mmm^mmwm''m fii lliflll! 111* iiyiiBiiiitiiiiiiii g)tatc College of Agriculture at Cornell ^nibecsitp aitbata, B- B. l^ibrarp ,-Bxill...MexBQ.r.ial....Q.Qli.e.ction Class 1888 Cornell University Library SF 203.V3 How to feed the dairy cow, 3 1924 003 016 668 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003016668 ^ow to FqqcI TKg Dairy Cow Bj Hu|irG.Van'Pdt Feeding Dairy Cattle Published by FRED L. KIMBALL COMPANY WATERLOO, IOWA, U. S. A. 1919 How to Feed the Dairy Cow By Hugh G. Van Pelt Editor The Dairy Farmer Copyright, 1919, by FRED L. KIMBALL COMPANY Waterloo, Iowa Second Edition November, 1919 These articles originally appeared in Kimball's Dairy Fanner during the years of 1915, 1916 and 1917 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page Introduction. Breeding and Feeding Dairy Cattle 7-20 I. Five Things to Consider About Feeds 21-27 11. Composition and Cost of Feeds 28-32 III. Corn and Its By-Products 33-51 IV Wheat and Its By-Products 52-62 V. Oats 63-70 VI. Flax and Its By-Products 71-75 VII. Rye and Rye Shorts 76-79 VIII. Barley and Its By-Products 80-87 IX, Distillers' Dried Grains 88-92 X. Cottonseed Meal 93-97 XI. Root Crops 98-102 XII. Dried Beet Pulp 103-107 XIII. Mixed Feeds 108-112 XIV. Silage 113-123 XV. Corn Stover .' 124-128 XVI. Timothy Hay 129-131 XVII. Straw 132-134 XVIIT. Other Carbonaceous Roughages 135-138 XIX. Soiling Crops 139-151 XX. .Roughage from Small Grain and Millet 152-155 XXr. Sorghum 156-160 XXII. Legumes 161-165 XXTII. Alfalfa 166-173 XXIV Svireet Clover 174-176 XXV. Clover 177-180 XXVI. Soy Beans 181-183 XXVII. Cowpeas 184-186 XXVIII. Other Leguminous Roughages 187-189 XXIX. Other Leguminous Roughages 190-192 XXX. Miscellaneous Feeds 193-202 XXXI. Packing House By-Products 203-207 XXXII. Applying the Knowledge of Feeds 208-213 XXXIII. Feeding the Dry Cow 214-222 XXXIV Milk Fever 223-228 XXXV. Feed and Care After Freshening 229-250 XXXVI. Feeding Test Cows 251 XXX VIT. Care and Management of Test Cows 252-256 XXXVIII. Milking the Cow Correctly 257-270 XXXIX. Care and Management of the Herd Bull 271-275 XL. The Care of the Calf 276-293 XLI. Fitting Animals for Sale 294-297 How to Feed the Dairy Cow Feeding Dairy Cattle An Introduction to the Book on "Feeding the Dairy Cow" The value of a herd of dairy cattle depends upon the methods employed in the breeding and feeding. Other factors enter in to assist or retard the efforts of the breeder, but, regardless of all skill em- ployed in otherwise managing the herd, to ignore the laws of breed- ing and the principles of feeding is to invite failure. Breeding and feeding go hand in hand. He w^ho applies the principles of feeding and disregards the laws of -breeding, or vice versa, cannot realize the greatest success. It matters little how well bred the sire and dam may be, im- proper feeding will dwarf the traits of excellence that should be transmitted to the offspring. Again, it matters little how expert the feeder, little will be accom- plished if the animals are poorly bred, and he who w-ould succeed in attaining either wealth or fame b}- improperly feeding cattle descended from mediocre breeding has but one chance in a thousand of realizing his aim. I am at present, however, a breeder and feeder of dairy cattle, and I believe those phases of the subject which maj- be put to prac- tical use for increasing production and insuring improvement of future herds will be more welcome to mj- readers than a discussion of the scientific laws that underlie breeding and feeding. To attain success in any business it is necessary to have a proper starting point and then to proceed in the right direction. Failure is often the result of starting wrong and proceeding in the wrong direc- tion or traveling in circles. This is more true of the breeding of livestock than of nearly any other business, for the one who starts with the wrong sire and continues to use sires of this kind forever travels in the wrong direction. He walks on a tread power, and, though he keeps everlastingly at it. never arrives. He who alternates good sires with poor sires travels in circles., He progresses at times, but usually finishes up at about the same point from which he started. The breeder who is walking in the tread power or traveling in circles — and many of us are guilty — must start over before he can 8 Feeding the Dairy Cow expect to succeed. If he would attain his purpose he must first have clearly in mind what his purpose is. If he would breed cows of great producing capacity he must mate his animals with that end in view. If he would breed cows with show-yard characteristics he must follow systematically the path which leads to purple ribbons. Comparatively speaking, these roads are smooth and well trod- den, but if he could breed cattle possessed at once of great and eco- nomical milk and butter-producing qualities together with show-yard characteristics — beauty, type and conformation — he will find a rougher road, for it is traveled less than the tread powers and circles for either of the pathways leading to the productive cow or the beautiful show- ring champion. It is for the breeder himself to decide definitely just what kind of an animal he will breed. He must have a clearly defined mind's-eye picture of the image he would mold by the persistent and intelligent mingling of blood lines through a lifetime of effort. If production is his desire, bulls from long lines of producing ancestry must be used. The greatest of all laws of breeding — like begets like — is as true today as in the days of Cruickshank, Booth, Bates, Hugh Watson and many others whose names will live in history as long as the cattle breeding industry survives. If he desires to breed excellence of type, form and conformation, the slogan now threadbare with age is true : "Breed from the winners." Truly believing it possible, yet realizing that the process is more difficult; to breed great producers possessing acceptable type, con- formation and beauty than to secure either feature without the other, my suggestions will be along that line. The starting point is in the bull pen. Analyze your bull. De- mand that he shall come up to a rigid standard of excellence, and follow up that demand by replacing him with another bull if he does not. If your mind's-eye picture calls for a cow that yields annually 500 pounds of butterfat, make sure your bull's feminine ancestors for six generations were cows that could perform at that rate ; also that the paternal ancestors were progenitors of such cows. Perhaps the pedigree does not show them with such records, but it should indicate that the ability to make those records was present. I say all ancestors, and I specify six generations of ancestors, for a bull, although more likely to transmit the characteristics of his dam, will also transmit characteristics of his more remote ancestors. That is why Holstein calves sometimes come red and white and Aberdeen Angus calves come all red, though not for scores Feeding Dairy Cattle 9 of years have these foreign colors been accepted to registration. This reversion to species is common to all kinds of livestock. You can journey but once from the cradle to the grave. Do not let your epitaph read that you made the journey with a dairy bull that did not possess the first fundamental qualities of dairy breeding. If the bull's pedigree is acceptable in the important respects mentioned, j'ou are ready to proceed. If your ambitions call for more than production alone, secure description of the conformation of the same ancestry. Look for show-yard records. Remember that the present-day greatness of all breeds of beef cattle, draft horses and other domestic animals is largely the result of the mating of prize winners and thus preserving their blood. If no prize winnings are to be found in his pedigree, bear in mind that he who attends great shows without his cattle and claims he has better individuals at home is probablj- less than 90 per cent right, and that your herd bull, even though a good individual himself, may not transmit with certainty his own conformation, for like either begets like or the likeness of an ancestor. If your bull fails here, dispose of him, but if in each respect the pedigree is acceptable, study the bull himself, remembering that "like begets like as well as the likeness of an ancestor." Your mind's-eye picture of the cow you would breed is clearly defined. ■ She must be good all over. Starting at the head to insure systematic procedure, it is a recog- nized fact that a large mouth indicates a good feeder; a large nostril," constitution ; a face clean cut and of good length, well dished between large, prominent, bright eyes points to excellence of dairy tempera- ment. These, being desirable in the cow, are also necessary in the sire that he may transmit them, thus insuring their prominence in the next generation. Furthermore, the head of the bull must, through its appearance of masculinity, indicate strength of character and pre- potency. It matters not how excellent in breeding and individuality a bull may be; if he does not have the prepotent power necessars^ to stamp on his get his characteristics and those of his ancestors, he is of little value. The effeminate sire permits the cows of the herd to stamp the various points peculiar to themselves and their progenitors, thus eliminating the uniformity of type, conformation and produc- tix-'eness. - 'The neck of the cow should be of good length, blending neatly into shoulders free from beefiness and with the backbone slightly protruding above, insuring a wedge-shaped conformation. The sire — th(9vighrbecause of masculinity bearing a heavier-crested neck — should 10 Feeding the Dairy Cow also possess length in this part and shoulders bearing close resem- blance to those of the desired cow, that his offspring may conform to the requirement. As surely as it is desirable to have cows long Iioui the shoulders to the hip bones, well sprung in the ribs, open-jointed and free from beefiness along the backbone, deep in the body, with a covering of soft, pliable and elastic hide, which in turn is covered with soft and silky hair, these qualifications must also be presented by the sire if they are to be expected in his offspring. Prominent hip bones are desirable in the dairy cow, and great length and straightness from these points to the pin bones insure length of udder and one that carries well forward with front quarters well rounded out. Therefore, it is very essential that the sire that is expected to impress these characteristics on the next generation should comply with this conformation. The cow of your dream must have a broad udder attached high behind. To be thus possessed she must be well arched between thin, incurving thighs. Cows that are beefy in the hind quarters lack place of attachment for long, broad udders. To insure this essential it is necessary that sires used in the attempt to secure the ideal cow must be thin of thigh, cut high up and well arched out in the hind quarters. That cows of great capacity and ability may utilize the milk- making nutrients digested from foods consumed, there must be an abundance of blood circulating from the digestive organs carrying these nutrients to the udder. The volume of this circulation is indi- cated by large, long and tortuous milk veins and by large and nu- merous milk wells. Cows with short, straight, small veins and only two small milk wells will seldom be found to be 500-pound cows. Bulls vary almost as greatly as cows in these respects. Therefore, the sire should be well veined. Rudimentaries, if small and placed close together on the sire, indicate that his daughters will have small teats placed close to- gether. With all details of form and conformation approaching perfec- tion the sire must possess size, color markings, style and general ap- pearance in keeping with the breed he represents. If your bull is extremely faulty in any of these requirements when in proper condi- tion, life is too short and good bulls are too plentiful for you to use him unless he is especially valuable in correcting certain defects in your herd without incurring worse ones. By the use of even the very best sires disappointments occur. Progress is slow. Breeders do not accomplish great success in one Feeding Dairy Cattle 11 generation of breeding. Even a lifetime honestly and intelligently employed is too short a period for most breeders to realize their am- bitions where lack of experience or financial restrictions compel them to start with a heterogeneous collection of females. More often advancement is retarded by improper selection of a good herd bull's successor than by the use of the wrong bull in the beginning. When a bull is placed in service, your efforts to secure his successor should immediately begin. The time between the use of the first bull and the breeding age of his daughters is almost too short for locating just the right bull. Fortunate is the breeder who, in a lifetime, is successful enough to control the services of one out- standing sire ; and doubly fortunate is he who makes no mistake in selecting sires that will improve upon or even perpetuate the good qualities transmitted by one renowned sire. Outcrossing and inbreeding are uncertain tools in the hands of the breeder who strives for certain and uniform results. Either method properly employed will insure some excellent animals, but, because they are radical procedures, they are liable to interfere with uniform results, which means that a great many inferior offspring are liable to come along with a few excellent ones by following pro- miscuously either inbreeding or outcrossing. A more certain method is line breeding, which differs from in- breeding in that it consists of mating animals remotely related rather than those closely related. Owing to the fact that the greatness of the progeny of a sire comes largely through his dam, one excellent plan of line breeding is that of using a second bull whose dam is the best sister of the first bull's dam and whose sire — furnishing as he does the mild outcrossing blood — is more remotely related, if at all, and possesses in his individuality and that of his ancestors the quali- ties necessary for correcting the small defects transmitted by the pre- ceding sire, ^^'hen the calves of the second sire approach breeding age, provided the first sire used has proved worthy, it will be advisable in some instances to breed them to him — their grandsire. In other instances an excellent son of the first sire — out of a highly productive cow possessing no fault in common with the off- spring of the first sire — may advantageously be used on the daughters of the second sire. Such is line breeding in the case of the second sire used and line breeding approaching inbreeding in the last two instances suggested. If the breeder has made no mistake up to this point, and the heifer calves promise to approach the perfection of his ideal, then he is in a position to breed and develop his own bulls and continue line breeding until perfection, as his eye outlines it, has been reached. 