloth." 
 The Clavechord or clavecimbalo is said to 
 signify a harpsichord. In every instance in 
 which the word clarichord is employed before 
 the i6th century it might fairly be translated 
 harp. 
 
 At the marriage of James of Scotland with 
 the Princess Margaret, in the year 1503, "the 
 king began before hyr to play of the clary- 
 chordes and after of the lute. And upon the 
 said claiychorde Sir Edward Stanley played a 
 ballade and sange therewith." (Warton, 
 " History of English Poetry.") It is quite 
 possible that the similarity of the two letters 
 V and r in ancient MSS. might have led the 
 transcribers to mistake one for the other, and 
 by writing clarichord or clavichord indiscrimi- 
 nately they might innocently cause contro- 
 versy. All modern authorities on the subject 
 declare that the words are of separate and 
 distinct origin. [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Clarin {Ger.) A species of trumpet, a 
 clarion, also an organ reed stop of 4 ft. pitch. 
 Clarin-blasen, the sound of a trumpet. Some- 
 times the word is applied to the soft tones 
 produced on this instrument. 
 
 Clarinet I An important wind in- 
 
 Clarinette (Fr.) l strument said to have 
 Clarinetto (It.) J been invented by John 
 Christopher Denner, who was born in Leipsic, 
 in 1654, but it was in reality only a modification 
 and improvement of the more ancient shawm 
 or chalumeau. Most authors relate that Denner 
 invented the instrument in 1659, at which date 
 he was four years old ; but it was made by 
 him after his residence in Nuremberg, in 1690. 
 The name clarinet, or clarionet was probably 
 attached to it on account of its pure and brilliant 
 tone, not unlike that of the clarion or trumpet. 
 In modern instruments of this class, the tone 
 has been rendered far purer and sweeter 
 than that originally produced. The difference 
 between the tone of the hautboy and that of 
 the clarinet, is due to the circumstance that 
 the one has a double, and the other a single 
 reed. The difference in the nature of the 
 scale arises from the fact that the hautboy is 
 conical, while the clarinet is a cylinder, the 
 series of harmonics in the hautboy following 
 each other in the ratio 1,2, 3, 4, &c., those 
 of the clarinet i, 3, 5, 7, &c., hence, that 
 whereas the first overtone of the former is its 
 octave, the first overtone of the latter is its 
 twelfth. On this fact depends the difficulty 
 of making shakes and of playing rapid pas- 
 sages on certain parts of the clarinet. All 
 sudden changes from the end of the first range 
 of twelve notes to the commencement of the 
 second series, are difficult, some impossible. 
 
 The compass of the instrument is about 
 three octaves and a half from tenor E, including 
 
 all the intermediate semitones. The clarinet 
 being of the nature of a stopped pipe, as to 
 its harmonics, can be played from its lowest 
 note E up to twelve notes higher without a 
 break by means of its keys. At this point the 
 player has to increase the pressure of wind, 
 and commence a new series of sounds, the 
 transition between these two registers forming 
 the chief difficulty in " clarinet blowing." 
 The registers are four in number, and are as 
 follows : 
 
 I. The low includes all notes between 
 
 2. The second between 
 
 P 
 
 3. The third between 
 
 4. The fourth comprises all remaining notes 
 from 
 
 The first two registers are called the " chala- 
 meau part," and when this is employed for any 
 continued time it is written an octave higher, 
 with the direction " chal, or chalameau" to 
 the player. There are three lengths of tubing 
 employed for the clarinet, by which means 
 the instrument may be made to sound three 
 different scales according as the tube is 
 short or long. The longer tube is used for 
 the A clarinet, a medium for the B flat, and 
 the shorter for the C. 
 
 As the fingering is in each case the same 
 in each instrument it has been found con- 
 venient to adopt C as the normal scale, so 
 that a piece of music apparently the same to 
 the eye is different to the ear, according to 
 the clarinet employed. Thus the passage 
 written as follows : 
 
 When played upon a C clarinet would sound 
 as it stands, upon an A clarinet would sound: 
 
 And upon a B flat clarinet, as : 
 
 It is, however, easy to make each instru- 
 
 (97) 
 
CLARINETTISTA CLEF, 
 
 ment give out the same notes by employing 
 a change in the signature, thus the passage 
 for the A clarinet should be written : 
 
 And for the B flat clarinet : 
 
 when they will each give the sounds as written 
 in No. I. 
 
 The kind of clarinet required is usually stated 
 at the commencement, as clarinet in A, B flat, 
 or C, and whenever a change is needed during 
 the progress of a piece, the same is indicated 
 duringa period of rest for the instrument, by the 
 words change to A, B, or C, as the case maybe. 
 
 The advantage of a change of clarinet is 
 that complicated scales upon one instrument 
 become easy upon another. For instance the 
 scale of F sharp major which is very difficult 
 on a C clarinet, when played upon an A 
 clarinet is fingered as A major, the real sounds 
 produced being those of the scale of F sharp 
 major. Similarly the scale of D flat major 
 would become the scale of E flat major on a 
 B flat clarinet. This accounts for the fact 
 that the clarinet part in a full score is some- 
 times in a flat key while the movement is 
 in a sharp key. For example a piece in the 
 key of E minor (one sharp) not uncommonly 
 has a part for an A clarinet written, of course, 
 in G minor with two flats. 
 
 The favourite (because easy) keys of the 
 clarinet are the keys of C, F, and G, B flat, 
 E flat, A flat and D with their relative minors. 
 Hence the skill of the composer is shown in 
 writing for that clarinet capable of producing 
 the best effects in certain keys. 
 
 Clarinets are usually employed in pairs, 
 and the parts are ordinarily written on one 
 stave. They, in conjunction with the two 
 bassoons similarly written, form a grand basis 
 or support for all the other wind instruments. 
 The small E flat clarinet (playing a minor 
 third above the notes actually written) is used 
 in military bands. Its tone is shrill and 
 piercing. The introduction of the clarinet as 
 a regular instrument in the orchestra of the 
 opera is due to J. Christian Bach, who wrote 
 special parts for a pair of clarinets in his opera 
 " Orione, ossia Diana vendicata," which was 
 produced in London in 1763. 
 
 Clarinettista (It.) Clarinettiste (Fr.) A 
 performer on the clarinet. 
 
 Clarinetto (li.) [Clarinet.] 
 
 Clarino (7^.) (i) A trumpet. (2) An organ 
 stop, consisting of reed pipes, generally of 
 4-ft. pitch. 
 
 Clausula (Lat.) A close or cadence, e.g. : 
 
 clausula falsa, a false cadence ; clausula finalis, 
 a final cadence, &c. 
 
 Clavecin (Fr.) (i) A harpsichord. (2) The 
 keys by means of which the carilloneur plays 
 upon the bells. [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Claviatur [Ger.) (i) The key board of an 
 organ or pianoforte. (2) Fingering. 
 
 Clavi-cembalum (Lat.) Clavicembalo (It.) 
 [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Clavichord. [Clarichord.] 
 
 Clavicylinder. An instrument in the form 
 of tubes or cylinders of glass, invented by 
 Chladni. There was another instrument with 
 the same name made of plates of glass of gradu- 
 ated lengths, the tone of which was produced 
 by hammers set in motion by a key-board. 
 
 Clavicytherium. [Clarichord.] 
 
 Claviglissando. An instrument with a 
 key-board, invented by C. W. Le Jeune, which 
 is intended to combine the properties of the 
 violin and harmonium — of the violin in ob- 
 taining a slide or portamento, and the harmo- 
 nium in the capability of imitating the tones 
 of various wind instruments. 
 
 Clavier (Gey.)! (i) The pianoforte. (2) A 
 
 Clavier (Fr.) J row of Keys on an organ. 
 
 Clavierauszug (Ger.) A pianoforte score, 
 as opposed to Partitur, a full score. 
 
 Clef (Lat. clavis.) The sign placed at the 
 commencement of a staff or stave, showing 
 the absolute pitch, the lines without it showing 
 only the relative distances of sounds. When 
 it was found that neumes could be better 
 interpreted by the use of lines, a red and a 
 yellow line were used, it being understood 
 that the former bore the note F, the latter C. 
 It is easy to see, that the fact having been 
 once established that lines could represent 
 notes, it would be found much easier to attach 
 the letter itself to the commencement of the 
 lines, than to colour the line. The coloured 
 lines were invented by Guido, but Walter 
 Odington (13th century) used one of the letters 
 of the musical notes as a clef to his stave of 
 four lines. At this period, it was not usual 
 to employ leger lines, but if the voice ex- 
 ceeded in compass the limit of the stave, the 
 position of the clef was altered; a practice 
 still retained in plain-song books. [Notation.] 
 The letters C and F were most commonly 
 used in all ecclesiastical music up to the time 
 of Palestrina, after which other clefs were 
 introduced. 
 
 There were five sorts of clefs in use in the 
 i6th century, namely, the gamut r, from the 
 Greek gamma, the F, C, g and d clefs. These 
 were ultimately reduced to three, the gamut 
 and the d clefs being found to be unneces- 
 sary. The position of the clefs was held to 
 represent a certain pitch, and as it was 
 supposed that the scale was incapable of ex- 
 tension beyond the notes indicated by the 
 
 (98) 
 
CLEF. 
 
 clefs gamut and d, their places marked the 
 boundary of ecclesiastical compass. The other 
 clefs might be made moveable if needed, for 
 reasons already intimated, but whatever the 
 number of lines above or below the clefs, 
 each clef represented a particular sound. Thus, 
 the F clefs indicated F finale, the C clef, 
 acutum, and the G clef, G superacutum, &c. 
 Many of the musical treatises of the i6th 
 century contain a chapter "De Clavibus sig- 
 natis," which is interesting as showing the 
 form of the clefs as then employed. 
 
 All the writers of these tracts distinguish 
 between the clefs proper to plain-song, and 
 those employed for figurate or mensurable 
 music. In the following copies of these ar- 
 rangements of clefs, those for plain-song are 
 on the left, and those for figurate music on 
 the right. No. i, from Finck's " Practica 
 Musica," 1556 : 
 
 ^SS^ 
 
 ^<^ 
 
 Signa 
 
 clavium 
 
 in utroque 
 
 cantu. 
 
 ■^i 
 
 -^^ 
 
 ^E^ 
 
 £t ponuntur omnes in lineali situ, 
 qusedam tamen sunt magis fami- 
 liares, utpote F et C, g rariuscule. 
 r vero et dd rarissime utimur. 
 Unde, Linea signatas sustentat 
 scilicet omnes. Et distant inter 
 se mutuo per diapentem. F tamen 
 ycLfifia distinguat septima quamvis. 
 
 No. 2, from " Erotemata Musices Practicse," 
 by Ambrosius Wilphlingsederus, 1563 : 
 
 -^ 
 
 W^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 -^-^ 
 
 ^ggg- 
 
 =^^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 In mensurali vero hoc modo. 
 
 tn chorali cantu simpliciter 
 prescribuntur ita. 
 
 No. 3, from " Erotemata Musicas,'* by 
 Lucas Lossius, 1570: 
 
 45S 
 
 :^± 
 
 -^^ 
 
 t-7^ dS - 
 
 ^— ^ 
 
 ^H 
 
 ^^3 
 
 ^ 
 
 In -cantu chorali. In cantu fi^rali. 
 
 In later times three clefs F, C and G were 
 
 found sufficient for all purposes. The C clef 
 appears upon all lines but the fifth. 
 
 r 
 
 ^m 
 
 The first is called the Soprano, and is most 
 frequently found in ecclesiastical music, though 
 it not uncommonly indicates the treble voice 
 part in modern full scores. The second is 
 called the Mezzo Soprano, and is assigned 
 to second treble, and sometimes alto voices, 
 and in music of the early part of the i8th 
 century is often used for the tenor violin. The 
 third is the Alto, and the fourth the Tenor 
 clef; the former being used for alto voices, 
 violas, and the highest trombone, the latter 
 by tenor voices, trombones and the upper 
 register of the bassoon and violoncello. The 
 F clef is placed upon the fourth line of the 
 stave and is used for all bass voices and in- 
 struments. When it is found upon the third 
 line as in some old music it is called the 
 baritone clef: 
 
 m 
 
 The following quotations from music books 
 of various dates will show the forms through 
 which the several clefs have passed. The 
 " Compendium Musicae," by Lampadius, 1537, 
 is supposed to be the earliest printed book in 
 which the G clef is used in a shape nearly 
 similar to that now employed: 
 
 S 
 
 ¥ 
 
 In LuUy's and other French scores it is some- 
 times placed upon th& first line: 
 
 In this position it was called the " French 
 violin clef;" and in an earlier work by 
 Christopher Demantius, " Isagoge Artis 
 Musicae," 1656, it appears upon the third 
 line: 
 
 i 
 
 In "Ayres and Dialogues for one, two, and 
 three voyces," by Henry Lawes, 1653, the 
 forms of the clefs are as follows : 
 
 ^ 
 
 t 
 
 ^^ 
 
 In Christopher Simpson's 
 (99) 
 
 Compendium of 
 
CLEF COGLI STROMENTI. 
 
 Practical Musick," 1678, the clefs are in this 
 shape : 
 
 ^ 
 
 Playford's Psalms, third edition, 1697, the 
 following are the forms : 
 
 IMatthew Wilkins's " Book of Psalmody," 
 1699: 
 
 fe^S: 
 
 Dr. Croft's " Thirty Select Anthems,'' 1724- 
 
 '-2Z 
 
 Godfrey Keller's " Rules for playing a thorow- 
 bass," 1731: 
 
 F 
 
 g 
 
 Emanuel Bach's " Sechs leichte Clavier 
 Sonaten," 1766 : 
 
 ^ 
 
 Malcolm, " A Treatise of Music," 1779 : 
 
 m 
 
 -3^ 
 
 Shield's " Introduction to Harmony," 1800 ; 
 
 In many modern French music books the F 
 clef is written thus : 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 In this a resemblance to the letter F, the 
 ancient clef sign for this pitch, may be 
 traced. Many writers have maintained that 
 clefs create difficulties in the way of a "right 
 understanding of music," and have therefore 
 suggested their removal or the substitution of 
 simpler signs. 
 
 Thomas Salmon, 1676, proposed the use of 
 the letter T, for the treble clef, M for the 
 mean or C clef, and B for the bass clef. His 
 proposal led him into a controversy with 
 Matthew Locke, which was maintained on 
 both sides in language not very creditable 
 to either. Francis Delafond, in 1725, sug- 
 gested the use of one clef only, the F, or 
 bass clef. A century later. Miss Glover, in 
 a parriphlet explaihing.her views on what she 
 called the Tetrachordal System, proposed to 
 abolish all clefs, a proposition which has 
 since been carried out in the Tonic-Sol-fa 
 method of teaching singing. The use of the 
 treble clef for all purposes has also been 
 recently advocated, but with little success, 
 
 Clivus (Lat.) [Neumes.] 
 
 Clocca {Med. Lat.) A bell. Irish, clog, a 
 small bell. Fr. cloche. Ger.Glocke. 
 
 Cloche (Fr.) A bell. 
 
 Clochettes (Fr.) Hand-bells. 
 
 Clock, to. To set a bell in vibration, by 
 attaching a rope to the clapper, and swinging 
 it to and fro till it strikes the side of the bell 
 which remains stationary. It is an undesi- 
 rable practice, as many valuable bells have in 
 this manner been cracked. 
 
 Clokerre [Old Eng.) Clocherre {Old Fr.) 
 A belfry. In low Latin, clocherium. 
 
 Close harmony. Harmony produced by 
 drawing the parts which form it closely to- 
 gether. 
 
 Close play. A direction in lute playing. 
 The following explanation of the term is from 
 Barley's Lute book : " Thou shalt not neede • 
 but to remoove those fingers which thou shalt 
 be forced, which manner of handling we call 
 close or covert play." It would appear to 
 correspond 'to the smooth style sometimes 
 adopted on the organ or other keyed in- 
 struments. 
 
 Clynke-bell. [Chime.] 
 
 C moll (Ger.) C minor. 
 
 Coalottino. [Concertino.] 
 
 Coda {It.) (i) The tail of a note. (2) The 
 bars occasionally added to a contrapuntal 
 movement after the close or finish of the 
 canto fermo. (3) The few chords or bars 
 attached to an infinite canon in order to 
 render it finite ; or a few chords not in canon, 
 added to a finite canon for the sake of ob- 
 taining a more harmonious conclusion. (4) 
 An adjunct to the ordinary close of a sonata, 
 or symphony, &c., for the purpose of enforcing 
 the final character of the movement. 
 
 Codetta (It.) dim. of coda. A short coda. 
 
 Codon (Gk.Muiv.) (i) A small bell, such as 
 
 those attached to the trappings of horses. (2) 
 
 A crier's bell. (3) The bell of a trumpet (Fr. 
 
 pavilion). (4) A trumpet with a bell-mouth. 
 
 Cogli stromenti (It.) With the instru- 
 ments. 
 
 ( 100 ) 
 
COI COMMON OR DUPLE TIME. 
 
 Coi bassi {It.) With the basses. 
 Coi violini. With the violins. 
 Col {It.) With;e.g-.: 
 
 Col arco, with the bow. 
 
 Col b^sso, with the bas^. 
 
 Col canto, with the melody. 
 
 CoIIa destra, with the right hand. 
 
 Coir arco, with the bow. 
 
 Colla parte, with the principal part. 
 
 Colla punta dell' arco, with the point of the bow. 
 
 Colla sinistra, with the left hand. 
 
 Colla voce, with the. yo;cs. 
 
 College of Organists. A modern insti- 
 tution established in London, for the purpose 
 of improving the position of organ players, 
 granting diplomas, and of providing' suitable 
 performers for the service of the church. 
 
 College Youths. A Society of bell ringers 
 established in 1637, ^^ '^^e church connected 
 with the college of St. Spirit and Mary, 
 Upper Thames Street, London. 
 
 Col legno {It.') With the wood. A direction 
 to strike the strings of a violin with the back 
 or wood of the "bow. 
 
 Collet de violon (Fr.) Neck of a violin. 
 
 CoUinet. {Fr.) A flageolet, so called after 
 a celebrated player of that name. 
 
 Colophony. Colofonia {It.) Colophoni^m 
 {Lat.) Colophonie {Fr.) Resin. The gum 
 used for making the hair of bows rough, so 
 as to set the strings freely into vibration. So 
 called from Colophon in Greece {aoXofiovia, 
 and 'prj-lvrii gum.) 
 
 Color {Lat.) Colour. A term variously 
 emplayed in medi^sval treatises on music to 
 represent : a repetition of a sound in part 
 music (repititio ejusdem vocis); purity of tone 
 (pulchritudo soni) ; a movement of the voice 
 from the part (florificatio vocis); an altera- 
 tion of rhythm by different voices (idem sonus 
 repetitus in tempore diverso a diversis voci- 
 bus) ; a discord purposely introduced for the 
 sake of variety ('aliquando unus eorum ponitur 
 in -discordantiam propter colorem musicas). 
 Some, have gathered fr6m the definition— 
 " Repetitio diversse vocis est idem, sonus re- 
 petitus in tempore diverso a diversis vocibus," 
 that a musical canonis meantto be described. 
 (2) The coloured lines first used for the pur- 
 pose of rendering neumes more intelligible. 
 " Quamvis perfecta sit positura neumarum, 
 cseca omnino est et nihil valet sine adjunctione 
 literarum vel colprum " (Guido). [See Clef 
 and Notation.] 
 
 Coloratura {It.) Divisions, runs, trills, 
 cadenzas, and other florid passages in vocal 
 music. 
 
 Coloscione or Colachon. A Species of 
 guitar, called also Bichordon or Trichordbn, 
 according as it was strung. 
 
 Come {It.) As, like; e.g.: Come prima, as 
 at first; Come sta, as it stands; Come sop'ra, 
 as above. 
 
 Comes {Lat.) The answer to the Dux or 
 subject. [Fugue.] 
 
 Comic opera. An opera in which the in- 
 cidents are of a humorous description. The 
 comic opera is of Italian origin and French 
 development; e,ach subject treated by musicians 
 of other nations owing its rise either to some 
 one or other theme already taken by French 
 composers of comic operas, or from the 
 vaudevilles which preceded, and' formed the 
 pattern of, the cornic opera,s. Boieldieu, 
 Herold, Auber, Adam, Thomas, Offenbach, 
 Lecocq,are the most successful representatives 
 of the modem school of comic opera writers. 
 [Vaudeville, 'Opera, &c.] 
 
 Comic song. A songdevelopingin humo- 
 rous verse s'bme ludicrous, idea or incident 
 set to atune already popular, or with a melody 
 easy to be caught up by the hearers, in order 
 that they may be ready when called upon to 
 join in the chorus which usually accompanies 
 such sOngs. Songs bf a humorous description 
 are of high a'ntiquity, but as their humour 
 is generally 'of a bad character, specimens of 
 this, class of literature tare not fitted either for 
 general or for particular, readers. The ballads 
 and sto,?'ies whiph would please an audience of 
 a past age ^f)d which have found their way 
 inta many collections of ancient songs, are 
 scarcely respectable even for their antiquit}'. 
 
 Comma. The small interval between a 
 major and a minor to,ne, that is between a 
 tone whose ra.tio, is 8 :' 9 and one whose ratio 
 is"9':io. The ratio of a comma is therefore 
 80:, 81. A Pythagorean comma is the differ- 
 ence between the note' produced by taking 
 7 octaves upwards and 12 fifths. 
 
 Common chord. A note accompanied 
 by its major or minor 3rd and perfect 5th. 
 [Harmony.] In thorough bass, the; figure 3, 
 a sharp, flat or, natural, as the case may be, 
 or ,the abserice of any letter, cliaracter, or 
 figure, denotes the common chord, of the bass 
 note. Wheij there is more than one chord 
 on the same bass note, the common c^ord is 
 figured .§■. 
 
 Common or Duple time. Time with two 
 beats in a bar, or any multiple of two beats 
 in a bar. The beats may be of the value of 
 any note or rest or compound of notes and 
 rests, providing the sum required by the 
 time sign be exactly ■ contained in each 
 bar. Common time -is of two kinds, simple 
 and' compound. Simple common time is 
 that which includes ' four beats in a bar, 
 or any division of that number, or square 
 of the number or its divisions. The signs 
 used! to express simple common time are 
 the following: M, |it, f- and'the charac- 
 ters C and (>. In these signs the upper figiire 
 denotes the quantity of notes required in the 
 bar, and the lower figure the quality of the 
 
 ( loi ) 
 
COMODAMENTE CONCENTUS. 
 
 notes, I signifying asemibreve, 2 a minim, 4 
 a crotchet, 8 a quaver, and so on, each figure 
 showing the relative proportionate value to 
 the semibreve which is now reckoned as the 
 time-standard. The sign (c) is called the 
 sign of alia cappella time, and is usually 
 followed by four minims in a bar, played or sung 
 in slow time ; the sign ( ([j ) is called the sign 
 of alia breve time, and has also four or eight 
 minims in a bar played or sung in a shorter 
 time, as its title implies. The use of words 
 directing the pace in which pieces of music 
 are intended to betaken, has created a certain 
 amount of confusion in the use and meaning 
 of all the time signs descriptive of form in a 
 bar [Expression, Time]. Compound common- 
 time is expressed by the signs |, I, ^^, such 
 signs meaning two or four beats of three 
 crotchets or quavers to each beat. 
 
 In mediaeval music a circle O was used 
 to indicate what was called perfect time 
 (tempus perfectum), a portion of the circle 
 being omitted C showed that the time was im- 
 perfect, a line through the latter sign (jj meant 
 a more rapid pace than that required when the 
 C alone was used. When these signs were 
 reversed they implied that the music was to 
 be taken faster than if they were in tbeir 
 ordinary places. Thus the degree of rapidity 
 would be shown by the time signs arranged 
 as follows : O C (1; 
 
 Comodamente (It.) Lit. in a convenient 
 manner. Easily, quietly. 
 
 Comodo (It.) Easily, at will, without 
 haste. 
 
 Compagnia del gonfalone (It.) An 
 ancient society of mysterj' or miracle play 
 actors established at Rome, in 1264, who 
 illustrated their dramatic performances of 
 sacred subjects with music. They took their 
 name from the banner (gonfalone) which they 
 bore. Their performances are supposed by 
 some writers to have suggested the Oratorio. 
 
 Company of Musicians. The Musicians' 
 Company of the City of London was estab- 
 lished by letters patent under the great seal 
 of England, on April 24, in the ninth year of 
 the reign of Edward IV. (1472-3). The com- 
 pany was instituted as a perpetual Guild, or 
 Fraternity and Sisterhood of Minstrels — a 
 minstrel being a musician qualified to sing or 
 play in public. A new charter was granted 
 by James I., on July 8, 1604. The Musicians' 
 is the only city company for the exercise of a 
 profession. 
 
 Compass. The whole range of sounds 
 capable of being produced by a voice or 
 instrument. 
 
 Compiacevole (It.) 
 charming. 
 
 Pleasant, agreeable, 
 
 Complement. The interval which must 
 be added to any other interval, so that the 
 whole shall be equal to an octave ; e.g., the 
 complement of a 3rd is a 6th ; that of a 4th, 
 a 5th; of a 5th, a 4th ; and so on. It will be 
 seen that the intervals are always considered 
 as overlapping. 
 
 Compline (from the Lat. completorium). 
 The short evening service which completes 
 the day-hours. 
 
 Composer, (i) An author of music. One 
 who " finds out musical tunes." (2) An in- 
 ventor and arranger of a series of changes in 
 bell ringing. 
 
 Composition, (i) A piece of music, for 
 voices or instruments, or a combination of 
 both effects, constructed according . to the 
 rules of art. (2) The art of composing music, 
 guided by scientific rules. (3) In an organ, 
 the particular combination of sounds which 
 form a compound stop. (4) A mechanical 
 arrangement on the organ by which certain 
 combinations of stops may be employed or 
 not, at the wish of the performer, upon his 
 opening or closing a valve, or by using a 
 pedal which acts upon the sliders. 
 
 Composizione {It.) A composition. 
 
 Composizione di Tavolino {It.) Table 
 music. Convivial compositions, c.f. Ger. 
 Lieder-tafel. [Chamber music] 
 
 Compound intervals. Intervals greater 
 than an octave, as opposed to simple intervals 
 which are less than an octave. 
 
 Compound Stops. Organ stops having 
 more than one rank of pipes. 
 
 Compound Times. Times in which the 
 bar is divided into two or more groups of 
 notes, e.g., ^ which consists of two groups 
 of three notes ; f which consists of three 
 groups of three, &c. Compound Times are 
 classified as duple or triple, according to the 
 number of groups in each bar, not according 
 to the number of notes in each group ; e.g., 
 I is a duple time ; | a triple time ; ^ (four 
 groups of three) a duple time, &c. The prin- 
 cipal accent falls on the first note in each bar, 
 and a subordinate accent on the first note of 
 each group. 
 
 Comus {Gk. kw^ioq). a revel, carousal, 
 merry making with music and dancing. The 
 revellers paraded the street crowned, carrying 
 torches, and sang verses in praise of the gods 
 or the victors in the games. 
 
 Comus. {Gk. KOfifioc). A mournful song 
 sung in alternate verses by an actor and a 
 chorus in the Attic drama. 
 
 Con (It.) With ; e.g. con amore, with affec- 
 tion ; con moto, with spirited movement ; con 
 sordini, with the mutes on, &c. (See the 
 words to which it is prefixed.) 
 Concento [It.) Harriiony. 
 Concentus {Lat.) (concinno). Musical 
 
 (. 102 ) 
 
CONCERT CONCERTINA. 
 
 harmony. Part music ; e.g., concentus vocis 
 Lyroeque. Consonance ; e.g., concentus tuba- 
 rum ac cornuum. 
 
 Concert, (i) A performance of music in 
 which several executants are employed. Con- 
 certs of music, to which the general public 
 is admitted by payment, are of comparatively 
 recent origin in the history of music. Public 
 musical performances, more or less connected 
 with state or religion, were anciently given 
 from time to time, on occasions of importance. 
 Kings, nobles, and civic officials, employed 
 musicians in their trains, but their perfor- 
 mances could scarcely be considered in the 
 light of concerts. Organized bands of musi- 
 cians who performed in the houses of the 
 great and wealthy ; " waits " and " noises " 
 are frequently mentioned in old records, but 
 concerts of music in hired houses, assembly 
 rooms of taverns, &c., apart and distinct 
 from the " entertainment " ordinarily provided 
 at hostelries are rare before the time of 
 Charles II. Pepys, in his Diary, speaks of 
 " musick meetings " and " concerts," but 
 they were private affairs, and therefore not 
 within the meaning of the term as now under- 
 stood. The first public concert in England 
 was given at Oxford, in the year 1670, the 
 first in London two years later. After which 
 a periodical concert was established in Ayles- 
 bury Street, Clerkenwell, over the shop of 
 Thomas Britton, the musical small-coalman. 
 Before this time musicians roved from tavern 
 to tavern, instruments in hand, waiting the 
 pleasure of the guests "if they were willing 
 to heare any musick." These bands of 
 fiddlers played by the hour together such pop- 
 ular tunes as were best calculated to delight 
 audiences gathered impromptu. But from all 
 that can be learned, their performance was 
 not scientific ; " for the most part it was that 
 of violins, hautboys, and trumpets, without 
 any diversity of parts, and consequently in 
 the unison." 
 
 The advertisement of the first London con- 
 cert is still extant, and runs as follows : — 
 
 " These are to give notice, that at Mr. 
 John Banister's house (now called the Musick 
 School) over against the George Tavern, in 
 White Fryers, this present Monday, will be 
 music performed by excellent masters, begin- 
 ning precisely at 4 of the clock in the after- 
 noon, and every afternoon for the future, 
 precisely at the same hour. London Gazette, 
 Dec. 30th, 1672." From this time forward 
 concerts of all kinds, vocal and instrumental, 
 given not only "by excellent masters" but 
 also by those who cannot with justice be called 
 either " masters " or " excellent," become com- 
 mon enough. It would be both tedious and 
 unnecessary to trace the history of concerts 
 step by step, neither is it to the present pur- 
 
 pose to describe in detail the several sorts of 
 concerts which have taken place since that 
 given " over against the George Tavern." 
 It may not, however, be uninteresting to state 
 that the word has been applied to the per- 
 formance of oratorios in church as the follow- 
 ing quotation will show : 
 
 " The Oratorios for the opening of the 
 elegant Organ now erected in the Minster, at 
 Beverley, will be on the 20th, 21st, and 22nd of 
 September, 1769, viz : 
 
 " On Wednesday the 20th, the Sacred 
 Oratorio of the Messiah. 
 
 " On Thursday, the 21st, the Oratorio of 
 Judas Maccabseus. 
 
 " On Friday the 22nd, the Oratorio of 
 Samson ; and that being the Anniversary of 
 the King's Coronation, the Performance will 
 conclude with Mr. Handel's grand Coronation 
 Anthem. 
 
 " The first violin by Mr. Giardini. The 
 principal voices by Mrs. Hudson, of York, 
 Miss Radcliffe, Mr. Norris, and Mr. Matthews, 
 both of Oxford. The remainder of the band 
 will be numerous, and will consist of the best 
 performers, vocal and instrumental, that can 
 be procured. 
 
 " Tickets for the Great Aisle at 5s. each. 
 Galleries at 2s. 6d. each, to be had of Mr. 
 Hawdon, organist, of Mr. Norris, at the Bell, 
 and of Mrs. Todd, at the Tyger, in Beverley ; 
 of Mr. Forster, carver, in Salthouse Lane, and 
 of Mr. Ferraby, Bookseller, in the Butchery, 
 in Hull. Of whom may be had Books of the 
 Oratorios, with Mr. Handell's Alterations and 
 Additions, as they will be performed at Beverley. 
 Price 4d. each. The North doors will be 
 open'd at Ten in the Morning, and the Con- 
 cert to begin at Eleven! The Great Aisle 
 will be fill'd with Benches. And to add to 
 the solemnity of the performance, the singers 
 will be dress'd in surplices. 
 
 " All tickets transferable. No Money taken 
 at the Door. 
 
 " A Concerto upon the Organ each Day. 
 And Mr. Giardini will oblige the company 
 with a Solo. 
 
 IS"' An Assembly on Wednesday and 
 Friday." 
 
 (2) {Ger.) A concerto. 
 
 Concertante (It.) (i) A composition 
 suitable for performance at a concert. (2) A 
 composition in which several of the parts are 
 in turn brought into prominence. 
 
 Concerted Music. Music for two or more 
 performers, either vocal or instrumental, as op- 
 posed to vocal or instrumental solo, with or 
 without accompaniment by a single instrument. 
 
 Concertina {Eng.) A portable musical 
 instrument of hexagonal form, invented by 
 Professor Wheatstone, consisting of a series 
 of vibrating metal reeds acted upon and set 
 
 ( 103 ) 
 
CONCERTINA CONDUCTOR 
 
 in motion by the current of air, caused by a 
 bellows placed in the body of the instrument 
 connecting the two ends in which the metal 
 tongues or springs are fixed and worked by 
 the player, both hands being in such a position 
 that the wrists move the bellows while the, 
 fingers are free to press the stops or keys 
 which cause it to sound. The conipass of the 
 concertina is of three and a half octaves with 
 intermediate semitones from fiddle G : 
 
 P- 
 
 Each note in this scale is double, that is to 
 say, is capable of being produced by the in- 
 spiration or respiration of the bellows. [Ac- 
 cordion.] 
 
 Caneertina {G-er.) An instrunient of shape 
 similar to the English concertina, but of Ipss^ 
 finished appearance and more limited, com- 
 pass. The bellows exdtesithe vibration of 
 the. free metallic reeds as in the English 
 concertina, but the ■ scale instead of being 
 double is single, that is, the respiratory note is 
 different to the inspiratory note, and has only 
 those chromatic notes necessary for the modu- 
 lation of melody into the tonic or dominant 
 of the scale in which the instrument is tuned. 
 There is also an escape valve to .allow the 
 passage of superfluous air, a contrivance not 
 necessary on the English concertina, where 
 theinotes are of double sound. The German 
 concertina is capable of being performed only in 
 the one key in which it is tuned, the English 
 concertina can be played in any key. 
 
 Concertino {It.) (i) The principal in- 
 strument in a concerto, .as violino concertino. 
 (2) The diminutive of concerto. 
 
 Concerto (/<.) (i) A concert. (2) A com- 
 position for the display of the qualities of 
 some especial instrument, accompanied by 
 others of a similar or dissimilar character. A 
 concerto may be for a solo violin, or violon- 
 cello with an accompaniment for strings,' or 
 wind; or it may be for a -.pianoforte, violin, or 
 any wind instrument, and a full band. Those 
 for pianoforte, violin, or organ, arejgenerally 
 made of more classical character than those 
 for any wind instrument, as in many cases the 
 last named are constructed by the performers 
 themselves with the object of exhibiting their 
 own accomplishments, and. their artistic taste. 
 In a work by Scipio Bargagliai, published, in 
 Venice, 1587, "Trattimenti ossia divertimenti 
 da Sonare," the word concerto is applied to a 
 piece for a solo instrument with accompani- 
 ment, probably for the first time. The con- 
 certo is usually constructed in symphonic 
 form, but without a minuet of scherzD. Though 
 the early concertos show sorrte deviation froni 
 the plan now accepted, they were, however. 
 
 designed according to T-ules or plans, accepted 
 or allowed from .t.irne to time. The concertos 
 of Corelli, Torelli, Bach, Tartini, and writers 
 of the periods in which those masters lived 
 are only different from.Aheir suites: in that.a 
 solo instrument- has the accompaniment of 
 other instruments. . . 
 
 Torelli (i683-i7o8)'Was the first writer who 
 suggested an extension of the. number of in- 
 st];umep!bs employed in a Concerto, and by 
 this means pointed the way to the symphony. 
 He- called this sort of composition " Concerto 
 Grosso." In his plan he;giyes certain, phrases 
 to' one or more solo instruments which are 
 repeated, by the full band employed. Handel 
 constructed, hisj-!', Concerti Grossi " on the 
 same model., Vivaldi (1690-1743) further de- 
 veloped the jdga^ Gossec, Haydn, and Mozart 
 settled;. the .form as it stands at present, and 
 Beethoven, Weber, and Mendelssohn have 
 left noble examples of their musical powers 
 in their works of this class. 
 
 Concertospiritoale{/i.) Concert spirJtuel 
 {Fr.) A concert formed of a miscellaneous 
 selection of vocal and instruinental .pieces 
 with rwofds of a sacred chai-acter. The con- 
 certs^ spirituels in Paris were founded in the 
 year -1725. 
 
 Concertmeister (Ger.) The leader of the 
 bandAthe condji.ctpr.. 
 
 Concertrspieler (Ger.) A 1 performer ;; a 
 solo-player ; -t:he player of a concerto. 
 
 Coneei'tfstuck (Ger.) A concert piece; a 
 concerto. 
 
 Concha (La^.) A trumpet in the conven- 
 tional form of a shell fish ; Triton's horn ; a 
 conch, 
 
 Concitato-(/i.)' Moved, disturbed, agitated. 
 
 Cpncord. [Harmony,! 
 
 Conductor, (i) A direefpr or leader of an 
 orchestra or chorus. It is supposed that a 
 leader or a fuglegian was employed by the 
 Assyrians, to reguUt« the rhythm of the songs 
 or dances ; he was armed with two sticks, 
 one of which he beat against the other, and 
 so marked: the time or accent. 
 
 Among the Greeks the Coryphaeus or exar- 
 chus led the dance, and in everythin:g requiring 
 united action, a leader or conductor by his 
 voice or certain understood gestures secured 
 the desired regplt. The word in connection 
 with music, has several applications. It signi^ 
 fies one who directs with a baton the perfor- 
 mance of aband of players. It is also applied 
 to one who aecojnpanieis ivocal or instrumental 
 pieces on the pianoforte. lA ooniiuctor, as an 
 independent time beater, was not known until 
 the end of the last century. The player who 
 sat at the. harpsichord gave the time to the 
 leader of the band, who, directing his subor- 
 dinates, was, called conductor. [Orchestra,] 
 
 (2) The inventor or leader of a chime, or 
 
 ( 104 ) 
 
CONDUCTUS CONFRERIE DE ST. JULIEN. 
 
 change in bell ringing, is also known as the 
 conductor or composer. 
 
 Conductus (Lat.) The name given to a 
 certain vocal composition in parts, in the 13th 
 and i4;th centuries. It has been variously 
 described as a composition having descant 
 on an original melody (qui vult facere con- 
 duqtum, primum cantum debet invenire pul- 
 chriorem quam potest, &c., Franco of Cologne) ; 
 on an original or borrowed theme (conducti 
 sunt compositi explicabilibus canticis decoris 
 cognitis vel inventis, &c., Walter Odington). 
 The definition of John of Garland points to an 
 elaborate construction : " conductus autem est 
 super unum metrum, multiplex consonans 
 cantus qui etiam secundarias recipit conso- 
 nantias." ..." In florificatione vocis fit color 
 ut commixtio in conductis simplicibus." Con- 
 ducti were sometimes sung without words. 
 They were called simple, double, triple^ or 
 quadruple, but the real distinction between- 
 the different kinds cannot be clearly learnt 
 from the old treatises. All the information 
 which can be brought together will be found 
 in Coussemaker's L'Art harmonique aux XII" 
 et XIII^ siecles. 
 
 Cone Gamba. [Bell Gamba.] 
 Gonfrerie.de St. Julian. A Society of 
 Musicians in France, at one period possessing 
 great power. At the end of the 13th centur}', 
 the troubadours ceased to exist, the " courts 
 ofjoue " were -closed, the sentiment of the 
 troubadour poetry was no longer enjoyed^ and 
 the excesses of the singers aijd poets were the 
 things for which they were best or worst re- 
 membered. Their followers, no longer having 
 poetry as a veil and excuse: for th,eir peculiari- 
 ties, became disreputable,, and led a wander- 
 ing, careless, and shifty life ; the sins of their 
 masfers were visited upon their devoted hea^Sj 
 and they became Ishmaelites against whom 
 every man's hand was raised, and who had 
 inclination but not power to lift' hand against 
 every man. They were no longer welcome 
 for their skilLat all times as heretofoire. They 
 were no longer free to enter the houses of the 
 great and wealthy "without leave and license 
 prpyioijsly had and obtained," as they had 
 been when in attendance upon some poet 
 prince or troubadour sovereign. It was, l^pyi^- 
 ever, necessary that they should live, and 
 those that did not become openly dishonest, 
 " robbers on theking's highway with a gallqws 
 at the. end of it," sought the means of liveli- 
 hood in another sphere than that to which 
 they bad previously been always welcomed in. 
 The love for mus^cstill existed among a. lower 
 class of people, and'thpse gladly received the 
 musicians and performers "vvhpse strains had 
 made many a gentle heart beat quickly," as a 
 proof of their own elevation of taste in matters 
 of courtesy and refinement. Gathering cour- 
 
 age by the patronage bestowed upon them, 
 and deeming it needful to "sort their humours" 
 to those of the people for whose amusement 
 they exercised their calling, they made a 
 change in. their programme and spoke out 
 openly that which had hitherto been conveyed 
 only through a delicate innuendo. Their suc- 
 cess was complete, and to save the effect of 
 troubles which might arise from an ungodly 
 enterprise, they became apparently religious, 
 placed themselves under the protection of a 
 patron saint, Julien, Archbishop of Toledo, 
 who after having led a life of vicissitude and 
 vagabondage, . died in 662, and became the 
 tutelar protector of all vagabonds except 
 thieves — who were committed to the care of 
 St. Nicholas. There was also another Saint 
 who divided the honours of their devotions, 
 Genesius, a comedian, who was martyred lor 
 his Christianity at the end of the 4th century. 
 Under the care of ^these two patrons, the musi- 
 cians flourished, and in the year J330, settled 
 themselves in the good city of Paris, and 
 formed themselves into a guild for mutual 
 protection and support. The title by which 
 they were enrolled was that of the "Com- 
 pagnons, jongleurs, merijestreux or menes- 
 triers," and this title sufficiently imdicated their 
 position of companions, yokefeUows) and ser- 
 vaMts to. the former, troubadours. They had 
 suffioient interest left with the friends, and 
 connexions of their old masters to obtain 
 "sealed letters" in November 27th, 1331, 
 recognising ^ their position ; and they lived 
 together in one street, hence, called St. jfulien 
 des menStriers. To this quarter all had to 
 come -wliD, desired their ■ services, and as the 
 minstrels became further encouraged, and in- 
 creased in numbers they assumed a line of 
 conduct which caused William de Germont, 
 Prefect of Paris, to place various restrictions 
 upon them, which were continued with ad- 
 ditions and modifications :by his successors. 
 
 By a decree issued in the year 1393, the pain 
 of imprisonment was visited upon all mem- 
 bers of the guild who offended by reciting 
 scurrilous and scandalous verses either in the 
 streets or in the houses of those who hired 
 them. This check caused a division qf the 
 society, the one part devoting itself to the 
 practice of tumbling and rope-dancing — these 
 were called baceleurs — the other carrying on 
 the music-entertaining business — took to viol 
 playing, and marked a certain progress in their 
 art, by the introduction of bass instruments 
 hitherto not used by them. 'They distinguished 
 themselves by the title of " Afenestrels joueurs 
 d'instrumens tant haut que has." By this 
 name they were recognised by Charles VI., 
 who gave them letters patent dated April 14th, 
 1401. Armed with this document they elected 
 a chief called " Roi des mfinestrels," and they 
 
 ( i°5) 
 
CONFRERIE DE ST. JULIEN CONSECUTIVES. 
 
 built and endowed a chapel in the Rue St. 
 Martin, as much to conciliate the ecclesiastical 
 powers, as to mark their attachment to religi- 
 ous forms. They had a monopoly of all 
 music in France, especially in Paris ; no one 
 could learn an instrument without employing 
 a member of the confraternity, no one could 
 give a banquet of music without the leave and 
 license of the Confr6rie de St. Julien. Even 
 the king, not to speak of the mayor of Paris, 
 was compelled to be- indebted to them for 
 the after dinner amusement of his guests, 
 as well as for the means of giving brilliancy to 
 pageants, processions, and other state busi- 
 nesses. The Confr6rie were all- important in 
 the matter of vocal and instrumental music ; 
 they had the monopoly of the court and mu- 
 nicipal music of Paris until the reign of Louis 
 XIV., who in 1 658 was weak enough to confirm 
 their charter and privileges. These privileges 
 must have been great, for they allowed the 
 title of musician to be possessed by those 
 who had funds sufficient to purchase fellow- 
 ship in the guild: musical skill was of no 
 import, for neither city or court cared for the 
 performances of the Confr6rie, though they 
 were compelled to pay handsomely for that 
 which they would rather have dispensed with. 
 If the cultivation of true musical science had 
 been the object in the maintenance of the 
 guild, musical composition from the 14th to 
 the 17th centuries would have been less of a 
 puzzle and annoyance than it is ; but unfortu- 
 nately for the body, in course of time, pressure 
 from without was brought to bear, and the 
 whole thing collapsed, though not without a 
 struggle. From the date when attention was 
 drawn to it for its inefficiency and incompe- 
 tency, to the day when it finally ceased to exist, 
 no less a period than 100 years elapsed. Louis 
 XIV. in 1660 happened to hear a piece of 
 music by a rising composer called Jean Bap- 
 tiste Lully, and thinking that it was exactly 
 the sort of lullaby or r6veil he should like to 
 hear performed in his own palace, desired to 
 have it executed by his own court band, but, 
 alas ! they were musicians only in name, and 
 this little request gave them trouble. But 
 they plucked up courage ; the king was in- 
 formed that they held their places by prescrip- 
 tive right, and as it had not been the custom 
 for the " Musiciens du Roi," to exercise the 
 art which they professed and were paid for, 
 for many generations, the king's request was 
 unreasonable and unconstitutional. The con- 
 fraternity would still enjoy their privileges and 
 emoluments and the king must go without his 
 music. This he was not inclined to do ; he 
 was therefore pleased to command arid ordain 
 that Lully should organise a band, himself at 
 the head, and in order to avoid collision with 
 the patent place-holders and privileged ineffi- 
 
 ( I 
 
 cients, this new band of practical musicians, 
 these four and twenty were to be called 
 " Petits vidons du Roi," the king's little 
 fiddlers, instead of the king's musicians, a 
 very nice and comforting distinction. By 
 degrees the income arising from the property 
 possessed by the confraternity of St. Julien 
 was applied to a proper purpose, the king's 
 chamber music was executed by legitimate 
 performers, and the perverted association was 
 finally suppressed in 1761, after four hundred 
 years of profitable but comparatively useless 
 existence. 
 
 Congregational music. Music in which 
 the people or congregation take part, as op- 
 posed to that which is sung by the trained 
 choir alone. The plain-song of the Responses, 
 Creeds, and of the Lord's Prayer ; and the 
 melody of psalm and hymn tunes are con- 
 gregational music, but services and anthems 
 are specially set aside for performance by the 
 choir, acting as it were as the skilled represen- 
 tatives of the listening and meditating people. 
 ' Conjunct, (i) One of the Greek systems 
 of music. [Greek Music] (2) Conjunct motion, 
 a succession of sounds proceeding by single 
 degrees. 
 
 Consecutives. A forbidden progression of 
 parallel fifths or octaves, e.g. : 
 
 Consecutive fifths. Consecutive octaves. 
 
 Consecutives are considered to be saved, if 
 they do not occur between the same two parts, 
 as shown in the following (Ex. 3), which em- 
 bodies the harmonic progressions of Ex. i : 
 
 E..3. 1 ^ 
 
 S' 'f \' I p4^ ^^ 
 
 J. 
 
 w 
 
 ^P 
 
 
 J- 
 
 ^ 
 
 That consecutive fifths are often productive of 
 an ugly and distressing effect, is not to be 
 denied ; but their use when not objectionable 
 seems to have been somewhat thoughtlessly 
 forbidden by musical law-givers. The great 
 masters not unfrequently use them with good 
 results, as will be seen by the following ex- 
 amples. (Stainer's " Treatise on Harmony.") 
 
 Bach. 
 
 " Motett," No. 2. 
 I I 
 
 Handsl's " Solomon." 
 "Almighty power." 
 
 I I 
 
 06 ) 
 
CONSECUTIVES CONSERVATORIUM. 
 
 Mehdelssorm's " St. Paul." 
 " To God on high." 
 
 Mendelssohn's " St. Paul.' 
 " To Thee, O Lord." 
 
 Spohr 's " The Last Judgment." 
 Introduction to Part 111. 
 
 Haydn's Symphony, No. 4. 
 
 Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata, No. 1, Op. 29. 
 
 MT'T '' fr r rri^r^rrrrf-H 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 It having been found by experience that the 
 early attempts at harmony known as diaphony 
 and organum, which consisted entirely of 
 consecutive quarts, quints, and octaves, 
 were remarkably unpleasant and barbarous, 
 it is probable a reaction took place which led 
 to the indiscriminate condemnation of con- 
 secutive fifths. 
 
 No satisfactory reason has yet been brought 
 forward for the unpleasant effect of con- 
 secutive fifths, but it is easy to see why 
 consecutive octaves should not be allowed in 
 pure part-writing. If in a duet, or trio, for 
 instance, one part occasionally moves in unison 
 or octaves with another, such a part is for the 
 time wasted, and loses its power of forming a 
 distinct melody or adding a real contribution 
 to the harmony. But, on the other hand, 
 any phrase, however short, may be legiti- 
 mately enforced or strengthened by doubling 
 at the unison or octave. Thus, the bass may 
 be doubled by the left hand or the melody by 
 the right hand, in pianoforte or organ music, 
 and voices may join in unison whenever it is 
 thought desirable. So, too, in writing for a 
 full band, a theme or motive may be enforced 
 by the combination of any instruments, at the 
 unison, octave, or double octave; but, instru- 
 ments playing in parts are not allowed to 
 combine in such a manner unless for such a 
 purpose. 
 
 Consecutives are said to be hidden when 
 the progression of two parts gives the im- 
 pression that they have occurred, although 
 they have not actually been written, e.g. : 
 
 Ex.4, 
 
 Hidden fifths. Hidden octaves. 
 
 They are to be discovered by filling up the 
 interval of one of the parts with the interme- 
 diate scale-series, e.g. : 
 
 The law against hidden fifths and octaves has 
 never been directed against the movement of 
 inner parts, but only against that of extreme 
 parts. But even this has been greatly relaxed 
 in modern music, e.g. : 
 
 Consecutives are said to be " by contrary 
 motion " when the parts forming them pro- 
 ceed in opposite directions, e.g. : 
 
 Schumann's " Luck of Edenhall." 
 
 Consequent. Consequenza (It.) The 
 answer to a fugue-subject or any subject 
 proposed for imitation. [Dux.] [Guida.] 
 
 Conservatorium {Lat.) Conservatorio 
 (It.) Conservatoire de musique {Fr.) A 
 public music school. 
 
 The Italian academies or conservatories are 
 the most ancient, and were formerly attached 
 to hospitals and other benevolent institutions, 
 and were intended for the education of the 
 poor and fatherless, or orphans. Education, 
 board and clothing, were dispensed without 
 cost to both male and female pupils. The 
 conservatorio at Milan was founded in 1808, 
 and the advantages of the instruction of the 
 professors is sought and obtained by many 
 who are not eligible for the foundation, but 
 who can obtain the benefit of a superior 
 musical education at a small cost. 
 
 ( 107 ) 
 
CONSOLANTE' COPYRIGHT. 
 
 The first school of the kind was estabhshed 
 in France, in 1784, with the title of " L'ecole 
 royaledechantetded6clamation." A national 
 institute was started during the period of 
 the Revolution, to supply the want of musi- 
 cians in the army; this institute became the 
 present Conservatoire de musique, for the sup- 
 port of which the government is charged with 
 an annual sum of 140,000 francs. Many of 
 the masters have been, and still are, men famed 
 throughout the world for their practical skill 
 and their success in teaching, and the text 
 books used at the conservatoire are aniong 
 the standard works of reference in their depart- 
 ment. There are also establishments of a 
 similar character at Brussels, Cologne-, Prague, 
 Warsaw, Vienna and Leipsic, the last named, 
 established under the direction of Mendels- 
 sohn, is held to be one of the best in Germany. 
 Consolante (It.) In a consoling, comfort- 
 ing manner. 
 
 Consonance. Consonanz {Ge7:) [Har- 
 mony.] 
 
 Consonant. . Concordant. 
 Consonant interval. [Interval.] 
 Con sordini (It.) (i) With the mutes on. 
 (2) With the soft pedal at the pianoforte held 
 down. 
 
 Consort, (i) A consort of viols was a 
 complete set, the number contained in a chest, 
 usually six. [Chest of Viols.] (2) The sounds 
 produced by the union of instrumental tone. 
 
 Consort, (i) To sound together, to form 
 agreeable sounds by combination. (2) To 
 form a concord. 
 
 Con stromenti (7^.) With the instru- 
 ments. 
 
 Continued Bass. [Figured Bass.] 
 Continuo (7^.) [Figured Bass.] 
 Contours. Conteurs(Fr.) [Trouveur.J 
 Contra (7i.) Against. In compound words 
 this signifies an octave below, e.g. : Contra- 
 gamba, a 16 ft. gamba ; Contra-basso , a double 
 bass ; Contra-fagotto, a double bassoon. 
 Contra-bassist. A double-bass player. 
 Contra-basso [It.) [Double-bass.] 
 Contra-danza {It.) [Country-dance.] 
 Contra-fagotto [It) [Double bassoon.] 
 Contralto voice. The voice of deepest 
 tone in females. It is of a quality allied to 
 the tenor voice in men, and the usual compass 
 is within two octaves. The best notes of the 
 range are between G or A flat below, and C 
 or D above : 
 
 i 
 
 The notes above these are of a somewhat harsh 
 and forced character, those below of little musi- 
 cal value. In most contralto voices there is a 
 break varying between C sharp and A flat in 1 
 
 the lower part of the register, and the careful 
 adjustrnent of the two qualities of tone above 
 or below this break is one of the chief qualities 
 of good contralto singing. [Alto Voice.] 
 
 Contraposaune. An organ stop of 16 ft. 
 and 32 ft. pitch. 
 
 Contrappuntista {It.) A writer on, or a 
 composer of counterpoint. 
 
 Contrappunto (It.) [Counterpoint.] 
 
 Contrappunto alia mente (It.) . Im- 
 promptu counterpoint. [Alia Mente.] [Chant 
 sur le livre.] 
 
 Conf rap'punto doppio [It.) Double coun- 
 terpoint. [Counterpoint.] 
 
 Contrapuntal. ,Belongingto coutiterpoint. 
 
 Contrapuntist.' A writer on, or a com- 
 poser of counterpoint. 
 
 Contr'arco (It.) False or incorrect bowing 
 on the violin, &c. 
 
 Contrary motion. Melodies or cjiprds 
 proceeding in opposite directions. [Motion.Ji 
 
 Contrasso^getto Jit.) [Counter subject.]; 
 
 Contra tempo (7i.) Against time. (l)'The' 
 part progressing slowly while another is 
 moving rapidly : 
 
 Double-bass. 
 Double-bass. 
 [Country dance.] 
 
 (.2) Syncopation. 
 
 Contra-tenor. [Alto.] 
 
 Contratone (Ger.) Deep tones of the 
 bass voice. 
 
 Contra-violone {It.) 
 
 Contre-basse {Fr.) 
 
 Contre-danse {Fr.) 
 
 Contrepartie (F*".) Counterpart, opposite. 
 The entry of a second voice with a different 
 melody, making harmony with the first. 
 
 Contrepoint {Fr.) Counterppint. 
 
 Contrepointiste {Fr.) Contrapuntist. 
 
 Contre-sujet (Fr.) [Counter subject.] 
 
 Contre-temps (Fr.) Against time. Syn- 
 copation. 
 
 Conversio (Lat.) Inversion. 
 
 Convict of music. An institution for 
 musical instruction in Leipsic; from Lat. 
 convictus (convivere), living together, social 
 intercourse. [Conservatorio.] 
 
 Coperto {It.) Covered, concealed. Tim- 
 pani coperti, muffled drums; quinti coperti, 
 concealed fifths, hidden fifths. 
 
 Copula {Lat.) In mediasval music a free 
 use of slurred running notes in descant. 
 
 Copyright is the excl^s^ve right or privi- 
 lege of printing, or reprinting, publishing, or 
 selling his original work which is allowed by 
 the law to an author. It is doubtful whether 
 this is a right at common law, or whether 
 (which seems the better opinion) it is merely 
 the creature of legislative enactment. (See 
 on this point the cases of Southey v. Sherwood, 
 
 ( loS ) 
 
COPYRIGHT COR ANGLAIS. 
 
 2 Mer. 435; Tonson v. Collins, i W. Bl. 301 ; 
 Miller v. Taylor, 4 Burr 2303 ; Jeffreys v. 
 Boosey, 4 H. L. C. 815.) By Statute 8 Anne, 
 c. 19, § I, a copyright was given to books then 
 printed for 21 years, and to authors and their 
 assignees, an exclusive copyright for 14 years. 
 By § 9 of the same statute, another similar 
 period vra.s given, at the expiration of i4years, 
 if the author vi^as then living. This Act 
 was extended to the United Kingdoni L>y 41 
 Geo. III. c. 107. By 54 Geo. III. c. 156, § 4, 
 authors and their assignees had exclusive 
 copyright for 28 years from the day of publi- 
 cation ; and, if the authors were living at the 
 expiration of that period, for the residue of 
 their lives. The present law of copyright is 
 to be found in 5 and 6 Vict. c. 45, which 
 amends the general law on the subject, re- 
 peals the above - mentioned statutes, and 
 extends the privileged period to the author's 
 life and for 7 years after his death ; but if that 
 period falls short of 42 years, then for 42 
 years from the first day of publication. So that 
 if an author outlives the 42 years after publi- 
 cation, the whole term of the duration of the 
 copyright will extend for that period of 42 
 years, to which term may be added the years 
 of the remainder of his life, and 7 years after 
 his death. Thus the song " She wore a 
 wreath of roses," published in 1828, will be 
 copyright until the year 1894, because the 
 author died in 1887, having outlived the 
 ordinary term ; and the right will not expire 
 till the 7 years after his death have elapsed. 
 
 Copies of a publication may be used by the 
 purchaser, but he may not, without permission, 
 multiply them either for private or public use. 
 Copyright may be acquired in the adaptation 
 or arrangement of old airs, or it may be 
 assigned by written document. Original 
 ownership of the right may be registered at 
 Stationers' Hall. Copies of the registration 
 are prima facie evidence of the right of repre- 
 sentation. 
 
 The owner of the right to publish is not 
 always the owner of the right to perform the 
 work published. This is one of the anomalies 
 of the law which has led to much vexation. 
 Formerly it was necessary to obtain the con- 
 sent in writing of the owners of the acting 
 right to avoid the penalties arising from un- 
 authorised performance. 
 
 By the Copyright (musical compositions) 
 Act, 1882, no action for the recovery of 
 penalties for unauthorised performances 
 would lie unless it was expressly stated on 
 the title page of the publication that all 
 rights were reserved, and the name of the 
 person is given to whom application should 
 be made for permission to perform. 
 
 In order to prevent misunderstanding, it is 
 required to be stated that the work may be 
 
 ( I 
 
 performed in public without fee or license ; 
 that is to say, without payment or penalty, 
 and without the consent of the owner, "first 
 obtained. This greatly mitigates the annoy- 
 ance arising from unwitting infringement 
 of performing rights ; and further, as many 
 rights still exist, and the public generally 
 does not always know to whom they belong, 
 the Act of 1888, 51 and 52 Vict. c. 17, was 
 passed. This states that " Notwithstanding 
 the provisions of the Act of the session held 
 in the third and fourth years of His Majesty 
 Kmg William the Fourth, chapter fifteen, to 
 amend the laws relating to dramatic literary 
 property, or any other Act in which those 
 provisions are incorporated, the penalty or 
 damages to be awarded upon any action or 
 proceedings in respect of each and every un- 
 authorised representation or performance of 
 any musical composition, whether published 
 before or after the passing of this Act, shall 
 be such a sum or sums as shall, in the dis- 
 cretion of the court or judge before whom 
 such action or proceedings shall be tried, be 
 reasonable, and the court or judge before 
 whom snch aiction or proceedings shall be 
 tried may award a less sum than forty sTiillings 
 in respect of each and every such unauthorised 
 representation or performance as aforesaid, or 
 a nominal penalty or nominal damages as tke 
 justice of the case may require. The costs 
 also shall be in the absolute discretion of the 
 judge. The proprietor, tenant, or occupier 
 of any place of dramatic entertainment, or 
 other place at which any unauthorised repre- 
 sentation or performance of any musical 
 composition shall take place, shall not be 
 liable to any penalty or damages in respect 
 thereof, unless he shall wilfully cause or 
 permit such representation or performance, 
 knowing'it to be unauthorised. 
 
 " The provisions of this Act shall not apply 
 to any action or proceedings in respect of a 
 representation or perforrnance of any opera 
 or stage play in any theatre or other place of 
 public entertainment duly licensed in that 
 respect." 
 
 Cor (Fr.) A horn. 
 
 Corale {It.) Chorale, hymn or psalm tune. 
 [Hymn Tunes.] 
 
 Cor Anglais {Fr.) Corno Inglese (It.) 
 English horn. A reed instrument of the 
 hautboy character, possessing a compass of 
 like extent but of lower pitch. Its scale is two 
 octaves and a fifth from tenor E with the in- 
 termediate semitones : 
 
 these being the actual sounds produced. The 
 music for the cor Anglais is written in the 
 
 09 ) 
 
CORANACH CORNET. 
 
 treble clef, and the instrument transposes the 
 sound a fifth below. Gluck introduced the 
 instrument in his " Orfeo," Meyerbeer has 
 made frequent use of it, and Rossini produces 
 a fine effect in the overture to "William 
 Tell" by means of its tone, but Beethoven only 
 once employed it, — Mozart and Weber never. 
 Coranach, Coranich, Coronach, Cronach 
 (Gaelic.) The word for a funeral song among 
 the Scotch Highlanders ; it is said to be de- 
 rived from corah-rainach a crying together. 
 [Keeners.] 
 
 C our ante (Fr.) Current tra- 
 (i) An Italian form of the 
 
 (2) A movement in a suite 
 or sonata of the early writers. The following 
 is given as an early specimen : 
 
 GiROLAMO FrESCOBALDI, 1591-1640. 
 
 Coranto (It.) 
 verse {Old Eng.) 
 country dance. 
 
 tf r " I'fp \''^ f] I H-F 
 
 —Urn- -|S> 1 III- 
 
 
 I J -^ '■ J J- 
 
 r^i ii iii'tfr 
 
 -^^gB 
 
 ^^L\.. ij nrrnrrn 
 
 .y 1 * * Y — 
 
 J. ^ J J- J 
 
 g^-^-^=P-^^r-f^ r r "-h-^^ 
 
 Corda, sopra una (It.) Sur une corde {Fr.) 
 A direction that the passage is to be played 
 on one string. [A una corda.] 
 Cordatura (7^.) [Accordatura.] 
 Cordax {Lat.) KopSa? {Gk.) An ancient 
 Greek dance of a wanton character, in the 
 old comedy ; but sometimes danced off the 
 stage by drunkards. 
 
 gordi I iTel(^^-)Anopen string. 
 
 Cor de chasse {Fr.) A hunting horn. 
 
 Corde fausse {Fr.) A false string. [String.] 
 
 Cor de signal {Fr.) A bugle. 
 
 Cor de vache {Fr.) Cow-horn, used in 
 many places abroad to call the cattle home, 
 and formerly employed in England to rousei 
 the labourers to their work. 
 
 " No more shall the horn 
 Call me up in the morn." 
 
 Corifeo {lU) [Coryphsus (i).] 
 
 Cormuse. [Bagpipe.] 
 
 Cornamusa {It.) Cornemuse {Fr.) [Bag- 
 pipe.] 
 
 Cornare {It.) Corner (Fr.) To sound a horn. 
 
 Cornet. Cornetto (7i.) Zinken {Ger.) An 
 obsolete reed wind-instrument not unlike a 
 hautboy, but larger and of a coarser quality 
 of tone. In this country they were of three 
 kinds, treble, tenor, and bass. The tubes 
 gradually increased in diameter from the 
 mouthpiece to the end, and their outline was 
 gently curved, hence the Italian name cornetto 
 curvo. In Germany, as in England, they 
 were once in common use for sacred and 
 secular purposes. They were often made 
 of wood neatly covered with dark leather. 
 [Waits.] 
 
 2. A reed stop on the pedals of some Ger- 
 man organs, of 4 or 2 feet in length. 
 
 3. Mounted cornet. A solo stop on old 
 organs, so called because it was placed on a 
 separate sound board, and raised a few feet 
 above the surrounding pipes, for the purpose of 
 giving its tone special prominence. It con- 
 sisted of several ranks of pipes, generally of 
 five, namely, an open or stopped diapason 
 (usually the latter), a principal, 12th, 15th, 
 and tierce. Thus, if the stop were drawn, and 
 
 C iio) 
 
CORNETTO COULE. 
 
 the finger held on middle C, the following 
 sounds would be heard simultaneously : 
 
 Although these would of course combine 
 into one, and not be audible as separate and 
 distinct sounds, yet it may be supposed that 
 such a combination of loud harmonics with 
 a comparatively soft ground-note would pro- 
 duce a most disagreeable and nasal tone. But, 
 notwithstanding its unpleasant timbre it was 
 a favourite stop in the last and in the early 
 part of this century, and its general intro- 
 duction into the best organs gave rise to a 
 vicious and trumpery literature of " cornet 
 voluntaries." The characteristic of these was, 
 that while the left hand held down a soft 
 chord on the choir organ, the right was en- 
 gaged in passages, turns, shakes, and other 
 musical capers, on the cornet stop of the great 
 organ. The usual compass of the stop was 
 from middle C upwards, but sometimes ' it 
 commenced at tenor C. A large number of 
 cornet stops were removed to make way for 
 the clarabella when first invented by Bishop, 
 and better taste has so far ejected them that 
 a specimen in good playable condition may 
 be looked upon as a curiosity. 
 
 4. Echo cornet. A stop often found in 
 swell organs. Originally it consisted of the 
 same series of ranks of pipes as the mounted 
 cornet, but was always of a very small scale. 
 But the name is now often applied to any small- 
 scale sesquialtera or mixture enclosed in the 
 swell box. 
 
 5. Cornet-cL-pistons. A modern brass instru- 
 ment of the trumpet family, but having valves 
 or pistons by means of which a complete 
 chromatic scale can be produced. In propor- 
 tion to the number of valves introduced into 
 tube-instruments, the quality of their tone is 
 deteriorated, but notwithstanding this loss of 
 purity and brilliancy, the cornet is most useful 
 and valuable for many purposes. It has been 
 brought into discredit by being unwisely used 
 in some orchestras as a substitute for its parent, 
 the trumpet, with the grandeur of which it 
 cannot compete. [Metal Wind-instruments.] 
 
 Cornetto {It.) [Cornet.] 
 
 Corno {It.) [Horn.] 
 
 Corno alto (it.) High horn in B. 
 
 Corno basso {It.) Low horn in B. 
 
 Corno di bassetto {It.) [Basset-horn.] 
 
 Corno di caccia {It.) [Caccia.] 
 
 Corno Inglese {It.) [Cor Anglais.] 
 
 Cornopean. [Cornet, § 5.] 
 
 Coro {It.) .[Chorus.] 
 
 Cor omnitonique {Fr.) A horn on which, 
 by the use of valves, a chromatic scale could 
 be played. 
 
 Corona {It.) A pause. 
 
 Coronach. [Coranach.] 
 
 Corps de voix {Fr.) The quality or the 
 fulness of the voice. 
 
 Corrente {It.) [Coranto.J 
 
 Correpetiteur {Fr.) Correpetitore {It.) The 
 instructor of the chorus ; one who teaches the 
 choral body to sing their several parts by ear. 
 
 Corti's organ. [Ear.] 
 
 Coryphaeus {Lat.) Kopv<pawe {Gk.) (i) 
 A leader or conductor of the dances or chorus. 
 (2) An officer in the University of Oxford, 
 whose duty it is to give instruction in music. 
 
 Coryph6e {Fr.) (i) A leader of the groups 
 of dancers. (2) A female dancer. 
 
 Cotillon {Fr.) lit. under-petticoat. A lively, 
 spirited dance, originally performed by a male 
 and a female, in which the latter alternately 
 attracted and repulsed her partner. It was 
 first called cotillon in the reign of Louis XIV. 
 was expanded in its design by the French in 
 the last century, and arranged for eight per- 
 sons. It is now danced with any step by an 
 unlimited number of dancers. When it is 
 possible, chairs are placed round the room for 
 the performers. " Each gentleman places his 
 partner on his right hand. There is no rule 
 that any particular figure shall be danced. 
 The selection is left to the determination of 
 the leading couple who commence the figure, 
 which the other couples repeat in succession. 
 In large parties of twenty-four or thirty 
 couples, it is customary for two or more 
 couples to perform the same figure at the same 
 time. The constant variety of the figures 
 enables each gentleman to dance with almost 
 every lady." The figures from which a selec- 
 tion is made are called the pyramid ; the two 
 flowers ; the great bound and pass-under ; 
 the cushion ; the round ; the basket, ring, 
 and flower; the two lines of six; the coquette; 
 la gracieuse ; the mirror ; the handker- 
 chief; the star ; the cards ; the double 
 moulinet ; the deceived lady ; the quadrille ; 
 the two chairs ; the rounds multiplied ; the 
 lancers ; the three chairs, &c. : the whole 
 being more or less allied to the old-fashioned 
 country dance. It is not at all improbable 
 that the tune " Petticoat loose " given in the 
 article, " Country dance," furnished the title 
 to the Cotillon. 
 
 Couac {It.) An onomatopceic word for the 
 sound made by bad blowing on the clarinet, 
 oboe, or bassoon. The quacking sound, the 
 goose note. 
 
 Couched harp. [Spinet.] 
 Coule {Fr.) A glide, (i) Slurred notes. (2) 
 A slide in dancing. (3) An ornament in 
 harpsichord music ; e.g. : 
 
 Written. z=s 
 
 -r 
 
 Played, 
 
 ^ 
 
 ( III ) 
 
COUNTERPOINT. 
 
 Counterpoint. The term " CQunterpoint " 
 in its broadest sense may be defined as " the 
 art of adding one or more parts to a given 
 melody ; " in its more limited sense as, " the 
 art of harmonising a theme by adding parts 
 which shall be in themselves melodious." The 
 terms subject, melody, eanto fermo, and theme, 
 are synonymous. The common definition of 
 counterpoint as the "art of combining melo- 
 dies " is not strictly logical, unless the word 
 " melody " has a definition not generally ac- 
 cepted ; because, distinct melodies are never 
 given to the student to be combined by him 
 unless they have been previously proved 
 capable of combination ; and if a composer 
 should attempt to combine two distinct 
 melodies in accordance with the laws of 
 strict counterpoint he will probably find it 
 necessary to eliminate so much of one or 
 both of his subjects that little real musical 
 melody is left. The contrapuntist's notion of a 
 melody is — a succession of sounds which 
 does not infringe certain theoretical laws. No 
 wonder then that authors who have bound 
 themselves by the commands of counterpoint 
 seem to have trodden in one almost identical 
 path and to ha;ve added little that is valu- 
 able to the literature of counterpoint. Those 
 masters who have exceptionally combined great 
 genius with a deep study of the art of counter- 
 point, such as Bach, Cherubini, and .Mozart, 
 exhibit in their works more than any other 
 authors do, with what beneficial results the 
 laws of counterpoint may be purposely broken, 
 for it cannot be denied that the first fact which 
 startles, and shakes the faith of the student 
 of counterpoint, is that the preaching and 
 practice of contrapuntists are so thoroughly 
 inconsistent. Their books consist of rules, 
 their composition* of exceptions. But it would 
 be dishonest to blink the fact that much good 
 was for a time done by counterpoint, by elimi- 
 nating crudities in harmony, by introducing 
 an interesting rhythmical correlation of partSj 
 and by opening to ingenious writers a large 
 field for imitative construction of music at a 
 time when the resources of key, modulation, 
 form, and A?ariety of tone in instruments, 
 were greatly limited. Whether a course of 
 study in counterpoint is not more interesting 
 to the lover of musical history than beji&flSial 
 to the gifted young composer, the rea.dA- may 
 perhaps be able to judge for himself after 
 reading the rules of the art and seeing the 
 examples of its scope given below. 
 
 Counterpoint is simple or double. There 
 are five species of simple counterpoint. 
 
 I, when the added part is note against 
 note of the subject; 2, when the added part 
 is two notes to one of the subject ; 3, when 
 the added part is four notes to one of the 
 subject ; 4, when the added part is in syncopa- 
 
 tion to each note of the subject ; 5, when 
 the added part is free, or has a florid accom- 
 paniment to each note of the subject. 
 
 In the first species, note against note, in 
 two parts, the following rules and regulations 
 are to be observed: 
 
 1. No discords are allowed. 
 
 2. More than three consecutive 3rds or 6ths 
 
 are forbidden. 
 
 3. Consecutive 5ths and 8ths are forbidden. 
 
 4. The fourth is to be considered a discord. 
 
 5. No augmented or diminished intervals 
 
 are to be used in the progression of the 
 subject or counterpoint. The major 6th, 
 major 7th, and minor 7th are similarly 
 disallowed. 
 
 6. A tritone (or augmented 4th) should be 
 
 avoided, between the component notes 
 of a chord and that which immediately 
 follows it. 
 
 7. False relations arefbfbiddglrn^ 
 — 8. Of the , t h fee-4dff3s of motion — similar, 
 
 oblique, and contrary — contrary motion 
 
 is to be preferred. 
 9. Hidden fifths and octaves are forbidden. 
 10. Unison between subject and counterpoint 
 
 is forbidden. 
 The first rule requires no explanation. The 
 second is given to insure the independence of 
 the counterpoint, as it is evident that if one part 
 constantly follows another at the interval of 
 the 3rd or 6th, it cannot possibly be said' to 
 form a separate melody. The third and 
 fourth rules need lio explanation. The fifth 
 rule is saddled with many exceptions, as 
 might be expected ; the major 6th and aug- 
 mented 4th in ascending, and the diminished 
 7th in descending, are tolerated. The origin 
 of the sixth rule is to be traced in the difficulty 
 of making dominant and subdominant har- 
 mony succeed each other with good effect, 
 
 is certainly unpleasant to the ear, whereas 
 
 is certainly not so unpleasant, though equally 
 forbidden by strict contrapuntists. The rule 
 against false relations (7) is necessary in two- 
 part writing, as it is impossible to introduce 
 them with good effect. Sucli progressions as 
 the following are palpably inadmissible : 
 
 Rule 8 may be proved necessary on the same 
 grounds as given in explanation of rule 2. 
 Two parts cannot be forming separate melodies 
 
 ( "2) 
 
COUNTERPOINT. 
 
 when moving in similar motion, 'much less 
 can they be doing so in oblique motion, in 
 which, one part stands still: therefore, contrary 
 motion is preferable as probably leading to 
 more variety. The law against the use of 
 hidden fifths and octaves, includes under it the 
 well-known contrapuntal rule : " do not proceed 
 from an .imperfect to a perfect interval by 
 similar motion," the fifth and octave being 
 the -only perfect intervals admissible in two- 
 part counterpoint of "the first specifes. The 
 presence of hidden fifths or octaves is dis- 
 covered by filling up the intervals between 
 the consecutive notes of each part with the 
 intermediate degrees of the scale, thus : 
 
 Hidden fifths. Hidden octaves. 
 
 or where both parts move by a skip : 
 
 ^=-==S^F= 
 
 w — 
 
 ■^ ■- ■ 1 n 
 
 ^} ■ '>\-' J-=|i 
 
 The examples given throughout this article 
 are taken from Fux, "Gradus ad Parnassum," 
 1725, a work from which all later authors 
 have borrowed largely, Cherubini and Ouseley 
 not excepted : it is fair therefore to suppose 
 that these specimens of counterpoint meet 
 with the approval, if not the admiration, of 
 modern expositors of the a'rt. 
 
 Counterpoint, 
 
 The above is said to be " contrappunto sopra 
 il soggetto." The following example has the 
 same subject in the upper part, "contrappunto 
 sotto il soggetto." 
 
 , Canto fermo. 
 
 The second species of simple counterpoint 
 is subject to the following rules and regula- 
 tions : 
 
 I. Of the two notes in the counterpoint, the 
 first must be a concord, the second may 
 be a concord or passing discord. 
 
 2. Consecutive fifths or octaves on successive 
 
 down-beats are forbidden. Some authors 
 however admit the latter of these pro- 
 gressions if the skip to the second note 
 is greater than a third. 
 
 3. Scale passages are preferable to broken 
 
 harmony. 
 
 4. The counterpoint may commence on the 
 
 up-beat of the first bar. 
 
 5. The cadence of the subject should be har. 
 
 monised by contrary motion. 
 
 6. The interval of a fourth may occasionally 
 
 be used on the down-beat. 
 
 7. A false relation is not avoided by the 
 
 introduction of a passing note or passing 
 discord. 
 A passing discord is a discord having a 
 degree of the scale on each side of it, e.g. : 
 
 The first rule therefore forbids a discord to be 
 a skip. The second rule is to prevent the use 
 of such progressions as the following : 
 
 ^^ 
 
 The third rule strives to enforce independence 
 of motion in the counterpoint, e.g. : 
 
 In this example, the upper part is practically 
 harmonised by the lower one, the' first bar 
 representing the chord of C, the next two bars 
 a chord of G. Rules 4, 5, and 6, require no 
 explanation. Rule 7 is to prevent the admis- 
 sion of such passages as the following : 
 
 The following are specimens of this species ; 
 
 Counterpoint, 
 
 ^^r I -J' -^t 3i^Vi7=^^N^ 
 
 Canto fermo. 
 
 —r— r^ gi 
 
 P 
 
 , Canto fermo. 
 
 Counterpoint. 
 
 J3. 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 gfe 
 
 ( "3) 
 
COUNTERPOINT. 
 
 If counterpoint in triple time is used, the first 
 minim must be a concord, the other two may 
 be concords or passing discords as may be 
 found desirable. 
 
 The third species of counterpoint in two 
 parts in which there are four notes to each 
 note of the canto fermo, is subject to the 
 following rules and regulations : 
 
 1. The first note must be a concord, the 
 
 second and fourth may be passing discords. 
 
 2. The third note may sometimes be a pass- 
 
 ing discord, but should be generally a 
 concord. 
 
 3. The first bar may commence with a crotchet 
 
 rest, if the note immediately after the rest 
 is a concord. 
 
 4. The cadence should be by contrary motion. 
 
 5. There may be unison between counterpoint 
 
 and subject, provided it does not occur on 
 the first note of the bar. 
 
 6.. The tritone is to be avoided between any 
 four notes of the counterpoint, unless 
 they occur as an integral part of the scale, 
 that isjhaving the next note of the scale 
 on each side of them. 
 
 7. Octaves and fifths between counterpoint and 
 subject should not occur on successive 
 down beats ; or between the third crotchet 
 of one bar, and the first crotchet of the 
 following bar. 
 The cases in which the third note may be 
 
 a discord (see 2) are of the following kind : 
 
 The sixth rule is to prevent the use of such 
 passages as the following : 
 
 It will, however, be noticed that a passage 
 almost similar to the above, occurs in the 
 second of the two models given below from 
 Fux. Rule 7 is constantly broken. Fux him- 
 self gives the following as a specimen of a 
 cadence in this species: 
 
 ^^^g^E^MJJfj :^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 The fourth species of counterpoint in two 
 parts, is that in which the counterpoint though 
 containing practically note against note of 
 the subject, has each note bound into the 
 following bar, or, syncopated. 
 
 The following rules and regulations are to 
 be observed : 
 
 1. That which is incorrect " sine ligatura " is 
 
 incorrect when " cum ligatura." 
 
 2. It is necessary to begin on the up-beat. 
 
 3. Syncopations may be concordant or dis- 
 
 cordant, a concordant syncopation being 
 one that is heard in both bars (half of 
 each) as a concord : a discordant synco- 
 pation one that is a concord on the up- 
 beat, but forms a discord on the down- 
 beat. 
 
 4. If necessary, the syncopations may be 
 
 relinquished for the space of two minims. 
 
 5. The best cadence is formed by the suspen- 
 
 sion 7 6 on the supertonic. ; 
 
 Rule 1 is directed against such progressions 
 as the following : 
 
 For, tested by the* omission of the ligatures, 
 it appears thus : 
 
 According to this rule the following passage 
 is correct : 
 
 Although it seems to infringe rule 2 of the 
 second species, and rule 7 of the third species, 
 but without ligatures it becomes merely a 
 succession of 6ths: 
 
 The following are specimens of counterpoint 
 of this species : 
 
 1 / - J h+'^ T?^ 
 
 m 
 
 (' "4 )■ 
 
COUNTERPOINT. 
 
 ^Transposed.) 
 
 ^^^JOQCC 
 
 When this species is used in triple time the 
 second note of the bar may be a concord or 
 passing discord, the third must be a concord 
 bound into the next bar and forming a synco- 
 pated concord or suspended discord. 
 
 The fifth species of counterpoint, florid or 
 figurate counterpoint, consists of a mixture 
 of the various kinds just given, and so far as 
 it proceeds in any one species, is subject to 
 the laws and regulations of that species. 
 Shorter notes may occasionally be used. The 
 following are examples : 
 
 m 
 
 (Transposed.) 
 
 ^)ir^nrrr\:ta-r\r.rjrv 
 
 Counterpoint in three parts is, generally 
 speaking, bound by the rules of its correspond- 
 ing species in two parts. The additional part, 
 however, makes the following rules necessary 
 in the first species, note against note. 
 
 1. Every chord should be a common chord, 
 
 if possible. When not possible the chord 
 I may be used. 
 
 2. The third of the common chord should not 
 
 be doubled. 
 
 3. The term "chord |" includes under it the 
 chord I on the supertonic, that is, the 
 second inversion of the chord of the minor 
 seventh, the root being omitted. As the 
 old masters did not consider this chord a 
 discord, the seventh of the root (third of 
 the chord) is frequently resolved upwards 
 by them. It will not be necessary to give 
 specimens of counterpoint in every form 
 of which it is capable, one example of 
 each species will suffice, if the reader 
 will remember that the canto fermo may 
 appear in upper, lower, or middle parts. 
 The student of counterpoint should refer 
 toFux, " Gradus ad Parnassum" Vienna, 
 1725, or to an English translation called 
 " Practical rules forlearningcomposition," 
 printed by Welcker, Gerrard Street, Soho 
 (at the end of the last century), or to 
 Cherubini's work (Novello, London). 
 The second species of counterpoint in three 
 
 parts contains one part having two notes 
 
 to each note of the subject. 
 
 1. A syncopation is allowed to take place 
 
 immediately before the cadence. 
 
 2. The third of the common chord should not 
 
 be doubled. 
 The following is a specimen of counterpoint 
 of this species : 
 
 Counterpoint. . 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 TT^ — r 
 
 — ^-^ 
 
 -^ J- 
 
 J J 
 
 J A 
 
 -sL^=-- 
 
 (\) ^j 
 
 _i:Ja_ 
 
 
 ° el 
 
 -5fe — — 
 
 — ;r3 
 
 Canto fermo. 
 Counterpoint. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The third species of counterpoint in three 
 parts contains one part having four notes to 
 each note of the subject. A syncopation before 
 the cadence is not permitted in this species : 
 
 Counterpoint. 
 J . J 
 
 Canto fermo. , 
 
 ^= 
 
 n 'J M 
 
 1 1 1 1 
 
 J 1 IJ 
 
 J , 1 
 
 r-l— 1 n 
 
 
 M^^^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 A^AAi 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 g2_e 1 
 
 « 
 
 -^ 
 
 JS. 
 
 -s»- 
 
 1 fS 1 
 
 S^ 
 
 «>i 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 A mixed kind of counterpoint, containing one 
 part having two notes to each note of the 
 
 ( 115 ) 
 
COUNTERPOINT (DOUBLE). 
 
 subject, and another having four notes to each 
 note of the subject, may be classified under 
 this species : 
 
 (Transposed.) 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ ■■ -^- 
 
 t= 
 
 Canto fermo.^ 
 
 I I 
 
 ^m 
 
 ^ 
 
 T 
 
 m 
 
 The fourth species of counterpoint in three 
 parts contains one syncopated part : 
 
 Counterpoint. 
 
 Counterpoint. ' 
 
 J— I 
 
 VwT ^^ r- 
 
 The fifth species of counterpoint in three 
 parts contains one figurate or florid part. It 
 is unnecessary to give an example of this 
 species. 
 
 In counterpoint of four parts, the rules of 
 two-part and three-part counterpoint are 
 necessarily relaxed to some extent in the case 
 of the inner parts, unless the inner parts consist 
 of the canto fermo and the counterpoint spe- 
 cially characteristic of the particular species 
 to which the example belongs. 
 
 The following rules and regulations apply 
 to four-part counterpoint generally : 
 
 1. In the first species, only common chords 
 
 should be used, but the chord § may oc- 
 casionally be used. 
 
 2. In every species, the different parts should 
 
 be as much as possible equidistant. 
 
 3. Two parts may occasionally cross each 
 
 other. 
 
 4. The laws against hidden fifths and octaves 
 
 do not bind inner parts, and consecutive 
 fifths by contrary motion are sometimes 
 permitted. 
 It will be sufficient if two examples of four- 
 part counterpoint are given : 
 
 (Second Species.) , . ill 
 
 (Fourth Species.) 
 
 -j,^-^Ar^r^p^4^--dA-A^. 
 
 ^m 
 
 Counterpoint may be in 5, 6, 7, 8 or even 
 16 parts, but enough has been said to give the 
 reader an insight into its principles. 
 
 Counterpoint (Double) has been well de- 
 scribed as a " kind of artificial composition 
 where the parts are inverted in such a manner 
 that the uppermost becomes the lowermost, 
 and vice versa." Or, in other words " the 
 art of making melodies grammatically conver- 
 tible at certain intervals." 
 
 If the melodies are interchanged at the in- 
 terval of an octave, the double counterpoint is 
 said to be " at the octave," but if the inverted 
 melody is transposed one note, the other 
 melody remaining untransposed, the double 
 counterpoint is said to be at the gth. Simi- 
 larly, the double counterpoint may be at the 
 loth, nth, i2th, 13th or 14th. But double 
 counterpoint at some of these intervals im- 
 poses such difficulties in the construction of the 
 component melodies, that it is rarely met with. 
 Double counterpoint at the 8th, loth and 
 i2th, are the kinds most commonly used, 
 and shall be explained in order. It will be 
 seen if the following passage : 
 
 be inverted by playing the lowest line an octave 
 higher, and the highest an octave lower, thus: 
 
 P 
 
 I 
 
 that the intervals between the two parts have 
 undergone an entire change, with the excep- 
 tion of the octave which has become a unison. 
 Thus the 2nd has become a 7th. 
 
 3rd 
 4th 
 5th 
 6th 
 7th 
 8th 
 
 6th. 
 5th. 
 4th. 
 3rd. 
 2nd 
 1st 
 
 We have above, then, a complete scheme of 
 
 (116) 
 
COUNTERPOINT (DOUBLE). 
 
 the changes intervals undergo by inversion at 
 the octave. It is evident that the following 
 rules must be observed : 
 
 1. As the 5th becomes a 4th, and the 4th is a 
 
 discord, the 5th must be treated as a 
 discord, if used at all. As a discord, it 
 may be prepared, or treated as a passing 
 discord. 
 
 2. The octave must be approached by a single 
 
 degree, not a skip, in strict style. 
 
 3. As it is usual to place the upper melody an 
 
 octavelower, leavingthe lov^^er unchanged, 
 the interval of an octave betw^een the two 
 parts must not be exceeded, otherwise the 
 object of inversion will be lost, e.g. : 
 
 Ei:. I. 
 
 will become : 
 
 In the first and third bars of Ex. 2, no 
 inversion has taken place. If melodies are 
 framed with the intention of altering the pitch 
 of both when inverting them, this rule does 
 not of course hold good, e.g. : 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 4. The melodies should be different in style, 
 and one should commence on the up-beat. 
 The following is an example of double 
 counterpoint at the octave, from Fux : 
 
 Inversion (transposed). 
 
 =^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ a^-^rrr 
 
 ^r r V^~X \ -J • JS 
 
 If we wish to discover the changes inter- 
 vals undergo by double counterpoint at the 
 loth, we can, as before, write them out thus : 
 
 m 
 
 ^ n -rs rj, ' . 'jr. ^^ '^ rj 
 
 I. Consecutive loths become consecutive 
 unisons, e.g. : 
 
 A ■^ ^ \ Will become 
 
 when inverted : i 
 
 I 
 
 T-r 
 
 and consecutive 3rds become consecutive 
 octaves ; e.g. : 
 
 Will become 
 when inverted 
 
 # 
 
 ^^ 
 
 V r 
 
 Both consecutive loths and 3rds must there- 
 fore be avoided. 
 
 2. Consecutive sixths become consecutive 
 fifths ; they therefore must be avoided, e.g. : 
 
 ^ Will become 
 when inverted 
 
 '^^ 
 
 3. The suspension 4 3 becomes a 7th 
 resolved wrongly ; e.g. : 
 
 =F Will become 
 when inverted 
 
 4 
 
 ^ 
 
 n_rr 
 
 4. The interval of a tenth between the 
 upper and lower melodies should not be 
 exceeded, for the reason given in rule 3 of 
 double counterpoint at the octave. 
 
 The following example is from Cherubini : 
 
 ^^f^ffr^ ^M ^K^rf^-p^ ' 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ( "7 ) 
 
COUNTERPOINTS, TRIPLE AND QUADRUPLE. 
 
 Inversion. 
 
 ^^^^^^^m 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 The subject of the above may also be 
 written in the third above and the counter- 
 point in the octave below, throughout ; or 
 again, the counterpoint may be written in the 
 third below, and the subject in the octave below. 
 The following example, from Fux, shows how 
 the same counterpoint may be used at the 
 same time, at the octave and the tenth, each 
 counterpoint being correct when taken se- 
 parately : 
 
 Counterpoint. 
 
 Double counterpoint at the 12th is much 
 less hampered by the change of intervals than 
 many other species. 
 
 I. The 6th becomes the 7th, if therefore 
 introduced, it must be as a discord in 
 the lowest part, e g. : 
 
 will become when inverted : 
 
 i^^:^4-n^J AJ J-i 
 
 W 
 
 J!;3- 
 
 i^ 
 
 or, a sequence of prepared sevenths. 
 2. The final cadence will, require special care 
 in its treatment. 
 The following is an example of this species : 
 
 Inversion. 
 
 Interesting examples of combinations of 
 counterpoints at the loth and 12th are to 
 be found in Fux. 
 
 Counterpoints, Triple and Quadruple, 
 as their names show, are the due construction 
 of three or four melodies respectively, in such 
 a manner that they can be interchangeable 
 without involving the infringement of the 
 laws of musical grammar. It will be evident, 
 on consideration, that the octave is the only 
 feasible interval at which counterpoints of 
 this class can be made, unless indeed one or 
 more free parts, that is, parts not forming 
 interchangeable melodies, are added. The. 
 following is an example of triple counterpoint, 
 written out in full. Of course three sentences 
 at least will be required for the exposition of 
 triple counterpoint ; • four sentences for that 
 of quadruple : 
 
 |^ ^^^^JJE^3=^3=^?:1 ^ 
 
 The following example of quadruple coun- 
 terpoint is from Zimmerman : 
 
COUNTER SUBJECT COUNTRY DANCE. 
 
 i 
 
 ^r-^^-pi^-ps^- 
 
 ^ 
 
 A 4. 
 
 W=^ 
 
 ^m 
 
 k 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^r r i rr 
 
 A V, 
 
 p-~v\r~^ p 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 q:==t 
 
 P^^ 
 
 4-^^^ 
 
 W 
 
 r^^r vlv^ r 
 
 It is perhaps necessary to warn the lay 
 reader against the confusion Hkely to arise 
 between the terms two-part, three-part, fourr 
 part, counterpoint ; and double, triple, and 
 quadruple counterpoint. The former refers 
 only to the number of parts added to a given 
 subject, and such parts need not necessarily 
 be interchangeable ; whereas, the essence of 
 the latter is that in each case all the parts 
 must be capable of substitution one for the 
 other. 
 
 Occasionally, specimens of quintuple coun- 
 terpoint are to be met with, but they may 
 be looked upon more as curiosities than as 
 substantial additions to the musical art. 
 
 Counter subject. [Fugue.] 
 
 Counter tenor clef. The C clef placed 
 upon the third line of the stave for the use of 
 counter tenor or alto voices, the viola, &c. : 
 
 m 
 
 Counter tenor voice. The old name for 
 the alto voice. [Alto voice.] 
 
 Country Dance. Contre-danse (Fr.) Con- 
 tradanza {It.) A rustic dance, of English 
 origin, in which performers were arranged 
 face to face, " one set against another," and 
 performed certain prescribed figures. The old 
 method of dancing the " country dance " was 
 to place the ladies and the gentlemen in two 
 parallel lines, the former on the left, the latter 
 on the right, facing their partners. All advance, 
 then retreat, during the iirst four bars of the 
 music, then cross to opposite places, then 
 advance and retreat, and then re-cross to 
 original places. Each of these movements 
 should occupy the time of four bars of music. 
 The lady who stands at the top, and the 
 gentleman whose place is at the bottom, 
 advance towards each other, courtesy and 
 bow, and return to their places. The gentle- 
 
 man at the top and the lady at the bottom do 
 the same. Then the first named couple ad- 
 vance once more, give right hands and swing 
 quickly round each other back to places. This 
 figure is repeated by the other couple. The 
 lady at the top then advances, gives her right 
 hand to her opposite partner, and passes be- 
 hind the two gentlemen standing in the places 
 next to him : then, through the line and 
 across it, giving her left hand this time to her 
 partner, who meets her half way between the 
 two lines, having passed behind the two ladies 
 next to his partner's place. The lady then 
 passes behind the two ladies next in the line, the 
 gentleman moving in the like figure behind the 
 two gentlemen next lowest, and so on, all 
 down the fine. At the bottom the lady gives 
 her left hand to her partner, and they pro- 
 tnenade back to their former places. Then 
 the top couple come forward, courtesy and 
 bow, the lady turns to the right, the gentle- 
 man to the left, each followed by the rest of 
 her or his line. Top couple meeting at the 
 bottom join hands and raise their arms to 
 form an arch for the other couples to pass 
 under, until all have reached their places ex- 
 cept the top couple ; these having become the 
 bottom couple, repeat the figure from the 
 beginning until they have worked back to their 
 original places at the top of the lines, and 
 then the dance is ended. Such is a general 
 description of a dance which under various 
 titles has been popular in England for centu- 
 ries, has been adopted by other nations, and 
 revived from time to time with a few modifi- 
 cations under the several titles applied to it by 
 the people from whom it was last taken. Thus 
 it has been called " contre-danse " and is 
 erroneously said to be French ; and when it 
 has been named " coranto " it has been sup- 
 posed to be Italian. 
 
 John Stafford Smith, in his Musica Antiqua, 
 quotes a dance tune which he copied from a 
 MS., now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, 
 the date of which is probably about the year 
 1300. The tune is in \ time, in three sec- 
 tions of nine bars each, and notwithstanding 
 the fact that it has one more bar in each 
 section than the majority of tunes employe d 
 as country-dance melodies, can be danced to 
 without difficulty or sense of inconvenience. 
 
 Country Dance Tune, about 1300. 
 
 ^^E 
 
 ~g3ffl^^^"^^^ 
 
 ( "9 ) 
 
COUNTRY DANCE. 
 
 ^ ^g^ ^E^E^^^^ 
 
 ■ — : -v~^ — *"■= — ~0~-i — »""= — m~- — V 
 
 It is unnecessary here to enlarge upon the 
 popularity of dancing, throughout all ages; a 
 reference to Strutt's " Sports and Pastimes," 
 and to Chappell's " Popular Music in the 
 Olden Time," will satisfy those who are curious 
 as to details. It may be here stated that the 
 old poets and dramatists, from the time of 
 Chaucer and later, have frequent allusions to 
 the custom, and make mention of many 
 dances by name without giving descriptions, 
 so that it may be inferred that their allusions 
 point to practices in their time so popular 
 that particular description was not deemed 
 needful. 
 
 One of the old English names for rustic 
 dances was hey digyes or rounds. 
 
 " While some the rings of bells and some the bagpipes 
 play, 
 Dance many a merry round, and many a hy degy." 
 
 Drayton's " Polyolbion," Song xxv. 
 
 The " Hay," or " Raye" as it is also called, 
 is probably the same as the " hey digyes." It 
 was danced by many, forming a line or a 
 circle, and the direction was to "wind round 
 handing in passing until you come to 3'our 
 places." 
 
 " The Have," a Countrie Dance, 1678, 
 
 "Dargason" was another name given to 
 the country dance years before the time of the 
 Reformation. Ritson in his Ancient Songs 
 classes it as belonging to a very early period. . 
 Mr. Chappell quotes the tune in his " Popular 
 Music," p. 65, and it is of the rhythm common 
 to many country dance tunes : 
 
 The same character of tune which suited 
 the country dance was also used for the reel, 
 the round, the morris-dance, the jig, and 
 hornpipe, all of which are offshoots from the 
 one original stem. Those among these dances 
 now performed by one or at most two dancers, 
 were not always so done, the reel was often 
 "four or eight handed or even general," 
 the jig and hornpipe were also dances for 
 many. The two last named probably derived 
 their title from the instruments employed as 
 accompaniments, the usual accompaniment 
 to most country dances was anciently the 
 fiddle, in GermnnGeige ; or, pipe and tabour. 
 There were many other names given to the 
 country dance in successive ages, and the 
 variety of the titles has led many writers into 
 the belief that there were as many dances as 
 names. The allusions found in the writings of 
 the poets and dramatists have, to a certain ex- 
 tent, increased the confusion in the minds of 
 readers, and commentators not deeming the • 
 subject worthy of the consideration it deserves, 
 have often by wrongly directed notes and 
 glosses, made matters in a worse condition 
 than that arising from original error. Sir John 
 Davies (1570-1626) in his poem " Orchestra" is 
 clearer than other authors on the subject. He 
 identifies rounds, corantos, measures, &c., 
 with country dances. His description of a 
 
 ( 120 ) 
 
COUNTRY DANCE. 
 
 country dance, to be found under "Brawl," 
 is almost the same as that given above, which 
 is the process of performing the country dance 
 to this day. He calls a " measure" " a round 
 dance for ever wheeling," and implies that " as 
 men more civill grew, they did more grave 
 and solemn measures frame" out of the primi- 
 tive country dance. The "galliard" "a swift 
 and wandering dance with passages uncertain 
 to and fro, yet with a certain answer and 
 consent." The coranto or " current traverses" 
 in which he says of the dancer : 
 
 " Everywhere he wantonly must range 
 And turn with unexpected change." 
 
 All these forms are but slight variations of the 
 simple original, and as it is admitted that "no 
 rules have ever been laid down for the com- 
 position of a country dance, nor is it indeed 
 confined to any particular measure ; so that 
 any common song, or tune, if sufficiently 
 rhythmical may by adoption be made a country 
 dance," the diversities of tempo in the several 
 melodies, of the coranto, rondo, galliard, and 
 measure ought not to be taken as a proof of 
 a distinct character of dance. 
 
 In the rustic dances the motion was rapid, 
 but when people of less humble condition 
 deigned to adopt them, they varied the figures, 
 made the motion more dignified, and giving 
 a new title to the old diversion, created a 
 certain amount of confusion in the minds of 
 interested posterity. The "stately measure, 
 the graceful minuet, and the courtly quadrille " 
 are each and all country dances, and people 
 of all conditions have indulged in the pastime 
 they offer. Mr. William Chappell ("Popular 
 Music in the Olden Time," p. 626) shows 
 that country dances were popular at court in 
 the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and succeeding 
 reigns. The custom of dancing the ancient 
 English country dance was kept up at court 
 during the reign of George III, as many news- 
 papers and other records show. Thus, in the 
 " Universal Magazine," for June, 1784, we 
 read: "June 4th, the anniversary of the King's 
 birth-day, the drawing-room broke up about 
 half-past five, when their majesties returned 
 to the Queen's palace to dinner ; and at about 
 nine in the evening there was a grand ball, 
 which was opened by the Prince of Wales, 
 who walked the first minuets with the Princess 
 Augusta .... The country dances began a 
 little before t\velve, and continued till past 
 one." 
 
 It has been mentioned above that the 
 rhythm of country dance tunes is various, 
 some are in triple and some in duple mea- 
 sure. Among the most popular airs employed 
 for the dance, those called " Sir Roger de 
 Coverley," the " Tank," the ' " Triumph," 
 "Gee ho, Dobbin," "Merrily danced the 
 Quaker's Wife," "Petticoat Loose," "Gossip 
 
 Joan," " The Devil among the Tailors," " Moll 
 in the Wad," and the "Wind that shakes the 
 Barle}'," are still popular : these are all dif- 
 ferent in accent and measure, 3'et all serve the 
 purpose of the dance. It matters not whether 
 the time be |, ^^, |, or | ; all that is necessary 
 is that the strains should be in four or eight bar 
 phrases to accompany the several movements, 
 and ever}' need is satisfied. 
 
 " Roger de Coverley." 
 
 -^ 
 
 ' The Tank." 
 
 Fine. 
 
 "The Triumph.* 
 
 f 121 ) 
 
COUNTRY DANCE. 
 
 " Gee ho, Dobbin." 
 
 3 J J J|r-^ : 
 
 ^ 
 
 fe^ - 1 ^ t\ ^-^ 
 
 m. 
 
 % ^ • r== l^ =^=q ^~ T^=g^ 
 
 ^^i^^^^ 
 
 ' Merrily danced the Quaker's Wife." 
 
 " Gossip Joan." 
 
 " The Devil among the Tailors." 
 
 ^^^^^^^ 
 
 tf-rrrr^^i-rrrr^g^gff^^^^ 
 
 -Q-^tt 1 1 ] ] p 
 
 (^ * ._ — J — _5- ^ _,._ , p-fl* 
 
 ^ d^^ J:'* 'j:i i ^ 'j:-^ J: "'^ 
 
 Fine, 
 
 ( 122 ) 
 
COUNTRY DANCE, 
 
 " Moll in the Wad." 
 
 
 l^ff ,lj /J J^ 
 
 4^^=^ 
 
 J 1 — p 1 N -H 
 
 s^ J^l ^ 
 
 _> 1 kj 
 
 
 k=^ r 1 r g r iihrtfif-? i^\i. ^-^^ 
 
 
 " 1 fc> '1 
 
 ^ i 1>'I — ^-^ 
 
 " Rolling in the Dew.'' 
 
 Country dances when imported into othei 
 nations have become as popular as at home. 
 The Italians, in 1740, were said to be "fond 
 to a degree " of them, and about the same 
 period in Paris, " no kind of dance was re- 
 ceived with so much favour as they." Dancing 
 masters vied with each other in devising new 
 combinations of figures, and musicians of the 
 common order provided original or borrowed 
 tunes for the dance, many of which were pub- 
 lished in single sheets with such titles as "La 
 
 Neiie-Chartres, countre danse par Mr. , M'''<=- 
 
 de Danse, prix 4 s. la feuille ; a Paris, ches M. 
 de la Chevardiere, M""- de Musique, rue du 
 Roule a la Croix d'or ; M"=- Castagniere, rue 
 des Prouvaires, avec privilege du Roy." 
 
 These publications consisted of four pages, 
 
 the first occupied with the title, as above ; the 
 second containing a description " des figures 
 de la contre danse; " the third diagram-plans 
 of the said figures, and the fourth the music, 
 which in the instance quoted above, is as 
 follows : 
 
 m 
 
 ^^i^=p^F=gf^rrf rirr r j 
 
 
 The following diagram from the above work, 
 shows the various figures of another dance, 
 the black marks representing the position of 
 the men ; the white marks, that of the women ; 
 the arrow-heads, the direction in which they 
 move. 
 
 ,( 123 ) 
 
COUNTRY DANCE CREMONA. 
 
 Description des Figures Ue la Contredanse. 
 
 1. La grande chains, un demi toiir. 
 
 2, 3. Lrt poussette dessiis, et dessous, et la pirouette d 
 chaque bout. 
 
 4. Autre i tour de chaine, la poussette, et lapiroitctte 
 au bout. 
 
 5, 6, 7, 8. Gager d'tme place sur le cotl ; deux se 
 tenant les mains passent en dedans et les deux auires en 
 dehors, continuant d passer de cette maniere 4fois, jtisqu^d 
 scs places, faisant deux balance d chaque place. 
 
 g. La chaine des dames sur les cotes. 
 
 10. Un tour allemande en pirouetiant. 
 
 11. Refaire la chaine des dames. 
 
 12. Un tour d'allemande. La Main. 
 
 LA N^^ 50CIETE 
 
 PLAN 
 
 DesFfgures de la Contredanfe 
 
 ?■ vn 
 
 4'.i=^^ 
 
 <J's 
 
 sa 
 
 4'.^ 
 
 The subjoined is the melody to which it 
 was danced : 
 
 " La Nouvelle Societe," Contre-danse Allemande. 
 
 ^^^^^m 
 
 ^^g^ 
 
 2 fois la rep. du majeur en rondeau, et deux fois chaque rep. du 
 mineur. 
 
 Coup d'archet (Fr.) Stroke of a bow. 
 
 Couper le sujet {Fr.) To abbreviate or 
 curtail a musical subject or theme. 
 
 Coupler. The mechanism which connects 
 pedals with the manuals ; or, different manuals 
 together. [Organ.] 
 
 Couplet, (i) Two lines in rhyme, which 
 contain a complete sentence. (2) A verse of 
 a song. (3) Two notes occupying the time of 
 three, e.g. : 
 
 Courante (Fr.) [Coranto.] 
 
 Couronne (Fr.) The name for the sign 
 of a pause r\ . 
 
 Courtaut, Cortaud, Corthal. An ancient 
 instrument of the bassoon kind. [Bassoon.] 
 
 Covered consecutives. Hidden consecu- 
 tives. [Consecutives.] 
 
 Covered strings. Strings of silk, wire, or 
 gut, covered with a fine wire by means of 
 a machine, by a process technically termed 
 string-spinning. Covered strings are used for 
 pianofortes, violins, violoncellos, guitars, &c., 
 the wire covering, by adding weight and strength 
 to the string, makes it slower of vibration, 
 while, on the other hand, it is more elastic 
 than an uncovered string of the same diameter. 
 
 Cownterynge yn songe {Old Eng.) In 
 Lat. concentus or accentus, singing an accom- 
 paniment to a tune. [Descant.] 
 
 Cracovienne. [Polacca.] 
 
 Crackle. A direction in lute playing, thus 
 explained by " Maister " Thomas Mace, 
 1676: "To crackle such three part stops is 
 only to divide each stop, with your thumb and 
 two fingers, so as not to loose time, but give 
 each crotchet its due quantity." [Arpeggio.] 
 
 Credo {Lat.) One of the movements in 
 a mass. [Mass.] 
 
 Crembalum. [Jew's Harp.] 
 
 Cremona, (i) A violin made in the town 
 of Cremona. (2) A reed stop in the organ. 
 A corruption of the word Krummhorn. 
 
 ( 124) 
 
CREMORNE- 
 
 -CUSTOS. 
 
 Cremorne (Fr.) [Krummhorn.] 
 
 Crepitaculum or Crepundia (Lat.) An 
 ancient instrument of a character like the casta- 
 nets, but with sound produced more by friction 
 than striking. [Castanets, Bones, Knicky- 
 knackers.] 
 
 Crescendo (It.) Increasing, a gradual 
 increase in the force of sound expressed by 
 the sign — ==rZII; or the abbreviation cres. 
 The sign was iirst employed in England by 
 Matthew Locke, in 1676. 
 
 Crescendo Zug (Ger.) The swell box in 
 the organ. [Organ.] 
 
 Creticus (Lat.) A metrical foot consisting 
 of one short syllable between two long 
 
 Croche (Fr.) A quaver J", the hooked 
 note. [Nomenclature.] 
 
 Croma (It.) A quaver J" 
 
 Cromatico (It.) Chromatic; as, fuga cro- 
 matica, a chromatic i\xg,no; fantasia cromatica, 
 a chromatic fantasia, &c. 
 
 Crom horn. [Krummhorn.J 
 
 Crooks. Short tubes, either straight or 
 curved, adapted for insertion between the 
 mouthpiece and the body of the horn, trumpet, 
 or cornet-a-pistons, for the purpose of altering 
 the key. [Metal wind instruments.] 
 
 Crotalum (Lat.) KporaXov (Gk.) A rattle, 
 or clapper, used sometimes to mark the 
 rhythm of dancing, in the worship of Cybele. 
 They were generally made of wood, having a 
 loose piece hinged about midway, so that, 
 when shaken in the hand a clattering noise 
 was produced, called by the Greeks irXa-ayi]. 
 
 Instruments of this kind were in use among 
 the ancient Egyptians, as the following illus- 
 tration shows: 
 
 Crotchet. A note lone-fourth of the value 
 of a semibreve. [Nomenclature.] 
 
 Croupeza, icpovTrci^a, Kpouwa^a, Kpovirava, 
 Kpovircra (Gk. from Kpnvu), to knock, strike). 
 High wooden shoes worn by flute-players or 
 others, with which the time was marked by 
 striking with the foot ; c.f. Lat. scrupedse, 
 women who wore high-heeled boots. 
 
 Crowd, Crwth. An ancient instrument, 
 like a violin, with six strings, four of which 
 were played upon by a bow, and the other 
 two played, or plucked with the thumb, as an 
 accompaniment. The neck had a hole, through 
 which the player thrust his hand, so that he 
 could only command the notes lying under his 
 fingers. [Violin.] 
 
 Crowle. An early form of the word corolla 
 (Lat.) a crowd, q.v. 
 
 C Schliissel (Ger.) The C clef. 
 
 Cum sancto (Lat.) A portion of the Gloria 
 in the mass. [Mass.] 
 
 Cue. A catch word or phrase. The last 
 notes or words of other parts inserted as a 
 guide to singers or players who have to make 
 an entry after rests : 
 
 Tenor.j^ j__j _j_ I 
 
 upright on aa heap. 
 
 And the depths were con 
 
 Cupo (It.) Darkly, mysteriously. 
 
 Currende (Ger.) Children carol-singers. 
 
 Cushion-dance. An old English round 
 dance, in which each woman selected her 
 partner by placing a cushion before him. 
 Taylor, the Water Poet, calls it a " pretty 
 little provocatory dance," for that reason. 
 There was a dialogue carried on, according 
 to the description given in the " Dancing 
 Master" of 1686; and the note appended to 
 the same description points^ — perhaps unwit- 
 tingly — to the probable origin of the dance : 
 " Note. The women are kissed by all the 
 men in the ring at their coming and going 
 out, and likewise the men by all the women." 
 Therefore, it is not at all unlikely that the 
 Cushion-dance was the " Kissing dance." 
 One of the tunes to which it was danced is 
 subjoined, and another melody is printed in 
 Mr. Chappell's " Popular Music," where it 
 is shown that the dance was also called a Gal- 
 liard. [Cotillon.] [Country Dance.] 
 
 Cushion Dance. 
 
 Gustos (Lat.) (i) The chief of a college 
 of minor canons. (2) A direct, the sign w or 
 V) placed at the end of a line or page to show 
 
 ( 125) 
 
CYCLISCHE FORMEN- 
 
 -CZIMKEN, 
 
 the position of the first note of the line or 
 page following. 
 
 Cyclische Formen. Rondo forms. [Form.] 
 Cymbalista. A cymbal player. 
 Cymbals. Cymbalum (Lat.)Kvfifia\ov (Gk). 
 Musical instruments of percussion, consisting 
 of two metallic basins, which are set in vibra- 
 tion by being clashed together. The shape of 
 cymbals varies, from that of the actual form 
 of a cup or basin to an almost flat plate. The 
 following illustration shows those used by the 
 Assyrians. It will be remarked that the lower 
 basin is held in a stationary position, while the 
 upper one is dashed on it. 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 The Hebrews had two kinds of cymbals, 
 mentioned by name in Psalm cl. 5, " Praise 
 Him upon the loud cymbals ; praise Him 
 upon the high-sounding cymbals." The Ara- 
 bians have two sorts at the present time, 
 the larger they use in their religious cere- 
 monies, but the smaller are rarely used but 
 for the purpose of accompanying the dance. 
 In India cymbals are used called talan, and a 
 smaller sort called kintal. An illustration of 
 Indian cymbals is given : 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 The Burmese instruments of this class are 
 of the true basin shape, as shewn in the 
 following : 
 
 Fig- 3- 
 
 A pair of ancient Egyptian cymbals are in 
 existence; they are about five inches in 
 diameter, and are made of a mixture of 
 
 copper and silver, and in outline are identical 
 with those now used by modern Egyptians. 
 
 As has been the case with other musical 
 instruments, the name cymbal has been ap- 
 plied in various ways. At one period the 
 Italians called a tambourine by this name, 
 and at another a dulcimer. As the harpsi- 
 chord was the actual outgrowth of the dulci- 
 mer, the harpsichord came to be called 
 cembalo, a word still to be found occasionally' 
 affixed to the pianoforte part of full scores. It 
 is probable that the peculiar clang produced 
 by striking the wire strings of a dulcimer with 
 a wooden hammer gave rise to the associa- 
 tion of the name cymbal with dulcimer. 
 
 In modem military bands cymbals are used 
 in the ancient manner. One plate is held in 
 each hand of the performer, arid the sound 
 is produced by clashing the plates together. 
 In the orchestra of the concert-room, one 
 plate of a cymbal is attached to the upper 
 side of the rim of the big (upright) drum, and 
 the other held in the left hand of the drummer. 
 The tone produced by the beating of these is 
 largely increased in power and depth by the 
 connection with the drum. Very small cym- 
 ,bals were introduced by Berlioz, tuned a fifth 
 apart, as an orchestral instrument, but have 
 not come into common use. Small cymbals 
 are sometimes attached to the fingers and 
 are hence called finger-cymbals : 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 These naturally became associated with 
 castanets; and they have* also found their 
 way into the rim of the tambourine, of which 
 instrument they form an important element. 
 
 It should be stated that cymbals are not 
 struck together, actually face to face, for by 
 so doing not only would the free vibration of 
 the plates be very much arrested, but they 
 would in all probability be split by the blow. 
 Turkey is still celebrated for its manufacture 
 of cymbals and other instruments of percus- 
 sion, and exports them in large quantities to 
 all parts of the world. The exact composi- 
 tion of the metal used in Turkey is not known 
 to the manufacturers in other countries.. 
 
 Cypher-system. [Notation.] 
 
 Czakan. A flute made of cane or bamboo. 
 
 Czardasch {Hung.) [Chica.] 
 
 Czimken [Polish). A dance similar to the 
 country dance. 
 
 ( 126) 
 
-DANCING. 
 
 D. 
 
 D. (i) The first note of the Phrygian, 
 afterwards called Dorian, mode. 
 
 (2) The second note of the normal scale C. 
 
 (3) The scale having two sharps in its sig- 
 nature. 
 
 (4) The name given to a string tuned to D, 
 e.g., the third string of the violin, the second 
 of the viola and of the violoncello. 
 
 (5) The name of a clef in old mensurable 
 music, D excellens. [Clef.] 
 
 (6) Ahh. for Discantus, Dessus, Destra, &c. 
 Da ballo {It.) In dance style. 
 
 Da camera {It.) For chamber use. In 
 the style of chamber music. 
 
 Da cappella {It.) In the church style. 
 
 Da capo {It.) From the beginning. An 
 expression first used by Scarlatti in his "Theo- 
 dora," signifying that the performer must re- 
 commence the piece, and conclude at the 
 double bar marked " Fine." 
 
 Da capo al fine {It.) From the beginning 
 to the sign Fine. 
 
 Da capo al segno {It.) Repeat from the 
 sigfn (H) at the beginning. 
 
 D'accord {Fr.) In tune. 
 
 Dach {Ger.) Sounding-board. Resonance- 
 body of an instrument. 
 
 Da chiesa {It.) For the church. In the 
 church style. 
 
 Dachschw^eller {Ger.) Swell-box. 
 
 Dactyl. A metrical foot, consisting of a 
 long syllable followed by two short syllables. 
 
 Dactylion {Gk.) An instrument invented 
 by Henri Herz, for strengthening the fingers 
 for pianoforte playing. \c.f. Chiroplast.] 
 
 Daina or Dainos. A term given to some 
 little Lithuanian love-songs. 
 
 Daire {Turkish). A tambourine. 
 
 Da lontano {It.) In the distance, e. g., 
 corni da lontano, horns heard in the distance. 
 
 Dal segno (7^.) To the sign (%). [Da capo.] 
 
 Damenisation. The syllables da, me, ni, 
 po, tu, la, be, which Graun employed for the 
 notes of the scale in his vocal exercises. [Sol- 
 mization.] 
 
 Damp, to. (i) On instruments played 
 by plucking the strings, as the harp, guitar, 
 &c., to check the vibrations by placing the 
 hand lightly on the strings. (2) To apply 
 mechanical dampers. 
 
 Damper, (i) Certain moveable pieces of 
 mechanism in a pianoforte, made of wood 
 covered with cloth, which, after the finger has 
 struck the key and left it, immediately check 
 the vibrations of the strings, and prevent that 
 confusion of sound which would result if they 
 were allowed to continue in vibration. (2) 
 The mute of a horn, and other brass wind- 
 instruments. 
 
 Dampfer {Ger.){ i ) Damper. (2) Violin-mute . 
 
 Dancing. A graceful movement of the 
 feet or body, intended as an expression of 
 various emotions ; with or without the ac- 
 companiment of music to regulate its rhythm. 
 
 Dancing is mentioned by the earliest writers, 
 both sacred and profane, as a constituent part 
 of religious ceremonies. There are many in- 
 stances named in the Bible, needless here to 
 particularize, and the ancient Greek poets 
 have abundant allusions to the practice in 
 their writings. Homer mentions dancing and 
 music at social entertainments; Aristotle tells 
 of dancers who were able to express manners, 
 passions, and deeds in rhjrthmical gestures ; 
 Herodotus, Pindar, Athenseus, and others of 
 later date refer to the practice. Donaldson says 
 that all ancient dancing was " either gymnastic 
 or mimetic; it was gymnastic when intended 
 merely as an exercise, it was mimetic when it 
 was designed to express some mental feeling, 
 or to represent by corresponding gestures the' 
 words of the accompanying chorus sung." 
 
 Athenasus speaks of three divisions of the 
 Greek dance : the Emmeleia (ejujucXfia), the 
 Sicinnis {a'lKivvic), and the Cordax (ko'pSo?); 
 the first named from the melody played to it, 
 the second from its inventor Sicinnos, and the 
 third probably for the reason hereinafter ex- 
 plained. The Emmeleia, the tragic dance, 
 was a kind of slow dignified movement or 
 ballet. The Sicinnis was of a grotesque 
 character, and was performed with a peculiar 
 shaking of the body and violent motion of the 
 limbs. The Cordax was less decent in style 
 than the last named. It was introduced into 
 comedies, and was performed by actors assum- 
 ing to be under the influence of wine. In 
 addition to these there were the Pyrrhic or 
 war dances, expressive of the pursuit and 
 encounter of an enemy. 
 
 I 127 ) 
 
DANCING DECANI. 
 
 The Roman dances, at first connected with 
 religious observances, became by degrees sepa- 
 rated from them, and perhaps degenerated, as 
 it was considered disgraceful for a free citizen 
 to dance, excepting during devotional exer- 
 cises. 
 
 The Almee, or dancing and singing girls 
 of Egypt, the Nautch girls of India, perform, 
 at feasts and solemn occasions, certain dances 
 akin to those which formed part of the ancient 
 observances. 
 
 There is ground for the belief that dancing 
 was not discouraged among the early Chris- 
 tians, and there are records showing continu- 
 ance of the custom among the less orthodox 
 sects at different periods of the history of the 
 Church. 
 
 Dancing and pantomimic actions formed 
 part of the amusements sometimes offered by 
 the jongleurs, a body of the minstrel class ; 
 their dancing often included acrobatic per- 
 formances. The common dances, popular 
 among the people in various European coun- 
 tries, vary more in name than in character ; 
 and as they are unquestionable legacies of 
 heathen days, have been condemned from 
 time to time by the more serious-minded. 
 
 The force and original meaning of dancing 
 is now lost sight of. It is not now regarded 
 in the light of an act of worship, but is en- 
 couraged only as a means of social enjoyment. 
 The rude forms of dancing have been softened 
 and polished during successive generations, 
 their character changed,, and their identity or 
 connection with their origin disguised under 
 modified motions. Each country in which 
 dancing is practised has considered itself free 
 to change the steps, arrangement, and signifi- 
 cance of the dance, or to give preference to 
 one portion of a complicated whole ; and such 
 alterations have been accepted as new dances, 
 when they are not really so. The German 
 waltz, the French cancan, the English country- 
 dance, the Spanish bolero, the South American 
 chica, the Italian saltarello, the Hungarian 
 czardasch, are all forms traceable to one 
 source. The allemande, the brawl, the co- 
 ranto, the fandango, the forlana, the gavotte, 
 the hornpipe, the jota, the kalamaika, the 
 loure, the measure, the minuet, the passecaille, 
 the quadrille, the ringeltanz, the saraband, the 
 tarantella, trenchmore, zapateado, &c., are 
 only different names of the several motions of 
 that called in England the country-dance, 
 with such variations in melody and rhythm 
 as would arise from the use of accompanying 
 musical instruments more or less perfect in 
 their construction, or on account of the speed 
 at which they were danced, by which means 
 a rapid triple measure may be made to seem 
 duple measure. The advancing and retreat- 
 ing in the various figures ; the embracing and 
 
 unloosing, the stamping, shrieking, and sing- 
 ing in some dances ; the " grand chain," or 
 the galopade which generally marks the con- 
 cluding figure of a quadrille, are merely mild 
 versions of some of the several peculiarities 
 of the ancient prototype. 
 
 The Italians of the i5th century are cre- 
 dited with the distinction of having invented 
 that form of dancing known by the general 
 term of ballet: they arranged the motions 
 and gestures of the body in an expressive 
 pantomime, and reduced the various actions 
 to a series of well-defined and understood 
 rules, so that the performers were able to 
 impart to the spectators a perfect story with- 
 out the aid of words ; but their claim cannot 
 be upheld, as the like thing had been done 
 by the Greeks ages before. 
 
 The rhythm of the more important dances 
 will be found described under their respective 
 titles. 
 
 Darabooka or Darabukkeh. An Arabian 
 drum ; the body, to which is attached a handle, 
 is of hollowed wood. There are various kinds 
 of this instrument. 
 
 Darmsaiten {Ger.) Strings of catgut. 
 [String.] 
 
 Dash, (i) A line drawn through a figure 
 in thorough-bass, showing that the interval 
 must be raised one semitone, e.g. : 
 
 (2) A line drawn through the duple time- 
 sign, e.g., (P, implying a division either of 
 measurement or of pace. 
 
 (3) A short stroke placed above notes or 
 chords, directing that they are to be played 
 staccAlo. 
 
 (4) In harpsichord music, a dash passing 
 between two notes, called a slur, or coul6 : 
 
 was thus played ; : 
 
 Da teatro {It.) In the theatrical style. 
 
 Dauer {Ger.) Duration or continuance of 
 notes or sound. 
 
 Daumen {Ger.) The thumb. 
 
 D dur {Ger.) D major. 
 
 Debut {Fr.) A first appearance. 
 
 D6butant, e {Fr.) A performer who ap- 
 pears for the first time. 
 
 Dec, abh. of Decani. 
 
 Dec, abh. of Decrescendo. 
 
 Decachordon {Gk.) An instrument with 
 ten strings. 
 
 Decani {Lat.) A term used in cathedral 
 music, to signify that the part so distinguished 
 is to be sung by the singers on the dean's, or 
 south side of the choir, in contradistinction 
 
 (128) 
 
DECEPTIVE CADENCE DEDICATION. 
 
 to " cantoris " the cantor's or praecentor's 
 side. [Cathedral Music] 
 
 Deceptive cadence. [Cadence.] 
 
 Decide (Fr.) Firmly, with decision. 
 
 Decima {Lat.) A loth, an interval of a 
 loth ; decima plena de tonis, a major loth ; 
 decima non plena de tonis, a minor loth ; 
 decima quarta, a 14th or octave of the 7th ; 
 decima quitita, a 15th or double octave ; 
 decima tertia, a 13th or octave of the 6th. 
 
 Decimole. [Decuplet.] 
 
 Decisio. [Apotome.] 
 
 Deciso [It.) Determined, decided, with 
 firmness. 
 
 Decke {Ger.) (i) Cover, an upper or lower 
 plate of a resonance box. (2) The cover of 
 stopped metal organ pipes ; e.g.,liehlich gedeckt 
 {or gedacht),th.& sweet toned stopped-diapason. 
 
 Dedamando {It.) In a declamatory 
 style. 
 
 Declamation. The proper rhetorical ren- 
 dering of words set to music. [Recitative.] 
 
 D6conipos6 {Fr.) Unconnected, incohe- 
 rent. 
 
 D6coration {Fr.) Signature of a piece of 
 music. 
 
 Decres., abb. of Decrescendo. 
 
 Decrescendo {It.) Decreasing gradually 
 the volume of tone. Indicated in music by 
 the abbreviations Dec, Decres., or the sign 
 
 Decuplet. A group of ten notes played in 
 the time of eight or four. 
 
 Dedication. An address or inscription to 
 a patron or friend, prefixed to a work. 
 
 Dedications frequently form a valuable 
 guide to the historian, as by them it can be 
 ascertained whether the author designed to 
 honour any special individual, or, in the case 
 of early works, whether a production was 
 issued at the " cost and charges " of any 
 particular patron. 
 
 Before the time when an author could 
 command a large sale amongst the general 
 public, it was not an uncommon practice to 
 dedicate a book to one who had borne the 
 chief expense in the production, and the 
 ingenuity of the author was exercised in 
 finding expressions sufficiently flattering in 
 return for money expended or presented. 
 The character of these addresses became at 
 one time somewhat fulsome, as may be seen 
 by the following, prefixed to CHfFord's "Divine 
 Services and Anthems :" London, 1663 ; the 
 first book of its kind printed in England : 
 
 "To the Reverend Walter Jones, Doctor in 
 Divinity and Sub-Dean of his Majesties 
 Chappel-Royal, &c. : 
 
 " Sir, — Under your able patronage I have 
 presumed to shelter this my weak endeavor, 
 which if for no other reason than the wel- 
 meaning devotion thereof, I was sure would 
 
 not be unacceptable or troublesome to you. 
 Be pleased therefore to intermit awhile those 
 seraphical raptures, in the excellency whereof, 
 and your thereto tuned piety, you are so 
 famously happy. And vouchsafe an eare to 
 the mean addresse of these rudiments (as it 
 were) of Church Musick, which, like other 
 perfections, hath suffer'd meerly through the 
 peoples ignorance. To you therefore more 
 especially doe I dedicate this essay, whose 
 alone competent skill and judgement in the 
 highest mysteries of this divine science, if it 
 shall please you to descend and deign a 
 favourable approbation thereunto, cannot but 
 comand reception from others : since my 
 knowledge at Oxford (improved further at 
 London) of your eminency this way, cannot 
 so far disoblige the world as not to believe 
 you have the supreme mastery in religious 
 musick ; by which, as you charm the soul, 
 and all its affections, no doubt you can prevail 
 upon and perswade publick acceptance. 
 
 " I submit this piece in this (howsoever rude) 
 manner to your judgement, having attempted, 
 I hope something of tendency to the churches 
 peace and harmony, whereof though I am a 
 smal and an unworthy member, yet a mite 
 even from such is justly expected : For 
 higher works God hath fitted and prepared 
 your most artfull hand, and hath placed you 
 in an orb from whence your melody (as of the 
 spheres) of holiness and constant goodness in 
 and for the church is universally heard with 
 joy and delight. In which happiness, God 
 Almighty long continue you here and late 
 translate you to the angelical choire : So 
 prayes. Reverend Sir, your most devoted and 
 obedient Servant, James Clifford." 
 
 Master Thomas Mace, in a more manly 
 mood, dedicated his famous book called 
 " Musick's Monument" (1676) to a higher 
 power than a sub-dean, oh the principle that 
 a man's work should be " dedicated " to God, 
 and only " inscribed " to a fellow-man. His 
 " Epistle Dedicatory " runs as follows : — 
 
 " To Thee, One-Only-Oneness, I direct my 
 weak desires, and works ; please to protect 
 both them and me ; for Thou alone art able 
 (and none but Thee) to make us acceptable 
 unto the world. 
 " I am not of that Catholic belief 
 (I meaji the Roman's faith) who seek relief 
 (At th' second hand) from saints ; but I thus take 
 My freedom, and (sans complement) thus mjike 
 My seeming bold address : not judging it 
 A crime with Thee ; but rather count it fit ; 
 Part of my duty call'd for, which I owe 
 Unto Thy goodness ; therefore thus it show. 
 I've wondered much to see what great ado 
 Men make, to dedicate their works, unto 
 High mortals, who themselves can no way save 
 From the sland'rous tongues of every envious knave. 
 Thou (only) art the able-true protector : 
 Oh be my shield, defender and director, 
 Then sure we shall be safe. 
 
 ( 129 ) 
 
DEDUCTIO DESCANT. 
 
 Thou know'st (O searcher of all hearts) how I, 
 With right-downright-sincere-sincerity, 
 Have longed long to do some little good 
 (According to the best I understood) , 
 With Thy rich talent, though by me made poor ; 
 For which I grieve, and will do so no more, 
 By Thy good grace assisting, which I do 
 Most humbly beg for : Oh adjoyn it to 
 My longing ardent soul ; and have respect 
 To this my weak endeavour ; and accept 
 (In Thy great mercy) both of it, and me, 
 Ev'n as we dedicate ourselves to Thee." 
 
 ■This is followed by "An epistle to all 
 divine readers, especially those of the discent- 
 ing ministry, or clergy, who want not only 
 skill, but good-will to this most excelling-part 
 of divine service, viz., singing of psalms, 
 hymns, and spiritual songs, to the praise of 
 the Almighty, in the publick assemblies of 
 His saints ; and yet more particularly to all 
 great and high persons, supervisors, masters, 
 or governors of the Church (if any such 
 should be) wanting skill, or good-will there- 
 unto." 
 
 In 1713 Mattheson published a sonata 
 " dedicated to the person who will best per- 
 form it," and if it were necessary, many 
 curious instances of remarkable dedications 
 might be quoted to swell the list, but one only 
 must suffice. There is extant a composition 
 by Samuel Wesley, containing a series of 
 intended violations of musical grammar, all 
 of which are duly pointed out, and the whole 
 is dedicated " without permission to William 
 Horsley, Esqre., Mus. Bac, fifth and eighth 
 catcher in ordinary and extraordinary to the 
 Royal Society of Musicians." 
 
 Deductio (Lat.) The succession of notes 
 as they appear in their proper places in the 
 hexachords, which are in consequence called 
 prima deductio, secunda, &c., up to septima. 
 [Notation.] 
 - Deficiendo (7^.) Gradually dying away. 
 
 Digre {Fr.) Degree of a scale. 
 
 Degree of a scale. A step in the tone- 
 ladder ; it may consist of a semitone, a tone, 
 or (in the minor scale) of an augmented tone. 
 
 Degree in music. The rank or title con- 
 ferred by an University on a candidate who 
 has matriculated, and passed through the 
 necessary examinations. They are of two 
 kinds. Bachelor in (or of) Music, and Doctor 
 of Music. The latter is generally taken by 
 bachelors of several years standing, but in 
 special cases candidates are allowed (by a 
 grace) to accumulate, that is, take both 
 degrees at the same time. 
 
 Dehnung (Ger.) Expansion, extension. 
 
 Dehnungstriche (Ger.) A long stroke 
 with the bow. 
 
 D61assement (Fr.) A light trifling enter- 
 tainment. 
 
 Deliberatamente (It.) Deliberately. 
 
 Deliberato (It.) Deliberate. 
 
 ( I 
 
 Del, della, dalle, dello {It.) Of the; e.g., 
 sopra il soggetto della .fuga seguente, on the 
 subject of the fugue which follows. 
 
 Delicato, delicatamente {It.) Delicately; 
 delicatissimo, very delicately ; con delicatezza, 
 with delicacy. 
 
 D61icatesse {Fr.) Delicacy of performance. 
 
 Delirio, con {It.) With excitement, with 
 frenzy. 
 
 Delyn {Welsh.) The harp. 
 
 Demancher (Fr.) To cross hands, in 
 pianoforte playing. To shift, in violin playing. 
 
 Demande {Fr.) The subject, dux, or pro- 
 position of a fugue. 
 
 Demi-baton {Fr.) A semi-breve rest. 
 
 Demi-cadence {Fr.) A half cadence, or 
 the cadence on the dominant. [Cadence.] 
 
 Demi-jeu {Fr.) Half power. Mezzo forte, 
 applied to organ or harmonium playing. 
 
 Demi - mesure, demi-pause {Fr.) A 
 minim rest. 
 
 Demi-quart de soupir {Fr.) A demi- 
 semiquaver rest. 
 
 Demi- semiquaver. A note of the value 
 
 of one-fourth of a quaver ^ 
 
 Demi-soupir {Fr.) A quaver rest. 
 
 Demi-ton {Fr.) A semitone. 
 
 Demoiselle {Fr.) A coupler in the organ. 
 
 Denis d'or. An instrument having a 
 finger board like a piano, and pedals like an 
 organ, capable of producing a vast number of 
 different qualities of sound. It was invented 
 in 1762 by Procopius Divis, in Moravia. 
 
 Derivative, (i) The actual or supposed 
 root or generator, from the harmonics of 
 which a chord is derived. (2) A chord de- 
 rived from another, that is, in an inverted 
 state. An inversion. 
 
 Des {Ger.) D flat. 
 
 Descant, Discantus {Lat.) The addition 
 of a part or parts to a tenor or subject. This 
 art, the forerunner of modern counterpoint 
 and harmony, grew out of the still earlier 
 art of diaphony or the organum, of which it 
 is necessary to give a slight sketch. 
 
 Diaphony {Sia<JMoi'ia) signified in Greek music 
 discordant sounds or dissonance (voces dis- 
 crepantes vel dissonae), as opposed to sym- 
 phony {avfi^iiivLa) consonance. But the term 
 came afterwards to be applied to those first 
 attempts at the harmonic combination of 
 voices, and polyphony, which may be looked 
 upon as the first life-pulse of modern har- 
 mony. It is indeed strange that the term 
 diaphony should have been selected for these 
 early efforts, for, crude and painful as they 
 are to our ears, they gave undoubted pleasure 
 to those who first listened to them, who speak 
 of their "melodise suavitas " and " dulcis 
 concentus ; " moreover, diaphony was well 
 known to signify dissonance, intervals being 
 
 30 ) 
 
DESCANT. 
 
 divided into symphonic and diaphonic, the 
 former including 4ths, 5ths, and octaves (and 
 their compounds) ; the latter 2nds, 3rds, 6ths, 
 and yths. That they should not have called 
 it "harmony" would not surprise us if they 
 were only cognizant of the exact force of the 
 Greek apfiovia, but it happens that Isidorus 
 of Seville (in the 6th century), gives the 
 following definition of harmony, " consonantia 
 plurimorum sonorum et coaptatio," a defini- 
 tion which so far diverges from that of the 
 Greek, that it might have included all the 
 efforts of the diaphonists, and indeed might 
 almost pass muster as a definition of modern 
 harmony. Why diaphony or the diaphonia 
 cantilena was also called organum it is diffi- 
 cult to say. A later explanation, namely, that 
 it was because of a supposed similarity to the 
 music of the instrument "organ" is plainly 
 untenable (apte similitudinem exprimat instru- 
 menti, quod organum vocatur) — J. Cotton in 
 Gerbertus Script. II. 263. In time of Charle- 
 magne the art of diaphony must have reached 
 some degree of perfection, as it is certain that 
 Roman cantors were called upon to teach 
 certain French chanters the ars organandi, 
 and pueri symphoniaci were part of the musi- 
 cal staff of Vitalian at the end of the 7th 
 century. The earliest forms of diaphony were 
 of four kinds ; when the organum was added 
 to the "principal" or subject throughout at 
 the interval (i) of an octave, (2) of a fifth 
 (3) of a fourth, (4) at an octave above and 
 below. 
 
 These species were combined in three or 
 four-part music, thus presenting to the ear 
 a simple succession of consecutives. It is 
 unnecessary to give examples of each of the 
 above : the following (from Gerbertus) will 
 suffice as illustrations : — 
 
 
 es 
 
 T 
 
 tris sempiturnus / \ 
 
 T 
 
 Pa/ \Fi 
 
 S 
 
 y es \ li 
 
 T 
 
 Tu / tris sempiturnus / \ \ us. 
 
 T 
 
 Pa/ \Fi 
 
 T 
 
 / \u 
 
 S 
 
 Tu/ \us. 
 
 In the above S stands for semitone, T for 
 tone. It is thus rendered by Gerbertus (De 
 Cantu, &c., I. 112.): 
 
 Ex. I. 
 
 He also gives the following, but in old 
 notes and clefs : 
 
 Ex. z. 
 
 The next example is from Kiesewetter 
 (Hist, of Modern Music) : 
 
 Ex 3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «7 -^ 
 
 Sit 
 
 glo - ri - a 
 
 Do- 
 
 mi - ni 
 
 in 
 
 
 cu - 
 
 la, 
 
 i?^=^ 
 
 ^y c — .& — &- 
 
 '-J 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 '-J 
 
 ■ g? 
 
 ■ ,--3 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -Jrr — 
 
 
 
 In another kind of organum, one voice held 
 on a note like a drone while a second sang 
 the tune. 
 
 But the first step towards harmony was to 
 allow the organizing voices to have a choice 
 of intervals, instead of compelling them, as 
 seen in the examples above, to move in 
 parallel quarts, quints, and octaves. The 
 following example (No. 4) is from Gerbertus : 
 
 Ex.4. 
 
 S 
 
 Te hu - 
 
 li mo du - lis 
 
 i 
 
 ve - ne ran do pi 
 
 mz 
 
 In the above it will be observed that several 
 yds are introduced ; the admission of this 
 interval (both minor and major) into the list 
 of consonances represents another forward 
 movement in the art of music. But 3rds 
 (and afterwards 6ths) were not allowed to be 
 perfect, but classified as imperfect consonances, 
 a title which to this day adheres to these 
 beautiful intervals, although their superiority 
 to 4ths and 5ths has compelled modern writers 
 to call a 4th a discord, and to forbid consecu- 
 tive 5ths as an abomination. Franco and 
 Garland have a diyision of intervals which 
 is interesting as marking the transition from 
 the treatment of 3rds and 6ths as discords, 
 
 f 131 ) 
 
DESCA-NT. 
 
 and their present position in music. These 
 authors (see Coussemaker, p. 49) classify the 
 unison and octave as perfect consonances ; 
 the 4th and 5th as middle consonances ; the 
 major and minor third as imperfect conso- 
 nances. 
 
 The next important step in the progress of 
 harmony seems to have been the giving due 
 consideration to what we now term the rela- 
 tive motion of the parts. In the early examples 
 (i to 3) it must have been observed that there 
 is nothing but similar motion ; in Ex. 4, 
 oblique motion is mixed with similar; and 
 next we find authors boldly laying down the 
 law that when the principal (or melody) 
 ascends, the added organum should descend, 
 and vice versa (ubi in recta modulatione est 
 elevatio, ibi in organica fiat depositio et e 
 converso). This acknowledgment of the 
 beauty and value of contrary motion must 
 have given a new impulse to the art. Thus 
 step by step did it grope its way, till in 
 the nth century important treatises on it 
 were produced, and there can be also traced 
 that sure sign of a healthy circulation of 
 thought, a marked partisanship of different 
 and opposed systems. After this period, in- 
 stead of the "principal" and its "organum," 
 we begin to read of a " tenor " and its 
 " descant," and by almost imperceptible de- 
 grees the old system dies away as the new is 
 grafted and feeds on it. It must hot, however, 
 be supposed that the successive changes in 
 diaphony, above sketched, occurred in the 
 exact order in which they are presented to the 
 reader. Systems of art are never of sudden 
 growth, they overlap each other ; they perhaps 
 grow side by side for years, perhaps for cen- 
 turies, until those which have in them the 
 smallest power of development decay, and 
 leave the less-matured but better-constituted 
 systems to survive, with fresh opportunities 
 of thriving. 
 
 Descant, Discantus (Lat.), may be said to 
 have come into existence at the end of the 
 nth or beginning of the 12th century. The 
 word itself is thought by some to be merely 
 a latinized synonym of diaphony ; others, 
 among them Franco, considered it to be con- 
 nected with de cantu, something framed on or 
 growing out of a melody. Originally, as had 
 been previously the case with diaphony, it 
 consisted of two parts only, but later in its 
 life developed into motetts and various other 
 forms of composition. The real difference 
 between diaphony and descant seems to have 
 been that the former was rarely, if ever, more 
 complicated than note against note, whereas 
 descant made use of the various proportionate 
 value of notes — " Discantus est aliquorum 
 diversorum cantuum consonantia, in quo illi 
 diversi cantus per voces longas, breves, vel 
 
 semibreves proportionaliter adsequantur, et in 
 scripto per debitas figuras proportionari ad 
 invicem designantur" (Johan. de Moravia). 
 It also included notes altered semitonally by 
 accidentals, under which circumstances it was 
 called musica ficta vel falsa, feigned or false 
 music. This fact adds interest to a discus- 
 sion which took place between M. Fetis and 
 M. Coussemaker. The former taxed the latter 
 with having misinterpreted his published 
 specimens of diaphony, because, in it were 
 introduced the tritone and the lesser 5th. 
 M. Coussemaker's answer seems conclusive — 
 it is to the effect that if the parallel motion 
 of diaphony were consistently preserved, 
 either sucfi intervals must occur, or acciden- 
 tally altered notes, outside the scale, must 
 have been introduced : and such has not been 
 proved to have taken place. 
 
 The rules of descant are numerous, and 
 they provided for the regular addition of one 
 part to any other part according to the move- 
 ment of the tenor. The particular interval 
 by which the tenor proceeded, dictated to the 
 descant its own progression. It would be 
 useless to give the rules here, as they can 
 only be mastered by the student who carefully 
 reads the many treatises on the subject, so 
 elegantly reprinted by the indefatigable M. 
 Coussemaker (Script, de Musica Medii ^vi). 
 The scope of these rules was from time to 
 time expanded, and in a treatise of the 
 14th century by Theinred, reprinted by 
 W. Chappell (in the " Choir " newspaper of 
 April 9, 1870), the divergences of the later 
 from the earlier systems are apparent. 
 
 At this time, or even earlier, such expres- 
 sions as cantus firmus and contrapunctus begin 
 from time to time to be used, giving the first 
 intimation of the art of adding counterpoint 
 to a canto fermo, which was soon to supersede 
 descant, as descant had superseded diaphony. 
 
 Opinions have been divided as to whether 
 descant was merely a form of regulated im- 
 provisation, or whether it was a written art. 
 In all probability, it grew from one state into 
 the other. At first, without doubt, its rules 
 were intended to direct a musician how to 
 add " contrappunto alia mente ;" afterwards, 
 when an interesting and successful descant 
 had been framed, and perhaps often repeated, 
 it would indeed be strange if the author had 
 made no attempt to lengthen its existence by 
 committing it to paper ; indeed, one sentence 
 from Johannes de Muris substantiates the fact 
 beyond dispute. He says, " Nihil enim pro- 
 hibet in duobus cantibus simul esse cantantes 
 plures, tam in tenore quam in discantu." It 
 is inconceivable that a number of voices could 
 be found to add descants impromptu without 
 serious discrepancies. Descants were some- 
 times sung without words. 
 
 ( 132 ) 
 
DESCENDING DIAPASON. 
 
 Descending. Passing from a higher de- 
 gree of pitch to a lower. 
 
 Des dur {Ger.) The key of DU major. 
 
 Des moll (G^r.) The key of Dl? minor. 
 
 Dessin (Fr.) The design or plan of a 
 composition. 
 
 Dessus (Fr.) One of the old names for 
 the treble or upper part in vocal music. 
 
 Desto {It.) Sprightly. 
 
 Destra {It.) The right, as mano destra, 
 the right hand. 
 
 Dfetache (Fr.) Detached, or staccato notes. 
 
 Determinato {It.) Resolutely, definitely. 
 
 Detonation {Fr.) False intonation. 
 
 Detonner {Fr.) To sing out of tune : to 
 sing harshly or coarsely. 
 
 Detto (/f.) The same ; as, il detto voce, 
 the same voice. 
 
 Deutsche Flote {Ger.) The German flute. 
 [Flute.] 
 
 Deutscher Bass {Ger.) An instrument of 
 the viol kind, with five or six gut-strings, 
 midway in size between a violoncello and a 
 double-bass. 
 
 Deuxifeme position (Fr.) (i) The second 
 position or half-shift on the violin. [Shift.] 
 (2) The second fret on a guitar. 
 
 Development of a subject. The elabo- 
 ration of a given theme according to the rules 
 of art. [Sonata.] 
 
 Devoto, Devozione, con {It.) With de- 
 votion, affection. 
 
 Dextra {Lat.) The right, e.g., dextra 
 manu, with the right hand. 
 
 Dextrae tibiae {Lat.) Pipes held in the 
 right hand ; generally, the shorter of the tihite 
 itnpares. Hence, tihice dextrce seems to imply 
 a pair of treble pipes ; tibite sinistra, a pair 
 of lower-toned or bass pipes. [Aulos.] 
 
 Di (It.) By, of, for, with. Di grado, by 
 degrees ; stromenti di fiato, wind instruments ; 
 di chiesa, for the church ; di bravura, with 
 bravura passages. 
 
 Diagonal Bellows. An old form of organ 
 bellows, the construction of which may be 
 thus explained. 
 
 When the bellows are empty, the top (a), 
 which is moveable (being hinged at d), lies 
 
 close to the bottom (c) which is a fixture, and 
 the handle {b) with its levers are in the posi- 
 tion described by the dotted lines. Starting 
 thus, if the handle be pressed down, as it 
 leaves the dotted line, the top {a) will ascend, 
 and air will enter the bellows through the 
 apertures e, e, e. When the handle, having 
 reached its maximum depression, is released, 
 the surface weights (/, /, /) exercise their in- 
 fluence to restore the top (a) to its horizontal 
 position; but in the mean time, the valves 
 {g, g, g) inside the bellows have fallen over 
 the apertures {e, e, e), and prevented the egress 
 of the air through them ; the air, therefore, is 
 necessarily forced through z, the only exit left, 
 into the sound boards below the pipes. It is 
 evident from this, that during the time the 
 handle is being pushed down, no air is being 
 forced into the sound boards, because, the 
 handle while being depressed negatives the 
 effect of the surface weights. Hence, two 
 diagonal bellows, at least, were absolutely 
 necessary in every organ, whilst some had as 
 many as 10, 12, or 14. The organ in St. 
 Paul's Cathedral had originally 4 large dia- 
 gonal bellows, measuring 8 feet by 4 ; and 
 that in St. Sulpice, Paris, 14 diagonal bellows. 
 This large number of bellows was sometimes 
 arranged in a row, side by side, sometimes in 
 two rows, one of which was placed over the 
 other. In the latter case, ropes attached to 
 the handles of those in the upper row allowed 
 them to be blown from the same level as 
 those below. Sometimes diagonal bellows 
 were inflated by treadles, so arranged that the 
 blower could easily step from one to another, 
 whence the Ger. "Balgentreter," " Calcant." 
 One of the chief defects in the diagonal bellows 
 was its inability to supply wind of an uniform 
 pressure. This arose from two causes : the 
 first, because tlie sides of the folds as they 
 turned inwards, changing from an obtuse to 
 an acute angle, gave more pressure as the top 
 of the bellows gradually fell ; the second, be- 
 cause the surface weights would exercise more 
 and more pressure as the top, starting from 
 an inclined plane, approached the horizontal. 
 This defect was in time remedied by attach- 
 ing to the rod {li) or end of the handle (6) a 
 spring, whose tension was greatest when the 
 top {a) was highest, and when therefore, as 
 explained above, the air was least compressed. 
 [For an account of Horizontal Bellows, see 
 Organ, § 2.] 
 
 Dialogue. A duet. 
 
 Diana {It.), Diane {Fr.) An aubade, 
 huntsup. 
 
 Diapason {Gk.) (i) An octave. [Greek 
 music] (2) The name given in this country 
 to the most important foundation stops of an 
 organ, termed in other countries more properly 
 Principal. There are two kinds of diapasons, 
 
 ( 133 ) 
 
DIAPASON CUM DIAPENTE DI SALTO. 
 
 the open and stopped. Open diapasons on 
 the manuals are nearly always of metal, but 
 on the pedals are often of wood. Stopped 
 diapasons were formerly, in most cases, of 
 wood, but now are frequently made of metal. 
 When two or more open diapasons are on the 
 same manual, they are of different scales. 
 (3) Fixed pitch; normal diapason, a recog- 
 nised standard of pitch. [Pitch.] 
 
 Diapason cum diapente. The interval 
 of a i2th. 
 
 Diapason cum diatessaron. The inter- 
 val of an nth. 
 
 Diapente {Gk.) The interval of a 5th. 
 
 Diapentissare {med. Lat.) To descant at 
 the interval of a 5th. 
 
 Diaphony. [See under Descant.] 
 
 Diaschisma (Gk.) Ziaa-^iafia. An approxi- 
 mate half of a limma. 
 
 Diastema {Gk.) liaarrifia. An interval. 
 
 Diatessaron {Gk.) The interval of a fourth. 
 
 Diatonic, (i) One of the three genera 
 of music among the Greeks, the other two 
 being the chromatic and enharmonic. [Greek 
 Music] (2) The modern major and minor 
 scales. (3) Chords, intervals, and melodic 
 progressions, &c., belonging to one key-scale. 
 A diatonic chord is one having no note chro- 
 matically altered. A diatonic interval is one 
 formed by two notes of a diatonic scale un- 
 altered by accidentals. A diatonic melody is 
 one not including notes belonging to more 
 than one scale. A diatonic modulation is one 
 by which a key is changed to another closely 
 related to it. 
 
 Diaulion {Gk.) SmvXwv. An air played 
 upon the aulos or flute during an interval in 
 the choral song. 
 
 Diazeuxis (Gk.) Bia^ev^ig. The separation 
 of two tetrachords by a toiie : opposed to 
 synaphe {avvafri), or the overlapping of tetra- 
 chords. [Greek Music] 
 
 Dichord. (i) An instrument having two 
 strings. (2) An instrument having two strings 
 to each note. [Bichord.] 
 
 Di colpo (It.) Suddenly, at once. 
 
 Diecetto {It.) A composition for ten in- 
 struments. 
 
 Diesare {It.), Dieser {Fr.) To sharpen. 
 
 Diese {Fr.) A sharp, j| 
 
 Diesis {Gk.) SUtng. Originally the name 
 of a semitone, called afterwards a limma. In 
 later writings, applied to a third or quarter of 
 atone in the enharmonic and chromatic scales. 
 The modern enharmonic diesis is the interval 
 represented by 125 : 128; that is, the difference 
 between three true majorthirds and one octave. 
 
 Didze {Fr.) A sharp, J 
 
 Diezeugmenon. [Greek Music] 
 
 Difficile {It.) Difficult. 
 
 Di gala {It.) Merrily, cheerfully. 
 
 Digitorium. The name of a small por- 
 
 table dumb instrument, invented by M. Marks, 
 for the purpose of strengthening and giving 
 flexibility to the fingers for pianoforte playing. 
 It consists of a key-board with five keys, kept 
 in their places by springs of metal. 
 
 Di grade {It.) By conjunct intervals. 
 
 Dilettante {It.) [Amateur.] 
 
 Diludium. An interlude. 
 
 Diluendo {If.) Wasting away, diminish- 
 ing ; decrescendo. 
 
 Diminished. Made less, (i) Diminished 
 intervals are those made less than minor, e.g. : 
 G# to F tj is a diminished 7th, because 
 G to F being a minor 7th, G# to F contains 
 one semitone less than the minor interval. 
 Some authors, however, apply this term in a 
 manner liable to lead to much confusion, 
 namely, to a perfect interval when made 
 smaller by one semitone, and to an imperfect 
 interval when made less by two semitones ; 
 thus, according to them, C to G b is a dimi- 
 nished 5th, but C to E bb or C J to E b a 
 diminished 3rd. [Interval.] (2) Diminished 
 subjects or counter-subjects are subjects or 
 counter-subjects introduced with notes half 
 the value of those in which they were first 
 enunciated. (3) A diminished triad is the 
 chord consisting of two thirds on the sub- 
 tonic, e.g., B, D, F in the key of C. 
 
 Diminue {Fr.), Diminuito {It.) Dimin- 
 ished. 
 
 Diminuendo {It.) Decreasing in power 
 of sound. 
 
 Diminution. [Canon.] 
 
 Di molto {It.) Very much ; as, allegro 
 di molto, very fast. 
 
 Din-din. An Indian instrument of the 
 cymbal class. 
 
 Di nuovo {It.) Anew, again. 
 
 Dioxia {Gk.) The interval of a 5th. This 
 term was afterwards superseded by diapente. 
 
 Direct. A sign (w) placed at the end of a 
 line or of a page of music, to indicate the 
 note next to be sung or played : 
 
 w 
 
 ^ 
 
 E^ 
 
 Directeur {Fr.), Direttore {It.) Director. 
 Manager, guide-, conductor of an orchestra. 
 
 Direct motion. [Motion.] 
 
 Dirge. A solemn piece of music, of a 
 funereal or memorial character, so called from 
 the first word of the Antiphon, " Dirige, 
 Domine Deus mens, in conspectu tuo, viam 
 meam." The office of burial of the dead was 
 called in the Primer (cir. 1400) Placebo and 
 Dirige, and in the Primer of Henry VIII. 
 (1545) is called The Dirige. 
 
 Diretta, alia {It.) In direct motion. 
 
 Dis (Ger.) D sharp. 
 
 Di salto (it.) By a leap, spoken of melody 
 progressing by skips. 
 
 ( ^34) 
 
DISCANT DOLCIANO. 
 
 Discant. [Descant.] 
 
 Discant-Geige {Ger.) An old term for the 
 violin. 
 
 Discant- Schlusse.1 {Ger.) The soprano 
 clef. Descant clef. [Clef.] 
 
 Discord. A chord which when struck or 
 sung requires to be resolved into a concord. 
 [Harmony.] 
 
 Discreto, con discrezione (It.) Pru- 
 dently, discreetly, with judgment. 
 
 Disdiapason (Gk.) An interval of two 
 octaves ; a 15th. 
 
 Disinvolto (It.) Free, unfettered, natur- 
 ally. 
 
 Disjunct motion. [Motion.] 
 
 Dis moll {Ger.) D sharp minor. 
 
 Disperato, con disperazione {It.) De- 
 spairing, with desperation. 
 
 Dispersed harmony. Harmony in which 
 the notes composing the chord are at wide 
 intervals from each other : 
 
 
 l^ -. ' - =p^^ 
 
 
 k - r^ifhr+^M 
 
 fj \ \ \ i^ " 
 
 Disposition. Arrangement (i) of the parts 
 of a chord, with regard to the intervals between 
 them ; (2) of the parts of a score, with regard 
 to their relative order ; (3) of voices and instru- 
 ments with a view to their greatest efficiency 
 or to the convenience of their positions ; (4) 
 of the groups of pipes in an organ, or of the 
 registers or stops bringing them under control. 
 
 Dissonance. Discord. [Harmony.] 
 
 Dissonare {It.) To jar, to make discord. 
 
 Distanza {It.) Distance, an interval. 
 
 Distinto {It.) Clear, distinct. 
 
 Dithyrambus {Gk.) A song in honour of 
 Bacchus, from which arose the first dramatic 
 representations in Athens. The choruses to 
 the early tragedies were in dithyrambic form. 
 
 Dito {It.) A finger. 
 
 Dito grosso {It.) The thumb. 
 
 Ditone. An interval of two major tones. 
 This interval exceeds the major third, which 
 consists of a major and minor tone, and is 
 discordant. 
 
 Ditonus {Lat.) [Ditone.] 
 
 Ditty. A short, simple air, implying or 
 containing a moral application. The word 
 is said to be derived from the Latin word 
 dictum, and signified a saying or sentence, 
 not always connected with rhythm or music. 
 [Ballad.] 
 
 Divertimento {It.) (i) An instrumental 
 composition in several movements (six or 
 seven) like a serenade or cassation, (2) A 
 Pot-pourri. 
 
 Divertissement {Fr.) [Divertimento.] 
 
 Divisi {It.) Divided. A direction that 
 instruments playing from one line of music 
 are to separate and play in two parts. The 
 reunion of the parts into unison is directed 
 by the words a due, e.g. : 
 
 Viole. divisi. 
 
 Division. An elaborate variation for voices 
 or instruments upon a simple theme ; a course 
 of notes so connected that they form one 
 series. Divisions for the voice are intended 
 to be sung in one breath to one syllable. The 
 performance of this style of music is called 
 running a division : 
 
 Handel. 
 
 Division viol. A violin with frets upon 
 the finger-board. [Violin.] 
 
 Divotamente, divoto {It.) Divozione, 
 con {It.) Devoutly, devotedly, with devotion. 
 
 Dixieme {Fr.) The interval of a loth. 
 
 D moll {Ger.) The key of D minor. 
 
 Do. The first of the syllables used for 
 the solfeggio of the scale. The note c, to 
 which it is applied, was originally called Ut 
 [Aretinian syllables], and is still called so in 
 France. Its introduction dates from the 17th 
 century. Lorenzo Penna in his " Albori 
 Musicale," 1672, uses do for ut, and speaks 
 of it as a recent practice. [Solfeggio.] [Nota- 
 tion.] 
 
 Doctor of, or in, music. [Bachelor.] 
 [Degree.] 
 
 Dodecachordon {Gk.) An instrument 
 with twelve strings. 
 
 Dodecuplet. A collection or group of 
 twelve notes to be played in the time of eight. 
 
 Doigte {Fr.) (from Doigter, to finger). 
 Marking by signs or numerals the manner in 
 which a piece of music should be played by 
 the fingers. [Fingering.] 
 
 Dolcan. [Dulciana.] 
 
 Dolce. A soft-toned 8-ft. organ stop. 
 
 Dolce {It.) Sweet ; dolce maniera, in a 
 sweet style. 
 
 Dolcemente, Dolcezza, con {It.) With 
 softness and sweetness. 
 
 Dolciano, Dolcino (7^.), Dulcan {Ger.), 
 Dulzaginas {Sp.) [Dulciana.] 
 
 ( 135 ) 
 
DOLCISSIMO DOUBLE BASS. 
 
 Dolcissimo {It.) With the utmost degree 
 of sweetness. 
 
 Dolente, dolentemente, dolentissimo, 
 con dolore, con duolo, doloroso (It.) In 
 a plaintive, sorrowful style ; with sadness. 
 
 Dolzflote {Ger.) The old German flute, 
 with seven ventages and one key. 
 
 Domchor {Ger.) The choir or body of 
 singers in a cathedral church, usually consist- 
 ing of boys and men. 
 
 Dominant, (i) The fifth degree of. the 
 scale. [Harmony.] (2) The reciting note of 
 Gregorian chaMs. [Chant.] 
 
 Dominante {Fr.) Dominant. 
 
 Donna, prima {It.) The principal female 
 . singer in an opera. 
 
 Doppelbe {Ger.) A double flat, W. 
 
 Doppelflote {Ger.) An organ stop, con- 
 sisting of wood pipes having each two mouths. 
 
 Doppelfuge {Ger.) A double fugue ; a 
 fugue with two subjects. [Fugue.] 
 
 Doppelgeige {Ger.) One of the names by 
 which the viol d'amour, q.v., is known in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Doppelgriffe {Ger.) Double-stopping on 
 a violin ; playing on two strings at once. 
 
 Doppelkreuz {Ger.} A double sharp x. 
 
 Doppelschlag {Ger.) A double beat or 
 grace note. [Beat.] 
 
 Doppio {It.) Double, e.g., doppio movi- 
 mento, at double the pace ; doppio pedale, the 
 pedal part in octaves. 
 
 Dopo {It.) After. 
 
 Dorian mode. [Greek Music] [Plain 
 Song.] 
 
 Dorien {Fr.) Dorian. 
 
 Dot. (i) A point added to a note, or rest, 
 which lengthens its value by one-half, e.g. : 
 cs . is equal to ca C^i s^) ; |« . is equal to 
 
 *] 1 I When a second dot follows the first 
 (when the note or rest is doubly dotted), the 
 second dot adds one-half of the value of the 
 previous dot e.g. : ics . .is equal to 'Cs s:::^ l# ; 
 
 l« , . is equal to p -| a A dot was called the 
 
 point of addition (punctus), hence a dotted 
 note was called formerly a pricked note ; this 
 expression must not, however, be connected 
 with prick-song, which signiiies written music, 
 as opposed to music sung by ear. 
 
 (2) When placed over a note, the dot is a 
 direction that the note is to be played or sung 
 staccato. 
 
 (3) When two or four dots are placed in the 
 spaces of the stave, on either side of two 
 double bars, they are a direction to repeat so 
 much of the music as is enclosed between them. 
 
 (4) When placed under a slur, dots are a 
 direction to play spiccato, that is, in violin 
 playing, played by the same bow, but the bow 
 must remain stationary between each sound. 
 From violin music the term has been trans- 
 
 ferred to that for the pianoforte, and sometimes 
 for the voice. 
 
 (5) A system of Tablature for wind instru- 
 ments, the dot system.-. [Tablature.] 
 
 (6) Dots were formerly placed over a note to 
 show its subdivision into lesser repeated notes, 
 e.g., •"" would be equal to ^ « • « 
 
 Double {Fr.) A turn : 
 
 Written. 
 
 ~ '.Performed. 
 
 ^fe 
 
 Double. (1) An old term for a variation. 
 In some of Handel's harpsichord lessons, the 
 variations of a theme are marked Double i, 
 Double 2, &c. A variation on a dance tune 
 is called a double. (2) The repetition of words 
 in singing was also called the "doubles or in- 
 geminations thereof." (3) An artist who 
 understudies a part in an opera, that is, who 
 prepares a part on the chance of the accidenta- 
 absence of the principal. (4) That which is 
 an octave below the unison in pitch, e.g., 
 double-bass , an instrument whose sounds are 
 an octave below those of the violoncello ; 
 double-bassoon, an instrument similarly sound- 
 ing an octave below the bassoon ; double- 
 diapason, an organ stop of i6-ft. pitch. 
 
 Double action. [Harp.] 
 
 Double backfall. An ornament in old 
 music, e.g. : 
 
 Written. 
 
 Played. 
 
 Double bar. A sign formed pf two single 
 bars showing (i)the end of a piece, (2) the 
 end of a movement of a work, (3) the end of 
 a portion to be repeated, (4) the commence- 
 ment of a change of key, (5) the commence- 
 ment of a change of time, (6) the end of a 
 line of words set to music, as in a hymn tune. 
 [Bar.] 
 
 Double-bass. Violone {It.) Contre-basse 
 {Fr.) The largest of the stringed instruments 
 played with a bow. The strings are usually 
 tuned a fourth apart to the following notes 
 when three strings are employed : 
 
 W 
 
 with the addition of the lower E : 
 
 g 
 
 when there are four strings. The compass 
 generally written for the instrument extends 
 to the upper F : 
 
 m 
 
 with every intermediate semitone from its 
 lowest note. The actual sounds produced are 
 an octave lower than written, hence the double 
 
 ( '36) 
 
DOUBLE BASSOON DOUBLE REED. 
 
 bass is sometimes called a transposing in- 
 strument. The four-stringed double bass is 
 more common abroad than in England, so it 
 is not unusual to find passages written below 
 the lower A, which a three-stringed bass per- 
 forms on the octave above. Double notes are 
 possible upon the instrument, but are rarely 
 employed as they are ineffective. Continuous 
 rapid passages are best divided between two 
 instruments, but short quick runs are very 
 telling especially when in unison or at the 
 octave with the violoncello. Beethoven in 
 the Pastoral Symphony takes his double bass 
 down to C, an octave below the violoncello : 
 
 a passage which is impracticable upon the in- 
 strument as now generally constructed. 
 
 Beethoven also wrote passages for the in- 
 strument which, in his time, were considered 
 too difficult for performance, and it was the 
 custom for the players to " simplify " whenever 
 his works were performed. But the improved 
 skill of the players of the present time has 
 justified the composer's foresight, and all the 
 so-called difficult passages are given with 
 ease and distinctness, even by the least dis- 
 tinguished double-bass player in the orchestra. 
 The bow employed is the only representative 
 now in use of one of the primitive forms, and 
 although it has the advantage of producing a 
 thick, heavy quality of sound in slow move- 
 ments, it is not always successful in eliciting 
 an even tone in quick passages. 
 
 The harmonics an the double bass are of a 
 beautiful flute-like character, and have been 
 made available by solo players in exciting 
 wonder and admiration. 
 
 The mute is rarely, if ever, employed, but 
 the pizzicato on the instrument has a very 
 fine effect, as in the overture to " Der Frei- 
 schtitz," and elsewhere. 
 
 The invention of the double bass is attri- 
 buted to Gaspar di Salo, 1580 ; but as the 
 members of the Confrfirie de St. Julien were 
 distinguished as players upon "high and low" 
 instruments, it is probable that the reputed 
 invention was after all only an improvement. 
 The introduction of the instrument into the 
 orchestra is due to Michael Monteclare, about 
 the year 1696. Before this time the Bass- 
 viol or Viola da Gamba was the deepest-toned 
 stringed instrument employed. The " Contra 
 Basso di Viola," mentioned in the score of 
 Jacopo Peri's " Eurydice," is held to have 
 be^n a larger sort of tenor violin, less in size 
 •than a bass-viol, and not a double bass. 
 
 Double Bassoon. The deepest-toned 
 instrument of the Bassoon family. It stands 
 in the same relation to the bassoon as a 
 
 double bass does to the violoncello, that is to 
 say, its sounds are actually an octave below 
 those written. Its compass is 
 
 —^ 
 
 that is to say, from the Bt? below CCC to 
 tenor F. It forms, in the orchestra, a mag- 
 nificent support to the wind band, but good 
 players are not commonly to be met with, 
 partly because the large size of the instru- 
 ment renders it very unwieldy, partly on 
 account of the fatigue which the performer 
 necessarily must undergo. The common 
 habit of replacing it by an ophicleide should 
 be discouraged, as the quality of the two 
 instruments differs greatly. 
 
 Double beat. An ornament of old music, 
 consisting of a beat repeated. 
 
 Double bourdon. An organ stop of 32-ft. 
 tone. On the manuals it rarely goes below 
 middle C ; on the pedals it extends of course 
 through the whole compass. It consists of 
 stopped wood-pipes. It is found difficult to 
 produce a pure tone in the longer pipes, as the 
 first harmonic has a strong tendency to assert 
 itself. [Bourdon.] 
 
 Double chant. [Chant.] 
 
 Double chorus. A chorus for two sepa- 
 rate choirs : the several themes may be dis- 
 tinct, or so constructed that united they form 
 one harmony. [Chorus.] 
 
 Double counterpoint. [Counterpoint.] 
 
 Double croche {Fr.) A semiquaver. 
 
 Double demisemiquaver. A note whose 
 value is one half of a demisemiquaver. 
 
 Double diapason. [Double, § 4..] 
 
 Double dieze {Fr.) A double sharp. 
 
 Double drum. A drum with two heads, 
 used in the bands of foot regiments, and being 
 suspended from the neck of the player is 
 struck with drumsticks held in the right and 
 left hands. [Drum.] 
 
 Double flageolet. A flageolet having two 
 tubes and one mouth-piece, admitting of the 
 performance of simple music in thirds and 
 sixths, &c. 
 
 Double flat. A sign (!j|j) used in music 
 before a note already flattened in the signa- 
 ture, which depresses the note before which it 
 is placed another halftone. It is contradicted 
 by a natural and a flat. 
 
 Double octave. Theintervalof a 15th. 
 
 Double pedal point. A portion of a 
 fugue or melody in which two notes are long 
 sustained, generally the tonic and dominant. 
 [Fugue.] [Sustained note.] 
 
 Double quartet. A composition for two 
 sets of four voices or instruments soli. 
 
 Double reed, (i) The vibrating reed of 
 
 ( ^37 ) 
 
DOUBLE RELISH DRUM-MAJOR. 
 
 instruments of the oboe class. (2) A reed- 
 stop on an organ of i6-ft. pitch. 
 
 Double relish. An ornament in old 
 music : 
 
 _j, S// 
 
 Written, 
 Played. 
 
 Double root. [Extreme sixth.] 
 
 Double sharp. A sign (x) used before 
 a note already sharp, to indicate that it is 
 desired to raise the pitch by a semitone. It 
 is contradicted by a natural and a sharp. 
 
 Double sonata. A sonata for two solo 
 instruments, as pianoforte and violin, or two 
 pianofortes, &c. 
 
 Double stopped diapason. [Bourdon.] 
 
 Double-stopping. The stopping of two 
 strings simultaneously with the fingers in 
 violin playing. The practice was first sug- 
 gested by John Francis Henry Biber in 1681, 
 in a set of solos for a violin and a bass : one 
 of these pieces is written in three staves, two' 
 for the violin playing in double-stopping, and 
 the third for the bass. He also in the same 
 work suggests a varied tuning in fourths and 
 fifths for the purpose of making the double- 
 stopping easy. 
 
 Double-tongueing. A peculiar action of 
 the tongue against the roof of the mouth 
 used by flute players, to ensure a brilliant 
 and spirited articulation of staccato notes. 
 The .term is sometimes applied also /to the 
 rapid repetition of notes in cornet playing. 
 
 Double travale. A direction in tam- 
 bourine playing. • [Tambourine.] 
 
 Down beat. The first beat in each bar 
 is so called, because in counting time the 
 hand or conducting stick is allowed to fall at 
 that place. 
 
 Down bow. The bow drawn over the 
 strings from the heel or holding part of the 
 bow to the point ; the greatest power of tone 
 in the strings is elicited by the down bow. 
 [Bowing.] 
 
 Double trumpet. An organ reed-stop 
 similar in tone and scale to, but an octave 
 lower in pitch than, the 8-ft. trumpet. 
 
 Doublette (Fr.) A compound organ-stop 
 consisting of two ranks, generally a twelfth 
 and fifteenth. 
 
 Doucement (Fr.) Softly, sweetly. 
 
 Doux (Fr.) Soft, sweet. 
 
 Douzieme (Fr.) A twelfth. 
 
 Doxology (Gk.) The hymn or song of 
 praise — the Gloria Patri — used at the end of 
 the Psalms in the Christian church ; also any 
 metrical form of the same. 
 
 Doxologia magna (Lat.) The version of 
 the angels' hymn, "Gloria in excelsis Deo," 
 
 sung at the celebration of the Holy Eucha- 
 rist. The greater doxology. 
 
 Doxologia parva (Lat.) [Doxology.] 
 
 Drag, (i) An ornament consisting of 
 descending notes in lute-music. (2) A 
 rallentando (in old English church music). 
 
 Dramma lyrica, or per musica [Jt.) 
 [Opera.] 
 
 Drammaticamente(/i,)) In a dramatic 
 
 Drammatico (It.) J style. 
 
 Dreichorig (Ger.) The triple stringed 
 grand pianoforte. A trichord. 
 
 Dreiklang (Ger.) A chord of three sounds. 
 [Triad.] 
 
 Drei-stimmig (Ger.) Music in three parts. 
 
 Dritta (/i.) Right; mano dritta, right hand. 
 
 Driving notes. Syncopated notes. Notes 
 driven through the ensuing accent. 
 
 Droite (Fr.) Right ; as main droite, right 
 hand. 
 
 Drone, (i) The monotonous bass pro- 
 duced from the larger of the three tubes of 
 bag-pipes. As there are no governing holes 
 in the drone the sound it gives forth serves as 
 a continuous bass to any melody ; the pipe 
 second in size is tuned to give out the fifth 
 above the drone ; and the smaller pipe, called 
 the chanter, has ventages by which the melody 
 is made. [Bagpipes.] (2) The chorus or 
 burden of a song. 
 
 Druckbalg (Ger.) A reservoir of wind, 
 as in an organ, &c. 
 
 Drum. An instrument of percussion, of 
 cylindrical form, having discs of vellum or 
 parchment at each end, so made that the 
 discs can be tightened or slackened at pleasure 
 by means of braces acted upon by sliding 
 knots of leather, or by the later application of 
 screws. There are many kinds of drums : 
 (i) The long drum, with two heads, held 
 laterally and played on both ends with stuffed- 
 nob drumsticks held in the hands of the per- 
 former. (2) The side-drum having two heads, 
 the upper one only being played upon by two 
 sticks of wood ; the lower head has occasion- 
 ally strings of catgut stretched over its surface, 
 and then it is called a snare drum. (3) The 
 kettle drum, always employed in pairs. (4) 
 The bass-drum or grosse-caisse which is 
 played with two sticks unless the player has 
 to strike cymbals with his left hand. 
 
 The drum is an instrument of Eastern 
 origin; it was employed by the Hebrews, 
 Romans, Parthians, and other nations in 
 religious dances, and as signals of war, and 
 was probably first brought to Western Europe 
 by the Crusaders or their followers. [Naker, 
 nakeres.] [Kettledrum.] 
 
 Drum-major. The name of an officer in 
 the British army who is responsible for the 
 instruction of drummers in the various roll- 
 calls, and for the invention and construction 
 
 ( 138) 
 
DRUM SLADE DULCIMER. 
 
 of new beats, communicated by order of the 
 major of the regiment to the drummers. The 
 oifice does not appear to be older than the 
 time of Charles II. There was formerly an 
 officer in the Royal Household called the 
 drum-major general, who granted licenses to 
 other than the royal troops for the use of 
 drums in their regiments. 
 
 Drum slade. An old term for a drummer. 
 
 D string. The third open string on 
 violins, the second on tenors, violoncellos, 
 and three-stringed double basses, the fourth 
 on the guitar. 
 
 Duan (Gaelic.) A verse, stanza. 
 
 Due, a (It.) [Divisi.] 
 
 Due corde (7^.) (i) Two strings. A 
 direction that the same note is to be played 
 simultaneously on two strings of a violin or 
 other instrument of its class. (2) A direction 
 to cease holding down the soft pedal of a 
 pianoforte. 
 
 Duet. A composition for two voices or 
 instruments, or for two performers upon one 
 instrument. 
 
 Duetto (It.) A duet. 
 
 Duettino (It.) A little duet. 
 
 Due volte (It.) Twice. 
 
 Dulgaynas {Sp.) The name of a larger 
 sort of oboe, or small bassoon, " Se usa 
 un genera de Dul9aynas que parecen nues- 
 tras Chirimias." — Don Quixote. As it is sup- 
 posed that the instrument was brought into 
 Spain by the Moors, the word may be derived 
 from the same root as the Egyptian Dalzimr, 
 both instruments being of the oboe or reed 
 kind. 
 
 Dulcian, or dulcino (It.) The name of 
 a species of small bassoon. [Bassoon.] 
 [Dulciana.] [Dulgaynas.] 
 
 Dulciana. A word now applied, in this 
 country, solely to a soft and delicate-toned 
 organ stop consisting of very small-scale 
 flue pipes. Originally, a dulciana (dulcan, 
 dulcian, dolcan, dolcin, or dulzain) was a kind 
 of hautboy [Waits], and these terms are 
 still found on some foreign organs as the 
 names of soft reed-stops, as at Rotterdam, 
 the Hague, and elsewhere, but in some cases 
 the stop is not actually reed, but the pipes by 
 their peculiar shape, narrow at the mouth and 
 widening gradually towards the top, produce 
 a reedy quality of tone. The dulciana stop 
 was introduced into this country, or perhaps 
 invented, by the celebrated organ-builder 
 Snetzler. The first known specimen was 
 included by him in the specification of the 
 organ of St. Margaret's Church, Lynn, in 
 1754. Stops of this class are universally 
 used, and are of great utility. They are most 
 commonly found on the Choir organ. 
 
 Dulcimer. One of the most ancient mu- 
 sical instruments, used by various nations in 
 
 almost all parts of the world, and which, in 
 shape and construction, has probably under- 
 gone fewer changes than any other instrument. 
 In its earliest and simplest form, it consisted 
 of a flat piece of wood, on which were fas- 
 tened two converging strips of wood, across 
 which strings were stretched tuned to the 
 national scale. The only improvements since 
 made on this type are the addition of a series 
 of pegs, or pins, to regulate the tension of 
 the strings ; and the use of two flat pieces of 
 wood formed into a resonance-box, for the 
 body. The word dulcimer is probably con- 
 nected with dolce, sweet, through the inter- 
 mediate word dolcimela ; but the German 
 name, Hackbrett (chopping-board), points to 
 the manner in which it is played, the wires 
 being struck by two hammers, one held in 
 each hand of the performer. Perhaps the 
 greatest divergence of form is to be seen in 
 the Japanese goto, or koto, an illustration of 
 which is now given : 
 
 The next figure shows a dulcimer of 
 Georgia : 
 
 The Italians, who have ever been note- 
 worthy for combining beauty with utility, 
 have not failed to improve upon the original 
 simplicity of the dulcimer, as the following 
 illustration will shew : 
 
 The form of the instrument given in the 
 next figure, the dulcimer of Benares, suggests 
 
 ( 139 ) 
 
DULCIMER DUMP. 
 
 that it is not placed, for use, in the ordinary 
 position : 
 
 But, the fact which makes the dulcimer of 
 the greatest interest to musicians is, that it 
 is the undoubted forefather of our pianoforte. 
 A modern grand pianoforte is, in reality, 
 nothing more than a huge dulcimer,' the 
 wires of which are set in vibration, not by 
 hammers held in the pianist's hands, but 
 by keys : it is a keyed-dulcimer. 
 
 It is remarkable that in the immediate fore- 
 runners of the pianoforte (the spinet, harpsi- 
 chord, &c.) the strings were plucked, so, the 
 invention of "hammers" which constitutes 
 the real difference between a pianoforte and a 
 harpsichord, was in truth a return to a primi- 
 tive type. 
 
 At one period the dulcimer came to be 
 called in Italy a cembalo, possibly from its 
 "ringing" cymbal-like tone, hence the same 
 term was afterwards bestowed upon a harpsi- 
 chord (clavi-cembalo). In full scores it is not 
 even now an unusual thing to find the piano- 
 forte part marked cembalo. The dulcimer is 
 much less commonly met with in England 
 than formerly, but it is still to be heard in 
 some rural districts, as the musical accom- 
 paniment of a puppet-show. 
 
 The following Swiss dance of the Canton 
 of Appenzell, as arranged for a violin, dulci- 
 mer, and bass (from a collection of Swiss 
 songs, &c., Berne, 1826), will give a fair 
 notion of the capabilities of the dulcimer : 
 
 Dump or dumpe. The name of an old 
 dance in slow time with a peculiar rhythm. 
 It is doubtful whether it was entirely " dull 
 and heavy," or merely the slowness of the 
 measure that made the title of the dance 
 synonymous with wearisomeness, for Shake- 
 
 ( 140 ) 
 
DUMP DUODENE. 
 
 speare makes Peter, in " Romeo and Juliet," 
 say, ' ' O play me some merry dump," which may 
 either have been descriptive of the character 
 of the dance, or it may be a humorous contra- 
 diction in terms. Some authors have supposed 
 that the dance is called dump from a trick of 
 lute players who struck the open strings with 
 the fist at certain marked intervals of the 
 rhythm. 
 
 " My Ladye Carey's Dumpe." (cir. 1600.) 
 
 n= — ^~ — 1 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 .-JOJ J aJ ^-D^iS 3 
 
 ^^ ^f-iz^riT*&-rrr ^ 
 
 T-c— S — ji»i l*rfi*^ 1 1 1 n 
 
 ^•br^D^-Q^A= = = 
 
 ^^^^^^p^l 
 
 
 ^^^^#==^^rr r--^ 
 
 Duo (7^.) A duet. 
 
 Duodecimole. A group of twelve notes. 
 
 Duodecimo (It.) The interval of a 
 twelfth. 
 
 Duodene. A group of twelve notes suit- 
 able for playing on ordinary manuals, with 
 definite relations of pitch, arranged for show- 
 ing relations of harmony and modulation, and 
 for precisely fixing the theoretical intonation 
 of any chords and passages without altering 
 the ordinary musical notation, first introduced 
 by Mr. A. J. Ellis, F.R.S., in the " Proceed- 
 ings of the Royal Society," vol. xxiii. pp. 3-31, 
 and subsequently more fully explained in an 
 additional appendix (xix.) to his translation of 
 Prof. Helmholtz's treatise " On the Sensations 
 of Tone," 1875. The intention, construction, 
 and notation of duodenes will be best under- 
 stood from a brief account of their generation. 
 
 Let C represent not only a note, but its 
 vibrational number, in Roman letters indepen- 
 dently of octave. Italic letters show octaves 
 thus : C„, C,, C, c, c, c" , d" , where C is the 
 lowest note on the violoncello. Let the fol- 
 lowing letters and marks have the values 
 written under them : 
 D E F G A B 
 |C |C *C iC gc vc 
 Then fD, read " low D " = |» x 
 
 gC=:§ A; t A, read "high A 
 
 C=i X I C = 1 D; tAi? read 
 ■highAflat"==|JxiJ| x5C = |C=|x 2C 
 = II A, and so on. The exact pitch of every 
 
 1 35 
 12s 
 
 12 8 
 135 
 
 8 1 
 30 
 
 + 
 
 SO 
 31 
 
 3 "-^ — 
 
 9P — lop 
 8 *^ — 9 "^ 
 
 81 
 80 
 
DUODENE. 
 
 note in relation to that of C is therefore given 
 by its symbol. 
 
 The marks x quint,' + major, — minor, 
 I Greek minor, placed between two symbols, 
 show that they form a Fifth |, a major Third |, 
 a minor Third |, or a Pythagorean minor 
 Third ^f, respectively, or their alterations 
 consequent on changing either note by octaves, 
 t El? G An harmonic cell, as in the mar- 
 
 C E gin, contains C x G vertical, 
 
 C + E and t Eb + G horizontal, and C — t E7, 
 E — G oblique from bottom up to left, and 
 hence all the elements oi tertian harmony (i.e., 
 excluding harmonic Sevenths) and its triads 
 C + E — G major, and C — t EC -|- G minor. 
 C is called the First, G the Fifth, E the major 
 Third, and t E b the minor Third of the 
 C cell. 
 
 t Eb G An harmonic heptad, as in the 
 fAb CE margin, consists of two cells, 
 F A the Fifth of the lower cell 
 being the First of the upper cell. It contains 
 four cell triads, major F + A — C, C + E 
 - G ; minor F— f A b t C, C— t E P f G ; 
 and two union triads, resulting from the 
 union of the two cells into a heptad, major 
 t A b + C — t E b. and minor A — C + E. 
 It has therefore all the six consonant triads 
 containing C, its First, and all the con-disso- 
 nant triads containing two notes consonant 
 with C and dissonant with each other (of 
 which the trine t Ab -H C -H E must be noted), 
 and hence all the elements of chord-relation- 
 ship. 
 
 t B b D An harmonic decad, as in the 
 
 t EP G B margin, consists of two hep- 
 
 t Ab C E tads (of C and G) having a 
 
 F A common cell (of C), and 
 
 hence contains three cells, having 3 major 
 
 and 3 minor cell triads, and 2 major and '2 
 
 minor union triads, and hence all the related 
 
 elements of scalar harmony of Thirds, Fifths 
 
 and Sevenths. The First of the central cell 
 
 is called the tonic of the decad. 
 
 A trichordal consists of three cell triads, 
 selected one from each cell in a decad, form- 
 ing 8 combinations of 7 notes, giving all the 
 scales in use, with their harmonies, named by 
 using ma, mi (with Italian vowels) for major 
 and minor cell triads, and reading them in 
 order from lowest to highest, thus — 
 
 C. Mamama. 
 B — D I F-l-A— C + E — G + B— D | F -H A 
 
 C. Mimima. 
 B— D|F— fAb-hC— fEb-f-G-HB— D|F— fAb 
 To show with what note the scale begins, 
 change the m of the name of the chord con- 
 taining it to p (for /irima), or t (for iertia), or 
 qu (for qninta), as in C mapdma (ordinary 
 major), C mipima and mapima (two ordinary 
 forms of ascending minor), C mipimi (ordi- 
 
 nary descending minor), C mimipl (Helm- 
 holtz's mode of the minor Sixth). Thus 56 
 scales, including all the old ecclesiastical modes 
 and their harmonies, may be succinctly de- 
 scribed. 
 
 t db 
 t g^ 
 
 t c b 
 tf \> 
 
 tf 
 
 fa 
 
 
 tB7 
 
 D 
 
 f« 
 
 t Eb 
 
 G 
 
 B 
 
 t Ab 
 
 C 
 
 E 
 
 db 
 
 F 
 
 A 
 
 bb %& 
 
 t g# 
 X c# 
 
 xn 
 
 An harmonic hepta-decad, as above, where 
 the capital letters indicate the decad of C, and 
 the small letters the newly-added notes, and 
 the oblong contains the duodene of C, consists 
 of seven decads, having for their tonics the 
 notes of a heptad (of C in the example). It 
 shows six new decads, of each of which the 
 original decad forms the larger part, and hence 
 constitutes the first step in a more general pro- 
 cess of modulation, consisting of change into 
 a related decad, and called decadation. The 
 heptadecad introduces tetrachordal scales, with 
 chords of the extreme sharp Sixth. The 
 duodene represents a decad in the act of 
 changing, by means of the two new notes 
 (d b and f # in example) called mutators, each 
 forming part of two new decads. 
 
 A duodene is, therefore, formed on any 
 root (as C), by taking the major thirds above 
 and below it (as E and fAb) to form the 
 initial trine (as f A5 + C + E), and then 
 taking two-fifths above, and one-fifth below 
 each of the notes in that trine. It consists 
 therefore of four trines of major thirds, and 
 three quarternions of fifths, and has three 
 tonics, namely that of fAb mapdma, that 
 of C decad, and that of E mipimi. Its 
 notes have a strict relation of pitch, and it 
 contains no interval less than the small 
 semitone or low sharp, %% (as fAb to A). 
 But if the trine above, astf+ta + <=8 '^^^^ 
 introduced, two intervals of a comma |J (as 
 f to t f, and a to f a) and one of a diaskhisma, 
 ll*% (almost exactly lo-iiths of a comma, as 
 c Jf to db), would be introduced, and similarly 
 for a trine below. If we took a quaternion 
 to the right (as tc#x$g#X Jdflxalt), 
 four intervals of a diesis \l% (almost exactly 
 2 1 - 1 iths of a comma, as J c # to d b) would be 
 introduced. Hence if we write the duodenal, 
 that is the symbol of the root of a duodene, 
 at the commencement of any piece of music, 
 we determine the exact pitch which every one 
 of its notes must receive, until we change the 
 duodenal, and thus change the pitch of its 
 notes to a definite amount. If we assunie 
 for the root named by the duodenal, the tonic 
 of the decad of the duodene, the change of 
 
 ( 142 ) 
 
DUODENE DYSTONIC. 
 
 duodenal points out the actual decadations in 
 the composition, that is, the actual process of 
 the modulation. Thus, to take a simple but 
 crucial example from " God Save the Queen," 
 where the duodenals are written above : — 
 
 C G C I I F, 
 
 Observe chords 3, g, and 13. The duo- 
 denal G makes chord 3 from D — f F + f A 
 (in the dominant duodena), because the melody 
 requires the true D in order to sink by a per- 
 fect minor Third to B, and the harmony does 
 not treat chord 3 as the dissonance D | F-h A. 
 But the duodenal F, makes chord g from 
 jD — F -^ A (in the subdominant duodene), 
 because chord 8 contains A, and the change 
 A to f A is unmelodic. But chord 13, in 
 duodene of C, is marked as the dissonance 
 D I F + A, which is duly resolved by the fall 
 of D to C in 14, A being retained from 12. 
 It would of course be possible, and smoother, 
 to use the F duodenal, making chord 13 from 
 J D — F -f- A. In this way, three theoretical 
 methods of treating the triad on the second 
 of a major scale are accurately shown. 
 
 For further details and illustrations, refe- 
 rence must be made to the citations at the 
 commencement of this article. 
 
 Duodramma (It.) A dramatic piece for 
 two performers only. 
 
 Duolo, con (It.) With grief, sadness, 
 pathos. 
 
 Dur (Ger.) Major, as C dur, C major. 
 
 Dur {Fr.) Hard, coarse. 
 
 Durate, duramente, duro [It.) With 
 harshness, roughly. 
 
 Durchfiihrung (Ger.) The development of 
 a theme or subject. [Form.] 
 
 Durchgehend {Ger.) Passing, transient. 
 
 Durezza (It.) Rigour, harshness. 
 
 Dutch concert. A so-called concert in 
 which every man sings his own song at the 
 same time that his neighbour is also singing 
 his, a practice not necessarily so national as 
 convivial. There is another form of Dutch 
 concert, in which each person present sings 
 in turn one verse of any song he pleases, 
 some well-known chorus being used as a 
 burden after each verse.- When every person 
 has sung his song, all sing their respective 
 songs simultaneously as a grand Jinale. 
 
 Dux {Lai.) The proposition, theme, or 
 subject of a fugue, the answer being called 
 Comes. 
 
 Dystonic. With false intonation; dis- 
 cordant. 
 
 ( 143 ) 
 
E- 
 
 -EAR. 
 
 E. 
 
 E. (i) The note Hypate in Greek music. 
 [Greek music] 
 
 (2) The key-note of the Church mode called 
 Phrygian. 
 
 (3) The note Elami in the system of Hexa- 
 chords. [Notation.] 
 
 (4) The E above tenor C, the octave above 
 it being represented by e, the octave below it 
 by EE. 
 
 (5) The key having four sharps in its 
 signature. 
 
 Ear. The Ear is the organ of hearing, in 
 other words, the organ for the appreciation of 
 sound, i.e., of vibrations of the air or water. 
 All that is necessary to form an ear is a nerve- 
 mass capable of appreciating these vibrations. 
 Its simplest actual expression is a sac, filled 
 with fluids, containing " otoliths " (ovg, wrog, 
 an ear, and Xldog, a stone), and supplied with a 
 nerve, a condition best exemplified in the 
 sub-kingdom of Mollusca, represented fami- 
 liarly by the oysters, the mussels, snails both 
 terrestrial and aquatic, and the octopus. The 
 " otoliths " are masses of carbonate of lime, 
 as may readily be seen by placing one of 
 them dissected out from any of the above 
 mentioned animals (e.g. a snail) on a glass 
 slide, covering it with an object glass with 
 sufficient water to fill the interspace between 
 the two, and adding at the .side of the cover- 
 ing-glass a drop of any acid (acetic acid, or 
 indeed ordinary vinegar will do very well) 
 while the experimenter observes it through 
 the microscope. Air bubbles — really bubbles 
 of carbonic acid gas — will be seen to pour out 
 from the otolith, and when these have ceased, 
 that body will have entirely disappeared. 
 
 It is true that we are suspicious of a 
 specialised organ of hearing even in such 
 animals as possess no specialised nerve 
 system. This is somewhat apparently of a 
 paradox, for it may be asked. How can an 
 animal without nerves feel at all ? and is it 
 not highly improbable that if no nerve system 
 exists, any special sense-organ can be de- 
 veloped ? The answer to the first of these 
 objections is very plain : all animals, even 
 those who possess no specialised organs 
 whatever, manifest the simple phenomena of 
 sensation ; all, even the Infusoria and the 
 Amoebae, of which we hear so much now-a- 
 
 days, and which are very little more than 
 simple masses of protoplasm, manifest this 
 faculty. Any one who has observed these 
 occupants of almost any drop of water, with 
 a microscope of low power, will have seen 
 enough to convince himself of this. As to 
 the second objection, the fact remains that in 
 some animals which have no undoubted 
 nerves, in some medusae* or jelly-fish,t we 
 find in the mass forming their body crystals 
 of carbonate of lime, which substance must 
 intensify the vibrations of the water in which 
 they live, and must, when put into a state of 
 motion as a whole, or into one which affects 
 its particles inter se, cause by its relative 
 density greater disturbance of the soft matter 
 in which it lies, than would be the case if it 
 were absent. 
 
 But leaving this as somewhat problematical, 
 and taking the hearing organ of molluscs as 
 the type, we shall find this type essentially • 
 adhered to in the higher animals in spite of 
 endless complications. Let us propound the 
 bold paradox without fear of contradiction, 
 that a man as well as a snail hears in water, 
 and that the essential parts of his marvellous 
 hearing apparatus are a sac containing fluid 
 in which are otoliths, and round which are 
 distributed the ultimate filaments of a nerve. 
 
 The typical physiology, as well as the 
 typical anatomy of hearing, is very simple. 
 These " ear-stones," by the vibrations con- 
 ducted to them, are made to rattle in this bag 
 containing fluid, and, by beating against its 
 sides, cause more disturbance to the nerve fila- 
 ments there distributed than would be caused 
 by the same vibrations if they acted directly 
 on the nerve. 
 
 The power of hearing must be very widely 
 if not universally distributed through the 
 animal kingdom, though the hearing organ is 
 not always easy to find. Von SieboldJ,bas 
 however discovered this organ in the Euro- 
 pean field-cricket, situated in the front legs 
 
 * These medusas are by some said to possess a ring 
 of nerves, but this is disputed. 
 
 f " Gegenbaur, Grundziige der Vergleichenden Ana- 
 tomie," p. izg, fig. 15 e, and p. 131. 
 
 + " Lehrbuch von Vergleichender Anatomie," von 
 Siebold und Stannius. Berlin, 1848. • Erster Theil, p. 
 582. 
 
 ( 144 ) 
 
EAR. 
 
 of both sexes. That the lower animals have 
 the power of making music very widely dis- 
 tributed among them is a fact of which any 
 one who reads Mr. Darwin's " Descent of 
 Man," part ii., can very easily convince him- 
 self; the references to this work would be too 
 numerous to give with completeness, and 
 extracts would be impossible, seeing that the 
 subject occupies a considerable portion of the 
 whole work. It is, however, sure that this 
 power is possessed by some spiders (vol. i. 
 P- 339) ; by many insects, as e.g. of the order 
 Homoptera (p. 350 — 352), including the Cica- 
 dos ; of the order Orthoptera (352 — 360), in- 
 cluding crickets and grasshoppers ; of the 
 order Hymenoptera (366), including bees and 
 wasps ; of the order Coleoptera (378 — 385), or 
 beetles ; of the order Lepidoptera (387), or 
 moths and butterflies. All these animals 
 possessing the power of music, which they use 
 principally for attracting the other sex (the 
 male being generally the musician), must 
 possess also organs capable of appreciating 
 such music — auditory organs. 
 
 When we reach the sub-kingdom of Verte- 
 brata we find the same type throughout, 
 gradually becoming more complicated as we 
 proceed from the lowest fish to the highest 
 mammal, man ; and it will be convenient to 
 reverse the philosophical order and to describe 
 the human ear first, since after the description 
 of this it will be easy to allude to deficiencies 
 or modifications in the less complicated organs 
 of the lower vertebrata. 
 
 The Human Ear may be divided into three 
 parts — the external, middle, and internal ear. 
 The two former have the function of convey- 
 ing vibrations to the latter which appreciates 
 them. 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 LEFT EAR. 
 (Transverse section). 
 
 I. Pinna ; z. externa] auditory meatus or canal ; 
 3. cavity of tympanum and membrane of tympanum 
 (between 3 and 6 chain of small bones) ; 4. eustachian 
 tube ; 5. internal auditory canal or meatus giving pas- 
 sage to the auditory and facial nerves ; 6. bony labyrinth 
 (above fenestra ovalis) ; a, apex of petrous bone ; b. in- 
 ternal carotid artery ; c. styloid process ; d. facial 
 nerve passing to supply muscles of face; e. mastoid 
 process. 
 
 The external ear (see fig. i.) consists of 
 two parts, the " pinna," or auricle (i), and 
 the external auditory canal or " meatus " (2). 
 
 The pinna (i) is that part which is quite 
 external, and which we unscientifically call 
 " the ear," as when we say that a certain 
 person has large or small " ears." It is com- 
 posed almost entirely of cartilage or gristle, 
 and has complicated foldings, to all of which 
 names have been given, but which it is not 
 our business to give here in detail. The 
 general shape is that of an irregular funnel, 
 having its apex in the auditory canal. The 
 only part of which we shall speak particularly 
 is the " helix," or the margin which is folded 
 in. At the upper and posterior part of this is 
 to be found, in many individuals, a small 
 point or process, generally, folded in like the 
 rest of the helix, but sometimes projecting 
 outwards. This is considered by Mr. Darwin 
 to be a strong fact in determining the gene- 
 alogy of man (" Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 
 22, fig. 2), for this point is well marked in 
 many of the lower monkeys, as baboons and 
 some species of macacus, and in them is not 
 folded inwards, but stands erect. He thus 
 considers it a reminiscence of some pointed- 
 eared progenitors. He remarks (p. 23, note 
 26) : " This rudiment apparently is somewhat 
 larger in negroes and Australians than in 
 Europeans (see Carl Vogt, " Lectures on 
 Man," Eng. transl., p. 129), these races being 
 confessedly lower and more like the lower 
 animals than Europeans." The pinna is fur- 
 nished with nine muscles, three of which are 
 called extrinsic and move it as a whole, while 
 the remaining six would, if they contracted, 
 move its parts on one another, and are called 
 intrinsic. 
 
 The extrinsic muscles are situated in front, 
 above and behind, and move the pinna there- 
 fore forwards, upwards and backwards re- 
 spectively. The anterior muscle is called the 
 " attrahens aurem," the superior is called the 
 " attollens aurem," and the posterior the 
 " retrahens aurem." These muscles are in 
 man without any function whatever; they do 
 not have any effect on his hearing powers; 
 they are capable of moving the ear only in 
 some individuals, and are only rarely move- 
 able at will. The " retrahens aurem," which 
 is the strongest, is also the most commonly 
 moveable ; in some people it is contracted 
 involuntarily in fright, just as in a timid 
 horse who throws back his ears ; it is much 
 more rarely under the control of the will, but 
 is less seldom so than the other muscles. 
 Mr. Darwin (" Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 20) 
 says : " I have seen one man who could draw 
 his ears forwards, and another who could 
 draw them backwards;'' but this gives too 
 great an idea of the rarity of such an accom- 
 
 ( 145) 
 
EAR. 
 
 plishment. A case has been observed in 
 which a boy was able to move his scalp from 
 side to side by alternately contracting the 
 " attollens aurem" of either side, this muscle 
 rising from the " aponeurosis " (or ilat tendon) 
 of the " occipito-frontalis " muscle, which 
 has the power of moving the scalp forwards 
 and backwards. 
 
 The intrinsic muscles are situated, four on 
 the outer, two on the inner side of the pinna. 
 They have never been known to contract. In 
 some animals, however, they are functional, 
 as any one can see who carefully watches the 
 pinna of the ear of a cat when intent on 
 some sound. 
 
 In spite of the complicated structure of the 
 pinna, it is nearly sure that it possesses no 
 effect on our powers of hearing, either by 
 collecting sound to a focus or by conducting 
 it along its substance;* that it is in fact of 
 no use as far as hearing is concerned. This 
 is the result of the observations of no less an 
 authority than Mr. Toynbee.f It seems also 
 that the nearly precisely similar ears of the 
 orang and chimpanzee are equally function- 
 less (" Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 21). 
 
 The external auditory canal (fig. i. 2) is 
 about i^in.long; rather less than the external 
 half is formed of cartilage or gristle, the 
 remainder of bone. Its direction is not 
 directly inwards, but slightly forwards also. 
 It is closed at its inner end by the " mem- 
 brana tympani " (fig. i. 3), or membrane of the 
 drum. The glands which secrete the wax 
 (ceruminous glands) are situated in the carti- 
 laginous part of the canal, and agree in their 
 structure with the sweat-glands. 
 
 Fig. II. 
 
 SMALL BONES OF TYMPANUM OR OSSICULA AUDITUS. 
 
 A. Malleus.— I. head; 2. handle; 3. processus gra- 
 cilis; 4. short process. B. Incus. — i. body; 2. long 
 process with orbicular process ; 3. short or posterior 
 process ; 4. articular surface receiving head of malleus. 
 C. Stapes. — I. head; 2. posterior leg; 3. anterior leg; 
 4. base. C*. Base of stapes. D. Bones in natural 
 mutual relations. 
 
 The middle ear or tympanum (fig. i. 3) is 
 separated from the external ear by the mem- 
 
 * In using a stethoscope, however, we use the con- 
 ducting power of the cartilage of the ear. 
 
 + " The Diseases of the Ear," by J. Toynbee, F.R.S. 
 i860, p. 12. 
 
 brana tympani (fig. III. m, and fig. i. 3), which 
 inclines outwards, making an angle of 45° 
 with the floor. It is a cavity which is not 
 shut off from the air, for the " Eustachian 
 Tube " (fig. I. 4) forms a communication 
 between it and the " pharynx," the upper 
 part of the cavity of the throat. 
 
 Fig. III. 
 OSSICULA AUDITUS AND MEMBRANA TYMPANI IN SITU. 
 
 a. Malleus; a. tip of handle of malleus, the letter 
 lies in the cavity of the tympanum ; b. incus ; c. 
 stapes ; m. external auditory canal ; tk. membrane of 
 tympanum ; t. line of tension of tensor tympani muscle 
 pulling lower part of malleus inwards ; I. line of tension 
 of laxator tympani muscle pulling upper part of malleus 
 inwards ; g. slender process of malleus. The axis 
 round which the chain of bones rotates passes through 
 its base. 
 
 In the tympanum are situated three small 
 bones (fig. i. 3 to 6, and figs. 11. and in.), the 
 Malleus (A), Incus (B), and Stapes (C), the 
 names being derived from their shape. The 
 malleus (hammer) has a round head (i), and 
 a handle (2), and from the base of the head, a 
 thin spike of bone, the " processus gracilis" 
 (3) projects. The Incus (anvil), B, is more 
 like a tooth with two fangs, a long and a 
 short one. The long process (2) carries a 
 knob or tubercle which is originally a sepa- 
 rate bone, as it remains in some animals 
 through life. The stapes (stirrup), C, is just 
 Uke a stirrup. It is very difficult to under- 
 stand the arrangement of these little bones 
 from description or even from drawings, a 
 model or the actual objects being almost 
 necessary. It may, however, give a general 
 idea of their position to say that the handle of 
 the malleus and the long process of the incus 
 are directed vertically downwards ; the slender 
 process of the malleus and the short process 
 of the incus are horizontal, the former being 
 directed forwards, the latter backwards ; the 
 stapes is also horizontal, but with its base 
 horizontal and directed inwards. The malleus 
 is anterior in position to the incus. The 
 head of the malleus fits on to the body of the 
 incus (the crown of the tooth), the long pro- 
 cess of the incus fits on to the head of the 
 stapes (the part where the stirrup-leather 
 would be attached), and the base of the stapes! 
 fits loosely into the " Fenestra OvaHs," an 
 oval window in the bony wall of the internal 
 ear or labyrinth. The whole chain of bones 
 
 ( 146) 
 
EAR. 
 
 turns round an axis formed by the slender 
 process of the malleus and the short process 
 of the incus. The handle of the malleus is 
 firmly fixed to the membrana tympani on its 
 inner aspect a little below the middle. There 
 are three muscles in connection with this 
 chain of bones, two are attached to the mal- 
 leus, one to the stapes. The two attached^to 
 the malleus are the tensor and laxator tym- 
 pani. The former is attached just below, the 
 latter just above the origin of the processus 
 gracilis (see fig. in. t, l), which, as we ob- 
 served, is the axis of this chain of bones. 
 The stapedius muscle is attached to the neck 
 of the stapes. These bones are exceedingly 
 important from the point of view of compara- 
 tive anatomy, since their homologies play very 
 different parts in the lower animals. The homo- 
 logue of the malleus, for instance, in fish, 
 amphibia, reptiles, and birds, is the " os quad- 
 ratum " which suspends the lower jaw ; and 
 the stapes is in batrachia, reptiles, and birds, 
 the " columella," a long bone, shaped some- 
 what like a straight post-horn, or stethoscope, 
 which alone discharges the function which 
 these three bones discharge in mammalia. 
 Other interesting points will be related later 
 on in connection with development. 
 
 The cavity of the tympanum is practically 
 enlarged by communicating with the " Mas- 
 toid Cells," air cavities which occupy the 
 mastoid process of the temporal bone, that 
 process of bone which may be felt behind and 
 below the pinna, and is supposed by phreno- 
 logists to be the residence of " Pugnacity," 
 though they have never explained the connec- 
 tion between that propensity and the function 
 which these air-cells really discharge, that of 
 increasing the tympanic cavity. 
 
 The internal ear or labyrinth (fig. iv.) is the 
 essential part of the organ. It consists of 
 two parts, a bony cavity enclosed in the 
 thickness of the base of the skull, and a mem- 
 branous sac within this. 
 
 Fig. IV. 
 
 RIGHT BONY LABYRINTH 
 (Smaller figure real size). 
 
 I. Vestibule; 2. fenestra ovalis ; 3. superior semi- 
 circular canal ; 4. horizontal or external semi-circular 
 canal; 5. posterior semi-circular canal ; 6. first turn of 
 cochlea ; 7. second turn ; 8. apex ; g. fenestra rotunda ; 
 * ampuUaa of semi-circular canals. 
 
 The bony labyrinth may be briefly described 
 as a chamber, the "Vestibule" (fig. iv. i), 
 which sends one prolongation forward (the 
 " cochlea," 6, 7, 8), three others backwards 
 (" semi-circular canals," 3, 4, 5), and has its 
 outer and inner walls perforated, the outer 
 by the fenestra ovalis (2), in which lies the 
 base of the stapes, and by a round hole closed 
 by membrane, and called the fenestra rotunda 
 (9) ; the inner by a series of holes in a depres- 
 sion called the " Fovea hemispherica," which 
 transmit branches of the auditory nerve from 
 the internal auditory meatus in which lie the 
 auditory and facial nerves. By these two 
 lateral perforations it communicates with the 
 cavity of the tympanum externally, and with 
 that of the cranium internally. Close behind 
 the "Fovea hemispherica" is a small canal, 
 the " Aquseductus Vestibuli," to which refer- 
 ence will be given later, in describing the 
 course of the development of the ear. 
 
 The bony semi-circular canals (fig. iv. 
 3, 4, 5) are three tubes bent so as to form 
 about two-thirds of a circle. They are situated 
 at the upper and back part of the vestibule 
 with which they communicate by five open- 
 ings, one end of the superior having an opening 
 common also to the posterior semi-circular 
 canal. Each tube at one end has an expan- 
 sion, called an " Ampulla" (fig. iv.*) These 
 canals are called from their position, superior,, 
 posterior, and external. The superior canal 
 is vertical and transverse, the posterior is ver- 
 tical and longitudinal, and the external is 
 horizontal. The directions of these canals, or 
 the planes in which they lie, will be best 
 understood by placing a book with the two 
 covers at right angles to one another, up- 
 right on end on a table, so that one of the 
 covers faces the reader, the other being at 
 right angles to the side of the table at which 
 he is seated. Then the reader will be on 
 the outer or tympanic side, the side of the 
 table opposite to him will be the side of 
 the cranial cavity. The plane of the table 
 will represent the plane of the external or 
 horizontal canal, the plane of the cover oppo- 
 site to the reader the posterior, and that at 
 right angles to the side of the table at which 
 he is seated the superior canal, which is also 
 the most anteriorly placed of the three. 
 Thus it will be seen that the planes of these 
 three canals are the three planes of a cube, 
 a fact to which allusion will be made here- 
 after. 
 
 * With regard to the terms anterior, posterior, ex- 
 ternal, and internal, it may be necessary to explain that 
 anterior means on the side towards the face ; posterior 
 on the side towards the back of the head, and external 
 and internal remote from or near to an antero-posterior 
 axis drawn from the face to the back of the head. 
 
 ( 147 ) 
 
EAR. 
 
 Fig. V. 
 
 VERTICAL SECTION OF COCHLEA, SHOWING ITS THREE 
 PASSAGES OR SCALiE. 
 
 sv. Scala vestibuli ; cm. canalis membranea, or 
 canalis cochlese, or ductus cochlearis ; st. scala tym- 
 pani ; m. modiolus. 
 
 The cavity of the vestibule is prolonged 
 anteriorly by the cochlea (fig. iv. 6, 7, 8), 
 so-called from its likeness to the shell of a 
 snail. As a whole, it forms a blunt cone -with 
 its apex outwards ; this cone is formed by a 
 gradually tapering spiral tube, the first curve 
 having its concavity upwards ; it is coiled 2^ 
 times round a central column or " Modiolus" 
 (fig. V. m), which sends an incomplete parti- 
 tion into the cavity of the tube (fig. vi. 3). 
 This partition is called " Lamina spiralis 
 ossea," and winds in the cavity of the spiral 
 cochlea like the thread of a screw or the stair- 
 case in a turret ; it is wanting at the apex of 
 the tube. This lamina is completed by two 
 membranes, that nearer the apex of the 
 cochlea called the " Membrane of Reissner" 
 (fig. VI. i), that nearer the base, the " Mem- 
 brana -basilaris " (fig. vi. mb), so that three 
 canals are formed, that on the side of the 
 apex of the cochlea being called the " Scala 
 vestibuli " (fig. v. and vi. sv.), that next the 
 base called the "Scala tympani" (fig. v. 
 and VI. st), and the intermediate one, belong- 
 ing to the membranous labyrinth (here on the 
 outer wall of the cochlea not lying free), 
 called the " Canalis membranacea, vel 
 Cochleae," or " Ductus Cochlearis" (fig. v. c»f 
 VI. a). The scala vestibuli and scala tympani 
 communicate at the apex of the cochlea, for 
 the lamina spiralis does not extend quite to the 
 apex, the scala vestibuli communicates below 
 with the cavity of the vestibule as its name 
 implies, the scala tympani would communi- 
 cate below with the cavity of the tympanum 
 through the fenestra rotunda, but that this is 
 closed by a membrane. Thus it would be 
 possible to get through the fenestra ovalis into 
 the vestibule, thence enter into the semi-cir- 
 cular canals posteriorly, or anteriorly through 
 the scala vestibuli to the apex of the cochlea, 
 there into the scala tympani, through it to the 
 fenestra rotunda, and through it again into 
 
 the tympanum. Most books describe the 
 cochlea as divided into two passages, the 
 scala vestibuli and scala tympani, but it is 
 both more accurate and plainer to describe 
 three passages from the first, otherwise it 
 is impossible to account for the canalis 
 membranacea in the description of the 
 membranous labyrinth. The difficulty in 
 understanding this part consists, as will 
 be presently seen, in the fact that whereas 
 all other parts of the membranous labyrinth 
 lie freely in the bony labyrinth, the canalis 
 membranacea is not free at its outer side, 
 the side farthest from the modiolus, but is 
 there attached to the bony labyrinth. 
 
 The membranous labyrinth lies, except in 
 one part already alluded to, freely in the cavity 
 of the bony labyrinth, and corresponds almost 
 exactly with it. Between the two is a fluid, 
 the " perilymph," or " liquor Cotunnii ;" a?nd 
 within the membranous labyrinth is the 
 " endolymph," another fluid. The membra- 
 nous labyrinth is the part of the internal ear 
 which is essential to hearing, the bony laby- 
 rinth serving to enclose and protect it. The 
 membranous vestibule is divided by a con- 
 striction into two halves, which do not com- 
 municate. The posterior and larger is called 
 the " common sinus," or " utricle ;" with it 
 communicate the membranous semicircular 
 canals, which correspond in arrangement 
 with their bony cases. The anterior and 
 smaller chamber is called the " saccule;" it 
 becomes constricted anteriorly into a narrow 
 canal, called the " canalis reuniens," which 
 opens into the " canalis membranacea" of the 
 cochlea. This latter canal is, as above de- 
 scribed, interposed between the scala vestibuli 
 and scala tympani. It ends blindly above at the 
 apex of the cochlea. "Otoliths," or "oto- 
 conia" (ear-dust, Gr. oJc, wroe, an ear, and 
 Kovia, dust), are found in the common sinus'or 
 utricle, in the saccule, and in the ampullae of 
 the semicircular canals ; and besides them, 
 the ampullae are lined with long, ^tiff, hair- 
 like filaments, called " fila acustica." They 
 are six-sided crystals of carbonate of lime, with 
 pointed ends, and lie in the walls of these 
 parts of the membranous labyrinth. They 
 are occasionally absent. In these parts we 
 also find pigment cells, which seem in some 
 mysterious manner to be essential to the sen- 
 sitive parts of nearly all the special-sense 
 organs ; for they are present in the olfactory 
 region of the nose, as well as in the globe ot 
 the eye, and only in the latter is their func- 
 tion known. It is a well known fact, that 
 white cats (cats which have no pigment) are 
 deaf. 
 
 Within the canalis membranacea cochleae, 
 and separated from it by a membrane called 
 the " membrana tectoria," lies an assemblage 
 
 ( 148) 
 
EAR. 
 
 of structures known as the " organ* of Corti," 
 after its describer. This is one of the most 
 beautiful, as well as marvellously complicated, 
 of all the structures in the body. 
 
 Fig. VI. 
 
 TRANSVERSE SECTION OF ONE COMPLETE PASSAGE OF 
 COCHLEA. 
 
 I. membrane of Reissner : 2. auditory nerve ; 3. la- 
 mina spiralis ossea ; 4. spiral ligament; sv. scalavesti- 
 buli ; St. scala tympani ; a . canalis membranacea or 
 ductus cochlearis, or canalis cochleae ; be. sulcus spiralis ; 
 p. membrana tectoria; d. rods of Corti ; /. cells of Corti 
 and Deiters ; i. cells of Claudius ; mb. membrana basi- 
 laris ; sm. scala media. 
 
 The organ of Corti, then, has a floor called 
 the " membrana basilaris," attached at the 
 inner side to the lower lip of the free edge of 
 the lamina spiralis ossea, and at the outer 
 side to the circumferential wall of the cochlea. 
 This membrane separates it from the scala 
 tympani. Its roof is a membrane attached 
 on the inner side to the upper lip of the free 
 edge of the lamina spiralis ossea, and at the 
 outer side to the circumferential wall of the 
 cochlea. This membrane separates it from 
 the canalis membranacea vel cochleas, or duc- 
 tus cochlearis. The essential part of the 
 organ of Corti is a double series of rods, 
 whose bases are separated by some distance, 
 while their upper ends meet at an angle, the 
 continuous serie's of rods forming a sort of 
 spiral gabled roof, gradually diminishing as it 
 follows the spiral course of the cochlea. The 
 regularity of their arrangement, seen from 
 above, suggests the key-board of a pianoforte. 
 They have been estimated by Kolliker as about 
 3,000 in number, and are composed of a dense 
 material. The inner series are more closely 
 set and more numerous than the outer, which 
 they overlap. Both series are enlarged at 
 their bases and heads, especially the latter. 
 The space between their bases and below 
 their junction is called the " scala media " of 
 the cochlea. Thus there are four canals in 
 the cochlea, though this last belongs really to 
 the canalis membranacea. Besides these 
 rods, there are other bodies called " Cells of 
 the organ of Corti." Some are placed be- 
 tween the inner series of rods and the free 
 
 * Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, tom. iii. 
 
 edge of the lamina spiralis ossea, and are 
 called the " Cells of Claudius." They stand 
 in a single line; their upper ends are provided 
 with stiff bristle-like prolongations, or " cilia." 
 The outer set are like them, but are placed 
 between the outer series of rods and the cir- 
 cumferential wall of the cochlea. They are 
 called the "pedunculated cells of Corti," and 
 are set three deep, their cilia projecting through 
 holes in a membrane extending from the junc- 
 tion of the rods of Corti over the outer cells of 
 the organ of Corti to the circumferential wall 
 of the cochlea, and called by Kolliker the 
 " membrana reticularis." Between the rows 
 of the pedunculated cells of Corti are inter- 
 posed the " spindle-shaped cells of Deiters," 
 which are fusiform, as their name implies. 
 All of the basilar membrane not otherwise 
 covered, is covered by six-sided cells of epi- 
 thelium. 
 
 The auditory nerve, by which we appreciate 
 sounds, does not rise from the brain, properly 
 so called, but from the medulla oblongata, ot 
 that uppermost part of the spinal marrow 
 which is enclosed in the skull, in company 
 with the facial nerve, which supplies all the 
 muscles of the face with motor power. The 
 fibres of the auditory nerve can be traced to 
 the floor of the fourth ventricle, i.e., the ex- 
 panded upper end of the tube which the spinal 
 marrow really forms ; and across this floor, 
 to the fissure or furrow which separates it 
 into two halves. Here they are found to rise 
 from a mass of gray matter, i.e., an assem- 
 blage of nerve cells called the ' ' auditory 
 nucleus." Other inconsiderable fibres are 
 added from nerve centres in the neighbour- 
 hood, and some fibres are said to be connected 
 with the sensory roots of the fifth or trigeminal 
 nerve, the nerve of facial sensation. -j- It is 
 connected by a small filament with the facial 
 nerve. These two nei-ves run together along 
 the floor of the cranial cavity outwards and 
 forwards, and leave that cavity by the " in- 
 ternal auditory meatus," a hole in the petrous 
 part of the temporal bone. The facial nerve 
 traverses a canal in that bone, and leaves the 
 bone to emerge by a hole just behind the 
 socket of the lower jaw. While in the tem- 
 poral bone, it gives off a slender branch called 
 the " chorda tympani," which crosses the 
 membrana tympani and handle of the malleus, 
 and gives a twig to the laxator tympani 
 muscle. It subsequently joins the gustatory 
 nerve, the nerve of taste. Besides this, the 
 facial nerve gives a twig to the stapedius 
 muscle. In the internal auditory meatus, the 
 auditory nerve divides into two portions, both 
 of which contain nerve cells. One division is 
 supplied to the cochlea, the other to the vesti- 
 
 f Hirschfeld and LeveiUe, pi. 15. fig. 
 
 ( 149 ) 
 
EAR. 
 
 bule. The division which goes to the cochlea 
 pierces the bony wall of the internal auditory 
 meatus, not by one but by many foramina in 
 the centre of the base of the cochlea. The 
 central foramen is larger than the rest, and 
 contains a nerve destined for the last half-turn 
 of the lamina spiralis. The rest of the nerve 
 fibres surround this, and ascending in the 
 substance of the modiolus, they are distri- 
 buted to the rest of the spiral lamina, piercing 
 its substance, and running outwards to the 
 scala media. These nerves form a continuous 
 spiral ganglion, i.e., a plexus or network of 
 nerve fibres, with the addition of nerve cells 
 near the edge of the spiral lamina. It is pro- 
 bable, but not proven, that their ultimate ends 
 are connected with the organ of Corti. 
 
 The vestibular division of the auditory nerve 
 is distributed to the saccule, utricle, and am- 
 pullae of the semi-circular canals, i.e., the parts 
 containing otoliths. 
 
 The development of the Ear is conducted, 
 in its first stages, like that of the eye or nose. 
 The skin becomes bulged in on the side of the 
 head, and forms a pit which sinks deeper and 
 deeper, while the opening gradually narrows, 
 and at last closes. Thus a closed cavity is 
 formed, and this becomes the membranous 
 labyrinth. Towards it the auditory -nerve 
 grows from the developing medulla oblongata. 
 Next a prolongation grows upwards and back- 
 wards, persistent in the lower vertebrata but 
 not in mammals, except as the rudiment 
 called the " Aquaeductus vestibuli." Next, 
 three portions of the sac get pinched up in an 
 elongated form, these ridges rise higher, and 
 by-and-by the middle or most elevated por- 
 tion of each becomes separated from the 
 under-lying sac, by its walls coalescing in this 
 part. Thus three tubes are formed open at 
 each end, and one end of each becomes 
 dilated. These are the three membranous 
 semi-circular canals. Another prolongation 
 grows forward and gradually becomes spiral. 
 This is the canalis membranacea coqhle£e. 
 The bony case becomes developed round 
 these from cartilage or gristle, from three 
 originally separate pieces called " proStic," 
 " opisthotic," "epiotic" respectively; i.e., 
 anterior, posterior, and superior ear-bones or 
 cartilages. These are separate in cold-blooded 
 vertebrata throughout life. The space be- 
 tween the membranous labyrinth and its bony 
 case is filled up by connective tissue which 
 gradually liquefies and forms the perilymph. 
 
 The cavity of the tympanum, the external 
 passage and the eustachian tube are developed 
 out of what is called "the first branchial 
 cleft ; " for in the embryo there are formed 
 four arches which lie on the sides of the neck 
 exactly like the arches of the gills of a fish, 
 and between them are similar slits so that 
 
 the cavity of the gullet here communicates 
 with the outer world. These all close except 
 the first, which remains as the external ear, 
 cavity of the tympanum, and eustachian tube. 
 Some of the clefts however remain occa- 
 sionally during life. Out of the first arch are 
 developed in order from above downwards, 
 the malleus, a piece of cartilage called 
 " Meckel's cartilage," and the lower jaw, an 
 arrangement persistent in fish ; out of the 
 second arch the stapes, stapedius- muscle, 
 incus, besides other structures which in- 
 directly suspend the larynx, viz., the styloid 
 process, stylb-hyoid ligament, and part of the 
 hyoid bone. During the whole of foetal Hfe, 
 according to Kolliker, the tympaijic cavity is 
 filled with connective tissue which embeds 
 the little bones, and this only becomes ab- 
 sorbed after the child begins to breathe. The 
 pinna is a lappet developed behind the first 
 branchial cleft. 
 
 Propagation of Sound. — In order correctly 
 to understand the sense of hearing we must 
 have acquaintance with the principal laws of 
 acoustics involved. Sound travels through 
 air at about the rate of 1050 ft. a second, in 
 water at about four times this velocity, and 
 in very elastic solid bodies eighteen times as 
 rapidly. In passing from solids to water the 
 velocity is diminished, and from solids to air 
 still more so ; the passage from water to 
 solids is easy, but that from water to air or 
 from air to water, very difficult. Vibrations 
 lose much of their intensity in passing from 
 air to solids. The cases of passage therefore 
 from the medium of least to that of greatest 
 density, i.e., from air to solid, or from the 
 medium of least to that of considerably 
 greater density, i.e., from air to water, are the 
 cases of greatest difficulty in the transmis- 
 sion of vibration. A dry stretched membrane 
 easily receives and trarfsmits vibrations 
 of the air ; and such a membrane placed on 
 the surface of water overcomes in a great 
 degree the difficulty of the passage between 
 air and water. This assistance is enhanced 
 when the membrane is combined with some 
 solid body. Any membrane conducts sounds 
 well when only in water. Sounds, like light, 
 are liable to be reflected whether travelling 
 in water or air. 
 
 Certain terms require explanation. Sounds 
 are " communicated " when they are merely 
 conveyed from one sounding body to another, 
 and this can take place in a noise as well as a 
 musical sound. Sounds are " excited " * under 
 two circumstances : when the body which is 
 sounding and that to be excited have the same 
 note and the vibration of one produces sym- 
 
 * This property has been utilized in such instruments 
 as the viola d'amore. 
 
 ( 150 ) 
 
EAR. 
 
 pathetic vibration of the other, the bodies are 
 mutually called " reciprocating," while if the 
 vibration of one produces its harmonics in 
 the other, the latter is said, with regard 
 to the exciting body, to be " resonant." Ac- 
 cording to Helmholtz, "timbre" or "quality" 
 depends on definite combinations of certain 
 secondary sounds or harmonics with a primary 
 or fundamental sound, and such combinations 
 he calls " sound colours." 
 
 Hearing. — Sounds may reach the auditory 
 nerve either through the combination of spe- 
 cialized structures lying between the tym- 
 panum and the filaments of that nerve, or 
 through the bones of the skull. In the normal 
 state the latter road is so much less effica- 
 cious that it may be disregarded ; but when 
 the other route is obstructed or rendered im- 
 pervious, it then becomes the medium of the 
 communication of sound. That sounds do 
 however reach the auditory nerve in health 
 by this way, anyone may learn by closing his 
 ears and then speaking or singing. Under 
 some circumstances the bones of the skull 
 are the better conductors of the two ; a tuning- 
 fork held between the teeth gives a distinctly- 
 audible note long after its vibrations have 
 become inaudible through the air. Sounds 
 are heard under water by this means. 
 
 The External Ear. — The pinna or auricle 
 is said by some authors to help us to hear by 
 reflecting sound into the meatus and by pro- 
 pagating it through its substance to the bony 
 part of the meatus and thence to the mem- 
 brana tympani. Reflection can only be 
 helped by the large hollow behind the meatus 
 called the concha, and by the point in front 
 of the meatus called the tragus, the concha 
 reflecting the vibrations on to the tragus, and 
 this reflecting them in turn into the meatus. 
 The other parts of the pinna have been sup- 
 posed to assist sound by conduction, their 
 various folds having the function, according 
 to this view, of receiving vibrations in various 
 planes perpendicularly and thus most favour- 
 ably for propagation. Another view regards 
 these folds as instrumental in neutralizing 
 conflicting sound waves, that the principal 
 vibrations may be able to enter the meatus 
 without interruption. All these are mere 
 speculations. An animal with moveable ears, 
 such as a horse, turns his ears to the source 
 of sound, but we have no such power, the 
 extrinsic muscles of our ear are generally 
 quite functionless, and never, in any case, pos- 
 sess this power, the only one which would 
 help us to utilize our pinna. Mr. Toynbee 
 believed the pinna to be quite functionless 
 in man (see above). 
 
 The External Meatus is undoubtedly func- 
 tional in conducting sounds, its closure will 
 instantly prove this. Its curved course 
 
 proves that the vibrations must reach the 
 tympanum after manifold reflection from its 
 walls and not directly. It serves to conduct 
 vibrations without (iispersion to the tympanic 
 membrane. The column of air which it con- 
 tains increases the strength of the vibrations 
 which reach it, and by lengthening the tube 
 of the meatus by adding a tube externally, 
 and thus lengthening the column of air, the 
 sounds are much increased in intensity. Its 
 walls must conduct vibration to the mem- 
 brane of the tympanum, but this function is 
 so inconsiderable that we may practically 
 neglect it. 
 
 The Middle Ear or Tympanum. — The 
 Membrana Tympani serves to conduct vibra- 
 tions received from the external air to the 
 three small bones, the malleus, incus, and 
 stapes, and thus to the internal ear. It is 
 usually in a state of moderate relaxation, and 
 is made more tense by the action of the 
 tensor tympani muscle, and less tense pro- 
 bably by that of the stapedius and perhaps 
 the laxator tympani. The vibrations which 
 it receives are derived from the air in the 
 external meatus, and perhaps also from the 
 bony ring in which it is set. 
 
 The state of moderate relaxation which is 
 usual to it, is the most favourable state for 
 vibrating in sympathy with sounds of a wide 
 range. The membrane vibrates reciprocally 
 as a whole if the sound is in unison with the 
 note to which it is (so to say) tuned by the 
 muscles of the small bones, i. e. its funda- 
 mental ; or in resonance in divisions, if the 
 note sounded is higher than this, one of its 
 harmonics. That it is not always tuned to 
 the very note sounded is obvious, when we 
 consider that this can only be the case when 
 one note only is sounded. It cannot, of 
 course, vibrate reciprocally to a note lower 
 than its fundamental. A membrane has a 
 large power of vibrating sympathetically since 
 its harmonics are very numerous. The effect 
 of increasing the tension of the membrane 
 may be easily tested by closing the nose and 
 mouth and either blowing air out from the 
 lungs or drawing it in. By the former we 
 blow air through the eustachian tube into the 
 cavity of the tympanum, and force the mem- 
 brane outwards, by the latter we decrease the 
 pressure in the tympanic cavity, and the ex- 
 ternal air forces the membrane still more 
 inwards than is naturally the case. The 
 result is in either case the same, the sense of 
 hearing is on the whole impaired, though very 
 high sounds are heard better than before. We 
 have stretched the membrane, raised its fun- 
 damental note, and diminished its power of 
 vibrating in sympathy with low notes, though 
 we have at the same time increased its range 
 of sympathy upwards. Still it is chiefly im- 
 
 ( 151 
 
EAR. 
 
 proved for reciprocal vibrations, for a lax 
 membrane divides itself far more readily into 
 segments which vibrate in sympathy with 
 harmonics, the strength, of such vibrations 
 being increased by the number of the seg- 
 ments into which it divides itself. 
 
 The tensor tympani (perhaps the laxator 
 tympani, though some deny that this is a 
 muscle at all) and the stapedius are the 
 muscles which regulate the tension of the 
 membrane. These two muscles are generally 
 considered antagonists, and are supplied by 
 different nerves f the former renders the 
 membrane tenser, the latter, more lax.* They 
 simply tune the drum of the ear, making the 
 membrane tenser for high, laxer for low 
 sounds ; there being practically a degree of 
 tenseness which is most fit for perceiving 
 vibrations of a certain average pitch. For 
 exceedingly loud noises, as explosions, the 
 probability is that the membrane is made 
 tense, since in this state it cannot vibrate 
 so freely. Thus is probably explained the 
 sense of effort which we feel when expecting 
 a loud noise which may never occur. 
 
 The ossicula auditus or small bones of the 
 tympanum, that is, the malleus, incus and 
 stapes, move as one piece, though they are 
 not so tightly joined together but that they 
 can play on one another. It is possible 
 that their particles may also vibrate, but 
 they are not adapted for this, seeing that 
 much vibration must be lost at the joints 
 between them. The direction of the applica- 
 tion of the force to the malleus is the same as 
 that in which it acts through the stapes ; a 
 line perpendicular to the membrane is parallel 
 with the long axis of the stapes, or perpen- 
 dicular to the membrane closing the fenestra 
 ovalis. Each time the membrane of the 
 tympanum is bent inwards the base of the 
 stapes is driven more deeply into the fenestra 
 ovalis. The axis of the chain of bones is 
 described above. Since the tensor tympani 
 is attached to the malleus below, the laxator 
 tympani above this axis, as far as their action 
 on the membrane of the drum is concerned, 
 the malleus is worked by the former muscle 
 as a lever of the third, by the latter as a lever 
 of the first order. These bones are covered 
 with mucous membrane which must insulate 
 them and tend to prevent the propagation of 
 vibrations from them to the air in the tym- 
 panum. 
 
 The Eustachian Tube serves to equalize 
 the pressure on the outer and inner sides of 
 the membrane of the tympanum. It is 
 naturally closed, being only open during 
 swallowing or yawning, when the muscles of 
 
 Some, however, consider both as tensors of the 
 membrane. 
 
 the palate, inserted on opposite sides of the 
 tube are put into action and pull its sides 
 apart, thus temporarily opening it. During 
 a bad cold in the head we often become deaf, 
 especially after blowing the nose. We simply 
 perform the experiment mentioned above of 
 blowing air through the eustachian tube into 
 the tympanum, forcing the membrane out- 
 wards, and also rendering it too tense. The 
 eustachian tube, however, is often swollen 
 during a cold, and is pervious only to great 
 pressure of air ; it therefore collapses and 
 imprisons this extra amount of air. Some 
 people know that their best chance of relieving 
 this uncomfortable state is to swallow or yawn, 
 though they do not know the reason. This 
 sometimes opens the eustachian tube, and 
 the much compressed air escapes, the hearing 
 being at once regained. If this does not 
 succeed it is sometimes necessary to pass a 
 catheter, a tube appropriately bent, along the 
 floor of the nose and into the eustachian tube, 
 thus opening it. A very ingenious liiethod 
 was invented by Politzer for this purpose ; 
 the patient, whose eustachian tube is imper- 
 vious, is given a glass of water, and the 
 surgeon, having closed one of his nostrils 
 with one hand, inserts a tube into the other ; 
 the patient is then told to drink. As he does 
 so, the surgeon blows through the tube, and 
 while the muscles of the palate open, or tend 
 to open the tube, the additional pressure dis- 
 lodges the plug of mucus or whatever was 
 closing the tube ; it becomes pervious, and 
 hearing is at once restored. 
 
 The air of the tympanic cavity probably 
 plays little or no part in the production of 
 sound, though some effect must theoretically 
 be produced through it on the membrane 
 closing the fenestra rotunda, and through it 
 in turn on the labyrinth, especially the scala 
 tympani of the cochlea, by means of the 
 perilymph. That this effect must, however, 
 be very small is shown by experiment ; for 
 vibrations are very ill-conducted from the 
 moist side of a membrane to air, and from 
 this air to water through a membrane stretched 
 on its surface, i.e. from the inner moist side 
 of the membrana tympani, to the air of the 
 tympanic cavity, and from it to the perilymph 
 by means of the membrane of the fenestra 
 rotunda ; whereas they travel with remarkable 
 intensity between air and water when con- 
 ducted from the first membrane vibrating in 
 air to the second membrane stretched over 
 water through a chain of insulated solid 
 bodies capable of vibrating as a whole, the 
 last of which communicates with a solid body 
 in cjose apposition with the second membrane, 
 i.e. from the membrana tympani to the mem- 
 brane of the fenestra ovalis through the 
 ossicula, covered with moist mucous mem- 
 
 ( 152 ) 
 
EAR. 
 
 brane, the last of which, the stapes, has its 
 base in close apposition with the membrane 
 of the fenestra ovalis, being in fact imbedded 
 in it. This is, therefore, the principal route 
 of the vibrations in their passage through the 
 tympanum. 
 
 The membranous labyrinth is, as above 
 said, the essential part of the auditory ap- 
 paratus, and hearing remains even if all the 
 structures between it and the external air are 
 disorganized. 
 
 As to the special function of its constituent 
 parts, we know nothing certainly; suppositions 
 have been made, but the theories propounded 
 on the question have not advanced beyond 
 the region of hypothesis. The vestibule is 
 probably the most essential part, inasmuch as 
 it is not only the first part of the ear to be 
 developed in man, but is also the first part to 
 appear in the series of vertebrate animals, 
 being present in the lowest fishes, except the 
 amphioxus, which has no distinct organ of 
 hearing. 
 
 The semi-circular canals are supposed to 
 help us to determine the direction of sounds, 
 since they would, if prolonged, intercept vibra- 
 tions in any direction, being in the three 
 planes of a cube, and this arrangement is 
 found in nearly all cases where they are 
 present at all. But whether they actually 
 fulfil this function is quite unproved. M. 
 Flourens* has experimented on the subject 
 by cutting one or other of these canals, but 
 has not removed the difficulty. 
 
 The otoliths are supposed to intensify sound 
 by striking against the fine endings of the 
 auditory nerve as they vibrate. 
 
 The cochlea, by far the most complicated 
 part of the ear, is involved in the same 
 obscurity as regards its functions as the rest 
 of the ear. The complicated structures of 
 the scala media have been supposed merely 
 to deaden vibrations after they have produced 
 their effect on the auditory nerve, thus pre- 
 venting confusion. But it is by far more 
 likely that they have a higher office to fill, 
 and it is now generally believed that they 
 serve to distinguish pitch. The rods of corti 
 especially seem adapted to this function, 
 arranged as they are in regular graduated 
 
 * Solucha. Pflllger's Archiv, vol. viii., quoted in the 
 London Medical Record, Feb. ii, 1874. Solucha has 
 made further experiments which make this still more 
 probable. On cutting one or more of these canals the ani- 
 mal executes certain disorderly movements. These are 
 probably due to the fact that the animal has lost proper 
 conceptions as to the position of its head, since some- 
 what similar movements follow from merely fixing the 
 head unsymmetrically. These canals, probably, possess 
 the function of informing the animal, by a series of 
 unconscious impressions as to the exact position of its 
 head in space, and each canal has an exact relation to 
 a dimension of space. 
 
 series, dense as they are in structure, ' and 
 elaborate as is the distribution of the cochleal 
 nerve in their neighbourhood. They are sup- 
 posed to vibrate each in sympathy with one 
 note, and to transmit the vibrations to the 
 special twig of the auditory nerve with which 
 each is supposed to be connected. Not only 
 would they thus appreciate pitch, but since 
 "timbre" or " quality " depends on the de- 
 finite combination of harmonics with a fun- 
 damental note (as Helmholtz has shown) they 
 would thus convey what he well calls " sound- 
 colours " to the sensorium, these sound- 
 colours being combinations of a fundamental 
 tone with harmonics, various both in pitch 
 and relative intensity. Duges, who first pro- 
 pounded the theory that the cochlea was the 
 organ by which we appreciate " pitch," called 
 attention to the concomitant variations in the 
 evolution of the cochlea and the range of the 
 voice in the three classes of mammals, birds 
 and reptiles; the former having the largest, the 
 latter the smallest development of both cochlea 
 and vocal range. 
 
 A "musical ear" consists in the power of 
 appreciating and distinguishing aerial vibra- 
 tions both simple and compound, just as " the 
 good eye for colour" consists in the power of 
 appreciating and distinguishing the simple 
 and compound vibrations of light. 
 
 When we hear a sound all that is proven is 
 that particular filaments of the auditory nerve 
 have been excited, not necessarily that there 
 has been any external cause for the sensation. 
 Aural delusions occur, though not so com- 
 monly as optical delusions. The singing in 
 the ears which people often hear when they 
 are out of health, overworked, when the blood- 
 vessels of the head are congested, when blood 
 is extravasated, when they are under the 
 influence of a narcotic poison, when they are 
 about to faint ; all belong to this category. 
 Many people are painfully conscious, even for 
 many hours after a long railway journey, of 
 the note to which their carriage has been 
 vibrating. 
 
 Comparative Anatomy. — The lowest sub- 
 kingdom in which we find any specialised hear- 
 ing organ is that of the ccelenterata, the 
 familiar representatives of which are the 
 jelly-fish and sea-anemones. In them the 
 ear is simply a sac filled with fluid, in which 
 are crystals of carbonate of lime, the whole 
 called a " lithocyst " or " stone-sac," by which 
 the vibrations are intensified. This is analo- 
 gous with the primitive auditory vesicle of 
 man. 
 
 A similar structure is found in the sub- 
 kingdom " Vermes," or worms, in certain 
 marine worms called " Turbellaria," a fami- 
 liar representative of which is the worm 
 often seen on the sea-shore and called the 
 
 ( 153) 
 
EAR. 
 
 " sea-man's bootlace." Many of the higher 
 worms, or annelids, represented by the leech 
 and earthworm, have a pair of such organs in 
 the head, connected by a nerve with the 
 nerve-ring surrounding the gullet. 
 
 Arthropoda, the sub-kingdom containing 
 Crustacea (crabs, lobsters, shrimps, prawns, 
 and the wood-louse) ; Insecta ; Arachnida 
 (spiders and scorpions) ; and Myriapoda (cen- 
 tipedes), have not all of them distinct hearing 
 organs. In Crustacea both closed and open 
 hearing organs are found. In the higher 
 Crustacea they are found at the base of the 
 inner or smaller pair of antennae or feelers, 
 and in them they are open. In another crea- 
 ture called Mysis they are placed in the tail, 
 and are composed of an otolithic sac lined 
 with hair-like bodies, reminding us of the 
 human " fila acustica," which are, like them, 
 connected with the endings of a nerve. In 
 those which have open hearing sacs, the par- 
 ticles of sand which are washed in are 
 utilized for otoliths, being fastened in regular 
 order to certain of these hairs. This variety 
 of hearing sacs among Crustacea is very in- 
 structive ; whether closed or open they are 
 closely connected with the integument, and 
 the fact of their being sometimes open, some- 
 times closed, reminds us of the gradual 
 development of the human ear, which is at 
 first merely a pit in the integument, and after- 
 wards becomes a closed sac (Gegenbaur, loc. 
 cit. p. 388). 
 
 Among Insects the power of hearing must 
 be almost universal, since music is so widely 
 distributed among them, but the organs 
 themselves have not been satisfactorily made 
 out in many cases. Some have thought them 
 to be represented by a tight membrane near the 
 base of the feelers, others by the feelers them- 
 selves; among the grasshoppers and crickets 
 by a sac filled with fluid, connected with a nerve, 
 enlarged as it spreads over the sac, the whole 
 sac being placed below a delicate membrane 
 forming the floor of a pit on both sides of the 
 first abdominal ring. In some locusts it is 
 placed on the basal division of the front pair 
 of legs, and is composed of a vibrating mem- 
 brane like the tympanum, in the neighbour- 
 hood of which is an air-chamber connected 
 with one of the tracheas or air-tubes which 
 pervade the body.* 
 
 It may not be uninteresting to insert a de- 
 tailed description of a very elaborate hearing 
 organ which is, found in some orthoptera. 
 The passage is translated from Von Siebold 
 and Stannius, " Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden 
 Anatomie," part i. p. 582 : 
 
 " Only in certain orthoptera has a paired organ been 
 successfully discovered which seems provided with the 
 
 Gegenbaur, loc. cit. p. 389. 
 
 necessary apparatus of a sense of hearing. This organ 
 is represented in the Acrididas by a depression or 
 pinna surrounded by a horny ring and more or less 
 vaulted over, in the bottom of which a tympaniform 
 membrane is spread out ; on the inner surface of the 
 latter a pair of horn-like appendages rise, between 
 which a vesicle filled with clear fluid, extremely deli- 
 cate, is fastened as a membranous labyrinth. Con- 
 nected with this is a special auditory nerve, coming 
 from the third thoracic ganglion, which swells to a 
 ganglion on the tympanic membrane, and ends in the 
 immediate neighbourhood of the labyrinth with a 
 number of little and extremely slender club-shaped rods; 
 loosely surrounded with ganglion cells (? are these end- 
 ings primitive nerve fibres). The locusts and achetida; 
 (grasshoppers) possess a similar hearing organ in the 
 ' shins ' of both forelegs. Some of the locusts possess 
 on both sides of the 'foreshins,' close under the knee- 
 joint, a depression, while others of this family of the 
 orthoptera are provided on the same spot with two 
 more or less spacious hollows, opening forwards by an 
 aperture (auditory capsules). In these pits and also 
 in the hollows of both anterior tibiae of the locusts 
 an oval tympanic membrane is fitted. Between the 
 two tympanic membranes the main tracheal stem of 
 the forelegs forms a vesicular swelling, on the superior 
 end of which the auditory nerve rising from the first 
 thoracic ganglion and running down with the main 
 crural nerve swells to a ganglion. From this ganglionic 
 enlargement a band-like nerve mass runs down on the 
 gently excavated anterior side of the tracheal vesicle, 
 upon which nerve mass a linear series of vesicles with 
 watery contents rise which again contain those remark- 
 able club-shaped and slender rods (? primitive nerve 
 fibres). The two great tracheal trunks of the forelegs 
 open with two wide funnel-shaped openings at the 
 posterior edge of the Prothorax, so that here also part of 
 the tracheal system as in acrididae allows of a compari- 
 son with a tuba eustachii. In the achetidse an opening 
 closed by a silvery membrane (membrana tympani) 
 may be seen on the external side of both forelegs close 
 under the knee-joint, behind which a similar hearing 
 organ is concealed. 
 
 "Note. — In acheta achatina and italica an equally 
 large tympanic membrane is situated also on the inner 
 side of the forelegs which, in acheta sylvestris, domestica, 
 and campestris is only feebly indicated on this inner 
 side of the tibiae." 
 
 Hearing organs are also found in cock- 
 chafers in the root of the posterior wings. 
 In the larva of crabs Heusen has described 
 an ear consisting of an otolithic sac, in the 
 adult the otoliths disappear and the sac is 
 curiously composed of three demi-canals. In 
 the diptera or flies they are situated in the 
 rudimentary wings called halteres. 
 
 Auditory organs are found in all classes of 
 molluscs either connected with the nerve 
 ganglia in the "foot" or motor organ, as in 
 the lower forms (oysters, muscles, snails, and 
 slugs), or with the ganglia below the oesopha- 
 gus, as in the higher forms. In the cepha- 
 lopoda (octopus, &c.) they are placed in the 
 mass of gristle which composes the head, and 
 in them the sac is complicated. In all, the 
 type is essentially the same, viz., a mem- 
 branous sac containing fluid and an otolith or 
 otoliths and supplied by a nerve. In certain 
 mollusca called brachiopoda, hearing organs 
 are found only in the larval state. In all 
 molluscs the otolithic sac seems to be lined 
 
 ( 154 ) 
 
EAR. 
 
 with ciliated epithelium, i.e., epithehum 
 which is furnished with eyelash-like hairs 
 which continually lash the fluid in which they 
 live.* 
 
 Vertebrate Animals (Fish). — No hearing 
 organ has been found in the lowest fish, the 
 amphioxus or lancelot. In all other fish it is 
 present, and it is very interesting to trace its 
 gradual evolution as we proceed towards the 
 higher representatives. In the myxinoids the 
 vestibule, the only part of the ear constant 
 in fishes, consists of a simple ring-shaped 
 tube lined with cilia, and lies freely at the 
 sides of the head, like the primitive auditory 
 vesicle of the human embryo. In the lamprey 
 the ear consists of a vestibule with two semi- 
 circular canals each of which has an ampulla. 
 In all the higher fishes the labyrinth is en- 
 closed in the bony or cartilaginous skull, and 
 consists of three semi-circular canals, the 
 vestibule being divided into two divisions as 
 in man, with " endolymph " and " otoliths." 
 The otoliths are often very large, as in the 
 cod tribe. In the whiting, for instance, they 
 may easily be found as two porcelain-like 
 bodies, somewhat crescent-shaped and grooved 
 transversely. In the rays the vestibule is 
 prolonged by a tube which opens on the 
 upper flat surface of the head. No fish has 
 an external ear, tympanum, membrana t)nii- 
 pani, or cochlea, but the labyrinth is often 
 connected with the air-bladder, either by a 
 tube or by a chain of bones. The air-bladder 
 is thus pressed into the function of assisting 
 the hearing (Weber, " De aure et auditu," p. 
 1245). I^i typical fishes we thus get the 
 representatives of the vestibule, saccule and 
 utricle, each with its otolith, and three semi- 
 circular canals of man. 
 
 Amphibia. — In those amphibians which 
 retain their gills through life, such as the 
 newt and salamander, we have very little 
 more than we found in fishes. They possess 
 an internal ear only, which consists of a 
 vestibule, three semi-circular canals ; and as 
 an addition to the ear of fishes, a " fenestra 
 ovalis," with a small plate closing it, repre- 
 senting the base of the stapes. In one called 
 the axolotl (that animal on which Cortez fed 
 his army) this plate is connected with a little 
 bone, but none of these creatures have a 
 middle or external ear. 
 
 In those amphibians which when adult 
 have lost their gills, we find the following 
 additions. The labyrinth or internal ear has 
 an otolithic saccule ; in addition to the plate 
 of cartilage closing the fenestra ovalis, which 
 has a small muscle to move it (like the stape- 
 dius in man), we find a long thin bone 
 " columella " running through a tympanic 
 
 * GegenbauT, loc. cit. p. 513. 
 
 cavity and connected with a third member, a 
 small cartilage which is attached to a tym- 
 panic membrane, and has another muscle 
 attached to it (like the tensor tympani in 
 man). In these animals the middle ear or 
 tympanum first appears ; this cavity is filled 
 with air and communicates by an eustachian 
 tube with the cavity of the mouth. The.tym- 
 panic membrane is on the level of the surface 
 of the body — there is no external passage or 
 meatus. 
 
 Reptiles. — We divide reptiles into ophidia 
 or serpents, lacertilia or lizards, chelonia, or 
 turtles and tortoises, and crocodilia, crocodiles 
 and alligators. 
 
 In serpents we seem to have an ear in- 
 ferior to that of frogs ; they have no eustachian 
 tube, the t3mipanum does not contain air, but 
 a sort of packing material called cellular or 
 connective tissue, the tympanic membrane, 
 as such, is absent, the tympanum being 
 closed externally by skin. This substitution 
 of cellular tissue for air is very interesting 
 when we remember that in the human embryo 
 the reverse change takes place. With this 
 exception the ear is the same as that of 
 frogs. 
 
 In lizards we again find a tympanic mem- 
 brane and cavity, a eustachian tube, and in 
 some the commencement of an external ear. 
 In the iguana, for instance, there is a slight 
 fold of skin beyond the tympanic membrane, 
 and this is again instructive, for in the human 
 embryo the tympanic membrane is at first on 
 the level of the skin ; and the external ear, 
 both the bony and cartilaginous parts of the 
 meatus and the pinna, are subsequent ad- 
 ditions. 
 
 In turtles and tortoises we find the tym- 
 panic cavity divided into two by a bony septum 
 or partition, which, however, is incomplete. 
 The cochlea makes its first appearance as a 
 slight conical bud, as it does in the human 
 embryo, and there is a fenestra rotunda.^ 
 
 In crocodiles the cochlea becomes bent and 
 divided into two scalse. The tympanic mem- 
 brane is placed at the bottom of a deep fissure, 
 and protected by a flap of integument con- 
 taining cartilage and capable of closing the 
 slit by muscles attached to it ; thus we have 
 an external ear. The tympanic cavity com- 
 municates with air-cells in many of the bones 
 of the head as in birds. Indeed, to the com- 
 parative anatomists to whom the striking dif- 
 ference between feathers and scales is the 
 least diflference in the world and quite unim- 
 
 f There is one lizard of very exceptional structure 
 which possesses a cochlea with an indication of the 
 spiral curve which afterwards produces the form which 
 we find in man. Its name is Hatteria, but it is indeed 
 so full of anomalies that it is best mentioned in a note, 
 and not as a representative of lacertilia. 
 
 ( 155) 
 
EAR E DUR. 
 
 portant, the crocodile is nothing but a bird 
 with certain practically unimportant distinc- 
 tions. 
 
 The ear of birds is composed of an internal 
 ear consisting of a vestibule with a foramen 
 rotundum, and a foramen ovale, a cochlea with 
 an incipient spiral turn, three semi-circular 
 canals, and two cartilaginous bands represent- 
 ing the lamina spiralis ossea; of a middle ear 
 consisting of a cavity, filled with air, com- 
 municating with air-cells in most of the bones 
 of the head, provided with a membrana tym- 
 pani and eustachian tube, and with a colu- 
 mella or stapes. This columella which we 
 have seen from amphibia upwards, is, as we 
 have said, the stapes of man. It is shaped 
 like a long post-horn, or like a stethoscope. 
 
 The external ear consists of an external 
 auditory meatus, and an indication of a pinna 
 in the form of a fold of skin just in front of 
 the meatus ; this is largest in the owls. In 
 some birds as the bustards the mfeatus is sur- 
 rounded by a ring of specialized feathers, 
 which perhaps serve to reflect vibrations to- 
 wards the tympanum. 
 
 The Ear of Mammals is in the main so 
 like that of man that it will be sufficient to 
 mention such differences as we find in dif- 
 ferent classes. 
 
 In the internal ear we find that the cochlea 
 has a very variable number of turns. The 
 hedgehog has one-and-a-half turns, the seal 
 two, many ruminants somewhat more, next 
 the camel, horse, and elephant, and many 
 bruta (ant-eaters, sloths, &c.) ; the bats, apes, 
 and man, two-and-a-half; most carnivora 
 three, the pigs nearly four ; the guinea-pig 
 and agouti quite four ; and the paca (a rodent) 
 five ; marsupials have a very varying number 
 of turns, the kangaroo two-and-a-half (like 
 ruminants which they represent among mar- 
 supials), and the opossum nearly five.* 
 
 The otoliths are not universally found 
 among mammals. The labyrinth has many 
 variations, for which reference must be made 
 to the larger treatises. The " ossicula audi- 
 tus " are very variable in shape ; in the lowest 
 order of mammals, the monotremata, includ- 
 ing the ornithorhynchus (duck-billed platypus), 
 and echidna (Australian ant-eater), the stapes 
 is shaped like that of amphibia, reptiles, and 
 birds ; it is a long and thin bone without any 
 division— a " columella," in fact. In cetacea 
 or whales, dolphins and porpoises, the ear is 
 very remarkable ; the external auditory meatus 
 is almost obliterated, in one dolphin hardly 
 admitting a pig's bristle. It is probable that 
 the vibrations of sound are communicated in 
 them to the auditory nerve, not by the meatus 
 but by the bones of the head, as in fish, and 
 
 Gegenbaur, p. 773. 
 
 in them the tympanic bone, forming the wall 
 of the tympanum and supporting the drum, 
 is very dense and hangs almost independently, 
 reminding one of the large otoliths of fish 
 (Owen), though whether it really fulfils the 
 same office it is difficult to say. 
 
 The pinna is absent in most seals, the 
 mole, cetacea, and the ornithorhynchus, in 
 most diving animals it is very small. In 
 some bats it is enormously developed, and 
 has vibratile movements by which it seems 
 to act as a sort of tactile organ " relating to 
 the perception of atmospheric impulses re- 
 bounding from surfaces near which the bat 
 approaches in flight."t Spallanzani says that 
 a bat, after being deprived of the power of 
 sight, hearing, and smell, by having the eyes 
 put out, and the ears and nostrils plugged, 
 was still able to avoid obstacles and to pass 
 through openings only just large enough to 
 admit its body. 
 
 Some animals have the power of volun- 
 tarily closing their external meatus — the ele- 
 phant and the water shrew, for instance. 
 
 Ecbole (Gk.) The terms eclysis (ecXwuic) 
 and echole {iKfioXfi) refer to the flattening and 
 sharpening of sounds to adapt them to a 
 change of key-note. 
 
 Eccedente (It.) Exceeding, augmented, a 
 term applied to intervals-. 
 
 Ecclesiastical modes. [Plain song.] 
 
 Echelon, ^x^wv {Gk.) (i) A hollow 
 vessel, generally of metal (xaXKeiov) used as a 
 drum or gong. (2) Metallic vases so ar- 
 ranged behind the seats of the ancient theatre 
 as to reinforce the sound of the actors' voices. 
 An account of them is to be found in Vitru- 
 vius. (3) The resonance box of a lyre. 
 
 Echelle (Fr.) A scale; as, ichelle chro- 
 matique, chromatic scale ; echelle diatomqtte, 
 diatonic scale. 
 
 Echo. A sound produced by reverbera- 
 tion ; an imitation of a sound so produced, 
 (i) In old organ music the use of this term 
 signified that a passage so marked was to be 
 played upon the echo-organ, a set of pipes 
 enclosed in a box, by which a soft and distant 
 eff'ect was produced, incapable however of 
 so great expression as that obtained by the 
 use of the swell, which is an improvement 
 upon the echo-organ. (2) Echo-stop on a 
 harpsichord was a contrivance for obtaining 
 a soft and distant effect. 
 
 Eclisses {Fr.) The sides of a lute, guitar 
 or violin. 
 
 Eclysis. [Ecbole.] 
 Ecole (Fr.) A school or style of music. 
 Ecossaise {Fr.) In the Scotch style. 
 E dur {Ger.) The key of E major, the 
 key having four sharps in its signature. 
 
 f Owen, Anat. of Vertebrates, vol. iii. p. 189. 
 
 ( 156) 
 
EFFECT EN HARMONIC. 
 
 Effect. Effet {Fr.) Effetto [It.) The 
 mental impression produced by the perform- 
 ance of music, arising from the genius of the 
 composer in the novel invention of pleasing 
 or striking melodies, or telling harmonies, 
 and the happy fitness of choice of certain 
 passages, vocal or instrumental, in certain 
 understood situations ; or the clever inter- 
 pretation of those passages by the performers. 
 
 Eguaglianza (it.) Equality, evenness. 
 
 Eguale (It.) Equal, as voci eguali, equal 
 voices. 
 
 Egualmente {It.) Equally, evenly. 
 
 Eighth. The interval of an octave. 
 
 Einfach (Ger.) Simple ; as, einfacke In- 
 tervalle, simple intervals ; ein/acher Contra- 
 punkt, simple counterpoint. 
 
 Einfalt {Ger.) Simphcity ; as, mit Einfalt 
 und Wiirde, with simplicity and dignity. 
 
 Eingang {Ger.) Introduction, as, Eingang 
 Schlussel, introductory key. 
 
 Eingestrichen {Ger.) Having one stroke, 
 as c', d', &c. [Pitch.] 
 
 Einheit {Ger.) Unity. 
 
 Einleitungs-satz {Ger.) An opening 
 phrase, or introduction ; an overture. 
 
 Einschlafen {Ger.) To slacken pace and 
 diminish the power. 
 
 Einschlagend {Ger.) Lit. striking in- 
 wards, as is the case with a percussion reed ; 
 ,whereas aufschlagend is used with reference 
 to a.free reed. [Reed.] 
 
 Einschnitt (fier.) An incomplete musical 
 sentence or motive. 
 
 Eis {Ger.) E sharp. 
 
 Eisenvioline {Ger.) Lit., iron fiddle. A 
 nail violin, an instrument the sounds of which 
 are produced from pointed pieces of iron. 
 Ger.,Nagel-geige. 
 
 Eisteddfod {Welsh). A congress or session 
 for the election of chief bards, called together 
 for the first time at Caerwys by virtue of a 
 commission granted by Queen Elizabeth, May 
 26th, 1568. Eisteddvodau have been since 
 held in various places at uncertain intervals, 
 and now (1875) will probably take place an- 
 nually in localities made known some time 
 before the assembly. The object is the 
 encouragement of native poetry and music. 
 Eklysis or Eclysis {Gk.) [See Ecbole.] 
 Ela. The name given by Guido to the 
 highest note in his scale. 
 
 Electric organ. An organ, the key and 
 stop-action of which are connected with the 
 pallets and sliders by the force of an electric 
 current. 
 
 E16gant {Fr.) Elegantemente {It.) Ele- 
 ganza, con {It.) Elegantly, with elegance of 
 style. 
 
 Elegiac. In the style of an elegy ; of a 
 mournful character. 
 
 Elegy. iXEyeiov (Gk.) (l) A distich con- 
 sisting of an hexameter and pentameter. (2) 
 A poem in elegiacs. (3) A composition of a 
 mournful and commemorative character. 
 
 Elevatio {L'at.) (i) Arsis, q.v. (2) A 
 motet sung at the elevation of the Host. (3) 
 The raising of a mode beyond its ambitus. 
 Elevato {It.) Raised, exalted. 
 Elevazione {It.) A composition founded 
 upon a special theme, as Elevazione sopra il 
 Pange lingua. 
 
 Eldve {Fr.) A pupil. 
 Eleventh. The interval of an octave and 
 a fourth. A compound fourth. 
 
 Embouchure {Fr.) The mouth-piece of 
 a wind instrument. 
 
 Emmeleia, kfifiiXiLa {Gk.) (i) Consonance, 
 concord in musical sounds. (2) A tragic 
 dance accompanied by music. (3) The music 
 of the tragic dance. 
 
 E moll (Ger.) The key of E minor. The 
 relative minor of G major. 
 
 Emp^ter les sons (Fr.) To sing legato, 
 or with a portamento. 
 
 Empfindung (Ger.) Emotion, passion, 
 feeling. 
 
 Emphasis. Accent. [Arsis. J [Accent.] 
 Emport6 {Fr.) Passionate, hurried'. 
 EmpreSse {Fr.) Eager, hurried. 
 Enarmonico {It.) Enharmonic. 
 En badinant {Fr.) Scherzando. [Scherzo.] 
 Encore {Fr.) Again, more. A word used 
 in England when a repetition of a piece is 
 desired. It is used both as a noun and as a 
 verb in common writing ; as, an encore, to 
 encore. 
 
 Enccenia. Dedication festivals ; in old 
 English, chyrche-holy ; Anglo-Sax., cyric- 
 halgung, church hallowing. 
 
 Energia, con ; energicamente ; ener- 
 gico {It.) With energy, forcibly. 
 
 Enfant de chceur {Fr.) A chorister-boy. 
 Enfatico (7^) With emphasis, earnestly. 
 Enfler {Fr.) To swell, to increase in 
 sound. 
 Enfasi, con {It.) With emphasis. 
 Enge {Ger.) Narrow, close, straight. A 
 term used in reference to the small scale of 
 organ pipes, or to the closeness of subject 
 and answer in a stretto. 
 
 Engel-stimme {Ger.) [Vox Angelica.] 
 Engraving of music. [Printing of 
 music] 
 
 Enharmonic, (i) One of the three genera 
 of Greek music, the other two being the 
 Diatonic and Chromatic. (2) Having inter- 
 vals less than a semitone, e.g., an enharmonic 
 organ or harmonium is an instrument having 
 more than twelve divisions in the octave, and 
 capable, therefore, of producing two distinct 
 
 ( 157) 
 
ENOPLIUS ENTREMETS. 
 
 sounds where, on the ordinary instrument, 
 one only exists, as, for instance, Gtf and Al^, 
 &c. An enharmonic scale is one containing 
 intervals less than a semitone. (3) An enhar- 
 monic modulation is a change as to notation, 
 but not as to sound, e.g. : 
 
 It is important to notice that an enhar- 
 monic modulation is not so termed in strict 
 propriety, because, it is only feasible on an 
 ordinary keyed-instrument by actually ignor- 
 ing the existence of intervals smaller than a 
 semitone. 
 
 Enoplius. tvowXioQ {Gk.) Warlike music. 
 Music of the war-dance. 
 
 Ensemble {Fr.) Together. The whole, 
 (i) The general effect of a musical perform- 
 ance. (2) The union of the whole company of 
 performers in a concerted piece. 
 
 Entr'acte {Fr.) Music played between the 
 acts or divisions of an opera, drama, or other 
 stage performance. 
 
 Entrata {It.) Entr'ee {Fr.) , Entry, intro- 
 duction, or prelude. Scena d'entrata, the 
 first scena allotted to a vocalist in an opera. 
 {Fr.) scene d'entr'ee. 
 
 Entrechats {Fr.) The peculiar bounds 
 with which a dancer leaps across the stage 
 on entering. 
 
 Entremese {Span.) A short musical 
 interlude, in one or two scenes, played by a 
 few actors, rarely more than four. Entre- 
 meses were mostly of aburlesque character, and 
 when performed between the preludes and the 
 plays, Autos, or Loas, made an interlude of a 
 nature peculiarly acceptable to the Spanish 
 mind. The subjects were chosen from pos- 
 sible events of a droll character in common 
 life, and were mostly written in verse. They 
 cannot be traced to a higher antiquity than 
 the 17th century, and are still popular in re- 
 mote parts of Spain. When more than ordi- 
 nary prominence is given to the music, the 
 name Saynetes (the Spanish for dainties) is 
 given to them. 
 
 Entremets {Fr.) Short dramatic or alle- 
 gorical entertainments. A remote antiquity 
 is claimed for this species of diversion, which 
 some writers declare to be the origin of the 
 opera and drama. The date of their inven- 
 tion has been fixed at an epoch during the 
 reign of Saint Louis (1226-1270). 
 
 The king desired to re-awaken the en- 
 thusiasm of his nobles and warriors that they 
 .jnight join him in the endeavour to wrest the 
 Holy Land from the hands of the infidels. 
 He sought the aid of the Duke of Burgundy, 
 
 who, flattered by the preference shown to him 
 in being selected as the king's agent in the 
 matter, sought every means to carry his 
 wishes into effect. He gave a series of 
 banquets and entertainments to the nobility, 
 who at that time were noted for their luxury, 
 not to say licentiousness ; and in the course 
 of these feasts certain allegorical poems, 
 commemorating the deeds of the old warriors 
 and kings, their ancestors, were recited or 
 sung. Appeals were made to the chivalric 
 spirit still supposed to exist in the breast of 
 the scions of a warlike stock, and they were 
 implored to unite in aiding the defenders of 
 their religion in a crusade against the un- 
 believing occupants of the sacred cities. The 
 stratagem succeeded, the nobles and princes 
 joined with the Duke of Burgundy and bound 
 themselves by oath to follow and support 
 him. 
 
 The Entremets thus originated were con- 
 tinued on great occasions, and ultimately 
 became diverted from their primary intention. 
 The performers, mimes, farceurs, haladins, 
 menetriers, &c., as they are variously called, 
 followed the fortunes of their lords, and in 
 course of time invented new entremets, no 
 longer confining themselves either to patri- 
 otic or religious subjects. These entremets 
 suggested more extended performances, and 
 what can now be gathered of their character 
 has led many, not unreasonably, to assume, 
 that in them was the germ of the modern 
 opera. 
 
 In later times when acting was better un- 
 iderstood, a further change was made in the 
 style of the subjects selected, and the entre- 
 mets were almost always of a humorous 
 character, though heroic subjects were some- 
 times chosen. In 1237, upon the occasion 
 of a marriage, Alberic, in his chronicle, speaks 
 of the entremets then and there performed, 
 and also adds that " Illi qui dicuntur minis- 
 trelli in spectaculo vanitatis multa ibi fecerunt, 
 sicut ille qui in equo super cordam in aere 
 equitaret, et sicut illi qui duos boves de scar- 
 late vestitos equitabant cornitantes ad singula 
 fercula quae apponebantur regi in mens4." 
 In 1378, at a feast given by Charles V. to 
 his uncle in the castle of St. Germain, two 
 entremets representing the conquest of Jeru- 
 salem, by Godfrey de Bouillon, were per- 
 formed. And at the marriage of Charles IX. 
 in 1572, the entremets were on the subject of 
 the destruction of Troy. Jean Antoine de 
 Baif in 1573 published " Mimes, entremets, 
 enseignmenset Proverbes," which were simply . 
 epigrams, and the change of opinion with 
 regard to the use of the word in De Baif's 
 mind, shows that even then a gradual altera- 
 tion in the meaning and force of the entre- 
 mets was taking place. The word is now 
 
 ( 158) 
 
ENTUSIASMO EQUIVOCAL CHORDS. 
 
 employed to signify any small entertainment 
 between two greater ones. c/. Entremese. 
 
 Entusiasmo. Entusiastico {It.) With 
 enthusiasm. 
 
 Entwurf {Ger.) A sketch. 
 
 Eolian Harp. A musical instrument made 
 of a long narrow box of thin even-grained deal, 
 about five or six inches deep, having a circle 
 of small holes drilled in the centre of the upper 
 side. On this side the strings, six or more, are 
 stretched in parallel lines over bridges fixed 
 at each end, the tension being preserved by 
 means of screwpins. The strings must be 
 tuned in unison, and the box placed in a free 
 current of air. A delicate combination of 
 sounds is then produced, somewhat resem- 
 bling the effect of a full orchestra, without 
 instruments of percussion, when heard at a 
 distance, the sound increasing or decreasing 
 in power with the force of the wind. The 
 usual method of using the instrument is by 
 placing it on the ledge of a half-opened win- 
 dow ; but the tone is best produced when the 
 box is made of the exact length of the window 
 opening, and the lower sash of the window 
 closed as far as the box will allow. The 
 Eolian harp is the invention of an English- 
 man of the name of Pope, and was improved 
 by Kircher, a German (1670). The har- 
 monics heard are due to the overtones of the 
 strings. 
 
 " Behoves no more. 
 But sidelong, to the gently waving wind 
 To lay the well-tuned instrument reclined ; 
 
 From which, with airy flying fingers light. 
 Beyond each mortal touch the most refined, 
 
 The God of Winds drew sounds of deep delight." 
 Thomson's Castle of Indolence. 
 
 Eolian mode. The fifth of the authentic 
 Gregorian modes. It consists of the natural 
 notes La, Si, Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol. 
 
 Epicedion. iTrtK^Sttov {Gk.) A dirge, 
 elegy. 
 
 Epigoneion {Gk.),ti:t.y6vuov. A musical in- 
 strument, named after its inventor, Epigonus, 
 the date of whose existence is matter of doubt, 
 and the character of the instrument is also 
 somewhat uncertain. It is described as hav- 
 ing forty strings, but the method of tuning is 
 absolutely unknown. 
 
 Epilenia, i-Ki\r\via {Gk.) Vintage songs. 
 
 Epinette {Fr.) [Spinet.] 
 
 Epinicium. iwiviKiov {Gk.) A song of 
 victory. 
 
 Episode. A term in fugue writing, applied 
 to those phrases which are supplemental to 
 the main subjects or their answers. [Fugue.] 
 
 Epitasis {Gk.) en-traiTtc. (i) The raising 
 of the voice from a low to a higher pitch. (2) 
 The tightening of the strings of an instru- 
 ment, as opposed to ayttric- 
 
 Epithalamium, iindaXai^iov [Gk.) A 
 nuptial song. ' 
 
 Epode, ETTjjgde {Gk.) (i) An after song, 
 the strain of a lyric song after the strophe 
 and antistrophe. (2) A burden or refrain. 
 
 E poi {It.) And then, after ; as, e poi la 
 coda, then go to the coda. 
 
 Equabilmente {It.) Equally, similarly. 
 
 Equal voices. A term for an assortment 
 of men's voices or women's voices. Thus, a 
 piece is said to be set for equal voices, when 
 the voices of men only are needed, though the 
 quality of those voices are not equal, the alto 
 voice differing from the tenor as the tenor 
 does from the bass. The like difference in a 
 less marked manner, also exists among 
 women's voices, but when all men's or all 
 women's voices are required, the term equal 
 is applied to each group. The union of the 
 voices of the two sexes is styled "mixed." 
 In its most true sense the term should only 
 be applied to groups of voices of like register 
 and compass. 
 
 Equisonans {Lat.) The name given to 
 the consonance of the unison and octave. 
 
 Equivoca {Lat.) Equivocal, or doubtful, 
 nota equivoca was, in mediseyal music, a 
 note whose value varied according to the 
 length of the notes on either side. 
 
 Equivocal or doubtful chords. A name 
 given to combinations of sounds which are 
 common to two or more distinct keys, and 
 which, when heard, make the listener doubt- 
 ful as to the particular key-tonality into 
 which they are about to be resolved. 
 
 The simplest form of chords of this class 
 is to be found in the so-called diminished 
 triad, e.g.: 
 
 The above chord may be resolved into the 
 keys of C major, C minor, A minor, B minor, 
 or B major (the last two by means of an 
 enharmonic change),- thus: 
 
 The inversions of this chord give, as might 
 be expected, greater scope for varied pro- 
 gressions than can be obtained from its 
 original position. 
 
 The next important doubtful chord is the 
 diminished seventh, but in this case it will be 
 noticed that the numerous resolutions are the * 
 result of its possible enharmonic change, 
 whereas, in examples i, 2, and 3 above, no 
 
 ( 159 ) 
 
ERHOHtTNG EXERCISE. 
 
 alteiation has been made in the notation of 
 the chord : 
 
 If this chord be struck and held down while 
 the eye traces the various changes of nota- 
 tion through which it is capable of passing, 
 it will be found that an impression of an en- 
 tirely new key is given at each successive 
 change. 
 
 Composers have not been slow to avail 
 themselves of the sudden flights into remote 
 keys, which such combinations suggest, 
 every key being easily and naturally reached 
 by a judicious treatment of this chord in the 
 position given above or in its other three 
 positions. Another class of chords are used 
 as doubtful chords, though less frequently 
 than those just described, namely, the chords 
 of the extreme sixth (called also sharp or 
 augmented sixth), e.g. : 
 
 The use of doubtful chords is only to be 
 traced in modern authors ; old writers used 
 them rarely, and then only to produce some 
 startling effect, justified by the character of 
 the words in vocal music, or by the professed 
 drift of a piece of orchestral sound-painting. 
 
 Erhohung {Ger.) Elevating, enhancing, 
 raising ; as, Erhohungs Zeichen, the sign of 
 chromatic elevation, a sharp or natural. 
 
 Erniedrigung {Ger.) Lowering, depress- 
 ing; as, Erniedrigungs Zeichen, the sign for 
 chromatic depression, a flat or natural. 
 
 Erst (Ger.) First; as, ersterSatz, first part. 
 
 Ersterben {Ger.) To die away, morendo. 
 
 Erweitert (Ger.) Extended, augmented, 
 amplified. 
 
 Es {Ger) E flat. 
 
 Esatto (It) Strict, exact; as, esatto in- 
 tonazione, just intonation. 
 
 Es dur {Ger.) The key of E flat major. 
 
 Esecuzione (It.) Execution. 
 
 Eses {Ger.) E double flat. 
 
 Es moll {Ger.) The key of E flat minor. 
 
 Espace {Fr.) A space of the stave. 
 
 Espagnuolo, a {It.) In the Spanish style. 
 
 Espirando {It.) Dying away ; gasping. 
 
 Espressione, con (It.) With expression. 
 
 Espressivo {It.) Expressive. 
 
 Essential harmony. Harmony inde- 
 pendent of grace, auxiliary, passing, synco- 
 pated, anticipating, or pedal notes. 
 
 Essential notes. Notes belonging to a 
 key-chord. The essential notes of the chord 
 of F major are F, A, C. [Chordas essentiales.] 
 
 Estinguendo. Estinto {It.) Dying away, 
 gradually reducing both power and pace. 
 
 Estravaganza (It.) A work fanciful and 
 far-fetched in composition or execution. 
 
 Estremamente {It.) Extremely. 
 
 Estro poetico (It.) Poetic rage, or fer- 
 vency. 
 
 Etendue {Fr.) Extended. 
 
 Etoufr6 (Fr.) Lit. stifled. Damped, by 
 means of pedal, mute, or palm of the hand. 
 [Damp.] 
 
 Etouffoirs {Fr.) Dampers. 
 
 Etude {Fr.) A study, exercise, or lesson. 
 
 Et vitam. One of the movements of the 
 Mass. A part of the Credo, [Mass.] 
 
 Etvras (Ger.) Somewhat; as, etwas 
 langsam, rather slow, &c. 
 
 Euphonia {Lat. and It.) (i) Sweet sound, 
 suavitas vocis. (2) A consonant combination, 
 of sounds. 
 
 Euphonium. A brass bass instrument, 
 properly belonging to a military band, but 
 sometimes introduced into the orchestra as a 
 substitute for the third or bass trombone, to 
 the tone of which the sound of the Euphonium 
 has not the slightest affinity. [Metal wind 
 instruments.] 
 
 Euphony. Sweet sound. An agreeable 
 combination of sounds. 
 
 Evacuant (Ger.) An exhaust-valve, in 
 an organ or other wind instrument. 
 
 Evacuatio {Lat.) Lit. an emptying. In 
 mediseval music, the making of a note in out- 
 line only, by which its value was reduced by 
 one-third, e.g. : 
 
 Semibrevis plena 
 et perfecta. 
 
 o 
 
 Semibrevis vacua 
 et imperfecta. 
 
 Other notes were similarly affected by eva- 
 cuatio. 
 
 Eveille {Fr.) Sprightly, quick, lively. 
 
 Evirato {It.) [Castrato.] 
 
 Evolutio {Lat.) The working out or 
 development of a subject. 
 
 Evovae. The vowels of the words " secu- 
 lorum amen" at the end of the Gloria Patri. 
 Hence used as a name of the endings of 
 Gregorian tones, e.g., the following are the 
 evovae of the fourth tone : 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 ='F=;^ 
 
 =i — " — ^=t- 
 
 =^^^a ^ 
 
 Evovae 
 
 Evovae 
 
 =at-= 
 
 ■ ^ n ^ ^ i ^ ^ -F 
 
 Exercise. (i) Preparatory practice in 
 order to obtain skill. (2) A composition 
 
 ( 160) 
 
EXPRESSION EXTEMPORE. 
 
 intended for the improvement of the singer or 
 player. (3) A composition or thesis, required 
 of candidates for degrees in music in the uni- 
 versities. 
 
 Expression. The power or act of render- 
 ing music so as to make it the vehicle of deep 
 and pure emotion ; the spirit of music, as 
 opposed to the mere mechanical production 
 of sound. In rendering works of a high class, 
 a true expression involves the merging of the 
 artist's personality in an enthusiastic effort-to 
 carry out to the highest extent, the fullest 
 meaning of the composer. Hence the diffi- 
 culty of giving a reading of classical works 
 which shall satisfy those critics who have 
 formed their own ideal of the author's concep- 
 tions. Compositions of a low order, often 
 achieve great popularity owing to their clever 
 treatment by practised artists, who know how 
 to create an artificial interest in such a work, 
 which its internal merit does not warrant. 
 
 Marks of expression are of comparatively 
 modern use. It is said that Locke (c. 1677) 
 was the first Englishman who used signs for 
 crescendo and diminuendo, but there can be no 
 doubt that an expressive treatment of music 
 has at all times been known and appreciated, 
 although the signs or directions for this ex- 
 pression were unwritten. This remark applies 
 equally to solo and concerted music ; in the 
 latter, whether vocal or instrumental, sacred, 
 or secular, the proper treatment of certain 
 passages would, if not traditionally received, 
 be suggested by the leading musicians among 
 the performers. If this be true, directors of 
 modern choirs or orchestras are to some 
 extent justified in adding marks of expression 
 to unmarked works to be performed, it being 
 a fact that, where none exist, singers and 
 players now-a-days sink into an uninteresting 
 dead-level of production. 
 
 The absence of such marks gives the 
 greatest latitude to the artist who renders 
 music, and allows him to stamp his reading 
 more with his own individuality than where 
 the expression required is definitely indicated. 
 Thus, some of the old simple songs or tunes 
 depend entirely upon the performer for their 
 true expression ; whereas modern music is so 
 full of directions that any intelligent reader 
 may see the drift of the author's meaning. 
 But the fictitious expression obtained only 
 by a strict attention to orders, is vastly dif- 
 ferent, from that true expression which is the 
 offspring of sympathetic genius, which will 
 ever remain the real test of the taste, culture, 
 and ability of an artist. 
 
 Expression-stop. In a harmonium the 
 expression stop when drawn, closes the waste- 
 valve of the bellows. Any alteration of the 
 pressure of the feet on the wind-pedals, causes 
 therefore a corresponding alteration of the 
 
 power of the tone produced. Hence, by a 
 proper sympathy between the pressure of the 
 foot, and the force of sound required, the 
 most delicate contrasts of light and shade 
 can be obtained. 
 
 Extempore. Musical improvisation. The 
 art, or rather gift, of creating melody and har- 
 mony without premeditation. The ancient 
 Greeks were said to have possessed the talent 
 of poetical improvisation ; and the gift is 
 found in many races in which the imagination 
 is free and vivid, such as the Arabs, and some 
 tribes of Negroes. Among the former, the 
 extempore effusions relating to small customs 
 and superstitions such as those contained in 
 the Sonnah, among the latter, hymns, rehgious 
 poems and songs (generally with some rude 
 kind of vocal and instrumental accompani- 
 ment), form the themes improvised upon. 
 Some of their songs, originally extempore, 
 afterwards remembered and made traditional, 
 are not without a savage kind of beauty, but 
 like most productions of the class to which 
 they belong, do not appear to produce the 
 effect upon paper it is known they do when 
 sung by an excited body of singers. 
 
 In Europe the Italians, above all other 
 nations, cultivate the gift of reciting extem- 
 pore verses, which are not always mere simple 
 effusions of a few stanzas, but are sometimes 
 marked by extraordinary talent, and are ex- 
 tended to the length of an epic poem. Even 
 tragedies and comedies have been made on 
 the spur of the moment. It is said that the 
 people of Tuscany and of the Venetian terri- 
 tories possess the gift in the strongest degree, 
 and that females as well as males have exhi- 
 bited powers of this sort. 
 
 Petrarch is said to have introduced the cus- 
 tom of singing extempore verses to the lute, 
 and many names of eminent improvvisatori 
 are preserved, one of the greatest being 
 Metastasio, who, however, gave up the art at 
 an early period of his long career. Among 
 musicians, the gift of performing extempore 
 upon an instrument is more remarkable than 
 the power of making verses ; for it not only 
 requires a special aptitude, but also demands 
 an extensive knowledge of art at ready com- 
 mand. John Stanley, the blind organist, con- 
 temporary with Handel, was an extraordinary 
 impromptu player, capable of clothing any 
 suddenly suggested theme with every resource 
 of art. The stories told of J. S. Bach, in this 
 respect, would be incredible, if his works did 
 not show how great and free was his command 
 over the technicalities of composition. The 
 list of eminent musicians who have excelled 
 as extempore performers might be swelled to 
 a large extent, if it were necessary, but it will 
 be sufficient for the present purpose to name 
 only one or two, who may be said to repre- 
 
 ( 161 ) 
 
EXTEMPORIZE EXTREME SIXTH. 
 
 sent the historical sequence of the existence 
 of the faculty of performing at a moment's 
 notice a subject arranged according to any 
 form that might for the time be selected. 
 Mozart possessed the power in no mean 
 degree, for there are records of the fact of his 
 having performed a concerto with only blank 
 sheets of paper before him, he having been 
 either too idle or too buSy to write out more 
 than the accompanying parts. Clementi, 
 Moscheles, and Cramer, were famed for this 
 gift, in their day, and the elder Samuel 
 Wesley also was noted for his skill. Secular 
 or trifling melodies have frequently been 
 made themes for improvisation of an amusing 
 or grotesque character. 
 
 One of the greatest pleasures Mendelssohn 
 gave to his friends was that of listening to his 
 extempore playing, and many living musicians 
 of eminence have also displayed their powers 
 as well in public as in private. 
 
 It is a singular fact that many performers 
 highly gifted as extempore players, have 
 failed, where it might appear at first sight 
 they were eminently qualified to shine ; a 
 good extempore player often proving an in- 
 different, if not wholly bad accompanist or 
 composer, and the reverse. The union of the 
 different qualities in one and the same indi- 
 vidual is rare. 
 
 Extemporize. To play extempore. 
 
 Extended compass. A range beyond 
 the ordinary limit of a voice or instrument. 
 A pianoforte was formerly said to be of ex- 
 tended compass, when a few notes more 
 than the old five octaves were employed ; 
 now, a pianoforte is not considered of ex- 
 tended compass if it has less than seven 
 octaves. 
 
 Extended harmony. [Dispersed har- 
 mony.] 
 
 Extraneous modulation. A modulation 
 to an extreme or unrelated key. [Modula- 
 tion.] 
 
 Extreme, (i) OntsiAe; a.s, extreme parts, 
 the highest and lowest parts in part-music. 
 (2) Expanded to its furthest limit ; as, extreme 
 intervals, intervals greater than major or 
 normal; e.g., C to G# an extreme fifth. Such 
 intervals are called also augmented, super- 
 fluous, or sharp. (3) Not closely related ; a 
 modulation into an extreme key is one into 
 any key, other than, its own relative minor, 
 its dominant, and sub-dominant, and their 
 relative minors. (4) An old term for 
 any key having more than three sharps or 
 flats. 
 
 Extreme sixth, chord of the. A chord 
 of modern growth, so called because the in- 
 terval of an extreme or augmented sixth is 
 contained in it, either directly or by inversion. 
 It exists in three principal forms : 
 
 It will be noticed that this chord occurs on the 
 sixth degree of the minor scale, but like many 
 other chords originally formed of notes in the 
 minor scale, it is as frequently resolved into the 
 major key of the tonic, as into the minor ; e.g. : 
 
 Ex.4. 
 
 Ex.5. 
 
 The dominant chord G, Bt], D, which is 
 common to both C major and C minor, forms 
 the connection between the resolutions given 
 in Ex. I, 2, 3, and those in Ex. 4, 5, and 6. 
 
 Various explanations of the origin of this 
 chord have been suggested. Some consider 
 it merely a chord of | on the sixth of the 
 minor scale, or the first inversion of the 
 subdominant common chord with the sixth 
 chromatically raised (Ex. i). Others look 
 upon it as a chord of % on the sixth of the 
 major scale, or the first inversion of the sub- 
 dominant, common chord, with the bass-note 
 flattened (Ex. 4). These two opinions obtain 
 favour in proportion to the supposed major or 
 minor tonality of the chord. 
 
 Some authors find a much more complicated 
 solution, namely, that it contains the minor 
 ninth of the dominant, combined with the 
 major third, seventh, and other notes of the 
 fifth above the dominant. Hence it is called 
 
 a double-root-chord, and q would be given 
 
 as its derivative in all the above examples. 
 
 This chord, as constructed in Ex. 1 and 4, 
 is sometimes known as the Italian Sixth ; as 
 constructed in Ex. 2 and 5 as the French 
 Sixth ; as constructed in Ex. 3 and 6 as the 
 German Sixth. 
 
 The component notes of these are often 
 converted and form difi'erent inversions or 
 positions, e.g. 
 
 Chords of this kind are occasionally met 
 with in the works of Bach and Handel, but 
 are not of frequent occurrence at that date. 
 Among modern authors, Spohr makes most 
 use of them, and they farm an important m- 
 gredientof his flowing chromatic progressions. 
 
 ( 162) 
 
-FAGOTTO. 
 
 F. (i) The note called parhypate in the 
 Greater Perfect system of the Greeks. The 
 letter-name of Trite in the upper tetrachord. 
 
 (2) The first note of the Eolian mode, or 
 church scale, commencing four notes above 
 the hypo-Eolian. [Greek music] 
 
 (3) The note called "Fa ut" in the hexa- 
 chord system. [Notation.] 
 
 (4) The key-note of the major scale requir- 
 ing one flat in the signature ; and the key- 
 note of the minor scale related to A flat. 
 
 Fa. The syllable used in solmisation for 
 F. [Aretinian Syllables.] 
 
 Fa bemol (Fr.) F flat. 
 
 Fablier {Provencal.) [Trouveur.] 
 
 Faburden, Falso-bordone {It.) Faux- 
 bourdon [Fr.) One of the early systems of 
 harmonising a given portion of plain-song, 
 or a canto fermo. As the word implies, to 
 faburden signified originally to hold a drone 
 [bordonizare). It was aftenvards used as a 
 term for a sort of harmony consisting of 
 thirds and sixths added to a canto fermo. It 
 will be remembered that the organum was 
 similar in construction, being only note against 
 note, but consisted of fourths, fifths, and 
 octaves. [See Descant.] But when counter- 
 point had superseded both diaphbny and 
 descant, the term faburden still was retained, 
 and applied to certain species of counter- 
 point, sometimes (but not always) note 
 against note. 
 
 The following examples of Falso-bordone, 
 by Bernabei (middle of 17th century), (from 
 Proske's Musica Divina) are specially interest- 
 ing as showing that composers, even at 
 that time, ventured to alter church song 
 when it suited their convenience. The intro- 
 duction of the F# in the tenor at the close of 
 Ex. I, to secure a good cadence, disturbs 
 the mode of the second tone ; and in Ex. 2, 
 the introduction of Gjj; is equally fatal to the 
 tonality of the fourth tone. 
 
 Ex. I. 
 
 in consilio justorum, et congrega - ti 
 
 Falsobordone. /s^ 
 #ft '■ 1 r 1 • 1 iMI 
 
 -^^ ;d-J-<g-gH- 
 
 Mag-na o- per - a Do-mi - ni, Ex-qui -si - ta in om-nes 
 
 't^'> '' r-r ^-f^Tm 
 
 
 
 T r r r ^ 
 
 Ex. z. 
 
 m 
 
 g O ^^ -g It Cl l O f J g 
 
 - tt s it - 
 
 Do - mi - num : 
 
 Sit no -men Do - mi - ni be - ne -die 
 
 turn, 
 
 Ex hoc nunc et us - que in sje -cu-lum,ins8e - cu lum. 
 
 -g JJ 
 
 Faces d'un accord {Fr.) The positions 
 or inversions of a chord. 
 
 Fach (Ger.) A rank of pipes, as in an 
 organ. 
 
 Facile (Fr.) Easy. 
 
 Facilement (Fr.), Facilmente {It.) 
 Easily, with ease. 
 
 Facilita {It.), Facility {Fr.) Facility, 
 readiness of execution. 
 
 Facilit6 {Fr.) Made easy. An easy 
 arrangement of a difficult passage. 
 
 Facture {Fr.), Fattura {It.) (i) The 
 construction of a piece of music. (2) The 
 measurement, dimension, or scale of organ 
 pipes. 
 
 Fa didse {Fr.) F sharp. 
 
 Fagottista (It.) A bassoon player. 
 
 Fagotto {It.) [Bassoon.] 
 
 ( 163) 
 
FAGOTTONE FARANDOLA. 
 
 Fagottone (It.) A large bassoon [Double 
 bassoon.] 
 
 Fall {Old Eng.) A cadence. 
 
 Fal las. Short songs with the syllables 
 fal la at the end of each line or strain. Morley 
 (c. 1580), who composed some, speaks of them 
 as being a kind of ballet. The fal las of 
 Hilton (c. 1600) are held in highest estimation 
 for the freedom of their construction and the 
 beauty of their melodies. Gastoldi is the 
 reputed inventor of fal las. 
 
 Falsa musica (Lat.), called also musica 
 ficta. False or feigned music was that in 
 which notes were altered by the use of 
 accidentals. " Falsa musica est quando de 
 tone facimus semitonium et e converso " 
 (Johannes de Garland). 
 
 False cadence. [Cadence.] 
 
 False fifth. A fifth when not perfect. 
 
 False intonation, (i) The production 
 of an unnatural or improper quality of tone. 
 (2) Singing or playing out of tune. 
 
 False relation. The separation of a 
 chromatic semitone between two parts. 
 
 False, string. A badly woven string, 
 which produces an uncertain and untrue tone. 
 
 Falsetto {It.) The artificial or supplement- 
 ing tones of the voice, higher than the chest 
 or natural voice. Falsetto is present in every 
 voice with more or less power or quality. 
 The similarity of the character of the natural 
 and artificial voice in boys or females renders 
 the two tones less distinct ; but the chest 
 voice and head voice in the man being of 
 two qualities, the falsetto has a special char- 
 acter. The control of the falsetto requires 
 great skill. The voce d'evirato is not falsetto, 
 although high in pitch. [Larynx.] 
 
 Falso-bordone {It.) [Faburden.] 
 
 Fancies, (i) An old name for composii- 
 tions in an impromptu style ; a fantasy. 
 (2) Short pieces of music without words. 
 
 " And sing those tunes to the over-scutched hus- 
 wives that he heard the carmen whistle, and sware — 
 they were his fancies, or his good-nights." — (Shak- 
 SPEARE.) 
 
 Fandango {Sp.) A lively Spanish dance 
 in triple time, derived from the Moors. It is 
 a mild form of the Chica, q.v. It is danced 
 by two persons, male and female, and accom- 
 panied by the sounds of a guitar. The dancers 
 have castanets, which they beat in time to 
 the measure, though sometimes the male 
 dancer beats a tambourine. 
 
 m 
 
 ^^ 
 
 J «- 
 
 -m- m 
 
 rt 
 
 Fanfare {Fr.) A flourish of trumpets, a 
 call. 
 
 Fantaisie {Fr.) [Fantasia.] 
 
 Fantasia (it.) Fantasie {Ger.) A compo- 
 sition in a style in which form is subservient 
 to fancy. [Form.] 
 
 Fantasiren {Ger.) To play as fancy di- 
 rects ; to improvise. 
 
 Fantasticamente {It.) Fantastico {It.) 
 Fantastique {Fr.) Fantastically, in a gro- 
 tesque manner. 
 
 Farandola {It.) Farandoule {Fr.) A 
 dance popular among the peasants of the 
 South of France and the neighbouring part 
 of Italy. It is performed by men and women 
 taking hands, and forming a long line, and 
 winding in and out with a waving motion. 
 The manner of taking hands is peculiar. 
 The men and women are placed alternately, 
 each man's right hand is held by a woman's 
 right hand, and his left by the left hand of 
 another woman, so that along the line, when 
 seen from the front of the row, there is a 
 woman's face and a man's back, and the 
 reverse. The dance is sometimes made the 
 means of fanning popular excitement. A 
 recent traveller, describing his experience of it, 
 says : — " As the night wore on all the roughs 
 in the town turned out, and began dancing 
 the farandole — a kind of exciting dance pe- 
 culiar to the south : men and women, hand 
 in hand, form a long chain, and to a very 
 quick step turn and twist along the various 
 thoroughfares. This dance has the same 
 effect on the fiery Southerners that the scalp 
 dance has on the Red Indians, and makes 
 them quite wild. It was after they had thus 
 worked themselves up to a proper state of 
 
 ( 164) 
 
FARSA IN MUSICA FIGURED BASS. 
 
 excitement that the mob of Avignon massacred 
 Marshal Brune in 1815." 
 
 The figures of the Farandola by the 
 name of the " Spanish dance," were well 
 known in English ball-rooms thirty years 
 since. 
 
 Farsa in musica {It.) A musical burletta 
 or farce. 
 
 Fascia {It.) (i) A bind or tie. (2) The 
 sides of a fiddle. 
 
 Fastoso, fastosamente {It.) Proudly, 
 haughtily. 
 
 Fattura {It.) [Facture.] 
 
 Fausse corde {Fr.) [False string.] 
 
 Fausset {Fr.) [Falsetto.] 
 
 F clef. [Clef.] 
 
 F dur. {Ger.) The key of F major. 
 
 Federclavier {Ger.) Spinet. 
 
 Feier {Ger.) A festival. Feierlich, in a 
 festival style, grandly. 
 
 Feld {Ger.) (i) The disposition of pipes 
 in an organ. (2) Feldflote, a rustic flute or 
 pipe. (3) Feldmusik, military music. (4.) 
 Feldton, the key of E flat, in which military 
 instruments are often set. 
 
 Ferial. Non-festal ;■ as, ferial use, music 
 for use on ordinary days. 
 
 Fermamente, fermato {It.) Firmly, with 
 decision. 
 
 Fermata {It.) A pause (from ferniare, to 
 stay, or stop). 
 
 Fermo (it.) Firm, fast ; as, canto fermo, 
 the subject or part held firmly, while descant 
 or counterpoint moved about it. 
 
 Feroce, con ferocita {It.) Wildly, 
 fiercely. 
 
 Fertig (Ger.) Quick, dexterous. 
 
 Fervente, ferventemente {It.) Fer- 
 vently, vehemently. 
 
 Fes {Ger) The note F flat. 
 
 Fest {Ger.) A festival ; as, Festgesang, 
 a festival cantata. 
 
 Fest {Ger.) Firm; as, fester Gesang, ca.nto 
 fermo. [Fermo.] 
 
 Festivamente {It.) Solemnly, pleasantly. 
 
 Festivita, con {It.} With joyfulness. 
 
 Festivo {It.) Festive, solemn. 
 
 Festoso {It.) Joyous, gay. 
 
 FF. fr., abb. of fortissimo. Very loud. 
 
 Fiacco {It.) Weak, weary, faint. 
 
 F holes. The openings in the upper plate 
 of a violin or other instrument having a re- 
 sonance-body, so called from their common 
 shape /. 
 
 Fiasco {It.) lit. a flask or bottle. A term 
 applied to a failure in singing, playing, or 
 representation. The fistula pastoricia was 
 blown by the Romans to signify their dis- 
 satisfaction, and it is possible that the present 
 use of the term arose from the similarity 
 between the shape of a flageolet {flaschinett)- 
 and a flask. The Italians now blow some- 
 
 times into the pipe of a key, whence the 
 expression colla chiave. 
 
 Fiato {It.) (i) Wind ; as, stromenti di 
 fiato, wind instruments. (2) Breath, in sing- 
 ing ; as in the French une longue haleine, a 
 long breath, a long note or passage performed 
 with one respiration. 
 
 Ficta musica {Lat.) [Falsa.J 
 
 Fiddle. [VioHn.] 
 
 Fidicen (Lai.) {Fio-m fides BXid cano.) A 
 lute or harp player. 
 
 Fiedel {Ger.) Fiddle. 
 
 Fier {Fr.) Fiero {It.) Proud, fierce. 
 
 Fieramente, fiero (it.) Proudly, fiercely, 
 boldly. 
 
 Fife. Fifre {Fr.), Qiierpfeife {Ger.), Pif- 
 fera {It.) An ancient musical instrument, 
 the name being cognate with pipe. The com- 
 pass is two octaves from D : 
 
 $ 
 
 A combination of fifes and drums is the only 
 music officially allowed in the British army 
 and navy. Although of ancient use in Eng- 
 land for military purposes, it was discontinued 
 in the reign of James I., and was not restored 
 until the siege of Maestricht in 1747. The 
 fife in the orchestra is called flauto piccolo. 
 
 Fife. An organ stop. A piccolo, generally 
 of two feet in length. 
 
 Fifre. [Fife.] 
 
 Fifteenth. The interval of a double 
 octave. Bis-diapason. 
 
 Fifteenth. An organ stop of two feet in 
 length on the manuals and four feet on the 
 pedals, consisting of open metal pipes. 
 
 Fifth. A diatonic interval of five notes. 
 Its ratio is 2 : 3, the diapente of the ancients. 
 
 Figura {Lat.) A note. Figura simplex, 
 a note standing by itself. Figura ligata, a 
 ligature, or a series of notes with contiguous 
 sides. 
 
 Figure. A form of melody or accompani- 
 ment maintained throughout the phrase in 
 which it is suggested. In a melody, figure 
 is called sequence. In harmony a figure 
 relates to the rhythmical observance of a 
 certain form in all the accompanying chords 
 to the melody. (2) A musical phrase. (3) 
 A florid melody. 
 
 Figurato {It.) Figure {Fr.) Figured. 
 
 Figured Bass. A bass having the accom- 
 panying chords suggested by certain numbers 
 above or below the notes. It is at present 
 the most satisfactory system of musical short- 
 hand. The whole of the notes are not always 
 indicated by a corresponding number of 
 figures, because one number generally implies 
 two or more to complete the chord. When 
 there is no figure, it is understood that the 
 common chord of such a note is to be used as 
 
 ( 165 ) 
 
FILAR LA VOCE FINGERING. 
 
 its harmony. The following table will show 
 the manner in which figures are used : 
 
 The figure 2 implies a 4th and 6th. 
 „ ,, 3 ,, 5th perfect, or dimi- 
 
 nished, according to the position of the 
 note in the key. 
 The figure 4 implies a 5th, or 5th and 8th. 
 „ „ 5 „ 3rd and 8th. 
 „ „ 6 „ 3rd. 
 
 „ 7 „ 5th and 3rd. 
 
 ,, „ 8 „ 3rd and 5th. 
 
 „ 9 „ 3rd and 5th. 
 
 A stroke through a figure directs the raising 
 of the interval by a natural or sharp, as the 
 case may be. 
 
 An accidental standing alone implies a cor- 
 responding alteration of the 3rd of the chord. 
 Horizontal lines direct the continuance of the 
 harmony of the previous chord. If there are 
 no figures under the previous chord, the line 
 or lines direct the continuance of the common 
 chord of the first note under which they were 
 placed. 
 
 Filar la voce (7^), Filer le son (Fr.) To 
 prolong a sound, swelling and diminishing 
 the tone by degrees. 
 
 Fin {Fr.) The end. 
 
 Finale (It.) The last movement of a con- 
 certed piece, sonata, or symphony; the last 
 piece of an act of an opera ; the last piece in 
 a programme. 
 
 Fine (It.) The end ; used to show the end 
 of a piece or movement, after a repeat, or 
 partial repeat. 
 
 Finger-board. Fingerbrett (Ger.) (i) 
 The flat or slightly rounded piece of wood 
 attached to the neck of instruments of the 
 violin and guitar class, on to which the strings 
 are pressed when stopped by the fingers. (2) 
 A manual or clavier. 
 
 Finger cymbals. [Cymbals.] 
 
 Fingering. Applicatura {It.), Application 
 {Fr.),Doigter{Fr.), Applicatur [Ger.), Finger - 
 setzung {Ger.) The art of placing and using 
 the fingers properly in performing upon a 
 musical instrument. 
 
 (i) When instruments were for the first time 
 constructed so that the leverage of their keys 
 was light and admitted of rapid and ready 
 motion, musicians soon formed rules for the 
 employment of the fingers in such a manner 
 as to give the greatest facility to the player. 
 These rules were properly improved and ex- 
 tended by each master who taught the use of 
 a keyed instrument, and there is reason to 
 suppose that they were kept more or less 
 secret by each teacher, long before it was 
 deemed expedient to set forth the methods in 
 a general publication. 
 
 Comparing the earliest published methods 
 of fingering with the musical compositions 
 
 belonging to the same period, it is difficult 
 to conceive that a clear, distinct, and rapid 
 performance could ever be attained by those 
 methods, for they are of a cramped, stiff and 
 awkward character, while the compositions 
 are of an opposite nature, considering the 
 state of the art at the tinie. 
 
 Such a thing as acquiring a knowledge of 
 a keyed instrument without a master was out 
 of the question, and it is not at all unlikely 
 that this was contemplated by the authors or 
 compilers of the books of instruction. 
 
 One of the earliest printed books in which 
 rules for fingering are laid down was Euse- 
 bius Ammerbach's " Orgel oder Instrument- 
 Tablatur," Leipsic 1571, where in the fourth 
 chapter a scale is fingered in the following 
 manner : — 
 
 Rechte Hand (Right Hand). 
 
 I2I2I2I3'" I232I 
 
 Linke Hand (Left Hand). 
 
 32103210 
 
 3 2 I 2 I 
 
 o Stands for the thumb, i for the forefinger, 
 2 for the middle finger, and so on. 
 
 The thumb of the right hand was never 
 used in scale passages, that of the left hand 
 only occasionally, the little fingers were only 
 used with the thumbs in spanning chords. 
 
 The rules for fingering in striking or play- 
 ing chords are thus stated : 3rds in either 
 hand were to be struck with the first and third 
 fingers ; 4ths, 5ths, and 6ths with the first 
 and fourth ; 7ths, octaves, gths and loths 
 with the thumb and third finger, and only 
 occasionally with the little finger and thumb. 
 
 Before saying anything further of other 
 works on the subject, it may be as well to 
 refer to a private MS. book of lessons pre- 
 served in the British Museum, and quoted by 
 Stafford Smith in his Musica Antiqua, in 
 which the master has marked the fingering of 
 a passage in a very different manner to that 
 laid down by the German author. It is true 
 that there is a difference of nearly thirty years 
 in the dates between Ammerbach's book and 
 this, but as treatises published later preserve 
 and teach the like awkward system of finger- 
 ing, a curious confirmation of the conjecture 
 that there was a considerable difference be- 
 tween the theory and the practice cannot fail 
 to strike the thoughtful reader. The MS. 
 referred to bears the date 1599, and the first 
 lesson with the fingering (i being thumb, 2 
 forefinger, &c.) is as follows : — 
 
 Right Hand. 
 
 ( 166) 
 
FINGERING. 
 
 Now in this fingering all the fingers are 
 brought into play, and though it is somewhat 
 clumsy according to modern views, it is less 
 unhandy than that of Ammerbach, and as we 
 have no ground for assuming that the English 
 teachers had better principles to guide them 
 than their German, neighbours, and as it is 
 known moreover, by tradition, that the most 
 skilfiil players only imparted the secret of 
 their power to favoured pupils, not only at 
 that time but in later years, the assumption 
 is not made without reasonable support. 
 
 A modern player would find it a very diffi- 
 cult task to perform the following extract from 
 a " Gagliardo by Orlando Gibbons," printed 
 in " Parthenia," 1611, if he confined himself 
 to the use of three of his fingers in either 
 hand : 
 
 fingered ; the thumb being indicated by the 
 circle : 
 
 or to execute with ease any such a piece as 
 that by Frescobaldi quoted in the article 
 Canzona, belonging to about this period. 
 And yet not only was the peculiarity of 
 fingering as set forth by Ammerbach taught 
 at that time, but was also continued to a later 
 date. 
 
 There is a lapse of more than 100 years 
 before the next important book made its 
 appearance, " Das Musikalische Kleeblatt" of 
 Daniel Speer, 1697, in which the improve- 
 ments suggested are few, the chief of which 
 was the more frequent use of the thumb of 
 the left hand, as will be seen in the following 
 scale fingered according to his directions : 
 
 That there were differences of opinion on 
 the subject with regard to fingering in the 
 published books of about the same period, 
 is shown by the subjoined quotation from 
 " Kurtzer jedoch grtindlicher Wegweiser, 
 vermittelst welches man aus dem Grund die 
 Kunst die Orgel recht zu Schlagen," Augs- 
 burg i6g8, in which the scale of C is thus 
 
 R.H. 1232323 
 
 2323332 
 
 fe: ,,^c,^"- 
 
 ^_, rj ■== 
 
 L.H. 2103210 loioioi 
 32121212 I 212121 
 
 iL "^"^r.^^, e= " '--^^^.. 
 
 The well-known book, published by Walsh, 
 under the title of " The Harpsichord Master, 
 containing Plain and Easy Instructions for 
 Learners on the Harpsichord or Spinnet," 
 1734, which, passing through many editions, 
 may be fairly considered as correctly repre- 
 senting the method of that period, gives the 
 following directions for fingering : — " Observe 
 in y= fingering of y'' right hand, y' thumb is 
 y* I St, so on to y= 5th, and y' left hand 
 y"' little finger is y= ist, and so on, y^ fingers 
 to ascend are y= 3rd and 4th to descend y' 3rd 
 and 2nd." 
 
 12343434 343434 5 5.4323232 3232321 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 iTjrp^^- 1 
 
 1 h 1*. ^ 1 
 
 Rl — rt j3^ ^ 
 
 ^ u ri* 
 
 ■'JJjJI I-: 
 
 12343434 
 
 ^- — 3m-& 
 
 3 43434 5 
 
 54323232 
 
 1 '1JJ.<- 
 
 3232321 
 
 '^j^j>^' 
 
 xr^ ^ — 
 
 ^U^r^ 
 
 '■Qj^i 
 
 Mattheson (" Kleine Generalbasschule," 
 173s) and Maier (" Musiksaal," 1741) agree in 
 their fingering, their method being as follows, 
 little or no advance or alteration having been 
 devised in the meanwhile in other publica- 
 tions. 
 
 R.H. 2 
 
 ^. 
 
 3 2 
 
 3 
 
 232 
 
 ^j g* j 
 
 3 2 
 
 3 z 3 z 3 4 
 
 ii £^ 
 
 L.H. 2 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 010 
 
 ^ 
 
 g ^-^ ^ '""' 
 
 I I I 
 
 3 
 
 ^^ 
 
 2 I 
 
 2 
 
 33= 
 
 12 1 
 
 2 I 
 
 2 I 2 Z 
 
 -1- ° r./ ^ ^ 
 
 It is stated that J. S. Bach disregarded the 
 ordinary principles taught in instruction 
 books, and employed both thumb and little 
 finger as frequently as the other fingers, 
 whereby a greater power was gained, and the 
 performer was able to move rapidly in extreme 
 keys. Some writers claim the suggestion for 
 the free use of all the fingers, for Fran9ois 
 Couperin, who, in his work, " L'art de toucher 
 le Clavecin," 1716, describes the method of 
 fingering practised and taught by Bach, and 
 consequently they say that the German is 
 indebted to the Frenchman for his ideas on 
 the subject. But Couperin's fingering is 
 somewhat different from that of Bach, the only 
 similarity in their methods being the constant 
 employment of the thumb. 
 
 ( 167 ) 
 
FINGERING. 
 
 Couperin, in the work alluded to above, 
 calls the fingers of either hand i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
 commencing with the thumb : 
 
 Main droite. 
 
 Main gauche. 
 
 fe=3=J=^= 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 543 
 
 And in order to make his fingering acceptable, 
 gives instances of the old style of playing con- 
 trasted with his own improvements. In some 
 cases his suggestions are good, in others 
 there is little if any help out of long-standing 
 awkwardness, as the following fingered scale 
 will show : 
 
 Progrfis d'octaves. 
 
 1234343 45432323 
 
 His next improved example is better, and 
 more in accordance with modern methods : 
 
 " Mani^re ancienne de faire plusieurs tierces de suite." 
 
 222222 222222 
 
 " Facon moderne pour couler les mSmes tierces.'' 
 2^^323 232323 
 
 434545 454543 3 3 433 2 
 
 Bach never published his method, but it 
 was made known through Forkel, who ac- 
 quired it from Emanuel Bach. The peculiar 
 methods of fingering shown in the quotations 
 from the German books seem to have been 
 confined to the country in which they were 
 first given forth, the style adopted in England 
 and France appearing to be borrowed from 
 Italy. Many of the harpsichord instruction 
 books printed in England in the early part of 
 the last century profess to be based upon the 
 " Italian method of fingering," which per- 
 mitted the constant employment of all the 
 fingers. 
 
 The invention of the pianoforte called a 
 new set of instruction book writers into ex- 
 istence, but it required the genius of Cramer, 
 dementi, and Dussek to liberate learners 
 from the trammels of the harpsichord finger- 
 ing, dementi's " Introduction to the Art of 
 Playing on the Pianoforte " was written soon 
 after his return to England, in 1784, and 
 went through many editions. In 1810 he 
 greatly improved the work, and added an 
 appendix to it. Cramer made but few, if 
 any, advances on the method of fingering 
 suggested by Clementi in his " Introduction," 
 
 but Dussek, in his " Book of Instructions," 
 published about 1798, when he began business 
 as a music publisher, laid down a code of 
 rules which have served as the basis of 
 teaching fingering from his time onward. 
 
 He recommends the pupil not to play his 
 scales after the old method of fingering, by 
 suffering the fingers to cross each other 
 unnaturally, as in this example, right hand : 
 
 thereby implying that the old clumsy methods 
 were still taught ; but " to set it down as an 
 invariable rule, and without any exception, 
 that whether ascending or descending, the 
 assistance, or rather, the displacing the 
 thumb only is sufficient to effect the necessary 
 change of position in the other fingers, the 
 thumb being naturally formed to glide easily 
 under them, without displacing the proper 
 position of the hand." 
 
 + 1 2 +123 + 
 
 Right Hand, 
 
 2+123 432 1+21+3 
 
 +3 21+21 3+2 1+21 
 Left Hand. 
 
 +12+X23+12+1234 
 
 The free use of all the fingers is now common, 
 and the old rules with regard to the sparing 
 of the thumb so little observed, that there is 
 a tendency to go the opposite extreme in 
 employing it more often than is absolutely 
 necessary. Space cannot here be allowed, or 
 the whole of Dussek's rules for fingering 
 might be reprinted with advantage as a set-off 
 against modern extravagance, but those who 
 have leisure and incHnation might study them 
 with profit, for no better code of rules for 
 pianoforte playing have as yet been given to 
 the world. 
 
 (2) In violin playing the fingers serve as 
 stops shortening the length of the vibrating 
 portion of the several strings as they are re- 
 quired, a like practice being followed in the 
 performance upon such fingerboard instru- 
 ments as the lute, mandoline, or guitar, as 
 are plucked with the right hand. Upon the 
 guitar the places of the several degrees are 
 marked on the fingerboard by frets, which, 
 when the string is pressed — always a little 
 behind the one required — serve as a temporary 
 nut. 
 
 (3) This is not the place to enter deeply into 
 the anatomy of the hand, which can be found 
 in any text-book on anatomy, and more espe- 
 cially in the elaborate Treatise of Sir Charles 
 Bell. The bones of the hand are joined to- 
 gether by various sorts of joints, some of 
 them fixed, some moveable. The joint by 
 which the thumb joins the bone on which it 
 plays is a remarkable one, admitting of a 
 
 ( 168) 
 
FINGERING. 
 
 most complex series of movements, and since 
 the brain of man is indebted to the hand of 
 man as much as the hand to the brain, each 
 rendering higher development in the other 
 possible, and thus helping to constitute a 
 couple of mutually perfecting factors — by far 
 the greater part of this potentiality on the 
 side of the hand is owing to this articulation 
 of the thumb. The thumb of man is pre- 
 eminent in the animal series. 
 
 From a musical point of view another 
 subject is of interest. If we straighten our 
 fingers we shall see that no two of them are of 
 the same length. Now let us bend the fingers 
 on themselves, so as to bring the finger-tips 
 into the middle of the palm, and we shall find 
 that the finger-tips form an almost straight 
 line with one another. The convenience of 
 this to the musician is obvious, in playing 
 keyed instruments such as the pianoforte or 
 organ ; or any wind instrument like the oboe, 
 flute, or clarinet, we have a, series of evenly 
 arranged finger-tips read}' to the notes. This 
 is a point of what we may call accidental 
 convenience, for the hand of man was not 
 especially adapted for playing instruments. 
 The question now arises how this curious effect 
 is produced, and a few words will explain it. 
 If any one will take the trouble to measure as 
 accurately as he can the length of the first and 
 of the third joint of each finger (the " proximal 
 and distal phalanges") omitting the middle 
 joint, he will find that by subtracting the 
 length of the end (distal) joint which carries 
 the nail from the length of the nearest (proxi- 
 mal) joint which joins the " knuckle," he will 
 get a constant number, in other words, if the 
 proximal phalanx is long, and would carry the 
 finger-tip far beyond the middle of the palm, 
 the distal phalanx, is proportionately long and 
 in a bent position of the finger carries the 
 finger-tip proportionately far back towards 
 the palm, or in yet other terms, the number 
 of linear units obtained by subtracting the 
 length of the distal phalanx of each finger 
 from the length of the proximal phalanx of 
 the same finger is constant in all the fingers. 
 This is not absolutely correct, for the angles 
 at which the phalanges are bent are not 
 exactly right angles, so that the middle 
 phalanx cannot be quite neglected, but the 
 principle nevertheless we believe to be correct. 
 The muscles which move the fingers and 
 thumb are situated some in the forearm, some 
 in the hand. If any one grasps his forearm, 
 and moves the fingers, he will feel the muscles 
 moving under his grasp. The thumb has the 
 greatest number of muscles attached to it, and 
 therefore takes the precedence in importance ; 
 the first or index-finger has a special muscle 
 to extend or straighten it called the extensor 
 indicis or " indicator." This muscle was said 
 
 to be absent in all the apes, and there was an 
 old saying, " no ape can point," which was 
 quoted in favour of human superiority — this, 
 however, is not true (Journal of Anat. and 
 Phys., vol. vi. p. 185) ; we trust, notwith- 
 standing, that the pre-eminence of man in 
 the animal kingdom rests on somewhat more 
 important foundations, and need not be ceded, 
 however nmch apes may point. The little 
 finger has a special muscle to extend or 
 straighten it which the old anatomists called ^ 
 the " auricularis," because it is used to 
 straighten the little finger when the extrernity 
 of that member is inserted into the ear. Thus ' 
 did these ingenious men infuse an element of i 
 humour into the driest and apparently least 
 comic of all subjects. 
 
 Palm of'Hand. 
 
 Tendons of 
 Flexor Muscles 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 There are a set of muscles called " lumbri- 
 cales" (from "lumbricus," a worm, because 
 they are not unlike an earth-worm in size 
 and shape), which are of great importance to 
 musical performers, and in pianoforte players 
 become very largely developed. They are 
 attached to the flexor tendons (which bend the 
 fingers) as they pass along the palm. They 
 help to bend the fingers, but their individual 
 action is somewhat complicated, viz., to 
 bend. the finger at the knuckle-joint, but to 
 straighten the finger. 
 
 But there is one point in the anatomy of 
 the hand which is of great interest to musical 
 performers, especially to pianoforte and organ 
 players. If any one will place the tips of 
 his fingers on a table in a bent position, as if 
 playing the pianoforte, and then try to raise 
 them one at a time, he will find that he can 
 raise his thumb easily, say four or five inches, 
 the forefinger is also very moveable, and can 
 be raised so that the tip is about three inches 
 from the table, the middle finger about two- 
 thirds of that height, and the little finger 
 rather higher. Now let him try to raise the ring 
 finger, keeping the middle and little fingers 
 
 ( 169) 
 
FINGERLEITER FISTULA. 
 
 down, and he will find a peculiar difficulty in 
 doing so. If he is a pianoforte or organ- 
 player he will probably call to njind many 
 exercises which he has toiled at, all of them 
 easy enough but for that unlucky ring finger. 
 In fact, all good writers of exercises have the 
 education of the ring finger very prominently 
 in view. What is the cause of this ? It has 
 been asserted popularly that this finger has a 
 tendon too little, but this is just the opposite 
 of the fact. 
 
 Back of Hand 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 If we look at figure 2. we shall see the ex- 
 tensor tendons (the tendons which extend or 
 straighten the fingers) running to the fingers, 
 but, in addition, we shall see that the tendon 
 which goes to the ring-finger gives off a small 
 slip (*) on each side,-one of which joins the ex- 
 tensor tendon of the little finger, the other that 
 of the middle finger. Now we observed that 
 none of these three fingers is as moveable as 
 the forefinger. If we observe, also, the direc- 
 tion of these slips we shall see that they do not 
 run straight across from the ring finger to the 
 two on each side, but run at the same time a 
 little towards the fingers. Now if we see 
 what happens when we raise the middle 
 finger alone, we shall observe that the slip 
 will become tight at a certain point, but not 
 until it has passed through a considerable 
 space, the first action being to relax the 
 tendinous slip ; the same with the little finger. 
 But if we raise the ring finger alone, the slips 
 almost immediately become tight, and prevent 
 its being raised, and the exercises before 
 alluded to have for their purpose the stretch- 
 ing of the tendinous slips, especially in 
 youth, when growth and change are active in 
 the tissues. Now these slips must have some 
 purpose, though it is not at all certain that 
 we know it. It is probable that their pur- 
 pose is to make the grasp firmer, the three 
 fingers being so associated together that each 
 as it were assists the other, and it is hard 
 
 to detach one without the rest. They are 
 present in monkeys (see paper before alluded 
 to), and in them would be useful in climbing, 
 in which exercise, strength of grasp is of 
 course of great importance. The forefinger 
 is not included in this association, as its 
 value depends largely on its freedom of inde- 
 pendent movement, especially on its capability 
 of being opposed accurately to the thumb. 
 
 These slips have an historical interest. 
 Robert Schumann, painfully aware of their 
 presence, and acquainted with the cause of 
 the difficulty connected with the ring finger, 
 tied back that finger for a long time. Not 
 being successful in his operation, he irre- 
 coverably damaged his hand, and injured his 
 pianoforte playing most seriously, and in con- 
 sequence turned his attention to writing, to 
 which fact we are largely indebted for the 
 number of his masterly compositions. What 
 was a loss to him and to his contemporaries 
 has become a rich gain to posterity. A case 
 is recorded in which an accidental wound to 
 the back of the hand partially divided one of 
 these tendinous slips, and the ring-finger 
 gained a considerably increased degree of mo- 
 tion. The subject of the accident noticed 
 the change on playing the pianoforte after 
 the wound was healed. With regard to the 
 feasibility of this as a definite operation, 
 there is no doubt that if it could be done 
 safely it would be worth every pianist's while 
 to have these slips divided. 
 
 The experiment of Schumann, which led 
 to the above suggestion, has resulted in a 
 series of fourteen operations performed by Dr. 
 Forbes, and described by him in an interesting 
 article in the Boston Medical and Surgical 
 Journal, Dec. 25, 1884. He reports that all 
 were successful, and that no ill consequences 
 followed. The remaining doubt is the per- 
 manency of the results. Who can say when 
 this small operation may become the fashion ? 
 
 Fingerleiter. {Ger.) [Chiroplast.] 
 
 ?inrerlft:ung} (^-O ^Fingering.] 
 Finite canon. [Canon.] 
 Finite [It.) Finished, ended. 
 Finto (it.) A feint, a term applied to de- 
 ceptive cadences. [Cadence.] 
 Fiochetto {It.) Slightly hoarse. 
 Fioco (7^.) Hoarse. 
 
 FiCritr''*1(^*-) 0™amented, florid. 
 
 Fiorituri {It.) Ornaments, cadenzas, florid 
 passages in a melody or an accompaniment. 
 
 Fis {Ger.) F sharp. 
 
 Fisfis or Fisis {Ger.) F double sharp. 
 
 Fis dur {Ger.) F sharp major. 
 
 Fis moll {Ger.) F sharp minor. 
 
 Fistula {Lat.) A pipe. Fistula dulcis, a 
 flute a bee. Fistula, cut semper decrescit 
 
 ( 170 > 
 
FITHELE FLUTE. 
 
 arundinis ordo, pan-pipes. Fistula ebumiola, 
 the ivory pitch-pipe, from which an orator 
 took the pitch for his voice. Fistula pastoricia, 
 the shepherd's pipe, sometimes blown in 
 the theatre as a sign of dissatisfaction. 
 [Flute.] 
 
 Fithele {old Eng.) The ancient name of 
 the fiddle, probably derived from fidicula, a 
 small stringed instrument of the cithara 
 class. 
 
 Flageolet, (i) A small pipe with a 
 mouth-piece inserted in a bulb (hence the 
 derivation of the name from the same root 
 from which the word flagon comes), producing 
 a shrill sound, similar, but much softer in 
 quality than that produced from the flauto 
 piccolo. It is an instrument of English in- 
 vention, and was formerly employed in the 
 orchestra. The obbligato in the song, " O, 
 ruddier than the cherry," in Handel's "Acis 
 and Galatea," is for a flageolet. (2) The tone 
 produced from a violin by lightly press- 
 ing the bow near the bridge upon lightly 
 touched strings, is called flageolet or flute 
 tone. 
 
 Flageolettone {Ger.) [Flageolet tones.] 
 
 Flageolet tones: The natural harmonics 
 of stringed instruments, so called from their 
 pure flute-like quality of tone. 
 
 Flaschinett {Ger.) The flageolet. 
 
 Flat, (i) The sign b, which directs the 
 lowering of the note to which it is prefixed 
 by one semitone. Its shape is derived from 
 the ancient h. [B quadratum.] (2) Singing 
 or playing is said to be flat when the sounds 
 produced fail to reach the true pitch. (3) 
 Minor ; as-, a flat 3rd, a flat 5th, &c. 
 
 Flatter la corde {Fr.) To play expres- 
 sively upon a stringed instrument with a 
 bow. 
 
 Flat tuning. One of the varieties of 
 tuning on the lute ; called also French tuning, 
 or French flat tuning, because the French 
 pitch was formerly lower than that used else- 
 where. Hence the German term Franz-ton 
 for a low pitch. 
 
 Flautando, flautato {It.) Like a flute ; 
 a direction to produce the flageolet tones on 
 the violin, &c. [Flageolet tones.] 
 
 Flautino {It.) (i) An instrument of the 
 accordion kind. (2) A little flute, piccolo, or 
 flageolet. (3) [Flautando.] 
 
 Flauto {It.) [Flute.] 
 
 Flauto amabile (/<.), flMe d'amour (Fr.) 
 An organ stop, consisting of sweet-toned 
 closed, or sometimes open, pipes. It is 
 generally of 4 ft. pitch. 
 
 Flauto dolce {It.) [Flute.] 
 
 Flautone {It.) [Bass flute.] 
 
 Flauto piccolo {It.) [Piccolo flute.] 
 
 Flauto traverso {It.) The German flute 
 held laterally, flutes having been formerly 
 
 played with a mouth-piece, whence they were 
 called flutes h bee. [Flute.] 
 
 Flebile, Flebilmente {It.) In a doleful, 
 tearful manner. 
 
 Flessibilit^ {It.) [Flexibility.] 
 
 Flexibility. The power of free and 
 rapid execution, in vocal or instrumental 
 music. 
 
 Fling. A dance performed by Scottish 
 Highlanders to a tune in common time. 
 [Reel.] 
 
 F Locher {Ger.) [F holes.] 
 
 Florid counterpoint. A counterpoint 
 not confined to any special species, but in 
 which notes of various lengths are used. It 
 is opposed to strict counterpoint. [Counter- 
 point.] 
 
 Florid music. Music in which the melody 
 and accompanying parts are of an ornamental 
 and embellished style. 
 
 Flote {Ger.) [Flute.] 
 
 Flourish, (i) The execution of profuse 
 but unmeaning ornamentation in music. (2) 
 The old English name for a call, fanfare, or 
 prelude for trumpets or other instruments to- 
 gether or alone. (3) The preparatory cadenza 
 for " tuning the voice," in which singers 
 formerly indulged just before commencing 
 their song. 
 
 Fliichtig {Ger.) Light, rapid. 
 
 Fliigel {Ger.) A grand pianoforte or harp- 
 sichord, so called because of the wing-like 
 shape of the top. 
 
 Fliigel-horn {Ger.) A bugle. A valve- 
 horn. 
 
 Flute, (i) One of the most widely used 
 of ancient musical instruments, and at this 
 day one of the most important instruments 
 in an orchestra. It has been remarked in 
 speaking of the aulos, that the general idea 
 of a " flute," probably included anciently, not 
 only open tubes, but also instruments having 
 a reed, such for instance, as the oboe. But 
 the word has for many centuries been used 
 only in the former sense. 
 
 Of tubes without reeds there are only two 
 kinds — the flute played by a mouth-piece, 
 and that played by placing the lips close 
 against a hole on one side. The former kind 
 \ra.s formerly called flUte a bee; the latter, 
 fliite traversiere, or flauto traverso, the cross- 
 flute. Ths flageolet, which still is in use, is 
 a familiar example of a flUte a bee, but it is 
 the smallest of its kind, for these instruments 
 were at one time made sufficiently large to 
 be called "tenor" and "bass" flutes; and 
 complete four-part harmony could be obtained 
 from a set [Bass flute]. The larger kinds 
 only exist now as curiosities. Th&flMe a bee 
 was used so commonly in England that it 
 was called on the continent_/?i}i« d'Angleterre. 
 They came to be called 6eaA-flutes, because 
 
 ( 171 ) 
 
FLUTE. 
 
 of the similarity of the mouthpiece, through 
 which the wind is directed against a sharp 
 edge, to the beak of a bird. FMtes a bee were 
 single and double. Such double flutes were 
 familiar both to Egyptians and Assyrians, 
 and illustrations of them will be found on p. 
 40 (Aulos). The following illustration, from 
 Boissard's Roman Antiquities, is interesting 
 from its great likeness to the modern double- 
 flageolet : 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 The Romans gave various names to their 
 flutes : ealamus from the material (reed) of 
 which it was made ; tibia, because anciently 
 flutes were formed out of a leg-bone, as shown 
 in the following illustration : 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that flutes of this 
 barbarous construction are to this day used 
 in many parts of Asia. »The word fistula 
 seems to have been applied both to flageolets 
 and pan's-pipes. Flittes a hcc have at all 
 times been a favourite object for ornamenta- 
 tion, and the next illustration shows a very 
 beautiful example in carved ivory in the 
 Kensington Museum : 
 
 Fig. 3- 
 
 The ancients possessed cross-flutes, and it 
 is strange that their real value should have 
 been found out, and their use made general, 
 after so long a period of disuse, that on their 
 re-introduction they were called German flutes 
 as opposed to the old English beak-flute. 
 They were used' by the Egyptians, as the fol- 
 lowing illustration shows : 
 
 Fetis having obtained the exact measure- 
 ments of an ancient Egyptian flute preserved 
 in Florence, caused a flute to be made of the 
 like dimensions and shape. The following 
 figure shows it : 
 
 He found the lowest note it was capable of 
 producing, to be the A below middle C. But 
 if Egyptian artists are to be trusted, the 
 flute in Fig. 4 must have been of even graver 
 pitch. 
 
 Cross-flutes were known to the Greeks by 
 the name plagiaulos (TrXayiavXoe), and to the 
 Romans as tibia obliqua, both of these terms 
 leave no doubt as to their nature. By the 
 Romans the cross-flute was sometimes called 
 also tibia vasca, the meaning of which is 
 very doubtful. 
 
 It may be necessary to say, that although 
 the tibice represented flutes of all kinds, yet if 
 a real tibia or shinbone be made into a flute, 
 it is held crossways, and the player blows 
 into a hole in the side. 
 
 (2) The " German flute," so popular in 
 England during the last century, has entirely 
 superseded the old 'English, flute a bee in our 
 orchestra, and is now known as the flute. Its 
 construction has, from time to time, been 
 improved, until it has now a compass of three 
 octaves. 
 
 i 
 
 But as the lowest note is very soft, and three 
 or four of the highest notes are exceedingly 
 shrill, it is safer to consider it as possessing 
 a chromatic scale of about two octaves and a 
 half. Notwithstanding the vast improvements 
 in the key work of flutes (of which, by the 
 way, the ancients seem to have been entirely 
 ignorant), there are shakes on certain notes 
 which are almost impossible, and others which 
 are of excessive difficulty ; a list of the shakes 
 most difficult to execute will be found in 
 
 ( 172 ) 
 
FLUTE A BEC FOLIATED. 
 
 Prout's Instrumentation Primer, page 57, and 
 other standard works on orchestration. The 
 lovely effect of this instrument in an orchestra 
 must be so well known to all as to render it un- 
 necessary to quote special examples of its use. 
 
 (3) The piccolo-flute has the same extent 
 of compass as the ordinary flute, but is one 
 octave higher in pitch. When used in an 
 orchestra with moderation and skill, it is 
 capable of producing delightful effects ; but, 
 unfortunately, it is so commonly abused that 
 it has got an undeserved bad character. The 
 lower portion of its notes are bright and joy- 
 ous, but in the upper part of its compass it is 
 so shrill as to only justify its use when rare 
 and special effects are required. 
 
 (4) As all open organ pipes of the flue class 
 are made on the same principle as the jliite 
 a bee, it will be easily understood that flutes 
 are one of the most essential class of organ 
 stops. They are of two kinds — open and 
 stopped, and are equally common in metal 
 and wood. The construction of the stopped 
 flute, so far as the mouthpiece (foot) and lips 
 are concerned, is identical also with that of 
 the flute a bee, only, of course, its first har- 
 monic will be the twelfth, not the octave, of 
 the primary sound. When organ builders 
 describe some of their flute-stops as flauto 
 traverse, or flute douce (another name for 
 the cross-flute), it must be understood that 
 they have only imitated the quality of tone, 
 not the construction of that instrument. By 
 slight modifications of the shape of the dif- 
 ferent parts of a flute pipe, an almost endless 
 variety of tone may be produced, and organ 
 builders avail themselves of this fact to coin 
 an endless variety of names. If the names 
 so chosen carried with them a hint as to the 
 special construction of each register, it would 
 be unfair to complain of their multiplication ; 
 but, with a very few exceptions, this is not 
 the case. 
 
 The following are some of the titles ap- 
 pended to flute-stops on English and foreign 
 organs : 
 
 (i) Describing their material, as wood flute, 
 
 woud, and woude-fluit (in Holland) . Metal flute. 
 
 (2) Stating whether the pipes are open or 
 
 closed; as, open flute, flAte ouverte (Fr.); 
 
 stopped flute, Gedackt-flote (Ger.) 
 
 (3) Showing the pitch of the stop; as, bass 
 flute (16 ft. and 8 ft.) Flautone (16 ft.) 
 Flauto grave (16 ft.) Flute prineipal (8 ft.) 
 Flute fnajor (8 ft.) Unison flute (8 ft.) Flute 
 minor (4 ft.) Flute octaviente (4 ft.) Quint 
 flote (5j- ft.) Quintaton (sounding unison and 
 twelfth). Piccolo flute (2 ft.) Flautino (2 ft.) 
 Klein-flote (2 ft.) Terz-flote (i^ ft.) Flute 
 discant. Flute dessus (treble flute). 
 
 (4) Describing the shape of the pipes, as 
 Doppelflote (with two mouths). Pyramid 
 
 flute (having pipes larger at the top than at 
 the mouth). Flagfluit (Dutch). Flach-flote 
 (Ger.) (having flat lips). Spitz-flote (Ger.), 
 and Flute pointue (Fr.) (having pipes smaller 
 at the top than at the mouth). Rohr-flote 
 (Ger.), and FlMe a cheniinie (Fr.) (having a 
 chimney in the stopper). 
 
 (5) Intimating their quality of tone, as full 
 flute. Hohl-flote (Ger.), a.nd Fliite creuse (Fr.) 
 (hollow toned). Clear flute. Hell-flote (Ger). 
 Liehlich flote (Ger.) (lovely toned). Zart-flote 
 (Ger.) (delicately, voiced). Flute douce {Fr.), 
 Dulcet. Flauto dolee (It.) (sweet- toned). 
 Oboe-flute. Clarinet-flute (slightly reedy in 
 tone). Sifflote (1 ft.) (whistle-flute). 
 
 (6) After their supposed nationality, as 
 German flute, flauto tedesca, or allemande. 
 Flute a bee, or English flute. Suabe flute. 
 Schweizer-flote (Swiss flute, the German name 
 for what was called in England the German 
 flute). Flauto Francese. Flute Ravena. Cza- 
 kan flute. 
 
 (7) Implying that the quality of tone is 
 similar to the modern flute, more powerful 
 than the flute a bee, as orchestral QxAs, flauto 
 traverso (It.), fliite traversiere (Fr.), and 
 Travers-flote, Quer-flote (Ger.), (cross-flute), 
 concert flute. 
 
 (8) Names which are merely fancy titles, 
 as flute d'amour, jubal flute, portunal flute, 
 old flute, recorder ( fliite a bee), Wald and 
 Bauer-fldte(Ger.) (pastoral pipe), echo flute 
 (soft toned^, flute tacet, cordedain, &c. 
 
 It would be an advantage alike to organ 
 builders and organists if some definite system 
 of nomenclature of flute stops could be devised 
 and universally adhered to. 
 
 Flfite a bee (Fr.) [Flute.] 
 
 Flute d'amour (Fr.) A low-toned flute, 
 an A flute, sounding a minor third below the 
 notes actually written. It is now obsolete. 
 
 Fliite douce (Fr.) An organ stop. [Flute.] 
 
 Flute traversiere (Fr.) The German 
 flute. 
 
 Fly. A hinged board which covers the 
 keys of the pianoforte or organ when not in use. 
 
 F moll (Ger.) The key of F minor. 
 
 Foco (It.) Fire, spirit. 
 
 Focoso (It.) With spirit, ardently. 
 
 Foglietto (It.) A first violin part; the 
 leader's part, which contains cues, &c., used 
 by a conductor in the absence of a full score. 
 
 Fois (Fr.) Time, as premiere fois, first 
 time; derniere fois, \a.Bi time, (of repeating), &c. 
 
 Folia. A Spanish dance, similar to the 
 fandango. The tune of a folia was some- 
 times written on a ground bass, as was also 
 the Chaconne and Passaeaille. [Follia.] 
 
 Foliated. A melody or portion of plain- 
 song is said to he. foliated when ornamental 
 notes have been added above or below those 
 of which it originally consisted. 
 
 { 173) 
 
FOLLIA FORM. 
 
 FoUia {Sp. and It.) Variations upon an 
 air or melody, in which the ingenuity was 
 held of more value than beauty. The name 
 " Follias de Espana " became applied to 
 laborious trifling in other matters besides 
 music. 
 
 Fondamentale (Fr. and It.) Funda- 
 mental. Basse fondamentale, basso fonda- 
 mentale, fundamental bass. 
 
 Fondamento {It.) (i) Fundamental bass. 
 (2) The root or generator of a chord. 
 
 Fonds d'orgue (Fr.) The foundation 
 stops, the diapasons and 8 ft. flutes on 
 English organs, the principals of foreign 
 instruments. In general, all flue stops of 
 8 ft. pitch, except solo stops of peculiar 
 quality of tone. 
 
 Foot, (i) A metrical measure, pes {Lat.) 
 (2) A drone bass. (3) The chorus of a song. 
 (4) The part of an organ pipe below the 
 mouth. (5) To foot, to dance. 
 
 Forlana {It.), fourlane {Fr.) A dance 
 much in favour with the gondoliers of Venice. 
 The tune is a lively measure in 6-8 time, and 
 is similar to the Tarantella, but not so varied 
 in its motions. It is said to have been first 
 danced upon the Frioul, and to take its name 
 from that fact. 
 
 La Fourlane Venetienne ou La Barcariuole. 
 
 hMif r rn 
 
 ^ = ^N 
 
 F=lTi 
 
 E=:!=t: 
 
 ^— p 1" i» - 
 
 
 
 
 
 h^ 
 
 ii_J_2 
 
 
 
 
 "T " ^ 
 
 Form. The shape and order in which 
 musical ideas are presented. 
 
 This definition is, perhaps, the nearest that 
 can be given of a word of such general mean- 
 ing. Form has been divided into harmonic 
 and melodic. By harmonic form is meant 
 the key-tonality of chords, such, for instance, 
 as would be illustrated by a comparison of a 
 composition by Palestrina with one by Spohr. 
 But this question of the key relationship of 
 chords is now generally made subordinate to 
 the study of harmony, and is taken from the 
 domain of form. By melodic form is meant 
 the proper grouping of the successive sounds 
 which form a tune. This, again, is made 
 almost foreign to the higher meaning of form, 
 and is held to be subordinate to the laws of 
 rhythm. In its highest sense, form has rela- 
 tion more to the development than to the 
 details of a composition. - *' 
 
 In attempting to classify and give names 
 to the portions of music which, by their com- 
 bination or succession, go to make up a com- 
 position or movement, it will be necessary to 
 say at once, that there is no settled or con- 
 ventional usage of the terms employed, and 
 all that is here done is to bring together those 
 most commonly known, and as to whose 
 meaning but little difference of opinion exists. 
 
 The component parts of simple melodic 
 forms may be arranged according to the fol- 
 lowing order, (a) Motive or Theme ; {b) 
 Section ; (c) Phrase ; {d) Sentence ; {e) Sub- 
 ject. 
 
 A theme consists of a note or notes con- 
 tained in a single bar, whether the time be 
 duple or triple, simple or compound. A single 
 note may form a simple, and two or more a 
 compound motive. Repeated notes belong 
 to the second order : 
 
 Simple Compound 
 
 If a theme commences upon any other beat 
 than the first, as much as is necessary to 
 complete the bar, whether of rests or notes, 
 is required to form the theme : 
 
 -| r 
 
 Nigg^^ 
 
 Occasionally a subsidiary theme may be 
 completed upon an incomplete portion of the 
 
 ( 174) 
 
FORM. 
 
 bar, having been first suggested at the begin- 
 ning of a bar : 
 
 Beethoven. 
 
 Two motives form a section ; 
 
 Sometimes three motives are found in a 
 section : 
 
 A simple phrase consists generally of two 
 sections : 
 
 which may sometimes be expanded beyond 
 that limit to five or even more bars, with 
 added motives : 
 
 Beethoven. 
 
 Phrases of more than four bars may be 
 called compound : 
 
 Beethoven. 
 
 A sentence is formed of two phrases whether 
 simple or compound : 
 
 A sentence may be shortened : 
 
 or lengthened ; 
 
 Beethoven. 
 
 Beethoven. 
 
 frJ-JCl,J.jC|g ^ ^^^M 
 
 Sentences may be said to be compound 
 when two or more are united to form a musical 
 subject. All musical subjects may be analysed 
 by resolving them into their elements, which 
 consist, as shown above, of themes, sections, 
 phrases, sentences, and compound sentences ; 
 the union of these, and the connection of the 
 subjects they make up, constitute what is 
 called Form. 
 
 The use of the word Subject in the higher 
 development of Form, must not be confused 
 with its special meaning in the art of counter- 
 point and fugue. Fugue-form will be found 
 treated sub voce Fugue. 
 
 The study of form is most important to 
 the composer. Without an adherence to its 
 rules compositions are liable to become in- 
 coherent, unintelligible, and amorphoas, es- 
 pecially in these days, when there is a great 
 tendency, arising from ignorance or mistaken 
 intention, to create music without much or 
 any regard to form ; which is as much a 
 necessity to a musical composition, as it is 
 to> the design of a picture, a building, or a 
 piece of sculpture. In classical compositions 
 the sonata form is the basis upon which is 
 constructed the Symphony, the Concerto, the 
 Overture and the class of work from which 
 it derives its title. 
 
 The sonata may consist of three movements 
 in contrasted tempi and varied forms, but the 
 first movement must be written according to 
 given rules, which will be shown in detail 
 after a general description of the ordinary 
 arrangement of the sonata. Of the three 
 movements the first should be an " allegro," 
 with or without an introduction in slow tempo, 
 though sometimes this is dispensed with. It 
 may here be remarked, that whatever key 
 their first movement is written in is the key 
 by which the symphony is known, and all the 
 other movements must be written in keys 
 akin to it, but the last one must be the same 
 as the first. The second movement marked 
 with any tempo from andante to adagio, is 
 usually called the " slow movement ; the 
 last movement is usually an allegro, and may 
 be written on the plan of the first movement, 
 or in what is called rondo form. As the 
 symphony is the most important work in 
 whTch the sonata form is employed, a des- 
 cription of the usual method of constructing 
 it is subjoined, on the principle that the 
 greater includes the lesser. In addition to 
 
 ( 175) 
 
FORM. 
 
 the number of movements in the sonata 
 proper, the symphony has a minuet and trio 
 or a scherzo, movements which are not 
 necessary in the sonata. 
 
 The minuet or the scherzo — the latter most 
 usual since Beethoven's day — ordinarily oc- 
 cupies the third place in the order of the 
 movements in the symphony, but occasionally 
 the adagio and scherzo change places, as in 
 Mendelssohn's 3rd Symphony. Sometimes, 
 as in Beethoven's Symphonies, Nos. 7 and 8, 
 an allegretto appears instead of the andante 
 or slow movement, but as there is no fixed 
 rule for the order of the intermediate move- 
 ments, a composer is at liberty to make such 
 changes as he pleases. 
 
 Taking a symphony as a standard, the 
 following is the usual order or form of each 
 movement. The first of these, as has already 
 been said, may begin with an introduction of 
 a slow or moderately slow tempo. This in 
 its design may foreshadow what is to appear 
 in the succeeding allegro. If this is so 
 written, it would give a coherence to the 
 entire first movement; and, on account of 
 the frequently mysterious nature of this kind 
 of instrumental music, coherence and intelli- 
 gibility is a thing much to be aimed at. The 
 length of the introduction may be left to the 
 discretion of the composer ; care being taken 
 to lead well into the allegro or first move- 
 ment proper. For an admirable example • of 
 this sort of treatment, the student is referred 
 to Beethoven's Symphony No. 4. The allegro 
 must contain two principal subjects : varied, 
 and well contrasted, and written so as to give 
 opportunity for good instrumental effect. The 
 first of these is given in the tonic, and when 
 the key of the symphony is well established 
 the composer should prepare the introduction 
 of his second principal theme. The old- 
 fashioned way of doing this, if the symphony 
 were in a major key, was to work up to a 
 major chord on the supertonic of the original 
 scale, sometimes with the 7th added, and by 
 that means to glide into the second subject in 
 the dominant; thus, if the key of the symphony 
 were B f the movement would eventually 
 arrive at a cadence on the chord of C with 
 major third, the second principal subject 
 being then heard in the key of F, or if the 
 symphony were written in a minor key the 
 composer worked up to a cadence on the 
 dominant of the relative major — thus in a 
 movement in C minor, the second subject 
 always appeared in Eb major. But the student 
 is warned against blindly following this rule; 
 it should be his aim to make his second theme 
 grow out of the first ; thereby avoiding the 
 angularity of what may be termed the cut-and- 
 dried school. The many ways of doing this 
 must be left to the choice, guided by the 
 
 ingenuity of the composer, but the chief thing 
 to be borne in mind is to make the subjects 
 melodious, striking, and workable. There 
 may now be introduced one or two sub- 
 sidiary or episodal subjects, growing out 
 of, and in keeping with either the first or 
 second principal subjects. With this ends 
 what is called the first part of the first move- 
 ment ; a double bar is usually made here, and 
 a repeat marked to the beginning of the 
 allegro. This repeat in the first part of the 
 first movement of a symphony is a sine qua 
 non, as without it the movement loses its dis- 
 tinctive form. The composer must end this 
 portion of the work in the dominant if the key 
 of the symphony is major; or in the relative 
 major if it is written in a minor key. The 
 most interesting part of this portion of a sym- 
 phony now follows ; it is technically known 
 as the "free fantasia." Here the composer's 
 imagination may be employed to its utmost 
 limit ; but he must bear in mind only to use 
 material already brought forward in the sub- 
 jects of the first part of the movement. A 
 disregard of this injunction is the great mis- 
 take which composers (especially young ones) 
 make now-a-days, and leads to diifuseness. 
 Again, this portion of the symphony may be 
 spoilt by the composer having to develop sub- 
 jects which are not clear, well defined, and 
 interesting ; therefore to avoid this he should 
 be careful to write subjects in the first part 
 of the movement which will admit of much 
 varied treatment. Having done this, he is at 
 liberty to produce with them any legitimate 
 effects : at the same time he should never 
 allow his music to resemble a vague sort of 
 improvisation, such as is frequently heard in 
 many modern compositions, by so doing, all 
 beauty of form vanishes, and the composer 
 betrays a weakness and want of control over 
 his subjects. These remarks apply with equal 
 force to each portion of the entire work. Not 
 more than a third of the movement should 
 be devoted to the free fantasia ; and when it 
 is finished, the first principal subject is re- 
 introduced in the original key, which in due 
 course should be followed by the second prin- 
 cipal subject, heard this time in the tonic. 
 Then a coda may follow, after which the 
 movement may come to a close ; but it is 
 suggested, for the sake of coherence, that the 
 coda should be formed out of the material 
 already employed, and it should not be too 
 prolonged. 
 
 The second, or slow movement, may , be 
 similar in form to that of the first, but its 
 character is entirely opposite ; and further, 
 no repeat is made at the end of the first part. 
 The prevailing character should be that of 
 pathos and repose ; but though the two prin- 
 cipal subjects should partake more or less of 
 
 ( 176) 
 
FORM. 
 
 this, the rhythm of each should be arranged 
 so as to form a striking contrast to the other. 
 In this movement the themes are usually 
 much more elaborately treated than those of 
 the Allegro, and sometimes variations are 
 made upon the first of the principal subjects ; 
 examples of this latter style of treatment will 
 be found in the slow movements of Beet- 
 hoven's Symphonies, Nos. 5 and 9. The key 
 should not be the same as that of the opening 
 Allegro, such an arrangement would very 
 likely produce monotony — the exception to 
 this rule is when the original key is minor, 
 the second movement could then appear in 
 the same key ; but it should be in the major 
 mode, or vice versa ; any key may be chosen 
 that has some kinship to that of the preced- 
 ing movement. 
 
 If the minuet is selected for the third part, 
 the composer must write it in accordance with 
 the form of the dance of that name. But 
 should the Scherzo be decided upon, he will 
 find he has a much wider field for the expan- 
 sion of his thoughts. The form of this move- 
 ment may partake of that of the minuet, only 
 the time should be generally double or three 
 times as fast ; it may also be in|^ instead of ^ 
 time. Its character is usually light, fantastic, 
 and even humorous. It is sometimes written 
 with two trios, sometimes without any, as in 
 the case in the Scherzo of Mendelssohn's 3rd 
 Symphony. The key is usually the same as 
 that of the first movement. 
 
 The last movement is an Allegro ; and is 
 generally somewhat lighter in style than the 
 first movement ; though its form may be 
 the same. Rondo form may be adopted for 
 this movement ; or it may take the shape 
 of an air with variations, as in the Finale to 
 Beethoven's Symphony, No. 3. It is not neces- 
 sary to repeat the first part of the finale, if it 
 is written in the form of the first movement ; 
 and the free fantasia need not be elaborated 
 to the same extent as in the opening Allegro. 
 The key of the first and last movements 
 must of necessity be the same. 
 
 The form of the Concerto is somewhat 
 similar to that of the Symphony ; but it 
 differs from it in these respects : (i) The 
 opening movement never appears with an 
 introduction placed before it. (2) The orches- 
 tra usually plays both the leading themes in 
 the tonic before they are heard on the solo 
 instrument in the usual symphonic form. (3) 
 The repeat of the first part is not a necessity. 
 (4) The Concerto never contains a Scherzo, 
 and therefore consists but of three move- 
 ments — the first of which should be an 
 Allegro, the second an Adagio, and the third 
 an Allegro. (5) The movements do not re- 
 quire to be developed at such great length as 
 those of the symphony. (6) A cadenza is 
 
 usually introduced towards the close of either 
 the first or the third movement, sometimes 
 written by the composer, sometimes left to 
 the performers' improvisation. In all other 
 respects the form of the concerto is identical 
 with that of the symphony. 
 
 An improvement in the form of the concerto 
 may yet be made in two particulars. The old 
 plan of beginning the first movement by the 
 orchestra playing the leading subjects in the 
 tonic, before the entrance of the solo instru- 
 ment, might be dispensed with as unneces- 
 sary, because the themes must appear towards 
 the close of the movement in that key. Men- 
 delssohn's Violin Concerto, and that for the 
 Pianoforte in G minor, are examples of the 
 advantage gained by beginning with the solo 
 instrument at once, or after a few bars of 
 orchestral prelude. The other suggestion for 
 improvement is the abolition of all cadenzas, 
 as being redundant. If they are written for 
 the display of the performer's skill, surely the 
 composer should give him sufficient oppor- 
 tunity for this during the movement. If they 
 are to show that the subjects can be treated 
 in a different manner, they should be included 
 in that treatment in the body of either allegro 
 or finale. 
 
 The modern overture in strict form should be 
 written in one movement, usually an Allegro, 
 with or without an introduction in a slower 
 tempo, and partakes of the nature of the first 
 movement of a symphony, without the repeat 
 of the first part. The subjects of an overture 
 may be lighter in character than those of a 
 symphony ; but they must appear in the 
 same order, and be worked out in the same 
 manner ; greater importance being given to 
 the coda in the overture than in the symphony. 
 The introduction and allegro must, of course, 
 be in the same key. 
 
 The form of the sonata is, as already 
 shown, identical with that of the symphony 
 in all points ; the only exception being that a 
 minuet or scherzo is not necessary. The de- 
 velopment of the subjects of a sonata ought 
 not to be of the same extent as those of the 
 symphony, concerto, or overture ; for the 
 obvious reason that the tone-colour is much 
 less varied ; sonatas never being written for 
 more than two instruments. Trios and 
 quartets, &c., for strings and pianofortes, 
 though written in this same form need not 
 be developed to the same extent. Nor should 
 the attempt be made to introduce grand 
 symphonic eifects in these works. A warn- 
 ing may be given to composers by pointing 
 out how incomparably finer in effect Mendel- 
 ssohn's D minor trio is to that of his trio in 
 C minor, for the reason that in the latter 
 work, especially in the last movement, pas- 
 sages are given to the violin and violoncello 
 
 ( 177 ) 
 
 M 
 
FORTSETZUNG FREE STYLE. 
 
 which never produce the effect they are 
 intended to convey : but nothing of the kind 
 is found in the trio in D minor. Here every- 
 thing has the character and form of chamber 
 music ; and composers should bear in mind 
 not to write symphonic music when they are 
 composing musica di camera ; though the 
 form of the work and its movements may be 
 the same as those of a symphony. For a 
 model pianoforte quartet the student is 
 referred to that in G minor, from the pen 
 of Mozart. 
 
 The string quartet for two violins, viola, 
 and violoncello, is composed in the same 
 form as the symphony ; but also should ' 
 be written without any striving after sym- 
 phonic effect or development, care being 
 taken to give each instrument, as much as 
 possible, its equal share of work and inde- 
 pendent motion. The quintet, the sestet, 
 septet, and octet should all be written in 
 sonata or symphonic form, each instrument 
 having proper but not obtrusive prominence 
 and independence. The student is reminded 
 that the whole of these remarks are not to be 
 considered absolutely final ; since a com- 
 poser may some day arise, who may alter the 
 present forms of classical instrumental music 
 as much as Haydn and Mozart did in their 
 day. However, as such an one does not 
 exist who has shown us any new form which is 
 better than the old one, the student is exhorted 
 to abide by the rules herein laid down, which 
 are based upon precedent founded by the 
 great masters. 
 
 Rondo form differs from sonata or sym- 
 phonic form, in that the first part is not 
 marked for repeat. The original subject 
 does not modulate, but reappears in its key- 
 chord at the close of the first period, and 
 again after the modulation of the second sub- 
 ject, so that it must be heard three times. 
 
 The arrangement of a movement in rondo 
 form is after the following order : 
 
 The first subject enters, sometimes without 
 introduction, and remains in its original key. 
 Then follows an episode, modulating into the 
 relative major if the key be minor, or into the 
 dominant if the key be major; after which 
 comes the second subject in the dominant or 
 relative major, as the case may be, followed 
 by a modulation into the original key, to bring 
 back the first subject. This ends the first 
 part, which is not marked for repetition. The 
 second subject, modulating into distant keys, 
 commences the second half. This is followed 
 by the first subject ; then an episode, prepar- 
 ing the way for the second subject, and a final 
 episode and coda, generally in the original 
 key, with slight passing modulations. It 
 must be understood that this general outline 
 is sometimes varied by the genius of the 
 
 composer ; but, as a rule, the order indicated 
 above is followed. 
 
 Fortsetzung (GeJ-.) Continuation. Further 
 development or expansion of an idea. 
 
 Fort (Fr.) Forte \lt.) Loud ; expressed 
 in music by the abbreviations for. or/. 
 
 Fortemente {It.) Loudly, vigorously, 
 with force. 
 
 Forte-piano or fp. '(i) Loud, then soft; 
 strongly accented. (2) The pianoforte. 
 
 Forte possibile {It.) As loud as possible. 
 
 Fortissimo {It.) Lit. the loudest. Very 
 loud. The letters ff or ffor are used as 
 abbreviations of the word. 
 
 Forza, con {It.) With emphasis. 
 
 Forzando {It.) Lit., Forcing. Emphasis 
 or musical accent upon specified notes or 
 passages, marked by the signs /^,s/ or >-. 
 
 Forzato {It.) [Forzando.] 
 
 Fourchette tonique {Fr.) Tuning-fork. 
 
 Fourier's theorem. [Acoustics, § 11.] 
 
 Fourniture {Fr.) A mixture stop on an 
 organ. 
 
 Fourth. An interval of four notes. 
 
 Fourth flute. [Quartflote.] 
 
 Frangaise {Fr.) A dance in triple measure, 
 similar in character to the country-dance. 
 
 Franchezza (/i.), Franchise {Fr.) Free- 
 dom, confidence. 
 
 Franculus {Lat.) A mediaeval sign or 
 neume for an ascending brevis plicata. 
 [Neumes.] 
 
 Franz -ton {Ger.) French pitch; lower 
 than the recognised English concert pitch. 
 
 Frasi {It.) Phrases. 
 
 Freddamente, con freddezza {It.) With 
 coldness, indifference. 
 
 Fredon {Fr.) (i) Vocal ornaments at the 
 will.of the performer ; a tremolo or quavering 
 upon every note. (2) The humming of a 
 tune. 
 
 Free chant is a form of recitative music 
 for the Psalms and Canticles, in which a 
 phrase, consisting of two chords only, is ap- 
 plied to each hemistich of the words. The 
 author of the form, Mr. John Crowdy, in his 
 " Free Chant Cadences," claims for it that it 
 removes all difficulties in dividing the words, 
 and enables the unskilled worshipper to join 
 confidently in the chanting, without the assis- 
 tance of any marks beyond the colons pro- 
 vided for the purpose in the Prayer Book. 
 
 Free fugue. A fugue in which the answer 
 and general treatment are not according to 
 strict rules. [Fugue.] 
 
 Free parts. Additional parts to a canon 
 or fugue, having independent melodies, in 
 order to strengthen or complete the harmony. 
 [Canon.] 
 Free reed. [Reed.] 
 
 Free style. Composition not absolutely 
 according to the strict rules of counterpoint. 
 
 ( 178) 
 
FREGIATURA FUGUE. 
 
 Fregiatura (7^) An ornament, embellish- 
 ment. 
 
 French horn. [Horn.] 
 French sixth. [Extreme sixth.] 
 French flat-tuning. [Flat-tuning.] 
 French violin clef. The G clef, placed 
 upon the first line of the stave. [Clef.] 
 
 Frets. Small pieces of wood or ivory 
 placed upon the finger-board of certain 
 stringed instruments, to regulate the pitch of 
 the notes produced. By pressing the string 
 down to the finger-board behind a fret, only 
 so much of the string can be set in vibration 
 as lies between the fret and the bridge. Frets 
 are, therefore, nothing more or less than little 
 bridges ; hence the word /uayde came to sig- 
 nify a bridge or a fret. The Egyptian lutes 
 had frets made of camel-gut, tied or glued 
 round the finger-board. All the viols con- 
 tained in a chest had frets, and some of the 
 early forms of the violin were even furnished 
 with them. But not only do they prevent the 
 rapid fingering of difficult passages, but en- 
 tirely deprive the violin of one of its most 
 charming qualities, that of slurring or porta- 
 mento, an attempt to produce which will, on 
 a fretted instrument, result in a well-defined 
 chromatic scale. Another reason for the 
 abandonment of fretted violins was that, in 
 extreme keys, the intervals could not be tefn- 
 pered. 
 
 Fretta, con {It.) With speed, haste, hurry. 
 
 Freie Schreibart {Ger.) Free writing ; 
 composition in a free style. 
 
 Frisch {Ger.) Lively. 
 
 Frolich {Ger.) Joyous, cheerful, gay. 
 
 Frosch {Ger.) The nut of a violin bow, 
 into which the lower end of the hairs is 
 fixed, and which, when moved up or down by 
 means of the screw, tightens or slackens their 
 tension. 
 
 Frottola {It.) A ballad. 
 
 F Schlussel {Ger.) The F or bass clef. 
 
 Fuga {Lat.) A fugue, cequalis motus, a 
 real fugue; authentica, a fugue with a subject 
 in the authentic part of the scale ; canonica, 
 a fugue in canon ; contraria, a fugue by in- 
 version ; impropria, or irregularis, a free or 
 irregular fugue ; in contrario tempore, a fugue, 
 the answer of which is differently accented 
 to the subject ; libera or soluta, a free or 
 irregular fugue ; per arsin et thesin, by inver- 
 sion (i) of rhythm, (2) of interval; retrograda, 
 a fugue by contrary motion ; obstinata, a 
 fugue in which a definite figure is main- 
 tained, &c. &c. [Fugue.] 
 
 Fuga {It.) A fugue ; as, fuga doppia, a 
 double fugue ;/«§■« ostinata, a fugue in which 
 a definite figure is maintained; fuga ricercata 
 
 (i) highly scientific fugue ; (2) a fugue without 
 episodes ; /M^a sciolta, a free fugue. [Fugue.] 
 
 Fugato {It.) In the fugue style ; a com- 
 position containing fugal imitation, but which 
 is not in strict fugue form. 
 
 Fuge {Ger.) A fugue. 
 
 ^"Shetta {It.) I ^ ^ ^ 
 
 Fughette {Ger.) ) " 
 
 Fugue. A polyphonic composition con- 
 structed on one or more short subjects or 
 themes, which are harmonized according to 
 the laws of counterpoint, and introduced 
 from time to time with various contrapuntal 
 devices; the interest in these frequently 
 heard themes being sustained by diminishing 
 the interval of time at which they follow each 
 other (the stretto), and monotony being 
 avoided by the occasional use of episodes, or 
 passages open t.o free treatment. 
 
 So varied are fugues in their character, 
 that it is impossible to give any definition 
 which shall include all kinds, but from what 
 has just been said above, it will be at once 
 seen, that they differ from all other formal 01 
 set compositions (the canon only excepted) 
 in that each component part (which might in 
 other works be only a means of harmony) must 
 stand in important relationship to every other 
 part, sometimes even to the extent of being 
 interchangeable with any one of them. The 
 key-relationship, and also the rhythmical form 
 of the sections and phrases of a fugue, have 
 always been modified by contemporary art, 
 and by this means a fugue of ^.n early period 
 may be easily distinguished from one of a 
 later date, until in some modern examples 
 the influence even of the sonata form is 
 plainly discernible. As the growth of the 
 splendid form now known as a fugue has 
 been gradual, having extended over more 
 than three centuries, it is not surprising that 
 the name should, from time to time, have 
 borne various meanings. In old writers it is 
 sometimes used to signify a short theme, the 
 measure or figure of which is to be frequently 
 repeated ; at other times, a canon, because 
 herein one part enunciates a subject and then 
 as it were, takes to flight {fuga), while the 
 other, or others, pursue it closely note for 
 note. Canons often formed an important 
 ingredient of early fugues. 
 
 It is easy to trace the germ of the fugue in 
 the higher developments of counterpoint. 
 When music in two parts was written in con- 
 formity with the laws of double counterpoint, 
 each performer found himself setting forth 
 the theme proposed by the other, and the 
 good effect thus produced would naturally 
 suggest a repetition of the theme at other 
 intervals (as in counterpoint), and also in 
 other keys. The two elements of a fugue 
 which separate it from the higher forms of 
 
 ( 179 ) 
 
FUGUE. 
 
 counterpoint are, first, the enunciation of the 
 subject by itself, without harmony : next the 
 stretto or drawing of subjects and answers 
 more closely together. The former is not 
 properly included in counterpoint, as point 
 (or note) is no longer against point when one 
 part is heard alone ; nor is the latter trace- 
 able among the various devices of the art of 
 counterpoint proper. 
 
 Fugues have been divided into many classes 
 according to the point from which they have 
 been regarded. 
 
 (i) By number of parts ; as, a fugue in 
 two, three, four parts, &c. {a 2, a 3, a 4, 
 &c.) 
 
 (2) By number of subjects ; as a double 
 fugue, having two subjects ; a triple fugue, 
 three subjects, &c. 
 
 (3) By the relation of subject and answer; 
 as a fugue by inversion, when the answer 
 moves by the intervals of the inverted sub- 
 ject ; by augmentation or diminution, when 
 the answer has notes of double, or half 
 the length of those of the subject respec- 
 tively. 
 
 (4) By the scale-relation of subject and 
 answer ; as a tonal fugue, when the answer 
 is modified according to prescribed rules, so 
 that it shall remain within a given compass, 
 or, within a given key ; a real fugue when 
 the answer is at a measured interval to the 
 subject note for note. 
 
 (5) By its adhesion to, or neglect of, the 
 laws of fugue form ; as a free fugue, a fugue 
 in which strict form is occasionally, or for 
 the most part disregarded. 
 
 (6) By its scale, or the scale which pre- 
 dominates in it ; as a Doric fugue, when the 
 subject, and perhaps also development, is in 
 the Doric mode ; a diatonic fugue, in which 
 diatonic harmony prevails ; a chromatic fugue, 
 when chromatic passages abound. 
 
 The chief elements of a fugue are : — 
 (i) The subject. Dux, propositus, (Lat.) 
 guida, (It.) antecedent, &c. 
 
 (2) The counter-subject, or, contrapuntal 
 harmonization of the answer by the part 
 which has finished the enunciation of the 
 subject. 
 
 (3) The answer. Comes, Responsio (Lat.) ; 
 consequenza (It.) ; consequent, &c. 
 
 (4) Episodes. 
 
 (5) The stretto. 
 
 (6) The pedal point — point d'orgue (Fr.) ; 
 Orgel-punkt (Ger.) 
 
 The whole of these are bound together into 
 perfect unity, from the fact that the answer 
 is either identical with, or a prescribed imita- 
 tion of the subject ; the counter-subject or 
 fragments of it are of frequent use as the 
 material of episodes ; the stretto is usually 
 founded on the subject or counter-subject ; 
 
 and the pedal point forms the basis of in- 
 genious treatments of the subject or answers, 
 and sometimes even as the basis of the 
 stretto. The first giving out of subjects and 
 answers is called the Exposition ; and when 
 repeated with a different arrangement of the 
 parts, the Counter-exposition. 
 
 It can be seen from the above, that handled 
 by a genius, fugue may be infinitely plastic 
 in regard to form. But it must not be 
 forgotten that in its earliest existence it was 
 wretchedly mechanical, as the following direc- 
 tions how to compose a fugue in two parts 
 from Fux (Welcker's English Translation) 
 will prove. " First choose a subject suitable 
 to the key you intend to compose in, and 
 write down your subject in that part where- 
 with you intend to begin. This done, and 
 having first examined your subject whether 
 it be comformable to your key ; if so, repeat 
 the same notes in the second part, either in 
 the fourth or fifth, and whilst the second 
 part imitates the first wherewith you have 
 begun, put such notes in the first part as 
 will agree with your imitating part according 
 to the directions given in the figurate or 
 florid counterpoint, and after having con- 
 tinued your melody for some bars, regulate 
 the parts thus, that the first cadence may be 
 made in the fifth of the key. Then resume 
 your subject mostly in the same part you 
 have begun with, but by another interval, 
 after having first put a rest of a whole or 
 half bar, which however may be omitted in 
 case there should happen to be a great skip 
 instead of it. After this, endeavour to bring 
 in your second part after some rest, and that 
 before the subject of the first part draws 
 towards a conclusion, and having carried on 
 your subject a little longer, make your second 
 cadence in the third of the key. Lastly, in- 
 troduce your subject again in either part, and 
 contrive it so that one part may imitate the 
 other sooner than at first, and, if possible, 
 after the first bar, whereupon both parts are 
 to be united, and the . fugue finished by a 
 final cadence." 
 
 The musical example which he then gives 
 as embodying the result of all this learning, 
 is as follows : 
 
 i 
 
 $ 
 
 T T^r^ ^t ^ 
 
 ( 180 ) 
 
FUGUE. 
 
 But the art of fugue was not long to remain 
 thus lifeless. The successive improvements 
 made by great masters have exalted it to 
 the highest perfection, and have made it one 
 of the noblest walks of the art of music. 
 
 The best way of showing the construction 
 of a fugue will be to describe in detail the 
 nature of the six constituent parts just now 
 enumerated. 
 
 (i) The subject should not be very long if 
 it does not contain any modulation, because 
 a lack of interest may result. On the other 
 hand, if it be very short, its treatment in the 
 stretto will be difficult. It generally com- 
 mences on the tonic or dominant of the scale. 
 
 Subjects may be broadly divided into dia- 
 tonic and chromatic. Of course, a vast 
 number of fugue-subjects lie between these 
 two boundaries, but by a diatonic subject must 
 be understood one on which an author in- 
 tends to construct a fugue whose interest 
 shall arise from genuine contrapuntal treat- 
 ment and device, and simple modulations from 
 key to key. By a chromatic subject is meant 
 one which a composer takes with the avowed 
 intention of constructing a fugue whose in- 
 terest shall result from a complicated inter- 
 weaving or frequent contrasting of changing 
 key-tonality, with ordinary development of 
 the subjects. The simplest form of diatonic 
 fugue-subject is that which lies in a compass 
 of a fifth, e.g. : 
 
 J. S. Bach. 
 
 Ex.3. 
 
 
 Graun. 
 
 ft^fc =: z^ pr=-: »- 
 
 ^= — ^ — p— 
 
 
 -^ " r r i r 1 
 
 -^. f^ 
 
 
 Tu Rex glo 
 
 Or, when it reaches the compass of the 
 sixth, e.g. : 
 
 Ex.4. 
 
 
 — h-i 
 
 n^ -m 
 
 
 
 Haydn. 
 
 <^=?F 
 
 r CTf J 
 
 TT-j' 
 
 rrrr r # 
 
 W^^ 
 
 la glo-ria De 
 
 -i Pa-tris, 
 
 1 ^ rr r Ti 
 
 — i-i — " 
 
 J. S. Bach. 
 
 1 r? 1 
 
 ^b\ ^' ±=^ 
 
 1 ' '^1 
 
 1 u^ r 1 
 
 ^^ &c 
 
 Ex.6. 
 
 
 Mozart. 
 
 
 
 J J J ^ J J ^Wjj^' '- 
 
 ¥°" JJJJ J3 JZ 
 
 
 
 Cum Sanc-to Spi - ri tu 
 tr 
 
 The following is given in order to show a 
 grand subject in this compass, although not 
 strictly worked out : 
 
 Ex. g. Beethoven. 
 
 Cum Sanc-to Spi - ri - tu 
 
 Diatonic subjects may, however, reach a 
 very extended compass, especially in instru- 
 mental music : 
 
 The following is remarkable both for its 
 extended compass and length : 
 
 Ex. II. (Fuga a ire voci con licenza.) Beethoven. 
 
 Scale passages, or such as move up or 
 down an octave, have always been largely 
 used as subjects, both in the major, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 12. Benevoli. 
 
FUGUE. 
 
 Sometimes the octave compass of a subject 
 lies between the fifth above and fourth below 
 the tonic, both in the major, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 13. 
 
 
 Handel. 
 BS3 
 
 
 zzfuOF^J^i^ 
 
 
 7f'U/i mm— ^^n 
 
 
 ^"'T gPr-JW^- 
 
 -HgJJ**' ''^J- 
 
 ' ^\ 
 
 And also in the minor, e.g. 
 
 Ex. 14. 
 
 Bach. 
 
 Chromatic subjects are also of varied ex- 
 tent and difficulty. The following, which is 
 capable of much contrapuntal treatment, is 
 commonly met with : 
 
 Ex. 15. Sala. 
 
 More elaborate chromatic subjects are often 
 found, e.g. : 
 
 Sometimes both diatonic and chromatic 
 passages are included in the subject, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 18. J. S. Bach. 
 
 The interval of a diminished seventh has 
 always been a favourite element of fugue sub- 
 jects, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. ig. 
 
 Bach. 
 
 Ex.21. 
 
 pr i JjP j ^tS^ 
 
 J. S. Bach. 
 
 Ex. 22, 
 
 Mozart. 
 
 Ex. 24. 
 
 Eberlin, 
 
 Subjects most commonly begin the key- 
 note or its fifth, but there are exceptions to 
 this rule, e.g. : 
 
 Ex 25. (On the Second of the Scale.) 
 
 Bach. 
 
 ^"j j ijj^^.iir ^p^ 
 
 As a rule, the answer enters before the sub- 
 ject is finished, but exceptions are frequent. 
 " He trusted in God " (Handel) may be cited 
 as a well-known case. Sometimes after the 
 subject has finished, a few notes are intro- 
 duced to link it to the answer. These few 
 notes are called a subject-coda or codetta. 
 The name is also applied to the short passage 
 sometimes connecting the answer and coun- 
 ter-subject with the re-introduction of the 
 original subject (see Exs. 43 and 68). 
 
 (2) The counter-subject is primarily an 
 accompaniment of the answer, and in a 
 secondary sense, of the subject; but as such, 
 must be according to the laws of strict coun- 
 terpoint. It is usually written according to 
 the laws of double counterpoint, in order that 
 it may be used both above and below the 
 subject or answer. Of course, the counter- 
 subject may be in any species of counter- 
 point, but it most commonly is figurate, or 
 florid, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 30. 
 
 Mehdelssohn. 
 
 ( 182 ) 
 
 Counter subject^ ^"^-i I BQ ^"^ 
 
 r J^. 
 
 But when the counter-subject is in siinple 
 counterpoint it generally happens that it is in 
 
FUGUE, 
 
 notes of greater length than those of the sub- 
 ject in a rapid fugue, e.g. : 
 
 Bit- 31- 
 
 And vice versd, shorter notes of counter-sub- 
 ject to those of the subject : 
 
 J. S. Bach. 
 
 Ex. 32. Subject. 
 
 Counter subject. 
 
 But something more is required of the 
 counter-subject than to be a mere accessory 
 to the subject and answer ; it is very often 
 used as an episodal theme, either just as it 
 stands, or in a slightly modified form. In 
 the following example the counter-subject of 
 Bach's beautiful E major fugue is given : 
 
 Ex. 33. Subject. Answer. 
 
 Counter subject. 
 
 Before the development of the Fugue has 
 proceeded far, this (from *) is used as the 
 subject of an episode, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 34. , 
 
 If, therefore, the counter-subject is intended 
 for separate use and treatment, it is necessary 
 that it should be melodious in itself, as well 
 as capable of fonning good counterpoint in 
 combination with the answer. In speaking 
 
 of a tonal fugue it will be shown that the 
 counter-subject sometimes has to undergo a 
 change in order to suit both subject and answer. 
 The term counter-subject is often applied 
 in a manner which leads to much confusion. 
 If in a fugue with two subjects the second 
 subject is given out at the same time as the 
 first, thus forming an accompaniment to it, 
 it is by some called the counter-subject, instead 
 of the second subject, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 35, Subject or ist Subject, 
 
 Counter subject or 2nd Subject. 
 
 It were well if this use of the word counter- 
 subject for second subject could be dispensed 
 with, the former being limited to the significa- 
 tion of that counterpoint added to an answer 
 or subject by a part which has already gone 
 through the subject or answer. Nothing is 
 gained by limiting the use of the words 
 second and third subjects to such as are intro- 
 duced separately. 
 
 (3) The answer of a fugue is one of the 
 most important parts of its construction. If 
 the subject be wrongly answered, the effect 
 and success of the whole composition is 
 marred. For not only does a wrong answer 
 compel the construction of a false counter- 
 subject, inasmuch as the counter-subject must 
 be the accompaniment of the answer whether 
 it be right or wrong, but also, it overthrows 
 those episodes founded on the counter-subject, 
 and not unfrequently the stretto too, as being 
 founded on a close combination of subject and 
 answer. 
 
 The large class of fugues called tonal, are 
 so termed because the answer undergoes some 
 slight modification in order to prevent a de- 
 parture from the key-tonality of the subject. 
 Roughly speaking, all answers are a fifth 
 above or a fourth below the subject. If this 
 relation of answer to subject were strictly 
 carried out, a modulation in every answer 
 would be inevitable. The answer is, however, 
 often purposely made at strict intervals to the 
 subject ; in which case, the fugue is called 
 strict or real. These two classes of fugues 
 must be considered carefully. 
 
 First as to tonal fugues. 
 
 The idea which underlies all tonal treatment 
 of answers is, that the scale is equally divided 
 into two parts, namely, from the tonic up to 
 the dominant, one part ; from the dominant 
 up to the octave-tonic, the other. But as a 
 matter of fact the first half, tonic to dominant, 
 contains five diatonic steps, while the second, 
 dominant to tonic, only contains four. This 
 
 { 183 ) 
 
FUGUE. 
 
 is the source of the whole difficulty of making 
 a correct answer to any given subject, e.g. : 
 
 Now when the subject proceeds from tonic 
 to dominant direct, the answer must proceed 
 from dominant to tonic, e.g. : 
 
 Subject. 
 
 and vice versa, e.g. : 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Answer. 
 
 Answer, 
 
 But if notes lying between the tonic and 
 dominant are introduced, or if the subject 
 exceeds the compass of a fifth, it is not 
 easy to say that any uniform principle 
 governs the relation of answer to subject, 
 except that two notes must be represented by 
 one, e.g. : 
 
 Answer, 
 
 Subject. 
 
 The following examples show how tonic is 
 answered by dominant, and dominant by 
 tonic : 
 
 Ex, 36. 
 
 Answer. .^t ._. 
 
 and, by the next it will be seen, that the sub- 
 dominant also is answered b}' the tonic : 
 
 Ex. 38. Subject 
 
 Bach. 
 
 Ex. 39. Subject, 
 
 Mendelssohn. 
 
 a* J ^ - ^ W I J J 
 
 , Answer. 
 
 ^:x~n=p^^ ^ 
 
 S 
 
 Ex. 40. Subject. 
 
 Mozart. 
 
 The following illustrates the application of 
 the same principle in a case where the subject 
 
 proceeds down to the dominant and then 
 passes above the tonic : 
 
 Ex. 41. Subject. Bach. 
 
 Answer. 
 
 The application of this principle to subjects 
 in the minor key is much less easy than in the 
 major. When, as formerly, fugues were often 
 composed in the church modes, the position 
 of the (so-called) dominant and final of the 
 mode largely influenced the relation of answer 
 to subject, but, although these complications 
 do not lie in the path of the modern student, 
 yet there is still much uncertainty and dis- 
 crepancy as to the particular treatment of the 
 sub-tonic of the minor. This arises from the 
 fact that several sorts of minor scale are still 
 in use, and the composer naturally frames his 
 answer in accordance either to that kind of 
 scale most congenial to him, or to that most 
 capable of bringing into prominence the 
 melodic form of his subject. Minor subjects 
 are often too very chromatic, a fact which 
 adds to the difficulty of forming a correct 
 answer. 
 
 In its simple state, a minor subject is in 
 effect answered by a modulation into the 
 minor key a fifth above (or fourth below), e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 42. Subject. Key of F minor. 
 
 and the following shows the method of return 
 to the original key, sometimes called a 
 codetta : 
 
 Ex. 43. 
 
 Another instance is here given ; 
 
 Ex. 44. Subject (C minor). 
 
 W^^=^ ^ 
 
 Answer. 
 
 into G minor. 
 
 It is not an easy thing to connect two minor 
 keys a fifth apart in a pleasing manner ; it 
 takes some little time to accustom the 
 ear to the sound of the minor third of the 
 new key ; but the leading note of the old key 
 must, of necessity, be discarded before the 
 
 ( 184) 
 
FUGUE. 
 
 re-entry of the subject. In the fugue just 
 quoted Bach inserts two bars between the 
 close in G minor, as above, and the re-entry 
 of the subject, namely : 
 
 Ex.45. (Codetta.) 
 
 Re-entry of Subject. 
 
 As minor subjects naturally lead to a modu- 
 lation in the answer, it happens, as might be 
 expected, that the minor fugues are chiefly 
 real : for if a modulation must take place at 
 all, it may as well include the whole of the 
 subject as its closing portion, tonal alterations 
 of the answer are therefore rendered to a 
 certain extent unnecessary. 
 
 But in strictly chromatic fugues the tonal 
 answer is very common, as the following ex- 
 amples will show, although it will be observed 
 that, in some cases, the answer, before many 
 notes are past, becomes a mere transcript 
 at a fifth above or fourth below of the original 
 subject. 
 
 The next example is purely tonal : 
 
 Ex. 46. Subject. 
 
 KiRNBERGEE. 
 
 tr 
 
 J ji rJ ^J I * '" "W ^ " IH ■bL^y-l-— . 
 
 The following is mixed, being partly tonal, 
 partly at a strict interval : 
 
 Ex. 47. Subject (8ve. lower). 
 
 The tonal alteration of the answer to minor 
 subjects often extends no further than the first 
 note, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 48. Subject. Mendelssohn. 
 
 In major subjects this also happens, e. g. : 
 
 Ex. 49. Subject Baci 
 
 Jj U I llJ I ! i ! l lJ I I i 1 1 1 I i l i 
 ■I #J « ''~'J''_lJ''' ^ *J.»'-1Jl ' ^^j ^ 
 
 This is more noticeable in short chromatic 
 subjects, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 50. Subject. Answer. 
 
 Enough has been said to show the general 
 force of the laws of tonal answer. Study and 
 experience are the only means of cultivating 
 a true perception of this peculiar relation of 
 subject to answer. Many writers have at- 
 tempted to draw up a regular code of laws, 
 but the exceptions which persistently come 
 forward render them almost useless. 
 
 A real or strict fugue is one in which the 
 answer is throughout at the interval of a fifth 
 above or fourth below the subject, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 52. Subject. 
 
 Bace. 
 
 Answer. 
 
 -^ 
 
 .fg- -m- 
 
 It is unnecessary to give more examples of 
 this exact and constant distance between sub- 
 ject and answer. 
 
 The question naturally arises, How is it to 
 be known when an answer ought to be tonal 
 or real ? It is only possible to answer this in 
 the most general way. If a subject has one 
 or more direct melodic progressions from tonic 
 to dominant or dorninant to tonic it is difficult 
 to make the answer real or strict without 
 
 * Made one octave lower to suit the compass of ordi- 
 nary tenor voices. 
 
 ( 185 ) 
 
FUGUE. 
 
 giving an unpleasant effect of unnecessary 
 change of key ; whereas, if the subject consist 
 of a series of grades of the scale, it is difficult 
 to make the answer tonal, without producing 
 the effect of unnecessary alteration of melody 
 (inasmuch as two notes have to do duty for 
 one, and vice versa). This is all that can be 
 said, except that special prominence of the 
 suhdominant in the subject seems to demand 
 a strict answer, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 54. Subject. 
 
 Answer. 
 
 P 
 
 '^i^i^i^iij 
 
 In cases where a fugue has more than one 
 subject, if the second subject partakes of the 
 tonality of the expected answer, and is intro- 
 duced in the position ordinarily occupied by 
 the answer, the answers of both first and 
 second subjects may take place at the octave, 
 sometimes without any alteration of the posi- 
 tion of the parts, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 55. 
 
 Bach. 
 
 The subjects are as often answered in the 
 octave, but in inverted positions, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 56. ^^^ Sala . 
 
 tp=^ 
 
 m 
 
 ^^^^^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 I- i h 
 
 JT^J Ji 
 
 ft^i'' I?' ^' 
 
 f'^jJ: 
 
 irr g r^-^ 
 
 ^fc 
 
 It has already been stated that the counter- 
 subject is often written in double counterpoint, 
 so that it may be used without grammatical 
 error, both above and below the subject. 
 What has been said of a counter-subject 
 applies with equal force to a second subject, 
 as the above example (56) shows. 
 
 But the first and second subject are given 
 out very frequently, each at its own proper 
 tonal distance, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 57. 
 
 f l -ph^p*]: 
 
 Sometimes the second subject appears after 
 the first subject, but is not answered in the 
 position expected, an answer to the first sub- 
 ject taking its place. 
 
 Ex 58. 
 
 i'''yrr'nrtf 
 
 J JJJ^ 
 
 =1= 
 
 &c. 
 
 In other cases, the first subject is, after its 
 first enunciation, set aside for a lengthy treat- 
 ment of the second subject, the first being 
 reintroduced when the development has been 
 proceeded with. 
 
 The above examples of fugues with two 
 subjects, have tonal answers ; but this is not 
 always the case, as the following example of 
 strict answer shows : 
 
 Ex.59. 
 biz 
 
 Cherubini. 
 
 [^^^^ ^..HERUBINI 
 
 ( 186) 
 
FUGUE. 
 
 In fugues having three or more subjects, 
 there seems to be no rule whatever as to the 
 order or position of their entry. Sometimes 
 they are enunciated in their order immediately 
 after, or overlapping, each other ; e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 60. 
 
 3rd Sub, Chsrubini. 
 
 
 Quam o-lim A-bra-hs 
 1st Answer. 
 
 3rd Ans. 
 
 They are not unfrequently introduced and 
 developed separately, at long intervals of time, 
 and only brought together towards the close 
 of the work ; in this case, of course, the 
 answers are each true to the subject as de- 
 livered, and the fugue has the form of two or 
 more separate developments which are capable 
 of coalition ; e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 61. ist Subject. 
 
 
 Bach. 
 tr. 
 
 rfThf, H , , 1 
 
 ■* 1 — 1 1 1 -^ 
 
 I- J B T- 
 
 ^ j:j2'^J 
 
 1 JZ^i^-^' 
 
 \jA''-tJd J-l- 
 
 ■<i>^ — . 1 
 
 
 
 -•^ 
 
 
 
 _ . 2nd Subject. 
 
 
 1 i^ 
 
 K>Mi^^i^=gjjijjr-y|^ 1 
 
 to^^rr/^p^: 
 
 t) ' JJSB*" J.' w Lb ^' ^j 1 ^ 
 
 <S¥li — = 
 
 H — •' — 
 
 1 
 
 In some cases the subjects are given out 
 one by one, without any development being 
 attempted till all have been heard, as in the 
 well-known movement, " Let old Timotheus," 
 from Handel's "Alexander's Feast," in which 
 
 ths four following subjects are given out suc- 
 cessively by solo voices : 
 
 Ex. 62. 
 xst Subject. 
 
 1st Subjectj^ |- 1 „ , ana aujjject. 
 
 Some fugues have what is called a free part ; 
 that is a part whose sole function it is to 
 support or supplement those constructed in 
 the prescribed fugue form. Such examples 
 generally take the shape of a regularly con- 
 structed fugue, accompanied by and built upon 
 a separate bass, or basso continuo : 
 
 Ex. 63. Bach. 
 
 Other orchestral parts sometimes accom- 
 pany a fugue, e.g. : 
 
 ( 187) 
 
FUGUE. 
 
 From the two preceding examples, it will 
 be seen that free accompaniment may take 
 place, whether the fugue is tonal or real, or 
 whether it has but one, or more than one, 
 subject. 
 
 A chorale is not unfrequently introduced 
 into a fugue as a free part, as the well-known 
 chorus, " But our Lord," in Mendelssohn's 
 " St. Paul." There can be little doubt that 
 the freedom of writing which distinguishes 
 later fugues, was largely brought about by 
 the habit of writing free parts on a ground- 
 bass. 
 
 When the answer of a fugue is an inver- 
 sion of the subject, the fugue is said to be al 
 rovescio, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 95. 
 
 Handel. 
 
 To our great God. 
 
 ^O ^ ^~rfT^crr^ 
 
 ^rjT—^^^ - 
 
 d=^ 
 
 To our great God. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 =«t 
 
 To our great God. 
 
 Tu our great God. &c. 
 
 Fugues "by inversion," like all other kinds 
 of fugues, are sometimes accompanied by free 
 parts, e.g. : 
 
 Ex.66. B^^„_ 
 
 p 
 
 m 
 
 S=F= 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 -F- -P- 
 
 Ei 
 
 Ky - ri 
 Free Bass.^ 
 
 i^- ^^^ ^te^^^^ 
 
 Tenors (8ve. lower;. 
 
 -^^^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 Ky - ri - e. 
 
 
 Episodes are passages introduced into a 
 fugue, in which the actual development of the 
 subject or subjects is for a time suspended in 
 order to give some variety and relief to the 
 ear. But it is .important that episodes, while 
 affording variety, should not disturb the 
 character of the fugue of which they form 
 part. To effect this object, they are generally 
 made up of free or imitative treatments of a 
 fragment of the subject, or of part of the 
 countersubject, or of the coda connecting 
 subject and answer, or of some new subject 
 not dissimilar in style to one of these. An 
 example (34) has already been given, of an 
 episode formed on the countersubject. The 
 following is an episode formed on a fragm.ent 
 of the subject given in Ex. 49 : 
 
 Ex. 67. 
 
 PJrft^ 
 
 T=^ 
 
 -^ — =1- 
 
 ^Bach. 
 
 r d ■ 
 
 ^ 
 
 — ^ 
 
 
 -^! U- 
 
 
 The following is an example of an episode, 
 founded on a coda : 
 
 ^^"LS^^ccfF 
 
 iS3?^'^^^^5-r'^^^ 
 
 ( 188) 
 
FUGUE. 
 
 Coda connecting close of answer with re- 
 entry of subject : 
 
 Episode founded on the figure of the above 
 coda : 
 
 Bach. 
 
 Episodes founded on a theme not part of 
 subject, countersubject, or coda, are very 
 commonly met with ; in the following example 
 the theme is quite congruous with the sub- 
 ject : 
 
 lethimde-liv- er him. 
 
 A fine example of episodes of a totally 
 different character to the fugue into which 
 they are introduced is to be found in Bach's 
 organ-fugue : 
 
 E^. 69. Subject. 
 
 Episode. 
 
 1, ^ .m"B 
 
 If.-): a* ,. j'S^fM 
 
 
 ^ — ■ =1 ^ 5^ 
 
 ^^^^- ^=1: 
 
 The stretto is that part of a fugue in which 
 the subject and answer are drawn or pressed 
 closer together (Lat. strictus from stringers). 
 
 In nearly all carefully constructed fugues the 
 entry of the subject and answer is brought 
 closer together from time to time, as the 
 development proceeds, but the word stretto is 
 only applied to that special passage in which 
 the whole of the parts, or as many as possible, 
 take up the subject at as short an interval of 
 time as possible. The simplest illustration 
 of a stretto will be found in the treatment of 
 some simple diatonic subject such as the 
 following : 
 
 Ex. 70. Sub. 
 
 
 
 n J r- 
 
 It not unfrequently happens that the subject 
 and answer cannot be brought closer together 
 than their original distance, owing to their 
 harmonic inaptitude for such treatment. In 
 such cases, an altered form of the subject, or 
 a part of the coda, or part of the counter- 
 subject, or even an entirely new subject, may 
 form the theme of the stretto. In many 
 fugues there is no one passage which can be 
 pointed out as the stretto, but the interest of 
 the development is sustained by various other 
 contrapuntal devices, or modulations. 
 
 The masterly stretto (stretto maestrale) is 
 formed in strict canon. If the subject is not 
 capable of such treatment it may be slightly 
 altered for the purpose. 
 
 It is not necessary that the same intervals 
 should be observed between the parts forming 
 a stretto as are absolutely necessary in the 
 enunciation of subject and answer, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 71. 
 Subject. ^ 
 
 Bach. 
 
 Strettos are often constructed on the pedal- 
 point, an example of which will shortly be 
 given. 
 
 ( 189) 
 
FUGUE. 
 
 Stretto, by augmentation or diminution, is 
 when the subject, or subject and answer, are 
 simultaneously introduced in notes of longer 
 or shorter length, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 72. Subject. 
 
 Bach. 
 
 A 
 
 -J- 
 
 J- 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 -hj- 
 
 ~-^i— 
 
 nJ- 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 A pedal-point is a long-sustained note, gene- 
 rally the dominant, on which imitation, sub- 
 ject and answer (simply or by augmentation 
 and diminution), or even the stretto itself, are 
 constructed. It is not always found as an 
 essential part of a fugue, a vast number of 
 fugues, especially for the pianoforte, are 
 without it. But in vocal fugues with accom- 
 paniment, and in fugues for the organ, it can 
 always be introduced with fine effect. Modern 
 composers have not neglected this interesting 
 element of the art of fugue, as the next 
 example shows : 
 
 Ex. 73. Subject. 
 
 Gounod. 
 
 1^ J J J i^^^j ^ Jh ^ • M . 
 
 
 irr r M J/ r rl r • 1 ^ 
 
 J. A 4 A-T^-A A J. A. 1 
 
 <j^-f=-^ — r-T'- r r r r • — *-t 
 
 &c. 
 
 i-.£_| ; 1__ J 1 1 1 L 
 
 
 Sometimes the stretto precedes the pedal- 
 point, sometimes it follows it. An episode 
 introduced after the last close-imitation, or 
 after the stretto, is called a coda to the fugue. 
 It often is introduced on a tonic pedal, or 
 worked into a prolonged plagal cadence. 
 
 A few general remarks are necessary in 
 conclusion. The whole structure of a fugue 
 points out that it is a work intended to be of 
 constantly increasing interest, from the first 
 exposition of subject and answer to the final 
 bar. Out of this fact grow all the common 
 rules for its formation, such, for instance, as, 
 " no perfect cadence shall be heard till the 
 end." A perfect cadence in any key gives a 
 certain feeling of repose, and this feeling is 
 alien to the spirit of the work. The only 
 exception to this rule is when a fugue, with 
 more than one subject, is broadly divided 
 into two parts, as in Schumann's fugue No. 6 
 on the name Bach. Half-closes are not un- 
 common under similar circumstances, as in 
 " Egypt was glad " (Handel). 
 
 Again " contrapuntal devices should be 
 introduced in the order of their interest or 
 ingenuity, beginning with the simplest, 
 and the most complicated being introduced 
 last." 
 