12 Feeding the Dairy Cow The time has then arrived when close inbreeding may be advis- able to intensify the blood lines which have attained success, so that the approved type, conformation and production may be retained in the herd. From that time forward line breeding is advisable, for- eign blood being introduced gradually and judiciously. Radical out- crossing at this point is absolutely dangerous and excusable only on the grounds of fancy and faddism, for, not knowing how foreign blood is going to nick with the herd, a lifetime of persistent, careful effort may be destroyed by the use of one bull, even though he him- self is a good individual and carries blood lines not to be faulted from the standpoint of the family to which he belongs. Countless other facts pertaining to breeding might well be enumerated, but I have thus far neglected to mention the second phase of my subject — that of feeding dairy cows. With Proper Breeding Goes Proper Feeding With the intelligent employment of the breeding principles re- ferred to only meagre results will be accomplished unless equally efficient methods of feeding are followed. In order that the sire may transmit to the fullest degree his own good qualities and those of his ancestors he must be intelligently fed and managed. A rule followed by most successful breeders is that of keeping their sires in good, healthful condition but on the lean side at all periods so that when the heaviest breeding season arrives they may, by increasing the feed, encourage the bull to be gradually gaining in. weight. This strong and most healthful condi- tion materially adds to his prepotency. Bulls emaciated from lack of nutritious food, or those plethoric because of an over abundance of food and lack of exercise usually beget offspring disappointing to the breeder. Therefore, any sys- tem of breeding and management that will provide exercise and keep the sire in reasonable flesh and excellent health is advisable. It is equally necessary that the females of the herd be properly nourished, not alone for the stimulation of milk and butterfat produc- tion but also for the upbuilding of their offspring, the nourishment for which can be secured from no other source than from the mother during the entire period of gestation. It is a well known fact that the foetus makes its largest growth during the last six weeks of gestation. It is also known that the calf at birth is made up almost entirely of protein, mineral matter and water — there being very little, if any, fat in his body. It is known, in the third place, that the only nutrients in foodstuffs which go to manufacture cartilage, bone, muscle, blood, hair and hide are protein and mineral matter. Therefore, if the ration provided for the mother Feeding Dairy Cattle L? is lacking in these essential nutrients, or if she is compelled to con- tinue milking up to freshening time, she must draw upon her own body to nourish the calf, with the result that the future of calves nourished under such conditions is very largely sacrificed before they are born. It is undoubtedly for this reason that calf scours, cholera, pneumonia and the scores of other diseases which play so much havoc on dairy farms exist. They are occasioned by the fact that so few breeders realize the necessity of beginning to feed the calf properly prior to birth. This is one good reason why the cow should be turned dry six or eight weeks before freshening. While the cow is dry she should be abundantly and judiciously fed, for the following things are required : First, the foetus must be developed; second, the cow's digestive apparatus needs a rest; third, flesh, strength and stamina are to be placed in possession of the cow to enable her to campaign well during the coming period of lactation. Common sense reasoning in this matter has established a bal- anced ration, for, in fact, the terms "common sense ration" and "bal- anced ration" are synonymous. The balanced ration is nothing more nor less than a ration that will accomplish a purpose more efficiently and more economically than any other ration and diflfers as the pur- pose desired changes. In other words, a ration balanced for a cow at one period is not a balanced ration for the same cow at another period. Successful feeding depends upon the ability of the feeder to de- termine accurately the purposes to be accomplished, and a knowledge of the physical and chemical properties of available foodstuffs that will enable him to combine them that an efficient, common sense, bal- anced ration results. Thus it is that by analyzing existing conditions a ration at once suitable to developing an unborn calf and condition- ing the cow may be formulated. If it be summer time, nothing excels good pasturage or green food as a basic ration, but if in winter, sub- stitutes in th"e form of corn silage and beet pulp or other succulent food should be used freely in conjunction with some leguminous hay, such as clover, alfalfa, sweet clover, cowpea, soy bean or Canada peas and oat hay. Whether summer or winter conditions exist, a concentrated ra- tion properly balanced should be fed. Four or six weeks is not a long time, and quick conditioning necessitates a variety of feeds. As a rule, a grain ration consisting of two parts ground oats, one part oil meal, one part bran and one part corn meal will prove efficient. The amount fed daily depends upon the feeding qualities and condi- tion of the cow. As a rule from 6 to 12, or even 16, pounds of the mixture may be fed daily to good advantage. It should le borne ia 4 Feeding the Dairy Cow nind that feed given during the resting period is far from wasted, iven though the cow returns nothing directly, she is making good ise of it, and later will return more profit for feed consumed while she is dry than for that eaten at any other period. As freshening time approaches, if the feeding has been judi- ;iously performed, the cow will begin rounding into bloom and de- veloping an udder to the fullness of her capacity. It is true that more rareful attention will be necessitated at freshening than tnough she ^rere permitted to calve in poorer flesh. Careful and skillful manage- nent will suffice to bring her through parturition safely, and every "eeder should consider it a part of his education to know how to nanage his cows for securing greatest results. Three days or so before the cow is to freshen her grain ration should be eliminated and in its stead bran mashes composed of three Dr four pounds of bran thoroughly moistened and well salted should 36 given at regular feeding hours, in addition to the roughage which, jeing of a laxative nature, may be continued. It is never advisable to permit a valuable cow to calve without Lttendance. If she is a heavy producer under natural conditions, nuch greater yields may be expected as a result of special fitting, ^'urthermore, udder troubles and milk fever are more liable to occur, t is quite generally conceded, however, that if feeding operations ire such that the cow's digestive tract is kept in a loose, laxative :ondition and little, if any, milk be taken from the udder, except by he calf, for the first 48 hours, the danger from milk fever is reduced o a minimum. The thought of the careful feeder and herdsman, lowever, is always of the welfare of his charge, so he will watch her :losely day and night until the danger of parturient paralysis has )assed, so that, should the slightest symptoms occur, the air treat- nent may be put to use and sickness forestalled before it has ad- vanced far enough to -be weakening in its effect. In case of milk fever lU feeding must cease until the cow is again on her feet and quite ;nough recovered to have regained her appetite. It is well to leave the calf with its mother the first two or three lays, for this assists greatly in relieving the inflammation of the ud- ler and in keeping the cow quiet. As a rule, when 48 hours have fassed, if all has gone well, the calf should be taken away, for the nother is ready to begin work in earnest. This is in case the udder las reached normal condition. Otherwise, the feeding of soft foods, luch as bran mashes should continue and, in addition to frequent ipplication of heat, the udder should be milked out thoroughly many imes day and night. This represents much labor, but success in any )usiness is attained only by persistent, intelligent effort and close \ Feeding Dairy Cattle 15 attention to details ; and he who is most willing and industrious suc- ceeds and leads others to wonder what secrets he practices. When the cow's condition warrants that she be placed on solid food, haste must be made slowly. Within 30 days she should be on full feed and giving her daily maximum milk yield. Furthermore, she should not be brought to full feed and milk sooner, for at best she is in a weakened condition following parturition. It is now that the feeder will begin to appreciate the value of the careful and liberal feeding given before freshening, for, in all likelihood, he has been rewarded with a strong, vigorous calf not predisposed to all the ills that affect calves less fortunately born, and he finds the mother strong, fleshy and ready to work. She has much extra fat stored up in her body, and this is well, for, unable to utilize large amounts of food, she at once begins drawing upon the reserve nutrients that are stored, and converts them into milk and butterfat. The purpose of the feeder has changed, and his aim now is to en- courage by feed and care the transferring of the fat from the cow's body to the pail. Succulent foods and those rich in protein stimulate milk secretion at the expense of body fat. Therefore, it is well to continue the use of green foods, roots, silage, beet pulp, leguminous hays, and, in addition, a light feed of such protein feeds as bran, oil meal, ground oats and gluten feed. In the beginning the daily ration should not exceed 4 or 5 pounds, and this should be increased slowly and on alternate days. All concentrated feed given and all milk yielded should be weighed. No feeder, no matter how experienced, can get the best out of a cow unless by the use of the scales he knows every day the results he has attained that he may use the knowledge on the morrow. Real- izing this to be a fact, many successful record makers now provide for each cow on test a box large enough to hold a day's ration and at a convenient time each day her feed for the next 24 hours is weighed and placed therein. This requires a little extra work, but results will pay well for it. Developing cows is a business, and any business that is worth while is worth doing in an expert manner. By using boxes in this way the 24-hour ration can be divided as best, suits the demands of the cow. Some cows eat better in the morning, some at noon and some at night. Often it is found best to give a cow one-half of her entire day's ration at night, leaving the other half to be divided be- tween the next two or three feeds. This can easily be done where the full ration is available. After the first day's ration has been fed results begin. On the following day the scales will tell the amount of milk stimulated 16 Feeding the Dairy Cow thereby. On the second day the ration should be increased one-half or three-quarters of a pound, and on the following day the scales should indicate an increase in milk flow, in which case a like increase in feed should be made the fourth day. If the scales do not show an increase in the milk something is wrong. Perhaps the ration is not suited to the particular cow and a change should be made. Thus the ration should be increased by small amounts each alternate day, the scales showing the way on the intervening day. Invariably dur- ing the first 30 days a narrow ration — one composed largely of ground oats, oil meal, bran, gluten feed, cottonseed meal, dried distillers' grains, with a very small amount of corn meal in addition to the roughage — should be used, because these are all rich in protein and stimulating to milk secretion. Greatest results are attained from the feeding that is practiced the four weeks preceding and the four weeks following freshening. If all has gone well, the cow has almost reached the limit of her feeding capacity and the limit of her milk-producing ability at the end of 30 days. A perceptible change has been made in her appearance. Much of the beefy conformation has disappeared and she has taken on a decided dairy form. The surplus fat has been transferred from the body to the pail. The problem is now to hold the milk flow and the most ideal working form. Recognizing that some foods tend to create energy and fatten the animal when fed heavily enough, and others furnisli milk-making nutrients, and that the cow, whatever else she may be, is a machine kept on the farm to convert these foods into milk and butterfat, the feeder with the scales and a variety of feeds can com- bine and feed them in such amounts as to accomplish any reasonable purpose he may choose if the machine is efficient. I-'rom day to day, and frorh week to week, the ration should be varied gradually, add- ing to or taking from it the foods of one character, then another ; catering always not only to the demand but also to the likes and dis- likes of the individual in charge. Great records are never secured by the dozen but by studying and catering to the individual cow. Anxiety for great records should never tempt overfeeding, though it often does. Many cows are ruined and scores of records made smaller because of too much feed. There is always more dan- ger of overfeeding than of underfeeding, but this danger is greatly lessened where the scales are employed. Many facts pertaining to feeding come from experience, and, though well known to the feeder, are difficult to express clearly in words ; but, suffice to say, that in ad- dition to all knowledge known to the art the herdsman must always, with the interest in results, at least keep in mind the condition of the \ Feeding Dairy Cattle 17 animal and be prepared to decrease the ration at the first indication of the cow going "off feed." At best cows working hard for long periods tire of their feed and weaken under continued pressure. It is well occasionally to substitute for one feed a bran mash to rest and cool, so to speak, the digestive tract. Any indication of digestive troubles should receive prompt attention and a corrective in the form of raw linseed oil, salts or other laxative given. The feeder who knows at all times the condition of the animal, the real purpose for which he is feeding and the amount and charac- ter of food best suited to accomplish the purpose can safely drive the machine to the limit of its feeding capacity and milking ability. Statistics show there are, in round numbers, 22,000,000 milk cows on the 6,500,000 farms of this country. They also show the average annual production of butterfat to be less than 150 pounds per cow. There are several reasons why the yield is so low. Of these there are two reasons principally accountable — inefficient cows and im- proper feeding. Improving the character of milk cows will increase production to a certain degree temporarily, but assurance of large and perma- nent betterment necessitates good cows properly fed. Like a great wave, education has spread over every dairy section of this country, showing by conclusive methods the vast difference in the earning power of individual cows. Everywhere the sorting process is in evi- dence. Meagerly bred and low productive cows are being replaced with superior individuals, and improvement to a large degree is ap- parent. This procedure is, indeed, commendable and should be per- sistently and intelligently continued, for, surrounded by conditions of high-priced land, expensive feed and well paid labor, a herd capa- ble of yielding no more than 150 pounds of butterfat per cow annually is not a profitable asset. Even though it were, it would not be an advisable possession, for farm conditions are such in this country that the intelligence of farm operators warrants herds capable of averaging yearly 300 pounds or more of butterfat per cow. It must be recognized, however, that merely substituting produc- tive cows for nondescripts and purebred dairy sires for scrubs will not bring forth the desired improvements. The most productive herd will revert to the plane of the scrub in production when fed scanty rations composed of unsuitable feeds. Improvement in the dairy herd must be accompanied by skillful, liberal and intelligent feeding if it is to be permanent in character. Therefore, wise as it is to build up a herd by rational selection and intelligent breeding, the first step should be that of making cer- tain that the present herd is being properly cared for. I doubt not 18 Feeding the Dairy Cow that the scales and the Babcock test of today are condemning cows when they should be condemning feeders. I doubt not that produc- tion in 90 per cent of the herds can be most certainly and rapidly in- creased by better feeding than by substitution of cows. So closely hand in hand do selection, breeding, care and feeding go that any one without the others will not insure success. He who is a good feeder and caretaker robs himself if he employs cows lack- ing in yielding ability. He who is not a good feeder and caretaker robs himself and his cows and has no right to possess animals capable of producing largely. It has been said that great feeders are born — not made — and that the eye of the master fatteneth his cattle. Truly, the phenom- enal butter records that are becoming plentiful nowadays evidence the fact that science and art are possessed by certain feeders, ^\'hcrc ambition exists, any industrious man of intelligence can secure reasonable and very profitable results from dairy cows if he puts into practice the well-known facts pertaining to the feeds he has available and the feeding of them. There are certain basic principles which must be firmly fixed in the mind of the feeder if he is to stimulate cows to large and eco- nomical production. Having determined to manufacture milk and calves, he has become a manufacturer. From a business standpoint his barn is his factory, his cows are his machines and the feeds he chooses are the raw material out of which animal life is to be de- veloped and maintained and from which milk is to be manufactured. This is the true fundamental starting point from which large results, if they are to be secured, must come. It is true that a cow differs radically from a mere machine and demands a difTerent kind of care ; but equally is it true that machines differ radically one from another and need radically different kinds of care. Knowing this, manufacturers familiarize themselves with their machines and give them exactly that sort of care which makes for their greater efficiency. I know there are eminently successful dairymen and breeders who object seriously to comparing the cow with a mere machine— an inanimate object that does not respond to regularity of care, caresses, comfortable environment and protection from climatic ele- ments. That is because, familiar as they are with cows, they have never considered the machine in the light of one who is as familiar with It as the good breeder is with his cows. He who thus considers the comparison odious does not know that the engine which pulls a train across the continent talks to the engineer. His sentiment for his cows has blinded him to the fact that to accomplish the purpose Feeding Dairy Cattle 'I the engine eats with even greater regularity than the cow and that the fireman, black and grimed with the dust of coal, but with a keen knowledge of the engine's requirements, supplies it with a ration perfectly balanced and abundant, or otherwise, according to whether the iron horse is climbing the mountain side, descending a grade, run- ning on the level or standing still. He has never watched the en- gineer, as he pulled into a terminal, climb down from his box and view his big horse with pride and address him in terms much more sentimental than the slinging of a milk stool at a cow as she leaves the barn. He does not know how the hostler takes the monster of the rails to the roundhouse and stables it against the elements, nor has he realized how the helper grooms perfectly this great engine and how the machinist doctors its ills that it may be in prime condition to do its very best another day. The story of this great victor of the hills, valleys and prairies is a true story of every machine in the world's great factories ; and, were I compelled to tell in a few words how most certainly to double the yield of the American cow, I would say: "Know her purposes, learn her needs and supply them; care for her intelligently, treat her kindly, even as the engineer does his engine and the manufacturer his machine." I dare say that the greatest of reasons why cows in general do not yield more largely and profitably is because their owners have never viewed them in a really business-like manner. It would seem that, because of sentiment gone astray, the cow is considered as a sort of mysterious being — an animal that has the power to just eat feed, make milk and reproduce at regular intervals her like. Nothing is further from the truth, and cows kept under conditions of such reasoning — or lack of thoughtful reasoning — produce largely onl}^ when sentiment becomes great enough to impel the furnishing of food, care and management, regardless of cost. Then cows seldom produce profitably. Considered as the most highly developed of machines placed in the barn, which is the factory, the cow is on a definite business basis. It becomes plainly apparent that she is kept for the distinct purpose of converting food, or the raw materials of field and pasture, into the finished commodities — milk, butterfat, offspring and fertilizing material. To do this she must be kept in prime working condition. Proper maintenance is the first essential of success in operating any machine. Therefore, a certain amount and kind of food is necessary for this purpose. To make the commodities desired by her owner additional feeds must be given her, for no cow ever made a pound of milk or an ounce of any other commodity out of anything except food eaten by her at some time or other. 20 Feeding the Dairy Cow The manufacturer, who considers himself as such, recognizes that if he is to compete successfully and profitably with his competi- tors he must not only keep his machines busy ; he must provide exactly the character and quality of raw material out of which the finished commodity he would make can be most efficiently and eco- nomically made. He, therefore, makes it a large part of his business to familiarize himself with the character, quality and cost of all raw materials available for his purposes. Fortunes have been made through the proper selection of raw materials, and fortunes have been lost through improper selection of raw material. Today, in all parts of the country, dairymen are sacrificing a large percentage of their possible profits because they have not familiarized themselves with the character, quality, composition and cost of feeding values ot various foodstufifs which they might better employ than the feeds they are using. All feeds are composed of identically the same constituents. They differ only as the percentage of these constituents differ, and in their digestibility, palatability, bulk and the physical effect they may have on the animal. Not until the feeder possesses definite knowledge concerning the factors which determine the usefulness of feeds for certain purposes will he be able to determine their relative value or to mix them into an efficient, economical ration for the purpose he would accomplish in keeping and feeding cows. CHAPTER I. FIVE-THINGS TO CONSIDER ABOUT FEEDS There are five essential poirits to be considered in selecting dairy cows. Likewise, there are five essential points to be observed in selecting dairy cow foods. These are palatability, variety, physical character, composition and cost. Unpalatable rations are wasteful. The cow, non-appreciative of them, eats little more than enough to satisfy the demand of her body, pushes a portion out on the floor to be wasted and leaves the re- mainder in her feed box to be discarded. Very often cows are con- sidered poor feeders and low producers when, by changing their ra- tion so as to appeal to their appetites, they prove exceptionally pro- ductive. There are reasons to believe that when a cow is compelled to eat food non-palatable to her the secretion of digestive juices is not stimulated to its fullest extent. Because of this, although she may eat a satisfactory amount of food, she will not produce proportion- ately because a considerable amount of her food passes on undigested and is worse than wasted, since it taxes the organs of digestion with- out accomplishing any desired purpose. Cows differ widely — as do all domestic animals, other than the hog — ^with regard to their likes and dislikes of various foods. What one cow eats with avidity another refuses entirely or eats sparingly. Gluten feed and dried distillers' grain, although recognized as excel- lent dairy feeds, are disliked by many cows when they are first added to the ration. Most cows acquire a liking for them and soon eat them heartily, but in most herds there are individuals that never learn to appreciate these and other by-products. To such cows it behooves the feeder to give only small portions of these foods with larger por- tions of those more readily eaten. Likewise, many other foods are objectionable to certain cows. In fact, few foods are equally acceptable to all. Ground oats are presumably second in palatability only to corn, yet I have in mind one great cow that refused absolutely to eat more ground oats than IJ^ pounds daily. In breeding and individuality she gave appearance of being able to make a larger butter record. Her feeder had raised her from calfhood and declared unqualifiedly that 30 pounds of milk daily was the most she would yield. Evidently she was one of those deceitful cows that, judging from her breeding and conformation, .should be a great producer, but when put to test would be tound 22 Feeding the Dairy Cow wanting for no apparently good reason. This cow would yield regu- larly 30 pounds of milk a day, but no amount of effort, seemingly, would ii.duce her to eat food to stimulate a greater flow. After every meal food would remain in her feed box. A happy thought appealed to her feeder. He would find if there were any foods she would eat after satisfying herself with the ration given. Corn meal was offered her. She ate it ravenously. Then, in turn, cottonseed meal, gluten feed, bran, etc., were offered her separately. Each time she displayed her desire to eat. Finally, she was offered ground oats and turned her head away in disgust. The problem was solved. Strange as it may seem, ground oats — one of the greatest and likewise one of the most expensive foods — found little favor with this cow. Oats were omitted from her ration. She ate heartily and increased regularly in her milk flow. When she had been fresh four months she had a but- ter record of 339.75 pounds. Her feeder, believing rightfully in the excellence of oats as a food for dairy cows, tried returning them gradually to her ration. He found she would eat lYz pounds daily with other foods but additional amounts caused her to leave her feed and decline in milk flow. This presents the first important reason for providing separate and distinct rations for individual cows, and illustrates not only a waste of high-priced feeds but also a diminishing of milk production where but one ration is provided for the herd as a whole. Not in the lifetime of a feeder would he find another cow that would so thor- oughly abhor ground oats, but where a large number of foods are utilized seldom would he find a cow