 Enough modulation should be introduced 
 into a fugue to make it pleasing, and to avoid 
 the tame effect of one continuous key -tonality ; 
 but, on the other hand, too much modulation 
 would lead the hearers to believe that the 
 work was intended to be made interesting as 
 
 ( 190 ) 
 
FUGUE RENVERSEE FUNFFACH. 
 
 a specimen of modulation, and so take away 
 their attention from the treatment of subject 
 and answer. Hence, fugue-modulation is in 
 a general way limited to related keys. The 
 same object is kept in view by the rule, " if 
 there is a tonic pedal-point, it should never 
 be heard before the dominant pedal-point." 
 Of course a breach of this rule would entirely 
 undo the wonderful effect which the massive 
 imitations or stretto have, when- heard over 
 the dominant, for dominant harmony always 
 causes a yearning for tonic-harmony, and 
 when the tonic is at length reached, then it 
 is time to add yet more to the delay by 
 multiplying superposed tonic harmonies. 
 
 A glance at the subjects of fugues given in 
 the examples will show that there is not much 
 room for . originality left to modern writers. 
 The more the vast literature of fugues which 
 has come down to us is studied, the more 
 apparent does this fact become. It is indeed 
 almost impossible to write a short diatonic 
 subject, capable of easy handling, which shall 
 be in any sense original. The true lesson to 
 learn from this is, that the modern treatment 
 of fugue subjects should at least be original, 
 and the composer who now ?ets about writing 
 a fugue, should feel himself compelled, as an 
 artist, to make use of all the freshness and 
 novelty which modern chords, key-relation- 
 ship, and rh3rthm are capable of producing. 
 
 It may be objected, that such a modernized 
 fugue ceases to be a fugue at all. But the 
 history of fugue clears away such objections. 
 Starting from the early time when fugue had 
 barely commenced a separate existence from 
 counterpoint, the word fugue meant nothing 
 more than the subject, h&ncefuga composita, 
 or fuga recta was, when the subject moved 
 about by single degrees, or in conjunct 
 motion ; and fuga incomposita was when the 
 subject had skips in it, or proceeded by dis- 
 junct motion. Again, when the subject went 
 upwards from the tonic it was called fuga 
 authentica ; when it went downwards from 
 the tonic it was called fuga plagalis. Such 
 expressions point out a very elementary stage 
 in the art of fugue. What would now be 
 almost distressing to us, namely, a fugue 
 without any episodes, one in which subject 
 and answer never cease to be heard, was at 
 one period considered the perfection of a 
 fugue. It was called fuga ricercata. Again, 
 it is easy to trace the gradual introduction of 
 episodes, and modulation, and the discarding 
 of the complicated laws which bound subjects 
 and answers to the tonality of the ancient 
 church modes. 
 
 Then, again, an extension both of the com- 
 pass and length of subject gave new scope to 
 composers, while " licences " in counterpoint 
 became of more frequent occurrence. In short, 
 
 the fugue has gradually developed from an 
 unartistic music-puzzle into a noble and 
 splendid form, and it behoves modern com- 
 posers to add their special share to its possible 
 future development. It is quite true that a 
 very large number of fugues, more or less in 
 the old style, are at this time issued by so 
 called scientific composers, and are considered 
 clever, and favourably received by those who 
 are not familiar with any music but that of 
 the igth century ; but, were it worth the 
 labour, such modern-antique fugues, could be 
 proved to be mere rescripts and collections 
 of what has been written long ago, not only 
 once or twice, but scores of times. Having 
 carefully examined the various periods in the 
 life and history of fugue, and having accus- 
 tomed himself to treat with respect the rules 
 which fence in its earlier rudimentary forms, 
 the student who reads aright will unhesitat- 
 ingly endeavour to make fugue-form the 
 handmaid of modem music, and so avoid the 
 too common error of wilfully casting aside all 
 that accumulation of experience and progres- 
 sive improvement, which we happily possess, 
 and should learn how to use. 
 
 Fugue renversee {Fr.) An inverted fugue. 
 
 Fiihrer {Ger.) (i) Subject of a fugue. 
 (2) A leader, director. 
 
 Full anthem. An anthem in which there 
 is neither solo nor verses. [Anthem.] 
 
 Full cadence. A perfect cadence. [Ca- 
 dence.] 
 
 Full chord, (i) A chord, some of the 
 essential notes of which are doubled. (2) A 
 chord for the full power of an instrument, 
 orchestra, or voices. 
 
 Full score. A score in which all the 
 parts for voices and instruments are dis- 
 played. [Score.] 
 
 Full service, (i) A setting of the Canticles 
 for voices in chorus, with or without organ 
 accompaniment. (2) An Office in which music 
 is u^d to the fullest extent allowed by the 
 rubrics. 
 
 Fiillstiminen {Ger.) Additional chorus 
 ^a.T\.s—remplissage {Fr.), ripieni {It.) — either 
 of voices or instruments. 
 
 Full stop, (i) In lute playing, a full 
 chord followed by a pause. (2) A chord in 
 which all available fingers are occupied in 
 stopping the strings. 
 
 Fundamental bass. [Harmony.] 
 
 Fundamental tones. The tones from 
 which harmonics are generated. [Acous- 
 tics, § 10.] 
 
 Fundbre {Fr.)\ Funereal, mournful, in the 
 
 Funerale {It.)\ style of a dirge; aSjtnarche 
 funibre, a funeral march. 
 
 Fiinffach {Ger.) Five-fold. Often applied 
 to a mixture stop of an organ — having five 
 ranks. 
 
 ( 191 ) 
 
FUNFSTIMMIG FZ. 
 
 Funfstimmig {Ger.) In five parts. 
 
 Eunzioni (It.) Functions, duty. The 
 general title for services, oratorios, and other 
 musical compositions performed in the Roman 
 church. 
 
 Fuoco, con ; fuocoso {It.) With fire, 
 spirit, dash. 
 
 Furia, con ; furibondo, furiosamente, 
 furioso (It.) With fury, energy, vehemence. 
 
 Furlano (It.) A dance. [Forlana.] 
 
 Furniture. The name of one of the mix- 
 ture stops in an organ. 
 
 Furore, con (It.) With fury, passion, en- 
 thusiasm. 
 
 Fusa {Lat.) 
 Fus6e (Fr.) 
 roulade. 
 
 A quaver, ^ 
 Rapid division, shaice, or 
 
 Fusella (Lat.) A semiquaver, •'' 
 Fuss (Ger.) Foot, (i) The part of an 
 organ pipe below the mouth. (2) The measure 
 by which the pitch of organ stops is deter- 
 mined ; as, 8 fUssig, of 8 ft., or unison pitch. 
 Fz. Abbreviation for forzando. 
 
 ( 192 ) 
 
-GALLIARD. 
 
 G. 
 
 G. (i) The note Lichanos in Greek music. 
 The third, or fore-finger string of the lyre. 
 [Greek Music] 
 
 (2) The first note of the church mode called 
 Mixo-Lydian. [Plain-Song.] 
 
 (3) The lowest note of the grave hexachord ; 
 in the Guidonian system, gamma ut. 
 
 (4) The fifth note of the normal scale of C, 
 called Sol. 
 
 (5) The lowest or fourth string of a violin, 
 the third of the viola and violoncello. 
 
 (6) The key-note of the major scale, having 
 one sharp in the signature. 
 
 (7) The letter-name of the treble clef. 
 
 G. abb. for gauche (Fr.) Left; as, m.g., 
 with the left hand. 
 
 Ga. The fourth syllable in the system of 
 Bobibation. 
 
 Gabel (Ger.) A {oTk;Stimmgabel, a tuning- 
 fork ; Gabelton, the note A, as given for the 
 pitch. 
 
 Gagliarda (7^.) [Galliard.] 
 
 Gai {Fr.), Gajo (7^.) Lively, merry, gay. 
 
 Gaillarde {Fr.) [Galliard.] 
 
 Gaiment (JPr.), Gajamente {It.) Gaily, 
 cheerily, merrily. 
 
 Galantemente (7^) Gracefully, in good 
 taste, bravely. 
 
 Galliard, Gaillarde (Fr.), Gagliarda {It.)' 
 An ancient dance, so called because of its 
 gay rh)?thm and motion. It is said by some 
 to have been similar in character to the 
 Cushion dance, and is described by Sir John 
 Davis as: 
 
 " A swift and wandering dance, 
 
 With passages uncertain to and bo, 
 
 # * * ♦ » 
 
 With lofty turns and caprioles in the air. 
 Which to the lusty tunes accordeth fair." 
 
 Like the minuet, of which it was probably 
 the parent, the galliard was danced by a lady 
 and gentleman. If more than one couple per- 
 formed the dance, they did so independently 
 of other dancers. 
 
 The tune was generally written in triple 
 time. " Hence," says Butler (" Principles of 
 
 Musick," 1636), " the triple is oft called gal- 
 liard time ; and the duple, pavan time." 
 
 Brawls, corantos, and galliards were danced 
 at court from the reign of Queen Elizabeth 
 to that of Charles I., as country dances and 
 minuets were in later time. Dowland's 
 beautiful and well-known melody, " Now, 
 O now," published, with words, in the " First 
 Booke of Songes or Ayres, of foure parts," 
 1597, had been known before that date as a 
 dance tune, under the name of the " Frog's 
 Galliard." It is usually written in | time ; 
 but as it is of slow pace, the subsidiary accent 
 might be made a primary one, and so bring 
 it within the general character of the measure 
 of the galliard. 
 
 The composers of the early part of the 
 17th century frequently employed the rhythm 
 of the galliard as a vehicle for " fancies," 
 with florid passages for the virginals. A 
 good example of this form of writing may 
 be seen in " Parthenia, or the Maydenhead 
 of the first musick that ever was printed for 
 the Virginalls," 161 1. The following tune, 
 by Girolamo Frescobaldi, 1637, will show the 
 measure of the dance : 
 
 ( 193 ) 
 
GALOP GAVOT. 
 
 ^ffJf-T^^fF' 
 
 ^■.j-i^'.^rrr^ j.^i,.:;ii 
 
 
 W V iHVnfljf H [.Mriill 
 
 Sir John Hawkins says that " the tune for 
 the galHard consists of five paces or bars in 
 the first strain, and is therefore called Cinque- 
 pace," but the existing galliards do not justify 
 this description. 
 
 Some writers say that the dance came in 
 fashion about the year 1540. It had a reign 
 of popularity extending over a hundred years, 
 after which time composers ceased to employ 
 the title. [Country Dance.] [Pavan.] 
 
 Galop, galopade (Fr.) A lively dance in 
 2-4 time, originally a separate and indepen- 
 dent dance, but now also forming a portion 
 of a set of quadrilles. 
 
 Galoubet [Fr.) A small flute of a primi- 
 tive character with three holes, similar to the 
 Picco pipe. 
 
 Gamba, Viol da (It.) A stringed instru- 
 ment of the viol sort, with six strings, weaker 
 in tone and smaller in size than the violon- 
 cello, so called because it was held between 
 the knees of the player. [Viol da Gamba.] 
 
 Garaba, or Viol da Gamba. An organ- 
 stop, the pipes of which are, in continental 
 organs, generally cylindrical, of small scale, 
 and well cut up ; but sometimes are conical 
 in shape. Its tone is pungent and not unlike 
 that of a violin or violoncello. In England 
 the Bell Gamba is more commonly met with. 
 [Bell Gamba.] 
 
 Gamme (Fr.) Gamut. [Notation.] 
 
 Ganz (Ger.) (i) Entire, whole ; Ganzton, 
 a whole tone ; Ganzenote, a semibreve, &c. 
 (2) Very, as ganz langsam, very slow. 
 
 Garbo, con {It.) With grace, politely. 
 
 Garlands. A general name for collections 
 of ballads, and other inferior literature upon 
 given subjects. [Ballad.] 
 
 Garrire {It.) To -warble, to chirp, to 
 chatter. 
 
 Gassatio. A word of varied meaning. 
 Some writers use it to describe a street 
 serenade, " hergeleitet von dem Herum- 
 spazieren auf den Gassen um den Jungfern 
 ein Standichen oder Hoferecht zu machen;" 
 others say it is a " familiar expression for 
 instrumental compositions generally, sym- 
 phonies as well as quartetts." Others as- 
 
 suming that the word comes from the Italian 
 Ca^satio or Cassazione, describe it as meaning 
 a farewell or final piece, whether in a 
 programme or as part of a whole composition. 
 The word Gassaien or Cassatio is ofteii made 
 to do duty in describing the whole thing of 
 which it only forms part, and thus it is that 
 Suites or Sonatas of the earlier composers 
 are sometimes called Cassazioni when final 
 movements ought only to be so called. 
 [Suite.] [Serenata.] 
 
 Gassenhauer. (Ger.) The name given 
 to one of the dance tunes in Wolf. Heckel's 
 " Lautten Buch," Strasbourg, 1562, which 
 contains many songs and pieces ; " Auch vil 
 faltige Newe Tentz, sampt mancheriey 
 Fantaseyen, Recercari, Pavana, Saltarelli, 
 und Gassenhawer, &c." The word is collater- 
 ally related to Passacaille, which is from the 
 Spanish Passu calle (" qui court les rues "). 
 The subjoined is a translation into modern 
 notation, from the Tablature in the book 
 referred to above, of the melody of this dance, 
 which it may be perceived is capable of bear- 
 ing a ground bass, like the chaconnes or 
 fassacaMles, to which class it unquestionaibly 
 belongs. 
 
 Wolf. Heckel's "Lautten Buch," 1562. 
 
 Gauche {Fr.) Left; as, la main gauche, 
 the left hand. 
 
 Gavot, gavotte, or gavote {Fr.) Gavotta 
 {It.) A dance tune of a lively yet dignified 
 character, said to be of French origin, and to 
 take its name from the Gavots, " Peuples 
 montagnards du pays de Gap, ont' donne le 
 nom a cette danse que nous appellons gavote." 
 The description of the dance, " a brisk round 
 for as many as will," identifies it with the 
 country dance, and the form of the tune sup- 
 
 ( 194 ) 
 
GAVOT. 
 
 ports this resemblance. The gavot seems to 
 have been more popular as an instrumental 
 piece than as a dance, and to have been a 
 favourite movement in suites, lessons, and 
 sonatas from the latter part of the 17th cen- 
 tury, the time when the word appears to 
 have been brought into use. 
 
 The descriptions of the measure and rhythm 
 of the dance are many, and slightly different, 
 one writer maintaining that it should begin 
 " with two crotchets, or the half of a bar, with 
 a rise of the hand in beating, ending also 
 with two crotchets that begin the last bar." 
 Another says, " It may begin with an odd 
 quaver, as that in the gth of Corelli's concerto 
 does ; or with a whole bar, as the same com- 
 poser shows us in Sonata i, Op. 2." 
 
 Hawkins says that the dance is in triple 
 time, of two strains of four and eight bars 
 respectively, the first ending in the key of the 
 dominant; and quotes Walther, who states 
 that the first strain should have its cadence 
 in the third or fifth of the key ; "for that if 
 it be in the key-note itself, it is not a gavot, 
 but a rondeau." It would be easy to produce 
 numerous examples of gavots by well-known 
 composers, in which the conditions mentioned 
 above are not present. The following ex- 
 amples, selected originally with the intention 
 of showing some early specimens of this 
 dance, will also be interesting as bearing 
 upon the question : 
 
 Gavot in Gamut, by Dr. John Blow, 1700. 
 
 rrr- g l, ir^; il^TT^'^-#f 
 
 rB -^ A j-u J-3r^J- -. 
 
 r^ [7^4 4 R f^ 
 
 
 ^n^ 'a 
 
 ■jf ^ !i^ Mt ^ 
 
 l-g^ 
 
 Francois Coupeein, 6. 1668, d. 1733. 
 
 ( 195 ) 
 
GAVOTTA GHAZEL. 
 
 ^ Jjj ZLrr 
 
 ff 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 zsf time, |( sMtj. | 
 
 -r^,;ll "111 
 
 «^#^ 1 
 
 but 
 
 4- 
 
 
 
 ^rrr 
 
 ^ 
 
 f=^ 
 
 
 ^^^^^-W 
 
 CorelH, Bach, Handel, and others who have 
 written gavots, do not always adhere to the 
 so-called rules of this form of composition, but 
 display some remarkable deviations from it, 
 which those interested in the subject may dis- 
 cover for themselves in the works of those 
 writers. Like the galliard, the gavot, as an 
 instrumental composition, had a limited period 
 of popularity, for there are very few examples 
 of later date than about the year 1760 to be 
 found in the sonatas and suites. As a dance, 
 the gavot was taught until a few years back, 
 but the tune employed was different to those 
 found in the compositions of the last century. 
 Many of the old gavots are being restored 
 to favour at the present time, and the com- 
 posers of school-music are exercising their 
 imitative powers in writing pieces after the 
 manner of the old composers, to supply the 
 demand made in consequence of the revived 
 popularity of the melody and rhythm of this 
 form of dance. 
 
 Gavotta (/<.) Gavotte (Fr.) [Gavot.] 
 
 G clef. The treble clef, a character placed 
 at the beginning of a stave to indicate the 
 pitch of the notes. [Clef.] 
 
 G dur {Ger.) The key of G major. 
 
 Gebrochene Akkorde (Ger.) Distributed 
 harmony, or arpeggio. [Arpeggio.] 
 
 Gedackt or Gedeckt {Ger.) Covered 
 with a lid; closed. [Decke, § 2.] 
 
 Gefahrte (Ger.) The answer to a fugue 
 subject (Fuhrer). [Fugue.] 
 
 Gefiihl, mit (Ger.) With feeling, expres- 
 sion. 
 
 Gegenbewegung (Ger.) Contrary motion. 
 
 Gegengesang (Ger.) Antiphonal music. 
 
 Gegenpunkt (Ger.) Counterpoint. , 
 
 Gegensatz (Ger.) Counter-subject. 
 
 Gehalten (Ger.) Held, sostenuto. 
 
 Gehend (Gen) Andante (It.) Lit., Going; 
 at a moderate pace ; etwas gehend, andantino. 
 
 Geige (Ger.) A violin. Geigen-blatt, the 
 finger-board ; Geigen-bogen, the bow ; Geigin- 
 harz, resin; Geigen-saite,&ddle-stnng;Geigen- 
 sattel, bridge ; Gej,gen-wirbel, peg. 
 
 Geist (Ger.) Spirit, genius, soul. 
 
 Gelassen (Ger.) Calm, tranquil. 
 
 Gemessen (Ger.) Measured,?.^. nottoofast. 
 
 Gemshorn (Ger.) (i) An instrument made 
 of the horn of the chamois goat. (2) An organ 
 stop, of conically-shaped pipes of tin, narrow 
 at the open end, with ears at the broad end 
 or mouth, to regulate the tuning. The tone 
 is peculiar and pleasant. ' It is generally of 
 8-ft. tone, though sometimes of 4, and in the 
 pedal organ of 16. 
 
 General -bass (Ger.) Thorough bass ; 
 basso continuo (It.) 
 
 Generator. A ground note, fundamental 
 bass, root, derivative. 
 
 Genere (It.) Genre (Fr.) (1) Manner or 
 style. (2) Kind or class (of scales) ; as, dia- 
 tonico, cromatico, enarmonico. 
 
 Generoso (It.) Nobly, with dignity. 
 
 Gentile ; gentilezza, con (It.) Noble, 
 with dignity. 
 
 Genus (Lat.) Sort or class, especially used 
 with reference to scales; as, the diatonic, 
 chromatic, and enharmonic genera. [Greek 
 Music] 
 
 Gerade-bewegung (Ger.) Similar motion. 
 [Motion.] 
 
 Gerade-taktart (Ger.) Common time. 
 
 German flute. [Flute.] 
 
 German sixth. [Extreme sixth, chord of.] 
 
 Ges (Ger.) The note G flat. 
 
 Gesang (Ger.) Singing, song, cantata, 
 hymn, &c. 
 
 Geschwind (Ger.) Quick, rapid. 
 
 Ges dur (Ger.) The key of G flat major. 
 
 Gestossen (Ger.) Staccato. 
 
 Getern, Getron (Old Eng.) Guitar. 
 
 Getragen (Ger.) Lit., drawn, legato. 
 
 Ghazel (Arab.) A term used by Dr. 
 Hiller to describe a piece in which a simple 
 theme is constantly recurring. The name is 
 suggested by those Eastern poems in which a 
 word or sentence either forms the ending or 
 
 ( 196) 
 
GHIRIBIZZI GLEE. 
 
 commencement of the lines. The following 
 is a short "ghazel," written by Dr. Hiller on 
 the theme, G, A, B : 
 
 Ghiribizzi (It.) Fantastic devices. 
 
 Giga [It.), Gigue (Fr.) Jig. 
 
 Gigelira (It.) Giga vel lira. A name given 
 to the strohfiedel. [Ligneum Psalterium.] 
 
 Gingras. A small ancient flute, of Phoe- 
 nician origin, afterwards adopted by some 
 European nations. 
 
 Gingrina (Lat.) [Gingras.] 
 
 Giochevol'e (It.) Merry, jocose. 
 
 Giocondamente (It.) Joyfully, merrily. 
 
 Giocondezza (It.) Mirth, jocundity. 
 
 Giocondato (It.) Happy, joyful. 
 
 Giocondo (It.) Jocund. 
 
 Giocosamente, giocoso (It.) Sportively, 
 playfully. 
 
 Giojante, giojosamente, giojoso (It.) 
 With mirth, joyfully. 
 
 Gioviale (It.) Jovial, pleasant. 
 
 Giovialit^, con (It.) With jollity. 
 
 Giraffe. An ancient form of the spinnet. 
 [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Gis (Ger.) The note G sharp. 
 
 Gis moll (Ger.) The key of G sharp 
 minor. 
 
 Gittern. [Guitar.] 
 
 Gittith (Heb.) This word, which is found 
 in the titles of Ps. viii., Ixxxi., Ixxxiv., is by 
 some supposed to signify a musical instru- 
 ment (perhaps as used at Gath) ; by others, a 
 vintage-song, or well-known tune, to which 
 the Psalm could be sung. Various other 
 explanations have been offered, which it is 
 unnecessary to give here. 
 
 Giubiloso (It.) Jubilant. 
 
 Giustamente (It.) Strictly, accurately. 
 
 Giusto (It.) Strict, correct, moderate ; a 
 tempo giusto, at a moderate pace. 
 
 Glass. Musical instruments of this ma- 
 terial are of two kinds, percussion and fric- 
 tion ; the first consists of a series of small 
 plates of graduated sizes, supported on tapes 
 secured in a Wooden box, the several tones 
 being regulated by the size of the glass : this is 
 a mere toy. For a description of the best of 
 the second class see Armonica. Another 
 form of a glass friction instrument is made of 
 a number of tubes of various lengths, and as 
 the tone is brought out by stroking the length 
 of the several tubes with ilannel or india- 
 rubber, it is only capable of producing slow 
 melodies. 
 
 Glee. A composition for voices in har- 
 mony, consisting of two or more contrasted 
 
 movements, with the parts so contrived that 
 they may be termed a series of interwoven 
 melodies'. It may be written for three or more 
 voices, either equal or mixed ; but it is neces- 
 sary that there should be only one voice to a 
 part. It may be designed with or without in- 
 strumental accompaniment, and set to words 
 in any style- — ^ amatory, bacchanalian, pas- 
 toral, didactic, comic, or serious. As a com- 
 position, the glee appears to have historically 
 followed the catch, and to have had its origin 
 at the time when part-singing began to be 
 revived. But when musical skill was at a 
 very low ebb, a satisfactory performance 
 of existing vocal compositions for combined 
 voices was neither possible nor desirable : not 
 possible ; because the madrigal, to be effec- 
 tive, required many voices to a part ; and not 
 desirable, because the words set to the catches, 
 the other sort of secular part-music, were not 
 of a character which fitted them for the ears 
 of decent folk. The earliest glees, so called, 
 were set to words of a pastoral character. 
 One of the first, if not the very first, printed 
 composition for voices to which the title 
 was attached, was " Turn, Amaryllis, to thy 
 swain," by Thomas Brewer, included in the 
 second book of Hilton's " Catch that catch 
 can," 1652. The most ancient collection in 
 which glees are specially mentioned, was pub- 
 lished by Playford. It is called, " The Musi- 
 cal Companion, in two books : the First Book 
 containing Catches and Rounds for Three 
 Voyces ; the Second Book containing Dia- 
 logues, Glees, Ayres, and Songs for two, 
 three, and Four Voyces," 1673. The com- 
 positions contained in these books can only 
 be regarded as exhibiting the qualities of pre- 
 liminary attempts to fix and form the style, 
 which afterwards became known as the " glee 
 style." Many other species of musical works 
 have grown to their present proportions by 
 slow degrees ; but the glee seems to have 
 started into existence in its modern form all 
 at once, and not to have been the result of a 
 series of developments. From the time when 
 Playford's book was published until between 
 the year 1760 and 1770, the specimens of 
 part- writing to which the authors attached the 
 word " glee," are somewhat rare, the terms 
 " ode," or " three, four, or five-part song," 
 being preferred for vocal compositions in 
 harmony. 
 
 Sir John Hawkins does not mention the 
 word once in his " History of Music," pub- 
 lished 1776, although institutions for the 
 encouragement of glee-writing were already 
 established in his time. 
 
 The period of the existence of the glee, as 
 we now understand it, was about seventy 
 years, namely, from 1760 to 1830 ; the most 
 successful of the glee- writers during that time 
 
 ( 197 ) 
 
GLEEK- GONG. 
 
 were S. Webbe, Dr. Cooke, Dr. Callcott, 
 R.J. S.Stevens, Reginald Spofforth, J. Stafford 
 Smith, W. Horsley, Sir Henry Bishop, Charles 
 Evans, and to this list must be added. Sir 
 John Goss. 
 
 The compositions of these writers, with a 
 few by their contemporaries, form the whole 
 literature of this class. The so-called German 
 glees are, for the most part, simply harmo- 
 nised melodies, and belong to the order of 
 part-songs rather than to that of glees. The 
 application of the term to this class of com- 
 position is correct philologically, but not 
 formally. The old word glee meant harmony 
 or combination ; and, therefore, all composi- 
 tions for voices in harmony may be rightly 
 designated by the term. But the word 
 is understood to signify a special sort of 
 vocal harmony, and if the pieces so called do 
 not fulfil the conditions of the character, 
 already described above, they ought not to 
 be called by the term. 
 
 The glee, like the anthem, is of English 
 growth, and has never been successfully imi- 
 tated by foreign writers. The increase of 
 musical taste has led to the formation of large 
 choral societies, by whom the master-works 
 of the great composers are given with effect; 
 but it has also led to the neglect of private 
 social musical gatherings, and, consequently, 
 to the disuse of one of the most delightful 
 musical pleasures, the performance of the 
 glee. Glee-singing is almost a lost art in 
 England. The tradition has not been pro- 
 perly maintained, and we are in the somewhat 
 anomalous position of a people in the posses- 
 sion of a special literature, which we cannot 
 rightly interpret or appreciate. 
 
 A few remarks upon the origin and mean- 
 ing of the word Glee may not be considered 
 uninteresting or out of place here. The 
 word comes from the Anglo-Saxon " gle," 
 meaning music, or the performance of music. 
 For example, the " Story of Genesis," written 
 about 1250, and reprinted by the Early Eng- 
 lish Text Society, has the following words : 
 
 " Jobal is broker song and glew, 
 Wit of music well he knew." 
 
 Chaucer, in his " Troilus and Creseide," uses 
 the word with a like meaning : 
 
 " For though that the best harpair upon live 
 Would on the beste sounid jolly harpe 
 That evir was with all his fingers five 
 Touch aie o string, or aie warble harp 
 Were his nailis poincted nevir so sharpe, 
 It shulde makin every wight to dull 
 To here his gle and of his strokis fiill." 
 
 In the " Promptorium Parvulorum" (1440), 
 the same word, spelt glu, probably in accord- 
 ance with the provincial pronunciation of 
 the writer, is translated armonia, minstrelsy. 
 Some modern writers suppose the word to 
 
 come from gligg, the Anglo-Saxon terni for 
 joy or merriment ; or from gleek, which signi- 
 iies to- scoff, sneer, or banter. Neither of 
 these derivations point to the musical use of 
 the word ; for the majority of glees are of a 
 character too serious to be called merry, and 
 too earnest to be called bantering. 
 
 The early writers of glees frequently used 
 a qualifying term with the word, as " serious 
 glee," " chearfuU glee," &c., a practice which 
 might be considered superfluous if the word 
 only meant merriment. It may be, therefore, 
 gathered, that they attached a meaning to the 
 word similar to that found in the writings of 
 the early poets and others, namely, combina- 
 tion. That glee meant consort or harmony 
 is implied in the following extract from a poem 
 by Robert Manning, of Lincolnshire, in the 
 reign of Edward I., c. 1303 : 
 
 " Yn harpe and tabour and symphan gle 
 Worship God in trumpes ant sautre ; 
 Yn cordes, yn organes, and bells ringying, 
 Yn all these worship the hevene Kyng." 
 
 and in Davie's poem, the Life of Alexander, 
 [temp. Ed. II.] 
 
 " Orgues, chymbes, uche maner gle •••*••• 
 Withouten the toums murey ; " 
 (Organs, chimes, all manner of harmony 
 Outside the town's wall). 
 
 [Catch.] [Madrigal.] [Part-song.] 
 
 Gleek. [Glee.] 
 
 G\i (It.) The; a.s glistromenti, the mstra- 
 ments. 
 
 Glissando, glissato, glissicato, glissi- 
 cando {It.) (i) Playing a rapid passage in 
 pianoforte music, by sliding the tips of the 
 lingers along the keys instead of striking each 
 note with a separate finger. (2) A rapid slur 
 in violin playing. 
 
 Glisser (Fr.) To slide. [Glissando.] 
 
 Glockenspiel [Ger.) An instrument made 
 of bells tuned diatonically and struck with 
 hammers, or by levers acted upon by a key- 
 board. It is occasionally employed in the 
 orchestra, notably by Mozart in his opera, 
 "The Magic Flute." [Bells.] [Carillon.] 
 (2) An organ stop of two ranks. 
 
 Gloria [Lat.) [Mass.] 
 
 Glottis. [Larynx.] 
 
 Glottis {Gk., yXurri'c) ; Lat., Lingula. The 
 reed used in some of the ancient flutes. These 
 reeds were moveable, and were carried about 
 in a little box called yKbiaaoKOfXEiov. 
 
 G moll [Ger.) The key of G minor. 
 
 Gnaccare {It.) [Castanets.] 
 
 Gong, (i) A pulsatile metal instrument, 
 generally circular and shallow, formed of 
 copper and tin mixed in the proportions 
 80 : 20. (2) A rod of metal bent into a plane 
 spiral, used instead of a bell. (3) Flat bars 
 of metal placed over resonators. (4) Bell- 
 
 ( 198) 
 
GORGHEGGI GREAT ORGAN. 
 
 shaped metal vessels with the mouth partially 
 closed. 
 
 Gong Drum. A bass drum shaped like 
 a tambourine. 
 
 Gorgheggi, Gorgheggiare (It.) Trills, 
 quaverings, warblings. 
 
 Gosba. An Arabian flute. There are two 
 sorts of the gosba, the one with three holes 
 in the lower extremity, producing four sounds 
 which with their harmonics at the fifth complete 
 the octave. The instrument is employed to 
 guide the voice of a singer. The other gosba 
 is larger and pierced with six holes, with a 
 double hole at the back. 
 Grace notes. [Graces.] 
 Graces. A general term for ornamental 
 notes or short passages, introduced as em- 
 bellishments into vocal or instrumental music, 
 not actually essential to its harmony or melody. 
 In former times, in vocal music, the selection 
 of graces was left to the judgment of the 
 performer to a great extent, but in instru- 
 mental music numerous signs have from time 
 to time been used, explanations of which will 
 be found under their distinctive names. Harp- 
 sichord and lute music was always lavishly 
 ornamented, and in lesson books for these 
 instruments, much care and space is often 
 given to a full explanation of their force and 
 meaning. [Harpsichord.] Music for viols 
 was also graced in various ways, but never to 
 so great an extent as that above named. As 
 all these instruments are now obsolete it is 
 unnecessary to enter further into the subject. 
 In our own time a reaction has taken place 
 against the absurd embellishments indulged 
 in by our forefathers, and it has become 
 fashionable to sing and play music just as it 
 is written. This is perhaps to be regretted, 
 as those who are rendering music should 
 carefiiUy consider whether the writer wished 
 ornaments to be excluded, or, omitted to write 
 them under a belief that they would certainly 
 be introduced in performance. [See Cadenza.] 
 [Accompaniment.] 
 Gracieux(Fr.) Graceful; in graceful style. 
 Gracile {It.) Small, thin ; as, voce gracile, 
 a thin voice. 
 
 Grad. {Ger.) A degree or step of a scale. 
 Gradation {Fr.) Gradazione {It.) Grada- 
 tion, by degrees of the scale. 
 
 Gradevole, gradevolmente {It.) Grate- 
 ful, gratefully. 
 
 Graditissimo {It.) Most grateful. 
 Gradleiter {Ger.) A scale. 
 Grado {It.) Degree or step of a scale ; as, 
 di grado, by conjunct motion, as opposed to 
 di salto, by a skip. 
 
 Graduale {Lat.) A gradual. A piece of 
 music performed between the reading of the 
 Epistle and Gospel in the Roman Church. 
 Graduellement {Fr.) By degrees. 
 
 Gradual modulation. A change of key 
 by diatonic progression. 
 
 Graduate in music. One who has taken 
 a degree in music at a university. 
 
 Gran cassa {It.) Grosse caisse {Fr.) The 
 big drum. 
 
 Grand {Fr.) Grande {It.) Large, great, 
 complete ; as, grand bourdon, a double bour- 
 don ; a grande orchestre, for a complete band. 
 
 Grand barre {Fr.) A position in guitar 
 playing, the object being to alter the pitch of 
 the instrument by making a temporary nut of 
 the forefinger laid lengthwise across the 
 strings. [Guitar.] 
 
 Grande mesure a deux temps {Fr.) 
 Common measure of two beats. 
 
 Grandezza {It.) Grandeur. 
 
 Grandioso {It.) Grand, in a lofty manner. 
 
 Grandisonante {It.) Loud, sonorous. 
 
 Grand jeu {Fr.) The power obtained by 
 the use of the whole of the stops in an organ, 
 or by the employment of a stop so called in 
 the harmonium which calls into use the whole 
 of the available registers. 
 
 Gran gusto {It.) Elevated taste or ex-; 
 pression. 
 
 Grande orgue {Fr.) (i) Full organ. (2) 
 The great organ. 
 
 Grand pianoforte. [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Gran tamburo {It.) The big drum. 
 
 Grappa {It.) Lit., a stem ; a brace which 
 connects staves. 
 
 Grave {Lat., It., Fr., Eng.) (i) Deep in 
 pitch ; as, grave hexachord, the lowest hexa- 
 chord in the Guidonian system. (2) Slow in 
 pace, solemnly. 
 
 Gravecembalum {Lat.), Gravicembalo 
 (It.) [Harpsichord.] 
 
 Gravement {Fr.) Slow, and in a solemn 
 style. 
 
 Gravitk, con (7^) With dignity, weight, 
 majesty. 
 
 Grazia, con {It.) With grace, elegance. 
 
 Graziosamente, grazioso {It.) Grace- 
 fully, elegantly. 
 
 Greater. Belonging to the major scale ; 
 as, a greater third, a major third, as C to E ; 
 greater sixth, a major sixth, as C to A. A 
 piece of music, said by the old writers to be 
 in any key with the greater third, was in the 
 major mode ; with the lesser third, in the 
 minor mode. 
 
 Great octave. The sounds lying be- 
 tween 
 
 m 
 
 represented, according to one system, by 
 single capitals, C, D, E, &c. ; in another, by 
 double capitals, as CC, DD, EE, &c. [Pitch.] 
 Great organ. [Organ.] 
 
 ( 199 ) 
 
GREEK MUSIC. 
 
 Greek Music (Systems of ancient).* From 
 the time of Homer down to that of Terpan- 
 der, who seems to have flourished some 300 
 years after Homer, the lyres of the Greeks 
 had but four strings. At that early date the 
 instrument could only have been used for the 
 purposes of a pitch pipe, just as orators sub- 
 sequently employed it to regulate the pitch of 
 the voice. No tune could be drawn from 
 four notes. 
 
 Terpander raised the number of strings 
 from four to seven, for the service of the 
 Gods. The following two lines, from one of 
 his hymns, are preserved in the Introductio 
 Harmonica, ascribed to, but evidently not 
 written by, Euclid. f 
 " 'H^eTc TOi TCTpayepw aTrooTtpSavrte aotSriv, 
 
 ETrrarcJv^ (popfiiyyi viove KeXaS^tro/iEy i!juvoi/c."t 
 — (p. ig, edit. Meibom.) 
 
 This scale of seven notes was formed by 
 connecting the first tetrachord, or series of four 
 notes, with a second series of four, by one 
 sound common to both. To represent these 
 sounds in modern notes, they would be as E, 
 F, G, A, and A, B flat, C D united by the A 
 in the middle, which was the key note to the 
 two. The Greeks had the same number of 
 perfect fourths in a scale that we have, but 
 when they formed their scales by tetrachords, 
 or fourths, they selected that position of the 
 fourth, in which the semitone came between 
 the lowest two -strings — as E, F, G, A. The 
 
 ORIGINAL SEVEN-STRINGED SYSTEM OF THE 
 
 LYRE was then as follows : — 
 
 'd. Nete (shortest string, giving 
 
 the highest sound). 
 - c. Paranete (beside Nete). 
 b flat. Paramese (beside Mese). 
 A. Mese (middle string and key 
 note, connecting the two 
 fourths). 
 G. LiCHANOs (forefinger string). 
 F. Parhypate (beside Hypate). 
 E. Hypate (longest string, giv- 
 ing the lowest sound). 
 The above are names of the strings of the 
 lyres, and not of notes of a fixed pitch. The 
 
 * " The Systems of Ancient Greek Music compared 
 with Modern Music," abbreviated from Chappell's 
 History of Music. 
 
 ■|- Two treatises on music are ascribed to Euclid, the 
 Introductio Harmonica and the Sectio Canonis. The 
 second is a mathematical treatise quoted by Porphyrius 
 as Euclid's, but the first is an Aristoxenian or practical 
 musician's treatise in a different school. (It is none the 
 less valuable, whoever may have been its author.) 
 With this reservation both will hereafter be quoted 
 as Euclid's, to abbreviate references. Proclus says 
 only that Euclid wrote on the elements of music. 
 (Kara jiovimcfiv (TTOixeiiiiTEiQ.) 
 
 J But we, loving no more the four-toned song, 
 Will sing aloud new hymns to a seven-toned lyre. 
 
 Upper 
 Tetrachord. 
 
 Lower 
 Tetrachord.1 
 
 same names would have been retained if the 
 lyre had been tuned one, two, or three notes 
 higher. The longest string was called Hypate, 
 although it gave the lowest sound. If pitch 
 had counted for height instead of mere length 
 of string, the order of Nete and Hypate would 
 have been reversed. 
 
 The lower four strings of the lyre were 
 played by the thumb and three fingers of 
 the left hand, the string that fell under the 
 forefinger being called lichanos (the licking- 
 up finger), and the thumb upon the key 
 note or Mese. The three treble strings were 
 played upon by a plectrum, which was a 
 piece of ivory, ebony, horn, or any hard 
 wood. This was held in the right hand, 
 and its use being only occasional, the right 
 hand was in a measure left free for action 
 in addressing the auditors. 
 
 The next improvement in Greek music is 
 connected with the most important of all dates 
 in Grecian History — that at which Egypt was 
 thrown open to the Greeks by Psammetichus 
 the First, King of Egypt. From that event 
 sprang the rapid advances of the Greeks in 
 science, in art, and in literature. Philosophers, 
 law-givers, historians, astronomers, mathe- 
 maticians, musicians, architects, physicians, 
 and alchemists — indeed all who were intent 
 upon the acquisition of learning — sought it in 
 that world of ancient civilization. It was 
 there that Thales learnt to measure the height 
 of a temple or of a pyramid by the length of 
 its shadow — there to divide the year into 365 
 days. It was there that one of the philosophical 
 re-discoveries of the last and of the present 
 century, viz., that sounds may be both too 
 high and too low to reach the human ear, was 
 known thousands of years ago. 
 
 Until the reign of Psammetichus the 
 Greeks had been going on a wrong road to 
 music. The seven strings could produce 
 nothing worthy of the name of tune with 
 such a scale as they had ; at least so long as 
 the middle string remained the key note of 
 that scale. All the ancient fables of Orpheus 
 and Amphion must rest upon their skill in 
 poetical recitation, which was one .branch of 
 music in the Greek sense. As to Amphion, 
 he, no doubt, sang in such lively rhythm as 
 to expedite the builders in order to keep time 
 to it, and hence the fable of his having raised 
 the walls of Thebes by his lyre. 
 
 Psammetichus I. began his reign in 664, 
 B.C.§ He was the first of the Pharaohs who 
 
 § In Dr. W. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
 Biography, the date of Psammetichus I. is given as 671, 
 B.C., and to this is added a note that Boeckh dates 
 his reign as 6S4, B.C. As Egyptian dates can be 
 carried back with tolerable certainty from the conquest 
 of Egypt by Cambyses, and the above is rather vague 
 for a matter of such importance (especially when early 
 
 ( 200 ) 
 
GREEK MUSIC. 
 
 cultivated the friendship of the Greeks ; he 
 invited them as settlers, and engaged Carian 
 and Greek mercenaries in his army. It was 
 the change in Egyptian policy that enabled 
 Pythagoras to go to Egypt, where he is said 
 to have lived 22 years. He is the reputed 
 discoverer of the octave system of music, 
 which was certainly known in Egypt at least 
 a thousand years before his visit. 
 
 The popular myth of the Egyptian Hermes 
 and the lyre, is that, when walking by the 
 banks of the Nile, he accidentally kicked the 
 shell of a dried tortoise, in which there was 
 nothing remaining but dried sinews, and that 
 it emitted musical sounds, and thus suggested 
 to him the idea of forming it into a musical 
 instrument. The Egyptian name of the 
 God was Thoth. The instrument was the 
 Egyptian nefer, in hieroglyphics nfr (without 
 the vowels), so sometimes translated nofra or 
 nefru. This musical instrument is found 
 in hieroglyphics at as early a date as the 
 building of the second pyramid. The 
 ineaning expressed by the hieroglyphic is 
 " good." 
 
 The difference between the Greek 150-0 and 
 the Egyptian lute was that the former had no 
 neck, against which the strings could be 
 pressed. A lyre with an open back could 
 give but one sound from each string, but 
 when the same string was pressed against a 
 finger-board it would produce notes in every 
 variety, according as the vibrating part of the 
 string was shorter or longer. The first lesson 
 to be learnt from it was that the half of a 
 string would produce the sound of the octave 
 above the whole length; next, that, by stop- 
 ping one-third of it, the remaining two-thirds 
 would sound the musical interval of a fifth 
 above the whole length ; and that by stopping 
 a fourth part, the remaining three-fourths 
 would sound the interval of a fourth above 
 |the whole. In this way the Greeks learnt to 
 Jjproduce every note of a scale, as well as the 
 'relation between geometrical proportions and 
 ° musical sounds. 
 
 At the time of this discovery Greek lyres 
 had only been made, on the Terpander model, 
 to carry seven strings, so that, on learning 
 the octave system, which required eight, they 
 were obliged to leave out one of the notes. 
 
 authorities differ also by ten years in the length of his 
 reign), the assistance of Samuel Birch, Esq., LL.D., 
 F.S.A., keeper of the Antiquities in the British Museum, 
 was sought for to decide between the discrepancies, 
 and most kindly given in the following words : — " The 
 highest monumental date known of Psammetichus I. 
 is 54 years, according to the Apis tablets of the Sera- 
 peium, which agrees with the statement of Herodotus. 
 The date of 664, B.C., is the lowest probable date of 
 the accession of Psammetichus, which might be a year 
 or two higher, and Boeckh's date is inadmissible." 
 
 i 
 
 After new lyres had been made to carry eight 
 strings the entire octave was included upon 
 the instrument. The old system of tuning 
 the lyre was then called Synaphe or Conjunc- 
 tion {<7vva<pri),* and the new, or octave, system 
 was called Harmonia (hpiiovia), the " fitting 
 in" system, because it fitted in the lesser 
 consonances of the fourth and fifth into the 
 greater consonance of the octave. (Verb. 
 apfio^eiv, and the participle, used as an adjec- 
 tive, fipfiotrfiivog.) When the principle was 
 fully established, harmonia became a syno- 
 nym for music, in our sense of the word, 
 for the Greek word, Mousike, embraced all 
 the arts and sciences over which the Muses 
 presided. 
 
 The old dissonant seventh (from E to d) 
 was made into an octave (from E to e) by the 
 interposition of a tone between the two, 
 previously, conjoined fourths or tetrachords. 
 This interposed tone was called the dia- 
 zeuktic tone, or tone of disjunction (rdcoc 
 SiaftuKnicoe.) 
 
 The following is the scale for the seven, 
 and for the eight stringed lyre upon the 
 Egyptian or Octave System. It is here 
 printed in the Greek " common" musical 
 scale — our A minor with a minor seventh : — • 
 
 Seven Stringed Lyre. 
 
 Upper 
 Tetrachord. 
 
 Lower 
 Tetrachord. 
 
 e. Nete. 
 d. Paranete. 
 c. {omitted.) 
 b. Paramese or Trite, 
 a Mese (key note). 
 G. Lichanos. 
 F. Parhypate. 
 ^E. Hypate. 
 
 Eight Stringed Lyre. 
 
 Upper 
 Tetrachord. 
 
 e. Nete. 
 d. Paranete. 
 c. Trite, 
 b. Paramese. 
 
 The tone of Disjunction or Diazeuktic tone. 
 a. Mese (key note). 
 Lower g. Lichanos (or Diatonos). 
 
 Tetrachord. ' F. Parhypate. 
 ,E. Hypate. 
 
 In the eight stringed lyre Paramese and 
 Trite were no longer the same string. Para- 
 mese took its proper place, next to Mese, and 
 Trite was third from the top, as its name 
 indicates. 
 
 By this system the player had a fifth up- 
 wards from his key note and a fourth below 
 it, so as to allow scope for recitation both 
 
 * Bacchius, Senr., p. 20. 
 
 ( 201 ) 
 
GREEK MUSIC. 
 
 above and below. He could then produce 
 something more like to a tune than was pos- 
 sible upon the old scale. Before that time 
 any Greek chant would have sounded to 
 modern ears as never ending, for their key 
 note would be to us as the third of the key, 
 because we have a major scale (which the 
 Greeks had not), and we could associate such 
 recitations with the key of F major through 
 the B flat. The scales of the Greeks were all 
 in minor keys, and the nearest approach they 
 had to a major scale was one of five tones, 
 which might be extracted from the chromatic 
 scale, of which hereafter. 
 
 The reason why Pythagoras preferred to 
 omit C, which was a major third from the top 
 on the seven stringed lyre, and a minor third 
 above the key note (a), was because, at that 
 time (but not after Didymus, Claudius 
 Ptolemy, and other mathematicians had re- 
 vised the scale) Greek thirds were not only 
 esteemed as discords, but were so. They 
 were so because, at first, the Greeks used 
 only major tones in their scales, and there are 
 less than six major tones in an octave. It is 
 not proposed here to enter upon the mathe- 
 matical divisions of scales, which, after the 
 introduction of "equal temperament" {alias, 
 equal putting out of tune), few, especially they 
 who have their pianofortes tuned for them, 
 seem to care about. But still a very easy 
 experiment may be recommended to prove 
 the case. 
 
 A major tone is the difference by which a 
 fifth overlaps a fourth. Therefore, tune a 
 perfect fourth from C down to G (or ask the tuner 
 to do it), and then a perfect iifth up from G 
 to D. There will be a major tone from C to 
 D. Repeat the same, but beginning from D, 
 a perfect fourth down to A, and a perfect fifth 
 up to E. There will be another major tone 
 from D to E, and the two will form an old 
 Greek ditone, or third, from C to E. Try it 
 by the ear, and it will be understood at once 
 why the Greeks and the early writers upon 
 church music (who had the worst of Greek 
 divisions of a scale through the imperfect 
 treatise of Boethius) for a long time treated 
 thirds as discords. 
 
 Harmonia, which thus had primarily the 
 meaning of " The Octave System of Music," 
 came to signify "The Science of Music" and 
 "Music" generally, because Pythagoras had 
 limited the doctrines of the science to the 
 sounds which are included in an octave,* 
 so Harmonia and the later word Harmonica 
 
 * TlvOayopair S'6 ae/xvoc • . . ry S'avaXoyiK^ 
 
 arfjaai rnv Trjg fiovfriajs kwiyviitaiv. — Plutarch, De 
 Musica, cap. 37. 
 
 {opfioviKn) had the same meaning. The Pytha- 
 gorean writers on music were called Har- 
 monici [dpfioviKoijt^ and some of them, before 
 the time of Aristoxenus, had given such exclu- 
 sive preference to the seven- stringed systemj 
 coupling with it the enharmonic division of 
 the octave, and calling this enharmonic branch 
 of the system "harmonia," that the word was 
 not infrequently used, instead of enharmonia, 
 for a long time after. This, however, was 
 not the original meaning, as the following 
 extract from Philolaos, who first published, 
 the Pythagorean doctrines, will show. It 
 refers to the seven-stringed octave, so Trite 
 is B, not C, which it became on the eight- 
 stringed lyre. 
 
 § 'Apfioviag Se /xiyedoe km avWafia koX St'o^eiav 
 ' TO 2e Sio^ciciv fiel^ov tcLq (ruXXa/3a£ tmjyS6^ ' 
 eari yap airo viraraQ eg fiiuav (rvTiXafia, arra Si 
 fii(TaQ irOTL viarav Bto^eidv ' aaro Se vtaraQ ki ' 
 rptrav avWa^k ' airo Se Tptrair eg vTrdrav Si'o^eiav ' 
 TO S'iv fiiai^ fiiirae Kal Tplraa iiroyZoov^ 'A Se 
 avXkaPa emTpiTov ' to Se Sio^eiav fifiioKtov ' to 
 Sid iraaav Si SnrXoov. OvTO)? dpfiovla TrivTt 
 imySoa Koi. Svo Siiaieg, Sio^eidv Si TpikireySea 
 KoX SieaiQ, (TvWa^d Si SvkwoySoa Kal SU(!lq.\^ 
 
 In the above extract the distinction between 
 Harmonia (the octave system) and Diapason 
 (the octave) is clearly drawn. The use of 
 the word diesis for the interval which Aris- 
 toxenians, or practical musicians, called a 
 semitone, or rather hemitone {iifUToviov), and 
 Pythagoreans, or mathematical musicians, 
 more accurately called a limma or remnant 
 {XEhfifia), proves that Philolaos refers to the 
 diatonic scale, or scale of tones and semi- 
 tones, and not to the enharmonic scale which 
 had quarters of tones instead. When the en- 
 harmonic system came more into use the word 
 " diesis " was transferred to its quarter tones, 
 and to thirds of tones (when they were used) 
 in one of the chromatic scales. The semitone 
 was then no longer called diesis. 
 
 t Ot KoKov/ievoi ipixoviKoi, says Aristoxenus con- 
 temptuously, p. 40 and again p. 37. 
 
 J aWa. ir£pt ahrHv fiovov tSv iTrra^opSwv, S 
 EKaXovv cLpjXoviaa, rr/v £jri<rK£v|>ij' eTroiovvTO (p. 27.) 
 
 § " The extent of the octave system is a fourth and a 
 fifth ; but the fifth is greater than the fourth by a tone 
 of the proportion of g to 8 ; for [the interval J from the 
 lovyest [string E] to Mese [the key note A] is a fourth, 
 but from Mese to Nete [the upper e] is a fifth; from 
 Neie [down] to the third string is a fourth ; from the 
 third to the lowest is a fifth ; between the key note and 
 the third string is a tone of g to 8. The fourth is in 
 the ratio of 4 to 3 ; the fifth in that of 3 to 2 ; and the 
 octave [diapason] of 2 to i. Thus the octave system, 
 Harmonia [contains] five tones and two limmas [or 
 semitones], the fifth [contains] three tones and a 
 semitone, and the fourth two tones and a semitone. 
 
 ii Philolaos, edit., Boeckh, p. 66, 8vo.; Berlin, 1819. 
 
 ( 202 ) 
 
GREEK MUSIC. 
 
 Mese, which means middle, had also the 
 office of key note at the time when it only 
 connected the two fourths in the old seven- 
 stringed system. It retained the name in the 
 latter sense, as the centre and turning point 
 of the system, when the lyre had eight or ten 
 striiigs, and consequently no middle ; for 
 "eight has no middle," says Aristotle, re- 
 ferring to it.* " Systems without mutation," 
 {afierajioXa) says Aristides Quintilianus (in 
 other words, " Systems in one key ") are 
 those with one Mese : Mutable systems (/uera- 
 /3a\Xdyu£va) have several Meses."t No lyre 
 could have several middle strings, so he can 
 only mean key note. An endless number of 
 quotations might be given to the same effect. 
 Mese was not only the key note to all Greek 
 scales; it is to this day the key note of our 
 minor scales, which we derived wholly through 
 the Greeks. 
 
 Although the Greeks had now arrived at 
 the only true system of music, yet their old 
 one was not allowed to die away. There 
 were, no doubt, ancient hymns to the Gods 
 upon that system, and so they continued to 
 use it. Terpander, who first added a second 
 tetrachord to the lyre, was a hymnologist, and 
 more than 200 years after him. Ion of Chios, 
 another hymnologist, added a third conjoined 
 tetrachord, and so increased the number of 
 strings from seven to ten. The following 
 extract from one of Ion's hymns is preserved 
 by Euclid : — f 
 
 Tac avyiipiovovaaQ &pfiovias rpwBove. 
 Sptv fiev (t'etttotovov \pa.Wov Bia riaaapa Tavres 
 EXXjjvts, airapiav fiovaav acipaiievoi.^ 
 Ion produced his first tragedy (according to 
 Suidas), B.C. 453, and died B.C. 421. It is 
 clear that he here refers to the old system, 
 and not to the new, by naming only three 
 harmonies or concords {trvufuviag) from ten 
 strings, and from their meeting or conjunc- 
 tion ; for the middle tetrachord of the con- 
 junct system was united by its extremes to 
 the other two. This system of Ion's was 
 called Episynaphe, or Conjunction upon Con- 
 junction [eTTiffi/va^q]. {{ 
 
 After the time of Ion, the original Greek 
 scale received only one more string, the 
 eleventh, which was added at the base to 
 make an octave to Mese, thus borrowing from 
 the octave system. It was a great improve- 
 ment, for in this form it gave an octave of 
 the Hypo-Dorian or common Greek scale (our 
 A minor with a minor seventh) from A to a, 
 and an octave of the Dorian scale (our D 
 minor with a minor seventh) from D to d — 
 the last through having the b flat in the upper 
 part of the scale. 
 
 In this, its completed form, it became "The 
 lesser perfect system" of the Greeks, until 
 Claudius Ptolemy disputed the claim of such 
 a scale to be called "perfect." The defect he 
 saw in it was that it did not include the 
 twelfth or fifteenth. 
 
 The Lesser Perfect System. 
 
 The Synemmenon Tetrachord 
 
 or Conjunct Fourth. 
 
 The Meson Tetrachord 
 
 (jlitTUtv) 
 
 or Middle Fourth. 
 
 The Hypaton Tetrachord 
 
 (yiraTdv) 
 
 or Lowest Fourth (added by Ion). 
 
 The acquired note 
 not included in any Tetrachord. 
 
 d. Nete 
 
 c. Paranete 
 
 bl7. Trite 
 
 a. Mese 
 
 G. Lichanos 
 
 F. Parh)rpate 
 
 :E. H3rpate 
 
 D. Lichanos 
 
 C. Parhypate 
 
 B. Hypate 
 
 A. Proslambanomenos. 
 
 Synemmenon. 
 id. 
 id. 
 
 Meson, 
 id. 
 id. 
 Hypaton. 
 id. 
 id. 
 
 The original seven strings had seven dif- 
 ferent names, but no new ones were given to 
 those added by Ion, so it became necessary 
 to distinguish between the new and the old 
 
 ' Problems, 25 and 44 of Sect. 19. 
 
 t Arist. Quint., p. 17. J Euclid, Int. Harm., p. 19. 
 
 § Having the ten-note scale 
 With three musical consonances conjoined 
 
 by adding the name of the tetrachord, or 
 fourth, to which they belonged. Thus the 
 original Hypate (E) became Hypate-Meson 
 (i.e. lowest of the middle tetrachord) and the 
 
 Till now with seven-stringed 
 
 Greeks hymned thee, 
 Upraising stinted song. 
 
 Bacchius, Senr., p. 21. 
 
 fourths all the 
 
 { 203 ) 
 
GREEK MUSIC. 
 
 new Hypate (B) became Hypate-Hypaton, 
 or lowest of the lowest tetrachord. And now, 
 to quit the lesser perfect system and revert to 
 the greater, and more important one. 
 
 Many have written of Greek music without 
 distinguishing between the two systems, and 
 as one instance, we may name Dr. Burney. 
 He mixes the two into one as " the great, 
 the perfect, the immutable system . . . com- 
 posed oi five tetrachords" (p. 3), and then 
 says : " after ascending regularly thus, up to 
 D, by three conjoint tetrachords, the fourth in 
 the great system is begun by descending a 
 minor third to B natural . . . Something of 
 this dodging kind is to be found in the scale 
 of Guido " (note to p. 5, vol, i). This is 
 altogether a mistake, there is no " dodging." 
 The d, to which he refers, is the highest note 
 of the lesser system, which was perfectly dis- 
 tinct from the greater. 
 
 Another difficulty of Dr. Burney's and of 
 
 other writers, has been to understand Greek 
 octaves. It was very natural to suppose that 
 a Greek octave scale would begin and end 
 like one of two octaves, viz., upon the key 
 note ; but it was not so. The Greek octave 
 scale took from the middle of the two-octave 
 scale, and began a fourth below the key note 
 and ended a fifth above it. In other words, 
 when the octave scale was increased to two 
 octaves, it was by the addition of a new 
 tetrachord or fourth at each extreme, and 
 then joining on at the base, the "acquired 
 tone " to make an octave to the key note, 
 Mese. So that, whether they had a one 
 octave or a two octave lyre, the key note was 
 in or near the middle, and a Greek could 
 recite or sing at least a few notes above, as 
 well as a few notes below it. 
 
 The following is the "disjunct," two octave 
 system complete. 
 
 The Greater Perfect System. 
 
 (avariiiia TtKeiov) 
 
 The extreme, or Hyperboleon. 
 (turepjSoXajwy) 
 Tetrachord. 
 
 The disjunct, or Diezeugmenon 
 {ZiEZEvyfiiviov) 
 Tetrachord. 
 
 The tone of disjunction, or Diazeuktic tone 
 
 {tovoq ZiaZevKTiKoe) 
 
 The middle, or Meson 
 
 {fiiaiov) 
 
 Tetrachord. 
 
 The lowest, or Hypaton 
 
 (tnrarw)') 
 Tetrachord. 
 
 The acquired tone not belonging to any 
 Tetrachord. 
 
 (a.. Nete Hyperboleon. 
 
 Jg. Paranete id. 
 
 [f. Trite id. 
 
 Ie. Nete 
 
 d. Paranete Diezeugmenon. 
 
 c. Trite id. 
 
 b. Paramese id. 
 
 a. Mese (key note). 
 G. Lichanos (or Diatonos) Meson. 
 
 F. Parhypate id. 
 
 E. Hypate id. 
 
 D. Lichanos or (Diatonos) Hypaton. 
 
 C. Parhypate id. 
 
 B. Hypate id. 
 
 A. Proslambanomenos. 
 
 This two-octave scale is at least as old as 
 the fourth century B.C., and it was a sliding 
 scale, to be taken to the extent of an octave 
 higher. Aristoxenus speaks of the highest 
 of the above tetrachords in one of his extant 
 fragments, as well as of the art of writing 
 down music (pp. 39, 40). He also enumerates 
 the six different modes of tuning the lyre, viz., 
 two diatonic, three chromatic, and one 
 enharmonic (p. 50 et seq.). Of these here- 
 after. 
 
 When the Greeks changed from one genus, 
 or kind of scale {yivog) to another, they never 
 altered the, tuning of more than the two inner 
 strings of each tetrachord. The Lichanoses 
 and Parhypates of the lower octave, and the 
 Trites and Paranetes of the upper were alone 
 moveable (mvovfiivoi or ^epojiivoi). Of these 
 it was only in the enharmonic genus that 
 both second and third string of each tetra- 
 chord were tuned differently. In the Chro- 
 matic the third from the top (Trites or Parhy- 
 
 ( 204 ) 
 
GREEK MUSIC. 
 
 pates) remained as they were. The extremes 
 of tetrachords and the "acquired tone" (Pros- 
 lambanomenos) were fixed sounds {iarwres) . 
 This did not prevent the re-tuning of the 
 whole lyre to any other pitch. 
 
 A comparison of the greater with the lesser 
 system will show that the lower octave is the 
 same in both. It is only from the key note up- 
 wards that any change is made. In the lesser 
 system, after a, it goes to b flat, c, d, and stops ; 
 while the greater system carries up a second 
 octave of the same kind as the lower one. 
 
 The Greeks had in all fifteen Diatonic 
 
 scales, viz., five Principal scales, Dorian, 
 lastian or Ionian, Phrygian, iEolian, and 
 Lydian. Each of these had its attendant 
 Hypo and Hyper, or Dominant and Sub- 
 Dominant. The Hypos were a fourth below 
 their principals (which gives the same scale 
 as the fifth above) and the Hypers were a 
 fourth above. 
 
 When they modulated from one key to 
 another they did it as we do, by some sound 
 common to both, and the greater the con- 
 nection between the two scales, the better 
 was the modulation esteemed.* 
 
 The Fifteen Scales of Alypius are: 
 Principals. 
 
 (A.) Hypo-Dorian. 
 
 (Bt*.) Hypo-Ionian 
 
 (B.) Hypo-Phrygian. 
 
 (C.) Hypo-iEolian. 
 
 (C J.) Hypo-Lydian. 
 
 (D.) Dorian. (G.) Hyper-Dorian or Mixo-Lydian. 
 
 (E|7.) Ionian. (Ai? .) Hyper-Ionian. 
 
 (E.) Phrygian. (A.) Hyper-Phrygian. 
 
 (F.) iEolian. (B b.) Hyper-iEolian. 
 
 (F#.) Lydian. (B.) Hyper-Lydian. 
 
 It will be observed that the classical Lydian 
 was F sharp, and not F, as in church scales. The 
 true Lydian was a tone above the Phrygian.f 
 
 In Pindar's time the Hypo-Dorian scale 
 was called iEolian ; the above arrangement 
 of intervals between scales is therefore less 
 ancient than his date. 
 
 The Greeks had no fixed pitch — neither 
 have we at this present time. The only 
 directions about it are to tune the lyre from 
 the lowest distinctly audible tone of the voice,! 
 and every man had a different voice. Instru- 
 ments made to be played together would 
 necessarily be at one pitch ; but there was no 
 fixed rule for them. 
 
 The Greeks had, in the fifteen scales, one 
 beginning upon every semitone of the octave 
 and two beginning beyond it. The five Hypos 
 extended from A to C sharp, the five princi- 
 pals from D to F sharp, and the five Hypers 
 from G to b. 
 
 The three highest Hypers were therefore 
 the same scales as the three lowest Hypos, 
 only taken an octave higher. These double 
 names for the same keys were unnecessary, 
 except in relation to their principals. 
 
 Dr. Burney says "That the ancients had 
 no G sharp or E flat" (p. 26, vol. i); but at 
 p. 41 of the same volume he shows by a 
 table of the modes that they had both. This 
 
 * Euclid, p. 21. 
 
 ■f- All Greek writers are agreed upon this; see, for 
 instance, Bacchius, p. 12. 
 % Gaudentius, p. 22, &c. 
 
 curious instance of self-contradiction remains 
 in his second edition. 
 
 As all Greek scales were tuned with per- 
 fect fourth, fifth, and octave, and all (till about 
 the birth of Christ) with major tones only, 
 there could not possibly be any musical differ- 
 ence, other than that of relative pitch, between 
 one scale and another, if the lyre was tuned 
 for each scale. Differences of character be- 
 tween one key and another arise from one 
 key being less perfectly in tune than another. 
 But inasmuch as certain metres were asso- 
 ciated with particular scales, and the character 
 of the music would correspond with the spirit 
 of the verse, there might be as much differ- 
 ence between them as between a hymn and a 
 march. The difficulty is that Greek authors 
 were not agreed upon the character of any 
 scale but the Dorian. That was to be severe, 
 grave, and manly. But as to Phrygian, while 
 Plato esteemed it as smooth and fit for prayer, 
 Aristotle speaks of it as enthusiastic and 
 bacchic. These contradictory estimates have 
 been collected by Boeckh in his Metres of 
 Pindar (lib. iii. c. 8.) 
 
 The usual way of tuning the lyre was to the 
 Dorian, the central scale of the seven, and 
 esteemed as the true Greek system. This 
 preference for the Dorian is proved by all the 
 accounts of the Greek octaves. The seven 
 principal scales are therefore presented in 
 that form, showing what notes would come 
 upon the octave lyre (within the cross lines) 
 and upon the two-octave lyre. 
 
 ( 205 ) 
 
GREEK MUSIC. 
 
 Scales for the Lyre. 
 
 Mixo-Lydian, or"! 
 
 - ian. |Gi 
 
 Hyper-Dorian. 
 
 Octave Lyre. 
 
 —G — lJ£2 — : 
 
 i 
 
 Mese. 
 
 m^ 
 
 i^ 
 
 !?o f^ M 
 
 -rzy 
 
 iLydian. f|: minor. 
 
 ^£t 
 
 ^ 1^=*^ 
 
 _£2_ 
 
 i 
 
 Mese. 
 
 -|tHN 
 
 ■o- 
 
 Phrygian. E minor. 
 
 "gy- 
 
 i 
 
 Mese. 
 
 IZ2Z 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Dorian. D minor. 
 
 -ry- 
 
 Mese. 
 
 h^ ^- ^ 
 
 i 
 
 ie <> ^- \ 
 
 rsz: 
 
 Hypo-Lydian. C:| minor, 
 
 gla 
 
 i^=jN 
 
 _!2. 
 
 Mese. 
 
 ^ 
 
 i^^ 
 
 Hypo-Phrygian. B minor. 
 
 sn 
 
 3z: 
 
 1^ 
 
 ~gj~ 
 
 Mese. 
 
 Hypo-Dorian. A minor. 
 
 ^ 
 
 T3~ 
 
 Mese. 
 
 3z: 
 
 rezi 
 
 In the above diagram the sharps and flats 
 are marked to the notes (as well as at the 
 signature) only for the purpose of showing to 
 the eye,, at a glance, which of the strings 
 must be retuned to change from one key into 
 another. The Dorian, being the centre scale, 
 has its entire fifteen notes; but the three 
 scales above it want one, two, or three of 
 their upper notes, while the three below it 
 want one, two, or three of their lower. The 
 octave lyre has its series complete. 
 
 Supposing a Greek singer to begin in the • 
 Dorian, and to wish to take in the Hypo and 
 Hyper (or Dominant and Sub-Dominant), 
 he would require either to re-tune one string 
 for each, or else to have a ten-stringed lyre. 
 All the other strings serve for the three con- 
 nected keys, and it would be the same in any 
 other key. Thus, in the key of C we require 
 but F sharp and B flat for its Dominant and 
 Sub-Dominant. A ten-stringed lyre would 
 include the principal and its two connected 
 scales. Hence the importance of a ten- 
 stringed lyre, or a ten-stringed psaltery, such 
 as we read of in the psalms. It was not the 
 mere addition of an upper note or two, which 
 was a great objection, in the public eye; as 
 likely to lead to extravagances in declamation. 
 After the Greeks had once discovered the 
 octave systeni, they might have added an- 
 other octave with the same facility as another 
 string. 
 
 The preceding (as well as the following) 
 diagram will explain that most ancient puzzle, 
 the Greek octaves. The root of the difficulty 
 
 has been this. Although the Greeks had 
 different signs (o-jj/ieia) for writing down musi- 
 cal notes, and they wrote down music in the 
 4th century B.C., they had no fixed name 
 for any note. Some readers may remember 
 that there was an old plan of teaching singing 
 in England (which has been partially revived), 
 in which the key note was always called Bo, 
 and consequently every modulation or change 
 of key made another Do. Just so with the 
 Greeks, only instead of Bo read Mese. Every 
 string was tuned to Mese, and if a Greek knew 
 the Mese he could tell the distance of any other 
 note. So, when Euclid and others* say that 
 the Mixo-Lydian octave begins upon Hypate 
 Hypaton, they mean that it begins upon the 
 lowest note but one of its own scale, just as 
 it does in the preceding example. The key is 
 G minor, with a minor seventh, and the octave 
 lyre begins upon A. The great mistake has 
 been to take the names of the strings for fixed 
 sounds, and so to make a Mixo-Lydian octave 
 in a Hypo-Dorian scale, instead of in its own 
 scale. This error underlies all the old music 
 called Gregorian (although in the time of S. 
 Ambrose and S. Gregory there was no such 
 peculiar music), and in consequence of this 
 misapprehension " Gregorian tones or scales" 
 have wrong key notes. 
 
 When Bacchius asks "What are the names 
 of the three scales, if only three are used?" 
 he answers for himself, commencing with 
 the scale of highest pitch, " Lydian, Phrygian, 
 
 ( 206 ) 
 
 • Euclid, p. 15; GaudentiuB, p. ig; Bacchius, p. 19; &c. 
 
GREEK MUSIC. 
 
 Doriafi." And "when seven?" " Mixo-Lydian, 
 Lydian, Phrygian, Dorian, Hypo-Lydian, 
 Hypo-Phrygian, and Hypo-Dorian." These 
 are the seven in the preceding example. 
 
 Claudius Ptolemy proposed to reduce the 
 entire number of fifteen scales to the above 
 seven, thinking them sufficient, and he pro- 
 posed another very desirable change, viz., to 
 transpose them all a fourth lower for the lyre, 
 so as to bring them all within the reach of 
 
 ordinary voices. Dr. Burney says that many 
 persons imagined Ptolemy to have proposed 
 to raise them a fifth higher (History, vol. I., p. 
 45, line 4.). That would have made them im- 
 possible for men. They were decidedly very 
 high for men at the ancient historical pitch. 
 
 Ptolemy gives precisely the same rule for 
 transposing these scales that any musician 
 would give to-day, and the following is the 
 result : — 
 
 Scales for the Lyre transposed a fourth lower, by Claudius Ptolemy. 
 
 Mixo-Lydian or "j j, ^ 
 Hyper-Dorian. J 
 
 m 
 
 Octave Lyre. 
 
 ~cr 
 
 Mese. 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 « ^ .> Q 
 
 ^ 
 
 o ^ 
 
 Lydian. C|; minor. 
 
 » 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■ n o 
 
 Mese. 
 
 1^ »^ -^ 
 
 4>.*° "~H 
 
 ^ 
 
 Phrygian. B minor. 
 
 ~rr 
 
 Mese. 
 
 -^ — M- 
 
 i 
 
 ~73~ 
 
 T?~ 
 
 Dorian. A minor. 
 
 Mese. 
 
 jC2- 
 
 i 
 
 Miz 
 
 o <• - ' 
 
 o c> 
 
 Hypo-Lydian. GJ minor. 
 
 ^ft^f,. ^ Jk>=fe 
 
 Mese. u. _ ^1^ 
 
 l°- -^ 
 
 J4r> ^ I 
 
 IZ3: 
 
 Hypo-Phiygian. Fj minor. 
 
 P o 
 
 ^ 
 
 Mese. 
 
 Hypo-Dorian. E minor. 
 
 Mese. 
 
 I 
 
 1^ 
 
 lEz: 
 
 Ty 
 
 N 1° 
 
 -Q- -^- 
 
 321 
 
 It will be observed that the key notes occupy 
 the same positions as before; therefore the 
 succession of intervals must be the same, for, 
 as with us, the key note determines the suc- 
 cession. 
 
 And now, quitting the diatonic scale which is 
 by far the most important of all, and the only 
 
 one which the Romans adopted, we turn to 
 the Chromatic Scale. 
 
 The Greeks had three kinds of Chromatic 
 scale, of which only one was much used. 
 Aristoxenus calls it the Chroma tonaion 
 {xpHiJuiTovaiop). It ascended the tetrachord by 
 semitone, semitone, and minor third, as below. 
 
 On the Octave Lyre 
 A being the key note 
 it stood thus — 
 
 if j Ji J-'^r'rn i 
 
 Or in om- octave 
 scale, thus — 
 
 fif^rri^f^H 
 
 The outside notes of tetrachords are here 
 marked in minims, and the inner notes in 
 crotchets, only to be more readily distinguish- 
 able. Of the inner notes it is only the higher 
 of each two that differs from the diatonic scale. 
 
 This chromatic scale is of interest in the 
 history of music as being the first approach 
 to a major scale among the ancients that has 
 yet been discovered. It enabled them to play 
 
 five tones in minor and to change them to 
 five in major, but we have no proof that they 
 ever made that use of the scale. There are 
 the necessary F sharp and the C sharp for the 
 key of A major, and, as the seventh of the 
 scale is altogether omitted, the G sharp, which 
 would be required in a complete scale, is 
 not called into question. Five of the tones 
 make a major scale, wanting the fourth and 
 
 ( 207 ) 
 
GREEK MUSIC. 
 
 seventh of the key — in other words it is a scale 
 of the five tones without the two semitones. 
 If the major scale were played in the Lydian 
 mode, beginning on F sharp, the succession 
 of notes would be the same as the five short 
 (and usually black) keys of the pianoforte. 
 An enthusiastic Irishman or Scotchman 
 
 Key of A minor. 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 There could not be a complete major scale 
 among the Greeks, because they had a musi- 
 cal law that the seventh of the scale must be 
 at least a tone below the key note. It might 
 be more, but it could not be less. 
 
 This chromatic scale was of very simple 
 formation on the lyre. It required but to 
 lower the forefinger string (Hchanos), and 
 such others as occupied the like position in 
 the upper t^trachords, half a tone ; and so to 
 make a skip of a minor third down, instead 
 of only a tone, between it and the highest string 
 of the tetrachord, as from A to F sharp instead 
 of from A to G. 
 
 The Enharmonic Scale was of the same 
 kind as the chromatic, but made a skip down 
 of a major third, as from A to F, instead of 
 the minor third from A to F sharp, as in the 
 chromatic. But the whole tetrachord only 
 extended one semitone below F, viz. to E, 
 and as there was a string already on E, and 
 that a fixed sound, which could not be altered, 
 the otherwise useless intermediate string was 
 tuned to a quarter tone between E and F, and 
 was occasionally used as a grace note. Such 
 was the simple origin of quarter-tones in a 
 Greek scale. They could not be harmohized. 
 
 Olympus, who seems to have ilourished a 
 short time after Terpander,* is said by Plu- 
 tarch, on the authority of a lost work of 
 Aristoxenus, to have discovered the enhar- 
 monic scale by merely passing over the 
 Hchanos, or forefinger string, in preluding — 
 but that he did not use the quarter-tones. 
 It was a later idea to utilize the unemployed 
 string. The enharmonic of Olympus might 
 have been played upon any lyre which had 
 the ordinary tuning, for all the notes it re- 
 
 might think this sufficient evidence that the 
 five-toned Irish and Scotch tunes (we might 
 add EngUsh, for there are many of them) are 
 to be traced back to ancient Egypt. Proof 
 would be wanting, but imagination sometimes 
 goes a long way as a substitute. Divide the 
 scale into major and minor and it runs thus : 
 
 Key of A major. 
 
 m 
 
 i± 
 
 * p 
 
 quired were common both to the Diatonic and 
 to Chromatic scales. 
 
 The quarter tones were sometimes employed 
 both in and before the time of Aristoxenus, 
 for he says that a singer could neither sing 
 them with certainty nor the hearer judge of 
 them.f He also says that no one could sing 
 three quarter-tones in succession. f 
 
 Other scales but little used. 
 
 Euclid, at the commencement of his treatise, 
 (p. 3) names only the preceding principal 
 scales, but afterwards recapitulates them to- 
 gether with others less used (p. 10). Although 
 he gives but the tuning of one tetrachord of 
 each he thereby explains the entire octave, 
 because the, octave (as we view it, i.e., begin- 
 ning from the key note) was made up first by 
 the diazeuktic tone, or tone of disjunction (next 
 above the key note), and then of two conjoined 
 tetrachords above it. It would have been 
 the same if begun from Proslambanomenos, 
 the octave below this diazeuktic tone. A 
 tetrachord, or fourth, consists, in Aristoxenian 
 phrase, or roughly speaking, of two tones 
 and a semitone. To show the divisions of 
 the tetrachord we adopt Claudius Ptolemy's 
 plan of explaining them (lib. i. c. 13) in pre- 
 ference to that of Aristoxenus and of Euclid 
 (p. II and 12). 
 
 Aristoxenus and Euclid represent the semi- 
 tone by 6 and the tone by 12, making the 
 whole tetrachord 30. Ptolemy counts a diesis 
 or quarter-tone for 6, a semitone for 12, a 
 tone for 24, and the entire tetrachord as 60. 
 Thus he avoids fractions. The following is 
 the Complete List of Greek Scales : — 
 
 1. The Tonal Diatonic (already given) liarovov cvvtovov 
 
 2. The Soft Diatonic Ziarovov fiakaKov 
 
 3. The Semitonic Chromatic (already given) ... yjpSifia rovaiov 
 
 4. The Soft Chromatic 'xpw/ia fiaKaKoi- 
 
 5. The Sesquialteral Chromatic XP*^/"" V'°^""' 
 
 6. The one and only Enharmonic (already given) 
 
 12, 24, 24 ^ 60. 
 12, 18, 30 ;= 60. 
 12, 12, 36 60. 
 
 8, 8, 44 = 60. 
 
 9, 9, 42 = 60. 
 6, 6, 48 = 60. 
 
 * " Olympus must have flourished a short time after 
 Terpander." Mueller's Literature of Greece, p. 202. 
 M. F^tis most amusingly attributes this invention to an 
 imaginary Olympus, who is said to have " lived about 
 two centuries before the siege of Troy." The learned 
 
 writer is as liberal with his thousands of years for the 
 Greeks as if they were but mille francs. (Histoire 
 Generate de la Musique, I. 131, 8vo., i86g,) 
 
 t Aristox., p. 14, 1. 20. 
 
 i Aristox., p. 28. 
 
 ( 208 ) 
 
GREEK MUSIC. 
 
 Aristides Quintilianus describes also six 
 enharmonic modes which, according to him, 
 are of " very ancient " origin.* These scales 
 are not mentioned by any other writer on 
 music, neither is there any kind of allusion 
 to the use of any second description of en- 
 harmonic sbale elsewhere. Even Aristides 
 himself says that the enharmonic scale is 
 indivisible (at p. 133), and it must have 
 been indivisible because the quarter-tone was 
 the smallest interval employed in Greek music. 
 The only two moveable sounds were already 
 quarter-tones. These "very ancient" scales 
 can therefore be nothing more than mixed 
 scales. 
 
 The version of them given by Meibomius, 
 who first published the treatise of Aristides, 
 has been hitherto accepted without question.t 
 The text that Meibomius followed was un- 
 doubtedly very faulty, but, when he attempted 
 to amend it, he patched it in the wrong places. 
 Scales were a great trouble to him, and he 
 even failed to give the conjunct scale of three 
 tetrachords correctly, j 
 
 The following are the scales as printed by 
 Meibomius. The figures i, 2, 3, relate to 
 tones, and the 1 to quarter-tones. 
 
 * Aij cat oj iravv iraXaiOTaroi Trpog rag apfio- 
 riaq Ki-)(pr}i'-ai{p. 21.) 
 
 ■f- As by Boeckh in his Metres of Pindar, and by the 
 late learned writer of the artide "Musica" in the 
 Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, edited by 
 Wm. Smith, LL.D. 
 
 % See his notes upon Euclid, p, 63. He has omitted 
 Hypate at the bottom of the lowest tetrachord (but 
 Hypate was a standing sound, and could not be omitted) , 
 and commenced it upon Parhypate, which is one of the 
 inner moveable sounds. All his tetrachords are there- 
 fore wrong. The origin of this mistake is that he has 
 made Trite and Paramese into two strings, whereas in 
 the conjunct scale they were never other than one, B 
 flat. There should have been no Paramese in the scale, 
 because it is the conjunct scale of Ion, and so dating 
 more than 200 years after the octave system had been in 
 use, Paramese then belonged only to the octave system. 
 At some long previous time the names of Paramese and 
 Trite had been indiscriminately applied to B flat in the 
 conjunct scale, but never as separate strings in that 
 system. It is singular that an editor of the Greek 
 writers upon music should not have been able to write 
 out a scale, and perhaps equally singular that such 
 errors should have passed for 200 years unobserved. It 
 is desirable to draw attention to them because these 
 are by no means solitary errors in Meibomius. One 
 instance more : in his notes upon Aristides Quinti- 
 lianus (p. 2og, column i, line 6) he says that the two 
 most ancient tetrachords were joined together by a 
 string common to both, and that that string was called 
 hypate meson. This is an entire mistake; the string 
 was Mese. It is singular that he did not know it, even 
 by the position of the tone of disjunction. How strange 
 that so eminent a man should have edited the Greek 
 authors upon music and yet not have mastered the 
 scale system. 
 
 Lydian 
 
 Dorian 
 
 Phrygian 
 
 lastian 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 i 
 
 1 
 
 Mixo-Lydian . . |- 
 Syntono-Lydian(5ic):^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 In the above, the key note of the Dorian is 
 in its right place as the central scale, and, in 
 that, it agrees with the manuscript. It has 
 the diazeuktic tone next above it. The Phry- 
 gian, however, is in the wrong place. It 
 ought to be a string above the Dorian. Mei- 
 bomius has added a quarter -tone to this 
 scale, to make it agree with the quantity 
 stated in another line of the text ; b^t he 
 should have placed the added quarter-tone 
 on the left instead of on the right of the key 
 note. The figure 2 must be found wherever 
 the key note or Mese is placed ; but as it 
 now stands, Dorian and Phrygian have their 
 key note on the same string, which was im- 
 possible. 
 
 The scale above called " Mixo-Lydian '' 
 proves that these are mixed scales. There 
 could be no interval of three tones with- 
 out omitting both the key note and the dia- 
 zeuktic tone — two fixed sounds — and there 
 could not be a sequence of one tone after 
 another in the enharmonic scale. 
 
 As to the scale here called Syntono-Lydian 
 it is simply Hypo-Lydian, and nothing else. 
 This is proved by its having its key note on 
 the third string, and in that it accords with 
 the manuscript. There was no such enhar- 
 monic scale as SywioKO- Lydian, nor could 
 such a prefix as Syntono be applied to any 
 enharmonic scale whatever. § 
 
 The true positions of the key notes will be 
 best exemplified by subjoining the enhar- 
 monic scales in their proper order on the 
 octave lyre. 
 
 § avVTUVii), to draw together. In the enharmonic 
 scale the moveable sounds, instead of being drawn tight, 
 were relaxed to the extreme. " 'SiuvTOViDTarr] Iiotovoq 
 icTivj" says Aristoxenus, p. 25, line 11, and again 
 p. 26. Further he says, "KadoXov yap /3apwrarat /wi' 
 al kvapfiovioi Xf^^avo'i fjaav, eyofievai de ai ^(pw/ia- 
 TiKai, (TvvTnvutTaTai Se al iia-ovoi, p. 24, lines 22 
 to 25. The enharraonicwas irvKVOraTOV, anditslichanos 
 fia.pvTa.TOV the very opposite to crvv-ovi)TaTOV—iruKv6y 
 S' corai TO Ik do SieVewj' ivapfiqviiov KoiypiiifiaTiKav 
 kXa^itTTtitv. Aristox. p. 24, lines 17 to ig. 
 
 { 209 ) 
 
GREGORIANISCHE GESANG GROUND BASS. 
 
 The Greek Enharmonic Scale. 
 
 1 
 
 Mese 
 i 2 I 
 
 1 
 
 1 • 
 
 1 
 
 ¥ 
 
 1 
 ¥ 
 
 1 
 ¥ 
 
 1 
 
 ¥ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 2 I 
 
 / 
 2 I 
 
 / 
 2 I 
 
 1 I 
 
 ¥ ¥ 
 
 1 
 
 ¥ 
 
 1 
 ¥ 
 
 1 
 ¥ 
 
 I 
 
 ¥ 
 
 Mixo-Lydian . 
 Lydian . . . 
 Phrygian . , 
 Dorian . . . 
 Hypo-Lydian . 
 Hypo- Phrygian 
 
 Hypo-Dorian . 
 
 The diagonal line shows the key note of 
 each scale with its tone of disjunction next 
 above it. The other figures of 2 are the high- 
 est notes of other tetrachords. lastian (or 
 Ionian) has no place in these scales, because 
 it would require the position of one of the 
 above seven, and it was for such reasons 
 Claudius Ptolemy proposed to reduce the 
 number of scales to seven. As to the Syntono- 
 Lydian of the manuscript, it is clearly a mis- 
 take for Hypo-Lydian. It may seem strange 
 that I should have to correct a Greek writer, 
 but this is an unmistakable case, and one in 
 which he was only speaking of something 
 "very ancient," of which he had no intimate 
 knowledge. The date of the writer has been 
 clearly over-rated, and the manuscript of his 
 treatise is exceedingly corrupt. In order to 
 make one line of the text agree with another, 
 Meibomius twice changed the word "tone" 
 into"ditone" in the Lydian scale; he added a 
 diesis, or quarter-tone to the Phrygian, the 
 same to the Mixo-Lydian, and the final ditone 
 to what is called Syntono-Lydian. All these 
 additions and alterations will be seen by com- 
 paring his Latin translation with the Greek 
 text (p. 2i), and they are admitted and justi- 
 fied in Meibomius's notes. 
 
 Meibomius was the first to publish the 
 work of Aristides Quintilianus, and he seems 
 to have been desirous bf magnifying such an 
 acquisition to literature, by ascribing to the 
 author as remote a date as he could guess. 
 Meibomius overlooks his having copied from 
 Claudius Ptolemy (the numerical estimate of 
 6o for a tetrachord is taken from Ptolemy) 
 and thinks that Martianus Capella (who lived 
 about the end of the fifth century), copied 
 from Aristides. The numberless petty differ- 
 ences between the two upon a common sub- 
 ject seem greatly to militate against the 
 theory, and Meibomius's own iiotes afford the 
 evidence. Aristides had evidently studied 
 Latin, because he quotes Cicero ; he passes 
 judgment upon Spaniards, Celts, and Thra- 
 cians. They are either wild, brutal, or drunken, 
 
 but Greeks are every thing that is good (pp. 
 72 and 73). Clearly he was a Greek. But even 
 if he lived under the Roman empire, the 
 Romans used no other scale than the one 
 diatonic, so that all others were matters of 
 history. We may meet in society a man of 
 large 'general information, and yiet if we ask 
 him to define a " sackbut," he may fail; 
 although he has probably seen one every time 
 he went to opera or concert, and the name 
 of the instrument was only changed in the 
 last century. Or, we might even ask an 
 accomplished musician to define a scale of 
 Chaucer's time, and he might fail; so, like- 
 wise, may Aristides Quintilianus have failed. 
 The corrections are supplied by his own an- 
 cestors. The passage referred to by Aristides 
 is in the third book of the Republic of Plato.* 
 The prefix of "Syntono" is usually unneces- 
 sary, because it means the ordinary Lydian, 
 and therefore is rarely expressed, but Plato 
 employs it, because he wishes to distinguish 
 it from the Malakon (or laxly tuned) Lydian, 
 to which also he adverts in the text. 
 
 Aristides Quintilianus is not the only Greek 
 writer of comparatively late date, whose works 
 require testing by those of his ancestors. 
 The two Lexicographers, Hesychius and Sui- 
 das, explain musical terms indifferently, and 
 the difficulties that have been found in trans- 
 lating certain passages of Plato and Aristotle, 
 are in a measure due to reliance upon their 
 imperfect definitions of technical words relat- 
 ing to the art. 
 
 Gregorianischer Gesang (Ger.) Gre- 
 gorian chant. [Plain song.] 
 
 Gregorian. [Plain song.] 
 
 Griffbret {Ger.) Finger-board of a stringed 
 instrument. 
 
 Groppo (It.) A bunch or group of notes. 
 
 Gros Fa. The square notation used in 
 old church music. 
 
 Grosse {Ger.) (i) Major, applied to in- 
 tervals. (2) Grand, or great; as grosse Sonate, 
 grand sonata. (3) Double in pitch ; as, 
 grosse Nazard, a quint, an organ stop, an 
 octave below the twelfth ; grosse Quinte, a pedal 
 stop of io|- ft. in length. 
 
 Grosse caisse {Fr.) The big drum. 
 
 Grosso {It.) Great, full, grand ; as oon- 
 certi grossi, grand concertos. 
 
 Gros tambour {Fr.) The big drum. 
 
 Grottesco {It.) Grotesque, comic, hum- 
 orous. 
 
 Ground Bass. Basse contrainte {Fr.) 
 Basso ostinato {It.) Bassthema {Ger.) A 
 bass passage of four or eight bars in length, 
 constantly repeated, each successive time 
 
 * Mi?o\wSi(r7t, 'i(^ri, Koi ffujrovoXvSiori 
 
 TiVec oiv fiaXaicai re ical (Pv/iiroTiKai twv hpfioviir ', 
 'laiTTi, ■ijv d' og, Kal XvdiaTi, Lib. 3, p. sgga. 
 
 ( 210 
 
GROUND BASS. 
 
 accompanied with a varied melody and har- 
 mony. 
 
 The idea of this peculiar form of composi- 
 tion was probably suggested by the practice of 
 singing a varied descant upon a given plain song. 
 
 The old writers contemporary with, and 
 immediately succeeding Palestrina, frequently 
 made use of the church-tones as themes 
 for counterpoint, but did not always give 
 those themes to any one particular voice, but 
 assigned them to all by turns. This form of 
 writing was called by them " Falso-bordone." 
 Monteverde in his opera " Orfeo," represented 
 at Mantua 1607, has a Moresca, a dance 
 written upon a sort of ground bass in a form 
 that may be said to be the connecting link 
 between one form of the falso-bordone and 
 the basso ostinato. Strictly speaking, in this 
 case, it is an imitated bass, as it appears each 
 successive time in a new key, but the intervals 
 are imitated throughout. It is repeated four 
 times. The first time it is in G major, the 
 second in C major, the third in A minor, the 
 fourth time in D minor, each section ending 
 with a major chord. 
 
 Monteverde. 
 
 The employment of a ground bass as a 
 regfular musical device became more general 
 later in the same century. In the works of 
 the composers of that period, pieces with 
 ground basses are frequently found, either 
 strictly continued or with short digressions. 
 They were employed for compositions in all 
 styles, for the church, for the stage, or for the 
 chamber ; for movements in suites, arias, 
 dance tunes, &c. Many famous musicians 
 furnished " grounds" for the purpose of ex- 
 
 tempore performance. Well known "grounds" 
 were often selected by composers for a species 
 of writing called folios or follias. Thus Fari- 
 nelli's or Fardinel's ground was used by 
 Corelii, Vivaldi, and others. 
 
 Grounds by Purcell, Tollit, Moteley, Pe- 
 pusch, and others, are often found as the 
 bases of many compositions published, even 
 so late as the latter part of the last cen- 
 tury. The practice of performing upon a 
 given ground bass gave rise to treatises pro- 
 fessing to instruct the ambitious in the art. 
 One of the most famous of these works, 
 " Chelys Minutionem, or the Division Viol," 
 by Christopher Simpson, 1665, gives, as far 
 as possible, all the necessary rules, with many 
 examples. His description of the method of 
 performing " division on a ground," is inter- 
 esting, and may not be out of place here. 
 He says that " Diminution or division to a 
 ground, is the breaking either of the bass, or 
 of any higher part that is applicable thereto. 
 The manner of expressing it is thus — a 
 ground, subject, or bass, call it what you 
 please, is prick'd down on two several papers ; 
 one for him who is to play the ground upon 
 an organ, harpsichord, or whatever instru- 
 ment may be fit for that purpose ; the other 
 for him that plays upon the viol, who, having 
 the said ground before his eyes as a theme 
 or subject, plays such variety of descant or 
 division in accordance thereto as his skill and 
 present invention do then suggest unto him." 
 As the " grounds " given were very short, 
 and the compass of the viol was in those days 
 limited, this quaint sort of extempore descant 
 was perhaps not difficult, neither could it 
 have been very varied or interesting, except 
 perhaps, to those immediately concerned. 
 
 The kind of ground bass given in the 
 " Chelys " may be seen by the subjoined 
 specimen : 
 
 There are also several " Divisions " on this 
 ground given, which it is not necessary to 
 quote. 
 
 The opera "Dido and ^Eneas," written by 
 Purcell in his 22nd year, contains a very good 
 example of a song written on a ground bass. 
 The melody is beautiful and plaintive, and 
 the harmonies rich and appropriate. 
 
 " Dido and i^neas," z68o. 
 
 ( 211 ) 
 
GROUP GUITAR. 
 
 When I am laid, am laid ... in . earth, may my 
 
 p^^-^^^^^r I r> .J-M ^^^ 
 
 wrongs ere - ate no trou - ble, no trou-ble in thy 
 
 l i^ E 
 
 ■PH-t g =i|sMzll gj- Y- 
 
 Chaconnes, and Passacailles or Passacaglios, 
 were generally written on ground basses, and 
 the ingenuity and skill displayed in many 
 existing examples are both interesting and 
 instructive. There are Passacailles and 
 Chaconnes by Couperin and Rameau, Bach, 
 Handel, and others, too long to quote here. 
 Handel, whose sixty-two masterly variations 
 on a ground bass in his famous Chaconne 
 are well known, has shown also how the 
 like artifice may be effectively employed in 
 
 choruses, as those in " Saul," " Susanna,' 
 and other works sufficiently prove. 
 
 Group, (i) A series of notes, of small 
 time-value, grouped together ; a division or 
 run. (2) The method of setting out ban; 
 parts in score. 
 
 Grundstimme (Ger.) The bass part. 
 
 Grundton (Ger.) (i) The bass note. (2) 
 Fundamental bass. 
 
 Gruppetto, gruppo (It.) A series of notes 
 grouped as a cadenza, division, or ornament. 
 Playford (Introduction to the Skill of Musick) 
 gives the name Double relish to the gruppo 
 and the following directions for its per» 
 formance : 
 
 Gruppo, or double Relish. 
 
 by which it would appear to have been similar 
 to the grace now called a " shake." He 
 writes the latter as follows : 
 
 Trill, or plain shake. 
 
 G string. The name of the first string on 
 the double bass, the third on the violoncello, 
 viola, and guitar, and the fourth on the violin. 
 
 G Schltissel [Ger.) The G or treble clef. 
 
 P 
 
 Guaracha. A lively Spanish dance in % 
 or I time, usually accompanied on the guitar 
 by the dancer himself. 
 
 Guddok (i?MM.) A Russian fiddle. [Violin.] 
 
 Guer,riero {It.) Warlike, martial. 
 
 Guet {Fr.) A flourish of trumpets. 
 
 Guida (It.) (i) A guide, a direct. (2) The 
 subject of a fugue. [Fugue.] [Direct.] 
 
 Guide-main (Fr.) A hand-guide, a mecha- 
 nical contrivance for regulating the position 
 of the wrist in pianoforte playing, invented 
 by Kalkbrenner. 
 
 Guidonian syllables. [Aretinian syl- 
 lables.] 
 
 Guidonian system. [Notation.] 
 
 Guimbarde (Fr.) [Jew's Harp.] 
 
 Guitar. Guitare {Fr.) Chitarra (II.) 
 Guitarra (Sp.) A stringed instrument, 
 played by plucking or twitching the strings 
 with the right hand while the left is engaged 
 in forming the notes by " stopping " or pres- 
 sing the strings against the frets on the finger 
 board. 
 
 The modern, or Spanish guitar as it is 
 called, has six strings, the three highest 
 of gut, the three lowest of silk, covered 
 
 ( 212 ) 
 
GUITAR. 
 
 with a fine wire. The accordatura is as 
 follows : 
 
 (Sounding an octave lower.) 
 
 The guitar is but little used now in England, 
 though at one time it was very fashionable. 
 Other nations who still employ it, call it by 
 several names, most of which will be described 
 hereafter. The guitar is rarely, if ever, em- 
 ployed as an orchestral instrument, but is 
 very valuable as a portable means of accom- 
 paniment. The existence of frets upon the 
 guitar limits the number of modulations 
 capable of being performed in the normal 
 tuning. When it is desired to make a com- 
 plete change of key the capo tasto screwed 
 over the finger-board alters the tuning at any 
 desired point, or a temporary change is made 
 by the grandi harre, that is by laying the 
 forefinger of the left hand completely over the 
 strings, the remaining fingers being engaged 
 in stopping a chord. In the classification of 
 musical instruments it is convenient to speak 
 of three general sorts, wind, string, and 
 pulsatile. The guitar belongs to the second 
 kind, and may be said to represent a very 
 large family universally distributed, bearing a 
 variety of names according to the tongue of 
 the nation by which it is used. All instru- 
 ments may be considered as belonging to the 
 guitar family, which possess a resonance 
 body or sound box, together with a finger- 
 board, against which the strings with 
 which they are furnished may be pressed or 
 stopped. 
 
 Following the course of history, we find 
 that instruments of the guitar kind are of 
 great antiquity, as well as of general use by 
 people of all nations. 
 
 The kinnor and nebel, mentioned in the 
 Bible, were stringed instruments, of the guitar 
 or harp family, but of their exact nature it 
 must be confessed little is known, though 
 much is conjectured. 
 
 Egyptian Nefer. 
 
 The Egyptian frescoes and other paint- 
 ings, valuable as showing the frequent use 
 of musical instruments, include several 
 specimens of the harp and gaitar family. 
 The Nefer, one of the latter class, had a 
 neck, sometimes with a carved head, and 
 was furnished with three strings, and had 
 a resonance box. Upon the neck, or fin- 
 ger-board, frets were tied or fastened, as 
 in the modern guitar. Each string is 
 said to have been able to produce two 
 octaves. 
 
 The three strings were supposed to cor- 
 respond with the seasons of the Egyptian 
 year. 
 
 Grecian writers, describing Egyptian in- 
 struments, do not afford much real information 
 concerning them, and all attempts to reconcile 
 their statements only lead to confusion ; for 
 conjecture is not conviction. Too much trust 
 has been placed in the accuracy of sculptured 
 and painted images, and various theories have 
 been founded upon the character of musical 
 instruments as deduced from their represented 
 forms. As with ancient, so with modern 
 musical instruments of far away countries, 
 travellers' tales have too often been trusted, 
 and their statements received as conclusive, 
 when in the majority of instances they 
 are confessedly ignorant of the subject 
 upon which they give "authoritative judg- 
 ment." 
 
 Philology does not, after all, furnish the best 
 assistance towards determining relationships 
 in this matter, and, as a rule, the picture 
 of an instrument offers but a little help or 
 guide in the matter. References to musical 
 instruments by the poets of several ages 
 offer no aid whatever, but on the contrary, 
 often tend to mislea.1. If they were trust- 
 worthy, it might reasonably be assumed that 
 no other instruments but the lyre and harp 
 were ever employed to "assist the muse." 
 But colloquial terms — often despised by clas- 
 sical poets — are of most value to the historian, 
 and it is therefore found that the common 
 names applied to a stringed instrument with 
 a finger-board, kissar, cittern, zither, kitra, 
 kithara, geytarah, guitar, point to a common 
 origin. 
 
 There is no question but that the guitar 
 was introduced into Europe after the Crusades. 
 The name, purely Eastern, has been adopted 
 with only such a variation in spelling as 
 European use demands. The modern Egyp- 
 tians call it " gytarah barbaryeh," the guitar 
 of the Berbers, the people who are the direct 
 descendants of the ancient race of the country; 
 and as names and words in the East vary in 
 the course of ages less than those in the 
 West, it is likely that the word is of hi°-h 
 antiquity. ^ 
 
 ( 213 ) 
 
GUITAR. 
 
 This " gytarah," or kissar is of the following 
 form : 
 
 Nubian Kissar. 
 
 It is usually mounted with four strings tuned, 
 according to Engel, as below : 
 
 Its form is not unlike some of the instruments 
 represented on ancient Egyptian and Assyrian 
 monuments, and although the name would 
 imply some connection with the modern 
 guitar, its shape would identify it rather as 
 belonging to the lyre kind. But there are 
 other stringed instruments used by Eastern 
 people more in the form of the modern guitar. 
 The kitra or kuitra popular in Morocco 
 sometimes has the resonance-box or body 
 made of a tortoise shell, after the manner that 
 Hermes is said to have constructed his lyre. 
 
 Tunisian Kitra. 
 
 Kitra or Gunibry. 
 
 The resonance-body of the Gunibry is 
 made of a bottle-pumpkin cut longwise, and 
 covered with sheep skin. Its two strings are 
 of catgut. 
 
 The sitar, choutarah, or tamboura of Hin- 
 dostan had originally but three strings of 
 wire — as the name sitar implies — ^which were 
 afterwards increased to four or five. The 
 body is made of a gourd, the neck of cocoa 
 wood furnished with pegs. The strings are 
 played with a plectrum of twisted wire called 
 by the name of mizrab, worn on the fore- 
 finger of the right hand. There is another 
 form of Hindoo guitar of a somewhat peculiar 
 construction called Vina or Bina, which has 
 a gourd at each end. [Bina]. 
 
 Hindoo Guitar. 
 
 The Chinese, though a people of a different 
 stock, have an instrument called Yue-kin or 
 moon guitar, having four silken strings ar- 
 ranged in pairs, each pair being tuned in 
 unison, and the two pairs a fifth apart. The 
 instrument has been called by travellers fol- 
 lowing the method of pronouncing the name 
 in Canton, gut-kum, which may or may not 
 be philologically related to guitar. The gut- 
 kum, yue-kin, or moon guitar, has inside its 
 resonance box some pieces of loose metal which 
 are occasionally shaken during performance. 
 
 Chinese Yue-kin or Moon-guitar. 
 The lute, another member of this family, also 
 comes from the East, the name is the Euro- 
 pean method of speUing its title "el 'ood." 
 The pandore, bandore, pandoura, and mando- 
 line are simply other names for a lute or 
 guitar, arising from fancy or accident. 
 The mandola or mandoline, for example, 
 derives its title from the almond shape 
 of the resonance-body. The Italian word for 
 almond is mandola. Variety of names for 
 the same thing, together with slight differences 
 in form, often tend to confuse the enquirer. 
 The method of performance, the shape, the 
 mounting, the material of which they are con- 
 structed, and various other causes, are often 
 taken into consideration in the naming of 
 instruments. If these reasons are lost sight 
 of, a certain amount of confusion naturally 
 arises in the classification of musical names 
 and titles ; and things are treated and spoken 
 of as dissimilar, which are really closely con- 
 nected. If, for example, we were five thou- 
 sand years older, and no specimen of a piano- 
 forte or of its musical literature existed, and 
 we were left to judge of the form and use of 
 the instruments called by the several names 
 applied to it, We might say with good autho- 
 rity out of existing documents, that our ancient 
 English ancestors were accustomed to listen 
 for hours to a performance upon a broad wood, 
 probably an extensive forest or a wide plank, 
 
 ( 214 ) 
 
GUITAR GUTTURAL. 
 
 as the acute future critic would say. Further, 
 it might be inferred that our German contem- 
 poraries were enraptured with the skill of 
 one who was able to produce similar effects 
 from a flugel, the wing of a bird. The con- 
 nection between a forest and a bird's wing 
 might suggest some very ingenious comments. 
 In cases where titles are given independently 
 of those already applied to certain things, and 
 detailed descriptions are wanting, the differ- 
 ence becomes apparently wider each succes- 
 sive age until all ends in chaos. If the 
 ancient Eastern title geytarah had not been 
 adopted with the instrument by the Spaniards, 
 and by other nations following them; the 
 changes in the form of the instrument might 
 have been held as indicating many origins. 
 There seems to be no connection between the 
 words nefer, nebel, pandoura, lyre, and 
 kithara, still it is not unlikely that they had 
 a common start-point. 
 
 An instrument of a form like the Egyptian 
 Nefer is found depicted upon Assyrian monu- 
 ments, but strange to say there are no repre- 
 sentations of a finger-board instrument among 
 the Greek antiquities. That the Greeks 
 knew of the pandoura is evident from the 
 fact that it is mentioned by Nicomachus, and 
 subsequent historians. The modem conclu- 
 sion that they preferred their own instruments 
 without necks, "although they adopted the 
 system of the Egyptians for the subdivision 
 and measurement of strings," is very doubt- 
 ful, for the one could not have been done 
 without the aid of the other. For if we are 
 to believe that the strings of the Egyptian 
 Nefer had a compass of two octaves each, 
 those two octaves must have been obtained 
 by means of a finger-board, and if the Greek 
 instruments were without finger-boards, and 
 the strings were open from end to end, without 
 a backing along their lengths, how were they 
 stopped, or how could a string be subdivided ? 
 It is therefore probable if Greek music was as 
 perfect as it is said to have been, that finger- 
 boards, fretted or otherwise, were known and 
 used, and poets and sculptors, disdaining to 
 employ common forms, gave fancy shapes to 
 musical instruments. . 
 
 The ancient Greek kithara {Ktdapa) is ad- 
 mitted to have been portable ; and Mr. Chap- 
 pell (" History of Music," p. 37) says, " the 
 lower strings of the kithara were played by 
 the fingers of the left hand, and the higher 
 strings by the plectrum held in the right hand." 
 And again, that the instrument " was held on 
 the left side of the body, with the left arm 
 behind the instrument, for the purpose of 
 reaching the base strings which were furthest 
 from the player." Now, the difficulty of per- 
 forming upon an instrument of the lyre or 
 harp kind under the conditions above set 
 
 forth, must have been great. If the descrip- 
 tion be amended thus : " The lower part 0/ 
 the strings of the kithara were stopped by the 
 fingers of the left, and the higher part of 
 the strings played by the plectrum," &c., the 
 whole matter becomes perfectly clear, and the 
 kithara shows its relationship to the guitar, as 
 well as its power of sounding octaves on each 
 string like its Egyptian prototype. 
 
 When the drawings of ancient performers 
 on stringed instruments are examined, it will 
 be found that if, as they are represented in 
 the majority of cases, a modern player were 
 to hold his instrument in a similar fashion, 
 he would be unable to support and play it at 
 the sanie time. As the human form appears 
 to have been pretty much the same in old time 
 as it is at the present day, it is more than 
 likely that the artists "evolved" the represen- 
 tations out of their " inner consciousness," 
 and, therefore, that they are not to be confi- 
 dently trusted. 
 
 Plato, quoted by Hawkins (p. 91, Novello's 
 Ed.), " advises to train up children to use the 
 right and left hand indifferently." In some 
 things, says he, "we can do it very well; as 
 when we use the lyre with the left hand, and 
 the stick with the right." Unless some other 
 occupation than that of merely holding the 
 instrument were intended, such a piece of 
 advice would be superfluous. The cithara is 
 mentioned by Ovid, Horace, Virgil, and othei 
 Latin authors, with but little reference to the 
 manner of performing upon it, other than that 
 it was held in one hand, while the other struck 
 the strings with a plectrum. 
 
 The number of strings upon the guitar has 
 been varied from time to time in Europe ; and 
 since its introduction, the instrument has been 
 more or less popular. By the name of gittern, 
 gittron, gitteron, &c., it is spoken of by the 
 mediaeval poets ; and as the lute, it was familiar 
 during the i6th and 17th centuries. 
 
 In France, Spain, and Italy, the guitar is 
 employed as an accompaniment for the dance 
 as well as for the voice ; and at one time, 
 during the last century, it was so popular in 
 England that the sale of pianofortes was inter- 
 rupted, until an ingenious maker bethought 
 him of a plan by which to weaken and ulti- 
 mately to destroy its popularity. There is an 
 extensive literature of guitar music, called 
 into existence by the revival in favour of the 
 instrument, brought about by the number of 
 Spanish refugees resident in England during 
 the Carlist rebellion of 1834-1839. But in the 
 present day, the instrument is but little culti- 
 vated ; in fact, it may be said to have become 
 undeservedly neglected. 
 
 Gusto, con ; gustoso (7^.) With taste 
 and expression. 
 
 Guttural. Tones produced in the throat. 
 
 { 215 ) 
 
H HARDIMENT. 
 
 H. 
 
 H. The note B natural in the German 
 system of nomenclature, the letter B being 
 used only for B ilat. 
 
 Hackbrett (Ger.) [Dulcimer.] 
 Hadan or hadan (Egyptian). The call to 
 prayer sung by the mueddins from the towers 
 or minarets of the mosques, thus given by 
 Lane : 
 
 lb - ha i-1 - la-1 - l&h. 
 
 which means : — God is most Great ! (repeated 
 four times). I testify that there is not a deity 
 but God ! (twice). I testify that Mohammed 
 is God's Apostle ! (twice). Come to prayer ! 
 
 (twice). Come to security ! (twice). God is 
 most great! (twice). There is no deity but 
 God! 
 
 Halbcadenz (Ger.) Half-cadence, or half- 
 close. [Cadence.] 
 
 Halbnote (Ger.) A minim. 
 
 Halbton (Ger.) A semitone. 
 
 Half cadence. [Cadence.] 
 
 Halfnote. (i) A minim. (2) A semitone. 
 
 Half shift. A position of the hand in 
 playing on instruments of the violin family. 
 It lies between the open position and the first 
 shift. [Shift.] 
 
 Hallelujah. [Alleluia.] 
 
 Hailing. A Norwegian dance, somewhat 
 of the character of a country dance. 
 
 A HALLING. 
 
 Hals (Ger.) The neck of an instrument. 
 
 Hammer, (i) A piece of wood having a 
 padded end or a nob, with which strings are 
 struck. In the case of the dulcimer the 
 hammers are held iA the hand ; in keyed 
 instruments the hammer is acted upon by 
 leverage from the end of the key. [Dulcimer.] 
 [Pianoforte.] (2) The iron or wood striker of 
 a bell. According to Denison, the weight of 
 the hammer should be a fortieth part of a 
 bell whose diameter is equal to twelve times 
 the thickness of the sound bow. But the 
 distance the hammer is made to rise for the 
 blow must of course influence the weight of 
 the hammer. 
 
 Handguide. [Guide-main.] 
 
 Hardiment (Fr.) Boldly, daringly. 
 
 (216) 
 
HARFE HARMONY. 
 
 Harfe (Ger.) [Harp.] 
 
 Harmonica. An instrument, the tones of 
 which are produced by striking rods or plates 
 of glass with hammers, either held in the 
 hand or acted upon by keys. It has a compass 
 of about two octaves from middle C or D 
 upwards. 
 
 Harmonica. A name sometimes given to 
 a mixture stop on foreign organs. 
 
 Harmonic Flute. [Harmonic stops.] 
 
 Harmonichord. An instrument played 
 like a pianoforte, but sounding like a violin. 
 The tone is produced by the pressure of the 
 keys, which sets a revolving cylinder of wood, 
 covered with leather, and charged with rosin, 
 in action over the strings. It has also been 
 called piano-violin, violin-piano, tetrachordon, 
 &c. 
 
 Harmonici. The followers of the Pytha- 
 gorean system of music as opposed to that 
 taught by Aristoxenus. They were also 
 called Canonici. The Aristoxenians viewed 
 music as an art governed by appeal to the 
 ear ; the Pythagoreans, as a science founded 
 on physical laws. 
 
 Harmonicon. An instrument only used 
 as a toy, which consists of free reeds enclosed 
 in a box in such a way that inspiration pro- 
 duces one set of sounds, respiration an- 
 other. 
 
 Harmoni-Cor. An instrument invented 
 by Jaulin of Paris, consisting of a series of 
 free reeds similar to those used in the Har- 
 monium, placed in a tube shaped like a 
 clarinet. The compass of the instrument is 
 two octaves with intermediate semitones, the 
 keys are arranged in a manner similar to 
 those of a pianoforte, that is to say, all the 
 notes of the normal scale are in one row and 
 the chromatic notes in another. The wind is 
 supplied by means of a mouth-piece. 
 
 Harmonics. The sounds produced by a 
 vibrating string or column of air, when it is 
 subdivided -into its aliquot parts. [Acous- 
 tics, §io.] 
 
 Harmonic scale. The scale formed by a 
 seriesof natural harmonics. [Acoustics, §io.] 
 
 Harmonic stops. Organ stops, both ilute 
 and reed, having tubes twice the normal 
 length, but pierced with a small hole in the 
 middle. Harmonic flute stops are of great 
 purity and brilliancy, they are of 8 ft. or 4 ft. 
 pitch. Harmonic piccolos are of 2 ft. pitch. 
 Harmonic reed stops (tromba, tuba, trumpet, 
 &c.,) are generally on a high pressure of wind, 
 one of the great advantages of all harmonic 
 stops being that they will take a very strong 
 pressure of wind without overblowing. The 
 fact is, that the harmonic-tube, having two 
 synchronous vibrating columns of air, par- 
 takes of the nature of a pipe already over- 
 blown to its first harmonic, the octave. 
 
 Harmonie-musik (Ger.) Music for wind 
 instruments. 
 
 Harmonique. (Fr.) Harmonic. 
 
 Harmonist. One who can sing or play 
 in harmony. 
 
 Harmonium. A keyed wind instrument 
 whose tones are produced by the forcing of 
 air through free-reeds. The better class of 
 harmoniums have several sets of vibrators of 
 different pitch and of various qualities of tone. 
 The stop called expression is a mechanical 
 contrivance by which the waste-valve of the 
 bellows is closed, so that the pressure of the 
 foot has direct influence on the intensity of the 
 sounds produced. A tremolo is produced by i 
 causing the wind to quaver as it passes 
 through the reeds. The Vox Angelica gives 
 a delicate undulating tone which is produced 
 by two sets of vibrators to each note tuned 
 slightly apart. [Reed.] 
 
 Harmony. In its earliest sense among 
 the Greeks this word seems to have been a 
 general term for music, a sense in which our 
 own poets ofteq use it. But from its meaning 
 of " fitting together" it canie to be applied to 
 the proper arrangement of sounds in a scale, 
 or, as we should say, to " systems of tuning." 
 Whatever opinions may be held as to the 
 antiquity of harmony in the sense of sym- 
 phony or " sounds in combination," it is quite 
 certain that among the ancients the art of 
 harmony never advanced beyond the use of 
 accompanying chords. Treatises on music, 
 which we in these days call on "harmony," 
 dealt (among the Greeks) with the following 
 subjects : — The divisions of the monochord, 
 the three genera, the sounds proper to the 
 different modes, the shape and position of 
 the letters representing musical sounds, and, 
 to a limited extent, the art of tune-making, 
 about which, however, but little is known. 
 Boethius, who turned into the Latin .tongue 
 all the most important elements of Greek 
 music, writes, on the rudiments such as 
 sound, interval, consonance ; on the ratios of 
 intervals ; on letter-notation ; on the modes ; 
 on the discussions arising from the use of 
 the monochord. When this work was written 
 (in the early part of the sixth century) there 
 had already been growing up for a consider- 
 able period a school of church music, probably 
 started by Ambrose in the fourth century, 
 whose function it was to form a practical 
 school of music rather than scientific. But 
 notwithstanding this fact, writers thought it 
 either fashionable or necessary to found all 
 their works on the then defunct Greek system. 
 Even in the eleventh and following centuries, 
 when the Hexachord system had rendered a 
 study of the Greek scales practically useless, 
 their discussion formed an important part of 
 every treatise. Under the word Descant will 
 
 ( 217 ) 
 
HARMONY. 
 
 be found a short description of the different 
 stages through which early forms of harmony 
 passed. But although a treatise on Descant 
 and Counterpoint in one sense is a "treatise 
 on harmony," yet, a very different meaning 
 is carried by the word in its more modern 
 sense — it signifies, in fact, a statement of the 
 system of forming chords with an account of 
 their proper movement or progression accord- 
 ing to key-relationship. 
 
 The authors of the earliest treatises upon 
 harmony, in the sense just described, seem 
 to have laboured to reconcile the old teaching 
 with new discoveries, and though ostensibly 
 treating with harmony, they began with ratios 
 and proceeded into counterpoint, avoiding 
 harmony in its proper sense altogether. In 
 some cases the writers quietly and cleverly 
 avoided the main question, giving apparently 
 elaborate descriptions of the subject, which 
 after all amounted to nothing. Thus Bateman, 
 who in 1582 published an edition of Trevisa's 
 translation of " Bartholom^us de proprieta- 
 tibus rerum," gives to posterity the accepted 
 signification of the word harmony in his own 
 time, for although he is supposed only to 
 have translated into more modern English 
 the work of Trevisa, written in 1400, he 
 actually altered and added to the text in such 
 a fashion that his changes are as valuable as 
 the original : 
 
 " De Aemonya. 
 
 "Armonya Rithmica is a. sownynge melodye, and 
 comyth of smything of stringes, and of tynklyng other 
 ryngyngeof metalle. Anddyverse instrumentis seruyth 
 to this manere armonye, as Tabour, and Tymbre, 
 Harpe, and Sawtry, and Nakyres, and also Sistram. 
 
 " And the melodye of musyk is nemdnyd and callyd 
 by the names of the nombres. Dyatesseron, Dyapente, 
 and Dyapason have names of the nombres whyche 
 precedeth and gooth tofore the begynnynge of those 
 sayd names. And the proporcion of theyr sownes is 
 founde and had in those said nombres, and is not founde, 
 nother had, in none other nombres." 
 
 One of the earliest books printed by its 
 author on the subject of harmony was the 
 " Theorica Musicae " of Franchinus Gaffurius, 
 Milan, 1480. The doctrines taught are essen- 
 tially the same as those of Boethius, and as 
 this has been described already nothing more 
 need be said. It may here be noted, that the 
 examples of harmony by Franchinus are 
 more modern in style than those of other 
 writers contemporary with or previous to him. 
 
 The next writer of any note among the 
 scores of authors who wrote upon music was 
 Andreas Ornithoparcus, whose " Micrologus," 
 written in Latin and printed at Cologne in 
 1535, was translated into English by John 
 Douland, and published in i6og. His chapters 
 on harmony (concentus) show no advance of 
 thought notwithstanding the fact that some 
 modern writers claim a place for him in that 
 
 part of the Temple of Fame devoted to dis- 
 coverers. The majority of the treatises ol 
 the 1 6th century were very learned and 
 doubtless very clever, but they add nothing 
 to literature not already known. Neither 
 Salinas " De Musica," Salamanca, 1577 ; 
 Calvisius " Melopeian," Erfurth, 1595 ; Zar- 
 lino," InstitutioneHarmoniche," Venice, 1592; 
 Valerio Bona, " Regole di Contrappunto," 
 Milan, 1595 ; Zacconi, " Prattica di Musica," 
 Venice, 1596 ; Bottrigari, " II Melone," Fer- 
 rara, 1602 ; Cerone, " El Melopeia," Naples, 
 1613 ; nor the multitude of lesser writers of 
 the period in which the above named authors 
 existed, do anything but repeat the received 
 theories, in a more or less wordy manner, 
 rather increasing the confusion into which 
 the knowledge of the science of harmony had 
 fallen by their controversies and partisanships. 
 While the writers of Italy, Spain, and Ger- 
 many were adding to the "learned ignorance," 
 our countryman, Thomas Morley, was not 
 a whit more far-seeing than his contem- 
 poraries. If the state of music could be 
 judged by the treatises alone, it might reason- 
 ably be considered that no new musical dis- 
 covery had been made for centuries, and the 
 constitution of music was such that new 
 discoveries were impossible. But while the 
 theorists sought to confine all music to certain 
 " proportions and ratios," practical musicians 
 were quietly finding out new and forbidden 
 combinations of chords, to the utter confusion 
 of the theorists, who gradually had the con- 
 viction forced upon them in such wise that 
 they were compelled, reluctantly however, to 
 confess that, " II senso d'udito e stato e sar^ 
 sempre il solo legislatore dell' arte musica." 
 The more daring musicians were supported 
 by a, large, and to a certain extent, an in- 
 fluential crowd of admirers who delighted in 
 the unscientific pleasures the new music 
 brought to the ear. We read of Claudio 
 Monteverde, in the year 1600, being engaged 
 in dispute with "some of the ablest musicians 
 of his time," in consequence of his use of 
 certain dissonances which were employed in 
 an unprecedented manner. Also of Ludovico 
 Viadana, about the same time, inventing or 
 rather perfecting the system of musical short- 
 hand now known as " thorough bass." And 
 in later years Frescobaldi, following the path 
 laid open by Monteverde, boldly introduced a 
 series of progressions in his works, which 
 were against all accepted rules. By this 
 time — the first quarter of the 17th century — 
 writers on theory silently abandoned the 
 " proportions and ratios." Though it is easy 
 to trace the effects of the old teaching, even 
 when it is not expressed openly. 
 
 The principles of harmony or composition, 
 as set forth by Dr. Thomas Campion, 1620, 
 
 (218) 
 
HARMONY. 
 
 and later by Christopher Simpson, 1678, treat 
 of nothing more terrible than such common 
 chords as could be formed out of the unaltered 
 notes of the scale. Throughout the whole of 
 the works by these authors the chord of the 
 seventh on the dominant is introduced but 
 sparingly, and when it is used, its " dis- 
 cordance is softened as much as possible." 
 There is little, if anything, entirely new 
 in these books, nothing at all to account 
 for the new chords that musicians were occa- 
 sionally introducing into their compositions. 
 As Simpson's " Compendium " had a con- 
 tinued and steady sale, running through 
 many editions, teaching the same old and 
 worn-out principles, while Purcell was writing 
 with all the hardihood of enthusiastic youth 
 such chords and progressions as those found 
 in the song quoted in the article " Ground 
 Bass " theory running in a widely different 
 direction from practice, did not hesitate to 
 condemn these inventions ; and, moreover, to 
 wonder " how any judge of correct and pure 
 harmony could tolerate such licences." It 
 was probably owing to the fact of this diver- 
 sity of opinion between the laws that were 
 made for composers and those they made for 
 themselves, that there are but few treatises 
 on harmony belonging to the latter part 
 of the 17th and the early part of the i8th 
 centuries. The many editions of Simp- 
 son's "Compendium," Elway Bevin's "Briefe 
 and Short Introduction," Morley's " Plaine 
 and Easie Introduction," show how little 
 improvement had been effected, and how 
 rare a thing a new idea on the subject 
 was. This state of things continued for 
 some years more, when the publication of 
 Rameau's "Trait6 d'Harmonie," Paris, 1722, 
 turned all thinking minds into the direction 
 suggested by that book. Looking at it by 
 the improved light of the 19th century, it 
 is difficult at first to trace the cause of 
 the enormous popularity of the work, and 
 its powerful influence on all classes of 
 theorists. The plan is very simple but incom- 
 plete, accounting for a part, but not attempting 
 to grapple with the whole science of harmony. 
 The eagerness with which it was received 
 and imitated, goes to prove how ripe men's 
 minds were for the subject, and how willing 
 they were to receive that which attempted to 
 account for some, if not for all the intricacies 
 of their art. The marrow of the whole work, 
 the plot of the whole scheme proposed by 
 Rameau, is comprised in the following words, 
 according to the English edition of 1752 : — 
 " All notes that carry the perfect or common 
 chords may be deemed key-notes, and all 
 notes that carry the chord of the seventh 
 may be deemed governing notes, with this 
 difference, that the governing note of the 
 
 key must have a sharp third. These two are, 
 as it were, the only chords in harmony." 
 
 The main principle of this book, the re- 
 ferring all harmony to a regular fundamental 
 bass on which chords are constructed after 
 the above plan, led its author into some 
 errors, which were copied and increased by 
 subsequent writers. In order to make the 
 theory fit into and agree with practice, 
 Rameau considered suspensions as essential 
 chords, chords by supposition as he calls 
 them. His desire to derive all the chords 
 of modern harmony from a construction of 
 third upon third was a praiseworthy one, and 
 nearer the truth than many other theories. 
 He avoids the chord of the ninth, calling it 
 a secondary seventh, speaks of the fourth as 
 an eleventh, admits that the judicious use of 
 discords gives greater liberty to composers, 
 states F and D to be the fundamental bass of 
 the same chord, the chord now known by the 
 name of the added sixth, and adds one or 
 two other peculiar notions needless here to 
 particularise. 
 
 The following is a figured bass passage 
 with the fundamental bass, as given by 
 Rameau : 
 
 The chords marked *, though really the 
 same, are derived from different roots by 
 Rameau. Godfrey Keller (" Rules for a 
 Thorough Bass," London, 1731) proceeds 
 upon a somewhat different plan to Rameau. 
 He makes no mention of the fundamental 
 bass, employs many new chords, including 
 those now known by the names of the major 
 and minor ninth, e.g. : 
 
 ( 219 ) 
 
HARP. 
 
 He allows that "the composer (especially in 
 few parts) may compose as many sixes either 
 ascending or descending by degrees as he 
 thinks fit," but he does not lay claim to 
 novelty in suggestion, though he might have 
 done so safely. 
 
 The next writer on harmony, Roussier 
 (" Trait6 des Accords," Paris, 1764), simply 
 copies Rameau without acknowledgment. 
 Following a rough chronological order, 
 Marpurg next demands attention. In his 
 " Handbuch bey dem General-Bass," Berlin, 
 1755, he professedly agrees with Rameau, but 
 differs from him throughout by making the 
 added thirds, which are to form chords by 
 supposition, fundamental notes contrary to 
 Rameau's teaching. Tartini, in his " Trattato 
 di Musica," Padua, 1754, and " De' Principii 
 deH'Armonia Musicale," Padua, 1767 ; Kirn- 
 berger, in his works ," Die wahren Grundsatze" 
 and "Die Kunst des reinen Satzes," pub- 
 lished in Berlin in 1773 and 1774, considered 
 suspensions and all interruptions as no real 
 part of a system, but, as the last named 
 writer regarded them, " as clouds may be 
 considered in astronomy, viz., as occasional 
 occurrences, which must be tolerated when 
 there, but which are passed by as if they 
 had not been there at all." A very con- 
 venient, if not a satisfactory, method of 
 getting over a difficulty. Twenty years later, 
 Kollman (" Essay on Musical Harmony," 
 London, 1796) endeavoured to found an 
 entirely new system or theory ; the gist of 
 his arguments is that " No interval, or chord, 
 ought to be judged of or treated according 
 to its individual appearance alone, but accord- 
 ing to the proofs of a regular connection," 
 which is almost the same idea as that pro- 
 pounded by Rameau seventy years before. 
 Our own countryman, WilHam Shield (" In- 
 troduction to Harmony," 1800), does not 
 progress a single step in a new direction, 
 but Weber ("Versuch einer geordnetenTheorie 
 der Tonsetzkunst," Mainz, 1817) does ad- 
 vance, for he says that " The harmonical 
 truths are by no means (as many have 
 thought, or affected to think), as in a philo- 
 sophical science, deducible from one inde- 
 pendent superior principle, and subordinate 
 one to another, as it were in a tabular 
 manner," and therefore every combination is 
 explained according to its individual appear- 
 ance. 
 
 Harp. Harpe {Fr.),Arpa {It.),Harfe (Ger.) 
 A stringed instrument of triangular form, fur- 
 nished with gut strings. It has a compass 
 varying from three to six octaves and a half, 
 according to the size of the instrument. There 
 are several kinds of harps still in use : 
 
 (i) The triple or Welsh harp, with three 
 rows of strings, two rows tuned diatonically 
 
 in unisons or octaves, the third or inner row 
 arranged to supply the accidentals, sharps or 
 flats. The strings are thin, and the tone is 
 consequently consonant with the character 
 of the strings. "It is simply impossible to 
 modulate upon this instrument farther than 
 to touch an occasional accidental from among 
 the inner row of strings." This harp is de- 
 rived from, and is almost identical, with, the 
 Irish harp, of which more will be said pre- 
 sently. 
 
 (2) The double harp (arpd doppia) with 
 two rows of strings is less inconvenient but 
 equally imperfect ; all alterations of the pitch of 
 the strings having to be made with the thumb. 
 
 (3) The single-action pedal harp, with one 
 row of strings, containing a compass of nearly 
 six octaves : 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 in the scale of E flat. There were seven 
 pedals which altered the pitch of the note to 
 which each pedal belonged, a semitone. The 
 imperfection of the mechanism of the pedals 
 involved the player in many difficulties, and 
 rendered some keys perfectly useless. 
 
 (4) The double-action pedal harp, the in- 
 vention of Erard. The compass of this in- 
 strument : 
 
 Sua. alta.^ 
 8va. bassa. 
 
 six octaves and a quarter, and the power of 
 the pedals to change the pitch of each note 
 two semitones, made it almost equal to the 
 pianoforte in facility of modulation. This 
 last-named harp is the one now generally 
 employed for concert or orchestral purposes. 
 
 The invention of pedals to the harp has 
 been variously attributed to Hochbrucker, of 
 Donauworth, in 1720, and to Paul Velter, of 
 Niirnberg, in 1730. The harp in use before 
 those times was generally tuned according 
 to the key of the piece it was required in. 
 
 In the single harp passing modulations 
 were made by stopping certain strings with 
 the thumb, for continued change of key, all 
 the notes in the new scale not in the ordinary 
 tuning of the harp were made by turning the 
 wrest pins during the progress of the music 
 of all the notes required to be altered. Music 
 for the harp is written on two staves. The 
 instrument is capable of playing a melody 
 with accompanying harmonies similar in 
 character to pianoforte music. Successions 
 of staccato chords have a fine effect upon the 
 instrument, but broken chords (arpeggio) are 
 better and more characteristic. The harp 
 has been introduced into the orchestra with 
 
 ( 220 ) 
 
HARP. 
 
 good effect, by several modern composers, 
 Wagner and Gounod more especially. There 
 is at present but little variety in the manner 
 in vsfhich it has been used, arpeggios accom- 
 panied by violins playing on the high register 
 tremQlo with or without mutes, whenever 
 angelic voices or exalted or heavenly ideas 
 are intended to be presented. 
 
 The harp, like the guitar, may be traced to 
 a very remote ancestry ; it has, likewise, been 
 subject to many vicissitudes of fortune. A 
 favourite instrument with kings, it has also 
 been the companion of beggars. Inspired 
 strains have been sung to its strings, and it 
 has accompanied verses neither pious nor 
 inspired. By turns cultivated and neglected, 
 it has never been wholly without a witness in 
 the several ages of the history of music. 
 
 Engel, in "The Music of the Most Ancient 
 Nations," says, that many Eastern nations 
 have harps of different sorts, names and 
 methods of stringing. The Burmese harp, 
 called saun, has thirteen silken strings wound 
 round a curved bar at one end in a way 
 which admits of their being pushed up or 
 down to be tuned. The harp is called chang 
 in Persian, and junk in Arabic. The Negroes 
 in Senegambia and Guinea call it houlou or 
 ombi, and use strings made of fibre. 
 
 The harp in its primitive form is supposed 
 to have been suggested by the warrior's bow. 
 Many barbarous tribes preserve this form 
 with some slight degree of variation. The 
 " Nanga," or Negro harp is of this kind, as 
 will be seen in the subjoined figure. 
 
 Nanga or Negro Harp. 
 It is said that some savage tribes still use 
 their bows in times of peace as musical instru- 
 ments. The harp of the Ossetes and Indo- 
 Germanic tribe of the Central Caucasus have 
 an instrument which supplies the connecting 
 link between the form of the Nanga and the 
 harps represented on ancient monuments. 
 It is furnished with twelve strings of horse- 
 
 hair, each string composed of six or eight 
 hairs. It is about two feet in height, and 
 has no forepillar. A specimen of this kind 
 of harp is preserved in the South Kensington 
 Museum. 
 
 The harp is mentioned in the authorised 
 version of the Bible, Gen. iv. 21, "The father 
 of all such as handle the harp and organ." 
 The word in the original, "kinnor," appears in 
 thirty-six other places in the Old Testament : 
 in every case it is translated " harp." But 
 while there is reason for believing that the 
 Hebrews were acquainted with the harp, it is 
 not certain that the word kinnor really means 
 harp. The form of the kinnor is a matter of 
 much uncertainty. 
 
 Kalkbrenner, who is considered as an 
 authority on the subject of Hebrew music, 
 in his Histoire de la Musique, Paris, 1802, 
 makes no attempt to describe it, but merely 
 contents himself with a commonplace remark 
 after quoting the early writers who speak of 
 it. " Le kinnor, en grec kinnyra, qui d'aprfes 
 la description de Saint Jerome, avoit la figure 
 d'un A et qui etoit monte de 24 cordes ; 
 I'autre description hebraique du livre Schilte 
 Haggeborin, donne au kinnor 32 cordes, 
 tandis que I'historien Joseph et beaucoup 
 d'autres ne lui en attribuent que dix ; quelles 
 contradictions ! " These contradictions may 
 be reconciled by supposing that the kinnor, 
 like the Egyptian bouna (both of which words 
 are translated " harp "), was of various sizes, 
 variously strung. 
 
 There are numerous representations of 
 harps upon the Assyrian bas-reliefs, from 
 which it would appear that the instrument 
 consisted of a slightly curved frame acting 
 as a resonance body and as a stay for the 
 strings at one end, while at the other they 
 were secured to a horizontal bar. There was 
 apparently a sort of tassel, supposed to be 
 made of the unstretched ends of the strings. 
 
 ( 221 ) 
 
HARP. 
 
 A slight difference of form may be seen in 
 the various sculptures, but the general cha- 
 racter of the Assyrian harp is the same as 
 that shown above. It will be seen that there 
 is no front pillar such as modern harps pos- 
 sess, by which it may be assumed that these 
 harps were similar in construction to the 
 Egyptian harp. The ancient Egyptian harps 
 were of many sizes, and according to the repre- 
 sentations preserved were strung with various 
 numbers of strings, from three upwards. The 
 player stood, knelt, or supported his instru- 
 ment upon a stand while performing. Of the 
 scale to which these harps were tuned, or of 
 the manner in which they were kept in tune, 
 no reasonable idea can be formed. 
 
 Egyptian Harp. 
 
 Egyptian Harp. 
 
 If they were kept in tension by the simple 
 process of twisting with the finger and thumb 
 round the horizontal bar, it is difficult to 
 realise the idea that anything like a pre- 
 arranged melody could be performed upon 
 them. It is, moreover, probable that the 
 greater part of the time of the performer was 
 engaged in tightening the strings which his 
 gripping had stretched. These views are 
 grounded upon the assumption that the 
 Egyptian and Babylonian artists have been 
 as accurate in their delineations as they are 
 said to be. But it was shown in the article 
 " Guitar," that ancient artists are not always 
 trustworthy as regards their pictures of lutes. 
 
 for the drawings and sculptures often deli- 
 neate a performer actively engaged in playing 
 upon an instrument in a position in which it 
 cannot possibly be supported. But admitting 
 them to be correct in form, and acknowledg- 
 ing that the artist may have omitted to show 
 the means by which the performer steadied 
 his instrument, it is doubtful whether the 
 ancient harps had either power or sweetness ; 
 for the ornament which overloads many of 
 the depicted musical instruments must have 
 greatly interfered with the tone. 
 
 The Greeks, who borrowed all their musical 
 instruments, and, as some say, even the very 
 names from foreign nations, must have known 
 the harp, but they do not appear to have 
 chosen it as a subject for representation, 
 either in their paintings, sculpture, or pottery. 
 The famous vase now in the Munich museum, 
 dating from the time of Alexander the Great, 
 offers one of the few instances in which it is 
 depicted. The instrument is in form like the 
 Assyrian harp. 
 
 Grecian Harp. 
 
 The most favoured instrument in Grecian 
 art was the lyre, which like the harp is des- 
 cribed, in Greek literature, as having different 
 numbers of strings, and to have been mounted 
 occasionally on stands. The Pektis, the 
 Simekion, and the Epigoneion, are supposed 
 to have been actual harps. The first had 
 only two strings, the others thirty-five and 
 forty respectively. There was another instru- 
 ment, the Phorminx, usually understood to 
 be a lyre, which is sometimes translated harp. 
 
 The monuments of ancient Rome show 
 very few examples of the harp in the forms 
 familiar in those of Assyria and Egypt. The 
 word " cithara," which ie translated, harp, 
 lyre, lute, guitar, &c., indifferently, offers no 
 help in clearing away the cloud obscuring all 
 knowledge of this matter. The claim of the 
 Irish, asserted by Vincentis Galilei, in his 
 " Dialogue Delia Musica," 1581, to the in- 
 vention of the harp cannot now be supported 
 
 ( 222 ) 
 
HARP. 
 
 since the discovery of the Assyrian remains, 
 but there is no doubt that they were ac- 
 quainted with it at a very early period of 
 the world's history. They had four kinds of 
 harp — (i) the clar-seth, clar-scat, or clar-seach; 
 (2) the Keir-nine ; (3) the cionar-cruit ; (4) the 
 cream tine cruit. 
 
 The first was brought to Ireland by the 
 Celto-PhcBnicians, the second was similar to 
 the Eastern Kanoon, and like it, was played 
 with plectra. The third had ten strings 
 stretched over a resonance-body; and the 
 fourth was the same as the Crwth, had six 
 strings, four of which passed over a finger 
 board, and could be stopped at the will of the 
 player, the two others formed a drone. The 
 clar-seth, also called ■ceAro\o)X\ (pronounced 
 Tealoin, or Telin), was the instrument of the 
 ancient Celts. The word telin is derived 
 from tel, what is straight, stretched, or drawn 
 tight. 
 
 Irish Harp. 
 
 Vincentino Galilei (p. 143 of his " Dialogo 
 della Musica Antica e Moderna," Florence, 
 1602), speaking of ancient instruments, says : 
 " Ci d prima mente I'Harpa, la quale non e 
 altro che un' antica Cithara di molte corde ; 
 se bene di forma in alcuna cosa differente, 
 non da altro cagionatagli dagli artefici di quel 
 tempi, che dalla quantita di esse corde & 
 dalla loro intensezza ; contenendo I'estreme 
 graui con I'estreme acute piu di tre ottaue. 
 Su portato d'lrlanda a noi questo antichissimo 
 strumento (commemorato da Dante) doue si 
 lauorano in eccellenza & copiososamente ; 
 gli habitatori della quale isola si esercitano 
 molti & molti secoli sono in essa, &c." By 
 which it will be seen that the Welsh were not 
 the only people who adopted the harp from 
 the Irish. The old Italian harp had two rows 
 of strings, arranged after the manner of the 
 old Irish harp, from which it is supposed to 
 be derived. An instrument of this sort, an 
 " Arpa doppia " is mentioned as one of the 
 accompanying instruments in Monteverde's 
 " Orfeo," 1607. 
 
 The harp was a favourite instrument among 
 the ancient Britons. The old laws of Wales, 
 the Triads, if they are to be trusted, specify 
 the use of the harp as one of the three things 
 necessary to distinguish a freeman or gentle- 
 man from a slave. Pretenders were discovered 
 by their unskilfulness in " playing of the 
 harp." The same laws forbade a slave to 
 touch a harp, either out of curiosity, or to 
 acquire a knowledge of it, and none but the 
 king, his musicians, and other gentlemen 
 were permitted to possess one. The harp 
 was exempt from seizure for debt, as it was 
 presumed that he who had no harp lost his 
 position, and was degraded to the condition 
 of a slave. 
 
 The harp was a familiar instrument with 
 the Anglo-Saxons, as many references in 
 existing chronicles prove conclusively. The 
 harp-player was respected for his skill, 
 whether he was known or unknown. Harp 
 in hand he might wander scot and scathe 
 free even in the camp of an enemy. Colgrin, 
 the son of Ella, when besieged in York, 
 about 495, received assistance from his 
 brother, who went through the camp of the 
 besiegers disguised as a harper ; an artifice 
 also adopted by King Alfred four hundred 
 years later. 
 
 Bede states that it was the custom at festive 
 meetings to hand the harp round for each of 
 the company to sing and play in turn, and 
 mentions the fact that Caedmon, the poet, had 
 so neglected his studies in this respect in the 
 pursuit of more serious knowledge, that at an 
 assembly where he was present, and the harp 
 wa§ sent round, he being unable to play, rose 
 from the table in shame, and went home to 
 his house. " Surgebat a medea ccena, et 
 egressus, ad suam domum repedebat," or as 
 King Alfred has rendered it into Saxon, 
 " Thonne aras he for sceome fram tham symle, 
 and ham yode to his huse." 
 
 Performers upon the harp of special skill 
 were notable before the reign of William the 
 First. The services rendered by Taillefer, 
 the harper, on the battle field are well known 
 matters of history, as also is the foundation 
 of the priory and hospital of St. Bartholomew 
 in Smithfield, by R,ahere, harper to King 
 Henry the First. 
 
 Musicians were courted and respected in 
 olden times, the harp was a sure passport 
 everywhere, and a warrant of welcome in 
 every society from the highest to the lowest, 
 among kings or churls, among friends or foes. 
 Where other men failed, the minstrel suc- 
 ceeded ; admission to a house or castle was 
 granted to a " gleeman," which was denied 
 to all else. The existence of this privilege 
 is frequently taken advantage of by writers of 
 the old ballads, romances, &c., who often 
 
 ( 223 ) 
 
HARP. 
 
 describe a luckless lover or chivalrous adven- 
 turer, gaining access to some giant's fortress 
 or enchanted castle, in the garb of a minstrel 
 or harper : 
 
 " Horn sette him abenche 
 Is harpe he gan clenche 
 He made Rymenild a lay." 
 
 The Romance of Horn and Rymenild. 
 
 Well-known historians and poets, besides the 
 anonymous ballad writers of mediaeval times, 
 make frequent mention of the harp, thus 
 showing its continued popularity. The intro- 
 duction of the guitar made the harp less 
 cultivated by private people, and as lutes, 
 viols, and other more easily portable instru- 
 ments became known, the harp was more and 
 rnore disused. That which the guitar and 
 viol had begun, the clarichord, virginals, and 
 harpsichord completed, and the harp became 
 rarely seen and still more rarely used. It 
 never became wholly silent, but was to be 
 heard in rural districts played in the same 
 style, strung in the same fashion, and tuned 
 after the same mode, as when it belonged to 
 a more remote generation. It was a sort of 
 a Rip van Winkle among instruments, living 
 through many changes, yet unconscious of 
 them. Older than all of the existing members 
 of the great family of musical instruments by 
 which it was surrounded, but uninfluenced 
 and untouched by the progress towards per- 
 fection which all else were making. Before 
 Hochbrucker's invention, the harp had been 
 unchanged for -centuries, remaining in the 
 condition it had been left by the ancestors of 
 the various peoples with whom it was found. 
 When Handel's oratorio " Esther " (written 
 in 1720) was produced at the request of the 
 Duke of Chandos, harp parts to one of the 
 choruses, for two Welsh players of the name 
 of Powell were inserted by the composer. 
 The harp they used was the old Welsh harp 
 already described. Even after Hochbrucker 
 and Velter had made their improvements, 
 and rendered the harp more available as an 
 orchestral instrument, it was rarely employed 
 as such, all harp effects being made by pizzi- 
 cato playing on the violin. 
 
 Hoyle (" Dictionarium Musicse," 1770) de- 
 scribes the harp as having, in his day, "three 
 rows of strings, which in all make seventy- 
 eight ; the first row contains twenty-nine, 
 which makes four octaves, the second row 
 makes the half turn : the third is unison with 
 the first row. It's musick is like that of a 
 spinet, all the strings going by semitones, 
 and is played on with both hands, by pinching 
 them in the same manner together. Some 
 give it the name of the inverted spinet." As 
 this style of stringing is nearly the same as 
 the Irish method of tuning in use ages before, 
 it is difficult to believe Hoyle's statement that 
 
 the " moderns have much improved " the 
 harp. The name of " inverted spinet " is 
 singular, as one of the names for the spinet 
 was the " Couched harp." The harp was 
 not popular in those days, it required closer 
 application to master its difficulties than the 
 musical young people of the time cared to 
 devote to it. One instrument of the harp 
 kind, called the " Bell-harp," was inconstant 
 use in the time that Hoyle wrote, and has 
 not completely disappeared in the present 
 day. No great skill is required to perform 
 upon it, all that is necessary is prehensile 
 power and strength of wrist. The instrument 
 is a wooden box a little more than two feet 
 long, all closed except over the wrest pins, 
 and a space near the opposite end. It is 
 strung with steel wire, with eight strings or 
 more, tuned with the lowest notes outside : 
 
 Left thumb. 
 
 Right thumb. 
 
 The fingers of each hand grasp the body of 
 the box, leaving the thumbs free to strike the 
 strings. The player swings the instrument 
 as he strikes, producing the effect of the 
 sound of a peal of bells borne on the wind. 
 
 To return to the main subject ; when, in 
 1820, Erard improved the harp, it became 
 suddenly and widely fashionable ; nearly all 
 the music published was " arranged for the 
 pianoforte or harp." The instrument was as 
 indispensable in the drawing-room of those 
 calling themselves " musical," as the piano- 
 forte is now. It was chiefly played by ladies, 
 especially by those who possessed the ad- 
 vantages of a pretty hand and arm, not to 
 mention a " neat foot," all these motive 
 powers being well shown in harp playing. 
 As the fair performers grew old, the charms 
 of the harp decayed, and although the instru- 
 ment is still played and taught, it is not 
 cultivated to the extent which its merits might 
 seem to warrant. 
 
 The derivation of the word is a matter of 
 doubt, none of the earlier terms supplying 
 the least etymological link. Du Cange, in 
 his " Glossary," asserts that the harp takes 
 its name from the Arpi, a people of Italy who 
 were the first who invented it. In this he is 
 not quite correct, as will be gathered from the 
 foregoing account. Arpi was a very ancient 
 city, without doubt, it was of a higher an- 
 tiquity than Livy, who mentions it as an 
 Apulian city. It is not at all improbable that 
 the people of Arpi may have been the first to 
 adopt the instrument upon its introduction 
 into Italy, and as it is not at all unlikely that 
 the Northern people adopted it from the Ro- 
 mans, the name may have been transmitted 
 in its present form from the Arpi, the people 
 
 ( 224 ) 
 
HARPE HARPSICHORD GRACES. 
 
 whom the Romans may have believed to have 
 been the inventors. That the word has a 
 common origin, its similarity in most modern 
 tongues may tend to prove. There is evidence 
 enough in music to show that the name of a 
 people may give a permanent title to a com- 
 position, and also to an instrument. There 
 is no apparent connection between the words 
 Kinnor, Bouni, Saun, Chang, Junk, Boulou, 
 Ombi, Nanga, Pektis, Simekion, Epigoneion, 
 Phorminx, Cithara, Clarseth.Telin, and Harp, 
 the names by which the instrument has been 
 called by various peoples ; but the words Earpe, 
 Harp, Harpe, Harfe, and Arpa point conclu- 
 sively to one origin, and Du Cange may be 
 right with regard to one part of his statement, 
 for it is not at all unlikely that the harp, when 
 brought to and adopted by the more northern 
 nations, would be called by the name given 
 to it by the people from whom it was received. 
 
 Harpe (Fr.) A harp. 
 
 Harpist {Eng. and Ger.) A player upon 
 the harp. 
 
 Harp-Lute. An instrument of the last 
 century with 12 strings, never much used. 
 
 Harpsecol. Harpsichord. 
 
 Harpsichord. Clavicembalo, Cembalo (It.) 
 Clavecin (Fr.) Fliigel {Ger.) A stringed in- 
 strument with a key-board, similar in form to 
 a modern grand pianoforte. As the pressure 
 of the fingers upon the keys, when heavy or 
 light, made no difference in the quantity of 
 tone produced, the harpsichord sometimes 
 had two key-boards, one for the loud, the 
 other for the soft tones. There were also 
 stops in some instruments, by means -of 
 which the tone could be modiiied by connect- 
 ing the mechanism with or detaching it from 
 the three or even four strings with which 
 each tone was furnished. The keys were 
 attached to levers, which at their ends had 
 slips of wood, called "jacks," furnished with 
 plectra of crow-quill or hard leather; these 
 struck or twanged the strings and produced the 
 tone, which has been likened to " a scratch 
 with a sound at the end of it." [Clarichord.] 
 [Spinet.] [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Harpsichord graces. Certain turns and 
 ornaments employed in playing upon the 
 harpsichord, introduced for the most part as 
 compensation for the lack of sustaining power 
 in the instrument. They were called by the 
 general term of agremens in French, and 
 Manieren in German. The chief of these 
 ornaments were the following, other signs 
 are explained according to alphabetical order. 
 
 Turn ov Double {Fr.), Doppelschlag {Ger.) 
 
 written 
 
 ^ 
 
 played 
 
 ^K^ 
 
 When the sign was placed upright it was 
 understood to signify that the turn was to be 
 
 commenced a note lower than the one over 
 which it was written : 
 
 written 
 
 played 
 
 When the double was preceded by a small 
 note or notes on the same line or space, the 
 turn was to commence from that note : 
 
 written 
 
 played 
 
 When the marked note was tied, the turn was 
 to be commenced from the preceding note : 
 
 written 
 
 played 
 
 Battery, Cadence {Fr.), indicated by the 
 sign + . When the cadence was written thus : 
 
 ^^ 
 
 it was played : 
 
 and was called a full Cadence or Cadence 
 pleine ; when it was written : 
 
 it was played 
 
 and was called cadence brisee, or broken 
 cadence. 
 
 Sliding trill, Flatte {Fr.), Schleifer {Ger.) : 
 
 written played 
 
 Or occasionally : 
 
 ■written played 
 
 Trill; Tremblement {Fr.),PralUriller {Ger.), 
 expressed by the signs tr, ^ , v,~ ^. It was 
 in effect a trill without the final turn, unless 
 altered by other signs. There were six sorts 
 of tremblements ; namely, (i) the simple 
 tremblement {tremblement simple) : 
 
 tr. ^ w f>0 
 
 written /(, J J J J ~fl played 
 
 (2) The doubled or turned trill {tremblement 
 doubli) : 
 
 written 
 
 ^^ 
 
 played 
 
 ( 225 ) 
 
HAUPT HOCKET. 
 
 {3) The detached trill (tremblement dHacM), 
 Vhich was performed when the note which 
 (Should begin the trill had a place in the 
 melody preceding the marked note : 
 
 written 
 
 EH played : 
 
 (4) The tied trill {tremblement lie) was almost 
 the same at the preceding, only that the first 
 two notes were tied : 
 
 written 
 
 
 flayed 
 
 (5) The prepared trill {tremblement appuyi 
 or prSpari) was when a slight pause was 
 made before commencing the shake, and its 
 speed gradually increased : 
 
 written 
 
 (5) A slided trill [tremblement coule) when 
 the shake was preceded by a slide : 
 
 written 
 
 plaved 
 
 Haupt {Ger.) Principal, chief, head ; as 
 Hauptnote, the essential note in a turn or 
 shake, &c. 
 
 Hauptmanual (Ger.) The great organ. 
 
 Hauptnote (Ger.) An essential note. 
 
 Hauptperiode {Ger.) Principal subject. 
 
 Hauptsatz {Ger.) Principal theme or 
 subject. 
 
 Hauptschluss {Ger.) A perfect cadence. 
 
 Hauptstimme (Ger.) Principal part. 
 
 Hauptwerk {Ger.) The great organ. 
 
 Hausse {Fr.) The nut of a violin bow. 
 
 Hausser (Fr.) To raise, lift, to sharpen. 
 
 Haut {Fr.) High ; as, haute contre, the 
 alto part; -haute dessus, treble part; haute 
 taille, first or high tenor. 
 
 Hautbois {Fr.) [Oboe.] 
 
 Hautbois d'amour {Fr.) A small species 
 of oboe, now obsolete. Music written for it 
 can be played on the ordinary instrument. 
 
 Hautboy. [Oboe.] 
 
 H dur. {Ger.) The key of B major. 
 
 Head, (i) The membrane stretched upon 
 a drum. (2) That part of a violin or other 
 stringed instrument in which the pegs are 
 inserted. (3) The portion of a note which 
 determines its position upon the stave, and 
 to which the tail is annexed. 
 
 Head-stall. A head-band or Capistrum, 
 q. V. The use of the v/ord stall in the sense 
 oi bandage is still to be found in our word 
 finger-stall. 
 
 Head-voice. The sounds produced above 
 the chest-register, but not in falsetto. 
 Heftig (Ger.) Boisterous, impetuous. 
 
 Heiss {Ger.) Hot, ardent. 
 
 Heiter (Ger.) Clear, calm, Feierlich 
 heiter, solemn and calm. 
 
 Helicon (Gk.) kXiKiiv. An instrument used 
 by the Greeks in the calculation of ratios. 
 
 Hemidiapente. An imperfect fifth. 
 
 Henxiditone. The lesser or minor third. 
 
 Hemiolios {Gk.) fifudXioe. (i) The ratio 
 3 to 2. The same as the sesquialtera in Latin 
 treatises on music. (2) A kind of metre. A 
 verse consisting of a foot and a half. 
 
 Hemiopus {Gk.) fjfiiowoe. Having a small 
 number of holes, fifiiorroi atiXoi, small flutes 
 with three ventages. 
 
 Hemitone. A semitone. 
 
 Heptachord, (i) A series of seven notes. 
 A diatonic octave without the upper note. 
 (2) An instrument with seven strings. 
 
 Herabstrich {Ger.) The down stroke of 
 the bow in playing stringed instruments. A 
 down-bow. 
 
 Herstrich. [Herabstrich.] 
 
 Hexachord. A series of six sounds. 
 [Notation.] 
 
 Hey de Guise. A country dance.' 
 
 " In our antique hey de guise we go beyond all nations." 
 
 Middleton. 
 
 [Country dance.] 
 
 Hidden Fifths, or Octaves. [Consecu- 
 tives.] 
 
 Hinaufstrich 1 z^',™ n a„ „., u^„, 
 Hinstrich [ (^^''•) An up-bow. 
 
 His {Ger.) The note B sharp. 
 
 Hissing. A manner of showing dissatis- 
 faction. [Applause.] [Fiasco.] 
 
 H moll {Ger.) The key of B minor. 
 
 Hoboe. [Oboe.] 
 
 Hoboy. [Oboe.] [Waits.] 
 
 Hocket, Hoket, Ochetus. A species of 
 part music, in which the voices seem to have 
 had to keep a large number of rests, the notes 
 being divided into several parts for the purpose. 
 It was the same as truncatio (truncatio idem 
 est quod hoket). The truncatio was certainly 
 a division of a long note into many smaller 
 ones with rests between (pausatio), and was 
 founded either on an original theme {tenorem 
 excogitatum), or a well-known tune {certum 
 cantum) either popular {vulgare) or ecclesi- 
 astical {latinum). The application of the 
 word to part-music seems to have been 
 brought about by its Latin synonym conductus, 
 for the Greek ox^rde signifies also a conduct 
 or conduit, and this name was commonly 
 given in the 15th century to a kind of motet, 
 
 ( 226 ) 
 
HOCHZEITMARSCH HORN. 
 
 probably from the " bringing together" of the 
 voices. 
 
 Hochzeitmarsch (Ger.) Aweddingmarch. 
 
 Hohlflote (Ger.) [Flute.] 
 
 Hold. An old English name for the sign 
 of a pause /'r\. 
 
 Holding note. A note sustained in one 
 part, while the others are in motion. 
 
 Homophony {Gk.) Unison of voices or 
 instruments of the same character, oixo^iiivoq. 
 
 Hopper. [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Hopser or Hops-tanz (Ger.) A country 
 dance. 
 
 Horse Canonicse. The canonical hours 
 at which religious services are held. In time 
 of persecution a night-service was held called 
 Nocturns, which was, however, at a later 
 period merged into Lauds — ^the thanksgiving 
 for the dawn of day, and the whole was called 
 Matins. But when Matins, or Nocturns, are 
 retained they take place before Lauds, The 
 following is the order of the Canonical hours : 
 Lauds, at daybreak ; Prime, or first hour, a 
 later service ; Tierce, or third hour, at nine 
 a.m. ; Sext, or sixth hour, at noon ; Nones, 
 or ninth hour, at three p.m. ; Vespers, or 
 evening service ; Compline, or final service, at 
 bed time. Each of these has fixed Psalms, 
 except Vespers, which has certain Psalms read 
 in course, and a Canticle. The Anglo-Saxon 
 names of these services were, Uhtsang, 
 Primesang, Undersang, Middaysang, Noon- 
 sang, Evensang, and Nightsang. The book 
 for these Offices came to be called Breviary 
 towards the end of the i ith century. It was 
 sometimes called in England the Portifory. 
 
 Horn (Cor, Fr.; Corno, It.; Horn, Ger.) 
 A metal wind instrument, formed of a con- 
 tinuous tube twisted into a curved shape for 
 the convenience of holding. It is furnished 
 with a mouthpiece and a bell. The mouth- 
 piece is moveable, so as to allow additional 
 pieces of tubing called crooks, to be added to 
 its length in order to alter the pitch, and the 
 bell is sufficiently wide to admit the hand of 
 the player. 
 
 The horn sounds the harmonics of the fun- 
 damental note of its tube. That is to say, a 
 horn in C, or sounding C as a generator has 
 the following compass : 
 
 Notes written in the bass clef sound as 
 they are written, those in the, treble clef, an 
 octave lower. 
 
 The notes in the section marked B are 
 more difficult to produce than those in the sec- 
 tion marked A. 
 
 The whole of the above notes are called the 
 
 " open " notes ; that is to say, they can be 
 produced by simple blowing, and certain 
 modifications of the form of the lips. There 
 are other sounds called " closed," which are 
 obtained by closing the bell in a certain man- 
 ner with the hand. 
 
 The closed notes are less free in quality 
 than the open notes, and they are therefore 
 only employed when especial effects are re- 
 quired. Horns are generally employed in 
 pairs, and the parts are usually written in the 
 treble clef in the key of C. The most useful 
 parts of the compass of the horn are those 
 marked in section A. The " crooks" — 
 alluded to above — serve to alter the pitch by 
 lengthening the sounding tube, and the com- 
 poser indicates the horn or horns required at 
 the beginning of a piece of music thus : 
 Corni in C ; Comi in B flat ; Corni in A, 
 &c., though the parts are written as though 
 they were to be played in C, the presumed 
 normal key of the horn. All horns other than 
 those in C are called transposing instruments, 
 because the actual sounds produced are dif- 
 ferent to those represented on paper. And 
 strictly speaking, the C horn is also a trans- 
 posing instrument, becalise the notes are 
 written an octave higher than they are played. 
 Thus the passage: 
 
 would sound differently according to the horn 
 employed : 
 
 Written, in C. 
 
 inD. 
 
 in E Bat. 
 
 in B flat basso. 
 II J J j II 
 
 sounded 
 
 
 
 ^ r r r II 
 
 ''^ r r 1 ' 
 
 t^^ti 
 
 =^ {' T ' 
 
 "r rHi 
 
 in B fiat alto. in G. 
 
 inF. 
 
 in A. 
 
 If in D, it would be a seventh ; in E flat a 
 major sixth; in E a minor sixth; in F a fifth; 
 in G a fourth; in A a minor third; in B flat 
 alto a second ; in B flat basso, a ninth lower 
 than the notation. 
 
 In movements in a major key, in which 
 four horns are used, two are generally in the 
 key of the tonic, two in that of the dominant. 
 Sometimes, two are in the tonic key, two in 
 that of the mediant. 
 
 When horns are required for minor keys, 
 one is set in the key of the relative major, the 
 
 ( 227 ) 
 
HORNER HORNPIPE. 
 
 other in the tonic major. Thus in G minor, 
 one horn would be in B flat, another in G. 
 Composers, however, vary in their use of 
 horns in minor keys, so that no definite rule 
 can be laid down. 
 
 There are other kinds of horns used in the 
 orchestra, which, by means of valves, pistons, 
 or ventils, are capable of producing the " open " 
 and " closed" sounds in a scale of semitones 
 throughout the compass, of very nearly even 
 quality, and with comparatively little difficulty 
 to the player. 
 
 The horn, sometimes called the French 
 horn, to distinguish it from the English horn 
 (cor Anglais), which is altogether a different 
 instrument, was introduced into the orchestra 
 towards the end of the 17th century, and 
 as it became very fashionable and popular 
 in the early part of the i8th century, it is 
 frequently found in the scores of orchestral 
 compositions, and is also employed as an 
 accompaniment to hunting songs. A horn- 
 player, named Spandau, was one of the first 
 who discovered the art of producing the closed 
 or stuffed notes (sons Uouffis) on the instru- 
 ment. Sir John Hawkins makes a note in 
 his " History of the performance of a Con- 
 certo in 1773," of this player, " part whereof 
 was in the key of C with the minor third." 
 The "improvement was effected by putting 
 his right hand into the bottom or bell of the 
 instrument, and attempering the sounds by 
 the application of his fingers in the different 
 parts of the tube ;" by which means " the 
 intervals seemed to be as perfect as in any 
 wind-instrument.'' 
 
 The earliest attempts to make the scale of 
 the horn perfect are attributed to Hampel, of 
 Dresden, in 1748. Twelve years later Kolbel 
 invented his amor-schall, which was a horn 
 with ventils, Claggett, a Londoner, attempted 
 further to improve these plans ; but all these 
 inventions were forgotten or laid aside, in 
 favour of Miiller's system of ventils, first pi'o- 
 posed about the year 1830. These in time 
 were superseded by the inventions of J. G. 
 Saxe and others. Although the horn has been 
 so far improved, that the difficulties of pro- 
 ducing the tones intermediate to the har- 
 monics have been considerably lessened, it 
 cannot be said that any great improvement 
 has been effected in the quality of the added 
 sounds, and the old French horn, the plain 
 tube, whose sounds are " attempered by the 
 fingers of the player," is still unsurpassed in 
 brilliancy of tone by any of the modern 
 inventions. 
 
 Horner ( G«r. ), Corni {It.) Horns; 
 Horner in Es, horns in E flat. 
 
 Hornpipe, (i) The name of an old wind 
 instrument of the shawm or waits character, 
 receiving its name from the fact that the 
 
 " bell " or open end was sometimes made of 
 horn. In Wales, Ireland, and Cornwall, in 
 Brittany, it was called pib-corn, " Pib " or 
 " piob," meaning pipe, and " corn," horn. 
 Chaucer uses the word to describe an instru- 
 ment of music in his translation of the 
 " Romaunt of the Rose." 
 
 " Controve he wolde, and foule fayle 
 With hornepipes of Cornewaile." 
 
 The original (written in 1260) is : 
 
 " Une hore dit lis et descors 
 Et sonnez doux de controvaille 
 As Estives de Cornoaille." 
 
 The word " controve " comes from the 
 same root as that from which " Trovere " or 
 "Troubadour " is derived, and means to invent, 
 or compose, so that the passage translated 
 into modern English would be : 
 
 " He would compose and play songs (Ms) 
 To the accompaniment. of the hornpipe." 
 
 That the hornpipe was harsh-sounding may 
 be gathered from the context in Chaucer when 
 he says in the preceding lines : 
 
 " yit would he lye 
 
 Discordaunt ever fro armonye 
 And distoned from melodie." 
 
 In some editions of the " Romaunt of the 
 Rose," the words " chalemeaux de Cor- 
 nouaille," stand instead of " estives de Cor- 
 noaille." That the Waits or Shawms had 
 reeds is well known, and that the hornpipe, 
 its rustic relation, was not likely to have a 
 softer tone may be assumed. Robert Bell 
 supposes that Chaucer " wrote corn-pipes, 
 which," says he, " would be the proper trans- 
 lation of Chalemeaux." Thus Virgil : 
 " Musam meditaris avena." 
 
 And Shakespeare : 
 
 " And shepherds pipe on oaten straws.' 
 
 Others imagine the word " estive " to come 
 from ^stas, the hot season, whence our 
 word Estival for summer, and the word 
 " Chalameau '' employed as a synonym for 
 " estive " to be derived from " chaleur," heat. 
 That the " estive," " Chalameau," or " horn- 
 pipe," is " a shepherd's pipe made of corn 
 which, growing in summer, furnishes the 
 material for the instrument." These theories 
 are, to say the least, ingenious. It is, however, 
 much more in accordance with probability to 
 infer that the word " Chalameau," or " Chale- 
 meaux," comes from Calamus, a reed; which 
 is only similar to a straw in being hollow, 
 and that the word " corn " has no connection 
 with either reeds, straws, or oats. The word 
 "corn" comes from "Kipag" through " cornu," 
 and as the hard " c " is only one form of the 
 guttural sound sometimes represented by the 
 letter " h," the words " corn " and " horn " 
 are the same when applied to a musical in- 
 strument. It may not necessarily be formed 
 
 (228 ) 
 
HORNPIPE. 
 
 of horn or have horn in its composition, but 
 may receive its name from being bent or 
 curved as a horn. 
 
 The horn-pipe was probably the same kind 
 of instrument as that now known as the " Cor 
 Anglais " or English horn. The words corn, 
 comet, comamusa, &c., are applied to dif- 
 ferent sorts of wooden wind instruments with 
 reeds. The hoboy, slialm, shawn, wait, or 
 reed-pipe were common instruments in days 
 gone by, and often furnished the melodies to 
 which dancing was performed. Therefore 
 the supposition that the " hornpipe " gave 
 the name to the dance so called may not be 
 very far from the truth. 
 
 (2) A dance of English origin, so-called 
 from the instrument which played the tune 
 to which it was danced. The measure or 
 rhythm of the Hornpipe is as varied as that 
 of the tunes for country dances, therefore all 
 descriptions of the dance, which are founded 
 upon the supposition that there is only one 
 form of rhythm, are misleading. One writer 
 says, " It is in compound triple time of nine 
 crotchets in a bar, six down and three up;" 
 another says, " It is in triple time of six 
 crotchets in a bar, four whereof are to be 
 beat with a down, and two with an up hand;" 
 another says, that it is in " common time of 
 four crotchets played lively;" and another 
 says, "It is always in double triple time of 
 two parts of four and eight bars each with 
 repeats." These descriptions tally with the 
 character of the measure of the dance which 
 was called hornpipe at the time the descrip- 
 tion was written. But the hornpipe is, and 
 has been, often danced to tunes called by other 
 names, such as Brawl, Coranto, Canaries, 
 Fandango, Jig, Loure, Reel, Matelotte, &c., 
 the steps being varied to suit the several mea- 
 sures. The hornpipe now-a-days is danced 
 by a single performer, to a tune in duple 
 measure. The performer generally stands 
 still with arms folded during the time the 
 first phrase of the melody is played, and then 
 commences the dance by running round in a 
 circular direction ; and when dancing a horn- 
 pipe called by some special title, such as 
 " The Sailor's," " The Jockeys," " The 
 Countryman's," or " The Monkey's " horn- 
 pipe, generally introduces some gestures cha- 
 racteristic of the distinguishing title. 
 
 The following are some specimens of the 
 various sorts of melodies of hornpipes : 
 
 15/ part a gaine. 
 
 HORNPIPE. 
 
 Mr. Jerry Clark, 1700. 
 
 1^1 ^j^r-'ir^JrrJi-^^^^^^^nT-Hi 
 
 
 hr-;7fh~-7rt-^-^h^ 
 
 End with ye ist part. 
 J J 
 
 RAVENSCROFT'S HORNPIPE (1730). 
 
 (<»):, h :j |g -. h 
 
 ^-^' -^ ' ' — - — t^-t- 
 -^ -fv^ f ■ Z - 
 
 ^b'j, =j r J — ^ 
 
 -ml-^ «-f- ! 
 
 T^i^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m^ — ^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 -*- 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 — 1- 
 
 -^ 
 
 -*- 
 
 -^ 
 
 ms^ 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 —i — 
 
 ■h- 
 
 EE 
 
 -J- 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 1 
 
 — c=i — ^ 
 
 £r J,-ii j J~JJJ «J> I J^ a h»^Jj^ J- 
 
 |^L=Lg^,^^^|Jjjjj^jL_^ 
 
 ( 229 ) 
 
HOSANNA HURDY GURDY. 
 
 THE COLLEGE HORNPIPE. 
 
 MISS CATTLEY'S HORNPIPE. 
 
 PERFORMED AT SADDLER'S WELLS, I780. 
 
 ^^r\^^ ^^ 
 
 JACK AT GREENWICH. 
 
 C. DiBDIN, 1800. 
 
 fJ.iJJ | i .nP-jj i jlif i ^rr-rUJI 
 
 Hosanna. A part of the Sanctus in the 
 Mass. [Mass.] 
 
 Huchet (Fr.) A postman's horn. 
 Hiilfslinien (Ger.) Lager lines. 
 Hiilfsnote (Ger.) An auxiliary note. 
 
 Hummelchen {Ger.) A kind of small 
 bagpipe. A drone. The word Hummel is 
 cognate with our humble ; see Bombaulius, a 
 bagpiper. 
 
 Hunting Horn. Cor de chasse (Fr.) 
 Corno di caccia (It.) Hief horn {Ger.) [Horn.] 
 
 Hunting. A term in change-ringing. 
 There are two kinds, hunting up, and hunting 
 down. The first is performed on any number 
 of bells, "by pulling after the bell which 
 pulled last after you ;" the second is accom- 
 plished by looking out for which bell strikes 
 first of the set, and alter his number in the 
 set at each change until he has gone through 
 the full number of the bells, and then return 
 to his original place. Thus, if he be first, he 
 will next be second, then third, then fourth, 
 fifth, sixth, and so on, according to the 
 number of bells, and return backwards in 
 counting sixth, fifth, fourth, &c. 
 
 Huntsup. A morning song, of a noisy 
 boisterous character, afterwards applied to 
 any unseemly clamour at any time of the 
 day. 
 
 " I never was yet 
 At such a hunts up." 
 
 Massinger, The Duke of Milan. 
 
 There is an old song of the time of 
 Henry VIII. called " The King's Hunts up," 
 the tune of which is lively and spirited. The 
 term "hunts up" may have been derived 
 from the noise of horses, dogs, and men 
 setting out on a hunting expedition. Butler, 
 in his " Principles of Musick" (1636), defines 
 a. "hunts up" as morning music; as does 
 Cotgrave (1660), " Resveil, a hunts-up; a 
 morning song for a new made wife." This 
 last is an allusion to the custom of perform- 
 ing an auhade before a bride's window, thus 
 mentioned by Gay : 
 
 " Here rows of drummers stand in malrshal file, 
 And with their vellum thunder shake the pile, 
 To greet the newmade bride." 
 
 Hurdy gurdy. An instrument of ancient 
 origin, popular among most of the European 
 nations under the names oi Leyer or Bauern- 
 leyer. It consists of a flat oblong sounding 
 board, upon which are stretched four gut 
 strings, two of which are tuned a fifth apart 
 to form a drone bass, and placed where they 
 cannot be acted upon by the ten or twelve 
 keys fixed upon one side of the belly of the in- 
 strument ; the other two are tuned in unisori, 
 and are so arranged that they may be 
 shortened by the pressure of the keys. The 
 instrument is thus capable of sounding a 
 scale of ten or twelve notes. The strings are 
 set in vibration by the friction of a wooden 
 wheel charged with rosin and turned by 
 means of a handle at one end. The hurdy gurdy 
 is only adapted to the production of melodies 
 
 ( 230 ) 
 
HURRY HYMN TUNES. 
 
 of the simplest character. The old name for the 
 hurdy gurdy (vielle) has misled many authors 
 with regard to the derivation and description 
 of the instrument. Dr. Burney says, " That 
 the instrument called a rote, so frequently 
 mentioned by Chaucer, as well as by the old 
 French poets, was the same as the modern 
 vielle, and had its name from rota, the wheel 
 with which its tones were produced." 
 
 The word rota is simply a Latinised form of 
 the word crwth, chrotta, rotta, which was 
 originally a sort of cithara or guitar, played 
 by plucking the strings with the fingers. 
 
 In after time when an instrument of similar 
 shape was played with a bow, it still retained 
 the ancient name crwth or crowd. 
 
 Hurry. The technical, theatrical, or stage 
 name for a tremolo passage on the violin, or 
 a roll on the drum. The " hurry " is generally 
 played as a preparation for the culminating 
 point of a dramatic incident, the leading to a 
 "picture," during stage struggles or like 
 exciting actions. 
 
 Hurtig (Ger.) Nimble, quick, agile. 
 Allegro. 
 
 Hydraulic organ. [Organ.] 
 
 Hymenaion, v/xivawc (Gk.) An epitha- 
 lamium or marriage song. 
 
 Hymnology. The art of composing 
 hymns. 
 
 Hymn tunes. The keen attention paid, 
 in our time, to all forms of Church music, 
 particularly to such as come under the term 
 " Congregational," renders doubly interesting 
 the distinction of style which can be traced in 
 the " Corale," as we find it at different periods, 
 and in the different churches of Christendom. 
 We shall probably, from year to year, become 
 better informed of the historical relations 
 between sacred and secular music, especially 
 as our method of translating into modern 
 notation the neumas of the manuscripts 
 of the loth and nth centuries becomes 
 more certain and less open to doubt. There 
 is in the library of the " Ecole de Medicine," 
 of Montpelier, a MS. " Horace," in which 
 the ode to Phillis is noted to the melody 
 assigned by Guy d'Arezzo to the Hymn " Ut 
 queant laxis." "Was the melody," asks a 
 modern critic, "written for the ode, or for 
 the hymn?" In close connection with the 
 reply to this question is the inquiry of which 
 it may be considered a part, " To what extent 
 did the growth of musical measure or rhythm 
 influence the manner in which the mediaeval 
 hymns were recited or sung ? " It was the 
 only part of the ancient church office in which 
 this characteristic of " measure" was felt, and 
 the form of such melodies as the following 
 (both from the "Directory" of Guidetti) seems 
 to point the " style of transition " from un- 
 measured Plain Song to measured music. 
 
 No. I. / 
 
 " ■ ■ n 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 In No. I there is nothing but the " mono- 
 tone" of the ancient chant in phrases i and 2, 
 while every phrase of No. 2 commences with 
 the same, and ends with the simplest inflection 
 by way of melody. The strong " measure " 
 or accent of both is noticeable — the latter 
 would fall naturally into the following chant 
 form : 
 
 The Latin hymn tune, dating from about 
 the 4th till the end of the 12th century, and 
 as it appears in the office books in present 
 use, must be considered as the first distinct 
 " style " for the attention of the student. The 
 distinctive characteristics of it are: i. The 
 scales to which its melodies belong — not 
 the modern major or minor modes of the 
 diatonic scale, but the so-called "modes" 
 of the Church [Plain Song]. 2. The peculi- 
 arities of their rhythm, partly derived from 
 the metrical flow of the verse itself, partly 
 from the continually advancing sense of 
 accent, or the alternation of " heavy and 
 light." 
 
 It is matter of "pious belief," that in the 
 great majority of cases the author of the 
 hymn was the composer of the melody — a 
 point which it will always be impossible to 
 verify or to deny. It is certain that many of 
 them are truly beautiful ; as e.g. the following, 
 from the Salisbury Hymnal ■: 
 
 Dans ve - ra cor-dis 
 
 '^^m: 
 
 gau - di 
 
 Sed su - per mel et om - ni - a, 
 
 E - jus dul - cis prs - seD - ti 
 
 ( 231 ) 
 
HYMN TUNES. 
 
 Or the following, from Guidetti ; 
 
 E - ter -na Chris- 
 
 - ne-ra. A-pos-to-lo-rum 
 
 Glo - ri - am, Lau - des ca - 
 
 nen- tes de ■ 
 I 
 
 bi - tas. 
 
 - tis ca - na - mus men - - ti - ] 
 
 Others, on account of these two pecu- 
 liarities, are probably wanting in that appeal 
 to the popular sensibility which would make 
 them " popular" in the vulgar sense. 
 
 The following authorities may be consulted 
 on this part of the subject : 
 
 " Vesperale RomanumMechlinise," 8vo. F. 
 J. Hanicq, 1848. This is one volume of amag- 
 nificent reprint of office books, carried out with 
 great care and exactness, under the influence 
 of Cardinal Sterkx, Archbishop of Mechlin. 
 
 " Manuel de L'Organiste ou Accompagne- 
 ment diatonique des Chants Liturgiques les 
 plus usuels (particularly as to accompani- 
 ment according to the laws of the Gregorian 
 Modes), par P. G. C. Bogaerts et Edmond 
 Duval. Malines, Dessain. 
 
 "Hymnal Noted." Rev. T. Helmore. 
 Novello. 
 
 " Accompanying Harmonies to ditto." 
 
 The period of the Reformation was one of 
 great musical activity. For some time pre- 
 vious a quiet and half unconscious preparation 
 had been going on, in the circulation among 
 the people of popular hymns and their tunes 
 in the vernacular, and of course only sung in 
 private; and when Luther furnished his fol- 
 lowers with metrical versions of the Creed, the 
 Lord's Prayer, and other portions of the old 
 Office Books, there were no bounds to the 
 popularity of both hymns and tunes. Edition 
 followed edition of books under the title of 
 " Geistliche Lieder," &c., and in their multi- 
 plication many slight changes occurred in 
 the original melodies ; even in some that by 
 the popular voice are accredited to Luther 
 himself, and even during his lifetime. As it 
 has become the custom in Germany for each 
 diocese to be provided, by authority, with its 
 own " Gesang-Buch," the variations of these 
 popular melodies have themselves become 
 stereotyped, as it were, in different localities, 
 so that the original is often difficult to trace. 
 The great Sebastian Bach has often har- 
 monized different forms of the same melody, 
 and has even (so it seems) not hesitated to 
 alter it, if it suited the counterpoint of his 
 accompanying "parts" to do so. The place 
 occupied to this day by these melodies of 
 the i6th century in the heart of the German 
 people is perhaps only just less in reverence 
 than that due to Holy Writ. Some of them 
 were intimately associated with the occur- 
 
 ( 232 
 
 rences of Luther's life— the following, for 
 example, " Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott," 
 which is probably his composition : 
 
 EIN FESTE BURG IST UNSER GOTT.' 
 
 M, LUTHEK, 1529. 
 
 The following, " Nun danketalle Gott," has 
 become the " National Hymn," and on occa- 
 sions of popular rejoicing is often sung, in 
 the open air, accompanied by all available 
 force of military bands, and by the discharge 
 of a cannon on each note of the melody. It 
 was the composition of John Criiger, from 
 1622 to 1662 Music-Director in the St. 
 Nicholas Church, Berlin. 
 
 NUN DANKET ALLE GOTT. 
 
 JOH. CrUGER, 1649. 
 
 As an example of the alterations in melodies 
 referred to, attention may be called to the 
 various readings here given of the melody 
 known in England as " Luther's Hymn ;" 
 with the authorities for each. 
 
 * Thisisthe melodytreated so variously, and with such 
 consummate mastership, in Meyerbeer's " Huguenots." 
 
 ) 
 
HYMN TUNES. 
 
 VARIOUS READINGS OF THE MELODY KNOWN IN ENGLAND AS " LUTHER'S HYMN," 
 WITH THE AUTHORITIES FOR EACH. 
 
 ( 233 ) 
 
HYMN TUNES. 
 
 1. Is the original melody, ascribed to 
 Luther, from the " Klug'schen Gesangbuch," 
 
 1535- 
 
 2. " Geistliche Lieder," Wittemberg, 1545 
 (Luther died 1546). " Geistliche Lieder," 
 Leipzig, 1557. " Geistliche Lieder D. Martin 
 Luther," Nuremberg, 1570. " Kern des 
 Deutschen Kirchengesangs," Lairiz, Nord- 
 lingen, 1854. "Zion's Harpe," Kocker, 1855. 
 Tucker, Stutgart, 1854. D. W. Volkmar, 
 Erfurt and Leipzig, 1853. Winterfeld's 
 edition of " Luther's Corales," 1840. 
 
 3. " Xjeystliche Lieder," Niirmberg, 1558. 
 
 4. " Ein schon geistliche Gesangbuch, 
 darinnen Kirchen Gesange und geistliche 
 Lieder, D. M. Lutheri und anderer frommen 
 Christen, so in den Christlichen Gemeynden 
 zu singen gebrauchlich begriffen." Durch 
 Melchiorem Vulpium, Cantorem in Weymar, 
 i6og. 
 
 5. From Graun's Oratorio, " Der Tod 
 Jesu." Followed by Sir Henry R. Bishop, in 
 his " Twelve Corales," as performed from 
 time to time under his direction at the 
 " Ancient Concerts," dedicated to H. R. H. 
 Prince Albert. 
 
 6. 7. From J. S. Bach's, 371 Vierstimmige 
 Choralgesange : Ed. C. F. Becker, Organist 
 an der Petri Kirche, Leipzig, 1831. No. 6 is 
 also to be found in his " Choralvorspiele," 
 Griepenkerl's Ed., Peters, Leipzig, in the key 
 of G (vol. vi., p. 36). See also J. S. 
 Bach's "Choralgesange und Geistliche Arien, 
 herausgegeben von Ludwig Erk." Peters, 
 1850. 
 
 8. " Evangelische Gesang Buch," Elber- 
 feld, 1843. " Chorale Book," Heinrich Wach- 
 ter, organist in Wiburg; Halle,i856. "Chorale 
 Book," Adolphe Hesse, Breslau, 1840. 
 
 9. " Chorale Gesang Buch," C. H. Strube, 
 of Wolfenbiittel, 1841. " Wirtemberg Choral 
 Book," 1841. " Stutgart Choral Book," 1857. 
 
 10. "Chorale Book." John Augustus Bechel, 
 
 Leipzig, 1847. "Sixty-one Choral Melodies 
 to Paul Gerhard's Hymns ;" Becker, Leipzig, 
 1851. 
 
 11. "Chorale Book," Adolphe Hesse, 
 Konig. Preus. Musick-direktor und Ober- 
 Organist, Op. 69; Breslau, 1851. 
 
 12. " Evangelische Chorale Buch." Adolph 
 Bernard Marx, Dr. and Prof, in the University 
 of Berlin. 1832. " Chorale Book," dedicated 
 to the Queen of Prussia, D. H. Engel, 
 Berlin, 1844. 
 
 13. "460 Choral-Melodien." C. Karow, of 
 Bunzlau-in-Schlesien; Dorpat, 1848. "Alte 
 und newere Chorale-Melodien," C. G. 
 Schramm, of Halle ; Leipzig. 
 
 14. " Evangelische Choral Melodien Buch." 
 A. G. Fischer, Musik-Direktor und Dom- 
 Organist zu Merseburg ; 1846-7. 
 
 15. From Martini's " Ecole d'Orgue," dedi- 
 cated to the Empress Josephine ; Paris, 
 1804. (?) 
 
 16. The modern form of the melody: sup- 
 posed to have been introduced by the tenor 
 singer Braham, who also interpolated an 
 imitation of the trumpet of the " Dies Irae." 
 This form is also known in France (Chants 
 Chretiens ; Paris, 1857, et ante), 
 
 17. From "Choral-Melodien for Hanover, 
 Luneburg and Hildesheim : " Heinrich Enck- 
 hausen : Adolph Nagel, Hanover (Modern). 
 
 18. Choral-buch, von August Haupt, Or- 
 ganist der Parochial Kirche, in Berlin. Berlin : 
 Schlesingerschen Buch und Musikhandlung : 
 Robert Lienau. 
 
 19. 20. Both said to be of 1535, from 
 Winterfeld's " Der Evangelische Kirchen- 
 gesang," 3 vols, quarto ; Leipzig, 1843— 
 a work to which reference may be made on 
 the whole subject of German Hymnody. 
 
 21. From the "Introduction" to the 
 "Woman of Samaria," by Sir Sterndale 
 Bennett. Here inserted as an example of 
 the Melody, really in Common Tune, driven 
 
 ( 234 ) 
 
HYMN TUNES. 
 
 against and in combination with a move- 
 ment in Triple Measure. 
 
 Among the early labourers in this field 
 should be mentioned two French composers, 
 Claude Goudimel and Claude Le Jeune, of 
 whom the former published " Las pseaumes 
 mis en rime fran^aise, par Clement Marot et 
 Th6odore de Beze. Mis en Musique a quatre 
 parties par Claude Goudimel." Without 
 name of place, but with these words at the 
 foot of frontispiece : " Par les heritiers de 
 Frangois Jaqui, 1565," i2mo. The melody 
 is in the tenor (see below.) A second edition 
 was published at Geneva, in the same year ; 
 a third at the same place in 1580; and another 
 at Charenton, in 1607. 
 
 By the latter, i. Do de ca corde con- 
 tenant douze pseaumes de David, mis en 
 musique selon les douze modes approuves 
 des meilleurs autheurs anciens et modernes, 
 a 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 et 7 voix, par Claude Le 
 Jeune, compositeur de la Musique de la 
 Chambre du roy. A La Rochelle par Hierome 
 Haultin, 1598, 6 vol., in 4° obi. The words 
 are from Clement Marot. The form of com- 
 position is that of the motets of the early 
 Italian masters. Other editions of this work 
 ppeared at Paris in 1608 and in 1618. 2. 
 Premier livre contenant cinquante Pseaumes 
 de David, mis en Musique a 3 parties, par 
 Claude Le Jeune, natif de Valenciennes, com- 
 positeur en Musique de la Chambre du roy, 
 Paris, 1607, 3 vol., in 4° obi. The second 
 and third books were published in 1608. No 
 second edition of the work is known. 3. Les 
 psaumes de Marot et de Theodore de Beze, 
 mis en Musique a 4 et 5 parties, par CI. Le- 
 jeune, natif de Valenciennes. La Rochelle 
 1608, 40- Premiere edition, publi6e par Cecile 
 Lejeune, sceur du compositeur, et dediee au 
 due de Bouillon, prince de Sedan. This 
 edition is very rare. A second was published 
 at Paris, 1613 ; a third at Geneva, in 1627 ; 
 another at Amsterdam, in 1629 ; one at Paris, 
 from which the Psalms in 5 parts had dis- 
 appeared ; one at Amsterdam, in 1633 ; and 
 one at Leyden, in 1635. The music was also 
 printed with a Dutch translation of the words 
 at Schiedam, in 1664. 
 
 The first portion of the Church Service 
 printed in the English language was the 
 Litany, 1544 ; the celebrated letter of Cranmer 
 to Henry VIIL, in October of that year, men- 
 tions also his effort at translating the Hymn 
 " Salve festa dies," to which he had " put the 
 Latin note " as being " sober and distinct." 
 (See Jenkyn's Cranmer, i. 315.) Within the 
 next few years the custom of psalm-singing 
 had become common enough to warrant the 
 " Church Tunes" being referred to as "usual" 
 or "wonted tunes." In 1562, the version of 
 the Psalter, now known as the " old " 
 
 version, the joint production of Steruhold 
 and Hopkins, was first printed with these 
 melodies ; and in the year after, under the 
 editorship of John Day, " The whole Psalms, 
 in foure partes, which may be sung to al 
 musical instruments," &c., &c., in which 
 Thomas Tallis, William Parsons, Thomas 
 Causton, Richard Edwards, and three others 
 were the harmonizers. This was followed in 
 1579 by another publication by Day, the 
 music arranged by William Damon, and in 
 1585 and 1591 other contributions of a like 
 nature appeared ; but inferior in their pre- 
 tensions and interest to the collection pub- 
 lished in 1592 by Thomas Est or Este, " the 
 assign6 of William Byrd, dwelling in Alders- 
 gate Street, at the signe of the Black Horse." 
 The arrangers of the tunes were Richard 
 Allison, E. Blancks, Michael Cavendish, 
 Wm. Cobbold, John Dowland, John Farmer, 
 Giles Farnaby (Bac. Mus., Oxford, 1592), 
 Edmund Hooper (Organist and Gentleman ot 
 the Chapel Royal), Edward Johnson (Mus. 
 Bac, Cantab.), and George Kirbye. Of this 
 work, a second edition appeared, in 1594, and 
 a third, in 1604, and during the next twenty 
 years more than twenty editions of the old 
 version with Church tunes were published by 
 the Company of Stationers, into whose hands 
 the matter had fallen. 
 
 In 1621 appeared " The whole Book of 
 Psalmes, with the hymnes evangelicall and 
 songs spirituall, composed into 4 parts by 
 sundry authors, to such severall tunes as have 
 beene and are usually sung in England, Scot- 
 land, Wales, Germany, Italy, France, and the 
 Netherlands, never as yet before in one vol. 
 published," &c., &c. As it is also said to be 
 " newly corrected and enlarged," by Thomas 
 Ravenscroft, Bachelor of Musicke ; it is pos- 
 sible this may not have been the original 
 edition. Every Psalm of the old version is 
 printed in full, with its tune, in four parts ; 
 some tunes, however, being several times re- 
 peated, so that the total number is ninety- 
 eight, of which forty are new compositions. 
 
 Of these Psalters, two particulars should be 
 noted : ist, that many of the tunes, though 
 not all, are distinguished by names — " Nor- 
 wich," " Martyrs," &c., a custom which was 
 English and Scotch exclusively ; and 2nd, 
 that the arrangement of voices places the 
 tune in the tenor part, not in the treble, as is 
 the modern custom. Though the vocal parts in 
 Ravenscroft are much more difficult than in 
 Este, it is doubtful whether either became a 
 manual for use in Church, or whether it was 
 ever intended to be so. If it were, the skill 
 necessary for the correct execution of these 
 parts must have been much greater then 
 than is common in any but the best Church 
 choirs now. 
 
 ( 235 ) 
 
HYMN TUNES. 
 
 The following arrangement of the " Old 
 Hundredth," by John Douland, is from Este, 
 and will give a fair idea of his book : 
 
 ist Treble. 
 
 ^1 peo - pie that on earth . . 
 Tenor (the Tune). 
 
 do dwell, 
 
 Sing to the Lord with cheer - ful voice; 
 
 Him serve with fear, His praise forth tell, 
 
 Him serve with fear, His praise forth tell, 
 
 ^7S 
 
 Come ye be - fore Him and 
 
 The following is Ravenscroft's Harmony of 
 the old 137th ; the melody, as before, in the 
 tenor. It is thought better for the general 
 reader to reduce this to " short score." The 
 
 frequent occurrence of syncopation in the 
 accompanying parts should be noticed ; the 
 correct execution of this harmony would not 
 be easy, even for an accomplished church 
 choir : 
 
 r-TF-f 
 
 ^s=^ 
 
 When as we sat in Ba by - Ion, The liv - ers 
 
 p ^^ t^^^^M^V^^ 
 
 r " r r TZf' 
 
 round a- bout, And in re - mem-brance of Si - 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 and in - struments. The wil-low trees up - on : 
 
 g_jr"r rr^^r^yr 
 
 =<= 
 
 r 
 
 For 
 
 ! I '1 
 
 in that place men for their 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 In 1728, a professedly corrected edition of 
 " Ravenscroft," edited by William Turner, 
 was published by William Pearson ; and 
 another edition by J. Buckland in 1746. The 
 " Harmonia Perfecta" of 1730, which pro- 
 fessed to give the chief of Ravenscroft's 
 tunes, avoided most of his syncopations, and 
 spoiled many of his harmonies. 
 
 In 1615 appeared Andrew Hart's " Scotch 
 Psalter; the cl. Psalms of David in prose 
 and metre ; with their usual notes and tunes, 
 newly corrected and amended." Edinburgh, 
 printed by Andrew Hart. In this edition the 
 
 (236) 
 
HYMN TUNES. 
 
 melody only appears, the harmonized edition 
 heing dated 1635. It contains a tune for 
 each Psalm. 
 
 That the versifications of Tate and Brady, 
 known as the " New Version" of the Psalms, 
 had any beneficial influence on the culture of 
 psalmody has never been pretended ; but 
 with the composition of hymns by Wesley and 
 his followers came a new poetic material of 
 which musicians were not slow to avail them- 
 selves. New compositions, in the new 
 measures, and with the greater warmth of 
 feeling suggested by the words, and differing 
 entirely, both in melody and harmonization 
 from the older school, follow naturally. The 
 tune books and hymnals with which the press 
 abounds, present every variety of these— 
 from the very time of Wesley to the present 
 — and these lie open before the student. In 
 both melody and harmony they reflect not 
 unhappily the style of the time in which thoy 
 were written. 
 
 In the following example the employment 
 of the voices is akin to that in a glee, and 
 short passages are employed " a la fugue." 
 It is from " Melodia Sacra ; or. The Devout 
 Psalmist's New Musical Companion," &c., 
 &c. By William Tans'ur, Senior. " Musico 
 Theorico," &c., London, G. Bigg, 1772. The 
 method employed has long been acknow- 
 ledged as utterly unsuited to any good pur- 
 pose: 
 
 t 
 
 Chorus. 
 
 ^ 
 
 God 
 
 t 
 
 tr 
 
 #^ 
 
 (Fuga.t 
 
 tr 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 The following is from " Parochial Psalmody ," 
 dedicated to His Majesty George the Fourth, 
 
 ( 237 ) 
 
HYPER HYPORCHEMA. 
 
 by Thomas Greatorex, Conductor of His 
 Majesty's Concert of Ancient Music, and 
 Organist of Westminster Abbey ; London, 
 182 . . (?) Many good examples of this style 
 of writing may be found in the works of 
 composers of the same date : 
 
 WESTMINSTER. CM. 
 Psalm cv. New Version. " Sing praise to God." 
 
 A quotation from an older melody. 
 
 Remark in both the above (though separated 
 by an interval of fifty years, and the latter 
 about fifty years only from our own time), 
 the frequent occurrence of the " tr," even on 
 the four notes of the same chord.* 
 
 The following are examples of au> style " to 
 be avoided." They are reprinted without 
 words, and in melody only, to show how 
 unlike any accepted or acceptable form of 
 music suited for Divine worship they are : 
 
 8.7.8.7. (DOUBLE.) 
 
 Hyper, vvi^ (Cr^.) Above. A prefix to 
 the names of modes one fourth above the 
 authentic; as. Hyper- Eolian, Hyper-Dorian, 
 Hyper-Iastian or Ionian, Hyper-Lydian, 
 Hyper- Phrygian. [Greek Music] 
 
 , Hyper-diapason. Super-octave. 
 
 Hypo, vffo (GA.) Below. A prefix to the 
 names of modes commencing one fourth 
 below the authentic, otherwise called Plagal, 
 as, Hyjjo-Dorian, Hypo-Eolian, Hypo-Iastian 
 or Ionian, Hypo-Lydian, Hypo-Phrygian 
 [Greek Music] [Plain Song.] 
 
 Hyporchema (Gi.) inropxrifia. A religious 
 hymn and dance connected with the worship 
 of Apollo from the earliest times. 
 
 * For some interesting remarks as to the trillo as an 
 integral part of a composition, see Preface to HuUah's 
 edition of Pergolesi's " Stabat Mater." 
 
 ( 238) 
 
IAMBUS IMITATION. 
 
 1. 
 
 Iambus. A metrical foot consisting of a 
 short syllable and a long. [Metre.] 
 
 Hymns are roughly said to be Iambic when 
 they consist of such feet, the music com- 
 mencing on the upbeat, e.g., " All praise to 
 Thee, my God, this night." 
 
 lastian. Ionic. [Greek Music] 
 
 Idyll (Gk.) eiBvWlov. Lit., a small form. 
 Hence, a beautiful form, (i) A poem of elegant 
 structure, frequently, though not always, on 
 a pastoral subject. (2) Music set to a poem of 
 this character. 
 