that liked all of them equally well. Therefore, upon his ability to determine the most palatable ration for each of his charges depends the greatness of the individual work of each cow, and, in consequence, the greatness and economy of the herd's total production. The dairyman is willing to pay additionally for a cow of large capacity. He well knows that the only milk he will get is to be made from the food eaten, and, therefore, the more food the cow is capable of eating in a given time the more milk he may expect. Regardless, to a great extent, of her capacity, a cow eats in accordance with the palatability of her ration. It is, therefore, apparent, that, in order to utilize to the fullest degree the inherent digestive capacity possessed by the cow, her ration must be pleasing to her palate. A most common mistake made by feeders is the utilization of too small a number of foods in compounding rations. A large variety of foods wisely selected insures palatability, economy, efficiency and a balanced ration. It is absolutely impossible to provide a ration from corn silage, Five Things to Consider About Feeds 23 corn stover, corn meal and timothy hay without the use of other foods. Such a ration is not alone unbalanced, but even though it may be palatable, it lacks in efficiency and is not economical, for it does not provide all nutrients necessary for the manufacture of milk. Even though these feeds are raised on the farm and are cheap in price per ton, he is a most extravagant feeder who depends upon them alone to stimulate large milk production. Indisputable as is this fact, hundreds of thousands of cows in the corn belt are compelled to live and yield as best they can throughout a long winter on such a ration and, working under this as one of their handicaps, thousands of them are being condemned as unprofitable. In other sections, where corn is not so plentiful, rations consist- ing of cottonseed meal, bran and leguminous hays are used alone because they are cheaper per ton. A better ration this, but extrava- gant also because so small a number of foods are used that one does not balance the other. But the feeder who will avail himself of all of these foods and feed them in right proportions will insure such variety for his cows that they will thrive well, keep in good con- dition, produce to the greatness of their ability and reduce the cost of niilk production. Very often it is possible to purchase efficient foodstuffs cheaply — foodstuffs not palatable in themselves, but that if fed with a large \ariety of other and more palatable foods can be used to greatly re- duce the cost. At the same time, the appetite of the cow will be satisfied and her milk yield increased. Cows, like people, tire of eating the same ration regularly for a long period of time. A large variety of food makes it possible for the feeder to change the ration often without changing its composition and thereby keeping the cow's appetite keen and her production reg- ular. This suggestion is of especial importance where cows are fed with the desire of giving them large yearly records and when it be- comes necessary to encourage them to eat largely and with regularity over a long period. Master feeders of beef cattle have so recognized the value of variety in their feeding operations that occasionally a radical change is made in their feeding operations. In ripening cattle for the show yard, the beef cattle feeder resorts to feeding his charges four times daily. For several years it was my good fortune to be associated with Sam Johnson, than whom no man ever more successfully fitted show steers for the International Fat Stock Show. He unconsciously di- vulged to me a secret. Nearly every Sunday evening, Sam, with the excuse that he should rest a bit on Sunday, would substitute for 24 Feeding the Dairy Cow the latest evening feed a sloppy bran mash containing a little lin- seed meal and a liberal supply of salt. This was real variety, and rested the strenuously worked digestive apparatus of each animal. Next morning every steer was waiting at his feed box ready to start anew, and as the week advanced, those great steers, wealthy with flesh and fat, ate well and continued to fatten satisfactorily, looking forward to the coming of Sunday evening, when they would again receive their choice, palatable change of diet. At first I feared this would not work so well with dairy cows at hard work, but during the St. Louis Cow Demonstration, when much was expected of every cow and when they were being fed heavily, there came a time when they seemed to care little for their feed. When cows on test reach that point it is evident that some change is necessary. I decided Sam had some reason for giving bran mashes other than that he wished a bit of rest on Sunday. Every cow in the herd received an appetizing bran mash the following Sunday evening. A rash experiment, perhaps, but an increased milk flow resulted next morning, and every cow was ravenous for her regular feed. From that time to the end of the test, every cow in the herd received a bran mash in substitution for one regular feed when she evidenced a sluggish appetite. The result was that those cows broke records, and every one left her stall when the test ended in quite as good health and condition as she had ever experienced. Variety is the spice of the cow's life quite as much as it is of the life of man. He who furnishes his cows an abundance of intelligently selected foods, of a palatable sort, need worry little about balanced rations, for in 99 cases out of 100 the building of a ration from a large number of feeds insures the required nutrients in acceptable proportion. Great as is the assistance realized by a knowledge of food composition, the encouraging of successful production may bet- ter be trusted to a man of judgment, balancing rations unconsciously by the use of a large number of foods rather than to a man lacking in judgment balancing a ration with a few foods and many rules. To work profitably every cow must at all times be in perfect health. Therefore, in selecting foods it is essential that no little consideration be given the physical effect each may have upon the cow. It is needless to discuss in detail the folly of permitting deteri- orated or moldy feed to find a place in the cow's ration. Yet, be- cause moldy silage, heated corn meal and other such inferior feeds do not, as a rule, kill cows, they are often fed when they should be given to the hogs or returned to the land as fertilizer. Very often the digestion of a cow is so interfered with by one feed of spoiled Five Things to Consider About Feeds 25 tood that she declines in her milk yield never to return until another freshening period. The profit she would have made is sacrificed in order to save a bit of worthless food. The thoughtful feeder will al- ways discriminate against such food and also against feeding heavily of those which are recognized as harmful to the health of his animals. All feeds, other than roughages, should be finely ground. There is no reasonable excuse for feeding whole oats, corn or other grains to cattle that are over one year of age. Calves seemingly thrive well on and digest fully whole oats and shelled corn, and there is little doubt that it is more advisable to feed whole grain to them, but when past yearlings the feeding of grain unground is a wasteful process. Experiments in great numbers prove conclusively that much profit may be secured by grinding grain for cows, and any expe- rienced practical feeder recognizes when he sees whole grains of corn, oats or barley in the excrement that little has been the nour- ishment extracted from them. The beef feeder may justify the waste by permitting hogs to follow his steers, but even this plan will not excuse the dairyman, because, in addition to the waste occasioned, the digestive apparatus — the hardest worked organism of the cow's anatomy — is needlessly taxed. Less regard need be given the di- gestive apparatus of the steer, for, when he enters the feed lot, he needs digestive organs only for from six months to a year. At the end of that time he goes to the shambles. Let him soak and pre-di- gest corn for hogs if you wish, but the dairy cow, coming into use- fulness as a two-year-old, if she be worthy, has a period of from 10 to 15 years to work in the dairy, and her longevity depends much upon the protection her digestive system receives. Do not demand that she prepare food for hogs in addition to converting tons of food into milk and butterfat, which she does during her lifetime. By grinding her food, great assistance is rendered her and much is saved in the cost of her performance. A bulky ration is more efficient than a compact one. The cow, having four stomachs, does not digest her food in the same manner as a non-ruminating animal. When she eats she masticates her food very little, swallowing most of it whole. When she finds time she regurgitates and masticates it. This is called chewing the cud. The cow does not, as is sometimes believed, have a regular cud which she chews whenever she so desires, but each of the many cuds she chews consists of food she has eaten at times when she did not feel that she had time to masticate it. During the process of mastication the food is not only reduced to a finer degree, but, even of more im- portance, saliva is mixed with it. The ptvalin contained in the saliva ttarts the first process of digestion, that of converting the starches of 26 Feeding the Dairy Cow the food into sugar. The importance of all particles of food being mas- ticated is apparent, for, unless the starches of the food come in con- tact with saliva, digestion is incomplete and much of the food is wasted. A bulky ration is light and easily regurgitated. All portions of it returned to the mouth are masticated, mixed with saliva in abun- dance and passed on through the regular channels of digestion, where they come in contact with other digestive juices. Compact, heavy rations, when they enter the stomach, are difficult to return to the mouth, and portions of them pass on to the other stomachs without mastication or insalivation. They are, therefore, largely wasted. It is also believed that feed fed in compact form gathers in masses in the stomach so that digestive juices do not percolate thoroughly and quickly among the particles, with a result that none of the nutrients become fully digested. This has been aptly illustrated by placing in one glass jar a quantity of corn meal, in another an equal amount of corn and cob meal and pouring a like amount of water into each jar. After letting both jars stand a few moments and then removing their contents it will be found that the water has fully percolated among the particles of the corn and cob meal, but that only the outer edges of the corn meal are moistened while the inside of the mass is dry. It is for this reason that a pound of corn and cob meal has been found equally as valuable for feeding cattle as a pound of corn meal, and not because the ground corn cob is as valuable pound for pound as ground corn. The value of the cob is almost wholly me- chanical. It does not contain any great amount of nutriment. Because of this knowledge, however, much corn and cob meal is fed in the north and cottonseed hulls in the south, but the advisa- bility of the practice is questionable, except where the ingenuity of the feeder is not such that he can supply bulk in a more valuable form. The general use of silage is largely solving the problem of sup- plying bulk to dairy cow rations. Almost everywhere the plan now- adays is to feed the concentrated ration mixed with the silage. This is well, for the particles of grain, adhering to the more bulky and lighter particles of silage, are easily returned to the mouth for mas- tication and to be mixed with the saliva, thus insuring complete di- gestion and eliminating waste of food. A very excellent plan — especially in this day of high-priced bran and oats, one merit of which is the lightness and the bulk they im- part to a ration — is to reduce alfalfa hay to quarter-inch lengths and feed in substitution for these more expensive foods. As is well known by dairymen, the dairy cow contest at the St. Louis World's Five Things to Consider About Feeds 2^ Fair was conducted on a basis of economy as well as greatness of yield. In the barn over which the writer had supervision of the feeding, it was recognized that alfalfa hay was practically as valuable as bran, which was more expensive. The only problem was how best to reduce it to a form in which it could be fed with the grain ration as bran should be. This was finally done by cutting the alfalfa into quarter-inch lengths each day so it would be fresh, and moistening it with steam or warm water just sufficiently to soften the stems and cause the particles of grain to adhere to the particles of alfalfa. That the plan proved successful is vouched for by the fact that throughout grain, and very little bran was fed. the test every cow received six pounds of alfalfa hay mixed with her The herd in question won both in greatness and economy of production. The cows produced largely because they not only re- ceived an abundance of food nutrients, but because the feed was given them in a form easily and readily digested, and the largest possible amount of food nutrients was utilized. They won in econ- omy because the physical and mechanical character of the ration was such that the smallest possible amount of food nutrients was wasted. Another great advantage of this system will appeal to the feeder striving for much roughage. It will appeal to him that cows will not require such heavy grain feeding to stimulate their largest possible production and that where so much bulk is present it is nearly im- possible to overfeed, as is so often the case where concentrates are fed alone. Where cows become accustomed to rations of this character — and they eat them readily from the beginning — they no longer like to eat dry ground feeds without the cut hay mixed with them. In sections where molasses is a cheap source of nutriment, the effiiciency and palatability of such a ration is greatly enhanced by including one quart of molasses with each three gallons of water with which the ration is moistened. CHAPTER II. COMPOSITION AND COST OF FEEDS The animal body and all foodstuffs are made of identically the same things. In a broad sense, they are all one and the same thing — food for man or beast. Milk and other familiar foods are fed to calves to grow and develop them to a point where they are slaugh- tered, retained to reproduce likenesses of themselves or to yield milk — all for the purpose of furnishing food for mankind. We could eliminate the cow entirely, eat the food we give her and re- ceive identically the same food nutrients if cattle foods were equally as palatable, digestible and concentrated in form as are meats and dairy products. Vegetarians do this very largely now, but, even with the growing popularity of cereal breakfast foods, there is no likelihood that the cow will ever be less in evidence than she is today so long as human nature remains as it is. The great purpose of the cow is not to originate food nutrients. And this she does not do. Her plan is merely to rearrange, accord- ing to her own secret formula, the nutrients she finds in coarse, bulky grains and roughages — unpalatable to mankind — and return them in products that are palatable, concentrated and easily digested. The cow is the great transformer that intercedes between nature and man. In return for this, she exacts toll sufiSciently large to maintain her life, health and comfort, keep her body in repair and nourish her offspring during the embryonic period. And again, identically the same compounds are required for such maintenance as are found in the composition of food, the animal body, and milk. This fact and the identity of these compounds are illustrated in the following out- line : Food ] I Protein Animal Body ( ) Carbohydrates ■^ > < Fat ^^^^^ ( ) Mineral Matter Maintenance | I Water Expressed in this manner, scientific knowledge is not required to secure a complete, practical, working understanding of food nutri- ent requirements. It becomes apparent that the animal body, milk and maintenance are not derived from food as such but from the ele- ments of food. Furthermore, the protein, water and mineral matter — found in the animal body, in milk or required for maintenance — are Composition and Cost of Feeds -J not and can not be made from carbohydrates or fat, and neither can one be made from the other. Now, reducing the whole problem to a common-sense, practical basis, and stripping it of all fancy, theory and mystery, it ceases to be a bugbear. Water can be made by the animal out of nothing except water. Protein can be made by the ani- mal out of nothing except protein. Mineral matter can be made by the animal out of nothing except mineral matter. Water is present in the animal body to the extent of more than 50 per cent, milk contains over 80 per cent and much water is regu- larly excreted with waste materials. That is why water supplied irregularly or in limited amounts occasions a decrease in milk flow. In the body of a 1,000-pound cow there are nearly 200 pounds of protein; in 100 pounds of milk there are more than three pounds of protein, and it is a fact that admits of no argument that a cow of the size above mentioned requires .7 of a pound of digestible pro- tein in her food daily to maintain her body. That is why calves fed rations deficient in protein do not thrive; that is why cows fed on such rations, even though fed abundantly, do not produce satisfac- tory amounts of milk. Over 5 per cent of the animal body and .7 of 1 per cent of milk are composed of mineral matter. That is why it is especially im- portant that immature animals and cows yielding heavily of milk should be salted regularly and given foods containing a liberal supply of ash or mineral ingredients. Carbohydrates and fat co-operate with each other. Both are used for the same purpose, 1 pound of fat being equivalent in efficiency to 2^4 pounds of carbohydrates. In fact, the fat contained in a foodstuff is multiplied by two and one-fourth, added to the carbohydrates and considered as a carbohydrate-equivalent in balancing rations. These two nutrients are burned up, or oxidized, by the animal to make heat and energy. A 1,000-pound cow uses 7 pounds of digestible carbohy- drates and carbohydrate-equivalents daily just to keep herself in health, comfort and working order. The rest she makes into animal fats, which she places in the milk pail, or, if she is overfed or not given enough protein to balance her ration, she distributes that which she cannot use otherwise through her body, storing it up to be used later. In addition to using 7 pounds of carbohydrates daily for main- tenance, the 1,000-pound cow carries an amount of fat in her body varying, according to her condition, from 80 to 300 pounds, and her milk varies in fat content from 2 to 10 pounds per hundredweight, the normal variation being more nearly from 3 to 6 pounds, accord- ing, largely, to the breed she represents. Also there is found a very small amount of carbohydrates in the body, and in the form of milk 2'^ Feeding the Dairy Cow sugar there are about 5 pounds of carbohydrates in 100 pounds of milk. From these facts it will be rightfully deducted that of all nutri- ents this heat energy and fat producer is most largely used. This — and because as a rule in most sections carbohydrates are cheap and most largely found in home grown feeds — no doubt, accounts for the fact that they are very often overfed and wasted. The feeder over- looks the fact that in milk production only that amount which is properly balanced with protein is really serviceable and economical to feed. In fact, although protein is often more expensive than car- bohydrates, the dairyman commits a greater extravagance by over- feeding the latter than though he feeds too heavily of the former, because protein that is not used for its own purpose will act in the capacity of carbohydrates, but the opposite is not true. I am aware that formerly — and to a lesser degree nowadays — practical dairymen and feeders were more or less adverse to sugges- tions bordering on the theoretical and scientific, and I have treated this subject of composition of foodstuffs in the most practical and briefest manner within my power. I have combined in a few para- graphs what I have learned — from volumes of reading, results of hundreds of experiments and many years of practical experience — to be knowledge absolutely essential for the successful feeder to possess. It must not be treated scornfully by the reader who would profit from the chapters which will follow, for in this age of ex- pensive foodstuffs, with prices fluctuating as they are, no man can secure at once large and profitable production from his cows, quick and cheap growth in his young stock or maintain his breeding herd in healthful and thrifty condition unless he possesses a clear under- standing of these facts. The time was when the feeder could scoff at science, refuse absolutely to mix it with practice and succeed fairly well. That was when lands, in virgin fertility, were cheap, stock feed inexpensive, help plentiful and wages low — conditions which do not exist today. Science with practice, and vice versa, is the only rule that leads to successful occupation and away from poverty and drudgery under conditions as they now are and as they will more intensely be ere the youth of today reaches the age of gray hairs. It is quite as essential that the feeder know the uses of water, protein, carbohydrates, fat and mineral matter in feeding his ma- chines and manufacturing milk, calves and fertilizing ingredients, as for the manufacturer to know the use of iron, steel, copper, brass, tin and wood in feeding his machines and manufacturing gasoline engines, cream separators and manure spreaders. Take me to the fac- tory where the owner scoffs at knowledge, discoveries by honest, Composition and Cost of Feeds '1 intelligent experimenters and scientists, and we will find the doors closed and locked with no signs other than those of failure in evidence. Composition of foods as determined by chemical analysis is not the sole factor for consideration. It is not alone important that a food should possess a large content of any desirable nutrient. Only that portion of a food which is digestible is valuable except for giving bulk to the ration. Indigestible materials, after performing the me- chanical duty of aiding in the digestion of other portions of the food, are expelled from the digestive tract as waste. It is because of this that young, growing animals and high-producing cows demand con- centrated foods in addition to roughages. Rations consisting of an over-abundance of indigestible material satisfy the hunger of the cow and usually furnish her with nutriment sufficient to maintain her body in good form, but, though the cow may be capacious, she is unable to eat an amount of food great enough to secure the additional nutrients necessary to manufacture milk in large quantities. This will be more fully and plainly illustrated in a later chapter. Cost of milk production depends largely upon the cost of food nutrients. One of the greatest and most prevalent mistakes made by dairymen is that of purchasing foods instead of purchasing digestible nutrients. It is this practice which leads to the continued jse of bran in sections where the price has reached $30 per ton, oats that sell for 60c a bushel and timothy hay which for many years has possessed a selling value far in excess of its feeding value for dairy stock. When bran sold for $10 per ton and oats for 10c a bushel, practical experience taught that to mix them liberally with rations increased milk production and that it paid well to feed them. There is no disputing the fact that they are among the most excellent dairy feeds. But, when one familiarizes himself with the fact that a ton of bran contains only 244 pounds of digestible protein, 784 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, 54 pounds of digestible fat, or a total of only 1,082 pounds of digestible material and 72 pounds of fertilizing constituents, it becomes apparent that bran costs too much. Es- pecially is this true if fed with corn and corn silage, when cottonseed meal, a ton of which can be purchased at nearly the same price and contains 744 pounds, 338 pounds and 244 pounds of digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat, respectively, or a total of 1,326 pounds of digestible nutrients and 105 pounds of fertilizing constituents. It is not a difificult matter to make like comparisons of many other foods in demonstration of the fact that the prevailing methods of selecting foods where their digestible composition is not considered is an expensive and extravagant practice. The same reasoning shows it to 32 Feeding the Dairy Cow be advisable to sell oats and timothy hay at present prices and buy distillers' grains, gluten feed, clover hay and alfalfa to take their places, even disregarding the fact that a more efficient ration is also formulated by doing so. To provide productive, economical rations for the dairy herd, the feeder must secure the necessary digestible nutrients in a variety of foods that are at once palatable, healthful and comparatively low in price. In determining the composition cost he must base his decision not on the cost per ton of palatable, healthful food alone, but also upon the cost per pound of digestible protein, carbohydrates, fat and mineral matter. No feed is so important that another can not be found that will satisfactorily replace it. Each of these nutrients is so necessary that nothing else can be substituted for any of them without interfering with the condition, health or production of the animal. Therefore, the thoughtful feeder will welcome a discussion of the more common, available foodstuffs, that from among them he may select the most efficient and economical ration possible. CHAPTER III. CORN AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS Corn is the great American crop. From coast to coast and from Canada to Mexico and beyond it is grown with varying degrees of success. Throughout the entire country it can be grown advisedly for feeding purposes. In localities where corn matures with cer- tainty it provides the most economical basis for concentrated rations. Where seasons are too short for maturity to be reached, the entire plant made into silage provides the greatest and most economical source of succulent food nutrients. Corn, in its various forms, is palatable to all classes of livestock, convenient to feed and usually a home grown product. Therefore, it is the most extensively used foodstuff on the American farm. For the same reason it is the most abused of all foodstuffs. Fed for a dis- tinct purpose, with a knowledge of its limitations as well as of its true value, corn is the greatest and most economical of all foodstuffs. Fed carelessly, without judgment, because it is a home grown, pal- atable food, corn proves to be the factor that limits production and curtails profits. Not alone on boards of trade has corn made men rich because they possessed judgment and intelligence, and others poor because they dealt in corn and corn only with recklessness not substantiated with knowledge and judgment. On thousands of farms men have become wealthy by the proper and judicious use of corn in their feed- ing operations, while others have robbed their lands of fertility and themselves of the profits they should have secured by using up their bountiful crops of corn by reckless, extravagant, thoughtless feeding methods. Not alone is an over-abundance of alcohol distilled from corn harmful to the man who drinks it, but an over-abundance of corn is also harmful to the animal that eats it. There is no other foodstuff about which the dairyman should know so much as about corn. Because it can be grown on nearly every farm; because it is so palatable in its various forms and stages of growth to all farm animals ; because it is so largely digestible ; be- cause it is such a cheap source of nutriment ; because when made into silage it provides the best and cheapest source of succulence, every dairyman should possess the knowledge which will permit him to make corn the basis of his rations and use it as largely as pos- sible. But because corn does not contain a sufficiency of all nutrients required by the animal ; because feeding wholly, or even too largely. ^4 Feedixg thk Dairy Cow t^ a c o Corn and