 II doppio movimento (li.) Double time, 
 twice as fast. 
 
 II fine {It.) The end. 
 
 II piii (If.) Lit., the most, as, il pitt piano 
 possibile, as soft as possible, &c. 
 
 Imboccatura (It.), Embouchure {Fr.) Birn 
 (Ger.) The mouth-piece of a wind-instrument. 
 
 Imitando (It.) Imitating, as, imitando la 
 voce, imitating the voice part, &c. 
 
 Imitation. The repetition of a s.iort 
 subject by another part. The subject pro- 
 posed is sometimes called the antecedent, and 
 the passage which afterwards imitates it the 
 consequent. If the consequent is at a fixed 
 interval from the antecedent throughout, the 
 imitation is said to be strict, e.g. : 
 
 Pergolesi. 
 
 Sta bat Ma. 
 
 ^^ \ }' c al TfrT^J^^sg 
 
 Haiidbi» 
 
 This subject may be treated in three parts 
 as follows, including imitation at the third 
 and sixth : 
 
 Examples of imitation at various intervals 
 and numbers of parts might be multiplied to 
 any extent. Imitation by augmentation is 
 when the consequent is in notes twice the 
 length of those of the antecedent, e.g. : 
 
 If the consequent only roughly follows the 
 antecedent, the imitation is said to be free, 
 e.g.: 
 
 Imitation may be at any interval, and may 
 be supported by any number of parts, and 
 though it often forms an important element 
 of fugue, it is unrestricted by the laws of 
 subject and answer which are binding in that 
 form of composition. The following are 
 examples of imitation at the second : 
 
 Imitation by diminution is when the con- 
 sequent is in notes half the length of those of 
 the antecedent, e.g. : 
 
 :&c. 
 
 Imitation by inversion is when the intervals 
 of the antecedent are inverted in order to 
 form the consequent : 
 
 ( 239 ) 
 
IMMER INSTRUMENT. 
 
 Imitation is said to be convertible when 
 antecedent and consequent are interchange- 
 able. If strict imitation be continued for any 
 length of time it is said to be canonical. 
 
 Immer {Ger.) Always, as, immer langsam, 
 slow throughout. 
 
 Impaziente, impazientemente (Jt.) 
 Impatient, impatiently. 
 
 Imperfect. Not perfect, (i) An imperfect 
 interval is one which is a semitone less than 
 perfect. (2) The imperfect consonances are 
 the third and sixth, as opposed to the fourth 
 and fifth. (3) An imperfect cadence is one 
 which does not give complete rest in key. 
 All cadences not having a dominant or sub- 
 dominant penultimate are said to be imper- 
 fect. [Cadence.] (4) An imperfect stop on 
 an organ is one, the pipes of which do not 
 extend through the whole compass of the 
 manual. A short stop. (5) Duple measure 
 was formerly called imperfect, as opposed to 
 tempus perfectum, triple time. > 
 
 Imperioso (It.) With grandeur, dignity, 
 imperiously. 
 
 Impeto, con (It.) •\ 
 
 Impetuosamente {It.) I Impetuously. 
 
 Impetuoso (It.) 1 
 
 Implied discord. A discord, the actual 
 percussion of which is not found unless other 
 parts be added to the chord, e.g. : 
 
 The intervals forming the above chord are 
 practically minor thirds, which are not in 
 themselves discordant. 
 
 Implied intervals. Intervals not ex- 
 pressed in thorough bass figuring. [Figured 
 bass.] 
 
 Imponente {It.) In an emphatic, pom- 
 pous style. 
 
 Impresario {It.) A designer, conductor, 
 or manager of a concert or opera party. This 
 term is often applied to a man who trains 
 singers, or obtains them for public per- 
 formances. 
 
 Impromptu {It.) (i) A piece of music 
 written or played without previous prepara- 
 tion of the subject. An extempore perform- 
 ance. [Extempore.] (2) A composition not 
 in any set form, having the character of an 
 extempore piece. 
 
 Improvvisamente {It.) Unprepared, un- 
 premeditated, extempore. 
 
 Improvvisare (it.) To found an extem- 
 pore piece upon a suddenly suggested sub- 
 ject. 
 
 Improvvisatore {It.) Improvisateur {Fr.) 
 One who has the gift of improvising. [Extem- 
 pore.] 
 
 Improviser (Fr.) To improvise. 
 
 In alt (It.) All notes in the first octave 
 beyond the range of the treble stave. [Pitch.] 
 
 In altissimo (It.) All notes beyond the 
 range of the first octave in alt. [Pitch.] 
 
 Incantation. The utterance of a charm 
 or spell in a singing, monotonous tone. 
 
 Inchoatio (Lat.) The Intonation or in- 
 troductory notes of a plain-song chant. 
 
 Indeciso (It.) Undetermined. In an 
 undecided manner. 
 
 Indifi-IrentementeV'^*-) ^'^^ ^"^^ff"" 
 
 Indifferenza, con j ^"'=^' °' ""concern. 
 
 Inferior. (Lat.) Lit,, lower. At an 
 interval below, as, Inversio in octavam in- 
 feriorem, inversion at the octave below, &c. 
 
 Infinite Canon, [Canon.] 
 
 Inflexion. A departure from the monotone 
 in chanting. [Accent, § 4.] 
 
 In fretta (7<.) In haste. Hurriedly, . 
 
 Inganno [It.) Lit., deception, as, cadenza 
 d'inganno, a deceptive cadence. 
 
 Inner parts. Those portions of the 
 harmony that are not at the top or bottom. 
 
 Inner pedal. A sustained note in one of 
 the inner parts. [Sustained note.] 
 
 Innig (Ger.) With expression and feeling. 
 
 Inno (It.) A hymn. 
 
 Innocentemente'^ (/f.) Innocently. In 
 
 Innocente Va child-like artless 
 
 Innocenza, con J manner. 
 
 In nomine, (i) The name given to a 
 free fugue as opposed to one constructed in 
 strict accordance with the rules of fugue-form. 
 (2) A piece in fugal style, that is, consisting 
 largely of imitation and of contrapuntal 
 devices, sometimes vocal, sometimes for in- 
 struments alone. When used in this sense 
 the name has been by some traced to the 
 words forming part of the Benedictus — in 
 nomine Domini, and by others from the words 
 of the Antiphon "in festo sanctissimi nominis 
 Jesu," commencing " in nomine Jesu omne 
 genu flectatur." Others again trace it to 
 verse 5 of Psalm xx. " We will rejoice in 
 Thy salvation, and triumph in the name (in 
 nomine) of the Lord our God." The in 
 nomines which exist are chiefly the pro- 
 duction of composers of the i6th century. 
 
 Inquieto (/i.) Restless, agitated. 
 
 Insensibile (It.) ) Imperceptibly, by 
 
 Insensibilmente (7^.) ] degrees. 
 
 Instrument §l archet (Fr.) An instru- 
 ment played with a bow. 
 
 Instrument a cordes {Fr.')]A stringed 
 
 Instrumento a corda (It.) ) instrument. 
 
 Instrument. Any mechanical contri- 
 vance for the production of sound : The 
 musical instruments employed are divided 
 into the following classes. Stringed, wind, 
 and pulsatile. The stringed instruments are 
 
 { 240 ) 
 
INSTRUMENTATION INTERVAL. 
 
 the pianoforte and older instruments of its 
 kind which are played by means of a clavier 
 or key-board ; the guitar and others whose 
 strings are struck or plucked by the fingers ; 
 and the violin class played with a bow. Wind 
 instruments are of wood or metal ; those that 
 are of wood are the flute, piccolo, hautboy, 
 cor anglais, clarionet, basset horn, and 
 bassoon ; those that are of metal are the 
 horn, trumpet, cornet-a-pistons, trombone, 
 ophicleide, saxhorn, bombardon, &c. The 
 pulsatile or percussion instruments are the 
 kettle-drums, great drum, side drum, triangle, 
 cymbals, and tambourine. A description of 
 each will be found under its proper head. 
 
 Instrumentation. The art of using 
 several musical instruments in combination ; 
 also, the style or treatment of orchestral in- 
 struments with a view to the production of 
 special effects. [Orchestra.] 
 
 Instrument a vent {Fr.) \ A wind in- 
 Instrumento da fiato (lf.)j strument. 
 Instrumentirung (Ger.) Instrumentation. 
 Intavolare (It.) To set in notes, to score, 
 to copy. 
 
 In tempo (7^.) or a tempo, in strict time. 
 A direction to follow strict time after any 
 passage in which has occurred a rail., &c. 
 Interlude, interludium (Lat.) A piece 
 of music either impromptu or prepared, 
 played between the acts of a drama, the 
 verses of a canticle or hymn, or between 
 certain portions of a church service. 
 
 Intermede (Fr.) Intermedio (It.) An 
 interlude. 
 Intermedietto (It.) A short interlude. 
 Intermezzo {It.) An interlude. 
 Interrupted Cadence. [Cadence.] 
 Interruzione, senza (It.) Without hin- 
 drance, without pause. 
 
 Interval. . The distance between any two 
 sounds. / In discussing all subjects relating 
 to melody, or to the construction of chords, it 
 is necessary to find names for the various 
 kinds of intervals. Hence," in the earliest 
 treatises on music they a,re divided into 
 classes. The old axiom that consonance 
 depend^ on simplicity of -xatio naturally led 
 authors to draw a line at the point at which 
 two sounds ceased to be consonant and became 
 dissonant. Among the Greeks, the unison, 
 octave, fifth, and fourth, were considered 
 more perfect than the third and sixth and 
 other intervals. In mediaeval treatises an 
 interesting division of ifitervals into perfect, 
 medium, and imperfecb^is found ; the unison 
 and octave belonged to the first class, the 
 fourth and fifth to the second, the third and 
 sixth to the last. In later works appeared a 
 division which is to this day followed by 
 many writers, namely, into Perfect and Im- 
 perfect. This division runs thus : 
 
 Intervals 
 
 Consonant 
 
 Dissonant 
 
 Perfect Imperfect 2nd, 7th All aug- 
 4th, 5th, 8th. 3rd, 6th. mented 
 
 and di- 
 minished 
 intervals. 
 So far, this division seems plain enough. 
 But modern music requires that intervals shall 
 be designated according to their scale value. 
 
 Hence a perfect interval when accidentallj^ 
 flattened becomes imperfect, and a major 
 interval minor. But the application of the 
 word imperfect to a perfect interval made 
 smaller led to serious confusion, because, 
 an imperfect fifth came as a subdivision of 
 perfect intervals, while imperfect intervals of 
 themselves formed a separate class. To 
 avoid this cross-division, theorists have in 
 the last few years used the name diminished ^ 
 for perfect fifths reduced by one semitone. 
 But it is important to note that by this change 
 of name a new difficulty arises, for diminished 
 has almost by universal consent been applied 
 to certain intervals when made less than minor, 
 for example, Cjf to BP is a diminished seventh 
 because CJf to BJ is a major seventh, CJ to Btj 
 a minor seventh, Cjf to B!' one semitone less 
 than minor. The word diminished when 
 applied by these authors to a fourth or fifth 
 signifies that it is reduced from its normal 
 state by one semitone, but the same word 
 " diminished " when applied to a seventh 
 signifies that it is reduced by two semitones. 
 That utter confusion should result from such 
 an undigested system is absolutely inevit- 
 able ; and it will be found that professors and 
 teachers of music to this day are unable to 
 talk intelligibly to each other on the simple 
 subject of " Intervals." For many years a 
 system has been taught in Germany which 
 makes the whole matter j)erfectly plain. It 
 is this : — 
 
 1. Intervals are reckoned upwards, inclu- 
 sively, and by the number of names of notes 
 they contain. 
 
 2. Intervals are in their normal state when 
 reckoned from the first note of the major 
 scale. The lowest note of the interval being 
 considered for the time as a. tonic. 
 
 3. Normal intervals are major. Thus, D 
 to Fjt is a major third, because FJf is the third 
 degree of the scale of D ; F to Bt? is a major 
 fourth, because Bt* is the fourth of the scale of 
 F ; B to Fg is a major fifth, because Fj( is the 
 fifth of the scale of B ; and so on. In other 
 words, all the intervals of any major scale 
 reckoning up from the tonic respectively are 
 major. 
 
 4. Intervals one semitone less than major 
 are minor. Thus, C to Dl? is a minor second 
 
 (241 ) 
 
INTIMO INTONATION. 
 
 because it is one semitone less than the 
 normal D in the scale of C ; B to FJj is a 
 minor fifth because one semitone less than 
 the normal F# in the scale of B ; and so on. 
 
 5. Intervals one semitone greater than 
 major are augmented. Thus, C to D# is an 
 augmented second, because it is one semitone 
 greater than C to D, the normal interval ; 
 C to GJ(, an augmented fifth ; and so on. 
 
 6. Intervals one semitone less than minor 
 are diminished. Thus, F( to EP is a diminished 
 seventh ; CJ to Gt', a diminished fifth; Cf to 
 El?, a diminished third ; and so on. 
 
 The siiiiplicity of this system is already 
 apparent; The following diagram shows it 
 at a glance : 
 
 Major 8th 
 Major 7th 
 Major 6th 
 Major 5th 
 Major 4th 
 Major 3rd 
 Major 2nd 
 
 CDEFGABC 
 
 Minor 8th 
 Minor 7th 
 Minor 6th 
 Minor 5th 
 Minor 4th 
 Minor 3rd 
 Minor 2nd . 
 
 C Db Eb Fb Gb Ab Bb C!? 
 
 Augmented 8th 
 Augmented 7th 
 Augmented 6th 
 Augmented 5th 
 Augmented 4thi 
 Augmented 3rd 
 Augmented 2nd, 
 
 C~~D# Et Ff G$ A| B| C# 
 
 Diminished 8th 
 Diminished 7th 
 Diminished 6th|_ 
 Diminished 5th._ 
 Diminished 4th 
 Diminished 3rd._ 
 Diminished 2nd,_ 
 
 c Dt'b Ebb Fbb Gbb Abb Bbb ebb 
 or C( Db Eb Fb Gb Ab Bp C\> 
 
 It will be seen from this last that diminished 
 intervals are produced in two ways — either by 
 making the upper note of a minor interval 
 flatter, or by making the lower note of a 
 minor interval sharper. Hence it is that 
 some intervals have to be calculated from 
 notes not having a diatonic scale of their 
 own; thus, BJ to Afcj. In such cases, the 
 nature of the interval is readily found by 
 temporarily reducing the lower note ; thus, 
 
 Bb to At] is a minor seventh, therefore B# to 
 Ajjj, being a semitone less than minor, must 
 be a diminished seventh. 
 
 The following is the simplest form of 
 stating the rule for naming intervals accord- 
 ing to this system. "When asked the 
 nature of any interval, bear in mind the 
 major scale of the lower note, then, if the 
 upper note is higher by a semitone than it 
 would be in the major scale of the lower note, 
 it is augmented ; if the upper note is actually 
 a note of that major scale it is major; if it is 
 less than major by one semitone it is minor ; 
 if it is less than minor by one semitone it is 
 diminished. When the lower note is a 
 sharpened note, which has no scale of its 
 own, consider it as one semitone lower, when 
 the interval can be easily determined, e.g., 
 Cjtjt to GJt is a minor fifth, because the in- 
 terval is one semitone less than CJf to Gg, 
 the normal fifth. When the lower note is a 
 flattened note, which has no scale of its own, 
 consider it as temporarily raised before deter- 
 mining the nature of the interval, thus Cbb to 
 Gb is an augmented fifth, because it is one 
 semitone greater than the normal fifth Cb to 
 Gb." 
 
 The only obstacle to the general adoption 
 of this excellent method of tabulating intervals 
 is to be found in the pertinacity with which 
 professors adhere to the ■ expression perfect 
 fifth and perfect fourth, and abhor tTie term 
 major fifth anA. major fqurth. This absurd 
 prejudice, which arguments drawn from the 
 history and science of music seem to have no 
 power to remove, must be allowed to die of 
 old age. If there is any real distinction 
 between the perfection of a fifth and the 
 imperfection of a third, it might even then 
 be allowed to students to call fourths and 
 fifths major, on the understanding that they 
 also possessed a remarkable perfection which 
 no other intervals possess. 
 
 It has been suggested that intervals should 
 be called, inst^d of (i) minor, (2) major, and 
 (3) augmentecT; (r) minor, (2) normal, and 
 (3) major. This would certainly be a better 
 system than any yet devised ; but it is to be 
 feared that it would be impossible to disturb 
 the universally accepted meaning of the word 
 major. 
 
 Intervals greater than major or normal 
 have been termed (besides augmented) ex- 
 treme, sharp, superfluous, pluperfect, &c. 
 
 Intimo {It.) With inward emotion. 
 
 Intonare {It.) To tune, to sing. 
 
 Intonation, (i) The method of producing 
 sound from a voice or an instrument. (2) 
 Correctness of pitch ; e.g., just intonation, 
 singing or plajdng in perfect tune. (3) The 
 method of chanting certain portions of the ■ 
 church services. [Accent, § 4.] (4) The 
 
 ( 242 ) 
 
INTONATOR ITE MISSA EST. 
 
 {It.) Boldly, dar- 
 ingly, with courage. 
 
 notes which precede the reciting-note in a 
 Gregorian chant. 
 
 Intonator. A monochord, or single string 
 stretched across a flat sound-board. Below 
 the string is a diagram of the exact divisions 
 of the monochord necessary for the produc- 
 tion of the true musical scale. By means of 
 a moveable bridge, the student is able to 
 sound the notes represented on the diagram, 
 and so, to educate his ear to a true sense of 
 relative pitch. 
 
 Intonazione {It.) Intonation. 
 
 Intoning. The practice of chanting in 
 the Anglican church service, which includes 
 the delivery of the prayers in monotone, and 
 the precenting or leading of the plain song of 
 the Psalms, Credo, Canticles, &c. 
 
 Intrada {It.) (From intra, between). An 
 interlude or entr'acte. 
 
 Intrepidamente 
 
 Intrepidezza, con 
 
 Intrepido 
 
 Introduction. A preparation for, or pre- 
 amble of, a movement or series of movements. 
 Introductions were formerly employed only 
 before larger musical works such as oratorios 
 and operas, but are now used as preparations 
 to works of nearly every kind from a cantata 
 to a waltz. 
 
 Introducimento {It.) An introduction. 
 
 Introduzione {It.) Introduction. 
 
 Introit, Introito {It.), Introitus {Lat., 
 ■ from intro-eo). An antiphon sung while the 
 priest proceeds to the altar to celebrate mass. 
 In the Anglican Church, a short anthem, 
 psalm, or hymn, sung while the minister pro- 
 ceeds to the table to administer the Holy 
 Communion. Formerly, in some English 
 cathedrals, the Sanctus was sung as an In- 
 troit. This practice arose probably from the 
 fact that the Communion Service soon after 
 the Reformation ceased to be performed 
 chorally, a proof of which is found in the 
 fact that for nearly two centuries — namely, 
 from 1660 to 1840 — ^the Sanctus was never 
 set to music except as an Introit, nor was the 
 Gloria in excelsis set, but as an anthem. 
 [Cathedral music] 
 
 Invention, (i) The gift of finding new 
 melodic phrases, or new combinations in har- 
 mony. The possessor of such a gift is fre- 
 quently the founder of a school or style in 
 music. (2) Suites de pi&ces. [Suite.] (3)The 
 name of a piece of music of a fanciful 
 character. 
 
 Invenzione {It.) Invention. 
 
 Inversion. The transposition of certain 
 phrases having a common root. There are 
 three kinds of inversions in music — (i) of 
 chords ; (2) of intervals ; (3) of subjects. 
 
 (i) The inversion of a chord is effected by 
 making one of the inner notes act as a bass 
 
 note, and by this means as many inversions 
 can be made, as there are actual notes in the 
 chord, not counting the root. In such inver- 
 sions the harmony remains the same, although 
 the order of component parts is changed. 
 
 (2) Intervals are inverted by making that 
 which was the upper note the lower, and the 
 reverse. The inversion of an interval within 
 the octave may readily be found in the differ- 
 ence between the figure g and the interval 
 known ; thus an interval of a second becomes 
 a seventh by inversion, &c. 
 
 (3) The inversion of a subject is produced 
 by inverting the intervals of which it con- 
 sists. [Al rovescio.] 
 
 Invitatorium {Lat.) A sort of introduc- 
 tory sentence or antiphon immediately pre- 
 ceding one of the ofiices of the Church ; such, 
 for instance, as parts of the Venite exultemus, 
 or other words inviting the presence or atten- 
 tion of the congregation. 
 
 Invitatory. [Invitatorium.] 
 
 Ionian mode. The Church mode com- 
 mencing on the note C. 
 
 Ira, con 
 
 Iratamente {It.) WrathfuUy, with anger. 
 
 Irato J 
 
 Irish bagpipe. [Bagpipe.] 
 
 Irish harp. [Harp.] 
 
 Irlandais {Fr.) In the Irish style. 
 
 Ironicamente) ,r, ^ -, „ 
 
 Ironico |(^^-) Ironi'^ally- 
 
 Irresoluto {It.) Uncertain, without set- 
 tled purpose, in an undecided manner. 
 
 Isochronism. Periodical recurrence. 
 [Acoustics.] 
 
 Ison {Gk.) In the music of the early 
 Greek Church, the ison was the key-note or 
 tonic of a chant. The ison was moveable. 
 
 Istesso {It.) The same; as, I'istesso tempo, 
 at the same pace. 
 
 Istrumento. An old form of stromento, 
 an instrument. 
 
 Italian sixth. The name of a chord con- 
 taining a bass note accompanied by a major 
 third and a sharp sixth. 
 
 [Extreme sixth.] 
 
 Italian strings. Catgut strings for violins 
 and similar instruments, prepared in a pecu- 
 liar manner, so that they are more transparent 
 in appearance, and less liable to become false 
 in use than ordinary strings. The majority of 
 real Italian strings are made in Rome. [Catgut.] 
 
 Italienne, a 1' (Fr.) | j^ the Italian style. 
 
 Italiano {It.) ) ' 
 
 Ite missa est {Lat.) The concluding 
 words of the Mass in the Romish Church, 
 from whence the name of that service (Mass) 
 is derived. 
 
 ( 243 ) 
 
JACK ^JIG. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jack. The name of the hoppers attached 
 to the keys of a harpsichord ; the end of the 
 jack was furnished with a quill, as plectrum, 
 to pluck the strings. [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Jager-chor (Ger.) Hunting chorus. 
 
 Jaleo. Zaleo {Sp.) A national dance of 
 Spain. 
 
 Janitscharen-musik {Ger). Janissary 
 music, noisy music on instruments of per- 
 cussion. 
 
 Jeu {Fr.) A stop on the organ, or har- 
 monium. Grand jeu, the full power. 
 
 Jeu d'anche (Fr.) Reed stop. 
 
 Jeu d'ange (Fr.) The vox angelica stop. 
 
 Jeu de flute (Fr.) Flute stop. 
 
 Jeu d'orgue (Fr.) An organ stop. 
 
 Jeux doux (Fr.) Sweet or soft stops. 
 
 Jeux forts (Fr.) Loud stops. 
 
 Jew's harp, yew's trump, trompe de biarn, 
 Guimbarde {Fr.), Mundtrommel, Brummeisen 
 {Ger.) An instrument held between the lips, 
 the sound coming from the vibrations of 
 a tongue of metal, bent at a right angle, 
 which is set in motion by being twitched with 
 the forefinger. The sound is increased in 
 intensity by the breath, and altered in pitch by 
 the shape of the cavity of the mouth, which 
 acts as a reflector. This name some derive 
 from jeu, play, from the fact of its being a toy ; 
 others find the derivation of the word in the 
 manner in which the instrument is used, jfaw's 
 trump ; the German word Maultrommel seems 
 to confirm the latter derivation. Insignificant 
 as the instrument seems, it is capable of 
 producing the most beautiful and pleasing 
 sounds of a melancholy character. 
 
 A common soldier, named Koch, who served 
 in the army of Frederick the Great, first raised 
 the Jew's harp from a toy to a solo instru- 
 ment, and a M. Eulenstein gave concerts in 
 London some fifty years ago, during which 
 he performed upon sixteen instruments, by 
 which means he obtained a compass of four 
 octaves. The Jew's harp is an old invention, 
 being mentioned under the name of Cremba- 
 lum by Prastorius in his Organographia, in 
 the year i6ig. It is a favourite instrument 
 with the Hottentots, at the Cape, who load 
 the end of the elastic spring or vibrator with 
 small portions of hard wax to deepen the 
 tone. The inhabitants of the island of St. 
 
 Kilda were formerly great proficients upon 
 this, which was their only instrument of 
 music. 
 
 Jig. Gigue {Fr). Giga {It.) (i) A lively 
 dance which may be performed by one or 
 more dancers. It is popular among many 
 nations, is distinguished by various titles, 
 and has a certain amount of difference in the 
 steps according to the habits and customs of 
 the people by whom it is adopted. With 
 some it is a sober, steady, jog-trot sort of a 
 country dance, with others it is a wild, savage 
 exercise, without point or meaning. With 
 some it is made a means of displaying the 
 agility of the lower limbs of a combined 
 company of dancers ; with others it is a 
 terpsichorean drama for two performers, in 
 which all the emotions excited by love are 
 represented by gestures and monosyllabic 
 cries. The Hornpipe, La Matelotte, La Segui- 
 dilla, the Czardasch, the Reel, the Rant, 
 are portions of the country dance ; the Bolero 
 and the Chica are only jigs in various forms. 
 
 The term has been derived from the word 
 chica, the name of a dance identical with the 
 jig in some of its characteristics. But the 
 similarity of the title of the instrument 
 " Geige," a fiddle, with which the dance was 
 usually accompanied, with the name of the 
 dance, would seem to point to an origin 
 similar to that of " hornpipe," where the 
 character of the instrument gave the name to 
 the tunes played upon it. 
 
 The jig, gigue, gighe, or giga, as it is 
 variously spelt, was one of the instruments 
 used by the musicians of the 12th and 13th 
 centuries, and this is generally understood to 
 have been a sort of fiddle. 
 
 The "Geige," or "jigg" may have received 
 its name from the " up and down " motion 
 with which it is played. A fiddlestick is still 
 called in the west of England a "jigger," 
 and there is a sort of pump used by brewers 
 which has the same name. In the east of 
 England a sieve is called a "jiggin," and 
 there are many other words of cognate origin, 
 which it would scarcely serve the present 
 purpose to quote. 
 
 Songs sung by clowns in the interludes to 
 the plays were called jigs, and any ambling 
 rhyme was also called a "jig." 
 
 ( 244 ) 
 
JIG. 
 
 In the romance of " Gawaine and the 
 Green Knight," the word Bauderyk is used. 
 It is explained in the " Promptorium Parvu- 
 lorum" as meaning " guige," a transverse 
 strap, hy which the shield was suspended 
 round the neck. The use of the word with 
 such a meaning may account for the fact that 
 the vielle or hurdy-gurdy is called geige, 
 gigelira or giga vel lira from having been 
 slung round the body. 
 
 Jig-tunes or fiddle-tunes are frequently 
 found in old MS. and printed collections from 
 the i6th century onwards. They are all of 
 lively character though of no special or dis- 
 tinctive rhythm. Jigs, though now danced 
 by one, or by two at the most, were formerly 
 " round dances," in which many did indulge. 
 
 " the mad lads 
 
 And country lasses, every mother's child 
 With nosegays and bridle-laces in their hats 
 Dance all their country measures, rounds, 
 and jigs.'' 
 Heywood, " A woman killed with kindness." 
 
 Mr. Chappell (Popular Music, p. 792), says 
 that "the jig is now associated in the public 
 mind with Ireland," but he further says that 
 he has " not found one called Irish before 
 the latter part of the 17th century." Scotch 
 jigs were noticed before Irish jigs, as for 
 example,by Shakespearin " Much Ado about 
 Nothing," comparing " wooing, wedding, 
 and repenting " with a Scotch jig, a measure 
 and a cinque-pace ; and this comparison im- 
 plies that the Scotch jig was of a lively 
 character. 
 
 (2) As a movement in a " suite," the jig is 
 found in works produced towards the latter 
 part of the 17th century, and onwards to the 
 time of Haydn. At first the phrases were 
 short, and of no more variety than was 
 needed for the purposes of the dance, for the 
 jig was occasionally one of the figures of the 
 country dance. But later it was made the 
 vehicle for display in harpsichord playing, and 
 was lengthened and elaborated and became 
 the origin of the last movement of the sonata. 
 It was written in |, |, |, |, |, f, and ^-^ time ; 
 the peculiarity of the rhythm of triplets was 
 nearly always preserved if not insisted upon. 
 Sir John Hawkins says that the character- 
 istic of the jig " is duple time, thus marked 
 1^ or '^2," and "that the air consists of two 
 strains, undetermined as to the number of 
 bars ;" others say it is " of compounds of 
 threes in time," and many of the " gigues " 
 belonging to the "suites" are written to 
 show the prominence of the triplets. But the 
 following "jigg" out of " Compositions for 
 Broken and Whole Consorts of two, three, 
 ffower, ffive and six parts, made by Matthew 
 Locke, composer in ordinary to His Majesty 
 Charles the II.," written in 1672, is an 
 
 example of duple measure and unusual 
 rhythm. 
 
 F5b 
 
 The subjoined specimens of jig tunes will 
 give an idea of the progress in treatment 
 from the earliest time when the dance was 
 adopted as a harpsichord piece, until it began 
 to be disused. 
 
 A JEGG. 
 
 Ben Rogers, of Windsor, 1678. 
 
 JIG.* 
 
 Mr. EccLES, c. i6go. 
 
 * A modification of this tune is still employed for the 
 so-called Irish Jig. 
 
 (245 ) 
 
JIG. 
 
 
 
 .1^ 1 
 
 
 
 fe^ 
 
 
 feM^-1— ^ 
 
 -2^r.}r^ 
 
 jdJff>^|^±dl 
 
 y — < ' 
 
 '<^f- 1 
 
 1 — 1 
 
 Ll_cJ^ 
 
 w >*• 
 
 
 [i-'^-i — ,.U- 
 
 rJ- I 
 
 4=4= 
 
 T r ' 
 
 -^=^ — H 
 
 GIGUE. 
 
 JN Matthesoh, i68i— I7Z2. 
 
 1 
 
 Pgr^Cr • r T:[r:^.i^=£p=^^ 
 
 1^^^^^^^ 
 
 fc^^^f^ 
 
 r'" ^ ^^ ifrp i 
 
 (246) 
 
JINGLES ^JUSTESSE. 
 
 Jingles. Discs of tin, brass, or bell metal, 
 fastened at intervals round a tambourine. 
 [Tambourine.] 
 
 Jobel (Heb.) A word applied in the Holy 
 Scriptures to certain trumpets or horns. It 
 is probably equal to the affix jubilee ; but, 
 jubilee-horns were used for other purposes 
 besides that of proclaiming of jubilees. 
 
 Joculator. [Troubadour.] 
 
 Jodeln (Ger.) Jodie, Jodl. A peculiar 
 method of singing adopted by the Swiss and 
 Tyrolese, by the rapid alternation in melodic 
 progressions, of the natural and falsetto 
 voice. 
 
 The following is a specimen of a jodl at 
 the close of a national Swiss song. 
 
 (8ve. lower.) 
 
 t-9-3 -= 
 
 
 ^r 
 
 r-«— 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 s 
 
 Mr-r CA fa^ 
 
 1 1 r 
 
 =^ 
 
 =t=^ 
 
 *^ do 
 
 la dua 
 
 lo 
 
 hu-a 
 
 — 1 — , 
 
 lo u. 
 
 #^-d^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 — J — 1 
 
 
 
 
 £==^= 
 
 |=d 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 =g 
 
 ^ 
 
 — =1- 
 
 &^ m- — 
 
 m 
 
 Pfe3= 
 
 (SJ 
 
 
 —4-11 
 
 Jongleurs. [Confr6rie de St. Julien.] 
 [Troubadour.] 
 
 Jump. Another name for the dance called 
 a dumpe. [Dump.] 
 
 Just intonation. The correct sounding 
 of intervals in singing or playing. [In- 
 tonation.] 
 
 Juste {Fr.) Lit., just. In tune. 
 
 Justesse (Fr.) Equality, purity, and cor- 
 rectness ; as justesse de la voix, purity of 
 intonation, jfustesse de I'oreille, correctness 
 of ear. 
 
 ( 247 ) 
 
KABARO^ KETTLE-DRUMS. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kabaro. A small drum used by the Egypt- 
 ians and Abyssinians. 
 
 Kalamaika. A Hungarian dance. 
 
 Kammer {Ger.) Chamber, e.g., Kammer- 
 concert, chamber- concert ; Kammer -musih, 
 chamber-mpsic [q.v.) ; Kammer-ton, concert 
 pitch. [Chorton.] 
 
 Kandele or Kantele. The ancient min- 
 strel's harp of the Finns. The name is also 
 given to a species of dulcimer, having five 
 strings, in use among the same people. 
 
 Kanon. [Canon.] 
 
 Kanonik. The art of Canon. 
 
 Kanoon (Turk.) A dulcimer. [Canun.] 
 
 Kapellmeister (Ger.) The leader or con- 
 ductor of a band of music. [Capellmeister.] 
 
 Keckheit (Ger.) Boldness, audacity, 
 vigour. 
 
 Keeners. Irish singing mourners, vi^ho, in 
 olden times, vi^ere hired to howl at funerals, 
 in perpetuation of a heathen custom derived 
 from a Phoenician ancestry. The duty of 
 professional keeners was undertaken by the 
 females of the family, or acquaintance of the 
 deceased. After the body had been dressed 
 in grave-clothes, adorned with flowers, and 
 placed upon a bier, the chief keener arranged 
 his followers at the foot and head of the 
 corpse, and recited at the first the Caoinan, in 
 which were described the virtues and pos- 
 sessions of the departed. This eulogy sung 
 softly, and accompanied upon the harp, was 
 followed by a full chorus of all assembled ; 
 the ullalu, or hubbaboo as it was sometimes 
 called, next followed, joined in by every one 
 in a louder voice ; and after this was ended, 
 the goul, or lament, followed, in which the 
 sounds were often raised to howls and yells. 
 The process was repeated during the wake or 
 vigil before the burial, the keeners sometimes 
 following the corpse to the grave. When the 
 body was laid down for the purpose of resting 
 the bearers, or the procession came in sight 
 of a wayside cross or chapel, the keening was 
 suspended, and all present knelt to say in 
 silence an Ave or a Pater noster, a practice 
 which may be held to denote that keening 
 was felt to be incongruous with Christian 
 usage. 
 
 Kent Bugle. [Metal wind instruments.] 
 
 Kermangeh. An Arabian instrument of 
 the fiddle class. [Violin.] 
 
 Keras [Gk.) Kepas, a horn. Originally, any 
 instrument made out of the horn of an animal. 
 Lat., cornu. 
 
 Kerana or Kerrena. The name of the 
 Persian horn which is sounded at sunset and 
 at midnight. 
 
 Keraulophon. An organ stop, invented by 
 Gray and Davison. Its pipes are of small 
 scale, and are surmounted by a moveable ring 
 of metal. Its tone is soft, delicate, and reedy. 
 
 Keren. A Hebrew trumpet. The word is 
 sometimes used in the Bible as synonymous 
 with shophar, and to it is sometimes affixed 
 johel, rendered in the English version rams'- 
 horns. 
 
 Kern (Ger.) The language of an organ- 
 pipe. 
 
 Ketten-triller (Ger.) [Catena di trilli.] 
 
 Kettle-drums. Timbales (F?-.) ; Timpani 
 (It.) ; Pauken {Ger.) Instruments formed of 
 shells of copper or brass, over the top of 
 which parchment is stretched. Parchment is 
 considered best when most transparent. 
 
 There are two drums usually employed, the 
 tuning of the larger being limited to the notes 
 between 
 
 ^ 
 
 And of the smaller between 
 
 1e 
 
 So that the two drums overlap each other in 
 compass by a tone. 
 
 The tuning is effected by tightening or 
 loosening the head or skin by means of a 
 ring of metal moved by screws turned by a 
 key. Several plans have been invented by 
 which they may be tuned from one screw. 
 Cornelius Ward's plan was by means of an 
 endless cord passing into the interior of the 
 drum. Potter's is by curved rods outside the 
 shell and meeting in the centre at the bottom. 
 Drums are usually tuned to the tonic and 
 dominant of the piece in which they are em- 
 ployed, but other tunings are found in some 
 
 ( 248 ) 
 
KEY KEY-BOARD. 
 
 scores, as, for example, in Mendelssohn's 
 Rondo in Bt|, in which the drums are in D 
 and E. Beethoven, the first who elevated the 
 drum from a mere noise-producing machine 
 into an orchestral instrument, has his drums 
 tuned in various ways in his scores, as a 
 reference to his symphonies will show. In 
 No. 7, ist and 2nd movements, they are in 
 fifths played as written ; 3rd movement, in 
 sixths as written. In No. 8, ist and 3rd 
 movements, in fifths played as written ; 4th 
 movement, in octaves. In No. 9, ist move- 
 ment, in fourths as written ; 2nd movement, 
 in octaves ; 3rd movement, in fifths ; 4th, in 
 fourths. 
 
 Drums for all modern scores are of 8ft. 
 tone, giving a definite and accurate note. 
 When the drums are required simply for 
 marking rhythmical measures, the i6ft. tone 
 is best. For this reason modern writers add 
 the long drum (grosse caisse, Fr.; gran cassa, 
 It. ; Trommel, Ger.) to their scores. The bass 
 clef is usually employed in writing for the 
 kettle-drums. Sometimes the notes required 
 are written in their proper places on the stave, 
 but the notes to which they are to be tuned is 
 always stated, as : 
 
 Timpani in D, A. \ 
 
 Neither sharps nor flats 
 
 A lon§ 
 dicated : 
 
 roll upon the drum is thus in- 
 
 as signatures for the drums 
 
 are ever written 
 If the sounds 
 required are the tonic and dominant of the 
 key, the drum part may be written in C. If 
 other notes are needed, the rule is to write 
 the actual notes, but without sharps or flats : 
 
 Timpani in Bb, F. \ 
 
 Drums were formerly used in combination 
 with trumpets [Dettingen Te Deum, Mozart's 
 No. 6 Symphony], Beethoven being the first 
 to employ them as a means of gaining special 
 solo effects (see his Symphony in F, No. 8, 
 and Scherzo of No. 9). 
 
 Snare, or side-drums, are employed in the 
 same manner that the long-drum is, that is 
 to say for rhythmical, not for harmonic effects. 
 [See Rossini's overture to " La Gazza ladra," 
 and the " Benedizione de pugnali " scene in 
 Meyerbeer's " Huguenots."] 
 
 The bass-drum being sometimes played 
 with one stick, the player is frequently called 
 upon to perform upon the cymbals at the same 
 time, not with the best effect with regard to 
 the cymbals, for cymbals ought to be slided one 
 over the other and not struck flat together. 
 
 The best sort of sticks for the kettle-drums 
 are those having whalebone handles with a 
 wooden button covered by a piece of sponge ; 
 by the use of these the finest gradations of 
 tone may be gained. | 
 
 A short roll thus ; 
 
 ^'i ^T^=^=^ ^l 
 
 Kettle-drums are said to have been intro- 
 duced into the orchestra by Handel, who 
 employed a pair taken as part of the spoil at 
 the battle of Dettingen, in the score of the 
 Te Deum, written in celebration of that 
 event ; but the drum was first employed by 
 LuUy to strengthen the tutti parts of his 
 overtures and choruses. 
 
 Among many remarkable passages for the 
 drum may be noted that in A in the slow 
 part of the overture to " Der Freischiitz," 
 also one note C piano when the first subject 
 (syncopated) of the middle movement returns. 
 Four notes in Violin Concerto, Beethoven. In 
 Haydn's Mass No. 2, and of " Agnus Dei," 
 on the words " Dona nobis pacem," some 
 soft notes of the drum are introduced which 
 at first seem inappropriate. 
 
 Key. (i) A mechanical contrivance for 
 closing or opening ventages, as in flutes, 
 clarinets, ophicleides, &c. By means of keys 
 on such instruments, apertures too remote to 
 be reached by the outstretched fingers are 
 brought under control of the player. (2) A 
 lever which brings the pallets of an organ 
 under the control of the hand or foot of an 
 organist. (3) A lever which controls the 
 striking apparatus of a key-stringed instru- 
 ment. In the harpsichord it acted on the jack, 
 in the pianoforte it acts on the hanuner. (4) 
 The wrest or key used for tuning instruments 
 having metal pegs. Its end is hollowed out, 
 so as to fit over the four-sided end of the peg, 
 and the crossbar with which it is surmounted 
 gives leverage to the hand of the tuner, so 
 that he is enabled to tighten or loosen a string, 
 or (in the case of a drum) slacken or strain a 
 parchment. (5) The sign placed at the com- 
 mencement of the musical stave which shows 
 the pitch of the notes, was originally called a 
 clavis or key. This sign is called in modern 
 music a clef. [Clef.] (6) Key, in its modern 
 sense, is the starting point of the definite 
 series of sounds which form the recognised 
 scale. Different starting-points require the 
 relative proportion of the steps of the scale 
 to be maintained by means of sharps or flats 
 in the signature. The key of C requires no 
 flats or sharps for this purpose, hence it is 
 called the normal key. 
 
 Key-board. Clavier {Ger.) The range 
 of keys upon a pianoforte or organ. Keys 
 
 ( 249 ) 
 
KEY-BUGLE KYRIE ELEISON. 
 
 played by the fingers are called manuals; 
 those by the feet are called pedals. 
 
 Key-bugle. [Metal wind instruments.] 
 
 Key-chord. The common chord of the 
 tonic, e.g. : C, E, G is the key-chord of C. 
 
 Key-note. The note which, according 
 to the signature, forms the starting point of 
 the scale. The tonic. The doh. 
 
 Key-trumpet. [Metal wind instruments.] 
 
 Khalil, Chain, or Halil (Heb.) The 
 flute of the Hebrews. As the word is traced 
 to a root signifying bored through,it is quite 
 possible that it may have been like the 
 aulus, used to describe either a flute or an 
 oboe. 
 
 Kin. A Chinese musical instrument, the 
 scholar's lute, a sort of dulcimer. 
 
 King. A Chinese instrumentof percussion, 
 consisting of metal plates, which are struck 
 with a hammer. 
 
 Kink. A twist in a catgut string from 
 close laying, which, by uncoiling and weaken- 
 ing that part of the string in which it occurs, 
 frequently makes it useless for the instrument 
 for which it is intended. 
 
 Kinnor. One of the most ancient of the 
 Hebrew string -instruments, being the first 
 mentioned in the Bible ; Jubal " was the 
 father of all such as handle the harp {kinnor) 
 and organ [ugab] " (Genesis iv. 21). The 
 German version has it, "from him descended 
 fiddlers (Geiger) a.nd pipers" Pfeiffer). Several 
 theories have been brought forward as to the 
 nature of the kinnor. It has been variously 
 described as a small harp, a lyre, and a 
 guitar. 
 
 Kirche (Ger.) Church, as Kirchencom- 
 ponist, church composer ; Kirchenmusik, 
 church music ; Kirchenstyl, church style, &c. 
 
 Kit. Pochette (Fr.) Bretgeige (Ger.) 
 A small violin, about sixteen inches long, 
 played with a bow of nearly the same length, 
 used by dancing masters because of its con- 
 venience for carrying in the kit or pocket. 
 It should be stated that some have derived 
 the word from the Persian kitar, cithara, 
 guitar. The Italian name of kit, sordino, is 
 given to it because of its small stifled tone. 
 
 Klang (Ger.) Sound. Quality of sound, 
 timbre (Fr.) 
 
 Klangboden (Ger.) Sound board. Re- 
 sonance box. 
 
 Klangfarbe (Ger.) Lit., sound-colour. 
 Quality of sound, timbre {Fr.) 
 
 Klanggeschlecht {Ger.) A kind or genus 
 of sounds, as diatonisches,chromatisches, und 
 enharmonisches Klanggeschlecht, the diatonic, 
 chromatic, and enharmonic genera. 
 
 Klangleiter {Ger.) A scale. Lit., sound- 
 ladder. 
 
 Klappe {Ger.) The key of any wind in- 
 strument. A valve. 
 
 Klappen-fliigel-horn {Ger.) Keyed bugle. 
 
 Klappen-trompete {Ger.) Keyed trumpet. 
 
 Klein {Ger.) Small, (i) Minor, as kleiner 
 Halbton, a minor semi-tone ; kleiner Nonenak- 
 kord, the chord of the minor ninth, &c. 
 (2) Small, a.5 Klein-bass, or kleine Bassgeige, 
 a violoncello ; klein gedackt, a small stopped 
 diapason, a stopped flute. 
 
 Klingel {Ger.) A small bell. 
 
 Knee stop. A mechanical contrivance 
 on harmoniums, by which certain shutters 
 are made to open gradually when the knees 
 are pressed against levers conveniently placed 
 for the purpose. A crescendo and diminuendo 
 are thus produced. 
 
 Knell. A stroke upon a bell made at 
 periodic intervals, at the time of a death 01 
 funeral. 
 
 " When thou dost hear a toll or knell, 
 Then think upon thy passing bell." 
 
 Old Proverb. 
 
 A single stroke is made for a child, two 
 strokes for a woman, and three for a man. 
 
 Knicky-knackers. The common instru- 
 ment of percussion known as bones. 
 
 " Then let our armies join and sing," 
 And pit-a-pat make our knackers ring." 
 
 MiDDLETON. The Gipsy Rout, 1623. 
 
 Kniegeige {Ger.) A Viola da gamba. 
 
 Knoll. [Knell.] 
 
 Kopfstimme {Ger.) Head voice. Voce 
 di testa {It.) 
 
 Koppeln {Ger.) Couplers. [Organ.] 
 
 Kraft {Ger.) Energy, vigour. Kraftig, 
 energetically. 
 
 Kreis-lieder {Ger.) A circle or series of 
 songs. 
 
 Kreuz {Ger.) The sign for a sharp. 
 Doppelkreuz, a double sharp. 
 
 Kriegslied, or Kriegsgesang {Ger.) A 
 battle song. 
 
 Krome {Ger.) A quaver J^{Lat. chroma). 
 
 Krotalon. [Crotalum.] 
 
 Kroumatic. Instrumental. Kpovixarmi 
 fiovaiKT) {Gk.), instrumental music. Sounds 
 produced by striking. 
 
 Krummhorn {Ger.) Lit., crooked horn. 
 Cornetto curvo {It.) Corno storto {It.) An 
 organ stop, consisting of reed pipes. It is of 
 8ft. pitch. This name has been corrupted to 
 Cremona on English organs. 
 
 Krustische instrumente {Ger.) Instru- 
 ments of percussion (from Gk. Kpovbi, to strike). 
 [Kroumatic]. 
 
 Kuhhorn {Ger.) Cor de vache {Fr.) A 
 cow horn. The common Alpine horn, 
 
 Kurz {Ger.) Short. 
 
 Kyrie eleison (Gk.) [Mass.] 
 
 f 250 ) 
 
-LANTUM. 
 
 L. The letter employed as the abbreviation 
 of the word left or linke (Ger,), as L. H. left 
 hand or linke Hand. 
 
 La. (i) The solfeggio name for the sixth 
 degree of the scale. (2) The key-note of the 
 minor scale without a signature. 
 
 La b6mol {Fr.] The note A flat. 
 
 La b6mol majeuir (Fr.) The key of A 
 flat major. 
 
 La b6mol mineur (Fr.) The key of A 
 flat minor. 
 
 Labial. Organ pipes with lips. Flue 
 pipes. 
 
 Labial-stimmen {Ger.) Stops belonging 
 to the flue work. Lip-stops. 
 
 Labium. The lip of an organ pipe. 
 
 Lacrimoso (It.) Mournfully. 
 
 Lade (Ger.) Wind-chest of an organ. 
 
 La destra (It.) The right hand. 
 
 La diese (Fr.) The note A sharp. 
 
 Lagrimando (It.)] Mournfully, sadly, 
 
 Lagrimoso {It.) J tearfully. 
 
 Lai {Fr.) A lay, song. [Lied.] 
 
 Lament. The name given to some Celtic 
 'melodies of a mournful character, or to tunes 
 set to words of a melancholy cast. 
 
 Lamentabile {It.) 
 
 Lamentabilmente (7(.) 
 
 Lamentando {It.) I Mournfully, 
 
 Lamentevolmente {It.) [ plaintively. 
 
 Lamentevole {It.) 
 
 Lamentoso {It.) 
 
 Lampons {Fr.) Drinking songs, from the 
 word tamper, to gulp down, whence, pro- 
 bably our word lampoon, a libellous ballad. 
 
 Lancers. The name of one of the arrange- 
 ments of sets of dances. 
 
 Landler {Ger.) The name given to a 
 dance popular among the Styrian peasants. 
 The tune is of a lively, graceful character in 
 |- or ■§ time. Many of the melodies proper to 
 this dance are of a beautiful and simple style. 
 
 ^^'i >■ [y-^i"? I ^^f-^ 
 
 
 l^ N.-;^!Li_ 
 
 r4^^n- 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ Fine. 
 z s HI 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 ^'1 
 
 '^' ^•^[:•^ ;^ 
 
 -F— ^^-^ 
 
 --^' ^' ill 
 
 ^P^^ 
 
 1 J Jj JJ j, -^^=. 
 
 
 1 r t'l'l/'^-'^-M- 
 
 [Organ.] 
 languishing 
 
 Langsam {Ger.) Slow ; etwas langsam,' 
 rather slow ; ziemlich langsam, moderately 
 slow ; sehr langsam, very slow. 
 
 Language of organ pipes. 
 
 Languemente {It.) ) ^^ ^ 
 
 Languendo {It.) -^.^^ 
 
 Languente {It.) j ^ 
 
 Languettes (Fr.) (i) The vibrating 
 tongues of brass or other metal attached to 
 the reed-pipes of an organ or harmonium. 
 (2) The keys or valves of wind instruments 
 generally. 
 
 Languid. Language of organ pipes. 
 
 Lantum. A name of uncertain derivation 
 given to a modern instrument in form not 
 unlike the hurdy-gurdy, but larger, and having 
 metallic reeds or tongues similar to those of 
 
 (251 ) 
 
LARGAMENTE LARYNX. 
 
 the accordion, concertina, or harmonium. 
 The air is supplied by a rotatory bellows, the 
 handle of which is at the bottom of the in- 
 struments and the series of small square 
 buttons or keys which are in front are played 
 upon by the fingers. • 
 
 Largamente {It.) Slowly, widely, freely, 
 fully. 
 
 Large. A note formerly in use, of the 
 value of two longs, or four breves. [Nota.] 
 
 Largement {Fr.) [Largamente.] 
 
 Larghetto {It.) Lit., rather broadly, 
 widely. At a slow pace, but not so slow as Zar^o. 
 
 Larghissimo {It.) Exceedingly slow, as 
 slow as possible. 
 
 Largo {It.) Slow, broadly. 
 
 Largo assai (It.) Quite slow. 
 
 Largo di molto (/i.) Very slow. 
 
 Largo ma non troppo {It.) Slow, but 
 not too slow. 
 
 Larigot {Fr.) (i) An old name for the 
 flageolet. (2) An organ stop of 16 inches pitch. 
 
 Larynx is the organ of voice ; the organ 
 by means of which we produce vocal sounds. 
 It is situated at the top of the trachea or 
 wind-pipe, of which it forms a continuation, 
 and its position is known popularly by that 
 of the " Adam's apple," the prominence of 
 one of the cartilages or masses of gristle 
 which form it. 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 FRONT VIEW OF HYOID BONE, LARYNX, TRACHEA, AND 
 BRONCHI IN THEIR MUTUAL RELATIONS. 
 
 h. Hyoid bone ; e. epiglottis ; t. thyroid cartilage ; 
 c. cricoid cartilage ; tr. trachea ; h. right bronchus ; 
 b'. left bronchus. 
 
 The essential parts are two semi-lunar 
 membranes, placed with their flat sides next 
 to one another, and called the " vocal cords," 
 and the cartilages which support them. The 
 accessory portions are certain other carti- 
 lages, the muscles which move these cartilages, 
 and the nerves and blood-vessels by which 
 the whole structure is nourished and fur- 
 nished with sensation and motion. 
 
 The cartilages are nine in number, six 
 paired, three unpaired. The unpaired carti- 
 lages are the thyroid, cricoid, and epiglottis ; 
 
 the paired are the two arytenoids, the two 
 " cornicula laryngis " or cartilages of Santo- 
 rini, and the cuneiform cartilages of Wrisberg. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 BACK VIEW OF LARYNGEAL CARTILAGES. 
 
 I. Epiglottis. 2. Thyroid cartilage: a. attachment 
 of epiglottis ; b. of false vocal chords ; c. of true 
 vocal chords. 3. Cricoid cartilage: a. facet for ary- 
 tenoid cartilage; b. facet for lower bone of thyroid 
 cartilage. 4. Arytenoid and accessory cartilages : a. 
 arytenoid cartilages ; 6. cornicula laryngis or cartilages of 
 Santorini ; c . cuneiform cartilage or cartilage of Wrisberg. 
 
 The cricoid cartilage is ring-shaped, as its 
 name {KpUog, a ring) implies ; it is the base of 
 the support of the other cartilages. It is not 
 equally deep in all dimensions, but is much 
 deeper, from above downwards, behind than 
 in front. At the hindermost part are two 
 small smooth elevations, and lower down are 
 two other smooth surfaces. The former 
 pair of these smooth surfaces serve as the 
 articulations or joints for the arytenoid carti- 
 lages which are perched on them and work 
 with great freedom ; the latter pair are the ' 
 joints for part of the thyroid cartilages. The 
 movements of the latter pair are not so free 
 as those of the former, but are limited to a 
 movement round an imaginary axis running 
 across and through the cricoid cartilage, 
 being thus a horizontal and transverse axis. 
 
 The arytenoid cartilages {apiraiva, a pitcher) 
 are perched on the two smooth elevations on 
 the hinder part of the upper border of the 
 cricoid cartilage. They are more or less 
 pyramids of three sides in shape, but of the 
 sides which form their base, two, viz., the 
 posterior and internal, are at right angles to 
 one another. The anterior tips are called the 
 " processus vocales," or vocal processes, and 
 to them are attached the vocal cords, of 
 which we shall speak further on. On the 
 summit of each of these pyramids are placed 
 two other small cartilages, the " cornicula 
 laryngis" (little horns of the larynx) or 
 " cartilages of Santorini." 
 
 The thyroid cartilage (shield-like, from 
 dvpeoe, a shield) is the largest of the carti- 
 lages of the larynx. It is of a somewhat 
 complicated shape. Take a thin book — a 
 note-book will do very well — open it in the 
 middle, place it upright, so that the two 
 
 ( 252 ) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 covers shall be at an angle somewhat more 
 acute than a right angle ; cut away the upper 
 third of the back, or junction of the covers, 
 so as to leave a notch above, and to each of 
 the corners stick a piece of thin wood, such 
 as a pencil, the two upper pencils pointing 
 upwards, the lower downwards, and you will 
 have a fair idea of the thyroid cartilage. 
 The two lower horns articulate or join with 
 the two lower smooth surfaces or "facets" on 
 the cricoid cartilage ; to the two upper horns, 
 ligaments are attached, which suspend the 
 thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone, a horse- 
 shoe shaped bone, with its convexity forward, 
 forming the base of the tongue. The ante- 
 rior part of the thyroid cartilage projects 
 much more in adult men than in women or 
 children, and the upper part of the anterior 
 ridges, with the notch, form the projection 
 known as the " pomum Adami," or Adam's 
 apple, from an old tradition that the forbidden 
 fruit stuck in his throat. The thyroid carti- 
 lage at the passage from youth to adult age 
 grows very suddenly larger in men, and as 
 suddenly but to a less degree in women. On 
 this relative size and prominence of the 
 thyroid cartilage depends the deepness of the 
 voice, as will be hereafter mentioned. 
 
 Fig- 3- 
 
 BACK VIEW OF HYOID BONE, LARYNX, AND TRACHEA 
 IN THEIR MUTUAL RELATIONS 
 
 (Only cartilages and bones shown), 
 A. 
 
 h. Hyoid bone ; e. epiglottis ; i. thyroid cartilage ; 
 a. arytenoid cartilages ; c. cricoid cartilage. 
 
 The epiglottis (iwl on, and yXiirra the 
 tongue) is a soft cartilage situated at the back 
 of the tongue. In shape it resembles what is 
 called technically in botany an "ovate" or 
 " obcordate " leaf, i.e., it is oval above, and has 
 a tail narrowing gradually from its lower end. 
 This tail is prolonged by fibrous tissue and 
 attached to the thyroid cartilage in the angle 
 between its two sides, just below the notch. 
 The front surface is free in its upper part, 
 but below it is attached by an elastic liga- 
 ment to the back of the hyoid bone. Its 
 lateral or side borders are free at the upper- 
 most part, but somewhat lower down a fold 
 of mucous membrane (the skin Hning any 
 interior cavity is called by this name) runs 
 backwards and joins the summit of the aryte- 
 
 noid cartilage of each side. This fold is 
 called the glosso-epiglottidean fold. In these 
 folds lie two small conical cartilages, the 
 cuneiform cartilages or the " cartilages of 
 Wrisberg." Below the level of the hyoid bone 
 on the posterior surface is placed a pad of 
 fat and mucous membrane called " the cushion 
 of the epiglottis," functionally a very im- 
 portant structure. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 INTERIOR OF LARYNX FROM BELOW. 
 
 (About life-size.) 
 p 
 
 cc. Cricoid cartilage ; ac. arytenoid cartilage ; tc. 
 thyroid cartilage ; am. arytenoid muscle ; cap. crico- 
 arytenoideus posticus muscle ; vc. vocal cord ; ta. 
 thyro - arytenoideus muscle; cal. crico - arytenoideus 
 lateralis muscle. 
 
 The true vocal cords, otherwise called the 
 "vocal cords," are two semi-lunar membranous 
 folds which project on each side towards the 
 middle line ; they are attached behind to the 
 tips of the " processus vocales " of the aryte- 
 noid cartilages, and in front, close together, 
 to the angle between the two sides of the 
 thyroid cartilage just below the notch. They 
 are somewhat complex in structure, the basis 
 of them is formed by two elastic bands near 
 their edges, and both along these bands, the 
 "inferior thyro-arytenoid ligaments," and 
 more laterally, are muscles running in the 
 same direction, which will be described later. 
 The whole is covered by mucous membrane. 
 
 Fig- 5- 
 
 VERTICAL TRANSVERSE SECTION OF LARYNX. 
 
 ej). Epiglottis ; th. thyroid cartilage ; a. ventricle of 
 larynx ; v. vocal cord and its free edge ; cr. cricoid 
 cartilage. 
 
 The false vocal cords, called also the 
 " superior vocal cords " are two folds of 
 mucous membrane of the same general shape 
 and direction as the former ; they are at- 
 tached behind to the arytenoid cartilages 
 above, and more laterally than the former, and 
 
 ( 253 ) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 in front to the thyroid cartilages just above 
 the insertion of the true vocal cords. They 
 enclose a ligament, the " superior thyro- 
 arytenoid ligament." Their inner edges do 
 not approach the middle line so nearly as the 
 true vocal cords. Between the upper and 
 lower vocal cord of each side is the opening 
 to the saccule or ventricle of the larynx, a 
 small saccule or cavity, as its name implies, 
 containing some gland cells for secreting 
 mucus. It only remains to say that all the 
 structures are covered with mucous mem- 
 brane. 
 
 Muscles. The larynx is covered with many 
 muscles, but only those which are concerned 
 in the production of the voice will here be 
 mentioned. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 SIDE VIEW OF LARYNX PROM RIGHT SIDE. 
 
 tc. Thyroid cartilage ; im. pomum Adami ; ce. 
 cricoid cartilage ; ct. crico-tnyroid muscle ; dm. crico- 
 thyroid membrane ; t. trachea. 
 
 The crico-thyroid rises from the fore part 
 of the outside of the cricoid cartilage and 
 running back, spreads itself on nearly the 
 wholeof the lower part of the thyroid cartilage. 
 
 The posterior crico -arytenoid rises from the 
 back part of the outside of the cricoid carti- 
 lage and is inserted into the outer or lateral 
 angle of the base of the arytenoid cartilage, 
 sometimes called the " processus muscularis," 
 it also extends some distance along the back 
 part of the base of the arytenoid cartilage. 
 
 The lateral crico -arytenoid rises from the 
 upper border of the side of the cricoid carti- 
 lage, and is inserted into the front side of the 
 lateral projecting part of the base of the 
 arytenoid cartilage nearly as far as the " pro- 
 cessus vocalis." 
 
 The arytenoid is a single muscle, while 
 all the other laryngeal muscles are paired ; it 
 runs across at the back of the arytenoid car- 
 tilages between them and joins them. 
 
 The aryteno-epiglottidean muscles rise from 
 the lower and outer angles of the back of the 
 arytenoid cartilages, run across to the upper 
 and outer part of the base of the opposite 
 arytenoid cartilages, crossing each other as 
 they do so (like a pair of braces), and some 
 fibres run no farther but are attached there ; 
 the rest pass forwards in the aryteno-epi- 
 
 glottidean fold and are inserted into the sides 
 of the epiglottis. 
 
 The thyro-epiglottideus is composed of two 
 parts, rising from the inner aspect of the fore 
 part of the thyroid cartilage and having the 
 following course, some (thyro-epiglottideus 
 major) curve outside the saccule of the 
 larynx and are inserted into the side of the 
 epiglottis, others run straight up and are 
 attached to the epiglottis on each side of the 
 cushion and below the insertion of the larger 
 muscle. This is called the " thyro-epi- 
 glottideus minor." 
 
 The thyro-arytenoid is likewise divided into 
 two portions. Part of it (thyro-arytenoideus 
 internus) runs just along the outer border of 
 the true vocal cord. The other part (externus) 
 runs from the arytenoid cartilage more ex- 
 ternally, and before reaching the thyroid carti- 
 lage it surrounds the saccule of the larynx, 
 it is therefore above as well as external to' 
 the former portion. Some of its fibres seem 
 to lie in the false vocal cord. 
 
 The nerves of the larynx are two in num- 
 ber, called respectively the superior, and the 
 inferior or recurrent laryngeal. Both of 
 these are branches of the great vagus or 
 pneumogastric nerve which rises from a 
 special nucleus or mass of nerve cells in the 
 medulla oblongata or upper portion of the 
 spinal cord within the skull where this ex- 
 pands to form what is known as the " fourth 
 ventricle." It leaves the cavity of the skull 
 by the same opening as the internal jugular 
 vein, which takes the greater part of the 
 blood from the brain to the heart, and com- 
 municates with most of the large nerves in 
 this situation. The pneumogastric nerve 
 gives nerve-supply to the pharynx, gullet, 
 stomach, liver, spleen, larynx, windpipe, 
 lungs, and heart, and extends down as far 
 as the middle of the abdomen. 
 
 The superior laryngeal nerve rises from the 
 pneumogastric nerve just below the exit 
 from the skull, and divides into two divisions 
 called external and internal respectively. The 
 external laryngeal nerve sends branches to 
 some of the muscles which preside over 
 swallowing, and ends in the crico-thyroid 
 muscle. Theinternal laryngeal nerve gains the 
 insideof thelarynxabovethe thyroid cartilage, 
 supplies the lining membrane of the larynx, 
 and the arytenoid muscle, and sends a branch 
 which joins the recurrent laryngeal nerve. 
 
 The inferior or recurrent laryngeal nerve 
 has a most remarkable course. We have 
 mentioned that the pneumogastric nerve 
 supplies the lungs and heart; just after 
 reaching the cavity of the chest, while on a 
 level with, and in front of the large blood- 
 vessels coming from the heart, it gives off on 
 each side a large branch, the recurrent 
 
 ( 254 ) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 laryngeal "nerve. This nerve dives under- 
 neath the arch of the aorta (the main blood- 
 vessel rising from the heart) on the left side, 
 and under the subclavian artery (supplying 
 the arm) on the right side, and then runs 
 upwards to the larynx. Thus the fibres of 
 the recurrent laryngeal nerve, which come 
 down in the pneumogastric nerve from the 
 medulla oblongata (for each separate strand 
 in the smallest nerve has a separate con- 
 nection with its nervous centre, brain, spinal 
 cord or ganglion, a nerve being like an 
 electric cable, seemingly one rope, but really 
 composed of innumerable insulated wires) 
 curve back and run upwards again. Thus 
 every separate movement of the muscles 
 of the larynx is due to a nervous impression 
 which travels from the medulla oblongata 
 down into the chest and then up to the 
 larynx again. This seemingly purpose- 
 less length of course will be explained when 
 the development of the larynx is spoken of. 
 On their way to the larynx, the recurrent 
 laryngeal nerves give twigs to the gullet and 
 wind-pipe, and when they have reached the 
 larynx they supply all the muscles except the 
 crico-thyroid. 
 
 Epithelium. The mucous membrane of the 
 larynx is lined with a layer of small cells 
 called epithelium (which is the name which 
 it bears on all internal parts of the body ; on 
 the skin it is called epidermis). Each of 
 these cells has a little hair-like filament which 
 continually keeps lashing upwards, so as to 
 drive any mucus towards the mouth. This 
 kind of epithelium is found on the air-passages 
 generally as well as in some other parts. 
 Above the vocal cords it gradually loses these 
 hair-like filaments from which its name, 
 ciliated (provided with eyelashes), is derived. 
 These filaments are absent over the true 
 vocal cords, as if to indicate that their function 
 is special (Quain, Vol. I. Fig. 245, p. 326). 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 CILIATED EPITHELIUM OF RESPIRATORY MUCOUS 
 
 MEMBRANE. 
 
 A, vertical section of epithelial lining of human 
 trachea magnified 350 times. 
 
 a. b. Subjacent membrane ; c. lowest or spheroidal 
 cells ; d. middle or oval cells ; e. superficial, elongated, 
 and ciliated cells; B. separate columnar and ciliated cells. 
 
 Development. The larynx is essentially an 
 apparatus for closing the wind-pipe, and in 
 some of the lower animals has this function 
 alone. The muscles, except the crico-thyroid 
 and posterior crico-arytenoid, which lie out- 
 side of the calibre of the tube, are mere 
 differentiations of a circle of muscular fibres 
 called a " sphincter," such as surround, in 
 some form or other, all the entrances and 
 exits of the body. The cricoid and thyroid 
 cartilages are probably developed in two 
 separate halves. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 DIAGRAM OP AORTIC OR BRONCHIAL .VASCULAR ARCHES 
 OF MAMMAL, ACCORDING TO RATHKE. 
 
 "A. P. primitive arterial stem or aortic bulb, now 
 divided into A. the ascending part of the aortic arch, 
 and P. the pulmonary ; a. the right, a. the left aortic 
 root ; A', the descending aorta. On the right side i, 2, 
 3, 4, 5, indicate the five bronchial primitive arterial 
 arches; on the left side I. II. III. IV., the four bron- 
 chial clefts, which for the sake of clearness have been 
 omitted fi'om the right side. It will be observed that 
 while the 4th and sth pairs of arches rise firom the part 
 of the aortic bulb or stem, which is at first undivided, 
 the ist and 2nd and 3rd pairs are branches above c, of a 
 secondary stem on each side. The permanent systemic 
 vessels are represented in deep shade, the pulmonary 
 arteries lighter ; the parts of the primitive arches which 
 have only a temporary existence are drawn in outline 
 only. c. Placed between the permanent common carotid 
 arteries ; ce. the external carotid arteries ; ci. ci'. the 
 right and left internal carotid arteries ; s. the right sub- 
 clavian rising fi-om the right aortic root beyond the 
 fifth arch ; v. the right vertebral, rising from the 
 same spot opposite the fourth arch; »'. s'. the left 
 vertebral and subclavian arteries, rising together fi-om 
 the left or permanent aortic root opposite the fourth 
 arch ; P. the pulmonary arteries rising together from 
 the left fifth arch ; d. the outer or back part of the left 
 fifth arch forming the ductus arteriosus ; pn, /»', the 
 right and left pneumogastric nerves descending in 
 front of the aortic arches, with their recurrent branches 
 represented diagrammatically as passing behind, with a 
 view to illustrate the relations of these nerves respec- 
 tively to the right subclavian artery, and the arch of 
 the aorta and ductus arteriosus." 
 
 As to the recurrent laryngeal nerves, we 
 must premise, that firstly the early embryo 
 has no neck, the head abutting on the trunk, 
 thus the heart is placed nearer the head ; 
 secondly, the arrangement of the blood- 
 vessels corresponds strikingly with that which 
 is permanent in fish. In them the heart 
 
 (255 ) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 sends off one large vessel which runs along 
 the base of the gills and sends off branches 
 on each side which run along the gills, and at 
 the opposite extremity of them turn down 
 and join in a common trunk which runs along 
 the body and supplies it with blood, purified 
 by having been aerated in passing through 
 the gills. This is substantially the same in 
 the human embryo, which possesses not true 
 gills indeed, but slits in the neck just like the 
 slits between the gills of a fish ; along the 
 bridges between these slits (five in all), cor- 
 responding to the gills, run the branches of 
 the great blood-vessel. The further changes 
 need not here be mentioned, but it will be 
 sufficient to add that the last or hindmost of 
 these arched blood-vessels of the branchial or 
 gill -like bridges on the left side subsequently 
 becomes the arch of the aorta, while the same 
 arch on the right side is obliterated, the last 
 but one becoming the subclavian artery. The 
 larynx at the early stage is nearly or quite on 
 a level with the lowest of these arches, the 
 pneumogastric nerves run in front of them, 
 and the recurrent laryngeal nerve, in its course 
 to the larynx, runs directly, or nearly directly 
 backwards, i.e., towards the spine. As the 
 embryo grows, the head becomes further 
 separated from the body, the larynx is drawn 
 up with it, the neck appears, the slits are 
 filled up ; but in the upward movement of the 
 larynx the recurrent laryngeal nerves are 
 drawn up too, and as they are hooked round 
 the lowest arch on each side they are drawn 
 out to a prodigious extent round the arch of 
 the lowest vessel on each side. But the 
 lowest arch on the right side is obliterated 
 and disappears, so the recurrent laryngeal 
 nerve on the right side is caught, so to say, 
 by the last arch but one, the right subclavian 
 artery. The gradual growth of the neck 
 takes place, not only in the development of 
 the embryos of the higher animals, but we 
 can trace it in the progress from the lowest 
 to the highest animals. A fish has no neck, 
 a frog hardly any, a reptile rather more, birds 
 and mammals have well-developed necks. 
 
 Growth. During childhood the larynx 
 hardly grows at all, and is of the same size 
 in both sexes ; both have equally high-pitched 
 voices, and in neither is that prominence of 
 the " Adam's apple " (which depends on the 
 acuteness of the angle between the two halves 
 of the thyroid cartilage, and on the absolute 
 size of the whole cartilage) observable. At 
 the age of puberty, the passage to adult life, 
 a sudden growth takes place in both sexes, 
 but much greater in males than females ; the 
 whole larynx grows much, and the two halves 
 of the thyroid cartilage are set at an acute 
 angle, forming the prominence of the " Adam's 
 apple," the notch between them becoming 
 
 deeper. The larynx nearly doubles its size in 
 males, becoming about one-third larger in 
 females. It will readily be seen, that the 
 growth of the thyroid cartilage, and especially 
 its increase in prominence, implies a cor- 
 responding lengthening of the vocal cords, 
 hence the increased deepness of voice at 
 puberty which is always noticeable in males, 
 sometimes in females — fop a contralto voice 
 in a child is a thing never heard; this is 
 acquired at puberty. In old age a bone-like 
 deposit is apt to form in all the cartilages of 
 the larynx except the epiglottis, first or most 
 often in the thyroid, next in the cricoid, then 
 in the arytenoid. To this is due the cracked 
 quality of the voice of old age, the quality of 
 voice depending of course largely on the 
 quality of the sounding bodies. 
 
 Physiology. The crico-thyroid muscles rotate 
 the front of the thyroid cartilage on the cricoid, 
 forwards and downwards. Since the pivots on 
 which the thyroid works are below the attach- 
 ment of the vocal cords, to the arytenoid, and 
 therefore practically to the cricoid cartilage, 
 any forward and downward movement of the 
 thyroid will tend to lengthen the vocal cords. 
 This will be evident from the diagram 
 (Huxley's EI. Phys. Fig. 50). If the finger 
 be placed on the space in front, between the 
 thyroid and cricoid cartilages, and a note 
 and then a considerably higher one be sung, 
 the space will be found to be considerably 
 diminished ; in other words, the crico-thyroid 
 muscles will have pulled downwards and 
 forwards the thyroid on the cricoid, and in so 
 doing stretched the vocal cords, the increased 
 tension producing the higher note. As before 
 said, the external laryngeal nerve supplies 
 the crico-thyroid muscles. 
 
 The thyro-arytenoid is the opponent of 
 the crico-thyroid ; it rotates the front of the 
 thyroid cartilage upwards and forwards, and 
 in so doing relaxes the vocal cords. Besides 
 this action as a whole, the outer and upper 
 part presses on the ventricle of the larynx, 
 and tends to empty it of any contents ; the 
 inner portion, lying in the vocal cord (the 
 thyro-arytenoideus internus) renders straight 
 and tense the very edge of the vocal cord 
 after the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages 
 have been fixed by other muscles, and the 
 length of the vocal cord thereby determined. 
 By the contraction of its lower fibres, lying 
 below the level of the vocal cord, the column 
 of air might be narrowed, and the tone raised ; 
 for this is the result of sUch a narrowing of 
 the column of air before reaching the resonant 
 membrane. It is by this muscle that the 
 peculiar quality of the notes of the " head- 
 voice," as opposed to the "falsetto voice," 
 is probably produced, the edge of the vocal 
 cord being ver)- tight and capable of very 
 
 (256) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 rapid vibrations ; the comparative thinness of 
 quality is owing to the smallness of the bulk 
 of the vibrating body. The "crack" in the 
 voice vifhich sometimes occurs during the 
 attempt to sing a high note, and is so annoy- 
 ing to performer and audience, is perhaps 
 due to the sudden paralysis of this muscle, 
 which strikes work when overstrained. But 
 it may also be due to the vocal cords touching 
 each other, nodes being instantly produced ; 
 this is more probable. This muscle is sup- 
 plied by the recurrent laryngeal nerve. 
 
 The arytenoid muscle draws the arytenoid 
 cartilages together, and also tends to prevent 
 their rotation. It is supplied by the superior 
 and recurrent laryngeal nerves. 
 
 The aryteno-epiglottidean muscles, since 
 between them they embrace the whole orifice 
 of the air-tube, act as a sphincter, and in so 
 doing draw the arytenoid cartilages together 
 and forward, the aryteno-epiglottidean folds 
 together towards the middle line, and the 
 epiglottis downwards and backwards. 
 
 The thyro-epiglottidean muscles depress the 
 epiglottis, the greater and upper one the 
 upper part, the smaller and lower one the 
 "cushion"; by their action the epiglottis is 
 pulled forcibly on to the top of the vocal 
 cords, completely stopping the passage, as 
 takes place in straining or in swallowing. 
 They are supplied by the recurrent laryngeal 
 nerve. 
 
 Before describing the action of the lateral 
 and posterior crico-arytenoid muscles, we 
 must premise, first, that the pivot on which 
 the arytenoid cartilages move is a very loose 
 joint, so that the arytenoid cartilages are able 
 to be moved bodily in any direction without 
 rotation. 
 
 The posterior crico-arytenoid muscles, 
 acting alone, pull backwards and downwards 
 the outer angles of the arytenoid cartilages. 
 By so doing they rotate these cartilages (a a 
 in following Figs.) on their pivots {pp) and 
 separate the front angles, or " processus 
 vocales," separating therefore the vocal cords. 
 The dotted line represents their action. 
 
 But if the posterior arytenoid acts with 
 them it brings the hinder angles of the 
 cartilages together and prevents them from 
 being separated as they would be in rotation, 
 so that the whole cartilages are moved 
 bodily backward and the vocal cords are 
 stretched. 
 
 The lateral crico-arytenoid muscles have 
 an opposite effect. Acting alone, they pull 
 forward the outer angles of the arytenoid 
 cartilages. By so doing, they rotate these 
 cartilages (ad) on their pivots {pp) and ap- 
 proximate the " processus vocales," bringing 
 ,the vocal cords together. The dotted line 
 represents their action : 
 
 Thus it will be seen that the " glottis " or 
 aperture of the laiynx takes a diamond-shape. 
 
 It will be seen that the posterior jJkrt of the 
 glottis, between the cartilages, remains open, 
 forming a triangular space with the apex 
 forwards. This was formerly called the 
 " glottis respiratoria " on the false idea that 
 the position of the parts in this state was that 
 of breathing. The space between the vocal 
 cords in front was called the "glottis vocalis": 
 this name is correct, for it is only this part 
 which assists in producing sound; but the 
 " glottis respiratoria " is only an applicable 
 name so far as it implies that this part is used 
 in breathing, but not in producing sound. 
 The whole glottis, however, is " glottis 
 respiratoria " properly, as will be hereafter 
 explained. 
 
 By the action of the arytenoid muscle this 
 triangular space is obliterated. There are 
 two other muscles which, though they do not 
 properly belong to the larynx, yet assist in 
 vocalization. These are the sterno-thyroid 
 and the thyro-hyoid. 
 
 The sterno-thyroid muscles arise from the 
 upper part of the sternum or breast-bone, and 
 are inserted into the side of the thyroid 
 cartilage. Their action is to pull down the 
 thyroid cartilage, assisting the crico-thyroid 
 muscles and helping to stretch the vocal 
 cords. They are supplied by a nerve called 
 "descendens noni," being a descending 
 branch of the ninth or hypoglossal nerve 
 which supplies the muscles of the tongue 
 with motor power. 
 
 The thyro-hyoid arise from the hyoid bone, 
 
 ( 257 ) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 which forms the base of the tongue, and are 
 inserted into the side of the thyroid cartilage. 
 Their action is to pull upwards the thyroid 
 cartilage, rotating it and helping the thyro- 
 arytenoidei to relax the vocal cords. They 
 are supplied by a branch of the ninth or 
 hypo-glossal nerve. 
 
 The action of the sterno-thyroid muscle 
 may be felt by placing a finger in the middle 
 line of the neck just above the breast bone : in 
 singing a high note, the muscles will be felt 
 to contract. 
 
 TABLE OF MUSCLES. 
 
 Stretchers of vocal cords. Crico-thyroid, 
 sterno-thyroid (posterior crico-arytenoid + 
 posterior arytenoid), thyro-arytenoideus in- 
 ternus (stretches edge of vocal cords when 
 arytenoid cartilages are fixed). 
 
 Relaxers of vocal cords. Thyro-arytenoid 
 (when arytenoid cartilages are not fixed) ; 
 thyro-hyoid. Openers of glottis. Posterior 
 crico-arytenoid (alone). Closers of glottis. 
 Lateral crico-arytenoid, posterior ar3i:enoid. 
 
 Physiology of the voice. The following 
 remarks are taken from Czermak's book, 
 " Der Kehlkopf-spiegel," which contains the 
 best observations that have been made with 
 the laryngoscope. 
 
 During ordinary quiet breathing the 
 epiglottis touches the back of the pharynx, so 
 as only to leave one aperture behind and one 
 at each side. Through the aperture behind 
 and in the middle, a deeper view is obtained : 
 one here sees the elevations of the cartilages 
 of Santorini or cornicula laryngis, which 
 surmount the tips of the arytenoid cartilages. 
 In pronouncing the vowel a as in " fate," 
 the epiglottis raises itself and discloses the 
 laryngeal cavity, even the front wall of the 
 windpipe being visible. This is the best 
 position in which to observe the preparations 
 for making any vocal sound. 
 
 As soon as one prepares to make a sound 
 with one's voice the arytenoid-cartilages 
 rise and approach each other with surprising 
 rapidity, the " processus vocales " are brought 
 together and with them the vocal* cords 
 by the lateral crico-arytenoid and arytenoid 
 muscles. By practice this can be performed 
 slowly, or even stopped half way, in which 
 case one gets a position of the parts, as in 
 
 Fig- 3- 
 
 It is impossible to actually observe the 
 production of the lowest chest notes, for as 
 
 • It is plain that the glottis is smaller in singing than 
 in breathing, and smaller in singing a high than a low 
 note. This is easily proved by comparing the time 
 taken to empty the lungs in each case. The larger 
 the aperture, the shorter the time. No sound is pro- 
 duced when the vocal cords are more than one-tenth 
 of an inch apart. 
 
 soon as we really sing such a note the aryte- 
 noid cartilages approach and touch each 
 other, and bend under the edge of the over- 
 hanging epiglottis (Fig. 4), which gives us 
 much the same appearance as in quiet 
 breathing. 
 
 During the production of the higher chest- 
 notes, especially when sung sforzando, and 
 still more in using the head-voice, it is easy 
 to see into the larynx. It is from these that 
 we infer the position of the parts in the 
 deepest chest notes. 
 
 In uttering a piercing cry a free view is 
 afforded into the larynx (Fig. 5). In the 
 middle are the vocal cords closely opposed ; 
 then on each side of these a slit, the opening 
 of the ventricle or saccule of the larynx,t be- ' 
 tween the true and false vocal cords; still 
 farther outside the false vocal cords. The 
 whole arytenoid cartilages, " processus vo- 
 cales " and all, are closely opposed ; and 
 these erected as they are, together with the 
 epiglottis and the intervening aryteno- 
 epiglottidean folds, in which are seen the 
 prominences of the cartilages of Wrisberg, 
 form a sort of additional tube on the top of 
 the larynx, all the parts being (as one's 
 sensations alone would tell one) in extreme 
 tension. On the back of the epiglottis one 
 sees the cushion which touches the insertion 
 of the vocal cords. 
 
 On taking breath (Fig. 6) the " processus 
 vocales " are turned outward (posterior crico- 
 arytenoid alone) and we get the diamond- 
 shaped glottis (diagram i). Sometimes, 
 however, we get the triangular " glottis 
 respiratoria " with a second inverted tri- 
 angular space in the " glottis vocalis " (per- 
 haps from the action pf the lateral crico- 
 arytenoid muscles ; the posterior arytenoid 
 and thyro-arytenoideus internus being much 
 relaxed). Fig. 8. In these conditions all the 
 parts are very relaxed. 
 
 It is seen that the upper opening of the 
 larynx is formed by a fold of mucous mem- 
 brane supported by seven cartilages, epi- 
 glottis, two cartilages of Wrisberg, two of 
 Santorini, two arytenoid. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 In deeper quiet breathing the diamond- 
 shaped glottis is exaggerated, as in Fig. 7. 
 
 During quiet breathing the parts of the 
 larynx do not move, and in some cases the 
 glottis is wide enough to admit a finger with 
 ease. 
 
 During deep laboured breathing the aryte- 
 noid cartilages are brought somewhat together 
 at each expiration, and are thrown into dis- 
 orderly vibrations like the nostrils under 
 
 f Its function seems to be to ensure a free space foi 
 the vibration of the vocal cords, and to keep them 
 lubricated. 
 
 ( 258 ) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 similar circumstances ; at each inspiration 
 they are separated to their extreme limits. 
 
 It is possible, under favourable circum- 
 stances, to see as far down the wind-pipe as 
 its division into the two bronchial tubes, that 
 is as far into the chest as the third dorsal or 
 rib-carrying vertebra. (Fig. 7.) 
 
 In the shrillest cries the cushion of the 
 epiglottis appears to be pressed down on the 
 front part of the vocal cords, and to shorten 
 their vibrating portion just as a string is 
 stopped by the fingers on the finger-board of 
 a stringed-instrument. 
 
 In air-tight closure of the larynx, as in 
 straining (which is best observed in passing 
 from the position of Fig. 5, that of uttering a 
 piercing cry) : ist, The arytenoid cartilages — 
 " processus vocales " and all — are closely 
 pressed together, and with them the vocal 
 cords. and. The false vocal cords apply 
 themselves to each other and to the true vocal 
 cords closely, so as to conceal the openings 
 of the ventricles of the larynx. 3rd, The 
 epiglottis presses its cushion tightly on the 
 top of everything. 
 
 (It is curious that whereas these parts of 
 the larynx resent being touched so strongly 
 that the smallest touch of them produces at 
 least a violent fit of coughing, they suffer 
 being touched by one another and by the 
 epiglottis quietly. Czermak asks whether 
 this is due to the kind of touch which they 
 suffer, or to the peculiarity of the nervous 
 apparatus through which the reflex ac- 
 tion, which a foreign body excites, is pro- 
 duced.) 
 
 These changes are partly simultaneous, 
 partly so quicldy following one another that 
 we require the greatest watchfulness to ob- 
 serve them. For instance, the false vocal 
 cords cannot be seen to touch one another, 
 for the epiglottis bends down and hides them 
 while they are still approaching each other ; 
 but it is inferred that they do so, for on 
 suddenly opening the closed glottis they are 
 seen to project as far towards the middle line 
 as the true vocal cords which are known to 
 be closely apposed to each other. 
 
 If we stop the closure of the larynx halfway, 
 we get the appearance presented in Fig. 9. 
 In complete closure we get the appearance 
 presented in Fig. 10. Later, however, the 
 free edge of the epiglottis sinks, and we get 
 the same appearance as in Fig. 4, the ap- 
 pearance during the production of the lowest 
 chest-notes. 
 
 By this complex apparatus we can under- 
 stand how the glottis can withstand the 
 tremendous pressure put on it by the expira- 
 tory muscles in straining, &c. If these are 
 put into action the whole of the parts closing 
 the glottis are lifted up and become convex 
 
 or dome-shaped upwards, resuming their 
 position when the pressure is relaxed. 
 
 In clearing the throat the glottis is firmly 
 closed, and then the expiratory muscles exert- 
 ing their force, the parts closing the glottis 
 are suddenly relaxed, the epiglottis being, so 
 to say, blown violently up, and all the parts 
 are thrown into violent disorderly vibrations 
 so as to remove any foreign body or mucus. 
 
 In swallowing, the glottis is also closely 
 shut. In increasing the strength of a note 
 the cords are slightly relaxed to compensate 
 for the increased pressure of wind which 
 would otherwise raise the note.* 
 
 Explanation of Czermak's Fig. (Taf. III.) 
 
 z. Root of tongue. 
 
 h.ph. Hinder wall of the 
 
 s. Cartilages of Santorini 
 p.v. Processus vocales. 
 
 pharjnx. 
 
 U.St. True vocal cords. 
 
 ce. Opening of gullet, 
 e. Epiglottis. 
 
 o.st. False vocal cords. 
 v.m. Ventricles of the la 
 
 a. Arytenoid cartilages, 
 e.w. Cushion of epiglottis. 
 
 rynx. 
 v.t. Front wall of wind 
 
 a.e. Aryteno-Epiglottidean 
 fold. 
 
 pipe, 
 h.t. Hind wall of wind 
 
 w. Cartilage of Wrisberg. 
 g.a. Elevation between car- 
 
 pipe, 
 b.d. Right bronchial tube. 
 
 tilages of Santorini and 
 
 b.s. Left bronchial tube. 
 
 Wrisberg. 
 
 Fig 
 
 I.* 
 
 Quiet breathing. Wide glottis. Arytenoids 
 apart and depressed. Epiglottis falling back 
 so as to obscure the view into the larynx. 
 
 Fig. 2.' 
 
 
 at "s 
 
 The same, but epiglottis raised by the pro- 
 nunciation of a as in " fate," or ee as in 
 " green," but the actual sounding of the latter 
 makes the tongue rise so high, as to obscure 
 the view. 
 
 Fig- 3-* 
 vm z t/st e 
 
 The preparations for sounding the voice 
 after quiet breathing, the process stopped half- 
 
 * The parts to the right of the middle line of these 
 figures, obtained by a mirror, necessarily correspond to 
 those on the left side of the larynx, and vice versa. 
 That which is situated above in the drawing in reality 
 exists in front, that which is below is situated behind. 
 
 ( 259 ) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 way. The arytenoids project and approach 
 one another with free and rapid movements. 
 The glottis is narrowed. 
 
 Fig. 4.* 
 
 Position during a deep chest-note. The 
 epiglottis lies back and obscures the view of 
 the vocal cords. 
 
 Fig- S-* 
 
 Position during a very high note. Glottis 
 very narrow, all the parts very tense, 
 arytenoid cartilages, aryteno - epiglottidean 
 folds, and epiglottis, forming a sort of 
 additional tube above the iloor of the larynx. 
 In the highest possible notes, the epiglottis- 
 cushion is pressed on the front insertion of 
 the vocal cords, shortening their vibrating 
 length. 
 
 Fig. 6.* 
 
 vC oe 
 
 Position of parts on taking a deep breath 
 after singing a high note. All the parts are 
 relaxed and appear thicker, the arytenoid 
 cartilages move apart, the "processus vocales" 
 are turned out, the glottis is larger and 
 diamond shaped. 
 
 Position in quiet breathing. The same as 
 Fig. 6, but exaggerated. The glottis still 
 
 larger, large enough to easily admit a finger. 
 The parts do not move during quiet breathing 
 with inspiration or expiration. 
 
 Fig. 8.* 
 
 Position during whispering. The ary- 
 tenoids are seen near together, but not so 
 near as the " processus vocales ;" these last 
 are however too far apart to cause a vocal 
 sound. The "processus vocales," being 
 closer together than the rest of the arytenoids, 
 produces a form of glottis, the opposite of 
 that shown in fig. 6, namely, one approaching 
 to that of two isosceles triangles, with their 
 apices apposed ; the whisper becomes louder 
 as the "processus vocales" approach one 
 anothef, until at last all that remains is a 
 triangular space (the hinder of the two tri- 
 angles), between the arytenoids. In the 
 louder hoarser whisper, the cushion of the 
 epiglottis presses on the front part of the 
 vocal . cords and additionally prevents their 
 being thrown into vibrations, though while 
 any chink remains this cannot happen. 
 
 Fig. 9.* 
 
 Position in air-tight closure of the glottis ; 
 the process stopped half way. The aryte- 
 noids and the vocal cords are firmly apposed, 
 the false vocal cords are being approximated, 
 the epiglottis with its cushion is being pressed 
 down on the glottis. 
 
 Fig. 10.* 
 
 The state of complete closure. The epi- 
 glottis pressed firmly on the glottis. The 
 false vocal cords probably, the true vocal 
 cords certainly, closely apposed. When the 
 epiglottis is still further pressed back, we have 
 a view similar to that during the sounding of 
 
 ( 260 ) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 a deep chest-note (fig, 4), except that a small 
 space exists in the latter case, between the 
 epiglottis and arytenoids, for the passage of 
 the air. 
 
 Fig. II.* 
 
 h.ph 
 
 Position at the commencement of the act of 
 swallowing. 
 
 The laws governing the vibrations. It has 
 been naturally attempted to identify the vocal 
 cords with some type of sounding bodies, in 
 order to examine the laws governing their 
 vibrations. They have a considerable super- 
 ficial resemblance to strings, the higher 
 sounds are as in them produced (other things 
 equal) by increased tension. But ist. no 
 string as short as the vocal cords could give 
 out so low a note, 2nd. the number of 
 vibrations does not (as in strings) vary directly 
 as the square root of the tension. Therefore 
 they are not strings. 
 
 The human vocal organs are not a ilue-pipe, 
 there is nothing to lead us to think that they 
 are, and besides the sound written 
 
 m 
 
 requires an open pipe, nearly 6 feet long, and 
 the case is clearly not one of a stopped pipe. 
 
 Is it a Jleed instrument? The question is 
 best answered by adducing some of the laws 
 which govern them. ist. The pitch of a 
 reed may be lowered, but cannot be raised, by 
 joining it to a tube, 2nd. it can never be 
 lowered more than an octave, 3rd. after being 
 thus lowered, the note is again raised by a 
 further lengthening of the tube, and again 
 lowered by a still further lengthening, 4th. the 
 length of tube necessary to lower the pitch 
 of the instrument to a given point, depends 
 on the relation between the frequency of 
 vibrations of the tongue of the reed, and 
 those of the column of air taken separately. 
 If a wind instrument depends for its note 
 entirely on the length of its pipe, it must be 
 a flue-pipe, if the range to which it can be 
 altered depends only partly on the length of 
 the tube, and if the range capable of being 
 produced by lengthening the tube is never 
 more than an octave, (the embouchure being 
 constant, ) it is a reed instrument. 
 
 This latter is the case with the larynx. 
 The reed in the voice corresponds with the 
 "free reeds," since it vibrates freely back- 
 wards and forwards, and does not " beat " 
 against an aperture, but unlike those which 
 
 are in use (Concertina, Harmonium, &c.,) it 
 is formed with a tube.* 
 
 The reed of the voice differs from ordinary 
 reeds in not being a stiff lamina fixed at one 
 end, freely vibrating at another ; it is a 
 stretched membrane. Membranous tongues 
 made elastic by tension may have three forms, 
 1st. a stretched band in an interval between 
 two firm plates, leaving a chink on each side, 
 2nd. it may be stretched over part of the end 
 of a tube, the other part being occupied by a 
 solid plate, a narrow chink being left between 
 the free edges, 3rd. two elastic membranes 
 may be stretched over the mouth of a tube 
 leaving a chink between them. The last is 
 obviously the case in point. But if the mem- 
 branes are prolonged in a direction parallel 
 with the current of air, not their edges onlj', 
 but their whole surfaces are thrown into 
 vibrations. This resembles the larynx still 
 more closely. An instrument on these prin- 
 ciples has been constructed, and corresponds 
 very closely in its behaviour with that of the 
 larynx. In such an apparatus, pitch depends 
 on the length, tension, and thickness of the 
 membranes, and though their edges must be 
 close together to produce sounds, the size of 
 the chink has nothing to do with the pitch. 
 A lower note is formed from a pair of such 
 membranes than from one, their pitch is 
 heightened by increasing the strength of the 
 current of air, thus they differ from rigid reeds 
 in which the note is lowered by a similar 
 proceeding. 
 
 Their behaviour when furnished with pipes 
 of various lengths, corresponds in the main 
 with that of metallic reeds, but it is not so 
 precisely determinable, as might be imagined. 
 A certain length of pipe suits a certain tone 
 best. A tube prefixed to the reed, has the 
 power of altering the tone, but not so 
 definitely as when affixed. 
 
 Thus the human vocal apparatus is a pair 
 of membranous free reeds, with a prefixed 
 tube and complex affixed resonance tube. 
 
 * Helmholtz in his book " Die Lehre von den 
 Tonempfindungen," 1862, divides membranous reeds 
 into two classes, (i) Those in which the aperture is 
 closed by the shock of the air (German " einschlagend") 
 — "beating" reeds; and (2) Those which are opened 
 by the shock of the air (German " aufschlagend " — ht. 
 " striking open ") — " free " reeds. The beating reeds 
 have the free edges of the limbs of the reed pointing 
 against the current of air, the free reeds in the direction 
 of the current. The beating reeds give a lower tone 
 than they would do if vibrating freely, the free reeds a 
 higher tone. The reeds of organ pipes and wooden 
 wind instruments are beating reeds ; the human lips 
 in playing brass instruments are opened by striking, and 
 are therefore free reeds (aufschlagend). They con- 
 sequently give higher tones (apart from the question of 
 the selection of a particular harmonic by the resonance 
 tube of the instrument) than when vibrating alone. 
 The Larynx is also a free reed, as will be seen by 
 Fig- 5. V. 
 
 (261 ) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 All the air-passages above the larynx, the 
 pharynx, mouth, nose, and even the cells in 
 the frontal bone, form part of this resonance 
 tube. These tubes, forming the resonance 
 tube, have an important part to play in vocal- 
 isation, though their complexity makes it 
 difficult to determine that part accurately, 
 still that they do play a part is evident from 
 the following facts. In ascending from a 
 low to a high note the whole larynx is lifted 
 towards the skull, the thyroid cartilage being 
 drawn up within the hyoid bone so as even 
 to press on the epiglottis ; the space between 
 the thyroid and cricoid cartilages is diminished, 
 the soft palate is depressed and curved for- 
 ward, the tonsils approach one another. 
 
 The aperture of the resonance tube is an 
 important point, the smaller the aperture 
 the lower the tone. In producing low notes 
 the mouth is less open than in high notes. 
 There is probably a certain length of both 
 affixed and prefixed tubes and a certain size 
 of the opening of the affixed tube which is 
 most suitable for each given note, and these 
 matters are partly managed automatically, 
 and are partly the result of practice and 
 education. In producing the lowest notes 
 we retract and depress the tongue with the 
 epiglottis so as to partly cover the lower 
 aperture of the resonance tube. 
 
 The head-voice is probably produced by the 
 vibration of the free edges of the vocal cords 
 only. Helmholtz thinks this is produced by 
 drawing aside the mucous coat below the 
 cords, the edge of the cords being thus 
 rendered sharper, the weight of the vibrating 
 part less, the elasticity being constant. 
 
 The falsetto voice is a problem not yet 
 cleared up. Many physiologists seem to have 
 quite lost sight of the fact that it is different 
 from the " head-voice." There are various 
 theories on the subject. 
 
 Some believe that the vocal cords only 
 vibrate in part of their length. We have 
 seen this to be possible by means of the 
 epiglottis-cushion. And it has thus much 
 in its favour that some adventitious aid (if 
 we may use the term) seems to be called in, 
 for it is much easier to sing a very high note 
 in the falsetto than in the chest register, the 
 former depending on sheer muscular exertion 
 as we know. 
 
 But on the other hand anyone can sing 
 falsetto with his tongue out of his mouth, 
 and consequently with the epiglottis-cushion 
 far away from apposition with the vocal 
 cords. 
 
 Others have said that the cords vibrate in 
 segments and give harmonics instead of funda- 
 mental notes. This is possible, for some of 
 the fibres of the thyro-arytenoideus internus 
 muscle end at various points along the vocal 
 
 cord and might favour such a splitting into 
 segments. 
 
 Others say that the falsetto differs from the 
 other registers in that only the edges of the 
 vocal cords are thrown into vibration, instead 
 of the whole of them. This is possible, the 
 only objection being that the extreme tension 
 of the very edge of the vocal cords seems to 
 be an explanation involving far more labour 
 than our sensations tell us is expended in 
 the production of the falsetto voice. This 
 seems much more likely to correspond with 
 the production of the " head-voice." 
 
 In passing from the highest chest note to 
 the lowest falsetto note, the space between 
 the thyroid and cricoid cartilages in front 
 which was closed suddenly opens, implying 
 relaxation of the vocal cords. This is con- 
 sistent with the hypothesis that they only 
 vibrate in part of their length, for this would 
 require less tension for a shorter membrane. 
 In passing from the chest to the falsetto 
 register, the larynx which was elevated de- 
 scends and rises again as the falsetto voice 
 rises. 
 
 Others have thought that the falsetto voice 
 was the result of a flue-pipe arrangement, the 
 glottis being the embouchure, the air passage 
 the tubes. We have already dismissed the 
 flue theory as untenable. 
 
 The person on whom most reliance is to 
 be placed, M. Garcia, himself a singing- 
 master, and the practical inventor of the 
 laryngoscope gives a long account of the 
 falsetto voice. He says that in the falsetto 
 as in the chest register the lower tones are 
 formed by the " processus vocales," as well 
 as by the vocal cords, that these processes 
 (which he calls the "apophyses") gradually 
 approach one another in the middle line, that 
 the vibrating length of the glottis is con- 
 sequently diminished pari passu, that when 
 the vibrating glottis is composed of the vocal 
 cords and only the tips of the processus 
 vocales, the weak uncomfortable tones well 
 known to singers are formed, that when the 
 processus vocales are so closely apposed 
 throughout that only the vocal cords vibrate, 
 the head voice is formed. " If we compare 
 the two registers in these movements, we 
 shall find some analogies in them ; the sides 
 of the glottis, formed at first by the apophy- 
 ses and their ligaments, become shorter by 
 degrees, and end by consisting only of the 
 ligaments. The chest register is divided into 
 two parts, corresponding to these two states 
 of the glottis. The register of falsetto-head 
 presents a complete similarity, and in a still 
 more striking manner. On other points, on 
 the contrary, these same registers are very 
 unlike. The length of the glottis necessary 
 to form a falsetto note, always exceeds that 
 
 ( 262 ) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 which produces the unison of the chest. The 
 movements which agitate the sides of the 
 glottis are also augmented, and keep the 
 vibrating orifice continually half opened, 
 which naturally produces a great waste of 
 air. A last trait of difference is in the 
 increased extent of that elliptic surface (the 
 glottis). All these circumstances show in 
 the mechanism of the falsetto a state of re- 
 laxation which we do not find in the same 
 degree in the chest register. 
 
 " When the external fibres of the lateral 
 crico-ar3denoid muscle remain inactive, we 
 produce the falsetto. The lips of the glottis, 
 stretched by the horizontal bundle of the 
 thyro-ar3rtenoid, come in contact by their 
 edge alone, formed at once by the ligament 
 and the apophyses, and offer little resistance 
 to the air. Hence arises the great loss of this 
 agent, and the general weakness of the sound 
 produced here. During the chest register 
 the vocal ligaments are stretched, and are in 
 contact to an extent corresponding with the 
 depth of the anterior apophyses of the ary- 
 tenoid, whilst in the falsetto the edges alone 
 of the ligaments are stretched and apposed." 
 
 In reviewing these various theories, we 
 shall be assisted in arriving at some sort of an 
 opinion by eliminating such of them as seem 
 to us obviously untenable. The next theory 
 to be discussed is that which states that only 
 the edges as distinct from the whole of the 
 vocal cords vibrate; this we shall put aside as 
 accounting more satisfactorily for the "head 
 voice," which is quite a different thing, es- 
 pecially when we remember the muscular 
 effort necessary for producing a high head note 
 as compared with the relative ease with which 
 the same note can be produced in the falsetto 
 voice, and also when we keep in view the fact 
 above mentioned, that in passing from chest 
 to falsetto register the crico-thyroid space en- 
 larges, implying relaxation of the vocal cords. 
 Let us now review the theory which sets forth 
 that in producing the falsetto voice we set the 
 vocal cords vibrating not in one segment, but 
 in many segments or nodes. In the first 
 place, this is not inconceivable, but we must 
 freely admit that we do not know the 
 mechanism by which it would be produced. 
 Garcia states that the length of the vocal 
 cords necessary to form a given falsetto note 
 always exceeds that which produces the uni- 
 son of that note in the chest register, and adds 
 that the falsetto note is accompanied by a 
 relaxed state of the glottis ; now if the length 
 is increased while the cords are relaxed, we 
 have two circumstances which would render 
 the pitch deeper if the cords vibrated in their 
 entirety, but both these factors would be 
 favourable to vibration in segments. But there 
 is another reason for supposing this, which 
 
 seems to us wortny of consideration, though 
 it does not depend on direct observation. 
 When the voice "cracks" in singing a high 
 note it flies up not into the head, but the 
 falsetto register. Now we know that this 
 "crack" is produced by the vocal cords coming 
 into contact and splitting into "nodes," just 
 as a violin string will sound harmonics if 
 lightly touched with the finger (this crack is 
 due to the fact that a high note requires that 
 the vocal cords should be all but parallel to 
 each other and all but touching, but either 
 owing to a want of deHcate muscular co- 
 ordination or to their being swelled by a cold 
 or other similar cause, they touch in some part 
 of their length and nodes are at once formed). 
 Thus we have two modes of production of the 
 falsetto voice, one of which we know. Is it 
 not likely that we produce the same effect (the 
 falsetto voice) by a similar method in both 
 cases (a sphtting into vibrating segments or 
 nodes) ? We think, therefore, that it is most 
 probable that the falsetto voice is produced by 
 the vibration of the vocal cords not in their 
 entirety but in nodes, though the mechanism 
 by which this is brought about is unknown to 
 us. In Miiller's Physiology by Baly, 1842, p. 
 1013, the nodal theory of falsetto is denied, 
 " the cords can be seen to vibrate in their 
 whole length." But a string sounding har- 
 monics vibrates in its whole length (except at 
 the nodes), though in segments. Also compare 
 ibidem, Appendix, chapter ii. p. 19: "shrieking 
 harmonic tones produced by the opposite 
 points of the cords touching." Oertel, of 
 Munich, has shown, by the use of revolving 
 mirrors that, while in the chest voice the 
 vocal cords vibrate en tnasse, in falsetto they 
 vibrate in segments divided by longitudinal 
 nodes running parallel to their edges, the 
 number of segments varying with the pitch. 
 — (Centralblatt med. Wiss. Nos. 5 and 6, 
 1878. Med. Times & Gazette, March 30, 
 1878, p. 342.) 
 
 Timbre of voice depends partly on the con- 
 formation, partly on the quality of the struc- 
 tures composing the larynx. Garcia also says 
 that the epiglottis plays a very important 
 part, for every time that it lowers itself and 
 nearly closes the orifice of the larynx, the 
 voice gains in brilliancy ; and when, on the 
 other hand, it is drawn up, the voice im- 
 mediately becomes veiled. 
 
 Range of voice in man. Garcia gives the 
 following table of the full extent of the human 
 voice : 
 
 Head. 
 
 Falsetto. 
 
 ( 263 ) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 He says, " Let us here observe, that three 
 registers of voice are generally admitted — 
 chest, falsetto, and head. The first begins 
 lower in a man's voice than in a woman's ; 
 the second extends equally in both voices ; the 
 third reaches higher in the female voice." 
 Part of this statement is remarkable, and 
 would seem to imply some essential difference 
 in the physiology of the voice in both sexes, 
 a difference beyond mere dimensions. I 
 must leave it to musicians to criticise his 
 statement, which does not commend itself to 
 me. 
 
 The whole of his paper is worth the careful 
 study of every musician. It is found in 
 " Proceedings of the Royal Society," Vol. 
 VII., No. 13, pp. 399-410. 
 
 In speech the pitch seldom varies more 
 than a fifth. 
 
 The nasal tone is produced by bringing the 
 arches of the palate together, and bodily 
 raising the larynx and also the tongue ; thus 
 the air is prevented from passing freely 
 through the nostrils, that part of the " re- 
 sonance tube "■ being cut off. Some have 
 stated that the air is prevented by this means 
 from passing freely through the mouth, and 
 passes along the nose, the cavity of the nos- 
 trils alone vibrating freely; but this is seen to 
 be incorrect when we remember that the nasal 
 tone cannot be produced when the mouth is 
 closed and all the air is driven through the 
 nostrils, while it is produced when the nostrils 
 are held closed, or when they are obstructed 
 by mucus during a cold. Thus the expression 
 " talking or singing through the nose," is 
 physiologically quite incorrect. 
 
 The power of musical intonation depends 
 on the power of accurate adaptation of the 
 muscular parts concerned in the production of 
 the voice to a state known to be capable of 
 producing the desired sound. This state is 
 at first recognised by the effect on the ear, 
 and afterwards directly through the "muscular 
 sensibility" of the muscles concerned. The 
 previous experience has thus been acquired 
 through the ear and also from the muscles, 
 and an "idea" of the sound required precedes 
 the production of the sound. Thus eventually 
 an idea of the sound and of the necessary 
 muscular state are presented simultaneously 
 to the mind. 
 
 Let us enlarge somewhat on this. A sound 
 is emitted and appreciated by the ear as 
 having a certain relative number of vibra- 
 tions, and this experience is stored up as a 
 memory. Secondly, attempts are made to re- 
 produce this sound ; when the desired sound 
 is produced, the ear recognises it as being the 
 same as that before produced, by means of the 
 memory ; and at the same time the sensorium 
 takes cognisance of the state of the muscles 
 
 of the larynx by means of " muscular sensi- 
 bility," that sense by which we learn the state 
 of our muscles, by which we know accurately 
 the position of our limbs, &c., unassisted by 
 our sight, and which is essential to a proper 
 performanceof any muscular action, especially 
 of those beyond the regulating power of sight. 
 Thus we have two memories stored up in in- 
 timate connection, viz., the memory of a 
 definite sound and the memory of a definite 
 state of muscles. This process is repeated 
 for each note and fraction of a note, for each 
 possible sound. By practice and frequent 
 repetition of the process we get the pheno- 
 mena reproduced in an inverted order, for 
 whereas, in the first instance, hearing came 
 first, muscular action with muscular sensi- 
 bility second, we now have muscular action 
 with muscular sensibility as the first executors 
 or reproducers of a -definite memory, con- 
 tinually checked, secondly, by the hearing. 
 After a time this process becomes automatic, 
 and is still more obviously so when a person 
 is singing from notes, when we naturally 
 have an additional factor or association, viz., 
 that of a symbol with a definite musical 
 sound. 
 
 Instrumental music can be expressed in 
 precisely similar terms ; it is true that at first 
 muscular sensibility has less to do, for the 
 guiding power of the eyes is possible, but 
 this is only occasionally used as an additional 
 sense when the performer becomes proficient. 
 Again some instruments, viz., those in which 
 the notes are already formed (all instruments 
 but the stringed instruments and the trom- 
 bone), require less guidance from the ear than 
 those in which the production of e'ach note, 
 both in pitch and timbre, depends entirely on 
 the performer. But these are only quantita- 
 tive differences after all. 
 
 Thus we come back to what we said at first 
 that all correct intonation, whether vocal or 
 instrumental, is checked and regulated by two 
 sensibilities, the acoustic and the muscular, in 
 varying proportions. It is plain from what we 
 have previously said, that musical intonation 
 maybe imperfect from various causes; of these 
 the most serious is defect in the appreciation of 
 sounds, since this is first in importance as in 
 time, — a "'bad ear" is irremediable ; but a 
 person may also play or sing out of tune from 
 several other causes. First this may occur in 
 the performance of a difficult passage. In 
 this instance the muscular adaptability is 
 deficient. Again a person may play or sing a 
 single note out of tune from deficient muscular 
 power, either the note is too high or too low or 
 in other ways too difficult of production, or the 
 performer may be tired with previous singing 
 or playing. But when a person habitually 
 plays or sings out of tune, or fails to keep in 
 
 (264) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 tune in performing an easy passage, we at 
 once say correctly "he has no musical ear," 
 that is, his sensorium is incapable of appreci- 
 ating the deHcate relations of musical sounds. 
 
 It may not be out of place here to venture 
 a few remarks as to the reason why it is much 
 more irritating to those with good musical 
 ears to hear a person sing sharp than to hear 
 him sing flat. One is, of course, as incorrect 
 as the other, but there is something particu- 
 larly exasperating in hearing sharp singing. 
 First of all it would be interesting to know 
 whether persons possessing good musical 
 ears, without any knowledge of music, would 
 find sharp singing more painful than flat 
 singing ; we should imagine that this would 
 not be the case. On analysing our feelings 
 when a person is singing sharp we fancy we 
 detect in them a certain feeling of indignation 
 at the singer doing something unnecessary. 
 This is quite correct, he is using unnecessary 
 muscular force, and we have a natural though 
 not purely rational idea that if he took less 
 pains, exerted himself less, he would sing in 
 better tune — we feel he is committing a " pre- 
 sumptuous " musical sin. On the contrary, 
 when a person sings flat, his muscular exer- 
 tions are inadequate, and we feel a sort of 
 pity mingled with our annoyance, we feel 
 that he is doing his best, but is not strong 
 enough to sing correctly; in both cases, how- 
 ever, it is generally not actual force which 
 is deficient, but the " guiding sensation," the 
 musical ear ; but there is this much correct- 
 ness in our feelings that a person with ever 
 so good an ear may sing flat from sheer 
 weariness, just as he may be too tired to 
 perform any other muscular exercise properly, 
 while there is not the same excuse for singing 
 sharp. 
 
 Comparative Anatomy. —No invertebrate 
 animal possesses a larynx. In Fish we have 
 only one or two instances of a larynx, and in 
 them it is connected with the entrance of the 
 duct of the air bladder ; these fish are other- 
 wise remarkable, being the Polypterus and 
 Lepidosiren. In the latter the glottis is sup- 
 ported by a sort of laryngeal cartilage. An- 
 other fish, named Trigla, is capable of emitting 
 sounds. 
 
 In Amphibia we find a better developed 
 larynx. In those which keep their gills 
 through life it is extremely simple, as is the 
 whole of the trachea and bronchi. The glottis 
 is a simple slit each side, strengthened by a 
 cartilage, which is sometimes subdivided. 
 Below the glottis is a membranous chamber, 
 the laryngeal cavity strengthened by carti- 
 lages, and from this chamber the lungs di- 
 verge either immediately or after a short 
 trachea. 
 
 In the Frogs the larynx is well-developed, 
 
 and is present in all but two frogs. The 
 vocal cords are stretched transversely ; above 
 and below them is a pouch, and sometimes a 
 cartilage between them. The muscles are 
 briefly classified as constrictors or dilators of 
 the glottis, and one stretches the vocal cords. 
 In the Toad the vocal cords are thin elastic 
 membranes, and consist of two pairs. In 
 many frogs we find pouches attached to the 
 larynx or the mouth, and these serve either 
 as resounding sacs or as reservoirs of the 
 wind supply. SinceallAmphibiaand Reptiles 
 do not respire as we do, but swallow the 
 air, this, which is a laborious process, is 
 economised by an elastic sac, in which the 
 air, having passed through the larynx, is re- 
 tained, and which, in contracting again, by 
 its elasticity drives the air easily back into 
 the lungs ; by this means a continuous croak- 
 ing is produced. 
 
 Reptiles. — The Serpents have no vocal cords, 
 and nothing beyond a hissing can be pro- 
 duced by the passage of the air through their 
 simple glottis. 
 
 The Lizards have a better developed larynx. 
 Most have vocal cords, but in many of these 
 they cannot be apposed or stretched. 
 
 In Turtles and Tortoises we first find the 
 cartilages divided into cricoid, thyroid, and 
 arytenoid. Some are capable of vocal sounds, 
 some only of a hiss. 
 
 The Crocodiles have, again, only two carti- 
 lages, a crico-thyroid and two arytenoids ; 
 the vocal cords are capable of producing a 
 sort of bellowing tone. 
 
 Birds. — Most Birds have two larynges, an 
 upper and a lower. The upper larynx is situ- 
 ated as in us, at the top of the wind-pipe. 
 There are several bony and cartilaginous sup- 
 ports, from two to ten in number. One of 
 these represents the thyroid cartilage. The 
 cricoid consists of three bony pieces, the two 
 arytenoids are also bony. With respect to 
 this, we may observe that many more parts 
 are ossified in birds than in other animals. 
 The glottis is simple, and composed of two 
 rigid lips, which do not admit of being 
 stretched, but only approximated. The prin- 
 cipal action of the muscles is to close and 
 open this glottis simply, which they can do 
 with great accuracy. The function of this 
 upper larynx is either simply to guard the 
 opening of the windpipe, or at most to modify, 
 and not in the first place to create the voice. 
 
 The lower larynx is placed at the bottom of 
 the wind-pipe, where this divides into the two 
 bronchial tubes, and is the true organ of 
 voice. The purpose of its position here is 
 probably to throw the weight which neces- 
 sarily accompanies a complex apparatus of 
 muscles and cartilages near the centre of 
 gravity, instead of at the end of a long lever 
 
 ( 265 ) 
 
LARYNX. 
 
 like the neck. In the same way the masti- 
 cating apparatus of birds is not a set of teeth 
 placed at the end of this lever, but a grinding 
 machine, the gizzard, placed at the centre of 
 gravity. 
 
 In singing birds the apparatus consists of 
 a double glottis, produced by a bony bar 
 called "pessulus" or "ostransversale," which 
 runs across the lower end of the wind-pipe 
 from before backwards, and supports a thin 
 membrane which projects into the calibre of 
 the windpipe, and ends in a free concave 
 edge ; it is called the " Membrana Semilu- 
 naris." 
 
 The muscular apparatus is complex, and 
 in some singing birds consists of five pairs of 
 muscles. In some birds, as the Ostrich and 
 the Vulture, the lower larynx is absent. 
 
 In some birds, as the Stork, Crane, Caper- 
 cailzie and Wild Swan, the windpipe is several 
 times folded on itself, being very long. 
 
 The Parrot tribe has a single glottis, with 
 a vibrating membrane on each side, thus re- 
 sembling ours. The adjacent sides of these 
 are concave, and there are muscles which 
 stretch, approximate or separate these vocal 
 cords. It is perhaps due to this peculiarity, 
 as well as to the fleshy tongue of the Parrots, 
 that they are able to imitate human speech. 
 
 Mammals. — The larynx of Mammals in 
 most particulars resembles that of man. In 
 the Kangaroos the vocal cords are feebly de- 
 veloped, and incapable of being stretched. 
 Most Marsupials have little or no voice. 
 
 Some Rodents have fairly developed vocal 
 cords, as the Hare and Rabbit. Some, as the. 
 Porcupine, have no vocal cords, and it is only 
 at the breeding season that they have any 
 voice, when the male makes a low grunt. 
 
 The Sloths have no false vocal cords, the 
 Armadillos have no false vocal cords or voice. 
 
 In the Whales and Porpoises, as in many 
 of the Marsupials, the upper opening of the 
 windpipe is modified into a conical projection 
 which rises up arid is embraced by the 
 muscles of the soft palate, so that a con- 
 tinuous air-tube is formed from the nose to 
 the lungs, on each side of which fluid or 
 solid food can continually pass to the gullet 
 without getting into the wind-pipe. The 
 purpose of this is obvious. In the Whales 
 the large volume of water which they con- 
 stantly receive into their wide open mouth, 
 from which they extract their food, and which 
 they eject through their blow-hole, is pre- 
 vented from getting into their air-passages ; 
 in the young Marsupial while in the pouch 
 the milk which it is constantly sucking is 
 similarly prevented from going "the wrong 
 way." Marsupials are born, as is well known, 
 very immature, and while in the pouch are 
 continually suckled; they are by thfs arrange- 
 
 ment saved from the necessity of constantly 
 closing their glottis in the act of swallowing, 
 as is the case with other animals. In those 
 aquatic Mammals called the Sirenia (as the 
 Dugong and Manatee, the herbivorous 
 Whales) the glottis is very small, and T 
 shaped, the transverse slit being above the 
 longitudinal slit. 
 
 In the Ass the "bray" is produced by 
 alternate inspirations and expirations, both 
 producing sounds, and is assisted by two 
 large air sacs between the vocal cords and 
 the thyroid cartilage. 
 
 The Giraffe only has a voice at the breeding 
 season. The male Deer's larynx enlarges 
 greatly at each breeding season and this 
 growth is associated with a large growth of 
 a gland below it called the thyroid gland, the 
 two producing that graceful prominence in 
 the throat which one observes at that time. 
 
 The purring of the Cat is produced by the 
 vibrations of the false vocal cords, which are 
 well developed ; the true vocal cords are small 
 and have no membranous part. 
 
 Many animals have large air sacs in con- 
 nection with the larynx, either opening into 
 the sacculus laryngis or placed in front be- 
 tween the thyroid cartilage and epiglottis, 
 and opening between the epiglottis and true 
 vocal cords ; or opening between the thyroid 
 and cricoid cartilages. In one monkey — the 
 Mycetes or howling monkey — there are a pair 
 of pouches lodged in cavities in the cricoid 
 cartilage, another pair similarly lodged in the 
 thyroid and extending on each side between 
 the thyroid bone and epiglottis, and into a 
 huge sac in the thyroid bone, and another 
 pair between the glottis and arytenoid carti- 
 lages, three pairs in all. Most of the Old 
 World monkeys have a sac in the hyoid 
 bone, but smaller than that of the howling 
 monkey. 
 
 The Gibbon has a well-developed larynx, 
 and alone of all the apes can sing a complete 
 octave ; moreover the quality of its notes is 
 decidedly musical. 
 
 In the Ouran-outan the air sacs in the 
 male extend down over the fore-part of the 
 neck and upper part of the chest, being sub- 
 divided into several sacs. 
 
 Castration in all mammals which possess a 
 definite voice arrests the sudden development 
 which takes place at puberty. Compare the 
 voice of the ox and of the bull. 
 
 W. C. Linnaeus Martin, in his work, A general 
 
 introduction to the Natural History of Mam- 
 
 miferous Animals, 1841.,^. 431, says — 
 
 " Hylohates agilis, Sumatra. — The voice of 
 
 this gibbon is extraordinary, not only for its 
 
 power and volume, but for the succession of 
 
 graduated tones in which its cry is uttered, 
 
 ( 266 ) 
 
LARYNGOSCOPE. 
 
 In a room, it is overpowering and deafening : 
 it consists of a repetition of the syllables oo-ah, 
 oo-ah, at first distinctly repeated, and ascend- 
 ing in the scale, but at last ending in a shake, 
 consisting of a quick vibratory series of notes, 
 during which the whole of the animal's frame 
 quivers with the effort to produce them ; after 
 this, she appears to be greatly excited, and 
 violently shakes the netting or branch to 
 which she may be clinging ; which action 
 being finished she again traverses her cage, 
 uttering the preliminary syllables oo-ah, oo-ah, 
 till the shake again concludes the series. It 
 is principally in the morning that the animal 
 thus exerts this modulated cry, which is, 
 probably, its natural call to its mate, and 
 which, from its strength, is well calculated for 
 resounding through the vast forests. The fol- 
 lowing observations on the voice of the ani- 
 mal were obligingly presented to the author 
 by Mr. Waterhouse :• — 
 
 ' " ' I should endeavour to give an idea of the 
 whooping of the gibbon (as far as the music 
 is concerned, but not as regards the quality of 
 sound), by comparing it to the tuning of a 
 harp ; first beginning with an E string, and 
 repeating it at short intervals ; then being 
 altogether silent for a little time, and then be- 
 ginning again ; next, two strings, as it were, 
 are struck, E and EJ (or Ft|) : the second 
 string is then screwed up, by half-notes, until 
 it reaches the octave ; the E and F natural, 
 E and F sharp, E and G natural, &c., being 
 struck nearly together. It must be observed 
 that before the upper note arrives at the oc- 
 tave, the animal amuses herself by occasion- 
 ally descending a few semitones, then ascend- 
 ing again, and so on. But when the octave 
 is once gained, and has been sounded a few 
 times, we may imagine the upper string to be 
 very rapidly let down by semitones ; the lower 
 note remaining the same as at first, and the 
 two strings being always struck together. 
 INote : It appears, all through this rapid 
 chromatic passage, as if the animal emitted 
 two notes at a time, as in the music ; but this 
 is the effect of the rapid transition from the 
 lower note to the upper;] The rapidity of the 
 descending passage is equal to that of an ex- 
 tremely brilliant shake. The animal then 
 remains quiet for a short time ; after which 
 follow two barks, each composed of the low 
 and high E, sounded nearly together. 
 
 " ' It appeared to me that, in ascending and 
 descending the scale, the intervals were always 
 exactly half-tones ; and I am sure that the 
 highest note was the exact octave to the 
 lowest. In this passage the lips were en- 
 gaged, and rapidly vibrated during its execu- 
 tion. 
 
 " 'The quality of the notes is very musical ; 
 and I do not doubt that a good violinist would 
 
 be able to give a correct idea of the gibbon's 
 composition, excepting as regards its loudness. 
 The gibbon's voice is certainly much more 
 powerful than that of any singer I ever 
 heard. 
 •' ' One more fact I noticed, viz. : That the 
 gibbon is usually a long time before she 
 comes to the rapidly-descending passage ; but 
 when she has given it once she soon runs 
 through the preliminary part of her composi- 
 tion, and again comes to the descending 
 passage.' 
 
 A llegro. 
 
 To this we have only to add that the quality 
 is like that of a very powerful male alto, and 
 that the sounds are produced, alternately by 
 inspiration and expiration — the high notes by 
 the former. This alternation, of course, makes 
 it possible for the animal to sing continuously 
 what would otherwise be an impossible 
 passage, exceeding any possible capacity of 
 lungs. 
 
 Laryngoscope. History of the Invention — 
 Taken principally from Dr. Morell Mackenzie's 
 works. — The use of mirrors for examining 
 the teeth is of exceedingly ancient date. Such 
 mirrors were used by dentists in the Augus- 
 tan age, and the tubular instrument for ex- 
 amining the various orifices of the body, 
 called a speculum, is also a very old invention ; 
 one was found at Pompeii. The use of a 
 mirror is obviously to reflect light into a dark 
 cavity ; the use of a speculum is to render 
 patent a tube which is, under ordinary circum- 
 stances, collapsed, and to allow the entrance 
 of light and, at the same time, unimpeded 
 vision. Both these principles have been ap- 
 plied variously in the gradual development 
 of the laryngoscope. 
 
 In 1743, M. Levret, a French accoucheur, 
 invented a mirror as a means of illuminating 
 the nostrils, throat, ears, &c., for the removal 
 of growths from those parts, but he considered 
 it only an accessory of his method of liga- 
 turing these growths, and he did not value it 
 as a means of diagnosing diseases of the 
 larynx. 
 
 In 1804, Dr. Bozzini, of Frankfort-on- 
 Main, invented an apparatus for examining 
 the various orifices of the body. It consisted 
 of a lantern and a number of specula ; and 
 the speculum intended for examining the 
 
 (267 ) 
 
LARYNGOSCOPE. 
 
 throat was curved at a right angle and pro- 
 vided with a mirror in the angle. The specu- 
 lum was divided by a vertical partition into 
 two passages, one to convey the light to the 
 larynx, another to convey the image from it. 
 This division of the tube was, of course, quite 
 unnecessary ; but Bozzini appreciated the 
 things necessary for a laryngoscopic ex- 
 amination, though he over-stated them. This 
 invention was decried by the medical pro- 
 fession, while the public had an almost super- 
 stitious regard for it, imagining that it would 
 render possible a direct examination not only 
 of the orifices but also of the cavities of the 
 body. This instrument was soon forgotten. 
 
 In 1825, M. Cagniard de Latour tried to 
 examine the Larynx, with a small mirror in 
 the Pharynx and another mirror to reflect the 
 light on to the first, but failed. 
 
 In 1827, Dr. Senn made a similar unsuc- 
 cessful attempt, but without trying any means 
 of illumination. 
 
 In 1829, Dr. Benjamin Guy Babington in- 
 vented an instrument closely resembling the 
 present Laryngoscope. A small mirror on a 
 stem at an angle of about 120° with the stem, 
 was introduced into the Pharynx ; to the stem 
 was fastened a spatula (a sort of flat spoon) 
 which depressed the tongue ; this spatula he 
 afterwards abandoned. A hand-mirror was 
 used to throw light on to the Pharyngeal 
 mirror. This instrument he called a " Glotti- 
 scope." 
 
 In 1832, Selligue, a mechanic in Paris who 
 was himself suffering from disease of the 
 Larynx, invented for his own case an appa- 
 ratus like that of Bozzini, except that instead 
 of employing one tube divided by a partition, 
 he used two tubes. With this Dr. Bennati of 
 Paris professed to be able to see the vocal 
 cords. 
 
 In 1838, M. Baumes exhibited a mirror for 
 examining the Larynx and posterior nares. 
 
 In 1840, Listen used a mirror on a stem for 
 examining the throat, but apparently never 
 thought of seeing as far as the vocal cords. 
 He preferred the sense of touch to that of 
 sight. 
 
 In 1844, Dr. Warden of Edinburgh, who 
 had used a prism for seeing the Tympanum, 
 thought of using one for seeing the Larynx. 
 He used a powerful Argand lamp for illumina- 
 tion, with a second prism attached. 
 
 In i844,also, Mr. Avery of London, tried to 
 use a speculum and reflector for the same 
 purpose ; and besides, invented a circular 
 mirror worn on the forehead and perforated 
 in the centre ; the mirror reflected the light 
 into the mouth, and the observer looked at 
 the same time through its central hole. The 
 defects of this were that the small Pharyngeal 
 mirror was in a speculum, instead of at the 
 
 end of a stem, and that a lamp (like Bozzini's) 
 was attached to the mirror on the forehead, 
 instead of being placed in any convenient 
 position behind or at the side of the patient. 
 
 In 1854, M. Manuel Garcia, a singing- 
 master still well known, thought of employing 
 mirrors for studying the interior of the Larynx 
 during singing. He made his observations 
 on himself and succeeded admirably. He 
 used a small mirror on a long stem suitably 
 bent, and introduced this into the Pharynx. 
 He directed the person experimented on to 
 turn to the sun, so that the rays might be 
 reflected into the Larynx, but adds that if the 
 observer experiments on himself he should 
 reflect the rays of the sun into his Pharynx 
 with a second mirror, and, therefore, stand 
 with his back to the sun. This second mirror 
 served also for the person experimenting on 
 himself to see the image of his own Larynx. 
 Little notice was taken of Garcia's observa- 
 tions. ' 
 
 In 1857, Dr. Tiirck, of Vienna, who had 
 read Garcia's paper, tried to use his mirror 
 for clinical purposes. He used only one 
 mirror, and employed no artificial light or 
 second mirror for illumination. He did not 
 succeed, and gave up his attempts after a few 
 months. 
 
 Later, in 1857, Professor Czermak, of Pesth, 
 borrowed from Dr. Turck the mirrors which 
 he had discarded, and overcame all difficulties. 
 He introduced artificial light, and the large 
 circular perforated mirror worn on the fore- 
 head. He was the first to render the laryngo- 
 scope a practically useful instrument.. He 
 was favoured by nature for examining his own 
 Larynx, since his Pharynx and Larynx were 
 very large, his tonsils and uvula very small. 
 His demonstrations of his own larynx con- 
 vinced the world of the usefulness of the 
 laryngoscope. Since this time no real im- 
 provement has been made, though the subject 
 has been worked continually. 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
 
 a Shape of mirror, h mirror and holder in profile much 
 diminished in size. 
 
 The present apparatus consists of a mirror 
 on a stem, bent at a suitable angle (about 
 120°), which is placed against the back of the 
 pharynx; of a circular mirror, either flat or 
 
 ( 268 ) 
 
LARYNGOSCOPE. 
 
 slightly concave, perforated at the centre, 
 which is worn on the observer's forehead in 
 some way so that his eye comes opposite the 
 central hole, or it may be fixed to the illu- 
 minating lamp. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 LAMP WITH CONVEX LENS FOR LIGHTING. 
 
 The third necessary part of the apparatus is 
 a lamp, which may or may not be furnished 
 with a double convex lens for concentrating 
 the rays of light. The sunlight on a bright 
 day may be used instead of a lamp. It is 
 possible by casting a strong light on the neck 
 from outside to illuminate the interior of the 
 larynx, so that in this case the larynx is 
 lighted through its walls. 
 
 The principles employed in making a 
 laryngoscopic examination are the following ; 
 Dr. Morell Mackenzie thus well explains 
 them : — 
 
 Fig. 3- 
 
 (to ILLUSTRATE EQUALITY OF ANGLES OF INCIDENCE 
 AND REFLECTION.) 
 
 Fig. 4- 
 
 k. Mirror in profile, ak. is reflected as kd., bk. as kc, 
 and vice versa. 
 
 " When rays of light fall on a plane sur- 
 face, the angle of reflection is equal to the 
 angle of incidence. A small mirror is placed 
 at the back of the throat, at such an inclina- 
 tion that luminous rays falling on it are pro- 
 jected into the cavity of the larynx ; at the 
 same time the image of the interior of the 
 larynx (lighted up by the luminous rays) is 
 formed on the mirror, and seen by the ob- 
 server. The mirror is held obliquely, so that 
 it forms an angle of rather more than 45° 
 ^vith the horizon. The plane of the laryngeal 
 aperture (bounded by the epiglottis, the ary- 
 epiglottidean folds, and the arytenoid carti- 
 lages) is also oblique, the epiglottis being 
 higher than the apex of the arytenoid carti- 
 lages. 
 
 " The above diagram shows the position 
 of the different parts, and explains their re- 
 flection. Let m represent the plane of the 
 laryngeal mirror, I the plane of the upper 
 opening of the larynx, and o the observer. In 
 the plane of the larynx, a represents the ary- 
 tenoid cartilages, ae the ary-epiglottidean 
 folds, and e the epiglottis ; the rays from these 
 parts impinge on the mirror, at a, ae, and e, 
 and are thence reflected to the observer at o. 
 Thus the epiglottis, which is really the 
 highest in the throat, appears at the upper 
 part of the mirror, the ary-epiglottidean folds 
 appear rather lower and at each side of the 
 mirror, while at the lowest part of the mirror 
 are the arytenoid cartilages. These remarks 
 apply to the vertical reflection. The only in- 
 
 F'g- 5- 
 
 version which takes place in the formation of 
 the image is in the antero-posterior direction ; 
 the part which in reality is nearest to the 
 observer, the anterior commissure of the 
 vocal cords (ac. in B. fig. 5) becomes furthest 
 in the image (ac. in A. fig. 5), and the pos- 
 terior or inter-arytenoid commissure (pc. in 
 B. fig. 5), which in reality is farthest from 
 the observer, becomes nearest in the image 
 (pc. in A. fig. 5). The symmetrical character 
 of the image which makes it impossible to 
 judge of right and left, and the antero-pos- 
 terior inversion which actually takes place, 
 often leads people to form erroneous opinions 
 concerning the two sides of the larynx. The 
 lateral relation of parts in the image must 
 now be considered. The mirror being placed 
 above and behind the laryngeal aperture, the 
 rays of light proceeding from the larynx pass 
 directly upwards and backwards, and the 
 patient's right vocal cord is seen on the left 
 side of the mirror, and the left vocal cord 
 on the right side of the mirror (just as the 
 
 (269) 
 
LATERAL VIBRATIONS LEGABILE. 
 
 patient's right hand is opposite the observer's 
 left, and his left hand opposite the observer's 
 right)." 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 A LARYNGOSCOPIC SITTING. 
 
 In making a laryngoscopic examination, 
 " the patient should sit upright facing the 
 observer, with his head inclined very 
 slightly backwards. The observer's eyes 
 should be about one foot distant from the 
 patient's mouth ; and a lamp burning with a 
 strong clear light should be placed on a table 
 at the side of the patient, the flame of the 
 lamp being on a level with the patient's eyes. 
 The observer now puts on the reflector, fixed 
 generally on the forehead, and tries to throw 
 a disk of light on to the fauces, so that the 
 centre of the disk corresponds with the base 
 of the uvula. He then passes the laryngeal 
 mirror to the back of the throat, so that the 
 posterior surface rests on the uvula, which 
 should be pushed rather upwards and back- 
 wards towards the posterior nares. In this 
 position the light is thrown from the mirror 
 into the larynx, while the image of the 
 larynx is observed on the mirror." 
 
 Auto - Laryngoscopy. The practice of 
 Laryngoscopy in self-observation requires a 
 second mirror to reflect the image from the 
 laryngoscope to the observer. An ordinary 
 toilet glass does very well. 
 
 Lateral Vibrations. [Acoustics, § 14. J 
 
 Laud [Sp.) Lute. 
 
 Laudi spirituali {It.) [Oratorio.] 
 
 Lauds. [Horae canonicas.] 
 
 Lauf (Ger.) (i) The peg-box in guitars or 
 violins. (2) A run or division in singing or 
 playing. A roulade. 
 
 Lauftanz (Ger.) Lit., a running dance, 
 a coranto. 
 
 Laut (Ger.) (i) Lond, forte. (2) Sound. 
 
 Laute (G&r.) [Lute.] 
 
 Lautenist (Ger.) A performer upon the 
 lute. 
 
 Lavolta {It.) An old ItaHan dance, much 
 practised in the days of Queen Elizabeth ; 
 many of the old dramatists allude to the 
 
 dance, as Massinger in his play, " The Great 
 Duke of Florence :" 
 
 " dance 
 A light lavolta with her." 
 
 It seems to have been the precursor of the 
 modern waltz, as it is thus described in a poem 
 by Sir John Davies, called " Orchestra," 1622: 
 
 " Yet there is one the most delightful kind 
 A lofty jumping or a leaping round, 
 Where arm in arm two dancers are entwined, 
 And whirl themselves with strict embracements bound. 
 And still their feet an anapaest do sound, 
 An anapaest in all their music's song, 
 Whose first two feet are short, 'the third is long." 
 
 Lay. Asong(Ger.Lied.) (Fr. lai.) Ahallsid. 
 
 Lay vicars. Lay clerks. Clerk vicars. 
 Vicars choral. Secular clerks. Chanters. 
 Songmen. Secular vicars. Secundarii. The 
 officers of a cathedral whose duty it is to 
 sing that portion of the music of the services 
 which can be performed by laymen or men in 
 minor orders. In some of the old cathedrals 
 they formed a corporation, often jointly with 
 the priest vicars. In many cathedrals the 
 vicars choral were formerly in priest's orders. 
 With certain exceptions, in the new cathedrals 
 lay vicars are not in holy orders and are 
 merely stipendiary singers. 
 
 Lead. A point or short passage which 
 has to be given out by one particular part. 
 When the word is used as a direction, it calls 
 attention to the importance of that point. 
 
 Leader. The name of the principal first 
 violinist in an orchestra ; of the chief clarinet- 
 tist in a military band ; and of the chief 
 cornet-player in a brass band. Before the 
 introduction of a separate conductor, the 
 leader of an orchestra was its director, and 
 gave the tempo with his fiddle-bow, a custom 
 which has led to the use of a fiddle-bow as 
 a biton in France. [Conductor.] 
 
 Leading note. Note sensible (Fr.) Cha- 
 racteristischer Ton (Ger.) Leit-ton [Ger.) Nota 
 characteristica {Lat.) Suhsemitonium modi 
 (Lat.) Subtonic. The seventh degree of the 
 ascending major scale. It is called leading 
 because of its tendency to rise or lead up to 
 the tonic. It is called sensitive and charac- 
 teristic, because it forms the essential differ- 
 ence between the modern scale and ancient 
 modes. The lastian or Ionic mode was the 
 only church scale having a leading note. In 
 consequence of the leading note forming part 
 of the upper of the two tetrachords of which 
 the modern scale is formed, that tetrachord is 
 by some called characteristic. 
 
 Lebhaft {Ger.) Lively, vivace {It.) 
 
 Legon (Fr.) A piece of music intended to 
 develope the taste, skill and power of the 
 performer. A study. 
 
 Ledger lines. [Leger lines.] 
 
 Legabile, legando {It.) Tied, connected, 
 smoothly. 
 
 ( 270 ) 
 
LEGATISSIMO LICENSE. 
 
 Legatissimo {It.) Exceedingly smooth, 
 close, and connected. 
 
 Legato {It.) Bound, close, connected. A 
 piece of music so marked is intended to be 
 sung or played in an even, smooth, and 
 gliding manner. It is opposed to staccato. 
 
 Legatura {It.) A bind, brace, or tie. 
 Accolade {Fr.) Bindungs-zeichen {Ger.) 
 
 Leger or ledger lines. Lit., light lines, 
 leger {Fr.) Short lines drawn above or below 
 the ordinary stave at the relative distances 
 at which the whole lines would be placed. 
 
 On and between these lines, notes belonging 
 to passages beyond the extent of the stave 
 are placed. The use of leger lines is com- 
 paratively modern in musical notation, for it 
 was anciently supposed that the stave, with 
 a certain clef prefixed, was sufficient for the 
 compass of the voice or instrument using 
 such clef. When the compass was extended, 
 the clef was shifted so that the music might 
 be still expressed within the limits of a stave. 
 To avoid the frequent shifting of clefs, 
 Frescobaldi, in his " Toccate d'Intavolatura 
 di Cimbalo et Organo," Rome, 1637, employs 
 two staves, comprising fourteen lines, as may 
 be seen in the following fac-simile of the 
 opening of the composition quoted in the 
 article " Galliard." 
 
 m 
 
 '(^3J-^'' P 
 
 t 
 
 'm 
 
 tx 
 
 S2I 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 K ^ 
 
 =f 
 
 The name ledger is also given to account- 
 books because of the light lines drawn in the 
 margin of the pages. 
 
 Ligdrement {Fr.) Leggieramente {It.) 
 Lightly, easily, gracefully, rapidly. 
 
 L6gdrete {Fr.) Leggerezza {It.) Light- 
 ness, rapidity. 
 
 Leggiadramente {It.) Beautifully, de- 
 lightfully, charmingly. 
 
 Leggiadro (7^.) Handsome, beautiful. 
 
 Leggierezza, con {It.) With much light- 
 ness. • 
 
 Leggiere {It.) Very lightly, rapidly. 
 
 Leggieramente {It.) Lightly, swiftly. 
 Leggiero (It.) Light, easy, swift. 
 Leggierucolo (It.) Rather lightly. 
 Legno, col (It.) With the wood. A 
 direction to strike the brings of violins with 
 the back of the bow. 
 
 Leicht (Ger.) Easy, light. 
 Leidenschaftlich (Ger.) With passion. 
 Leise (Ger.) Quietly, piano. 
 Leit-akkord (Ger.) A guiding chord. A 
 chord which suggests an immediate resolution 
 into another, as the chord of the dominant 
 seventh, &c. 
 
 Leiter (Ger.) Scala (It.) Lit., a ladder. 
 The scale. 
 
 Leitereigene Akkorde (Ger.) Chords 
 proper to the scale, that is, chords made up 
 of the notes of any particular diatonic scale, 
 as for instance, the triads on consecutive 
 notes which are major on the fourth and 
 fifth degrees, minor on the second, third, and 
 sixth, and imperfect on the seventh. 
 
 Leiterfremd (Ger.) Notes foreign to the 
 scale. 
 
 Leitmotif (Ger.) A guiding theme asso- 
 ciated with a special person, act, or sentiment 
 in an extended composition. 
 
 Leno (It.) Faint, weak, dull, flexible, pliant. 
 Lent (Fr.) Slow, lento. 
 Lentamente (It.) Slowly. 
 Lentando (It.) Becoming slower by 
 degrees ; slackening the time. 
 Lentement (Fr.) Slowly. 
 Lenteur, avec (Fr.), Lentezza, con (It.) 
 Slowly. 
 Lento (7^) Slow. 
 
 Lesser. Minor, as : with the lesser third, 
 in the minor key ; lesser sixth, a minor sixth. 
 Lesson. An assigned task, an exercise 
 or tune for the voice or an instrument. The 
 word formerly was applied to exercises (for 
 the harpsichord or other instruments) of the 
 character now known as Suites or Sonatas. 
 Lesto (It.) Light, lively, cheerful, gay. 
 License. Permission to break one of 
 the rules or supposed rules of the art of 
 music. 
 
 When the gradual growth of music in the 
 church, and among wandering musicians, 
 had proved that the loss of the art as 
 practised by the Greeks was only temporary, 
 attention seems to have been much more 
 directed to the scientific side of music than 
 to the artistic. No doubt the progress of 
 music was considerably retarded by this, but 
 the germ of harmony as found in crude 
 diaphony was not to be stifled, and descant, 
 counterpoint, canon, and fugue, came bit by 
 bit into existence. But writers on music 
 still continued to long for a perfect exactitude 
 in the construction of music which should 
 make mechanical skill of primary importance, 
 
 ( 271 
 
LICENSING. 
 
 and the inventive faculty of secondary value. 
 At each stage, therefore, in its development, 
 strong efforts were made by learned pro- 
 fessors to build it up on a series of irre- 
 fragable laws, and fence it round with sundry 
 warnings to the ignorant or unbelieving. 
 The true artistic spirit can never submit to 
 such restraint, and must ever be searching 
 for new forms of the beautiful. Hence, these 
 laws were from time to time broken, and as 
 professors could but allow that the result was 
 in many cases good, they satisfied their con- 
 sciences by calling these breakings of the 
 law " licenses," or in other words, they gave 
 dispensations. 
 
 Any student fairly conversant with the 
 history of music must have been convinced 
 of this fact by the strongest evidence. 
 
 The rules of descant were framed as if any 
 further growth of the art were not only im- 
 possible, but undesirable if conceivably pos- 
 sible. So too are the rules of counterpoint 
 as first laid down. 
 
 In treatises of the fourteenth and fifteenth 
 centuries, the novelties introduced by the 
 then " moderni " are attacked with all the 
 asperity and prejudice which some are direct- 
 ing at the present day against the so-called 
 " music of the future." 
 
 A well-known living writer on harmony 
 recommends the student to avoid certain 
 counterpoints, " although they have the 
 sanction of great classical composers." The 
 necessity of granting dispensations is thus 
 made evident, for it is here admitted that 
 great classical composers have practically 
 repealed certain rules, yet, say the rule- 
 makers, " the laws are true, so we will say 
 they are broken by license." Examples of 
 this obstructive tendency in most writers on 
 musical subjects might be multiplied to any 
 extent, but it will only be necessary to refer 
 shortly to one more case. " Discords must 
 be prepared " was a law which was enforced 
 until public opinion asserted that many could 
 be delightfully used without preparation. 
 Then, and not till then, students were allowed 
 to use certain dominant discords without 
 preparation hy license. This dispensation is 
 happily not enforced in later treatises, and 
 dominant discords "may be used without 
 preparation." One author, more honest, 
 though less logical, than his contemporaries, 
 has said that fundamental discords (a name 
 given for some unexplained cause to dominant 
 discords) are called fundamental, " because 
 they can be used without preparation." 
 
 Of course art has its laws, and every com- 
 poser and painter writes and paints under the 
 direction of innumerable rules gathered by 
 him from broad generalization and experience. 
 He feels their force and obeys them, but 
 
 whether they can ever be written down and 
 codified is a question of great doubt. Even 
 if music had now reached its climax of per- 
 fection, no power could succeed in converting 
 it into an exact science, and rules should be 
 sparingly made where "license" will certainly 
 be craved in order to disregard them. Nor 
 can it be said that there is any moral fault in 
 breaking rules, for music is unlike morality, 
 inasmuch as the artist should first do what 
 his imagination prompts, and afterwards 
 enquire whether it was right or wrong, and 
 moreover, speaking generally, the end will 
 justify the means. On the whole, the history 
 of musical " license" is not very creditable to 
 those to whom has been intrusted from time 
 to time the training of enthusiastic musical 
 youth ; and even in these very days it would 
 be well if critics and teachers could be made 
 to understand that many innovations are 
 legitimate growths, and not faults, pardonable 
 only " by license." 
 
 Licensing {musical and dramatic). The 
 laws relating to the licensing of musical and 
 dramatic performances are so closely con- 
 nected that it will be convenient to consider 
 them in a single article. In early times there 
 were no such laws, but in the time of Queen 
 Elizabeth players were declared by statute to 
 be rogues and vagabonds, unless they were 
 acting as the servants of some baron or 
 person of higher degree. The licensing laws, 
 however, properly so called, take their origin 
 from the revival of theatrical entertainments 
 after the Restoration. At that period, the 
 irregularities of the stage became so great, 
 and continued, notwithstanding the efforts of 
 the Lord Chamberlain and his subordinate 
 officer, the Master of the Revels, so uncon- 
 trollable that it was at length thought ex- 
 pedient to include all common players of 
 interludes in the Vagrant Act (12 Anne, stat. 
 2, c. 24). The evil, however, still prevailed, 
 and was heightened by an attempt to enforce 
 the law against a player who was a house- 
 keeper. In 1735, the increased number of 
 theatres (six in all !) in which the actors played 
 without any legal authority, and the loose 
 and scandalous nature of the performances, 
 induced Sir John Barnard to bring in a bill 
 " to restrain the number of houses for playing 
 of interludes, for the better regulating of com- 
 mon players." But a clause being proposed 
 to enlarge, or at least to confirm the power of 
 the Lord Chamberlain in licensing plays, and 
 it being understood that the Act could not 
 pass without such addition. Sir John Barnard, 
 who disapproved of the Lord Chamberlain's 
 jurisdiction, abandoned the bill. Two years 
 afterwards Sir Robert Walpole introduced 
 and carried the statute 10 Geo. II., c. 28, to 
 explain and amend the statute of Anne, im- 
 
 ( 272 ) 
 
LICENSING. 
 
 posing penalties for acting without patent 
 from the king or licence from the Lord 
 Chamberlain, requiring all new plays, &c., to 
 be submitted to the Lord Chamberlain, and 
 empowering him to forbid the performance of 
 any dramatic entertainment. The fifth section, 
 prohibiting the granting of a patent or licence 
 to act elsewhere than in Westminster or 
 where the king shall be resident, is said to 
 have been inserted at the instigation of Sir 
 John Barnard. It has been held that " tum- 
 bling " is not an entertainment of the stage 
 within the meaning of this statute (see the 
 case of R. v. Handy, 6, Term Reports, 286). 
 The statute 28 Geo. III., c. 30, enables magis- 
 trates in sessions to license theatrical per- 
 formances in places where they could not be 
 authorized by the previous enactment. It 
 was held, however, that a conviction under 
 that statute for performing without patent 
 from the king or licence from the Lord Cham- 
 berlain at Manchester was good ; it being for 
 the defendant to show, if such were the fact, 
 that he had a licence from the sessions. 
 When, in an action, the plaintiff was a par- 
 ticipator in carrying on an unlicensed opera 
 house, it was held that he could not recover 
 money paid at the request of the defendant 
 for carrying on such unlicensed house (see 
 De Begnis v. Armistead, 10 Bingham, 107.) 
 
 By the Theatre Act, 1843 (6 & 7 Vict., c. 
 67) it is provided that all theatres for the 
 public performance of stage plays must be 
 licensed by justices, except in London, West- 
 minster, Finsbury, Marylebone, the Tower 
 Hamlets and Southwark, and such places as 
 the Sovereign is in the habit of occasionally 
 residingin. In those places the authority of 
 the Lord Chamberlain is preserved. These 
 licences are granted in special session of the 
 justices, of which session seven days' notice 
 must be given by their clerk. They must be 
 under the hands and seals of four or more 
 justices. The university towns of Oxford 
 and Cambridge are the subject of special 
 exceptions in favour of the authority of their 
 respective chancellors or vice-chancellors. 
 Performing stage-plays in unlicensed places 
 subjects the offender to a penalty of not more 
 than ten pounds per diem during the con- 
 tinuance of the offence. New plays, and 
 additions to old ones, must be submitted for 
 the approval of the Lord Chamberlain, and 
 the maximum penalty for the performance of 
 plays before they have been allowed, or that 
 have been disallowed, is fifty pounds, the 
 offender's licence also becoming void. The 
 word stage-play includes every " tragedy, 
 comedy, farce, opera, burletta, interlude, 
 melodrama, pantomime or other entertain- 
 ment of the stage, or any part thereof." It 
 has been held, in the case of Thorne v. Colson 
 
 (3 Law Times Reports, New Series, 697), that 
 a dramatic performance, which was in fact a 
 duologue, was a stage-play within the mean- 
 ing of this statute. A curious case was heard 
 in the year 1865 (Day v. Simpson, 34 Law 
 journal Reports, Magistrates' Cases) in which 
 it was proved that at a music hall, licensed 
 for music and dancing, but not licensed as a 
 theatre, a stage was erected with lights and 
 other accessories, a performance was pre- 
 sented sustained by living persons with a 
 dialogue between them and a regular plot, 
 which was distinguished only from an ordi- 
 nary stage-play by all the actors except two 
 (the dialogue between whom was wholly sub- 
 ordinate to the plot of the piece) being not 
 bodily on the stage, but represented merely 
 by a reflection of their bodies on a mirror at 
 the back of the stage. This ingenious con- 
 trivance was held to be a violation of the 
 statute. It seems, that whether a certain 
 performance be or be not a stage-play within 
 the meaning of the act is a question of fact 
 and not of law ; and that a ballet out of 
 which any regular story could be constructed 
 would probably be held to be a stage-play 
 requiring a licence. This point was argued 
 in the Alhambra case (see Wigan v. Strange, 
 35 Law journal Reports, Magistrates' Cases, 
 31), to which, and to the authorities cited 
 therein, we must refer our readers for further 
 information on this part of the subject. 
 
 The present law with reference to licences 
 for music, dancing, or other public entertain- 
 ment of the like kind is to be found in the 
 statute 25 Geo. II., c. 36 (made perpetual by 
 28 Geo. II., c. ig). That act provided that 
 all such places of entertainment, not licensed, 
 were to be considered as disorderly houses, 
 and persons keeping the same are liable to a 
 penalty of £'100, to such person as will sue 
 for the same within the space of six calendar 
 months after the commission of the offence. 
 Various other stringent provisions are made 
 in the Act, but nothing therein contained 
 applies to " such performances and public 
 entertainments as are, or shall be, lawfully 
 exercised or carried on under or by virtue of 
 letters patent, a licence of the crown, or the 
 licence of the Lord Chamberlain." A room 
 in which musical performances are regularly 
 exhibited, though it is not used solely for that 
 purpose, is within this statute, and requires a 
 licence (see the case of Bellis v. Beale, 
 2 Espinasse's Reports, 592) ; but a room kept 
 by a dancing master for the instruction of his 
 scholars and subscribers, and to which per- 
 sons are not indiscriminately admitted is not 
 (see Bellis v. Burghall, ib. p. 722). It seems 
 to be doubtful whether the case is within the 
 statute, where the musical entertainment is 
 only the secondary object for which the place 
 
 ( 273 ) 
 
LICHANOS LIGATURE. 
 
 is open to the public, as where a supper room 
 is so open and no charge made for admission 
 (see Hale v. Green, g Exchequer Reports, 247). 
 
 From the above resum& the reader will be 
 able to gain an outline of the law of dramatic 
 and musical licensing. The statutes and 
 decisions, however, above cited, should be 
 consulted with care. 
 
 A few words may be added about street 
 music, or the law regulating itinerant 
 performers in the public thoroughfares of 
 the metropolis. By § i of statute 27 & 28 
 Vict., c. 55, a previous enactment on the 
 subject (§ 57 of 2 & 3 Vict., c. 47) is re- 
 pealed, and in lieu thereof it is enacted that 
 any householder within the metropolitan 
 police district, personally or by his servant, 
 or by any police constable, may require any 
 street musician or street-singer to depart 
 from and out of hearing of the house of such 
 householder, on account of the illness, or on 
 account of the interruption of the ordinary 
 occupations or pursuits of any inmate of such 
 house, or for other reasonable or sufficient 
 cause. And every person who shall sound or 
 play upon any musical instrument, or shall 
 sing in any thoroughfare or public place near 
 any such house after being so required to 
 depart, shall be liable to a penalty of not 
 more than forty shillings, or, in the discretion 
 of the magistrate before whom he shall be 
 convicted, may be imprisoned for any time 
 not more than three days. And it is lawful 
 for any metropolitan police constable to take 
 into custody without warrant any person so 
 offending. The offender must, however, be 
 given into custody by the person making the 
 charge, and the latter must accompany the 
 prisoner to the station-house and there sign 
 the charge-sheet kept for that purpose. When- 
 ever any person charged with such an offence 
 shall be brought to any station-house during 
 the time when the police-court is shut, the 
 constable in charge may require the person 
 making the charge to enter into a recognisance 
 to appear to prosecute, and upon the refusal of 
 such person to do so, the constable in charge 
 may discharge the party from custody. 
 
 Lichanos. [Greek Music] 
 
 Li6 {Fr.) Tied, bound. 
 
 Lieblich (Ger.) Lovely, sweet-toned ; as, 
 Lieblich gedackt, lovely stopped diapason. 
 
 Lied {Ger.) The name for a composition 
 of a simple character, which is complete 
 in itself; a song. There are several kinds, 
 but the chief are classed under the follow- 
 ing heads. Sacred songs or chorales, 
 secular songs, comprising national, people's 
 songs (Volkslieder), drinking songs, and 
 humorous songs. The French chanson, 
 the English songs with their several pecu- 
 liarities are described under their respec- 
 
 tive headings : it remains therefore, to 
 speak of the German lied, the sacred lied or 
 chorale being the earliest and most ancient 
 form. Its music was founded upon the 
 ecclesiastical modes and remained unchanged 
 until the days of the Minnesingers, whose 
 influence continued for a period of 400 years ; 
 though as a guild the Meistersingers existed so 
 recently as the year 1839, yet the period of 
 their power was from iioo until 1500. 
 The alterations and inventions of this body 
 gave risetotheVolkslieder, a series of melodies 
 of great beauty, rude in form and of a sim- 
 plicity that vanished upon the application of 
 contrapuntal treatment; thus, as the science 
 of music became cultivated the Volkslieder 
 began to fade and die, and to give rise to the 
 " volksthiimliche Lied," a sort of compromise 
 between the volkslied proper and the " kunst 
 lied," in which the spontaniety of the one 
 was enriched with the scientific decoration 
 of the other. 
 
 Liedertafel (Ger.) Lit., song-table. A 
 society meeting for the practice of part-songs 
 for men's voices. 
 
 Ligaturae {Lat.) Ligatures. An old sys- 
 tem of connecting notes (notulse) for purposes 
 of singing. Notulse, says Franchinus (lib. i., 
 cap. ii.) are of three kinds, simplex, com- 
 posita, mediocris. A " Notula simplex" is 
 one which is not joined to another, and is 
 shaped thus,*, or with a stem (virgula) thus, 
 f*. A "Notula composita" is one that is 
 attached to another, and is of two kinds. If 
 the ligature ascends, that is, if the second 
 note is higher than the first, the first note 
 has no stem, e.g. : 
 
 ^a.j^ I 
 
 but if the ligature descends, the first note has 
 a stem on its left hand side, e.g. ;. 
 
 A " notula mediocris " has the form of 
 neither of the preceding, but appears like 
 ordinary "mensurable" descending semi- 
 breves, of which there are not less than two 
 in succession, e.g. : 
 
 Ee 
 
 The final notula of a ■ ligature may be 
 written in three ways, ist, lower than the 
 penultimate, thus : 
 
 [-l^-f<^ 
 
 2. Immediately over the penultimate, with 
 a foursided body, thus : 
 
 3. Or over the penultimate, on the right 
 
 ( 274 ) 
 
LIGNE LUTE. 
 
 side, with a foursided body and a stem on the 
 right side, thus : 
 
 t^r-^^tm 
 
 It is wrong to write the ultimate of a 
 ligature thus ^ , but two notes only may be 
 
 written thus 
 
 ^S 
 
 but 
 
 ascending 
 
 oblique body may not be written upwards "^j 
 at such a thing "usus perhorrescit." 
 
 To the middle notes of a ligature no special 
 form is attached, they are either foursided, or 
 oblique. Only one syllable is to be sung to 
 all the notes included in one ligature. 
 
 Ligne (Fr.) A line. 
 
 Ligneum Psalterium {Lat.) A series of 
 pieces of wood of graduated lengths, so 
 arranged as to produce the various notes of a, 
 scale. These pieces are supported on two 
 strings, running the length of the instrument, 
 which is sometimes made in the shape of a 
 boat. The tone is produced by striking. The in- 
 strument is very ancient and universal, modifi- 
 cations of its form beingfound in every country. 
 It is also called Xylophone (GA. wood-sound), 
 Strohfiedel, Gigelira, wooden-laughter, &c. 
 
 Lilt. An Irish dance accompanied with 
 singing. 
 
 " While the chanter with his merry pipes 
 Struck up a lilt so gaily O." 
 [Ballad.l 
 
 Limma {Gk.) [Greek Music] 
 
 Linea {Lat.) Linie {Get.) A line. 
 
 Linien-system {Ger.) The stave of five 
 lines. 
 
 Linke Hand {Ger.) Left hand 
 
 Lip, to. To adjust the lips so as to 
 produce the proper tone of wind-instruments 
 played by the mouth. 
 
 Lipping. [To Up.] 
 
 Lira [It.) A lyre. This word was formerly 
 applied to many instruments of the viol class or 
 others having a resonance-box, as, lira da 
 braccio, a sort of large tenor-violin ; lira da 
 gamba, or perfetta, a sort of violoncello ; lira 
 rustica or tedesca, or mendicorum, a hurdj'- 
 gurdy (Bauern-leyer). Lira Barberina was 
 a bowed instrument, invented by John Baptist 
 Doni, so named in honour of his patron. 
 Cardinal Barberini. 
 
 Lire {Fr.) A lyre or harp. 
 
 Liressa {It.) An inferior lyre or harp. 
 
 Liscio {It.) Polished, smooth. 
 
 L'istesso {It.) The same, as I'istesso 
 movimento, the same movement ; l'istesso 
 tempo, the same time. 
 
 Litany, Xiraveia {Gk.) A prayer, rogation, 
 or supplication ; in particular, that early form 
 of praj'er in which a minister recites a peti- 
 tion, and the people answer " Lord, have 
 mercy." In the fourth century litanies were 
 sung in solemn processions by the Eastern 
 Church, but they were not employed by the 
 Western Church till about a century later. 
 
 ( 27'5 
 
 Until the time of Mamertus they were only 
 used on special occasions, but he, at the close 
 of the fifth century caused them to be recited 
 on fixed days. Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison, 
 Kyrie eleison, is called the Lesser Litany. 
 
 Lituus {Lat.) A crooked trumpet, used 
 chiefly for giving military signals. 
 
 Liuto {It.) A lute. 
 
 Lo. (i) Abbreviation for Loco. (2) One of 
 the syllables used in Bocedisation. 
 
 Lobgesang {Ger.) A hymn of praise. 
 
 Loco (/i.) In its proper place. A direction 
 to return to the proper pitch after having 
 played an octave higher. 
 
 Locrian {Gk.) A name sometimes applied 
 to the Hypodorian mode. 
 
 Logeum {Lat.) \oytiov {Gk.) [Pulpitum.J 
 
 Long. An ancient musical character equal 
 to two breves. 
 
 Long Drum. [Drum.] 
 
 Longitudinal vibrations. [Acoustics, 
 
 § I4-] 
 
 Lontano {It.) Distant. Tromba da lontano, 
 a trumpet played in the distance. 
 
 Lo stesso tempo {It.) At the same pace. 
 
 Loure or Louvre {Fr.) A dance adapted 
 to an air called " L'aimable vainqueicr," said 
 to have been a favourite of Louis XIV. Some 
 authors, however, consider it to have been a 
 kind of jig, or a waltz. The name is perhaps 
 derived from the word lourer, to bind notes 
 together, to slide. 
 
 Lugubre {Fr.) Dismal, doleful, lugubrious. 
 
 Lu-lu {Chinese). The Chinese official 
 collection of treatises on the art of music. 
 
 Lunga pausa {It.) A long pause. 
 
 Luogo {It.) [Loco.] 
 
 Lures. Ancient Scandinavian trumpets. 
 Some specimens discovered in Denmark 
 would, if straightened, have been six feet in 
 length ; in their curved form they were three 
 and a-half feet long. Notwithstanding their 
 great antiquity, they were considerably orna- 
 mented and in sufiiciently good preservation 
 to give out musical sounds. 
 
 Lusingando {It.) 
 
 Lusingante (/«.) Caressingly, in a 
 
 Lusinghevole {It.) coaxingmanner. 
 
 Lusinghevolmente {It.)' 
 
 Lusinghiere (It.)] r^ 
 
 Lusinihiero (/f.jjCaressmg, coaxmg. 
 
 Lute. Luth {Fr.), Laute {Ger.), Liuto {It.) 
 Laud {Sp.) An instrument of the guitar 
 family, formerly very popular in Europe. It 
 was used for accompaniments and the per- 
 formance of solos, duets, &c. It had four to 
 six pairs of strings, each pair tuned in unisons 
 or octaves. The accordatura was as follows : 
 
 8va. bassa. 
 
 The lower G was omitted on the five-stringed, 
 and both G's on the four-stringed Lute. 
 The German lutenists called the six strings, 
 
 ) 
 
LUTH LYRIC STAGE. 
 
 counting from rhe lowest, Grossbrummer, 
 Mittelbrummer, Kleinbrummer Grossang- 
 sait, Kleinsangsait, and Quintsangsait, or 
 the five strings without the lower G, Prime, 
 Secund, Terz, Quart, and Quint. In France, 
 Italy, and Flanders, they were similarly named 
 according to the language of the land, the 
 upper string, upon which the melody was 
 usually made being called Soprano, il Canto, 
 Chanterelle, as well as Quint. In England 
 the lowest string was called the Sasi, the next 
 the Tenor, the next the Counter tenor, the next 
 the Great mean, the next the Small mean, and 
 the highest the Treble. Gut strings were 
 generally used, for covered strings were not 
 known when the Lute was in common use. 
 Thomas Mace ("Musicks Monument," 1676) 
 describes the strings of his time in these 
 words: "Be careful to get good strings which 
 should be of three sorts, viz., minikins, 
 Venice catlins, and Lyons (for basses). 
 
 Music for the Lute was written in Tablature, 
 q.v. 
 
 The word has been variously derived, from 
 the Latin ludere, to play, from the Greek 
 a\i£wriKoc,from the lyre which was a dessicated 
 tortoise, and from the Saxon hlud or lud, 
 sonorous, but it is most probably from the 
 Arabic el'ood, as the instruments came into 
 Europe from the Moors through the Spaniards, 
 who still call it laud. 
 
 The several frets of the lute were dis- 
 tinguished by the letters of the alphabet, 
 "one for each fret as many as there may be." 
 The frets divided the strings into semitones. 
 
 The Orpharion Lute had a larger number 
 of strings than the common lute, and its 
 strings were of wire, instead of gut. 
 
 ORPHARION LUTE. 
 
 Luth {Fr.) A lute. 
 
 Luttuosamente (It.')] -., . „ ,, 
 
 Luttuoso (7^.) ^ ^[Mournfully, sadly. 
 
 Lutenist. A performer upon the lute. 
 The office of lutenist still exists in the Chapel 
 Royal, but it has been a sinecure since the 
 disuse of the instrument. The revival of the 
 office was made in favour of Dr. Nares, who 
 was appointed in 1780. 
 
 Lydian mode. [Greek Music] 
 
 ( - 
 
 Lyon catlins. Thick spun strings for the 
 basses of lutes or viols. [Lute.] 
 
 Lyra viol. An obsolete instrument, in 
 form like the ordinary viol, having six strings 
 and seven frets. 
 
 Lyra mendicorum (Lai.) [Hurdy-Gurdy.] 
 
 Lyre. One of the most ancient stringed 
 instruments. The word lyre (Xvpa) does not 
 occur in Homer ; he speaks only of the 
 citharis {KtOaptc) and phorminx {<j>6pfiiyi). The 
 distinction between a citharis (or guitar), and 
 a lyre, is that the neck of the former runs 
 behind the upper part of the strings, while 
 the strings of the latter are free on both sides. 
 A reference to the article " Guitar " will show 
 the nature of the cithara. The following 
 illustration of a Greek lyre exhibits the 
 characteristic of the instrument just alluded to. 
 
 The lyre was also called testudo or chelys 
 (xe'\«c), because the back was of tortoiseshell, 
 as shown in the next illustration. 
 
 The cross bar at the top was called the 
 yoke 'Cvyov, Lat. transtillum, a little tran- 
 strum or cross-bar. The uprights were called 
 the horns Trij^Etc. 
 
 The history of the progress of the lyre as a 
 musical instrument, is the history of Greek 
 music itself, and the reader is referred to 
 the article on that subject for information. 
 [Guitar], [Lute], [Greek Music] 
 
 Lyric. Poetry or blank-verse intended to 
 be set to music and sung. 
 
 Lyric Stage. A term applied to operatic 
 representations. 
 76) 
 
M- 
 
 -MADRIGAL. 
 
 M. 
 
 M. Abbreviation of mezzo, mano, main, 
 manual. M.M. standsioT MaelzeVsmetronome, 
 q.v. 
 
 Ma {It.) But ; as, vivace ma non troppo, 
 quick, but not too quick. 
 
 Machalath, or Mahalath [Heb.) This 
 word occurs in the title of Psalms liii. and 
 Ixxxviii.; the former is inscribed to the "chief 
 musician upon Mahalath," the latter to the 
 " chief musician upon Mahalath Leannoth." 
 Mahalath is by some authors traced (like 
 Machol), to a root meaning pierced or bored, 
 hence it is thought these Psalms were accom- 
 panied by flutes. It is generally thought that 
 the term leannoth refers to antiphonal singing. 
 Other writers consider the titles of these and 
 several other Psalms to be a reference to well 
 known tunes to which they were to be sung. 
 
 Machine-head. An arrangement of rack 
 and pinion for the purpose of tightening and 
 keeping in tension the strings of the double- 
 bass, and the guitar, as the ordinary pegs 
 employed to stretch the strings are of unequal 
 leverage. 
 
 Machicot (Fr.) An obsolete term for one 
 of the chori ministri minores of a cathedral, 
 who in singing, added passing-notes between 
 intervals of the plain-song ; or, according to 
 others, added a part to the plain-song at an 
 interval of a third or fourth, thus forming a 
 sort of organum or diaphony. The music 
 thus sung was called machicotage. 
 
 Machol, or MahhoJ (Heb.) A word often 
 found in the Old Testament, associated with 
 " toph" (timbrel), and almost always rendered 
 in the English version by dances or dancing. 
 But some authorities trace the word to a root 
 meaning pierced or bored, and therefore con- 
 sider it to have been a flute. It is not im- 
 probable that Machol and toph may mean 
 " pipe and tabor," but as these two instru- 
 ments are often associated with dancing, our 
 version, and others which follow it, cannot in 
 any case be said to be incorrect. 
 
 Machwerk (Ger.) Composition, construc- 
 tion, the result of labour rather than sponta- 
 neity. 
 
 Madriale {It.) A word derived from 
 madrigal, and as in the early operas madri- 
 gals were performed between the acts, with- 
 out necessarily having any connection with 
 
 them, the word came to be applied to any 
 species of intermezzo. 
 
 Madrigal. In the doubt that has existed 
 as to the origin of the word, many specula- 
 tions have been advanced ; Huet, Bishop 
 of Avranches, supposed it to be a cor- 
 ruption of the word Martegaux, because 
 he presumed that the inhabitants of that 
 district in Provence, either invented or 
 excelled in this peculiar style of composition, 
 but as he produces no authority in support of 
 his assertion, he gives occasion to Sir John 
 Hawkins shrewdly to say, " had he known 
 that there was a town in Spain called 
 Madrigal, it is likely he would have deduced 
 its origin from the Spaniards." The deriva- 
 tion of the word from the Italian mandra, 
 because some of the madrigals are of a 
 pastoral character, need not be entertained, 
 because for every poem with such a theme, 
 there is at least a score having other subjects 
 of a widely different nature. The modern 
 idea that the madrigal may have originally 
 been a song to the Virgin Mary, is likewise 
 based upon very doubtful authority, if upon 
 any authority at all, for in the first place, it 
 is necessary to prove that the word madre 
 came to be exclusively applied to the Virgin, 
 and in the second, that there should be some 
 applicable meaning in the latter part of the 
 word, for gala relates to gaiety in dress 
 or ornament, and not to joyfulness in poetry 
 or music, and finally, that the supporters of 
 this idea should produce specimens of such 
 songs in numbers sufficient to justify their 
 ground in making the statement. The term 
 may possibly be connected with the Spanish 
 word madrugada, dawn of day, for many of 
 the Spanish cancioneros or madrigals have 
 the character of an " aubade." The word 
 was applied to a poem of a popular character 
 as early at least as the 14th century. The 
 first madrigals on whatever subject they were 
 written, were always in popular versification, 
 and generally contained a well-known pro- 
 verb, or the application of some common- 
 place wisdom. The words madrigal and 
 villancico, or villanella, ballato and sonetto, 
 are frequently used to describe a popular 
 song in popular language and versification. 
 
 The madrigal as a poem arose out of the 
 
 ( 277 ) 
 
MADRIGAL. 
 
 cancionero general, the invention of the 
 Spanish poets of the early part of the 13th 
 century. A theme or moto was selected, and 
 the poet exercised his ingenuity in varying 
 the motives, as a musician does a phrase. 
 
 The following poem or glose, by Don 
 Jorge Manrique de Madrigal, will show the 
 method of treatment : — 
 Mote. 
 
 " Sin voSj y sin Dios, y mi." 
 
 Yo soy quien libre me vi 
 
 Yo quien pudiera olvidaros 
 
 Yo so el que por amaros 
 
 Estoy des que os conoci 
 
 Sin bios y sin vos y mi. 
 
 Sin Dios, porque en vos adoro 
 Sin vos, pues no me quereys 
 Pues sin me ya esto decoro 
 Que vos soys quien me teneys 
 Assi que triste naci 
 Pues que pudiera olvidaros 
 Yo soy el que por amaros 
 Esto desque os conoci 
 Sin Dios y sin vos y^mi. 
 
 The early composers took the melodies of 
 some of the popular madrigals and constructed 
 counterpoint upon them, and further produc- 
 tions were called madrigals or motetts, either 
 from their having a proposed theme, or from 
 the character of the poem which furnished 
 the theme. In Spain to this day the motetts 
 sung at high mass on Christmas eve are 
 called villancicos. 
 
 The word madrigal became a general term 
 for secular compositions, of which there 
 were three classes : (i.) The solo madrigal, 
 or " Madrigale concertate con il basso con- 
 tinuo ; " (2.) The madrigal in parts for voices 
 unaccompanied, or " Madrigali di tavolino;" 
 and (3.) The madrigal accompanied by 
 several instruments, " apt for viols and 
 voyces," or as they are described in Italian, 
 " madrigali concertate con varie sorte di 
 stromenti." It was the second class that 
 obtained the greatest popularity in England 
 after having been introduced by means of 
 copies printed in Flanders in 1588, by an 
 unknown gentleman who translated the words 
 of some of the most famous Italian madrigals 
 and adapted them to English verse for his 
 own use. Immediately upon their introduc- 
 tion into England, the composers of the time 
 produced works of a similar character which 
 far exceeded in beauty of idea and construction 
 all their prototypes, and so far exhausted the 
 style that the Elizabethan madrigals have 
 never been excelled for beauty and fancy in 
 harmony and counterpoint, and the mere 
 mention of the word madrigal calls into asso- 
 ciation such names as Morley, Wilbye, Ward, 
 Benet, Dowland, Ford, and Gibbons. 
 
 The earliest compositions to madrigal words 
 were similar in character to the hymn tunes 
 or chorales now in use, the counterpoint 
 
 being of the simplest form, note against note, 
 each measure being similarly accented in all 
 the parts, they were, in fact, harmonised 
 melodies. The madrigal " Down in a flowery 
 vale," by Constantius Festa (1517-1545), is a 
 good example in this form. The original 
 Italian words are in true madrigal style and 
 rhythm. The ballets or fa las, printed at 
 Venice in 1591, by Gastoldi, who is the 
 reputed inventor of this form of madrigal, are 
 of a like character. By degrees, as it was 
 discovered that it was possible to arrange the 
 parts so that they might become melodies 
 interchangeable as to form and rhythm ac- 
 cording to the plan now known as double 
 counterpoint, a greater freedom was attained, 
 and not only were madrigals improved, but 
 the art of composition made a great advance. 
 The motett and the madrigal, always side by 
 side, always written in like style, benefitted 
 by the improvement, the only difference in 
 their construction being that as in the 
 madrigal every improvement or " license " in 
 harmony and melody was permitted, certain 
 progressions were forbidden in the motett as 
 being inconsistent with the solemn character 
 of the words to which they were usually set. 
 The motett was originally in madrigal form, 
 that is to say, was arranged in short phrases 
 to correspond with the versification of the 
 madrigal, a matter of necessity when it is 
 considered that the melodies of the well 
 known and often profane madrigals were 
 taken as the plain song upon which new and 
 severe harmonies were based. Richard Ed- 
 wardes, 1547; Phillipo Verdelot, 1549 ; Adrian 
 Willaert, 1565 ; Vincenzo Ruffo, 1568 ; 
 Thomas Tallis, 1575 ; Palestrina, 1588 ; and 
 Claudio Merula, 1598 ; wrote sacred compo- 
 sitions in which the motett displays signs 
 of this method of treatment. It may be need- 
 less to point out that what has been called 
 " the conversational arrangement of short 
 phrases," is essentially the character of the 
 later madrigals, in which one part or more 
 proposes a phrase which is repHed to either in 
 imitation or some such form by the other part 
 or parts in turn, as in Converso's " When 
 all alone my pretty love," 1580. In the longer 
 madrigals a greater variety of phrasing is of 
 course necessary, in order to avoid monotony 
 of effect. " Shew" says Morley at page 180 of 
 his " Plaine and Easie Introduction to Prac- 
 ticall Musicke," 1597, " to the very utmost 
 your variety," and " the more variety you 
 shew, the better you shall please." In course 
 of time the original signification of the word 
 was lost sight of and many compositions were 
 styled madrigals without consideration of the 
 primary meaning of the term, hence has arisen 
 a certain amount of confusion with regard to 
 this class of music. 
 
 ( 278) 
 
MADRIGALE MAGGOT. 
 
 The dates of the several productions so 
 called do not always indicate the state of the 
 madrigal, some later writers using the earliest 
 forms, as Dowland, Ford, and Gibbons, while 
 the earlier writers in varying the accepted 
 form of their time suggested improvements 
 which were afterwards expanded. Existing 
 madrigals may be divided into three groups : — 
 
 1. Madrigals with melody, harmonised 
 note against note. 
 
 2. Those in which florid and double 
 counterpoint is employed, but rarely 
 consisting of more than one move- 
 ment. 
 
 3. Those in which two or more move- 
 ments are used, and every variety of 
 counterpoint. 
 
 The Villanellas or Madrigals of Donati 
 [1510-1590], the Ballets or Fa las ofGastoldi, 
 already alluded to, and all like works belong 
 to the first division ; the Triumphs of Oriana, 
 especially those by Weelkes and Morley, to 
 the second ; and all compositions like " Sweet 
 honey-sucking bees " to the third class. 
 
 The characteristics a Madrigal should pos- 
 sess may be thus summed up : — 
 
 1. Themes suitable in character to the 
 words. 
 
 2. Variety of rhythm. 
 
 3. Short melodic phrases. 
 
 4. Imitation and counterpoint. 
 
 There are many pieces called madrigals in 
 which certain of these conditions are more 
 present than others, indicating the advance in 
 thought and treatment, afterwards developed 
 in the Glee, such as Wilbye's " Thus saith my 
 Chloris," Benet's " Flow, O my tears," and 
 Gibbons's " Silver Swan" and " Oh that the 
 learned poets." The two last named are 
 specially held to be transitions or bridges be- 
 tween the madrigal and the glee. 
 
 Madrigale (It.) [Madrigal.] 
 
 Madrigaletto or Madrialletto (It.) A 
 short madrigal. 
 
 Maesta, con, 
 
 Maestade, con 
 
 Maesftvole 
 
 Maestevolmente 
 
 Maestoso 
 
 Maestrale (It.) or magistrate, a term some- 
 times applied to the stretto of a fugue when 
 in canon. 
 
 Maestri secolari (It.) Teachers of secu- 
 lar music. 
 
 Maestria (It.) Skill, address, authority. 
 
 Maestro del core, or di cappella (It.) 
 Choir master, leader, or conductor. [Capell- 
 meister.] 
 
 Magadis (Gk.) fiayaSte. An instrument of 
 twenty strings, on which music could be 
 played in octaves. 
 
 Magadize, to (G*.)/ioyaSt4'o'. (i.) To play I 
 
 [It.) With dignity, 
 majesty. 
 
 upon the magadis. (2.) To play in octaves. 
 
 Magas (Gk.) fiayag. (i.) The bridge (Lat. 
 pons) of a cithara. (2.) A fret. 
 
 Maggiolata (It.) A May song. A song 
 sung in celebration of the month of May. 
 
 Maggiore (It.) Major. 
 
 Maggot. One of the later names given to 
 fancies, airs, and pieces of an impromptu 
 character. The most celebrated of these 
 fancies or whimsical airs was that by Moteley 
 or Motley, which is subjoined. 
 
 From "A choice collection of lessons, being 
 excellently sett for the harpsichord," 1705. 
 
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 ( 279 ) 
 
MAGREPHA MARKS OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 (It.) With sadness, 
 sorrow, or melan- 
 choly. 
 
 Magrepha. An organ mentioned in the 
 Talmud as having been in existence in the 
 second century. It had ten ventages, each of 
 which communicated with ten pipes, and it 
 was played upon by means of a clavier. 
 
 Main (Fr.) The hand, as main droite, the 
 right hand ; main gauche, the left hand, 
 abbreviated thus, m. d. and m. g. 
 
 Maitre de chapelle {Fr.) Choir master. 
 [Capellmeister.] 
 
 Majeur {Fr.) Major. 
 
 Major {Lat.) Greater. A major third con- 
 sists of four semitones, a minor third of three. 
 Amajortoneis the whole tone having the ratio 
 8:9 ; a minor tone, that having the ratio g:io. 
 Intervals have had the term major applied to 
 them in a conflicting manner. [See Interval.] 
 
 Major mode. The ordinary diatonic scale, 
 having semitones between the third and 
 fourth, and seventh and eighth degrees. 
 
 Major modus {Lat.) (Major mode.) 
 
 Malakat. [Ashantee trumpet.] 
 
 Malinconia, con 
 
 Malinconicamente 
 
 Malinconico 
 
 Malinconioso 
 
 Malinconoso 
 
 Mammets. Puppet-shows, usually accom- 
 panied with music on a dulcimer. [Dulcimer.) 
 
 Mancando {It.) Decreasing, dying away. 
 
 Manche {Fr.) The neck, of a violin or 
 guitar, &c. 
 
 Mandola {It.) ") An Italian fretted 
 
 Mandoline (Eng.) [-guitar, so called from 
 
 Mandolina {It.) J its almond shape. 
 There are several varieties, each with different 
 tunings. The Neapolitan, considered the 
 most perfect, has four strings tuned like the 
 violin, i.e., G, D, A, E. The Milanese, next 
 in favour, has five double strings tuned G, C, 
 A, D, E. A plectrum is used in the right 
 hand, and the left is employed in stopping 
 the strings. Mozart in Don Giovanni, wrote 
 an accompaniment to " Deh Vieni " for this 
 instrument. 
 
 Mandora {It.) A kind of guitar. 
 
 Manica {It.) Fingering. 
 
 Manichord. [Clarichord.] 
 
 Manico {It.) The neck, of a violin or 
 guitar, &c. Manche {Fr.) 
 
 Maniera {It.) Manner, style, method ; as, 
 maniera affettata, an affected style, maniera 
 languida, a languid, lifeless style. 
 
 Manibre {Fr.) [Maniera.] 
 
 Manieren {Ger.) [Harpsichord graces.] 
 
 Mannergesangverein {Ger.) A society 
 formed for the performance of music for men's 
 voices. 
 
 Mano {It.) Hand, as mano destra, diritta, 
 right hand ; mano sinistra, left hand. 
 
 Manual. [Key-board.] 
 
 Manuductor. The man who beat time by 
 
 striking the left hand with the right. Oyster- 
 shells or bones were sometimes used as 
 accessories. 
 
 Marcando {It.) Marking the time or ex- 
 pression. 
 
 Marcatissimo {It.) Very marked. 
 
 Marcato {It.) Marked, or emphasized. 
 
 March. A musical composition so arranged 
 as to be suitable for accompanying troops in 
 walking. There are quick and slow marches 
 in duple and triple time, besides marches 
 peculiar to certain nationalities. 
 
 Marche {Fr.) (i) A march. (2) A sequence, 
 as, Marche des accords, a sequence of chords. 
 
 Marche redoubl6e {Fr.) A double quick 
 march. 
 
 Marche triomphale {Fr.) A triumphal 
 march. 
 
 Marziale (It.) Martial, warlike. 
 
 Marimba. [Balafo.] 
 
 Marionette {It.) A puppet. 
 
 Marks of Expression. Certain words or 
 signs used in music to regulate the degrees of 
 accent, power, time, or tone, required by the 
 composer to produce the proper effect of his 
 composition. The employment of elaborate 
 marks of expression is a practice of compara- 
 tively modern times, none of the earliest 
 writers making use of any beyond the time 
 signs, these being all that were then needed, 
 as they suggested a certain pace generally 
 understood. Most of the early printed music 
 had no other directions than soft and loud, and 
 these only sparingly. Thus, in Croft's "Musica 
 Sacra or Select Anthems in score" 1724, the 
 "First Essay of Publishing Church Musick 
 in England,'" printed from engraved metal 
 plates, all the directions are in English, as 
 loud, soft, fast, slow, grave, brisk and lively, 
 the only foreign words employed being solo 
 and ritornello. The introduction of Italian 
 music into this country in the eighteenth 
 century necessitated a knowledge of the 
 Italian terms of expression, which led to 
 the gradual employment of a few of the 
 terms so acquired, and Italian words or 
 their abbreviations ultimately superseded the 
 English words to such an extent that very few 
 native terms for expression are to be found in 
 music of modern times. The Italian words 
 originally introduced were in their simplest 
 forms, but as composers grew more fastidious 
 and exacting, the phrases became complicated 
 by the employment of diminutives, expansions, 
 and compounds of terms, so that it became 
 extremely difficult to determine the exact 
 value of the many marks. The doubts that 
 presented themselves to the minds of the 
 performers as to pace necessitated the employ- 
 ment of a method by which the time of a piece 
 should be taken, and a string divided into 
 inches was at first used as a standard to 
 
 ( 280 ) 
 
MARQUE MASS. 
 
 regulate the time value of the notes in a bar. 
 This gave rise to the invention of the 
 metronome. [Expression.] 
 
 Marque {Fr.) [Marcato.J 
 
 Marsch (Ger.) A march. 
 
 Marseillaise {Fr.) A song written by 
 Rouget de Lisle, an officer of artillery in the 
 garrison of Strasbourg in 1792. It received 
 its title from having been sung by a party of 
 the Marseillaise club as they entered Paris 
 on the invitation of Madame Roland ; the 
 song, though less sanguinary in sentiment 
 than most of the songs of the revolution, was 
 employed as accompaniment to many of the 
 horrible deeds of that, and of later periods, 
 and by association became dangerous enough 
 to be included among the songs prohibited to 
 be sung in France. The tune to which it is 
 set by the author of the words, contains pro- 
 gressions so unusual in popular songs, that it 
 is difficult to account for its general adoption. 
 
 Martel6 (Fr.) 1 r .. u j 
 
 Martellato {It.)\^'*-' hammered. 
 
 Martellare {It.) Lit., to hammer. A 
 term applied to staccato bowing on the violin, 
 and to the strong percussion of notes of a 
 pianoforte. 
 
 Masque. A species of dramatic entertain- 
 ment in which originally the performers wore 
 masks of peculiar forms suggestive of the 
 allegorical characters assumed. In many 
 instances the masque had no definite design 
 or plot, but depended for its success upon the 
 occasion for which it was written, the wit of 
 the poet who furnished the words, the skill of 
 the musician who supplied the music, and 
 the ingenuity of the machinist and scene 
 painter by whom the stage effects were pro- 
 duced. The early masques were simply 
 acted pageants, but by degrees the genius of 
 such writers as Fletcher and Ben Jonson 
 furnished the poetical groundwork of many 
 masques acted at Court by the children of 
 His Majesty's Chapel Royal and St. Paul's 
 Cathedral. The most beautiful work of this 
 class is the "Comus" of Milton, acted at 
 Ludlow in 1634, ^^^ although produced at a 
 time when the taste for this class of entertain- 
 ment had fallen oif, it has always been held 
 to be the most perfect specimen of a masque. 
 [Ballet, Opera, Oratorio.] 
 
 Mass. Missa (Laf.), Messa (7f.),Messe 
 {Fr.), Messe (Ger.) 
 
 The portions of the Mass usually set to 
 music are the Kyrie, the Gloria, the 
 Credo, the Sanctus and the Agnus Dei. An 
 Offertory and Benedictus are sometimes 
 added to these numbers. Masses are desig- 
 nated musically after the key in which 
 they commence, as Beethoven in D ; and 
 liturgically, according to the character and 
 solemnity of the accompanying ceremonial, 
 
 as a " Low Mass" (!Messa Bassa) in which 
 the priest simply intones or reads the 
 service; a "Chanted Mass," in which certain 
 tones with inflections are sung ; a " High 
 Mass," in which the service is partly chanted 
 by the priest, partly by the deacons who 
 assist the priest, and partly sung by the choir 
 to an elaborate musical setting with or without 
 instrumental accompaniment. 
 
 It is only necessary here to speak of the 
 various liturgical divisions of the service, so 
 far as they are connected with the special 
 form or character of their music. 
 
 In early times the ancient ecclesiastical 
 plain song was alone employed as the music 
 for the several sections of this service, and 
 when musicians were possessed of inventive 
 skill, they still retained the old character of 
 the music by interweaving counterpoint, and 
 new harmonies upon the old plain-song, 
 either entirely unaltered, or with slight modi- 
 fications such as those described in "Fa 
 burden." Musicians afterwards took the 
 tunes of popular hymns as well as the 
 airs of vulgar songs, the latter ordinarily 
 allied to words of questionable character, 
 instead of the melodies of the plain-song, 
 and the masses so composed were called 
 after the name of the borrowed tunes. Thus 
 Claude Merula calls his four " Missarum 
 quinque vocum," Venice, 1573. (i.) " Missa 
 Benedicta es celorum Regina ;" (2.) " Missa 
 Susanne tin giour ;" (3.) "Missa Oncques 
 Amour;" and (4.) " Missa Aspice Domine." 
 Baini in his " Memorie storico-critiche della 
 vita, e opere di Giovanni Pierluigi da Pales- 
 trina," Rome, 1828, gives what he calls a 
 short list of some eighty secular tunes upon 
 which masses had been composed and sung. 
 If the language in which they are named 
 indicate their origin, the majority were French 
 songs, and if the titles are in any way sug- 
 gestive of their character, they could not have 
 been fit for church use. This custom of em- 
 ploying popular melodies in the construction 
 of sacred music was not a distinctive cha- 
 racteristic of the i6th century, but it existed 
 later, and was especially favoured by that 
 class of religious formalists who prided them- 
 selves upon purity in thought and worship. 
 Shakespeare alludes to the Puritan "who 
 sings Psalms to hornpipes ;" the dissenting 
 bodies of the last century showed by their 
 collections of melodies sung during worship 
 that they would not allow " the devil to have 
 all the best tunes." The special hold obtained 
 over the minds of the lower classes during 
 the recent "revival" meetings was in a great 
 measure due to the influence of the " hymns" 
 which were almost invariably sung to well 
 known song tunes, either entirely unaltered, 
 or only slightly modified. 
 
 ( 281) 
 
MASS. 
 
 There is now a recognised treatment for 
 every section of the mass to which music 
 may be set, as well as a received canon for 
 the style of composition in which most of 
 the several subdivisions are composed. This 
 arrangement is not set forth by written laws, 
 but is the result of traditional use of a slow 
 and gradual growth, as the appended short 
 descriptions of certain representative masses 
 from the latter part of the i6th century to 
 the middle of the i8th will show. A short 
 analysis of the manner in which the several 
 movements have been treated is subjoined to 
 help towards the formation of as correct a 
 notion on the subject as can be obtained 
 without a reference to and study of the works 
 themselves. The majority of these are only 
 preserved in the cabinets of the curious, for 
 they are for the most part of an obsolete 
 character, more interesting as musical monu- 
 ments than valuable as being available at 
 the present time for the service for which 
 they were written. 
 
 There are many members of the church in 
 which this form of musical composition is 
 most employed who do not hesitate to say 
 that a return to the older, and (as they say) 
 purer forms of musical setting is desirable, for 
 some musicians have taken advantage of the 
 liberty allowed by non-interference with their 
 designs, to introduce a style of composition 
 utterly inconsistent with the character of the 
 service it is intended to -Accompany. But 
 modern writers have not only elaborated the 
 various movements, they have also added 
 music to certain parts of the service of the 
 Mass which were left untouched in older times. 
 The "Introit, Gradual, Offertory and Com- 
 munio" were supposed to be given when sung 
 to the ancient plain-song settings, and there- 
 fore these portions have been left alone by the 
 earlier composers. Later writers have sup- 
 plied music for these sections, and in the 
 desire to be original have been tempted to 
 write " sensuous settings " as well in these 
 parts as in the others. The music preserved 
 by Marbecke (1550) is simply an eking out 
 of the old plain-song with phrases of his 
 own invention in imitation of it. As there 
 are no harmonies given, it is presumed 
 that either they were not sung, or, if they 
 were, some sort of " falso bordone " of a 
 recognised character was intended to be used. 
 Whether harmonised or plain, his " use " is 
 very simple, and if it is, as some say, a mere 
 transcription of that employed in his time, 
 it is certain that no reasonable ground of 
 complaint could be made against it, for it is 
 not " overloaded with ornament nor spread 
 abroad with superfluous syllabilisation." As 
 only portions of Marbecke's settings can be 
 traced to a remoter date than his own, he has 
 
 a claim to be considered among the com- 
 posers of music to the mass. Next in order 
 stands Wilham Byrd, who, in a mass com- 
 posed c. 1553, displays some degree of charac- 
 teristic originality, together with a leaning 
 towards old styles if not forms. 
 
 The " Kyrie " is simple and short, changing 
 at the words " Christe eleison," and return- 
 ing to the first subject and words, " Kyrie 
 eleison." The " Gloria " is precented and is 
 divided at the words " Domine Deus." The 
 " Credo " is also precented and is divided at the 
 words " qui propter nos homines," and also at,, 
 " Et in spiritum sanctum." In the " Sanctus " 
 there is a change of theme at the words 
 " Pleni sunt." The " Benedictus " is a simple 
 Motett-like setting, so also is the " Agnus 
 Dei." 
 
 This arrangement was one generally fol- 
 lowed by other writers of the period. The 
 idea influencing all seemed to have been 
 to make the setting solemn and not dramatic. 
 Plain counterpoint, with little points of 
 occasional imitation, and with rarely more 
 than two notes to one syllable, was most 
 -favoured. The writers thus avoided the 
 pneumas, upon which contempt had been 
 thrown as the relic of a barbarous period, and 
 as being incompatible with the more en- 
 lightened views then entertained. In the 
 interlude of the "Four Elements" c. 1510 
 there is a dialogue between Humanity and 
 Ignorance, in which the florid character of 
 early conterpoint is thus satirized : 
 
 Hu. — Peace, man, prick-song may not be despised, 
 For therewith God is well pleased. 
 Honoured, praised, and served 
 In the Church oft-times among. 
 
 Ig. — Is God well pleased, trows't thou, thereby ? 
 Nay, nay 1 for there is no reason why. 
 For is it not as good to say plainly 
 " Give me a spade," 
 As " give me a spa-ve-va, ve-va-ve-vade ?" 
 
 In later times the " pneuma " was revived 
 in the form of the "divisions," but these 
 latter were made more acceptable by being 
 introduced as an integral part of the com- 
 position in which they appeared, and not as 
 a mere adjunct. In this improved state they 
 are observed as early as the time of Carissimi, 
 who in a mass in D minor for five voices has 
 introduced short divisions, contrary to former 
 custom. There is another point of impor- 
 tance in this mass. The first trace of a 
 fugue to the words " Cum sancto spiritu " in 
 the "Gloria" is met with, and also an attempt 
 at dramatic expression at the words " Et in- 
 carnatus est." 
 
 In the " Missa ad imitationem Moduli Dixit 
 Joseph" by Orlando di Lasso, Paris, 1607, 
 we find in the setting of the " Kyrie" a few 
 short simple chords note against note ; a like 
 
 ( 282 ) 
 
MASS- 
 
 -MEDI^VAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 arrangement in the "Gloria" to the "Domine 
 Deus," at which point imitation is introduced, 
 and another change at " Qui tollis " as well of 
 time as character. The " Credo " changes style 
 at " Et incarnatus est." The " Sanctus" like 
 the " Kyrie " is simply set, and the arrange- 
 ment of the " Benedictus " as a trio or tria 
 upon a subject used in the "Kyrie" and 
 " Sanctus," probably the " Dixit Joseph," 
 completes the Mass. 
 
 In Colonnas' " Messi Salmi, e Responsori 
 perli Defonti," Bologna, 1685. The " Kyrie " 
 is in imitation throughout. The " Sanctus," 
 thirty-four bars long, is in eight part fugal 
 writing. The " Benedictus " is short (fifteen 
 bars), and in single counterpoint, the " Agnus 
 Dei," like the " Kyrie," is in imitation, and is 
 precented. 
 
 In a " Messe a quattro voci, concertato e 
 stromenti," by Isabella Leonarda, Bologna, 
 1696, the "Kyrie" is set as a solo for alto 
 at the words " Christe eleison.'" The plain 
 setting of the "Gloria" changes at " Et in 
 terra," and again at the words " Gratias 
 agimus," an alteration of time rather than 
 style at " Qui tollis," a return to the original 
 form of the Kyrie at " Quoniam," and so on 
 to the end. The " Credo " is divided at " Et 
 incarnatus," " Et resurrexit," and at " Et 
 iterum venturus est," the last movement 
 having little points of imitation that must 
 be called "Attacati," rather than fugal 
 points. 
 
 Judging by the specimens existing, it must 
 be confessed that composers did not think it 
 worth while to devote their best energies to 
 the service of the Church during the period of 
 the first half of the eighteenth century. A 
 comparison of the Mass of Leonarda, with one 
 by Konigsperger produced nearly sixty years 
 later, shows little if any progress. It is true 
 that in the meantime Bach had written por- 
 tions of his Mass in B minor, but as there is 
 reason to believe that it is for the most part a 
 pasticcio, and probably not much known at the 
 time, its influence is altogether out of the 
 question. 
 
 In the "Jubilatio Lyturgica " of Konig- 
 sperger, Augsburg, 1750, among much that 
 might be called time-saving writing, there are 
 one or two points worthy of observation for 
 their early use. Thus the " Kyrie " is adapted 
 to the " Dona nobis," which appears later. 
 The "Osanna'' is set to an elaborate divi- 
 sion. The " Gloria " is divided at the words 
 "Domine Deus," "Quoniam," and at "Cum 
 Sancto Spiritu," this last movement appearing 
 as a regular and well worked out, though short 
 fugue. There is nothing in any of the other 
 movements that calls for especial mention. 
 
 The Masses of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, 
 Weber, Hummel, and Schubert, are sufficiently 
 
 well known to render a detailed account here 
 unnecessary. 
 
 Mass [Ger.) Measure, time. 
 
 Massig (Ger.) Moderate, temperate. 
 Massig langsam, moderately slow. 
 
 Massima<(7i.) A semi-breve. 
 
 Masternote. An old term for the sensible 
 or leading note. 
 
 Masure, Masurek, Masurka (Ger.) 
 [Mazurka.] 
 
 Matelote (Fr.) A sailors' dance. [Horn- 
 pipe.] 
 
 Matinee {Fr.) A morning concert. 
 
 Mattins. [Horse Canonica.] 
 
 Maultrotnmel {Ger.) [Jew's-harp.] 
 
 Maxima {Lat.) A note equal to four breves. 
 
 mllZt] (^-O [Mazurka.] 
 
 Mazurka. A Polish dance of lively grotesque 
 character, the music of which is in I- or | 
 time, with a peculiar rhythm. It is generally 
 performed by four or eight pairs of dancers, is 
 popular in Germany as well as in Poland, and 
 has been successfully introduced into England. 
 The mazurka, like the waltz, has been treated 
 in a classical manner, notably by Chopin. 
 
 M. D. Abbreviation of (i.) Mano destra 
 or main droite, the right hand ; (2.) Doctor 
 of music. 
 
 Mean. The name formerly given to the 
 tenor part as being the mean in pitch between 
 the bass and treble. The middle strings of 
 instruments were also called mean. 
 
 Mean clef. The C clef. 
 
 Measure, (i.) A general name for a slow 
 and stately dance, supposed to be like the 
 minuet — 
 
 " But after then as men more civile grew 
 He did more grave and solemn measures frame." 
 Davies' Orchestra. 
 
 Reed says that " the measures were per- 
 formed at court and at public entertainments 
 of the societies of law and equity, at their 
 balls on particular occasions. It was formerly 
 not deemed inconsistent with propriety, even 
 for the gravest persons to join in them ; and 
 accordingly at the revels, which were cele- 
 brated at the Inns of Court, it has not been 
 unusual for the first characters in the law to 
 become performers in treading the measures." 
 
 (2.) Time, pace. (3.) Rhythm. (4.) The 
 contents of a bar. 
 
 Mechanism, (i.) That part of an instru- 
 ment which forms the connection between 
 the player and the sound-producing portion. 
 (2) The physical power of performance, as 
 distinguished from the intellect or taste which 
 directs it. 
 
 Medesimo movimento {It.) The same 
 movement. 
 
 Medesimo tempo. The same time. 
 
 Mediaeval musical instruments. The 
 
 ( 283) 
 
MEDIANT MEISTERSINGER. 
 
 musical instruments known in the middle 
 ages appear to have been flutes, flageolets, 
 bugles, and trumpets,- among simple tubes; 
 waits, cornets, bassoons, bagpipes, &c., among 
 reed instruments ; the harp, the guitar, the 
 crowd, the violin or fiddle among stringed 
 instruments ; drums and tambourines, cymbals 
 and bells among instruments of percussion, 
 but all of these differ more or less from the 
 instruments with the same names in use at 
 the present day. There is a curious catalogue 
 of musical instruments of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, which may be read with interest in 
 reference to this subject, in a poem by 
 Guillaume de Machault, entitled Le Temps 
 Pastour. The description is headed Comment 
 I'amant fut au disner de sa dame : — 
 
 Mais qui veist, apres mangier 
 
 Ven^r menestraux, sans dangier 
 
 Pignez et miz en pure corps. 
 
 La feurent meints divers acors 
 
 Car je vis la, tout en un cerne 
 
 Viole, rubebe, guiterne 
 
 L'enmovache, le mica mon 
 
 Citole, et le psalterion 
 
 Harpes, labours, trompes, nacaires 
 
 Orgues, comes, plus de dix paires 
 
 Cornemuse, flajos et chevrettes, 
 
 Douceines, symboles, clochettes 
 
 Tymberes, la ilauste brehaingue 
 
 Et le grand cornet d'AUemaingue 
 
 Flajos de sans, fistule, pipe 
 
 Muse d'Aussay, trompe petite, 
 
 Buisines, eles, monocorde 
 
 Ou il n'a quime seule corde 
 
 Et muse de blet, tout ensemble 
 
 Et certainement, il me semble • 
 
 Qu' oncques mais tele melodie 
 
 Ne fut oncques veues ne oye 
 
 Car Chascun d'eux, selon d'acort 
 
 De son instrument, sans descort 
 
 Viole, guiterne, citole 
 
 Harpe, trompe, come, flajole. 
 
 Pipe, souffle, muse, naquaire, 
 
 Tabour, et quanque ou put faire 
 
 De dois, de pennes, et d'archet 
 
 Oi's et vis en ce parchet. 
 
 If each name here mentioned represented a 
 different and distinct instrument, it might be 
 supposed that there was a far greater variety 
 in use in the fourteenth century than in the 
 present time, with all our increase of know- 
 ledge and improved skill in construction, 
 but the truth is that many of the names are 
 simply synonyms. For example the line : — 
 " Cornemuse, flajos et chevrettes " 
 
 would seem to imply three sorts of music 
 making machines, but the names refer to one 
 and the same thing, neither more nor less 
 than the bagpipes, and the "muse d'Aussay," 
 "muse de blet," and "muse" simply, are 
 varieties of the same instrument. The "viole 
 and rubebe," refer to the fiddle, the " flajole 
 pipe, souffle, and fistule," to the flageolets ; 
 " la flauste brehaingue" to the English, flute ; 
 " le grand cornet d'AUemaingue, buisines. 
 
 douceines," were a species of bassoon ; "tym- 
 beres, tabour, and naquaires," were drums ; 
 the "citole and psalterion," were dulcimers ; 
 " the guiterne " a guitar or cittern; " Sles," 
 signified harps, from their wing-like shapes ; 
 "L'enmovache," was also a harp of a larger 
 kind; the " mica mon " is probably " maca 
 man," a hand-drum or tambourine, and the 
 rest are sufficiently obvious. Guillaume de 
 Machault, the author of this poem, was pro- 
 bably not a practical musician, but simply 
 made use of a list of instruments with whose 
 use he was probably unacquainted, hence 
 his repetition of synonyms. It is no un- 
 common thing to find a special ignorance of 
 the use and quahties of musical instruments 
 among modern poets, but when such a lack 
 of knowledge is displayed by a poet writing 
 in the palmy days of minstrelsy, it is not un- 
 fair to imagine that Guillaume de Machault 
 was more of a singer than a savant. 
 [Troubadour.] 
 
 Mediant. Mediante {Fr.) The third 
 degree of any scale. 
 
 Mediation. That part of a chant which 
 lies between the reciting-note and the next , 
 close. [Chant]. 
 
 Medius {Lat.) The tenor part. [Mean.] 
 
 Mehrstimmig (Ger.) In many parts. 
 Polyphonic. 
 
 Meisterfuge. (Ger.) A fuga ricercata, 
 that is, a learned; elaborate fugue ; also one 
 in which the subject or answer is constantly 
 heard. 
 
 Meistersinger. Meistersanger (Ger.) 
 Maltre Chanteur (Fr.) A title given to the 
 most renowned musician of a township or 
 district in Germany, during the middle ages. 
 
 When the Minnesingers or Troubadours, 
 formed from among the ranks of the aris- 
 tocracy, began to die away, the Meistersingers 
 arose, and at the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century formed themselves in the towns of 
 Germany into guilds or trading companies, 
 and agreed to uphold certain fanciful and 
 arbitrary laws of rhythm. 
 
 Adepts in the poetic art. Master-singers, 
 appear to have existed at the period when the 
 Minnesingers were at their prime, and it is 
 supposed that the title was only more univer- 
 sally and distinctively bestowed when the 
 spirit of pedantry had become general and 
 when the "Songschools" or "guilds "became 
 in Germany what the "consistories" and 
 "academies" were in other countries during 
 the then general decay of art. Wandering 
 orators in connection with the " Chambers of 
 Rhetoric " who recited a miserable doggerel 
 composed by themselves or others, afterwards 
 formed themselves in Flanders and Brabant, 
 into societies by the name of Chambers of 
 Rhetoricians (Kamers der Rhetorykers or 
 
 ( 284) 
 
MELANGE MELODY. 
 
 Rederykers) and offered prizes for the most 
 meritorious poems written according to their 
 barbarous rules. 
 
 The ornaments and illustrations of this 
 class of poetry were drawn from mean sources. 
 Instead of princes, nobles, and knights, we 
 have clerks, schoolmasters, and mechanics. 
 Some of the poems, it is true, are not un- 
 worthy of notice and survive in one form or 
 another to the present day ; others have sunk 
 into an oblivion not altogether undeserved. 
 
 The " Masters " were always anxious to 
 clothe themselves with the ancient glory of the 
 " Minnesingers." They were fond of trac- 
 ing the origin of their school to a very remote 
 antiquity ; and the most celebrated names 
 were placed by all sorts of anachronisms 
 among the supposed united band of founders. 
 
 Wherever the " hoch-deutsch " was spoken, 
 there the Master-singers founded a colony and 
 indulged the vulgar propensity of giving im- 
 portance to bombast, parade, and external 
 distinction to their hearts' content. A candi- 
 date was admitted into the school of the 
 "Master-singers" with great form and cere- 
 mony. Four " Merker " sat behind a silken 
 curtain to pass judgment upon his qualifica- 
 tions. One of these had to decide whether the 
 diction of the novice was pure and his gram- 
 mar accurate, the others attended to the rh3'me 
 and metre of the composition and the melody 
 to which it was sung. If they united in 
 declaring that the candidate had complied 
 with the statutes and regulations, he was de- 
 corated with a silver chain and badge — the 
 latter representing King David playing on the 
 harp — and he was honourably admitted into the 
 Society. The poems of the " Master-singers " 
 were always lyrical and sung to music. The 
 entire poem was called a " bar " and it was 
 divided into five or more stanzas, or " Gesetze," 
 and each " Satz " also fell into three portions, 
 the first of which was a " Stole," the second an 
 " Abgesang," and the third a " Stole " like the 
 first. The rhymes were classed into " stumpfe 
 Reime," " klingende Reime," "stumpfe Schlag- 
 reime," and " klingende Schlag-reime," and 
 other denominations needless to particularise. 
 The poets, singers, and markers counted the 
 syllables on their fingers, and if there was 
 the proper number it was of no consequence 
 whether they were long or short. The length 
 of the verse, the number of the lines, and the 
 order of the rhymes in each " Stole " or " Ab- 
 gesang" was variable and consequently the 
 poems were susceptible of a great variety of 
 forms, which were called tunes or "Weisen." 
 The invention of a new " Weise " was con- 
 sidered the test of a Master-singer's abilities. 
 Therewere some hundreds of these "Weisen," 
 all named after their inventors ; as Hans Tind- 
 eisen's rosemary Weise ; Joseph Schmeirer's 
 
 flowery - paradise Weise ; Hans Fogel's 
 fresh Weise ; Henry Frauenlob's yellow 
 Weise ; his blue Weise ; his frog Weise, and 
 his looking-glass Weise. The code of criti- 
 cism to which the Master-singers were sub- 
 jected was contained in the rules or "Tabula- 
 tur" of the societies, some of which rules 
 were certainly severe. They were prohibited 
 from employing " sentences which nobody 
 could understand," or " words wherein no 
 meaning could be discovered," interdictions 
 which would completely disqualify many a 
 so-called poet in the present day for member- 
 ship. 
 
 Melange (Fr.) A medley. 
 
 Melisma (Gk.) fiiXLa/ia. (i) A song, 
 tune, melody. In 1611, Ravenscroft pub- 
 lished " Mehsmata; Musical Phansies fitting 
 the Court, citie, and country humours." (2) 
 A grace, roulade. Fioritura. 
 
 Melismatik. (Ger.) The art of florid 
 vocalisation. 
 
 Melodia (It.) Melody. 
 
 Melodia (Gk.) /xeXadia. (i) The sing- 
 ing of an ode to a melos. (2) TThe tune to 
 which lyric poetry was sung. 
 
 Melodicon. An instrument made of steel 
 bars in different lengths, tuned to the diatonic 
 scale, struck with hammers held in the 
 hand. 
 
 Melodico, melodicoso (It.) Melodiously, 
 sweetly. 
 
 Melodie {Fr.) Melody, tune. 
 
 Melodrama. A dramatic piece in which 
 the interest is heightened by the character of 
 the vocal or instrumental music accompany- 
 ing certain situations. The melodrama is of 
 French invention, and was introduced into 
 England at the end of the last century ; the 
 subjects are generally of a romantic character, 
 illustrated with picturesque costumes and 
 scenery, and having serious and sensational 
 incidents, and effective and striking tableaux. 
 Although sometimes confounded with the 
 opera, it differs from that higher class of work 
 insomuch that the action is carried on in speak- 
 ing and not in recitative and aria. [Opera.] 
 
 Melodrame {Fr.) Melodramma {It.) 
 [Melodrama.] 
 
 Melody {melos Gk. jut'Xoe). An agreeable 
 succession of simple sounds, produced by a 
 single voice or instrument, and so regulated 
 as to give a pleasing effect, or to be expres- 
 sive of some kind of sentiment. It is often 
 founded on relative harmonies and yet is 
 completely distinguished from harmony by 
 not needing the addition of parts to make it 
 perfect. The construction of melody is guided 
 by certain rules in rhythm, and by the capa- 
 bilities of the voice or instrument for which 
 it is intended. Melos had a very general 
 meaning among the Greeks, for it is said by 
 
 ( 285) 
 
MELODY ORGAN METAL WIND INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 Plato to consist of " speech, music, and 
 rhythm." In its more limited sense it sig- 
 nified any succession of musical sounds. 
 
 Melody Organ or Harmonium. A 
 harmonium so constructed that the upper 
 note of the chords played is louder than the 
 rest of the sounds. 
 
 Melograph. An instrument invented for 
 the purpose of writing down melodies when 
 played upon a pianoforte. It has not yet 
 been brought into use, as its action is 
 imperfect. 
 
 Melopoeia (GA.) fiEXomda. (i.) Music in 
 general. (2.) The art or system of making a 
 tune or melos. In this sense it is said, by 
 Aristides Quintilianus, (Ed. Meibom, p. 28) 
 to be of three kinds with reference to the 
 pitch, namely, hypatoeides, mesoeides, and 
 netoeides. He then divides Melopoeia into 
 three parts, Sumptio (X^i^ie), Mistio {jiii,is), 
 Usus iXpfiaii). 
 
 Sumptio, or the " taking," is the settle- 
 ment of the pitch from which the " system " 
 or scale is to be reckoned. Mistio, the 
 mixing, is the co-ordinating or fitting together 
 the sounds with regard to each other, or the 
 modulations of the voice, or the key-systems. 
 Usus, the use, is of three kinds, Ductus 
 {ayayii), Petteia {ireTTEia), Nexus {irKoidi). 
 Ductus is of three kinds, direct, reverse, cir- 
 cumcurrent (see Agoge). Petteia is the 
 choosing of sounds that are suitable, and 
 rejecting those that are unsuitable. Nexus 
 is the interweaving of intervals or movements 
 by skips. Quintilianus sums up by giving 
 the following plain statement of the different 
 kinds of melopoeia. 
 
 Enharmonic. 
 
 Chromatic. 
 
 Diatonic. 
 
 Hypatoid. 
 
 Mesoid. 
 
 Netoid. 
 
 Dorian. 
 
 Phrygian. 
 
 Lydian. 
 
 Gnomic. 
 
 Dithyrambic. 
 
 Tragic. 
 
 Systaltic. 
 
 (Producing sadness.) 
 Middle. 
 
 (Producing calmness.) 
 Diastaltic. 
 
 (Producing excitement.) 
 
 Melopiano. An invention by which sus- 
 tained sounds can be produced on a piano- 
 forte. It consists of a series of small ham- 
 mers set into very rapid vibration by the 
 winding up of a spring. When a note is 
 struck and held down, the constant repetition 
 of the blows of the hammer causes a con- 
 tinuous vibration of the string which is of a 
 most charming character. A beautiful cres- 
 cendo is obtained by the ingenious device of 
 
 Melopoeia 
 is of different 
 
 kinds as to 
 
 Genus . 
 
 System 
 
 Scale (tonos) 
 
 Mode (tropos) ■ 
 
 Manner or 
 character 
 (ethos) 
 
 raising the hammers gradually further from 
 the string, causing them to descend with 
 more force. It was invented by Caldera of 
 Turin in 1870. 
 
 Melos {Gk.) (ftiXoe). A succession of 
 musical sounds as opposed to noises. A 
 tune. A song. [Melody.] 
 
 MSme mouvement (Fr.) The same 
 movement. L'istesso tempo (It.) 
 
 Men, meno (7^.) Less ; as meno forte, 
 not so loud ; meno piano, not so soft ; meno 
 presto, less rapid ; meno vivo, not so quick. 
 
 Menaaneim (Heb). This word occurs 
 once in Holy Scriptures, in 2 Sam. vi. 5, 
 where it is improperly translated cymbals. 
 Its derivation points to a root meaning to 
 swing to and fro, to vibrate. It is probable, 
 therefore, that it was a sistrum. [Sistrum.] 
 
 Menestrels (Fr.) Minstrels. [Trouba- 
 dours.] [Confr6rie de St. Julien.] 
 
 Meno (It.) [Men]. 
 
 Menschen-stimme {Ger.) (i.) A man's 
 voice. (2.) Vox humana. 
 
 Mensur (Ger.) (i.) The measuremenrlof 
 intervals on stringed instruments. (2.) The 
 scale of organ pipes. 
 
 Mensurable Music. [Cantus mensura- 
 bilis.] 
 
 Mensuralgesang (Ger.) [Cantus men- 
 surabilis.] 
 
 Mensuralnotenschrift (Ger.) Nota- 
 tion of time measurement. 
 
 Menuet (Fr.) 1 rn/r- .. t 
 
 Menuetto(7^.J \ [Mmuet.] 
 
 Mescolanza (It.) Cacophony. 
 
 Mese (Gk.) [Greek Music] 
 
 Messa (/i.)Messe (Fr.)Messe(G«r.)Mass. 
 
 Messa di Voce (It.) The swelling and 
 diminishing of the sound of the voice upon a 
 holding note. 
 
 Mesochorus (fieaoxopog.) [Coryphffius.] 
 
 Mesopycni (Mediaeval Lat., from Gk. 
 lii(Toe, middle, and ttvkvoq close.) Church 
 modes having the close interval or semitone 
 in the middle of their primary tetrachord, 
 e.g.— 
 
 Dorian. Hypodorian. 
 
 of. Barypycni. Oxypycni. 
 
 Mesto, mestoso (It.) Sad, pensive. 
 
 Mesure (Fr.) Measure, time ; as, mesure 
 d deux temps or trois temps, duple or triple 
 time. 
 
 Metallo {It.) lit. metal. The ringing 
 quality of tone, as bel metallo di voce. 
 
 Metal pipes. [Organ.] 
 
 Metal plate of pianoforte. [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Metal wind instruments. Instruments 
 formed of various lengths of brass tubing 
 gradually enlarged towards one end called the 
 
 ( 286 ) 
 
METAL WIND INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 "bell" and with a mouthpiece at the other end. 
 The tubing is folded into a size convenient 
 for carrying about, either into an oblong or 
 circular form. A single length of tubing is 
 capable of sounding the primary harmonics of 
 its tonic with that note, in the following 
 order, according to the power of lip possessed 
 by the player, the key note being taken 
 as C:— 
 
 m 
 
 3=FT^ 
 
 A double length of tubing enables the player 
 to produce another octave with some addi- 
 tional harmonics, thus : — 
 
 ^^n^j J ^^j=p-F^^g 
 
 and sometimes 
 
 as in the French Horn and Trumpet. These 
 are called the open notes, the intermediate 
 tones — 
 
 are made by inserting the hand in the "bell" 
 of the Horn as well as the Trumpet, these 
 are called closed notes and are less full 
 and beautiful in character than the open tones, 
 and being also difficult of production, are 
 "rarely written. 
 
 Upon the application of the slide to the 
 trumpet, an application probably suggested 
 by the trombone, the uncertainties of intona- 
 tion were made somewhat less. The first 
 instrument of the tube kind in which an im- 
 provement was sought to be effected was the 
 Bugle, which was formerly without keys, like 
 the horn and the trumpet. The bandmaster 
 of an Irish regiment, named James Halliday, 
 about the year 1814 or 1815, introduced a 
 keyed bugle of his own contrivance which he 
 called the Kent Bugle out of compliment to 
 the Duke of Kent, the father of Her Majesty 
 Queen Victoria, who was colonel of the regi- 
 ment. The instrument became exceedingly 
 popular, in consequence of the excellent per- 
 formance of the elder Distin, who introduced 
 it into the orchestra of Her Majesty's Theatre 
 in 1830 ; and the French composer, Adolphe 
 Adam, wrote several solos for it. 
 
 A bugle player named Macfarlane claims to 
 have been the first who applied pistons or 
 valves to the Cornopean. He called his 
 contrivance " Russian valves," and he fur- 
 nished his model with two of them, the first for 
 the whole tone and the second for the halftone. 
 As about that time (the year 1834) the celebrated 
 
 player, Koenig, made his appearance from 
 Paris with an instrument of similar make which 
 he declared was by a French inventor, there 
 was some controversy at the time, and as no 
 one suspected the honesty of Macfarlane, it 
 is possible that the same idea may have 
 occurred simultaneously to the two claimants. 
 The application of the third valve to the cor- 
 net or cornopean was claimed by a horn player 
 named Kilback, but, on what grounds, it is 
 difficult now to determine. Valves or pistons 
 were employed in Germany before the intro- 
 duction of the Russian valve (so-called) into 
 England, these were the double cylinder and 
 the rotatory valve, and the instruments played 
 by Kalozdy's Hungarian band were on this 
 latter principle. "^ 
 
 The principle of the Sax-valve was a Ger- 
 man invention, and was introduced to the 
 public by a man named Stolzel. The tuning 
 slides for the piston notes, and the improve- 
 ment of Stolzel's valve are due to the maker 
 whose name is connected with the invention. 
 Since the time that the Sax-horns were intro- 
 duced into England by the Distin family, 
 many modifications and improvements have 
 been effected, the object of each alteration 
 being to obtain the easiest and most accurate 
 means of lengthening and shortening the tube 
 at will, so as to produce chromatic into- 
 nation. 
 
 The metal valved-instruments now in use 
 may be thus classified : — 
 
 Soprano Compass. — Trumpet in F and E 
 flat, both with slides and valves ; soprano 
 cornets in E flat and C, with 3 valves or pis- 
 tons ; soprano saxhorn in E flat, with 3 valves 
 or pistons ; soprano fliigel horns in E flat and 
 C, with 3 and 4 cylinder valves ; bugle in C 
 and B flat, with keys (rarely used now). 
 
 Alto or Contralto Compass. — Cornet in 
 B flat, with crooks for A, A flat, and G ; alto 
 saxhorn in B flat, with 3 valves ; alto fliigel 
 horn in B flat, with 3 and 4 cylinder valves ; 
 alto trombone in E flat, both slide and 
 valved. 
 
 Tenor Compass. — French horn, with and 
 without valves, with 10 crooks ; tenor sax- 
 horn, with 3 valves ; tenor fliigel-horn, with 
 3 or 4 cylinder valves ; tenor trombone, both 
 slide and valved. 
 
 Bariton Compass. — Bariton sax-horn, with 
 3 valves; bariton fliigel-horn, with 3 and 4 
 cylinder valves. 
 
 Bass Compass. — Trombone in F or G, both 
 slide and valved ; euphonium in C or B flat 
 with 3 or 4 valves; trombone in E flat. 
 
 Contra-basso. — Bombardon in F or E flat, 
 with 3 and 4 valves ; bombardon, circular 
 shaped ; contra-bombardon in BB flat, with 
 3 pistons or valves ; contra-bombardon, cir- 
 cular shaped ; ophicleide. 
 
 (287 ) 
 
METHODE METRE. 
 
 Most metal wind instruments are formed 
 from a sheet of brass cut into the proper 
 size. The sheet of metal is turned in the 
 shape of a pipe until the edges meet correctly. 
 The edges are welded together in a brazing 
 forge and the tube is " pickled" in a chemical 
 bath to remove the traces of brazing. It is 
 then made perfectly cylindrical by means of a 
 " draw bench," and afterwards is bent into 
 the required curve, the tube being filled with 
 molten pitch, for slight curves, or with lead 
 for "U" curves. As both pitch and lead 
 will melt at a lower temperature than brass, 
 there is no difficulty in removing the in- 
 terior " filling " by heat, leaving the tube in the 
 required form without breaking or flattening 
 it. The " bell" is made by careful hammering 
 on a "mandril" of the required size and 
 form, and is fitted to the tube by means of 
 solder and the blow pipe. Shanks, crooks 
 and the other parts are then put together ; 
 the instrument is tested and polished, and is 
 ready for use. 
 
 M6thode (Fr.), Metodo {It.) Method, 
 (i) System of teaching; as, Kalkbrenner's 
 method, Crivelli's method, &c. ( 2 ) School or 
 style of music; as, the Italian method. 
 
 Metre. A term used with various signi- 
 fications ; (i.) A foot, as a subdivision of a 
 bar or measure; (2.) The relation between 
 two feet having the same subdivisions of 
 time-units, but in a different order of suc- 
 cession ; (3.) The proper grouping of a 
 number of consecutive feet. 
 
 Authors who use the term in this last 
 sense, consider it as equivalent to rhythm 
 and divide it thus : 
 
 Metre (rhythm). 
 
 Measures (bars with accents). 
 
 Feet (groups of time-units). 
 
 Units of time (short and long). 
 
 But it will be seen further on that this 
 division is not good ; and also that the in- 
 corporation into music of the terms of prosody 
 is not desirable. Before entering on this dis- 
 cussion, it is necessary to give a list of the 
 names and nature of the most important feet. 
 
 Dissyllables have two units of time capable 
 of a four-fold arrangement ; e.g., 
 
 Ex. I. 
 
 Spondee. 
 
 Pyrrhic. 
 
 Ex.3. 
 
 Mozart. Symp. No. x. 
 
 Trochee. 
 
 4' J j^ J jn 
 
 r 
 
 ^ 
 
 (or) 
 
 htX. 4- Beethoven. Symp. No. i. 
 
 „ _ Iambic 
 
 Ex. 6. 
 
 r^^^ 
 
 Trisyllables or feet consisting of three 
 time-units are of eight kinds. 
 
 U 1) u 
 
 Tribrach. 
 
 Beethoven, 
 Symphony No. z. 
 
 Bacchic. 
 
 Ex.8. 
 
 Schumann. 
 ' Paradise and the Peri.* 
 
 ( 288 ) 
 
METRE. 
 
 Ex. 10. 
 
 Mendelssohn. 
 
 Anapaest. 
 
 Ex. II. 
 
 
 J"! 
 
 rJ- 
 
 _jr2j 
 
 JTL 
 
 pi 
 
 Mozart. 
 — d 
 
 
 — F 
 
 1 
 
 iTc:: 
 
 T — 
 
 — i^n 
 
 c 
 
 &c. 
 
 r^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 4-^ 
 
 
 
 h^ 
 
 =5=!^ 
 
 — 1= 
 
 h^ 
 
 — p — 
 
 Molossus. 
 
 Ex. 12. 
 
 Weber. 
 Voices. Mass in £b. 
 
 
 Dactyl. 
 
 Ex. 13. 
 
 F. C. 
 
 ^'if*'- g 
 
 Brightest and best of the sons of the mom-ing. 
 
 ^ 
 
 III /-J -m- 
 
 ?Z=SZ 
 
 I I 
 
 Ex. 14, 
 
 . Cretic, 
 
 \ ^JW I^h^F^T^ 
 
 tr 
 
 Palimbacchic. 
 Ex. 15. 
 
 Beethoven. 
 Ov. to Coiiolan. 
 
 There are also tetrasyllables, sixteen in 
 
 number, which, of course, consist of the 
 possible positions of four syllables of different 
 lengths. 
 
 u u u Proseleusmatic (Double Pyrrhic), 
 u - u Third Pson (Pyrrhic & Trochee), 
 
 u o - Fourth Paeon (Pyrrhic & Iambic). 
 
 u - - Ionic a minore (Pyrrhic & Spondee). 
 
 - u - Diambic (Double Iambic). 
 
 - u o Second Paeon (Iambic & Pyrrhic). 
 
 - - u Antispast (Iambic & Trochee). 
 
 - - - First Epitrite (Iambic & Spondee). 
 
 
 Dispondee (Double Spondee). 
 Ionic a majore (Spondee & Pyrrhic). 
 Third Epitrite (Spondee & Iambic). 
 Fourth Epitrite (Spondee & Trochee). 
 
 Dichoree (Double Trochee). 
 Choriambic (Trochee & Iambus). 
 First Paeon (Trochee & Pyrrhic). 
 Second Epitrite (Trochee & Spondee). 
 
 Feet of more than four " times " or syllables, 
 are, strictly speaking, merely compounded of 
 dissyllables and trisyllables. Musical ex- 
 amples of all the above could be easily given 
 if space allowed. 
 
 On examination of the musical dissyllables 
 and trisyllables (Exs. i to 15) many im- 
 portant questions present themselves. 
 
 I. It will be noticed that long syllables 
 almost invariably fall on the accented part of 
 a bar. Can we conceive of a long syllable in 
 music as quantity without stress ? This ques- 
 tion has been discussed over and over again 
 with reference to modern languages. Some 
 authorities say that stress and non-stress 
 have ejected quantity from our poetry, and 
 bring forward such lines as the following in 
 proof of their assertion : 
 
 " Th' infernal Serpent ; he it was whose guile." 
 in which four out of the five syllables, short as 
 regards stress, are by nature long in quantity. 
 Let us apply this to music, and ask whether 
 we really reckon our feet by stress or quantity. 
 If we reckon them by the latter then the 
 following is correctly written : 
 
 Ex.16. 
 
 Now this is not written correctly musically, 
 because, although an iambus in poetry has 
 only the relation of short to long in quantity, 
 it has in music the relation weak to strong in 
 emphasis. We therefore write it thus : 
 
 Ex. 17. 
 
 Through all the chang -ing 
 
 practically disposing of the first short syllable, 
 and then presenting the succession of feet to 
 the ear as trochees ; for no one would venture 
 to analyse this tune as consisting of the 
 following groups : 
 
 Ex. 18. 
 
 an analysis which is not only allowable but 
 necessary if the analogy between poetry and 
 music is to be sustained. 
 
 (289) 
 
METRE. 
 
 Again, in the following, the same length is 
 given to the short syllables "of the words as 
 to the long : 
 
 All peo - pie that on earth do dwell, 
 
 H&c. 
 
 Sing to the Lord with cheer - ful voice, &c. 
 
 One author, enthusiastic on the subject of 
 quantity, actually proposes that the Old 
 Hundredth Psalm should be thus sung: 
 
 Him serve with fear, His praise forth tell, 
 
 w u _ u u u _ 
 
 Him and re 
 
 If musical feet were governed by quantity, 
 and not by stress, the above would not only 
 be correct but pleasant, whereas, we feel, 
 that just in proportion as the words receive 
 their due quantity, the true rhythm of the 
 music is lost. 
 
 On the ground, then, that musical metre is 
 governed more by stress than quantity, the 
 analogy between ancient poetry and modern 
 music cannot be maintained. 
 
 2. If the reader will refer to Ex. 4, which 
 gives a musical trochee, he will observe that 
 the short syllable is followed by a rest. This 
 example was given, not because it was felt to 
 be correct, but because similar examples are 
 to be found elsewhere ; but, as a matter of 
 iaiCi, rests in music iorm part of rhythm, ,&n& 
 therefore, if two minims in a bar (being equal 
 to each other in length) are considered as 
 two long syllables, Ex. 4 is not a trochee 
 but a spondee ; and, what is more important 
 still, iambics and trochaics can only be re- 
 presented by triple time. Not only, then, is 
 Ex. 19 incorrect, but all duple-measure psalm 
 tunes set to hymns ordinarily spoken of as 
 iambics are bad. On the ground, therefore, 
 that when there are two notes of equal length 
 in a bar we not only may, but do often con- 
 sider the accented note long and the non- 
 accented note short, we are again justified in 
 saying that the analogy between poetical 
 metre and musical rhythm does not hold 
 good. With regard to the inclusion of 
 
 silence or "rest" as a constituent part of 
 rhythm, music diverges widely from poetry, 
 and stands on a vantage ground peculiarly 
 its own. It is true that ccesura in verse bears 
 some similitude to a "rest" in music, in the 
 effect it produces, but the likeness is only 
 apparent, and the musician has the power of 
 suggesting length in quantity, by a short 
 note if it is a stress-note, e.g. : 
 
 Ex. 21. 
 
 Beethoven. 
 Ov. Men of Prometheus. 
 
 In the above example, each of the two bars 
 is a trochee, the long syllable of which is 
 represented by the chord and first rest, the 
 short syllable by the final crotchet rest in 
 each bar. 
 
 3. It will be seen that in Ex. 13, bars 3 
 and 4, two consecutive notes in each bar are 
 grouped under one long syllable. This com- 
 pression of two syllables into one foot, is a 
 common occurrence both in ancient and 
 modern poetry, as for example in the junction 
 of consecutive vowels at the end of one word 
 and commencement of another. In English 
 
 poetry we have ma ny a, glo rious, &c., which 
 exactly correspond to the musical junction of 
 two notes under one metrical time-unit. This 
 leads to the important question of the exact 
 time relation of short and long in metrical 
 feet. The general answer is that a long 
 syllable occupies the time of two short syl- 
 lables ( — " Syllaba brevis unius est temporis, 
 longa vero duorum "). But ancient writers 
 relax this rule and say that all long syllables 
 are not the same length, nor do they stand in 
 the same relation to the short. Some allow 
 that a short syllable may be a third of a long, 
 or even less. How does this bear upon 
 music ? If we are to adopt the old system 
 and names of metrical feet; are we only 
 allowed to divide one long time-unit into two, 
 three, four, or six parts ? Our time table 
 teaches that a semibreve is equal to thirty- 
 two .demisemiquavers, and this may be again 
 multiplied by binding two stationary semi- 
 breves together into one "double" time-unit, 
 in which case demisemiquttvers will stand to it 
 in the quantitative relation of sixty-four to 
 one. The classical names of feet are there- 
 fore quite inadequate to represent the im- 
 mense number of possible relations between 
 the syllables of musical feet, and if we are to 
 have musical metre on the model of classical 
 metre, an entirely new system of nomencla- 
 ture will be absolutely necessary. 
 
 After all, such names could only apply to 
 
 ( 290 ) 
 
METROMETER METTE. 
 
 a single melody ;, or a simple harmonised 
 tune, whereas, we know that one of the 
 highest forms of modern music is harmony 
 which consists of a combination of many 
 melodies. 
 
 4. Lastly, is it of any practical use to 
 adopt names and symbols of metre, if metre 
 and musical rhythm are contradictory ? That 
 they may be so is shown by a comparison of 
 Exs. 16 and 17, the former of which is per- 
 fectly correct metrically, perfectly ridiculous 
 musically. Scholars explain this by saying 
 that whereas metre depends on quantity 
 alone, rhythm depends upon a combination 
 of quantity and emphasis. Be it so, but in 
 modem music, quantity without emphasis is 
 inconceivable, therefore any nomenclature 
 founded on quantity only is of no practical 
 value. 
 
 It may be thought strange that so much 
 space has been given to this subject of metre, 
 solely for the purpose of depreciating its 
 value and discouraging its use. But the 
 classical names of feet are largely used as 
 musical terms by certain writers, more per- 
 haps from a desire to appear learned at a 
 little cost, than from a knowledge of their 
 real bearing on the art. 
 
 Metrometer. [Metronome.] 
 
 Metronome. An instrument said to have 
 been invented in 1815 by Maelzel, for the 
 purpose of measuring the relative duration of 
 the notes in a piece of music. The ma- 
 chinery is of clockwork, and the various 
 grades of time are measured on a balance-rod 
 serving the purpose of a pendulum, the speed 
 being regulated by a shifting or sliding weight. 
 To be correct the metronome should beat 
 seconds when set at 60. 
 
 Maelzel's claim to the invention rests on 
 very doubtful authority, that is to say, only 
 upon his own word ; for in the "Journal fur 
 Deutschland" 1796 is a description of a time 
 measurer in the form of a chronometer, 
 J. S. Stoeckel, of Burg, claiming its invention ; 
 but this being of large and inconvenient size, 
 Maelzel suggested to Winkel the desirability 
 of a new contrivance, which Winkel succeeded 
 in producing, Maelzel exhibited the instru- 
 ment as his own invention, and his name is 
 always associated with it, though all the part 
 he really had in the matter was in dividing the 
 balance-rod to agree with the varieties of 
 musical tempi. The claim to this portion of the 
 invention was allowed before the Dutch com- 
 mission appointed to enquire into the subject 
 at the request of Winkel. But neither of these 
 has the right to be considered as the inventors 
 of the machine, although Stoeckel and Winkel 
 acted in good faith, and in ignorance pro- 
 bably of what had been done before them. A 
 pendulum for measuring time, independent of 
 
 clock-work machinery, was common in Eng- 
 land before the metronome was introduced. 
 This was a tape like that used by surveyors, 
 and as the length was in actual inches, it 
 was necessary to have so great a length that 
 its general use was inconvenient. Many of 
 the glees of Callcott, Horsley, Webbe, and 
 some of the compositions of Crotch and 
 other writers of the latter part of the last 
 century have the time indicated by such a 
 pendulum. Twelve years before the date 
 of Stoeckel's invention, namely, in 1784, an 
 amateur violinist and composer of Paris, 
 Jean Baptiste D'Avaux, wrote to the " Journal 
 Encyclop6dique," describing a newly-invented 
 pendulum for measuring time in music : — 
 " Lettre sur un instrument ou pendule nou- 
 veau qui a pour but de determiner avec 
 la plus grande exactitude les differentes 
 degrSs de vitesse, depuis le prestissimo 
 jusqu'au largo, avec les nuances impercep- 
 tibles d'un degr6 a I'autre." This could 
 hardly have been the invention of three- 
 quarters of a century earlier, namely, in 1710, 
 alluded to in the sixth edition of a work by 
 Michel D'Affilard, published under the title of 
 " Principes tres-faciles,pourbien apprendre la 
 musique, qui conduiront promptement ceux 
 qui ont du naturel pour le chant jusqu'au 
 point de chanter toute sorte de musique et a 
 livre ouvert," in which the time of the exer- 
 cises or airs is regulated by a " pendule." 
 Taking the date into consideration,this instru- 
 ment was probably the metronome or sono- 
 meter of Etienne Loulie, invented in i6g6, 
 described as a " chronometre ou instrument 
 de nouvelle invention, par le moyen duquel les 
 compositeurs de musique pourront desormais 
 marquer le veritable mouvement de leurs 
 compositions, et leurs ouvrages, marquez par 
 rapport a cet instrument, se pourront, exe- 
 cuter en leur absence s'ils en battaient eux- 
 m6mes la mesure." If this had been simply 
 a cord or tape it would have indicated the 
 time only while the motion lasted ; but the 
 contrivance was of clock-work, as " I'estampe 
 repr6sentant le chronometre " shows. In 
 1759 Henri Louis Choquel also advocated the 
 use of a chronometer, probably'that of Louli6; 
 and in 1807 Jeanne Etienne Despreaux pub- 
 lished a chart or table of the different measures 
 in music, under the title of " Chronomfetre 
 musical dtabli sur les bases du pendule astro- 
 nomique," the machine employed being a 
 modification of Loulie's invention. All that 
 Maelzel did was to suggest the construc- 
 tion of an instrument more portable than 
 any already in use, but the principle he 
 worked upon was that which had been 
 carried out nearly 100 years before he was 
 born. 
 
 Matte {Ger.) Matins. 
 
 ( 291 ) 
 
METZILLOTH MINUET 
 
 Metzilloth, Metzillthaim, Tzeitzelim 
 (Heb.) These words are rendered in our 
 version as cymbals, except in Zech. xiv. 20, 
 where they are translated "bells of the horses," 
 which is substantially correct, as little cym- 
 bals were formerly used in the trappings of 
 horses. The cymbals used by the Hebrews 
 were probably similar in form to those of the 
 ancient Egyptians, some existing examples 
 of which are here depicted. They were 
 found in the tomb of a certain musician- 
 priest named Ankhape, lying close to his 
 side. They are very small compared to 
 modern instruments of the same class, 
 being not more than five inches in diameter. 
 [Cymbals.] 
 
 Mezzo, Mezza {It.) Half or medium, 
 as, mezza bravura, semi bravura style ; mezza 
 manica, half shift ; mezza orchestra, with half 
 the orchestra ; mezza voce, half the power of 
 the voice ; mezzo carattere, with a moderate 
 degree of expression or execution ; mezzo 
 forte, moderately loud ; mezzo piano, mode- 
 rately soft ; mezzo soprano, a voice lower in 
 range than a soprano and higher than a con- 
 tralto ; mezzo staccato, slightly detached ; 
 7nezzo tenore, a voice of tenor quality and 
 baritone range ; mezzo tuono, half the power 
 of the voice ; &c. 
 
 M. F. [Mezzo forte.] 
 
 M. G. Abbreviation of main gauche {Fr.), 
 the left hand. 
 
 Mi. (i) A syllable used to indicate the 
 third note in the major scale [Aretinian syl- 
 lables]. (2) In old English solmisation Mi 
 always indicated the leading note. [Sol-faing.] 
 
 Mi b6mol '{Fr.) The note E flat. 
 
 Mi bemol majeur or mineur. The key 
 of E ilat major or minor. 
 
 Mi contra fa. The name given by the 
 old contrapuntists to the tritone, which was 
 always to be avoided — " mi contra fa est 
 diabolus." It is not as some suppose, the 
 simultaneous sounding of the tonic with the 
 leading note ; but, as the notes of the scale of 
 C in old solfaing were named — fa, sol, la, fa 
 sol, la, mi, fa — the union or succession of the 
 fa and mi would form the tritone, the leading 
 note in the old scales always being called mi. 
 [Sol-faing.] 
 
 ( 292 
 
 Middle C. The note standmg on the 
 first leger line above the bass stave, and the 
 first leger line below the treble stave. The 
 note c' [Stave.] 
 
 Mi diese {Fr.) The note E sharp. 
 
 Militairement {Fr.), Militarmente {It.) 
 In a military style. 
 
 Military Band. [Band, § 5.] 
 
 Minaccevole \ 
 
 Minaccevolmente I {It.) In a menac- 
 
 Minacciando > ing, threatening 
 
 Minacciosamente I manner. 
 
 Minaccioso ) 
 
 Mineur {Fr.) Minor. 
 
 Minikin. A small sort of gut string for- 
 merly used on the lute, viol, and other 
 stringed instruments. 
 
 Minim. Halbnote {Ger.), Bianca {It.), 
 Blanche {Fr.) A time character of the value 
 of two crotchets. In modern music it is 
 second in value to the semibreve now held to 
 be the time standard, but in ancient music it 
 was, as its name implies, of the shortest 
 duration. Morley, in his " Introduction to 
 Practical Musicke," 1601; ascribes the first 
 use, if not the invention, of the minim to 
 Philippo de Vitriaco, a musician of the 14th 
 century, who is also credited with the inven- 
 tion of the crotchet. [Nomenclature.] [No- 
 tation.] 
 
 Minnesingers. The German name for 
 poets of the Troubadour character, who de- 
 voted their talents to the production of love 
 songs (Minnelieder). They enjoyed a certain 
 amount of popularity in the higher grades of 
 society for more than two hundred years 
 (1090-1290), when they fell out of popular 
 estimation, and were succeeded by the Meis- 
 tersingers, q.v. [Troubadours.] 
 
 Minnim {Heb.) This word, which occurs 
 in Ps. xlv. 8, and Ps. cl. 4, is probably a 
 poetical allusion to stringed instruments 
 generally. It is so rendered in the Bible and 
 Prayer-book versions of the latter psalm. 
 " Praise him with stringed instruments and 
 organs." {Bible.) "Praise him upon the 
 strings and pipe" {Prayer-book). In order to 
 bring out its meaning in Ps. xlv. 8, it has 
 been proposed to alter the text thus : "out of 
 the ivory palaces, stringed instruments have 
 made thee glad." 
 
 Minor (Lai.) Less, smaller, (i) Intervals 
 are said to be minor when they contain orie 
 semitone less than major. ( 2 ) A scale is 
 said to be in the minor mode when its third 
 and sixth are minor. Formerly minor music 
 was described as " with the lesser third." 
 (3) Flute minor, Klein flote, a small flute- 
 stop on the organ, of 4ft. or 2ft. pitch. 
 Minstrel. [Troubadour.] 
 Minuet {Fr.) The name of a graceful 
 
 ) 
 
MINUET. 
 
 dance said to have been invented in Poitou 
 about the middle of the 17th century. The 
 tunes for the first minuets are said to have 
 been composed by Jean Baptiste Lully. A 
 minuet was danced by Louis XIV. before his 
 courtiers at Versailles. The Marquis de 
 Flamarens introduced it into England in the 
 reign of Charles II., who made the dance 
 fashionable by having it frequently danced at 
 Court. It continued to be popular as a court 
 dance until the reign of George III. 
 
 The minuet form was used by many 
 composers after Lully as a movement in 
 sonatas, overtures, and the like, but com- 
 posers made a few slight variations in the time 
 and treatment in order to obtain as much 
 originality as possible. The minuet with 
 more or less success continued to be employed 
 as a movement in instrumental music to the 
 time of Beethoven, who abandoned it in 
 favour of the Scherzo. 
 
 Independently of its use for dancing pur- 
 poses the Minuet, almost immediately after 
 its introduction, was adopted as part of a Suite, 
 sometimes in the simple form as required for 
 the dance and sometimes with a second 
 minuet of a slightly different character and 
 key appended. This second minuet was so 
 arranged as to demand a return to the original 
 key. The title of Trio for the second minuet 
 is said to have been first suggested from the 
 circumstance that only three parts or instru- 
 ments were employed in the performance of 
 that section ; it is also stated that J. S. Bach is 
 entitled to the credit of being the first so to call 
 the second minuet. But the subjoined Round 
 O (Rondo) minuet by Mr. Jerry Clark, c. 1700, 
 shows an earlier division of the composition 
 into three parts or strains, and the form itself 
 suggests that the third part which takes the 
 place of the trio in more modern minuets, is 
 more likely to be called trio because of its 
 third place than because it was written in 
 three parts or for three instruments. 
 
 MINUET. 
 
 Lolly. 
 
 rf-^^T^ 
 
 ^T^^ 
 
 [jgCtf-H 
 
 m s^ ^*J 
 
 
 MB --^S-^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^^^P^s^pS 
 
 ^^^p^p^ 
 
 ^ r r irJ. — h- 
 
 . , J 
 
 
 w^j iJ iJ 1 wjh^ 
 
 J |j i^"i 
 
 1 
 
 ^ J J J — -^-^-^ — 
 
 h^si^J 
 
 ^^ : 
 
 1 
 
 rt^ 
 
 — tTi 
 
 n^ 
 
 ■*r>i 
 
 fT., rr 
 
 Fm*; 
 
 F^ 
 
 w^:=f 
 
 WW 
 
 W 
 
 ^-| 1 1 1 H rr 
 
 ±s=i 
 
 
 r- 
 
 
 1 
 •— 1 — 
 
 =^= 
 
 -\ — ^— 
 
 m — p 
 
 { 293 ) 
 
MINUETTO MODE. 
 
 I N 
 
 1= 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 MINUET. 
 
 H. PuRCELL. Choice Lessons. 
 
 m 
 
 ^- 
 
 ffi 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^=^ 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 o 
 
 ROUND KJ MINUET. 
 
 ist Straine. 
 
 By Mr. Jerry Clark. 
 
 znd Straine. 
 
 -J J . I . * 
 
 T r 
 
 Go to ye third straine ye second time. 
 
 ^^-f-j^=# = ^^ 
 
 ^=1: 
 
 F^-^-^^T 
 
 J J^G55,^i^, 
 
 £»(i at ye ist Straine, 
 
 Minuetto (li.) [Minuet.] 
 
 Miscella. A mixture stop of an organ. 
 
 Miserere. The 51st Psalm sung in the 
 Tenebrce service in the Roman Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 Mishrokitha, or Masrakitha (Chaldaic). 
 This word occurs four times in the book of 
 Daniel, and is probably rightly interpreted in 
 the Septuagint by Syrinx. 
 
 Missa (Lat.) A mass ; as, inissa pro 
 defunctis, a requiem mass ; missa solemnis, a 
 solemn mass, &c. [Mass.] 
 
 Misshallig {Ger.) Dissonant, discordant. 
 
 Missklang {Ger.) Discord, cacophony. 
 
 Misteriosamente, Misterioso {It.) 
 Mysteriously. 
 
 Misura {It.) A measure, a bar. 
 
 Misurato {It.) Measured, in strict time. 
 
 Mit {Ger.) With ; as, mit Begleitung, with 
 accompaniment ; mit Bewegung, con moto ; 
 mit Empfindung, with feeling. 
 
 Mitos {Gk.) fiiTO£. A thread ; a term some- 
 times used for the string of a lyre. 
 
 Mittelcadenz {Ger.) An imperfect ca- 
 dence, or half-close. [Cadence.] 
 
 Mittelstimmen {Ger.) Inner parts. 
 
 Mixed Cadence. An old name for a 
 cadence, consisting of a subdominant followed 
 by a dominant and tonic chord ; so called be- 
 cause the characteristic chords of the 
 plagal and authentic cadences succeed each 
 other. 
 
 Mixolydian. [Greek music] 
 
 Mixture. An organ stop, consisting of 
 several ranks of pipes, to each note. It is 
 only used in iombinatiotn with the foundation 
 and compound stops, as it consists of high 
 harmonics of the ground tone. [Organ.] 
 
 Mode, (i) A scale [Greek music] (2) 
 A species of scale ; as, major mode, minor 
 mode. (3) A church scale. [Plain Song.] 
 
 ('294 ) 
 
MODERATAMENTE MODUS. 
 
 h (It.) Moderately. 
 
 Very moderate. 
 Modification, light 
 
 Moderatamente 
 
 Moderate 
 
 Moderazione, con 
 
 Moderatissimo (It. 
 
 Modificazione (It.) 
 and shade in expression. 
 
 Modinha. A Portuguese love song. 
 
 Modo [It.) A mode. 
 
 Modulation, (i.) Movement or gradu- 
 ation of sound ; (2.) A change of key. 
 
 One of the chief characteristics of modern 
 music is the constant change of key. In 
 many of the recognized "Forms" it is 
 absolutely necessary to introduce "second" 
 subjects in a different, although a related key 
 to the chief theme. Hence, in old Treatises 
 on Music the subject is barely touched upon, 
 whereas modern authors enlarge upon it. 
 Modulation is of three kinds. Diatonic, 
 Chromatic, and Enharmonic. The first of 
 these is sometimes called natural ; the last 
 two, artificial. 
 
 A Diatonic modulation is the passing from 
 one key to another by using chords from 
 relative keys. 
 
 Ex. I. 
 
 Beethoven, Symphony No. i. 
 
 In the above (Ex. i) a modulation is made 
 from G minor to C, thus : G minor is a re- 
 lative key of D minor, which is a relative key 
 of A minor, which is the relative minor of C. 
 
 When a remote key is reached by relative 
 keys, the modulation is by some said to be 
 extraneous. 
 
 A chromatic modulation is the passing from 
 one key to any other, by means of unrelated 
 keys. 
 
 Beethoven, Symphony No. 3, 
 
 J^JT2^j^j^j^i;nTj^ 
 
 The above (Ex. 2) shows a chromatic 
 modulation from the key of Eb to that of F. 
 
 An Enharmonic Modulation is the passing 
 from one key to another by the alteration of 
 the notation of some of the over-lapping 
 sounds, e.g.: 
 
 Schumann, Song "Widmung." 
 
 It is not easy to distinguish between the 
 use of the terms Modulation and Transition. 
 It is generally understood that the former 
 denotes an entry into a new key, with the in- 
 tention of remaining for some time in it ; the 
 latter, the passing through a key rapidly, as 
 for instance is often done in sequences. But 
 by some, the word Transition is used for a 
 rapid modulation. The Tonic Sol-faists call 
 modulation in general, transition. Music- 
 masters, who delight in technicalities, have, 
 in addition to the above, divided modulation 
 into (i) appropriate and digressive ; (2) sim- 
 ple and compound ; (3) partial and complete, 
 (i) Appropriate modulation is when the sense 
 of key is not disturbed by the movement of 
 chords ; digressive, when a complete change 
 of key is made. (2) A simple modulation is 
 a change of key into the next remove, that is, 
 into a key having one more sharp or flat in 
 the signature ; a compound is the passing 
 through relative keys into a remote key. (3) 
 Partial modulation is a temporary change of 
 key ; complete, the establishment of a new 
 key. 
 
 Moduliren {Ger.) To modulate. 
 
 Modus {Lat.) Mode, (i) A scale, as 
 Dorian mode, &c. [Greek music] (2) One of 
 the three divisions of mensurable music [see 
 Tempus and Prolatio]. Modus major was the 
 
 (. 295 ) 
 
MOLL MORRIS DANCE. 
 
 division of a Maxim (notula maxima) into 
 Longs. Modus minor the division of a Long 
 into Breves. The " Modus major " was per- 
 fect when the Maxim contained three Longs, 
 imperfect when it contained two. The " Mo- 
 dus minor " was perfect when the Long con- 
 tained three Breves, imperfect when it con- 
 tained two. The following (from Franchinus) 
 exhibits the different kinds of Modus. 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -1 
 
 - 
 
 ■' 
 
 ^L 
 
 t= R R 
 
 EHH 
 
 HH H 
 
 H H ' 
 
 !*> 
 
 \ n 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 — 1 
 
 ' ■' 1 
 
 1 C3 J ^ U 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 1 
 
 
 1 1 1^ 
 
 Modus major 
 peifectus. 
 
 Modus major Modus minor Modus minor 
 imperfectus. perfectus. imperfectus. 
 
 The division of Modus into " major " and 
 " minor " wa^ later in date than the division 
 of mensurable music, into Modus, Tempus, 
 Prolatio. Originally Modus (like Tempus 
 and Prolatio) was only divided into Perfect 
 and Im perfect. The former having the sign 
 I • • • I , the latter n~| This seems the more 
 consistent, as then Modus is the division of 
 Longs into Breves ; Tempus the division of 
 Breves into Semibreves ; Prolatio the division 
 of Semibreves into Minims. Each of these is 
 Perfect when the division under it is trinary, 
 Imperfect when binary. 
 
 (3) A Gregorian tone. This use of the 
 word is not strictly correct, and has always 
 been condemned. 
 
 Moll {Ger.) Minor. 
 
 Molle {Lat.) Soft. A term applied in 
 mediaeval music to Bflat, as opposed to B 
 natural, which was called B durum. Hence, 
 the term came to signify major and minor 
 mode, as in the German, e.g., A dur, the key 
 of A major ; A moll, the key of A minor. 
 Hence too, the French formed the word bemol, 
 a. flat. 
 
 Mollemente {It.) Softly, sweetly. 
 
 MoU-tonart (Ge/-.) The minor mode. 
 
 Molto {It.) Much, very ; as, molto adagio, 
 very slow ; molto allegro, very quick ; molto 
 sostenuto, much sustained. 
 
 Monaulos {Gk.) fiovavKog. A Greek 
 single-pipe made of a reed. A flute a bee. 
 
 Monferina (It.) An Italian peasant dance. 
 
 Monochord. A single string stretched 
 across a board or soundboard, under which a 
 moveable bridge can be moved at pleasure. 
 By placing under the string a diagram of the 
 proportionate lengths of string required for the 
 production of just intervals, the ear can be 
 trained and experiments can be made. It was 
 anciently called, or rather, the results obtained 
 from experiments with it, the harmonic canon. 
 [Acoustics.] [Temperament.] 
 
 Monocordo (It.) Monocorde, a (Fr.) On 
 one string. 
 
 Monodia {It.) 
 
 Monodie {Fr.) 
 Monody. 
 
 A song for a single voice, 
 generally of a plaintive 
 character. The term was 
 originally applied to vo- 
 cal solos in the church 
 
 ^ service. 
 
 Monodrama. A dramatic piece for one 
 performer only. 
 
 Monotone, to. To recite words on a 
 single note without inflections. 
 
 MOntant {Fr.) Ascending. 
 
 Monter in, ut, re, &c. {Fr.) To sing a 
 scale of c, d, &c. 
 
 Montre {Fr.) Mounted diapason, An 
 organ stop whose pipes form part of the case 
 or are placed away from the soundboard. One 
 of the foundation stops is generally used for 
 this purpose. 
 
 Morceau {Fr.) (i) A piece; a small 
 composition of an unpretending character. 
 (2) An excerpt. 
 
 Mordente {It.), Beisser {Ger.) A beat, or 
 turn, or passing shake. 
 
 Written, 
 
 Played. 
 
 ^I'^ri 
 
 Morendo {It.) Dying away. A direction 
 that the sounds of voices or instruments are 
 to be gradually softened, and the pace 
 slackened. 
 
 Moresca {It.) The Morris dance. 
 
 Morisco {It.) In the Moorish style. 
 
 Mormorando ) /r. nt ^i 
 
 {It.) In a gentle, murmur- 
 ing, whispering manner. 
 
 To dance the Morris 
 
 Mormorevole 
 Mormorosa 
 Moriscoe, to. 
 
 dance. 
 
 Morris dance. Moresca {It.) A rustic 
 dance, performed in spring and summertime. 
 There are many records extant to prove the 
 universal popularity of this dance, both in the 
 parish accounts of several dates and in the 
 writings of poets of various periods. Douce 
 in his illustrations to Shakespeare, supposes 
 "that the Morris-dance derives its name from 
 the Moors, among whom it originated, and 
 that it is the same that gave rise to the 
 Fandango. It was probably brought to 
 England in the time of Edward III., when 
 John of Gaunt returned from Spain. Few 
 vestiges can be traced of it beyond the time 
 of Henry VII., about which time, and later, 
 the churchwardens' accounts show the dance 
 to have been very popular at parochial 
 festivals." Laneham, 1590, in his description 
 of a Bride Ale, mentions "a lively Moris- 
 dauns according to the auncient manner ; 
 six dauncers, Mawd-Marion and the fool." 
 
 (296) 
 
MORTE MOTO. 
 
 The pipe and tabor were the ancient 
 and are the present accompaniments to the 
 dance, which is still occasionally performed at 
 rural festivals. Tunes of various kinds were 
 associated with it. 
 
 Morte {Fr.) The death note of any hunted 
 animal sounded upon a bugle. " And whan 
 the hare is take, and your houndes have 
 ronne well to hym, ye shul the morte blowe 
 oftirward, and ye shul yif to your houndes the 
 halow." Twety in Rel. Ant., i, 153, quoted 
 in Furnivalle's reprint of the Percy MS. 
 
 " And then to sigh, as't were 
 The mort of the deer." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Mosso (It.) Moved, as piii mosso, more 
 moved or faster ; meno mosso, less fast. 
 
 Mostra {It.) A direct y^. A sign, sug- 
 gested by Avison, for pointing out to a per- 
 former the entry of a particular point or 
 subject. 
 
 Motet. A vocal composition in harmonyj 
 set to words generally selected from the Scrip- 
 tures, or to paraphrases of the sacred writings. 
 The motett was, at one time, a varied treat- 
 ment of a given theme similar to the poem 
 called in Spanish a " moto," referred to in 
 the article Madrigal. Like the madrigal, the 
 motett was at first set to words of a profane 
 character, and there are ecclesiastical decrees 
 extant forbidding its use in church. We read 
 in Durandus " De modo generalis concillii 
 celebrandi," cap. xix. " Videtur valde hones- 
 tum esse quod cantus indevoti et inordinati 
 motetorum et similium non fierent in ecclesia." 
 And that the character of the motett was at 
 one period the reverse of sacred, the following 
 quotations from " Le Roman de la Rose," 
 conjectured by Warton to belong to the 13th 
 century, will show : 
 
 " Qu'il faist rimes jolivettes 
 Motes, faWiaux, et chansonettes 
 Qu'il veuille a sa mie envoier." 
 
 And further : 
 
 " Chantant en pardurablet^ 
 Motes, gaudias, et chansonettes." 
 
 In the Constitut : Carmelit : Lib. IIL : 
 
 " Neque motetos, neque uppaturam vel aliquam 
 cantum magis ad lasciviam quam devotionem provo- 
 cantem, aliquis decantare habeat, sub pcena gravioris 
 culpae." 
 
 And Du Cange quotes (verbo Motulus) a 
 decree of Odo, Archbishop of Rouen, in which 
 it is said : — " In festo S. Johannis et Inno- 
 centium nimia jocositate et scurrilibus can- 
 tibus utebantur utpote farsis, conductis, 
 motulis ; praecepimus quod honestius et cum 
 majori devotione alias se haberent." 
 
 The word motett was synonymous with 
 pulpitre in the 15th century. In the account 
 of the solemn entry of John of Burgundy, 
 Bishop of Cambray in 1442, we read, " en 
 
 vidant de I'eglise, les enfants d'autels can- 
 terent le motet ou pulpitre, tournez le visage 
 vers I'autel." 
 
 Morley, in his " Introduction to Musicke," 
 imperfectly describes a motett as " a song 
 made for the church, either upon some hymn 
 or anthem, or such like ; and that name I take 
 to have been given to that kinde of musicke 
 in opposition to the other, which they called 
 canto fermo, and we do commonlie call plain- 
 song, for as nothing is more opposit to stand- 
 ing and firmness than motion, so did they give 
 the motet that name of moving, because it is 
 in a manner quight contrarie to the other, 
 which after some sort, and in respect of the 
 other, standeth still." 
 
 Probably for the reason above quoted, Du 
 Cange suggests that the motett was originally 
 of a gay and lively nature, andJ:he similarity 
 of style between the motett and madrigal of 
 the i6th century would point to the conclu- 
 sion that the titles were interchangeable until 
 the character of the words of the madrigal 
 fixed the title for this sort of writing, and the 
 word motett remained to describe movements 
 more especially intended for the church ser- 
 vice. 
 
 Metrical psalms and hymns in which the 
 several verses are sung to a varied setting 
 are called motetts in the Roman Catholic 
 Church. Many sacred cantatas of uncon- 
 nected movements are also described as 
 motetts. The early anthems took the place 
 of the motett in the Anglican church, and 
 many of the church compositions of the 
 Elizabethan musicians are of the motett 
 form. [Anthem.] [Madrigal.] 
 
 Motetto {It.) [Motet.] 
 
 Motion, (i) The movement of a single 
 part with reference to intervals taken by it. 
 Conjunct motion takes place when the sounds 
 move by single degrees of the scale, e.g., 
 C, D, E, F ; disjunct motion is when they 
 move by skips, e.g., C, F, D, G. (2) The 
 movement of two or more parts with relation 
 to each other. Similar or direct fnotion is 
 when parts move in the same direction either 
 by single degrees or by skips ; contrary 
 motion is when parts move in opposite 
 directions; oblique motion is when one part 
 remains stationary while another moves. 
 
 Motivo (7i.) Motive, (i) The sort of move- 
 ment indicated by the opening notes of a 
 sentence. (2) A subject proposed for develop- 
 ment. 
 
 Moto (7i.) (i) Motion, movement, as con 
 >wofo,with spirited movement, keeping up the 
 interest of the music. Hence con moto has 
 become a time-sign, signifying rather fast. 
 (2) Moto continuo, continuous motion, the 
 constant repetition of a particular musical 
 figure or group of figures. (3) Moto con- 
 
 ( 297 ) 
 
MOTTEGGIANDO- — M. V. 
 
 trario, contrary motion ; moto ohhliquo, oblique 
 motion ; moto retto, direct or similar motion 
 [Motion]. (4) Moto precedente, at the pre- 
 ceding pace ; moto primo, at the first pace. 
 
 Motteggiando [It.) In a bantering, jest- 
 ing, jocose manner. 
 
 Motus (Lai.) Motion; contrarius, coxitTary; 
 obliquus, oblique ; rectus, direct or similar ; 
 conjunctivus, conjunct ; disjunctivus, dis- 
 junct. [Motion.] 
 
 Mounted cornet. [Cornet, § 3.J 
 
 Mouth. The speaking part of an organ 
 pipe, as opposed to the foot, through which 
 the wind enters. 
 
 Mouth organ. [Pan's-pipes.J 
 
 Mouthpiece, Embouchure [Fr.) ; Imboc- 
 catura [It.) ; Mundstuck (Ger.) That part of 
 a wind instrument which is put into the 
 mouth of the performer. In the case of 
 brass instruments the end of the instrument 
 is placed on the exterior of the lips, and in 
 the case of reed instruments the reed itself is 
 inserted in the mouth. The name Kessel is 
 given by the Germans to the hollow or cup 
 in the end of a brass instrument through 
 which the air is forced, and Schnabel, or beak, 
 to the pointed end of oboes, clarinets, &c. 
 
 Movement, (i) Motion of melody, or of 
 parts [Motion]. (2) A division, or definite 
 portion of a work, as first movement, slow 
 movement, &c., of a sonata or symphony, or 
 other extended composition. (3) A portion 
 of a musical piece separated from the rest by 
 a complete change of time or key. 
 
 Mund {Ger.) Mouth of a pipe or musical 
 instrument ; Mundstuck, mouthpiece. 
 
 Munter {Ger.) Lively, allegro. 
 
 Murky. A piece of harpsichord music, 
 having a bass consisting of broken octaves, 
 thus : 
 
 Musars. Ballad singers of the troubadour 
 period. 
 
 Musette {Fr.) (i) A small bagpipe {coma 
 musa) formerly much used by the various 
 
 people of Europe. (2) The name of a melody, 
 of a soft and sweet character written in 
 imitation of the bagpipe tunes. (3) Dance 
 tunes and dances in the measure of those 
 melodies. (4) A reed stop on the organ. 
 
 Musica (it.) Music. Musica di camera, 
 chamber music ; musica di chiesa, church 
 music ; musica da teatro, operatic music. 
 
 Musical Box. A portable instrument, the 
 sounds of which are produced by a steel comb 
 having teeth of graduated length. Projecting 
 pegs or stops, in a metal barrel which is 
 turned by clockwork, set the teeth in vibra- 
 tion. They are chiefly made in Switzerland. 
 Small specimens were formerly called musical 
 snuff-boxes. A set of free reeds is now some- 
 times inserted for the purpose of sustaining a 
 melody, in which case," the same mechanism 
 which causes the barrel to revolve, also works 
 a small bellows. 
 
 Musical Glasses. A series of goblets 
 of graduated sizes fixed in a case. The tone 
 is produced by the friction of the fingers of 
 the player on the edge of the glass. The 
 instrument has been recently revived under 
 the name of Copophone. [Glass musical in- 
 struments.] 
 
 Musici. A name given to the followers 
 of the Aristoxenian system of music. See 
 Pythagoreans. 
 
 Musico {It.) A term applied to a Castrato. 
 
 Muta {It.) A direction to a player on 
 a horn, trumpet, &c., or on drums, to change 
 the key of his instrument ; as, muta in A, B. 
 
 Mutation Stops. In an organ, stops giv- 
 ing sounds not in unison or octaves with the 
 foundation stops, e.g., the twelfth, tierce, &c. 
 
 Mute. A small instrument of brass, 
 wood, or ivory, so made that it can be readily 
 fixed upon the bridge of a violin or violon- 
 cello, to damp or deaden the sound. The 
 direction for its use is written con sordini or 
 muta, its discontinuance by senza sordini. A 
 leather pad of a pear shape is employed as a 
 mute for brass instruments, which, inserted 
 in the bell, produces the effect of sound at a 
 distance. 
 
 Mutiren {Ger.) The change of voice. 
 
 M. V. Abbreviation of wtezza »oce. 
 
 ( 298 ) 
 
NABLA-T — NATIONAL AIR. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nabla vajSKa (Gk.) [Nebel.J 
 
 Nablium (Lat.) [Nebel.] 
 
 Nacaire {Fr.) A large drum. 
 
 Naccare or Gnaccare (It.) [Castanets.] 
 
 Nacchera (It.) A military drum. [Na- 
 keres.] 
 
 Naccherone (It.) A large military drum. 
 
 Nachahmung {Ger.) [Imitation.] 
 
 Nachdruck (Ger.) Emphasis, accent. 
 
 Nachspiel (Ger.) A postlude. 
 
 Nachstverwandte Tone (Ger.) The 
 nearest Relative Keys, q. v. 
 
 Nachthorn {Ger.) Literally " Night- 
 horn," an organ stop consisting of stopped 
 wood pipes of a moderately large scale, the 
 tone of which is somewhat like that of a horn. 
 
 Naenia (Lat.) A funeral song of the 
 Romans, mentioned in the laws of the twelve 
 tables. " Honoratorum virorum laudes in 
 concione memorantor ; easque nsenias ad 
 Tibicinem prosequuntor. 
 
 Nafiri. An Indian trumpet. 
 
 Nagaret or Nagareet. An Abyssinian 
 drum ; a kind of kettledrum. [Nakeres.] 
 
 Naguar. An Indian drum with one head 
 only. 
 
 Naif (Fr.) Simple, na'ivement, artlessly, 
 unaffectedly. 
 
 Nail Violin. [Eisenvioline.J 
 
 Naked fifth. The interval of a fifth with- 
 out a third. 
 
 Naked fourth. The interval of a fourth 
 without the addition of any other interval. 
 
 Naker. A drum. [Nakeres.] 
 
 Nakeres {Old Eng.) The explanations of 
 this word given by various authors are some- 
 what conflicting. Albert Way, in his edition 
 of the " Promptorium Parvulorum," considers 
 the word identical with the nagirah, or drum 
 of the Arabs and Moors. Joinville speaks of 
 the minstrels of the Soudan " qui avoient cors 
 Sarrazinois, et tabours, et nacaires." Most 
 probably nakeres were small metal drums, 
 used in pairs. In the poem, "Sir Gawayn 
 and the Grene Knyzt," (Early English Text 
 Society,) the word occurs : 
 
 " Trumpez & nakerys 
 Much pypyng per repayres." 
 
 A genitive case " nakeryn " is found in the 
 early English alliterative poems published by 
 
 the same society. " Belshazzar's Feast." — 
 (No. xiii.) : 
 
 " & ay tSe nakeryn noyse, notes of pipes, 
 Tymbres & taborns, tulket among, 
 Symbales & sonetez swared tSe noyse." 
 
 Chaucer, too, makes mention of them in hi& 
 knight's tale : 
 
 " Pipes, trompes, nakerers, and clariounes, 
 That in the bataille blowen blody sounes." 
 
 In Strutt's "Sports and Pastimes," a pay- 
 ment to Janino le Nakerer of sixty shillings as 
 one of the minstrels of the King (Edward II.), 
 is recorded. 
 
 Nanga. A negro harp. [Harp.] 
 
 Narrante {It.) As if narrating. ' A direc- 
 tion to a singer, implying that the music is to 
 be subordinate, as it were, to the recitation 
 of the words. 
 
 Nasard, Nazard or Nassat. An organ 
 stop sounding a twelfth above the foundation 
 stops. It will therefore be 2f feet in length. 
 
 Nason Flute. A stop of 4ft. tone, some- 
 times found in old organs. It is of a soft and 
 delicate quality of sound, and consists of 
 stopped pipes. 
 
 Nassat. [Nasard.] 
 
 National Air, or National Music. 
 Popular music, peculiar to, or characteristic 
 of, a particular nation. It often happens, 
 from the fact of a melody possessing the 
 characteristics which ren4er it generally 
 popular, that it is passed rapidly viva voce 
 from one person to another, with less con- 
 sideration of the author than of the music 
 he has composed : hence a tendency to lose 
 the names of the composers of national 
 music; but of course, music is none the less 
 national because it has its author's name 
 attached, and recent research has discovered 
 the authorship of many a tune which was sup- 
 posed to have this small claim to nationality. 
 
 It is impossible to describe a piece of music 
 of any kind as national, until it has proved, 
 by its continued existence, that it has those 
 qualities which will enable it to live. Thou- 
 sands of melodies, some of them unfortunately 
 of the most worthless kind, from time to time 
 take a firm hold of the common people of this 
 and other countries ; but the hold is not 
 lasting, their popularity is but ephemeral, 
 
 ( 299 
 
NATURAL. 
 
 hence they are not truly national airs ; and 
 the airs which have become entitled to be 
 called national, numerous though they are, 
 are probably a mere fraction of the vast 
 number which have had a short existence, 
 and then sink into complete oblivion. Bear- 
 ing these considerations in mind, it will not 
 be difficult to give a definition of a " national 
 air," as follows : an Air which, by its reflection 
 or representation of a sentiment, taste, or habit 
 of a nation, either through the music alone, 
 or words and music combined, has become so 
 commonly known and used by that nation, as 
 to be inseparable from the idea of its special 
 or characteristic music. 
 
 When the customs or tastes of nations are 
 very similar, if their musical scale has also 
 great similarity, we shall, of course, find many 
 tunes common to all, and claimed by each. 
 The more general the adhesion to the sen- 
 timent, or the greater the area over which 
 the custom extends, or the more general the 
 use of the scale from which it is formed, 
 the more cosmopolitan will a piece of music 
 become. The climate of a country, by 
 acting upon the temperament of the in- 
 habitants, influences indirectly the style of 
 its music. It is incorrect to suppose that 
 the minor mode is a universal charac- 
 teristic of national music. From a state- 
 ment drawn up in a tabular form by 
 Garl Engel, in his important work, " An 
 Introduction to the Study of National Music," 
 it appears that in Sweden, Norway, Russia, 
 Finland and Hungary, the minor mode pre- 
 dominates in the national music. In some 
 countries, as for instance, in Moldavia, and 
 Wallachia, and in Russia, the music seems 
 to vacillate between the two modes, the tunes 
 sometimes commencing in the major and 
 ending in the minor. Sometimes also, tunes 
 commence in the minor and end in the 
 major. As might' be expected, some melodies 
 become altered in various ways in passing 
 from generation to generation by oral tra-. 
 dition ; our English Ballad literature, so ably 
 collected and arranged by W. Chappell, 
 abounds with examples. Some nations add 
 profuse grace notes to a well known melody ; 
 this is the case with the Spaniards, but 
 chiefly with the Arabs and Persians. The 
 Welsh performance called Pennillion consists 
 of varied accompaniments to the voice parts, 
 and the tunes played on the violin by the 
 Transylvanian gipsies abound in flourishes. 
 As regards the scale in use in different 
 countries, it does not happen, as might be 
 expected, that a simple form of scale is used 
 among nations of a low order of civilisation, 
 and a more complicated form by a more 
 civilised race. The contrary is often the 
 case. The scale used by the Maories is 
 
 enharmonic, that is, contains intervals smaller 
 than a semitone ; while that of the Chinese 
 is pentatonic, that is, consists of five sounds 
 succeeding each other in a series similar to 
 that which would be produced by playing 
 only on the black keys of a pianoforte. The 
 power of the ear to distinguish between 
 sounds differing from each other by only a 
 very small interval, varies considerably in 
 different nations, some savage nations, the 
 Maories for instance, having a perfect power 
 of distinguishing between quarter-tones. The 
 study of national music leads to the inevi- 
 table conclusion that all musical scales are 
 purely conventional ; the modern diatonic 
 scale having no better claim to be founded 
 on nature, or natural harmonics, than the 
 complicated scales of the Arabs, Egyptians, 
 or Hindus. Closely connected with the history 
 of national music, is the history of' national 
 musical instruments, the two subjects throw- 
 ing much valuable light on each other. The 
 quality and pitch of that particular voice 
 most common in any nation, will also much 
 influence the style of the popular music. 
 " Some Asiatic nations," says Engel, " sing 
 in shrill notes by straining the voice to its 
 highest pitch ; others delight in a kind of 
 vibration or tremolando. Some sing habitu- 
 ally in an undertone ; others in a nasal tone. 
 Others, again, cultivate with predilection the 
 falsetto, and usually introduce it into their 
 vocal performances." It is a fact generally 
 known in this country that Russia abounds 
 in deep Bass voices, and Italy in fine Tenor 
 or Baritone voices. It is said that Hottentots 
 are chiefly Tenors, and that the Chinese sing 
 entirely in falsetto. A proverb current in the 
 14th and 15th centuries (see Chappell's Pop, 
 Mus., p. IX., Vol. I.) says, " GalH cantant, 
 Angli jubilant, Hispani plangunt, Germani 
 ululant, Itali caprizant." The allusion to the 
 English is undoubtedly meant for a compli- 
 ment, they "sing cheerfully;" in "caprizant" 
 is probably an allusion to the frequent use of 
 the tremolo. It was commonly stated by 
 English authors that England possessed no 
 national music, but the researches of Chappell 
 have brought together a collection of melodies 
 of various kinds, which cannot be surpassed 
 by any European nation. Unfortunately, our 
 national songs are but little known in our 
 large towns and cities ; they are, however, 
 handed down carefully in many rural districts 
 where they may be heard in a more or less 
 correct form. 
 
 Natural, t]. A sign which restores a note 
 to its place in the normal scale of C. It has 
 the effect of sharpening a note previously 
 flattened, or of flattening a note previously 
 sharpened. It is an accidental, that is, it 
 does not occur in the signature of a piece 
 
 ( 300 ) 
 
NATURAL, HARMONICS NEBENGEDANKEN. 
 
 of music, unless at a sudden change of 
 key, e.g. : 
 
 The earliest known use of the sign is found 
 in Bonaffino's "Madrigali Concertati," 1623, 
 a work in which also bars are employed as 
 marking the correct divisions of time. 
 
 Natural Harmonics. The sounds pro- 
 duced by dividing a string into aliquot parts. 
 [Acoustics.] 
 
 Natural key. Key of C. 
 
 Natural modulation. Diatonic modula- 
 tion, as opposed to Chromatic. [Modulation.] 
 
 Natural pitch. The pitch of a pipe before 
 it is overblown. 
 
 Nay. A flute used in modern Egypt, but 
 almost identical with the long flute anciently 
 employed in that country. The most common 
 7iay is called the " Dervish flute," because 
 with it those people accompany their songs at 
 their zikrs or religious dances. Lane describes 
 it as "a simple reed, about eighteen inches in 
 length, seven-eighths of an inch in diameter 
 at the upper extremity, and three-quarters of 
 an inch at the lower. It is pierced with six 
 holes in front, and generally with another 
 hole at the back." It seems to have been 
 played like our own flute, and like it to be 
 capable of additional compass when blown 
 hard. 
 
 Nazard. [Nasard.] 
 
 Neapolitan sixth. A name, apparently 
 without much reason, given to a chord 
 occurring on the subdominant of a minor 
 key, and consisting of a minor third and 
 minor sixth, e.g. : 
 
 It evidently can have nothing to do with 
 the key of D? major in the position given 
 above, although it appears at first sight to be 
 the first inversion of the common chord of 
 D|7. Nor can it be derived from the root G, 
 inasmuch as a flattened fifth of a root is not 
 admitted to exist by the best theorists. Some 
 authors have explained the nature of the 
 chord by calling the F Ab, notes derived 
 from G, and the Dt? a note derived from C. 
 This would make the chord a double-root 
 chord (from G C) having the minor ninth of 
 both roots, heard with the minor seventh 
 of the upper root. Another explanation 
 found is that it is derived from the minor 
 
 scale of the subdominant, in its modern 
 form, e.g. : 
 
 2 3 456 .7 
 
 i 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 If we combine i 3 6 of the above scale, we 
 obtain the chord under examination. That it 
 is so derived seems the more probable, inas- 
 much as it is often preceded by a common 
 chord of that key-note, e.g. : 
 
 and sora^tim^s followed by one, e.g, : 
 
 It is sometimes followed at once by a 
 major tonic chord, e.g. : 
 
 Nebel (Heb.) One of the most important 
 of the stringed-instruments of the ancient 
 Hebrews. It was not as ancient as the 
 kinnor, but was probably of more elaborate 
 construction. It is almost always rendered, 
 in our version of the Bible, by the word 
 psaltery, two or three times by viol, once 
 (Ps. Ixxxi. 2) by the word psalm, "Take a 
 Psalm, bring hither the tabret." This use of 
 the word psaltery is most unfortunate, 
 because it has by almost universal consent 
 been the name of the ancient dulcimer, 
 psanterin, psalterion, psaltery, sautry, &c. 
 This has led to a double error, many theo- 
 logians thinking that a psaltery is a harp, 
 many musicians thinking that a nebel was a 
 dulcimer. In all probability the nebel was a 
 harp. It was portable because Saul met a 
 company of prophets " coming down from 
 the high place with a nebel." That it was 
 used on secular occasions is proved by 
 Isaiah's words (v. 12), " The harp, and the 
 nebel, the tabret, and pipe are in their feasts." 
 David was proficient on this instrument, and 
 the list of his nebel-players is given in 
 I Chron. xxv. i, and elsewhere. 
 
 Nebendominant (Ger.) The dominant of 
 the dominant, as D is in the key of C. 
 
 Nebengedanken (Ger.) Accessory ideas, 
 or subordinate subjects. 
 
 C 301 ) 
 
NEBENSTIMMEN NEUMES. 
 
 Nebenstimmen {Ger.) (i.) Unessential 
 parts, as for instance those notes which may 
 be added to a triad, or those parts which are 
 in unison with others. (2.) Accessory stops 
 of an organ. 
 
 Nechiloth {Heb.) The generic name for 
 wind-instruments. 
 
 Neck. That part of instruments of the 
 violin and guitar class, which lies between 
 the peg-box and the belly. To its upper sur- 
 face is attached the finger-board or fret-board. 
 Nefer. An Egyptian guitar, called also 
 Nofre. [Guitar.] 
 
 Neghinoth. [Nechiloth.] 
 Negligente, negligentemente, negli- 
 genza, con (It.) In a negligent or careless 
 manner. 
 
 Nel battere (Jt.) At the down stroke of 
 the bar ; on the beat. ' 
 
 Nel stilo antico [It.) In the old manner 
 or style. 
 
 Nel tempo (It.). In time (after an ad 
 libitum), or, in the previous time. 
 Nerves of hearing. [Ear.] 
 Nete [Gk.) [Greek music] 
 Nettamente, netto (It.) Neatly, with 
 precision. 
 
 Neumes. The musical notations employed 
 from the eighth or ninth to the twelfth cen- 
 tury. Their origin is doubtful; Kiesewetter 
 considers them to be the ancient nota Romana, 
 others believe them to have been of Asiatic 
 origin. There can, however, be little doubt 
 that the earliest system of musical notation 
 was merely a series of directions as to the 
 intonation (accentus) of the voice ; the 
 acute accent, directing the raising of the voice ; 
 the grave, the flattening of it ; the circumflex, 
 a movement up and down. These afterwards 
 were modified into conventional cadences of 
 various kinds, new signs being added from 
 time to time to those already recognized, and 
 the force and meaning of the old signs being 
 amplified. 
 
 The progress of these signs from the acute, 
 grave, and circumflex into neumes of different 
 shapes can be traced with tolerable precision. 
 The acute accent grew into the virgula, the 
 grave accent into the punctus, the circumflex 
 into the clivus and podatus. Hence, Cousse- 
 maker has, in his valuable " Historie de 
 I'Harmonie au Moyen Age," divided neumes 
 into generators and derivatives, separating the 
 former into two kinds, " simple " (virgula and 
 punctus) and " compound " (clivus and po- 
 datus) ; the latter class also into two kinds, 
 "bound" and "conjoint." The following 
 shews the accentual neumes as used in the 
 eleventh century : — 
 
 ^ /V -» -• ♦* 4 J( 
 
 The names above are as follows : — i Ac- 
 centus acutus ; 2 accentus gravis ; 3 per- 
 cussionalis brevis ; 4 percussionalis longa ; 
 5 inflatilis ; 6 circumflexa ; 7 muta. 
 
 The next illustration of neumes is part ol 
 an interesting list given in Gerbertus " De 
 Cantu et Musica Sacra," Vol. II. : 
 
 JSc^Tid1.Cttf•<&•pal^c'cUfllftCtlCrr>re.w.t. urtt 
 Petwiiffrti, "(hvpTjttuP^MitP' •paired^ on-fpuf. 
 
 It will be seen that the above shews the 
 form of the scandicus, salicus, climacus, tor- 
 culus, ancus, pentafon (spelt also penta- 
 phone), strophicus, gnomo, porrectus, oriscus, 
 virgula, cefalicus (cephalicus), clivus, quilisma, 
 podatus. These are ^iw- arranged for the 
 purpose of getting them into verse. But 
 those who are curious on the subject will find 
 two admirable explanatory tables in the work 
 above alluded to, pp. 184, 185. 
 
 Neumes were originally written above the 
 words to be sung to them. After the ninth 
 century they began to assume graduated 
 height and position, this was succeeded by 
 the addition of lines and clefs. Neumes 
 then grew into ligatures and into notes Repre- 
 senting sounds of different lengths. The 
 foundation of the modern system of musical 
 notation was thus laid. [Notation.] The 
 word neuma is probably connected with the 
 Greek pneuma {irvEVfjax), a breath, and signi- 
 fied originally a group of sounds to be sung 
 to a syllable ; but later on this particular 
 meaning seems to have merged into the 
 more general one of notes ; and neumes and 
 notes are used almost as synonyms. When 
 applied to the system of notation the word is 
 spelt without the letter p (neuma) ; when 
 applied to a series of notes to be sung to one 
 syllable, the word seems generally to have 
 retained its p (pneuma). The practice of 
 singing pneumas has been at times carried 
 to an almost ridiculous extent. They may be 
 divided into two classes : first, the expansion 
 of a melody in the middle of a woi'd, as in 
 modern runs or divisions ; e.g.: 
 
 -^r 
 
 
 — 
 
 -•i- 
 
 -■- 
 
 
 -»- 
 
 — 
 
 
 i^ ♦ 4 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 -s- 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 -*- 
 
 - 
 
 
 ;♦■ 
 
 M-^J^ 
 
 -^fr 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 -m- 
 
 
 
 -»- 
 
 
 
 -■-^-i ^ 
 
 
 -■- 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 -*- 
 
 
 
 -♦- 
 
 ■■ ' 
 
 ^ 
 
 ♦ ♦ ^ ■ ■ 
 
 - le . - - lu 
 
 (From the Compline Office on Holy Sunday.) 
 
 This is not opposed to modern notions of 
 musical form. 
 
 The second kind may be described as a sort 
 of coda, or tail-piece to the final word of a: 
 
 ( 302 ) 
 
NEUVIEME NINTH, CHORD OF THE MINOR. 
 
 sentence, and such pneumas were generally 
 sung to the last syllable of the last word ; 
 e.g.: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 le 
 
 lu 
 
 - 
 
 
 ia . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 -M- 
 
 .3- 
 
 ♦ ♦ 
 
 ■-»j»- 
 
 m 
 
 -U 
 
 
 Neuvieme (Fr.) The interval of the 
 ninth. 
 
 Nexus (Lat.) One of three branches of 
 Melopoeia — Ductus, nexus, petteia. Ductus 
 was the movement up or down or concurrent 
 by single degrees. Nexus was movement by 
 an interval, and was of three kinds ; rectus, 
 as fa-gb-ac ; revertens, a.s ca-bg-af ; circum- 
 stans, as af-gb-af-ge. 
 
 2. Reversed. 
 
 [Melopceia.] 
 
 Niedersthlag (Ger.) The accented part 
 of a bar. 
 
 Nineteenth. An organ stop. [Larigot.] 
 
 Ninna, nanna [It.) A cradle song. 
 
 Ninth, interval of a. A compound 
 interval, equal to a second in the superior 
 octave. It may be major, minor, or aug- 
 mented, e.g. : 
 
 Major Ninth. Minor Ninth. Augmented Ninth. 
 
 Ninth, chord of the major. A chord 
 formed by a combination of thirds starting 
 with the dominant or fifth of the scale, called 
 by some writers the " added ninth," because 
 it consists of a chord of the dominant seventh, 
 with the addition of the ninth ; by others the 
 " dominant ninth," because it occurs on a 
 dominant bass. 
 
 It is composed of five sounds, and, there- 
 fore has four inversions. Like all chords of 
 the ninth, in its inversions the root or ground- 
 note is seldom heard. They may be there- 
 fore written thus : 
 
 1st Inv. 
 
 and Inv. 
 
 3rd Inv. 4th Inv. 
 
 In the above, the ninth is made to resolve 
 first, leaving the seventh to be resolved after- 
 wards. In the following, both discordant 
 notes are resolved in the next chord : 
 
 The fourth inversion, having the ninth in 
 the bass, is not so commonly met with as the 
 others. In the resolutions given above it will 
 be seen that the third of the dominant, that 
 is, the leading note, ascends to its tonic ; the 
 minor seventh descends ; the major or added 
 ninth descends also. The first inversion of 
 this chord is sometimes termed the " chord of 
 the seventh on the leading note," because the 
 leading note of the scale is in the bass, and 
 an interval of a seventh is found in the chord. 
 
 For similar reasons the second inversion is 
 sometimes called the chord of § on the super- 
 tonic, the third inversion that of * on the 
 
 3 
 
 sub-dominant, the fourth inversion that of 
 4 on the superdominant. This chord and its 
 inversions (excepting the fourth) are often 
 used without preparation. 
 
 Ninth, chord of the minor. One of the 
 most important ingredients of modern music. 
 Not only is it exceedingly beautiful to the ear, 
 but from its peculiar form it gives the 
 greatest possible facilities for modulation from 
 key to key, whether closely related or not. It 
 consists of a dominant, its major third, major 
 (perfect) fifth, minor seventh^ and minor 
 ninth, e.g. : 
 
 In its inversions the dominant, that is, the 
 root or ground-note, is nearly always omitted, 
 e.g.: 
 
 In the above examples the ninth only has 
 been resolved, leaving the seventh unre- 
 solved ; but in resolving the seventh it will 
 
 ( 303 ) 
 
NINTH, CHORD OF THE SUSPENDED. 
 
 be found that the major or minor third of the 
 succeeding chord may be used, thus : 
 
 Hence the chord is as often found in music in 
 a major key, as in that in a minor. The 
 beauty of the inversions no doubt arises from 
 the fact that they consist practically of a 
 combination of minor thirds, e.g. y- 
 
 i 
 
 The alteration of the notation of the inver- 
 sions of this chord gives scope for rapid en- 
 harmonic modulation. ~ - - 
 second inversion : 
 
 Take for example the 
 
 (No. 
 iNo. 
 
 No. I is derived from G, dominant of C 
 No. 2 „ E, ,, A 
 
 No. 3 „ C(, „ Fj 
 
 4 .. Bb] „ Eh 
 
 5 >, Aitl „ m\ 
 
 Nos. 4 and 5 are a complete change from a 
 flat to a sharp key. Without altering the 
 sound of the above chord it may be made to 
 lead into any of the above keys or the keys 
 related to them. Such a change of notation 
 as this, without a change of sound, is termed 
 an enharmonic modulation. It has already 
 been shewn that the chord may resolve either 
 into the major or minor mode ; therefore the 
 tonic minors of the above notes, and also the 
 keys related to them, may be reached with 
 equal facility. On looking at the five changes 
 given above, the reason why the ground-note 
 or root is omitted frbm the chords becomes 
 obvious, for not only would the symmetry of 
 form produced by the conjunction of the 
 minor thirds be destroyed, but also a definite 
 resolution would become absolutely necessary, 
 or, in other words, the invaluable property of 
 " doubtfulness of key" belonging to such 
 chords would be removed. One more fact 
 should be noticed. If the list of the notes 
 given above as the ground-notes of the five 
 examples be read separately, thus : G, E, Cf , 
 Bi?, or, as Nos. 4 and 5 are convertible, G, 
 
 E, C#, Af, and their tonics, C, A, F*, Ej?, 01 
 C, A, F|, D|, we get the following : ^ 
 
 ^^^I^^P 
 
 which will be found to be identical with those 
 derived from them when separated into ground- 
 notes, both as to the nature of their construc- 
 tion and their capability for enharmonic 
 modulation. The first inversion of this chord 
 is often called the chord of the diminished 
 seventh, because of the interval between the 
 bass note and minor ninth of the root* 
 
 Ninth, chord of the suspended. A 
 name given to the chord of the ninth on the 
 tonic, as opposed to that of the ninth of the 
 dominant, owing to the fact that the former is 
 more often used as a ■prepared discord than 
 the latter. The ninth may or may not be 
 accompanied by the seventh (in this case the 
 leading note). In the following examples the 
 seventh is omitted : 
 
 The seventh is included in the following 
 examples : 
 
 It will be seen that the note on which the 
 suspension resolves is not heard with the 
 suspension, except in the original position of 
 the chord ; also, that the third inversion is 
 only to be obtained when the seventh is used. 
 The ninth is not unfrequently resolved up- 
 wards, in which case some authors would not 
 call it a " suspension," but a " retardation," 
 e.g.-i 
 
 The ninth and seventh are both used with 
 the fourth, or, as it is more properly termed, 
 the eleventh on the tonic; under" Suspension," 
 examples of their combination will be found. 
 
 ( 304 ) 
 
NOBILE NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 The division of discords into discords of 
 suspension, discords by retardation, dis- 
 cords by addition, and fundamental dis- 
 cords, is purely arbitrary, consequently hardly 
 any two authors apply these names in the 
 same way. It is highly desirable that a 
 simple and consistent method of arranging 
 chords should be generally adopted. 
 
 Nobile, nobilmente, con nobilita (7^) 
 With grandeur, nobly. 
 
 Nocturns. Services of the church held 
 during the night, for which certain portions 
 of the Psalms are set aside, each of which is 
 termed in the Breviary a nocturn. [Horse 
 Canonicas.J 
 
 Nocturne {Fr.) [Notturnc] 
 
 Nodal line. [Acoustics, § 13.] 
 
 Node. [Acoustics, § 7.] 
 
 Nodus {Lat.) Lit. a knot. A Canon. So 
 called because compositions of this class were 
 sometimes given as enigmas, the meaning of 
 which had to be unravelled. [Canon.] 
 
 Noel {Fr.) "Good news." Old Eng. 
 Nowell. A word used as a burden to Carols 
 at Christmas. Hence, Carols are sometimes 
 called noels, or nowells. [Carol.] 
 
 Nofre. [Nefer.] 
 
 Noire {Fr.) A crotchet J. The black note. 
 
 Noise {Old Eng.) Music, or a performance 
 of music. As in Shakespeare's Henry IV., part 
 11., Act 4, " See if thou canst find Sneak's 
 noise." So also in Milton's " Ode on the morn- 
 ing of Christ's nativity : " 
 
 "When such music sweet 
 Their hearts and ears did greet, 
 
 As never was by mortal finger strook ; 
 Divinely warbled voice 
 Answering the stringed noise, 
 
 As all their souls in blissful rapture tpok." 
 
 The Prayer-Book version of the Psalms has 
 " God is gone up with a merry noise." (" As- 
 cendit Deus in jubilo." Vulgate.) 
 
 Nomenclature. In music the terms 
 applied to the various signs employed to stand 
 as the representatives of time, sounds, pitch, 
 pace, and expression. Mr. Hullah, in a paper 
 recently read before the Musical Association, 
 says : " The signs relating to time are the 
 breve, semibreve, minim, crochet, quaver, 
 semiquaver, and demisemiquaver. Of these 
 names the first three have lost their signifi- 
 cance ; the fourth is no longer appropriate ; 
 the fifth, sixth, and seventh, are arbitrary. 
 
 " The Germans call these notes, beginning 
 from our semibreve, the whole note, the half 
 note, the quarter note, and so on. These 
 appellations, so far as they express the pro- 
 portion of the first note named to those which 
 follow it, are convenient ; they form of them- 
 selves a time-table. But it is an imperfect 
 one ; for they do not show, without further 
 calculation, any intermediate proportion. 
 
 They show at once that eight quavers = one 
 semibreve, but not at once that four quavers 
 = one minim. But I have a much more 
 serious charge to bring against them. They 
 assume what, if not always false, is, as it 
 seems to me, not always true — that the semi- 
 breve is, or that any form of note can be 
 absolutely a ' whole note.' What is, or what 
 should be regarded as a whole note ? If I 
 were sure that the word " phrase" represented 
 to all of us the same idea as it does to me, I 
 should answer unhesitatingly that a whole 
 note was any note that could be divided into 
 a phrase, or— to be a little more precise — any 
 note divided or undivided, which would fill 
 either an entire measure or require as many 
 beats as would make one. This would give 
 us practically four claimants to the title of 
 whole note ;— the breve, the average whole 
 note of the sixteenth century ; the semibreve, 
 the average whole note of our own time ; the 
 minim, and even the crotchet. For, that 
 movements innumerable of four beats in a 
 measure, each of which is a quaver, exist, 
 I need not say, nor that the measure even of 
 four semiquavers has been occasionally em- 
 ployed. 
 
 " It is certain that a sound lasting four beats 
 may be expressed, and has been expressed by 
 six different forms — the maxim, the long, the 
 breve, the semibreve, the minim, and the 
 crotchet. Perhaps some musician of the 
 future may think proper to express such a 
 note by a quaver. 
 
 ' ' Let us now consider the names used by the 
 French — a people possessing in high perfec- 
 tion the power of clear exposition of what they 
 themselves see clearly. As usual, they leave 
 or throw on one side whatever they regard as 
 uncertain, or equivocal, or not commonly 
 accepted, and proceed to deal with the undis- 
 puted and indisputable facts or portions of 
 facts before them. And what is there in 
 respect to the forms which express the relative 
 durations of sounds ? First, that they are 
 forms, and secondly, that they are different 
 forms ; — that one is an oval or circle, that 
 another is a circle with a stem, and another a 
 circular spot also with a stem ; and that all 
 other notes are opaque and have not only 
 stems but hooks varying in number. They 
 call these notes or forms as they find them, — 
 round, white, black, hooked, twice-hooked, and 
 thrice-hooked. I certainly prefer the German 
 nomenclature, which, though raised on • a 
 false basis is consistent, to our own, which 
 is inconsistent as well as false ; but I prefer 
 the French to the German, because, not pre- 
 tending to do so much, it does what it pre- 
 tends to do perfectly. 
 
 " The nomenclature, not of sounds, but of 
 the relations between them— the nomen- 
 
 ( 305 ) 
 
NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 clature of musical intervals, is a subject on 
 which EngHsh theorists and practitioners are 
 by no means agreed. 
 
 " I believe that the seconds and thirds and 
 their inversions the sevenths and sixths found 
 in the so-called ' natural ' scale, and all 
 scales made like it, are very generally called 
 among us, major and minor ; and that six of 
 the fourths and their inversions the fifths are 
 as generally called perfect. Here, however, 
 agreement ends. For the one exceptional 
 fourth and the one exceptional fifth rejoice each 
 in as many aliases as a swindler finally run 
 down by the police detective. To the excep- 
 tional fourth, which, according to the old 
 theorists ' diabolus est,' I have heard and seen 
 applied the name ' tritone,' and the epithets 
 sharp, superfluous, redundant and augmented ; 
 to the exceptional fifth the epithets flat, false, 
 imperfect, diminished and equivocal. Others 
 rriight possibly be added to this list. To the 
 name tritone no objection is, I think, open ; 
 it expresses the contents of the interval — 
 three tones ; but it carries with it the dis- 
 advantage of there being no corresponding 
 name for its inversion, the exceptional fifth. 
 Augmented and diminished are no doubt 
 antonyms ; but both are epithets which, as I 
 shall try to show, ought to be reserved ex- 
 clusively for another class of intervals — the 
 chromatic. Superfluous and redundant are, 
 I think, clumsy epithets ; but if either is to be 
 applied to the exceptional fourth, its antonyms 
 scanty or insufficient should be applied to the 
 exceptional fifth. If this last interval is to be 
 called false, its inversion (the tritone) should 
 be called true. Only one of these epithets 
 seems to me quite unobjectionable — imperfect 
 as applied to the exceptional fifth. As an 
 antonym to this I have long used the ep/ithet 
 pluperfect, which has been very largely 
 adopted. 
 
 " I objected just now to the epithets aug- 
 mented and diminished as applied to these 
 particular intervals, the exceptional fourth 
 and fifth. I think these should be reserved 
 exclusively to chromatic intervals. I know of 
 course that my objection involves a principle, 
 or rather begs a question. What is achro- 
 matic interval ? This question, as often hap- 
 pens, throws us back on another. What is a 
 chromatic scale ? A chromatic scale I should 
 define, with Dr. Crotch, to be a scale contain- 
 ing more than two semitones. The so-called 
 ' natural ' scale, and all other scales made 
 like it, is not a chromatic scale, neither are 
 any of the ancient scales formed from the 
 arrangement of the same series of sounds in 
 a different order. Of these last the ' natural ' 
 minor scale is one, and the only one familiar 
 to the modern musician. Only however by 
 means of a most serious alteration has it been 
 
 reconpiled to modern tonality, which above 
 all things demands, as the unequivocal sign, 
 seal, or confirmation of a key, the combina- 
 tion known as the ' discord of the dominant 
 seventh.' Such a combination on the 5th of 
 the natural minor scale is only possible by an 
 alteration or non-naturalization which at once 
 brings it under Dr. Crotch's definition. In 
 the series A, B, C, D, E, Ft[, G% and A, we 
 find three semitones, and one interval greater 
 than a tone. Moreover, by skips from one 
 note to another of a scale so constituted, 
 we get three other intervals alien to the 
 natural scale, the inversion of the altered 
 second formed by F-Gj, the altered fifth 
 formed by C-G}f, and its inversion. These 
 ! intervals are, I conceive, augmentations or 
 diminutions of intervals which would have 
 remained unaltered, but for the artificial pro- 
 cess needed to reconcile the minor key with 
 modern tonality ; they are therefore, I 
 believe, generally called augmented and 
 diminished accordingly. So all intervals, 
 which the cultivated ear does not reject as 
 cacophonous, formed by notes one or both of 
 which are foreign to the key to which they 
 are introduced, are but augmentations or di- 
 minutions of those that are natural to it. 
 Without change of key we can augment cer- 
 tain of the unisons, seconds, fifths, and sixths ; 
 and diminish certain of the octaves, sevenths, 
 fourths, and thirds. Now, as we have seen, 
 in the unaltered or natural scale, major or 
 minor, we find no examples ofany one of these 
 intervals ; they are uniformly the result of 
 artificial treatment. But, with the exceptional 
 fourth and fifth the case is altogether different ; 
 they are not the results of artificial treatment, 
 we find them ready to our hands ; and they are 
 as much constituent parts of the scale in which 
 we find them as is the semitone between the 
 third and fourth sounds. How then can the 
 interval F-B in the scale of C, be augmented 
 or B-F diminished ? Of what are they aug- 
 mentations or diminutions ? Of F-Bb, or of 
 F(-B ? Are Bi? or FJ constituents of the scale 
 — I do not say the key — of C ? If they are, our 
 modern tonality must be reconstructed defond 
 en comble, and every scale must be allowed 
 three dominants instead of one. Again, we 
 find that the intervals of the natural scale 
 which bear augmentation are the largest of 
 their kind in it, and those which will bear 
 diminution the smallest. Of the seconds we 
 can augment only the major ; of the thirds we 
 can diminish only the minor. Can we aug- 
 ment the tritone, the largest fourth in the scale, 
 or diminish its inversion, the smallest fifth ? 
 Both have reached their utmost Hmits, and 
 resist and defy all attempts to put them further 
 asunder or bring them nearer together. If it be 
 answered that they are already augmented 
 
 ( 306) 
 
NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 and diminished, I ask again what was their 
 original condition ? The tritone and its inver- 
 sion are, I repeat, constituents of the diatonic 
 scale ; and they are diatonic intervals accord- 
 ingly. For the latter an epithet, imperfect, is 
 already largely accepted ; I submit to you, in 
 the absence of a better,the epithet /jiwperfect 
 for its inversion. 
 
 " Before quitting this second division of my 
 subject — pitch — I will ask you to give me your 
 attention for a few moments longer. It seems 
 to me that musicians have much cause to 
 complain of the way in which not merely 
 general litterateurs but even scientific writers 
 employ words to which, since music has been 
 an art, musical artists have agreed in attach- 
 ing certain definite significations. Perhaps 
 the most glaring instance of this, and it is the 
 only one which I shall give, is the employment 
 of the word ' tone ' to express the thing or 
 sensation which we and they also sometimes 
 call ' sound. ' A tone with us is not a 
 sound, but the relation or difference between 
 one sound and another. This acceptation of the 
 word would seem to be, if not as old as the 
 musical art itself, at least of great antiquity, 
 as is shewn in the co-existence of two such 
 words as tetrachord and tritone ; the one, ob- 
 serve, representing a passage of four sounds, 
 or strings which produce them. The other, 
 an interval which, though it includes four 
 sounds, is named after the three intervals — 
 tones — which separate them. We hear now 
 of over-tones, or the acute sounds resulting 
 from spontaneous vibration ; and of under- 
 tones, meaning grave sounds resulting from 
 the combination of others. Some of us have 
 occasionally been at a good deal of pains to 
 explain that a major third consists of or 
 includes two tones : if a tone be a sound, a 
 major third must consist of three or even of 
 five tones — or of both three and five. The 
 most recent and extravagant employment of 
 this word, in this sense, is in its application 
 to great composers. Beethoven especially we 
 often hear of as a great ' tone-poet.' I should 
 say that if this terminology is to be accepted 
 at all, it should be graduated or made more 
 precise ; so as to express the rank of the poet 
 to whom it is applied. If Beethoven be a tone 
 poet, some of our contemporaries should be 
 authorized to call J. S. Bach an augmented 
 tone poet, and, e eonverso, Rossini a semitone 
 poet. What designation should be applied to 
 the vast crowd of less successful aspirants to 
 musical fame I know not. Perhaps they might 
 be put off with some of those minute intervals 
 the excess orinsufficiency of which disturbs the 
 minds of those who still generously devote 
 themselves to the search after that philosopher's 
 Stone of our art^ — Perfect intonation. 
 
 "I pass on nowto the consideration oi expres- 
 
 sion, under which term we may class words or 
 signs indicative oi pace, intensity, and style. 
 
 "A growing disposition has been observable 
 of late among the different musical peoples of 
 Europe to use their own languages as vehicles 
 for these indications. I think this is to be 
 regretted : (i) as inconvenient to foreigners 
 among whom their music is likely to go. It 
 seems hard on an English, French, Italian, 
 Hungarian, or Bohemian musician, that to 
 understand a piece of music by any eminent 
 modern German master, he must not only be a 
 musician, but a linguist ; that he should not 
 merely be able to appreciate the musical 
 sound of the notes in the score before him, 
 but have also a vocabulary, practically un- 
 limited, of German words. He opens, sa)', 
 Schumann's Overture to ' Genoveva.' He 
 sees by the position of the stave, headed by 
 the C clef and designated ' Bratsche,' what is 
 the meaning of that word ; he need not have 
 much doubt about the stave similarly headed 
 and holding three parts, against which is 
 written Posaunen ; by the shapes of the pas- 
 sages intended for them, he may construe 
 Ventilhorn in Es, Waldhorn, and Pauken ; 
 and by the help of the metronome mark he 
 may come at the meaning of langsam. But 
 a little further on he encounters leidenschaft- 
 lich bewegt, which is harder upon him ; and 
 a little further stiW, sehr frisch, which is really 
 too bad. This example has lately found 
 imitators among the Scandinavians, who 
 expound their musical intentions in words 
 which a German of philological tastes and 
 pursuits could doubtless make out, but which 
 to the average German must be as unintelli- 
 gible as to the average Englishman. Strange 
 to say, the French, who take it for granted 
 that everybody understands their language, 
 or ought to, have not sinned in this way so 
 much as the Germans. It is true that the 
 scores of their operas are covered with 
 phrases like ' avec chaleur,' ' trds-simplement,' 
 ' a demi-voix,' ' avec ironie,' but these may 
 be regarded as ' stage directions ' addressed 
 to, and inevitably intelligible to those who 
 are to play the parts as well as sing the 
 music to which they refer. Otherwise French 
 composers limit themselves in their scores 
 to a few native words such as detachS, douce- 
 ment, and the like. As for ourselves, our 
 modern musical publications would indicate, 
 what certainly is the reverse of true, that we 
 are the greatest linguists on earth. It is 
 needless to present examples of what every- 
 body is familiar with ; we have all seen, and 
 see daily, title-pages, for instance, in which 
 two, three, and even four languages are 
 employed. (2) Irrespective of its practical 
 inconvenience, which I do not wish to over- 
 rate, this practice takes from music its noblest 
 
 ( 307 ) 
 
NOMOS NOTA. 
 
 characteristic — its catholicity. We musicians 
 are able to discourse in a language touching 
 to the hearts, if not always clear to the intel- 
 ligences, of every people on the face of the 
 globe ; and we are furnished with an alphabet 
 in which to write this language, which is not 
 the invention of a single mind, but of a 
 thousand minds — a thing which has marched 
 on to its present perfection pari passu beside 
 music itself; an alphabet so clear, to him 
 who knows how to read it, that a musical 
 composition, no matter of what intricacy, 
 composed, let us say at Moscow, can, with- 
 out any serious violation of the intentions of 
 its author, and without his personal assist- 
 ance, be performed within a few days, weeks, 
 or months, in London, Paris, New York, or 
 Melbourne — wherever there are artists to 
 interpret it. Let us cherish this precious 
 possession, and do what we can to prevent 
 its acquiring a sectarian, provincial, or even 
 national character, through the introduction 
 of any peculiarities whatever. The directions 
 of which I have spoken were, up to a compara- 
 tively recent time, made all the world over in 
 one language — Italian. And even to this 
 hour, the most Teutonic of musical composers 
 are still obliged to resort to that language. 
 In the score of which I have just spoken, 
 Schumann's ' Genoveva,' there are as many 
 Italian words or abbreviations of Italian words 
 as there are measures, very often more. The 
 words dolce, sempre, basso, soli, divisi, and 
 the like, are of frequent occurrence ; and as 
 for the contraction of piano, forte, crescendo, 
 diminuendo, sforzato, and the like, they may 
 be counted by hundreds. Granted that Italy 
 has not been observant of Andrew Marvel's 
 caution — 
 
 " The same arts that did attain 
 A power, must it maintain : " 
 
 granted that she has not held her own against 
 such competitors as Germany during the last 
 hundred years has brought into the field, are 
 we to lose all veneration for the people whom 
 the slightest acquaintance with musical his- 
 tory will show to have been the musical 
 teachers of all the world ? Are we to kick 
 down the ladder by which we have risen to 
 our present superiority — to turn a cold 
 shoulder on old friends because we have 
 become better off, and it may be wiser than 
 they ? Not, however, to throw more sentiment 
 round this matter than it will bear, it does 
 seem unwise to subject ourselves to the in- 
 conveniences of which I have spoken, when 
 they can be avoided by the simple process of 
 using only one vocabulary, and that not a 
 new or unaccustomed one, but one with 
 which every musical people is at least 
 partially familiar." 
 
 Nomos. vofior {Gh.) A song, vo/ioi iroXefiiKct, 
 war-songs. 
 
 Nona (It.) A ninth. 
 
 Nonenakkord {Ger.) The chord of the 
 ninth. 
 
 Nonetto {If.) A piece of music for nine 
 voices or instruments. 
 
 Nonny, or "Hey nonny." A common 
 burden to old English ballads, as " fa, la, la," 
 was to madrigals. 
 
 Nonuplet. A collection of nine notes to 
 be played in the time of eight, or six. 
 
 Normal Pitch. [Pitch.] 
 
 Normalton {Ger.) The standard sound. 
 
 [A. § 5-] 
 
 Normaltonart {Ger.) The normal scale, 
 C major and its relative minor A. 
 
 Nota {It.) A note, as, nota buona, an 
 accented note ; nota cambiata, in counter- 
 point, the proceeding from a discord to a 
 concord by a skip, e.g. : 
 
 nota caratteristica, a leading or characteristic 
 note ; nota cattiva, an unaccented note ; nota 
 d'abellimento, a grace note, note of transition ; 
 nota di passaggio, a passing note ; nota sen- 
 sihile, the leading note or subtonic. 
 
 Nota, or Figura (Lat.) (i) In general, 
 any musical sign. (2) In particular, the 
 signs placed upon the stave which shewed 
 by their shape and position the duration and 
 pitch of sound. They constitute the essence 
 of mensurable music (cantus mensurabilis) as 
 opposed to mere " signs of intonation," such 
 as were the neumes. The first division of 
 notes was, as might be expected, into long 
 and short (breve or brief), " mensurabihs 
 musica est cantus longis brevibusque men- 
 suratus." (Johannes de Moravia.) The long 
 was a four-sided note with a tail (No. 2) ; 
 the breve a four-sided note without a tail 
 (No. 3) ; the semibreve a diamond note 
 ( No. 4)- 
 
 - ni'*TT- ^= 
 
 123456 
 
 These notes varied in length (i) according 
 to the time-signature, (2) according to the 
 notes which preceded or followed them, (i) 
 In duple measure each was equal to two of 
 the next order ; in triple measure each was 
 equal to three. Thus, an imperfect (duple) 
 long was equal to two breves ; a perfect 
 (triple) long to three breves, and so on. (2) 
 A long was perfect when placed before an- 
 other long ; imperfect when preceded or 
 followed by a breve, &c. The double long or 
 maxim or large is shewn in No. i. It was 
 in form like along, but had an extended head. 
 
 (308) 
 
NOTATION. 
 
 The introduction of the dot (punctus) fortu- 
 nately reheved musicians of the complications 
 above mentioned, by adding half its value to 
 a note regardless of its position or the time- 
 signature. In course of time six musical 
 figures were admitted, as shown above: i, 
 double long ; 2, long; 3, breve ; 4, semibreve ; 
 5, minim ; 6, semiminim. 
 
 In the fifteenth century an extraordinary 
 movement to create novelties in notation 
 seems to have arisen, and treatises of that 
 date abound with rules as to the position of 
 the tails of notes ; for their absolute length or 
 proportion to each other was made to depend 
 on this. A breve was allowed a tail to the 
 left, a long to the right. Also, notes with 
 
 tails up and down ♦ were invented, called 
 
 dragme ox fuiscee, and notes with two tails in 
 the same direction ^ 
 
 Then, again, open notes (evacuatae) were 
 used, and when the head was black they 
 were one-third less in value. These, and 
 other similar complicated systems, never 
 appear to have been generally received. 
 
 On the disuse of the double long (No. i) 
 the note No. 2 seems to have been made into 
 the breve. No 3 into the semibreve, and No. 
 4 into the minim. The note No. 5 then 
 became a semiminima (crotchet), and No. 6 
 the fusa or unca (hooked-note or quaver). 
 
 The notes Nos. 2, 3 and 4 were adopted 
 by Marbecke, 1550, as his breve, semibreve, 
 and minim, and are so named in one of the 
 latest and best treatises on Church-song, 
 " Les vrais principes du chant Gregorien " 
 (Malines, 1845). But it should be remarked 
 that in the " Trait6 theorique et pratique du 
 plain-chant" (Paris, 1750). No. 2 is called 
 the long, and No. 4 the breve. Other autho- 
 rities might be cited to show that uniformity 
 of nomenclature has never existed with regard 
 to this subject. In the majority of modern 
 works on Plain Song, No. 2 is the breve. No. 
 3 the semibreve, No. 4 the minim. 
 
 Notation, Early Systems of Musical, down 
 to the invention of Notes. — The most ancient 
 system known to us of expressing musical 
 sounds upon paper, or other material employed 
 for that purpose, is that of Alypius for the 
 music of ancient Greece. This treatise sup- 
 plies a complete method of representing the 
 notes by letters of the Greek alphabet, the 
 letters being sometimes upright, sometimes 
 on their sides, and sometimes upside down, 
 or broken in half. Unluckily, there are but 
 three extant specimens of Greek music, in 
 the genuineness of which any reliance can be 
 placed, to which this system can be applied. 
 The three are Greek hymns, of uncertain 
 date, which were first published by Galilei in 
 1580, and by successive writers down to Dr. 
 
 Burney ; but there are evidently mistakes, as 
 well as omissions, in the manuscripts from 
 which the printed copies were derived, and 
 the results are therefore unsatisfactory. The 
 system of Alypius does not supply an adequate 
 clue to the scales that are included in the 
 later Greek treatise of Aristides Quintilianus, 
 Scales are a sure test as to whether a clue be 
 right or wrong, especially where the accom- 
 panying text gives an explanation of the in- 
 tervals that should occur, as in that case. 
 The system of Alypius has therefore become, 
 for practical purposes, useless. It may suf- 
 fice then to say, that it may be referred to in 
 the collection of Greek writers upon music pub- 
 lished by Meibomius at Amsterdam in 1652. 
 If any further specimens of Greek music 
 should be discovered, it seems more probable 
 that the later system of musical notation in- 
 cluded in the treatise of Aristides Quintilianus 
 will be of avail than that of Alypius. Aristides 
 begins with the double omega lor gamma — the 
 g on the lowest line of the bass clef — and 
 carries up the scale to the extent of three 
 octaves and a third, viz. to h, including every 
 intervening semitone as well as tone. This 
 notation will be found on the lower half of 
 p. 27 of his treatise, which is also included in 
 Meibomius's collection of the Greek Authors 
 on Music. The notation may be described 
 as a later form of that employed by Alypius. 
 Variations between the manuscripts used by 
 Meibomius and others are noted at pp. 243 
 to 245 of the same work. 
 
 One other Greek system remains to us of 
 uncertain date. This is the ecclesiastical 
 notation of the Greek Church. It is supposed 
 to have originated in Greek accents, and to 
 have been gradually enlarged into a compli- 
 cated system of signs for chanting. These 
 were written over the words without lines or 
 spaces. Specimens of this kind of writings 
 of various ages, may be seen in Gerbert's De 
 Cantu et Musica Ecclesia (vol. ii. p. 56 et seq.), 
 and the signs are explained by Chrysante de 
 Madyte, Archbishop of Durazzo in lUyria, in 
 the third chapter of his Introduction to the 
 theory and practice of ecclesiastical music,* 
 published in Paris in 1821. 
 
 The Chinese have a good diatonic scale, 
 but have now degenerated into a state of mu- 
 sical barbarism, and do not know how to 
 use it. The Chinese system of musical no- 
 tation is explained by Morrison in his Dic- 
 tionary of the Chinese language. Chinese 
 musicians use principally the five tones of 
 the scale without the semitones, but they oc- 
 casionally use semitones also, as is proved by 
 the song, " Nien lai yun chue koo woo e," 
 
 * ^laaywyrj tie to deuipifTiKOv Koi irpaKTiKov TJjs 
 eKKXriaiaaTiKyJQ fioviriKrJQ (8vo.) Paris, 1821. 
 
 ( 309 ) 
 
NOTATION. 
 
 and by some others, printed in China about 
 1790. In these cases, supposing the interval 
 between E and F to be a semitone as in our 
 tonal system, it is to be found in passages 
 both ascending and descending. As the fact 
 of the use of semitones by the Chinese is 
 denied by M. F6tis, it is well to give the title 
 of the work from which this opposite conclu- 
 sion is drawn. It is " Sin ting kew kung ta 
 ching nan tsze kung poo," and is compiled 
 by Chow Tseang-yfih and others. The music 
 and the words of the song were kindly trans- 
 cribed for the writer by Mr. Robert K. Douglas, 
 of the British Museum, who adopted Morrison's 
 interpretation of the musical notes. 
 
 We next come to the Romans, who de- 
 rived both their system of music and of mu- 
 sical notation by letters of the alphabet, from 
 the Greeks. The Romans adopted only one 
 of the Gfreek divisions of the scale, viz., the 
 diatonic, consisting of tones and semitones, 
 as in modern music. They had therefore a 
 sufficient number of characters in their alpha- 
 bet without breaking the letters into parts, and 
 without turning them round about, like the 
 Greeks. 
 
 We have no extant specimen of the music 
 of classical Rome, and there remains but 
 one Roman treatise on music that has any 
 claim to completeness, and yet it is far from 
 being complete. This is by the " ultimus 
 Romanorum"Boethius, who was put to death 
 by Theodoric the Goth in 525. It is entirely 
 copied from the Greeks by a philosopher 
 who had read Greek treatises, but who seems 
 to have had no practical knowledge of music, 
 and in many cases to have mistaken the 
 meaning of Greek musical terms, even of 
 those which express the lowest and the 
 highest sounds. 
 
 In later ages, Boethius was claimed as a 
 Christian, and as he wrote in Latin, instead 
 of Greek, there was a double reason why his 
 work should be chiefly followed by writers on 
 Church music* 
 
 Nevertheless, the seven letters of the alpha- 
 bet, A to G, which were used as names for 
 the seven notes of the scale, were referred 
 back by them to Virgil, as the " septem dis- 
 crimina vocum," alluded to in the jEneid (vi. 
 
 •645)- 
 
 Ira the treatise of Boethms the letters run 
 beyond G, and up to O and P,t for the second 
 octave, but they are intended as demonstra- 
 tions of the diagrams in the fourth book, ra- 
 ther than as musical notes. This is proved 
 by A being there marked to the note that 
 would be C in music, and by the same sys- 
 
 * This had an unfortunate effect upon Church music, 
 and we propose to show elsewhere that at least one of 
 its defects may be traced back to this cause. 
 
 + Our i and j count but as one letter. 
 
 tern of illustration by letters being adopted 
 throughout his treatise. 
 
 The mediaeval system of musical notation 
 was sometimes by letters of the alphabet, 
 from A to G for the lowest seven notes, and 
 from H to O for the second seven ; but it was 
 far more generally by marks or signs over the 
 words called neumes, or pneumata, breathings 
 for sounds. These names were taken from 
 the Greek words, TVEVfia and its plural irvEvfi- 
 ara. There are cases, but they are rare, in 
 which the two systems of letters and neumes 
 are combined, the letters giving greater cer- 
 tainty to the neumes. An early instance of 
 this combination is found in a collection oi 
 Latin hymns, anciently used at St. Augus- 
 tine's, Canterbury. The writing is of the 
 tenth century, and the hymn is addressed to 
 the Saint Augustin of the English (Austin the 
 Monk). It begins: "Gemma sacerdotum! 
 rutilans lux alma piorum Anglorum." 
 
 The compass of this hymn is nine notes, from 
 bass C to tenor D, and the letters go up to L. 
 (Cotton MSS.,Brit. Mus.Vesp.D., vi. fol. 77.) 
 A book was printed in facsimile in Brussels, 
 a few years ago, entitled Antipkonaire de Saint 
 Grigoire, supposed at first to be from a con- 
 temporary manuscript, and afterwards from a 
 copy made about the year 790. The facsimile 
 shows writing not older than the tenth cen- 
 tury, and Father Schubiger conclusively dis- 
 proves the assumed age and character of the 
 manuscript by identifying one of the se- . 
 quences included in it, " Laus tibi, Christe" 
 (p. 62) as written by Notker, Abbot of the 
 Monastery of Saint Gall. There is little rea- 
 son for believing that the chants in any anti- 
 phonajy of the time of Gregory the Great 
 would be intelligible now, or indeed that they 
 ever were legible without living help, for Saint 
 Isidore, Bishop of Seville, who was a junior 
 friend of Gregory's, and one who had long 
 outlived him, says in the third book of his 
 Origines, or Etymologies, that "unless sounds 
 are retained in the memory, they perish, be- 
 cause they cannot be written. "J This Saint 
 Isidore wrote at the beginning of the seventh 
 century. It seems to argue that the letters of 
 the Roman alphabet were not in use for noting 
 down Church music at that early date. 
 
 Neumes which had neither lines nor letters 
 added to them were but marks or signs 
 over the words, to serve as rough guides to 
 the eye, whether the voice should rise or fall. 
 They could only serve to remind the singer of 
 chants which he had first learnt by ear. He 
 could not tell exactly how far to ascend or 
 to descend, and whether by tone or semitone, 
 nor the note to begin upon. There was no 
 
 J " Nisi enim ab homine memoria teneantur, soni 
 pereunt, quia scribi non possunt." 
 
 ( 310 ) 
 
NOTATION. 
 
 precise measure of time in them. The earlier 
 neumes were but an expansion of the system 
 of accents and stops. At a later date, the 
 flourish at the end of a chant, or of an alleluia 
 was called the pneuma. These had no 
 words to them, and were to be sung in one 
 breath. 
 
 The next sys^m was one without neumes, 
 but with a ladder of letters placed one above 
 the other at the beginning of the chants. 
 The syllables of the words were then discon- 
 nected in order to place each syllable on a 
 level with the letter which represented the 
 note to which it was to be sung. 
 
 This system seems to have been invented 
 in Flanders, by Hucbald, a monk of Saint 
 Amand, who died at an advanced age in 930 
 or 932. Instead of using seven letters, he 
 employed but four (on the Greek tetrachord 
 system), viz., D, E, F, and G. He turned 
 these four into four different positions, to 
 make four disjoined tetrachords or fourths. 
 The twisting about of the letters was probably 
 borrowed from the Greek notation of Alypius. 
 They were first in their ordinary position, 
 then faced the reverse way, and then turned 
 upside down, and faced to the left and to the 
 right. By this means he obtained a scale of 
 sixteen notes, and, for the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth, to complete his number, he turned 
 the first and second letters jacent on their 
 faces. 
 
 It must be noted that Hucbald's scale was 
 not what the ecclesiastical, or " Gregorian " 
 scale is commonlj- supposed, and said, to have 
 been. He made all his fourths to have the 
 semitone between the second and third notes, 
 as in D, E, F, G. This has been overlooked 
 by all who have written about his notation, 
 and Kiesewetter, in his History of Music, has 
 translated Hucbald's examples without mark- 
 ing a single sharp or flat. Yet Hucbald's 
 text is clear enough. to anyone not prepos- 
 sessed with the immutability of " Gregorian" 
 music, for he says repeatedly that his tetra- 
 chords have the same succession of intervals 
 whether taken up or down.* 
 
 It is a mistake to suppose that what is called 
 " Gregorian music " is of the age of Saint 
 Gregory. The word means nothing more 
 than the " use of Rome." " Nos Gregoriani 
 
 * See Hucbald's Musica Enchiriadis, in Gerbert's 
 Scriptores de Musica Ecclesia, v. i, p. 152. In col. i, 
 lines 17 and 18, " ut semper quatuor et quatuor ejus- 
 dem conditionis sese consequantur." In col. 2, lines 2 
 and 3, " Secundus deuteros, tone distans a proto; 
 tertius tritos, semitonio distans a deutero." At p. 156, 
 lines I to 4, " Sed dum forte in sono aliquo dnbitatur 
 qualis sit, turn, a semitoniis quibus constat semper 
 deuterum tritumqne disjungi ; toni in ordine rimentur." 
 P. 152, col. 2, " Sive sursum sive jusum sonos in ordine 
 ducas." If it is to be the same up or down, the semi- 
 tone must always be in the middle. 
 
 et nos Ambrosiani " — " We who follow the 
 use of Rome, and we who follow the use of 
 Milan." As another proof that the music is 
 changed since the tenth century, a second 
 writer of the same age may be cited. 
 Notker says in his De Octo Tonis, that every 
 chant of the first and second tones ends in B ; 
 of the third and fourth in C ; of the fifth and 
 sixth in D ; and of the seventh and eighth 
 in E.f This differs much from the law of 
 later times. 
 
 The " Gregorian" tones have been changed 
 by altering the positions of the semitones in 
 the scales. The first and second of later dates 
 end on D ; the third and fourth on E ; the 
 fifth and sixth on F ; and the seventh and 
 eighth on G. The music cannot be the same, 
 because the intervals follow in a different suc- 
 cession. It is not surprising that the music 
 should have been changed since the tenth 
 century, the only wonder would be, if it had 
 not. 
 
 Hucbald's tetrachord, with its semitone in 
 the middle, became the parent of the hexa- 
 chord system, or six-note scale. It consisted 
 of a tetrachord of the same kind as Hucbald's 
 in the middle, and a tone added at each end. 
 It had quite the same object — ^that of bringing 
 the semitone into the middle (between mi and 
 fa) so as to make the succession of intervals 
 the same whether the scale were taken up or 
 down. 
 
 Hucbald's scale was as follows : P (gamma) 
 A, Bb, C,— D, E, F, G,-a, bb, c, d,-e, f|, 
 g, a, — b, ci. His letters were placed in spaces 
 formed between lines, which lines were de- 
 signed to represent strings. In the following 
 example, our ordinary letters are used, instead 
 of Hucbald's oddly shaped antiquities, because 
 they are more readily intelligible to general 
 readers. 
 
 G 
 
 da 
 
 te 
 
 
 
 num 
 
 
 
 
 F Lan 
 
 
 
 
 mi 
 
 
 de 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cceKs. 
 
 The words are : " Laudate Dominum de 
 ccelis." 
 
 One great objection to this system was the 
 dislocation of syllables ; and another was, 
 that it rendered necessary the doubling and 
 trebling of the vowels when there were two 
 or three notes to one syllable. Lastly, Huc- 
 bald's musical scale was not ruled by musical 
 
 + " Ex septem bis quatuor sunt, nempe B,C, D, E, in 
 quas omnis cantus desinit : qui primi et secundi toni 
 est, desinit in B ; qui tertii et quarti in C ; qui quinti et 
 sexti in D ; qui septimi et octavi in E." Gerbert's 
 Scriptores, I. 96. There were two Notkers at St. Gall, 
 and this treatise is attributed by Gerbert to Notker 
 Labeo (large lipped), but both were of the tenth 
 century. The first was the abbot, and the second a 
 monk of St. Gall. 
 
 (3" ) 
 
NOTATION. 
 
 laws. He had bB, f J, and cj as octaves to 
 Bt>, F, and c. Surely then some hcence 
 must have been taken by the singer, for no 
 man with ears about him could sing such 
 octaves. These were indeed the dark ages 
 of music. Hucbald's harmony is equally 
 barbarous. 
 
 In all countries which were in communion 
 with the Church of Rome, the system of 
 writing down the music of the chants, either 
 by neumes or by letters, endured for several 
 centuries. The great preponderance was by 
 neumes; indeed, the use of letters was com- 
 paratively rare. The neumes were written 
 over the words, without either lines or spaces 
 to fix them to any pitch, or to distinguish tone 
 from semitone. The earliest improvements 
 upon this general practice are to be found 
 in the Prosse et Sequentiae (Hymns of Praise) 
 which each country produced for itself. 
 
 The earliest use of four lines and spaces is 
 to be found in England. There are extant 
 hymns with the neumes written upon alternate 
 line and space, and with an index letter at the 
 signature to fix the position of all, and these in 
 a manuscript of the reign of Ethelred H, who 
 is prayed for by name in the Third Litany as 
 " our King" (regem nostrum), and whose reign 
 was from 978 to 1016. The manuscript was 
 then in use at Winchester Cathedral, and is 
 now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford (MSS. 
 Bodley, No. 775) . The difference between this 
 early English notation and that of later general 
 use is neither great nor important. It con- 
 sists only in the EngHsh use of any letter of 
 the octave at the signature, instead of con- 
 fining it to F, C, or G. Yet this is a suffi- 
 ciently distinctive mark. 
 
 Only the new hymns are upon four lines 
 and spaces. The prayers and the psalms 
 have the old indefinite neumes. 
 
 The English continued to use any one of 
 the seven letters at the signature down to the 
 first half of the thirteenth century. At that 
 time notes had been invented, and neumes 
 were being gradually changed into the forms 
 of notes. 
 
 Although early English service books are 
 exceedingly scarce, owing to the wholesale 
 destruction of them enforced by the severest 
 penalties for having any in possession in the 
 reign of Henry VIII., yet there are a few 
 still extant. Among these are the Saint 
 Alban's Gradual in the British Museum (MSS. 
 Reg. 2 B. iv.), and an equally beautiful manu- 
 script in the Cotton Collection (Caligula A. 
 14). These contain some of the same hymns 
 which are included in the Winchester manu- 
 script, and to the same music. An examina- 
 tion of the foreign collections of hymns, enu- 
 merated by Daniel, Mone, and G. Morel, does 
 not reveal any of the same as having been in 
 
 use abroad, neither does the use seem to have 
 extended beyond the southern half of England, 
 all yet discovered belonging to the province 
 of Canterbury. 
 
 Early English advances in music are to be 
 traced to the same cause as the early pro- 
 ficiency in other arts and sciences, and in 
 Greek and Latin. It was the fortune of 
 England, about seventy years after the con- 
 version of the southern part of the kingdom 
 by Saint Augustine, to have a very learned 
 Greek as Archbishop of Canterbury, and he 
 came to England, accompanied by an almost, 
 equally learned African, who became Abbot of 
 Saint Peter's, afterwards called Saint Augus- 
 tine's, at Canterbury. 
 
 Pope Vitalian had offered the Archbishopric 
 to Hadrian, but Hadrian pleaded his youth and 
 unworthiness, and recommended Theodore 
 in his place. The Pope was doubtful whether 
 Theodore might not introduce some of the 
 usages peculiar to the Eastern Church, and 
 therefore sent Hadrian to accompany him, and 
 to keep an eye over him in that respect. 
 Theodore remained in England till his death, 
 viz., from 669 to 690, and Hadrian survived him 
 till 709. These two taught the arts and sciences 
 as well as the languages of Greece and Rome, 
 and the gain to the nation was soon apparent 
 through the many learned men that England 
 speedily produced. 
 
 The venerable Bede says that some of their 
 scholars were living in his own time, who 
 were as well versed in Greek and Latin as in 
 their native tongue.* Aldhelm, who was one 
 of Hadrian's pupils, was also one of the first 
 Englishmen who became celebrated for his 
 skill in music, in poetry, and in other liberal 
 arts. It is clear that the organ was intro- 
 duced into England about the time of, and 
 probably by, Theodore, from Aldhelm's full 
 description of it in his Laus Virginitatis. 
 
 It was a great advantage for us to have a 
 Greek master, for the Romans, from Boethius 
 downwards, knew very little about music. 
 Boethius seems only to have known, or taught, 
 the antiquated Pythagorean division of a scale, 
 with all major tones in it, and so false thirds. 
 The celebrity of Greek teachers endured at 
 least till the nth century, for Guido d'Arezzo, 
 in his letter De ignoto Cantu, thus alludes to 
 them: "I have seen many very acute philo- 
 sophers who, for the study of this art of music, 
 have not only sought Italian, French and 
 German masters, but even the very Greeks 
 themselves.t Neither did the cultivation of 
 music, once introduced, die away in England, 
 for, in the time of St. Dunstan, who was him- 
 self an organ-builder, the Winchester organ 
 
 * Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Book 4, cap. 2. 
 f " Ipsos que etiam Graecos qusesivere magistros." 
 
 ( 312 ) 
 
NOTATION. 
 
 had 400 pipes. The large number of men 
 necessary to blow this organ (which was to be 
 heard all over Winchester), seems to prove the 
 bellows to have been on the Greek construction. 
 Wolstan (or rather Wulstan) of Winchester, 
 who describes this great organ in his metrical 
 life of Saint Swithun, was the author of a 
 treatise on harmony {De Tonorum Harmonia) ; 
 which continued in use in the 13th century. 
 William of Malmesbury describes it as a 
 most useful book {valde utile), nearly a hun- 
 dred and fifty years after it had been written, 
 while St. Dunstan was the author of a still 
 extant " Kyrie," a creditable specimen for 
 the age, in good Greek Dorian or D minor. 
 
 Some of the Anglo-Latin hymns, written 
 upon lines and spaces, are of a very florid 
 character. (See, for instance. Cotton MSS., 
 Julius A., vi. fols. 18 and ig.) 
 
 The next musical system in order of date 
 was that of the hexachord. This endured for 
 many centuries, and yet it seems impossible 
 to find any thing in it to commend. It is Hue- 
 bald's system applied to the later church-scale, 
 and with extra complexity. 
 
 The one argument in its favour adduced 
 by old writers is the ultra-perfection of the 
 number 6. This admirable quality is dis- 
 covered through its containing within itself 
 all its aliquot parts, viz., 3, 2, and i, and "such 
 perfect numbers are rare."* To all this, it 
 might have been answered that the hexachord 
 does not contain six equal parts ; but, in any 
 case, its perfections will weigh lightly in mo- 
 dern estimation against the far more ancient, 
 the one and only true system of the octave. 
 Eventually the hexachord system was combined 
 with that of the octave. 
 
 The hexachord required not only the alpha- 
 betical name for the note (which sufficed by 
 itself in the octave system) but also to tag 
 on two or three other names. Wherever the 
 interval between two notes was but a semi- 
 tone, there was placed a mi for the one, and 
 a/a for the other; and as there was a b flat 
 in use, as well as a b natural in the acute and 
 super-acute parts of the scale, so there must 
 be a separate hexachord for each of the two, 
 and at the interval of only one tone, the first 
 hexachord beginning on F, and the second 
 on G. The addition of the tone below Hue- 
 bald's tetrachord seems, by accident rather 
 than by design, to have changed the hexa- 
 chord from minor into part of a major scale, 
 by moving the position of the semitone to the 
 interval of one tone higher. If any one had 
 designed such a reason for the change, 
 there would have been some sense in the 
 system, although it was still but an imperfect 
 attempt to return to the octave. As it was, 
 
 * Walter Odington, apud De Coussemaker's Scripto- 
 rum, I. 215. 
 
 it may have been an accidental stepping-stone 
 to the use of the major scale, by placing C 
 below Hucbald's D, and thus making the in 
 tervals in that position, C, D, E, F, G, A, but 
 this order of notes already existed in the scale. 
 The ancient Greek scale was wholly minor, 
 and beginning and ending on the third note of 
 a minor scale must make a " relative" major. 
 The sharp seventh is a comparatively modem 
 addition to minor scales. 
 
 The following is the Hexachord system 
 included in the octave scale : 
 
 Super-acute. 
 
 f«t la 
 
 d , la sol 
 
 c sol fa 
 
 Jb mi 
 
 t3 
 
 j^ 
 
 la 
 
 fa 
 mi re 
 
 g sol re ut 
 
 Acute. 
 
 la 
 
 fa 
 la mi 
 sol re 
 
 ut 
 
 c sol fa 
 
 bh mi 
 
 W fa 
 
 ut 
 
 ^.a la mi re 
 
 /G sol re ut 
 
 F fa ut 
 
 E la mi 
 
 /-. . D sol re 
 
 Grave octave. / ^ r i 
 1 C la ut 
 
 B mi 
 
 A re 
 
 r ut 
 
 All this surplusage of names does not suf- 
 fice to distinguish the notes of one tjctave 
 from another. There are two E-la-mis, two 
 F-fa-uts, two G-sol-re-uts, two A-la-mi-res, 
 two b-fas, and three b-mis. The only notes 
 distinguished are C and D, so there could 
 hardly be a more complicated and useless 
 system of nomenclature. It was taken from 
 the initial syllables of a hymn to Saint John 
 the Baptist, which is too short to be omitted. 
 Ut queant laxis Solve polluti 
 iJesonare fibris. Labia reati, 
 Mira. gestorum Sancte Johannes. 
 
 Famuli tuorum : 
 
 Here was a sa for the seventh note of the 
 scale; but, on account of the perfection of the 
 number 6, it was not employed. In later use, 
 in order to mark another semitone by the 
 vowel i (as in mi) sa was turned into si. Ut 
 was also changed to Do (France excepted) 
 for the sake of openness of the vowel, although 
 it was already included in sol. 
 
 Guido Aretino, or d'Arezzo, had for a long 
 time the credit, or discredit, as some may 
 think it, of having invented the hexachord 
 system. He makes no claim to it in any of 
 his works, and as M. Fetis has justly re- 
 
 f This "e" in the super-acute part of the scale is an 
 addition made in the 14th century. 
 
 ( 313 ) 
 
NOTATION. 
 
 marked, Guide's fame has rested far more 
 upon what has been attributed to him, than 
 upon what he really did. His reputation as 
 a teacher was well deserved, for he directed 
 his pupils to sing intervals without always re- 
 ferring to the monochord, but, instead of it, 
 to think of similar intervals in some well- 
 known hymns, such as this " Ut queant laxis." 
 It appears from John of Cotton,* who wrote 
 soon after Guido, and who was one of his great 
 admirers, that this had been long the practice 
 with French, Germans, and English, and even 
 upon this particular hymn, but it was unknown 
 to Cotton that the Italians had ever employed 
 it for that purpose before Guide's time.f 
 
 A second system, which has been attributed 
 to Guido, is that of the red and yellow lines for 
 F and C. In his Micrologus Guido says : " In 
 order that sounds may be discerned with cer- 
 tainty, we mark some lines with various 
 colours, so that the eye may immediately dis- 
 tinguish a note, in whatever place it may be. 
 For the third of the scale [C] a bright saffron 
 line. The sixth [F], adjacent to C, is of bright 
 vermilion, and the proximity of others to these 
 colours will be an index to the whole. If there 
 were neither letter nor coloured line to the 
 neumes, it would be like having a well with- 
 out a rope — the water plentiful, but of no use 
 to those who see it."J This exactly describes 
 the state of all music with neumes only, and 
 it sufficiently accounts for all the changes that 
 have occurred in the traditions of several cen- 
 turies. Of the fact of change there can be no 
 reasonable doubt. Much of the Gregorian 
 
 * This author is largely quoted by foreign writers, 
 and always as Johannes Anglicus, but his precise 
 birthplace is not known. There are four places 
 named Cotton in England (besides Cotton Abbots and 
 Cotton Edmunds). They are in Suffolk, Yorkshire, 
 Cheshire, and Shropshire. It may be conjectured that 
 he was one of the monks driven from England in the 
 time of William I., for, if he had remained here, his ex- 
 cellent treatise would surely have been quoted by some 
 English writers, such as Odington, and he could hardly 
 have escaped notice by Bale and others. Cotton dedi- 
 cates his treatise "Domino et patri suo venerabili an- 
 tistite Fulgentio" — not " Anglorum antistite," as printed 
 by Gerbert. There is an imperfect copy of his treatise, 
 written in the I2th century, in the Cotton Collection 
 {Vespasian, A., xi. fol. 131), It is to be inferred that he 
 went from one of the northern counties, in the province 
 of York, as he does not seem to have known Canter- 
 bury use. 
 
 t Cap. i. apud Gerbert's Scriptores, 2, 232. 
 X Regulae Musicae Rythmicae, apud Gerbert, ii. 30-31. 
 " Ut proprietas sonorum discernatur clarius, 
 Quasdam lineas signamus variis coloribus ; 
 Ut quo loco quis sit tonus mox discernat oculus. 
 Ordine tertise vocis splendens crocus radiat, 
 Sexta ejus, sed affinis, flavo rubet minio ; 
 Et afSnitas colorum reliquis indicio. 
 At si littera vel color neumis non intererit. 
 Tale erit quasi funem dum non habet puteus, 
 Cujus aquae, quamvis multse, nil prosunt viden- 
 tibus." 
 
 music is now just as deficient in tonality as 
 the Chinese ; but a skilful organist can, by 
 the use of anti-Gregorian harmonies, bring 
 some of it into shape. 
 
 It will be observed that Guido does not 
 claim to have invented the use of the red or 
 yellow line, but to have erhployed them. There 
 are specimens of both colours, among the 
 fragments printed in Martini's Storia,, delta 
 Musica, which have been judged to be de- 
 cidedly older than Guide's time, and M. Fetis 
 (in his memoir of Guido) states that he has 
 in his own library some more ancient still. 
 The superior antiquity of the red line seems to 
 be beyond ' question. This system was un- 
 doubtedly an improvement upon the oldest — 
 that of having neither line nor letter to the 
 neumes — but it was not one that would lead 
 up to the use of alternate line and space, be- 
 cause the lower C, the third of the scale, was 
 below F, the sixth, and there could be no line 
 between them, unless lines only, and not lines 
 and spaces, were employed. D and E only 
 intervened between C and F, and so a single 
 line with its space on each side would have 
 been too much.§ 
 
 Guido himself makes claim but to one in- 
 vention, which he describes as "most useful" 
 and "hitherto unheard. "|| John of Cotton gives 
 him the credit for the same.^y It is but a mo- 
 dified copy from Hucbald, utilising the spaces 
 without employing the lines. Instead of 
 twisting round the four letters, as Hucbald 
 did, Guido placed the five vowels, a, e, i, o, u 
 at the ends of the spaces ; and when more notes 
 than five were wanted, then the a, e, i, o and u 
 were repeated. The system is shown in the 
 following example : 
 
 tu 
 
 u 
 
 
 i 
 e 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 so 
 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 ri 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 lis 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 ve 
 
 
 
 ter, 
 
 
 be 
 
 Ma 
 
 
 a, 
 
 
 
 
 ma 
 
 
 ra 
 
 The words are : " Maria, veri solis mater, 
 ubera tuos." This system will hardly be judged 
 as an improvement upon that of Hucbald. The 
 vowels were not even distinguished by capital 
 and small letters, so that a, e, and i, each re- 
 presented three different notes, and o and u 
 two ; unless there were a double line of a, e, 
 i, o, u's, as with the mi fas. A, for instance. 
 
 § Some years ago the writer exhibited several speci- 
 mens of this musical notation with the red and yellow 
 lines to the Musical Society of London. The parchments 
 had been cut up to line the covers of old books. The 
 chants were plagals, so the C line was always below F. 
 
 II "utilissimum usui, licet hactenus inauditum," Mi- 
 crologus, Cap. 17. 
 
 IT " Adhuc et aliam modulandi monstramus viam, 
 pulcram sane, sed ante Guidonem inusitatam." Cap. 
 XX., Gerbert's Scriptores, II. 256. 
 
 ( 314) 
 
NOTATION. 
 
 might be either gamma, the lowest note of 
 the scale, the E above it, or the c above E. 
 
 Guido's invention was dying out of use 
 about 1220, when Walter Odington wrote his 
 treatise.* Odingt'on does not in any way 
 notice the red and yellow line system, which, if 
 it was ever adopted by English scribes (and 
 that seems doubtful), must soon have passed 
 away. His own examples are upon the 
 English plan of employing any one of the 
 seven letters as a clef note, and of utilising 
 four lines, and spaces, changingthe c\ei(clavis) 
 when the compass extended beyond them.f 
 
 There are some difficulties in fixing the 
 exact date of Guido Aretino, or d'Arezzo. 
 The one fact which ought to be beyond ques- 
 tion is the evidence of Guido's cotemporary, 
 Adam of Bremen, who says that, about 1067, 
 Hermann, Archbishop of Bremen, called 
 Guido, the musician, to Bremen, to correct 
 the music, as well as the monastic discipline 
 of his See. J At the other extreme of date 
 .stands the prose version of the Micrologus, 
 which is dedicated to Theobald, Bishop 
 of Arezzo, who, according to Ughelli, died 
 in 1037. There seems but little doubt that 
 Cardinal Baronius (writing in the i6th centiiry) 
 was wrong in placing Guido the musician, 
 under the year 1022. The very quotation 
 that he copies supplies a sufficient correc- 
 tion. It is from a manuscript of the Micro- 
 logus, ending : " Explicit Micrologus Gui- 
 donis, suae setatis anno trigesimo quarto, § 
 Johanna Vigesimo Romanam gubernante ec- 
 clesiam, sub quo ejusdem Guidonis librorum 
 editio facta est." The Cardinal adds of 
 Pope John XX. : " Successit hie Benedicto," 
 and again : " ex cujus numeratione pariter 
 
 * " Sed talis modus componendi jam evanescit." See 
 Coussemaker's Scriptorum, I. 217. 
 
 f See " De Clavibus," p. 214. " Unam dictarum 
 clavium semper una linearum lineatur, aliter spaciatur ; 
 linearis pro eo quod linese applicatur ; spatialis pro eo 
 quod spatium occupat, ut hie." This most useful 
 treatise has been recently printed by M. E de Cousse- 
 malcer, in his Scriptorum de Musica medii Mvi nova 
 Series a Gerbertina alteram. The only writer unques- 
 tionably English in Gerbert's Series is John of Cotton. 
 M. de Coussemaker has added John Hothby (called 
 Ottebi by Italians), Walter Odington, John of Garland, 
 John of Tewkesbury, Simon Tunstede, Robert de 
 Handle, John Hanboys, Theinred of Dover, and the 
 works of some anonymous writers, together with a 
 greatly increased number of good foreign authors. 
 The limited number of copies printed makes the speedy 
 acquisition of this collection desirable to all those who 
 are interested in the subject. 
 
 J " Musicum Guidonem Hermannus, Archiepiscopus, 
 Bremam adduxit, cujus industria melodiam et claustra- 
 lem disciplinam correxit." Historia Ecclesiarum Ham- 
 burgensis etBremensis, &c., ab anno 788 ad 1072, lib. 2, 
 cap. 102, p. 30. 
 
 § M. F^tis has printed it 24 instead of 34 in his 
 Memoir of Guido. Biographie Universelle des Mtisi- 
 ciens, v. 4, p. 147, col. 1. 
 
 intelligimusjoannem Benedicto successorem, 
 Vigesimum ordine nuncupatum ejus nominis 
 Romanum Pontificem." (Annates Ecclesics, 
 anno 1022.) As Benedict VHI. was Pope 
 in 1022, that date could not be right for either 
 of the Johns. John XIX. succeeded Bene- 
 dict VIII. in 1024, and John XX. followed 
 Benedict IX. in 1044, and was deposed by 
 the Council of Sutri in 1046, after which 
 Benedict IX. was restored. || The short reign 
 of John XX., his speedy deposition, and the 
 restoration of Benedict, have caused John to 
 be overlooked by some chronologers, and 
 there is a gap in the list of Johns which they 
 supply variously. M. F6tis has adopted 
 John XIX. as Guido's John XX., and it has 
 seemingly been the cause that induced him 
 to question, if not wholly to reject, the most 
 reliable of all the evidence — that of Adam of 
 Bremen — because Guido might be supposed 
 to be too old to be sent for in 1067. But the 
 date of John XX., 1044 to 1046, would restore 
 the probability, and Baronius's error of 1022 
 may be accounted for by a confusion between 
 Guido Aretino the musician, and another 
 Guido Aretino, who became prior of the 
 convent of Santa Cruce at Avellano in 1029. 
 The latter has often been mistaken for Guido 
 the musician, and M. Fetis has enumerated 
 some of the cases. ^ 
 
 Having touched upon the date of Guido, 
 it is of more importance to our present subject 
 to point out some anachronisms in the copy of 
 the Micrologus, printed by the Abb6 Gerbert. 
 A manuscript of the earliest date should have 
 been selected for publication, for, in so popular 
 a work, it might have been expected that the 
 notation of the examples would be adapted 
 by the copyist to the use of his own age. 
 Those at pages 10 and 12 of Gerbert's edition 
 have been thus modernised. They are printed 
 on lines and spaces, which Guido did not use 
 together, and a comparison of the whole text 
 with that of one of the manuscripts in the 
 British Museum,** proves that large additions 
 have been interpolated to Guido's text in 
 Gerbert's edition, not only in the Micrologus, 
 but also more largely in the De ignoto Cantu. 
 
 The transition from neumes to notes was 
 an easy one. It was called "quadrating" 
 
 || " Silvestre III., antipape, etoit eveque de Sabine, 
 lorsqu'apres avoir chass^ Benoit IX., en 1044, les 
 Romains le mirent a sa place. Trois mois apres, 
 Benoit fut retabli par sa famille : son rival forc^ de 
 c^der, vendit sa dignite a un prfetre, qu'il sacra sous le 
 nom de Jean XX., mais resta luimeme a Rome, et con- 
 serva ses partisans. Le conseil de Sutri, 1046, les 
 d^clara tous les deux usurpateurs — Voyez Benoit IX. et 
 Gregoire VI." {Dictionnaire General de Biographie et 
 d'Histoire, par Ch. Dezobry et Th. Bachelet, Paris, 
 8vo, 1857.) 
 
 IT Biographie Universelle, v. 4, p. 148, col. 2. 
 
 ** Addit. MSS., No. 10,335, eleventh century 
 
 (315) 
 
NOTAZIONE MUSICALE NUT. 
 
 them, i.e., squaring them like the old shape 
 of the natural B. They thus filled the spaces 
 between the lines. But although such 
 changes were easy, they were practically 
 slow, because old habits and prepossessions 
 worked against them. 
 
 The best explanation of neumes is that of 
 M. de Coussemaker, in his Histoire de I'Har- 
 monie au Moyen Age, where two tables lof 
 neumes with their interpretations, will be 
 found at p. 184. Whoever shall desire to 
 modernise neumes will do well to consider 
 first the country and the age in which the 
 manuscript was made. For instance, the 
 Quilisma may be either a mark for a tremu- 
 lous expression without altering the note,* 
 and it may be a sign of graduated ascent of 
 two or three notes.f The first is the earlier 
 use (and just what its form would seem to 
 have been invented to express) and the 
 second is the later use, when neumes were 
 soon to be altered into notes. The reader 
 will find many pages of facsimiles of neumes 
 in M. de Coussemaker's great work, and 
 some in Gerbert's De Cantu et Musica Ec- 
 clesice, v. 2, about and after p. 60. A third 
 source for the student is at the end of the 
 so-called Antiphonaire de Saint Gregoire, 
 
 * [Quilisma est] " unisonum quia non habet arsim et 
 thesim" [i.e. neither rise ftor fall] "nee, per consequens, 
 intervallum vel distanciam, sed est vox tremula : sicut 
 est Sonus flatus tahss vel cornu, et designatur per neu- 
 mam quae vocatur Quilisma" (B. Engelbertus, per Ger- 
 bert, De Cantu, v. z, p. 60). 
 
 f " Hse Antiphonse, licet a finali incipiant, tamen, 
 quia per Quilismata, quae nos gradatas neumas dicimus, 
 magis gutturis." (Bernonis Augiensis Tonarius, Gerb. 
 Scrip. V. 2, p. 80.) 
 
 which he should bear in mind to be only a 
 facsimile of a manuscript of the tenth cen- 
 tury. The names of the neumes transformed 
 into notes will be found in Walter Odington's 
 treatise (p. 213). and in some other treatises 
 in M. de Coussemaker's collection. 
 
 Notazione musicale (It.) The system 
 of musical notation. 
 
 Note. A sign of a sound made of various 
 shapes to denote relative duration. Hence, 
 the term is used generally for the sounds of 
 which notes are signs, as when we say of a 
 singer that his high notes are good, or that 
 a player plays wrong notes. [Nota.] 
 
 Note {Fr.) A note, as, note dibsee, a 
 sharpened note ; note d'agrement, a grace note, 
 note of transition ; note de passage, a passing- 
 note ; note sensible, the leading note or sub- 
 tonic ; notes de goM, notes of embellish- 
 ment. 
 
 Notturno {It.) Originally, a kind of 
 serenade ; now a piece of music of a gentle 
 and quiet character. 
 
 Notula (Lat.) The notes used in writing 
 ligatures. [Ligature.] 
 
 Noursingh. An Indian horn or trumpet, 
 formed of a straight metallic tube. It is 
 supported in a horizontal position by means 
 of a long stick. 
 
 Novemole. [Nonuplet.] 
 
 Nuances (Fr.) Shades of musical ex- 
 pression. 
 
 Nuovo, di (It.) Again. 
 
 Nut. The fixed bridge formed by a slight 
 prominence or ridge at the upper end of the 
 strings of instruments of the violin and guitar 
 family. 
 
 (3i5 ) 
 
-OBOE. 
 
 O. 
 
 O. A circle, formerly the sign of Tempus 
 perfectum, as the incomplete circle C was of 
 Tempus imperfectum. [See Tempus, Modus 
 and Prolatio.] 
 
 O (It.) Or ; as, flauto o violino, flute or 
 violin. 
 
 Oaten-pipe. The simplest form of a reed 
 pipe, a straw with a strip cut to form the reed, 
 at the end closed by the knot. 
 
 Ob. Abb : of Oboe, also of obbligato. 
 
 Obbligato {It.) An instrumental part or 
 accompaniment of such importance that it 
 cannot be dispensed with. 
 
 Ober {Ger.) Over or upper, as, Ober- 
 manual, or Oberwerk, the upper manual ; 
 Oberstimme, and Obertheil, upper part. 
 
 Oblige (Fr.) [Obbligato.] 
 
 Oblique motion. When one part moves 
 and the other remains stationary. [Motion.] 
 
 Oboe. One of the most ancient, as also 
 one of the most charming instruments of 
 music. In some of the Egyptian pipes in 
 the British Museum were found pieces of 
 thin wood or straw inserted into the tubes in 
 such a manner as to suggest at once the 
 similarity between them and the oboe. In all 
 probability the Greeks used instruments of 
 this class, although they called them by the 
 general name of "flute." That the reeds 
 used were very small, and of more perishable 
 material than the tubes into which they were 
 inserted, is quite sufficient to account for the 
 fact that we have not discovered a pipe with 
 a reed fixed in it ready for use, among Greek 
 antiquities. Moreover, it must be remembered 
 that musicians do and always did carry their 
 reeds and mouthpieces about, separated from 
 the instrument. The word yXiixrcoKOfiov proves 
 that Greek players were not exceptions to 
 this rule. Almost all European nations have 
 some form or other of the oboe in use, though 
 the different kinds vary much in their merits 
 as musical instruments, some being in the 
 simplest form of a reed-pipe played by 
 mountaineers, as the chalumeau (from calamus, 
 a reed), which is still played by the peasantry 
 in the Tyrol, and the piffero pastorale of the 
 Italians, a similar instrumenttothe chalumeau, 
 calledSchalmey by the Germans, and formerly 
 
 shalm or shawm in England. The immediate 
 forerunner of the modern oboe Vvfas the bom- 
 bardino, or little bombardo, called by the 
 Italians bombardo piccolo, a kind of chalumeau. 
 The date of the introduction of the oboe is 
 about 1720, but from the mention in Bach's 
 Passion-music of two kinds of oboe, the oboe 
 d'amore and oboe da caccia, it is evident 
 that well-known varieties were in use in his 
 time. The oboe d'amore, which was also 
 called oboe luonga, produced a delicate and 
 sweet tone, while the oboe da caccia corres- 
 ponded to the tenoroon oboe, or corno inglese. 
 The latter, though not in common use, is 
 occasionally introduced into the scores of 
 modern operas, as in Halevy's Jewess, 
 Meyerbeer's Huguenots, &c. 
 
 The oboe now in use owes its large com- 
 pass, like many other wind instruments, 
 to the overblowing of the player, which brings 
 into existence a set of overtones. The over- 
 tones of the oboe are similar to those of an 
 open pipe, that is, they are represented by 
 the numbers i, 2, 3, 4, &c., while on the 
 other hand, the overtones ' of a clarinet 
 correspond to those of a stopped pipe as re- 
 presented by 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. The notes lying just 
 between the sounds produced by the natural 
 length of the pipe (as shortened also by 
 finger-holes and keys), and those produced 
 by an altered pressure of wind from the 
 player's mouth, always present difficulties of 
 execution when required to be played in 
 rapid succession. The clarinet has a single 
 reed ; the oboe, a double one. The extreme 
 compass of the oboe now in use is two 
 octaves and one fifth, namely : 
 
 mMM=, 
 
 with the intermediate semitones, subject to 
 certain limitations in their use. Some in- 
 struments have the low Bl? 
 
 i 
 
 Iw- 
 
 but it is not yet commonly met with. The 
 compass given above should be very much 
 
 ( 317 ) 
 
OBOE OPEN DIAPASON. 
 
 curtailed for general use, the four or five 
 lower notes being weak and thin, the two or 
 three upper notes harsh and shrill. The 
 latter, however, are not objectionable in 
 fortissimo passages in tutti parts. The 
 following shakes, lying between intervals 
 played with difficulty, are given by Berlioz 
 (Instrumentation) as difficult : 
 
 J 
 
 *J ■»■ sr tr tr tr 
 
 
 i 
 
 -9^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 The following are impossible (and all tonal 
 or semitonal shakes above this) : 
 
 The oboe is more effective, because more 
 easily played, in simple keys, than in keys 
 with many sharps or flats ; and in simple 
 passages, than such as are complicated or 
 rapid. As an instrument of a pastoral cha- 
 racter it can be cheerful or plaintive ; it pos- 
 sesses also in its peculiar quality of tone, the 
 wail of grief or agitation, but it has also the 
 poWer of soothing and calming the mind 
 after disturbing influences. 
 
 Oboe. An organ stop consisting of reed 
 pipes, slightly conical and surmounted by a 
 bell and cap, of 8ft. pitch. The tone is thin 
 and soft. An orchestral oboe is an organ 
 stop intended as a more perfect imitation of 
 the orchestral instrument than that ordinarily 
 made. 
 
 Oboe da caccia. The "hunting" oboe, 
 a large kind of oboe. [Oboe.] 
 
 Oboe d'amore. The oboe " of love." A 
 small oboe. [Oboe.] 
 
 Oboist. A player on the oboe. 
 
 Oboista {It.) An oboist 
 
 Ocarina [It.) A series of seven musical 
 instruments made of terra cotta pierced with 
 small holes, invented by a company of per- 
 formers calling themselves the Mountaineers 
 of the Apennines. With these instruments, 
 which are of a soft and sweet, yet "travelling" 
 quality of tone, operatic melodies with simply 
 harmonised accompaniments were given. 
 
 Octave, (i) The interval of an eighth. 
 It may be major, minor, or augmented, e.g. : 
 
 It was the diapason of the Greek system. 
 (2) The first note of theharmonic scale. (3) An 
 organ stop of 4ft. pitch on the manuals, or 
 
 8ft. on the pedals. (4) The eight days follow 
 ing a great festival of the Church. 
 
 Octiphonium {Lat.) [Ottetto.J 
 
 Octochord. An instrument with eight 
 strings. 
 
 Octuor {Fr.) [Ottetto.J 
 
 Octuplet. A group of eight notes which 
 are to be played in the time of six. 
 
 Odeon. li^Eiov (Gk.), Odeum (Lat.) A 
 building in which odes or other works could be 
 performed for public approval or private rivalry. 
 
 OEuvre (Fr.) Opus or work; as, ceuvre 
 premiere, Opus 1 ; chefd'ceuvre, a masterpiece. 
 
 Offen (Ger.) Open ; as, Offenjibte, open • 
 flute, an organ flute-stop. [Flute.] 
 
 Offertoire (Fr), Offertorio {It.), Offer- 
 torium {Lat.) [Offertory.] 
 
 Offertory, (i) The collection of alms 
 during the celebration of Holy Communion. 
 (2) A piece of music performed during the 
 Offertory. 
 
 Oficleida {It.) [Ophicleide.] 
 
 Ohne {Ger.) Without; as, ohne Fed., 
 without Pedals ; ohne Begleitungen without 
 accompaniments. 
 
 Oioueae. The vowels of "World without 
 end. Amen," an imitation of the Evovae, the 
 vowels of " seculorum amen," used to desig- 
 nate the ending of a mode. [Evovae.] 
 
 Oliphant. The name of an obsolete 
 species of Horn, so-called because it was 
 made of ivory (olifaunt, olivant, olyfaunce, 
 being old forms of the word elephant). Three 
 specimens of this instrument are in Ken- 
 sington Museum, two of the eleventh century, 
 one of the fifteenth. 
 
 Ombi. A harp used by negroes in Western 
 Africa, the strings of which are made of 
 fibrous root or creepers. It bears a strong 
 resemblance to the Oriental harp. 
 
 Omnes, omnia {Lat.) Chorus or Tutti. 
 
 Omquad. The name of the refrain of 
 some old Danish ballads, called the " Kampe 
 Viser." 
 
 OnagOn. A Chippawa drum. 
 
 Ondeggiamento, ondeggiante(/i.) With 
 an undulating, or quivering sound ; making 
 a tremolo. 
 
 Onduliren {Ger.) To make a tremolo, 
 or produce an undulating tone. 
 
 OnduI<6 (Fr.) Undulating. [Ondeggia- 
 mento.] 
 
 'Ood or Oud. An Egyptian instrument of 
 a similar character to the guitar, q. v. It is 
 flat on the upper surface and convex at the 
 back. The neck is like that of the guitar but 
 without frets, and there are seven pairs of 
 strings, each pair tuned in unison. The 
 player uses a plectrum formed of a strip of 
 vulture's quill. [Lute.] 
 
 Open Diapason. The name in England 
 of the chief open foundation stop of an 
 
 ( 318) 
 
OPEN HARMONY OPERA. 
 
 organ, called by Germans " Principal " or 
 "Prestant," and by French "Principal," or if 
 in front, " Montre." On the manuals it is of 
 metal, on the pedal organ of metal or wood. 
 The metal pipes of this stop are cylindrical, 
 and of the best material. A great number of 
 foreign organs, and a few in England, contain 
 open diapasons made of pure tin (Organ, 
 § 13). It is, however, more commonly made 
 of spotted metal, or of an equal mixture of 
 tin and lead. If two or more open diapasons 
 are allotted to one row of keys, they are made 
 of different scales, in order that they may not 
 destroy each other. One is then sometimes 
 called large, another small. This stop is of 
 Ht. length on the manuals, and i6ft. on the 
 pedals, unless stated to the contrary on the 
 register. 
 
 Open Harmony. Chords formed by as 
 equidistant a disposition of the parts as pos- 
 sible, e.g. : 
 
 as opposed to 
 
 m 
 
 Open Notes. Of stringed instruments, 
 — the notes of the open strings {q. v.) Of 
 wind instruments, such as the horn, trumpet, 
 &c., the series of natural harmonies which 
 can be produced by the lip of the performer 
 without the assistance of a slide, key, or 
 piston. 
 
 Open Pipe. A pipe open at the top, as 
 opposed to one closed at the top. The pitch 
 of a closed pipe is approximately one octave 
 lower than that of an open pipe of the same 
 length. [Organ, § 14.] 
 
 Open Score. When each part has a 
 separate line assigned to it, music is said to 
 be in open score. When more than one part 
 is written in each line, in close or short score. 
 
 Open Strings. Strings producing the 
 sounds assigned to them according to the 
 " accordatura," or system of tuning belonging 
 to the particular instrument. Strings are 
 said to be stopped when their pitch is altered 
 by the pressure of the finger. 
 
 Opera (It.) A dramatic entertainment, in 
 which music forms an essential and not merely 
 an accessory part. Rousseau declares that 
 Opera does not mean so much a musical work, 
 as a musical, poetical, and spectacular work 
 all at once, and the same definition is insisted 
 upon by Wagner. This, scarcely the exact or 
 true meaning of the term even now, was still 
 less true in the days in which' it was first 
 written, as many works well known at the 
 time, Rousseau's among the number, do not 
 answer this description. The various titles 
 given to works included in the general term 
 
 Opera, also argue against Rousseau's defini- 
 tion, for if opera meant all he declares it does, 
 there would scarcely be any need to speak 
 of operas as scenica, tragica, sacra, regia, 
 comica, esemplare, regia ed esemplare, etc. 
 Algarotti calls his work on the opera " Saggio 
 sopra I'Opera in musica," a title he could 
 scarcely have given with propriety if the 
 word Opera implied even music, much less if 
 it included all the terms used by Rousseau. 
 The opera, as we now understand it, is 
 composed of solos, recitatives, duets, trios, 
 quartetts or other pieces for single voices ; 
 choruses and finales ; accompanied throughout 
 with instruments variously combined to pro- 
 duce certain desired effects. Overtures or 
 introductions precede the whole work or its 
 several acts in nearly every case. The dra- 
 matic effect is aided by the accessories of 
 costumes and scenery, but they are not abso- 
 lutely indispensable portions of an Opera. 
 The libretto or book of words, rarely possesses 
 any claim to literary merit, but serves as a 
 mere framework for the purposes of the com- 
 poser. 
 
 Recitative is a species of musical decla- 
 mation, not necessarily in rhythmical form, 
 but so arranged or designed as to assimilate 
 musical sounds as near as possible to ordinary 
 speech. 
 
 In many of the German and French operas 
 of a lighter character, spoken dialogue is in- 
 troduced in the place of recitative, and the 
 same practice is often observed in English 
 opera, so called. 
 
 There are many varieties of opera, but the 
 chief are : the grand opera or opera seria, the 
 romantic opera, or opera drammatica ; and the 
 comic opera, or opera buffa. There are of 
 course many works which partake of more 
 than one of the styles indicated by the above 
 divisions, but as a rule, these three classes 
 are sufficiently distinct. 
 
 The opera is of Italian origin, and of com-" 
 paratively modern date, and is the immediate 
 successor of the miracle-plays with music, 
 as the Oratorio is pf^the ancient mysteries. 
 The consideration ; of the important part 
 played by music mme performance of the 
 ancient Greel^'dramk, has given probability to 
 the idea of a high antii|uity for opera; and 
 Menestrier (c. 1670) whose ingenuity has 
 made him a favourite authority in musical 
 history, considers the soij^ of Solomon as 
 the earliest ope^r^. extaritv The" first compo- 
 sition in any way " resembling the lyric 
 opera of later date, is said to be a work by 
 Adam de la Hale, called " Le gieus de Robin 
 et de Marian," produced some time in the 13th 
 century. But as few trustworthy particulars 
 have descended to us, there is nothing but the 
 mere statement to rely upon. The title of this 
 
 319 ) 
 
OPERA. 
 
 early opera implies, however, that it had 
 some degree of connection with the ancient 
 secular plays sometimes performed as a relief 
 to the mysteries. The deeds or " gests " of 
 " Robin Hood and Maid Marian," form the 
 subject of more than one early play. Sir 
 John Hawkins, in his " History of the Science 
 and Practice of Music," declares that " the 
 invention of the musical drama or opera is 
 due to Emilio del Cavaliere, who in the year 
 1590 exhibited in the palace of the Grand 
 Duke of Florence, II Satiro and La Dispera- 
 zione di Fileno, two dramas of the pastoral 
 kind set to music." Others state that Ottavio 
 Rinuccini is the inventor, and that the first 
 opera (performed privately) was called Dafne, 
 and that this was followed by the production of 
 Eurydice, in the year 1600, the music to both 
 works being furnished by Jacopo Peri, one of 
 the inventors of recitative. But there is evi- 
 dence to show that a musical dram.a by Claudio 
 Merulo was performed in 1574 at Venice, 
 when Henry HI. passed on his way from 
 Poland to France tq claim the crown. Claudio 
 Monteverde, a member of a society called the 
 Florentine Academy, who also set to music 
 Rinuccini'sZ?a/M«, introduced an improvement 
 by giving great importance to the accom- 
 paniments. One of Monteverde's operas, 
 L'OrfeOjVrsLS the first of the kind printed with 
 the music The dramatis personce and the 
 instruments used in performance are worth 
 quoting. 
 
 Personaggi. 
 La Musica Prologo 
 
 Orfeo 
 
 Eurydice 
 
 Choro di Ninfe e Pastori 
 
 Speranza 
 
 Caronte 
 
 Choro di spirit! inferni 
 
 Proserpina 
 
 Plutone 
 
 Apollo 
 
 Choro di pastori che 
 
 fecero la Moresca 
 
 nel fine 
 
 Stromenti. 
 
 Duoi Gravicembani (Cla- 
 
 vicembali.) 
 Duoi Contrabass! de 
 
 Viola. 
 Dieci Viole di Brazzo. 
 Un Arpa doppio 
 Duoi Violini piccoli alia 
 
 Francese. 
 Duoi Chittaroni 
 Duoi organi di legno. 
 Tre bassi di gamba 
 Quattro tromboni. 
 Un Regale. 
 
 Duoi Cornetti. 
 
 Un Flautina alia Vigesima 
 
 seconda. 
 Un Clarino con tre tromi-e 
 
 sordine. 
 
 There was scarcely any difference between 
 the church music of the period and the 
 operas, inasmuch as both were in the same 
 conventional forms, and with little attempt 
 at religious or dramatic expression. The 
 choruses in the early operas were written 
 in what is called the Madrigal style, and were 
 seldom essential parts of the work ; there were 
 instrumental preludes to each of the acts, and 
 the artifice of accompanying a certain voice 
 with a special instrument was occasionally 
 
 employed. As the study of music progressed, 
 and the capabilities of the instruments form- 
 ing the orchestra came to be better understood, 
 the lyric drama began to assume its present 
 character. Of the vast number of Italian 
 operas produced up to the middle of the last 
 century, only one, Cimarosa's Matrimonio 
 Segreto, retains its place upon the stage. 
 Though not absolutely the founder of the 
 modern Italian school, Cherubini may be said 
 to have inaugurated it. After the production 
 of his first operas at Milan, he settled in 
 France, leaving the direction of the opera to 
 the illustrious Rossini. The versatility of 
 Rossini's genius is well shown in those of his 
 operas that keep their places upon the lyric 
 stage, for although Semiramide, II Barbiere, 
 Otello, La Gazza Ladra, and Guillaume Tell, 
 contain much that is bad and unworthy, among 
 some noble thoughts nobly expressed, yet 
 each opera is distinct in style and treatment. 
 As a melodist Bellini ranks next in order 
 of merit, as he does in point of time, and his 
 operas Norma, I Puritani, and La Sonnambula 
 give greater pleasure through the beauty 
 of their melodies, than they do by their dra- 
 matic force. The same power of melody is the 
 chief attraction in Donizetti's operas, but this 
 last named composer has shown in Lucrezia 
 Borgia, La Favorita, and in Lucia di Lammer- 
 moor, that he was also gifted with the spirit 
 of conveying dramatic expression, though 
 scarcely in so great a degree as his successor 
 Verdi. Rossini, who found Italian opera weak 
 from inanity, by the efforts of his genius, 
 made it strong and powerful, but the charm of 
 melody with which he graced the revived form 
 had greater fascinations for his followers than 
 dramatic vigour, the real life and soul of 
 opera. Italian opera has quietly subsided 
 into the lifeless state in which it was found by 
 Rossini, for there is no representative com- 
 poser worthy or willing to develop and per- 
 petuate that which is considered as the true 
 Italian school, the characteristics of which 
 are wealth of melody, sentiment without 
 pathos, and little regard for instrumental effect. 
 Rossini, by the infusion of a foreign element, 
 departed in some degree from the standard 
 models, for until his time German music was 
 held in the greatest contempt in Italy, but he 
 laid the foundation for a taste among his 
 countrymen for the despised music by quietly 
 introducing in his works many of the charac- 
 teristics held to be essentially Teutonic, and 
 at variance with the established orthodox style 
 of operatic music. Verdi, the next great 
 composer after Rossini, shows in his com- 
 positions the result of the grafting of German 
 ideas upon an Italian stock. 
 
 His works, while possessing many points 
 peculiar to Italian music, really belong to 
 
 ( 320 ) 
 
OPERA. 
 
 the German school of art, as much because of 
 the freedom displayed in the instrumentation, 
 as the evident and often successful attempt to 
 impart the expression of passion by means of 
 pure declamation. Therefore, as Verdi is 
 accepted as the modern exponent of Italian 
 opera, it may be safely said that Italian opera 
 proper has almost ceased to exist. 
 
 The introduction of the opera into France is 
 said to have been the work of LuUy, but it is 
 stated upon better authority, that the credit 
 rests with Cardinal Mazarin ; for there exists 
 the record of the performance in Paris of an 
 opera in Italian in 1645, a time when Lully 
 was only in his twelfth year. It is also affirmed 
 that the first opera performed in Paris was 
 the composition of an Italian, named Baltza- 
 rini, also called Beaujoyeux, who came to 
 France in the year 1580, and was afterwards 
 made valet de chambre to the queen of Louis 
 XIII. In the year 1669 the Abbe Perrin 
 obtained a patent from Louis XIV. to estab- 
 lish an academy of music, the former privilege 
 granted by Charles IX. to Antoine le Baif 
 having become valueless. Under the rule 
 of the Abbe the first opera in French delighted 
 the ears of the Parisians. Notwithstanding 
 the popularity of Lully and his successors, and 
 the influence of court patronage-r-which may 
 be said, in passing, to be not always of the 
 best advantage to art — the French have failed 
 to establish a school of grand opera peculiar 
 to themselves, and it was not until the time 
 of Auber that they were able to claim any 
 individuality in opera at all. 
 
 The support of the French court dying with 
 Louis XI v., opera in France suffered many 
 vicissitudes, until new life was infused into 
 operatic taste at the beginning of the present 
 century, from which time opera has been 
 steadily encouraged, many of the best works 
 of modem time having been first produced 
 in Paris. 
 
 The encouragement given to the production 
 of grand opera in Paris, does not establish a 
 right for the French to lay claim to the works 
 so brought out as belonging to their school of 
 art, a mistake which they and others seem 
 inclined to make. 
 
 The greatest triumphs of musical art in 
 France were first gained by Gluck' and there 
 is no doubt but that such individuality as the 
 French composers have been able to gain for 
 themselves, is due to the example set by him. 
 This individuality, if such it may be called, is 
 to be found in the writings of Gretry, Mehul, 
 Boieldieu, Halevy, Auber, and Gounod, which 
 upon examination will be found to be of a 
 composite character, as much Italian as 
 German, and more Italian and German than 
 French. 
 
 The history of attempts to establish a school 
 
 of national opera in England would be a mere 
 record of rash and unfortunate speculations. 
 The example set by Purcell has never been 
 successfully followed, and while he has been 
 proudly pointed to as the founder of the 
 English school of opera, two centuries have 
 passed, and scholars are still wanting to the 
 school. 
 
 Purcell's operas, judged by the ordinary 
 standard, and not by the three-fold character- 
 istics demanded in our own days, have 
 especial claims to consideration. The happy 
 union of words and music in them was far in 
 advance of an)^hing that had been produced 
 before. The delicacy of expression with 
 which his compositions abound has not been 
 surpassed by any subsequent English opera 
 composer. His occasional " barbarisms," as 
 they have been called, may be considered as 
 " unavoidable compliances with the false 
 taste of the age in which he lived." 
 
 After Purcell's death there was no attempt 
 made to continue English opera. Works in 
 Italian alone occupied the attention of the 
 public, until burlesqued and driven out 
 of fashion by the " Beggars' Opera." The 
 " Beggars' Opera," which keeps a certain 
 place upon the stage, is a mere pasticcio of 
 old tunes, popular for that reason, but value- 
 less as a representative of English opera. 
 With the exception of " Artaxerxes," by 
 Dr. Arne, the majority of the operas of the 
 last century were composed of old fragments 
 by various writers, bonuwed either with or ■ 
 without acknowledgment. 
 
 The pioneer of modern English opera was 
 Sir Henry Bishop, who deserves to be honour- 
 ably named, some of his concerted works being 
 remarkable for originality and vigour, and 
 others for beauty of melody and form, so that 
 the ungrateful neglect into which his music has 
 fallen is inexplicable. It is true that he quoted 
 thoughts from other writers, when he found 
 those ideas better suited to his purpose than 
 his own inventions, but it has yet to be deter- 
 mined how far in music such a license is 
 damaging to general originality. In literature 
 quotations are frequently considered to 
 enhance the force of the subject treated of, 
 and the writer is praised as the possessor of 
 extensive knowledge, as a scholar and as a 
 man of taste ; but in music, as there are no 
 means to make extracts distinguishable, all 
 such introductions are stigmatised by the 
 ugly name of plagiarisms. Bishop's writings 
 were received with great favour in their day, 
 and are not without value as contributions to 
 art. Considering this, and noting the success 
 attained by^the productions of Balfe, Wallace, 
 Macfarren, and others, in recent times, some 
 hope is inspired that an English opera is 
 possible in the future, more especially when 
 
 - ( 321 ) 
 
OPERA. 
 
 it is called to mind how immense are the dis- 
 advantages under which Englishmen labour 
 in their endeavours to obtain a just re- 
 cognition of their unquestionable musical 
 merit. 
 
 The first important step necessary towards 
 the founding of a good and permanent school 
 of English operatic music, must be the dis- 
 covery of a poet-musician or musician-poet, 
 one who has perfect command over and fami- 
 liar acquaintance with his language, an exact 
 sense of the requirements of the musician, and 
 the power of writing sensible, effective and 
 useful combinations of words in vigorous and 
 telling English. 
 
 Italian opera was introduced into England 
 in 1706, when Arsinoe was performed at 
 Drury Lane theatre, but to English words. 
 The first opera performed in Italian was 
 Almahide, by a company of Italian singers 
 (ridiculed by Addison in the Spectator when 
 still smarting under the failure of his Rosa- 
 mund) ; this was succeeded by others, and 
 ended in the establishment of Italian opera in 
 England. Handel did much towards securing 
 this end, and was himself the composer of 
 44 operas, all of which are now forgotten. 
 The operas of the period were not of the 
 complicated character of the modern opera, 
 but consisted of a few songs, with or without 
 recitative, and but slight instrumental accom- 
 paniments, the harpsichord supplying all 
 deficiencies. For the later progress of Italian 
 opera in England see History of the Opera 
 (1863) by Sutherland Edwards, Memoirs of 
 the Musical Drama (1851) by George 
 Hogarth, and Eber's Seven years of the King's 
 theatre. 
 
 For some years past there have been two 
 companies performing Italian opera in Lon- 
 don, and it is not an uncommon occurrence 
 to find excellent representations in the more 
 important provincial towns. In addition to 
 a large staff of principal singers of both sexes, 
 an opera company consists of from 60 to 
 80 chorus singers, male and female, about 
 10 first violin players and 10 seconds, 8 violas, 
 8 violoncellos, 8 double basses, 2 flutes, 2 
 hautboys, 2 bassoons, 2 clarinets, 4 horns, 
 2 trumpets or cornets, 3 trombones, i pair of 
 kettle-drums, i great drum ai||d cymbals, 
 with a military band occasionally appearing 
 in the costume supposed to be proper 
 upon the stage, a conductor, a prompter, 
 maestro al piano, and chorus master. When 
 the score requires the use of the cor anglais, 
 bass clarinet, and other rarely used instru- 
 ments the players upon instruments of like 
 character in the orchestra perform on those 
 instruments. The works are produced in 
 Italian in London, independently of the 
 language in which they may have been origi- 
 
 nally written, and the patronage bestowed is 
 great and encouraging, though without being 
 subsidised by Government, as is the case in 
 most foreign cities. The opera is resorted 
 to less now as a matter of fashion, than as 
 the result of a real taste for this species of 
 entertainment. Many of the operas are 
 placed upon the stage in the most magni- 
 ficent style, with scenery that is in many 
 instances beautiful as artistic work, and with 
 costumes and other accessories remarkable for 
 their historical accuracy. This excellence is 
 not confined to operas produced in Paris or 
 London, but is extended to other continental 
 cities, so that without admitting the definition 
 of Rousseau as a necessity, opera is frequently 
 found to combine the several characteristics 
 spoken of by him. 
 
 It is in Germany that the highest forms of 
 development have been made, the expression 
 of passion, the perfection of instrumental 
 accompaniments, orchestral colouring and 
 scientific writing, being especially due to 
 German invention and influence. 
 
 Gluck, the founder of the French school 
 of opera, was a German, and as already inti- 
 mated, to a fellow-countryman of his, George 
 Frederic Handel, the establishment of Italian 
 opera as an entertainment in England is due. 
 That which Monteverde began, Gluck revived, 
 Mozart continued, and subsequent composers 
 have expanded and extended, and the instru- 
 mental accompaniments to an opera are 
 becoming equally as important as the vocal 
 portion, in illustrating the emotions aroused 
 by the story upon which the general subject 
 is based. In Mozart's operas, Idomeneo, 
 Le Nozze di Figaro, Zauherflote, and Don 
 Giovanni, the construction is such that, 
 while they delight the educated musician 
 by the ingenuity with which the resources 
 are managed, they also give the highest 
 pleasure to the unscientific lover of music ; 
 and by this means, the widest and most 
 lasting popularity is secured. Following 
 Mozart, the greatest operas are Fidelio 
 by Beethoven, Oberon, Euryanthe, and Der 
 Freischiltz by Weber, Faust by Spohr, Les 
 Huguenots, Robert le Diable, L'Btoile du 
 Nord, and Le Prophete by Meyerbeer. It 
 was Mozart's music that dealt the first 
 serious blow to the supremacy of Italian 
 music in Europe — a blow which it has not 
 yet recovered. 
 
 The further extension of musical expedients 
 has been attempted by Wagner, with large 
 and growing success. In his early operas, 
 Rienzi and Der Fliegende Hollander, Wagner 
 has few of the advanced thoughts upon which 
 later he founded his claim to originality. In 
 his volume of essays, " Oper und das Drama," 
 he sets forth his ideas upon the composition 
 
 ( 322 ) 
 
OPERIST— ORATORIO. 
 
 of opera. He maintains that " opera consists 
 of music, poetry, and dramatic effect, and 
 these should not be made separate objects, 
 but should mutually combine and aid each 
 other." In taking credit to himself for having 
 reformed the opera by effecting this com- 
 bination for the first time he is wrong, for 
 the same union was attempted by Meyerbeer 
 in his operas ; he is in error also in believ- 
 ing that the contrivance of announcing or 
 accompanying certain characters by the use 
 of special instruments is his own idea, for 
 Monteverde, and nearly all the early opera 
 composers, with very limited resources at 
 their disposal, had adopted the like plan. 
 The innovations for which he deserves most 
 credit are those which he does not insist upon 
 as novelties, yet for which his name will be 
 remembered by posterity as the pioneer of a 
 new path. The first is in not marring his 
 situation by the introduction of symmetrical 
 and wearisome melodies, and the second 
 and more important is the restoration of 
 tonic harmonies in place of the well used 
 and almost worn out dominant harmo- 
 nies. He may also claim credit for being 
 possessed of the faculty of writing his own 
 libretti. The words of his later operas are 
 adapted to a declamatory style of recitative, 
 without what is known as "airs," and accom- 
 panied by harmonies and instrumentation 
 according to the spirit of the situation. 
 Wagner's eccentricities, his impatience of ad- 
 verse opinions among others, have been, and 
 still are, the self-imposed bars to his being 
 accepted as the founder of an advanced 
 school; but his firm stand against musical 
 conventionalities has set many clever musi- 
 cians thinking in his train, with a result that 
 cannot possibly be without good influence 
 over coming generations. 
 
 Operist {Ger.) An opera singer. 
 
 Ophicleide. A keyed serpent, (o^ie and 
 «:\etc). A brass instrument of large compass 
 and great power, but having so peculiar a 
 quality of tone as to necessitate careful treat- 
 ment by a composer. There are two sorts of 
 ophicleides, alto and bass. The bass instru- 
 ment has a compass of three octaves and one 
 note, from 
 
 with all the intermediate semitones. Bass 
 ophicleides in Bb produce, of course, sounds 
 one whole tone below those written, and those 
 in A7, sounds a majorthird below those written. 
 The ophicleide is capable of a great deal of 
 execution, if not too chromatic and too low 
 m its compass. The alto ophicleide has a 
 compass similar in extent to that of the bass 
 
 instrument, but starting from a note one 
 octave higher, that is from 
 
 m 
 
 to 
 
 m 
 
 But as the alto ophicleide is in F or Eb, the 
 real sounds produced will be a major fifth or 
 major sixth lower than the notes written. 
 Three or four of the lowest notes and two or 
 three of the highest notes should be avoided. 
 This instrument is not so satisfactory as its 
 bass fellow, and is therefore but rarely heard. 
 The quality of the tone is not unpleasant, 
 but it does not combine well with that of 
 other members of the orchestra. This un- 
 pleasant prominence of character tends to 
 limit the use of the instrument. 
 
 Opus {Lat.) A work. Composers number 
 their works for purposes of distinction and 
 reference. 
 
 Opusculum {Lat.) A short work. 
 
 Oratorio (Ital.) A composition for voices 
 and instruments illustrating some subject 
 taken directly from scripture or paraphrased 
 upon some theme in sacred history. The 
 music consists of symphonies or overtures, 
 airs, recitatives, duets, trios, choruses, &c., 
 with accompaniments for orchestra or organ. 
 
 The origin and growth of oratorio is 
 almost coeval with that of opera, both being 
 developments of the early forms of drama, or, 
 to speak more clearly, oratorio may be said 
 to be the successor of the mediaeval Mystery 
 play, as was the opera of the Morality. 
 In both cases the poetical description of the 
 subjects chosen is accompanied with music, 
 but wfth this difference, that whereas the 
 opera requires also scenery and dramatic 
 action in its representation, oratorio is now 
 performed without either. 
 
 The soldiers and pilgrims of the first 
 crusade, in their attempts to delineate drama- 
 tically the Passion of our Lord, and other 
 incidents of sacred history, together with the 
 legends of the deeds and endurance of saints 
 and martyrs, imitated the practice observed 
 in the performance of secular plays by the 
 introduction of music at these representa- 
 tions. It is probable that more than one of 
 the hymns written by St. Bernard of Morlaix 
 and others living about the time were contri- 
 buted for this purpose, and that the audience 
 joined in the singing. As many of the 
 first oratorios were mystical expositions of 
 doctrine such as that described in many 
 of the early hymns, some colour is given 
 to the supposition that musical exposi- 
 tion and teaching in the form known as 
 oratorio may be as old as the time of the 
 Crusades. It was not until five centuries 
 later that it was made a recognised and dis- 
 
 ( 323 ) 
 
ORATORIO. 
 
 tinct medium of mstruction and pleasure. 
 St. Philip Neri, in the endeavour to establish 
 firmly the institution he had founded in Rome, 
 and also moved by a desire to win the people 
 to the observance of religious duties, relied 
 upon the universal love for music to gain his 
 object. With this intention he engaged Gio- 
 vanni Animuccia, a Florentine, as his Maestro 
 di Cappella, who during his connection with the 
 oratory produced several musical pieces, con- 
 sisting of motetts, psalms, and songs of praise 
 set to Latin and Italian words, known by 
 the general title of " Laudi Spirituali." Ani- 
 muccia published his first collection at Rome 
 in 1563. The character of these compositions 
 is similar to that known as the madrigal 
 style, and these " laudi " have been taken 
 as the origin of that class of composition. 
 Animuccia was afterwards appointed choir- 
 master to the Vatican, a post he held until his 
 death in 1571, when he was succeeded by 
 Palestrina. 
 
 The experiment succeeded so well that not 
 only was a new form of composition origi- 
 nated, but what was probably more to the 
 purpose of the founder, the congregation of 
 the Fathers of the Oratory was placed upon 
 so firm a basis that it exists to the present 
 day. These musical performances were 
 divided into two parts, a short form of prayer 
 preceding the first, a sermon the second, the 
 whole being concluded with religious exer- 
 cises. By this plan those, who came for the 
 main purpose of the music were constrained to 
 take part in the devotional observances, and 
 doubtless, obtained much spiritual advantage. 
 If in the performance of oratorio at the 
 annual festivals in some of our English cathe- 
 drals the same or a similar arrangement were 
 adopted, much of the scandal now accruing 
 might be unquestionably avoided if not totally 
 suppressed. 
 
 By degrees, the psalms and spiritual songs 
 gave place to sacred stories or events in 
 scripture written in verse, sometimes in 
 dialogue, and set to music. The subjects most 
 popular in early times were — The Good 
 Samaritan, The Prodigal Son, Tobit with the 
 Angel, The Sacrifice of Abraham, and others, 
 and the name of the place where these were 
 first heard was given to the class of music 
 performed. The first work in any way cor- 
 responding to the more modern form of 
 oratorio, with solos, recitatives, choruses, and 
 orchestral accompaniments was called La 
 Rappresentazione di Anima e di Corpo, com- 
 posed by Emilio del Cavaliere, performed in 
 .the oratory of the Church of Santa Maria 
 della Vallicella at Rome in 1600. Ten years 
 previously Cavaliere had produced two pas- 
 toral dramas at Florence, and he has, there- 
 fore, claim to the honour of being considered 
 
 as one of the first writers, if not the inventor 
 of opera. Cavaliere's oratorio was represented 
 in action on a stage erected in the church, with 
 scenery and costumes ; dances were also intro- 
 duced. The recitatives in both his operas or 
 oratorios were furnished by Jacopo Peri, and it 
 was supposed that in the introduction of recita- 
 tive the ancient use of the Greeks and Romans 
 was recovered. In the preface to Cavaliere's 
 oratorio each singer is required " to have a 
 fine voice, perfectly in tune, and free from all 
 defects in the delivery of it, with a pathetic 
 expression, the power of swelling and dimin- 
 ishing the tones," and is enjoined to be 
 " particularly attentive to the articulation and 
 expression of the words, and to have an equal 
 respect for- the composer as for the poet." 
 The instruments, consisting of a double lyre, 
 double guitar, a harpsichord, and two flutes, 
 accompanied this oratorio behind the scenes. 
 The choruses served as the music for the 
 dancers, and madrigals commenced and con- 
 cluded the performance. The violin was only 
 sparingly used in the early oratorios, one of 
 the first writers who wrote freely for that 
 instrument being Domenico Mazzochi, and 
 for this reason his name deserves mention 
 among the early composers ; beyond this fact 
 there is nothing remarkable in any of the 
 works produced until the time of Stradella, 
 1670, for the only noticeable points in most 
 of these compositions are the curious mixtures 
 of piety and profanity. Stradella's best ora- 
 torio was on the subject of St. jfohn the 
 Baptist, and, judging from the specimens 
 printed in Martini's " Exemplare di contrap- 
 punto fugato," is remarkable for beauty and 
 sublimity ; the scoring also shows some pro- 
 gress in musical thought, but the work is 
 little known, as it still remains in manuscript. 
 The next writer of importance was Carissimi ; 
 his compositions are marked by sweetness of 
 melody, clever modulations, and skilful har- 
 mony ; his most noted oratorios are the judg- 
 ment of Solomon, and yephtha. '^ne of the 
 choruses in the latter work, " Plorate filise 
 Israel," was appropriated by Handel, and intro- 
 duced into Samson to the words " Hear Jacob's 
 God." The chorus " Exululantes filii Ammon " 
 also forms the conclusion of " With thunder 
 armed "in Samson. " Et clangebant tuba" 
 is imitated in the symphony of " We come in 
 bright array " in jfudas Maccabesus, and the 
 recitative in Alexander's Feast, " He chose 
 a mournful muse " is note for note identical 
 with " Heu mihi, filia mea," from Carissimi's 
 jfephtha. Many other instances might be 
 cited of Handel's obligations to this musician, 
 the most striking and important being that 
 all his recitatives were formed upon the im- 
 proved model furnished by Carissimi, who, in 
 addition to other advancements in music, 
 
 1324 ) 
 
ORATORIO. 
 
 gave great importance to the use of stringed 
 instruments in his accompaniments, made 
 the basses of his compositions move more 
 freely than former masters permitted, and 
 first recommended the introduction of the 
 cantata upon the stage. He died in 1675 
 at a great age. Dean Aldrich, who was an 
 enthusiastic admirer of his works, made a 
 large collection of them, which he placed 
 in the library of Christ Church, Oxford, 
 where it still remains. After Carissimi, 
 Scarlatti deserves the next place of honour, 
 not only as a prolific, but as a thoughtful 
 composer; his works are rarely heard now, 
 except when some of the choruses with 
 Handel's name attached are performed. The 
 device of accompanying recitatives with a 
 string quartett was first tried by Scarlatti, 
 and this plan was followed by Leonardo Leo, 
 whose contrapuntal writing, similar in . cha- 
 racter to Handel's in sublimity and massive- 
 ness, forms the chief beauty of his oratorios 
 and sacred pieces. As a master of counter- 
 point Caldara is worthy of mention, while as 
 melodists Hasse and Pergolesi are best 
 known ; the beauty and grace of melody in 
 these two composers is also to be found in a 
 certain degree in the writings of Jomelli, who 
 was the last of the oratorio writers of the 
 Italian school. 
 