Its By-Products 35 of corn limits milk production of cows and growth of young animals ; because over-feeding of corn is harmful to the health and breeding powers of animals; because every kernel of corn or pound of silage eaten — after all demands that corn can fulfill have been met — is a sinful extravagance and waste of property, every dairyman should possess the knowledge which will enable him to use corn, not only as largely as possible but in the most economical and profitable man- ner. In order to study corn we will take 100 pounds of corn meal and determine its various characteristics. The illustration represents a column of corn meal 27.3 inches high and 12 inches square and is an exact reproduction of just 100 pounds of corn meal. Our first impression is that 100 pounds of corn meal occupies a comparatively small space. It is not a bulky food. The proportion of water and dry matter is variable according to the sample of feed, but 100 pounds of average corn meal contains 10.5 pounds of water, which merely adds to the bulk, digestibility and palatability of the food. It represents no feeding value. There are 89.5 pounds of dry matter in 100 pounds of corn, and only this needs further considera- tion. Of the dry matter 8.1 pounds are indigestible material, in which there is no value- other than that of furnishing bulk and adding to the digestibility. This portion may also be eliminated from further consideration. The ash or mineral matter does not undergo the reg- ular process of digestion but passes into solution with the liquids with which it comes in contact in the digestive apparatus. The only consideration needful of mineral matter is, therefore, merely to be assured of its presence in fairly liberal amounts in the final ration. In 100 pounds of corn meal there are 1.5 pounds of ash — not a large amount compared with some foods. With this elimination of water, ash and indigestible material only 79.9 pounds of nutrients remain for vital consideration. This is divided into three nutrients as shown in Plate 3. It is very apparent that corn meal is a food especially adapted to furnishing the animal with the material for producing heat, energy and making fat. Calling to mind the fact that 1 pound of fat is equal to and accomplishes the same purposes as 2.25 pounds of carbohydrates, and, compiling the figures, we find present in 100 pounds of corn meal 78.1 pounds of this heat, energy and fat producer. There are only 7.5 pounds of digestible protein present. This is the weakness of corn. It does not supply largely that great nutrient that makes blood, bone, muscle, hair and the casein in milk. By dividing the total of carbohydrates and equivalents by the 7.5 36 Feeding the Dairy Cow ^'•^^ J&^ b.'^'^Wi>M€i *r) o 2 rt -d Corn and Its By- Products j/ pounds of protein in 100 pounds of corn meal, we find 10.4 pounds of the former to 1 pound of the latter. Average milk contains 1 pound of protein to each 3.6 pounds of carbohydrates, so if we were to attempt to make milk with some mechanical machine instead of with the cow, we would look further for material out of which to make it. We could see very plainly that the protein would all be used up long before the carbohydrates, occasioning a big waste of material. Although not to so large a degree, the same reasoning applies to feeding cows for milk production. Corn and cob meal is more largely used in feeding dairy cows than is corn meal. It has one advantage over corn meal — it is more bulky. Experiments have shown a pound of corn and cob meal equal in feeding value to a pound of corn meal. It is not probable that this would be true if both were mixed with bulky material such as corn silage or chaffed hay, for there is little food value in ground corn cobs — their value is almost entirely mechanical. Realizing this, the thoughtful feeder will eliminate corn cobs from his rations, supplanting them with materials possessing equally great mechan- ical value and more nutriment, so the cow's digestive apparatus will not be needlessly taxed. In case corn and cob meal is fed it should be very finely ground. This is true of all grains. Feeding whole grains or those coarsely ground is wasteful because a large portion leaves the system undigested. A comparison of 100 pounds of corn and cob meal with a like amount of corn meal shows the amounts of dry matter and moisture to be practically the same as found in corn meal. The great differ- ence is in the digestibility of the two feeds. With only 73.5 pounds of digestible dry matter in 100 pounds of corn and cob meal as compared with 79.9 pounds in a like amount of corn meal, it becomes apparent that from every 100 pounds of corn and cob meal the animal must sort out and eliminate from the body 6.4 pounds more indigestible material .than though a like amount of corn meal had been fed. Likewise there is a less amount of each of the essential nutrients present in digestible form. Of these there are 12 pounds of digesti- ble carbohydrate material in proportion to 1 pound of protein — a larger difference even than there is in corn meal. With a knowledge of the true feeding value of corn and cob meal, and knowing how difficult and expensive it is to reduce cobs to such fineness that they will be readily consumed by the animal, the use of them is to be advised only when other bulky foods cannot be economically provided. This is especially true where cows are expected to yield largely, as when making records. 38 Feeding the Dairy Cow Feeders in large numbers, having a general idea that corn is the excellent foodstuff that it is, seek no further for knowledge. Some feed whole ear corn, others corn and cob meal and others corn meal. Apparently, good results are obtained. If corn is abundantly fed, calves grow fairly well, cows keep in good condition and pro- duce some milk. The corn is raised on the farm. Its possession represents no (^irect outlay of money to secure it at the time feed is needed. The process is simple. Following the line of least re- sistance (and all human nature is prone to do that) we feed corn. Especially is this true where corn is the most plentiful crop grown. Custom, at least, warrants the method. Our fathers and grand- fathers, successful farmers in their day, fed that way. Therefore, we are inclined to let well enough alone even though all around us are marked evidences that conditions are radically different than they were even a decade ago. When corn was cheap, and low prices were secured for cows and their products, a little corn wasted mattered little. There were no great incentives for stimulating large milk production. To make a living on the farm in those days was well, for wealth accrued with the regular and continuous increase in the value of land. Little was the need of considering how large a portion of the corn eaten was wasted by the animal, for it was returned to the fields to make the land richer, anyway. For some reason or other, men of other lines of business have not been -content with this kind of logic. Keen ambition to succeed in a large way, even where close competition does not exist, has im- pelled them to conserve even the most minute opportunity to add to their profits. The feeder is not the only manufacturer whose raw material consists of corn. The manufacturers of hominy, brewers' grits, glucose, starch, oil and breakfast foods feed millions upon millions of bushels of corn to their machines. They have studied the kernel of corn more in detail than has the feeder. Their profits are derived from just a portion of that which would be waste were they not closely familiar with composition and nature of the raw material which satisfies the hunger of their machines. They have mechani- cally divided the kernel of corn and chemically analyzed each part, that they may know which portion is best suited to manufacture the product they desire, and how best and most profitably to dispose of those portions not adapted to their purposes. These studies reveal the picture No. 7. The outer covering of the kernel, known as the skin, "a," con- sists of two layers of tough, fibrous material which is not highly Corn and Its By-Products 39 digestible. This is known — and was formerly sold — as corn bran. Like other foods with a large content of crude fiber, one of its chief values is that of imparting bulk to the ration. In furnishing di- gestible food nutriment, analysis shows there are in 100 pounds of corn bran, 7.4 pounds of protein, 59.8 pounds of carbohydrates, 4.6 pounds of fat and 1.3 pounds of ash. Corn bran is seldom sold as such nowadays, being used to add bulk to other commercial feeds and de- crease their cost per ton. It thus serves as a useful filler. Immediately under the bran of the kernel is located the gluten, "d." As the bran is rich in crude fiber, so is the gluten rich in pro- tein, for which reason it recommends itself highly as an animal food. The lower end of the kernel, "b," is largely occupied by the germ which contains some gluten but is more largely oil. The re- mainder of the kernel, "c," or about 84 per cent of it, is starchy ma- terial. Primarily, this is the part the manufacturers of brewers' grits, hominy, glucose and starch are desirous of securing. To them the remainder of the kernel is waste except as they utilize it for other products and for by-products. The process of separating the various parts of the corn is sim- ple and mechanical. Briefly, the kernels are ground, either before or after soaking in water, and then passed through a series of troughs filled with water. The bran, which is the lightest, immedi- ately rises to the top, and the germs which are heaviest, settle to the bottom. Starch and gluten remain suspended in the water, their separation being more retarded. In time the starch settles and the gluten floating on with the water is finally recovered to be made into gluten meal. Although not entirely accurate, the process illustrates the man- ner in which the animal divides the kernel during the process of di- gestion and assimilation. Also in this division the feeder has an ex- cellent example of the proportionate amounts of bulky material, ash, protein, carbohydrates and fat as they exist in the kernel of corn. Like the mechanical machine, the cow when fed whole kernels of corn subjects them to a soaking process in her first stomach, which is termed her paunch or rumen. When thoroughly soaked, she regurgitates and grinds them, but not as thoroughly as does the mechanical machine, as is evidenced by the large number of whole kernels excreted in the manure. When ground, the corn is again swallowed and starts on its trip through the stomach and the intes- tines. Digestion and assimilation begin at once. From the bran is taken the soluble ash, or mineral matter, to build up the mineral con- tent of the blood, to make bone and to furnish the required amount of ash in the milk. From the gluten the protein is taken and distrib- 40 Feeding the Dairi- Cc W.itrr. y.l |i,,\in,K. I)rv matliT, 90.>i i.oumis. ¥^.?^ *^^^ ^^^Sl ~-^w^ B^^M 1 '*' M^^ ( IS*. ft^^mBI 1 I^HHHIHI h M H E^* p', ,<{3|^QB P- ^JH './-! ^^w*«^tk'^H ,-* . £ ^, : "J* ■ •v«^^B Hr^-' •^T-r-Jxr'^m ■ ^sa ■1 I'LATE 8. Kill pouiuls tikiten niL':il- (^■xact vuluiiK.-, IJxlJxJO' inches. Wal cr ' 1 |iUl 11, Is. Ti.di Ki'S n.if nrit ■11,1 in. 3 pi) mils \sh IKJ I liKistlhlil 111 ikri.iL '^.5 p., mills Water 9.1 poumis Tniligcstilili mat( rill I in..1 pouii.l Ash, 2.1 [loumls I'rolr ,111, J iii.uii Caiiiohyilralis 43,1' |,Qi||,(]^ T'\'tt. 4.4 poljiiil I'LATI-: '), 100 piimiils >;liil,ii mual— e,\,ict voliinK', I2,\IJx20;-j PI. AT I-: in. mo i.oun.Is Klutrn meal- exact vulimir, IJxlJxJOJ.'S inclics. Corn and Its By-Products 41 uted to the parts of the body where it is needed. From the germ fat is extracted and from the starchy part carbohydrates are secured to be absorbed by the blood and carried to all parts of the body. The in- digestible materials of each of these component parts of the kernel pass from the digestive apparatus and are expelled from the body as waste. Thus it is seen that the kernel of corn contains all nutrients demanded by the animal, and, were it strictly, instead of illustra- tively, true that bran is mineral matter, gluten is protein, the germ is fat and the starch is carbohydrates, and could each readily be sepa- rated from the other, it would be easy to balance the concentrated ration by merely eliminating from corn an amount of the starch suffi- cient to secure the most desirable proportion of protein to carbona- ceous material. As this is impossible, or at least impractical, the thoughtful breeder increases the protein content of his rations by rais- ing and buying foods rich in protein instead of decreasing the car- bohydrate content of corn and selling starch. Even were the former plan possible, the latter plan would be the more advisable, for variety ■ — an essential factor in formulating rations — is assured by its use. Because of this and because the by-products of corn are among the most useful protein carriers, a study of them is interesting and necessary to the dairyman who would secure large and economical results. Especially should the feeder of the corn belt consider seriously the use of corn by-products, for in accordance with the demand for and the price of these by-products, the price of the corn -he raises and has for sale varies. Gluten meal is a concentrated feed. Being kiln dried, it con- tains less moisture in proportion to the dry matter than does corn meal, and, as the accompanying cut illustrates, it is one of the least bulky of feeds. Because gluten meal is so concentrated, it naturally follows that it is rich in the various feeding nutrients; and, furthermore, because it lacks bulk and, to a degree, palatability, it should not be fed alone but with other foods of a bulky nature. It has been shown how the crude fibre, and, therefore, the larger part of the indigestible materials, were eliminated from the corn kernel with the bran. Therefore, gluten meal contains a large per- centage of digestible material as plate No. 9 shows. Regardless of what nutrients gluten meal contains, the mere fact that in 100 pounds there are 78.5 pounds of digestible material shows it to be worth more per ton than corn meal — 100 pounds of which contains only 79.9 pounds of material that is digestible and of which the animal can make use. 42 Feeding the Dairy Cow But it has been seen that the gluten meal is the protein part of the corn grain, and Plate 10 shows it to be rich in this essential nutrient. Not alone is gluten meal rich in protein. It contains 4.4 pounds of fat in each 100 pounds. Each pound of fat being 2>4 times as useful as carbohydrates and there being 43.9 pounds of this latter nutrient present, multiplication and addition reveal the fact that gluten meal contains a total of 53.8 pounds of energy-producing value as compared with 79.05 pounds contained in corn meal. Gluten meal contains 2.1 pounds of ash per hundredweight, practically the same amount as corn meal. Gluten meal fed alone would be considered a very narrow ra- tion, for it contains 1 pound of digestible protein to 1.9 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and their equivalents. Dairymen who have used gluten meal can vouch for its value where it is fed with foods of a more bulky nature that are lacking in protein and fat. Experi- ments performed at many stations verify the fact that it is as valu- able as its favorable analysis implies. It has been demonstrated that it is equal to cottonseed meal and that a ration consisting of corn meal, bran and gluten meal is at least 10 per cent better for stimu- lating milk production than is a ration consisting of corn meal and bran only. That gluten meal is a valuable food for cows is a fact. The extent to which it should be used depends upon its cost per ton as compared with other protein foods, a factor which will be dis- cussed in a later chapter. Gluten Feed and Germ Oil Meal Gluten feed is gluten meal plus corn bran. It is, therefore, less concentrated, less digestible and lower in feeding value than gluten meal and of much greater feeding value tha,n corn bran. There are two distinct reasons why gluten feed is more largely used than gluten meal. In the first place, corn bran is so low in feeding value that feed- ers discriminate against it. It is a by-product difiScult to sell. To rid themselves of it at a fair price, manufacturers mix it with the meal forming gluten feed and the feeder purchases it readily in this disguised form. In the second place, under the majority of conditions feeders secure equally as good, if not more satisfactory, results from the feed than they would from the meal. This is because many feeders are careless and Wasteful in their feeding operations. Gluten meal being more concentrated, there is more danger of over-feeding animals with it than there is with gluten feed. Being more expensive, wastes are Corn and Its By-products 4.1 more costly and, naturally, where careless feeding methods are em- ployed it is more difficult to secure economical results. It is especially feasible to use the feed, in preference to the meal, in sections where carbohydrates are nearly or quite as expensive as protein ; also where a small rather than a large variety of foods constitute the ra- tion. In the hands of the expert feeder gluten meal is usually the cheaper source of feeding nutrients. Such a feeder mixes several foods in a careful, intelligent manner that insures palatability, bulk, digestibility, variety and a right proportion of the essential nutrients at the least cost. Although gluten meal costs him more per ton, the rule is that he secures digestible nutrients, especially protein, cheaper per pound than in gluten feed. This, however, depends upon the relative price per ton, and oc- casionally the reverse is true, in which event the feed is used in pref- erence to the meal. The feeder must always keep in mind the fact that he is striving for both large and economical results and judge between feeds accord- ingly. This does not imply that he can always base his determina- tions upon feed analysis, because experiments and experiences indi- cate that in certain instances foods lower in analysis produce better results than other foods which, from the chemist's standpoint, should prove superior. This can hardly prove true with regard to gluten feed as compared with gluten meal, however, because they are sc nearly analogous in physical characteristics, both being by-products of corn. Gluten feed, like gluten meal, is a kiln-dried product and, there- fore, contains about the same proportionate weight of water and dry matter. Because of the presence of bulky corn bran gluten feed is the more bulky, and the greatness of the bulk as well as the feeding value depend to a very large degree upon the percentage of bran present in proportion to the amount of meal. Plate No. 12 illustrates the amount of ash or mineral matter contained in 100 pounds of gluten feed and also indicates the relative amounts of digestible and indigestible material. A comparison of this with plate No. 9 impresses one with the fact that even though the feed contained equally as large percentages of total nutrients as the meal, it would not be as valuable a food because of the greater amount of indigestible material, which is valuable only as it adds to the bulkiness of the ration. Because of the fact that both gluten feed and gluten meal are purchased more largely for furnishing protein, plate No. 13 will prove especially interesting. It demonstrates clearly the position 44 4 Feeding the Dairy Cow 4#. |Sfe 1 It it: * f "* * f ?!'' '« 1^ tsi^ )H !< t-H 1- ^ w ^ H <: ;: fc '' nJ s< ^~ CO .tiro ^1 • '} . » » 1 ■■ ■" ^ ■ I? c^^ y W =; H u E < -c Ph ?■ '5 ? ° ° 'i "- . «. J- a 1 ^Pi Mi"^t*'?*5^ P ^;i %_^3^t« ^ J, ^v^ ^^.x/H . 1- '-V '^'v. i"* , -- ,'VTT' "r ' '* Corn and Its By-Products 45 gluten feed holds as a source of feeding nutrients. By comparing this with plate No. 10 the reader will secure an accurate idea of the rela- tive Value of the two corn by-products. Because it ranks considerably lowejr than gluten meal, the conclusion should not be drawn that gluten feed is not a valuable food for stimulating milk production. On the^ contrary, it ranks among the best of foodstuffs and is used by dairyn^n, by breeders, and especially by those who are striving to make lajge milk and butter records in all parts of the country where the sectfring of protein is a problem. As |)reviously indicated, it is a safer food to use than gluten meal, an(!, where its cost permits and conditions demand, it may be fed as largely as five, six, or even eight, pounds daily mixed with other feeds without injuring the cow. It should not be fed heavily to cows just before and immediately following calving, or to cows aflfected with udder troubles, for when corn meal and gluten feed are fed heavily, ihflammation and other udder troubles are aggravated. Cows not accustomed to gluten do not find it palatable probably be- cause of the slight percentage of acid remaining as a result of the proc- ess of manufacture, but, after becoming accustomed to the taste they eat it with avidity. Because of this it should be added to ra- tions in small amounts and gradually when its use is first begun. Used judiciously both gluten feed and gluten meal are valuable to use with carbonaceous foods for furnishing protein in digestible form, and I do not hesitate to recommend their use when prices, compared with prices of other protein foods, warrant it. From the germ of the corn oil is extracted and a residue remains. This is termed germ oil meal. It is another valuable by-product of corn. This fact has been recognized for many years by breeders of swine, but dairymen have been slow to utilize it in their feeding operations. This is, no doubt, due to the fact that teachings per- taining to the compiling of dairy rations have so persistently ad- vocated the purchasing of foods on a protein basis that the value of carbohydrates and fat has been, to a large degree, overlooked. Con- ditions vary so greatly from year to year, however, that the feeder who realizes the true merits of all foodstuffs can very often well afford to use feeds that in other years he would find by comparison to be over-expensive. Furthermore, the feeder of the south, where cottonseed meal is plentiful and cheap; the feeder of the west, where alfalfa is often a drug on the market, and the feeder of the east, who finds carbonaceous foods almost, if not quite, as expensive as pro- tein, will as a rule find germ oil meal a most advisable source of es- sential food nutrients. 46 Feedixg thf Dairy Cow ^^r^' ?F m^:. 1« ' 7- - -I* %. \.i Corn and Its By-Products 47 This winter, even throughout the corn belt, the dairyman has been able to purchase all nutrients in germ oil meal cheaper than in corn meal. We have fed many tons of it with most excellent results in maintaining condition of animals and stimulating economical milk production. Like other kiln-dried commercial foods, germ oil meal contains a low proportion of moisture, and here is its first value over corn meal. Germ oil meal compares favorably in its content of ash and di- gestible material with corn meal as illustrated in plate No. 15. Analysis shows germ oil meal to contain more digestible protein and fat than corn meal and only 3 per cent less carbohydrates. By reducing the fat to terms of carbohydrates the fact is revealed that germ oil meal is nearly equal to corn meal in energy values. As a matter of fact, experience will demonstrate this by-product to be at least equal to corn meal and a comparison of plates No. 16 and No. 3 will show how closely they compare in feeding nutrients. This winter there has been a difference of from $4 to $6 per ton in price between corn meal and germ oil meal in favor of the latter. Because of the high content of fat left after the oil has been ex- tracted from the germ, the consensus of opinion has been that germ oil meal is not safe to feed in large amounts. To determine this point we have this year fed as high as five pounds daily to individual cows with excellent results and no apparent ill effects. In the fall, germ oil meal usually sells at a very reasonable price — in fact, so reasonable that dairymen can afford to sell corn and in- vest the proceeds in it and furnish additional variety to the rations, at the same time reducing their cost and increasing their efficiency. Another distinct and favorable point is that the oil contained in germ oil meal adds to the ration to a large degree the physical value furnished by linseed meal and may be substituted for a portion of this much more expensive by-product. While germ oil meal remains low in price, the dairyman can well afford to join the swine breeder in utilizing it in compounding rations for large and economical production and for maintaining a most de- sirable condition in his animals. Hominy Feed "Now," said Mr. Jones, energetically, "I think it's high time, Jimmie, that you began to learn something, and I am going to teach you, so we will begin by counting the people in our family." "Yeth, thir," said Jimmie. "Now, mother is one, and I ani one, so that makes two, doesn't it?" ^8 Feeding the Dairy Cow "Yeth, thir," said Jimmie. "And grandma is one more, and she makes how many?" Jimmie looked interested, but doubtful. "Three, isn't it?" prompted father. "Yeth, thir," said Jimmie. "And, now, there's grandpa. He makes — how many? Four, isn't it?" "Yeth, thir," said Jimmie. "And there's Aunt Ellen. She makes — how many? Five, isn't it?" "Yeth, thir," said Jimmie. "And, then, there's Uncle Stephen. He makes — " "But, daddy," exclaimed Jimmie, "do they all make hominy?" Making hominy and brewers' grits is an industry of large dimen- sions in the corn belt. Large breweries use grits by trainloads, and the extensive use of hominy is well known. Hominy and brewers' grits are made in quite the same manner. Kernels of corn are soaked and while soft the bran and germ, with the starchy material that adheres to them, are removed. When these are ground and kiln-dried they are known as hominy feed or hominy chop. More nearly than any other by-product hominy feed resembles corn meal in its analysis and feeding qualities. No doubt that is the reason why feeders in general are not more familiar with its use. So great has been the tendency on the part of the educators to base feed values on the content of protein that many very useful feeds have been given little consideration. To do this is to assume that carbohydrates are either always of such abundance or so cheap in price that they deserve little consideration. This is wrong, for in many sections cows are being fed rations not only deficient in carbo- hydrate materials but over-balanced with protein because carbo- hydrates are available only in feeds that are high in price. The truth of this is exemplified by the fact that right now the feeder, located in the heart of the corn belt where corn is cheaper than any place else on earth, can purchase carbohydrates and their equivalents cheaper in the form of hominy feed than he can in corn meal. It is true that prices for corn are exceptionally high this year, but as a rule hominy feed is practically as cheap a food as corn meal. For feeding dairy cows it is equal to and by many feeders con- sidered superior to corn meal. By way of supplying variety and bulk to the ration, the rule is that a portion of the corn raised on the farm can well be sold and the proceeds invested in hominy feed. Being a kiln-dried product hominy contains only 9.6 pounds of moisture ; therefore, more dry matter than corn meal, as plate No. 17 shows. Corn and Its By-Products 49 This is a point not alone favorable to its feeding value but also to its keeping qualities. Because it can be kept indefinitely under ordinary storage conditions, it can be purchased in wholesale lots at a considerable saving to the feeder. This is not true of corn meal which in hot weather molds if stored in large volumes. It is well to give consideration to the exact moisture in all kiln- dried foods, though, for unless thoroughly dried the manufacturer will profit at the expense of the feeder and the keeping qualities of the product will be less stable. Because a large percentage of the starch or heavier part of the corn has been eliminated there remains a larger percentage of bran. Therefore, hominy feed contains a larger percentage of indigestible material and much more ash than corn meal. Strange as it may seem, there is also practically as large a content of digestible material. This is made possible by the lower percentage of water. Because of these conditions hominy feed is much more bulky than corn and quite as palatable. Thus far the reader will agree that as a substitute for corn meal it is advisable to use hominy feed when prices favor, because it is a superior feed, as comparison of plate No. 18 with plate No. 2 will show. From the standpoint of digestible nutrients, hominy feed is again slightly better than corn meal. It contains slightly less protein, but the reader should not think of hominy feed as a protein feed. It is not. When used as corn meal is used it should be supplemented with foods rich in protein, there being only one pound of this essen- tial nutrient to 11 pounds of carbohydrate material. In carbohydrates corn meal leads with 67.8 pounds per hundred- weight as compared with 61.2 pounds in a like amount of hominy feed, but in fat content the latter food contains so great an amount that after reducing to carbohydrate equivalents in both cases it is found that 100 pounds of hominy feed contain practically the same amount of the energy-producing material. Thus it is found that in every respect hominy feed ranks well with corn meal from an analytical standpoint. "The proof of the pudding is in the eating." The final question is: What are the results secured by practical feeders? Mere analy- sis, valuable as it is, does not always portray the whole truth relative to a foodstufiF. Sometimes the practical feeder secures results from feeds not accounted for by analysis, and at other times his results are less favorable than analysis indicates they should be. 50 Feeding the Dairy Cow O 2 • ■, <■ ' .