 Like the opera, oratorio arose and was 
 nourished in Italy, to be developed to its 
 highest form by Gerrhan writers, and, although 
 it was permitted to be used in the offices of 
 the Roman church, and was to some extent 
 abused by Italian writers, yet the value of 
 oratorio was recognised by the German 
 reformers of the sixteenth century, who en- 
 couraged its introduction into their churches 
 with a result that ultimately led to its most 
 complete forms. It was formerly the custom 
 in the German Lutheran church to have ora- 
 torios performed with instrumental accom- 
 paniments on solemn occasions ; the congre- 
 gation was encouraged to join at intervals in 
 the chorales or Psalm tunes which were 
 introduced for this purpose. The Passion, 
 according to St. Matthew, by John Sebastian 
 Bach, is an excellent example of this kind of 
 work. [Passion music] Bach, one of the 
 most original, versatile, and prolific writers 
 that the world has yet seen, was born at 
 Eisenach in 1685, and died at Leipsic in 1750. 
 The study of his music has influenced the 
 thoughts and writings of most composers of 
 importance since his time, his organ com- 
 positions have created a new school of 
 players, and the comparatively recent know- 
 ledge of his oratorios and vocal music has 
 shown the extraordinary power and value of 
 his genius, which, unknown or not under- 
 stood in his own time, is now thoroughly 
 
 appreciated. It is quite reasonable to assume 
 that, had his vocal works been earlier 
 known, a greater advance in oratorio music 
 would have been made than has been made. 
 The Passion Music alluded to above is written 
 for two choirs and two orchestras. The 
 choruses and chorales are exquisitely har- 
 monised, the airs are remarkable for tender 
 pathos and truth of expression, and the reci- 
 tatives are notable for the admirable force 
 with which the meaning and intention of the 
 text is conveyed. Bach's oratorios were 
 written for the service of the church, and 
 were never intended for any other purpose, 
 the introduction of the oratorio into secular 
 places being a later idea. The subjects are 
 partly in narrative and partly deductions from 
 the incidents, after the manner of the old 
 Greek chorus. This is the true form of ora- 
 torio as adapted to worship ; but as the 
 oratorio was disused as an aid to devotion, 
 and employed in the theatre and concert 
 room, the narrative form was the one most 
 favoured for the purpose, and it is in this form 
 that the majority of Handel's oratorios are 
 written. 
 
 Handel, who is allowed to be the repre- 
 sentative composer of oratorio, produced his 
 first work. La Besurrezione, while he resided 
 in Italy, before he was twenty years of age. 
 Fifteen years later, while he was organist to 
 the Duke of Chandos, Esther, the first oratorio 
 written by him in England, was brought 
 forward privately ; it was, however, not until 
 1732 that it was produced in public, having 
 been laid aside for twelve years. In the ad- 
 vertisement announcing this performance it 
 was considered necessary to give the follow- 
 ing explanation of the plan, as oratorios were 
 then a novelty in England : " By His 
 Majesty's command, at the King's Theatre in 
 the Haymarket, on Tuesday, the 2nd May, 
 will be performed the sacred story of Esther, 
 an oratorio in English, composed by Mr. 
 Handel, and to be performed by a great 
 number of voices and instruments. N.B. 
 There will be no acting on the stage, but the 
 house will be fitted up in a decent manner for 
 the audience." This explanation was pro- 
 bably made in deference to the objection 
 popularly entertained at the time against any 
 performance savouring of Popery and pro- 
 fanity, and was needful because of the preva- 
 lent prejudice against the dramatic perform- 
 ance of sacred subjects. After the production 
 of Esther Handel was engaged in the pro- 
 duction of operas and other secular works, and 
 in the establishment of his short-lived academy 
 of music — this entailed a loss of health and 
 of much money. After the advanced age 
 of 53, and in defiance of prejudice and 
 failure, he gave to the world those immortal 
 
 ( 325 ) 
 
ORATORIO. 
 
 productions with which his name is now 
 familiarly associated. The majority of these 
 works were performed at the " theatre in the 
 Haymarket," Deborah being first given in 
 1733, Athaliah in 1734, Israel in Egypt in 
 1738, The Messiah in 1741, Samson in 1742, 
 jfudas Maccahceus in 1746, Joshua in 1747, 
 Solomon in 1749, and Jephtha in 1751. The 
 greatest works in this list are Israel in Egypt 
 and The Messiah. In all these, with the ex- 
 ception of the last-named, Handel availed 
 himself freely of the license of appropriating 
 other men's works and incorporating them in 
 his own. It has been said that he has always 
 improved and invigorated all pieces so bor- 
 rowed, but it is hard to believe that the mere 
 adaptation of words different to those origi- 
 nally set can be considered an improvement. 
 Notwithstanding this pillage there is enough 
 originality in Handel to constitute him a great 
 composer, especially when it is considered 
 that the work by which he is most popularly 
 and extensively known. The Messiah, is for 
 the most part his own. It is in broad 
 choral writing that Handel's great strength 
 exists, for he only sparingly employed instru- 
 mental effects, for the orchestra was only 
 imperfectly developed in his time, and he 
 generally employed his instruments more for 
 the sake of supporting the voices than for any 
 peculiar effects of colouring to be obtained 
 from their use. There are some exceptions to 
 this plan, but they are very few; the scantiness 
 of Handel's effects, and the more extensive 
 means employed for the performance of his 
 works, gave rise to the additional parts which 
 have been made for instruments either only 
 partly known in his time, or of subsequent 
 invention. The first of these additional 
 accompaniments was furnished by Mozart to 
 The Messiah; Mendelssohn, Macfarren, Perry, 
 Costa, and Sullivan have supplied parts to the 
 other of the more frequently performed works 
 with more or less success. 
 
 The example set by Handel was followed 
 by such writers as Stanley, Dr. Arne, Dr. 
 Worgan, Dr. Arnold, but little encouragement 
 was offered to their efforts, so that no new 
 oratorio of importance was heard in London 
 until Haydn's Creation was performed. 
 
 Haydn was the author of but few oratorios, 
 The Return of Tobias, The Seasons, The 
 Sewn Last Words, and The Creation, being 
 all his compositions that can be in any way 
 classed under this head. The Seven Last 
 Words is more in accordance with the 
 character of the Lutheran oratorios, being 
 intended to follow as many short sermons on 
 the last words of our Lord. The Seasons is 
 somewhat secular in character ; and the 
 same sweetness of melody prevalent in this 
 is found in Haydn's best known work, The 
 
 Creation, produced in 1798. The special 
 qualities of this oratorio, besides those already 
 alluded to, are found in the brightness of the 
 choruses and the interest of the instrumenta- 
 tion. In general design The Creation is 
 inadequate to the subject treated of, and 
 while the ear is pleased by the sparkling and 
 varied treatment, the heart is never moved 
 by emotions which the grandeur of the theme 
 should have inspired. 
 
 Beethoven's The Mount of Olives is a 
 drama rather than an oratorio, full of sublime 
 and noble thoughts, but ineffective without 
 the aid of scenery and accessories. 
 
 Spohr's oratorios. The Crucifixion, The Last 
 Judgment, and the Fall of Babylon, contain 
 many grand and surprising thoughts, much 
 beauty of melody and clever harmonies ; the 
 restless modulations employed by him cease 
 to excite wonder after a time, and so, to a 
 certain extent, their end is defeated. In the 
 peculiarity of enharmonic changes on a domi- 
 nant harmony, Spohr so far exhausted the 
 possible combinations, that composers in 
 imitating his style simply reproduce his 
 thoughts. The most successful composer in 
 this manner of modern date was Mendelssohn, 
 and his Elijah and St. Paul served to revive 
 the drooping taste for oratorio. Elijah was 
 produced at Birmingham in 1846, and St. 
 Paul ten years previously at Dusseldorf, and 
 both works have since held high rank as well 
 in the estimation as in the affections of 
 musicians. Of the two, St. Paul more com- 
 pletely fulfils the conditions of oratorio proper, 
 in the happy arrangement of its narrative 
 and didactic portions. The production of this 
 form is due to the assiduous study of the 
 works of its great perfecter, John Sebastian 
 Bach, and for this reason, and for its intrinsic 
 merit, St. Paul is held to be Mendelssohn's 
 best oratorio. Elijah is more dramatic in 
 constitution, and if the prejudice should ever 
 be sufficiently overcome to permit of its per- 
 formance on the stage, with proper scenery 
 and action, it will attain even greater impor- 
 tance than that it at present enjoys. 
 
 Of the more recent contributions to oratorio 
 music, there are few worthy to be, particular- 
 ised, as they are for most part feeble filterings 
 of an almost exhausted stream. 
 
 Oratorio has ever been more patronised in 
 England than on the Continent, but until the 
 establishment of the Sacred Harmonic Society 
 in 1832 the opportunity for hearing it was of 
 rare occurrence, being confined almost to 
 the annual meetings of the three choirs of 
 Gloucester, Hereford, and Worcester in the 
 provinces, and to the Lenten performances 
 in London. The example set by this Society 
 has been imitated with success, not only in 
 London, but in the country, and oratorio per- 
 
 ( 326) 
 
ORCHESIS ORCHESTRA. 
 
 foraiances are now frequent, and upon a scale 
 of grandeur, magnificence, precision, and 
 perfection hitherto unattained and completely 
 unknown elsewhere. 
 
 Orchesis (Gk. opxrivie). Orchestik (Ger.) 
 The art of rhythmical dancing as it existed 
 in the Greek Theatre. 
 . Orchester [Ger.) Orchestra. 
 
 Orchestra (Gk.) (i) The opxriarpa or 
 " dancing-place " in the Greek theatre was 
 that circular space, immediately below the 
 lowest seats of the semicircular part or koIXov, 
 which was given up to the chorus. The level 
 of the orchestra was twelve feet below that of 
 the lowest seat, and twelve feet below that of 
 the proscenium {wpoaaivwo), but between the 
 orchestra and the proscenium was a platform 
 six feet higher than the orchestra, called the 
 thymele (Ou/itXij). If, therefore, the part- 
 circle formed by the front of the lowest row 
 of seats were supposed to be completed, it 
 would be found that the orchestra would con- 
 tain an area about one-third of the circle in 
 that part farthest from the stage. (2) The 
 place where the band, or band and chorus, 
 are placed in modern concert-rooms, thea- 
 tres, &c. (3) The collection of instruments of 
 varied compass and quality of tone which 
 constitutes a full band. There are no orches- 
 tral scores earlier than the latter part of the 
 sixteenth century, so all statements as to 
 concerted instrumental music before that time 
 are wholly conjectural. 
 
 Many of the early poets speak of harmony 
 in a manner that shows that their construc- 
 tion of the term was the same as our own. 
 It is well known that harmony was not a 
 sudden discovery, but the result of slow 
 grovrth, and it is reasonable to suppose that 
 one who could sing part-music according to a 
 recognised system, and also play upon an 
 instrument, would be led to select one as 
 much in accordance with the compass of his 
 own voice as possible, and so would play the 
 part he was accustomed to sing. Accidental 
 circumstances might suggest combinations 
 which were afterwards made permanent, and 
 from small beginnings the adjustment of tone 
 considered necessary in a modem orchestra 
 might be gradually arrived at. 
 
 One of the first authentic attempts to gain 
 special effects may be traced in the disposition 
 of the instruments accompanying the first 
 operas. The score of Monteverde's Orfeo 
 performed in 1608, contains indications of a 
 purpose in the employment of what appears 
 in the present as a somewhat strange arrange- 
 ment of accompanying instruments. Orpheus 
 sings to the accompaniment of the basses, 
 Apollo to the organ, Pluto to the trombones, 
 Eurydice to the violas, and Charon to the 
 lutes or guitars. The use of particular in- 
 
 struments to accompany the music sung by 
 special characters was revived by Hoffman 
 in his opera Undine, and introduced by 
 Wagner as a new invention ; but the idea 
 belongs to Monteverde, as the directions in 
 the score quoted above prove. Information 
 regarding this branch of musical history is to 
 be obtained only by reference to scores of 
 various dates, by which it will be seen that 
 composers, for a long time subsequent to 
 Monteverde, did not follow out the hints he 
 had given. They made some omissions in 
 the number and arrangement of the instru- 
 ments, and in most cases simply contented 
 themselves with violins, and sometimes added 
 an organ for the accompaniment of everything 
 but recitative, for which the harpsichord or lute 
 was employed. The lute was used at the opera- 
 house so late as 1790, the harpsichord much 
 longer ; the musician who sat at the latter 
 instrument was called the conductor, and it 
 was his business to give the time of the 
 several pieces to the leader of the band. It 
 is only within the present century that an 
 independent time-beater, one not playing an 
 instrument, has been fully recognised, and 
 his position in the orchestra established. The 
 story of Dr. Philip Hayes standing up to 
 beat time for a band which Cramer was 
 leading, and the refusal of the latter to play 
 until " de fat man was sit down," shows that 
 the practice of " conducting " was not general 
 at the latter part of the last century. 
 
 In addition to violins, wind instruments 
 were used, sparingly at first, but afterwards 
 with great liberality. In Handel's time the 
 proportion of treble reed wind instruments 
 to the violins were as two to three, that is to 
 say, for every six fiddles four oboes were 
 employed. This is a matter which should 
 not be lost sight of in calculating Handel's 
 orchestral effects, for there is every reason to 
 believe, however strange the combination 
 might be to modern ears, that a restoration 
 of the proportions of the orchestra for which 
 Handel wrote would place his music in a far 
 different light from that in which it is viewed 
 at present, not that it would lose, but perhaps 
 would rather gain in grandeur. It can 
 scarcely be said that Handel did much 
 towards developing the resources of the 
 orchestra ; he seemed to be mainly content 
 with treating it as an accompanying body, 
 for even in his concertos, he was contented 
 with the performance of a phrase by the full 
 body, which had been given out by a single 
 instrument to a part. In a few cases he 
 seems to have made a happy choice of an 
 accompanying instrument, but even then it 
 is considered so doubtful as to whether he 
 meant what is called an " orchestral effect " 
 or not, that many composers, following the 
 
 ( 327 ) 
 
ORDINARIO ORGAN, 
 
 example of Mozart, consider themselves jus- 
 tified in adding instrumental parts to Handel's 
 scores, not always with the laudable desire 
 of exhibiting an improved knowledge of in- 
 strumental quality, not always with correct 
 taste or judgment. Mozart himself declared 
 to Attwood that his sole reason for adding 
 parts to the scores of Handel's works was to 
 make his countrymen think as highly of the 
 compositions as he himself did; so that all 
 the stories about his undertaking the task 
 at the request of a noble patron, against his 
 own inclination, are pure inventions. Mozart's 
 additions to the Messiah are specimens of 
 noble orchestral colouring, and give so much 
 beauty to the score that a performance of the 
 work without them would seem tame and 
 uninteresting to ears that have grown accus- 
 tomed to them. 
 
 The composer in whose works the first 
 consistent and concentrated efforts in the 
 direction of improvement of the orchestra are 
 to be traced is Gluck. All his biographers 
 agree in declaring that his sole aim in 
 orchestral writing was " expression." He 
 disregarded the usages of fashion and custom, 
 and thought for himself, and like every in- 
 dependent thinker founded a school of his 
 own, to become in time the conventionality 
 of a future age. 
 
 In the introduction of new instruments by 
 which fresh combinations and effects can 
 be obtained, a difficulty will be always present, 
 in that skilful players are not readily found, 
 and musicians do not care to study an instru- 
 ment that is rarely employed, and therefore 
 of little profit to them professionally. This 
 is the one reason why trumpet playing is 
 comparatively a lost art. There is no remedy 
 against this drawback, and therefore many 
 instruments of unquestionable value in an 
 orchestra are neglected and disused. 
 
 Meyerbeer did much towards obtaining a 
 recognition for certain disregarded instru- 
 ments, and although he was fortunate enough 
 to find players with sufficient enthusiasm or 
 interest in the matter to take them up and 
 study them, he could not secure a succession, 
 and, consequently, in the performance of his 
 operas, such passages as are written in the 
 score for obsolete instruments have to be 
 performed by those in general use. 
 
 The introduction of new effects is always a 
 work of time, and the development of some 
 degree of daring. Lully wrote parts for drums 
 to some of his choruses to strengthen the 
 deep tones ; Beethoven wrote solos for the 
 same instrument. The prominence given by 
 a composer to a certain instrument is to be 
 accounted for in more than one way. He 
 may have had a special training in that 
 particular instrument, a partiality for its tone, 
 
 or he may have in his orchestra players of 
 exceptional ability. Thus Weber writes so 
 wonderfully for the horns, because he was a 
 player; Spohr for the violin, an instrument 
 on which he was a master ; Spontini loved 
 the tone of the trombone, and wrote often for 
 it ; Handel had Valentine Snow to play his 
 trumpet parts, and Snow had a special gift 
 for trumpet playing; and many other instances 
 may be quoted if it were needful. 
 
 Haydn has been considered the father of 
 modern orchestral writing ; and in the utili- 
 zation of accepted materials his genius as 
 a composer is best shown. In charm of 
 orchestral shading Mozart's are perfect studies ; 
 while for nobility of effect Beethoven has 
 never been surpassed. 
 
 The tendency of the present order of writers 
 for the orchestra is to seek to obtain a ficti- 
 tious grandeur by the liberal use of "Janit- 
 scharen-musik," cymbals, bells, big drum, &c. 
 This is all very well when it is desirable to 
 conceal the defective playing of the strings 
 and wind, but when an orchestra comprises 
 performers of excellent skill, having familiar 
 knowledge of the capabilities of their several 
 instruments, such noise is not only needless, 
 but offers a great temptation to carelessness 
 in playing on the more delicate instruments. 
 
 Ordinario (It.) Ordinary, as a tempo ordi- 
 nario, in the usual time, or, at a moderate pace. 
 
 Orecchia musicale {It.) An ear for 
 music, or musical ear. 
 
 Oreille musicale {Fr.) [Orecchia.J 
 
 Organ (from the Gk. opyavov). This word 
 originally signified an implement, instrument, 
 or piece of mechanism for any purpose. Hence, 
 it came to be applied to any musical instru- 
 ment, and later still to the compound wind- 
 instrument now known as the organ, which, 
 no doubt, grew out of the ugah of the Hebrews 
 and the syrinx of the Greeks (Pan's-pipes), 
 when combined with the wind-chest, as natu- 
 rally suggested by the leathern reservoir of 
 the bagpipe. Only, it must be remembered, 
 that the pipes of Pan had, each separately, to 
 be made into a sort oi flilte a bee, having a 
 foot to convey the air to the block and lips ; 
 also, that under each pipe a little slide had to 
 be placed in order to prevent all the pipes from 
 speaking at once. This early slide, which 
 permitted particular pipes to speak at the will 
 of the performer, has now developed into the 
 pallet and the key-action ; and we now apply 
 the word slide or slider only to that strip of 
 wood which, passing under a row of pipes 
 from right to left, admits the air to a particular 
 row of pipes or stops. Neither of these two 
 arrangements — the key-sW&Q and stop-sliAe — 
 required any special mechanical skill, and it 
 may safely be said that they were used at a 
 much earlier date than is commonly supposed. 
 
 (328) 
 
ORGAN. 
 
 The real difficulty of ancient organ-builders 
 was inequality of the pressure of wind. It is 
 needless to observe that the leathern reservoir 
 of a bagpipe could never be so equally pressed 
 all round as to produce an uniform current of 
 air. Nor could the simple forms of bellows 
 as used by blacksmiths to this day produce 
 an equal pressure, because, when they are 
 being filled, the air is under too great com- 
 pression, and as the top sinks the pressure 
 becomes less and less. There can be but 
 little doubt that the so-called hydraulic organ 
 owed its utility and consequent fame to the 
 fact, that in it water was used in such a 
 manner as to counterbalance the hitherto 
 variable pressure. The ignorant, no doubt, 
 thought that the water went near to, or even 
 entered, the pipes, but this was palpably not 
 the case. Those who are interested in the 
 supposed details of the hydraulic organ will 
 find information in the "Bible Educator" 
 (Parts 8 and lo. Vol. II.), in Rimbault and 
 Hopkins on the Organ, and in Chappell's 
 " History of Music" (p. 325). The ordinary 
 organ in which no water was used came to 
 be called the pneumatic or wind-organ. In 
 order to keep up a due supply of wind, while 
 bellows were being refilled, organ builders 
 multiplied their number. The modern inven- 
 tions of the double-action feeder, &c., fully 
 explained further on, made this system of 
 blowing unnecessary. If the account given 
 of the Magrepha {q.v.) be true, it must have 
 really been an organ. It will be unnecessary 
 to trouble the reader with long untrustworthy 
 quotations from old writers in explanation of, 
 or in praise of, the wonders of organs. It will 
 suffice to state where and when some of the 
 oldest known instruments were built, and 
 note the progress in their construction. 
 Julian, the Apostate (who died a.d. 363), 
 mentions an organ in a Greek epigram, but 
 in such a manner as to make it doubtful 
 whether it had keys, Aldhelm, (who died 
 A.D. 709), mentions an organ which had gilt 
 pipes. An organ having leaden pipes was 
 placed in the Church of S. Corneille, at Com- 
 piegne, in the middle of the eighth century. 
 The story of St. Dunstan's organ with its 
 brass pipes is well known. One of the most 
 interesting of the mediaeval organs was that 
 built for Winchester Cathedral at the close of 
 the tenth century. According to the account 
 given by the Monk Wulston it had thirteen 
 pairs of bellows and four hundred pipes dis- 
 tributed so that forty pipes were under the 
 control of each key. By pressing down the 
 key belonging to any one set of pipes, they 
 all sounded together after the manner of the 
 mixture ; the separation of the wind-chest by 
 means of slides was apparently not at- 
 tempted in this case. . 
 
 The large pipes of every key of the oldest 
 organs stood in front ; the whole instrument 
 sounded and shrieked in a harsh and loud 
 manner. The key-board had 11, 12, even 
 13 keys in diatonic succession without semi- 
 tones. It was impossible to get anything 
 else than a choral melody for one voice only, 
 on such an organ. 
 
 By degrees the keys and pipes in organs 
 increased in number, but no alteration was 
 made in the register of the pipe-work ; the 
 chromatic intervals, too, were added. The 
 pedals were devised in 1470 by Bernhard 
 the German, a skilful musician at Venice, 
 and so quickly came into fashion that in 
 Germany few organs were built without them. 
 Originally they had only eight keys — 'O^, C, 
 D, E, F, G, A, CjB, which were attached to 
 the valves of the pipes with cord. As time 
 went on the key-boards of the manuals be- 
 came increased to three. This was the case 
 in the large organ (built in 1361) at Halber- 
 stadt, described by Praetorius after its reno- 
 vation in 1495, in " Syntagma Musicum " 
 (1619). It had three key-boards and pedals, 
 the latter, however, being added at the time 
 the organ was restored. The Praestant, or 
 row of pipes standing in front (the Principal 
 or open diapason), was separated from the 
 other portion of the pipe-work, which was 
 almost detached, and was called Hintersatz. 
 A difference of tone could thus at least be 
 obtained by using the principal alone, or by 
 coupling it with the whole hintersatz and 
 pedals. The highest row of keys, called 
 " Discant," had a compass from Bt] C, 
 C| chromatic to G, A, and served for the full 
 organ principal and hintersatz coupled. 
 The second key-board of the same compass, 
 and also called Discant, served for the prin- 
 cipal alone without the hintersatz. The 
 third row of keys was a bass key-board, con- 
 tained a large bass principal in side-towers, 
 with a compass from C to C, and was used 
 with the left hand as principal in the second 
 row of keys. The pedals extended from G 
 to Bt>. 
 
 It must not be thought that the manner of 
 playing these old organs was anything like 
 that now-a-days : the breadth of a key-board 
 containing nine keys extended to three- 
 quarters the length of a yard, that of the 
 single key amounted to three inches (Bedos 
 de Celles speaks of organ keys even from five 
 to six inches). The keys were of a peculiar 
 shape, e.g. : 
 
 ff n ^ 
 
 The valves of the keys and the whole me- 
 chanism being clumsy, playing with the finger 
 
 ( 329 ) 
 
ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 was not to be thought of, but the keys were 
 obHged to be struck with the clenched fist, 
 and the organist was often called " pulsator 
 organorum." It was consequently impossible 
 to play chords with one hand, but a kind of 
 duet or trio could be produced with the 
 assistance of the pedals. The early organs 
 were often a tone or a tone and a half above 
 the choral pitch [v. Chorton], and lower than 
 the kammerton by about a tone. 
 
 But when the organ had once attained a 
 certain degree of perfection, it proceeded 
 quickly towards further improvement. The 
 keys were made gradually smaller, so that 
 the Fifth had a width of a span, something 
 similar to our octave, as in the old organ at 
 Braunschweig. In the keys of the organs 
 in the monastery at Bamberg (enlarged 
 1493), in the church of the Barefooted Friars 
 at Nuremberg (1475), in the cathedral at 
 Erfurt (1483), in that of St. Blasius at 
 Braunschweig (1499), the width of the span 
 of the octave amounted only to about one 
 key more than at the present time, but the 
 action was still clumsy. The compass of the 
 manuals, mostly beginning at B flat, had 
 extended to EE and FF, but the pedals were 
 still limited in compass from A or B flat to B 
 flat or B natural. 
 
 But the most considerable stride in im- 
 provement was the division of the Hintersatz 
 into separate registers, which could now be 
 used singly through the invention of the 
 spring-box. Prsetorius, about i6ig, describes 
 the slide-box as being quite common, and 
 further states that it had already been in use 
 for two hundred years, so that it must have 
 been invented at the end of the fourteenth or 
 the beginning of the fifteenth century, but 
 was a long time gaining recognition. In the 
 beginning of 1500 the pipe-work itself had 
 also begun to be perfected in different ways. 
 Hitherto it had the scale of the principal 
 throughout. Pipes began to be covered 
 probably about 1530. In later times reed- 
 pipes and pointed flutes came into vogue, 
 and by degrees bellows of very thin board 
 were put in the place of the old bellows, 
 which were constructed in folds, and the port- 
 able chamber-organ [Regals], since grown 
 out of use, introduced. About the year 1677, 
 Christian Former (born 1610) invented the 
 anemometer. 
 
 The mistaken zeal of the Puritans caused 
 a wanton destruction of organs and the dis- 
 cpuragement of organ-building, so that when 
 a revival of interest in the instrument took 
 place, it was found that England had lost her 
 ancient supremacy, and there was no longer a 
 sufficient number of builders in the country. 
 Foreign organ-builders were invited to Eng- 
 land, and the most celebratetl of these — Bern- 
 
 hard Schmidt (generally called Father Smith ) 
 with his nephew and Renatus Harris, estab- 
 lished themselves in this country. Their 
 immediate successors were Christopher 
 Schroeder, Snetzler, and Byfield. These 
 were followed by Avery and Green, and 
 from them sprung the present generation of 
 organ-builders, whose skill and ingenuity 
 have done much to restore the ancient su- 
 premacy of organ-building in England. 
 
 Organ Construction. (§ i.) A complete 
 organ may be said to consist of five parts : 
 choir organ, great organ, swell organ, solo 
 organ, and pedal organ. These are all, how- 
 ever, in reality constructed on the same prin- 
 ciple, that is to say, the manner of connec- 
 tion between the keys and the pallets, which 
 admit a current of air to the pipes, is similar 
 in principle in all. A large organ there- 
 fore consists of a number of small organs 
 differing in quality of tone, and so arranged 
 as to be under the control of one per- 
 former. 
 
 (§ 2.) Before explaining the connection 
 between a key and a pipe, it will be necessary 
 to explain the construction of the bellows, a 
 receptacle which encloses atmospheric air and 
 forces it through passages called "wind- 
 trunks " to the sound-hoards over which the 
 pipes are arranged. The construction of 
 modern bellows, termed horizontal to distin- 
 guish them from the old diagonal bellows 
 (g.ii.), and for the invention of which organists 
 are probably indebted to an Englishman, 
 Samuel Green, who is known to have furnished 
 two organs with them in 1787 and 1788, 
 may be best explained by the following 
 figure : 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 The top board a is substantially and strongly 
 made of pine, ledgered at each end, or in 
 large bellows panelled ; some of the panels 
 being moveable allow easy access to the 
 interior for repairs. The middle frame b is 
 merely a surrounding frame of wood to which 
 is attached the lower edge of the upper ribs 
 and the upper edge of the lower ribs. The 
 middle board c is slightly larger than the top- 
 board, and on it rests. a strong ridge d called 
 
 ( 330 ) 
 
ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 the trunk-band or lining, to which the wind 
 trunks can be at any point joined, as at e. The 
 bottom board / is the bottom of the feeder 
 f g h, and is sometimes nearly as large as the 
 top board. In large bellows provision is 
 made for the due support of the weight of the 
 top board by placing posts inside, or a ridge 
 of wood extending the whole length of the 
 middle board, of such a height that when a 
 and b are at the position rest, a is touching 
 the top of the posts or ridge. On the bottom 
 of the middle board are a number of holes for 
 the admission of air from the feeder, covered 
 by leather valves or suckers, which fall and 
 prevent the exit of the air by the way it came. 
 The valves being hinged at one end only, rise 
 for the entry of the air from the feeder, and 
 then fall by their own weight. The bottom 
 of the feeder/ is supplied with a similar set 
 of suckers, or valves, so that the operation of 
 " blowng " is as follows : To the end of/ are 
 attached, in any way most convenient, the 
 levers connected with the bellows handle, so 
 that by its stroke/ is raised towards c. The 
 atmospheric contents of the feeder are then 
 forced through the interior valves f t t and 
 the top board rises. When / has reached its 
 nearest point to c, and begins to return to its 
 position in the figure, the leather valves fall 
 over the openings t t tj and the air is forced 
 by the heavy top board and its incumbent 
 weights II 1 1 to depart by the only way open 
 to it, namely, by the wind trunk e. It will be 
 noticed that one set of ribs is turned inwards, 
 the other outwards. This ingenious though 
 simple arrangement, which was first sug- 
 gested by a clock-maker named Cummins, and 
 immediately adopted: by Flight, the organ- 
 builder, entirely removes the inequality of 
 pressure spoken of in the article on " diagonal 
 bellows." But as the feeder/ is descending, 
 no air can of course be supplied to the bel- 
 lows. The simplest means of obtaining a 
 constant supply of wind is to have two feeders, 
 or, as it is termed, a double-feeder, which 
 may, according to circumstances, be placed 
 either under the side or end of the 
 bellows. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 As one feeder a is descending, the other b is 
 ascending. A like result is produced by the 
 use of the cuckoo feeder, so-called because it 
 
 is constructed on the same principle as the 
 little bellows of the cuckoo toy. 
 
 •r .f 
 
 
 Fig- 3- 
 
 / X 
 
 • y - 
 
 5-1 crrrrrrT. 
 
 'V- 
 
 
 c^^ 
 
 M*'"'.. 
 
 ^^^S 
 
 SBS^L, 
 
 ^^P 
 
 ^^S 
 
 L=L 
 
 ^^j^^^i. 
 
 
 ^f^ 
 
 ;^¥ 
 
 E^^^^^^l 
 
 The bottom board a c is hinged at b, so 
 that when a ascends, c descends, both a and 
 c being, of course, provided with the ordinary 
 valves. The under lining d d is sometimes 
 exactly reversed in position, being attached to 
 the middle board instead of the bottom board. 
 Before leaving the subject of bellows, the 
 counter-balances must be explained. Their 
 object is to make both sets of ribs expand or 
 contract equally, and prevent the swinging 
 to and fro of the top of the bellows. They 
 consist of three flat pieces of iron, and are 
 fixed to the upper board at x (Fig. 3), the 
 middle board at y, and the trunk lining at z ; 
 and being moveable at every joint but x and 
 z, as X rises, e f impart a proportionate rise 
 toy. In order to prevent an undue rising of 
 the bellows when more wind is supplied than 
 used, a waste-pallet is placed in every bellows. 
 It consists of a valve {g Fig. 3) pressed 
 under an opening in the top board by a 
 spring, having attached to its under-side a 
 piece of cord (dotted line) which is fixed to 
 the bottom board h i. When the top board 
 rises higher than the length of the cord, the 
 valve is of course pulled downwards, and the 
 superfluous air escapes. If any part of the 
 middle board is not over a feeder, the pallet 
 may be placed inside the middle board, and 
 the cord fixed to the top board, in which case 
 the pallet will be pulled up when the top 
 board, by its rising, pulls the cord. 
 
 (§3.) But notwithstandingall these improve- 
 ments in feeders and bellows, it was found 
 that an unsteadiness of wind was caused, if 
 many of the larger pipes were suddenly made 
 to speak, or as suddenly, to cease speaking. In 
 the former case so large a supply of atmos- 
 phere was taken from the wind chest that the 
 air remaining expanded by its own elasticity ; 
 in the latter, the supply of air did not cease 
 with the demand. Both these defects are 
 remedied by the clever invention by Mr. 
 Bishop, the organ-builder, of the concussion- 
 bellows, which are a reservoir hinged at one 
 end and therefore wedge-shaped, which is 
 attached to the side of the wind-trunk, with a 
 spring tending to force the moveable board 
 towards the trunk. 
 
 (331 ) 
 
ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 When there is no air being forced through 
 the trunk d, a reaches its nearest point to b. 
 When the trunk is filled with compressed air 
 the spring c just counterbalances it. When 
 a sudden demand is made upon the contents 
 of the trunk d. the spring forces a nearer to b ; 
 when the air in the trunk is more than usually 
 compressed, the spring allows a to recede 
 from 6. 
 
 (§ 4.) The wind-trunk is 
 made of an oblong form, and 
 is shaped so as to carry the 
 air by the most convenient 
 route, to the wind-chest, 
 which is immediately under the sound-board. 
 It will be perhaps better before entering into 
 details to give at once a general idea of the 
 wind-chest and sound-board. 
 
 Fig. 5- 
 
 The above figure (Fig. 5) represents a 
 section of a sound-board and wind-chest viewed 
 from front, a is the wind-chest into which 
 compressed atmospheric air has been intro- 
 duced either through the side or bottom, from 
 the end of the wind-trunk b. The pallets ccc 
 are held tightly against the openings d d d, 
 leading from the wind-chest to the mouth of 
 the pipes by springs underneath them, thus : 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 The spring 5 keeps the pallet c against the 
 opening' into d. The wires called -pull-downs 
 {e e e Fig. 5), -which pass through small 
 holes in the bottom of the wind-chest and are 
 in connection with the key-board, are attached 
 to a loop of wire called the pallet-eye, fastened 
 to the moveable end of the pallet. A piece of 
 wire is placed on each side of every pallet to 
 steady it and keep it in the perpendicular 
 during its ascent and descent, and every 
 pallet is covered at top with soft leather, to 
 make it fit closely and work quietly. When e 
 is pulled down (Fig. 5) the pallet c descends, . 
 and air from the wind-chest a a a rushes 
 through d into the pipe over it. But the 
 slider/ is a narrow strip of wood, so placed 
 between the woodwork g and h that it may be 
 moved backwards and forwards from right to 
 left, and is pierced with holes corresponding , 
 throughout to those just under the pipes. If 
 the apertures in the slider are under the pipes 
 (as represented by dotted lines in Fig. 5), the 
 opening of a pallet will make a pipe speak ; 
 if, however, the slider has been moved so 
 that the apertures do not correspond (as 
 shewn in Fig. 7 by dotted lines), even if 
 the pallet be opened and the chest full 
 of air from the trunks, no sound will be pro- 
 duced. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 When the apertures in the slider are undei 
 those below the pipe, the " stop," the handle 
 of which controls the position of the slider, is 
 said to be out, or drawn. When the apertures 
 do not correspond, the stop is said to be in. 
 Thus it is that when no stops are drawn no 
 sound is produced, even although the wind- 
 chest be full of air from the wind-trunk. 
 Looking at Fig. 5 again, it will be observed 
 that if another row of pipes (or a " stop ") were 
 placed immediately behind k, I, m, with 
 another slider under them, the same openings 
 d could supply both sets of pipes, subject to 
 the control of the sliders. The only limit to 
 the number of rows of pipes will therefore be 
 the depth of the air passage d over which the 
 pipes stand. But, inasmuch as one pallet 
 under the control of one key will admit air to 
 
 ( 332 ) 
 
ORGAN CONSTRUCTION, 
 
 all the pipes placed over any one air-passage 
 d, it is evident that only those pipes must be 
 placed over d which belong to one particular 
 note on the key-board. The air passage d is 
 technically termed a groove, the wood which 
 separates one groove from another is techni- 
 cally termed a sound-board bar. Every row 
 of keys on an organ will therefore have in 
 connection with it a sound-board, having as 
 many grooves and pallets as there are notes 
 in its compass ; and as many sliders as it has 
 stops. Having made a slight digression in 
 order to give a general idea of the construc- 
 tion of this important part of the instrument, 
 it is now time to enter more into detail, and 
 first, it will naturally follow that large pipes 
 will require a larger groove and pallet than 
 those that are smaller, hence the grooves 
 vary in size throughout the whole sound- 
 board. 
 
 (§ 5.) The usual arrangement of pipes on a 
 sound-board is to have the largest on the 
 outside, say on the right and left sides, and 
 then to proceed by degrees to the smallest 
 which thus come nearest to the middle of the 
 sound-board. But the arrangement of pipes 
 must be spoken of again hereafter. If a 
 greater supply of wind than usual is required 
 for the due speaking of any large pipe, two 
 grooves may be allotted to that note. These 
 double-grooves, as they are termed, are said 
 to have been first introduced by England, the 
 organ-builder. By reference to Fig. 6, it will 
 be seen that the groove d runs much farther 
 back than the wind-chest a, a, a. This is, of 
 course, necessary where a large number of 
 stops has to be placed over it. The width 
 and depth of the grooves varies according to 
 the number of the stops, and the size of the 
 pipes. A sound-board is made by taking a 
 strong piece of wood of the required size, 
 turning it over and then glueing the sound- 
 board bars to it, placing between the ends of 
 the bars pieces of wood caXlsA fillings in, the 
 width of the groove ; then the ends of the bars 
 and the fillings in which form the front and 
 back (called the cheeks) are planed down and 
 covered firmly with a strong piece of ma- 
 hogany or other hard wood. Then the wind- 
 chest, pallets, &c., cover over part of the 
 grooves, and the remainder (/, ^. Fig. 6), the 
 openings of which have hitherto been exposed 
 to view, are covered by parchment or leather. 
 This, of course, becomes the underside of the 
 sound-board when it is turned over into its 
 proper position. The wood to which the 
 grooves are glued now becomes the table, and 
 is bored to admit air to the pipes. On the 
 table are arranged the sliders, over the sliders 
 are the upper-boards, into the holes of which 
 the ends (noses) of the pipe enter, above the 
 upper-boards are the pipe-racks, simple frame- 
 
 works of wood which keep the pipes in a 
 perpendicular position. 
 
 BMHb-Jj 
 
 As the amount of room which an organ 
 occupies is generally a matter of some im- 
 portance, the pipes in the sound-board are 
 rarely arranged in a straight line thus. 
 
 _^ O O o o o o_ o o O 
 
 but are placed slightly zig-zag, thus : 
 
 O ° o ° o ° O 
 but as the grooves run in the direction indi- 
 cated by the plain lines, and the sliders as 
 indicated by the dotted lines, it is evident that 
 such an arrangement only affects the piercing 
 of the table, slider, and upper boards. The 
 sliders might, if their edges touched one 
 another, disturb each other's position when 
 pulled in and out; to prevent this, between 
 each slider and that next to it is placed a 
 bearer or immoveable strip of wood, which 
 receives the weight of the upper-boards, and 
 to which the upper-boards are screwed. There 
 should of course be no pressure on the sliders, 
 otherwise theirfree movementwill be hindered. 
 (§ 6.) Having thus given some account of 
 the progress of the wind from the time it 
 enters the bellows until the drawing down of 
 the pallet, and the position of the slider has 
 permitted it to enter into the pipes and make 
 them speak, it remains to show, first, by what 
 means the key is enabled to pull down the 
 pallet; next, by what method the stop-handle 
 or register acts upon the slider. But before 
 the former can be explained it will be neces- 
 sary to say a few words as to the arrangement 
 of the pipes on a sound-board, for on this will 
 depend to a great extent the kind of connec- 
 tion between key and pallet. The simplest 
 arrangement will of course be to place the 
 smallest pipe on the right-hand side of the 
 sound-board and to proceed thence by grada- 
 tion to the largest pipe on the left-hand 
 side. This would be naturally suggested 
 by the order in which the keys are placed, 
 the highest note, produced by the smallest 
 pipe, being on the right ; the lowest note, pro- 
 duced by the largest pipe, on the left. This 
 arrangement is known as Vogler's system, 
 because that learned musician and organist 
 
 ( 333 ) 
 
ORGAN CONSTRUCTION, 
 
 brought it prominently before the public. 
 But it has some great disadvantages, the 
 chief of which are as follows : first, as the 
 lowest notes are produced by the largest pipes, 
 all the largest pipes, and in consequence the 
 greater part of the weight of an organ, rests 
 on one side of the sound-board ; secondly, the 
 largest pipes occupy by far the greatest space, 
 hence, the left-hand side of a sound-board 
 must Ije proportionately roomy in length and 
 depth ; thirdly, one end only of the wind-chest 
 is taxed with the supply of all the big pipes ; 
 lastly, if it is found necessary to convey wind 
 from the grooves to ornamental pipes standing 
 in the front, the distance is extremely great. 
 In order to explain this last, objection it must 
 be here stated that if a pipe does not stand in 
 its proper place on the sound-board, either 
 because there is not room for it, or because it 
 is placed at a distance in the front of the 
 organ, a roughly made pipe of light metal is 
 glued at one end into the proper hole and 
 carried by any course most convenient, form- 
 ing sometimes the most fantastic shapes, to 
 the base of the new position of the pipe, the 
 other end is then firmly glued into a small 
 hollow immediately under the pipe. There- 
 fore, if conveyances (as these supplementary 
 tubes are called) are very long, the pipe does 
 not speak very readily, the compressed air 
 when the pallet is opened, having to travel 
 from the place where the pipe ought to be, to 
 the spot where it may happen to be. The 
 third objection above stated may be sur- 
 mounted by making larger wind-trunks and 
 wider grooves. But even if there be no case 
 to an organ, the Vogler system has its dis- 
 advantages, for the outline formed by an un- 
 broken succession of pipes from i6ft. to a few 
 inches in length, standing side by side, in the 
 short space of a sound-board, can hardly be 
 rendered pleasing to the eye. The second 
 system of arranging pipes has already been 
 alluded to, namely, that of placing the largest 
 pipes alternately on the outside, proceeding 
 by degrees until the smallest are in the centre, 
 and the outline formed by the tops of the 
 pipes nearly assumes the shape of a slightly 
 flattened V. The third system is the reverse 
 of the above, the large pipes being placed in 
 the middle and the small ones at the sides, 
 the outline of the pipes will be therefore not 
 unlike A. 
 
 The fourth system is a compromise be- 
 tween the first and second, most of the pipes 
 being arranged semitonally, but some of the 
 larger pipes being placed on either side. The 
 outhne of the pipes will, therefore, be of this 
 kind. These four are the chief arrangements 
 
 of pipes in vogue, but of course exceptional 
 positions for an organ necessitate exceptional 
 dispositions of the pipes. 
 
 (§ 7.) Before explaining the means which 
 connect keys with pallets, it must be pointed 
 out that there are two kinds of keyboards or 
 claviers, one of which is played by the hands, 
 called the manual-clavier or manual; the 
 other played by the feet, called the pedal- 
 clavier or pedals. The long keys of a manual 
 are generally made of lime-tree wood covered 
 with ivory, and the short keys of ebony, or 
 some other wood stained black. Both long 
 and short keys are balanced on a ledge of 
 wood called the pin-rail, because metal pins, 
 fixed into it and entering into punctures in 
 the keys, steady them perpendicularly whilst 
 allowing them to move on them, as on pivots. 
 A similar rail passes immediately under the 
 front of the keys, with another set of pins, to 
 produce steadiness of movement, only these 
 punctures do not go completely through the 
 key as in the previous case. The pieces of 
 wood on each side of the manual, to which 
 the pin-rails are firmly fixed, are called key- 
 checks. To prevent an undue rising of this 
 key when the finger is suddenly removed, a 
 piece of board covered on the underside with 
 baize, and loaded with lead, called the 
 thumping-board, lies on the keys transversely 
 immediately behind the part which is used by 
 the fingers. The pedal keys are made of oak, 
 mahogany, or any hard wood, and work on 
 centres at the heel end, being steadied at the 
 toe end. A spring under each key holds it in 
 position subject to the pressure of the foot. 
 
 (§ 8.) On pressing down a manual key, the 
 back of one key rises, and raises a sticker, 
 a thin piece of wood, round or square, and 
 of length varying from a few inches to a 
 couple of feet, provided with a pin of wire 
 firmly fixed in the upper end, which passes into 
 the end of the back-fall, a horizontal lever, to 
 which is attached a tracker, a strip of light 
 wood provided with a tap wire and leather 
 button at the end, passing through the back- 
 fall, and with a hook of copper at the end 
 connected with the pull-down, thus — 
 
 PALLET / ', 
 
 f>aLI—O0W» 
 
 If, then, the arrangement of the pipes be 
 according to the first plan given (largest on the 
 
 ( 334 ) 
 
ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 left hand side, smallest on the right), the hack- 
 , falls are arranged thus, on the back-fall frame, 
 
 so that the end of the back-fall may come 
 under the pull-down. This kind of move- 
 ment is, from its appearance, called the fan- 
 frame movement. 
 
 But if the pipes are arranged according to 
 the second plan given, a piece of mechanism 
 called the roller-board comes between the 
 end of the back-fall and the puller down. It 
 ■s a series of rollers so arranged on a flat 
 board standing upright, that whilst one end 
 of the roller is under the pull-down, to which 
 it is attached by a second tracker, the other end 
 is over the corresponding back-fall, the back- 
 falls, in this case, lying parallel to each other. 
 Thus, by means of the roller board, the finger 
 is enabled to communicate with pipes on either 
 side of the sound-board. The system employed 
 must, however, depend greatly on the position 
 of the sound-board with relation to the keys. 
 
 Where corners intercept action, or where it 
 is necessary to carry action at right angles, 
 either horizontally or perpendicularly, squares 
 are largely used. The square is oi wood, and 
 of this shape, -—-——— and generally in two 
 pieces, dove- 1.^^^^ ..i tailed, so that no 
 strainmay w cause one arm to snap 
 
 off. The arms are generally about 3 
 
 inches in length. The block in which the 
 squares work is termed the square-frame. Of 
 course the length of stickers, trackers, and 
 back-falls must entirely depend on the space 
 to be occupied by an instrument, or the position 
 in which it is placed. Long stickers or trackers 
 are steadied by being made to pass through 
 holes in a flat piece of wood called a register. 
 
 The connection between pedal-keys and 
 pedal-pipes does not differ in principle from 
 that between manual-keys and manual-pipes, 
 but from the usual position of the pedal organ 
 squares have frequently to be used. 
 
 (§ g.) The draw-stop handle acts upon the 
 slider by means of a series of levers, the 
 position of which varies greatly in different 
 instruments. The most common system is 
 called the wooden-trundle draw-stop action. 
 
 When the stop is pulled out, the arms a a 
 draw the trace h from right to left, the end 
 of the trundle c being attached to the trace 
 is moved in a similar direction, whilst the 
 other end of the trundle d moves in an 
 opposite direction, and draws out the slider. 
 When metal trundles are used, this action is 
 simplified. Sliders are sometimes made to 
 move by means of small bellows placed under 
 them, which, upon being filled with com- 
 pressed air, suddenly expand, and as they 
 expand draw the slider. A large organ, it 
 will be now understood, is practically several 
 distinct instruments, not differing in the prin- 
 ciples of their construction so much as in 
 quality of tone. But if this were all, the 
 interior of an organ would appear very 
 simple — there are still to be considered those 
 contrivances which enable a performer to play 
 upon more than one set of keys simultaneously. 
 (§ 10.) The draw stops producing combina- 
 tions of manuals or of manuals to pedals are 
 termed couplers. Suppose an organ to consist 
 of four manuals and pedals, viz.: solo organ, 
 swell organ, great organ, choir organ, and 
 pedal organ, the couplers assigned to it would 
 probably be "Solo to Great," "Swell to Great," 
 " Swell to Choir," " Choir to Great," " Solo 
 to Pedals," " Swell to Pedals," " Great to 
 Pedals," " Choir to Pedals." To these are 
 sometimes added couplers combiningthe super- 
 octave or sub-octave of the swell with the great, 
 or similar intervals of the swell organ on itself. 
 The construction of unison manual-couplers 
 is generally of the following kind. A rod 
 passes between the back of two sets of manual 
 keys, which is pierced with a series of holes 
 in which are placed little stickers of this shape. 
 f-\ The length of the sticker is the distance 
 IP between the two sets of keys to be com- 
 ^ bined, so that when the lower one is 
 pressed down by the finger the sticker is 
 pushed up by the back of the key and raises 
 the back of the key lying above it. When not 
 required for use the coupler-stop leaves the 
 stickers standing in a hollow purposely made 
 in the keys, thus : — 
 
 a representing the coupler when ready for use, 
 or " drawn," h when not required, and c the 
 regfulating button. The tumbler coupler is 
 now almost obsolete. It consisted of a rod 
 containing stickers, which were turned 
 at an angle when not required for use thus : 
 ■ but it will be seen that if a 
 
 coupler of this kind is 
 " drawn " while the fingers 
 ZI^I are on the lower row of 
 
 ( 335 ) 
 
ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 keys, the fingers will have to withstand a 
 sudden pressure. This evil is avoided in 
 the modern coupler. Octave couplers, coup- 
 ling the octave either above or below, are 
 of the backfall description. As the pedal- 
 keys occupy more space than the manual- 
 keys a roller-board is used, made on the same 
 principle and practically for the same purpose 
 as that already described. One end of the 
 roller is over the pedal -key and the other under 
 the manual-key desired to be affected. A 
 sticker rests on the end of the backfall, when 
 ' the pedal-coupler is " out," but is thrown out 
 of the perpendicular when the coupler-stop is 
 " in." A coupler attaching the great to the 
 swell organ, termed a , sforzando coupler, 
 capable of being used for a single chord if 
 -equired, is formed by a double backfall thus. 
 
 End of swell orgaa 
 key. 
 
 End of great organ , 
 key. 
 
 ac:- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 so that when a rises b is depressed and forces 
 down c which in turn raises d. 
 
 (§ II.) To enable a performer to make rapid 
 changes of stops, short iron pedals are placed 
 over the pedal-clavier, called composition- 
 pedals or combination-pedals, whose office it 
 is to produce certain definite arrangements of 
 the registers when pressed down with the foot. 
 A single-action composition pedal is one that 
 draws out a certain number of stops, but does 
 not alter the arrangement of the other stops 
 on the same manual during the operation. A 
 double-action composition pedal is one that 
 has the power of drawing in any stops not 
 belonging to its prescribed combination which 
 may happen to be out; for example, supposing 
 the trumpet and sesquialtera on the great 
 organ are drawn out, and the foot is then 
 placed on the composition pedal which draws 
 out the diapasons, if the action of the pedal be 
 single the trumpet and sesquialtera will remain 
 out as the diapasons are drawn ; if the action 
 hedouble, as thediapasons are being drawn out, 
 the trumpet and sesquialtera will be drawn in. 
 
 Composition pedals act by leverage either 
 on the back of the draw stop handles or on 
 the ends of the sliders, but it would exceed 
 the due limits of this article to explain even 
 a few of the many systems of connection 
 between composition pedals and sliders which 
 are in use among organ builders. Pneumatic 
 bellows are not unfrequently employed for 
 purposes of combining registers, and are 
 often set in motion by small pegs or nobs 
 projecting between the manuals, instead of 
 iron pedals. In cases where several sound- 
 boards are attached to one manual, containing 
 
 each of them part of the stops, changes of 
 combination are sometimes obtained by 
 pedals or pegs, called ventils, which admit 
 the wind to, or cut the wind off from, the 
 separate sound-boards. 
 
 (§ 12.) The pneumatic action is a contrivance 
 for lightening the touch of manual or pedal 
 keys by placing near each key a small bel- 
 lows, having two openings on the under side, 
 one of which is a pallet in a chest of com- 
 pressed air, the other a waste-valve. The 
 following diagrams will explain this : — 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 ' 
 
 
 
 "^ "^ N»...»±^ 
 
 
 '^^ 1^ 
 
 
 
 > Pif 
 
 
 
 ^ ii ■" 
 
 When either the finger or foot is pressed 
 upon a key connected with k, the outer end of 
 the back-fall gg is pulled down, which opens 
 the pallet p. The compressed air in a then 
 rushes through the groove hb into the bellows 
 cc, which rises and lifts with it all the action 
 attached to it by I. As the top of the bellows cc 
 rises, it lifts up the throttle-valve d (regulated 
 by the wire m) which prevents the ingress of 
 any more compressed air by bb. But the 
 action of the key on gg, which opened the 
 pallet p also allowed the double-acting waste- 
 valve e to close, and the tape / hangs loose. 
 The compressed air, therefore, as it is ad- 
 mitted through bb cannot escape, but on the 
 other hand when the key releases the outer 
 end of g, and lets it rise up again, the tape/ 
 becomes tightened and opens the waste-valve, 
 the bellows cc then drops into its closed 
 position. 
 
 The principle of this invaluable inven- 
 tion was introduced by Mr. Hamilton of 
 Edinburgh, or Mr. Barker. The latter gentle- 
 man succeeded in making its importance 
 understood by some leading French organ- 
 builders, by whom it was at once adopted, 
 and whence it found its way back to this 
 country. English organ-builders have, how- 
 ever, altered very much the original form of 
 
 (336) 
 
ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 the pneumatic lever. The diagrams given 
 above represent the lever as improved by the 
 eminent organ-builder, Henry Willis, to 
 whose talent organists are also indebted for 
 the compressed-air action instead of trackers, 
 for long distances — a simple and safe com- 
 munication between two sides of a church. 
 The organ in St. Paul's Cathedral which is 
 divided into three portions on this principle, 
 the Pedal-organ being under one of the arches 
 of the chancel, the g^eat and solo organs on 
 the north-side, and the choir and swell on the 
 south-side, deserves to be called a master- 
 piece of mechanical skill. 
 
 (§ 13.) Organ pipes are divided, with refer- 
 ence to their material, into metal or wood ; 
 with reference to their manner of producing 
 tone, into reed and flue. Of the metals used in 
 making organ pipes tin is the best, lead the 
 worst. A mixture of tin and lead in equal 
 proportions is technically termed "metal." 
 An excess in the relative quantity of lead 
 renders " metal " of proportionately less 
 valae. Zinc is used sometimes for large 
 pipes, where cheapness is an object. Anti- 
 mony may be used, but not in too great 
 quantities, its brittleness being a serious 
 drawback to its durability. Spotted metal is 
 so called because of the mottled appearance 
 of its surface. The spots are considered a 
 guarantee of a fairly good material, as they 
 do not rise unless there is one third of tin in 
 the metal. Metal is prepared for use by 
 being, when melted, poured into a wooden 
 trough with a slit in the back, and passed 
 rapidly along a bench faced with tick. The 
 thickness of the sheet of metal depends, of 
 course, on the size of the slit in the trough. 
 It is afterwards planed down carefully to an 
 uniform surface. 
 
 Deal, pine, and cedar, are the woods most 
 commonly used for pipes ; more rarely, oak, 
 mahogany, maple, &c. ; the harder woods 
 being generally chosen for pipes to be used 
 in hot countries. 
 
 The tone of a flue-pipe is produced by the 
 resonance of a column of air, which is set 
 in vibration by a current of compressed air 
 forced through a slit, over which is placed a 
 sharp edge. The pitch is therefore dependent 
 on the length of the pipe. The tone of a 
 reed-pipe is produced by a thin strip of metal 
 which is placed over the entrance of a tube, 
 in such a manner that the compressed air, in 
 trying to force its way into the tube sets the 
 strip of metal into vibration. The pitch of 
 the reed-pipe is, therefore, dependent on the 
 number of vibrations of the reed (strip of 
 metal), not necessarily on the length of the tube, 
 
 (§ 14.) Flue pipes are of two kinds, open or 
 closed. The tone of a closed pipe is, in its 
 pitch, an octave below that of an open pipe 
 
 of the same length, the cause of which is, 
 that in an open pipe the vibrating column of 
 air is divided by a node (or point of rest) at its 
 centre, whereas in a closed pipe the column 
 of air is undivided. An open metal flue pipe 
 consists of foot, and language, and body. 
 The foot is that on which it stands, and into 
 which the compressed air enters. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 The language is a flat piece of metal 
 fastened by its edge to the top of the foot, 
 and which by its shape, only permits the 
 air to leave the foot in one direction. The 
 whole of the pipe above the foot and lan- 
 guage is termed the body. The lower edge 
 of the body is indented in front thus, 
 the indentation is called the leaf. The 
 lower edge of the leaf forms the upper 
 lip and the corresponding edge of the 
 foot which is also indented is termed 
 
 the lower lip. The space between the 
 lips is termed the mouth. A wooden 
 flue-pipe consists of a foot, cap, block, 
 and body. The foot is a hollow wooden 
 tube on which the pipe stands, and 
 through which the air enters into it. 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 The air on entering is arrested in its up- 
 ward course by the block. 
 
 It, therefore, comes out towards the front 
 through the throat, as the opening in the 
 block is termed, and passes along the cap 
 by which it is forced through the small 
 opening between the top of the cap 
 (the under-lip) and the top of the block, 
 called the wind-way. The four boards 
 used in making the pipe form the body. 
 Ths upper-lip of a wooden pipe is generally 
 made by bevelling off that part of the body of 
 the pipe just over the upper edge of the cap, 
 
 ( 337 ) 
 
ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 but the mouths are sometimes inverted thus : 
 
 Occasionally also the block is superseded by 
 a wooden " language," similar in its position 
 and office to that in a metal pipe, thus : 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 The block is sometimes bevelled off on its 
 underside, while the cap remains straight, 
 thus : 
 
 Ba 
 
 The following section of a flue- 
 pipe will probably make its construc- 
 tion clear: — t is the foot through 
 which air enters ; c the space between r 
 the block and cap; (ie the slit through ^■ 
 which the air is directed to strike 
 against the lip, a b ; and r is inside 
 of the pipe, which acts as a resonance- 
 box. ^_| 
 
 (§ 15.) A reed-pipe consists of a hoot, block, 
 reed, tongue, wedge, tuning wire, and tube. 
 
 The hoot is a metal case corresponding 
 somewhat in its office to the foot of a flue- 
 pipe, inasmuch as the weight of the pipe rests 
 fupon it, and through it the air passes 
 upwards. The block is a round piece 
 of metal fitting into the boot, pierced 
 in two places, one to contain the reed. 
 the other to admit the tuning 
 wire. It would appear thus in 
 section. Into the larger orifice 
 the reed is forced, through the 
 smaller the tuning wire is passed. The rim 
 prevents it from being forced into the boot 
 by the superincumbent weight of tube. 
 
 The reed is a brass tube rather wider at 
 the bottom than the top, and closed at the 
 
 m 
 
 bottom, having a narrow orifice over which 
 lies the tongue, a thin elastic piece of brass 
 large enough to cover the orifice and its edges. 
 
 LI 
 
 It is kept in its position by a small wedge 
 of wood which is forced into the orifice in the 
 block with the reed. The lower end of the 
 tongue is therefore perfectly free. The tuning- 
 wire is a piece of common wire bent in spch 
 a manner that a flat part of it lies across 
 the tongue. By moving the wire from the 
 outside, more or less of the tongue is 
 allowed to vibrate, and thus the pitch 
 is regulated. The upper end stands 
 just in front of the tube of wood or 
 metal, into which the air passes when 
 leaving the reed, and which adds so Q 
 materially to the tone of a reed-pipe. \ d j- 1 
 In small pipes the tube is generally of ■Ifl ■ 
 metal, but in large pipes often of wood ; \ '"' / 
 it is conical in shape if a full tone is ''•■■' 
 required ; if not, circular or cylindrical with a 
 bell-top ; and is either soldered to the top of 
 the block, as is the case in small pipes, or is 
 dropped into a small socket on the top of the 
 block. Though, as before stated,the tube is not 
 essential for the regulation of the pitch, its 
 length and shape greatly influence the quality 
 of sound produced. The closed reed is a reed 
 which admits a much smaller quantity of 
 wind than the open or common reed. 
 
 (§ 16.) The free or common harmonium 
 reed is a reed the tongue of which does not 
 lie over the edge of the aperture, but is able 
 to pass freely backwards and forwards. Hence 
 its name free, in opposition to the kind of 
 reeds above described which are termed " per- 
 cussion reeds." They are not commonly 
 used in organs, but are more often met with 
 in continental than in English organs. 
 
 (§ 17.) The swell organ is the successor of 
 the old echo organ, a portion of a few 
 stops enclosed in a wooden box in order to 
 produce a subdued tone, or the effect of 
 distance. In 1712, Abraham Jordan invented 
 the " Nag's-head swell," as it was afterwards 
 termed. It consisted of an echo organ, 
 having, instead of a fixed front, a moveable 
 shutter working up and down in a window 
 sash. A pedal on the right hand side of the 
 performer raised and closed the shutter at 
 will, thus producing a crescendo and dimi- 
 nuendo. But the mechanism of this old 
 " swelling organ " was most unsatisfactory. 
 A very heavy pressure on the pedal was 
 
 (338) 
 
ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 required before the shutter would stir, but 
 once in motion it would often run up to its 
 extreme limit against the wish of the per- 
 former, coming down to its closed position 
 again when the pedal was released with a 
 loud " bang." After half a century, England, 
 and Avery, and afterwards Green, made use 
 of the Venetian Swell, which consists of a 
 series of shutters from six to ten inches in 
 breadth, and from a half to two and a half 
 inches in thickness, each hung on an axis 
 one-third from the top of its breadth. The 
 edges of each shutter are bevelled away at an 
 angle of about forty-five degrees, so that each 
 two contiguous boards overlap each other, 
 and also are covered with felt in order to fit 
 close, shut quietly, and shut in the sound 
 thoroughly. The inside of the whole box 
 may be lined with thick brown paper, glued 
 on to the wood-work ; this prevents the 
 escape of sound, and does not injure the 
 reverberation when the shutters are open. 
 The Venetian Swell is so named because of 
 the similarity of the appearance of the 
 shutters to that of a common Venetian blind. 
 The shutters sometimes are placed perpen- 
 dicularly instead of horizontally, and occa- 
 sionally open at the sides or back, as well as 
 in the front. 
 
 (§ i8.) The quality of tone, and to some 
 extent the pitch of pipes, whether they are 
 wood or metal, reed or flue, depends upon 
 their shape or outline, their scale, and the 
 pressure of the wind to which they are sub- 
 ject. Metal pipes are in shape either cylin- 
 drical, conical, or inverted-conical, or sur- 
 mounted by a bell whether cylindrical or 
 conical. Wood pipes are four-sided, the 
 opposite sides being equal in width, or pyra- 
 midal, or inverted-pyramidal. 
 
 (§ 19.) By Scale is meant the relation 
 between the width and length of a pipe. If 
 a pipe is vsride in proportion to its length it is 
 said to be of a large scale ; if narrow in pro- 
 portion to its length of a small scale. Inas- 
 much as scale affects to some degree the 
 pitch of a pipe, it necessitates a proportionate 
 alteration in its length, thus a pipe of a small 
 scale must be made somewhat longer than a 
 pipe of a large scale sounding the same note. 
 
 (§ 20.) The amount of the pressure or weight 
 of wind is regulated by the weights placed 
 on the bellows. It is found, by using a wind- 
 gauge or anemometer, a bent glass tt 
 tube, which is fixed into a socket, (^ 
 and into which a little water is | 11 
 poured. On placing the socket on ^ J 
 one of the holes in the upper board ^^^ '^ 
 of a sound-board, and admitting the 
 air from the bellows, the water is 
 forced up the tube, and the difference between 
 the level of the two surfaces of water is 
 
 
 
 measured in inches. The usual weight of 
 wind on the swell, great, and choir organs of 
 a church organ, is from two and a half to 
 three inches, the pedal organ (where a sepa- 
 rate bellows makes it feasible) receiving 
 rather a higher pressure. The fourth manual 
 or solo organ is nearly always voiced to a 
 very high pressure, as very fine effects are in 
 this way obtained both from reed and flue 
 pipes. Organs in concert rooms and public 
 buildings are often voiced throughout to a 
 higher pressure than those in churches. The 
 average amount of surface weight on the bel- 
 lows required to produce a three-inch wind is 
 nine pounds and three quarters per super- 
 ficial foot. 
 
 (§ 21.) As regards the disposition of the vari- 
 ous qualities of tone between the manuals, — 
 the choir organ, being as its name implies, 
 intended for the accompaniment of voices, 
 generally receives stops of a delicate and sub- 
 dued quality of tone, such as the Spitz- 
 flote, Gemshorn, Viol di Gamba, Dulciana, 
 Keraulophon, &c. The great organ being 
 required for grand effects, has allotted to it 
 the large scale Diapasons, together with a 
 complete set of octave, twelfth, super-octave, 
 mixture stops, and a proportionate number of 
 large scale reed-stops. The swell organ has 
 a larger proportion of reeds than any other 
 manual, chiefly because of the fine effects they 
 produce during the opening and closing of 
 the shutters of the swell box. The reed-stops 
 are generally placed in the front of the swell 
 sound-board, just inside the box, not only be- 
 cause in that position the effect of a crescendo 
 is increased, but also because they are more 
 easily within the reach of a tuner. The Pedal 
 Organ, as an independent organ, cannot be 
 said to have been known in England for more 
 than the last half century, although ap- 
 parently always a constituent part of a good 
 German instrument. The deepest tones (32 
 feet) are consigned to the Pedal Organ, as 
 also a large number of 16 feet stops, to serve 
 as a bass to the manuals, which have rarely 
 more than one or two of that pitch, on any 
 separate manual. 
 
 is tuned by means of 
 
 ( 339 ) 
 
 (§ 22.) An organ 
 hollow cones and 
 reed - knives. The 
 former are used for 
 tuning metal flue- 
 pipes, and are used 
 in this manner. If a 
 pipe is too flat, 
 the apex of the cone 
 is inserted into the 
 top of the pipe, and the cone being forced in 
 enlarges the orifice and raises the pitch. 
 If a pipe is too sharp, a cone whose base is 
 so broad that it will admit the top of the pii>e, 
 
ORGANETTO OTTETTO. 
 
 is placed on the pipe and squeezed down 
 until the orifice is reduced in size, and the 
 pitch is flattened enough. Cones are made 
 of metal or wood, more often the latter, be- 
 cause of its comparative lightness. Wooden 
 flue-pipes are tuned, if stopped, by 
 moving the stopper up or down ; if 
 open, by a piece of lead placed on 
 the back of the top of the pipe for the 
 purpose. 
 
 Large open wood pipes are 
 tuned by cutting off part of the 
 top if too flat, and by raising 
 a piece of wood screwed for the 
 purpose near the top if too sharp 
 
 The largest metal-pipes have generally an 
 opening at the back of the top, which can 
 be opened or closed as it is necessary to 
 make them flatter or sharper. 
 
 Metal pipes, with soldered covers, with or 
 without chimneys, are tuned by altering the 
 position of the ears, which are made specially 
 long. 
 
 (§ 23.) The reed-knife is a long piece of 
 common iron or steel in this shape, hence 
 its name. 
 
 r 
 
 _r 
 
 ■^ 
 
 The tuning wire is provided at its upper 
 extremity with a hook or projec- \ / 
 
 tion by which the edge of thet / \ / 
 knife is able, by gentle taps, to \ / 
 gradually raise it. The wire is \r\ 
 pushed in by being struck on the \ / 
 top. By referring to the account p;.'; 
 of the tuning wire given in §15, \ j 
 it will be understood that raising \ / 
 the wire flattens the note, de- 
 pressing it sharpens it. 
 
 Organetto (It.) A little organ. 
 
 Organic Music. A mediaeval name for 
 instrumental music. 
 
 Organo (It.) Organ. Organo pleno, the 
 full organ. 
 
 Organochordium. An instrument having 
 pipes and strings, invented by Vogler. 
 
 Organo di legno. A Claque-bois. [Lig- 
 neum Psalterium.] 
 
 Organophonic. The name assumed by 
 a band of Polish performers, who imitated 
 the sounds made by various instruments with 
 their mouths. 
 
 Organo portabile [It.) Aportative organ. 
 A small organ capable of being easily carried 
 about. 
 
 Organ-point. [Fugue.] 
 
 Organum. (i) An early form of harmony, 
 called also diaphony. [Descant.] (2) An organ. 
 
 Organum hydraulicum (Lat.) Hydraulic 
 organ. 
 
 Organum pneumaticum (Lat.) The 
 common organ. [Pneumatic Organ.] 
 
 Orgel (Ger.) An organ. 
 
 Orgelgehause (Ger.) An organ case. 
 
 Orgel-punkt (G«r.) Apedal point. [Fugue.J 
 
 Orgue (Fr.J Organ or harmonium. 
 
 Orgue expressif (Fr.) Harmonium. 
 
 Orgue portatif (Fr.) A portable organ. 
 
 Orificium (Lat.) The mouth of an organ- 
 pipe. 
 
 Original position. A chord is said to be 
 in its original position when the ground-note 
 is in the bass ; in other words, before it has 
 undergone inversion : or, when its upper 
 notes are in the order 3, 5, 8. 
 
 Ornamenti (It.) Grace-notes and other 
 embellishments. 
 
 Ornatamente, Ornato (It.) With em- 
 bellishments. 
 
 Orpharion. A kind of lute, having wire 
 strings. [Lute.] 
 
 Osservanza, con (It.) With exactness. 
 
 Ossia (It.) Or else, as ossia piu facile, or 
 else in this more easy way. 
 
 Ostinato (It) Lit. obstinate, used in the 
 sense of " frequently repeated," as hasso 
 ostinato, a ground-bass, q.v. 
 
 Oton. An Indian wind instrument pro- 
 ducing only a single sound, employed during 
 the dancing of the Bayaderes. The player 
 holds the oton in his left hand while with his 
 right he beats a tambourine fastened to his 
 belt. [Tabor.] 
 
 Ottava (It.) An octave, as ottava alta (to 
 be played), an octave higher, ottava bassa, an 
 octave lower. 
 
 Ottavina (It.) The little or higher octave. 
 
 Ottavino flauto (It.) Piccolo Flute. 
 [Flute, § 3.] 
 
 Ottemole. [Octuplet.] 
 
 Ottetto (It.) A composition in eight parts, 
 
 ( 340 ) 
 
OUIE OXYBAPHON. 
 
 Ouie (Fr.) , The hearing. 
 
 Ouvert (Fr.) Open, as a livre ouvert, at 
 sight. 
 
 Ouverture (Fr.) [Overture.] 
 
 Overblow. A pipe is said to he over- 
 blown when the pressure of air forces it to 
 speak an upper partial instead of its funda- 
 mental note. 
 
 Overtura di ballo (It.) An overture in 
 the style of dance-music. 
 
 Overture. Overtura {It.) Ouverture 
 (Fr.) An introductory symphony for instru- 
 ments. It is usual to say that there are four 
 kinds of overtures, two in the ancient, and 
 two in the modem style. This may be true 
 with regard to the limit placed upon the 
 ancient overtures, but it is not entirely so 
 with respect to the modern ones, for they are 
 as various as the fancies of composers, and 
 defy all attempts to reduce them to classi- 
 fication. 
 
 Old overtures may be arranged into two 
 classes, the French and the Italian, or to 
 describe them by the names of their reputed 
 inventors into the Lully and Scarlatti over- 
 tures. The Lully overture usually opened 
 with a slow and stately movement, by way of 
 introduction. The succeeding theme was 
 treated in imitation in the old Canzona style ; 
 if divided into sections, the first section ended 
 in the key of the dominant if it began in a 
 major key, and in the relative major if it 
 began in the minor. All kinds of free imitation 
 were allowed in the next section. After this 
 a " grave " was repeated, and a minuet, or 
 some lively movement concluded the overture. 
 This form is employed by Handel, Bach, 
 Keiser, Telemann, Hasse, Graun, and other 
 composers of the early part of the i8th 
 century, with more or less alterations accord- 
 ing to fancy. When Sonata Form began to 
 be understood, overtures in the form described 
 above were more rarely written, but the style 
 was not wholly disused until the commence- 
 ment of the present century. 
 
 The Scarlatti form of overture consisted of 
 three movements or sections; the first and 
 third were quick or lively, and the second was 
 slow. In the slow movement, a change of pace, 
 and also of accent or rhythm was used, and 
 
 fewer instruments were employed, so that the 
 scoring might afford a strong contrast to the 
 other portions. A near approach to the 
 arrangement of the Sonata and Symphony 
 was thus made, and the Itahan overture or 
 " Sinfonia" may be called the immediate 
 precursor of the symphony as it now stands. 
 
 The modern overture dates from the latter 
 part of the i8th century, and may be described 
 in a few words as a composition in the form 
 of the first movement of a sonata, concerto, 
 or symphony, with the exception that the 
 sections are not always marked for repetition. 
 It has occasionally a short introduction 
 in a slow tempo, of a marked and stately 
 character. Its principal themes are often 
 taken from the work it precedes. Some- 
 times the "free fugue'' style is chosen, and 
 occasionally the sonata and fugue form are 
 happily united, as in Mozart's overture " Die 
 Zauberflote." 
 
 Many modern overtures consist almost en- 
 tirely of a series of clever contrasts indepen- 
 dent of form. These should be described as 
 medley overtures, though the medley overture 
 proper includes portions of the chief melodies 
 in an opera. One of the most effective works of 
 this class is the overture to " Guy Mannering" 
 by Sir H. R. Bishop. The invention of the 
 medley overture is attributed to Richard 
 Charke, the son-in-law of Colley Gibber. 
 
 Overtures not connected with, or part of a 
 larger work, are known as " Concert Over- 
 tures ! " but it does not follow that overtures 
 originally written as preludes to a special 
 work, may not be treated as " Concert" pieces, 
 even if the work to which they were attached 
 has ceased to be known. 
 
 Oxybaphon {Gk.) 6^vl3a<pov. Lit. a vinegar 
 jar. Hence (like the acetabulum) an earth- 
 enware vessel used for experiments as to 
 sound. 
 
 Oxypycni (Med. Lat. from Gi.dJOc, acute, 
 and ■avKvbc, close.) Church Modes having a 
 pycnon or semitone high in the tetrachord 
 e.g.: 
 
 Lydian. _ Hypolydian. 
 
 P 
 
 (341 ) 
 
-PART-SONG. 
 
 P. Abbreviation oi piano, soft. 
 
 Paduana, Padouana. [Pavan.] 
 
 Paean, iraiav. The ancient choral song 
 addressed to Apollo, named after its burden, 
 jii iraiav. It was sung sometimes before 
 battle, and sometimes after a victory. Donald- 
 son thinks it probable that it was at first 
 accompanied on the phorminx, which, how- 
 ever, was afterwards superseded by the 
 flute. From the ancient Psean sprang 
 the gymnopoedic, pyrrhic, and hyporchematic 
 dances. 
 
 Paeon. A foot consisting of one long 
 syllable and three short. The position of 
 the long syllable can be varied in four ways, 
 hence the Pseon is said to be primus, secundus, 
 tertius, or quartus. [Metre.] 
 
 Pair of Organs. The word pair simply 
 means a set, and it is used in this sense 
 in the expression a " pair of stairs," or a 
 " pair of scissors." It was formerly in more 
 general use than now, and " pair of cards," 
 and " pair of beads," are met with in the old 
 poets. A " pair of organs " means, then, an 
 organ having a complete set of pipes. 
 
 Palalaika. [Balalaika.] 
 
 Palco [It.) The stage of a theatre, &c. 
 
 Palilia. The rustic dance at the Festival 
 of Pales, in which the shepherds leapt round 
 and over burning' straw. It may have been 
 to some extent the origin of the May-pole 
 
 Q3.tlC6 
 
 Pallet. [Organ, § 4.] , 
 
 Palmula {Lat.) Manual of an organ. 
 
 Pambe. A small Indian drum. 
 
 Pandean-pipes. [Pan's-pipes.J 
 
 Pandoura. [Bandore.] 
 
 Pan's -pipes, or mouth-organ. The 
 earUest form of a compound wind instrument, 
 undoubtedly the precursor of the organ. It 
 was the avpiyi, of the Greeks, fistula of the 
 Romans, and probably the ugah of the 
 Hebrews. It was formed of seven, eight, or 
 nine short hollow reeds, fixed together by 
 wax, and cut in graduated lengths, so as to 
 produce a musical scale. The lower ends of 
 the reeds were closed and the upper open 
 and on a level, so that the mouth could easily 
 pass from one pipe to another. 
 
 Pantaleone. An instrument invented by 
 Hebenstreit in 1705. It was a sort of dul- 
 cimer, but strung with catgut and metal 
 strings in two series. 
 
 Pantalon {Fr.) One of the movements of 
 a quadrille. tion.] 
 
 Parrallelbewegung (Ger. ) [Parallel Mo- 
 Parallelen (Ger.) Consecutives. 
 Parallel motion. The movement of two 
 or more parts at fixed intervals, as thirds, 
 sixths. Parallel fifths are under certain 
 limitations forbidden. [Consecutives.] 
 Paramese (Gk.) irapafUtxri. [Greek music] 
 Paranete {Gk.) TrapaviiTrj. [Greek music] 
 Parhypate (Gk.) irapwarr). [Greek music] 
 Parlando, Parlante (It.) In a declama- 
 tory manner, as if speaking. 
 
 Parlante (It.) Lit. speaking, (i) In the 
 style of a recitative ; (2) played in the style 
 of vocal recitation. 
 
 Paroles (Fr.) Words ; as. Sans paroles, 
 without words. 
 
 Part, (i) So much of a piece of music, or 
 work, as is performed by any one voice or 
 instrument ; (2) Division of a work. 
 
 Parte (It.) Part. Parte cantante, vocal 
 part. Partie (Fr.) 
 
 Partial tones. Those simple sounds which 
 
 in combination form an ordinary sound and 
 
 cause its special quality of tone. [Acoustics.] 
 
 Partimenti (It.) Figured basses, used as 
 
 exercises. 
 
 Partition (Fr.) Partitur (Ger.) [Score.] 
 Partitura, Partizione (It.) [Score.] 
 Part-Music. Music in two or more parts, 
 performed by more than one person. 
 
 Part-Song. A vocal composition, having 
 a striking melody harmonized by other parts 
 more or less freely, but from which counter- 
 point is for the most part excluded. The 
 Part-song owes its origin to the habit preva- 
 lent among the Germans of adding simple 
 harmonies to their " Volksgesange." On 
 the model of these harmonized airs, fresh 
 compositions have from time to time been 
 produced, sometimes with a little more elabo- 
 ration in their construction than their models, 
 in such numbers, that there is now an exten- 
 sive literature of this kind of music. Alniost 
 every town in Germany has its " Singverein," 
 " Liedertafel," or " Mannergesangverein," all 
 of which largely encourage this special class 
 of composition. From Germany Part-songs 
 have been imported into England, and our 
 native composers have produced a large 
 number, many of which are of great merit. 
 The Part-song holds now the position which 
 
 ( 342 ) 
 
PAS PASSING NOTE. 
 
 the glee held in this country from the middle 
 of the last century to the beginning of this, 
 and which the madrigal held from the middle 
 of the sixteenth to the middle of the seven- 
 teenth century. The simplest form of Part 
 song is that in which the same music [tutti) 
 is repeated for each verse of the words ; the 
 most elaborate that in which soli parts occur, 
 or a separate solo accompanied by the other 
 parts, either pianissimo or con bocca chiusa. 
 Part-songs may be for soprani, contralti, 
 tenori, and bassi, or for men's voices only. 
 In the latter case, the upper part is in 
 Germany sung by high tenors, but in Eng- 
 land, where the alto voice is still cultivated 
 by alti, the score includes an alto, two tenor 
 parts, and a bass part, instead of the ordinary 
 two tenor and two bass parts of those by 
 German authors. A Part-song differs from a 
 madrigal in its exclusion of contrapuntal 
 devices ; from a glee, in its being sung by 
 many voices instead of by one only to each 
 part. The treatment of the chords and the 
 harmonical progressions sufficiently stamp 
 the madrigalian style, while the peculiar 
 melodiousness of the inner parts of a glee, 
 coupled with its special adaptability for 
 chamber use, mark its character distinctly ; 
 and on the other hand, the Part-song by its 
 strong outlines and modern harmonization 
 can easily be distinguished from a glee. 
 
 Pas {Fr.) A dance, as pas seul, pas de 
 deux, a dance by one or two performers. A 
 step, as pas redouble, a quick step, or march. 
 
 Paspy. The English name for the dance 
 Passe-pied, called also Passa-mezzo by the 
 Italian and Paspie by the Spanish writers. 
 It was a precursor of the minuet, some of the 
 tunes called by the title Paspy resembling the 
 minuet in rhythm and measure. Hawkins 
 says it "is said to have been invented in 
 Bretagne, and it is in effect a quick minuet." 
 The old English writers call it passa-measure, 
 passy-measure, passing-measure, or simply 
 measure. It was a favourite dance in the time 
 of Queen Elizabeth, and from the fact that ex- 
 amples exist by writers as late as Purcell and 
 Croft, it could not have been out of fashion in 
 their time. 
 
 PASPY. 
 
 H. PURCBLL. 
 
 w 
 
 H^-nr rrri' i irr rpir • i 
 
 r r iTr M \ r "^ \J- -j 
 
 THE ENGLISH PASPY. 
 
 
 f^^^ 
 
 ^Fn 
 
 r^^^ 
 
 Croft, 
 
 <.. 1700. 
 
 to**1 
 
 J = 
 
 
 -J — ■ — 
 H — ^ 
 
 .i . ^ iTl 
 
 =-^-4!- 
 
 F-J- 
 
 i ' ' 
 
 ir rrrri 
 
 ¥^= 
 
 — i' 1 
 
 Passacaglio, passacaglia {It.) ; Passe- 
 caille, passe -rue (Fr.); Passacalle {Sp.); Gas- 
 senhawer (Ger.) A dance in triple measure, 
 constructed on a ground bass. Bach has 
 used this form for one of his grandest com- 
 positions for the organ. [Gassenhawer.] 
 [Chaconne.] 
 
 Passage, (i) A phrase of music. (2) A 
 figure. (3) A run. 
 
 Passage (Fr.) [Passage.] 
 
 Passage-boards. Boards placed in dif- 
 ferent parts of an organ, on which the tuner 
 can walk, and from whence he can reach 
 pipes or mechanism. 
 
 Passaggio {It.) A passage or phrase, as 
 passaggio cromatico, a chromatic passage. 
 Also a run, or rapid succession of notes. 
 
 Passa-mezzo (It.) [Paspy.] 
 
 Passe-pied. {Fr.) [Paspy.] 
 
 Passing discord. [Passing note.] 
 
 Passing note. A note not essential to 
 harmony, forming an unprepared discord, 
 
 ) 
 
PASSIONATAMENTE PASSION MUSIC. 
 
 which is not objectionable because it is a 
 fragment of a scale. It is a necessary cha- 
 racteristic of a passing-note, that it should 
 have a degree of the scale on each side of it. 
 Passing-notes having degrees of a diatonic 
 scale on each side are said to be diatonic ; 
 those having degrees of a chromatic scale on 
 each side, are said to be chromatic. 
 
 Diatonic passing notes. 
 
 Chromatic passing notes. 
 
 Passing notes generally occur on unac- 
 cented parts of a bar. When unessential 
 notes occur on accented parts of a bar, they 
 are generally called auxiliary notes, e.g. : 
 
 Passionatamente, passionate, pas- 
 sionate, con passione {It.) In an im- 
 passioned manner. 
 
 Passione {It.) A cantata founded on the 
 incidents of the Passion, or on the seven last 
 words. 
 
 Passion Music. Music set to the narra- 
 tive of our Lord's Passion in the Gospels. 
 Dramatic representations of the subject date 
 from a very early period, there being still ex- 
 tant a play ascribed, though somewhat doubt- 
 fully, to Gregory Nazianzen, Bishop of Antioch. 
 It is in 4th century Greek, and is entitled 
 " ■xpKTToc iraaxHv-" This, like many of the 
 religious plays of a subsequent date, was de- 
 signed only to be spoken as in ordinary 
 dramatic representations, and is independent 
 of musical aid. For, although music was 
 occasionally employed to add to the attraction 
 of the performance of these Mysteries or 
 Miracle plays in early times, it was only in a 
 secondary manner, and not so connected with 
 or inseparable from the action as in still later 
 times, or in the form now known. Passion 
 plays are still occasionally performed in 
 remote continental places, with music as an 
 accessory. 
 
 The dramatic performance of the Passion 
 arose in imitation of the ancient custom, still 
 observed in the Roman Catholic Church of 
 dividing the recital of the Gospel of the 
 Passion in Holy Week between two, three, 
 or more readers, assigning those parts which 
 reproduce the words of the people (turbse) to 
 
 the congregation or choir. To one priest was 
 assigned the part of Jesus, to others those of 
 Pilate, Judas, the High Priest, &c., and the 
 connecting portions of the narrative by a 
 narrator. All these parts. were recited accord- 
 ing to the rules of the accentus ecclesiasticus, 
 while the turbae or people's part was delivered 
 in monotone. 
 
 When the Passion was played at other 
 times tTian during the course of the service, it 
 is supposed that the words were spoken with- 
 out the aid of music. So popular did these 
 plays become that as early as 1264 a company 
 of monks was formed for the express purpose 
 of performing the " Sufferings of Christ." 
 Bayle, Burney, and others give a series of 
 dates of several notable mediaeval perform- 
 ances of the Passion, for example, at Padua 
 in 1243, at Friuli in 1298, at Civita Vecchia in 
 the same year, at Paris before Philip le Bel, 
 and our own Edward II. in 1313, at St. Maur 
 near Paris in 1404, at Constance during the 
 Council in 1417, by the English fathers, at 
 Paris, on the entrance of the Kings of England 
 and France into that capital in 1420, in the 
 same city in 1424, in 1431 on the occasion of 
 the entry of Henry VI. of England, as King 
 of France, and at Poitiers with great magnifi- 
 cence in i486. In the Imperial library at Paris 
 is preserved a copy of " Le MystSre de la 
 Passion Jesus Christ," printed on vellum by 
 Antoine Verard, 1490, in which a MS. note 
 describes the performance of this play at Metz 
 and at Veximiel, with some curious details re- 
 specting the representation at the latter place. 
 In Rymer's " View of Tragedy," there is a 
 quotation from the Register of the Parliament 
 at Paris in which the Procureur General du 
 Roi lays a complaint against four laymen 
 for having undertaken to perform Christ's 
 Passion and the Acts of the Apostles, " with a 
 company of illiterate and incompetent men ; 
 that they had moreover introduced apocry-. 
 phal matters, and interlarded their plays with 
 drolls and farces, so as to spin out the play 
 and make it last six or seven months ; that 
 they had played for lucre, and made their 
 performance so attractive that nobody went 
 to church, charity grew cold, and immoral 
 excesseswereoccasioned." Their proceedings 
 were stopped during the King's pleasure, and 
 they were condemned to pay a fine of 800 
 livres out of their profits. 
 
 The reformation witnessed, among the 
 many important changes to which it gave 
 rise, the modification of the representation 
 of the Passion. Luther encouraged the con- 
 tinuance of the practice, and a development 
 of the ancient custom by which the several 
 incidents told in the gospels were recited by 
 different individuals, gave opportunities to 
 the composers of the period to set music of 
 
 ( 344 ) 
 
PASSY-MEASURE PATIMENTO. 
 
 their own to the story, in the place of the 
 traditional church tones, and by this means 
 the story was told, not only at the times com- 
 manded by the ritual of the church, but at 
 other periods, in other places, and on other 
 occasions. One of the first versions of the 
 text of these improvements was printed at 
 Wittenberg in 1573, with the music for the 
 recitative and the choruses for the turbse in 
 four-part harmony. The author of this in- 
 teresting specimen of composition is unknown, 
 though some writers attribute it to Antonio 
 Scandell. Fifteen years later, namely, in 
 1588, Bartholomaeus Giise, or Gese, produced 
 a more elaborate composition, in which the 
 expressions uttered by the priests, people, 
 or disciples, were called by the general name 
 " Turbae." These were set in harmony or 
 plain-song and sung in chorus. The words 
 of our Lord, of Peter, Pilate, Judas, the High 
 Priest, &c., were usually sung by separate 
 solo voices ; but in the work of Bartholo- 
 maeus Gese, a different practice is resorted 
 to. The words of the maid-servant are set 
 for two voices, those of Peter and Pilate for 
 three, those of the Saviour for four. In this 
 work, the words of Holy Scripture alone are 
 used as the text. 
 
 There was little attempt to vary the old plain- 
 song in the early settings of the Passion, 
 until Heinrich Schiitz, or as he sometimes 
 styled himself in accordance with the fanciful 
 custom of his time, Henricus Sagittarius, 
 introduced a new feature into the Passion 
 music ; that of the reflective chorus, as sup- 
 posed to be sung by the " Christian com- 
 munity," — and while the greater part of his 
 harmonies are based upon the old church 
 modes, there is a noteworthy attempt in his 
 recitatives to free himself from the accentus 
 ecclesiasticus, and to make them more in- 
 dependent. The design thus suggested was 
 carried out by Johann Sebastiani, who was 
 organist and Kapellmeister at Brandenburgh, 
 in 1672, to whom also the introduction of 
 orchestral, in the place of an organ accom- 
 paniment, is due. A still further deviation 
 from the ancient plan was made by Reinhard 
 Keiser at the beginning of the i8th century. 
 Taking, instead of the gospel narratives of 
 the Passion, original poems on the subject 
 as his libretto, he made his " Passion 
 Music " of like character with his many 
 operas. In one of these works, " Der 
 Blutige und Sterbende Jesus," the libretto by 
 Menantes, he employs the term " soliloquia " 
 to describe the reflective or interjaculatory 
 passages set in " arioso recitative," so fre- 
 quently employed later by John Sebastian 
 Bach. 
 
 The words of Reinhard Keiser's " Passion" 
 were written by Brockes, a Hamburg poet. 
 
 who added to the Bible narrative, soliloquia, 
 or reflections for the " Daughter of Sion," 
 and " The Believing Soul." Telemann, 
 Mattheson, and Handel set Brockes' poem 
 to music, and traces of the influence of the 
 poem are to be found in Bach's Matthew 
 " Passion." A statement is made by Rietz that 
 in the MS. score in Bach's handwriting certain 
 solos, and solos with chorus, are marked as 
 though they were to be sung by the Daughter 
 of Zion, or Zion, or the Faithful. As there 
 are several pieces in both the existing works 
 on the Passion by Bach (the St. Matthew and 
 the St. John), similar, if not identical with 
 Brockes' soliloquia, there is a reasonable 
 ground for believing the statement of Rietz. 
 The credit of the introduction of the chorale 
 has been assigned to Bach, but although he 
 employed it freely, Telemann, Mattheson, and 
 Handel, also used chorales in their works 
 on the Passion. The earlier writers, Gese, 
 Schiitz, Keiser, and Sebastiani did not use 
 the chorale as Bach probably did, with the 
 design of enlisting the voices as well as the 
 sympathies of the congregation. Bach 
 selected from among a wealthy store of well 
 known hymn-tunes those which had the 
 greatest influence over the minds of German 
 worshippers, tunes set to various words in- 
 separably associated with the sentiments, 
 affections, life, and citizenship of the people. 
 
 Passy-measure {Old Eng.) A corruption 
 of the word passa-mezzo. [Paspy.] 
 
 Pastete {Ger.) [Pasticcio.] 
 
 Pasticcio {It.) Lit. a pie, or pasty. 
 Pastiche {Fr.), Pastete {Ger.) An opera, 
 cantata, or other work, the separate numbers 
 of which are gleaned from the compositions 
 of various authors, or from several discon- 
 nected works of one author. 
 
 Pastiche {Fr.) [Pasticcio.] 
 
 Pastoral, (i) A simple melody in six- 
 eight time in a rustic style. (2) A cantata, 
 the words of which are founded on pastoral 
 incidents. (3) A complete symphony, wherein 
 a series of pastoral scenes is depicted by 
 sound-painting, without the aid of words. 
 
 Pastorale {It.) [Pastoral.] 
 
 Pastorella {It.) A short pastoral. 
 
 Pastorelle {Fr.) [Pastorella.] 
 
 Pastorita. A shepherd's pipe. Fistula 
 pastoricia {Lat.) An organ stop, the Nacht- 
 horn. 
 
 Pastourelle {Fr.) One of the movements 
 of a quadrille. 
 
 Pateticamente, Patetico {It.) In a 
 pathetic manner. 
 
 Path6tique, Pathetiquement {Fr.) In 
 a pathetic manner. 
 
 Patimento {It.) Suffering, as con espres- 
 sione di patimento, with an expression of 
 suffering. 
 
 (345^ 
 
PAUKEN PA VAN. 
 
 Pauken {Ger.) [Kettle-drums.] 
 Pausa (Lat.) A sign for silence. A rest. 
 Ancient authors allowed five kinds of rests : 
 the long rest being a perpendicular stroke 
 drawn from a line to the second line below ; 
 the breve rest, a similar stroke from line to 
 line ; the semibreve rest, a stroke com- 
 mencing from any line, and descending half 
 way between the lines ; the minim rest, the 
 reverse of the semibreve, that is, a stroke 
 ascending half way between the two lines ; 
 the semiminima rest (crochet), a line equal 
 to half the distance between the lines, but 
 bent to the left. These are, of course, practi- 
 cally the same as modern rests, but the way 
 m which they were written was far from 
 preventing confusion. There were .also varie- 
 ties of form or position to indicate rests in 
 triple or common time. 
 
 Pausa (It.) A rest or pause. Pausa 
 generule, a rest or pause for all the per- 
 formers. 
 
 Pause (Fr.), Pause (Ger.) (i) A rest or 
 pause. (2) A bar's rest. 
 
 Pa van. A dance tune of a stately cha- 
 racter, deriving its title from Padua, where it 
 is said to have been invented. Others find 
 the origin of the word in " Pavo," a peacock, 
 because it was danced with " such circum- 
 stance of dignity and stateliness." 
 
 Morley's " Introduction to Practical! Mu- 
 sicke," speaks of it in these terms : — 
 
 "The next in grauitee and goodness vnto 
 this is called a pauan, a kinde of staide 
 musicke, ordained for graue dauncing, and 
 most commonly made of three straines, 
 whereof euerie strain is plaid or song twice. 
 A straine they make to contain 8, 12, or 16, 
 semi-briefs, as they list, yet fewer than eight 
 I haue not seen in any pauan. 
 
 "After every pauan we vsualy set a galliard. 
 The Italians make their galliards (which they 
 tearm salta relly ) plain, and frame ditties 
 to them, which in their mascaradoes they sing 
 and dance." 
 
 By this it would appear that the galliard and 
 the pavan, when played upon the virginals, 
 harpsichord, or spinet, formed a primitive sort 
 of suite or sonata. 
 
 That the pavan was not used entirely for 
 the dance may be gathered from the title of a 
 work published by John Dowland, " Lachrymas 
 or Seaven Teares, figured in Seaven pas- 
 sionate Pavans, with divers other Pavans, 
 Galliards, and Almands." 
 
 The pavan, when in duple time, is not 
 unfrequently spoken of as a " quadron or 
 quodran pavan." The " saltarello " or " salta 
 relly," as Morley calls it, was in triple measure. 
 When the pavan was played faster it was 
 called a passamezzo. 
 
 PAVAN, TRANSLATED FROM TARLATURE IN WOLF 
 HECKEL'S "LAUTTEN HUGH," 1562. 
 
 rj n i-^UHii-f^^^ ' 
 
 ,.. JJ J Ii3 r ^ -r 
 
 f&^!i^—-,&^^ . . 
 
 ( 346) 
 
PA V ANA PERDENDO. 
 
 Pavana {It.) [Pavan.] 
 
 Pavane {Fr.) [Pavan.] 
 
 Paventato, Paventoso (It.) With an 
 expression of fear. 
 
 Pavilion [Fr.) The bell of a horn, or 
 other instrument of a like kind. FlUte a 
 Pavilion {Fr.) an organ stop, the pipes of 
 which are surmounted by a bell. Pavilion 
 chinois, an instrument consisting of little 
 bells attached to a staff. 
 
 Pectis or Pektis. A Greek instrument of 
 the lute or dulcimer kind, variously described. 
 
 Ped : Abb. (i) of pedal. In pianoforte 
 music a direction to press down the pedal 
 which raises the dampers. (2) Of pedals. 
 In organ music a direction that the lowest 
 part is to be played by the feet. 
 
 Pedal. Any projecting piece of metal or 
 wood which is to be pressed down by the 
 foot, (i) On the pianoforte there are usually 
 two pedals, one of which enables the per- 
 former to play only on one string {una corda); 
 the other, to remove the dampers {sordini). 
 (2) On the organ there are combination 
 pedals, which alter the arrangement of the 
 registers, and a pedal clavier or keyboard, on 
 which the feet play. (3) On the harp there 
 are pedals, each of which has the power of 
 flattening, sharpening, or making natural, 
 one note throughout the whole compass of 
 the instrument. 
 
 Pedal-claviatur {Ger.) The pedal key- 
 board of an organ. 
 
 Pedal coupler. An accessory stop of an 
 organ, by means of which the pedal keys are 
 enabled to draw down the keys of a manual. 
 
 Pedale {It.) (i) A pedal key of an organ. 
 
 (2) A pedal note, or pedal point. [Fugue.] 
 
 (3) The pedal of a pianoforte, which raises 
 the dampers. 
 
 Pedalfliigel {Ger.) A pianoforte, to 
 which a set of pedal keys is attached. 
 
 Pedaliera {It.) The pedal keys of an organ. 
 
 Pedalion. A set of pedals acting upon 
 strings, producing notes of a deep pitch, so 
 constructed as to be capable of being used 
 with a pianoforte. 
 
 Pedal-pipes. The name given to the one 
 stop which was often, in former times, in 
 this country the sole representative of an 
 independent pedal organ. It generally con- 
 sisted of open wooden pipes of a large scale. 
 
 Pedal Sound-board. The sound-board 
 containing the pipes belonging to the pedal 
 organ. 
 
 Pedicula, Scabella, or Scabilla {Lat.) 
 [(cpouirefa.l [Croupeza.] 
 
 Pedarii, Podarii, and Pedicularii. The 
 beaters of time in the performance of Greek 
 music. It was done with the foot, which 
 was furnished with wooden or iron sandals 
 for the purpose. [Croupeza.] 
 
 Peg of an Instrument. A small round 
 piece of wood or metal, placed in a hole, or 
 two holes, so 'as to be capable of being turned 
 round, and pierced to receive that end of a 
 string or wire which is not fixed. It is pre- 
 vented from sHpping round under the in- 
 fluence of the tension of the string or wire, 
 either by being made slightly tapering in 
 form, and then forced into its hole as in a 
 violin ; or by being made with serrated edges, 
 as in a pianoforte. The outer end of the peg 
 expands into a broad flat surface which can 
 be easily turned round between the thumb 
 and forefinger, or has a four-sided head on 
 to which a key can be fixed. 
 
 Penillion singing. A Welsh custom of 
 singing improvised verses on a given theme 
 to a melody either well-known or then and 
 there learnt from the harper who accompanies 
 the Penillion. There is a similar custom 
 among the Hungarian gipsies called the 
 " Verbunges." [Dutch concert.] 
 
 Penorcon. An obsolete instrument of 
 the guitar family, somewhat broader and 
 shorter than the Pandora, with a very broad 
 neck over which passed nine brass strings, 
 which were played upon by the fingers. 
 
 Pentatone. An interval of five whole 
 tones, an augmented sixth. 
 
 Pentatonic scale. The name given by 
 Carl Engel to the ancient musical scale 
 which is easiest described, as that formed by 
 the black keys of the pianoforte. It consists 
 of the ist, 2nd, 3rd, 5th, and 6th degrees of a 
 modem diatonic scale, e.fr. : 
 
 Per {Lat.) By ; as, per diminutionem, by 
 diminution ; per inversionem, by inversion. 
 
 Per {It.) By or for ; as, per il violino, for 
 the violin. 
 
 Percussion. An ingenious contrivance 
 whereby a hammer strikes the tongue of a 
 reed and sets it in motion simultaneously 
 with the admission of air from the windchest, 
 thus securing the rapid speech of the reed. 
 Were it not for the percussion, the reed would 
 be only gradually set in motion by the ad- 
 mission of the current of air, and the sound 
 would not instantly follow the striking of the 
 key. It is commonly used in harmoniums, 
 but has also been applied to the largest reeds 
 of an organ. 
 
 Percussion of a discord. The striking of 
 a discord, which takes place after its prepara- 
 tion, and which is followed by its resolution. 
 
 Percussione {It.) The striking of a 
 chord. 
 
 Perd. Perden. Abbreviations of 
 
 Perdendo, Perdendosi {It.) Losing time 
 and power, implying both dim. and rail. 
 
 (347) 
 
PERFECT PIANO DROIT. 
 
 Perfect. Complete, (i) Perfect cadence, 
 an authentic or plagal cadence. [Cadence.] 
 (2) Perfect concord, a common chord in its 
 original position. (3) Perfect consonance, 
 the consonance produced by the intervals 
 fourth, fifth, or octave. (4) Perfect in- 
 terval, one of the divisions of intervals. 
 [Interval.] (5) Perfect time. An old name 
 for triple time. 
 Performing Rights. [See Copyright.] 
 Perijourdine. A song-dance, a ballad, 
 named after the district in which it was used. 
 
 CHANSON A DANSER DE SARLAT EN PERIGORD. 
 
 
 Period, Periode (Fr.), Periodo {It.) 
 complete musical sentence. [Form.] 
 
 Periodenbau [Ger.) The construction of 
 musical periods. 
 
 Periodic Vibration. [Acoustics, § 9.] 
 
 Period of Vibration. [Acoustics, § 3.] 
 
 Perle {Fr.) Lit., pearled. Cadence perlee, 
 a brilliarjt cadence. A pearly touch is an ex- 
 pression of our own for a delicate and' bright 
 touch in playing the pianoforte. 
 
 Perpetual canon. A canon so constructed 
 that it may be repeated constantly without 
 a break in the time or rhythm. [Canon.] 
 
 Per recte et retro. A species of imita- 
 tion in which the antecedent is repeated at 
 the unison, reading the notes backwards. 
 The following chant by Dr. Crotch is a sim- 
 ple example. The numbers over the bars 
 will show the retrogressive movement. 
 
 6 
 
 Pesante (7^.) With weight, or importance. 
 Impressively. 
 
 Petite flflte {Fr.) Kleine Flbte {Ger.) 
 Piccolo. [Piccolo flute.] 
 
 Petite mesured deux terns {Fr.) Two- 
 four time. 
 
 Petteia(G^.) Aterm of Greek" Melopceia." 
 Perhaps the same as extensio,the: holding out 
 of a sound, or its frequent repetition to 
 different words or syllables. [Melopoeia.] 
 
 Petto {It.) The chest. Voce di petto, the 
 chest voice. 
 
 Peu a peu {Fr.) Little by little, gradually. 
 
 Pezzi (7^.) Pieces, as pezzi concertanti, 
 concert pieces or concerti ; pezzi di bravura, 
 pieces for the display of rapid execution and 
 manual dexterity. 
 
 P.f., abb. of (i) Pianoforte. (2) Piano, 
 forte, soft then loud. (3) PiU forte, louder. 
 
 Pfeife {Ger.) Pipe, fife, little flute. 
 
 Pfeifenwerk {Ger.) The pipe work (of 
 an organ), including both reed and flue pipes. 
 
 Phantasie {Ger.) [Fantasia.] 
 
 Phantasy, pi. Phantasies {Old Eng.) 
 [Fancies.] 
 
 Phonascus {Lat., from Gk. (jtuvaaKog). A 
 master who trained the voices of those who 
 were preparing themselves for orators, singers, 
 &c. 
 
 Phonometer. An instrument for ascer- 
 taining the number of vibrations of a given 
 sound. 
 
 Phorminx {Gk.), (pSpfuyl,. The ancient 
 lyre or cithara, which had probably not more 
 than seven strings. [Lyre.] 
 
 Phrasing. The proper rendering of music 
 with reference to its melodic form. A per- 
 former who brings into due prominence the 
 grouping of sounds into figures, sentences, 
 &c., is said to phrase well. Formerly the 
 phrasing of music was left to be discovered 
 by the intelligence and taste of the performer. 
 Modern writers use various signs as indica-^ 
 tions of their wishes, such as, the slur, sf, 
 &c. [Expression.] 
 
 Piacere, a {It.) At pleasure (the time 
 be modified at the performer's pleasure). 
 
 Piacevole, Piacevolezza con, Piace- 
 volmente (7^.) In a playful or light style. 
 Pleasantly. 
 
 Piacimento {It.) [Piacere.] 
 
 Piangendo, Piangevole, Piangevol- 
 mente {It.) As if weeping. In a plaintive 
 manner. 
 
 Pianette {Fr.) A small pianoforte. 
 
 Pianino {It.) [Pianette.] 
 
 Pianissimo {It.) As softly as possible, 
 abbd. pp. 
 
 Piano {It.) Softly, abbd. p. 
 
 Piano a queue {Fr.) A grand pianoforte. 
 
 Piano carr6 {Fr.) A square pianoforte. 
 
 Piano droit {Fr.) An upright pianoforte. 
 
 (348) 
 
PIANOFORTE. 
 
 Pianoforte, Forte-piano (It.) Ham- 
 merclavier, Fliigel {Ger.) (i) A stringed 
 instrument with a key-board. The na.me soft- 
 loud was given to it because the gradations of 
 sound are under the control of the performer. 
 
 (2) It is a development of the harpsichord, 
 which in itself was an improvement upon the 
 clarichord and spinet, but it differs from each 
 in the manner in which the tone is produced 
 and the strings set in vibration. In the earlier 
 instruments this was effected by the scratch- 
 ing of quills or hard leather, acting as plectra. 
 In the pianoforte the strings are struck by 
 means of hammers. The dulcimer is un- 
 doubtedly the origin of the pianoforte ; in fact, 
 the pianoforte is nothing but a keyed dulcimer. 
 The possession of" keys " and other mechanism 
 often assisted the makers in finding titles for 
 the early instruments. Thus we find key- 
 board instruments called clavicytherium, or 
 keyed cithara ; clavichord, or string struck by 
 means of a key ; virginells or virginal, from 
 the rods attached to the keys ; spinet, from 
 the quills which struck the strings, and clavi- 
 cymbalum, from cembalo, one of the Italian 
 titles for a dulcimer. 
 
 (3) The clavicytherium, Clavierharpe, Cla- 
 viercither (Ger.) is supposed to be the oldest 
 of the stringed instruments with a key-board. 
 It was at one time arranged in an upright posi- 
 tion, but was afterwards placed in a horizontal 
 position similar to the grand pianoforte of the 
 present day. The earliest representation of 
 the instrument is to be found in the " Musur- 
 gia seu praxis musicse " of Luscinius, Stras- 
 bourg, 1536 ; but the picture, as well as the 
 accompanying description, is very vague, and 
 it is therefore difficult to gain a correct idea 
 of its construction. According to the picture 
 and description, the clavicytherium must have 
 been an oblong box with a lid, having a num- 
 ber of catgut strings arranged in triangular 
 form. When the keys were pressed the strings 
 were set in vibration by plectra of hard leather. 
 
 (4) The clavichord, clavicordo [It.), Clavier 
 (Ger.) had strings of wire instead of gut. In 
 other respects it was at first identical with 
 the clavicytherium. The "action was simply 
 a brass wedge or tangent, which was placed 
 vertically at a point where it could be struck 
 or pressed against its proper string ; this 
 wedge could be held against the string as 
 long as required by the firm pressure of the 
 finger. It thus formed the wrest-pin for the 
 string, which vibrated only while the key was 
 held down." The shorter length of the string 
 had a cloth or list damper which checked the 
 vibration of the whole length of the string 
 when the finger was raised from the key, 
 allowing the tangent to return to its place. 
 The tangents struck and " stopped " the 
 strings like a violin player's finger, so that 
 
 more than one sound could be produced from 
 the same string. Forkel says that "Bach 
 delighted in the instrument as he considered 
 it best for study, and, in general, for private 
 musical entertainment. He found it most 
 convenient for the expression of his thoughts, 
 and he did not consider it possible to produce 
 such a variety in the gradations of tone from 
 any harpsichord or pianoforte as from the 
 clavichord." 
 
 The names clarichord, manichord and 
 monochord were also applied to the clavichord. 
 
 The clavicymbalum, mentioned above, 
 differed from the clavicytherium and clari- 
 chord in having strings of steel wire, which 
 were set in vibration by means of quill plectra. 
 
 The clavichord is frequently mentioned by 
 writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- 
 turies in such a manner as to show that the 
 instrument was in general use at that period. 
 
 Clavichords were made in Germany as late 
 as the middle of the eighteenth century. The 
 last maker of any note, according to Dr. 
 Rimbault, was Kramer of Gottingen, " some 
 of whose instruments may still occasionally 
 be met with in the old baronial residences 
 with which that romantic country abounds." 
 
 (5) The virginal, or spinet, used a long 
 time during the same period, gradually super- 
 seded the clavichord in England and else- 
 where. It was an improvement upon the 
 clavicytherium, having brass instead of gut- 
 strings. The plectrum was of quill, attached 
 to the tongue of a piece of wood called "a 
 jack." When the key was struck the jack 
 rose up, forced the quill past the string, and 
 set it in vibration. The quill remained above 
 the string so long as the key was held down. 
 As soon as the finger was moved from the 
 key, the jack returned to its place, when a 
 small cloth damper on its top checked the 
 vibrations of the string. 
 
 VIRGINAL AND 
 HARPSICHORD JACK. 
 
 In " Musick's hand-maid, new lessons and 
 instructions for the virginals or harpsichord," 
 
 ( 349 ) 
 
PIANOFORTE. 
 
 c. 1660, it is said, that " the virginals, accord- 
 ing to the ancient standard, were made to 
 contain 29 keys (with the half notes 48 keys), 
 but of later times they add to that number 
 both above and below." It was usug.lly placed 
 upon a table or stand when performed upon. 
 The instrument was a favourite one in the 
 time of Queen Elizabeth, and continued to 
 be popular until the commencement of the 
 eighteenth century. 
 
 The virginals or spinets were sometimes 
 highly ornamented with inlaid work of different 
 woods, and sometimes with mother-of-pearl 
 and precious stones. It is needless to say 
 that these ornaments did not improve the 
 tone. 
 
 ' PAIR OF VIRGINALS. 
 
 (6) The Spinet, absorbing the title of the 
 Virginal, the instrument next in historical 
 order, differed from the older Virginals in that 
 it was always of a triangular shape. 
 
 SPINET, OR COUCHED HARP. 
 
 It had the wires carried over a bent bridge, 
 which modified their sounds. Like the Vir- 
 ginal it was furnished with one string to each 
 note, which string was set in vibration by 
 means of the jack before described. 
 
 The following is a diagram of the Spinet 
 or Clavichord action. 
 
 K Key, J Jack, and S String. 
 
 (7) The Harpsichord, or horizontal Harp, 
 had sometimes two rows of quills and jacks* 
 and there was a contrivance by means of 
 which one set of jacks could be moved out of 
 reach of the strings if the player desired a 
 soft effect. If power was required the me- 
 chanism was moved so that both rows of 
 jacks could act upon the string at once. 
 Additiopal rows of jacks and additional key- 
 boards were added to the Harpsichord until 
 it became a very intricate piece of mechanism. 
 The effects produced were pleasing but very 
 weak. Some Harpsichords had three and 
 even four strings to each note, so arranged 
 that, upon using certain " stops," the octave 
 above or below the strings could be sounded. 
 It was difficult to keep such an instrument in 
 tune. The quills in a well -used instrument 
 required constantrenewal;and, as the process 
 of " quilHng" took some hours, tortoiseshell, 
 ivory, and leather plectra were sometimes 
 substituted for quills, but not with any per- 
 manent success. 
 
 The general appearance of the Harpsi- 
 chord may be imagined from the subjoined 
 drawing of Handel's Harpsichord, presented 
 by Messrs. Broadwood and Sons to the South 
 Kensington Museum. 
 
 HANDEL'S HARPSICHORD. 
 
 The action of the Harpsichord may be seen 
 upon reference to the following diagram. 
 
 K Key, J Jack, S String. 
 
 Harpsichord makers made many attempts to 
 improve their mechanism so that the per- 
 former might gain expression in playing. 
 
 ( 35° ) 
 
PIANOFORTE. 
 
 Fetis, in his " Sketch of the History of the 
 Pianoforte," says that " Harpsichords were 
 constructed with more than twenty different 
 modiiications, to imitate the sound of the 
 harp, the lute, the mandoHne, the bassoon, 
 the flageolet, the oboe, the violin, and other 
 instruments. In order to produce these 
 different eifects new rows of jacks were 
 added, which were furnished with various 
 materials for dampers ; and yet, with all the 
 complications of stops, springs, extra rows of 
 keys, and Venetian swells over the strings, 
 the grand secret — the real shading of the 
 piano and forte — was still wanting." 
 
 Godfrey Silbermann of Freyburg, about the 
 middle of the eighteenth century made several 
 improvements in the harpsichord, by lighten- 
 ing the touch, and extending the keyboard. 
 He also advanced one step towards the inven- 
 tion of the pianoforte by constructing his 
 clavecin d'amour in such a manner that the 
 tangent, which he restored, struck the string 
 in the middle, leaving each half to vibrate 
 freely. 
 
 The compass of the harpsichord, originally 
 only three octaves, was gradually extended to 
 five. Many of the Italian and Dutch harpsi- 
 chords were ornamented with elaborate paint- 
 ings inside the lids, often the work of famous 
 artists. 
 
 The most famous of the harpsichord makers 
 of England in the last century were Kirkman, 
 Schudi, and Broadwood. 
 
 (8) It is difficult to determine now who was 
 the original inventor of the pianoforte, as it 
 appears, by the evidence brought forward, to 
 have been conceived by three persons, very 
 nearly, if not actually at one and the same 
 time : a German organist named Schroter, 
 a French harpsichord maker named Marius, 
 and an Italian named Bartolomeo Cristofori. 
 In 1717 Schroter, when only eighteen years 
 of age, constructed the model of a "Clavier," 
 with hammers upon which one could play 
 loudly or softly, which model was exhibited 
 at the Court of Dresden, and received the 
 approval of the Elector of Saxony. His 
 invention was copied by Silbermann of 
 Strasbourg, Stein of Augsburg, and Spatt of 
 Dresden, without acknowledgment or profit 
 to the author. Silbermann submitted two of 
 his instruments to the judgment of Bach, who 
 praised t-he mechanism, but found fault with 
 the tone. Silbermann ultimately conquered 
 this defect, and produced an instrument which 
 Bach pronounced faultless. 
 
 Marius is said to have " submitted two 
 clavecins a maillets to the examination of the 
 Academie des Sciences, in February, 1716." 
 The mechanism was very imperfect ; a piece 
 of wood covered with sheepskin fastened at 
 the end of each key formed the hammers. 
 
 Cristofori's invention was earlier by five 
 years. It was made known in 17 11, and 
 there is little doubt, from the description of 
 the instrument existing, that, of the above- 
 named makers, Cristofori has the strongest 
 claim to the invention of the pianoforte. 
 The description, which is too long to quote 
 here, is printed in Rimbault's " History of the 
 Pianoforte." It was originally inserted in the 
 " Giornale de Litterati d'ltalia," Venezia, 
 171 1, and its title runs thus : " Nuova inven- 
 zione d'un gravicembalo, col piano e forte ; 
 aggiunte alcune considerazioni sopra gli 
 strumenti musicali." By this account it is 
 shown that Cristofori made improvements in 
 every part of the instrument: The invention 
 is also claimed for Father Wood, an English 
 monk at Rome, who made a pianoforte in 
 1711, and sold it to Samuel Crisp, who re-sold 
 it to Fulke Greville. It admitted of much 
 greater expression than the existing harpsi- 
 chords, but it was incapable of rapid execution. 
 This particular instrument became very cele- 
 brated, and was known as " Mr. Greville's 
 pianoforte." 
 
 In 1760 some German makers settled in 
 London, and gave an impetus to the new 
 instrument. A succession of improvements 
 were made from time to time by such makers 
 as Broadwood, Erard, Stodart, Clementi, 
 Collard, Wornum, Hopkinson, Brinsmead and 
 others, and the instrument has arrived at a 
 wonderful degree of perfection, chiefly through 
 the labours and thoughtfulness of Englishmen. 
 
 The compass of the instrument, originally 
 five octaves, has been gradually increased 
 to seven. The mechanism, however varied 
 it may be by the several makers, is as 
 ingenious as it is effective. 
 
 (9) There are four chief parts of a piano- 
 forte : the back or framework, the sounding- 
 board, the mechanism or action, and the case. 
 The construction of the framework is of great 
 importance, for as it has to bear the enormous 
 tension of the strings, a tension amounting, 
 in a full-sized grand piano, to sixteen tons, it 
 is necessary that it should be strong and 
 durable. The method of " framing," though 
 varied in details by several makers, is upon 
 the same broad plan. " The strings are 
 fastened to pins upon a wrought iron string- 
 plate, which is curved to follow the hollow 
 side of the instrument. From this plate, and 
 fastened to it, metallic bars or tubes are 
 extended parallel to and above the strings, 
 their ends being so connected with the string- 
 plate at one end, and the wrest-plank at 
 the other, as to take upon themselves the 
 whole tension of the strings. At the same 
 time the string-plate, being screwed down 
 firmly upon the wooden bracings or framing 
 below, the whole forms one combined trussing 
 
 ( 351 ) 
 
PIANOFORTE. 
 
 to which both wood and iron contribute to 
 the strength. The reason for the use of so 
 great a quantity of metal in the grand piano 
 is, that the wood framing under the strings 
 is necessarily severed completely across the 
 opening through which the hammers rise to 
 strike the under part of the strings." The 
 bracing or "back-making" is simpler in up- 
 right pianofortes. There is no opening through 
 the framing for the hammers to pass, and 
 there is less strain to be resisted. The 
 " sounding-board," usually made from the 
 best Swiss fir, is carefully selected and pre- 
 pared, and its edges attached to the framing 
 so as to leave the central part to vibrate freely 
 under the strings when they are struck. 
 
 The "mechanism" or "action," that is, 
 the keys, hammers, and dampers, when 
 inserted in the instrument, leaves it ready for 
 the finisher and tuner. 
 
 There are differences of detail in the action 
 as constructed by different makers. Some 
 are more complicated than others, but all are 
 upon the same broad plan, only modified in 
 shape and arrangement. The following 
 diagram will show the action in use as early 
 as 1777, called the horizontal or common 
 grand. 
 
 COMMON ACTION TO GRAND PIANOFORTES. 
 
 K Key, H Hammer, E Escapement, J Jack, D Damper, 
 S String. 
 
 In the " first patent for pianofortes," the 
 above is the drawing as given in the specifi- 
 cation, but no claim is made by any one 
 maker to its invention. 
 
 VIENNA PIANOFORTE ACTION. 
 D 
 
 K Key, H Hammer, D Damper, J Jack, S String. 
 
 The invention of the Vienna action is 
 generally attributed to an organ builder of 
 Augsburg. Its principle of action was 
 adopted by almost all the makers in Germany. 
 
 (lo)Thefirstpianofortes had the mechanism 
 so arranged that the hammers were raised 
 from below by buttons attached to upright 
 wires fixed at the back ends of the keys. The 
 
 motion given to the hammers when the keys 
 were pressed caused them to strike the strings, 
 after which they immediately fell back on 
 to their buttons, leaving the struck strings 
 free to vibrate. This was called the " single 
 action." As the hammer, when resting on 
 the button with the key pressed down, was 
 necessarily at a little distance from the string, 
 the effectual working of this action required 
 that a certain impetus should be communi- 
 cated to the hammer to enable it to touch the 
 string. Hence it was next to impossible to 
 play very piano. This defect was remedied 
 by the invention of the " Hopper," a jointed 
 upright piece attached to the back end of the 
 key in place of the wire and button. To 
 prevent the hammer rebounding on the string, 
 a projection called the " check" was fixed on 
 to the end of the key. This caught the edge of 
 the hammer as it fell, and prevented it from 
 rising. In this mechanism it was impossible 
 to repeat a note until time had been allowed 
 for the full rise of the key. This was remedied 
 in " repeating or repetition actions," which 
 holdupthe hammers while the key is returning. 
 The upright action was invented for the 
 purpose of constructing pianofortes whose 
 mechanism might be confined within a limited 
 space. By means of this invention a piano- 
 forte can be made which will occupy a space 
 about a fourth of the depth of the " grand." 
 The names given to such instruments are 
 many and sometimes fanciful, though most of 
 them indicate the object for which they were 
 contrived. Many of these upright actions 
 are very ingeniously arranged, as the following 
 diagrams will show. 
 
 BROADWOOD'S upright ACTION. — PLAIN COTTAGE. 
 
 K Key, H Hammer, D Damper, S String. 
 
 ( 352 ) 
 
PIANOFORTE SCORE PICCOLO FLUTE. 
 
 broadwood's upright check action. 
 
 K Key, H Hammer, D Damper, S String. 
 broadwood's grand action. 
 
 K Key, H Hammer, S String, 
 
 The following is a diagram of Erard's 
 action : — 
 
 PATENT REPETITION ACTION FOR HORIZONTAL 
 PIANOFORTES. 
 
 K Key, H Hammer, D Damper, S String. 
 
 (ii) The strings of the pianoforte are of 
 varying thickness and strength. The bass 
 strings are covered w^ith a fine copper wire to 
 give depth of tone without any very great in- 
 crease of diameter. When the loud pedal is 
 used it raises the dampers, when the soft pedal 
 is pressed down it either shifts the hammers 
 sideways so as to allow them to strike one or 
 two strings at a time, or else the strings are 
 covered with a strip of cloth which deadens 
 the sound. 
 
 (12) Pianofortes have been named (i) from 
 their shape or supposed resemblance to well 
 known objects. Thus, the grand pianoforte 
 has been calledSchweinskopf from its likeness 
 to the profile of a pig's head, and Flugel,he- 
 cause it is like a bird's wing. Upright pianos 
 have been called giraffes from their tall appear- 
 ance, and horizontal ones have been called 
 couched harp, or square pianoforte ; the latter 
 should more correctly be oblong; (2) the 
 number of strings used for each note for a 
 considerable part of the compass also serves 
 to describe pianos of some sort, as bi-chord, 
 tri-chord, &c. ; (3) the purpose for which 
 pianos have been made, whether for the 
 cottage, boudoir, drawing-room, or concert- 
 room, and (4) the size, as piccolo, semi-grand, 
 and full grand. 
 
 Pianoforte score. A score of a vocal or 
 instrumental composition, under which is 
 written in two lines a condensed form of the 
 harmonies for the use of a pianoforte. 
 
 Pianograph. An ingenious machine, 
 which on being attached to a pianoforte, in- 
 scribed what is played. Invented by M. 
 Guerin. 
 
 Piatti {It.) [Cymbals.] 
 
 Pibroch. The wild, irregular martial 
 music of the Scottish Highlanders played on 
 the bagpipe. The term is also figuratively 
 employed for the instrument itself. 
 
 " Cast your plaids, draw your blades 
 Forward each man set ; 
 Pibroch of Donuil Dhu 
 Knell for the onset." — Scott. 
 
 The pibroch style of music is irregular in 
 rhythm, and, according to Sir Walter Scott, 
 those learned in the matter affect to discover 
 in a well-composed pibroch a representation 
 of the sounds of a march, attack, flight, 
 pursuit, and all the "current of a heady fight." 
 The pibroch has so peculiar a connection with 
 the bagpipe that it could scarcely have pre- 
 ceded the use of that instrument, therefore, 
 the pibroch called the " Battle of Harlaw," 
 and supposed to have been written at the time 
 of the struggle [141 1], is probably of later 
 date, as the old chroniclers and the ballad 
 descriptive of the scene mention only trum- 
 pets and horns as being there used. [Bag- 
 pipe.] 
 
 Picciolo (7f.) Small; a.s,violinopiccialo, 
 a small-sized fiddle. 
 
 Piccolo. An organ stop of 2 ft. length — 
 the pipes are of wood, the tone bright and 
 piercing. 
 
 Piccolo flute, or piccolo. A small flute, 
 having the same compass as the ordinary 
 orchestral flute, but whose sounds are one 
 
 ( 353 ) 
 
PICCO PIPE PITCH. 
 
 octave higher than the notes as they are 
 written. Its compass may be said to be 
 from 
 
 chord playing, indicated by the signs here 
 shown : 
 
 No. 
 
 or even one note higher, but the lowest 
 octave is so weak as to be far more effective 
 when played by the higher octave of the 
 common flute, and the upper notes are so 
 shrill as to be only available in fortissimo 
 tutti passages, or for peculiar and striking 
 effects. Both Gluck and Beethoven use it 
 in representing a storm, the former in his 
 " Iphigenia in Tauris," the latter in his 
 "Pastoral Symphony." Spontini combines 
 the short piercing scream of the piccolo with 
 the crash of cymbals in his " Danaides." The 
 tendency of modern orchestral writers is to 
 use the piccolo too often, and in inappro- 
 priate passages. It should be reserved for 
 rare and special effects. 
 
 Picco pipe. A small pipe having two 
 ventages above and one below. It is blown 
 by means of a mouthpiece like a JiMe a bee 
 or whistle ; and in playing, the little finger is 
 used for varying the pitch by being inserted 
 in the end. The player, Picco, after whom 
 it was named, produced a compass of three 
 octaves from this primitive instrument. 
 
 Piccorn. Lit., horn-pipe. [Horn-pipe.j 
 
 Pidce {Fr.) A piece, as suites de pieces, 
 sets of pieces. [Suite.] 
 
 Pieds {Fr.) The feet, as, avec les pieds, 
 with the feet, con pedale. 
 
 Pieno, Plena {It.) Full; as, a plena 
 orchestra, for a full band. 
 
 Pietosamente, Pietoso {It.) With pity, 
 tenderly. 
 
 PifFaro, or Piffero {It.) The old form of 
 the oboe, still in use in some districts of 
 Italy and the Tyrol, formerly called the 
 schalmy. [Oboe.] 
 
 Piffarari, or Pifferari {It.) Players on 
 the piffaro. 
 
 Pifferino {It.) A little piffero. 
 
 Piffero {It.) [Piffaro.] 
 
 Plleata {Lat.) Capped (of an organ pipe). 
 Stopped. Pileata major, i6 feet stopped. 
 Pileata minor, 4 feet stopped. Pileata 
 diapente, stopped quint. 
 
 Pince {Fr.) Pinched, (i) A direction in 
 French music equivalent to pizzicato, q.v. 
 (2) The name of an ornament in harpsi- 
 
 ( 354 ) 
 
 The first was called pincS simple, the second 
 pince double. The note of ornament of the 
 pinc6 was below the note written, while the 
 added note in the tremblement was above. 
 
 Pince bemollse {Fr.) A pinc6 or trill 
 with a flattened note. An ornament in 
 harpsichord playing. 
 
 written thus : — 
 
 Pinc6 dlds6 {Fr.) A pinc6 or trill with 
 a sharpened note 
 
 written thus : — played thus : — 
 
 T 
 
 Pincement {Fr.) [Pince.] 
 
 Plqu6 {Fr.) On string-instruments a kind 
 of bowing, by which a staccato is produced 
 by allowing the bow to lie perfectly still on 
 the string between each separate note. It is 
 written with dots and a slur, thus : 
 
 It is also called spiccato. 
 
 Plquiren {Ger.) To play piquL 
 
 Pitct. (i) The position of a sound with 
 reference to the number of vibrations which - 
 produce it. The relative height of a sound. * 
 
 It is much to be regretted that one standard 
 of pitch has not been universally adopted. 
 
 The following Table selected from that 
 given in the "Journal of the Society of Arts " 
 (June 6, i860), and from other sources, will 
 show some of the variations. The number of 
 vibrations in each case represent the note 
 
PITCH-PIPE PLAGIAULOS. 
 
 No. of Vibs. 
 
 Paris Grand Opera, 1699 404 
 
 Ditto 1858 448 
 
 French " Diapason Normal " (gene- 
 rally adopted) 435 
 
 Handel's tuning fork (c. 1740) 426 
 
 Sir George Smart's " Philharmonic" 
 
 fork (early in this century) 433 
 
 Italian Opera (London), 1859 455 
 
 Scheibler's pitch (recommended by 
 the Society of Arts) 440 
 
 It will be seen from the above that the 
 tendenc}' to raise the pitch has been arrested 
 in France, and to a great extent in this 
 country also. The chief obstacle to the in- 
 troduction of a lower pitch at our Operas 
 seems to be the wind-instruments. An at- 
 tempt to use the French pitch, lately made 
 at Her Majesty's Opera, had only the unfor- 
 tunate result of putting everybody thoroughly 
 out of tune. For valuable information on 
 this subject, the reader is referred to Mr. 
 Ellis's XIX Appendix to his translation of 
 Helmholtz. 
 
 (2) The method, now generally adopted, of 
 showing the particular octave in which a 
 sound occurs, is as follows : — 
 
 C D E F G A B 
 (Great octave.) 
 
 d e f g 
 (Small octave.) 
 
 «■ /' g' a' b' 
 (Once-acccnted octave.) 
 
 d" t" f" g" a" 6"&c. 
 (Twice-accented octave.) 
 
 Sounds in the octave next below the great 
 octave C, D, and so on. Sounds above the 
 twice-accented octave c" d!" and so on. 
 
 The pitch of organ pipes is, however, still 
 named after the old system, as follows : — 
 
 w 
 
 -S.{8ve lower.) 
 CCC 
 
 (or) l6ft C 
 (or) Three C's 
 
 w 
 
 8ft C 
 Double C 
 
 m 
 
 c 
 
 4ftC 
 Tenor C. 
 
 zftC 
 Middle C 
 
 The octave below CCC being CCCC, and 
 that above c in alt, c in altissimo. 
 
 Pitch-pipe. A wood or metal pipe having 
 a moveable stopper or tampion, with marks, 
 showing where it should be placed for the 
 
 production of different notes of the scale. 
 This form of pipe has been almost entirely 
 superseded by an ingenious invention known 
 as " Eardsley's Patent." It consists of a free 
 reed capable of being lengthened or shortened 
 by a graduated curve, on which are registered 
 the notes of the scale. 
 
 Piil {It.) More, as pi'il allegro, faster ; piii 
 forte, louder ; piu lento, slower ; piil piano, 
 softer; piu presto, more rapid; piii stretto, 
 more urged or closer ; piU tosto allegro, rather 
 quicker. 
 
 Piva {It.) A bagpipe. 
 
 Fizz. Abbreviation oi pizzicato. 
 
 Pizzicato {It.), Pince {Fr.), Gekneipt 
 {Ger.) Lit. pinched. A direction to violinists 
 to produce the tone by plucking the string 
 with the finger instead of using the bow. 
 The place at which the use of the bow is to 
 be resumed, is pointed out by the words 
 colV arco, or simply area. 
 
 Placidamente, Placido {It.) Quietly, 
 peacefully, placidly. 
 
 Plagal. The name given to those Church 
 modes which were formed from the four older 
 or authentic modes by taking the fourth 
 below as the new key-note, and proceeding 
 thence to the fifth above, e.g. : 
 
 Authentic. 
 
 Plagal. 
 
 The plagal modes were distinguished by the 
 addition of vwo, e.g. : Doric, an authentic 
 mode ; Hypodoric, a plagal mode formed 
 from the Doric. [Plain Song.] 
 
 Plagal cadence. The cadence formed 
 when a subdominant chord immediately pre- 
 cedes the final tonic chord, e.g. : 
 
 w 
 
 =s= 
 
 The plagal cadence of the old church writers 
 corresponded more to the modern half-close, 
 which is formed when the final chord is 
 dominant, and is preceded by a tonic chord, 
 e.g.: 
 
 Plagiaulos {Gk.) irXayiavXog. {Lat.) Tibia 
 
 ( 355 ) 
 
PLAIN-CHANT PLAIN SONG. 
 
 obliqua. The cross-flute, or Jlauto traverse. 
 [Flute.] 
 
 Plain-Chant. [Plain Song.J 
 
 Plain Song. The kind of music used from 
 time immemorial in the worship of the ancient 
 Jewish or Israelitish Church, as well as among 
 all the churches of Christendom throughout 
 the world. 
 
 The first principles of all music being found 
 in nature, and its various forms having been 
 gradually evolved by scientific and artistic in- 
 dustry and research from those principles, 
 there must necessarily be found much of co- 
 incidence, and similarity, if not an actual 
 identity, in the practical results of such in- 
 quiries and experiments. Hence it is not 
 strange to find some Greek Music traced to 
 the Hebrew, nor that of the early Christian 
 Church to both. In fact, so far as in any 
 country the natural development of the 
 musical art has grown up healthily, according 
 to its inner principle of life, there can be little 
 doubt that, in all essential particulars (al- 
 lowing, of course, a certain amount of charac- 
 teristic individuality) there will be so much of 
 resemblance to that of other countries as to 
 lead historians (rather too fondly) to trace a 
 parentage and derivation, where, be the fact 
 as it may, neither are necessary to account 
 for the likeness. The Plain Song of the 
 Christian Church is a well known, and uni- 
 versally practised form of musical accent, 
 recitation, and simple melody, written records 
 of which are extant dating from the eighth 
 century ; and these are themselves records 
 of Christian Plain Song of still earlier times, 
 of which some, it is not unreasonable to be- 
 lieve, are the very melodies sung by Our 
 Lord Jesus Christ and His Apostles, and of 
 Templar origin. 
 
 The music of the Christian Church, like the 
 gospel itself, was doubtless propagated orally, 
 and by tradition, in the first years of its 
 history ; and as in the New Testament traces 
 are discoverable of a primitive liturgy and 
 hymnody, so we also find in early writers 
 indications of certain efforts to fix and rule 
 the vocal performance of these, by an ap- 
 pointed choral arrangement, with somewhat 
 of a scientific connection. 
 
 One point of primary importance in this 
 respect would naturally be the pitch most 
 convenient for the singing of the various parts 
 of Divine Psalms, Hymns, and Spiritual 
 Songs ; the relation in which the several parts 
 of the service, musically considered, were to 
 stand to each other ; as also the interchanges 
 to be made as to singing, either by course in 
 alternate choirs, or by the' clergy and people, 
 in solo or in chorus. 
 
 The writings of the New Testament and of 
 
 the early Fathers are not without various 
 interesting indications, both of the important 
 functions discharged by vocal music in Chris- 
 tian worship, and also of various ritual uses ; 
 in such wise, moreover, as excited then, as 
 they do now, the approval and admiration 
 of some, the indignation and blame of 
 others. 
 
 Thus, " Sabellius and Marcellus took oc- 
 casion to incense the Church of Neocesarea 
 (a.d. 363), against their Bishop S. Basil, as 
 being an author of new devices in the service 
 of God," when he introduced the antiphonal 
 chanting after the custom of Antioch, where 
 it had been taught by S. Ignatius, a contem- 
 porary and disciple of the Apostles, specially 
 of S. John. S. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, 
 was a great admirer of S. Basil, and intro- 
 duced the same kind of chanting into his 
 church as had originally prevailed in the 
 East, as we learn from S. Basil's refutation 
 of the heretics' charge of novelty and singu- 
 larity, alleging the example, not only of the 
 Church at Antioch, but also "of the Churches 
 of Egypt, Lybia, Thebes, Palestine, the 
 Ai-abians, Phoenicians, Syrians, Mesopota- 
 mians, and of all that reverenced the custom 
 of singing Psalms together." 
 
 Here, it would seem, we have ample 
 grounds for the very general belief that in 
 setting the music at first traditionally sung 
 to various Psalms and Hymns, and the 
 portions specially vocal in their Liturgies, the 
 characters then used in noting music would 
 be taken advantage of, to fix and perpetuate 
 the arrangements of the early Christian music 
 to the words. But the notation of the most 
 artistic music then known was the Greek, 
 which, like other refinements, was also at 
 first used by the Romans, and subsequently 
 improved by the use of the Roman letters, 
 instead of the more complicated Greek cha- 
 racters. But with the Greek notation would, 
 to a great extent, be adopted Greek modes of 
 arrangement, and Greek notions as to the 
 construction of the scales in which any chant, 
 antiphon, or hymn tune might most fitly be 
 said to stand. If its general character, e.g., 
 were major or minor, a similar mode or scale 
 of the Greek music would be selected, and to 
 this it would be assigned, just as in the pre- 
 sent day a modern musician's arrangement 
 of any ancient melody would, in the absence 
 of any other system to which he might be 
 able to assign it, necessarily be in the modern 
 major or minor scale. But in our inquiries 
 as to the ancient Plain Song, we must always 
 remember that both it and the Greek modes 
 were founded simply on melodic, and not on 
 harmonic considerations, in our present 
 meaning of those terms. With their usual 
 
 (356 ) 
 
PLAIN SONG. 
 
 acumen, the Greeks, in their diatonic, chro- 
 matic, and enharmonic genera, analyzed all 
 the tone modulations of the human voice, 
 with a discrimination most admirable, and 
 effects most wonderful, as all are ready to 
 admit who have studied their theoretic trea- 
 tises, and the accounts recorded of the 
 practical results of their performances ; re- 
 sults, it may be suggested, such as poetic, 
 oratorical, and musical recitation can even 
 now occasionally produce in the case of 
 singers of rare eloquence and sympathetic 
 voices, on an appreciating and impressible 
 audience. Sentiment and feeling, the soul and 
 spirit of all true music, are not confined to any 
 set of outward appliances, however vast, as 
 in the present orchestra ; but may be felt in 
 the impassioned delivery of a Simple Plain 
 Song, or the thrilling notes of an unaccom- 
 panied solo instrument. It is probable that 
 the first kind of musical notes used by the 
 Christian Church, called neumes (from the 
 Greek wcvfia, breath) were derived from the 
 Greek characters, after the fashion of the 
 Hebrew accents for reading. The diatonic 
 genus of the Greek music most nearly re- 
 sembled (if it was not, in some modes, 
 identical with it) the tonality of the Christian 
 Plain Song and the ancient Hebrew music, 
 of which it was, in part undoubtedly, the 
 traditional record and sacred depository after 
 the dispersion of the Jews and the conse- 
 quent disuse by them of their Temple music, 
 which, in their state of humiliation, they 
 deemed it unlawful any more to sing. What 
 music they now practice in their synagogues 
 is still, however, eminently of the same 
 character as the ancient Plain Song of the 
 Christians. The fact above stated forestalls 
 any objection that might be made from the 
 modem Jews not now using them, to the be- 
 lief that the well-known Ecclesiastical Psalm 
 Tones have descended, through the "ages all 
 along," the thirty centuries from the days 
 of King David, the sweet singer of Israel, 
 in an unbroken tradition, to our own 
 day. 
 
 The sources of information as to the history 
 of Plain Song, in addition to the various re- 
 ferences scattered throughout the early writers 
 and Fathers of the Church, may be found in 
 the voluminous pages oiBtcrney and Hawkins 
 in English, and oi Gerhertus in Latin ; as also 
 in the original authors quoted by. them, 
 specially the Septem Scriptores Antiqui of 
 Meibomius ; in the French Histoire deL' Har- 
 monic au Moyen Age, by E. De Coussemaker; 
 in the XXIXth Vol. of the Nouvelle Ency- 
 clopidie ThSologique, edited by M. L'Abbe 
 Migne, being a Dictionnaire de Plain Chant, 
 et de Musique Religieuse ; in the pages of 
 Alfieri, La Feille, Clement, Janssen, Lambil- 
 
 lotte, Alix, and in English in the various 
 editions of Latin service and instruction 
 books by Lambert, Benz, Chas. Child Spencer, 
 and the prefaces to the Rev. T. Helmore's 
 Accompanying Harmonies to the Psalter 
 Noted and Hymnal Noted ; more satisfac- 
 torily still in the MS. and printed books of 
 Plain Song in various libraries at home and 
 abroad. The subject is very wide, and can- 
 not easily be studied without a large acquaint- 
 ance with the numerous books of Ritual 
 music, both of the present time, and of all 
 the centuries backwards, till the very first in 
 which any written remains of Plain Song 
 can be discovered. A sketch of what 
 may be gathered as the result of such 
 an investigation is all that can be here at- 
 tempted. 
 
 Plain Song, then, it may be stated, is a 
 definite, well known system of Church Song, 
 which all Catholic musicians are obliged by 
 their duties to study, and from which all the 
 great composers, down to our own times, 
 have more or less tinctured their highest and 
 best compositions. 
 
 It has already been stated that the ancient 
 church modes of the Plain Song or Gre- 
 gorian music had their prototypes, if not 
 their very birth, from the Diatonic genus of 
 the Greeks. Perhaps it would be more true, 
 and in accordance with the notions before ex- 
 pressed, to say that the Greek Diatonic genus 
 was identical with the ancient Hebrew music, 
 and with that of the Christian Church which 
 perpetuated it. Here, then, is a digest of 
 what can be gathered from ancient writers as 
 to the Greek Diatonic scale. 
 
 It embraces fifteen sounds, which practi- 
 cally might be produced by the strings of a 
 harp, fifteen in number ; or by the voice 
 of any man of ordinary medium vocal 
 power. 
 
 It is divided into tetrachords, or divisions 
 of four sounds each, — beginning, not on the 
 first of the system, which (as its name im- 
 plies) was originally an extra note added be- 
 low, but on the second, or B. In the lower 
 nine sounds the second and third tetrachords 
 are reckoned to begin, each upon the fourth 
 sound of the foregoing ; and are therefore 
 styled conjoined tetrachords. The first pair 
 of tetrachords is also succeeded by a tetra- 
 chord, an octave above the first, beginning on 
 the sound next to the fourth of the second 
 tetrachord, and consequently denominated 
 the disjoined tetrachord. Then a fifth tetra- 
 chord occupied the highest part of the system ; 
 all which will be better seen and understood 
 by Diagram I., in which the Greek names 
 for the various sounds (written in English 
 letters) are given, with a translation of their 
 characteristic nomenclature. 
 
 ( 357 ) 
 
PLAIN SONG. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 DIAGRAM 
 
 I. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 IX 
 
 X 
 
 XI 
 
 XII 
 
 XIII 
 
 XIV 
 
 XV 
 
 
 
 
 
 Conjc 
 
 lined Tetracho 
 
 rds. 
 
 
 
 
 Supreme Tetrach 
 
 ord. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 La, 
 
 Si, 
 
 Uo, 
 
 Ke, 
 
 Mi, 
 
 Fa, 
 
 Sol 
 
 la 
 
 si 
 
 do 
 
 re 
 
 mi 
 
 fa 
 
 sol 
 
 la 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 DiEJoined 
 
 Tetrachord. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *^-^ 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rj 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VM, 
 
 
 
 
 ("J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i) 
 
 -<s>- 
 
 c-* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4- 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4- 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4- 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4- 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ffi 
 
 ha 
 
 f 
 
 a 
 
 ►d 
 
 tri 
 
 !^ 
 
 ►ti 
 
 H 
 
 ►D 
 
 5^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 ►fl 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 CO 
 
 a- 
 p 
 3 
 O , 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 Oi 
 
 3 
 o 
 
 
 i 
 
 3- 
 
 
 p 
 
 T3 
 
 0-- 
 
 V 
 
 PC 
 
 3 
 
 
 r 
 
 a. 
 
 p^ 
 
 3c 
 
 3 
 CD r^ 
 
 CD 1 
 
 1, 
 
 3- 
 
 p^ 
 
 3c 
 
 3 
 CD 1 
 
 CD lo 
 
 CD 1 
 
 3* 
 
 O 1 
 
 a 
 
 5' 
 •5' 
 
 CD 1 
 
 ^- 
 
 PC 
 
 O I 
 3 
 
 3 
 n> 
 p 
 ^1 
 
 oc 
 
 en 
 
 3- 
 
 13 
 PC 
 
 5- 
 
 CD 
 
 3 
 
 CD e'- 
 en 
 O 1 
 3 
 
 •a 
 5' 
 
 o 
 
 f 
 
 PC 
 CD 1 
 
 gc. 
 to 
 O 1 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 CD 
 P 
 ►1 
 
 (-^ 
 3- 
 CD 
 
 •a 
 
 OC 
 
 CQ 
 
 3 
 
 CD C^ 
 
 m 
 O 1 
 3 
 
 5' 
 a. 
 
 o 
 
 3" 
 CD 
 
 3 
 
 E.' 
 a. 
 a 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 rf 
 CD 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 3 
 
 CD 
 P 
 •-t 
 r+ 
 
 3- 
 CD 
 
 3. 
 5-" 
 
 CD 
 N 
 CD 
 C^ 
 
 TO 
 
 3 
 
 1' 
 
 rt- 
 
 3; 
 
 i' 
 
 CD 
 
 1' 
 
 i 
 
 O 1 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 CD 
 •t 
 
 O* 
 
 p"^ 
 
 O'l 
 3 
 
 3* 
 
 C?l 
 
 •a 
 
 CD 
 
 3- 
 
 oc 
 
 F" 
 
 o'l 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3- 
 
 O 
 
 p* 
 
 o'l 
 3 
 
 P* 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 
 r+ 
 
 ,^-^ 
 
 o 
 
 "tl 
 
 r+ 
 
 CD 
 
 P* 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 -►> 
 
 
 o 
 
 XT 
 CD 
 
 3' 
 
 
 3* 
 
 3- 
 CD 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 CD 
 
 p 
 
 
 2. 
 
 ■-1 
 
 S^ 
 
 o 
 3" 
 
 a 
 
 5' 
 S. 
 
 5' 
 
 o 
 
 ■5' 
 £. 
 o 
 
 cS 
 
 3 
 
 3* 
 CD 
 
 3 
 
 CD 
 P 
 
 3. 
 
 3 
 o 
 
 f 
 
 3 
 SI 
 
 CD 
 
 3 
 
 3' 
 
 O 
 
 CD 
 
 3" 
 CD 
 
 3* 
 CD 
 
 3". 
 CD 
 
 o. 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 Cft) 
 
 o 
 
 3* 
 
 a 
 p* 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 09 
 
 o 
 
 'o" 
 
 o 
 
 CD 
 
 CO 
 
 
 o_ 
 3" 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 3* 
 
 O 
 "1 
 
 rt- 
 
 ni 
 
 3 
 S- 
 
 p. 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 3' 
 
 o 
 
 •5' 
 
 CO 
 
 • 
 
 3 
 
 C5 
 
 ■a 
 
 CO 
 
 3. 
 5.' 
 
 cT 
 
 CD 
 
 3 
 
 3" 
 CD 
 
 3 
 CD 
 P 
 
 3 
 
 r+ 
 CD 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 C5 
 
 3* 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 c» 
 
 b 
 3 
 
 
 CD 
 
 a. 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 3^ 
 CD 
 
 CI. 
 
 o 
 3' 
 
 CD 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 r+ 
 
 3 
 S- 
 
 3* 
 CD 
 
 3- 
 
 a 
 Si 
 
 !-♦■ 
 ft) 
 
 rt- 
 
 
 
 
 
 3* 
 
 y- 
 
 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 a 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p. 
 
 p* 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 N.B. — The accents and prosodaic marks are here used simply for the English reader. They are not Greek. 
 
 It will soon be seen that these same fifteen 
 natural notes are those from which the Church 
 modes are all constructed. The musical 
 theorists who, about the eighth century, dis- 
 puted as to the number of modes or scales to 
 be recognized in Church music, seem to have 
 laid down the principle that a scale or mode 
 must consist of the combination of a perfect 
 fifth fdiapente) with a perfect fourth (diates- 
 saron). The division of a scale into these 
 two component parts might be made so as to 
 have either a diapente or a diatessaron in the 
 lower position. The division which had the 
 fifth in the lower and the fourth in the higher 
 place was called Harmonic, as being that 
 which music naturally suggests ; and the 
 other division of the eight notes of a scale 
 where the fourth was in the lower, and the 
 
 fifth in the upper portion was called arithmeti- 
 cal, because, in the science of numbers, the 
 greater numbers take precedence of the less, 
 and are counted their superiors. This fan- 
 ciful nomenclature is mild in comparison 
 with many other conceits and far-fetched 
 analogies of ancient theorists. 
 
 The Church modes, then, are formed of the 
 seven natural notes of the scale and their 
 octaves, beginning upon any one of the seven, 
 and extending to its octave, subject to the 
 rule just stated that the fifths and fourths of 
 which any scale was composed must be 
 perfect. 
 
 Now the Church melodies were generally 
 contained within the compass of an octave or 
 a little more. Some had a much less range 
 from the highest to the lowest notes. When 
 
 (358) 
 
PLAIN SONG. 
 
 the melody ascended to the fifth above the 
 final and the fourth above the fifth, and did 
 not descend below the final, it was said to be 
 authentic; when it extended to a fifth above 
 the final and a fourth below it, it was called 
 plagal. The sounds of which these two 
 sorts of melodies consisted being set down 
 in orderly succession from the lowest to 
 the highest, naturally arranged themselves 
 into two corresponding classes; and the 
 ecclesiastical modes are therefore matched, 
 or (as mediaeval writers have termed it) 
 wedded to one another in pairs, authentic 
 and plagal, in which male and female charac- 
 teristics are respectively developed. 
 
 Now, taking the notes before given as the 
 Greek Diapason, and supposing any Antiphon 
 or other piece of Plain Song to descend to the 
 lowest note A, and, after ascending by various 
 intervals to the A an octave above it, to 
 settle do^vn and close on D, we should, accord- 
 ingly, by arranging these sounds in an 
 orderly sequence from the lowest to the 
 highest, have a scale whose final or closing 
 note is D, and its range of notes from A to A, 
 and this, as before explained, would be the 
 lower, collateral, and plagal scale or mode 
 of another beginning on D, the final, and 
 rising to its octave, which would be its own 
 proper authentic, or ruling and authoritative 
 mode. Such, in fact, are the first two modes 
 of the Gregorian Plain Song, and the pair, as 
 husband and wife, have reciprocal functions, 
 and though two, are yet one by participation 
 of one common bond of union, viz., the 
 diapente D, E, F, G, A. 
 
 In Diagram II. we see, then, the ii notes 
 
 of the Dorian Modes, Authentic and Plagal, 
 called the ist and 2nd. 
 
 The ist is authentic, and ranges from the 
 4th to the nth note, having a perfect fifth 
 from D to A, which same fifth is the upper 
 part of the plagal mode. From A the 8th to 
 D the nth is a perfect fourth, and thus fulfils 
 the requirements before mentioned as essen- 
 tials of a Church mode ; while the same law 
 is obeyed in the case of the 2nd or plagal 
 mode, as from A the ist to D the 4th is the 
 required perfect diatessaron. 
 
 The terms hyper {above), and hypo {below), 
 are used to distinguish the two, though the 
 hyper is often omitted as unnecessary ; and 
 besides, it seems to have been used in another 
 way by some of the Greek writers. 
 
 We are told that in Charlemagne's reign 
 (about A.D. 768) a great dispute arose as to 
 the allowable number of the modes, and that 
 the Emperor at first decided in favour of the 
 first eight alone ; but that on the remon- 
 strance of the malcontents, the gth, loth, 
 nth, and 12th, were also allowed. The ritual 
 books of the church have, however, been 
 generally arranged for the eight tones only, 
 and those portions of the Plain Song which 
 formerly were assigned to the gth, loth, nth, 
 and I2th modes were so re-arranged by a 
 transposition, as to appear to have been com- 
 posed in some one or other of the first eight ; 
 though a careful inspection of these trans- 
 positions will serve to show that the means 
 at command were not (while no other change 
 of sound was allowable than the B flat) 
 sufficient to effect a ^e>/ec^ transposition. This 
 will appear in the subsequent examples. 
 
 DIAGRAM II. 
 
 ist AND 2nd MODES. 
 
 Dorian or Hyper-Dorian, and Hypo-Dorian. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 ■ 
 
 -■- 
 
 -■- 
 
 4 5 
 
 5 4 -1^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 ■ II 
 
 ■ ~ 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 •i 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 K 
 
 K 
 
 G 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 A D a 
 
 Dad 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 Arithmetical 
 Division. 
 
 Harmonic 
 Division. 
 
 
 3rd AND 4th MODES. 
 
 The next pair is the Phrygian, thus : — Phrygian or Hyper- Phrygian, and Hypo-Phrygian. 
 
 Final E. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 ^- 
 
 4 5 „ 
 
 5 -4- 
 
 
 -•fe '■ 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 -i 
 
 ~^5 
 
 
 r ^ 
 
 I 
 
 B 
 
 I 
 
 ■ 
 2 
 C 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 E 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 F 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 G 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 a 
 7 
 
 8 
 b 
 8 
 
 c 
 9 
 
 d 
 10 
 
 \ 
 
 e 1 
 II 
 
 B E b 
 
 Arithmetical 
 
 Division. 
 
 E B e 
 Harmonic 
 Division. 
 
 
 ( 359 ) 
 
PLAIN SONG. 
 
 5th AND 6th MODES. 
 
 These are the Lydian or Hyper-Lydian, and Hypo-Lydian. Final F, 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 ■ 
 
 -» 
 
 m. 
 
 
 '^ 5 _ 
 
 5^4--- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~ ■ 
 c 
 
 I 
 
 D 
 
 2 
 
 E 
 3 
 
 I 
 F 
 4 
 
 2 
 G 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 A 
 6 
 
 4 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 c 
 8 
 
 6 
 d 
 9 
 
 7 
 e 
 10 
 
 8 
 f 
 II 
 
 
 C F c 
 
 Arithmetical 
 Division. 
 
 F c f 
 Harmonic 
 Division. 
 
 
 7th AND 8th MODES. 
 
 The Mixo-Lydian or Hyper-Mixo-Lydian, and the Hypo-Mixo-Lydian. Final G. 
 
 4 =^ 
 
 ^jS— gj ■ m- 
 
 I 
 D 
 
 3 
 F 
 
 4 
 G 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 A 
 
 3 4 5 
 678 
 B C d 
 
 6 7 
 9 10 
 e f 
 
 8 
 II 
 g 
 
 D G d 
 
 Arithmetical 
 Division. 
 
 G d g 
 
 Harmonic 
 
 Division. 
 
 9th AND lOth MODES. 
 
 The ^olian or Hyper-^olian, and Hypo-^Eolian. Final A. 
 
 F 
 2 
 
 G 
 3 
 
 A 
 4 
 
 2 
 B 
 5 
 
 3 
 C 
 
 4 
 D 
 
 E A e 
 
 Arithmetical 
 
 Division. 
 
 A e i 
 Harmonic 
 Division. 
 
 B cannot become the final of a mode as the 4th below it is F, and the interval a pluper- 
 fect 4th, and the 5th above it is also F, and the interval an imperfect 5th. 
 
 nth AND I2th MODES. 
 
 The Ionian (or lastian) or Hyper-Ionian (pi Hyper-Iastian), and Hypo-Ionian (or Hypo- 
 
 lastian). Final C. 
 
 G 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 E 
 
 4 
 F 
 
 G C g 
 
 Arithmetical 
 
 Division. 
 
 C g 'c 
 
 Harmonic 
 
 Division. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that the ancient I 
 system of scales took every one of the six 
 natural notes on which the union of the per- 
 fect diatessaron and perfect diapente can be 
 effected as the final of a pair of modes, thus 
 placing the diatonic intervals of tone and 
 semitone in every possible position with 
 respect to the two tetrachords of each, and 
 of the final of each pair. 
 
 There was yet another method of securing 
 to each mode its own characteristic features, 
 by which it is clearly to be discerned from all 
 the rest. In each there is a note higher than 
 the final which assumes the next importance 
 to it, from being another point of sound about 
 which the melodies principally, as it were, 
 revolved, and on which the voice more fre- 
 quently and (in the case of the recitation of 
 any psalm, antiphon, or canticle) most con- 
 tinuously dwelt. From thus predominating 
 over the other sounds of each scale it is 
 
 called the Dominant. But it must not be 
 confounded with what in general is now 
 understood by that term, nor with the har- 
 monic associations which it suggests to the 
 mind of a modern musician. 
 
 In every authentic mode the dominant is 
 the 5th above the final, except in the third 
 mode, where B, the fifth, being a changeable 
 note, i.e., sometimes natural and sometimes 
 flat, and also standing, unlike any other note 
 in the scales, at the forbidden interval of a 
 tritone, or pluperfect fourth from the F below 
 it, and of an imperfect fifth from the F above 
 it, is rejected, and C, the nearest sound to 
 it, is the dominant, being a minor 6th above 
 the final E . 
 
 In the six plagal modes the dominant is 
 the third note in the scale below the dominant 
 of each relative authentic mode, except in the 
 8th, where B, the 3rd below D, is also on the 
 same grounds discarded for C. 
 
 (360) 
 
PLAIN SONG. 
 
 DIAGRAM III. 
 
 Finals. 
 
 4- 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 ,,_^ Dom. ..^-^ . 
 
 e f g a h c 
 e f g a — — 
 
 Dom, 
 
 ^ / 
 
 Authentic, Hyper-Dorian d 
 
 Plagal, Hypo-Dorian A B '~"c d 
 
 Authentic, Hyper- Phrygian ; ^ f g <^ 
 
 ,— ^ Dom. 
 
 Plagal, Hypo- Phrygian Bcdefgab — 
 
 Dom. 
 
 Authentic, Hyper-Lydian f g a b c d 
 
 y^ Dom. ,.-^ _ 
 
 Plagal, Hypo-Lydian cdefgabc — — — 
 
 Dom, 
 
 «'^7 g 
 
 Dom. 
 
 a 
 
 Dom. 
 
 / _ a 
 
 _pom. 
 
 10. Plagal, Hypo-jEolian ^ f g 
 
 II. 
 
 7. Authentic, Hyper-Mixo-Lydian g a b c d 
 
 Dom. 
 
 8. Plagal, Hypo-Mixo-Lydian d e f g a b'~"c d — — 
 
 Dom. 
 
 g. Authentic, Hyper-jEolian a b c d e f g 
 
 c 
 
 Dom. 
 
 abode 
 
 Dom, 
 
 Authentic, Hyper-Ionian or lastian c d e f g 
 
 Dom. 
 
 Plagal, Hypo-Ionian or lastian g a b c d e 
 
 f g 
 
 Thus A is the Final of the gth and loth, and Dominant of the ist, 4th, and 6th. 
 
 „ C „ nth „ i2th „ ,, 3rd, 5th, 8th, and loth. 
 
 „ D ,, 1st ,, 2nd „ ,, 7th. 
 
 „ E „ 3rd „ 4th „ „ gth and 12th. 
 
 ,. F „ 5th ,, 6th „ „ 2nd. 
 
 ,. G „ 7th „ 8th ,, „ nth. 
 
 The following formula committed to memory will be of immense use in grasping the 
 otherwise troublesome varieties of the Church modes. 
 
 Finals D 
 
 D, 
 
 E 
 
 E, 
 
 F 
 
 F, 
 
 G 
 
 G, 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 A, 
 
 c, 
 
 C. 
 
 Dominants A 
 
 / 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 
 c 
 
 e 
 
 c 
 
 g 
 
 e 
 
 Mode No. I 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 8. 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 II 12 
 
 ! 
 
 [N.B. — The dominants spell the mnemonic word Afcacad[e]cecge.] 
 
 Of this ancient system the German Pro- 
 fessor of Music at the University of Berlin, 
 Dr. Adolph Bemhard Marx, justly remarks 
 that its " profound ideality is undeniable," 
 and while thoroughly imbued with the notions 
 and feelings of a modern, confesses that in 
 many points it displays nicer distinctions 
 and more striking characteristics than our 
 own. Whatever view, however, may be true 
 with regard to the discoveries and improve- 
 ments of the musical art in our day, it is 
 certain that for sacred music generally, and 
 for Church music in particular, the study of 
 
 Plain Song as it has come down to us, with 
 all the hallowed associations of a definite 
 history of twelve centuries and with an in- 
 definite period of great extent before them, 
 together constituting a sequence of near upon 
 three thousand years' use in the highest acts 
 of human concern, cannot be neglected with- 
 out much injury to the sentiment and feeling 
 of composers, and a secularising of Church 
 music, both in its composition and in the 
 style of its execution, highly to be deprecated 
 by every true lover of Sacred Art, and of the 
 Christian Church throughout the world. 
 
 (361 ) 
 
PLAIN SONG PLANXTY. 
 
 It remains to say a few words on the time, 
 accent, rhythm, and metre of Plain Song, all 
 of which have unfortunately suffered much in 
 the opinion of mankind by being misunder- 
 stood in theory, and dreadfully distorted in 
 practice. 
 
 It is the opinion of those who, like Cousse- 
 maker, have most deeply studied the subject, 
 that there was by no means that monotonous 
 equality in the length of the notes, which we 
 have found practised and thought right since 
 the Plain Song of the Church has been so 
 generally neglected for more strictly mensur- 
 able modern compositions. 
 
 A manifest tendency has long existed to 
 lengthen the short notes of ancient MSS., in 
 order probably thattheaccompanyingorganists 
 may give (as they intend) a greater dignity to 
 the solemn march of their harmonies, and 
 get rid of the charming varieties of what may 
 be styled the bars, speaking after the fashion 
 of modern music. Two striking instances of 
 this will explain what is meant better than 
 further description. 
 
 There is in the British Museum, among 
 the Lansdown MSS. (No. 463), a fine well- 
 "written copy of the ancient Sarum Anfi- 
 phonary ; and in the Bodleian Library, Ox- 
 ford, there is a corresponding MS. most 
 splendidly written, which formerly belonged 
 to Archbishop Laud ; in both of these the 
 writer of this article has found very many 
 notes short {i.e., the ♦ ♦ diamond shaped 
 semibreve) where in the printed folio (c 35 1., 
 Paris, 1519. 20 B. M.),they are changed into 
 breves thus ■ ■. The difference thus made 
 in the music may be compared to an altera- 
 tion of all the quavers in " God save the 
 Queen " into crotchets ! 
 
 Another instance of the same perverse 
 treatment may be seen in the version of the 
 melody "Veni, veni, Emmanuel," set to the 
 words " O come, come, Emmanuel," in 
 Hymns Ancient and Modern (No. 36, first tune), 
 where all the short notes, originally printed 
 (in the Hymnal Noted) correctly from the 
 MS. copied by the late J. M. Neale from 
 a French Missal in the National Library, 
 Lisbon, are deliberately, and of set purpose, 
 turned into long ones, seemingly to avoid the 
 interspersion of a triple bar, in several places, 
 among the duple or quadruple measures. See 
 Hymnal Noted, " Veni, veni, Emmanuel," 
 65 Ac. Har.., p. 213, " Draw nigh, draw nigh, 
 Emmanuel." 
 
 The time or rhythm of the Plain Song, 
 where best understood and properly rendered, 
 is a most entire and definite flow of melody 
 in accordance with the accents of the words 
 and the construction of the musical phrase 
 combined. The fullest development of this 
 is perhaps in the Ancient Metrical Hymns, 
 
 in which the varied prosodaic metres are 
 always complied with by the Plain Song, the 
 accents of which correspond to those of the 
 words ; and the notes fall into what we should 
 now call bars, sometimes regular in their 
 formation, and of one time, but often in duple 
 and triple forms mixed. 
 
 There is, to the lovers of Plain Song who 
 have caught the spirit and intention of its 
 various phrases, a charming variety and 
 freedom from stiffness in these changes of 
 measure, somewhat akin to the pleasure we 
 derive in verse from similar departures from 
 one stereotyped succession of accents or 
 quantities. For example, after the regular 
 iambics of this couplet — 
 
 " Thro' life's long day and death's dark night, 
 O gentle Jesus, be our light — " 
 
 how pleasing is the introduction of the trochee 
 in the beginning of the next verse : 
 
 " Labour is sweet for thou hast toiled." 
 
 Something of the same kind seems to occur, 
 in such a phrase as this, put into measured 
 time, as it should be sung from the usual 
 notes of the Gregorian Plain Song. 
 
 4^^ 
 
 -f^ 
 
 f=^ 
 
 4=^ 
 
 / 
 
 rail. 
 
 / 
 
 Thou 
 H9- <- 
 
 -1 — 
 
 the 
 
 • 
 
 an 
 
 oint 
 
 -r j 
 
 -H- 
 
 ing 
 
 —t i 
 
 ej ■•-' 
 spi - rit 
 rail. 
 
 art, 
 
 4rr-f^ 
 
 £3 JJ^ 
 
 ^^-ri-^. 
 
 J. J ^ II 
 
 tfH— "-^ 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 /" 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 ^i. 
 
 / 
 
 dost . . thy 
 
 fold gifts impart. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be remarked that the 
 more highly people are educated in all that 
 concerns the employment of art in the Ser- 
 vice of the Church, and the more deeply they 
 enter into the rationale of the use of music as 
 the handmaid of religion, the better will they 
 appreciate the value of Plain Song, the better 
 will they execute it, and the better too will 
 they know and feel what other music is fittest, 
 and really the best, tq stand side by side with 
 it in the Lord's House, as the offering of the 
 first-fruits of man's highest art and most 
 exquisite skill, to Him from whom all skill 
 and all talent are derived, and who will be 
 worshipped by each according to that he 
 hath, be it little or much. The Plain Song 
 of the Church gives all who can sing the best 
 means of discharging this sacred duty. 
 
 Plainte (Fr.) An elegy, or lament. 
 
 Plaisanterie, or Pleasantrie. A kind 
 of concerto for a solo instrument, in which 
 various cheerful tunes or dance melodies 
 were introduced. 
 
 Planxty. A harp tune of a sportive and 
 animated character, moving in triplets. It is 
 not intended for or often adaptable to words, 
 and is slower in pace than the jig. 
 
 ( 362 ) 
 
PLAQUE POLACCA. 
 
 Plaque (Fr.) Struck at once. A direction 
 that a chord is not to be played arpeggio. 
 
 Play-house Tunes. Musical composi- 
 tions performed between the acts of the 
 tragedies or comedies in the old theatres of 
 London. 
 
 After the Restoration, music became more 
 general as a relief to the performers and 
 the performances in theatres ; compositions, 
 called Playhouse or Act Tunes, were written 
 and played in concert, and not in unison as 
 formerly, and the theatre music was of a 
 superior character. " Insomuch," says Sir 
 John Hawkins, "that to say of a performer 
 on any instrument that he was a playhouse 
 musician, or of a song that it was a playhouse 
 song, or a playhouse tune, was to speak of 
 each respectively in terms of the highest 
 commendation." The most popular were the 
 " Genius of England," Madame Subligny's 
 " Minuet," the " Louvre " (or " Loure,") and 
 many others. The principal composers of 
 this kind of music were Mr. John Reading, 
 John Bannister, Godfrey Finger, Matthew 
 Lock, Henry and John Eccles, Raphael 
 Courteville, &c. A coranto written by Bul- 
 strode Whitelock, one of the Lords Commis- 
 sioners of Charles H., in conjunction with 
 Henry Lawes, was played at the theatres for 
 more than thirty years regularly " by the 
 Blackfriars musicians, esteemed the best in 
 London." 
 
 Plectrum (Lat.) irX^icrpov. A little staff 
 made of ivory, horn, quill, or metal, with 
 which (having it in his right hand) the player 
 on a lyra or cithara, set the strings in vibra- 
 tion. It cannot yet be said to be obsolete, 
 inasmuch as one is used by the performer on 
 a modern mandoline and zither. From the 
 method of using a plectrum to the cithara, 
 the more perfect instrument, the dulcimer 
 (Hackbrett), probably took its origin ; and 
 from the dulcimer came the spinet, harp- 
 sichord, and eventually the pianoforte. But 
 it should be remembered that while the 
 quill of a harpsichord plucks, as it were, a 
 string, just as a plectrum would, the hammer 
 of a pianoforte strikes the string. The 
 plectrum was not invariably used by the 
 ancients, for some of the paintings discovered 
 at Herculaneum depict citharists using the 
 ends of their fingers. 
 
 Plein jeu {Fr.) With the full power. 
 
 Plica (Lat.) A term used by the old 
 writers on mensurable music the exact 
 meaning of which it is difficult to discover. 
 Franco of Cologne (Gerbertus, Script, iii. 6) 
 says, " Plica est nota divisionis ejusdem 
 toni in gravem et acutam" (Plica is a sign 
 of the division of the same note into a higher 
 and lower sound"). This would seem to 
 describe it as an ornament or grace. Joannes 
 
 de Muris says, " Plica dicitur a plicando, et 
 continet notas duas, unam superiorem et 
 aliam inferiorem " (Plica is so called from 
 plicando, folding, and it contains two notes, 
 one higher, the other lower). This would 
 make plica a part of the system of ligatures. 
 At other times the word seems used by old 
 authors as synonymous with cauda or vir- 
 gula, a stem. 
 
 Ploke {Gk.), irXoKTi. [Melopoeia.] 
 
 Plures ex una (Lat.) Many parts from 
 one. The old name of a canon because 
 originally written only on one line. 
 
 Plus (Fr.) More, as, plus anime, more 
 animated, with greater spirit. 
 
 Pneuma. [Neuma.] 
 
 Pneumatic bellows. [Organ, § 12.J 
 
 Pneumatic Organ. Organum pneu- 
 maticum. The ordinary organ as opposed 
 to the ancient hydraulic organ, or organum 
 hydraulicum, in which water was used, not as 
 was popularly supposed at the time, for the 
 purpose of entering the sound-boards or pipes, 
 but to act as a regulator of the pressure of 
 air. [Organ.] 
 
 Pocetta (It.) [Poche.] 
 
 Poche, Pochette {Fr.) A little fiddle 
 used by dancing-masters. [Kit.] 
 
 Pochettino, Pochetto (7^) A little, as, 
 ritard un pochettino, making a slight rallen- 
 tando. 
 
 Poco (7^) A little, as poco a poco, little 
 by little ; poco animato, rather animated ; 
 poco lento, rather slow ; mosso poco meno, 
 rather less quick ; poco piano, rather soft ; 
 poco piil allegro, rather faster ; poco presto, 
 somewhat rapid. 
 
 Poggiato {It.) Leant upon, dwelt upon. 
 
 Pol {It.) Then, as piano poi forte, soft 
 then loud. Poi segue, then follows. 
 
 Point {Fr.) A dot. 
 
 Point d'orgue {Fr.) A pedal- point. 
 [Fugue.] 
 
 Point de repos {Fr.) A pause. 
 
 Pointe {Fr.) Dotted. 
 
 Polacca {It.) Polish. . A title applied to 
 melodies written in imitation of Polish dance 
 tunes. It is synonymous with the French 
 word polonoise, or polonaise. It is a term 
 of modern introduction, as neither Brossard, 
 Grassineau, nor Rousseau, have the word in 
 their dictionaries. Kollmann on " Style and 
 National Music," describes it as" a particular 
 characteristic piece in f time, and its move- 
 ment like a majestic but fluent andante or 
 andantino. It deviates from the general rule 
 respecting simple measure in making every 
 rhythmical caesure, not on the first, but on 
 the last time or crotchet in the bar." 
 
 In No. 3 of Handel's twelve grand con- 
 certos is a polonaise or polacca, of a slightly 
 different rh}rthm, and there are other polaccas 
 
 (363) 
 
POLKA POSITIVE ORGAN, 
 
 which differ still more from the model 
 described above. 
 
 Polka. A dance of world-wide popularity, 
 the music to which is in -I time, with the third 
 quaver accented. There are three steps in 
 each bar, the fourth beat is always a rest, the 
 three steps are performed" on the three first 
 beats of every bar. 
 
 It is stated that Anna Slezak, a farm 
 servant at Elbeteinitz, near Prague, invented 
 the polka about 1830. The room in which 
 she was accustomed to dance being of small 
 dimension's, the movements of her feet were 
 short, and so the dance was called the 
 "Pulka" dance, that is the "half" dance. 
 The title was changed when it was introduced 
 into France, as were also the steps and the 
 character of the dance. In Bohemia, where 
 it is said to have originated, it is danced with 
 a peculiar alternative of hurrying and halting 
 steps to which the music has to be accom- 
 modated. 
 
 It was brought into England about the 
 year 1843, and was received with an extra- 
 ordinary enthusiasm by all classes. It effected 
 a revolution in the style of dancing which 
 had prevailed up to that period. Country- 
 dances and quadrilles were even performed 
 with livelier steps than hitherto, for the polka 
 was so popular that it absorbed every other 
 dance for a time. Articles of food, of clothing, 
 and of ornament, were named after it. Comic 
 songs and farces were written on the polka- 
 mania, as it was called. To such a height 
 did this absurd fancy reach, that public- 
 houses were called the " Polka Arms," and 
 newly-built streets " Polka" terraces or cres- 
 cents. When the mania subsided these 
 names were altered to titles less suggestive 
 of a passing folly. 
 
 Polonaise or Polonoise [Fr.) [Polacca.] 
 
 Polychord. An instrument invented by 
 Fried. Hillmer of Leipzig, in 1799. It was 
 strung with ten strings. In shape it was not 
 unlike a double bass without a neck. It was 
 never generally used. 
 
 Polycephalus. One of the neumes. 
 [Neumes.] 
 
 Polymorphous. Of many shapes. A 
 term applied to compositions the parts of 
 which are capable of inversion, as in double 
 counterpoint ; or of augmentation, diminution, 
 per thesin et arsin, and other devices, as in 
 Canon. 
 
 Pommer. [Bombardo.J 
 
 Pomposamente, Pomposo (It.) Pom- 
 pously. 
 
 Ponderoso (7^) With weight, impres- 
 sively. 
 
 Ponticello (It.) Lit., a little bridge, (i) 
 The bridge of a violin or other instrument. 
 (2) The break in the voice. [Break.] 
 
 Pont-neuf {Fr.) A common ballad, such 
 as was formerly sold on the Pont-neuf, Paris. 
 
 Poogye. The nose-flute of the Hindoos. 
 Probably blown by the nose instead of the 
 mouth, in order to avoid possible defilement 
 of caste. 
 
 Portamento {It.) A lifting of the voice, 
 or gliding' from one note to another. 
 
 Portando la voce {It.) Sustaining the 
 voice, or gliding from one note to another. 
 
 Portative organ. A little organ which 
 could be carried about, as opposed to a 
 positive organ, which was fixed. Many con- 
 sider the portative organ to have been 
 identical with regals ; they were certainly of 
 the same class. A portative organ was often 
 carried in processions, on a man's shoulder, 
 who, when it was required, placed it on a 
 stool and worked the bellows. 
 
 Portato {It.) Lengthened, sustained. 
 
 Port de voix {Fr.) A kind of appog- 
 giatura combined with the Pince, q.v., written 
 in old harpsichord music thus : 
 
 No. J. 
 
 T 
 
 ^ "^-"f H 
 
 or, No. 2. 
 
 and played thus : 
 
 and 
 
 played ^= 
 thus : ^1 
 
 No. I is the Port de voix simple, and 
 No. 2 the Port de voix double. 
 
 Port6e {Fr.) Stave. 
 
 Porter la voix {Fr.) [Portando la voce.] 
 
 Portunal-flute. An organ stop, the pipes 
 of which are of wood, and are open, and 
 larger at the top than at the mouth. 
 
 Posato {It.) Quietly. 
 
 Posaune {Ger.) [Trombone.] 
 
 Posaune. A reed-stop on the organ, of a 
 rich and powerful tone. Its pipes are of a 
 very large scale. It is of 8 ft. on the manuals, 
 and of 16 ft. or 32 ft. {contra-posaune) on the 
 pedals. The tubes of the manual stop are 
 generally of metal, sometimes of tin ; those 
 of the pedal stop, sometimes of metal, often 
 of zinc or wood. 
 
 Pos6ment {Fr.) Gravely, sedately. 
 
 Position, (i) A chord is said to be in its 
 original position when the groundnote is in 
 the bass, in other positions when the relative 
 arrangement of the component notes is 
 changed. (2) The position of a chord is the 
 same as the disposition of its parts. A close 
 position is close harmony ; an open position 
 open harmony. (3) A position, on a violin or 
 other string instrument, is to use the fingers 
 otherwise than in their normal place. [Shift.] 
 
 Position {Fr.) [Position 3.] 
 
 Positive Organ. An old name for the 
 
 ( 364) 
 
POSITIF PRESA. 
 
 choir organ. Originally a positive organ was 
 a fixed organ. [Portative organ.] 
 
 Positif (Fr.) A chamber organ. A choir 
 organ. 
 
 Positiv [Ger.) A chamber organ. A choir 
 organ. [Portative organ.] 
 
 Possibile (It.) Possible, as, il piii forte 
 possibile, as loud as possible. 
 
 Post-Horn, (i) A wind instrument con- 
 sisting of a simple metal tube, without valves 
 or pistons, blown by postmen. It can hardly 
 be termed a musical instrument. (2) A piece 
 of music suitable to, or in imitation of the 
 notes or passages of a post-horn. LBugle.] 
 
 Postludium (Lat.), Nachspiel (Ger.) 
 Postlude ; a concluding voluntary ; a piece 
 played at the end of the service. 
 
 Potpourri (^r.) A medley ; a collection 
 of various tunes linked together ; a capriccio 
 or fantasia on popular melodies. 
 
 Poule, la [Fr.) One of the movements of 
 a quadrille. 
 
 Pousse (Fr.) The up stroke of a bow. [Bow- 
 
 PP. Ahh.oi pianissimo. [irio.] 
 
 Pralltriller {Ger.) A transient shake, sig- 
 nified by w. 
 
 Preambulum, Preludium. V or spiel [Ger.) 
 An introductory voluntary. 
 
 Precentor, Praecentor, Cantor, Caput 
 Scholae [Lat.), Capiscol, Cabischol, 
 Armarius, Primicerio {Sp.), Prechantre 
 {Fr.), Grand Chantre {Fr.), Vorsanger 
 {Ger.) An officer in a cathedral, who in 
 dignity ranks next to the dean. His stall is 
 on the opposite side of the choir, and that 
 side is called cantoris side, the side of the 
 cantor, as the other is called decani, the side 
 of the dean. The oifice of the Precentor was 
 an important one in olden times, and the 
 duties are variously defined. The Rev. 
 Mackenzie Walcott, Precentor of Chichester, 
 in his valuable book " Cathedralia," thus 
 speaks of the Precentor and his duties : " The 
 primicerius, the first named on the waxen 
 tablets. or roll of singers, or precentor, was 
 the bishop's vicar, who governed the inferior 
 clergy, presided at the canonical hours, 
 directed the lectures by the clerks, and con- 
 trolled the order and mode of singing by the 
 choir. From a mere office the precentorship 
 in cathedrals became a dignity. He only 
 sang on the greater feasts. In some places 
 he had authority over all the city and 
 diocesan schools, and was known as caput 
 scholce, magister scholce, being also scholasticus. 
 No- one could open a song-school without 
 his leave. He saw that all were attentive in 
 the choir and observant of the statutes, he 
 corrected faults and chastised offenders. In 
 England the office of precentor was instituted 
 at an early period — at Exeter, c. 1080; at 
 Salisbury in logi ; at Chichester, 1115; at 
 
 Wells, c. 1135 ; at St. David's, 1224; at 
 Hereford, c. 1195 ; at Lichfield, 1130 ; Lincoln, 
 1097 ; York, logo ; and at St. Paul's in the 
 reign of King John. The duties of the Pre- 
 centor were generally alike, but differed only 
 in a few local or diocesan peculiarities. A 
 summary of his duties as laid down in the 
 statutes of the several places may be briefly 
 told. He had to direct the divine offices as 
 regards the chant ; to select candidates to 
 supply vacancies ; to provide and keep the 
 choir-books in good condition ; to table the 
 weekly rota, or list of officers, with their 
 duties ; to choose and present a succentor 
 when necessary ; to instal the dean and 
 canons, and to assign stalls to the prebends ; 
 to superintend the training of the choristers, 
 not only as regards food and clothing, but 
 also their morals and choral instruction. On 
 great feasts he ' ruled the choir,' when two 
 canons, robed in the red soutane (cassock) 
 were the chanters, whom he followed up and 
 down the choir, regulating the offices, and 
 overseeing the service in rochet and cope, 
 holding a staff in his hand, which was gloved 
 and ornamented with a ring. He further 
 observed that all the choir sang with proper 
 modulation, and that various and proper 
 chants, according to the day and festival, 
 were used. He gave the note to the canon 
 celebrant at the altar, distributed the copes in 
 the choir, and having presented offenders to 
 the dean and chapter, left correction to them." 
 
 In most cathedrals, the revenues of the 
 office have been taken away and its dignity 
 and status lowered, but nevertheless, during 
 the last few years there has been a general 
 attempt to revive the musical responsibilities 
 of the holder. 
 
 Precipitatamente, Precipitate, Preci- 
 pitazione, con ; Precipitoso {It.) With 
 precipitation, impetuously, hurriedly. 
 
 Precipite (Fr.) [Precipitatamente.] 
 
 Precisione, con {It.) With exactitude 
 or precision. 
 
 Prefectus Chori. Director of the choir. 
 Precentor. 
 
 Prelude. A movement played before, or 
 an introduction to, a musical work or per- 
 formance. 
 
 Preludio (It.) A prelude, introduction, or 
 introductory voluntary. 
 
 Preludium {Lat.) [Preludio.] 
 
 Premiere (Fr.) First, as premiere fois, 
 the first time, prima volta {It.) ; premiere 
 dessus, first treble, canto primo. 
 
 Preparation. The causing a discord to 
 be heard as a concord immediately before its 
 percussion. It must take place in the same 
 part as that which has the discord. 
 
 Preparazione {It.) [Preparation.] 
 
 Presa {It.) Lit. taken, caught. A cha- 
 
 (365 ) 
 
PRESSANTE PRINTING OF MUSIC. 
 
 racter or mark used generally in continuous 
 fugues or canons to mark the point of entry 
 for the voices or instruments. A lead. 
 
 Pressante (7^) Pressing on, hurrying 
 the time. 
 
 Pressiren {Ger.) To hurry the time. 
 
 Prestamente, Prestezza, con. {It.) 
 Hurriedly, with rapidity. 
 
 Prestant. The open diapason of an 
 organ, sometimes of i6 feet, sometimes of 
 8 feet in length. 
 
 Prestissimamente [It.) As rapidly as 
 possible. 
 
 Prestissimo [It.) Very fast indeed. 
 
 Presto {It.) Fast. Presto assai, very 
 fast. 
 
 Prick-Song. Written music, as opposed 
 to extempore descant. 
 
 Prima, /isw. {It.) First; as, prima buffa, 
 chief comic actress or singer ; prima donna, 
 chief female singer in the opera ; prima viola, 
 first viola ; prima vista, at first sight ; prima 
 volta, the first time, i.e., before repeating. 
 
 Prime, (i) Tonic or generator. (2) The 
 lowest note of" any two notes forming an 
 interval. (3) The first partial-tone. 
 
 Primicerius {Lat.) Prior scholae can- 
 torum. In cathedrals the precentor, suc- 
 centor or cantor. 
 
 Primo, masc. {It.) First; as, tempo primo, 
 at the original pace or time; violino primo, 
 first fiddle ; primo buffo, chief comic actor or 
 singer ; primo musico and primo uomo, prin- 
 cipal male singer in the opera. 
 
 Principal {Old Eng.) The subject of a 
 fugue, the answer being termed the Reply. 
 
 Principal {Ger. and Fr.) An organ stop. 
 [Open diapason.] 
 
 Principal. On English organs the chief 
 open metal stop, one octave higher in pitch 
 than the open diapason. On the manual 4 
 feet, on the pedal 8 feet in length. 
 
 Principal. Chief, as principal violin, the 
 leader ; principal vocalists, those to whom 
 the solos are allotted. 
 
 Principal. The name given by Handel 
 to the third trumpet in the " Dettingen Te 
 Deum." 
 
 Principale {It.) [Principal 4.] 
 
 Principalis mediarum {Lat.) Hypate 
 meson. [Greek Music] 
 
 Principalis principalium {Lat.) Hypate 
 hypaton. [Greek Music] 
 
 Principalis extenta {Lat.) Lichanos 
 hypaton. [Greek Music] 
 
 Principal Subject or Theme. One of 
 the chief subjects of a movement in sonata 
 form, as opposed to a subordinate theme. 
 
 Printing of Music. Music is printed in 
 various ways : from plates, from lithographic 
 stones, or from moveable type. 
 
 The plates for music are generally of 
 
 pewter, and the notes and characters are 
 stamped with punches of the shape and 
 character required. Corrections are made by 
 beating up the back of the plate, so that 
 the surface may be as equal as possible for 
 making the alterations. The music is either 
 printed direct from the plate, or an impres- 
 sion is transferred to a lithographic stone, 
 and so printed. This latter plan is the most 
 usual when large impressions are needed, or 
 when it is desirable to preserve the plates. 
 
 In the earliest engraved music copper- 
 plates were used, and every note was made 
 with the graver. Both words and notes were 
 formed in imitation of the writing of the time. 
 " Parthenia," — " the first musicke that was 
 ever printed for the Virginals," — in which 
 there are compositions by Byrd, Bull, and 
 Gibbons, was " engraven on copper," in 161 1, 
 and the character employed is very like writing. 
 This style prevailed in France and Italy, as 
 well as in England, until the commencement 
 of the eighteenth century, when stamping 
 musical notes on plates became more general 
 for this class of work. The process of 
 stamping, which has been more or less im- 
 proved according to the skill of the stamper, 
 has always been called " engraving," though, 
 strictly speaking, it ought to be called 
 "punching." 
 
 The invention of moveable music type is 
 claimed forOttaviano Petrucci, who established 
 a printing press at Venice, and was working 
 as early as 1503, the year in which he pub- 
 lished some Masses by De La Rue. Petrucci, 
 removing to Fossombrone in 1513, obtained a 
 patent from Leo X. for his invention of move- 
 able types, for the sole printing of Cantus 
 Figuratus and Organorum Intabulaturce, for 
 a term of twenty years. There is, therefore, 
 good reason for believing his claim to be 
 supported by trustworthy contemporary evi- 
 dence. The very first known example of 
 printed music is in the Milan edition of 
 Franchinus. The notes there printed are 
 not, however, music types, but engraved 
 wood blocks, like the musical characters in 
 Higden's " Polychronicon, " translated by 
 Trevisa, and printed by Wynkin de Worde 
 in Westminster in 1495. 
 
 ■I'd mT 
 
 i 
 
 These characters were improved in a book 
 published by Grafton in 1550, entitled " The 
 
 ( 366) 
 
PRINTING OF MUSIC. 
 
 Booke of Common Praier Noted," by John 
 Marbecke, Organist of Windsor. 
 
 The printer thought it necessary to prefix 
 an explanation of the types he employed, 
 which he does in the following words: "In 
 this booke is conteyned so much of the order 
 of Common Praier as is to be song in 
 Churches, wherein are used only these iiij. 
 sortes of notes :— 
 
 =H= 
 
 The first note is a strene note and is a breue, 
 the second note is a square note and is a 
 semybreue, the iij. a prycke and is a myn- 
 )Tnne. And when there is a prycke by the 
 square note, that prycke is half as muche as 
 the note that goeth before it. The iiij. is 
 a close, and is vsed at only y= end of a 
 verse." 
 
 John Day, who in 1560 printed the Church 
 Service in three and four parts, and in 1562 
 the " Whole Booke of Psalmes," by Sternhold 
 and Hopkins, used music types, as did 
 also many of the printers who immediately 
 succeeded him. 
 
 1575. Thomas Vautrollier, in Blackfriars, 
 printed, among other works, Tallis and Byrd's 
 " Cantiones," under a patent to the authors. 
 The patent allowed them the monopoly of 
 "ruling" paper, and as music was printed on 
 ruled lines they managed to include it in 
 their patent. 
 
 It would form an interesting episode in the 
 history of printing if special attention were 
 to be given to the progress of the art of 
 printing music from types in Europe, so that 
 detailed accounts of the chief works produced 
 by the several " Fathers of the Chapel " from 
 time to time might be given. Such a list 
 would be entirely beyond the limits of the 
 present article. It has therefore been thought 
 advisable only to include a few of the chief 
 and, to antiquarians, well-known works of 
 the early printers before Pla3rford. 
 
 After Vautrollier in chronological order 
 comes Thomas Este, the assigne of William 
 Byrd, living and working by Paul's Wharf. 
 The chief of his productions were the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 1588. Byrd's Psalmes, Sonets and Songs ; 
 Younge's Musica Transalpina. 
 
 1589. Byrd's Songs of sundrie natures. 
 ,Black Horse, Aldersgate Street. 
 
 1590. Watson's Italian Madrigalls Eng- 
 lished. 
 
 1591. Farmer's Divers and Sundry ways 
 of two parts in one, to the number of 40 upon 
 one playn song. 
 
 1593. Morley's Canzonets, 3 voices. 
 
 1594. Mundy's Songs and Psalmes. Mor- 
 ley's Madrigals, 4 voices. 
 
 1595. Morley's Ballets, 5 voices ; Morley's 
 Canzonets, 2 voices. 
 
 1597. Weelkes' Madrigals, 3, 4, 5, and 6 
 voices ; Yonge's Musica Transalpina, 2nd 
 Book; Morley's Canzonets, 4 voices; Kirbye's 
 Madrigals. 
 
 1598. Wilbye'sMadrigals, ist Set. Morley's 
 Madrigals, 5 voices ; Weelkes' Ballets and 
 Madrigals, 5 voices. 
 
 1600. Weelkes' Madrigals of 5 and 6 parts, 
 as assigne of Thomas Morley ; Weelkes' 
 Madrigals of 6 parts ; Dowland's Songs or 
 Ayres of 4 parts, Book II. 
 
 1601. Triumphs of Oriana ; Jones's First 
 Book of Ayres. 
 
 1603. Robinson's Scoole of Musicke. [In 
 tablature.] 
 
 1604. M. Este's Madrigals; Bateson's ist 
 Set of Madrigals. 
 
 1605. Pilkington's Songs or Ayres of 4 
 parts. 
 
 1606. Danyel's Songs. 
 
 1608. Youll's Canzonets ; Croce's Musica 
 Sacra, Englished. 
 
 1609. Wilbye's 2nd Set of Madrigals ;* 
 Rosseter's Lessons for Consort ; * Ferra- 
 bosco's Ayres. 
 
 1610. M. Este's 3rd Set of Madrigals ; 
 Campian's Two Books of Ayres. 
 
 1611. Byrd's Psalmes, Songs, and Sonnets; 
 Morley's Consort Lessons ; Maynard's XII. 
 Wonders of the World. 
 
 1612. Gibbons's Madrigals ; Campian's 3rd 
 and 4th Books of Ayres; Corkine's 2nd Book 
 of Ayres; Dowland's Pilgrim's Solace. 
 
 1613. Ward's Madrigals ; Pilkington's Ma- 
 drigals. 
 
 1614. Lichfild's Madrigals. 
 
 1615. Robert Tailour's Sacred Hymnes. 
 
 1618. Bateson's 2nd Set of Madrigals ; M. 
 Este's 4th and 5th Set of Madrigals ; Ravens- 
 croft's Pammelia ; Mason and Earsden's 
 Ayres in the King's Entertainment. 
 
 1619. Vautor's first Set of Ayres. 
 
 1620. Martin Pearson's Private Musicke. 
 
 1621. Adson's Courtly Masquing Ayres. 
 
 1622. Thomas Tomkins's Songs of 3 and 
 more parts ; Attey's Ayres. 
 
 1624. M. Este's 6th Book (Anthems) ; Pil- 
 kington's 2nd Set of Madrigals. 
 
 Contemporary with him was Peter Short, 
 at " The Starre, on Bread Street Hill." He 
 produced — 
 
 1597. Morley's Introduction to Practical 
 Musicke ; Dowland's Songes or Ayres of 4 
 parts. Book I. ; Morley's Canzonets, 5 and 6 
 voices ; Holborne's Cittharn Schoole. 
 
 1598. Farnaby's Canzonets, 4 voices. 
 
 1599. Cavendish's Ayres for 4 voices. 
 
 * On the title-pages he calls himself Thomas Este, 
 alias Snodham. He subsequently used the latter name 
 only. 
 
 (367) 
 
PRINTING OF MUSIC. 
 
 1601. Rosseter's Ayres ; Jones's Second 
 Book of Ayres. 
 
 1603. Dowland's Third Book of Songs or 
 Ayres. 
 
 And William Barley, the assigne of Thomas 
 Morley, in Little St. Helen's, and sold at his 
 shop in Gratious Street. 
 
 1596. Booke of Tabliture. 
 
 1599. Farmer's Madrigals ; Bennet's Ma- 
 drigals. 
 
 1608. Weelkes' Ayeres or Phantasticke 
 Spirites. 
 
 1609. Ravenscroft's Pammelia. 
 
 In later years Edward AUde printed — 
 
 1614. Ravenscroft's Brief Discourse. 
 
 1615. Amner's Sacred Hymnes. 
 Following next on the list was Humphrey 
 
 Lownes, who produced in 1608 Morley's In- 
 troduction ; and in 1627 Hilton's Ayres or Fa 
 las. 
 
 John Leggatt, London, was the printer in 
 1637 of " Sandys's Paraphrase on the Psalmes 
 of David, with tunes by Henry Lawes." 
 
 Edward Griffin in 1641 printed Barnard's 
 " Selected Church Music," a book of which no 
 complete copy is known. 
 
 John Haviland, London, printed in 1636 
 Charles Butler's " Principles of Musik," a 
 book remarkable for its quaint diction; and 
 William Turner, Oxford, in 1634, the same 
 writer's " Feminine Monarchie." 
 
 James Young, London — 
 
 1648. Henry and William Lawes's Choice 
 Psalmes. 
 
 William Godbid— 
 
 1656. Matthew Locke's Little Consort. 
 
 1657. Walter Porter's Mottets. (No place 
 of printing mentioned.) Gamble's Ayres and 
 Dialogues. 
 
 1659. Gamble's Ayres and Dialogues,, 2nd 
 Book ) Select Ayres and Dialogues. 
 
 1662. Dering's Cantica Sacra (Inner Tem- 
 ple) ; Courtly Masquing Ayres, various authors. 
 
 1668. Tompkins's Musica Deo Sacra (Little 
 Britain). 
 
 i66g. Henry Lawes's Ayres, Third Book. 
 
 1674. Dering and others, Cantica Sacra. 
 (No place.) 
 
 William Hall, Oxford— 
 
 1661. Lowe's Directions for performance 
 of Cathedral Service. 
 
 1664. Ditto, 2nd edition. 
 
 1668. William King's Songs and Ayres. 
 
 J. Heptinstall, London — 
 
 1690. Purcell's Songs in Dryden's Amphi- 
 tryon. 
 
 1694. Purcell, &c. Don Quixote. Parts I. 
 and II. 
 
 i6g6. Blow's Ode on the death of Dryden. 
 
 1697. Purcell's Ten Sonatas in 4 parts ; 
 Purcell's Ayres for the Theatre ; Purcell's 
 TeDeum and Jubilate for S.Cecilia's Day, 1694. 
 
 Some writers declare that the Gerinans 
 invented moveable music types, but this is 
 not the case. It is certain that they were 
 employed in Germany for books at a very 
 early period. One of the first, if not actually 
 the first book printed in Germany with music 
 was entitled : — " Musicte activse micrologus, 
 libris quatuor digestus, omnibus musicas stu- 
 diosis non tam utilis quam necessarius." 
 Leipsic, 1517. Andreas Ornithoparcus. It was 
 translated into English by Dowland in 1609. 
 
 When type was employed all musical notes 
 were printed separately ; quavers and semi- 
 quavers, no matter how many there were in 
 succession, were all distinct. In or about the 
 year 1660 John Playford invented what he 
 called the " new tyed note," that is to say, he 
 used a common stroke or strokes to connect 
 a series of quavers or semiquavers. This 
 improvement, which made music neater to 
 the eye and easier to read, was soon adopted 
 by other nations, the Dutch first, the French 
 next, and after them the Germans. The 
 Italians did not adopt it until many years 
 later, for Marcello's Psalms, printed in 1734, 
 had the old disjointed notes. To continue 
 the record of improvements made in type 
 music-printing, mention must next be made 
 of William Pearson, who with John Heptin- 
 stall mentioned above, was employed by 
 Henry Playford, the son of old John. In 
 1699, Playford published " Twelve New 
 Songs, with a Thorow Bass to each Song, 
 Figur'd for the Organ, Harpsichord or Theorbo, 
 chiefly to encourage William Pearson's New 
 London Character." This improvement of 
 William Pearson's consisted in matrices for 
 music type, so cut that the several pieces 
 cast in them could be better " ranged " than 
 formerly. 
 
 The commencement of the eighteenth 
 century brought with it a change concerning 
 music printing. Music types were consi- 
 dered ugly, and the pages they formed in- 
 elegant, and so a strong tide in favour of 
 engraved music set in. In order to make the 
 present sketch to a certain extent complete, 
 and to show the state of music printing in 
 its several branches, it will not be considered 
 superfluous if we turn back to speak of 
 engraved music, and of its progress up to the 
 period at which we have traced type music. 
 
 Frescobaldi's " Toccate d'Intavolatura di 
 Cimbalo et Organo, partite di diverse Arie e 
 Corrente, Balletti, Ciacone, Passaghali," 
 Rome, 1637, was one of the earliest books 
 printed in Italy from copper plates ; a fac- 
 simile specimen of the character of the 
 engraving may be seen in the article " Leger- 
 lines." Hawkins implies that the English 
 adopted the practice from the Italians, in 
 company with the Germans and the French. 
 
 ( 368 ) 
 
PROASMA- 
 
 >ROGRESSION. 
 
 "The English," says he, in speaking of Fres- 
 cobaldi's publications, " also gave into it, as 
 appears by a collection of lessons by Dr. 
 Bull, Byrd, and others, entitled ' Parthenia,' 
 already alluded to;" but this work was pro- 
 duced in 1611, twenty-six years before Fres- 
 cobaldi's books, and it is not easy to see how 
 a previous work can be indebted to a later one. 
 
 Type, however, was most generally used 
 for printing music in England as well as 
 abroad. In fact, there was only one engraver 
 of music in London at the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century, one Thomas Cross. The 
 great labour of engraving music, the cost of 
 the plates, and other incidental expenses, 
 made music type preferable to the pocket of 
 the producer, although it was inferior in ap- 
 pearance and elegance. Some Dutch printers 
 are said to have discovered a means of 
 softening copper so as to make it " suscepti- 
 ble of an impression from the stroke of a 
 hammer or a punch, the point whereof had 
 the form of a musical note." There were 
 many works produced by this process, and 
 for more than a quarter of a century, from the 
 year 1700, the Dutch printers had the mono- 
 poly of work. Sir John Hawkins further states 
 that " the difficulty of getting music from 
 abroad, and the high duty on the importation 
 of it, were motives to an attempt of a some- 
 what similar kind in England." The attempt 
 included the use of pewter for copper, as the 
 former material was more workable with 
 punches than the latter. The enterprising 
 publishers who carried this plan to a suc- 
 cessful end were John Walsh, of the " Harp 
 and Hoboy," in Catherine Street in the 
 Strand, and John Hare, of the "Viol" in St. 
 Paul's Churchyard. The first book printed 
 from their plates was issued in 17 10. The 
 method of stampin-g which they introduced 
 has been continued with scarcely any im- 
 provement in England to the present time. 
 The Germans are more accomplished in this 
 branch of the art of music printing than other 
 European nations. Their punches are of 
 more elegant shapes, and they can produce 
 their work at a less cost than other folk. It 
 is, therefore, not a matter for wonder when 
 it is found that a great many English works 
 are engraved and even printed in Germany 
 in the present day. 
 
 Many of the books of Walsh and Hare 
 were clumsily and inelegantly sent forth, but 
 still these men kept the trade in their own 
 hands, and outlived all attempts to beat them 
 off the ground. Richard Mears attempted 
 to rival them, but ruined himself. Walsh's 
 son produced better works than his father, 
 and with almost the same materials published 
 much neater music. Better punches were 
 cut by a Welshman named Phillips, who. 
 
 with his wife and son, " improved the practice 
 of stamping to so great a degree that music 
 is scarce anywhere so well printed as in 
 England " in his time. A native of Lapland, 
 named Fougt, obtained about the year 1764, 
 in England, a patent for printing with move- 
 able types of his own cutting and founding, but 
 he was undersold by the pewter plate music en- 
 gravers, and compelled to leave the country. 
 
 The French engravers exhibited more 
 taste and elegance than any others. A 
 reference to any work printed in Paris about 
 the years 17 10 — 20 will show this. Their 
 work was expensive, as music was cultivated 
 only as a luxury in France. When it began 
 to be popular it became necessary to produce 
 cheaper work, but the artistic excellence 
 which the engravers had attained in former 
 times did not desert them, and their cheap 
 work was less clumsy in appearance than 
 that issued in England. When the French 
 printed from music types they employed 
 English founts, for they were the best in 
 Europe, as they had been for a century and a 
 half before, and are still to the present day. 
 Any one who has leisure, will, and oppor- 
 tunity, may see by comparison that books 
 printed in Venice, in Holland, and even in 
 Spain, were set up from the same founts of 
 type with which English books were printed 
 at the beginning and nearly all through the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 
 
 A vast improvement in music type took 
 place at the commencement of the present 
 century. A series of oratorios in folio size, 
 published by Jones and Lackington, at the 
 "Temple of the Muses," Finsbury Square, 
 were printed in beautiful, legible, and sharp 
 outlined characters. It is not necessary to 
 trace the art of music printing beyond that 
 point, or to say more than that it has arrived 
 at a pitch of elegance and usefulness probably 
 undreamed of by the early and enthusiastic 
 printers. 
 
 Proasma. An introduction, or a short 
 symphony. 
 
 Probe (Ger.) A rehearsal. 
 
 Proceleusmaticus. A foot consisting of 
 four short syllables, or of two Pyrrhics. [Metre.] 
 
 Program, or Programme. A list of the 
 names of the pieces of music to be performed 
 at a concert or other musical entertainment. 
 
 Progression. There are two kinds 01 
 progression, melodic and harmonic. Speak- 
 ing in general terms, the former is a " succes- 
 sion of sounds forming a tune or melody," 
 but the term is also applied to an " imitative 
 succession of melodic phrases," that is to a 
 melodic sequence. Harmonic progression is 
 " the movement of one chord to another," 
 and is diatonic or chromatic. The term is also 
 sometimes used as synonymous with sequence 
 
 (369) 
 
 2 A 
 
PROGRESSIONSSCHWELLER PROSA. 
 
 Progressionsschweller {Ger.) A con- 
 trivance of Vogler for gradually drawing out, 
 and then in, the stops of an organ in their 
 harmonic order, thus producing a crescendo, 
 forte, and diminuendo. 
 
 Prolatio (Lat.) Prolation, one of the 
 three divisions of mensurable music is, ac- 
 cording to Franchinus, " essentialis quantitas 
 semibrevibus ascripta," Prolatio is perfect 
 or imperfect ; perfect when the semibreve is 
 divided into three minims, imperfect when 
 divided into two. The perfect, or ternary 
 division of the semibreve is called by some 
 " prolatio major ; " the imperfect, or binary 
 division, " prolatio minor." The presence of 
 a dot (punctus) in the time-signature (in 
 temporali signo) shews that the prolation is 
 perfect ; the absence of the dot shows that it 
 is imperfect, unless rests are added in the 
 place of the dot. Perfect and imperfect pro- 
 lation may each occur in perfect or imperfect 
 time, that is, in time having three semibreves 
 equal to the breve, or two. 
 
 Prolatio is the subdivision of a semibreve 
 into minims, as Tempus is of a breve into semi- 
 breves, and as Modus is of a long into breves, 
 or of a maxim into longs. 
 
 Promptement (Fr.) Quickly. 
 
 Prontamente, pronto (It.) Readily, 
 quickly. 
 
 Prope media (Lat.) [Paramese.] 
 
 Proper-chant. An old name for the key 
 of C major which had its mi in B, that is 
 which had B for its leading note. 
 
 Proportio (Lat.) " Duorum numerorum 
 ad invicem habitudo." The ratio of two 
 numbers to each other. The discussion of 
 the ratios of intervals formed one of the chief 
 parts of mediaeval treatises on music. Pro- 
 portio is of three kinds : (i) Multiplex. (2) 
 Superparticularis. (3) Superpartiens. Pro- 
 portio multiplex, is when the larger number 
 contains the smaller so many times without 
 a remainder, as 2:1 (dupla), 3 : i (tripla), 
 4:1 (quadrupla). Proportio superparticularis 
 is when the larger number exceeds the smaller 
 by one only, as 3:2 (sesquialtera), 4 : 3 
 (sesquitertia), 5 : 4 (sesquiquarta). Proportio 
 superpartiens is when the larger number 
 exceeds the smaller by more than one, as, 
 5 : 3 (superbipartienstertias), 7 : 4 (supertri- 
 partiensquartas), 9 ; 5 (superquadripartiens- 
 quintas). The following tables from Boethius, 
 explain fully the kinds of proportio : 
 
 [ Multiplex. 
 
 I 
 II 
 
 I 
 III 
 
 I 
 IIII 
 
 I 
 V 
 
 I 
 VI 
 
 I 
 VII 
 
 Ses quialt er. Sesq uiquar tus. Ses quisext us. 
 II'' ftl Illf"^^ Vl" VII 
 
 Sesquitertius. Sesquiquintus, 
 Superbipartiens . Superquadripartiens- 
 
 m mi V VI vii viii viii 
 
 IIII V vT VII 
 
 Supertripartiens. 
 
 Super- 
 particularis. 
 
 Super- 
 partiens. 
 
 Thus, it will be understood, that instead of 
 giving simply the ratio between two numbers, 
 early writers on arithmetic and geometry, as 
 well as music, coined a single word to express 
 that ratio ; for example, 17 : 5 was said to be 
 Triplasuperbipartiensquintas, i.e., that the 
 larger number contained the smaller number 
 three times (tripla) with two remainder 
 (bipartiens). Again, Triplasupertripartiens- 
 quartas proportio, signified that the larger 
 contained the smaller three times and three 
 over, as 15 : 4, 27 : 8, &c., the last part of the 
 compound word always pointing out the 
 smaller of the numbers compared, or an exact 
 multiple of it. Lastly, the addition of sub 
 showed that the smaller number was com- 
 pared to the larger, e.g., 4 : 15' would be called 
 Subtriplasupertripartiensquartas proportio. 
 This system of proportion was used not only 
 with reference to intervals but also to the 
 comparative length of notes. 
 
 Proposta (It.) The subject of the 
 fugue. 
 
 Prosa (Lat.); Prose (Fr.); a prose. A 
 hymn sung after the gradual and before the 
 gospel in the Roman Church. Some authors 
 believe them to be of high antiquity and to 
 have had their origin in popular hymns, 
 sometimes metrical and written in the vulgar 
 tongue. S. Cyprian uses the word in this sense 
 in his life of S. Caesar of Aries. " Adjecit et 
 compulit ut laicorum popularitas psalmos et 
 hymnos pararet, altaque et modulata voce 
 instar clericorum alii Grasce, alii hatine, prosas 
 antiphonasque cantarent." 
 
 Other authors say that the prose was the 
 result of setting words to the long neumes of 
 alleluias, a specimen of which will be seen 
 under the head Neume. From this cause a 
 prose came to be called Suite de I'alleluia, or 
 an alleluiatic sequence, of in short, a sequence 
 [sequentia). Notker, a monk of S. Gall in 
 the gth or loth century, is said to have intro- 
 duced this custom of setting words to the 
 " notae pneumaticse." 
 
 Their use spread with great rapidity, and 
 about the twelfth century they began to 
 assume the form of rhythmical and rhyming 
 poetry set to a well defined melody. They 
 then threw off the former rule that the prose 
 should be if possible in the mode of the 
 alleluia, and the result is that the music of 
 the proses (a large number of which are in 
 triple time) are some of the most beautiful 
 melodies handed down to us. 
 
 Their use was limited by Pius V. to Easter- 
 day ( " Victimse paschali laudes " ), Whit- 
 sunday (" Veni Creator Spiritus "), Holy 
 Sacrament (" Lauda Sion "), and Commemo- 
 ration of the Dead ("Dies Irse "). But a 
 vast literature of proses exists, and the term 
 has often been somewhat loosely applied to 
 
 ( 370 ) 
 
PROS^ SEQUENTI-ffi PYTHAGOREANS. 
 
 hymns of various kinds, amongst which is 
 the " Stabat Mater." 
 
 Prosae Sequentiae (Lat.) [Prosa.j 
 
 Prosarium (Lat.) A book of proses. 
 
 Proscenium, (i) The quadrangular space 
 behind the logeum or stage. (2) The stage 
 front ; all that part of the stage between the 
 footlights and the curtain. 
 
 Proslambanomenos. {Gk.) irpoaXaji- 
 Bavofievoc- [Greek Music.J 
 
 Prosody. [Metre.] 
 
 Prova (7^) Probe (Ger.) A rehearsal. 
 
 Provengales. Troubadours of Provence, 
 in which country the rhymers and minstrels 
 of mediasval times seem to have had their 
 origin. So little of their music has been 
 handed down that it is difficult to form a just 
 opinion on its merits. It is certain, however, 
 that they paid little regard to the laws of 
 music as laid down by their contemporaries, 
 but constructed rhythmical melodies, in what- 
 ever scale was pleasing to the popular ear. 
 The date of the rise of proven9al poetry is by 
 some stated to have been as early as the tenth 
 century, but was more probably the twelfth. 
 
 Psallettes. Maitrises (Fr.) Schools in 
 which, at the time of Franco of Cologne, 
 descant was taught. 
 
 Psalm Melodicon. An instrument in- 
 vented in 1828 by Schuhmacher Weinrich. It 
 was a wind instrument with keys and ven- 
 tages, imitating the tone of several orchestral 
 instruments. In 1832 it was improved by 
 Leo Schmidt, and named the Apollo-Lyra. 
 
 Psalmody. [Hymn tunes.] 
 
 Psalmistae. An order of clergy instituted 
 about the time of the introduction of the 
 Cantus Ambrosianus ; for the special duty of 
 singing from the Ambo, such music as would 
 have been marred by the singing of the con- 
 gregation. At the council of Laodicea, held 
 between the years 360 and 370, it was ordered 
 that no one but tlje canonical singing-men 
 should presume to sing in the church ; and 
 by a canon of the fourth council of Carthage 
 the following form of words was prescribed 
 for their ordination. "Vide ut quod ore 
 cantas corde credis, et quod corde credis 
 operibus comprobes." 
 
 Psalterium {Lat.) (i) A Psalter, generally 
 with musical notation above the words. (2) 
 A Psaltery. [Nebel.] 
 
 Psaltery. [Nebel.] 
 
 Psaltriae {Lat.) Female musicians who 
 sang and played during a banquet. 
 
 Pulpitum {Lat.) (i) The Xoyeiov, or stage 
 of the Greek Theatre. A wide but shallow 
 space in the shape of a parallelogram, in the 
 middle of which the chief actors usually 
 spoke. Behind it was another quadrangular 
 space termed the proscenium, not so wide as 
 the logeum. The remainder of the logeum, 
 right and left of the proscenium, had at the 
 
 (37 
 
 back a wall rising as high as the uppermost 
 tier of spectators ; at the front, a way down 
 to the orchestra, or space set aside for the 
 chorus. (2) A motet. Pulpitre {Old Fr.) 
 [Motet.] 
 
 Pulsatile. A term applied to instruments 
 of percussion, such as the drum, gong, cym- 
 bals, &c. 
 
 Pulsator organorum. An organ-player, 
 at the time when the keys were very large 
 and had to be struck sharply. [Organ.] 
 
 Punctus {Lat.) A point or dot. A punctus 
 was of various kinds. The punctus additionis, 
 or augmentationis, added to a note one half of 
 its value, as does the modern dot, making an 
 imperfect note (or binary), into a perfect (or 
 ternary). The punctus divisionis formed thus 
 \/, performed the office of a modern bar. 
 The punctus perfectionis, similar in shape to 
 the former, was in effect the same as a punctus 
 additionis. The punctus prolationis was the 
 dot inserted in the circle or half circle O Q 
 which distinguished prolatio perfecta from 
 prolatio imperfecta. 
 
 Punkt {Ger.) Dot. Punktirte Noten, 
 dotted notes. 
 
 Punta {It.) The point, as colla punta 
 dell'arco, with the point or tip of the bow. 
 
 Puntato {It.) Pointed, detached, made 
 staccato. 
 
 Pupitre {Fr.) [Pulpitum § 2.] 
 
 Pyknon {irvKvov). The close note, (i) A 
 name given to those half or quarter tones 
 which came together in the chromatic and 
 enharmonic genera of the Greeks. (2) In 
 mediasval music, a semi-tone. 
 
 Pyramidon. An organ stop of 16 ft. or 
 32 ft. tone, the pipes of which are closed at 
 the top, and pyramidical in shape, the top 
 being more than four times the width of the 
 mouth. From a pipe only 2 ft. g in. in length, 
 2 ft. 3 in. square at the top, and 8 inches at 
 the block, the note C C C is produced. 
 
 Pyrophone. An instrument invented by 
 Kastner, the sounds of which are produced 
 by jets of gas burning under tubes. 
 
 Pyrrhic, (i) A dance among the Greeks, 
 danced by boys in armour, accompanied on 
 the lyre or flute. In it was much warlike 
 gesticulation and rapid movement. (2) A 
 metrical foot consisting of two short syllables. 
 [Metre.] 
 
 Pythagoreans. The followers of the system 
 of Pythagoras, in which the consonance or 
 dissonance of an interval was judged by the 
 ratio of the vibrations without appeal to the 
 ear. The Aristoxenians, on the other hand, 
 held that the ear should be the sole judge of 
 right or wrong in music. The former were 
 called Canonici, because they appealed to the 
 monochord or harmonic- canon for their laws, 
 the latter Musici, because they made the ear 
 and practice their guide. 
 
 I) 
 
QUADRATE QXJATRE MAINS, A. 
 
 Quadrate (or B quadratum). The sign b, 
 used originally to raise B rotundum t>, one 
 semitone. Hence arose its general use for 
 the raising of all flattened notes, as exempU- 
 fied in its modern form of a natural, 1^ 
 
 Quadratum (Lai.) A breve, IMI 
 
 Quadrible. [Quatrible]. 
 
 Quadricinium or Quatricinium. A com- 
 position in four parts. 
 
 Quadrille. A well-known dance, consisting 
 of five movements ; Le Pantalon, La Poule, 
 L'Ete, La Trenise (or la Pastourelle), La 
 Finale. [Dancing.] 
 
 Quadruple Counterpoi'nt. Counterpoint 
 of four parts, so constructed that all the parts 
 may be transposed among themselves without 
 transgressing the laws of progression. A 
 perfect piece of this kind of counterpoint will 
 be capable of twenty-four different dispositions 
 of the parts. It is only feasible at the interval 
 of the octave. [Counterpoint.] 
 
 Quadruple Croche (Fr.) A hemi-demi- 
 
 semiquaver, 
 
 Quarte (Fr. 
 Quarta (/f.) 
 Quarta {Lat^ 
 
 The interval of a fourth. 
 The interval of a fourth. 
 An interval of a fourth, as 
 major, minor, abundans (superflua), a major, 
 minor, or augmented fourth. Quarta modi, 
 Quarta toni, the fourth of the scale, the 
 modern subdominant. 
 
 Quart de mesure (Fr.) A crotchet rest. 
 
 Quart de soupir (Fr.) A semiquaver rest. 
 
 Quarte de nazard (Fr.) An organ stop 
 of 2 ft. length, so called because it is a fourth 
 above the nazard or twelfth. 
 
 Quarte du ton (Fr.) The subdominant. 
 
 Quarter note. A crotchet, J 
 
 Quarter tones. A general name of 
 intervals less than a semitone, introduced 
 into enharmonic instruments. 
 
 Quartet, (i) A composition in four parts, 
 or for four performers. (2) Part of a move- 
 ment sung by four voices soli as opposed to 
 coro, (3) A composition for four instruments, 
 
 in complete symphonic form, consisting of an 
 introduction (occasionally), (i) allegro, (2) 
 andante or adagio, (3) minuet and trio, or 
 scherzo, (4) finale. Each of these movements 
 has its form. [Sonata form.] By far the 
 largest number of instrumental quartets are 
 composed for two violins, a viola, and 
 a violoncello, not only on account of the 
 smoothness and evenness of their individual 
 and collective tone, but also because of 
 the compass of each instrument allowing 
 an ever-varying disposition of the harmony. 
 The complete quartet, quintet, or sestet, is 
 to chamber music what the symphony is to 
 concert music. Both are, in their way, the 
 highest production of which instrumental 
 music, apart from vocal, is capable. Attempts 
 at a separation of instrumental and vocal 
 music were made in this country as early as 
 the beginning of the seventeenth century, by 
 John Jenkins (b. 1592), one ofwhose three-part 
 Fancies has been reprinted by HuUah, in his 
 "Transition Period of Musical History," 
 p. 194. AUegri, who died in 1652, composed a 
 quartet for two violins, a viola, and basso di 
 viola. But the string-quartet did not reach 
 its prime until the time of Haydn and Mozart, 
 simultaneously with the settlement of the 
 form of the symphony. 
 
 Quartetto (It.) [Quartet.] 
 
 Quartfagott (Ger.) A kind of bassoon, a 
 fourth lower than that commonly in use. 
 
 Quartflote (Ger.) A small flute, a fourth 
 higher in pitch than the common flute. 
 
 Quartgeige (Ger.) A small sized fiddle. 
 Violino piccolo. 
 
 Quarto d'aspetto (It.) A semiquaver 
 rest, ^ 
 
 Quasi (It.) As if, or in the style of. Used 
 to qualify certain terms, as, quasi allegretto, 
 somewhat allegretto ; quasi sonata, a compo- 
 sition very similar to a sonata, but in which 
 sonata form is not strictly adhered to ; quasi 
 fantasia, a piece in which form is displaced 
 by the style of a fantasia. 
 
 Quatre mains, k (Fr.) For four hands. 
 
 ( 372 ) 
 
QUATRIBLE QUODLIBET. 
 
 Quatrible {Old Eng.) To descant by 
 singing fourths on a plain song (see Quinible) . 
 
 Quatricinium. [Quadricinium.] 
 
 Quatricroma {It.) [Quadruple croche 
 {Fr.) ] 
 
 Quattro mani, a {It.) For four hands. 
 
 Quatuor {Fr.) [Quartet.] 
 
 Quaver. The eighth part of a semibreve, 
 > Achtel-note {Ger.) Croche {Fr.) 
 
 Querflote {Ger.) Flauto traverso (/i.) 
 The flute played sideways, as opposed to the 
 flute which was blown at one end, and held 
 straight in front of the performer. [Flute.] 
 
 Querpfeife {Ger.), Fiffaro, Fifre. The 
 Swiss fife ; a small kind of flute, with six 
 holes, but no keys. It has an incomplete 
 compass of two octaves. 
 
 Querstand {Ger.) [False Relation.] 
 
 Queue {Fr.) (i) The tailpiece of a violin 
 or other instrument. (2) The tail of a note. 
 
 Quick Step. A quick march. 
 
 Quinible. {Old Eng.) To descant by 
 singing fifths on a plain song (see Quatrible). 
 In Chaucer's " Miller's Tale," it is said of 
 Absolon : 
 
 " In twenty manere coud he trip and dance, 
 (After the scole of Oxenforde tho) 
 And with his legges casten to and fro ; 
 And playen songes on a smal ribible ; 
 Thereto he song sometime a loud quinible." 
 
 Quindecitna. [Quinta decima.] 
 
 Quint, (i) The interval of a fifth. (2) 
 An organ stop, sounding a fifth above the 
 foundation stops, of 5^ ft. length on the 
 manuals, loj ft. on the pedal. It should not 
 be used without a double diapason, to which 
 it forms the second natural harmonic, or 
 twelfth. It is sometimes used on the pedal 
 organ without a double diapason (32 ft.), but 
 with questionable effect. 
 
 Quintabsatz {Ger.) A half close. The 
 imperfect cadence, the penultimate chord of 
 which is a tonic triad ; the final chord, a 
 dominant triad. [Cadence.] 
 
 Quinta decima {Lat.) (i) The interval of 
 a double octave. (2) An organ stop, sounding 
 the double octave of the foundation stops, 
 fifteenth. 
 
 Quinta modi {Lat.) The fifth of the 
 scale. The modem dominant. 
 
 Quintaton {Ger). An organ stop con- 
 sisting of closed metal pipes, of a small scale, 
 
 so voiced that the twelfth is heard with the 
 ground-tone. 
 
 Quinta toni {Lat.) [Quinta modi.] 
 
 Quinte, Quintsaite {Ger.) Chanterelle 
 {Fr.) The E string of a violin. The lowest 
 string of violoncello and viola being C, 
 A is their fourth string, hence the highei 
 string of the violin came to be called the 
 Quinte, or Quintsaite. 
 
 Quinterna, or Chiterna. A species of 
 guitar not unlike a violin in shape, having 
 three, or four, or five pairs of catgut strings, 
 and sometimes two single strings covered 
 with wire in addition, played with the fingers, 
 not with a plectrum. About tvyo centuries 
 ago it was commonly used in Italy by the 
 lower orders of musicians and comedians. 
 
 Quintet, (i) A composition in five parts, 
 or for five performers. (2) Part of a move- 
 ment sung by five voices soli, opposed to 
 core. (3) A composition for two violins, two 
 tenors, and a violoncello; or two violins, a 
 tenor, and two violoncellos ; or two violins, a 
 tenor, a violoncello, and double bass, having 
 the same form as a sonata. 
 
 Quintfagott {Ger.) [Basson quinte.] 
 
 Quintfuge {Ger.) A fugue, the subject of 
 which is answered at the interval of a fifth. 
 
 Quintole. A group of five notes to be 
 played in the time of four — 
 
 Quinton {Fr.) The five-stringed viol. 
 Quintoyer {Old Fr.) to descant at the 
 fifth ; to quinible. 
 
 Quintuor {Fr.) [Quintet.] 
 Quintviola. An organ stop of the gamba 
 species, but of the pitch of a quint, or of a 
 twelfth. 
 
 Quire {Old Eng.) The collective title of 
 the body of trained and authorized singers in 
 a church. 
 
 A member of a Quire, whether 
 [Chorister.] 
 
 (i) A sort of Fantasia; (2) 
 (3) A Dutch concert. 
 At the annual re-unions of the members of 
 the Bach family singing or improvising quod- 
 libets was one of the amusements indulged 
 
 Quirister. 
 man or boy. 
 Quodlibet. 
 
 a pot-pourri. 
 
 I 373 ) 
 
-RE. 
 
 R, abb. for right, as r.h., with the right 
 hand. 
 
 Rabanna, or Rabani. A kind of Indian 
 drum, of a small size, beaten by the hand. 
 
 Rabbia, con (7i.) With fury. 
 
 Rackett, Rankett. (i) An obsolete wind- 
 instrument of the double bassoon kind, it had 
 ventages but not keys. It was not of an 
 extended compass, being incapable of pro- 
 ducing harmonics. It was a double-reed 
 instrument, the reed being at the end of a 
 tube through which the player blew. The 
 tone was nasal and produced with diificulty. 
 The rackett was improved by Denner at the 
 beginning of the last century, but was not 
 able to hold its own against the then much 
 superior bassoon. (2) An organ stop of 16 ft. 
 or 8 ft. pitch now obsolete. 
 
 Raddolcendo, Raddolcente {It.) With 
 gradual softness and sweetness. 
 
 Raddoppiamento, Raddoppiato {It.) 
 The doubling of an interval or part. 
 
 Radical bass. The fundamental bass, 
 ground note, or root of a chord. 
 
 Ragoke. A small Russian horn. 
 
 Rags, Raginees. Certain Hindoo melo- 
 dies founded on fixed scales. They were of 
 three kinds, sumpoornu, or those comprising 
 seven notes in a determined succession ; 
 khadoo, or such as comprised six notes ; 
 oodoo, or those comprising only five notes. 
 
 Rail., abb. for rallentando. 
 
 Rallentamento (7^.) At a slower pace. 
 
 Rallentando, Rallentato {It.) Getting 
 gradually slower. 
 
 Rank of pipes. A row of pipes (of an 
 organ) belonging to one stop. A stop is said 
 to be of two, three, four, or five ranks, accord- 
 ing to the number of rows of pipes under the 
 control of its one register. 
 
 Rant. An old dance ; a sort of country 
 dance. This name is often attached to tunes 
 to which country dances were performed. It 
 is perhaps a corruption of the word coranto. 
 
 Ranz des vaches (Fr.), Kuhreihen {Ger.) 
 The tunes or flourishes blown by Swiss shep- 
 
 herds on their cow-horns or Alpine-horns (long 
 tubes of fir-wood), as signals to the animals 
 under their charge, such as the following : — 
 
 The notes marked Fjf are not properly thus 
 represented, they being the natural harmonic 
 lying between E and G, consequently a sound 
 between F and F#. 
 
 Rapidamente, Rapidita, con, Rapido 
 {It.) With rapidity. 
 
 Rasgado; {Sp.) To sweep the strings of a 
 guitar with the thumb, for the purpose of pro- 
 ducing a full chord, arpeggio. 
 
 Rastral. [Rastrum.] 
 
 Rastrum (Lai.) {Ger. Harke.) A rake. 
 The name given to the five-pointed instrument 
 for ruling the stave. 
 
 Rathselcanon {Ger.) A riddle-canon. 
 Canon cenigmaticus. One part and the number 
 of parts being given, the student to write it 
 out in full. 
 
 Ratio {Lat.) Relation or proportion. 
 [Acoustics.] [Proportio.] 
 
 Rattenendo, Rattenuto {It.) Restrain- 
 ing or holding back the time. 
 
 Rauscher {Ger.) A passage of repeated 
 notes. 
 
 Rauschpfeif, Rauschquint, Rausch- 
 werk, Rauschflote, Ruszpipe. A stop in 
 old organs of two ranks of pipes, consisting 
 of a twelfth and fifteenth, or a fifteenth and 
 octave twelfth. 
 
 Ravanastron. A stringed instrument 
 played with a bow ; in use among the Budd- 
 hists. [Violin.] 
 
 Ravvivando. {It.) Reviving. Becoming 
 again animated. Ravvivando il tempo, 
 quickening the time. 
 
 Re. The name of the second note of the 
 scale. [See Notation, early systems of.] 
 
 ( 374 ) 
 
REAL FUGUE REED. 
 
 Real Fugue. A strict fugue. The term 
 is now used in opposition to a tonal fugue. 
 The answer in a real fugue being a fifth 
 higher or a fourth lower than the subject, 
 note for note ; that in a tonal fugue being so 
 far altered that dominant answers tonic and 
 vice versa. So that in a tonal fugue, a sub- 
 ject occupying a compass of five notes, 
 namely from a tonic to its dominant, has to 
 be answered in a compass of four notes, 
 namely from the dominant to the tonic lying 
 above it. [Fugue, § 3.] 
 
 Rebab. [Rebec] 
 
 Rebec, or Rebeck. The English name 
 of a three-stringed instrument played with a 
 bow. It was of Arabian or Turkish origin 
 and was introduced into Spain by the Moors, 
 under the name rabel or rebel. It found its 
 way thence, in the ninth or tenth century, 
 into Italy under the name of rehica, and into 
 England under the name rebec. In other 
 European countries it was variously called 
 rebeb, or rebebe, reberbe, rebesbe, rubebe, 
 or erbeb ; in Egypt and Asia, rebab. In its 
 earliest form it probably had a long neck and 
 small round body, made of cocoa-nut shell, 
 or some such material, over which parch- 
 ment was stretched to form the sound-board. 
 After its introduction into Europe, the third 
 string was added, for although the Persians 
 have now a three-stringed rebab, the older 
 form was probably only two-stringed. After 
 its introduction into England, the rebec 
 gradually assumed' the form of a viol, of 
 which instrument it was the precursor. 
 [Violin.] 
 
 Re bfimol (Fr.) The note DP. Re bemol 
 majeur, the key of Dl? major. 
 
 Rebibe, Rebible {Old Eng.) A small 
 rebec or three-stringed viol. [Rebec] 
 
 Recheat. A hunting signal, which recalls 
 the hounds. 
 
 Recht (Ger.) Right, as rechte Hand, the 
 right hand. 
 
 Recitando, Recitante (It.) In the manner 
 of a recitative. As if reciting. 
 
 Recitatif (Fr.) [Recitative.] 
 
 Recitative. Musical declamation. An 
 art lost to Europe in the destruction of Greek 
 music, and not revived till the early part of 
 the seventeenth century. It grew out of the 
 aria-parlante or monody, which was an 
 attempt on the part of certain Florentine 
 dilettanti to restore the ancient recitation of 
 poetrj'. The names associated in this work, 
 which exercised such a wonderful influence 
 over the art of music, were Vecchi, Galilei, 
 Caccini, Peri, Cavaliere, and Monteverde. It 
 is impossible to point to any one of these as 
 the actual inventor of recitative, because the 
 style cannot be said to have been perfected 
 until it had received the free handling of 
 
 Carissimi and Scarlatti, but their names 
 deserve to be held in reverence. Recitatives 
 were for a considerable period accompanied, 
 at performances both of oratorios and operas, 
 on a harpsichord with a double bass support- 
 ing the basso continuo. On the removal of 
 harpsichords from our theatres and concert- 
 rooms, which took place at the close of the 
 last century, an arpeggio chord on the 
 violoncello was substituted for the harpsi- 
 chord-part, a double-bass (as before) sustain- 
 ing the lowest note of each chord. If a band 
 did not possess a very excellent violoncellist 
 these arpeggio chords were often cruelly out 
 of tune. Hence modern composers had no 
 choice but to use soft chords in four-parts 
 played by the whole string-band. This has 
 been gradually followed by the use of the full 
 band in recitatives, and as a natural result, 
 pure declamation is to some extent merging 
 into a semi-strict arioso. It is quite possible 
 that this is what the authors of aria parlante 
 were aiming at in their early efforts. [Opera.] 
 
 Recitativo (/f.) [Recitative.] Allarecit., 
 in the style of a recitative. 
 
 R:ecit. accomp. Recitative with accom- 
 paniment. 
 
 Recit. secco. A recitative supported only 
 by a chord from a violoncello or double bass, 
 or by a cembalo. [Recitative.] 
 
 Recit. stromentato. Recitative accom- 
 panied by a band. 
 
 Record, to, Recorders {Old Eng.) The 
 verb to record is used with reference to the 
 singing of birds, as in Shakspeare (Pericles, 
 Act IV.) 
 
 "or when to the lute 
 
 She sung, and made the night-bird mute 
 That still records with moan ;".... 
 
 The instrument " Recorder " was originally 
 a flageolet or tibia minor, but the name was 
 afterwards used as synonymous •with flute. 
 
 Recte et retro. [Per recte et retro.] 
 
 Re dibse {Fr.) The note DJ. 
 
 Redita {It.) A return. A repeat. 
 
 Redondillas {Sp.) Roundelays. 
 
 Redoublement {Fr.) Raddoppiamento 
 {It.) A doubling of an interval or part. 
 
 Redowa, Redowak, Redowazka. A 
 Bohemian dance, originally in | and |^ time 
 alternately. The time was afterwards altered, 
 and the dance was made into a sort of polka. 
 
 Reductio modi {Lat.) (i) The bringing 
 back a transposed mode to its original pitch. 
 (2) The conversion of an old mode into its 
 corresponding modern scale. 
 
 Reed. A thin strip of metal or cane set 
 in vibration by a current of air ; the vibrations 
 so caused, at the same time, dividing the 
 current of air into rapid discontinuous puffs 
 which produce a musical sound. The reed 
 itself does not produce the sound, but is only 
 
 (375 ) 
 
REED INSTRUMENTS OF AN ORCHESTRA RELATIVE KEY. 
 
 a means of obtaining the sound from' the 
 current of air directed against it. " It is 
 constructive, not generative " (Tyndall on 
 Sound, p. 192). Reeds are of two kinds, 
 striking and free. A striking reed is rather 
 larger than the aperture, and is placed on 
 that side of it against wrhich the air is 
 directed, being slightly bent upwards at its 
 unattached end. As the current of air attempts 
 to pass by it, the reed is forced against the 
 sides of the aperture, and the progress of the 
 air is suddenly checked, but the elasticity of 
 the reed causes it immediately to recover its 
 former position, when the current of air 
 again rushes through, and so on. A free 
 reed is of such size that it will freely pass in 
 and out the aperture. The current of air 
 forces it upwards, and its own elasticity 
 restores it to its place again, and so on. 
 
 The striking reed is that commonly used in 
 an organ, the free reed in a harmonium. 
 
 The tone of reeds is greatly intensified by 
 the addition of a pipe or tube, care being 
 taken that the tube should contain a column 
 of air whose vibrations synchronise with the 
 note produced by the reed, or with one of its 
 overtones. In instruments of the horn or 
 trumpet class, the lips perform the function 
 of the reed, the notes produced being the 
 fundamental note of the tube and its har- 
 monics or overtones. The human voice is a 
 reed instrument. [Larynx.] 
 
 Reed instruments of an orchestra. 
 Oboes, clarinets and bassoons, with others of 
 their class. 
 
 Reed of harmonium. [Reed.] 
 
 Reed of organ. [Reed] and [Organ, § 15.] 
 
 Reed-stops [Organ, § 15.] 
 
 Reel {Old Eng.) Kreol. A lively rustic 
 dance, popularly supposed to be Scotch, but 
 probably of Scandinavian origin. The Danish 
 kreols are very similar to the reel. [Country 
 dance.] 
 
 Refrain [Burden.] [Chorus.] [Ballad.] 
 
 Regals, Rigals, Rigoles. These terms 
 seem to be synonymous with " Portative 
 Organs," although distinguished by some 
 authors. The word regal is supposed to 
 have come from rigabello, mentioned in the 
 following passage : " In.iEde Sancti Raphaelis 
 Venetiis, instrumenti musici cujusdam forma 
 extat, ei nomen rigabello; cujus in ecclessiis 
 usus fuerit ante organa ilia pneumatica qua 
 hodie usurpantur. Rigabello successit aliud 
 quod turcello dictum est, cujus Venetias usum 
 induxit homo Germanus." Regals had gene- 
 rally only one row of pipes, and were probably 
 used to support the treble voices. In an 
 inventory of the musical instruments of 
 Henry VIII., taken after his death (Sir Henry 
 Ellis's original letters. Second series. Vol. I., 
 p. 272}, we read of " thirteen pair of single 
 
 regalls," and " five pair of double regalls." 
 Double regals had two rows of pipes. 
 
 Bernard Gates in 1767 received a salary as 
 "tuner of regalls" in the Royal Chapel, but 
 in 1770 he is called " tuner of organs." 
 Snetzler the great organ builder could 
 remember the regals in use in Germany. 
 
 Regales de bois {Fr.) Claque-bois. 
 [Ligneum Psalterium.] [tave.] 
 
 Regal der Octav (Ger.) [Rule of the oc- 
 
 Register. An organ stop; (i) in a limited 
 sense, " the handle on which is written the 
 name of the stop " ; (2) in a general sense, a 
 stop or " the pipes belonging to, and acted 
 upon by one slider." 
 
 Register (of an organ.) A frame through 
 which long trackers pass. [Organ, § 8.] 
 
 Register (of a voice.) (i) Class ; as, so- 
 prano, &c. ; (2) Portion ; as, head, chest, &c. ; 
 (3) Compass ; as, high, low, &c. [tave.] 
 
 R6gle de I'octave {Fr.) [Rule of the oc- 
 
 Regular form. A work is said to be " not 
 in regular form " if its subjects and their 
 disposition depart from the plan or form 
 conventionally considered most suitable to a 
 composition of its kind. 
 
 Regular fugue. A strict, as opposed to a 
 free fugue, or one in which the laws are not 
 strictly obeyed. [Fugue.] 
 
 Regular motion. Similar motion. 
 
 Regulation (of a keyed instrument). The 
 adjustment of the touch ; in the pianoforte, 
 by means of the regulating-pin ; in the organ 
 by means of leather buttons on a tap-wire, 
 which when turned round shorten or lengthen 
 parts of the action. 
 
 Rehearsal. Probe [Ger.), Prova {It.) A 
 general practice before a performance. Full 
 Rehearsal, a rehearsal at which soloists, band 
 and chorus are present. Public rehearsal, a 
 rehearsal to which the public are admitted. 
 
 Relatio non harmonica {Lat.) [False 
 relation.] 
 
 Relative chord. A common chord made 
 up of notes taken from the scale, e.g. : 
 
 The chords of D minor, E minor, F major, 
 G major and A minor are therefore relative to 
 the chord or scale of C, these being the only 
 common chords which can be made from the 
 scale of C. 
 
 Relative key. A key whose tonic chord 
 is a relative chord ; that is to say, a key 
 whose first, third, and fifth degrees form a 
 common chord made up of notes of the key 
 to which it is related. Thus D minor, E 
 minor, F major, G major, and A minor are 
 relative keys of C. The first, third, and fifth 
 of each of these scales forming one of the 
 relative chords of C. 
 
 (376) 
 
RELIGIOSAMENTE RETARDATION. 
 
 Religiosamente, Religioso {It.) In a 
 religious or devotional manner. 
 
 Remplissage {Fr.) A filling up. Inter- 
 mediate part. 
 
 Renversement (Fr.) Inversion. 
 
 Renvoi (Fr.) A repeat. 
 
 Repeat. Wiederholungszeichen {Ger.) A 
 sign that a movement or part of a movement 
 is to be twice performed. That which is to 
 be repeated is generally included within the 
 sign of two or four dots in the spaces, thus, 
 
 When the performer does not, on repeating, 
 go so far as the last dot-sign, but finishes at a 
 previous cadence, it is usual to write over the 
 repeat. Da Capo, placing a pause and fine 
 over the chord at which the performer is to 
 stop. If the signs of the repeat do not coincide 
 with a well-defined portion of a movement 
 the sign § is sometimes added thus. 
 
 A few bars are sometimes marked bis, 
 
 but this sign is only used over a very short 
 phrase. 
 
 R6petition {Fr.) A rehearsal. 
 
 Repetizione (It.) Repetition, as senza 
 repetizione, without repeating. 
 
 Replica {It.) Repetition, as senza replica, 
 without repeating; con replica, with repetition. 
 
 Replicate {It.) Repeated. 
 
 Reply. The answer in a fugue, the subject 
 being called principal. 
 
 Rfeponse {Fr.) The answer in a fugue. 
 
 Repos {Fr.) A pause. 
 
 Reprise {Fr.) (i) Burden of a song. (2) 
 Reprise d'un opera, the reproduction of an 
 opera. (3) A repeat. 
 
 Requiem {Lat.) A name given to the 
 " Missa pro defunctis," because the words 
 " requiem eternam dona eis," occur in it. 
 
 Research. An extemporaneous perform- 
 ance on the organ or pianoforte in which the 
 leading themes or subjects in the piece to 
 which it serves as prelude are suggested and 
 employed. 
 
 Resin, or Rosin. A gum, the viscid 
 exudation of certain trees, chiefly of the fir 
 tribe, which is obtained in large quantities by 
 cutting away part of the bark, a vessel being 
 placed below to catch the gum as it exudes. 
 When purified and prepared it is used to rub 
 over the hair of a bow, the surface of which it 
 renders rough and so enables it to " grip" the 
 strmgs. [Colophony.] 
 
 Resolution, (i) The moving of a discord- 
 ant note to another which produces a satis- 
 factory effect. This is done sometimes by 
 taking the discord downwards one degree, as. 
 
 sometimes by taking it upwards, as 
 
 Resonance. [Acoustics, § 21.] 
 
 Resonance-body, Resonance-box, 
 
 Resonanzhoden {Ger.) The hollow part of a 
 stringed instrument which reinforces the 
 sound of the vibrating strings. Its shape is 
 of the utmost importance, and, in the case of 
 the violin has only been definitely fixed after 
 great practical and scientific research. The 
 resonance-box has certain openings to admit 
 of the escape of the reinforcing vibrations. 
 
 Respiro(/i.) A breath. A semiquaver rest. 
 
 Response. The answer to a versicle 
 in the Church Service. The following are 
 the signs for these words, ^i B?. 
 
 Responsorium {Lat.) A response-book ; 
 a choir-book containing the music of the ver- 
 sicles and responses. 
 
 Rests. Signs enjoining the silence of a 
 performer for a given length of time. Each 
 note has its corresponding rest, e.g. : 
 
 Notes. 11=11 
 
 Corresponding J '"" 
 
 rests. 
 
 g 
 
 i 
 
 There is, unfortunately, no distinctive sign 
 for a bar's rest. If the bar contain less than 
 a semibreve, as in f , f times, &c., a semibreve 
 rest denotes a bar's rest ; but, of course, rest 
 for part of a bar is denoted by its proper 
 signs, thus : — 
 
 If the bar contain more than a semibreve, a 
 bar's rest is usually denoted by the sign of a 
 breve rest, but this is not universally adhered 
 to, as some authors use a semibreve rest for 
 a bar's rest in f time. 
 
 Dots may be affixed to rests and have the 
 same effects upon them as upon notes, e.g. : 
 f • is equal to a three-quavers' rest; |* • *, 
 equal to a seven-semiquavers' rest. For 
 an account of earlier forms of rest see 
 Pausa. 
 
 Resultant Tones. [Acoustics, § ig.] 
 
 Retardation, (i) A gradual slackening 
 
 of pace in the performance of a passage. 
 
 (2) The holding on of a concordant note into 
 
 the succeeding chord, in such a manner that 
 
 ( 377 ) 
 
RETRO RIGADOON. 
 
 it becomes a discord, which is resolved up- 
 wards. A discord of retardation is thus 
 opposed to a discord of suspension, the 
 latter being resolved downwards, e.g. : 
 
 Retardation oTtwo parts, 
 (or a double Retardation.) 
 
 Suspension Mtwo parts. 
 (or a double Suspension.) 
 
 Three or more parts may be retarded or sus- 
 pended, and retardations and suspensions 
 may occur in the same chord. 
 
 Retro. [Per recte et retro.] 
 
 Retrograde {It.) [Retrogradus.] 
 
 Retrogrades {Lat.). Motus retrogradus, 
 reading music backwards. Imitatio retrograda, 
 imitation per recte et retro, q.v. Contrapunctus 
 retrogradus, counterpoint per recte et retro. 
 
 Retto {It.) Direct, as moto retto, direct 
 or similar motion. 
 
 Reveil, Revelly {Old Eng.) Music which 
 wakens from sleep. A signal given by drum 
 to soldiers at dawn (from Lat. revigilare). 
 
 Reveilld, Reveil {Fr.) [Reveil.] 
 
 Reverse motion or movement. Move- 
 ment by inversion of intervals. 
 
 Rf., abb. 0/ Rinforzando. 
 
 Rhapsodes {pa-ip^Soi). Wandering min- 
 strels in ancient Greece, of the Ionian race, 
 who formerly recited epics in public places, 
 holding in their hands a staff {pafiBoc) as a 
 sign of their calling. It is doubtful whether 
 the rhapsode had always a musical accom- 
 paniment to his recitation, as one of his 
 hands would be occupied by his staff. Rhap- 
 sodical recitation must be regarded as the 
 forerunner of stage-acting, and as forming 
 when conjoined with the Bacchic chorus, the 
 complete Greek drama. 
 
 Rhapsodie(Ger.)) A composition of irregu- 
 
 Rapsodie {Fr.) lar form, and in the style 
 
 Rhapsody. J of an improvisation. 
 
 Rhythm. [Metre.] 
 
 RhythmopcEia {Gk.) The due arrange- 
 ment of arsis and thesis in metre. [Metre.] • 
 
 Ribattuta, Ribattitura {It.) A beat (w) 
 or passing note. 
 
 Rtcercari {It.) (i) Difficult passages or 
 ilourishes. (2) Exercises. 
 
 Ricercata {It.) (i) A sort of fantasia or 
 toccata. (2) Fuga ricercata, a fugue contain- 
 ing nothing but various treatments of the 
 subject ; a fugue without episodes ; a master- 
 fugue, highly elaborated and containing all 
 possible scientific feats. [Fugue.] 
 
 Ridotto {It.) Reduced' from a full score. 
 
 Rifacimento {It.) A reconstruction or 
 restoration of a work. 
 
 Rifiorimenti {It.) Extemporaneous em- 
 bellishments. 
 
 Rigabellum {Lat.); Rigabello {It.) [Re- 
 gals.] 
 
 Rigadoon. An old lively dance performed 
 by a man and a woman, as the jig is danced, in 
 some places. It is said to have been invented 
 in Provence by one Rigaud, and from him to 
 have taken its title, but as there are more ex- 
 amples of melodies by English composers 
 than by French, it is not unlikely that the 
 word is English, coming from the same root 
 as " Rig," which means wanton, lively. The 
 character of the rigadoon would justify this 
 derivation. 
 
 The two dances without authors' names 
 are from a work entitled " The newest 
 Minuets, Rigadoons, and French Dances, 
 perform'd at Court and Publick Entertain- 
 ments. London, 1716." 
 
 Rigadoon. Mr. H. Purcell. Choice Lesson, 1705. 
 
 _4___^-ij r J- J J-. 
 
 ^fe 
 
 4 
 
 p^^ f l f 'r-H^T+TJ' 
 
 i 
 
 Rigadoon, 1716. 
 
 
 K^ J J Jr 
 
 \r }r~\'T''K^ 
 
 1 r • :|| 
 
 ffii^ — * J * p 
 .-1 .-L 
 
 
 r jH 
 
 ■^.^-B 1 — ■ — 1 — ■ — 
 
 IHLI n f r ^ ^ 
 
 -J — p — 5-^ 
 
 ( 378 ) 
 
RIGOLS ROHRWERK. 
 
 fr"JjjcrirGTrrir'rjrrriJ.j-j.jij.:ii 
 
 VVwJJJJJJLjJ 
 
 fib'T 1 r H^r rr ?? i:F>-Pf¥^ 
 
 - ' J«l ' ■-* H-l Ff-'^ 1 1 '(=••■' 
 
 Rigadoon, 1716. 
 
 T^P 
 
 Rigols. [Regals.] 
 
 Rigore (It.) Strictness, as, al rigore di 
 tempo, in strict time ; con rigore, with exact- 
 ness. 
 
 Rigoroso {It.) [Gon rigore.] 
 
 Rikk. A small tambourine of modem 
 Egypt. 
 
 Rilasciando {It.) Relaxing the time. 
 
 Rilch, Rilka. A Russian lute. 
 
 Rinf., abb. of Rinforzando. 
 
 Rinforzando, Rinforzare, Rinforzato 
 {It.) Reinforcing, or strengthening the power 
 and emphasis of a musical sentence. 
 
 Ringelpauke {Ger.) A sistrum having 
 rings on bars, which rattled when the instru- 
 ment was shaken. [Sistrum.] 
 
 Ripienist. A performer who only assists 
 in the ripieno parts. 
 
 Ripieno {It.) (i) An additional otfilling- 
 up part. Any part which is only occasionally 
 required for the purpose of adding to the force 
 of dLtutti, is said to be ripieno. (2) A mixture 
 stop on Italian organs ; as, ripieno di due, 
 ire, quattro, cmque, dec., a mixture stop of 
 two, three, four, five ranks, &c. 
 
 Ripresa {It.) (i) A reprise or burden. 
 (2) A repeat. 
 
 Risentito {It.) With expressive energy. 
 
 Risolutamente, Risoluto, Risoluzione, 
 con {It.) With resolution. Risolutissimo, 
 very resolutely. 
 
 Risonanza {It.) [Resonance.] 
 
 Risposta {It.) A reply or answer to a 
 fugue-subject. 
 
 Ristretto {It.) Stretto. [Fugue.] 
 
 Risvegliare (It.) To rouse up, awaken, re- 
 animate ; risvegiiato, in an animated manner. 
 
 Rit., abb. oi Ritardando, 
 
 Ritardando, Ritardato {It). With gradu- 
 ally increasing slowness of pace. 
 
 Ritardo {It.) [Retardation (i).] 
 
 Riten., abb. for Ritenendo, &c. 
 
 Ritenendo, Ritenente, Ritenuto {It.) 
 Holding back the pace. 
 
 Ritmo di tre battute {It.) In the rhythm 
 of three beats, or triple measure. An ex- 
 pression used when the group of accents is 
 formed by three bars in rapid time, e.g. : 
 
 The above passage is marked by Beethoven 
 (Choral Symphony) ritmo di tre battute, but, 
 
 is in ritmo di quattro battute. The former is 
 practically in compound triple time, the latter 
 in compound common time. 
 
 Ritornello. [Interlude.] 
 
 Riverso. [Rovescio.] 
 
 Rivolgimento {It.) The inversion or 
 transposition of the parts in double counter- 
 point. 
 
 Rivoltato {It.) Inverted or transposed as 
 in double counterpoint. 
 
 Rivolto {It.) [Rivolgimento.] 
 
 Roccoco, Rococo {It.) Old fashioned, 
 queer. 
 
 Rock harmonicon. An instrument, the 
 sounds of which are produced by striking 
 graduated lengths of rock - crystal with a 
 hammer. 
 
 Rohr {Ger.) A reed. 
 
 Rohrflote {Ger.) Reed-flute. An organ 
 ' stop consisting of closed pipes, the tone of 
 which is slightly reedy in quality, but very 
 sweet. 
 
 Rohrwerk {Ger.) Reedwork, the collec- 
 tive name of the stops consisting of reed- 
 pipes, as opposed to flue-work or stops 
 consisting of flue-pipes. [Reed.] [Flute.] 
 [Organ.] 
 
 ( 379 ) 
 
ROLE- 
 
 -ROSALIA. 
 
 R61e (Fr.) The extract from a drama 
 which an actor has to commit to memory. 
 From Lat. rotula. The part assigned to an 
 actor. 
 
 Roll. The regular and rapid beating of a 
 drum by two sticks so as to make the sound 
 as far as possible continuous. It is comm'only 
 expressed thus : 
 
 In the case of a tambourme, the roll is pro- 
 duced by a rapid succession of blows from 
 the knuckles, as the hand is swung backwards 
 and forwards. 
 
 RoUe (Ger.) A run, a group or series of 
 groups of short notes. In vocal music they 
 are mostly sung to one syllable of a word, 
 e.g.: 
 
 Rollo, Rollando {It.) Roll of a drum or 
 tambourine. [Roll.] 
 
 Romance {Eng., Fr., Sp.), Romanza 
 (It.), Romaunt (Old Eng.) The dialect 
 spoken in the south of France, in parts of 
 Spain and of Italy, and elsewhere in the 
 south of Europe during the middle ages ; so 
 called, because it was founded on the Roman 
 or Latin language. In the Romance dialect 
 the greater portion of Troubadour poetry was 
 recited, hence the term " Romance" came to 
 be applied to any touching love-story, and in 
 music is now frequently given to any simple 
 rhythmical melody which is suggestive of 
 such a story. [Troubadour.] 
 
 Romanesca (It.) An Italian dance, a 
 galliard. 
 
 Romanesque (Fr.) A galliard. 
 
 Roman-strings. Fiddle-strings made of 
 the intestines of lambs, although commonly 
 called " cat-gut." Italy still supplies the 
 finest quality of strings, hence called Roman. 
 
 Romantique (Fr.) In the style of a 
 romance, imaginatively. 
 
 Romera. A Turkish dance. 
 
 Romischer Gesang {Ger.) Catholic Plain 
 Song. Not correctly called Roman, because 
 common to the whole church. England had 
 its own old-established uses, before any Roman 
 Plain Song had entered the country. [Plain 
 Song.] 
 
 Romanzesco {It.) [Romantique.] 
 
 Ronde {Fr.) The round note, i.e., a semi- 
 breve. [Nomenclature.] 
 
 Rondeau {Fr.) [Rondo.] 
 
 Rondiletta, Rondinetta, Rondino, 
 Rondoletto {It.) A short rondo. 
 
 Rondo. [Form.] 
 
 Root, called also fundamental note, gene- 
 
 rator, and ground-note, (i) A note which, 
 besides its own sound, gives over-tones or 
 harmonics. (2) That note from amongst 
 whose over-tones any chord may be selected, 
 e.g. : 
 
 is produced from the vibration of the lowest 
 note C, therefore C is said to be the root of 
 this chord. An attempt to reduce chords to 
 their roots forms the chief part of many 
 treatises on harmony, but almost insuperable 
 difficulties are met with in consequence of 
 certain over-tones being omitted in our scale 
 and other sounds being introduced which can 
 only be obtained by a minute sub-division of 
 the monochord. The flat seventh and the 
 eleventh of nature are unused, and various 
 notes are arbitrarily inserted in the modern 
 scale in order to obtain more or less of 
 temperament {q.v.) Some authors derive all 
 their chords, or rather all those called funda- 
 mental (which constitute but a very small 
 number of the chords actually in use), from 
 three roots — the tonic, sub-dominant, and 
 dominant. Others, again, insist on only two 
 roots, the tonic and dominant. Not a few 
 modern musicians use the word root without 
 reference to any mathematical laws, and only 
 as describing a note on which, when either 
 expressed or implied, a chord is built up. 
 
 Rosalia {It.) The repetition of a phrase 
 or passage, raising the pitch one note at each 
 repetition. Ex. i is from Beethoven's Sym,- 
 phonia Eroica, Ex. 2 is from a Litany by 
 Mozart. In the first the passage mounts by 
 semitones, in the second by tones. 
 
 (380) 
 
ROSIN RULE. 
 
 Rosin. [Resin.J 
 
 Rota (Lat.) A Round, but the word is 
 sometimes applied to anything with frequent 
 repeats, as for instance a H3Tiin tune. 
 
 Rote {Old Eng.) [Hurdy Gurdy.] 
 
 Rotondo (It.) Round or full, with 
 reference to quality of tone. 
 
 Rotruenges. Roundelays of the minstrels. 
 
 Rotulae (Lat.) lit. little rounds. A term 
 applied to Christmas Songs or Carols. 
 
 Roulade (Fr.) An embellishment, a 
 flourish, ornamental passage of runs. 
 
 Round. A composition in which several 
 voices starting at stated distances of time from 
 each other, sing each the same music, the 
 combination of all the parts producing correct 
 harmony. It differs from a Canon therefore 
 in that it can only be sung at the unison or 
 octave. It differs from a Catch, which is like 
 it in construction, only in the character of the 
 words. The catch should be amusing, the 
 round may be even sacred. A round may 
 be written out in the form of a canon, if it is 
 of an elaborate construction, or has an inde- 
 pendent accompaniment. When sung at the 
 unison, a Round is said to be for equal voices. 
 
 Travers. 
 
 Roundel. A dance in which all joined 
 hands in a ring. It was sometimes called a 
 Round and a Roundelay. Minshew explains 
 the latter word to mean " Shepheards' 
 daunce." 
 
 " When that Arcite had romed all his fill, 
 And songen all the roundel lustily. 
 Into a studie he fell sodenly." 
 
 Chaucer, Knight's Tale. 
 " And arm in arm 
 Tread we softly in a Round." 
 Beaumont & Fletcher, The faithful Shepherdess. 
 
 Roundelay, (i) A poem, certain lines of 
 which are repeated at intervals. (2) The 
 tune to which a Roundelay was sung. 
 Round O. A Rondo. [Minuet.] 
 Rovesciamento. [Rovescio.] 
 Rovescio, al rovescio, alia riverso {It.), 
 motus contrariiis {Lat.) By inversion. The 
 contrary motion between two parts, caused 
 when one ascends the exact diatonic intervals 
 which the other descends, e.g. : 
 
 The above, the commencement of the chorus 
 "Egypt was glad at their departing," {Israel 
 in Egypt,) is said to be a subject answered al 
 rovescio. Imitation al rovescio is when the 
 converse of the intervals is not rigidly adhered 
 to. Fugue subjects when treated by inversion 
 are still often amenable to the laws which 
 regulate the use of the plagal and authentic 
 portions of the scale. A Canon hy inversion 
 is formed when the answer is in contrary 
 motion to the subject throughout the move- 
 ment. Perhaps the most ingenious specimen 
 of this difficult construction is by Purcell, in 
 the Gloria to his "Deus Misereatur" in W. 
 
 Ruana. A Hindoo instrument of the 
 violin class. 
 
 Rubato {It.) lit. stolen or robbed. Tempo 
 rubato represents the alteration made in the 
 time, when some notes are held for more, and 
 others for less than their strict duration. 
 
 Riickung {Ger.) [Syncopation.] 
 
 Riickfall {Ger.) A back-fall, a kind of 
 grace note, e.g. : 
 
 Riickpositiv (Gct-;)- ~j\ back choir organ, 
 i.e., a choir organ which is behind the player, 
 the connecting mechanism iof which passes 
 under his feet. 
 
 Ruhepunkt, Ruhezeib^en {Ger.) A 
 point of rest, i.e., a pause. 
 
 Ruhig (Ger.) Quiet, tranq>iil, calm. 
 
 Rule {Old Eng.) A line of thJe^stave, e.g. : 
 "There standeth the F fa ut cliefe on the 
 fourth rule from below." (Morley's Intro- 
 duction.) "And so distinguish the cleffs and 
 
 (381 ) 
 
RULE OF THE OCTAVE RYMOUR. 
 
 notes as they stand in rule or space; for 
 knowing the notes' places, their names are 
 easily known." (Playford, Introduction to the 
 skill of musick.) 
 
 Rule of the Octave. A name given to 
 a system of adding harmonies to the diatonic 
 scale, using it as the lowest part. From the 
 nature and relation of the chords added, many 
 laws as to progression and modulation were 
 deduced ; in fact it was formerly taught as a 
 formula for the assistance of students, who 
 committed to memory the harmony or har- 
 monies which each degree was capable of 
 bearing. 
 
 6 6 6^6 6 
 
 5 5 
 
 The above shows the simple form of these 
 harmonies, to which great importance was 
 once attached. 
 
 RuUante (It.) Rolling, as, tamburo 
 rullante, the small military drum, the side 
 drum. 
 
 Run. A rapid succession of notes. In 
 vocal music usually sung to one syllable, 
 hence called in the German " Silbendehnung." 
 Except for the purpose of training the voice, 
 runs may be said to be out of fashion in this 
 half-century. In writing the words under a 
 run in vocal music, it is usual now to place 
 under the first note as much of the word as 
 will show what the whole consists of. This 
 was not formerly the custom, and in one of 
 the songs in Blow's " Amphion Anglicus," the 
 words under a lengthy run are thus divided, 
 
 "th us fl y" 
 
 an absurd division, as the combination of 
 letters to which the run is supposed to be 
 sung closes the mouth effectually. The 
 word run being English, is avoided in fashion- 
 able critiques and roulade is generally 
 adopted. 
 
 Running. The improper sounding of an 
 organ pipe or pipes from a defect in the 
 
 sound-hoard, or other causes. A running is 
 not heard until keys are held down. The 
 most common way of testing the workman- 
 ship of a sound-board is to put in all the 
 registers, and hold down full chords. If there 
 is any fault in its construction, a running 
 will then be immediately heard. 
 
 RuoUo {It.) Lit. a roll ; according to 
 some an Italian dance, a waltz, from which 
 the expression used by children " rowly 
 powly " is derived. {Fr. rouler, to roll, and 
 poulie, anything which rolls round, a pulley.) 
 
 Russian horn-band. A band of players 
 whose instruments are so designed that each 
 produces a single note only. For the perfor- 
 mance of a simple theme at least twenty 
 horns are required, but the complete band 
 numbers thirty-seven, comprising a compass 
 of three octaves, the tones and semitones, in 
 their relative degrees, being gained by the use 
 of instruments of various lengths, the longest 
 • being more than twelve feet, and the small- 
 est nine inches. The effect of the music 
 played is said by those who have heard it to 
 be extremely fine and of pure tone. As each 
 player can give no more than his one note, 
 his attention is fully engaged during the 
 performance. The effort of mind needful 
 being purely mechanical, similar to that 
 required for hand-bell ringing, the players 
 are not necessarily men of a high intellectual 
 order. The invention of this horn music is 
 assigned to J. A. Maresch, a Bohemian in the 
 service of Prince Narischkin in 175 1, who 
 being permitted for the purposes of his ex- 
 periments to employ serfs, did not scruple to 
 use severity in order to make them perform 
 with accuracy, rapidity, and distinctness. 
 Having drilled his forces for four years, 
 Maresch conducted the first performance in 
 the presence of the Imperial Court in 1755, 
 and the tradition he then established has 
 been, or was until recently, strictly main- 
 tained. A Russian horn-band visited England 
 in the year 1834. 
 
 Rusticano, Rustico {It.) In a simple, 
 rustic manner. 
 
 Rutscher {Ger.) Lit. the slider, the 
 galopade. 
 
 Rymour {Old Eng.) A bard or minstrel. 
 
 ( 382 ) 
 
-SALTARELLO. 
 
 S. Abb. of sinistra, left ; subito, suddenly ; 
 segno, sign ; solo, &c. ; as M.S., manu sinistra, 
 with the left hand ; V.S., volti subito, turn 
 over quickly ; D.S., dal segno, to the sign ; 
 V.S., voce solo, voice alone, &c. ; also Abb. 
 for (i) scriptus, written, as MS., manuscript, 
 hand-written ; (2) senza, as S. Fed., without 
 the pedal or pedals, S. Sordini, without the 
 dampers, or without mutes. 
 
 K A sign used to point the extent of a 
 repeat, as al segno {%) go back to the 
 sign 'K, dal segno (K), repeat frotn the sign 
 K. The word fine (It.) is generally placed 
 over the last chord of a movement repeated 
 by the above directions. 
 
 Sabeca. One of the musical instruments 
 mentioned in Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10, 15. It is 
 generally supposed to have been identical 
 with sambuka,a large species of harp, perhaps 
 the large Egyptian harp. In the authorised 
 version it is unfortunately rendered sackhut, 
 an utterly unwarranted translation. 
 
 Saccade {Fr.) Strong pressure of a violin 
 bow against the strings, which by forcing 
 them to a level enables the player to produce 
 three or four notes simultaneously. 
 
 Sackbut. (i) One of the Babylonian 
 musical instruments mentioned by Daniel in 
 chap. iii. v. 5, 7, 10, 15. It is the translation 
 in the English version of the Bible of the 
 word sabeca. Some authors identify it with 
 the sambuka [aafi^vKri) of the Greeks and 
 Romans, a kind of harp. [Sambuka.] (2) The 
 old English sackbut or sagbut was a bass 
 trumpet, with a slide like the trombone. " As 
 he that plaies upon a sagbut by pulling it up 
 and down alters his tones and tunes." — 
 Burton's "Anatomy of Melancholy." 
 
 Sackpfeife [Ger.) [Bagpipe.] 
 
 Sacring bell. [Sanctus bell.] 
 
 Sailours. A word used in Chaucer which 
 has given some trouble to commentators, 
 " There was many a timbestere, 
 And sailours, that I dare well swere 
 Yeothe ther craft full ^arfitly ." 
 
 Romaunt of the Rose. 
 
 It probably signifies dancers, and is derived 
 from the Fr. saillir, Lat. salio. 
 
 Saite {Ger.) [String.] 
 
 Saitenhalter {Ger.) [Tail-piece.] 
 
 Salamanie. An oriental flute. 
 
 Salicional, Salicet, Salcional, Sol- 
 
 cionell. Terms derived from the Latin salix 
 (a willow). An organ stop of soft and delicate 
 quality, supposed to be similar in character 
 with the salicis fistula, or withy^pife. It is 
 generally placed in the choir organ, but some- 
 times in the swell, in either case taking the 
 place of the dulciana, to which it bears a 
 strong resemblance. 
 
 Salii. Priests of Mars Gradivus, twelve 
 in number, who had the care of the twelve 
 Ancilia, and who, during the feast of that God, 
 were accustomed to go through the city 
 carrying the Ancilia, singing and dancing, 
 whence their name. [Asamentata.] 
 
 Salpinx. An ancient Greek trumpet. 
 
 Saltarello {It.) (i) A dance in which 
 leaping steps are introduced, similar to the 
 Siciliano and Forlana of Italy, and the Jig 
 of England. It is triple in time, with a triplet 
 always at the commencement of each phrase. 
 Saltarelli are frequently found as movements 
 or separate pieces in harpsichord and piano- 
 forte music. (2) A harpsichord jack, so-called 
 because it jumps when the note is struck. 
 (3) Counterpoint is said by old authors to be 
 " in Saltarello," when six quavers of the 
 accompaniment are given to each minim of 
 the Canto fermo, e.g. : 
 
 Gbrlach. 
 
 If J. ITU- Eij4j. ,i.P-^r 
 
 h" ' - P fe 
 
 Canto Fermo. 
 
 (383 ) 
 
SALTERIO SARABAND. 
 
 Salterio1(7f.) The Psalter, or book of 
 
 Saltero J Psalms. 
 
 Salto {It.) (i) A dance in which there is 
 much leaping and skipping. (2) A leap, or 
 skip from one note to another beyond the 
 octave. 
 
 (3) Counterpoint is said to be di salto when 
 the part added moves in skips. 
 
 Sambucistria {Laf.) A player on the 
 sambuka. 
 
 Sambuka (Gk.) aafijivKr]. This word, 
 though applied sometimes to several musical 
 instruments of diiferent kinds, such as a lyre, 
 a dulcimer, a triangular harp or trigon, and a 
 large Asiatic harp, seems to have been chiefly 
 used as a term for the last-named instrument. 
 By some authors it has been identified with 
 the large Egyptian harp, illustrations of which 
 are so familiar to all of us as to render one 
 unnecessary here. It is generally thought 
 that the sabeca mentioned in the book of 
 Daniel, iii. 5, 7, 10, 15, and which is im- 
 properly rendered sackbut in our version, was 
 a sambuka or large harp. It has been 
 suggested that "sambuka" was used as a 
 general term for instruments made of elder- 
 wood {sambucus); but the best authorities 
 will not allow any relationship between the 
 two words. 
 
 Sampogna, Zampogna. [Bagpipe.] 
 
 Sancho. A negro instrument of the guitar 
 species, made of hollowed wood and furnished 
 with a long neck. It is strung with the 
 tough fibres of a creeping plant. It is tuned 
 by means of sliding rings. 
 
 Sanctus [Lat.) Ter Sanctus, or, Trisagion 
 (Gk.) Holy, Holy, Holy, S'C. A part of the 
 Communion Service in the Church of England, 
 and a part of the Mass in the Church of Rome. 
 In many cathedrals where it is not usual to 
 celebrate the Holy Eucharist chorally, the 
 Sanctus is used as an Introit, a custom which 
 cannot be too strongly condemned. [Cathedral 
 Music] 
 
 Sanctus bell. Saints' bell. A small bell 
 which is rung in order to mark the progress 
 of the office of the mass. In some churches 
 bells of this kind are placed outside the church, 
 so that those unable to be present inside may 
 be reminded of important parts of the service. 
 
 Sanft (Ger.) Soft. Mit sanften Stimmen, 
 ■ with soft stops. 
 
 Sans (Fr.) Without; as,sanspidales,viith- 
 out the pedals. 
 
 Santoral {Sp.) Church choir book. 
 
 Saquebute {Fr.) [Sackbut.] 
 
 Saraband {Old Eng.), Sarabanda {It.), 
 Zarabanda {Sp.), Sarabande {Fr.) A 
 Spanish dance of Moorish origin, for a single 
 performer, who accompanies himself with the 
 castanets. The tune is in J time, but slow and 
 stately, and with a strong accent on the second 
 beat in the bar. This peculiarity would iden- 
 tify it with the Moresca. In olden times it was 
 accompanied with singing the coplas or can- 
 ciones, poetry of atrivial sort. Jenkins, Purcell, 
 Blow, Bach, Handel, and Scarlatti, in their 
 suites for the harpsichord or clavichord, fre- 
 quently employed the sarabandas amovement. 
 
 There is a Spanish proverb with reference 
 to weak verses, that " they are not worth as 
 much as the couplets of the saraband." " No 
 vale las coplas de la sarabanda." 
 
 (From E. Roger's Virginal book.) 
 
 J J- ^ J . J J 
 
 r ■ « !"' r '^ 
 
 (384) 
 
SAROH SCALE. 
 
 „ , // 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ir r 1^ ^-J^ 
 
 (iwp J.^- *-r 
 
 
 f*^ 
 
 f^ 
 
 V^ 
 
 
 
 ^^^. — V 
 
 A- 
 
 -•- 
 
 ^^fi= r-' 
 
 1 r 
 
 ^ » p — 
 
 T-^ 
 
 
 
 
 U-, — F — i 
 
 4 — 
 
 
 1^." r^ f: 
 
 ^^i=^=?f^4Sf^ 
 
 g)' *•«' J. 
 
 W:.l> p 
 
 i L_?U L^ 
 
 -1^ — ^-^ — p — "-^ — 
 
 '-a 1 
 
 ' '' ^ I'- r i-r" 
 
 Saroh. Indian instruments played with 
 a bow. 
 
 Sattel {Ger.) [Nut.J 
 
 Satz (Ger.) A theme, a subject, a com- 
 position, a piece. 
 
 Saut (Fr.) [Salto.J 
 
 Sautereau (Fr.) The old name for the 
 jack of a spinet. 
 
 Sauterie {Old Eng.) A psaltery; dulcimer. 
 
 Sax-horns. Cylinder horns invented by 
 Antoine (usually called Adolph) Sax. They j 
 have 3, 4 or 5 cylinders, so that each horn 
 is capable of plajnng all the notes of its scale I 
 
 without difficulty. A sax-horn band com- 
 prises seven instruments, a small high horn, 
 a soprano, an alto, a tenor, a baritone, a bass, 
 and a double-bass. [Metal wind instruments.] 
 
 Saxophones. Brass wind instruments, 
 the invention of M. Sax. They are played with 
 a single reed and a clarinet mouth-piece. The 
 quality of tone is soft, yet telling and ex- 
 pressive. They are six in number, the high, 
 soprano, alto, tenor, baritone and bass. 
 
 Saxotrombas, Saxtrombas. Brass cylm- 
 drical wind instruments with wide mouth- 
 pieces, of a shrill and piercing tone, a com- 
 bination of the trumpet and bugle quality. The 
 complete set is six, divided as the saxophones. 
 
 Saxtuba. Deep-toned brass bass instru- 
 ments of similar character to the saxtrombas. 
 
 Saynetes {Sp.) Interludes or entremeses, 
 introduced between the prologue and the 
 principal comedy in the Spanish drama, in 
 which music and dancing form prominent fea- 
 tures. Saynetes are generally of a burlesque 
 or humorous character. 
 
 Sbalzo (It.) A leap, a skip. 
 
 Sbarra (It.) A bar. Sbarra doppia. 
 •double bar. 
 
 Scala (It.) A scale or gamut. 
 
 Scald. [Skald.] 
 
 Scale. The graduated series of sounds 
 into which the octave is divided. 
 
 To give a history of the scale would be to 
 give a history of music itself; it must_suffice, 
 therefore, to say a few words on the "growth 
 of the scale to its present shape. Nothing is 
 known with certainty of the nature of the 
 scales of any of the most ancient nations. 
 If it be admitted that the Greeks obtained 
 their notions of music from the Egyptians, it 
 may be hazarded, merely as a supposition, 
 that the Egyptian scale was tetrachordal, that 
 is, consisting of groups of four notes. 
 
 In the article Greek Music the reader will 
 find a full explanation of the manner in which 
 the octave system became practically a part 
 of the ancient tetrachordal system, which it 
 was destined afterwards to supersede entirely. 
 Although our modern scale was unquestion- 
 ably a development of the diatonic scale of the 
 Greeks, yet, for several centuries, a hexa- 
 chordal system was in use, a full account of 
 which will be found under the head " Nota- 
 tion." The Church modes were probably the 
 connecting link between the ancient Greek 
 music and the modem diatonic scale. [Plain 
 Song.] The division of the octave into twelve 
 parts, called semitones, each of which can be 
 used as a key-note, became only feasible 
 when keyed instruments were tuned on the 
 system known as equal temperament. [Tem- 
 perament.] This gives to the chromatic notes 
 of our scale a far greater value than the 
 chromatic or enharmonic notes of the an-- 
 
 ( 385 ) 
 
 2 B 
 
SCAGNELLO SCHALLBECKEN. 
 
 cients, as it is probable they were never used 
 but as passing or auxiliary notes. The whole 
 system of music hangs upon the relationship 
 of the sounds used to a tonic, which, in 
 modern music, is always the first note of 
 whatever octave system (key) is chosen, but 
 in Greek music and early Church-song was a 
 note at or near the middle of the scale. 
 
 The old Church mode corresponding to the 
 modern scale was the Ionic or lastian, but 
 when this was finally adopted as the normal 
 scale, a still older form was retained for use 
 with it, founded on the Dorian and Hypo- 
 Dorian modes, to which, now slightly modi- 
 fied, we give the name minor mode, and by 
 starting from any one note in the semitonal 
 scale, we can have twelve minor modes. As 
 a minor mode largely consists of the notes of 
 the major scale beginning on its third degree, 
 it is said to be relative to that scale. The form 
 of the minor mode has varied from time to 
 time, and even now cannot be said to be 
 definitely settled. 
 
 Ex. 1. 
 
 Normal Scale. 
 
 Ex. 2. 
 
 Form of minor mode sometimes used meiodically. 
 Ex.4. 
 
 Transition form of minor mode. 
 
 Ex. 5. 
 
 Modern minor mode. 
 
 The scale shewn in Ex. 2 is by no means 
 obsolete. The revival of old Church-song has 
 caused many composers to study its forms, 
 and their works are, perhaps insensibly, 
 tinctured with its influence. The somewhat 
 odd descent of the scale in Ex. 3 is to be met 
 with in Handel, Bach, and other writers. 
 When this descending scale is harmonized, it 
 is generally founded on the following bass : — 
 
 AEBEGJtAEA 
 
 55 #5 56 555 
 
 3 If t i 5 3 S 3 
 
 It will thus be seen that the descending 
 
 FS of the scale is made part of a chord of 
 
 B major, a sort of new dominant to E, the 
 
 dominant of A minor. 
 
 The form of Ex. 4 is familiar to all, and 
 has not yet been entirely superseded by that 
 of Ex. 5, which always presents both har- 
 monic and melodic difficulty in its augmented 
 second from Ft| to Gfl. There seems to be 
 no reason why one particular form of the 
 minor scale should be used to the exclusion 
 of another ; all are at times useful and beau- 
 tiful. Perhaps the great importance of the 
 form given in Ex. 5 arises from the fact that 
 it is the veritable source of the chord of the 
 diminished seventh — 
 
 F 
 
 D 
 
 B 
 
 GS 
 The musical scales of extra - European 
 countries are so varied in character that it is 
 impossible to draw any reliable conclusions 
 from their form. The Arabs, Indians, and 
 many uncultured tribes in all quarters of the 
 globe have more than twelve divisions in the 
 octave, that is, use enharmonic scales. The 
 Chinese have the old five-note scale, called 
 by Engel, Pentatonic. 
 
 This scale is associated also vnth Scotch 
 and other Celtic melodies. 
 
 In some nations the natural harmonic, 
 known as the sharp eleventh, which we dis- 
 card, is in use, probably because it is produced 
 upon their simple tube instruments. 
 
 The degrees of the ascending, scale are 
 distinguished in harmony by the following 
 names. 
 
 First Tonic. 
 
 Second Supertonic. 
 
 Third Mediant. 
 
 Fourth Subdominant. 
 
 Fifth Dominant. 
 
 Sixth Superdominant. 
 
 Subtonic or leading 
 note. 
 
 Scagnello {It.) The bridge of a stringed 
 instrument. 
 
 Scemando (It.) An equivalent to diminu- 
 endo, gradually decreasing in power. 
 
 Scena {It.) (i) A scene. (2) A solo for a 
 single voice, in which various dramatic 
 emotions are displayed. 
 
 Scenario {It.) The plot or main incidents 
 of an opera or drama. 
 
 Scenici {Lat.) Games instituted, accord- 
 ing to Livy, B.C. 364. They were the germ 
 of the Roman play. 
 
 Schaferlied, Schaferspiel {Ger.) A 
 pastoral. 
 
 Schallbecken {Ger.) Cymbals. Lit. 
 Sound-cups. [Cymbals.]- 
 
 Seventh 
 
 :{ 
 
 (386) 
 
SCHALLHORN SCHLEIFER. 
 
 Schallhorn \{Ger.) Bell of a horn, cornet, 
 
 SchallstiickJ trumpet, &c. 
 
 Schalmey. [Chalameau.] 
 
 Scharf {Ger.) Lit. Sharp. A mixture 
 stop of an organ, formed of a combination of 
 acute harmonics. 
 
 Scherz {Ger.) Drollery, fun. 
 
 Scherzando, Scherzandissimo, Scher- 
 zante, Scherzevole, Scherzevolmente, 
 Scherzoso (li.) (i) Playful, lively, jokingly, 
 merry. (2) A movement of a lively and droll 
 character. 
 
 Scherzhaft (Ger.) Droll, funny. 
 
 Scherzo (/f.) A term, meaning literally 
 a jest, applied to a movement in a Sonata or 
 Symphony of a sportive, playful character. 
 Beethoven introduced it in the place of the 
 minuet, and sometimes in addition to it, and 
 it has been supposed that the credit of its 
 invention is due to him. But Haydn had 
 previously done a similar thing in his quar- 
 tetts, and J. S. Bach had also called one of 
 the pieces in a suite, by the name. Other 
 writers had directed certain movements to be 
 played " Scherzando," but only in connection 
 with some other word descriptive of the 
 general character of the movement. Thus 
 Schobert, 1724- 1768, marked the second move- 
 ment of his Sixth Sonata, " Badinage Scher- 
 zando." In 1734 George Philip Telemann 
 pubhshed at Hamburg " Scherzi melodichi, 
 per divertimento di colorocheprendono I'acque 
 mineral! in Pirmonte, con ariette semplici e 
 facili, a violono, viola e fondamento," and 
 nearly 130 years before, Monteverde issued at 
 Venice " Scherzi musicale a tre voci." These 
 were similar in style to the " Cantici " or 
 humorous songs in parts, the predecessors 
 of the Catch. Though they cannot fairly be 
 considered as belonging to the class of com- 
 position included under the general term 
 Scherzo, yet they serve to show that Monte- 
 verde believed music to have a merry as well 
 as a serious side. The Scherzo of Bach, 
 alluded to above, is here added : 
 
 
 Scherzo. 
 
 ^Ti — m 1 
 
 
 J. S. Bach. 
 
 
 d4^ 
 
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 MJJ 
 
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 gjri 
 
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 Schiettamente {It.) Pure, simple, neat. 
 
 Schietto {It.) Pure, neat. 
 
 Schisma (Gk.) <r)(ia[ia. An approximate 
 half of a Pythagorean comma, that is, half of 
 the difference between twelve fifths and seven 
 octaves. 
 
 Schlag {Ger.) A stroke or beat, (i) of 
 time, (2) of a vibrating reed, (3) of an instru- 
 ment of percussion. 
 
 Schlagfeder {Ger.) [Plectrum.] 
 
 Schleifbogen, \{Ger.) Lit. Slide-bow. 
 
 Schleifezeichen J A slur. The sign '-. 
 
 Schleifen {Ger.) To slide, to glide. 
 
 Schleifer ' (G«r.) (i) Slurred note. (2) 
 A grace. [Harpsichord graces.] 
 
 (387) 
 
SCHLUSS SCORE. 
 
 Schluss (Ger.) The conclusion, finale. 
 Schlusschor, final chorus. 
 Schliissel (Ger.) A clef. 
 Schlussfall (Ger.) Cadence. 
 Schlussreim (Ger.) The burden or 
 refrain of a song. 
 
 Schluss-stiick (Ger.) Finale. 
 Schmelzend (Ger.) Lit, Melting away. 
 Dying away, diminishing. 
 
 Schmerz (Ger.) Grief. Schmerzhaft, 
 sorrowful, dolorous. 
 
 Schnabel [Ger.) The mouth-piece of the 
 clarinet, flute h. bee, and instruments blown 
 in like manner. 
 
 Schnarrpfeifen, Schnarrwerk {Ger.) 
 Reed pipes or stops in an organ. 
 
 Schnell (Ger.) Quick. Nach und nach 
 schneller, quicker and quicker. Etwas bewegter 
 schnell, a little quicker. 
 
 Schneller or Schnelzer [Ger.) A trill. 
 SchopharorShophar. A Hebrew trumpet. 
 Schottische [Ger.), Ecossaise [Fr.) Lit. 
 The Scotch dance. A slow dance of inodern 
 introduction, written in f time. 
 
 School, (i) A method or system of teach- 
 ing ; as. Rink's organ school, Crivelli's vocal 
 school, Spohr's violin school, &c. (2) Style ; 
 as, the madrigal school, ecclesiastical school, 
 operatic school, &c. (3) The manner or 
 characteristics of a composer, or performer ; 
 as, Handel's school, Rossini's school. (4) A 
 group of composers whose works mark an 
 epoch in the history of music. Such a school 
 is generally named after the place where such 
 composers resided; as, the Venetian school, 
 the Neapolitan school, &c. 
 Schreibart [Ger.) Style. 
 Schrittmassig [Ger.) Slowly. Andante. 
 Schultergeige [Ger.) The shoulder-fiddle, 
 or common violin, as opposed to the Kniegeige, 
 or viola da gamba, the viol played between 
 the legs. 
 
 Schusterfleck [Ger.) A facetious name 
 for a rosalia, q.v. 
 
 Schwach [Ger.) Weak, feeble, soft ; piano. 
 Schwarmer [Ger.), Bombo. An old 
 name given to four or more notes repeated 
 rapidly on the same degree of the scale. 
 Schweigezeichen [Ger.) A rest. 
 Schweinskopf [Ger.^ Lit. Pig's head. A 
 name given to grand pianofortes because of 
 their outline, as viewed from the side. 
 
 Schweizerpfeife, Schweizerflote, Feld- 
 pfeife. The name given in Germany to the old 
 flauto traverse or Querpfeife, which, when in- 
 troduced into this country, was known as the 
 Germanflute. 
 Schweller [Ger.) The swell organ. 
 Schwermiithig [Ger.) Sad, pensive. 
 Schwingungen [Ger.) Vibrations. [Acous- 
 tics.] 
 Scioltamente, Scioltezza, con, Sciolto 
 
 [It.) Freely, with agility, easily. Fuga Sciolta, 
 a free fugue. 
 
 Scolia. Short songs of the Greeks. They 
 were distinct from the religious hymns, as 
 they were frequently sung during feasts or 
 banquets. Though at first they were like the 
 Pseans sung by the whole company assembled, 
 they were afterwards performed by each guest 
 alone, holding in his hand a myrtle branch, 
 which, at the conclusion, he passed to his 
 neighbour, and so on in turn. Sometimes 
 they were sung to an accompaniment. 
 
 Scolia were of three kinds : (r) Moral 
 songs, like some of those preserved by 
 AthenjEus. (2) Mythological hymns and 
 historical songs. (3) Miscellaneous songs, 
 chiefly on love and wine. 
 
 Scordato [It.) Out of tune. 
 
 Scordatura [It.) The mis-tuning of an 
 instrument. When a violinist alters the 
 accordatura of his instrument for a special 
 purpose, he is sometimes said to make a 
 scordatura. [Accordatura.] 
 
 Score. Partitur [Ger.), Partition [Fr.), 
 Partizione, Partitura, Sparto, apartito [It.) 
 A copy of a musical work in which all the 
 component parts are shewn, either fully, or 
 in a compressed form, (i) A short or com- 
 pressed score is when all the parts, are 
 arranged or transcribed so that they shall 
 appear in two staves. Such scores are com- 
 monly used for hymn tunes, and also (espe- 
 cially in Germany) for part-songs. When 
 counterpoint is introduced into vocal music, 
 or when the parts frequently cross, short- 
 scores become too complicated for general 
 use. But in simple vocal music, more or less 
 note against note, they effect a great saving 
 of space. In transcribing four-part music 
 into short score, the two upper parts are 
 arranged in the treble stave ; the two lowest 
 in the bass, the tails to the notes of the first 
 and third parts being invariably turned up, 
 those of the second and fourth parts down. 
 (2) A pianoforte or organ score is one in 
 which the voice-parts are written out in full 
 on separate lines, and the instirumental ac- 
 companiment is arranged in two lines, treble 
 and bass, for performance on a pianoforte or 
 organ. (3) A vocal score is (or was formerly 
 understood to be) one in which the voice- 
 parts are written out in full, and the accom- 
 paniment (if any) is indicated by a figured 
 bass. (4) A full score is one in which each 
 part is written on a separate line one over the 
 other, subject, however, to the modification 
 that the parts to be played by two wind in- 
 struments of the same name and compass 
 may be included on one line. For example, 
 the parts of the two oboes, two flutes, two 
 clarinets, &c., and, sometimes, of the alto 
 and tenor trombones are written on one line ; 
 
 (388) 
 
SCORRENDO SCOTCH SNAP. 
 
 the tails of the notes to be played by the 
 first instrument being uniformly turned up- 
 wards ; those to be played by the second, 
 downwards. The first and second violin parts 
 are never written on the same line unless 
 they are to play in unison ; but the violoncello 
 and double-bass parts are usually written on 
 one line. The parts of similar instruments 
 are not necessarily written on the same line, 
 unless it is desirable to economise space. 
 The order in which the instrumental parts are 
 arranged in a score has from time to time 
 varied considerably, the only point of uniformity 
 being that voice parts are nearly always 
 placed immediately above the line or lines set 
 aside for the violoncello and double-bass part. 
 The following are a few examples of the 
 manner of grouping instruments and voices : 
 
 Ex. I. 
 Trombe 
 Timpani 
 Corni 
 Flauti 
 Oboi 
 Fagotti 
 Violino imo. 
 Violino 2do. 
 Viola 
 
 ^ Voci 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 (Violoncello 
 e Basso 
 Organo 
 
 Ex. 2. 
 Violino imo. 
 Violino 2do. 
 Viola 
 Fagotti 
 Oboi 
 
 \r 
 
 I Organo e 
 [tutti Bassi 
 
 Ex. 3. 
 (Violino imo. 
 I Violino 2do. 
 
 (in unison and on 
 
 one line.) 
 Oboe 
 Viola 
 Basso 
 
 Ex. 4. 
 Timpani 
 
 Trombe (or) Clarini 
 Corni 
 Clarinetti 
 
 Flauti 
 Oboi 
 Fagotti 
 Violino imo. 
 Violino 2do. 
 Viola 
 
 jVioloncelli (e) 
 I Bassi 
 
 Ex.5. 
 Pauken 
 Trompeten 
 Horner 
 Floten 
 Hoboen 
 Clarinetten 
 Fagotte 
 
 ] Alt und 
 Posaunen I Tenor 
 
 ] Bass 
 Violine, iste 
 Violine, 2te 
 Bratsche 
 Violoncell 
 Contrabass 
 
 Ex. 6; 
 Flutes 
 Oboes 
 Clarinets 
 Bassoons 
 Horns 
 Trumpets 
 Trombones 
 Drums 
 Violins, I 
 Violins, 2 
 Violas 
 li 
 
 Voices 
 3 
 U 
 Violoncellos and 
 
 Basses 
 Organ 
 
 Exs. I, 2, and 3 illustrate a disposition 
 often followed by Handel ; Ex. 4 the arrange- 
 ment often found in the works of Mozart, 
 Haydn, and others. Ex. 5 shows the ar- 
 rangement sometimes followed by Schumann, 
 which is peculiar as separating the trombones 
 (Posaunen) from the trumpets. The above 
 examples (i to 6) show only a few of the 
 many arrangements sometimes found. The 
 disposition of the parts now most generally 
 followed is shown in Ex. 6. 
 
 Where more than the usual number of 
 instruments are employed, this last disposi- 
 tion may be indefinitely extended, if only the 
 instruments are grouped into classes, as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Wood wind instruments. 
 
 2. Soft-toned brass instruments. 
 
 3. Loud brass instruments. 
 
 4. Instruments of percussion. 
 
 5. String instruments (excepting the bass 
 
 part). 
 
 6. Voices. 
 
 7. Bass string instruments. 
 
 8. Organ or pianoforte. 
 
 Modern scores owe much of their apparent 
 intricacy to the individual existence which is 
 now given to almost every separate instru- 
 ment in an orchestra, for the purpose of 
 obtaining constant change of " colour," as it 
 has been called. In the scores prior to the 
 commencement of this century, it is no un- 
 common thing for the first oboe to be directed 
 to play throughout a whole movement with 
 the first violins, the second oboe with the 
 second violins, the bassoons with the violon- 
 cellos. It is still more remarkable that the 
 viola should often have been made to play 
 the bass part in unison, or (when below its 
 compass) at the octave ; for the power and 
 beauty of the "string-quartet" was thus 
 wantonly destroyed. 
 
 Printers of music use the word score to 
 denote any lines (two or more) united by one 
 brace. 
 
 Scorrendo (It.) Gliding from one sound 
 to another. [Glissando.] 
 
 Scorrevole (It.) Running, flowing, gliding. 
 
 Scotch Scale. [Pentatonic Scale.] 
 
 Scotch Snap. A peculiarity of the com- 
 paratively modern Scotch melodies in which 
 a short note precedes a long one : 
 
 It is the characteristic of Strathspey tunes. 
 Reels and jigs are distinguished from the 
 Strathspey by the absence of the snap. The 
 best informed among the Scotch writers on 
 music declare it to be the mark of imitations 
 of Scotch melodies, such as, " Within a Mile 
 of Edinboro' Town " and the Scherzo in 
 
 (389) 
 
SCOZZESE- 
 
 -SEGUIDILLA. 
 
 Mendelssohn's " Scotch " Symphony, as none 
 of the ancient tunes contain any examples of 
 its use. It has been conjectured that its intro- 
 duction into Scotland is due to the Hungarian 
 gipsies, as the snap is characteristic of 
 their tunes. 
 
 Scozzese (It.) Scotch, as, alia scozzese, 
 in the Scotch style. 
 
 Scriva [It.) Written. Si scriva, as 
 written. 
 
 Sdegno, con ; Sdegnosamente, Sde- 
 gnoso (It.) Scornfully, disdainfully. 
 
 Sdrucciolando (It.) Sliding. 
 
 Sdrucciolare (It.) (i) To slide, by press- 
 ing down the keys of a pianoforte in rapid 
 succession and lightly, with the finger nails. 
 Scales upon the harpsichord were frequently 
 played thus. (2) Glissando. 
 
 Se (It.) As, if; se bisogno, if required. 
 
 Sec (Fr.), Secco (It.) Dry, unadorned, 
 plain, as, recitativo secco, plain recitative, that 
 is, without band accompaniments. [A table 
 sec] 
 
 Seccarara (It.) A Neapolitan dance. 
 
 Sechsachteltakt (Ger.) Six-eight time, |, 
 Sechsvierteltakt, | time. 
 
 Sechssaitig (Ger.) Six stringed. 
 
 Sechstheilig (Ger.) In six parts. 
 
 Sechszehnfiissig (Ger.) Of sixteen feet. 
 The unison pitch of the pedal organ. 
 
 Sechszehntheilnote(Ger.) A semiquaver. 
 The sixteenth part of a semibreve. 
 
 Second, Chord of the. An old abbrevi- 
 ation of the chord S [Figured Bass.] 
 
 Second, Interval of a. [Interval.] 
 
 Second (Fr.) Second ; as, second dessus, 
 the second treble ; seconde fois, the second 
 time. 
 
 Secondo (/i.) Second; as, violinosecondo, 
 second violin ; seconda parte, the second 
 part ; seconda volta, the second time. 
 
 Secund (Ger.) The interval of a second. 
 Die kleine Secund, the minor second ; iiber- 
 massige Secund, an augmented second. 
 
 Secundakkord (Ger.) [Second, chord of 
 the.] 
 
 Sedecima (Lat.) A sixteenth. A name 
 formerly given improperly to the fifteenth stop 
 of an organ. 
 
 Seg. Abb. of segue ; also, of segno. 
 
 Segno (It.) The sign ;g; [Al segno.] 
 
 Segue (It.) Follows, succeeds, comes 
 after ; as, segue il coro, the chorus follows ; 
 segue I'aria, the aria follows. 
 
 Seguendo, Seguente (It.) Following, as, 
 attacca suhito il seguente, begin the following 
 at once. 
 
 Seguenza (It.) A sequence. 
 
 Seguidilla (Sp.) A lively Spanish dance, 
 similar to the country dance ; the tune is in \ 
 
 SEGDIDILLA. 
 
 or I time. 
 
 ,|i!i j i j -k £ mj u^i 
 
 ^ rj r f.f LXf I ' F F 
 
 -m- 
 
 '■ \ "T I a r _ I* ^^^ 
 
 ^>i Lu* l i: 
 
 f^ \ rrrr'T' 
 
 6M^ ITrTrfr I Trrro^ 
 
 ■% f- - ^s. 
 
 390 ) 
 
SEGUITE SEQUENCE. 
 
 Seguite (It.) [Segue.] 
 
 Sehnsucht (Ger.) Ardour, desire, fervour, 
 longing. 
 
 Sehr (Ger.) Very, much, extremely; as, 
 • sehr lehhaft, very lively ; sehr langsam, very 
 slow. 
 
 Sei [It.) Six ; as, sei stromenti, six instru- 
 ments. 
 
 Seitenbewegung (Ger.) Oblique motion. 
 [Motion.] 
 
 Seizidme de soupir {Fr.) A semiquaver 
 rest. 
 
 Semeia [Gk.) tnjfiEia. The musical cha- 
 racters. 
 
 Semibreve. [Nota.] 
 
 Semichorus. A direction that the passage 
 so marked is to be sung by half the chorus, 
 or a selected portion of it. 
 
 Semicroma. A semiquaver J5 
 
 Semidemisemiquaver. A half demi- 
 semiquaver, the 64th part of a semibreve. 
 
 Semi-diapason [Lat.) An imperfect 
 octave. Octava deficiens. 
 
 Semi-diapente [Lat.) An imperfect or 
 diminished fifth. Quinta deficiens. 
 
 Semi-diatessaron [Lat.) An imperfect 
 or diminished fourth. Quarta deficiens. 
 
 Semi-ditonus [Lat.) A minor third. 
 Semi-ditonus cum diapente. A minor seventh. 
 
 Semifusa (Lat.) A semiquaver. 
 
 Semiminima (Lat.) A crotchet. 
 
 Semiquaver. The i6th part of a semi- 
 breve. 
 
 Semiquaver rest. The sign ^ repre- 
 senting silence for the length of a semi- 
 quaver. 
 
 Semisuspirium (Lat.) A quaver rest. 
 
 Semitone. A half a tone, or an approxi- 
 mate half of a tone. [Temperament.] 
 
 Semitonium (Lat.) A semitone. Semi- 
 tonium modi, the leading note, sensible, 
 master note, or major seventh, called also 
 subsemitonium modi. 
 
 Semituono (It.) A semitone. 
 
 Semplice (It.) Pure, plain, simple, un- 
 adorned. 
 
 Semplicemente (It.) Purely, plainly, 
 simply, without ornament. 
 
 Semplicita, con (It.) With simplicity, 
 unaffectedly. 
 
 Sempra (It.) Always, ever, continually ; 
 as, sempre forte, loud throughout ; sempre 
 legato, smooth throughout ; sempre piano, 
 always soft ; sempre piu affrettando il tempo, 
 continually hastening the time ; sempre piii 
 forte, continually increasing in loudness ; 
 sempre ritardando, continually slackening^ 
 the time ; sempre staccato, staccato through- 
 out. 
 
 Sennet, Synnet, Signet, Synet. (i) A 
 word chiefly occurring in the stage directions 
 
 of the old plays, indicating the sounding of a 
 note seven times : 
 
 (2) A flourish consisting of a phrase made of 
 the open notes of a trumpet or other tube- 
 instrument. 
 
 Sensibile {It.) Expressive. 
 
 Sensibility (It.) Sensibility, feeling. 
 
 Sensible (Fr.) The leading note of a 
 scale, the major seventh, note sensible. 
 
 Sentie (Fr.) Expressed ; melodic bien 
 sentie, the melody well expressed or marked. 
 
 Sentimental. A term applied to songs 
 having words that are not positively humorous, 
 comic, or bacchanalian, whether they express 
 a special sentiment or not. 
 
 Senza (It.) Without ; as, senza accom- 
 pagnamento, without accompaniment ; senza 
 hassi, without the basses ; senza fieri, without 
 ornaments, plainly, simply ; senza interruzione, 
 without interruption, go on without stopping; 
 senza oboe, without the oboe ; senza organo, 
 without organ ; senza ornamenti, without 
 embellishments or ornaments ; senza pedale,, 
 without the pedal ; senza repetizione, senza 
 replica, without repetition ; senza rigore, 
 not in strict time ; senza sordini, without the 
 dampers in pianoforte playing ; senza sordino, 
 without the mute of a violin ; senza stromenti, 
 without instruments; senza tempo, without 
 time, in no definite or exactly marked time. 
 
 Separation. An old name for a grace or 
 passing note " not reckoned in the measure 
 or time, put between two real notes rising a 
 third, and only designed to give a variety to 
 the melody." 
 
 Se piace (It.) At will, as it pleases the 
 performer. 
 
 Septet, Septetto (It.), Septuor (Fr.) (i) 
 A composition for seven voices or instruments. 
 (2) A piece in seven parts. 
 
 Septieme (Fr.), Septime (Ger.) The 
 interval of a seventh. 
 
 Septimenakkord (Ger.) The chord of 
 the seventh. 
 
 Septimole. A group of seven notes to be 
 played in the time of four or six. 
 
 Sequence. The recurrence of a harmonic 
 progression or melodic figure at a different 
 pitch or in a different key to that in which it 
 was first given. Ex. i shows the repetition 
 (five times) of the progression from a minor 
 common chord to the major common chord 
 of the third below : 
 
 Beethoven. 
 
 Ex. 1. 1 
 
 ( 391 ) 
 
SERAPHINE SERVICE. 
 
 In Ex. 2 will be found the recurrence of a 
 short phrase at the interval of one note higher: 
 
 Bach. 
 
 Ex. 2. 
 
 In modern music a striking effect is often 
 obtained by the repetition of a phrase or theme 
 at the interval of one semitone, (Ex. 3) : 
 
 Sometimes a striking melodic figure and 
 a harmonic progression are combined in the 
 formation of a sequence : 
 
 Beethoven. 
 
 Some authors divide sequences into tonal 
 and real; others make a like division but 
 term them diatonic and chromatic. A tonal 
 or diatonic sequence is when no modulation 
 
 takes place (see also Exs. i to 4 of Suspensions). 
 A chromatic or real sequence takes place 
 when the recurrence of a phrase at an exact 
 interval causes a change of 'key, as Exs. i, 2, 
 3 above. 
 
 Seraphine. An instrument introduced in 
 the early part of this century, the sounds of 
 which were produced by free-reeds, but being 
 very coarse and unpleasant in tone, it rapidly 
 disappeared on the introduction of the 
 harmonium. 
 
 Serenade. Originally a vocal or instru- 
 mental composition for use in the open air at 
 night, generally of a quiet, soothing character. 
 The term in its Italian form, serenata, came 
 to be applied afterwards to a cantata having 
 a pastoral subject, and in our own days has 
 been applied to a work of large proportions in 
 the form, to some extent, of a symphony. 
 Serenades were sometimes called Standchen 
 (Ger.) 
 
 Serena (It.) An evening song ; an A bendlied. 
 
 Sereno (It.) Calm, serene, tranquil. 
 
 Seria {It.) Serious, grave, tragic, as. Opera 
 seria, a tragic opera. 
 
 Serinette {Fr.) A bird-organ, 
 
 Serioso {It.) In a serious, thoughtful 
 manner. 
 
 Serpent. Serpente {It.) A bass instru- 
 ment of a powerful character. It is of wood, 
 twisted into a curved form, and covered with 
 leather, with a mouth-piece like a horn or 
 trombone, and keys for producing the 
 notes. It was invented by a French priest 
 at Auxerre in 1590, and is frequently used in 
 the orchestra to strengthen the bass part ; but 
 it requires to be very skilfully blown, as it is 
 capable of producing a quarter tone above or 
 below the note intended, and there are three 
 notes in its compass 
 
 of greater power than the rest of its scale, 
 which ranges from 
 
 bar to 
 
 with every intermediate tone and semitone. 
 The serpent is a transposing instrument, 
 being in B flat, and the part it is to take is 
 sometimes written a note higher than its real 
 sound. [Ophicleide.] 
 
 Serpentono {It.) [Serpent.] 
 
 Serrata (It.) A concluding performance. 
 
 Service. As a term used in church music, 
 this word signifies a musical setting of those 
 portions of the offices which are sung by the 
 choir, such as the Canticles, Sanctus, Gloria 
 in excelsis, &c. A "Burial Service" is a 
 setting of those portions of the Office for the 
 
 ( 392 ) 
 
SERVI SYMPHONIACI SEVENTH, CHORDS OF THE. 
 
 Burial of the Dead which may be sung by a 
 choir. 
 
 Servi Symphoniaci, or Pueri Sympho- 
 niaci. The band of musicians kept by 
 persons of rank among the Romans. 
 
 Sesquialtera. (i) Numbers in the pro- 
 portion 3 : 2. [Proportio.] (2) An organ 
 stop consisting of several ranks of pipes, 
 sounding high harmonics for the purpose of 
 strengthening the ground tone. [Organ.] 
 
 Sesta, Sesto (It.) A sixth. 
 
 Sestet, Sestetto {It.) A composition for 
 six voices or instruments. 
 
 Settima, Settimo (/i.) The interval of 
 a seventh. 
 
 Setzkunst (Ger.) The art of musical 
 composition. 
 
 Seventh. [Interval.] 
 
 Seventh, Chords of the. Chords are 
 named on two principles : (i) by the largest 
 interval contained in their component notes ; 
 (2) by the largest interval they contain when 
 referred to their supposed fundamental-bass 
 or root. 
 
 On the former of these principles sevenths 
 have been divided voXo primary and secondary; 
 primary being those which have the tonic or 
 dominant for their bass note ; secondary, 
 those which have the second, third, fourth, 
 sixth, and seventh of the scale for their bass, 
 e.g.: 
 
 123456 T_ 
 
 Primary chords Secondary chords of the seventh, 
 of the seventh. 
 
 (i) The inversions of No. i are 
 
 and its most common resolutions, as follows : 
 
 Ex. I. Ex.2. Ex.3. 
 
 (tJ: J J 
 
 fl^^ 
 
 -i\.\r\^-H 
 
 W: P -^ 
 
 
 
 fiiU i-! 
 
 ¥-r^ 
 
 -1 — ^ II r — — 
 
 
 Ex. 
 
 '^ 1 
 
 7 
 
 Ex. 
 
 s. 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -M 11^^ 
 
 J J ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ i 
 
 1 
 
 » H-^^ 
 
 1 1 
 
 ■S3- 
 
 ■&- 
 
 1^ 
 
 'fr-^^ 
 
 -" H-^ 
 
 ''-' <=> sr- 
 
 ^Hl 
 
 
 1=^^ 
 
 p ' II ' 
 
 p r^ ^ 
 
 -^-H 
 
 (3rd Inv.) (3rd Inv.) 
 
 From the above it will be seen that the 
 seventh from the tonic sometimes ascends, 
 sometimes descends. In the former case 
 (Exs. I, 3, 5, 7), it is called the suspended 
 leading-note or sub-tonic ; in the latter, the 
 chord of the tonic seventh. 
 
 (2) The next primary seventh 
 
 is called the chord of the dominant seventh, or 
 minor seventh, and, by some, the fundamental 
 seventh. It has three inversions, namely : 
 
 It is only possible to give a few of its many 
 possible resolutions : 
 
 Ex.9. 
 
 Ex. II. 
 
 6 6 6 
 
 5 4 4 
 
 (ist Inv.) 3 2 
 
 (2nd Inv.) (3rd Inv.) 
 
 Ex. 12. Ex. 13. Ex. 14. 
 
 Ex. 15. 
 
 l..^Lvii I'nTZD 
 
 ^i fe g 
 
 ^J. 
 
 i 
 
 These resolutions have been divided into 
 diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic ; also, 
 into simple and compound ; and into related 
 and extraneous, &c., &c. 
 
 (3) The secondary sevenths are generally 
 
 ( 393 ) 
 
SEVENTH, CHORDS OF THE. 
 
 named after the degree of scale on which 
 they occur; thus, chord No. 3 (Ex. 25) is 
 called the "seventh on the supertonic;" No. 4 
 (Ex. 26) "seventh on the mediant;" No. 5 
 (Ex. 27) "seventh on the subdominant ; " 
 No. 6 (Ex. 28) "seventh on the submediant;" 
 No. 7 (Ex. 29) " seventh on the leading- 
 note." 
 
 Ex 25. 
 (Chord No. 30 
 
 / ^ II 
 
 1st Inv. 
 
 G>pp 
 
 2nd Inv. 
 
 3rd Inv. 
 
 1 — ^- — H 
 
 Ex. 26. 
 (Chord No. 4.) 
 
 S ^ II 
 
 1st Inv. 
 
 2nd Inv. 
 
 -II g^ 
 
 1 II 
 
 3rd Inv. 
 113. II 
 
 Ex. 27. 
 (Chord No. 5.) 
 
 J( g^ II 
 
 ist Inv. 
 
 ^1 — ^ — 
 
 2nd Inv. 
 
 II -^i 
 
 J 
 
 3rd Inv. 
 n -^n n 
 
 Ex. 28. 
 (Chord No. 6.) 
 
 ist Inv. 
 
 -H ^ — 
 
 2nd Inv. 
 
 -|! — 'y 
 
 3rd Inv. 
 
 n — ^ II 
 
 Ex. 2g. 
 (Chord No. 7.) 
 
 w — w 1 
 
 1st Inv. 
 
 II ^'S 
 
 2nd Inv. 
 
 II — ^«— 1 
 
 3rd Inv. 
 
 The following are the most common reso- 
 lutions of chord No. 3, the seventh on the 
 supertonic : 
 
 The first inversion of the supertonic seventh 
 (Ex. 31) is also known as the chord of the 
 added sixth, q.v. By some authors, the chord 
 No. 3 (Ex. 25) is said to be derived from G, 
 it becomes therefore the chord of the 11, 9, 
 7, 5, of that fundamental bass. On this 
 principle, the chord * (Ex. 30) is the second 
 inversion of the chord of the eleventh on G ; 
 the chord * (Ex. 31) the third inversion of 
 the same chord, and so on. 
 
 (4) The resolutions of chord No. 4 (Ex. 26) 
 are commonly as follow : 
 
 Ex, 34' 
 
 Most authors treat this as part of the chord 
 of the ninth on C ; namely, C, E, G, B, 'D, 
 with the C omitted. [Ninth, chord of.] 
 
 (5) The resolutions of chord No. 5 (Ex. 27) 
 are generally as follow : 
 
 Ex. 34. , 
 
 Ex.35. « 
 
 Many authors call the above the third (Ex. 
 34), fourth (Ex. 35), fifth (Ex. 36), and sixth 
 inversions of the chord of the dominant 
 thirteenth of G, of which fundamental bass 
 they form the intervals of the 7th, 9th, nth, 
 and 13th. 
 
 (6) The following are common resolutions 
 of chord No. 6 (Ex. 28) : 
 
 Ex. 38. . Ex. 39. , 
 
 This chord is by some authors considered 
 as a derivative of the subdominant F. 
 From this point of view the chords * (Exs. 
 38, 39, 40, 41) become the first, second, third, 
 
 ( 394 ) 
 
SEVERAMENTE SHIFT. 
 
 and fourth inversions respectively of a funda- 
 mental F. Others look upon this chord as a 
 thirteenth from G, and as analogous to that 
 described in No. 5. 
 
 (7) The following are the common resolu- 
 tions of chord No. 7 (Ex. 29), known as the 
 " seventh on the leading-note." 
 
 Ex. 42. 
 
 En. 43. 
 
 Ex.44. 
 
 Ex.45. 
 
 This chord is attributed by almost universal 
 consent to the fundamental note G, and is 
 called the chord of the "dominant ninth," or 
 "added ninth," or "fundamental ninth," or 
 " major ninth." 
 
 Chords of the seventh are also called four- 
 fold chords, because in their full form they 
 are made up of four sounds. 
 
 The chord of the diminished seventh will 
 be found described under the chord of the 
 minor ninth. 
 
 Severamente (If.) Severely, strictly, 
 exactly. 
 
 SeveritEl (It.) Severity, strictness, exact- 
 ness. 
 
 Sexquialtera {Lat.) [Sesquialtera.] 
 
 Sext {Ger.) (i) A sixth. (2) The name 
 of an organ stop of two ranks, having the 
 interval of a sixth between them, namely, a 
 twelfth and tierce. 
 
 Sextetto. [Sestetto.] 
 
 Sextolet. or Sextuplet. A double triplet, 
 six notes to be performed in the time of four. 
 
 Sextuor {Fr.) A composition in six parts. 
 
 Sf. or Sfz. Abb. of Sforzando or Sforzato. 
 
 Sforzando {It.) [Sforzato.] 
 
 Sforzato {It.) Forced. A term signifying 
 that the note or notes pointed out by the sign 
 s/^are to be emphasised more strongly than 
 they would otherwise be in the course of the 
 rhythm. 
 
 Sfz. p. Abb. for Sforzato piano, a sudden 
 forte followed by a diminuendo or piano. 
 Also indicated by the sign ;:=-. 
 
 Sfuggito {It.) Avoided, shunned, as 
 Cadenza sfuggita, an interrupted cadence. 
 
 Shading of pipes. The placing of any- 
 thing so near the top of an organ pipe as to 
 affect the vibrating column of air which it 
 contains. 
 
 Shake. Trillo {It.), Pralltriller {Ger.) 
 An ornament produced by the rapid alter- 
 nations of two notes, either a tone or semitone 
 apart, as the case may be. The sign of a 
 
 shake is tr. (the first two letters of the word 
 trillo) placed over the chief note : 
 
 Written, 
 tr 
 
 Performed. 
 
 an indefinite number of times according to 
 the fancy of the performer or the deration of 
 the note. A shake, preceded by an appoggia- 
 tura is generally finished with a turn : 
 „ , tr 
 Written. 
 
 A succession of shakes is called a chain, 
 Catena di trilli. A shake which commences 
 with a turn is called a prepared shake. In 
 harpsichord music a shake was written thus : 
 
 _JI 
 
 J and played thus : ; 
 
 a plain note and shake, written thus : 
 =^ played J'J J'J j 
 
 a turned shake written thus 
 // 
 
 played 
 
 Sharp, (i) The sign which raises a note one 
 semitone above the normal or natural pitch. 
 A note so affected is restored to its normal 
 pitch by the use of a natural. In old music 
 sharps were often used to raise notes which 
 had been previously flattened, for which pur- 
 pose a natural is always now used. (2) An 
 augmented interval is said by some to be 
 sharp. In old writers a major third is called 
 a sharp third. (3) Out of tune, by being 
 higher in pitch than is just. (4) Shrill or 
 acute, as sharp mixture, an organ stop. 
 
 Shawn. [Chalameau.] 
 
 Shift. A change of the position of the 
 hand in violin playing, by which the first 
 finger of the player has to temporarily be- 
 come the nut. The first shift on the violin is 
 when the first finger is placed on A of the first 
 string ; the second shift, when it is placed on 
 D above. The intermediate points on which 
 the first finger can be placed are called posi- 
 tions ; thus, the first position (called also the 
 half shift) is when the first finger is on G ; 
 the second position is the first shift ; the third 
 position is when the first finger is on B ; 
 
 ( 395 ) 
 
SHORT OCTAVES SIGNATURE. 
 
 the fourth when it is on C ; the fifth position 
 becomes the second shift, &c. 
 
 Short octaves. In old organs, in order 
 to avoid the expense of large pipes which 
 were not frequently used, only the most im- 
 portant notes between c c and g g g were 
 employed. The following was a common 
 system of arranging the four lowest sounds 
 in English organs : — 
 
 to 
 
 five lower. 
 
 The keys as above appeared, of course, to 
 be B, C, C#, D. 
 
 Si. The name of the seventh degree of the 
 scale of Do. It was first suggested as a sol- 
 feggio syllable by Ericius Puteanus, of Dod- 
 recht, in 1580, and again by Lemaire, of Paris, 
 about the year 1 6go. In the scale as divided into 
 hexachords by Guido, the seventh note as the 
 first was called Ut ; but the use of solmisation 
 rendered a seventh name necessary. Za and 
 Sa were both suggested at different times, 
 the latter because it was a portion of the 
 first syllable of the word sancte, one of the 
 concluding words of the verse of the hymn 
 which gave the names to the other notes. 
 [Aretinian syllables.] 
 
 Andreas Lorente, in a part of his book, 
 " El porque de la musica," 1673, suggested 
 the syllable Bi for the leading note of the 
 scale, but the syllable adopted by Puteanus 
 and Lemaire took firmer hold of the musical 
 mind of the public, from a supposed notion 
 that the sibilant sound indicated to some 
 extent the peculiarity of the tone. 
 
 Si bemol (Fr.) The note B>. 
 
 Siciliana, Siciliano (It.) A graceful 
 dance of the Sicilian peasantry, set to a 
 melody in f or i/ time, of a simple pastoral 
 character. Compositions or movements of 
 like character are so named. 
 
 Side-drum. A small military drum fre- 
 quently used in the orchestra. It is sus- 
 pended at the side of the player and beaten 
 with two wooden sticks on the upper head or 
 surface, the lower having catgut strings called 
 snares, stretched across to check the rever- 
 beration. Weber was the first to employ the 
 side-drum as an orchestral instrument in his 
 " Kampf und Sieg," 1815. Rossini used it 
 two years later. [Drum.] 
 
 Siebenklang (Ger.) (i) A chord of the 
 seventh. (2) A heptachord or scale of seven 
 notes. 
 
 Siebenpfeife des Pan. [Pan's pipes.] 
 
 Siegeslied (Ger.) A song of triumph. 
 
 Siegue. [Segue.] 
 
 SifHote, Sufflote (Ger.) [Flute.] 
 
 Signa. (i) An old name for large Church 
 bells. (2) Characters and signs in mediasval 
 music. 
 
 Signalist (Ger.) A military trumpet 
 player. 
 
 Signatur (Ger.) [Signature.] 
 
 Signature. The signs placed at the com- 
 mencement of a piece of music. There are 
 two kinds of signature, the time-signature 
 and the key-signature, the latter requiring a 
 clef to show the pitch, (i) The key signa- 
 tures, including the clefs, are usually written 
 on every stave ; the time-signature only at 
 the commencement of the first line and where 
 changes occur. It would be more proper to 
 call the time-signature the measure-sign, as it 
 shows the contents of a bar but not the pace 
 at which the music should be performed. 
 
 The signatures of minor keys are the same 
 as those of their relative majors. This leads 
 to some inconvenience, as it is often neces- 
 sary to look into a piece before determining 
 whether it is in the major or minor. Various 
 remedies have been proposed for this, the 
 most important of which is to mark the raised 
 leading-note and minor sixth in the signa- 
 ture, e.g. : 
 
 A minor. £ minor. B minor. Fjf minor. CJf minor. 
 aS irfra irtl nilju « nftAr 
 
 D minor. G minor. C minor. F minor. Bb minor. £b minor. Ab minor. 
 
 It is remarkable that writers before the 
 middle of the eighteenth century frequently 
 placed one sharp less in the signature than 
 was absolutely necessary, and consequently 
 were obliged to use an accidental at every 
 recurrence of the leading-note. It seems 
 difficult to account for this custom, unless 
 such writers thought it wrong to acknow- 
 ledge that the force of the leading-note over- 
 threw the old church modes. Some writers 
 consider that it was done in order not to 
 disturb the proper position of the mi and fa 
 in sol-faing. [Sol-faing.] 
 
 (2) Time-signatures are expressed by frac- 
 tional parts of a semibreve. But the signs 
 C and $ are, it is to be regretted, still much 
 in vogue in common time. The former is a 
 corruption of the semicircle C, which was 
 used to denote duple or imperfect measure, 
 
 ( 396) 
 
SIGN- 
 
 -SIM. 
 
 the whole circle O being used to denote per- 
 fect or triple measure. The stroke through the 
 sign (t has two distinct meanings, namely, 
 (i) a halving of the contents of the bar ; (2) 
 a halving of the pace of the music. Thus, C 
 formerly denoted four minims in a bar ; and (]; 
 two minims in a bar, that is, half-measure. 
 
 But in modern music (]} generally indicates 
 four minims in a bar, allegro, that is naif the 
 pace. There is not the smallest necessity 
 for the use of either of these signs, as will be 
 seen by the following excellent tables, drawn 
 up by the Rev. J. Troutbeck, M.A. (Troutbeck 
 and Dale, Music Primer.) 
 
 6 
 
 DUPLE. 
 
 TRIPLE. 
 
 QUADRUPLE. 
 
 e„ 2 d 
 
 d 
 
 I 
 
 J J 
 
 J 
 
 e 
 
 or 4 
 
 d d 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 a. 
 
 a- 
 
 i ' 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 J J 
 
 t 
 
 4 
 
 c 
 
 - i 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 i 
 
 i '" 
 
 J^ 
 
 1 
 
 -^ J^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 4 
 8 
 
 :- J' 
 
 J' 
 
 *^ 
 
 1 °- 
 
 J. 
 
 % 
 
 d . J. 
 
 cJ. 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 J. J. 
 
 d • 
 
 J. 
 
 
 § • • 
 
 1 
 
 • • 
 
 9 
 
 J. J. 
 
 1 
 
 4 • 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 J. J. 
 
 1 
 
 J . 
 
 
 
 
 *\ 
 
 1% 
 
 .\ *^- 
 
 .\ 
 
 
 le 
 
 -'^. -^. 
 
 .^. 
 
 «\ 
 
 An excellent suggestion is thrown out by 
 the above writer, the adoption of which would 
 point out where the accent falls in compound 
 times. He proposes to say §. (two dotted 
 minims) instead of |, and 4. (two dotted 
 
 crotchets) instead of §, and so on. Not only 
 are the number of beats, and consequently, 
 the position of accents in this way shewn, 
 but a simple and uniform table can be drawn 
 up thus {Music Primer, p. 41) : 
 
 4> 
 
 DUPLE. 
 
 TRIPLE. 
 
 QUADRUPLE. 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 J J 
 
 I 
 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 J J 
 
 J 
 
 CO 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 • 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 ^ J 
 
 1 
 
 if. 
 
 S 
 
 1 1 
 « 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 8 
 
 m 
 
 -^ 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 
 N 
 
 « 
 
 4 
 8 
 
 \ 
 
 
 / ."^ 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 d. 
 
 J. 
 
 3 
 2- 
 
 1 ) 
 
 a- d- 
 
 • 
 
 4 
 2- 
 
 1 
 
 • cJ . 
 
 <J. 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 4- 
 
 1 
 • 
 
 J. 
 
 3 
 4- 
 
 \ 
 « • # • 
 
 J. 
 
 4. 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 r 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 « • 
 
 §. 
 
 .\ -\ 
 
 
 4 
 8- 
 
 -^. 
 
 
 
 In ancient music, when the semibreve was 
 really a short note, a duple measure of 2 
 (q> <2>) ; a triple measure of 3 (OS <=> ■d) ; a 
 quadruple measure of 4 ('3> 'C ■=> ■=!) ; with 
 compound measures § (cs • d • ) and | 
 (i2> • <s • ^ •) ; are to be found. 
 
 Sign. A note or character employed in 
 music. 
 
 Signe (Fr.) The sigp %. [Segno.] 
 
 Siguidilla. [Seguidilla.] 
 
 Silence {Fr.) Silenzio {It.) A rest. 
 
 Si leva il sordino {It.) A direction that 
 the mute (sordino) is to be taken off. 
 
 Silver strings. The covered strings used 
 on violins, tenors, violoncellos, guitars, &c. 
 [String.] 
 
 Sim. Abb. oi simile. 
 
 ( 397 ) 
 
SIMICION SIX POUR QUATRE. 
 
 Simicion or Simekion (G^.), aiiiUtov. A 
 harp with thirty-five strings, known to, and 
 occasionally used by the Greeks. 
 
 Similar motion. [Motion.] 
 
 Simile {It.) Like ; in the same manner. 
 A direction that a method of performance 
 previously ordered is to be adhered to in all 
 similar passages. 
 
 Simpla {low Lat.) Setniminima. A 
 crotchet. 
 
 Simple, (i) Not florid ; as, simple counter- 
 point. (2) Not developed ; as, simple imita- 
 tion. (3) Not exceeding an octave; as, 
 simple interval. (4) Containing only one 
 group of notes ; as, simple measure, simple 
 time. (5) Without valves or pistons ; as, 
 a simple tube. (6) That which cannot be 
 resolved into constituents ; as, a simple tone. 
 
 Sin' al fine (7^.) To the end. 
 
 Sinfonia (7^) Symphonic {Fr.) [Sym- 
 phony.] 
 
 Singakademie, Singschule {Ger.) An 
 academy or school for singing. 
 
 Singend {Ger.) [Cantabile.] 
 
 Singetanze {Ger.) Song-dances. Ballads. 
 
 Singhiozzando {It.) In a sobbing style. 
 
 Single action. [Pianoforte.] [Harp.] 
 
 Single chant. [Chant.] 
 
 Single fugue. A composition in which 
 only one subject is employed. [Fugue.] 
 
 Single relish. An old ornament in harpsi- 
 chord music, violin playing, or singing. It 
 was also called a cadent. 
 
 Played. 
 
 Singschule {Ger.) A school for teaching 
 vocal music. A song-school. 
 
 Singspiel {Ger.) [Opera.] 
 
 Singstimme {Ger.) A vocal part. 
 
 Sinistra {It.) The left hand. 
 
 Sinkapace. [Paspy.] 
 
 Si place {It.) At pleasure, ad libitum. 
 
 Si replica {It.) To be repeated. 
 
 Si scriva {It.) As written, without im- 
 promptu embellishment or alteration. 
 
 Si segue {It.) As follows, go on. 
 
 Sister {Ger.) An old German guitar 
 having seven gut strings, the three lowest 
 covered. It was tuned to G c f g c' e' g'. 
 
 Sistro {It.) A triangle. 
 
 Sistrum {Gk.), aeiarpov (from (TEi'wto shake). 
 A rattle used by the ancient Egyptians, the 
 Greeks, and Romans. It is not improbable 
 sistrums were known also to the Hebrews, if 
 the word menaaneim is correctly traced to a 
 root signifying to " rattle." Its common 
 form was that of a handle surmounted by a 
 loop of metal having cross-bars on which 
 rings were sometimes placed. (Fig. i.) 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 Others had bars of unequal length without 
 rings, a fact which has led some writers to 
 suppose that they were struck with a piece of 
 metal held in the other hand. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows Egyptian ladies rattling sis- 
 trums at a religious ceremony. 
 
 Fig- 3- 
 
 Sitole. [Citole.] 
 
 Si tace (7/.) Be silent. 
 
 Si volta {It.) Turn over. 
 
 Sixieme {Fr.) The interval of a sixth. 
 
 Six pour quatre {Fr.) A sextuplet, q.v. 
 
 (398) 
 
SIXTE SOL-FAING. 
 
 Sixte {Fr.) The interval of a sixth. 
 
 Sixteen feet. The length of the open 
 pipe which gives the unison of the pedal 
 organ and the double of the manuals. 
 
 Sixteenth note. A semiquaver, the six- 
 teenth part of a semibreve. 
 
 Sixth, added. [Added sixth.] 
 
 Sixth, chord of the. The first inversion 
 of the common chord ; it consists of a note 
 with its third and sixth. 
 
 Sixth, chord of the French, German, 
 Italian. [Extreme Sixth.] 
 
 Sixth, Neapolitan. [Neapolitan Sixth.] 
 
 Skald or Scald. A Gothic poet, priest, 
 or bard. According to Percy the word 
 denotes " sinoothers and polishers of lan- 
 guage," but others derive it from gala to 
 sing, whence galld, enchantment, and sgalld, 
 skalld, an enchanter. The root "gala" 
 appears in the termination gall in the word 
 nightingale. The name was especially ap- 
 plied to those who, in addition to natural 
 gifts, possessed some degree of education, 
 that is to say, a knowledge of versification, 
 mythical imagery, and the traditions of their 
 country. Skaldic poetry had for its object 
 the celebration of the deeds of living war- 
 riors or their ancestors. The Skalds were 
 attached to the courts of the Scandinavian 
 princes, it being accounted honourable to be 
 possessed of the most skilful of these poets. 
 There are few complete poems of the Skalds 
 extant, but a large number of fragments are 
 preserved, partly by the younger Edda, partly 
 in the Sagas and the Heimskringla. The 
 Eddas are songs as old as the 6th century, 
 the Sagas are historical and legendary tales. 
 The Heimskringla, or Mythic ring of the 
 world, records the history of the kings of 
 Norway from the earliest times to the year 
 1 177, the year in which the historian Snorri 
 Sturleson was born. 
 
 Skip. A movement from any one note to 
 another which is at a greater interval than 
 one degree. [Disjunct motion.] 
 
 Skitzen (Ger.) Sketches. Short pieces, 
 sometimes suggestive of some particular sub- 
 ject, not in any prescribed form. 
 
 Slancio, con (7^.) With eagerness, im- 
 petuosity; from slanciare, to rush upon. 
 
 Slargando, Slargandosi {It.) Widening, 
 opening, extending. Used as an equivalent 
 for rallentando. 
 
 Slentando (It.) Slackening the time, 
 becoming slower by degrees. 
 
 Slide, (r) An arrangement in the trumpet 
 and trombone, by means of which the tube 
 can be lengthened so as to generate a new 
 series of harmonics. (2) To slide is to pass 
 from one note to another without any cessa- 
 tion of sound, or distinction between the in- 
 tervals. (3) A slider of an organ. 
 
 Slider. [Organ.] 
 Sliding relish, CoulS (Fr.) 
 old harpsichord music, 
 
 A grace in 
 
 Written. 3 
 
 Played. 
 
 Slur. A curved line placed over notes 
 directing that they are to be played or sung 
 legato. [Bind.] A slur is often used in 
 modern music to show the phrasing. In 
 violin music a slur directs that the notes under 
 it are to be played with one bow. [Bowing.] 
 
 Small Octave. The name given by the 
 Germans to the notes. 
 
 and their intermediate semitones. It is also 
 ■called the lesser octave, and is described by 
 the small letters c, d, e, f, g, a, b. [Pitch.] 
 [Tablature.] 
 
 Smaniante, Smaniare, Smanioso {It) 
 Furious, frantic, with rage. 
 
 Smanicare {It.) To shift. [Shift.] 
 
 Sminuendo, Sminuito, Smorendo {It.) 
 Diminishing, decreasing gradually, lessening 
 the time and tone. 
 
 Smorfioso {It.) Affected, coquettish. 
 
 Smorzando, Smorzato {It.) Gradually 
 fading away. 
 
 Snap. [Scotch Snap.] 
 
 Snare Drum. [Side Drum.] 
 
 Soave, Soavemente {It.) Agreeably, 
 delicately, gently, softly, sweetly. 
 
 Sobb. An old word for damping in lute 
 playing. " Cause them (the strings) to sobb, 
 by slacking your stopping hand so soon as 
 they are struck ; yet not to unstop them, but 
 only so much as may dead the sound on a 
 sudden. This gives great pleasure in such 
 cases." Mace, 1676. 
 
 Soggetto {It.) Subject, theme, motive, 
 proposition of a fugue. 
 
 Sol. The note G. [Sol-faing.] 
 
 Sol-b6mol {Fr.J The note G flat. Sol- 
 bemol majeur, the key of G flat major. Sol- 
 bemol mineur, the key of G flat minor. Sol- 
 diese, the note G sharp. 
 
 Solennemente {It.) Solemnly. 
 
 Solennit^ {It.) Solemnity, pomp. 
 
 Sol-fa {It.) A general name for the notes 
 in music. [Sol-faing, Solfeggi, Tonic Sol- 
 fa.] 
 
 Sol-faing. A system of singing ; a com- 
 position in which the names of the notes are 
 employed instead of the words to which it 
 may be set. Formerly only four of the seven 
 names of the notes — Ut, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, 
 Si, were used, namely, Mi, Fa, Sol, La. 
 These were applied to every note in the scale. 
 
 ( 399 ) 
 
SOLFEGE SONATA. 
 
 on the principle that it is naturally divided 
 into two halves of similar proportions. 
 
 Sol La Mi Fa 
 12 3 4 
 
 Thus, from i to 2 is a tone, from 2 to 3 is 
 also a tone, and from 3 to 4 a semitone, 
 whether the upper or lower series be the first 
 reckoned. So, as in the scale of C, from Fa 
 to Sol and from Sol to La are each a tone 
 apart, and from Mi to Fa only a semitone ; 
 all tones in the scale were distinguished by 
 these names for the purpose of Sol-faing. 
 
 Sol La Fa Sol La Mi 
 
 Mi was always used for the leading, or 
 master note. This series, repeated to any 
 extent, was supposed to express all the 
 different orders of tones and semitones in the 
 diatonic scale. " Above Mi will stand Fa, 
 Sol, La, and below it the same inverted La, 
 Sol, Fa, and one Mi is always distant from 
 another an octave, which cannot be said of 
 any other of them, because after Mi ascending 
 come always Fa, Sol, La, Fa, which are 
 repeated invertedly, descending." 
 
 The old rules for remembering Mi in all 
 keys were thus set forth, the positions of the 
 notes being called by the seven letters of the 
 alphabet in use then as now ; 
 
 If that no fiat is set in B, 
 
 Then in that place standeth y' Mi : 
 
 But if your B alone is flat, 
 Then E is Mi, be sure of that : 
 
 If both be flat, your B and E, 
 Then A is Mi, here you may see : 
 
 If these be flat, E, A and B, 
 Then Mi alone doth stand in D : 
 
 If all be flat, E, A, B, D, 
 
 Then surely Mi will stand in G : 
 
 Learn this, and learn it well by rote. 
 That Mi is aye the last sharped note 
 For if a sharp on F be set, 
 To call that Mi, do not forget : 
 
 And it another on C be found, 
 Remember there your Mi to sound : 
 
 And if one more be set on G, 
 
 Then in that place will stand your Mi : 
 
 If all be sharp, F, C, G, D, 
 Then Mi alonp will stand in D : 
 
 In the modern method of Sol-faing no 
 distinction is made between tones and 
 semitones by the use of a fixed nomencla- 
 ture for the proportions of the scale, but the 
 notes in any key are called by the names 
 they bear in the key of Do or C. 
 
 Thus, a piece in E or E flat would be Sol- 
 faed by calling the scale notes — Mi) Fa, Sol, 
 La, Si, Do, Re, Mi, whether they were sharp, 
 flat, or natural. The Tonic Sol-fa method 
 calls all scales starting from any one of 
 the twelve semitones by the same names as 
 it gives to the notes of the scale of C, namely, 
 Doh, Ray, Me, Fah,' Soh, Lah, Te, Doh. 
 
 Solfege {Fr.) A vocal exercise in which 
 the notes are called by the several names Do, 
 Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si. [Sol-faing.] 
 
 Solfeggiamenti (It.) Solfeggi. 
 
 Solfeggiare (It.) To practise solfeggi. 
 
 Solfeggio (It.) [Solf&ge.] 
 
 Solist. [Soloist.] 
 
 Solito (It.) Usual, used, accustomed. 
 In the ordinary manner. 
 
 SoUecito (it.) Carefiil ; a word directing 
 a careful and attentive manner of performance. 
 
 Solmisare {It.), Solmizare {It.), Solmi- 
 siren (Ger.) To Sol-fa. [Sol-faing. Solfeggio.] 
 
 Splmisation. [Sol-faing.] 
 
 Solo (7^.) Alone. Soprano solo, the 
 soprano alone ; voci soli, voices alone, &c. 
 
 Soloist. One who sings or performs alone, 
 with or without the aid of accompaniment. 
 
 Solo pitch. The tuning of an instrument 
 a little higher than the ordinary pitch in order 
 to obtain brilliancy of tone with a certain 
 amount of ease to the player. [Accordatura.] 
 
 Solospieler {Ger.) A solo player. 
 
 Solostimme {Ger.) A solo part. 
 
 Son (Fr.) Sound, tone. 
 
 Sonabile (It.) Spunding, resonant. 
 
 Sonare (It.) To sound, to play upon. 
 Sonare alia mente, to play extempore. Sonare 
 il violino, to play upon the violin. 
 
 Sonata. The word Sonata is supposed by 
 some to be derived from the Italian word 
 sonare, to sound, to play, but by others from 
 sonetto,'a. sonnet. 
 
 ( 400 ) 
 
SONATA. 
 
 The term Sonata or Suonata, as applied 
 to a musical composition, was first used about 
 the beginning of the 17th century. Those of 
 that time so called, had but one movement ; 
 they were in fact, simply airs arranged in parts, 
 for an instrument or instruments. But the title 
 of airs was given to some Sonatas as late as 
 1770, for in Hoyle's " Dictionarium musica2"of 
 that date, voce "Suonata," we read " of Corelli's 
 Musick, the first and third operas are Church 
 Sonatas, and the second and fourth, Chamber 
 Sonatas ; though the common distinction 
 among us is made by the name of airs." 
 
 Other terms were occasionally used to 
 describe Sonatas, such as Consorts, Ayres, 
 Lessons, Fantasies or Fancies, " so made 
 as they must be plaid and not sung," and 
 "Ayerie Fancies that may be as well sung 
 as plaid." 
 
 Sir John Hawkins, in his " History of 
 Music," says these titles were disused about 
 the middle of the 17th century, when new forms 
 of concerted pieces of a more elegant character 
 came into vogue ; these were called " the 
 Sonata di Chiesa and the Sonata di Camera." 
 The first of these, as being adapted to Church 
 Service, was grave and solemn, consisting of 
 slow movements, intermixed with fugues ; the 
 other admitted of a variety of airs to regular 
 measures, such as the Allemande, the Courant, 
 the Sarabande, &c. 
 
 The slow movements "intermixed with 
 fugues," arose from the introduction of the 
 Canzona,and Sir John Hawkins in mentioning 
 this as a characteristic of the Sonata, uncon- 
 sciously proves that the influence of the 
 Canzona style had not weakened or faded at 
 the time he wrote. 
 
 The connection of the Canzona with 
 the Sonata is to a certain extent indicated 
 in the pieces by Frescobaldi, published at 
 Venice (1634). " Canzone da Sonare a una, 
 due, tre, et quattro, con il basso continuo," 
 which are exactly similar in style to the com- 
 positions recorded in early times as Sonatas. 
 When in subsequent compositions of this kind 
 two or more movements were employed, those 
 most favoured were a Canzona or something 
 in Canzona style, and a dance tune, such as a 
 Pavan, an Allemande, or a Coranto. The 
 Canzona was probably selected by the com- 
 poser as a vehicle for the display of art and 
 skill, and the dance tune was offered as a 
 conciliation to the taste of his hearers. Long 
 after the form was fixed, compositions bearing 
 the name of Sonatas, constructed on the 
 principles and according to the models of 
 older times, were published, some as late as the 
 end of the last century, as intimated above. 
 
 Frescobaldi's Canzone consist of only one 
 movement, with various changes of time. 
 A short analysis of the whole piece from 
 
 which the illustration to the word Canzona 
 is taken, will give an idea of the character 
 of these early Sonatas. The first phrase 
 of 19 bars is in fugal style, then follow 
 12 bars in f , after which are 27 bars in duple 
 time in which free imitation is employed, 
 then Q^ bars in -f again, the music of a different 
 character to that in the former movement, of 
 the same pulse measure, then 2 bars by way 
 of a coda or conclusion, in common time. 
 No portion is marked for repetition, but the 
 whole thing goes straight on from the first note 
 to the last. 
 
 The earliest compositions to which the 
 title of Sonata or Suonata was attached, 
 were written by Bonifacio Graziani (1609- 
 1672), Marc Antonio Cesti (1624-1675), and 
 Paolo Colonna (1630-1690), among others. 
 It is presumed that some of tlie works of 
 these musicians were those brought to Eng- 
 land by John Jenkins (1592-1680), who after- 
 wards, upon the models so suggested, pub- 
 lished in 1660 in London "Twelve Sonatas 
 for two violins and a bass, with a thorough 
 bass for the organ." These were the first 
 compositions of the kind by an Englishman. 
 Jenkins was already well known as an agree- 
 able writer of "fancies for viols," and his 
 Sonatas show a certain amount of artistic 
 progress in the arrangement of contrasted 
 movements. Most writers on musical history 
 declare that Francis Henry Biber (1648- 
 1698), was the first who published a work 
 with the title of a Sonata, but his compositions 
 did not appear until 1681, more than twenty 
 years after those by Jenkins with the same 
 title ; and there were also the still earlier Italian 
 writers named above, from whom Jenkins 
 confessedly obtained the idea. Considering the 
 variety of the German tongue, and the un- 
 willingness of the German people to use a 
 foreign term when a native equivalent can be 
 found, it is scarcely likely that the term Sonata 
 would be first attached to a German composi- 
 tion by a German composer ; therefore it is 
 reasonable to assume that the word would 
 have been adopted by the musicians of the 
 country to which it belongs. Graziani, Cesti, 
 and Colonna, who died before the time Biber 
 published his Sonatas, used the term to describe 
 certain of their compositions ; but supposing 
 the honour of first using it belonged to a 
 German, then Johann Ros'enmuller, who pub- 
 lished at Venice " XII. sonate a camera, a 5 
 stromenti," in 1667, has a prior claim to 
 Biber. 
 
 Henry Purcell (1658-1695), who was one 
 of the earliest English writers of Sonatas, has 
 almost as strong a claim to an early use of 
 the word as Biber. Purcell composed 
 Sonatas which were published in 1683, with 
 the title of " Twelve sonatas of three parts, 
 
 ( 401 ) 
 
 2 c 
 
SONATA. 
 
 two violins and a base, to the organ or harp- 
 sychord." These were issued in separate 
 parts, and in the sixth Sonata of this set is 
 the melody whose character has given rise to 
 the erroneous statement that Purcell com- 
 posed the air upon which " God save the 
 King" is founded. Furthermore, some writers 
 .declare that there is evidence in the con- 
 struction of this set of Sonatas, that Purcell 
 was indebted to Corelli for his ideas. If 
 there is a sufficient similarity of style to 
 warrant the assertion, there still remains the 
 doubt whether Purcell could have seen the 
 wopk of his Italian contemporary before his 
 own was published, as both sets were issued 
 in the same year, and communication, espe- 
 cially with a foreign country, was not so 
 rapid then as now. 
 
 In the preface to this book of Sonatas, 
 Purcell states that "he has faithfully endea- 
 voured a just imitation of the most famed 
 Italian masters, principally to bring the 
 seriousness and gravity of that sort of musick 
 into vogue and reputation among, our country- 
 men, whose humour 'tis time now should 
 begin to loath the levity and balladry of our 
 neighbours." He further states, " He is not 
 ashamed to own his unskilfulness in the 
 Italian language, but that is the unhappiness 
 of his education, which cannot justly be 
 counted his fault ; however, he thinks he may 
 warrantably affirm he is not mistaken in the 
 power of the Italian notes, or elegancy of 
 their compositions." If Purcell benefited by 
 the writings of any Italian musician, it could 
 hardly have been by those of Corelli. 
 
 Purcell also composed a second set about 
 the same time, but they were not printed 
 until after his death. Among this second 
 set was one well-known by the name of the 
 " Golden Sonata," and as it is a very fair 
 example of Purcell's compositions of this kind, 
 and indeed of most others of the period, a 
 short description may not be out of place here. 
 It is written in. three parts, for two violins 
 and a figured 'bass. The key is F, and the 
 first movement, only twenty-six bars in 
 length, is a largo in common time of four 
 crotchets. The subject, proposed by the bass 
 and imitated by the trebles, is repeated in the 
 key of the dominant at the 8th bar, but by 
 the bass only, the trebles having a second 
 subject. At the 12th bar the subject is in- 
 verted in the bass and answered according to 
 the inversion by the other parts in fugal 
 form, modulating into the key of the relative 
 minor, in which key the subject re-appears, 
 having for counterpoint an inversion of the 
 first and second subjects ; and with an imita- 
 tion of the first episode as coda the move- 
 ment ends. 
 
 There are altogether five movements, a 
 
 largo of great beauty of melody, the second 
 an adagio in | time, with all the notes not 
 in the key of F major written as acciden- 
 tals, the third called canzona allegro is in F 
 major (duple time), the fourth a grave in D 
 minor (duple time), and the fifth is an allegro 
 in F major |. No portion of any one move- 
 ment is marked for repetition. The move- 
 ments are each short, the last being the 
 longest, and there is but little indication of 
 that which is known as Sonata form in any, 
 though each is written in a form regular 
 enough in itself. Every device of imitation, 
 inversion, and augmentation of the subjects 
 proposed is employed freely, though not to a 
 great extent. LuUy [1634-1687], Pachelbel 
 [1653-1706], Buononcini [1658-1702], the 
 great Arcangelo Corelli, and Kuhnau 
 [1667-1722], may be mentioned as Sonata 
 writers contemporary with Purcell. Kuh- 
 nau being, perhaps, next to Corelli, the 
 most remarkable. His early Sonatas were 
 in three movements, an allegro, andante, and 
 allegro, and for this reason his claim to merit 
 as the suggestor of the modern form has 
 been made out. One of these Sonatas or 
 suites (No. 3) in E minor, may be taken 
 as an example not only of the rest of his 
 works, but of the form the Sonata had as- 
 sumed in his day. Commencing with a 
 Prseludium of 22 bars in which sentences 
 given out. by the right hand are imitated in 
 the- left, there follows an Allemande with 
 the half close in B minor, a Courante and a 
 Sarabande with the first sections ending in B 
 major; in none are the subjects developed, 
 but the Gigue with which the suite concludes 
 contains the nearest approach to modern 
 form, in that the second section commences 
 with the subject first proposed, though by in- 
 version, and oddly enough the second half of 
 the Gigue contains two bars less than the. 
 first, a very unusual circumstance — as in 
 nearly all other instances the latter portion of 
 a Gigue is the longer. There is not any at- 
 tempt, in either movement to introduce a. 
 subject of sufficiently marked character to 
 justify its being called a second or distinctive 
 theme. 
 
 The yearning after a fixed form, and the 
 suggestion of the treatment which becapne 
 expanded into the Sonata form may certainly 
 be traced in Kuhnau's " Frische Clavier- 
 frilchte," seven Sonatas, published in 1703 
 (not in i6g6, as some say). In melodic 
 treatment and expansion of subject these 
 show a decided advance. That which in 
 Frescobaldi appeared to be a mere capricious 
 change of tempo, in Kuhnau became de- 
 veloped into movements of respectable 
 length, but still without any remarkable 
 development of chosen themes. Kuhnau often 
 
 ( 402 ) 
 
SONATA. 
 
 makes the first subject of some of his move- 
 ments heard in the dominant (whether the 
 suite is in a major or a minor key) in the 
 middle of a movement, but does not call, as 
 it were, special attention to the fact by means 
 of a double bar or a repeat. Johann Matthe- 
 son (1681-1722) frequently imitates his first 
 subject in the second movement by inversion,- 
 and occasionally shows that he contributed 
 something towards the settlement of form by 
 the manner in which he treats his "Gigues," 
 as may be seen in the example quoted sub 
 voce "jig." His Sonata, published in 
 1713, and dedicated "to the person who 
 shall best perform it '' is in one movement 
 only, and is capriccio-like in treatment. It 
 may be here mentioned as an interesting fact 
 that in the majority of the suites a Gigue is 
 chosen as the concluding movement, and in 
 its lively character as well as in the style of 
 its construction is more in accordance with 
 modem Sonata form than any other portion ; 
 this was the method often employed by Bach, 
 Handel, and others to a later time. The 
 thirty Sonatas of Alessandro Scarlatti 
 (1659-1725), the next writer of importance 
 after Mattheson, have each two movements, 
 in which may be discerned a still further at- 
 tempt to fix the style, and to impart some 
 degree of unity. 
 
 Contemporary with Scarlatti was Tomaso 
 Albinoni [1674- 1745], whose Sonatas were 
 at one time so popular in England, that the 
 common fiddlers were able to play movements 
 from them ; but there is little indication of 
 Sonata form in any one of his compositions. 
 Domenico Alberti [1705-1739], whose name 
 is associated with the arpeggio bass, said to 
 have been invented by him, was one among the 
 first, if not the very first who employed the 
 nearest approach to modern Sonata form that 
 had as yet been made. In his " VIII. Sonate 
 per Cembalo " (1737), each one has two move- 
 ments, and nearly each movement two well- 
 defined subjects, properly introduced. With 
 the exception of an occasional opening or 
 closing chord, the whole of these movements 
 are written in two-part harmony, and they 
 are pleasingly effective. C, F, G major and 
 minor, and A are the keys selected in obedience 
 to the usual custom of the time of avoiding ex- 
 treme keys, but Alberti employs accidentals 
 freely for his bold and advanced modulations.- 
 
 In the works of these earlier writers a:^ 
 advance towards the Sonata form may be 
 traced, for in more than one there is a close 
 upon the dominant in the first section, and 
 the original subject is announced in the key 
 of the dominant at the commencement of the 
 second section ; but there is little indication, if 
 any at all, of what might be called a second 
 or subsidiary theme. 
 
 In five out of eight of the Sonatas of 
 Domenico Alberti, the Sonata form is nearly 
 observed in the first movement, and often in 
 the second, and there are few compositions 
 of better construction, either for voices or in- 
 struments, of earlier date than his " Sonata in 
 stilo nuovo " (1737). 
 
 Alberti's Sonatas are in two movements 
 only, like those of many of those of his con- 
 temporaries and immediate successors, par- 
 ticularly those by Dr. Croft (1679-1727), Nicolo 
 Porpora (1685-1767), Dr. Boyce (1710-1779), 
 Fed^i (1715-1762), Carlo Tessarini (1715- 
 1765), Frederic Theodor Schumann (1729- 
 1760), Valentin Roeser (1740-1787), &c. 
 Francesco Durante (1684-1755), who, as a 
 teacher, enjoyed a high and honourable 
 reputation, as a writer of Sonatas displays 
 a refined and correct taste, but very little ' 
 originality of conception, many of his thoughts 
 being based upon the ideas of Scarlatti his 
 master. The Sonatas and clavecin composi- 
 tions of Domenico Scarlatti (1683-1757), were, 
 according to Burney, " the wonder and 
 delight of every hearer who had a spark of 
 enthusiasm about him, and could feel new 
 and bold effects, intrepidly produced by the 
 breach of almost all the old and established 
 rules of composition," but they contribute 
 little towards a settlement of form. 
 
 It is probable that Handel noted the growth 
 of the form, and occasionally employed it, 
 some of the movements in his " Suites " 
 having the orthodox first and second subject, 
 while others have only a single subject in 
 each section. Some of "the songs in his 
 Italian operas are almost in Sonata form, 
 wanting only the observance of certain details. 
 
 Some of the Sonatas of Christopher 
 Wagenseil (1688- 1779) are in correct form, 
 though the second subject is timidly in- 
 troduced and employed. The lingering fond- 
 ness for the same tonality, which is the 
 characteristic of the Suites, and the earliest 
 Sonatas, is to be found, in Wagenseil ; 
 one of his Sonatas in the key of F, a fair 
 specimen of his work in this style, has an 
 allegro assai as the first movement, an 
 andante grazioso as the second, and a minuet 
 as the third. The first and last movements 
 are in F major, and the andante in F minor. 
 The collection in which this Sonata is to be 
 found was published between 1740 and 1750. 
 
 The changes of tempo in the earliest com- 
 positions of this kind, probably suggested 
 a division into separate movements. In- 
 herent musical feeling would doubtless 
 prompt the composer to make the several 
 movemerits offer as much contrast as pos- 
 sible, and the variety thus introduced would 
 be accepted as the first canon of this class 
 of composition. 
 
 K 403 ) 
 
SONATA. 
 
 The arrangement of the earhest " Suites 
 des piSces " may be studied- with advantage 
 in reference to this point. In the " PiSces de 
 Clavecin" by Frangois Couperin, 1713, there is 
 a set in C minor, consisting of an Allemande, 
 followed by a first and second Courante, then 
 a Sarabande, a Gavotte, and finally a Minuet, 
 each movement varying in tempo as well as 
 in character, though not in key. The number 
 of movements in a Suite alternated between 
 five and seven for many years, but by degrees 
 they became lessened in number. Although 
 the names of dance tunes ceased to be attached 
 to the several movements, it was easy to see 
 that much of their character was retained ; for 
 as composers began to feel that the measure 
 of the dance tune had a tendency to cramp 
 their musical thoughts, their models were 
 altered or abandoned, and they expanded 
 their movements at pleasure, without reference 
 to the needs of the dance. Later, when three 
 movements were adopted, the dance tune was 
 restored, a preference being given to the 
 Minuet or something in its kind, and this, 
 with a slow and a quick movement, for a long 
 time made up the recognised constitution of a 
 Sonata. Beethoven added a fourth movement, 
 the Scherzo, which he used sometimes instead 
 of, sometimes in addition to, the Minuet ; but 
 he was not, as some say, the inventor of that 
 movement, as Haydn in his quartets, and 
 Bach in his Suites had previously employed a 
 movement called Scherzo. 
 
 The " Ciavier-Uebung," of J. S. Bach, pub- 
 lished singly between 1726 and 1730, marked 
 in Hoffmeister's edition as CEuvre I., No. i, 
 containing six Suites in various keys, offers a 
 very remarkable series of studies, inasmuch 
 as they show the master mind yielding to the 
 custom of his time in the order and style of 
 the arrangements of his suites or Sonatas, but 
 as free from conventionality as possible, and 
 pointing in the direction so worthily followed 
 by later writers. In the first number there are 
 six movements, all in the key of B flat, namely, 
 a prelude, an allemande, a courante, a sara- 
 bande, a tninuet and gigue. Each, with the ex- 
 ception of the Prelude, is, as near as possible, 
 in Sonata form, though the second subject 
 is not always treated in the tonic in the second 
 section. As usual, there is a second Minuet 
 in the place now occupied by the trio, of 
 which more presently. The second Suite is 
 in C minor, and commences with a symphony 
 or overture of two contrasted movements, but 
 free in form ; the next movement is an 
 allemande, the first section closing on the 
 dominant (G major) ; the third movement a 
 courante, similarly written ; the fourth a 
 sarabande, with the first close in the relative 
 major; the fifth is a ro.ndeau, in the form proper 
 to such pieces ; the last is a caprice, the second 
 
 section having the first subject inverted. The 
 third Suite, in A minor, opens with b. fantasia, 
 followed by an allemande, which is succeeded 
 by a courante, more or less free in treat- 
 ment. The next piece is a sarabande in good 
 form, then a burlesca, next a scherzo in duple 
 time (given as an illustration to the article 
 "Scherzo"), lastly ag'j^w^ in fantasia style. The 
 fourth Suite, in D major, begins with an over- 
 ture of some length ; then comes a courante not 
 in form, then an allemande, then an aria, then 
 a sarabande, the three last named obeying the 
 rules of form ; then there is a short minuet of 
 two movements, and the last is a gigue. The 
 fifth Suite, in G major, opens with what he 
 calls a preamble, after which an allemande, 
 a courante, a sarabande, a tempo di minuetto, 
 a passepied and a gigue, the saraband only 
 of all these movements answering to any 
 extent the requirements of form. The sixth 
 Suite, in E minor, the most remarkable and 
 difficult of the whole set, begins with a long 
 and beautiful toccata, having next an alle- 
 mande with the close of the first section on 
 the dominant B major, next a courante, treated 
 in like fashion, then an air in rondo form, 
 then a gavotte in Sonata form, a sarabande, 
 written in fantasia style, and a gigue in the 
 somewhat unusual tempo " alia breve," the 
 first bar of which is quoted under the head 
 " alia breve." In the third book of the second 
 set, " Zweiter Theil der Clavier-iibung," there 
 is a minuet in B minor which, instead of a 
 second minuet in the relative major, according 
 to custom, has a " trio " in B minor ; this is 
 noteworthy, as it is probably the earliest 
 instance of this use of the word. The con- 
 struction and arrangement of this second set 
 is so similar to the first, that with the ex- 
 ception just now pointed out, there is little 
 or no point of difference to call for special 
 remark. 
 
 The " Sechs • leichte Clavier-Sonaten," of 
 C. Philipp Emanuel Bach (1711-1788), pub- 
 lished at Leipsic, 1766, contain each the 
 orthodox three movements, a moderate, a 
 slow and a quick ; and the first, and sometimes 
 the last movement of each is written in 
 Sonata form, with the exception of No. 6, 
 which begins with a movement in rondo 
 form. Not one has the name of a dance 
 tune attached, though there are several which 
 would answer all needs, were they so named. 
 Many of the Sonatas of his brother Wilhelm 
 Friedemann Bach (1710-1784) though, 
 cleverly and ably written, show a less regard 
 for the symmetrical form so characteristic 
 of the works of Philipp Emanuel. More 
 than one of Friedemann's Sonatas, like those 
 of the older writer, consist of a continuous 
 movement with a frequent change of time, 
 rhythm and tonality. Some portions fulfil 
 
 ( 404 ) 
 
SONATA. 
 
 all the requirements of form, but they are 
 not marked for repetition. There are no 
 separate and distinct movements, and the 
 form chosen might be called, if not a caprice, 
 at all events an original idea of the rondo, 
 for after many and varied contrasts of time 
 and subject, the Sonata often concludes with 
 the phrase originally given out. 
 
 Schobert's Sonatas, published in 1741, are 
 especially remarkable, because the second sub- 
 jects are introduced in proper keys, after due 
 preparation, although they are not so fully de- 
 veloped as those by later writers. There is an 
 evident design in expanding the subjects to 
 a greater extent than that which had been the 
 custom before his time. So many of the 
 Sonatas by E. Bach and Schobert are con- 
 structed according to Sonata form as now 
 accepted, that the honour of having fixed the 
 form may fairly be divided between these two 
 composers. 
 
 Schobert's works were at one time the most 
 popular of any performed in England, Dr. 
 Burney having introduced them here in 1766. 
 This writer makes a mistake when he says 
 that Schobert published nothing until 1764, 
 for he was already well known as a composer 
 when he was invited to become " Musician to 
 the Prince de Conti " in 1760, and copies of 
 his Sonatas were in the hands of every harp- 
 sichord player before that time. Emanuel 
 Bach knew Schobert's value as a musician, 
 for Dr. Burney states that "his (Bach's) 
 party allowed Schobert to be a man of genius, 
 but spoiled by his affectation of a new and 
 extraordinary style. They further accused 
 him of frequently copying himself." His 
 writing is perfectly individual, is fresh and 
 novel, and more like an anticipation of Haydn 
 and Mozart than Bach, from whom all 
 the musicians of the time were wont to 
 copy. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to pursue th^ 
 question further, or to enter into any elaborate 
 argument in support of the claim of any 
 particular musician to the invention of that 
 to which probably all have contributed more 
 or less. For at the period of time to which our 
 inquiries have now led, the Sonatas of Haydn 
 and Mozart became the recognised form of 
 this species of composition, and they are 
 happily so well known that a particular 
 description is unnecessary. But, notwith- 
 standing the existence of such noble models., 
 not every composer of a Sonata cared to use 
 the recognised or Sonata form ; even Cheru- 
 bini, with his love for form, sometimes wrote 
 Sonatas not in true form. 
 
 It is unnecessary, ' perhaps, to say that 
 the Sonata was brought to its present per- 
 fection by Beethoven. The works of Clementi, 
 the father of pianoforte - playing, Dussek, 
 
 Hummel, Weber, Field, Onslow, Moscheles, 
 and Schubert show no further advance in pro- 
 gress in development. 
 
 A modern Sonata is generally constructed 
 upon the following plan : — 
 
 The first movement is an allegro, some- 
 times with an introduction, but more fre- 
 quently without one; the second movement, 
 ordinarily called "the slow movement," is 
 set in any time, between adagio and andante; 
 and the final movement is an allegro, written 
 either in Sonata or in rondo form. If there 
 is a. fourth movement, it is usually placed after 
 the slow movement, and is either a scherzo 
 or minuet and trio. This is the broad out- 
 line ; the details require a little more particular 
 description. 
 
 The first movement should have two themes^ 
 unlike each other in character ; for example, 
 one vigorous and spirited, the other tender 
 and expressive ; and each should be capable of 
 varied treatment. After the first subject has 
 been well announced, a modulation into the 
 key of the dominant, if the subject starts in 
 the major, and into the relative major if the 
 subject commences in the minor, should be 
 made. In either case the second subject 
 must be heard in the changed key before the 
 half close or perfect cadence concludes the 
 first part of the allegro. In the second portion 
 of the allegro, a greater amount of license is 
 permitted, this section often partaking of the 
 nature of a free fantasia. The two principal 
 themes are subjected to all kinds of treatment, 
 and are introduced in various keys at the 
 will of the composer. Having exhausted all 
 chosen devices, the first subject must now 
 enter in its entirety, then the second subject 
 should be heard, this time in the tonic or key 
 in which the movement is written, if that 
 mode be major ; or it may appear in the 
 key of the tonic major, if the mode be minor ; 
 but the episode and cadence which are to usher 
 in the conclusion of this section, must be in 
 the tonic key. Sometimes a coda, formed of 
 a portion of the first subject, is added, and 
 the movement ends in the key first proposed. 
 This method of treatment is called the 
 " Sonata " or " Binary " form. 
 
 The second movement may be written in 
 several different ways, that is to say, treated 
 like the first movement with two principal 
 themes, or with only one principal theme. 
 
 Whatever be the precise form selected, the 
 style of the music should afford a great con- 
 trast to that of the allegro. 
 
 The style of the last movement should afford 
 a still greater contrast by its character, what- 
 ever be the form selected ; if it is a Rondo, it 
 should be lighter than the first or second 
 movements. Many instances could be quoted 
 in which the final movement is made the 
 
 ( 405 ) 
 
SONATA DA CHIESA SOUND-BOARD. 
 
 vehicle for the expression of quaint musical 
 humour. 
 
 Sonata da chiesa (It.) A church sonata, 
 an organ sonata. 
 
 Sonate (Fr.) [Sonata.] 
 
 Sonatina (It.), Sonatine (Fr.) A short 
 sonata. One in which the subjects are not 
 developed at length. 
 
 Sonatore (li.) An instrumental performer. 
 
 Sonevole (It.) Sonorous, sounding, re- 
 sonant. 
 
 Song, (i) A short poem intended for 
 music. (2) A musical setting of a short ^oem 
 or portion of prose. The word is generally ap- 
 plied to solos, but sometimes also to compo- 
 sitions for two or more voices. (3) The second 
 subject of a sonata is sometimes called the 
 "song-theme." [Air.] [Ballad.] [Lied.] 
 
 Sonometer. An instrument for measur- 
 ing the vibrations of sounds. 
 
 Sonoramente (It.) Sonorously. 
 
 Sonore (Fr.), Sonoro (It.) Sonorous, 
 resonant, harmonious. 
 
 Sonorita (It.) Harmony, resonance, sono- 
 rousness. 
 
 Sonorophone. A metal wind instrument 
 of the Bombardon class. 
 
 Sons (Fr.) The name given by the Pro- 
 vengal poets to their lyrical productions. 
 
 Sons etouff6s (Fr.) Stifled, veiled, or 
 muffled tones. Sounds produced by a muted 
 instrument. 
 
 Sons harmoniques (Fr.) Harmonic 
 tones or sounds. 
 
 Sons pleins (Fr.) Full tones, applied to 
 the production of full round tones by a voice 
 or instrument. 
 
 Sonus (Lat.) Sounds 
 
 Sopra (It.) Above, before, over, upon, 
 upper, as Di sopra, as above ; Come sopra, as 
 above or before ; Nella parte di sopra, in the 
 upper or higher part ; Contrappunto sopra il 
 soggetto, counterpoint over the subject. 
 
 Sopran (Ger.), Soprano (It.) The highest 
 kind of female or boy's voice. Also the 
 singer possessing that voice. 
 
 Soprana corda (It.) The highest string 
 on the fiddle, chanterelle. 
 
 Soprano clef. The C clef upon the first 
 line of the stave. [Clef.] 
 
 Sorda (It.) Muffled, veiled, muted, damped. 
 
 Sordamente (It.) Softly, gently, silently. 
 
 Sordini (It. pi.) (i) Mutes. Small instru- 
 ments of metal, bone, or wood made to fix 
 upon the bridge of a violin to damp or deaden 
 the sound, by intercepting the vibrations. 
 Mutes of wood covered with leather, of a pear 
 shape, are sometimes used to check the sound 
 of horns, trumpets, cornets, clarinets and 
 
 oboes, the mute being inserted in the bell. 
 
 (2) When mutes are required the direction con 
 sordiniis placed above the part so to be played, 
 the contrary direction is senza sordini. 
 
 (3) Dampers of a pianoforte. 
 
 Sordino (/i.) A mute. A small pocket fiddle, 
 a pochette or kit, formerly used for the purpose 
 of giving the pitch, &c., at music parties. 
 
 Sordo, sorda (It.) Damped with a mute ; 
 as, clarinetto sordo, tromha sorda, &c. 
 [Sordini.] 
 
 Sordun, Sordono (It.) (i) An old form 
 of wood wind instrument, having a double 
 reed, with twelve ventages and two keys. 
 (2) A sort of mute for a trumpet. (3) An 
 organ reed stop of 16 ft. pitch. 
 
 Sortisatio (Lat.) Counterpoint alia mente. 
 [Alia mente.] [Chant sur le livre.] 
 
 Sortita (It.) (1) A word applied to the first 
 piece sung by any one character in an opera. 
 Thus, " Come per me" is the aria sortita, aria 
 d'entrata, or entrance air for Amina in La 
 Sonnamhula. (2) A concluding voluntary, 
 played as the congregation leaves the church. 
 
 Sospensivamente (It.) Doubtfully, irreso- 
 lutely, waveringly. 
 
 Sospirando, Sospirante, Sospirevole, 
 Sospiroso (It.) Sighing, subdued, wretched, 
 doleful. 
 
 Sospiro (It.) A crotchet rest. In old 
 music a minim rest. 
 
 Sost. Abb. of Sostenuto. 
 
 Sostenendo, Sostenuto (It.) Sustaining. 
 Maintaining the tone for the full duration of 
 the notes written. 
 
 Sotto (It.) Below, under; as, sotto voce, in 
 an undertone ; sotto il soggetto, below the 
 subject. 
 
 Soubasse (Fr.) Sub-bass. A stop in 
 the organ, of 32 ft. pitch. 
 
 Soubrette (Fr.) A serving maid. A 
 female singer in a minor part of a comic opera. 
 
 Souchantre (Fr.) Succentor. 
 
 Souffarah (Persian.) The general name 
 among the Persians and Arabs for wind 
 instruments without reeds. 
 
 SoufHerie (Fr.) The apparatus connected 
 with the bellows of an organ. [Organ.] 
 
 Souffleur (Fr.) (i) A prompter in a 
 theatre. (2) An organ blower. 
 
 Soum. A Burmese harp. 
 
 Sound. [Acoustics.] 
 
 Sound-waves. [Acoustics § 3.] 
 
 Sound-board, (i) A piece of fir or other 
 resonant wood placed behind the strings of a 
 pianoforte for the purpose of increasing the 
 power of the sounds. [Pianoforte.] (2) In 
 an organ, the sound-board is the chamber of 
 air into which the feet of the pipes are placed. 
 [Organ.] (3) A wood screen placed behind 
 a pulpit for the purpose of " reflecting" the 
 preacher's voice ; or over it, to prevent the 
 
 (406 ) 
 
SOUND-BODY STACCATO. 
 
 sound from ascending into a lantern-tower, or 
 a dome. 
 
 Sound-body. Sound-box. [Body.] [Re- 
 sonance Box.j 
 
 Soupir (Fr.) A crotchet rest r. 
 Soupir de croche (Fr.) A quaver rest*]. 
 Soupir de double croche (Fr.) A semi- 
 quaver rest ^. 
 
 Soupir de triple croche (Fr.) A demi- 
 semiquaver rest ^. 
 
 Sourdeline {Fr.) A small kind of bagpipe, 
 or musette. [Bagpipe.] 
 
 Sourdine {Fr.) (i) A mute (Sordino.) 
 (2) A stop on the harmonium, which by 
 limiting the supply of wind to the lower half 
 of the instrument, enables the performer to 
 play full chords piano. 
 
 Sous {Fr.) Under; as, Sous-dominante, 
 the sub-dominant or fourth of the scale. 
 Sous-mediante, the sub-mediant, or sixth of 
 the scale. Sous-tonique, the sub-tonic or 
 seventh of the scale ; the leading or note 
 sensible. 
 
 Spaces. The intervals between the lines 
 of the stave. The stave consists of five lines 
 and includes four spaces, but notes in spaces 
 between leger lines above and below the stave, 
 are employed. [Stave.] 
 
 Spagnoletta {li.) A dance in the Spanish 
 style. 
 
 Spanisches-Kreuz {Ger.) The Spanish 
 cross, the sign of a double sharp, x. 
 
 Spanish guitar. [Guitar.] 
 
 Spart. [Sparto.] 
 
 Sparto {It.) Scattered, distributed ; hence, 
 a Score, as the parts are arranged on several 
 lines. [Score.] 
 
 Spartito {It.) Scored. 
 
 Spassapensiere {It.) Jew's harp. 
 
 Spatium {Lat.) \ (i) A space on the stave, 
 
 Spazio {It.) ) (2) an interval. 
 
 Spianato {It.) Smooth, level, even. 
 
 Spiccatamente {It.) Brightly, brilliantly. 
 
 Spiccato {It.) Distinct, detached, pointed. 
 The direction for this is by dots over notes. 
 [Bowing.] 
 
 Spielart {Ger.) Manner of playing, 
 method of performance. 
 
 Spielen {Ger.) To play upon an instru- 
 ment. 
 
 Spieler {Ger.) A player. 
 
 Spielmanieren {Ger.) Ornaments, graces, 
 broderies. 
 
 Spinae {Lat.) Lit., thorns. A name 
 given to the quills and jacks of a spinet, and 
 sometimes to the instrument itself. 
 
 Spinet. Couched harp. Spinett {Ger.) 
 Spinetta {It.) Epinette {Fr.) An ancient 
 keyed instrument similar in construction to, 
 but smaller in size than, the Harpsichord. 
 The strings, which were placed at an angle 
 
 with the keys, were sounded by means of 
 leather or quiJl plectra (Spinas.) [Clarichord.] 
 [Harpsichord.] [Pianoforte.] [Virginals.] 
 
 Spirito, con, ] {It.) In a spirited, 
 
 Spiritosamente lively, animated, brisk 
 
 Spiritoso j manner. 
 
 Spirituale {It.) Sacred, spiritual. 
 
 Spirituel {Fr.) Ideal, pure, ethereal. 
 
 Spissa {Lat.) Close, (i) Intervals in the 
 enharmonic and chromatic genus were said to 
 be spissa, {irvKva.) (2) In mediseval music a 
 pycnon {wvkvov) or spissum was a semitone. 
 
 Spitzflote, Spindelflote {Ger.) Cuspida, 
 fiauto cuspido {It.) An organ stop of 8 ft. or 
 4 ft. pitch, consisting of open flue-pipes, of a 
 conical shape. Its tone is thin and reedy. 
 Spitzquint, a quint-stop or twelfth of conical 
 pipes. 
 
 Spondalium, or Spondaulium {Lat.) A 
 Hymn sung during a sacrifice, accompanied 
 by a flute. 
 
 Spondee {Lat.) A metrical foot consisting 
 of two long syllables. [Metre.] 
 
 Spring. An old word for a tune. 
 
 Square-piano. [Pianoforte.] 
 
 Squillante {It.) Ringing, sounding, bell- 
 like in tone, from squilla, a little bell. 
 
 Sroutis. The name of the twenty -two 
 parts into which the Hindu scale is divided. 
 
 Sta {It.) As it stands ; to be performed as 
 written. 
 
 Stabat Mater. A well - known Latin 
 Hymn on the Crucifixion, sung during 
 Passion week in the Roman Catholic Church. 
 Jacopone, a Franciscan who lived in the 
 thirteenth century, is supposed to have been 
 the author of the words. In addition to the 
 ancient setting, probably contemporary with 
 the words, many composers have written 
 music to the Stabat Mater, but the com- 
 positions which are best known are those by 
 Palestrina, Pergolesi (the last effort of his 
 life), and Rossini. The first of these three is a 
 noble work, the second is full of pathos and 
 expression, and the last is a quaint unison of 
 operatic effects and florid vocal writing. 
 
 Stabile {It.) Firm, steady. 
 
 Stacc. Abb. of Staccato. 
 
 Staccare {It.) To make staccato. 
 
 Staccatissimo {It.) As staccato as 
 possible. 
 
 Staccato {It.) Detached, taken off, sepa- 
 rated. In music the word signifies a detached, 
 abrupt method of singing or playing certain 
 notes, by making them of less duration than 
 they otherwise would be. A small dash over 
 a note signifies that it is to be played staccato. 
 
 Written. 
 
 Played. 
 
 Sometimes a dot over a note is called a 
 
 ( 407 ) 
 
STADTMUSIKANTEN STEM. 
 
 staccato mark, but it is more properly the sign 
 of a spiccato. Staccato notes are played 
 shorter than those marked spiccato. 
 
 Stadtmusikanten, Stadtpfeiffer, Stadt- 
 zinkenisten, KunstpfeifFer, Hausleute 
 (Ger.) Town musicians. [Waits.] 
 
 Staff. [Stave.] 
 
 Stammakkord (Ger.) A key-chord or 
 fundamental chord. 
 
 Stampita (It.) A sonata, an air, a song. 
 
 Standard pitch. [Pitch.] 
 
 Standchen (Ger.) A sesenade. 
 
 Standhaft (Ger.) Firm, steady, steadfast. 
 
 Stanghetta {It.) A bar-line. The vertical 
 line placed on the stave to mark the division 
 of bars. 
 
 Stanza (It.) Lit., A station or resting 
 place, (i) A series of metrical lines forming 
 a verse or subdivision of a poem. (2) A 
 strophe. 
 
 Stark (Ger.) Strong, loud; as, mitstarken 
 Stimtnen, with loud stops. 
 
 Stave. Linien-system (Ger.) Port6e (Fr.) 
 (i) A term applied to the five horizontal and 
 parallel lines in music, upon which the notes 
 or rests are placed. 
 
 (2) Kircher describes a Greek manuscript 
 which he found in the Jesuits' library of 
 S. Salvator at Messina, the age of which he 
 declared to be more than seven hundred 
 years, in which hymns are set to music, 
 written on staves of eight lines, no use 
 being made of the intermediate spaces. 
 Guido d'Arezzo, to whom the invention of the 
 stave is usually assigned, may only have 
 reduced the number of the lines, by making 
 use of the spaces as steps in representing 
 diatonic degrees. In the thirteenth century 
 the number of lines was further reduced to 
 four, a number still found sufficient for the 
 purposes of the Plain Song. 
 
 Staves of various numbers, from three to 
 six lines, are found in mediasval music, and 
 in fact it was not until the invention of 
 printing that the number of lines was settled 
 at five. It is by no means an unusual thing 
 to find six lines ruled in manuscript music 
 books of the seventeenth and early part of 
 the eighteenth centuries, and in some of the 
 early printed books a variable number of lines 
 is occasionally found. Frescobaldi in his 
 "Tocate, canzone versi d'Hinni Magnificat, 
 Gagliardi, Correnti, et Altri Partite di Cimbalo 
 et organo," which was printed from copper 
 plates in 1637, employs a stave of eight lines. 
 
 The stave of eleven lines, called also the 
 " grand stave," has been in use for many 
 generations ; the following, from " L'Armo- 
 nica pratico el Cimbalo di Francesco Gaspa- 
 
 rini," Venice, 1729, shows the form with the 
 clefs then in use in Italy. 
 
 £ 
 
 Sir John Hawkins, in his " History of the 
 Science and Practice of Music," quotes a 
 canzona from Frescobaldi's collection, but he 
 has modernised the stave. Although five is now 
 the general number of lines employed as the 
 stave for all voices and instruments, yet it is 
 by no means. an unfrequent thing to find a 
 stave of one line only for pulsatile instru- 
 ments with a single unvarying tone, as 
 cymbals, gongs, triangle, great drum, &c. 
 
 (3) In modern music the position of the 
 clef upon the stave gives a special title to the 
 stave ; the G clef upon the second line, the 
 C clef upon the first, second, third or fourth 
 lines, and the F clef upon the fourth line, 
 cause the stave to be known as the treble, 
 soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, tenor or bass 
 staves respectively. A double stave, with the 
 G and F clefs connected by a brace, is used 
 for pianoforte and organ music, &c. 
 
 (4) A stanza, a portion of a song. A verse. 
 Steg (Ger.) The bridge of a viohn, &c. 
 
 Ponticello (It.), Chevalet (Fr.) 
 
 Stem. Cauda (Lat.), Virgula (Lat.) The 
 line attached to the head of a note. All 
 notes but the semibreve, or whole-note, have 
 stems ; quavers and their subdivisions have 
 stems and hooks. In writing a " single part" 
 for a voice or instrument, it is usual to turn 
 the stems of notes lying below the middle 
 line of the stave upwards, of notes lying 
 above the middle line downwards. Notes on 
 the middle line have their stems up or down 
 as seems best, e.g. : 
 
 When two parts are written on one line, the 
 tails of the upper part are always turned up- 
 wards, those of the lower part downwards. 
 When both parts play the same note the 
 stem is drawn both up and down, and if it is 
 a semibreve, two notes intersect each other, 
 e.g.: 
 
 (408) 
 
STENTANDO STRASCINO. 
 
 In short score, or a compression of four parts 
 into two lines, the tails of notes in the 
 treble part are always turned up, those of the 
 alto down, those of the tenor up, those of the 
 bass down ; the treble and alto parts being 
 confined to the upper stave, the tenor and bass 
 to the lower, e.g. : 
 
 In groups of notes falling between the upper 
 and lower stave the stems are sometimes 
 partly up and partly down for convenience, 
 
 Up to the middle of the seventeenth century 
 each note having a stem and hook was printed 
 separately, instead of being bound together 
 as in the above groups of semiquavers. 
 [Printing of Music] In mediaeval music, for 
 a short period, the position of the stem, up 
 or down, affected the length of the note. 
 
 Stentando {It.) Delaying, retarding. 
 
 Stentato (It.) Forced, emphasised. 
 
 Steso (7f.) Extended, spread, diffused. 
 Steso moto, slow movement. 
 
 Stesso (It.) The same. L'istesso tempo, 
 the same time. 
 
 Sthenochire. A hand strengthener. A 
 machine for imparting strength and flexi- 
 bility to the fingers for pianoforte-playing. 
 
 Sticcado or Sticcato. An instrument 
 composed of pieces of wood of graduated 
 lengths, flat at the bottom and rounded at 
 the top, resting on the edges of an open box, 
 and tuned to a diatonic scale. The tone is 
 produced by striking the pieces of wood with 
 small hard balls at the end of -flexible sticks. 
 A similar instrument made of glass or metal is 
 called a Harmonica. [Ligneum Psalterium.] 
 
 Stiefel (Ger.) Boot of a reed-pipe in an 
 organ. [Organ.] 
 
 Stift (Ger.) The jack of a spinet or harp- 
 sichord. [Jack.] 
 
 Stil (Ger.) Style. 
 
 Stile (7^) Style. [Stilus.] 
 
 Still-gedact (Ger.) An organ stop of 
 soft tone. 
 
 Stilus (Lat.) Style, as, stilus choraicus 
 {stilo coraico. It.) the dance style ; stilus 
 ecclesiasticus {stile ecclesiastico, It.) the church 
 style ; stilus familiaris (stile familiare, It.) 
 the simple style, note against note ; stilus 
 
 hyporchematicus, the theatrical style ; stilus 
 madrigalescus, the madrigal style ; stilus 
 melismaticus, the florid style ; stilus motec- 
 ticus, the motet style ; stilus phantasiicus 
 {stile fantastico. It.) the fantasia style ; stilus 
 recitativus {stile rappresentativo or dramma- 
 fJco,/f.) the dramatic style; stilus syllahicus,ih.e. 
 syllabic style, in which not more than one 
 note is given to each syllable ; stilus sym- 
 phoniacus {stile sinfonico. It.) the instru- 
 mental style. 
 
 Stimme {Ger.) (i) The voice. (2) Sound. 
 
 (3) The sound-post of a violin or violoncello. 
 
 (4) A part in vocal or instrumental music. 
 
 (5) An organ stop, or rank of pipes. 
 Stimmgabel {Ger.) Tuning-fork. 
 Stimmholzchen {Ger.) Sound-post of a 
 
 fiddle, &c. 
 
 Stimmhorn {Ger.) Tuning cone. [Organ.] 
 
 Stimmpfeife {Ger.) A pitch-pipe. 
 
 Stimmschliissel, Stimmhammer {Ger.) 
 A tuning key or hammer-shaped instrument. 
 
 Stimtnstock {Ger.) The sound-post of a 
 violin or violoncello. 
 
 Stinguendo {It.) Fading away, dying 
 away. 
 
 Stiracchiato, Stirato {It.) Widening, 
 enlarging, retarding the time. 
 
 Stockfagott. [Rackett.] 
 
 Stonante {It.) Discordant, untuneful. 
 
 Stop, (i) The pressure by the fingers of 
 the strings upon the fingerboard of a stringed 
 instrument. (2) A fret upon a guitar 01 
 similar instrument. (3) A collection, register, 
 or row of pipes in an organ. 
 
 Stopped diapason. [Organ.] 
 
 Stopper. The plug inserted in the top of 
 an organ pipe, in order to " close " it. 
 
 Stopples. Plugs inserted in some of the 
 ventages of the flute in order to accommodate 
 its scale to some particular mode. 
 
 Storto, Storta {It.) A name formerly 
 given to the horn, serpent, &c., because of 
 their twisted form. 
 
 Strain. A musical subject forming part 
 of, and having relation to, a general whole. 
 At one time every subordinate portion of a 
 composition either marking rhythmical pauses 
 or completed sentences was distinguished by 
 a double bar, and therefore the double bar 
 was held to mark the strain, a practice which 
 is still observed in writing chants and hymn 
 tunes, where the double bar marks a strain, 
 but not a completed phrase or subject. 
 
 Strascicandb {It.) Dragging or drawling. 
 
 Strascicato {It.) Dragged, drawled. 
 
 Strascinando (it.) [Strascicando.] 
 
 Strascinando I'arco {It.) Drawing or 
 dragging the bow over the strings so as to 
 bind the notes together. 
 
 Strascino {It.) A drag or slur; a term 
 applied to a slurring movement from sound 
 
 ( 409 ) 
 
STRATHSPEY STROPHE. 
 
 down to sound, the pace at the same time 
 being slightly slackened. 
 
 Strathspey. A Scotch dance in duple 
 time, invented about the beginning of the 
 i8th century, and first danced in Strathspey, 
 from whence it derives its name. The 
 " Scofch Snap'' is one of the peculiarities of 
 the tunes for this dance. 
 
 Stravagante (It.) Extravagant, capri- 
 cious, fantastical. 
 
 Stravaganza (It.) Extravagance, fancy. 
 Street Music. [Licensing.] 
 Streichinstrument (Ger.) A stringed in- 
 strument played by the stroke of a bow. 
 Streichquartett {Ger.) String quartet. 
 Streichzither (Ger.) A zither played with 
 a bow. 
 
 Strene. The name given by Marbecke to 
 a breve. 
 
 Two explanations have been given of the 
 meariihg of the word strene; the first is, that 
 it is a note which may be stretched or strained 
 for the purpose of recitation ; the second is 
 that is bounded or constrained by two lines. 
 Marbecke's use of the note certainly does not 
 justify the first of these meanings. 
 
 Strang [Ger.) Strict, severe, rigid. Streng 
 gehunden, strictly tied or legato, exceed- 
 ingly smooth. Streng in tempo, strictly in 
 time. Strenge Fuge, a strict fugue. 
 Strepito {It.) Noise. 
 Strepitosamente (It.) Noisily. 
 Strepitoso (It.) Noisy, impetuous. 
 Stretta (7^.) A coda, a final passage taken 
 in quicker time than the preceding move- 
 ments. The conclusion of the chorus in 
 Haydn's Creation, " The heavens are telling," 
 is a stretta. 
 
 Stretto {It.) Contracted, close. A stretto 
 in a fugue is the bringing closely together the 
 subject and its answer. [Fugue.] 
 
 Striking-reed. A percussion reed. [Reed.] 
 String. Abb. oi stringendo. 
 String. Prepared wire or catgut, plain or 
 covered, used for musical instruments. Strings 
 of steel or brass wire are used for all instru- 
 ments which are struck with hammers or 
 plectra, as dulcimers, zithers, mandolines, 
 and pianofortes, and strings of Qatgut for 
 instruments played with the unprotected 
 fingers, or with a bow, as guitars, harps, 
 violins, violas, violoncellos, and double-basses. 
 Violin strings are made of catg^ut, each string 
 being of a different thickness according to 
 the tone and tension required, the fourth 
 string being covered with a fine wire either 
 of silver or white metal ; hence it is called the 
 silver string. Violas and violoncellos have 
 each two silver strings, the object in using 
 covered strings being to ensure a sufficient 
 gravity of tone without having too clumsy a 
 material. The covered strings on the guitar 
 
 are upon a basis of silk instead of catgut, and 
 the double bass striivgs are of thick gut un- 
 covered. A large quantity of catgut strings 
 for musical instruments is made in England, 
 but the best are imported from Italy, which 
 has, from time immemorial, been famous in 
 this branch of industry. Rome, Venice, Pis- 
 toja, Lyons, were mentioned by Thomas 
 Mace, 1676, as the most famous places from 
 whence strings were brought in his day. 
 
 Silk has been sometimes used as the 
 material of first violin strings, but with ques- 
 tionable success. 
 
 Among uncivilised people strings are 
 made of the hair of animals, the fibres of 
 creeping plants, of fibrous roots of trees, of 
 cane, and of thongs of leather. 
 
 Stringendo [It.) Pressing, hastening on 
 the time. 
 
 String-gauge. A small instrument for 
 measuring the thickness of strings for violins, 
 guitars, &c., consisting of a disc or an oblong 
 piece of metal, with a graduated slit and en- 
 graved table. 
 
 String Quartet, (i) A quartet for two 
 violins, viola, and violoncello. The most 
 important and highest form of chamber 
 music. Nearly all the great composers have 
 left specimens of this class of composition. 
 The classical form of the quartet may be said 
 to have been established by Haydn and 
 Mozart, and it has not been materially altered, 
 though considerably developed, in the later 
 works of Beethoven, Spohr, Onslow, and 
 Mendelssohn. The mighty genius of Beet- 
 hoven seemed to find in the string quartet 
 a vehicle of his profoundest inspirations. 
 (2) The group of string instruments in a 
 band ; sometimes also called the string 
 quintet, because it includes the double-bass. 
 But as the double-bass is chiefly used for 
 the reduplication of the violoncello, the term 
 " String quartet " is quite legitimate. The 
 treatment of the double-bass is in many 
 respects analogous to that of pedal-pipes in 
 organ music : generally reinforcing, but often 
 separated with good effect. 
 
 Strisciando [It.) Creeping, gliding, slur- 
 ring smoothly from one note to another. 
 
 Strofa [It.) A strophe. [Stanza.] 
 
 Strohfiedel [Ger.) [LigneumPsalterium.] 
 
 Stroke of the bow. [Bowing.] 
 
 Strombettare [It.) To sound a trumpet. 
 
 Strombettiere [It.) A trumpet-player. 
 
 Stromentato [It.) Instrumented, scored 
 for an orchestra. 
 
 Strornento [It.) An instrument. Stro- 
 mento di fiato or di vento, a wind instrument. 
 Strornento di corda, a stringed instrument. 
 
 Strophe [Gk.) arpo^ri^ Lit., ■ A turning. 
 The turning of the Greek Chorus towards a 
 
 ( 410 ) 
 
STUBENORGEL SUITE. 
 
 particular part of the orchestra in dancing ; 
 as antistrophe (avrioTpo0^) was their returning. 
 , Hence, the term came to be applied to the 
 portions of the poem sung during these 
 movements. 
 
 Stubenorgel (Ger.) A chamber organ. 
 
 Sttick (Ger.) A piece, air, tune, com- 
 position. 
 
 Study. A term applied to an exercise for 
 the pianoforte or other instrument. 
 
 Stufe {Ger.) A step, a degree. Stttfe der 
 Tonleiter, a degree of the scale. 
 
 Stiirmisch [Ger.) Boisterously, furiously, 
 impetuously. 
 
 Style. Character, form, or temperament 
 of music with reference to, (i) the result of 
 individual influence ; as, Handel's style, 
 Spohr's style ; (2) the conformity of music 
 to the purpose for which it was written, as 
 the Church style, the Glee style ; (3) the con- 
 ventional or national method of performance ; 
 as, the Italian style, the Scotch style; (4) its 
 construction ; as, the Chromatic style, the 
 Fugue style. 
 
 Suabe flute. [Flute, § 6.] 
 
 Suave (It.) Sweet, agreeable, pleasant. 
 
 Suavemente, Suavita, con (It.) Sweetly, 
 with delicacy. 
 
 Sub-bass, Sub-bourdon. A pedal register 
 in the organ, of 32 ft. tone. [Organ.] 
 
 Sub-chanter. Succentor. 
 
 Subdiapente, Subdommant. The fifth 
 below or the fourth above any key note. 
 
 Subduple proportion. [Proportio.] 
 
 Subitamente, Subito {It.) Suddenly, 
 without pause. Volti subito, turn quickly. 
 
 Subject. The theme or principal phrase 
 of any movement, from which all the sub- 
 ordinate ideas spring or are developed. In 
 sonata form there should be two chief subjects, 
 called first and second ; in rondo form, one is 
 sufficient. In a fugue the subject is called 
 also the exposition, dux, proposition. [Fugue.] 
 [Sonata.] 
 
 Submediant. The sixth of the scale. 
 
 Suboctave. A coupler in the organ which 
 pulls down keys one octave below those which 
 are struck. 
 
 Subprincipal. An organ stop consist- 
 ing of open pipes, of 32 ft. pitch on the pedals, 
 and of 16 ft. pitch on the manuals. s 
 
 Subsemifusa (Lat.) Ademisemiquaver J» 
 
 Subsemitone. [Leading note.] 
 
 Subsemitonium modi (Lat.) The lead- 
 ing note. 
 
 Subtonic. The leading note. Note sensible 
 (Fr.) Master-note,the semitone belowthe tonic. 
 Succentor, Sub-chanter, Souchantrf 
 (Fr.) An officer of the choir, the deputy of 
 the Prsecentor, appointed by the Dean and 
 Chapter of a catkedral. In " Cathedralia " 
 we find that : — " The succentor originally led 
 
 the antiphonal chant on the side opposite the 
 Prsecentor, as S. Augustine includes under 
 cantores the precentor ' qui vocem praemittit 
 in cantu ;' and the succentor ' qui subse- 
 quenter canendo respondet.' The succentor 
 major of canons was first instituted at Wells 
 A.D. 1130-74. At Hereford the succentor or 
 prascentor represented absent Vicars. The 
 sub-chanter at York directed the minor canons, 
 and the succentor, as in other cathedrals, was 
 the prascentor's vicar, with regard to vicars- 
 choral and songmen, and delated offenders to 
 the Saturday chapter. At Chichester and 
 Exeter he tabled the duties of the vicars in 
 the week. At Salisbury and York he ranked 
 next to the archdeacons. He supplied the 
 prsecentor's place during absence, and ruled 
 the song-school by his officer. At Wells and 
 Lichfield he wrote out all chants not in the 
 table, arranged the method and order of the 
 processions, enjoined the lections on greater 
 doubles and in masses, and after Benedicite 
 on Saturday in chapter arranged the table of 
 services for the ensuing week. At St. Paul's 
 he acts in the prsecentor's absence, as regards 
 the regulation of the service, and in olden 
 times had to be obeyed by major canons, 
 minor canons, and all other ministers. At 
 Chichester his duty was to give stripes, seven 
 or fourteen in his discretion, to the boys, if 
 they behaved badly in the choir, and at 
 Hereford his duty was to bear the ' burden ' 
 of the psalmody and chant, to distribute copes 
 on the greater festivals, to order processions, 
 to punish clerks of the first form who were 
 not of the family of a canon, and suspend 
 others offending. He delated offenders to 
 the chapter, he took care that the singing was 
 reverently conducted, and appointed five boys 
 of clerks of the first form, removeable at his 
 will, to sing the antiphons, and to carry 
 tapers and thuribles. An honest robe, shoes, 
 and stockings were provided for these boys 
 out of the allowances of the succentor." 
 
 Succession, (i) The order in which the 
 notes of a melody proceed. There are two 
 sorts of succession, regular or conjoint, and 
 disjunct. A regular or conjoint succession 
 is that in which the notes succeed each other 
 in the order of the scale to which they belong, 
 either ascending or descending. In a dis 
 junct succession the melody is formed 01 
 intervals greater than a second. 
 
 (2) A sequence is sometimes spoken of as 
 a succession, and passages of similar chords 
 or progressions are described as a succession 
 of thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, sevenths or 
 octaves, as the case may be. 
 
 Sudden modulation. [Modulation.] 
 Sufflote, SifHote (Ger.) [Flute.] 
 Suite (Fr.) A set, series, or succession 
 of movements in music. The term was 
 
 I 4") 
 
SUIVEZ SUSPENSION. 
 
 applied at an early period to collections of 
 dance tunes of contrasted character but 
 similar tonality. Galliards and Pavins chieily 
 formed the Suites composed until the middle 
 of the seventeenth century. After which, 
 almains, or allemands, corantos, grounds 
 (passecailles), sarabands, jigs, minuets, passe- 
 pieds, gavots, &c., were more favoured; and 
 in the middle of the eighteenth cuntury the 
 titles of all the dances were dropped with the 
 exception of the minuet, which was retained. 
 Then the Suite became a Sonata, and the 
 word Sonata, instead of being loosely applied 
 to " Suites of Lessons for the Harpsichord," 
 became employed to describe a composition 
 of definite form and arrangement. 
 
 Suivez (Fr.) Follow. A direction to an 
 accompanist to watch the singer or soloist, 
 and accommodate the accompaniment to his 
 singing or playing. 
 
 Sujet {Fr.) A subject, melody, phrase or 
 theme. 
 
 Sul, SuU', Sulla {It.) On, upon, by. 
 Sulla soprano corda, upon the first string ; 
 sul ponticello, by or near the bridge, in violin 
 playing ; sulla tastiera, upon the key-board. 
 
 Sultana. A violin with strings of wijre 
 in pairs, like the cither or cittern. It was 
 similar to the Streichzither. 
 
 Summation tones. [Acoustics, § ig.] 
 
 Suo loco {It.) In its own place, in the 
 register as written. 
 
 Suonata {It.) A sonata. Suonata di 
 camera, a chamber sonata, a secular piece. 
 Suonata di chiesa, sonata for the organ, piece 
 for church use. 
 
 Super {Lat.) Above, over. Superdominant, 
 the note next above the dominant, the sixth 
 of the scale. Sw/ierfoMJc, the second of the scale. 
 
 Superfluous intervals. Those intervals 
 greater by a semitone than major or perfect. 
 [Interval.] 
 
 Superius {Lat.) A name given to the 
 upper part in a composition by the writers of 
 the sixteenth century. 
 
 Superoctave. (i) An organ stop tuned two 
 octaves above the diapasons. (2) A coupler 
 pulling down keys one octave above those 
 struck. 
 
 Supersus. A term formerly applied to 
 high treble parts. 
 
 Supertonique {Fr.) Supertonic. [Scale.] 
 
 Supplichevole(7f.),Supplichevolmente 
 (It.) In an imploring, supplicating manner. 
 
 Supposed bass. A term applied to any 
 bass note forming one of the inversions of 
 a chord, in contradistinction to the real bass 
 or generator. 
 
 E is the supposed, C the real bass. 
 
 Sur {Fr.) Upon, on, over. Sur la qua- 
 trieme corde, upon the fourth string ; sur une 
 corde, on one string. 
 
 Suspended cadence. An interrupted 
 cadence. [Cadence.] 
 
 Suspension. The holding or prolonga- 
 tion of a note in any chord into the chord 
 which follows, thereby often producing a dis- 
 cord. The first appearance of the note to 
 be suspended is called its preparation ; its 
 presence as a discord, its percussion ; its 
 removal to a note of rest in key, or some 
 legitimate sound of a sequence, its resolution. 
 Suspensions are named after the interval of 
 the note forming the discord. Two sus- 
 pended notes form a double suspension ; 
 three a triple suspension, and so on. The 
 intervals most commonly suspended are the 
 fourth, sixth, seventh, and ninth. 
 
 The percussion of a discord of suspen- 
 sion is generally on the strong accent of a 
 bar. 
 
 Ex. I. 
 
 The above (Ex. i) shows the suspension 
 4 3 on every note of the scale. It cannot 
 legitimately appear on the subtonic, owing to 
 the imperfection of the fifth. 
 
 The next (Ex. 2) shows suspended sixths 
 on every degree of the scale but the seventh, 
 on which it is not considered a genuine sus- 
 pension. 
 
 Ex.2; 
 
 ^^ 
 
 6 5 65 
 
 The next (Ex. 3) shows that suspended 
 
 ( 412 ) 
 
suss- 
 
 -SYMPHONY. 
 
 sevenths can occur on every degree of the 
 scale. 
 
 Ex.3 
 
 
 
 ri^ 
 
 ^ri 
 
 -j:^.. 
 
 r 
 
 r^ 
 
 .. r 
 
 
 1 a. 
 
 ^ 
 
 — a? 
 
 r-H- 
 
 V 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 ^ ^— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s>- 
 
 
 
 7676 
 
 .-*^=y — ^:pM — i^=pm — (-, 
 
 7 6 
 
 7 6 
 
 |^^:=i=3i^^ 
 
 -J—A\ - 11 
 
 
 =2 
 
 ^^ II 
 
 767676 
 
 H^T- 
 
 -^ — H 
 
 In the following (Ex. 4) a ninth is sus- 
 pended on every degree of the scale. The 
 chord marked * is rarely met with, and 
 probably would not be tolerated unless as 
 part of sequence such as that in which it 
 occurs. 
 
 9 s 
 
 9 8 
 
 '^^^^^ 
 
 A^A J. 
 
 9 8 
 
 9 8 
 
 98 9 _ 
 
 In Ex. 5, at a will be found the double sus- 
 pension II; at 6 the double suspension * | ; 
 at c the triple suspension | | ; at d the 
 
 triple suspension | 
 suspension ? |. * 
 e 3 
 
 8 . 
 G J 
 3 
 
 at e the quadruple 
 
 An exhaustive list of suspensions has never 
 yet been attempted. The constant use of 
 chromatic progressions in modern music has 
 led to the formation of a vast number of 
 chromatic suspensions which early writers on 
 
 harmony never could have anticipated, and 
 which modern theorists make no attempt to 
 explain. 
 
 Siiss {Ger.) Sweet. 
 
 Sussurando, Sussurante {It.) Whisper- 
 ing, murmuring. 
 
 Sustained note. A name given to pro- 
 longed notes which partake of the character 
 of a pedal-point by their immunity from 
 ordinary harmonic rules, but which cannot 
 with propriety be called pedal-points owing 
 to their occurrence in the middle or upper 
 part, e.g. : 
 
 Soprani. Beethoven's Mass in C. 
 
 Svegliato (It.) Awakened, brisk, lively. 
 
 Svelto (It.) Swift, light, quick, free, easy. 
 
 Swell. [Organ.] 
 
 Symphonion. A combination of the 
 pianoforte and harmonium, invented by 
 Kauffman of Dresden. 
 
 Symphony, Symphonic (Fr.), Sinfonia 
 (It.) (i) A composition for an orchestra, 
 similar in construction to the sonata, which 
 is usually for a single instrument. A sym- 
 phony has several varied movements, gene- 
 rally four, never less than three. The first, 
 an allegro ; the second, a largo, adagio, or 
 andante ; the third, a scherzo, or minuet and 
 trio ; and the fourth, an allegro. The form of 
 the first and last movement is usually that of 
 the sonata. The scherzo, or the minuet, in 
 some symphonies, is placed before instead of 
 after the slow movement. 
 
 The arrangement of the symphony after this 
 order is due to Haydn. About the same period 
 Gossec composed a symphony, the twenty- 
 first out of twenty-nine of which he was the ~ 
 author, which was a decided advance in 
 musical form, not only upon his own previous 
 compositions, but also upon those of others. 
 Gossec's symphonies are of varied character, 
 and according to the short description given by 
 Fetis, belong chiefly to the class of concerto 
 rather than to that of symphony, as they are for 
 the most part for cert9.in obbligati instru- 
 ments. The " Symphonic en re," written for 
 the " Concert des Amateurs," gave the first 
 impulse towards the perfection of instrumen- 
 tation in France, It was written for two 
 violins, viola, violoncello, contrabass, two 
 
 (413 ) 
 
SYMPOSIAC SZOPELKA. 
 
 oboes, two clarinets, a flute, two bassoons, 
 two horns, two trumpets, and drums. " L'effet 
 en fut trSs remarquable." It is, however, to 
 Haydn that the perfecting of the symphony 
 is due. For he possessed an extensive ac- 
 quaintance with the character and resources 
 of every known orchestral instrument. " If 
 any doubts arose during composition, his 
 situation at Eisenstadt gave him the power 
 of resolving them into certainties immediately. 
 He rang the bell for a rehearsal, the per- 
 formers appeared, he caused them to execute 
 the doubtful passages two or three various 
 ways, and making his choice of one of them, 
 dismissed the orchestra, and returned to his 
 labours." [Sonata.] 
 
 (2) Formerly overtures were called sym- 
 phonies; in the Dublin MS. of the " Messiah," 
 the property of Sir Frederick Ouseley, Handel 
 has called the overture " Sinfonica," and it 
 was a common practice in his time to name 
 any long instrumental piece after this manner. 
 
 (3) The introductory, intermediate, and 
 concluding instrumental parts of a song or 
 other vocal piece are also called symphonies. 
 
 (4) In the seventeenth century the virginal 
 was sometimes spoken of as a symphony. 
 
 (5) A bagpipe has also been called a sym- 
 phony, perhaps a corruption of the word 
 sampogna. 
 
 Symposiac. A term applied to cheerful 
 and convivial compositions for voices, as glees, 
 catches, rounds, &c. 
 
 Synaphe {Gk.) The conjunction of two 
 tetrachords. [Greek Music] 
 
 Synaulia ifik.) A concert of flute players 
 performing alternately. 
 
 Syncopation, Syncopatio {Lat.), Syn- 
 cope (Fr.) Suspension or alteration of 
 rhythm by driving the accent to that part of 
 a bar not usually accented. Syncopation 
 may be completed in a bar : 
 
 Or it maybe- carried by sequence through 
 several bars : 
 
 Or it may be so that more than one bar is in- 
 volved in the syncopation : 
 
 Syncopated counterpoint is the fourth species 
 of counterpoint. 
 
 Syncopiren {Ger.) To syncopate. [Syn- 
 copation.] 
 
 Synemmenon. [Greek Music.J 
 
 Syren. [Acoustics.] 
 
 Syrinx. [Pan's Pipes.] 
 
 Szopelka {Russ.) A kind of oboe, about 
 fifteen inches in length, made of elder wood, 
 having a brass mouth-piece and eight large 
 and seven small finger holes. It is a popular 
 instrument in Southern Russia, and is the 
 Western representative of the Eastern 
 Zourna. . 
 
 ( 414 ) 
 
-TABLATURE. 
 
 T. Abb. of tasto ; t.s., tasto solo ; also of 
 tenor and tutti. 
 
 Ta, te, tee, to. (ra,. ts, tj/, ru) {Gk.) 
 Syllables used by the Greeks for purposes of 
 solmization. 
 
 Taballo {It.) Kettle-drum. 
 
 Tabarde, or Tabarte {Old Eng.) Tabor. 
 
 Tabl. An Egyptian drum formed from a 
 hollowed block of wood, or made of earthen- 
 ware, with a skin stretched over one end. 
 
 Tablature {Fr.) Intavolatura {It.) Tab- 
 latur {Ger.) (i) A general name for all the 
 signs and characters used in music. Those 
 who were well acquainted with these signs 
 were said to sing by the Tablature. (2) A 
 peculiar system of notation employed for 
 instruments of the lute class, for viols, and 
 certain wind instruments. The earliest 
 systems of notation, like the music of Asiatic 
 nations to this day, were different sorts of 
 Tablature of the character shown in the 
 following example from F6tis : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^.- ° 
 
 a 
 
 If 
 
 3 i 
 
 NOTES 
 
 OF A PIPE IN TABLATURE. 
 
 3 
 
 y n 
 
 t^5 « 
 
 ^ 
 
 x-o- -a- <y ^■S' 
 
 /-J u 
 
 TABLATURE NOTES TRANSLATED BY FETIS. 
 
 That which may be called the modern Tabla- 
 ture was invented not earlier than the sixteenth 
 century. The general characterof thetablature 
 employed was nearly the same in England, 
 France, Spain, and Italy, though each country 
 made variations in it according to fancy, and 
 sometimes the several professors who taught 
 in those countries had little peculiarities of 
 their own in which they differed from their 
 brother professors. These differences doubt- 
 less contributed towards making the general 
 system as perfect as it could be in the end. 
 Sir John Hawkins, quoting Mersennus, says 
 that several skilful men had laboured to 
 improve the Tablature, but they affected to 
 . make a mystery of it, and this gave rise to a 
 diversity of notation between them. It is 
 therefore probable that systems of writing in 
 Tablature were in existence long before the 
 publication of treatises on the subject. Adrien 
 le Roy, a bookseller in Paris, published about 
 1570 a book with the title of " Briefve et 
 
 facile Instruction pour apprendre la Tablature, 
 a bien accorder, conduire, et disposer la main 
 sur la Guiterne ;" the popularity of this work 
 was so great that it was translated into sundry 
 languages as soon as possible afterpublication. 
 An English translation, the basis of all sub- 
 sequent systems published in England, was 
 made by one signing himself with the initials 
 F. K., and published by John Kingston in 
 
 1574- 
 
 The tuning of the lute according to Adrien 
 le Roy was as follows : — 
 ist String C .. a b c d e f g h i 
 2nd String G . . 
 3rd String D .. 
 4th String Bt7.. 
 5th String F .. 
 6th String C .. 
 
 so that, with the use of the frets, usually eight, 
 and lettered from a, the open string, to i, 
 each string was capable of giving a minor 
 sixth from its open tone. The letters refer to 
 the frets which were on the finger-board, each 
 fret representing a semitone, the letter a 
 always standing for the open string. The 
 horizontal lines stand for the strings, and the 
 letters, the points at which they are to be 
 stopped, so forming the notes of the com- 
 position. The signs for time were 
 
 i Semibreve, 
 p Minim. 
 R Crotchet. 
 
 B Quaver. 
 
 B Semiquaver. 
 
 placed over the stave, and were intended to cor- 
 respond with the semibreve, minim, crotchet, 
 &c., respectively. It was to be understood 
 that the sign after the bar represented the 
 value of all the notes in that bar unless 
 otherwise contradicted. 
 
 N ft 
 
 ^ 
 
 a c 
 
 .N 
 
 > ft 
 
 c 
 
 N 
 
 add 
 
 
 
 
 
 i\fif 
 
 d a 
 
 d c 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 a a 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 c c c 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 (4IS) 
 
TABLATURE. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^/ / 
 
 ^ 
 
 e c 
 
 
 a 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 a d 
 
 d 
 
 c d 
 
 C 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 f 
 
 e 
 
 
 d 
 
 & 
 
 
 e 
 
 &c. 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 c 
 
 
 c c 
 
 
 which being translated into ordinary notation 
 would read : — 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that while in music 
 the ordinary notation tars were either entirely 
 omitted, or used as guides to the eye rather 
 than as exact divisions of the notes into 
 measurable bars, in Tablature the bars were 
 more often properly divided according to the 
 value of the time signature than not. An 
 earlier publication than that of Adrien le 
 Roy is the Lautten Buck of Wolf. Heckel, a 
 writer concerning whom nothing is known, 
 beyond the fact of the production of this book, 
 copies of which are extremely rare; one is 
 preserved among the treasures of the Sacred 
 Harmonic Society's library. It bears date 
 Strasbourg, 1562, and its title runs thus, 
 " Lautten Buch, von mancherley schonen 
 und lieblichen stucken, mit zweyten lautten 
 zusammen zuschlagen, und auch sonst das 
 mehrer theyl allein fur sich selbst. Gute 
 Teutsche, Lateinsche, Frantzosische, Italien- 
 ische Stuck oder lieder. Auch vilfaltige 
 Newe Tentz, sampt mancherley Fantaseyen, 
 Recercari, Pavani, Saltarelli, und Gassen- 
 hawer, &c." The book is an oblong quarto, 
 printed in a bold type, and the Tablature is 
 entirely different to that employed by the 
 English, French, or Italian writers for the 
 lute, as the following example will show, 
 when compared with the other specimens. 
 
 The above cut shows the first two bars of 
 the Tablature of the dance tune given under 
 •' Gassenhawer.'' 
 
 The Italian and Spanish writers employed 
 
 figures instead of letters to indicate the 
 particular fret to be used, as in " II Fronimo, 
 Dialogo sopra I'arte del ben intavolare e 
 rettamente suonare la Musica," Venezia 1583, 
 by Vincentio Galilei — the father of the famous 
 mathematician. In the " Nobilta di Dame," 
 Venice, 1605, the tunes are set in " I'lntavola- 
 tura del Liuto" as well as in the ordinary 
 notation. The Italian Tablature was used in 
 England for MS. lute music, as shown in the 
 subjoined specimen from a book written about 
 the end of the sixteenth or beginning of the 
 seventeenth century. 
 
 9^'''%irLJM 
 
 fviyii 
 
 [ate 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 u 
 
 ^ 
 
 A 
 
 Guitar music was written in " an Alphabet.' 
 
 H GO B E o G 
 
 ^-^-f^^-H^^^— f^ 
 
 Fi - ori - te val ■ 
 
 cam- pag - nea - me - ne. 
 
 The above specimen is taken from Kaps- 
 perger's " Libro Primo di Villanelle a i, 2 et 
 3 voci accommodate per qual si voglias stru- 
 mento con I'intavolatura del Chitarone et 
 alfabeto per la Chitarra Spagnuola," Rome, 
 1610. The Tablature for the arch-lute (Chita- 
 rone) is after the ordinary Italian manner, 
 while the alphabet for the guitar is placed 
 over the usual notation, implying, however, 
 the employment of a single note at a time 
 only, and answering the purpose of figures 
 for fingering, as in elementary pianoforte 
 music of the present day, unless the letters 
 refer to a system of chords. The precise 
 value of this "Alfabeto" is not now clear. 
 
 In England Tablature was employed for all 
 stringed instruments, and as those most in 
 use at the end of the sixteenth century were 
 those plucked by the fingers, the greater 
 number of the early specimens existing refer 
 to this class of instrument. The following 
 portion of an " Almaine for the Lute " 
 
 f n m, ^ 
 
 eC di cC 
 
 -<r CO -f- a. 
 
 •b >> -f •(> 
 
 PL GU I 
 
 a. 
 
 A. ^ J- 
 
 ^ Th 
 
 a, "^ 
 
 ^A. 
 
 ^ -^ to 
 
 (416) 
 
TABLATURE. 
 
 is to be found in "A new Booke of Tabli- 
 ture, containing sundry easie and familiar 
 Instructions, shewing howe to attaine to 
 the knowledge to guide and dispose thy 
 hand to play on sundrie Instruments, as 
 the Lute, Orpharion, and Bandora: Together 
 with divers new Lessons to each of these 
 Instruments. Whereunto is added an Intro- 
 duction to Pricke-Song, and certain familliar 
 rules of Descant, with other necessary Tables 
 plainely shewing the true vse of the Scale 
 or Gamut, and also how to set any Lesson 
 higher or lower at your pleasure. Collected 
 together out of the best Authors professing the 
 practise of these Instruments." London, 
 1596. 
 
 A like form of Tablature was employed for 
 viols, as in John Dowland's second book of 
 Songs or Ayres, printed in 1600, in which is 
 a lesson in this peculiar notation for the bass 
 viol, entitled " Dowland's Adeu for Master 
 Oliver Cromwell;" and the " Schoole of 
 Musicke," by Thomas Robinson, lutenist, 
 has a song for the viol in Tablature. 
 
 The number of lines employed in Tabla- 
 ture was regulated by the number of strings 
 the instrument possessed. The following 
 portion of a " Pavin " is for the cittern, 
 which had four strings : — 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 -^ 
 
 A. 
 
 ^5_ 
 
 
 r 
 
 >>» 
 
 -<^ ~p 
 
 Outheme^rPauin. 
 
 From Philip Rossetor's " Lessons for Consort," 
 London, i6og. 
 
 To show a little variation in the Tablature 
 in use in these and similar books, the opening 
 notes of a " Coranto," from " Musick's Re- 
 creation on the Lyra Viol. Being a choice 
 collection of New and Excellent Lessons 
 for the Lyra Viol, both easie and delightfull 
 for yong Practitioners," c. 1656; are here 
 added : — 
 
 i II I 
 
 c 
 
 
 dL b^j=€ ^ 
 
 '.i^ 
 
 _a.£_ «^J- 
 
 3- 
 
 
 
 cL _ ._- 
 
 
 
 Ora.Tvto. 
 
 So late as the year 1682 Playford published 
 his "Apollo's Banquet, containing instruc- 
 
 tions and variety of new tunes Ayres and 
 Jiggs, for the treble violin (fretted)," in 
 which Tablature is employed, with the com- 
 pass of the four strings thus set forth — 
 the upper line indicating the frets to be 
 used : — 
 
 The First or Treble. 
 
 A B C D E 
 
 The Second or Small Mean. 
 A — R — r- — n — g — F — a,- 
 
 ^ 
 
 The Third or Great Mean. 
 
 The Fourth String or Base. 
 
 B r. n — F F — ft — F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TUNING OF 
 
 a hJ'ct 
 
 THE 
 
 c-a. 
 
 LUTE. 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 e. 1 
 
 
 If, h 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 df, 
 
 P- 
 
 
 d 
 
 fi a 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 L-c 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 J4. 
 
 4- 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 z 
 
 
 r- 
 
 1 
 
 ■ 
 
 d e 
 
 Ml 
 
 - 
 
 By unisons. 
 
 By octavioDS. 
 
 Music for viols was written sometimes in 
 the ordinary notation, or gamut-way; but 
 lute music was always written in Tablature 
 or Lyra-way. 
 
 Tablature for wind instruments was ex- 
 pressed by dots on a stave of six, seven, or 
 eight lines, according to the number of holes 
 in the instrument, the number of dots signi- 
 fying the number of holes to be stopped by 
 the fingers. This method, employed for the 
 German flute, hautboy and flageolet, is shown 
 in the following example, taken from "The 
 Pleasant Companion ; or New Lessons and 
 Instructions for the Flagelet," by Thomas 
 Greeting, gent. London, 1680. 
 
 ill i jn<j 
 
 =^ 
 
 & 
 
 9-r 
 
 -^ 
 
 ijCSm vr:)Ccfrm3^z 
 
 (417) 
 
 2 D 
 
TABLATURE. 
 
 To use the author's own words : — " All 
 tunes or lessons for the Flagelet are prick'd 
 upon six lines, answering to the six holes in 
 the instrument, by certain characters called 
 dots. These dots direct what holes are to be^ 
 stopt, there being so many, and the same holes 
 to be stopt on the Flagelet each breath, as 
 there are dots placed perpendicularly on the 
 six lines." The time was marked in a manner 
 similar to that in lute Tablature. 
 
 Another system of Tablature will be best 
 explained by the following diagram' (altered 
 from that given by Koch in his Lexicon) 
 
 Quintsait 
 
 Clainsancksait 
 
 Grossancksait 
 
 Clainprummer 
 
 Mittelprummer 
 
 Grossprummer 
 
 Organ Tablature was a system of writing 
 the notes without the stave by means of letters. 
 Thus the several octaves were called great, 
 little, one and two-line octaves, according to 
 the style of letter employed, to indicate them. 
 
 which shows the sounds, proceeding by semi- 
 tones, by the side of their letter signs. It 
 will be seen that the strings are called by the 
 old names fiftli-string or quint, small fifth- 
 string, great fifth-string, small prummer,* 
 middle prummer, great prummer. Capital 
 letters are reserved for the deepest string, but 
 the alphabetical system is carried out by the 
 small letters beginning from the a of the 
 mittelprummer working upwards to the letter 
 e of the quint ; then from the mittelprummer 
 f up to It, and so on. 
 
 w 
 
 t(bh 
 
 M*tt) 
 
 pW 
 
 b(4) 
 
 9{d) 
 
 »(<f|) 
 
 kkW 
 
 !!(/) 
 
 Of) 
 
 iC4) 
 
 "(e) 
 
 *(4) 
 
 z(a) 
 
 bb(&|?) 
 
 ii(ifcl) 
 
 1 
 
 c{c) 
 
 &(4) 
 
 n{d) 
 
 nidp 
 
 i{e) 
 
 "(/) 
 
 fe!!(/t) 
 
 b(4) 
 
 9(«) 
 
 m (6l>.) 
 
 t(6fcl) 
 
 kW 
 
 bb(4) 
 
 98 W 
 
 a (4) 
 
 i{e) 
 
 !(/) 
 
 1(/D 
 
 n{g) 
 
 «a(4) 
 
 KW 
 
 ^(6h 
 
 J(it|) 
 
 f W 
 
 «(4) 
 
 IW 
 
 ^■'{4) 
 
 ifW 
 
 1 g 
 
 This system is liable to be confused with an- 
 other of a similar character, which was adopted 
 at the commencement of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, for organs which only went down to F. 
 
 Notes. Rests. Value 
 
 q 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 Rests. 
 
 dd ee ff gg 
 
 In these systems sharpened notes were in- 
 dicated by a downward curved line at the side, 
 a^, c^ (a|, cf) and flattened notes by an up- 
 ward curved line a.', B', cf (al7, BI?, cb). 
 
 The duration of notes and rests was ex- 
 pressed by the following signs: — 
 
 When several notes were employed to- 
 gether, the tails were united thus : ^^ or 
 when rapidly written =H=t= as they appear in 
 the fac-simile from Wolf. Meckel's Lautten 
 Buck, given above. 
 
 Figured bass has also been called Tabla- 
 ture. 
 
 The latest publication in which this peculiar 
 form of notation was employed was in " The 
 New Flute Master," printed in 1704.- The 
 dot notation for wind instruments survived 
 the Tablature for the lute from which it was 
 derived by a few years only. With the dis- 
 use of the lute, arising from the trouble and 
 expense of keeping it in order, the employ- 
 
 * The word Prummer or Brummer means literally a 
 growler or grumbler, and its use with reference to deep- 
 toned strings is still kept up in this country by rustics, 
 who call the violoncello a grumbo, as the Germans call 
 it brumm. 
 
 (418) 
 
TABL EL MUSAHHIR ^TABOR. 
 
 ment of Tablature faded away, and as it was 
 found that the common notation was equally 
 available for all kinds of voices and instru- 
 ments, the emplojrment of a special notation 
 for individual instruments was comptetely 
 dispensed with. 
 
 Tabl el musahhir. Also called the Baz, 
 a drum used by Egyptian criers during the 
 Ramadan or annual fast, to accompany the 
 religious and congratulatory sentences^ uttered 
 before the houses of the wealthy. The Baz 
 or Tabl is also employed by the Dervishes in 
 their religious dances called zikrs. 
 
 Tabl Shamee. An Egyptian drum, sus- 
 pended from the neck and beaten with two 
 small sticks. 
 
 Table d'hainiionie {Ft.) (i) A table or 
 diagram of chords, &c. (2) A sounding-board. 
 
 Table d'instrument {Fr.) The belly of 
 an instrument of the violin or guitar classes. 
 The upper plate. 
 
 Table music, (i) Compositions intended 
 to be sung by several persons sitting at a 
 table. Many of the early printed music books 
 of madrigals, psalm tunes, &c., had the parts 
 so arranged on one page that two or more 
 persons sitting opposite each other at a table 
 could sing from the same book. The follow- 
 ing duet, by Dr. Rogers, is given that readers 
 may try for themselves how far this is a con- 
 venient system : 
 
 Treblb^ 
 
 all a - lone Phil - li - da 
 ■uop - u - 03 pire Bp - ji 
 
 and Co 
 
 ri - don. 
 
 1 n» 
 
 •ssvg 
 
 The ingenuity of composers was sometimes 
 exercised to produce pieces apparently in one 
 part but really in two, like the subjoined, 
 which may be performed by two players 
 sitting opposite to each other, each begin- 
 ning at the top of the page relatively to him : 
 
 Allegro Moderato. Duet for two violins, composed by NICOLO 
 
 Mestkiho, 1730-1790. 
 
 ■ONiHxsaj^ 'f^ 
 
 *sni[OiA om; joj ishq 
 
 (2) German part-songs (from the word Lieder- 
 tafeC). 
 
 Tabor. This instrument, under the name 
 toph {Arabian, aduf), is several times men- 
 tioned in the Bible. It is probable that it 
 only differed from the tambourine by being 
 without jingles in the hoop. It is often 
 associated with a word which some trans- 
 lators give as pipe, but which in the autho- 
 rized version of the Bible is rendered dancing 
 or dances. 
 
 ( +19 ) 
 
TABORET TAMBOURINE. 
 
 The old English tabor was hung round the 
 neck and beaten with a stick held in the right 
 hand, while the left hand was occupied in 
 fingering a pipe. The pipe and tabor were the 
 ordinary accompaniment of the morris-dance. 
 
 Taboret, Tabouret, Tabourin (Fr.) 
 Tabor. 
 
 Tabret. [Tabor.] [Tambourine.] 
 
 Tacet (Lat.), Tace {It.), Taciasi (7^) 
 Be silent. C.B. tacet, let the contrabasso 
 be silent, a direction that the violoncelli only 
 are to play the bass part. 
 
 Tact {Ger.) Takt. 
 
 Tactus [Lat) The stroke of the hand or 
 baton in beating time. In mediasval music 
 the time stroke was called tactus major when 
 the time consisted of a breve in a bar, and 
 tactus minor when it was a semibreve. 
 
 Tafelmusik {Ger.) [Table music] 
 
 Tail. [Stem.] 
 
 Taille {Fr.) (i) The tenor voice or tenor 
 part. (2) The tenor violin, the viola. 
 
 Tail-piece. That part of an instrument 
 of the vioUn kind to which the strings are 
 fastened at the lower end. The tail piece is 
 usually of ebony. 
 
 Takt {Ger.) Time, measure, bar ; as, 
 Taktart, the sort of time, whether duple or 
 triple ; Taktfest, steady in keeping time : 
 Taktfiihrer, conductor; Takthalten, to keep 
 time ; Taktmdssig, according to the time ; 
 Taktmesser, a metronome ; Taktnote, a semi- 
 breve ; Taktpause, a bar-rest ; Taktschlagen, 
 to beat time ; Taktstock, a baton, or stick for 
 beating time ; Taktstrich, a bar- line; Takttheil, 
 a division of time ; Taktzeichen, a time-sign. 
 
 Takigoti, or Takigoto. A species of 
 dulcimer in use among the Japanese, pro- 
 vided with moveable bridges, to alter and 
 regulate the pitch. It is played with the 
 fingers and with plectra. 
 
 Talabalacco. A Moorish drum. 
 
 Talon {Fr.) The heel of a bow. [Bow.] 
 
 Tambour (Fr.) Drum, the great drum. 
 
 Tamboura. An instrument of the guitar 
 species, with strings of wire struck with a 
 plectrum. The neck is long, and the body, 
 of gourd-shape, is often beautifully orna- 
 mented. The Tamboura is found in Persia, 
 Turkey, Egypt, and Hindustan, and it was 
 known to the Assyrians and Egyptians under 
 various names. The Egyptians called it nofre 
 or nefer, a term said to be synonymous with 
 nebel, the Hebrew word for a stringed instru- 
 ment. [Guitar.] 
 
 Tambour de Basque {Fr.) A tabor with 
 jingles, a tambourine. [Tambourine.] 
 
 Tambourin {Fr.) (i) A stage dance 
 formerly popular in France. It was of a lively 
 measure, and accompanied with a pedal bass 
 in imitation of the drone caused by rubbing 
 the thumb over the skin of a tambourine. 
 
 (2) A movement in a suite, of which the 
 following is a specimen : 
 
 TAMBOURIN D'ALCIMADURE. 
 
 From " Premier Recueil de Menuets, AUe- 
 mandes,'&c., Entremel€s D'airs agreables a 
 Chanter, avec leurs accompagnements, ar- 
 rang6s expres pour Le Cythre ou Guitthare 
 Allem'*'. Par Mr. L'Abbe Carpentier." Paris, 
 c. 1760. 
 
 Tambourine, Tambour de Basque, 
 Timbrel. An ancient pulsatile instrument 
 of the drum class, popular among all Euro- 
 pean people, but particularly those of the 
 South. The Biscayan and Italian peasantry 
 employed it on every festal occasion. It is 
 formed of a hobp of wood, sometimes of 
 metal, over which is stretched a piece of 
 parchment or skin ; the sides of the hoop are 
 pierced with holes, in which are inserted pieces 
 of metal in pairs, called jingles. Small bells 
 are sometimes fastened on to the outer edge 
 of the hoop. It is sounded by being struck 
 with the knuckles, or by drawing the fingers 
 or thumb over the skin, which produces what 
 is called " the roll," a peculiar drone mingled 
 with the jingle of the bells or pieces of metal. 
 In a book of instruction for the Tambourine 
 the names of the several effects and the 
 manner of writing for them, and of producing 
 them, are thus set forth : — 
 
 " ' Flamps ' are made with the knuckles 
 near the centre of the skin of the instrument ; 
 they are thus indicated : 
 
 {' rrircrxJ 
 
 ' Semi-flamps ' are struck nearer the rim ; 
 you make them where you see the music 
 written thus : 
 
 To make the ' Travale 
 
 ( 420 ) 
 
TAMBOURINEUR TEMPERAMENT. 
 
 draw your wetted thumb in a circular direc- 
 tion over the skin. The ' double-travale ' 
 
 is twice as quick. Use the 'jingles' where 
 the music is marked thus : 
 
 and the ' Roll ' when the tails of the notes 
 are waved : 
 
 is performed by shaking the 
 no sharps or flats in 
 
 The 'Roll 
 instrument. 
 
 " N,.B.— There are 
 tambourine playing." 
 
 Tambourineur (Fr.) 
 bourine player. 
 
 Tambour major (Fr.) Drum major. 
 
 Tamburino {It.) A drummer. 
 
 Tamburo {It.) A drum. 
 
 Tamburone {It.) The great druhi. 
 
 Drummer, tam- 
 
 [Gong.] 
 In a playful style. 
 The striking pin of a 
 
 Tam-tam {Fr.) 
 
 Tandelnd {Ger.) 
 
 Tangente {Ger.) 
 clarichord. 
 
 Tanto {It.) So much, as much ; Allegro 
 non tanto, not so fast ; a tanto possibile, as 
 much as possible. 
 
 Tanz {Ger.) A dance. Tanzkunst, the 
 art of dancing. 
 
 Tarantella (/*.) A rapid Neapolitan dance 
 in triplets, so called because it was popularly 
 thought to be a remedy against the supposed 
 poisonous bite of the tarantula spider. Others 
 say that the bite of the spider causes this 
 delirious dance, which ends fatally. 
 
 TARANTELLA, 1654. 
 Prima modus. 
 
 Antidoium tarantula. 
 
 /Ti 
 
 Irr r^ -^^^-^' r ■ r 1 1 J ^^JfeHfl 
 
 -^ ,^ J u 
 
 ^,.^-^JJ^.. 
 
 (.); T. [- =^;= 
 
 =p^r r g^ 
 
 •— 1 H 
 
 '-\ 1 "^r^ 
 
 Tardamente (It.) Slowly. 
 
 Tardando (/i.) Retarding the time. 
 
 Tardo {It.) Slow, dragging. 
 
 Tartini's tones. [Acoustics, § 19.J 
 
 Tastame {It.), Tastatur, Tastenbrett 
 {Ger.), Tastatura {It.), Tastiera {It-.), Tas- 
 tenleiter {Ger.) The key-board of a piano- 
 forte or organ. A hand-guide, guidemain. 
 Tastenschwanz {Ger.), the extremity of the 
 keys. Tastenwerk {Ger.), a keyed instrument. 
 
 Tasto {It.) (i) A key of a pianoforte. 
 (2) The touch of a pianoforte or organ. 
 
 Tasto solo {It.) A direction to play the 
 part without accompanying chords ; in unison, 
 or octaves. 
 
 Tatto {It.) The touch. 
 
 Tattoo, or Taptoo. The beat of the drum 
 at night to call soldiers to their quarters ; the 
 morning beat is called Reveill6 or Revelly. 
 
 Tche or Tsang. A Chinese instrument 
 strung with wire, tuned by means of pegs 
 and moveable bridges, and played with the 
 fingers like a guitar. 
 
 Teatro (7f.) A theatre. 
 
 Technik {Ger.) A general name for the 
 systems, devices, and resources of musical art. 
 
 Tedesca, alia {It.) In the German style. 
 
 Tell-tale. A moveable piece of metal or 
 bone attached by a cord to the bellows of an 
 organ, which gives notice to the blower or 
 the performer of the quantity of wind they 
 contain. [Organ.] 
 
 Tema {It.) A theme, or subject ; a melody. 
 
 Temperament. The division of the octave. 
 After discussing this, an appendix on the cal- 
 culation of intervals and beats shall be given. 
 
 The problem is, to divide the octave into 
 Nature of a number of intervals such, that 
 Problem. ^jjg notes which separate them 
 shall be suitable in number and arrangement 
 for the purposes of practical harmony. We 
 Notation must provide ourselves with a no- 
 
 reqmred. tation and means of expression 
 suited to the subject before we can discuss 
 the treatment it has received. 
 
 The simplest form of temperament is that 
 Intervals ex- in common use, which divides the 
 e"temp.° octavc into twelve equal semitones, 
 semitones. It is most Convenient to express 
 all intervals in terms of these semitones. 
 The perfect fifth contains 7.019550008654 
 semitones; the perfect third 3.863137138649 
 semitones. Five places are enough for all 
 practical purposes. 
 
 In all harmonious music the fifth to any 
 given note may be required at any time. 
 Hence all systems provide series of fifths of. 
 Series of fifths, a more or less complete charac- 
 ter. We shall found on this remark a nota- 
 tion suitable for general discussion. 
 
 If a series of perfect fifths be constructed 
 starting from c, octaves being disregarded, it 
 
 ( 421 ) 
 
TEMPERAMENT. 
 
 will not return exactly to c again. Taking 
 the fifth to be 7.01955 semitones, each note 
 in the series lies further than the last from 
 the equal temperament note of the same 
 name ; and this departure increases by .01955 
 for each step in the series, the equal tempera- 
 ment fifth being seven semitones. Thus the c 
 to which we return after twelve fifths is higher 
 than that from which we started by 12 x .01955 
 = .23460 of a semitone. This interval is 
 called the comma of Pythagoras. 
 
 We employ the following notation to repre- 
 Notation for sent this departure. We take the 
 
 aftha. , series of fifths, 
 /f — c 1^—a!^ — eO — VO—f — c — g — d — a — e— b, 
 for a standard series. On passing to the 
 next /J we denote that it is higher than the 
 first one by prefixing to it a mark of elevation 
 ( //|) ; thus 6— //# is a perfect fifth. We 
 proceed to form another series like the first, 
 to all of which the mark (/) is prefixed; so 
 that ic is the note to which we return on 
 completing the circle tff twelve fifths from c. 
 We may extend this indefinitely. Thus we 
 have a succession of notes, as c — ic — iic — 
 mc . . . , each additional (/) representing the 
 change of pitch caused by rising twelve fifiths 
 in the series, i.e. the Pythagorean comma. 
 Similarly we may extend the series in the 
 other direction : thus the fifth below /|l is 
 \b — /I, where .(\) is a mark of depression, 
 
 and we have such notes as \c — \\c 
 
 each (\) representing the depression of a 
 Pythagorean comma caused by traversing a 
 circle of twelve-fifths downwards in the series. 
 In these series such distinctions as that be- 
 tween a I and b'7 are not observed. The 
 place in the series is entirely determined by 
 the prefix. The use of this notation may be 
 extended to fifths which are not perfect. 
 
 Theorem. If from any note (c) eight per- 
 fect fifths be tuned downwards, a note (\e) 
 Thirds formed jg determined which forms an ap- 
 
 by eight fifths . , ri.it.-ji i \ 
 
 down. proximately perfect third to (c). 
 
 This theorem is the foundation of Helm- 
 holtz's system. For if we tune c — -f — 6't> 
 eb — «[? — dV — g^ — \b — \e, we depress the 
 pitch 8 X .01955 = .15640 below equal tem- 
 perament. But the perfect third is 3.86314 
 semitones, iiB., .13686 below the third of equal 
 temperament, which differs from the preceding 
 value of (\e) by about -^ of a semitone. 
 
 In the practical application of this, it is 
 generally attempted to distribute the error 
 over the eight fifths ; but for all ordinary ap- 
 proximate purposes it does not matter where 
 the error lies. We note here that the notes 
 b,e,a,d have their major thirds in the same 
 series, as d — ft ; all other notes in the series 
 below, as c — \ e. 
 
 The following definitions will now be re- 
 ceived without difficulty : — 
 
 Regular systems consist of notes which 
 
 Definitions, form a continuous series oi 
 Regular System, fifths, e.g. the System of perfect 
 fifths. 
 
 Regular cyclical systems consist of notes 
 Regular Cycii- which form a continuous series of 
 
 cai System, fifths, and divide the octave into 
 a certain number of equal intervals. 
 Orderofsystems. Primary regular cyclical sys- 
 tems are those in which the departure of 
 twelve of the approximate fifths of the system 
 from the starting point is equal to one unit 
 of the system. Secondary systems are those 
 in which the departure of twelve fifths from 
 the starting-point is two units, and so on. 
 P^''i^=.™'i Positive systems have fifths 
 
 systems.' sharper than equal temperament 
 fifths ; negative systems have fifths flatter 
 than equal temperament fifths. 
 
 The division of the octave into 53 equal 
 intervals furnishes an important primary 
 positive system ; into 118, a secondary positive 
 system ; 'into 31, a primary negative system ; 
 into 50, a secondary negative' system. 
 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 The earliest systematic division of the 
 octave on record is known as the Pytha- 
 gorean system ; it consists of a series of 
 perfect fifths. The third employed was that 
 Pythagorean formed by four fifths up, which 
 
 system. gtin j^g^rs the name of the 
 Pythagorean or dissonant thixd. Thus where 
 — g; — d — a — e are perfect fifths, c — e is the 
 Pythagorean or .dissonant third. The true 
 third is said to have been discovered bj' 
 Archjrtas. 
 
 The Greeks were acquainted with the prin- 
 
 Monochord. ciple of the monochord, and with 
 Vibration of the numerical ratios obtainable 
 Vibration from that instrument ; a short ac- 
 
 numbers. count of thesc is necessary to our 
 
 ratios." subject. We shall include vibra- 
 tion numbers and ratios. 
 
 Tte number of vibrations per second given 
 by a string of varying length, tension and 
 weight of string per unit of lengtli being the 
 same, varies inversely as the length. Thus 
 half the string vibrates twice as fast as the 
 whole string. 
 
 If two vibrating strings have the same ten- 
 sion and weight per unit of length, but lengths 
 differing in a given ratio, they will always 
 sound notes which include the same interval ; 
 and hence : — 
 
 If two sounds have different vibration num- 
 bers, the interval between them is always the 
 same when the ratio of the vibration numbers 
 is the same. Thus if the lengths are as 1:2, 
 the vibration numbers are as 2:1, and the in- 
 terval is an octave ; if the lengths are as 1:3, 
 the vibration nutabers are as 3:1, and the in- 
 
 ( 422 ) 
 
TEMPERAMENT. 
 
 terval is a twelfth, and so on. The notes 
 thus produced by fractions of the length of a 
 Harmonics. String are Called harmonics. The 
 order of a harmonic is the denominator of 
 
 the corresponding fraction. The following 
 table exhibits the vibration, ratios, and inter- 
 vals of the first sixteen harmonics, the intervals 
 being taken to three places of decimals : — 
 
 Table of Harmonics : — distance from fundamental = » equal temperament semitones, 
 order of Harmonic = denominator of string fraction ; — 
 
 = number of vibrations relativelyto number 
 of fundamental ; — 
 
 = X. 
 
 First Octave. 
 
 Second Octave. 
 
 Third Octave. 
 
 Fourth Octave. 
 
 X n 
 
 X , n 
 
 X n 
 
 X n 
 
 I (Fundamental) o-ooo 
 
 2 (Octave) 12-000 
 
 4 (Fifteenth) 24-000 
 
 5 (Tierce) 27-863 
 
 8 36-000 
 
 9 38-039 
 
 2 (Octave) 1 2 -coo 
 
 3 (Twelfth) 19-020 
 
 4 (Fifteenth) 24-000 
 
 6 (8«- Twelfth) 31-020 
 
 „ / Seventh \ • „./-qo 
 
 7 (.Harmonicj 33 688 
 
 8 36-000 
 
 II 41-513 
 
 12 43-020 
 
 13 44-405 
 
 14 45*688 
 
 15 46-883 
 
 16 48-000 
 
 Mersenne's work on Harmony was pub- 
 Uenamc. lishcd in 1 636. Amongst other 
 intCTMis. things he treats particularly of 
 intervals. The following table contains a 
 list of the principal intervals discussed by 
 theorists. The last two columns show the 
 number of units of the division of the octave 
 into 53 equal parts which represents each 
 interval most closely, with the equivalent of 
 
 this representation in equal temperament 
 semitones. This arrangement forms a classi- 
 fication of the various intervals in question, 
 which will much assist the mind in the com- 
 prehension of their relations. The system of 
 53 is the most important primary positive 
 system. One or two of the intervals are 
 from Kircher, who wrote soon after Mer- 
 senne. 
 
 Mersenhe and Kxrcbbr. 
 
 DiFFBRBNCB OF. 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 Equal Tem- 
 perament 
 Semitones. 
 
 of 
 Octave. 
 
 infis in 
 Eq. Temp. 
 Semitones. 
 
 
 
 2: I 
 3:2 
 4:3 
 5:4 
 6:5 
 9:8 
 10 :9 
 
 27:25 
 
 16 : IS 
 
 2187 : 20<8 
 
 135 : 128 
 256 : 243 
 
 25 :24 
 
 128 : 125 
 81 :8o 
 
 10240 : 10125 
 
 12-00000 
 7-01955 
 4-98045 
 3-86314 
 
 3-15641 
 2-03910 
 I 82404 
 
 1-33237 
 I-II731 
 
 I-13685 
 ■92179 
 ■90225 
 
 -70673 
 
 -41058 
 
 -21506 
 
 ■23460 
 ■20529 
 ■19552 
 
 S3 
 31 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 ■ I 
 
 I2'OO0OO 
 
 Fifth 
 
 
 7-01902 
 
 4-98098 
 3-84914 
 
 3^l6988 
 2^03778 
 I-81136 
 158494 
 1-35852 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Major Third and Fifth 
 
 
 Fourth and Fifth 
 
 
 
 Semitone Maximus 
 
 Major Tone and Minor Semitone 
 
 Apotome Pythagorica ... 
 Semitone Medius, or 
 
 Chromatic Semitone... 
 Pythagorean Semitone... 
 
 Seven Fifths up, Four Octaves down- 
 Major Tone and Major Semitone 
 
 Fourth and 2 Major Tones or 5 Fifths 
 
 I-13210 
 ■90568 
 
 
 Major and Minor Third or Minor Tone 
 and Major Semitone 
 
 Major Semitone and Minor Semitone 
 
 
 Semitone Minimus 
 
 -67926 
 
 Enharmonic Diesis 
 
 •45284 
 
 
 Major and Minor Tone or 2 Major 
 Tones and Perfect Thirds 
 
 Twelve Fifths either way and 7 Oc- 
 
 Comma of Pythagoras... 
 
 -22642 
 
 
 
 
 Enharmonic Diesis and Major Comma 
 Fraction of Comma 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 423 ) 
 
TEMPERAMENT. 
 
 Mersenne gives numerous systems of scales 
 
 Mersenne's which admit of the construction of 
 
 plrieSSm perfect concords. We will give 
 
 inF. one as an example. It is a scale 
 
 of the key of F, with i8 intervals in the 
 
 octave ; the division is irregular, but can be 
 
 represented as follows by means of a broken 
 
 series of fifths : — 
 
 \\6— \/|— \c|— \g'|; \g — \d—\a—\e—\b; 
 
 e7 — h'7—f — c—g; ig^ — id^ — ia7 — leV. 
 The resources of this system are very limited. 
 We have : — 
 
 Major chords of c—f—b^ — et* 
 
 \e — \a — \d — \^ thirds to the 
 
 above : 
 
 la^ — >d^ — ig'7 to which the 
 
 first given three notes are thirds. 
 
 Minor chords oi—c—f — b^ — eV ; 
 
 \e — \a — \d — Ng-, thirds to the 
 
 above : 
 
 \\b — \/J — \cf, thirds of the 
 
 chords of \g — \d — \a. 
 
 The minor chord of \g gives the perfect 
 chord of the sixth on the subdominant in the 
 key of F, i.e., (fet', \d, \g), thus requiring two 
 different keys {g, \g) to represent the second 
 of the key of F. A key-board for the system 
 is delineated in Mersenne, in which the 
 double G key appears. This double second 
 has always been a characteristic of the more 
 intelligent attempts at systems of pure inton- 
 ation. Several other key-boards for more 
 complex systems are drawn in Mersenne. 
 
 In a tract, " Cyclus Harmonicus," (i6g8) 
 Hnyghens. Huyghens first described correctly 
 the properties of the division of the octave 
 into 31 equal intervals, which was previously 
 known to be of interest. It is the most 
 important primary negative system. Smith's 
 
 Smith. Harmonics, 1759. Three systems 
 are principally discussed, one called equal 
 harmony, which has very flat fifths and flat 
 thirds ; it is negative, and resembles the sys- 
 tem of 50, as Smith points out : the mean 
 tone or old unequal temperament, which re- 
 sembles the system of 31, and has flat fifths 
 and perfect thirds : and a system in which 
 the thirds are just as sharp as the fifths are 
 flat. 
 
 An important tract is Woolhouse's Essay 
 Wooihouse. on Musical Intervals (1835). He 
 performs a part of his reckoning with the 
 notation of equal temperament semitones. 
 
 In the solution of the problem of tempera- 
 ment, Wooihouse adopts as basis the division 
 of the octave into 50 equal intervals ; this is 
 a secondary negative system. But instead 
 of treating it as a regular system, he selects 
 from it notes sufficient to form a certain 
 limited number of scales. This treatment 
 
 we regard as imperfect. He distinguishes 
 between such notes as cf and d'^. We shall 
 see later that this distinction is true and 
 sufficient in negative systems only. 
 
 Wooihouse also gives scales based on the 
 system of 3 1. The same remarks apply. 
 
 A paper by De Morgan (Cam. Phil. Trans. 
 De Morgan. X. 129) " On the beats of imper- 
 fect consonances," contains some details on 
 the calculation of intervals. The treatment 
 of the problem of beats is fundamentally 
 erroneous, as are all accounts of this sub- 
 ject before that of Helmholtz. De Morgan 
 employs equal temperament semitones as 
 the measures of intervals, and gives rules 
 for calculation nearly identical with those 
 used independently by the writer. See Ap- 
 pendix. 
 
 A paper by Herschel (Quarterly Journal of 
 Herschei. Science, V. 338) contains pro- 
 posals for systems of temperament. The 
 character of these will be sufficiently illus- 
 trated by one example. In the table at top of 
 p. 348, we have substantially a Pythagorean 
 system, with twelve notes in the octave ; the 
 break is made at d — \ a ; this fifth is a Pytha- 
 gorean comma out of tune. Such a fifth 
 cannot be used in music ; and this system 
 would exclude from use the keys of G, D, 
 and A, both major and minor. The Pytha- 
 gorean system is also defended by name. 
 
 Two important practical attempts are those 
 Thompson.' of Gen. T- ?• Thompson and Mr. 
 Poole. H. W. Poole (Silliman's American 
 
 Journal, Vol. xliv.) The limits of this 
 article forbid more than a concise reference to 
 the former. Gen. T. P. Thompson in his 
 Enharmonic organ, arranged three key^boards, 
 each starting from a key of the ordinary board 
 in perfect tune, and admitting of performance 
 in related keys by means of auxiliary notes ; 
 there were 40 notes in the octave. Looking 
 at the material of notes from our point of 
 view, it may be regarded as constituting a 
 series of approximately perfect fifths extend- 
 ing from \\A to ic, with the omission of two 
 single notes \\d and b. These omissions, 
 and the distribution between different key- 
 boards, greatly diminished the resources of 
 the instrument, which were, however, far 
 greater than those of any instrument pre- 
 viously constructed. We cannotomit to notice 
 Gen. Thompson's method of using the mono- 
 chord. He varied the weight by which the 
 string was stretched, as well as the length. 
 We judge that his form of the instrument is 
 probably the most perfect that has been 
 constructed. 
 
 The subject of temperament owes much to 
 Helmholtz. Helmholtz. The principal con- 
 clusions which we shall require to borrow 
 from him, are : — The approximate formation 
 
 ( 424 ) 
 
TEMPERAMENT. 
 
 of a perfect third by eight fifths tuned, down- 
 wards ; and the theories of harmonics, and of 
 difference tones (subharmonics or Tartini 
 tones) so far as we require them for the cal- 
 culation of beats. We must also note his 
 definition of dissonance, now universally 
 received by physicists; viz., the intermittent 
 excitation of the ear by a sound. Thus con- 
 sonant and dissonant properties of chords 
 depend on the beats they furnish. Such 
 combinations as fourths and harmonic 
 sevenths, which give no beats, may be dis- 
 tinguished as unsatisfied combinations. 
 
 The theory of harmonics ; — Musical notes 
 Hannonics. consist of Combinations of har- 
 Beats. monies with their fundamentals 
 
 (i.e. every note contains 8ve, 12th, &c., in 
 very considerable strength). The ear analyses 
 this complex note by receiving it on a 
 resonant instrument, which may be roughly 
 compared to a harp. The tones of different 
 parts of the scale are thus so far separated 
 that no direct interference can take place 
 between tones more than a minor third 
 apart. 
 
 The beats of imperfect consonances arise : 
 (i) From the interference of pairs of har- 
 monics nearly coinciding in pitch (e.g. imper- 
 fect fifth, by interference of 12th of C with 
 octave of G). 
 
 (2) From the interference of difference 
 tones (Tartini tones) with each other or with 
 harmonics, in pairs nearly coinciding in pitch. 
 For Ex. see Appendix. 
 
 Difference tones (Tartini tones) are such 
 Difference that their vibration number is the 
 (t2^ difference of the vibration num- 
 Tones.) bers of their primaries. Ex., if 
 c/^ — d'^ be a major tone (8 : 9) [nine] its dif- 
 ference tone is ( i) [one] i.e. C, the lowest 
 note of the organ key-board. If e/^ — d' be 
 sounded on a clarabella or harmonic flute, 
 the difference tone will be distinctly heard, 
 in the equal temperament of course not ex- 
 actly in tune. For the somewhat abstruse 
 theory of difference tones we must refer to 
 Helmholtz. The old theory, in which their 
 origin was ascribed to beats, is no longer re- 
 ceived by physicists. 
 
 The number of beats per second made by 
 Rule for Beats, two notes nearly coinciding in 
 pitch, is the difference of the vibration num- 
 bers of the two notes. 
 
 The above principles are required for 
 tiumerical calculation, see Appendix. 
 
 The remark already made, that in positive 
 
 Distinction systems the distinction between 
 
 Y<S'*r say (4 «i'?) fails, while in nega- 
 when Smjssibie. tive Systems it is true and essen- 
 tial, is the generalization of an observation of 
 Helmholtz. As this is very important we 
 will shortly explain the reason. 
 
 ( 425 
 
 The perfect third is below the equal tera- 
 Not in positive perament third in pitch. Hence 
 
 systems. [^ positive systems, which have 
 larger fifths than the equal temperament, a 
 third formed by downward fifths will approxi- 
 mate to the true third. That is to say the 
 thirds of these systems will be formed by 
 eight fifths down (see Th. p. 422) ; according 
 to this, the major third to a would be the 
 note commonly called d^- But it must be 
 written cj ; so in order to be clear, we cease 
 to recognise any distinction between these 
 two expressions, and denote the position in 
 the series of fifths by the notation before 
 described. 
 
 But in negative systems, where the fifths 
 are less than equal temperament fifths, fifths 
 But in negative, up depress the pitch ; so that the 
 third formed by four fifths up is the represen- 
 tative of the perfect third, and the distinc- 
 tion between c| d? becomes true and essen- 
 tial. 
 
 Ellis. A paper by Mr. A. J. Ellis, F.R.S., 
 (Proceedings of Royal Society, 1864,) contains 
 much information and copious references on 
 the subject of temperament. 
 
 GENERAL THEORY OF REG0LAR CYCLICAI. 
 SYSTEMS. 
 
 The importance of Regular Systems arises 
 Importance of from the Symmetry subsisting 
 
 Regular , ^ ^, -' . •' , .° 
 
 Systems. between the various scales to 
 which they give rise. No idea in the pre- 
 sent day is more connected with progress 
 in music than that of the similarity of all 
 keys. 
 
 The importance of regular cyclical systems 
 ^(P'u^ arises from the infinite freedom of 
 
 Systems. modulation which is possible in 
 properly arranged systems of this class. In 
 non-cyclical systems, modulation is apt to 
 bring us to the end of our material. 
 
 We shall consider the theory of regular 
 cyclical systems in its simplest form. 
 
 Definitions. The interval formed by tuning 
 Seven-fifths seven fifths up (disregarding oc- 
 
 Semitone. taves), is Called a seven-fifths 
 semitone, and it lies above the starting point. 
 
 The interval formed by tuning five fifths 
 Five-fifths down is Called a five-fifths semi- 
 
 Semitone. tone, and lies above the starting 
 point. 
 
 The seven-fifths semitone is the Apotome 
 Pythagorica, (Table of Intervals) when the 
 fifths are perfect. The five-fifths semitone 
 is the Pythagorean semitone when the fifths 
 ^re perfect. 
 
 Theorem. In any regular system, five seven- 
 fifths semitones and seven five- 
 fifths semitones make up an exact 
 
 Theorem on 
 Semitones 
 in Octave. 
 
 octave. 
 For the 
 
 departures from equal tempera- 
 
TEMPERAMENT. 
 
 ment of five seven-fifths semitones are due to 
 thirty-five fifths taken upwards, and the de- 
 partures of seven five-fifths semitones are 
 due to thirty-five fifths taken downwards ; 
 so that the departures destroy one another, 
 and leave the twelve semitones of the equal 
 temperament, which give an exact octave. 
 
 Theorem. In positive systems of the first 
 Theorem on dif- order (primary), the seven-fifths 
 
 ferenceofthe .^ vr _ ■' ' \ ^, ,, r 
 
 semitones, semitone IS greater than the five- 
 fifths semitone by one unit ; in positive sys- 
 tems of the second order (secondary), by two 
 units ; and so on. In negative systems less. 
 For, in regular systems, the seven-fifths 
 semitone has the departure from equal tem- 
 perament due to seven-fifths up. {Ex. gr., 
 c—g — d — a — e — b — '/#— 'c#.) The five- 
 fifths semitone, taken downwards, has the 
 departure due to five more fifths taken up. 
 {Ex. gr., (cjt — fd l7 — ie\> — ib\> — // — ic.) 
 Hence, in positive systems, the seven-fifths 
 semitone exceeds the five-fifths semitone by 
 the departure of twelve fifths from the start- 
 ing point {c — ic). But this is one unit in 
 primary systems, two in secondary, and so 
 on. (Definition.) And in negative systems 
 (in which the fifths are less than equal 
 temperament fifths, and twelve fifths fall 
 short of the octave), the seven-fifths semitone 
 is less than the five-fifths semitone by the 
 
 departure of the twelve fifths, which is one 
 unit in primary systems, two in secondary, 
 and so on. 
 
 These two theorems permit us to construct 
 positive or negative cyclical systems of any 
 order. Those few alone which present some 
 points of interest are entered in the following 
 scheme : — 
 
 Scheme of Regular Cyclical Systems, 
 
 PRIMARY POSITIVE. 
 
 Seven-fifths 
 Semitone, 
 *- 5 units. 
 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 II 
 
 Five-fifths 
 Semitone, 
 «=/ units. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Octave (Th. p. 425), 
 = 5S +7f- 
 
 29 
 41 
 
 53 
 
 65 
 
 SECONDARY POSITIVE. 
 
 9 118 
 
 PRIMARY NEGATIVE. 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 SECONDARY NEGATIVE. 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 31 
 43 
 
 50 
 
 PROPERTIES OF INTERVALS OF THE ABOVE SYSTEMS. 
 Depflriure, means displacement from equal temperament. Error, from the -perfect interval. 
 
 Units in 
 Octave, 
 
 == n. 
 
 Value of Unit in 
 Semitones, 
 
 = \1 
 
 n. 
 
 Departure of 
 l2-fifths. 
 
 Error of 
 Single Fifth. 
 
 Departure of 
 Thirds. 
 
 Error of 
 Thirds. 
 
 17 
 29 
 
 41 
 
 53 
 65 
 
 •70588 
 
 •41379 
 ■29268 
 •22642 
 •18462 
 
 •70588 
 
 •41379 
 •29268 
 •22642 
 •18462 
 
 •03927 Sharp. 
 •01493 Sharp. 
 •00484 Sharp. 
 •00068 Flat. 
 •00416 Flat. 
 
 •47059 
 •27586 
 ■19512 
 •15640 
 •12308 
 
 •33373 Flat. 
 •1390D Flat. 
 •058-26 Flat. 
 •01954 Flat. 
 •01378 Sharp. 
 
 118 
 
 •10169 
 
 •203388 
 
 •00260 Flat. 
 
 •13559 
 
 •00127 Sharp. 
 
 19 
 31 
 
 43 
 
 •63158 
 •38710 
 •29707 
 
 •63158 
 
 •38710 
 
 •297077 
 
 •07218 Flat. 
 •05 181 Flat. 
 •04432 Flat. 
 
 •21053 
 •12903 
 •09902 
 
 •07367 Flat. 
 •00783 Sharp. 
 •03784 Sharp. 
 
 SO 
 
 •24000 
 
 •48000 
 
 •05955 Flat. 
 
 •16000 
 
 •02314 Flat. 
 
 (426) 
 
TEMPERAMENT. 
 
 On inspecting the columns of errors, we at 
 Selection of once See that the system of ii8 
 
 systems. affords the greatest combined per- 
 fection of fifths and thirds; and next to it 
 comes the system of 53, which we prefer in 
 practice as more manageable. The system 
 of 31 has fifths T^ of a semitone flal ; and 
 this is enough to be disagreeable with sharp 
 qualities of tone, but its thirds are very good. 
 This system forms very nearly a cyclical form 
 of the mesotonic system, which, in an im- 
 perfect condition, was the old unequal tem- 
 perament. The rule of that system was 
 siniply that all the fifths of the continuous 
 series were made so flat as to bring down the 
 third made by four fifths up to a perfect 
 third. 
 
 We cannot here enter on the subject of 
 sevenths, except to remark that the systems 
 of 53 and 31 both afford good approximations 
 to the harmonic seventh.- 
 
 PRACTICAL EMPLOYMENT OF THE SYSTEM 
 OF S3- 
 
 We will now point out shortly the arrange- 
 Systemof53. ment which has been adopted for 
 the practical treatment of the system of 53 ; 
 it is applicable to all regular systems. 
 
 A key-board is arranged according to 
 tionso? "''"ai position in a series of fifths. 
 key-board.°" There are twelve vertical divisions 
 in the octave ; in the c division there are 
 notes such as \\c — \c — c — ic — iic ; these 
 are placed in ascending and receding order. 
 
 The vertical displacement c — ic is divided 
 equally amongst the 12 intermediate fifths. 
 Thus the whole tones of two-fifths each form 
 diagonal lines, and six whole tones lead 
 from </ to ; c". The following scheme shows 
 the relative positions of a portion of this 
 arrangement, with the characteristic numbers 
 of the system of 53. 
 
 "n 
 
 [SCHEME.] 
 
 //^ 
 
 "<=«.. 
 
 'c#. 
 
 efts 
 
 'c#. 
 
 ^N:lte 
 
 'd.4 
 
 di« 
 
 Mis 
 
 "M„ 
 
 "eb. 
 
 'eb 
 
 eb„ 
 
 ^le 
 
 //f 
 
 '98 
 
 «ei 
 
 'f., 
 
 f«« 
 
 ^s. 
 
 '^81 
 
 fits 
 
 =•0 
 
 '^1« 
 
 %4 
 
 ^1» 
 
 ^8S 
 
 '^*» 
 
 Sse 
 
 Est 
 
 S3* 
 
 Sas 
 
 S3 9 
 
 //o 
 
 '41 
 
 'ab,. 
 
 ai>. 
 
 ^b. 
 
 X 
 
 '43 
 
 »4S 
 
 "41 
 
 ''bb.o 
 
 'bb4. 
 
 bb« 
 
 ^bb^, 
 
 ^^bb« 
 
 'b. 
 
 ■'es 
 
 ^b„ 
 
 ^^b„ 
 
 ^^^:, 
 
 It is to be noted that, by the symmetry of 
 the principle of arrangement, the scales on a 
 keyboard constructed on this principle are 
 the same in all keys, as far as form and 
 fingering go. 
 
 According to the formation of the system 
 of 53, we see that the seven-fifths semi- 
 tones exhibit differences of 5 units, the 
 five-fifths semitones of 4 — Ex. gr: c^ — (cjfg ; 
 and C4 — cjtg. 
 
 ( 427 ) 
 
TEMPERAMENT. 
 
 A harmonium has been constructed with 
 Enharmonic » key-board of 84 keys to the 
 harmonium. octave, the position relations of a 
 portion of which are shown by the preceding 
 scheme. Some notes at the top are identical 
 with adjoining notes at the bottom, on the 
 right. Thus infinite freedom of movement is 
 secured, and any one of the 53 notes can be 
 used as key-note in exactly the same manner, 
 and with the same facility. The rule for 
 identifications is as follows: "A note near 
 the top of one division is identical with one 
 near the bottom of the adjoining division on 
 the right, when the lower division is white (t|), 
 if the sum of the marks is 4, and when the 
 lower division is black (jf or ]f), if the sum 
 of the marks is 5." 
 
 E.g.: iiCe = wcJte- 
 
 "4io = ^^^^10- 
 
 We have altogether four position marks in 
 the first pair, five in the second. 
 
 A few examples are subjoined, to illustrate 
 -the practical employment of the notation. 
 
 Ci) 
 
 (3) 
 
 i 
 
 (4) 
 
 Common major chord of C. 
 
 Common minor chord of C. 
 
 Common chord of dominant, 
 with first form of second. 
 
 Chord of sixth on sub-domi- 
 nant, with second form of 
 second. 
 
 (5) 
 
 Example of the successive use of the two 
 forms of the second ; the (0) is used to nullify 
 the preceding mark of depression (\ ). 
 
 (6) 
 
 m 
 
 Approximate harmonic seventh. 
 
 Hence the theorem : if the harmonic seventh 
 be used on the dominant, it must not be sus- 
 pended to form a fourth with the tonic. For 
 if we suspend the \/ in the above, we obtain 
 the fourth c — \f, a comma flat, which is un- 
 bearable. 
 
 The passing note illustrates the combina- 
 tion formed by the division of the octave into 
 three major thirds. The major third being 
 
 ^ of an octave, three major thirds fall -^ 
 short. We may distribute this error in a 
 variety of ways. The example shows the 
 case in which two of the thirds, c — \e — \g^f, 
 are made perfect. The remaining third, 
 \gjj^ — c is ^, instead of -^f . Noticing that -^- 
 is the ordinary dissonant third, we may 
 call xg-jf — c, a super-dissonant third. If we 
 employ gj as the passing note, we should 
 have two ordinary dissonant thirds. In the 
 equal temperament, the error of nearly half a 
 semitone is divided equally among the three 
 intervals. The most favourable distribution 
 is judged by the writer to be that given in 
 the example. Another common instance of 
 the same combination is the following : 
 
 1 ''-r 
 
 Here \b — te\) is a super-dissonant third. 
 
 The application of this arrangement to the 
 systems of 118 and 31 presents considerable 
 interest, but our limits preclude the discus- 
 sion. 
 
 If the above scheme be considered without 
 Non-cyclical thg characteristic numbers of the 
 systems. System of 53, we have the form 
 of application to any non-cyclical regular 
 system. The only difference then is that, 
 there being no identifications, continuous 
 modulation, upwards or downwards, on the 
 scheme would soon bring us to the end of 
 the material of notes provided. This dis- 
 placement takes place, in positive systems, 
 most rapidly by modulation between major 
 and minor keys ; e.g. : 
 
 The a b at the beginning of the second bar, 
 and id in the last, are derived from inver- 
 sions of chords into which harmonic sevenths 
 enter. 
 
 The defects of the equal temperament may 
 Defects of ^e estimated physically by means 
 PCTament!" of Helmholtz's definition of dis- 
 sonance. Beats begin to be disagreeable 
 when their number exceeds 3 or 4 in the 
 second, attain the maximum of dissonance 
 when about 33 in the second, and remain 
 audible as beats up to considerably beyond 
 100 per second, when produced by inter- 
 ference of tones of sufficient strength. The 
 application of this remark to the results 
 calculated in the Appendix serves for the 
 estimation of the dissonances of the equal 
 temperament. An ear accustomed to pure 
 chords recognizes these dissonances imme- 
 diately, even in the organ and in the full-toned 
 
 ( 428 ) 
 
TEMPERAMENT. 
 
 modern pianoforte ; but especially in the har- 
 monium. 
 
 In cases where difference tones are strongly 
 formed, as with wide-scaled organ-pipes, or 
 with two treble voices singing duets, errors 
 in small intervals displace the difference tone 
 by many times their own amount ; and to 
 educated ears this displacement, though not 
 always involving beats, is very offensive. 
 Helmholtz, who has written much on this 
 subject, regards this as the most offensive 
 characteristic of the equal temperament. 
 E.g. : The difference tone of e' — g' should 
 be C (8 ft.). In the equal temperament it 
 bears to that note the ratio f^ very nearly, 
 which is roughly about f of a semitone. 
 
 The question of melodic progressions, as 
 Melodic affecting the excellence of tem- 
 
 sequences. peraments, is too extensive for 
 our limits. We believe that it is a matter 
 entirely of custom and education, and that 
 the ear can accustom itself to any melodic 
 sequences whatever. 
 
 The writer has accustomed his ear to such 
 sequences as the following, which are new in 
 music, whatever may be the opinion as to 
 their effect : — 
 
 (lO 
 
 n J 
 
 ■ "J* V "J' 
 
 .J 
 
 y "^S: 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 fflV^g -■ \^^9— 
 
 (The o nullifies the elevation and depression marks.) 
 
 The following example illustrates an instance 
 in which a direct depression of pitch by a 
 comma ( \) has proved to have a good effect. 
 
 The second chord contains a depression of 
 the tonic g. It may be regarded as derived 
 from a passing dominant harmony on a, con- 
 taining \g as harmonic seventh. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 On the Calculation of Intervals, and of Beats, 
 
 (i) To find the equivalent of a given vibra- 
 tion ratio in equal temperament semitones. 
 
 Rule. — ^Take the common logarithm of the 
 ratio ; subtract -j^ of itself, and call this the 
 first improved value. From the original 
 logarithm subtract ^ of the first improved 
 value, and -nr,^ of *e first improved value. 
 Multiply the remainder by 40. The result is 
 the required equivalent. If we take logs, to 
 seven places, five will generally be correct in 
 the result. 
 
 Example. — To find the equivalent of a per- 
 fect fifth, whose ratio is f. 
 
 log. 3 = •4771213 log. f = -1760913 
 log. 2 = -3010300 -0005850 
 
 log. 1= -1760913 
 wo- = -0005870 
 
 -1755063 
 
 1755 
 
 proved^ -1755043 
 
 ■sU -0005850 
 
 •17548875 
 40 
 
 7-01955 100 
 
 In this case the whole seven places are cor- 
 rect, but this is accidental. 
 
 (2) To find the vibrations ratio of an in- 
 terval given in equal temperament semitones. 
 
 To the given number add -j^ of itself and 
 T^^^ of itself; divide by 40. The result is 
 the logarithm of the ratio required. We must 
 not take more than six places ; then as many 
 as we take will be correct in the answer. 
 
 Example. — To find the vibrations ratio of 
 the equal temperament third, consisting of 4 
 semitones. 
 
 Tory - 
 
 1 . 
 
 10.000 ■ 
 
 4-000000 
 
 •013333 
 •000400 
 
 40 ) 4-013733 
 
 •1003433 = ^°s- 1-259921 
 
 The ratio of the perfect third is i •250000, 
 so that the ratio of the equal temperament 
 third to the perfect third is very nearly ^%. 
 
 The calculation of beats is essential to the 
 accurate construction of systems of tuning. 
 The principles to be applied have been 
 already enunciated. 
 
 Ex. I. — To determine the number of beats 
 per second in the equal temperament fifth 
 c' — ^g-' (c' = 256). 
 
 The twelfth of c' is g"=y68. This inter- 
 feres with the octave ofg'; and this is -0195500 
 flat, since a perfect fifth contains 7^0195500 
 semitones. 
 
 To find the vibration number of the note 
 •0195500 below g" = 768. 
 
 Proceeding by Rule 2 we have — 
 •0195500 
 •0000652 = s^ 
 
 19 = 10,006 
 
 40 ) •0196171 
 
 •0004904= log. ratio of note to g^' 
 
 Again — log. 768 = 2^88536i3 
 log. ratio = ^0004904 
 
 log. tempered g-" = 2^8848709 
 = log. 767^i33 
 
 ( 429 ) 
 
TEMPESTOSAMENTE TEMPi&TE. 
 
 The number of beats per second is the diifer- 
 ence of the vibration numbers. 
 
 768-000 
 
 767-133 
 
 •867 = no. of beats per second. 
 60 
 
 52*02 := no. of beats per minute. 
 
 Ex. 2. — To determine the number of beats 
 
 per second in the equal temperament third 
 
 c' — ef, caused by the interference of the tierce 
 
 (/ with the double octave of ef. 
 
 From p. 25 — log. ratio -^ 
 
 log. C 
 
 ///_ 
 
 = •1003433 
 log. io24 = 3'OiO3O00 
 
 log. tempered /''= 3*1 106433 
 
 =log. i2go-i6 
 
 and et"=^ 5 x 256 = laSo-oo 
 
 io-i6 
 or 10 per second very nearly. 
 
 These beats are, then, rapid enough to be 
 offensive in the higher parts of the scale, 
 where the notes used contain the harmonics 
 of the 4th and 5th order in sufficient strength. 
 
 Beats of difference tones (Tartini Tones). 
 
 Ex. — To find the number of beats per 
 second produced by the difference tones of 
 c' — «', P — g', in the equal temperament triad. 
 
 From the above examples we have — 
 
 =383'566 
 
 2 
 
 e''--=i290"i6 
 
 .= 322-54 
 
 whence 
 
 322-54 
 256- 
 
 383-56 
 322-54 
 
 diflf. of e'—i/--^ 66-54 6i-02=diff. of g^—e^ 
 
 These are the vibration numbers of the two 
 difference tones ; and we have — 
 
 66-54 
 
 61-02 
 
 5-52 
 or 5j beats per second nearly. 
 
 Application to the construction of systems. ■ 
 
 For this purpose it is necessary to know 
 the absolute pitch, as all the numbers in 
 question vary with it. The following method 
 can be carried out with a few organ pipes or 
 harmonium reeds : — 
 
 Rule. — To the note (c) to be determined 
 tune a perfect fifth (c — g), and to this {g) a 
 
 perfect fourth down {g — d). Then (c — d) is 
 a major tone. 
 
 Interpolate between these two notes so 
 many others that the beats between each 
 pair are just slow enough to admit of counting. 
 Count the number of beats given by each 
 of the pairs in two minutes : add, and divide 
 the sum by 15. The result is the number 
 of vibrations of (c) in one second. 
 
 Ex. — A harmonium reed sounded a note 
 near tenor c ; d was made a major tone to it 
 as above: four notes (i., 11., iii., iv.) were 
 arranged so as to give countable beats. The 
 numbers observed in a quarter of a minute 
 were : — 
 
 c— I. =58 
 
 I.— 11. =44-5 
 
 II. — III. =70 
 
 III. — IV. = 49 
 
 IV. — d=40 
 
 261-5 
 
 Multiply by 8 we have the number for two 
 minutes =2092; and dividing, by 15 we get 
 139-5 f""- t^fi vibration number of the given 
 note. 
 
 When we have the vibration number of 
 the starting-point, we can proceed to obtain 
 numbers of beats for guidance in tuning. 
 
 E.g. — To tune the equal temperament by 
 fifths. 
 
 The following are the beats per minute 
 when. c/=,264 : — 
 
 d^ —a' 
 
 e' —V 
 f —c" 
 
 a"<}—e"\) 
 a' -e" 
 1/])—/' 
 b' -ft 
 
 53-4 
 
 57- 
 
 60-3 
 
 64-2 
 
 67-5 
 
 71-6 
 
 75-6 
 80.4 
 85-2 
 90- 
 
 95*4 
 101-4 
 
 The methods indicated in the foregoing 
 brief sketch are sufiicient for the solution of 
 problems in tuning. Our limits preclude 
 further discussion on the subject. 
 
 Tempestosamente (//.) Impetuously, 
 furiously. 
 
 Tempestoso (/*.) Tempestuous, moved, 
 agitated. 
 
 Temp&te (Fr.) A dance invented in Paris 
 about twenty-five years ago. The dancers 
 are arranged as in a quadrille^ in parties of 
 four couples. Two couples stand side by side 
 facing their respective vis-hr-vis, so that as 
 there are no side couples as many sets can be 
 arranged as the ball-room will accommodate. 
 " The step is the same as the quadrille, varied 
 
 ( 430 ) 
 
TEMPO TENORE. 
 
 sometimes by the introduction of the galop 
 step, when the couples cross to each others' 
 places, or advanpe to the lines of the next 
 set." La Temp6te is danced to quick music 
 in f time. 
 
 Tempo (It.) Time or measure. Tempo 
 comodo, convenient, easy, moderate time; 
 Tempo di Ballo, dance time; Tempo di 
 Cappella, in the time of Church music [A 
 Cappella] ; Tempo di Gavotta, in the time of 
 a gavot [Gavot] ; Tempo di Marcia, in 
 marching time ; Tempo di Minuetto, in the 
 time of a minuet [Minuet] ; Tempo di 
 Polacca, in the time of a polacca [Polacca] ; 
 Tempo di prima parte, in the time of the 
 first part, or original movement ; Tempo di 
 Valse, in waltz time [Waltz] ; Tempo frette- 
 vole or frettoloso, in quick, hastened, hurried 
 time ; Tempo giusto. [A tempo giusto] ; 
 Tempo ordinario, in ordinary or usual 
 time ; an ordinary walking pace, an andante. 
 Tempo perduto, lost, interrupted, broken, 
 and irregular time. Tempo primo, first or 
 original time ; a direction to resume the pace 
 with which the movement started after an 
 alteration. Tempo reggiato, regulated time. 
 A direction to accommodate the pace to the 
 solo performer. Tempo rubato, robbed or 
 stolen time. Time occasionally slackened or 
 hastened for the purposes of expression. 
 
 Tempo wie vorher {Ger.) The time as 
 before. 
 
 Temps, or Tems (Fr.) (i) Time ; (2) the 
 parts or divisions of a bar. Temps faible, 
 (i) weak time ; (2) the unaccented parts of 
 a bar. Temps fort, (i) strong time ; (2) 
 the accented parts of a bar. Temp's frappi, 
 the down beats in a bar [Down beat]. 
 Temps leve, the up beats in a bar [Up 
 beat]. 
 
 Tempus {Lat.) Time, one of the three 
 early divisions of mensurable music, which 
 were — (i) Mode ; (2) Time ; (3) Prolation. 
 Modus was the division of a maxim into longs, 
 or of a long into breves ; Tempus, the division 
 of a breve into semibreves ; Prolatio, the 
 division of a semibreve into minims. Tempus 
 was of two kinds, " perfectum " and " im- 
 perfectum ; " in the former, the breve was 
 divided into three semibreves ; in the latter, 
 into two semibreves. The sign of the former 
 is a complete circle, O \ t^^t of ^^^ latter, an 
 incomplete circle, C. It is from this latter 
 sign, in all probability, we derive our mark 
 for common time now usually written as 
 aC. 
 
 Ten., abb. oitenuto. 
 
 Tendrement (Fr.) Tenderly, delicately. 
 
 Tenebrae {Lot.) An office celebrated on 
 the afternoons of Maundy Thursday and 
 Good Friday, and on other special days in 
 the Roman Catholic Church, to commemorate 
 
 the darkness over the earth at the time of the 
 Crucifixion. 
 
 Tenendo il canto {It.) Sustaining the 
 melody. 
 
 Teneramente (It.) Delicately, tenderly. 
 
 Tenerezza, con {it.) With tenderness, 
 softness, delicacy. 
 
 Tenero (It.) Tender, soft, delicate, sensi- 
 ble, careful, 
 
 Tenete (It.) Keep, hold, susitain. 
 
 Tenor, Tenore(J<.),Taille(F»-.) (i) The 
 third of the four kinds of voices arranged 
 with regard to their compass. It is the 
 highest of male chest voices, and its extent 
 lies between tenor C and treble A. 
 
 (2) The tenor voice is sometimes called by 
 way of distinction " the human voice," from 
 an idea that it is the quality and compass of 
 voice most common to man. The Plain Song 
 of the Church was formerly given as a tenor 
 part, the harmonies being constructed above 
 and below it ; the supposed derivation of the 
 word tenor from teneo, I hold, is supported 
 by the fact that the cantus firmus was known 
 and sung by the congregation or greater body 
 of singers. Many of the hymn tunes employed 
 up to the first quarter of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, as well as many of the arrangements of 
 the responses used in the Church Service, 
 were written with the melody in the tenor 
 part. 
 
 (3) In old music the tenor voice was divided 
 into three classes — alius, medius, and bassus 
 — high, mean, and low tenor. 
 
 (4) The larger violin of low pitch is called 
 the tenor, viola, bratsche, and sometimes 
 alto violin. [Viola.J 
 
 (5) The largest bell in a peal, or set, is 
 distinguished by the name of tenor bell. 
 
 Tenor C. (i) The lowest C in the tenor 
 voice. 
 
 E I I 
 
 (2) The lowest string of the tenor violin. 
 
 Tenor clef. The C clef placed upon the 
 fourth line of the stave. 
 
 It is used for the tenor voice, tenor trombone, 
 the higher register of the bassoon and violon- 
 cello, &c. The treble clef is sometimes em- 
 ployed for the tenor voice, but the notes are 
 then expressed an octave above their true 
 sound. The late Thomas Oliphant suggested 
 that two treble clefs conjoined should be the 
 sign of the tenor G clef. 
 
 Tenore (It.) (i) Tenor voice. (2) A tenor 
 singer ; Tenore buffo, a tenor singer to whom 
 
 (431 ) 
 
TENORIST TETRACHORD. 
 
 is assigned a comic part in an opera ; Tenore 
 leggiero, a tenor singer with a voice of light, 
 small quality ; Tenore robusto, a tenor singer 
 with a full, strong, sonorous voice. 
 
 Tenorist. One who sings the tenor part, 
 or plays the tenor violin. 
 
 Tenoroon. (i) The name of an old tenor 
 oboe with a compass extending downwards 
 to tenor C. (2) A word affixed to an organ 
 stop to denote that it does not proceed below 
 ' tenor C, as, tenoroon hautboy. A tenoroon 
 diapason is a double diapason which does not 
 extend below tenor C. 
 
 Tenor posaune [Ger.) Tenor trombone. 
 [Trombone.] 
 
 Tenor schliissel (Ger.) Tenor clef. 
 
 Tenor trombone. A trombone with a 
 compass of two octaves and a fifth 
 
 I for the C trombone andig 
 
 for the B flat trombone. [Trombone.] 
 
 Tenor violin. The viola. [Viola.] 
 
 Tenorzeichen (Ger.) The t^nor clef. 
 [Clef.] 
 
 Tenth, (i) A compound interval com- 
 prising an octave and a third, nine conjoint 
 degrees, or ten sounds. The tenth is the 
 octave of the third, and may be major or 
 minor, diminished or augmented. [Inter- 
 vals.] (2) An organ stop, tuned a tenth 
 above the diapasons, called also double tierce 
 or decima. [Organ.] 
 
 Tenuto.(7^), Tenu {Fr.) Held on, sus- 
 tained, kept down for the full time. 
 
 Teorbo {It) [Theorbo.] 
 
 Teoria {It.) Theory. Teoria del Canto, 
 theory of singing ; Teoria d'armonia, theory 
 of harmony. 
 
 Tepidamente (It.) In a lukewarm man- 
 ner, with indifference. 
 
 Tepidita (It.) Coldness, indifference. 
 
 Ter (Lat.) Thrice. 
 
 Tercet (Fr.) A triplet. [Triplet.] 
 
 Ternary form. Rondo form. [Form.] 
 
 Ternary'measure. Triple time. Perfect 
 time. [Signature § 2.] 
 
 Terpodion. An instrun>ent invented by 
 David Buschmann of Hamburg, in 1816, re- 
 sembling in appearance the pianoforte, but 
 the tone was produced from blocks of wood 
 struck with hammers. It contained also a 
 contrivance by which the sound might be 
 increased or diminished at pleasure. 
 
 Tertia (Lat.) [Tierce.] 
 
 Tertian. An organ stop composed of two 
 ranks of pipes, sounding a major third and 
 fifth of the foundation pipes, in the third 
 octave above ; a Tierce and Larigot on one 
 slider. 
 
 Ter unca {Lat.) Thrice hooked. A demi- 
 semiquaver. 
 
 Terz {Ger.) [Tierce.] 
 
 Terza {It.) (i) The third. Opera terza, the 
 third work ; Violino terzo, the third violin. 
 (2) [Tierce.] 
 
 Terzdecime {Ger.) A thirteenth. 
 
 Terzdecimole {Ger.) A group of thirteen 
 notes to be performed in the time of eight, or 
 of twelve. 
 
 Terzettino {It.) A short composition for 
 three performers. 
 
 Terzetto {It.) A composition for three 
 performers. 
 
 Terzflote {Ger.) (i) A flute sounding a 
 third above the notes written. (2) An organ 
 stop, [Tierce.] 
 
 Terzina {It.) A triplet. 
 
 Terzo mano {It.) Lit. a third hand. 
 An octave coupler on Italian organs. 
 
 Terzquartakkord {Ger.) The f or | chord. 
 
 3 
 The second inversion of the chord of the 
 
 dominant seventh. 
 
 Terzquartsextakkord {Ger.) [Terzquart- 
 akkord,] 
 Terzquintsextakkord {Ger.) The % chord. 
 
 The first inversion of the chord of the domi- 
 nant seventh, figured §. 
 
 Testo {It.) (i) The text, theme, subject 
 of a composition. (2) The libretto of an 
 opera, or the words of a song. 
 
 Testudo {Lai.) A name for the lyre, 
 because the sounding part or hollow was 
 made of the shell of the sea tortoise or turtle. 
 [Lyre.] 
 
 Tetrachord. A scale-series oifour notes. 
 The word in its modern sense signifies a half 
 of the octave scale, e.g. : 
 
 First Tetrachord. 
 
 Second Tetrachord. 
 
 It will be seen that the position of the tones 
 and semitones is similar in both tetrachords. 
 A third tetrachord placed above these two 
 would lead into the key' of G., e.g. : 
 
 and another into the key of D, 
 
 and so on through all the sharp keys. Simi- 
 
 ( 432 ) 
 
TETRACHORDAL SYSTEM THIRTEENTH, CHORD OF THE. 
 
 larly, tetrachords placed below the first lead 
 into flat keys, e.g. : 
 
 Tetrachords which overlap are said to be con- 
 junct; those having a degree between them, 
 disjunct. 
 
 
 o c o 
 
 "q5 
 
 Similar disjunct tetrachords necessarily pass 
 through the whole key-series, and a com- 
 bination of conjunct and disjunct tetrachords 
 is required to form a diatonic scale of more 
 than one octave in compass. [Greek music] 
 Tetrachordal system. The early form 
 of the system now known as Tonic Sol-fa. 
 [Tonic Sol-fa.] 
 
 Tetrachordon, Bogenclavier (Ger.) An 
 instrument similar in appearance to a cottage 
 pianoforte, and like it played by a finger-board, 
 but the tone, instead of being produced by 
 striking, is obtained by means of a cylinder of 
 india-rubber charged with rosin, kept in motion 
 by a pedal, variety of tone being gained by the 
 depth of pressure on the keys by the fingers. 
 It is called the tetrachordon from an idea that 
 its sounds are similar to those produced by a 
 string quartet. The instrument is constructed 
 also with self-acting machinery. [Xanor- 
 phica.] [Hurdy Gurdy.] 
 
 Theil (Ger.) (i) A part or division of a 
 bar. (2) A phrase, strain, or part of a piece. 
 (3) A piece, composition, work. 
 Thema (Ger.) [Theme.] 
 Theme {Fr.) [Theme.] 
 Theme, (i) One of the divisions of a 
 subject, in the development of sonata-form. 
 [Form.] (2) The cantus firmus on which 
 counterpoint is built. (3) The subject of a 
 fugue. (4) A simple tune on which varia- 
 tions are made. 
 Theorbe (Fr.) [Theorbo.] 
 Theorbo, Tiorba (7^.); Theorbe {Fr>); 
 Basslaute (Ger.) (i) An old stringed in- 
 strument resembling the lute in form or tone. 
 It had two necks, to the longest of which the 
 bass strings were attached. It was employed 
 for accompanying voices, and was in- great 
 favour during the seventeenth century. Mace 
 describes it as " no other than that which we 
 
 call'd the old English lute." It differed from 
 the lute in the possession of its two necks, 
 from whence it is sometimes called cithara 
 bijuga. 
 
 The strings were usually single in the 
 Theorbo, and when double, or tuned in octaves 
 or unison with the bass or treble notes, the 
 instrument was called the arch-lute, or chit- 
 tarone. 
 
 (2) Its invention has been variously as- 
 signed to an Italian, Signor Tiorba, from 
 whom it is said to have derived its name ; 
 to one called Bardella about the year 1600 ; 
 and to Hotteman, a German, living in France 
 in 1650. 
 
 Sir John Hawkins attributes the invention 
 to a nameless Neapolitan, who called it 
 Tiorba from its resemblance to an instru- 
 ment used for pounding perfumes so called. 
 Johannes Kapsberger, a German of noble 
 birth, who died about 1630, was a skilful 
 performer on the instrument, and wrote a 
 large quantity of music in tablature for it. 
 
 (3) The Theorbo was used as an instrument 
 in the orchestra as late as the year 1708 by 
 Francesco Conti. It was also employed in 
 the performance of sonatas in the place of 
 the cembalo, from its power of rendering a 
 figured or thorough bass. Corelli's third' se( 
 of sonatas, published in Bologna in 1690, 
 contains a part for the Theorbo or violone. 
 
 Theoretiker {Ger.) A theorist. 
 
 Theoricien (Fr.) A theorist. 
 
 Theorist. One who studies the nature of 
 sound or the principles of musical art. 
 
 Theory of music. The science of music. 
 The speculations arising from a kpowledge 
 of the principles of sound. The rules for 
 composition and arrangement of music for 
 voices and instruments in rh3rthm, melody, 
 harmony, counterpoint, and instrumentation. 
 
 Thesis (G^.) The downward wave of the 
 hand to denote the absence of accent. [Ac- 
 cent, § 5.] [Arsis.] [Metre.] 
 
 Thin, (i) Meagre and scanty harmony. 
 (2) A poor quality of tone in a voice or on an 
 instrument. 
 
 Third. [Interval.] 
 
 Third flute. [Terzflote.] 
 
 Third stave. A name given to the stave 
 upon which pedal music is written for the 
 organ. 
 
 Thirteenth, chord of the. A chord 
 called by some a suspension ; by others, a 
 secondary seventh {see Seventh, Exs. 34 — 41). 
 It consists generally of the 3rd, 7th, and 13th 
 
 ( 433 ) 
 
 2 E 
 
THIRTY-SECOND NOTE TIMBALE. 
 
 of the dominant, and is used both in the 
 major and minor modes. The following are 
 its most common forms. 
 
 note. 
 
 A demisemi- 
 
 Thirty- second 
 
 quaver. 
 
 Thorough bass. Basso continue (It.), 
 Basse contrainte {Fr.) A species of musical 
 shorthand, reduced to a system by Ludovico 
 Viadani, about the year 1605, which has 
 remained substantially unimproved since his 
 day. It consists of a bass part with the ac- 
 companying harmonies indicated by figures. 
 Henri Diimont was the earhest musician in 
 France who made use of thorough bass, about 
 1640, and the first treatise on thorough bass, 
 published in England, was the work of 
 Matthew Lock, issued under the title of 
 " Melothesia ; or, Certain General Rules for 
 Playing upon a Continued Bass, with a 
 choice collection of Lessons for the Harpsi- 
 chord and Organ of all softs," London, 1673. 
 
 Francis de la Fond in 1725, suggested a 
 new method of figuring a bass by calling 
 the notes of the chromatic scale by the num- 
 bers one up to thirteen. [Figured Bass.] 
 
 Threnody. An elegy, or funeral song, 
 from the Greek QprjvMa. 
 
 Thrice - marked - octave (Dreigestrichen 
 qctav). . The name given in Germany to all 
 the notes of the octave above C in alt. 
 [Pitch.] 
 
 Thrum, (i) To play without skill upon a 
 stringed instrument. (2) The sound so made. 
 
 Thiirmer(G«r.) A town musician. [Waits.] 
 
 Tibia (La^) [Flute.] 
 
 Tibiae pares \Lat.) fwo flutes of the 
 same pitch, which were played together by the 
 same performer. 
 
 Tibiae utriculariae (Lai.) [Bagpipe.] 
 
 Tibia major. An organ flute-stop of i'6-ft. 
 pitch. [Flute.] 
 
 Tibicen {Lat.) (From tibia and cano.) A 
 flute-player; tibicina, a female flautist; tibi- 
 cinium, a piping ; tibicino, to pipe. 
 
 Tie. (i) A curved line placed over two or 
 more notes in the same position on the stave : 
 
 The tie is also called a bind, and the curved 
 line, when used over notes representing dif- 
 ferent sounds, is called a slur. [Bind.] 
 [Slur.] (2) When two or more quavers, semi- 
 quavers, &c., are united, instead of being 
 written with separate tails, they are said to 
 be tied. [Stem.] [Printing of Music] 
 
 Tief {Ger.) Deep, low. 
 
 Tierce (Fr.) (i) A third. (2) An organ 
 stop tuned a seventeenth above the diapason. 
 [Organ.] (3) The service which took place 
 at the third hour of the day, the undersang 
 of the Anglo Saxons. [Horse Canonicse.] 
 (4) The natural harmonic produced by .J of 
 a vibrating string. [Acoustics.] 
 
 Tierce de Picardie (Fr.) The sharpened 
 third in the concluding chord of a composi- 
 tion in the minor mode. 
 
 Tierce coulee (Fr.) A slurred third. In 
 old harpsichord music the tierce cotiUe was 
 expressed by a dash through the notes of the 
 third, in a diagonal direction, thus : 
 
 when it was called the rising slurred third, 
 tierce coul&e en ntontant, and was played : 
 
 A stroke in the opposite direction 
 
 was called the falling slurred third, 
 couUe en descendant, and was played : 
 
 tierce 
 
 Timb. Abb. for Timbales. [Kettle- 
 drums.] 
 
 Timbale (Fr.) [Kettle-drum.] 
 
 ( 434 ) 
 
TIMBALLO ATONIC SOL-FA. 
 
 Timballo (/t.) [Kettle-drum.] 
 
 Timbre {Fr.) Quality of tone or sound. 
 Klang OT Klangfarbe (Ger.) [Acoustics, § i6.] 
 
 Timbrel. [Tabor.] [Tambourine.] 
 
 Time. (i) The division of musical 
 phrases into certain regulated portions mea- 
 sured with regard to the value of the notes 
 with respect to the semibreve, which, in 
 modern music, is held to be the standard of 
 time. There are two sorts of time, duple 
 with two, four, or eight beats in a bar, and 
 triple with three beats in a bar. There is also 
 compound time, or time formed of the union 
 of triple with duple, and triple with triple, 
 each having a distinctive time signature. 
 [Signature, § 2.] 
 
 (2) The pace at which a movement is per- 
 formed is called its time or tempo. 
 
 Timorosamente {It.) Timidly, hesita- 
 tingly, with fear. 
 
 Timoroso {It.) Timorous, with hesita- 
 tion. 
 
 Timp. Abb. of Timpani. 
 
 Timpani {It.) Kettle-drums. 
 
 Timpanista {It.) A drummer. 
 
 Tintement {Fr.) The tinkling of a bell. 
 
 Tintinno {It.) [Tintement.] 
 
 Tintinnabulum {Lat.) A rattle {Gk. 
 vXaTayn) formed either of small bells or little 
 plates of metal. 
 
 Tiorba (//.) [Theorbo.] 
 
 Tipping. [Double tongueing.] 
 
 Tirade. The filling- up of an interval 
 between two notes with a run, in vocal or 
 instrumental music, e.g. : 
 
 tr 
 
 Tirante {Sp.) The brace of a drum. 
 
 Tirasse {Fr.) The pedals of an organ 
 which act on the keys or manuals. 
 
 Tirato {It.) (i) A down bow. [Bowing.] 
 (2) A scale passage in notes of equal length. 
 
 Tira tutto {It.) A pedal commanding 
 the full power of the organ. {Fr.) Grand 
 jeu. 
 
 Tire {Fr.) (i) Drawn, pulled. (2) A 
 down bow. [Bowing.] (3) The drawing 
 out of an accordion. 
 
 Titty, tziti, toutari. An Indian bagpipe. 
 [Bagpipe.] 
 
 Toccata {It.) (i) A prelude or overture. 
 The overture to Rinuccini's opera " Orfeo," 
 1609, is called a toccata, and is directed to be 
 performed three times, " Avanti il lever de la 
 tela,"' " before the rising of the curtain." (2) 
 Compositions written as exercises. (3) A 
 fantasia. (4) A suite. 
 
 Toccatina {It.) A short toccata. 
 
 Todtenmarsch {Ger.) A funeral march. 
 
 Tombestere or Tymbestere {Old Eng.) 
 A female dancer, who accompanied herself 
 
 upon a tambourine, occasionally throwing her 
 
 instrument in the air and catching it. 
 
 " There was many a tymbestere, 
 Couthe her crafte full parfytly. — Chaucer. 
 
 Tom-tom. (i) An Indian drum. (2) A 
 Chinese gong. 
 
 Ton. {Fr. and Ger.) (i) Tone, sound. 
 (2) The interval of a second. 
 
 Tonabstand {Ger.) An interval. 
 
 Tonada {Sp.) A tune, air, or melody. 
 
 Tonadilla {Sp.) A short tune, an inter- 
 lude, ritornello, symphony to a song. 
 
 Toiial Fugue. [Fugue.] 
 
 Tonarion or Tonarium. A pitch-pipe 
 (according to Quintilian) used by the Latin 
 orators for the purpose of regulating the 
 pitch of their speaking voice, called also 
 fistula ehurneola. Dionysius limits the com- 
 pass of the oratorical voice to five notes. 
 When this compass was exceeded, an atten- 
 dant blew the tonarion to enable the orator 
 to recover his proper pitch. 
 
 Tonart {Ger.) Mode, tune, key, scale- 
 system, tonality. 
 
 Tonausw^eichung {Ger.) Modulation. 
 
 Ton bas {Fr.) A deep, low tone. 
 
 Tondichter {Ger.) A composer. A poet 
 in sounds, as a painter may be described as a 
 poet in colours. This word has been badly 
 rendered " tone-poet." 
 
 Tondichtung {Ger.) A musical composi- 
 tion. A sound-poem. 
 
 Tone, (i) Sound. (2) Quality of tone. 
 [Acoustics, § 16.] (3) The interval of a 
 second. [Interval.] (4) A Gregorian chant. 
 [Plain Song.] 
 
 Tonfall {Ger.) A cadence. ^^^ — 
 
 Tonfolge (Ger.) A succession of sounds. 
 A melody. 
 
 Tonfiihrung {Ger.) (i) A melodic suc- 
 cession. (2) [Modulation.] 
 
 Tonfuss {Ger.) A foot. [Metre.] 
 
 Tongang {Ger.) [Tonfuhrung.] 
 
 Ton-generateur {Fr.) [Root.] 
 
 Tongeschlecht {Ger.) The character of 
 the modes. There are two Tongeschlechter — 
 major and minor. [Scale.] [Mode.] 
 
 Ton haut {Fr.) An acute sound. 
 
 Tonic, Tonica (It.), Tonique {Fr.) (i) 
 The key-note of any scale. The ground-tone 
 or basis of a scale or key. (2) The key- 
 chord in which a piece is written, and with 
 which it concludes. 
 
 Tonic Sol-fa. A letter-system of notation. 
 Many attempts have from time to time been 
 made to produce a simpler notation than the 
 stave, clefs, signature, &c., of the so-called 
 " Old Notation." 
 
 As early as the year 1672, Thomas Salmon 
 wrote a book entitled, " An essay to the 
 advancement of music, by casting away the 
 perplexities of different cliffs, and uniting all 
 
 (435 ) 
 
TONIC SOL-FA. 
 
 sorts of music, lute, viol, violins, organ, 
 harpsichord, voice, &c., in one universal 
 character." In this he proposed to write all 
 music on a stave of four lines, which should 
 give the notes the names of the first seven 
 letters of the alphabet, octaves above or 
 below being marked with the name of the 
 octave to which they belong. The proposition 
 was violently opposed by Matthew Lock, but 
 other musicians treated it with contempt, and 
 Salmon's book and proposition now exist only 
 among the literary curiosities of music. Jean 
 Jacques Rousseau suggested a notation where- 
 by the notes of the scale were indicated by 
 the numbers i to 7. This, or rather an im- 
 proved form of it, is still largely used in France. 
 Miss Sarah A. Glover, of Norwich, about 
 thirty years ago projected and taught success- 
 fully a system which she called the tetra- 
 chordal system, which was the Tonic Sol-fa 
 notation in its original form ; but it has since 
 received such important modifications and 
 additions fromthehands of the Rev.J.Curwen, 
 that it is now justly associated with his 
 name. 
 
 Its chiei raison d'itre is that the ordinary no- 
 tation, just in the degree that it accommodates 
 itself to the keyboard and the theory founded 
 more or less thereon, is not fitted as a 
 notation for the greatest of all instruments, 
 the human voice. Tonic Sol-faists neverthe- 
 less maintain that their notation may be used 
 in all branches of the art, and pupils are 
 taught to play instruments, to study harmony, 
 musical form, and composition, entirely from 
 the syllables. The leading features of the 
 notation are as follows : Of the two relation- 
 ships of musical sounds, those of pitch and 
 key, the latter is of transcendant importance. 
 It is argued, therefore, that it is of the first 
 consideration that this supremely important 
 fact should be prominently shown. The key- 
 note of a piece is, therefore, always called doh, 
 the second of the scale ray, and so on, me,fah, 
 soh, lah, te. The reason for this departure 
 from the ordinary spelling is, that the above 
 is considered easier for English people to 
 pronounce. In printing music, the initial 
 letter indicates the scale note. Si and soh 
 having the same initial, the former is altered 
 to te. Higher or lower octaves are shown by 
 figures placed by the side of the notes, d^, d", 
 m', and Sj, m^, d^. The first part of the 
 National Anthem is written in tune thus, d d 
 rt^drmmfmrdrdtj d. The particular 
 pitch of the key-sound is shown by the state- 
 ment at the beginning of the piece, key G, 
 key E[?, key A, &c. The minor mode is 
 regarded as derived from the relative major, 
 the tonic being called lah. It is maintained 
 that to call the tonic of the minor scale doh, 
 would lead to extraordinary practical diffi- 
 
 culties, besides being false in theory. Changes 
 of key in the course of a piece are met by 
 what are called bridge tones. The note of the 
 key quitted is placed side by side with the 
 note of the same pitch in the key approached, 
 and the pupil is taught to think and sing the 
 sound of the first note, and to call it by the 
 name of the second. Thus, d r m f 'd t^d 
 would show a transition, say from key C to 
 key G. By this means changes of the most 
 complex nature are simply represented by 
 Tonic Sol-faists, and they assert that the music 
 has yet to be quoted which cannot be expressed 
 in their notation. The chromatic scale is 
 named by adding the vowel e to the initial of 
 sharpened notes, and a (pronounced aw) to 
 notes to be flattened. Thus de, re, fe, se, are 
 respectively d, r, f, s, sharp, and ma, la, ta, are 
 m, I, t, flat. The sharp sixth of the minor 
 scale is called bah to distinguish it from fe the 
 sharp fourth of the major. Time and accent 
 are indicated by measurement across the page 
 thus : 
 
 I : I : . I : I 
 
 the space between one sign and the next, 
 representing the pulse or beat ; the line 
 showing the stronger beat or accent, and 
 the colon the weaker. For short divisions 
 a dot I . : in the centre of the pulse divides 
 it into halves, and commas [ , . , : are 
 used to divide into quarters, and other divisions 
 are similarly shown. A stroke — through a 
 pulse means that a previous note is to be con- 
 tinued. Sol-faists believe that their fixed 
 standard of a pulse or beat gives them con- 
 siderable advantage over the ever-shifting 
 standard of the ordinary notation. " Rule 
 Britannia " is thus written : 
 .S| Id :d |d,r.n,f :s .d |r :r.n,f|n .etc. 
 
 No account of the Tonic Sol-fa Notation would 
 be complete without reference to its indis- 
 pensable adjunct the Tonic Sol-fa Method, i.e., 
 the distinctive plan of teaching the musical 
 facts indicated by the notation. This method 
 is the outcome of years of laborious enquiry 
 by Mr. Curwen, and of the collated experience 
 of all" the best teachers of the system. Great 
 stress is given to the doctrine of mental effect, 
 by which is meant the various impressions or 
 colours of the notes of the scale when sung 
 slowly. Thus doh, is considered firm ; te, 
 sharp and piercing ; lah, sorrowful ; fah, 
 gloomy ; soh, bright and clear, &c., &c. 
 Teaching by pattern is also insisted on ; the 
 scale is taught in the following order, first the 
 notes of the tonic chord d m s and their 
 replicates, next the dominant chord s t r, 
 then the sub-dominant chord// d. In develop- 
 ing the scale, large use is made of what has 
 been justly called the backbone of the system, 
 the Modulator, without a proper use of 
 
 (436) 
 
TONKUNST TRACTUR. 
 
 which, it is not too much to say, the method 
 cannot be fairly taught or learned, 
 r' s d' fi 
 
 t — m' — 1 r' s 
 d' f 
 
 t m 1 = r' _ s d' f 
 
 t m 
 
 1 r s — DOH"— f 
 
 TE — m 1 r 
 S d f ta le 
 
 t, m — LAH = r s d 
 f la se t, 
 
 m 1, r — SOH — d f 
 
 ^^ fe t, m 1, 
 r s, d — FAH 
 
 t, — ME — 1, r s, 
 d f, ma re 
 
 t, m, 1, = RAY — S, d f, 
 fle t, m, 
 
 h r, s, —DOH— f, 
 
 t, - m, 1, r, 
 s> d, i, 
 
 t, m, — 1, = r, s, d, 
 
 m, 1, r, — s, — d, f, 
 
 r, s, d, - f, 
 
 t, — m, — 1^ r, s. 
 
 This Modulator is a sort of map of musical 
 sounds. It represents pictorially in an upright 
 position the relative places of the notes of a 
 scale, its minor mode, its chromatics, and its 
 more closely related scales. By frequent and 
 systematic handling of this sheet, the upward 
 or downward motion of the notes printed all 
 on one level, is adequately realised by the 
 pupil. The Modulator is manipulated with 
 great effect by the best teachers of the system. 
 In teaching Time an adaptation of the time- 
 names used in the French Cheve system has 
 lately been more or less adopted by Sol-faists. 
 Syllables are used to show the length of notes 
 just as they are to show the relation of sounds. 
 Thus taa is the name of a pulse, taa-tai of 
 half pulses, and tafatefe of quarter pulses. 
 Continuations of any kind are met by dropping 
 the consonant. It is thought that the finer ac- 
 cents of divided pulses, as well as the broader 
 accents of the measure, can be better taught by 
 the use of this language of duration than on 
 any other plan. 
 
 Tonkunst {Ger.) The art and science of 
 music. 
 
 Tonkiinstler (Ger.) A musician. A musi- 
 cal artist. 
 
 Tonleiter (Ger.) A scale. [Scale.] 
 
 Ton majeur {Fr.) Major key or mode. 
 
 Tonmalerei \Ger.) Composition, inven- 
 tion, sound-painting. 
 
 Tonmessung {Ger.) Tone-measuring, 
 metre, rhythm. 
 
 Ton mineur [Fr.) Minor key or mode. 
 
 Tonos (Gk.) Tovos. [Tone.] 
 
 Tonsatz (Ger.) A musical composition. 
 
 Tonschluss {Ger.) A cadence. 
 
 Tonschliissel (Ger.) Claves signatse 
 (Lat.) Key clef. [Key, § 5.] 
 
 Tonschrift (Ger.) (i) Written music. 
 (2) Musical notes or characters. 
 
 Tons de la trompette (Fr.) Crooks used 
 to alter the pitch of a trumpet. [Crook.] 
 
 Tons de I'eglise (Fr.) Church modes or 
 tones. [Plain Song.] 
 
 Tonsetzer {Ger.) (i) A composer. (2) 
 (In a sarcastic sense) a music-maker. 
 
 Tonsetzkunst (Ger.) The art of musical 
 composition. 
 
 Tonsetzung (Ger.) Amusicalcomposition. 
 
 Tonspieler {Ger.) A performer. 
 
 Tonsprache (Ger.) The art of expressing 
 thoughts and feelings in music. 
 
 Tonstiick {Ger^ A piece of music, a 
 composition. 
 
 Tonstufe {Ger.) A step or degree of a i 
 scale. 
 
 Tonsystem {Ger.) (i) The systematic ar- 
 rangement of sounds according to the rules 
 of melody, harmony, and rhythm. (2) A scale. 
 
 Tonverhalt {Ger.) Rhythm. 
 
 Tonzeichen (Ger.) (i) A note or other 
 character used in music. (2) Accent. 
 
 Toomourah. An Indian tambourine. 
 
 Toorooree. A trumpet used by the 
 Brahmins in their religious processions. 
 
 Toph {Heb.) A small hand-drum ; a tim- 
 brel or tabret. [Tabor.] [Tambourine.] 
 
 Torcelli. A name anciently given to 
 organs in Italy. 
 
 Tosto {It.) Quick, swift, rapid. Pi-d, tosto, 
 more rapid ; Tostamente, quickly, rapidly ; 
 Tostissamamente, Tostissimo, very quickly, 
 with great rapidity. 
 
 Touch, (i) The resistance made to the 
 fingers by the keys of a pianoforte or organ. 
 Thus the touch of the keyboard may be hard 
 or light accordingly as the resistance is great 
 or little. (2) The peculiar manner in which 
 a player presses the keyboard, whether light, 
 pearly, heavy, clumsy, firm, &c. 
 
 Touches {Fr.) The keys of a pianoforte, 
 organ, harmonium, and concertina. 
 
 Touquet {Fr.) [Toccata.] [Tucket.] 
 
 Tours de force (Fr.) (i) Roulades, runs, 
 or divisions for the voice. (2) Passages of 
 rapid execution upon an instrument. 
 
 Toys. An old English name for dance 
 tunes and light and trifling pieces of music. 
 " Pavens, Galiards, Almaines, Toies, Jiggs, 
 Thumpes, and such like." Ford's " Musicke 
 of sundre kindes," 1607. 
 
 Trachea. [Larynx.] 
 
 Trackers. [Organ.] 
 
 Tractur {Ger.) [Trackers.] 
 
 (437) 
 
TRACTUS TREBLE CLEF. 
 
 . Tractus (Lai.) A melody sung in the 
 Roman Catholic Church during Lent, instead 
 o,f the Alleluia. 
 
 Tradotto {li.) Transposed, arranged, 
 translated, [Arrangement.] 
 
 TrainhjFr.) Slurred, bound, dragged. 
 
 Trait (Fr.) (i) A run, or division ; trait 
 de chant, a melodious vocal phrase. (2) A 
 special passage or phrase for a body of instru- 
 ments of the same class. Like the trait des 
 violonsm Cherubini's overture to "Anacreon," 
 or the passage for strings in Beethoven's 
 No. 3, " Leonora." (3) Trait d'harmbnie, a 
 sequence in harmony. (4) Trait d'octave, 
 rule of the octave. 
 
 Trait6 (Fr.) A treatise on the theory or 
 practice of music. 
 
 Tranquillamente (It.) Tranquilly, calmly, 
 quietly. 
 
 Tranquillity, con {It.) With tranquillity, 
 calmness. 
 
 Transcription. The arrangement or 
 modification of a composition for some in- 
 strument or voice other than that for which 
 it was originally written. 
 
 Transient Modulation. The temporary 
 .introduction of chords or progressions from 
 an unrelated key. [Modulation.] 
 
 Transitio [Lat.) Change of key. 
 
 Transitus {Lat.) Progression by passing 
 notes ; transitus regularis, diatonic progres- 
 sion, the passing notes on the unaccented 
 portions of the bar ; transitus irregidaris, pro- 
 gression in which some of the notes of the 
 scale are omitted ; passing notes on the ac- 
 cented part of the bar. 
 
 Transition, (i) A modulation. [Modu- 
 lation.] (2) A passing note. [Passing 
 Note.] 
 
 Transponiren (Ger.) Alteration of the 
 original key. [Transposition.] 
 
 Transponirehde Instrumente (Ger.) 
 [Transposing Instruments.] 
 
 Transpose. To alter the key in which a 
 piece is set, by changing it into a higher or 
 lower scale. 
 
 Transposing Instruments. A general 
 name for all instruments which do not pro- 
 duce the exact sounds written on paper for 
 them. 
 
 Thus, a bI^ clarinet is so called because 
 the written note C, when sounded, is Bb ; its 
 part, therefore, is written one note higher than 
 the actual sounds required. Similarly, the A 
 clarinet is so called because the written note 
 C, when sounded, is A ; its part, therefore, is 
 written a minor third higher than the sounds 
 actually required. The C clarinet is so called 
 because it plays as written. The Cor Anglais 
 and Corno di bassetto produce sounds a 
 major fifth below those written. 
 
 A C horn prodp«es sounds one octave below 
 
 those actually written ; a D horn, a minor 
 seventh below ; an E horn, a minor sixth 
 below, and so on. A BtJ alto horn produces 
 sounds a whole tonehelow that written ; a BC 
 basso horn, a ninth below. 
 
 Similarly, a trunipet in Bp produces sounds 
 one note below those actually written, and a 
 D trumpet sounds one note above. Drum 
 parts are usually written as if always in the 
 key of C, directions being given as to the 
 tuning, at the commencement of each move- 
 ment. 
 
 The only transposing string-instrument is 
 the double bass, which produces sounds an 
 octave below those written, as far as its com- 
 pass will permit. Flutes, oboes, bassoons, 
 and trombones, are not transposing instru- 
 ments ; but the piccolo flute produces sounds 
 one octave higher than those written, and the 
 double bassoon sounds one octave lower. 
 
 Transposing Piano. A pianoforte so 
 constructed that its key-board may be moved 
 to admit of its giving sounds, other than 
 those which the scale used would seem to 
 imply. The key-frame is made in duplicate, 
 and on it is screwed, by means of ordinary 
 thumb-screws, the action, making it perfectly 
 rigid. At each extreme end of the keys the 
 block of wood, called the " key-block," is also 
 attached to the key-frame, and thus rendered 
 moveable. These blocks are pierced with 
 holes exactly a semitone apart, in which 
 small pegs of wood are inserted. When it is 
 required to alter the piano to a higher or 
 lovrer pitch the pegs are taken out, and the 
 key-board can then be moved up or down the 
 scale. 
 
 Transposition, (i) A change of key. 
 .[Transpose.] (2) An inversion of parts in 
 counterpoint. 
 
 Trascinando {It.) Dragging, delaying 
 the time. 
 
 Trascritto {It.) Transcribed, copied. 
 
 Trattato {It.) A treatise. 
 
 Traversiere {Fr.) Across. FMte traver- 
 siere, the flute held crossways, as is now 
 usual ; the fl4te a bee being blown with a 
 mouthpiece like the oboe. [Flute.] 
 
 Traverse {It.) [Traversiere.] 
 
 Tre {It.) Three. A tre voci, for three 
 voices ; or, in three parts. 
 
 Treble, (r) The highest vocal or instru- 
 mental part, sung by women or boys, or 
 played by violins, flutes, oboes, clarinets, or 
 other instruments of acute tone. (2) The 
 treble or soprano voice is the most flexible of 
 all vocal registers, its ordinary compass is from 
 middle C upwards to the extent of a twelfth, 
 its exceptional range a fifteenth, or even 
 beyond this. [Triplex.] 
 
 Treble Clef. The G clef on the second 
 line of the stave, used for treble voices and 
 
 ( 438 ) 
 
TREM TRIPLE COUNTERPOINT. 
 
 instruments of high and medium pitch, such 
 as flutes, oboes, clarinets, horns, vioHns, and 
 trumpets. [Stave.] [Clef.] 
 
 Trem. Abb, of tremando and tremolando. 
 Tremolando (It.) Trembling, wavering, 
 (i) A chord or note played or bowed with 
 great rapidity so as to produce a quivering 
 effect. (2) Vibration of the voice ih singing, 
 arising from nervousness, or a bad production ; 
 or used for the purpose of producing a special 
 effect. [Vibrato.] 
 
 Tremolant, oj- Tremulant. An organ and 
 harmonium stop which causes the air as it 
 proceeds to the pipes or reeds to pass through 
 a valve having a moveable top, to which a 
 spring and weight are attached. The up and 
 down movement of the top of the valve gives 
 a vibratory movement to the air which simi- 
 larly affects the sound produced. On Ameri- 
 can organs, a fan-wheel by rotating in front of 
 the wind chest causes a tremolando. 
 Tremore {It.) . [Tremolando.] 
 Tremoroso {It.) [Tremolando.] 
 Trenchmore. An old English country 
 dance, or Hey-tie-guy. It was of a lively 
 character. Dr. Burton in his " Anatomy 
 of Melancholy," 1621, says: "There is no 
 remedy ; we must dance Trenchmore over 
 tables, chairs, and stools ; " and Selden in 
 his "Table-Talk" speaks of the dance as an 
 " Omnium Gatherum, tolly poUy, hoite cum 
 toite." It is mentioned by several of the dra- 
 matic writers of the time of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 TRENCHMORE. 
 
 iJ" 1-1 1 J*l J J* 1 J5lJ -h 1 M 1.- 1 M 
 
 4 n2J ^ ^zizaOJ: J^izakJi J- J / : 
 
 V r ^ r 1* & re 1 ^1 
 
 g^i" rcr J-"--'- Xj^r r =^^; 
 
 if ^9 t\ 9 * 9 - I rrr r a i g-: f * r 
 
 Trenise {Fr.) The fourth figure in a 
 quadrille. 
 
 Tres {Fr.) Very. Tres anim$, very ani- 
 mated ; tres vif, very lively. 
 
 Triad, (i) A chord of three notes. (2) Acom- 
 mon chord. Triads are said to be major, e.g. 
 
 augmented,; 
 
 mmor, 
 
 diminished, \ 
 
 Triangle. An instrument of steel bent 
 into a three-sided form. It is usually held by 
 a string in the left hand and struck with a 
 small bar of iron or steel with the right. It 
 is employed with effect occasionally as an 
 orchestral instrument. 
 
 Trias deficiens {Lat.) Imperfect triad. 
 [Triad.] 
 
 Trias harmonica {Lat.) Perfect or major 
 triad. [Triad.] 
 
 Tribrach. A foot consisting of three 
 short syllables. [Metre.] 
 
 Tricinium {Lat.) A composition in three 
 parts. 
 
 Trill. A shake. 
 
 Trill. Abb. oitrillando. 
 
 Trillando {It.) Shaking. A lengthened 
 vocal or instrumental shake. 
 
 Trille {Fr.), TriUer {Ger.), Trillo {It.) A 
 shake. In a tract entitled " A brief discourse 
 of the Italian manner of singing, wherein is 
 set down the use of those graces in singing, 
 as the trill and gruppo, used in Italy, and now 
 in England ; written some years since by an 
 English gentleman who had lived long in 
 Italy, and, being returned, taught the same 
 here," published by Pla)rford about 1683 ; the 
 trill is described as a shake upon one note 
 only ; it would therefore be similar to the 
 eifect called now the DJirato, while the gruppo 
 was the shake as now practised. 
 
 Trillerkette {Ger.) A chain or succession 
 of shakes. Catena di trilli. 
 
 Trillo caprino {It.) A goat-like shake. 
 
 Trinklied {Ger.) A song in praise of 
 drinking. 
 
 Trio, (i) A composition for three voices 
 or instruments. (2) A part of a minuet,' 
 march, &c. [Form.] [Minuet.] 
 
 Triole, Triolet {Fr.) A triplet. Three notes 
 played in the time of two of the same value. 
 
 Triomphal, Triomphant {Fr.), Trion- 
 fale, Trionfante {It.) Triumphal, trium- 
 
 Tripedisono. A capo tasto. [phant. 
 
 Tripeltakt (Gar.) Triple time. 
 
 Triphonisch {Ger.) Having three sounds. 
 
 Triple croche {Fr.) A demisemiquaver. 
 
 Triple counterpoint. A counterpoint in 
 three parts, so contrived that each part 
 will serve for bass, middle, or upper part as 
 required. [Counterpoint.] 
 
 ( 439 ) 
 
TRIPLET TROMPETTE A PISTONS. 
 
 Triplet. A group of three notes performed 
 in the time of two. The triplet is always 
 indicated by a slur and the figure 3 : 
 
 Triple time. Time of three beats, or three 
 times three beats in a bar. [Signature § 2.] 
 
 Triplex, Triplum {Lat.) The name ori- 
 ginally given to a third part when added to 
 two other parts, one of which was a canto 
 fermo, the other a counterpoint. This addi- 
 tional part was generally the upper part, 
 hence the word treble or triplex came to be 
 applied to the canto prima. (2) A motet or 
 other composition in three parts. 
 
 Trisagion {Gk.) Thrice holy. Ter Sanctus 
 (Lat.) The opening words of the Sanctus. 
 
 Trite. [Greek music] 
 
 Tritone, Triton {Fr.), Tritono (It.), 
 Tritonus (Lat.) An augmented fourth, con- 
 taining three whole tones. 
 
 The use of the -tritone was anciently for- 
 bidden in harmony or counterpoint, as it was 
 regarded in the light of what is called a false 
 relation. It was not permitted to be employed 
 in the upper note of one chord and the lower 
 note of the following, as in the subjoined 
 examples : 
 
 In each case it was called mi contra fa, the 
 leading or sensitive note being known as mi, 
 and according to the old rules, mi contra fa 
 diabolus est. 
 
 Tritt {Ger.) Tread, treadle, step. 
 
 Trittschuh {Ger.) A place for the foot on 
 the bellows of old organs. 
 
 Trochee. A foot consisting of one long 
 and one short syllable — ^ . [Metre.] 
 
 Troll. To take part in a catch or round, 
 the voices succeeding each other at regulated 
 intervals with the same melody. 
 
 Tromb. Abb. for tromba (trumpet) and 
 trombone. 
 
 Tromba (7^) (i) A trumpet. (2) An 
 organ reed stop of 8 ft. pitch. 
 
 Tromba bassa {It.) A bass trumpet. 
 
 Tromba cromatica {It.) A keyed trumpet 
 capable of producing intermediate semitones. 
 [Trumpet.] 
 
 Tromba marina {It.) [Trumpet marine.] 
 
 Tromba sorda {It.) A trumpet whose 
 sound is stifled by the insertion of a mute in 
 the bell. 
 
 Tromba spezzata {It.) An obsolete name 
 for the bass trumpet. 
 
 Trombetta {It.) A small trumpet. 
 
 Trombone, (i) A large, deep and loud- 
 toned instrument of the trumpet species, the 
 name being an augmentative of tromba. It 
 consists of two tubes, so constructed that one 
 may slide in and out of the other, and thus 
 form one tube that can be lengthened at will 
 and made of varying pitch. There are three 
 kinds of trombones, called after their compass 
 the alto, tenor, and bass trombones. Soprano 
 trombones have also been made, but they are 
 rarely used. The general compass of the 
 trombone is a little more than two octaves, 
 the pitch of the instrument varying with the 
 length of the tube. Thus an alto trombone, 
 the part for which is written sometimes in 
 the alto clef, sometimes in the tenor clef, can 
 play all notes between 
 
 U 
 
 a tenor trombone all between 
 
 j2. 
 
 i 
 
 and a bass trombone all between 
 
 w 
 
 including every intermediate semitone. Each 
 instrument can also sound the note an octave 
 below the first note shown as the commence- 
 ment of the compass, besides other notes 
 outside the notes indicated above, but as they 
 are difficult and uncertain they are very rarely 
 written. The trombone when judiciously 
 used has a very fine effect, but the modern 
 custom of forcing its tone, and playing in 
 short sharp barks, is much to be regretted. 
 The value of the instrument was well under- 
 stood by Gluck, (who was probably the first 
 who employed it in the orchestra), as well as 
 by Mozart, Beethoven, Spontini and Weber, 
 as a reference to the scores of Alceste, Die 
 Zauberflote, Fidelio, La Vestale, and Der 
 Freischiitz' will prove. (2) A powerful reed 
 stop in the organ of 8 ft. or 16 ft. scale on the 
 manuals and 16 ft. or 32 ft. on the pedals. 
 
 Trommel {Ger.) Military drum. 
 
 Trommelklopfel, or Trommelschlagel 
 {Ger.) Drumstick. 
 
 Trommelschlager {Ger.) A drummer. 
 
 Trompe {Fr.) (i) A trumpet. (2) A 
 hunting horn. 
 
 Trompe de Beam {Fr.) [Jew's-harp.] 
 
 Trompete {Ger.) A trumpet. 
 
 Trompetenzug {Ger.) Trumpet stop or 
 register in an organ. 
 
 Trompette {Fr.) (i) A trumpet. (2) A 
 trumpeter. (3) A reed stop in an organ. 
 
 Trompette a clefs {Fr.) A keyed trumpet. 
 
 Trompette k pistons {Fr.) A valve 
 trumpet. 
 
 ( 440 ) 
 
TROOP TROUVEUR. 
 
 Troop, (i) A march in quick time. 
 " When the drums and fifes sounding a troop 
 Off they briskly set." — Defoe. 
 
 (2) The second beat of the drum as the 
 signal for marching. 
 
 Troparia (Gk.) rpow&pia. Hymns which 
 probably had their origin in the ancient 
 custom of inserting ejaculations in the Psalms, 
 especially when used as introits. "Tanto 
 opere enim christiani primis sasculis medii 
 aevi psalmorum cantui, patrum institutis quasi 
 consecrate, favebant, ut nova cantica integra 
 comprobare non auderent, sad in brevibus 
 strophis psalmorum versibus intexendis vel 
 adjigendis acquiescerent." But in time the 
 Christian poets did dare to write complete 
 new poems which grew out of the ancient 
 tropariu7n just as the later prose or sequence 
 grew out of the early attempts to set words 
 to neumes. [Prosa.] It is an interesting 
 fact that in the early Greek Church a tro- 
 parium for a great festival' was called an 
 wcoKovOia, which, of course, is actually synony- 
 mous with sequentia. 
 
 Troparion. An office-book of the Greek 
 Church containing the sequences or chants 
 sung after the lessons. An ancient troparion 
 with the musical notes is preserved in the 
 Bodleian library at Oxford. 
 
 Troppo (It.) Too much. Troppo caricata, 
 too much loaded, overloaded with ornaments 
 or accompaniment. Non troppo allegro, not 
 too quick. 
 
 Troubadour. A musical poet, who, un- 
 like the jongleur, did not wander about the 
 country singing for hire. In the days when 
 all classes of the community were equally 
 unrefined, there was no such distinction, 
 every verse-mak^r was called a troubadour, a 
 word derived probably from the Proven9al 
 trobar, to invent or find ; and ultimately the 
 term came to be confined to kings, princes, 
 and nobles, who practised poetry for pleasure, 
 or out of chivalrous gallantry. The minstrels 
 or jongleurs only recited- or chanted poems, 
 but did not write or invent them ; or perhaps 
 accompanied on some instrument the trouba- 
 dour who sang his own compositions. It 
 was not an unusual thing for a troubadour to 
 have several minstrels or jongleurs in his 
 service ; the word minstrel meant probably a 
 minister or servant. 
 
 The minstrels in later times formed a 
 separate guild, uniting for the purposes of 
 mutual protection and support ; but the trou- 
 badours were always independent, and this 
 independence gives a character to their in- 
 dividual productions, unfettered as they are 
 by the trammels of any particular school of 
 thought. The same free spirit gives a colour 
 to the rude outline of their history, so that 
 the practice of their art is to be traced, not so 
 much by its expansion and development in 
 
 classes as in individuals. Troubadours fre- 
 quently attached themselves to the courts of 
 kings and nobles, whom they praised or 
 censured in their songs ; but it was a rule 
 that some lady was selected as the " dame de 
 du cceur," and to her, under some general or 
 fanciful title, love songs, complaints, and other 
 poems were addressed. The " love service " 
 of the troubadours was often nothing more 
 than a mere artificial gallantry, but there are 
 instances on record where it became some- 
 thing more earnest. 
 
 Contests, competitions, or verse battles 
 were sometimes entered into, generally on 
 questions of gallantry suggested by the ladies 
 who presided as judges over a tribunal called 
 the Court of Love, and awarded prizes to the 
 victors. The poems of the troubadours were 
 not always confined to subjects of gallantry, 
 sometimes they treated of the conditions 
 of society, the evils of the times, the degene- 
 racy of the clergy and other subjects. 
 
 There is reason foT supposing that the art 
 of the troubadours, generally called the gay 
 science, was derived from the East, coming 
 into Europe through the Spaniards, and the 
 troubadours of Provence learning from their 
 neighbours of Spain. Troubadour poetry was 
 cultivated in Provence, Toulouse, Dauphine, 
 and other parts of France south of the Loire, 
 as well as in Catalonia, Arragon, and Va- 
 lencia in Spain, and in the north of Italy. 
 Its duration was about 200 years (logo- 
 1290), the period when Eastern customs 
 were giving a tone to those of Western 
 Europe, and while chivalry began to redeem 
 men from barbarism. Warton (History of 
 English Poetry) rightly estimates the value 
 of the poems of the troubadours, when he 
 says : — " The Provengal writers established a 
 common dialect, and their examples con- 
 vinced other nations that the modern lan- 
 guages were no less adapted to composition 
 than those of antiquity. They introduced a 
 love of reading, and diffused a general and 
 popular taste for poetry by writing in a lan- 
 guage intelligible to ladies and the people. 
 Their verses, being conveyed in a familiar 
 tongue, became the chief amusement of 
 princes and feudal lords, whose courts had 
 now began to assume a greater brilliancy ; a 
 circumstance which necessarily gave great 
 encouragement to their profession, and by 
 rendering those arts of ingenious entertain- 
 ments universally fashionable, imperceptibly 
 laid the foundation of polite literature. From 
 these beginnings it were easy to trace the 
 progress of poetry to its perfection through 
 John de Meum in France, Dante in Italy, 
 and Chaucer in England." 
 
 Trouveur, Trouvdre, Trouverre, or 
 Rymour. According to Ritson, one who 
 composed Romants, Contes, Fabliaux, 
 
 ( 441 ) 
 
TRUGSCHLUSS TUNING. 
 
 Chansons, and Lais, whilst those who devoted 
 themselves to the composition of Conies and 
 Fabliaux were called Contours, Conteurs, or 
 Fabliers. [Romance.] [Troubadour.] 
 
 Trugschluss or Trugcadenz {Ger.) An 
 interrupted or deceptive cadence. 
 
 Trumbscheit [Ger.) [Trumpet marine.] 
 
 Trummel {Ger.) [Trommel.] 
 
 Trump. A poetical name for the trumpet. 
 
 Trumpet, Tromba (7<.),Trompette [Fr.), 
 Trompete {Ger.) A metal wind instrument 
 of bright and penetrating tone, formed of a 
 single tube curved into a convenient shape, 
 with a mouthpiece at one end, the other 
 having a bell. Its part is usually written 
 in the key of C with the treble clef, though 
 by means of crooks or lengthening pieces 
 the sounds produced may be in various keys. 
 The trumpet required for a piece is indicated 
 at the commencement ; as, trumpet in C, D, 
 E flat, E, F, or G. 
 
 The scale of the instrument is formed of 
 the harmonics of an ordinary open pipe. 
 
 By means of the slide, the B flat shown 
 above, which is a little flat, may be sounded 
 in tune, and certain intermediate semitones 
 obtained. 
 
 In addition to the notes shown above, the 
 trumpet is capable of producing, 
 
 1 and 
 
 but the higher tones are very difficult to 
 obtain. Handel and other writers of the last 
 century frequently wrote them, but trumpeters 
 of the present day omit them. 
 
 In old scores the trumpet was often 
 coupled with the drums, the notes of the one 
 corresponding to the beats on the other. 
 
 Gluck and Handel were among the earliest 
 writers to discover the effect of long-holding 
 notes, and the power of the softer tones of 
 the trumpet. 
 
 Trumpets with pistons or valves capable of 
 producing every chromatic sound within their 
 compass are sometimes used, but the tone is 
 by no means to be compared with the true 
 trumpet tone. 
 
 Trumpet marine. An instrument formed 
 of a triangular chest, over one side of which 
 is stretched a thick gut string, passing over 
 a bridge slightly uneven on its feet, one side 
 being fastened and the other free. When 
 the string is set in vibration by means of a 
 bow, the rapid impact of the loose foot of 
 the bridge on the belly slightly checks the 
 vibration and causes the sound to resemble 
 
 that of the trumpet. The fingers oi the left 
 hand of the player, being passed lightly over 
 the strings, the ordinary harmonics of an 
 open string are produced. 
 
 Tuba {Lat) (i) A trumpet. (2) A power- 
 ful reed stop in the organ. 
 
 Tuba major, or Tuba mirabilis. A stop 
 invented by William Hill, consisting of an 
 8 ft. reed on a high pressure of wind. 
 
 Tucket, Touquet {Fr.) A flourish on a 
 trumpet. Mr. Staunton, in his notes on 
 Shakspeare, conjectures it to be derived 
 from the Italian toccata, or the Spanish tocar; 
 tocar trompeta, to sound a trumpet. 
 
 Tumultuoso {It.) Tumultuous, agitated. 
 
 Tune, (i) A melody or air. [Air.] (2) 
 Just intonation. 
 
 Tuning Fork. An instrument of steel 
 with two prongs, which when set in vibration 
 gives out a musical sound varying in pitch 
 according to the thickness of the metal or 
 the length or width apart of the prongs. 
 It was invented by John Shore, sergeant 
 trumpeter to George I. There is a consider- 
 able variety in the pitch of tuning forks, 
 arising from the absence of any recognised 
 standard of tonality. [Pitch.] The ordinary 
 fork gives out a single note only, but one has 
 been introduced from Germany which has a 
 slider on each prong which can be moved up 
 or down so as to alter the pitch. 
 
 Tuning. The adjustment of the sounds 
 naturally produced by any instrument to some 
 standard pitch and to their proper relation to 
 each other. Wind instruments played by the 
 mouth are tuned by adjusting the length of 
 the tube to one particular note ; and after that 
 the just intonation to a great extent depends 
 upon the construction of the instrument, sub- 
 ject of course to certain artificial alterations 
 made by varying the pressure of wind, or 
 altering the length of the vibrating column of 
 air by the insertion of the hand, &c. 
 
 String instruments of the violin, guitar, 
 and pianoforte class are tuned by altering the 
 tension of the strings at the end where they 
 are carried round a moveable peg. In the first 
 of these three instruments, after the strings 
 or open notes have been tuned, true intonation 
 depends on the correct ear and mechanical 
 skill of the performer ; in the second class 
 the position of the frets determines the 
 pitch throughout. In the pianoforte and the 
 organ, the intonation is entirely out of the 
 control of the player, and owing to the large 
 number of octaves in their compass certain 
 notes are first tuned to the system of tem- 
 perament adopted, and from these the whole 
 instrument is tuned. These sounds first ad- 
 justed are called bearings. But the whole 
 subject of tuning these two instruments is so 
 intimately connected with Temperament that 
 the reader is referred to that article. 
 
 ( 442 ) 
 
TUNING HAMMER TZETZE. 
 
 Bells are tuned by paring off a portion of 
 the inner side of the sound-bow, thus altering 
 the relation of diameter to thickness. 
 
 Musical glasses can be altered in pitch by 
 pouring a liquid into them. Drums are tuned 
 by tightening or relaxing their parchments. 
 
 Reeds in an organ or harmonium can be 
 tuned by altering the length of the part 
 allowed to vibrate, also by varjring their 
 thickness or breadth. 
 
 Organ flue-pipes are tuned by opening or 
 closing the orifice, a process which has prac- 
 tically the same effect as shortening or 
 lengthening the column of vibrating air. 
 
 Tuning hammer. An instrument em- 
 plo)red for tuning pianofortes or harps. It is 
 in shape like a common hammer, but has a 
 head of wood instead of iron and a shank of 
 iron instead of wood. In the bottom end of 
 the shank is a square or oblong hole made to 
 fit the tops of the pegs round which the 
 strings of the instrument are twisted ; these 
 pegs being turned to the right or left, tighten 
 or loosen the strings as needed. The old 
 name for th6 tuning hammer was wrest. 
 
 Tuono (It.) (i) Body of tone, sound. (2) 
 A tune. 
 
 Tuono ecclesiastico (7^.) Accentus ec- 
 clesiasticus. [Accent, § 4.] 
 
 Turbae {Lat.) The chorus part or voice 
 of the multitude in a Passion-Music. 
 
 Turca {It.) Turkish ; alia turca, in the 
 Turkish style. 
 
 Turkish Music, or Janitscharenmusik. 
 Noisy music produced solely by instruments 
 of percussion such as C3mibals, gongs, &c. 
 
 Turn. An ornament in music formed by 
 taking the adjoining notes above or below 
 the principal note, according to the position 
 of that note in the diatonic scale. The turn 
 indicated by the sign ■~ must be performed 
 in the time the note it alters would occupy 
 without it. Thus the common turn, which 
 takes a higher note first in the change : 
 
 |> ^ 1 1 should be performed — ^'CCrr^ 
 
 The back-turn taking a lower note first in the 
 change : 
 
 I* ^^ 1 1 should be performed — r'^^Ti^ 
 
 When the turn appears over a note followed 
 by a rising or a falling interval : 
 
 The turn should consist of four notes besides 
 the principal : 
 
 or in the case of the back-turn, written thus ; 
 
 it should be performed ; 
 
 If it is desired to alter the note above or 
 below a turn, that is to say, to change the 
 character as it appears in the scale, the fol- 
 lowing signs are used. The position of a 
 sharp or flat underneath the sign of the turn 
 shows whether the note above or below is to 
 be sharpened or flattened ; the dash through 
 the turn always signifying a sharpened note. 
 
 Performed : 
 
 A turn over a note in the unaccented part of 
 the bar is usually performed with the changed 
 note first. 
 
 Written. Played. 
 
 ^m 
 
 r ££srr 
 
 Turr. A Burmese violin with three strings. 
 
 Tutta {It.) All, the whole; tutta forza, 
 the full power or force ; tutto arco, the whole 
 length of the bow. 
 
 Tutte corde {It.) A direction to play on 
 all the strings instead of una corda. 
 
 Tutti (/< .) All. Every performerto take part 
 in the execution of the passage or movement. 
 
 Tuyau d'orgue {Fr.) An organ pipe. 
 
 Tiiyaux k anche {Fr.) Reed pipes. 
 
 Tuyaux a bouche {Fr.) Open pipes. 
 
 Twelfth, (i) An interval of twelve diatonic 
 degrees, the replicate of the fifth. (2) An organ 
 stop tuned twelve notes above the diapasons. 
 
 Tympani. [Timpani.] 
 
 Tympanon (Fr.) A dulcimer. 
 
 Tyro. A learner or beginner in music or 
 any other science. 
 
 Tyrolienne. (i) A song accompanied 
 with dancing. Rossini's " Toi que I'oiseau," 
 in the third act of Gmllaume Tell, is the 
 earliest specimen of a Tyrolienne other than 
 the popular Volkslieder. (2) Popular songs or 
 melodies in which the jodl, q.v., is freely used. 
 
 Tzetze. An Abyssinian instrument of the 
 guitar kind, formed of a long carved neck at- 
 tached to a gourd. It has frets and one string 
 usually made of the tough fibre of a palm-tree. 
 
 ( 443 ) 
 
U.C UVULA. 
 
 U. 
 
 U.C. Ahh. oi una corda. [A una corda.] 
 
 uSelSut^H^^''-) °'^'=°''<^' t^acophony. 
 
 Uebereinstimmung (Ger.) Consonance, 
 harmony. 
 
 Uebergang (Ger.) Passage, transition. 
 
 Uebermassig {Ger.) Augmented. 
 
 Uebung (Ger.) An exercise. 
 
 Ugab, Huggab, Agub (Heb.) The first 
 wind instrument mentioned in the Bible, 
 rendered organ in the authorized version, 
 " such as handle the harp and the organ " 
 (Gen. iv., 21.) In the Septuagint it is some- 
 times translated by cithara, sometimes by 
 psalm, sometimes by organ. It is probable ■ 
 that in its earliest form the ugab was nothing 
 more than pans-pipes or a syrinx, but that it 
 gradually developed into a more important 
 instrument. In Psalm cL.it may be possibly 
 used in a poetical sense of all wind instru- 
 ments, as minnim is of string instruments. 
 " Praise Him upon the strings (minnim) and 
 pipe (ugab)." 
 
 Uguale [It.) Equal, like, similar, Canone a 
 tre voci uguali, a canon for three equal voices. 
 
 Ugualmente {It.) Equally, alike, similarly. 
 
 Umana,l(7i.) Human; as, voce umana, 
 
 Umano | the human voice. 
 
 Umfang {Ger.) Compass, extent ; as 
 Utnfang der Stimme, compass of the voice. 
 
 Umkehrung {Ger.) Inversion. 
 
 Unharmonischer Querstand {Ger.) 
 [False relation.] 
 
 TTr» ^ 
 
 Tina ii^^") One; as, Una corda, one 
 », I string ; Una volta, once, &c. 
 
 Unca {Lat.) A quaver. 
 
 Uncoupled. A direction that the manual 
 or pedal is to be detached from the row to 
 which it was coupled. [Organ.] 
 
 Unda maris. Lit. Wave of the sea. A 
 name given to the "Vox Angelica" Organ- 
 stop, because of its wavy undulating tone. 
 [Vox Angelica.] 
 
 Undecima {Lat.) An eleventh. 
 
 Undecimole . A group of eleven notes to be 
 played in the time of eight of the same name. 
 
 Undersong. [Burden.] 
 
 Undertones. [Acoustics, § ig.J 
 
 Undulazione {It.) The tremulous sound 
 produced by violinists by the vibratory pressure 
 of the finger upon the strings. 
 
 Unequal Temperament. [Tempera- 
 ment.] [Wolf.] 
 
 Unequal Voices. Voices of mixed quali- 
 ties, those of women combined with those of 
 men, [Equal Voices.] 
 
 Unessentials. Notes not forming a neces- 
 sary part of the harmony. Passing, auxiliary, 
 or ornamental notes. 
 
 Ungerader Takt {Ger.) Triple time. 
 
 Unison', (i) Having the same number of 
 vibrations; homophonous. {■z)'M.usi!:,in octaves 
 for mixed voices or instruments. 
 
 Unisoni {It.) Unisons ; two or more parts 
 playing in unison with each other, or at the 
 octave, according to the character of the in- 
 strument or voice. 
 
 In unison, or in 
 octaves. 
 
 Un pochettino, 
 Un pochino 
 
 Unisono {It.) 
 
 Unisonous {Eng.) 
 
 Unisonus (Lai.) 
 
 Unitamente {It.) Together, unitedly. 
 
 Uno a uno {It.) One by one, severally. 
 
 Un peu plus lent {Fr.) A little more slow. 
 I {It.) A little, a very little; 
 as, un pochino piii 
 tnosso, a very little more 
 lively. 
 
 Un poco {It.) A little; as, un poco 
 allegro, rather quick ; un poco piii., a little 
 more; un poco ritenuto, held back a little, 
 slightly retarded. 
 
 Unterbass {Ger.) A double-bass. 
 
 Unterdominant {Ger.) Subdominant. 
 Unterdominant-akhord, the chord of the sub- 
 dominant. 
 
 Unterhalbton {Ger.) The leading note. 
 
 Unterleitton {Ger.) The dominant seventh, 
 
 Untersatz {Ger.) Sub-bass. 
 
 Unterstimme {Ger.) An under-part. 
 
 Upbeat. The beat of a bar at which the 
 hand is raised. An unaccented beat. [Accent.] 
 [Arsis.] [Metre.] 
 
 Up bow, [Bowing.] 
 
 Uppatura {Med. Lat.) A song of a pro- 
 fane character, forbidden to be sung in church 
 by the Constitution of the Carmelite order. 
 [Motet.] 
 
 Urh-heen, The Chinese fiddle. [VioHn.] 
 
 Ut. [Aretinian syllables.] [Notation.] 
 
 Ut bemol {Fr.) The note C flat. 
 
 Ut diese {Fr.) The note C sharp. Ut 
 dilse mineur, the key of C sharp minor. 
 
 Utricularise {J^at^ Tibiae utricularias. 
 [Bagpipe.] 
 
 Ut supra (Laf.) As above, as before. 
 Gloria Patri ut supra, the Gloria as before. 
 
 Uvula. [Larynx.] 
 
 ( 444 ) 
 
V. ^VELOCITA, CON. 
 
 V. 
 
 V. Abb. of verte, violino, violini, voce, 
 voci, volta, volti, S'C. 
 
 Va. Abb. of viola. 
 
 Va (It.) Go on ; as va crescendo, go on 
 increasing the power ; va rallentando, go on 
 dragging the time. 
 
 Vacillando {It.) Wavering, uncertain as 
 regards the time or tone. 
 
 Vago {It.) With a vague, indefinite ex- 
 pression. 
 
 Valce {It.), Valse {Fr.) Waltz. 
 
 Valeur (Fr.), Valore {It.) The value, 
 worth, or length of a note. 
 
 Valse a deux temps {Fr.) A form of 
 waltz, now most commonly danced, in which 
 two steps are made to each measure of three 
 beats. 
 
 Vamp. To improvise an accompaniment. 
 
 Variamente {It.) In a varied manner. 
 
 Variations, Variationen {Ger.) Varia- 
 zioni {It.) Certain modifications with regard 
 to the time, tune, and harmony of a theme 
 proposed originally in a simple form. At one 
 period it was considered indispensable that 
 the subject chosen should be heard unchanged 
 through all the variations, that no alteration 
 should be made either in the relation, length, 
 or melodic progression of the sounds. This 
 only permitted the employment of the several 
 species of counterpoint as variations. After- 
 wards a ground bass was selected, or written, 
 in which ihore freedom and variety was attain- 
 able. Subsequently composers altered their 
 melodies by the addition of florid passages, 
 but not to such an extent as to make the 
 subject not easily recognisable. There are 
 many instances in the works of most of the 
 classical writers in which this artifice is 
 successfully employed. The old composers 
 called their variations " Doubles." Modem 
 transcriptions are often nothing more than 
 elaborate variations of a theme. 
 
 Variato (7^), Varie {Fr.) Varied, 
 changed, altered, with variations. 
 
 Vaudeville {Fr.) A term originally applied 
 to a country song of like kind with those 
 writteji by Oliver Basselin, of the valleys 
 of Vaux de Vire in Normandy, in the 
 fifteenth century. These songs, which were 
 satirical, had for their subjects love, drinking, 
 and passing events. They became very 
 
 popular, and were spread all over France 
 under the name of Lais des Vaux de Vire. 
 The peculiarity of their character lived after 
 their origin was forgotten, and plays, inter- 
 spersed with songs of this description, came 
 to be called Vaudevilles, and occasionally 
 Virelais. The songs in Vaudevilles should 
 form an integral portion of the plot or 
 subject. 
 
 The following melody of a Vaudeville is 
 from the " Second livre de Pifeces de Viole 
 avec la Basse continue. Compost par Mons. 
 De Caix D'Hervelois." Paris, c. 1719. 
 
 VAUDEVILLE GAVOTTE. 
 Viola da Gamba. (8ve lower.) 
 
 i-*-,,^ — I fi I ! 
 
 AS2 
 
 f"Tf= 
 
 ^^i^^^^fe^^ 
 
 i) ••-yj- Tff^ ^ 
 
 tW [[Lf^rrr^^^^f 
 
 Veemente {It.) Vehement, forcible. 
 
 Veemenza, con {It.) With vehemence, 
 force. 
 
 Velato, Velata {It.) Veiled, as voce velata, 
 a voice the tone of which is not clear. 
 
 Vellutata, Vellutato {It.) From velluta, 
 velvet. In a soft, smooth, velvety manner. 
 
 Veloce {It.) Rapid, swift. 
 
 Velocissimamente {It.) Very swiftly 
 
 Velocissimente (7^.) Swiftly. 
 
 Velocita, con {It.) With swiftness, 
 rapidity. 
 
 ( 445 ) 
 
VELOCITY OF SOUND VILLOTTE. 
 
 Velocity of sound. [Acoustics § 5.] 
 
 Ventil {Ger.), Ventile (It.) (i) A valve, 
 by means of which brass tubes may be made 
 to sound the semitones and tones between the 
 natural open harmonics. [Metal wind instru- 
 ments.] (2) A mechanical contrivance on an 
 organ for the purpose of cutting off the wind 
 from a particular sound-board. 
 
 Venusto (It.) Beautiful, graceful, fine. 
 
 Veranderungen (Ger.) (i) Variations. 
 (2) The mechanical arrangement by which 
 " stops " on a harpsichord were moved in 
 and out. 
 
 Verbindung (Ger.) Combination, union, 
 connection, binding. 
 
 Vergniigt (Ger.) Pleasantly. 
 
 Verhallend (Ger.) Dying away, decre- 
 scendo. 
 
 Verhaltniss [Ger.) Proportion ; raiio. 
 
 Verilay (Fr.) [Vaudeville.] 
 
 Vermindert {Ger.) Diminished ; as Ver- 
 minderter dreiklang, diminished triad. 
 
 Verschiebung (fier.) The soft pedal of a 
 pianoforte ; mit Verschiebung, una corda. 
 
 Verse, (i) Those portions of an anthem 
 or service intended to be sung by a single 
 voice to a part. [Anthem.] (2) A separate 
 stanza of a song or a ballad. (3) A verse 
 anthem is one which begins with soli portions 
 as opposed to a full anthem, which com- 
 mences with a chorus. 
 
 Versette (Ger.) Short pieces for the 
 organ intended as preludes or voluntaries. 
 
 Versetzen (Ger.) To transposes 
 
 Versetzungszeichen {Ger.) Accidentals. 
 
 Verspatung (Ger.) Retardation, delay. 
 
 Verstimmt (Ger.) Out of tune. 
 
 Versus Fescennini {Lat.) Nuptial 
 songs, so-called because they were first used 
 by the people of Fescennia in Etruria. From 
 this kind of poetry arose the Epithalamium, 
 a needful refinement upon the Feacenninian 
 verses. 
 
 Vertatur, Verte (Lat.) Turn over. 
 
 Verwandt {Ger.) Related, as verwandte 
 Tonarten, related keys. 
 
 Verwechselung {Ger.) Changing, alter- 
 ing, as to tone, time, key. 
 
 Verweilend {Ger.) Delaying, rallentcmdo, 
 
 Verwerfung {Ger.) Transposing. 
 
 Verzierungen {Ger.) Ornaments, deco- 
 rations, embellishments. 
 
 Verzogerung {Ger.) Retardation. 
 
 Vezzosamente {It.) Tend«rly, softly, 
 gracefully. 
 
 Vezzoso {It.) Tender, sweet, graceful. 
 Vibrante {It.) Vibrating, tremulous. 
 Vibrato {It.) A tremulous quality of 
 tone, as opposed to a pure equal production. 
 Vibration. [Acoustics § 3.] 
 Vicar choral. [Lay vicar.] 
 Vide {Fr.), Vido {It.) Open. [Vuide.] 
 
 Viel (Ger.) Much ; as, Mit vielem Tone, with 
 much tone. 
 
 Vielle {Fr.) The hurdy-gurdy. 
 
 Vielstimmig (Ger.) For many voices. 
 
 Vierfach {Ger.) Four-fold; having four 
 ranks of pipes. [Organ.] 
 
 Viergesang {Ger.) Song for four parts. 
 
 Vierspiel {Ger.) A composition in four 
 parts. Quartet. 
 
 Vierstimmig (Ger.) For four voices or 
 instruments, or in four parts. 
 
 Vierstiick {Ger.) .A piece for four players, 
 a quartet. 
 
 Viertelnote {Ger.) Quarter note, a 
 crotchet, the fourth part of a semibreve. 
 
 Viertheilston (Ger.) A quarter tone, half 
 a semitone. 
 
 Viervierteltakt {Ger.) Duple time of four 
 crotchets in a bar. 
 
 Vierzweiteltakt {Ger.) Duple time of 
 four minims in a bar. 
 
 Vif {Fr.) Lively, brisk, quick. 
 
 Vigorosamente {It.) Vigorously. 
 
 Vigoroso (It.) Vigorous, bold, forcible. 
 
 Vigiiela {Sp.) A simple kind of guitar. 
 
 Villancico {Sp.) A species of song of 
 two or more stanzas, each containing seven 
 lines, belonging to the poetry of the 15th 
 century, which, like the madrigal, is of an 
 epigrammatic form — formerly very popular in 
 Spain. The composers of that country em- 
 ployed the tunes of many of these songs as 
 themes for counterpoint in church motets. 
 Those motets which are sung during high 
 mass on Christmas-eve are always called 
 Villancicos. 
 
 Villanella {It.) A rustic dance accom- 
 panied with singing. The melody was 
 usually lively and the rhythm well marked. 
 The words, when any were used, were com- 
 monplace epigrams, and were also called 
 madrigals and ballets. The viUanella or 
 villotte, and villancico were the precursors of 
 the madrigal. When the title villanella began 
 to be used to describe compositions in rustic 
 style, not intended for voices, those composi- 
 tions were embellished with variations upon 
 the original subject. 
 
 Villotte {It.) The name given to the first 
 secular pieces in harmony after the rules of 
 counterpoint were fixed. Every so-called 
 " license " in harmony was used in this kind 
 of composition ; whereas church music could 
 only be written according to strict rules ; 
 therefore, secular pieces were called vile or 
 rustic, as being more fitted for clownish than 
 for courtiers' ears. Morley, speaking of the 
 villanella says, " many perfect chords of one 
 kind, nay, even disallowances may be taken 
 at pleasure, uniting a clownish music to a 
 clownish matter." [Villanella, Villancico, 
 Madrigal.] 
 
 ( 446 ) 
 
VINA ^VIOLIN. 
 
 Vina. [Bina.] 
 
 Viol. A stringed instrument, shaped like 
 the violin but of larger size ; it was furnished 
 in England with five or six strings, had a 
 fretted finger-board and was played with a bow. 
 The viol was called in mediaeval Latin, vitula, 
 and is found depicted in MSS. as early as 
 the nth century. In France, Germany, and 
 Italy the number of the strings varied between 
 three and six. It is supposed that they were 
 tuned in fourths and thirds. A chest of viols 
 consisted of six instruments of various sizes, 
 the smaller ones were called in England, 
 treble, the next mean, and the fetiger bass 
 viols. In Germany the names were Bratsche, 
 Schultergeige, and Bassgeige, and in Italy 
 viol di braccio and viol da gamba were the 
 names given to distinguish the several sizes. 
 
 Viola (7^) Bratsche{Ger.) The tenor violin. 
 It has four strings, tuned thus : 
 
 The two lowest are covered strings. Music 
 for this instrument is written in the alto clef, 
 whence it is sometimes called alto viola. 
 
 Viola di Bardone {It.) An instrument of 
 the vicJin kind, strung with six or seven catgut 
 strings tuned in the following manner : 
 
 Beneath the gut were metal strings, varying 
 in number from sixteen to as many as forty- 
 four, arranged in a diatonic order from 
 
 m 
 
 as the lowest tone. The sympathetic strings 
 were occasionally plucked with the left hand 
 in playing. The instrument is now obsolete, 
 but was in use in the time of Haydn, who at 
 the request of Prince Esterhazy composed 
 upwards of sixty pieces for it. It is also 
 called viola di fagotto, and baryton. 
 
 Viola Pomposa (it.) ' A species of viol da 
 gamba, invented by John Sebastian Bach. It 
 had five strings, the four lower strings were 
 tuned like the violoncello, in fifths, and the 
 . fifth string was tuned to E, by means of which 
 greater facility in the execution of extended 
 passages was possible. Improved skill on 
 the part of violoncello players made the viola 
 pomposa unnecessary. 
 
 Viola da Gamba {It.) One of the larger 
 instruments among a chest of viols. It 
 received its name from being held within the 
 knees of the performer. It had a fretted 
 finger-board and six strings, tuned thus : 
 
 It was particularly adapted to the perform- 
 ance of broken harmony and extended 
 chords. f 
 
 Viol d'amore {It.) An obsolete instrument 
 of the violin family. In addition to catgut 
 strings, metal strings were placed under the 
 finger-board, which, by the production of 
 sympathetic sound, gave a peculiar quality of 
 tone to the instrument. 
 
 The tuning varied according to the piece to 
 be played, the " accordatura " being often 
 indicated at the commencement of the copy 
 which was played from, but the most usual 
 method of tuning was the following: 
 
 Meyerbeer has written an obbligato part for 
 this instrument in the first act of the 
 " Huguenots." 
 
 Violetta. A little viol. 
 
 Violetta Marina {It.) A stringed instru- 
 ment similar in tone to the viol d'amour. It 
 was called violetta piccola, and by the French 
 Haute-contre. 
 
 Violin. Discantgeige {Ger.) Violon 
 {Ft.) Fiddle {Eng.) The most familiar of 
 all stringed instruments played with a bow. 
 It is somewhat smaller than the old viol, as 
 its name implies, violin being a diminutive 
 of viol. Like the rest of the family it 
 represents, it consists of a wooden chest of 
 peculiar form, made of -two curved surfaces, 
 called the back and the belly, united by sides, 
 and with a hollow half-way in the length. A 
 neck at one end has a finger-board, over 
 which the four strings pass, being fastened at 
 one end of the chest or body to a tail-piece, 
 and kept in tune and position by a series of 
 pegs at the end of the neck. The strings are 
 raised above the belly by the bridge. In the 
 belly are two holes, called the / holes from 
 their similarity to the shape of that letter. 
 The sound is produced by drawing a bow of 
 horse-hair charged with rosin across the 
 strings, which are tuned in fifths : — 
 
 the changes of pitch being gained by " stop- 
 ping" the strings with the fingers of the left 
 hand against the finger-board, thus shortening 
 the vibrating portion of the string. The har- 
 monics of the violin are very telling in quality, 
 and are ' produced by touching the strings 
 lightly instead of pressingthem upon the finger- 
 board. The sordino or mute, placed upon the 
 bridge, produces a peculiar modification of 
 tone, and a good effect is gained by plucking 
 the strings, as in pla3dng a guitar. [Pizzicato.] 
 
 ( 447 ) 
 
VIOLIN. 
 
 The compass of the violin ranges be- 
 tween : — 
 
 with every intermediate shade of sound. The 
 extreme high notes are rarely used, as they 
 are harsh and shrill. The violin is capable 
 of producing a limited harmony by means of 
 double stops and bowing in " arpeggio," while 
 as to power of expression and execution there 
 is no other instrument which can be compared 
 to it.r It has a wide range of sounds, to which 
 any degree of loudness or softness, staccato or 
 legato, can be given. This variety of tone, 
 added to the capability of being played a great 
 length of time with less fatigue than any other 
 orchestral instrument, renders it invaluable, 
 either for solos or combinations. The violin or 
 string quartet, as it is called, that is to say, 
 ist and and violins, viola, and violoncello, 
 form an indispensable portion of a score; 
 while the same combination, used for quar- 
 tets, is productive of the highest pleasure 
 when well and skilfully managed. 
 
 Stringed instruments played with a bow are 
 in use among many Eastern nations, the form 
 of the instrument so played varying consider- 
 ably. The number of strings and the form 
 of the bow also differ. The Urh-heen, or 
 
 CHINESE URH-HEEN. 
 
 Chinese fiddle, has no finger-board. There 
 are usually only two strings, but some speci- 
 mens have as many as four. The bow is 
 twisted under the strings, and it is said that 
 the Chinese fiddlers have to practise assi- 
 duously in order to produce the tone properly 
 from strings so placed. The resonance body 
 of the Urh-heen is covered with snake- skin. 
 
 The " Burmese Thro, Theyaou, or Tarau," 
 has three strings of silk, and although the 
 tone is nasal, it is not of unpleasant quality. 
 
 BURMESE THRO OR TARAU. 
 
 The "Kermangeh," another bowed instru- 
 ment, is in use among Mohammedan nations. 
 
 It is usually furnished with three strings of 
 gut, and there are two sound-holes beside the 
 bridge. The Kermangeh is made in several 
 sizes, like the European violin family. The 
 larger instruments are supported on an iron 
 peg. 
 
 KERMANGEH. 
 
 The Hindu "Chikarah" is supposed by 
 some to be the modern representative of 
 the ancient Ravanastron, the oldest form of 
 fiddle. 
 
 The " Rebab " of Egypt has one string of 
 horse-hair stretched over a resonance-body of 
 skin. In Egypt it is used to accompany the 
 recitations of the storytellers and the motions 
 of the dancers. 
 
 It is sometimes made in shape like 
 the " Kermangeh," and furnished with three 
 or even more strings. Whatever the form 
 may be, it is a favourite with the country- 
 people who use it. It is also called rahel or 
 arrabel. When it was introduced into Europe 
 it retained its Eastern name, with certain 
 modifications ; rebebe, reberbe, rubebe, rubeck, 
 rebec ; but it was altered in shape. The old 
 English jig, jegg, or gig, as it is variously 
 spelt, was also called rebec, the " jocund 
 rebeck " mentioned by Milton and other 
 
 (448) 
 
VIOLIN VIOLONCELLO. 
 
 poets ; it had three strings Hke its Eastern 
 prototype, the rebab. 
 
 Modern writers find the origin of the violin 
 in the above-mentioned Indian Ravanastron, 
 an instrument still existing, and used by the 
 poor Buddhist begging monks. From the 
 Ravanastron descends the rebab, kermangeh, 
 whence comes the Scandinavian guddok, 
 the ancestor of the Welch and Anglo-Saxon 
 crwth. From the crwth, the fithele, vitula, 
 or viol descended, and from the viol the violin, 
 the whole progress representing a period of 
 nearly 5,000 years in history. The violin 
 has not altered its form since the i6th century, 
 many instruments of that time being still in 
 actual use. One of the earliest makers of 
 violins was Gaspar di Salo, in Lombardy, 
 1560-1610. 
 
 In Cremona, d,uring the 17th century, the 
 Amati family, Andrew, his sons Jerome and 
 Antonio, and Nicolo the son of the latter, 
 were famous makers of violins. Antonio 
 Straduarius, also of Cremona, pupil of Nicolo 
 Amati, surpassed, if possible, the productions 
 of the Amatis, and the reputation of Cremona 
 for violins was maintained by Guarnerius and 
 Rugerio. The Tyrolese makers. Jacobus 
 Stainer and Matthew Klotz (and his sons) 
 became as famous as the Italians for violin- 
 making. Villaume, of Paris, is the most 
 celebrated modem maker. 
 
 Violin clef. The G clef placed upon the 
 first line of the stave. 
 
 In this position it is known as the French 
 violin clef. Now obsolete. 
 
 Violino principale (It.) Solo violin, or 
 leader. Violino primo, first violin. Violino 
 secondo, second violin. Violino ripieno, a 
 violin part required only to fill in and 
 strengthen the tutti. 
 
 Violin-steg (Ger.) The bridge of a violin. 
 
 Violon (Fr.) The violin ; in Germany the 
 same word is used for the double bass. 
 
 Violoncello (It.) The little violone. 
 When the violoncello supplanted the bass viol 
 or the viol di gamba in the early part of the 
 eighteenth century, many of the other in- 
 struments were so altered by having the 
 number of strings reduced, as to make them 
 playable like the violoncello. Excepting 
 occasionally, when the exigences of an old 
 score demand the use of a viol di gamba, 
 no other small bass stringed instrument is 
 employed in the orchestra, as the variety of 
 tone it is capable of — almost equal in resource 
 to the violin — renders the use of others 
 unnecessary. The violoncello is strung with 
 four gut strings, the lower two covered with 
 silver wire ; all are tuned a fifth apart. 
 
 The compass usually employed extends 
 between 
 
 though soloists play an octave higher, with 
 all the intermediate semitones. Music for it 
 is written in the bass clef up to 
 
 but the C clef, or sometimes the G clef, is 
 employed for the higher notes of the scale. 
 
 The tone of the violoncello is peculiarly 
 sympathetic, almost tearful in the higher 
 register, and these notes are frequently em- 
 ployed with great effect as well in solos as in 
 orchestral music. In the band the violon- 
 cello is coupled with the double-bass, and 
 the union of the tones of the two instru- 
 ments is wonderfully telling and solid. Men- 
 delssohn has used the double-bass without 
 the violoncello in Elijah, and the effect is 
 stormy and uncertain, while the violoncello 
 without the double-bass is light and expressive 
 of unrest. The violoncello is capable of 
 giving rapid passages with more clearness 
 than the double-bass, and so it is frequently 
 found that composers give essential notes to 
 the larger, and intermediate notes to the 
 smaller of the two orchestral basses. 
 
 Violoi 
 
 icelti. 
 
 Be 
 
 ET 
 
 HOVEN Pastor 
 
 al 
 
 Sym 
 
 shony). 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 ^-=^: 
 
 ZI 
 
 «|£ 
 
 ^^-- 
 
 Contr 
 
 abassi, ■ 
 
 S 
 IJ ' \ 
 
 IJ ' 1 
 
 Handel (Joshua). 
 
 The division of the two parts in this fashion 
 was at one time a matter of necessity, as 
 double-bass players were not sufficiently 
 skilful to be able to perform such passages, 
 but at the present time there is scarcely a 
 
 ( 449 ) 
 
 2 F 
 
VIOLONE VOICE. 
 
 double-bass player who is not able to take 
 such divisions with ease. 
 
 In addition to the single notes of its scale 
 the violoncello can give double notes, seconds, 
 thirds, fifths, sixths, sevenths, and octaves in 
 nearly every key between the two notes 
 
 Seconds, thirds, and fourths can be made 
 when the upper note is an open string, as 
 
 -J-J J 1 
 
 Fifths, sixths, and sevenths when the lower 
 note is stationary : 
 
 ^:— 1 — nrnd- 
 
 
 pd 
 
 """"th 
 
 [=J 
 
 :q 
 
 
 ^=.=^^ 
 -»*-»-» 
 
 
 g 
 
 ' — J— J 
 
 s 
 
 — 
 
 
 Violone (It.) The double bass. 
 
 Virelay (Fr.) [Vaudeville.] 
 
 Virginal. A stringed instrument played 
 by means of a keyboard, like the modern 
 pianoforte. It was in form like a box, or 
 desk of wood without legs or supports, and 
 was usually placed upon a table or standi 
 The strings were of metal, one for each note, 
 and the sound was made by means of pieces 
 of quill, whalebone, leather, or occasionally 
 elastic metal, attached to slips of wood 
 called "jacks," which were provided with 
 metal springs. The compass was about three 
 octaves. This title has been by some sup- 
 posed to have originated as a compliment 
 to Queen Elizabeth, who was an expert 
 performer upon the instrument ; but as the 
 word was in use before her birth this sup- 
 position is not valuable. Others say that 
 the name was applied because of the small- 
 ness and delicacy of its tone, as it was and 
 is considered proper for a woman " to 
 speak small." It is more likely to have 
 received its name from the word " virgse." 
 The virginal, also called spinet, from the 
 quills with which the string was sounded, 
 was the precursor of the harpsichord, now 
 superseded by the pianoforte. [Dulcimer, 
 Spinet, Pianoforte.] 
 
 Virgula [Lat.) (i) The stem or tail of a 
 note. (2) A neume. 
 
 Virtuoso (It.), Virtuose (Ger.) A skilled 
 performer on some particular instrument, 
 specially the violin. The term was formerly 
 applied to an amateur, " one who feels de- 
 light in, and possesses a taste for, the musical 
 science." 
 
 Vista (It.) Sight ; as, a prima vista, at 
 first sight. 
 
 Vistamente, Vitamente [It.) Briskly, 
 quickly, rapidly, with life. 
 
 Vivace, Vivacemente (li.) Lively, ii 
 quickly, sprightly. .1 
 
 Vivacetto (It.) Rather lively. 
 
 Vivacezza, Vivacita {It.) Liveliness, 
 vivacity. 
 
 Vivacissimo {It.) Very lively. 
 
 Vivamente {It.) Lively, briskly. 
 
 Vive {Fr.) .Brisk, quick, lively. 
 
 Vivente (It.) Ani'mated, lively. 
 
 Vivezza, con {It.) With life, liveliness. 
 
 Vivido (It.) Brisk, lively. 
 
 Vivo {It.) Alive, brisk, lively, animated. 
 
 Vocal, (i) For, or by the voice ; music 
 intended to be sung. (2) Compositions so 
 written as to be easy and eifective for the 
 voice. (3) The " singing " quality of tone ob- 
 tained from an instrument. 
 
 Vocale {It.) Belonging to the voice. 
 
 Vocalezzo {It.) An exercise for the voice. 
 
 Vocalisation, (i) Control of the voice 
 and vocal sounds. (2) Method of producing 
 and phrasing notes with the voice. 
 
 Vocalizzi {It.) Vocal exercises, solfeggi. 
 
 Vocal Score. [Score.] 
 
 Voce (/^) The voice; a.s, Voce di camera, 
 literally, a voice for the chamber, applied to a 
 voice of small quality, better fitted to the 
 limited area of a private room than for a public 
 concert room. Voce di gola, a guttural or 
 throaty voice ; Voce di petto, the chest voice, 
 the lower register of the voice : Voce di testa, 
 the head voice, the upper range of the voice ; 
 sometimes the falsetto is so termed. Voce 
 sola, the voice alone, unaccompanied. 
 
 Vogelflote {Ger.) A bird-call, flageolet, 
 or whistle. Mozart employs one in the score 
 of the Zauherflote. 
 
 Vogelpfeife {Ger.) [Vogelflote.] 
 
 Vogelgesang {Ger.) A musical instru- 
 ment composed of a series of small pipes 
 standing in water, through which the wind 
 had to pass. A merula. 
 
 Voglia {It.) Ardour, desire, longing. 
 
 Voice. Voices may be arranged in seven 
 orders or classes, according to gravity or 
 acuteness — viz., The bass, baritone, tenor, 
 alto, contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano. 
 The first four are the natural voices of men 
 and the last three those of women. The 
 compass or range of notes is different in each 
 voice, but it is not compass alone which 
 determines the class to which any voice may 
 belong, as very frequently a baritone quality 
 of voice is limited to the range of a bass, and 
 a tenor quality to the compass of a baritone. 
 It is almost impossible to describe in words 
 the general character of the several voices, it 
 must be sufficient to give the number of notes 
 they are capable of using. 
 
 The part for the bass voice is written in 
 the F clef and its most effective notes 
 are those indicated in the following by 
 
 ( 450 ) 
 
VOICING ^VOLUNTARY. 
 
 crotchets, though for solo purposes the notes 
 shown by the minims are often used. 
 
 The baritone voice has a compass between 
 
 its quality and character best fit it for solo 
 singing. Its part is now written in the bass 
 or F clef, on the fourth line, though there are 
 instances, as, for example, in Dr. Cooke's 
 setting of Collins' "Ode to the Passions," 
 where the baritone clef, that is to say, the F 
 clef on the third line, is used for the voice. 
 
 The compass of the tenor voice is between 
 
 The most serviceable notes being those 
 between the two crotchets. Its part is written 
 in the C clef upon the fourth line. The alto 
 voice is an artificial and not a real voice. It 
 is made by cultivating the falsetto notes 
 instead of the true chest voice. The C clef 
 is also used for this voice, but it is placed 
 upon the third line, and the compass em- 
 ployed is between the notes : 
 
 t^ 
 
 All the tones between the two crotchets al-e 
 produced from the chest, the D generally 
 dividing the two qualities of chest and fal- 
 setto, the point of junction being known as 
 " the break." 
 
 The contralto voice is of the lowest tone in 
 female voices, and nearly corresponds in range 
 to the bass voice in men, only, the sounds 
 produced are an octave higher. Music is 
 written for it in both the alto and treble clefs, 
 more frequently the latter. Its range is 
 between 
 
 The mezzo-soprano, often confounded with 
 the contralto voice, has a compass of an 
 octave and a fifth or sixth. 
 
 It is more flexible than the contralto, though 
 less brilliant in tone than the soprano voice. 
 
 which latter has 
 between 
 
 effective and useful notes 
 
 and even beyond these limits, in exceptional 
 cases. 
 
 Voicing. The regulation of the tone and 
 power of an organ-pipe. [Organ.] 
 
 Voix (Fr.) The voice. 
 
 Voix celeste (Fr.) [Vox Angelica.] 
 
 Volante (It.) Flying, applied to the execu- 
 tion of a rapid series of notes, either in singing 
 or playing. 
 
 Volata (It.) A run, or division ; a light 
 and rapid series of notes. 
 
 Volkslied (Ger.) A popular song. [Lied.] 
 
 Voll (Ger.) Full; as, Vollgesang, with 
 the full chorus ; mit vollem Werk, with the 
 full power. 
 
 VoUstimmig (Ger.) Full-voiced, full-toned. 
 
 VoUstimmigkeit (Ger.) Fulness of tone. 
 
 Volont6 (Fr.) Will, pleasure, a volonte, 
 at will. 
 
 Volta (It.) Turn, or time ; as, Una volta, 
 once ; due volte, twice ; prima volta, first 
 time ; seconda volta, second time. 
 
 Volta (It. and Fr.) An old dance. 
 [Lavolta.J 
 
 Volteggiando (It.) Crossing the hands 
 in pianoforte-playing. 
 
 Volteggiare (It.) To cross the hands. 
 
 Volti (It.) Turn ; as, Volti subito, or 
 abbreviated, v.s. ; turn quickly. 
 
 Volume. A term applied to the power 
 and quality of the tone of a voice or instru- 
 ment, or of a combination of sounds. 
 
 Voluntary. An organ solo played before, 
 during, or after any office of the Church ; 
 hence, called respectively introductory, mid- 
 dle, or concluding. Such solos were formerly, 
 and are often now unpremeditated, or impro- 
 visations, as the name Voluntary seems to 
 imply. Towards the end of the last century 
 the style of the music performed had greatly 
 degenerated ; the ordinary voluntary con- 
 sisted of running passages played by the right 
 hand on a cornet-stop or flute-stop, while the 
 left hand sustained a few soft chords by way 
 of accompaniment. The protests of clergy and 
 sound musicians against such performances 
 had not such a powerful influence in eradi- 
 cating them as the general introduction into 
 this country of complete sets of pedal-keys, 
 and the consequent study of John Sebastian 
 Bach's compositions for the organ. Arrange- 
 ments from instrumental and orchestral works 
 are at the present time largely used as volun- 
 taries, and although it must fee said in their 
 favour that they bring the themes of great 
 masters under the notice of many who would 
 
 ( 451 ) 
 
VORAUSNAHME ^VUIDE. 
 
 not otherwise hear them, yet it is to be feared 
 that they tend to discourage the composition 
 of genuine organ-music, and foster the mis- 
 chievous notion that the organ is intended to 
 be an imitation of a full band. 
 
 The custom of performing voluntaries and 
 interludes in Church was at one time carried 
 to an absurd extent. Not only was the 
 Psalm-tune introduced with a " very pretty 
 .flourish," but interludes were played between 
 each line of the tune, whether the sense was 
 complete or not. A specimen of the style of 
 these performances may be seen in the follow- 
 ing, from "The Psalmes set full for the Organ 
 or Harpsicord as they are Plaid in Churches 
 and Chappels in the maner given out, as also 
 with their Interludes of great variety," by 
 D. Purcell, c. 1700. 
 
 VOLUNTARY. 
 St. David's Tune given out. 
 
 ^^-^p-^^J^OS ^fall 
 
 Vorausnahme (Ger.) (i) Anticipation, 
 
 e.g. 
 
 Simple form. 
 
 (2) Preparation of a discord. 
 
 Vorbereitung (Ger.) Preparation of dis- 
 cords. 
 
 Vorgeiger (Ger.) Leader. First fiddle. 
 
 Vorgreifung, Vorgriff (Ger.) Anticipa- 
 tion. 
 
 (i) Syncopation. (2) 
 
 Appoggiatura, beat. 
 Prelude, introductory 
 
 A leader or principal 
 
 Vorhalt (Ger.) 
 Suspension. 
 
 Vorschlag (Ger.) 
 
 Vorspiel (Ger.) 
 movement, overture. 
 
 Vorspieler (Ger.) 
 performer upon any instrument, 
 
 Vortanzer (Ge»-.) Leader of a dance. 
 
 Vorzeichnung (Ger.) Signature, q.v. 
 
 Vox (Lat.) (i) A voice ; as vox humana, 
 the human voice. (2) A part ; as tres voces, 
 three parts. (3) A sound ; as, inter aliquam 
 vocem et octavam a se, between any sound and 
 its octave. (4) A key. [Acutae'claves.] (5) 
 A theme ; as, vox antecedens, the subject of a 
 fugue. 
 
 Vox Angelica {Lat.) An organ stop con- 
 sisting of two ranks of pipes of small scale 
 and delicate quality of tone, one of which is 
 tuned slightly sharp, in order to produce a 
 wavy and tremulous sound. Called also Voix 
 cSleste, unda maris, &c. 
 
 Vox humana {Lat.) A reed stop in the 
 organ, consisting of a large reed and short tube, 
 intended to imitate the sounds of the human 
 voice ; called voce umana in Italian, voix 
 humaine in French, and also anthropoglossa. 
 
 V.S. Abb. for volti subito, and for violino 
 secondo. 
 
 Vuide.(Fr.) Open, as corde vuide, open 
 string, on the violin or violoncello. 
 
 ( 4.%^ ) 
 
WAITS- 
 
 -WALZE. 
 
 w. 
 
 Waits, or Wayghtes. Originally certain 
 minstrels or musical watchmen attached to 
 the households of kings and other great 
 persons, who paraded an assigned district 
 sounding the hours at night. Until very 
 recently, the Waits of the City of Westmin- 
 ster were regularly sworn before the " Court 
 of Burgesses." In the " Liber niger domus 
 regis" quoted in Rymer's " Fcedera," in an 
 account of the musicians of the household of 
 Edward IV., mention is made of " A Wayte, 
 that nightely from Mychelmas, to Shreve 
 Thorsdaye, pipe the watche within this courte 
 fowere tymes ; in the somer nightes iij tymes, 
 and makyth Bon Gayte at every chamber, 
 doare, and offyce, as well for feare of pyckeres 
 and pillers." Many cities and towns, both 
 English and foreign, encouraged and licensed 
 their " waits," Exeter among other places 
 having a regular company as early as the 
 year 1400. 
 
 In the " Coxcomb," by Beaumont and 
 Fletcher, we find this allusion to a neglect of 
 duty on the part of the watchmen. 
 
 " Where were the Watch the while ? Good sober 
 gentlemen 
 They were like careful members of the City, 
 Drawing in diligent ale and singing Catches." 
 
 The word was sometimes used to describe 
 those who acted as the town musicians but 
 who did not do duty as watchmen. It was 
 also given to any company of performers 
 when employed as serenaders. 
 
 The instruments used were a species of 
 hautboys, called also shawms, and from their 
 use " waits." 
 
 Dr. Busby in his Musical Dictionary [1800] 
 says " The noun formerly signified hautboys, 
 and (which is remarkable) has no singular 
 number. From the instruments, its signifi- 
 cation was, after a time, transferred to the 
 performers themselves." 
 
 In The famous history of Dr. Faustus, the 
 Word is in a list of musical instruments. 
 " Lastly was heard by Faustus all manner of 
 instruments of music — as organs, clarigolds, 
 lutes, viols', citterns. Waits, hornpipes, 
 anomes, harps, and all manner of other 
 instruments of music." Butler in his " Prin- 
 ciples of Musick in singing and setting, with 
 the two-fold use thereof [Ecclesiastical and 
 Civil]" published in 1636, identifies waits 
 
 with the hautboy ; and Mr. H. Coleridge 
 adds his testimony founded upon a passage 
 in the romance of Kynge Aly sunder and Str 
 Eglamore, that the waits were wind instru- 
 ments. 
 
 A writer in the " Gentleman's Magazine," 
 in 1756, describing the method of constituting 
 freemen at Alnwick, says : — " They (the pro- 
 posed freemen) are generally met by women 
 dressed up with ribbons, bells, and garlands, 
 who welcome them with dancing and singing, 
 and are called timber-waits, probably a cor- 
 ruption of timbrel waits, players on timbrels." 
 
 At the present day the waits are detached 
 bodies of impromptu musicians who make 
 night hideous for three weeks before Christ- 
 mas, with wretched performances of indif. 
 ferent melodies. The waits or town musi- 
 cians in Germany were called Zinkenisten — 
 players of the Zink, a coarse reed instrument. 
 
 Waldflute,Waldfl6te,Waldpfeife(Ger.) 
 Forest flute. An organ stop of 4 ft. pitch 
 consisting of open wood pipes. [Flute.] 
 Waldquinte or Waldflotenquinte is a similar 
 stop one fifth higher in pitch. 
 
 Waldhorn {Ger.) A hunting horn. A 
 French horn. 
 
 Walnika, or Walynka {Russ.) A kind of 
 bagpipe used among the Russian peasantry. 
 
 Waltz, Valse {Fr.), Valce {It.), Walzer 
 (Ger.) A dance said to have originated in 
 Bohemia, now of almost universal adoption. 
 The time is of triple measure in crotchets or 
 quavers, and consists of eight or sixteen bar 
 phrases. Modern waltz writers frequently add 
 to the original dance-form an introduction 
 and coda. The " Vienna " waltz is character- 
 ised by a rapid movement and strict unbroken 
 time. Landler are slower and more digni- 
 fied than the waltz. 
 
 " Classical waltzes " are compositions in 
 waltz-form intended for set pieces, not for 
 dance tunes. In them, greater scope is given 
 to the composer and performer than is com- 
 patible with the rhythm of the dance. 
 
 Walze (Ger.) A roll. A symmetrical 
 run or division, e.g. : 
 
 I 453 ) 
 
\V ASSE RORGEL WU RDE. 
 
 Wasserorgel (Ger.) Hydraulic organ. 
 
 Waves of sound. [Acoustics § 3.] 
 
 Wayghtes. [Waits.] 
 
 ^A^echselgesang (Ger.) Responsive or 
 antiphonal song. 
 
 Wechselnote {Ger.) Notacambiata (It.) 
 In counterpoint, proceeding from a discord 
 by a skip, e.g. : 
 
 Welch (G«>-.) (i) Minor. (2) Soft and rich. 
 
 Weight of wind. [Wind gauge.] 
 
 Weissenote [Ger.) White note ; nota 
 bianca (It.), a minim. 
 
 Weiteharmonie [Ger.) Dispersed har- 
 mony. 
 
 Welsh harp. [Harp.] 
 
 Wenig {Ger.) Little, as ein Wenig stark, 
 rather loud. 
 
 Wesentlich {Ger.) Essential ; as wesent- 
 liche Septime, essential, or dominant seventh. 
 
 Wheel. The refrain or burden of a ballad. 
 
 "You must sing, Down, a-down, an you call him a- 
 downa. 
 O, how the wheel becomes it ! " — Shakspeare. 
 
 Whiffler. A wand-bearer to head a pro- 
 cession. A fifer. " Whifflers originally headed 
 armies or processions as fifers or pipers ; in 
 process of time the word whifflers, which had 
 always been used in the sense of a fifer, 
 came to signify any person who went before 
 in a procession." Douce's " Illustrations of 
 Shakspeare." 
 
 Whistle, (i) To make a musical sound 
 with the lips and breath without using the 
 vocal cords ; the hollow of the mouth forming 
 a resonance-box. The pitch of whistling is 
 an octave higher than is generally supposed. 
 
 Whistle, tin whistle, penny whistle. The 
 common wood or tin fiMe a bee having six 
 ventages. Its scale is : 
 
 when softly blown, which may of course be 
 considerably extended upwards by increasing 
 the pressure of wind, as in other flutes. 
 
 Whole note. A senybreve. 
 
 Wiederholung (Ger.) Repetition. 
 
 Wind band, (i) A military band. (2) 
 The wind instruments of an orchestra. 
 
 Wind chest. Windlade {Ger.) [Organ 
 Construction, § 4.] 
 
 Wind gauge. [Organ Construction, § 20.] 
 
 W^ind trunk. [Organ Construction, § 4.] 
 
 Wind instrument. A musical instru 
 ment whose sounds are produced by the 
 breath of the player, or by means of a pair 
 of bellows. 
 
 W^irbel (Ger.) (i) A peg of a violin, &c. 
 (2) The stopper of a closed organ pipe. (3) 
 Wirbelstock, a sound-board into which pegs 
 are fixed. (4) Wirbeltanz, a whirling or cir- 
 cular dance. 
 
 Wolf, (i) The bad effect produced when 
 playing in certain keys on an organ tuned to 
 " unequal temperament." It is well known 
 that tempered thirds are more distressing to 
 the ear when heard from instruments of con- 
 tinuous-tone like the organ and harmonium 
 than from pianofortes, &c. To obviate this 
 difficulty, tuners of organs formerly made 
 certain of their thirds untempered, that is, 
 true to nature, in the ratio 4:5. Thus Cjf was 
 made a true third above A ; El? a true third 
 below G ; Fg a true third to D ; GJf a true 
 third to E ; Bb a true third below D, e.g.: 
 
 The common chords, therefore, of C, D, Eb, 
 E, F, G, A, were perfectly in tune. But as 
 will be seen from the above, the following 
 would be heard for the chord of some remoter 
 keys : 
 
 Chord, of Al> , ofDl? 
 
 ^m 
 
 of Fit 
 
 ofB 
 
 !&c. 
 
 The divergence of these intervals from just 
 pitch was painfully apparent. Modern organs 
 are almost without exception tuned to equal 
 temperament. [Temperament.] 
 
 (2) Some particular note often found on a 
 violin, violoncello, or other stringed instru- 
 ment, the intonation of which is not true. 
 
 Wood wind, or Wood wind-band. The 
 flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, and instru- 
 ments of their nature, in an orchestra. 
 
 Wood stops. Organ stops, the pipes of 
 which are of wood. 
 
 Wrist guide. [Chiroplast.] 
 
 Wiirde (Ger.) Dignity. Mit Einfalt und 
 Wiirde, with simplicity and dignity. 
 
 I 454 ) 
 
XANORPHICA ZIGANKA. 
 
 X- 
 
 -z. 
 
 Xanorphica. A key-violin. An instru- 
 ment somewhat like the tetrachordon, in- 
 vented by RoUig (1761-1804), the sounds of 
 which were produced by bows set in motion 
 by a pedal, and acted upon by keys. 
 
 Xyloharmonica, Xyiosistrum. An har- 
 monicon consisting of graduated blocks of 
 wood, struck with hammers acted upon by 
 keys. Instruments of this class were made 
 by RoUig (1761-1804), and by Uthe (1810). 
 
 xS^lC£rm.l[LigneumPsalterium.] 
 
 Yang Kin. A Chinese instrument fur- 
 nished with brass strings, which are struck 
 with two small hammers, like a dulcimer. 
 
 Yo. An Indian flute. 
 
 Yu. An interval of the Chinese scale. 
 The ancient Chinese divided the octave into 
 twelve equal parts, like the semitones of our 
 chromatic scale, which were called lu. Their 
 scale, as commonly used, consisted, however, 
 of only five notes, which were called koung, 
 chang, kio, tche, and yu, and which corre- 
 sponded to our F, G, A, C, D ; koung or F 
 being considered to be the normal key. 
 
 Yue Kin. A guitar called by the Chinese, 
 " Moon Guitar." [Guitar.] 
 
 Za. Formerly a solfeggio name for BP. 
 
 Zambomba (S/>.) A common toy instru- 
 ment in Spain, formed of an earthen pot 
 tightly covered at its open end with a parch- 
 ment, into which is inserted the stem of a 
 reed. When the reed is rubbed up and down 
 with rough or moist fingers, the vibrations 
 are transferred to the air enclosed in the 
 vessel, and a hollow rumbling sound is pro- 
 duced. 
 
 Zampogna (It.) A bagpipe in use among 
 Italian peasants. The name is supposed to 
 be a corruption of Symphonia. [Bagpipe.] 
 A rough-toned reed instrument without a bag 
 is also called Zampogna or Zampugna. 
 
 Zaner. [Zummarah.] 
 
 Zanze. A negro instrument. Known 
 also by the names of mambira, ambira, 
 marimba, ibeka, vissandschi, in different parts 
 of Africa. It consists of a wooden box, on 
 which a number of sonorous slips of wood 
 or tongues of iron are fixed, in such a position 
 as to admit of their being made to vibrate by 
 pressing them down with the thumb or with 
 
 a stick. The compass of two such instru- 
 ments is given in Engel's "Music of the most 
 ancient nations," pp. 12, 13. 
 
 Zapatadeo (Sp.) A dance in which the 
 heel is struck violently on the ground to mark 
 the rhythm. 
 
 Zarabanda {Sp.) [Saraband.] 
 
 Zarge {Ger.) The sides of instruments 
 like the violin or guitar. 
 
 Zart (Ger.) Soft, delicate ; as, mit zarten 
 Stimmen, with soft stops ; sehr zart, very soft. 
 
 Zartflote (Ger.) A delicate-toned flute. 
 
 Zartlich (Ger.) Softly, delicately. 
 
 Zarzuelas (Sp.) A sort of drama, said to 
 have been first produced at Zarzuela in the 
 time of Philip IV. 
 
 Zeichen [Ger.) A musical sign, note, or 
 character. 
 
 Zeitmass {Ger.) Time, measure. 
 
 Zdle (Fr.), Zelo (It.) Zeal, energy. 
 
 Zelosamente {It.) Zealously, ardently, 
 earnestly. 
 
 Zeloso (It.) Zealous, energetic. 
 
 Zergliederung {Ger.) Lit. dissection. 
 The reduction of a subject to its component 
 figures in order to expand it by their repeti- 
 tion. 
 
 Zerstreut {Ger.) Dispersed, spread, open, 
 as, zerstreute Harmonie, dispersed or open 
 harmony. 
 
 Ziemlich {Ger.) Moderately, as ziemlick 
 langsam, moderately slow. 
 
 Ziffern {Ger.) To cypher. 
 
 Ziganka. A dance popular among the 
 Russian peasantry, similar in its figures to 
 the English country-dance. The tune is 
 lively, and the accompaniment is usually a 
 " burden," or " bag-pipe bass," as shown in 
 the following example : 
 
 ZIGANKA. 
 
 455 
 
ZIKRS ZYMBEL. 
 
 Having two ranks of organ pipes. (3) Com- 
 pound intervals. 
 
 Zweifacher {Ger.) A dance having alter- 
 nate triple and duple time. It is also called 
 Grad und Ungrad. 
 
 ZWEIFACHER. 
 
 Played four times. 
 
 Zikrs. Religious dances of the dervishes 
 in Egypt. 
 
 Zingaresca. A gipsy song or dance. 
 
 Zinken {Ger.) Cornetto curvo (It.) 
 [Cornet, § i.J 
 
 Zither {Ger.) Cither. A flat stringed 
 instrument, placed upon a table or on the 
 knees, having brass strings played with the 
 thumb of the right hand, while the melody is 
 brought more prominently out by the use of 
 a plectrum. A bow is sometimes employed. 
 
 Zogernd {Ger.) Ritardando. 
 
 Zoppa {It.) [Alia zoppa.] 
 
 Zufallige {Ger.) Accidentals. 
 
 Zufolo {It.) A flageolet or whistle. 
 
 Zug {Ger.) (i) A drawstop in an organ. 
 (2) A pedal of a pianoforte. Zugwerk, the 
 mechanical appliances of an instrument. 
 
 Zuklang {Ger.) Unison, consonance. 
 
 Zummarah. An Egyptian wind instru- 
 ment. [Bassoon.] 
 
 Zunehmend {Ger.) Lit. adding, crescendo. 
 
 Zunge {Ger.) (i) The tongue of a reed- 
 pipe. (2) The metal tongue in the reed of a 
 harmonium. 
 
 Zurna. A Turkish wind instrument, 
 similar in character to the oboe. 
 
 Zuruckhaltung {Ger.) Retardation. 
 
 Zusammengesetzt {Ger.) Compound. 
 
 Zusammengesetzte Taktarten, compound 
 
 time. 
 
 Zusammenklang,Zusammenlaut(Ge»-.) 
 
 Harmony, consonance. 
 Zweifach {Ger.) (i) Two-fold. (2) 
 
 I ISt. 
 
 I wi. I 
 
 Zweigestrichen {Ger.) Having two 
 strokes. [Pitch.] [Tablature.] 
 
 Zweiunddreissigtheil-Note {Ger.) A 
 demisemiquaver. 
 
 Zweivierteltakt (G«r.) Two-four time, |. 
 
 Zweizweiteltakt (Ger.) Two-two time, |. 
 
 Zwerchflote {Ger.) The German flute. 
 Flauto traverse {It.) 
 
 Zwerchpfeife {Ger.) The piccolo flute, 
 
 or fife. 
 
 Zwischengesang {Ger.) An mterpolated 
 
 Zwischenraume {Ger.) The spalces of 
 the stave. 
 
 Zwischensatz {Ger.) An episode. 
 
 Zw^ischenspiel {Ger.) An interlude played 
 between the verses of a hymn or choral. 
 
 Zwolfachteltakt {Ger.) Twelve-eight 
 
 time. 
 
 Zymbel {Ger.) [Cymbal.] 
 
 ( 456 ) 
 
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