« . - , - • ^*. * ^ - • ( ^' * ;' , < , ^ • * ; 1 /',:, -fji-. ■ • I . 2.= ?; ' — ^ c S Cj, Corn and Its By-Products 51 Hominy feed lives up to the chemist's recommendations. It is used largely by feeders of record cows in substitution for corn meal either in part or entirely. In the parlance of the feeder, "it is not so heating as corn meal." This is because it is more bulky. It has less tendency to injure udders when fed heavily and cows remain on feed more steadily when it is used. Our own experience indicates that it is equal, pound for pound, to corn meal, and today we can purchase it for $2.50 per ton less. We feed no corn meal. CHAPTER IV. WHEAT AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS Wheat, being considered superior to corn for human food, is not so generally available for stock-feeding purposes. There are sections, however, where wheat is grown almost to the exclusion of corn, and in such places it sometimes proves a more economical source of feeding nutrients, especially carbohydrates. It is not the rule, however, even where wheat is abundantly grown, that the higher class grades can be considered favorably for feeding dairy cows. On the other hand, there is always much wheat that, from a commercial or milling standpoint, will not command top prices. For feeding purposes these lower grades are practically though not quite, as valuable as are the higher grades and can usu- ally be purchased at a price which warrants their use in feeding dairy animals. For this reason dairymen in sections where wheat is largely grown should familiarize themselves with its feeding value. Wheat, like corn, is a carbonaceous food. Its use, therefore, demands an addition of foods rich in protein for the stimulation of large and persistent production. Although, as is shown by Plate 22, wheat contains less fat than corn, it ranks higher in carbohydrates, protein and mineral matter. More than this, the mineral matter consists more largely of phos- phorus and potash than does the mineral matter contained in corn. This and the larger content of protein would favor wheat ; but experi- ments of a practical nature conducted to determine the relative value of the two indicate that the feeder is justified in considering them equal, pound for pound, in feeding dairy cows. For young and growing animals, wheat has an advantage over corn because of the importance of potash, phosphorus and protein in developing bone and muscle. With these facts in mind it is easy io decide whether the feeding of ground wheat to dairy cows is ad- visable. If the feeder finds available discolored wheat, or that which will not grade high because of an over-abundance of shrunken kernels, and it can be purchased a trifle more cheaply than corn or other feeds which supply carbohydrates, then it will be more profitable to feed it to dairy cows than to market it. Furthermore, there is always present in wheat a sufiScient amount of shrunken kernels, chaff and weed seed so that the wheat farmer can well afTord, under ordinary conditions, to clean his wheat Wheat and Its By-Products 53 and offer for sale only the choicest grade and retain on his farm the remainder of the crop for feeding purposes. A suffifciently higher price per bushel will be secured for the better grade so that when the feeding and fertilizing values of what remains on the farm are considered more profit from the crop will be secured, the wheat farmer will find employment for the winter months, and his farm will be kept in a higher state of fertility. Because wheat farmers have not recognized these facts, millers have profited. Wheat is purchased at a lower price because it will not grade high. By a simple mechanical process the millers take from their purchases, gathered from large areas, the weed seeds, chaff and inferior kernels, leaving wheat of the finest quality to be resold or ground into flour and by-products. That which they take out is sold as screenings. The feeding value of screenings depends upon the percentage of wheat present as compared with weed seed and foreign products. Because this pro- portion varies so greatly a definite feeding value cannot be placed upon wheat screenings. Nevertheless, these screenings find a large demand among manufacturers of mixed commercial feeds. This is not a reflection on the feed manufacturer, for there are present in these screenings valuable feeding nutrients. It is fortunate there is a market for them in view of the fact that the wheat raiser has been in the past, and is yet, overlooking almost entirely his great opportunity for providing himself with one of the most valuable feeds for dairy animals and other livestock. In sections where wheat is not extensively grown it is true that dairymen can purchase wheat screenings at reasonable prices. Whether this is advisable depends upon the ability of the dairyman to estimate the value of screenings, fo^ this differs very greatly, ac- cording to the amount and character of the weed seeds and chaff present. In any event whether the screenings are raised on the farm or purchased, they should be finely ground in order to be readily di- gested and to eliminate the danger of introducing or perpetuating vicious weeds. Wheat is so largely used for milling purposes that dairymen are not so much interested in the value of the whole kernels for feeding purposes as they are in the by-products. In the manufacture of flour the miller tries to secure as large a milling percentage as possible of high-grade white flour because from this source he secures his high- est prices. If two-thirds of the wheat mills into flour of high grade, he has performed his duty efficiently. For flour purposes he uses only the inner part of the kernel, which consists of the starchy and glutinous parts. That which Feedixg the Dair\- Cow ° 3 I- o, a. a 'V-a ^ ; u t; o o bo S :i ci. ' * '>% :*>•..% 5-^"'. •-• » ••»**■.,,. .'-_». .1-1 o - 1 » — Wheat and Its By-Products 55 remains is the four outer layers, or coverings, of the kernel and the germ. To the dairyman the four outer layers are of greatest im- portance, for these are represented by bran. Sometimes the germ is milled with the flour, in which event a darker product results, which is not favorably accepted for human food. This is known as low grade flour and is largely used for feed- ing purposes. Usually, however, the germs are mixed with the finer particles of bran and the small particles of flour and sold as middlings. Very often the term middlings and shorts are considered by the feed dealer as synonymous. Strictly speaking, however, shorts are less valuable than middlings because they consist of reground bran and the dirt and sweepings from the mill. Because the terms shorts and middlings conflict in so many instances they will be treated as one by-product in this discussion with the suggestion that, if either is used by the reader, he determine before purchasing that the prod- uct he is securing is really middlings and not mill sweepings. Owing to the fact that it is estimated that there are approxi- mately 5,000,000 tons of wheat products produced in the United States annually, the following discussions pertaining to them will be of special interest to the breeder, for it is worth his while to have a well defined knowledge of their feeding value. Low Grade Flour It is sometimes possible to purchase low-grade flour at a price in keeping with its feeding value. Under such conditions its use is advisable in a limited way. Because of its concentrated form, how- ever, and because of the pasty, sticky mass it makes when mixed with saliva, it must be mixed with other concentrates in order to be palatable or successfully used. From the standpoint of analysis alone, low-grade flour is a feed almost perfectly balanced for milk production. It contains one pound of digestible protein for each four pounds of digestible carbohydrates and carbohydrate equiva- lents. It, therefore, provides a most excellent example of the fact that theory alone will not suffice in feeding animals successfully. The observance of practical results is essential. In the face of the fact that low-grade flour analyzes so excellently as a concentrated ration, there are three reasons why it cannot be used alone for feed- ing dairy cows. First it is usually too high in price to constitute an entire con- centrated ration. Second, because of its unpalatable nature when moistened with saliva, its use to the exclusion of other feeds is not practical. Third, it is not sufficiently bulky. 56 Feeding the Dairy Cow '5"= eg ^ ft 00 >i a ^-l ^ ^ ^s -^ u C _; M ^ N Eg Wheat and Its By-Products 57 For these reasons the feeder is interested in low-grade flour only to the extent that if it becomes possible at any time for him to purchase feeding nutrients in that form at a price more reasonable than in any other form, he may be in position to do so and feed it according to the methods by which its use can be successfully and profitably employed. Plate No. 23 illustrates the comparative bulk of it as a dairy feed, and the low proportion of moisture to the dry matter. Plate No. 24 shows its value as compared with shorts, mid- dlings and bran. Low-grade flour contains a much lower percentage of indigesti- ble material than these by-products and lacks only 4 per cent of con- taining as large an amount of digestible material per 100 pounds as ground wheat. From the standpoint of ash content it is considerably more valuable than ground wheat, containing nearly SO per cent more of this essentia/ material. Considered from the standpoint of digestible protein and fat content, low-grade flour is much superior to ground wheat, as in- dicated by plate No. 25. It may be stated that low-grade flour fed in such amounts as are agreeable to the likes of the cow is somewhat more valuable than middlings or bran in supplying digestible feeding nutrients and fur- nishes more ash and protein than either ground corn or ground wheat and more fat than the latter, although it is less valuable than either in supplying digestible carbohydrates. Wheat Middlings or Shorts Strictly speaking these two by-products are dissimilar. Very often one product is sold under both names. The purchaser should insist on securing wheat middlings, regardless of whether it is sold under that name or under the name of shorts. Technically, shorts, consisting of reground bran and mill sweepings, vary greatly in value and feeding analysis. If purchased at all by the discriminat- ing dairyman, they should be purchased at a price sufficiently low to justify their use. On the other hand, wheat middlings are valuable, being well proportioned in digestible nutrients and containing one pound of protein to 4.1 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and carbohydrate equivalents. As shown by plate No. 26, middlings are much more bulky than either ground wheat or low-grade flour and contain a large amount of dry matter in proportion to moisture. Plate No. 27 illustrates one very valuable factor incorporated in wheat middlings, as well as the factor which shows why wheat 58 Feeding the Dairy Cow Water, 10.4 pounds Dry matter, 89.6 pounds. 'ft' ' • "2 '^ . <• * * * ^ "^ II ' ' , .. >• Water. 10.4 pounds PLATE 26. 100 pounds wheat middlings — exact volume, 12x12x41 inches. Ash, 4.4 pounds. Digestible material, 63.9 pounds. ^y^v;'-^thS0^. -rs ij.f,.v;. A X *.,• ■^; n .fSM* PLATE 27 100 pounds wheat middlings — exact volume. 12x12x41 inches. middlings should not be considered worth as much per ton as are many other feeds. Wheat middlings are especially valuable in furnishing mineral matter, containing as they do 4.4 pounds of ash per 100 pounds. As in wheat, this mineral matter is valuable because it is largely com- Wheat axd Its By-Products 59 Water, 10.4 pounds. Indigestible material, 21.3 pounds. Ash, 4.4 pounds. Protein, 13.4 pounds. Carbohydrates 46.2 pounds. Fat, 4.3 pounds. PLATE 28. 100 nounds wheat middiings — exact volume, 12xl2.x41 inches. piosed of phosphorus and pot- ash, the essential ingredients for bone development as \\-eIl as for stimulating milk and but- terfat production. Added to a ration lacking' in these minerals wheat middlings are, indeed, valuable. It is also shown in this illustration that middlings con- tain 21.3 pounds of indigestil:>le material in each hundred- weight. Because of this, in each ton there are present 426 pounds of material which is of no value except as it gives bulk to the ration and thereby aids in the digestion of other feeds. Because, however, a ton of middlings contains only 1,574 pounds of digestible nutrients, including water and ash, or mly 1,366 pounds of digestible nutrients, exclusive of water, the practical feeder will at once recognize that if he pays a high price per ton for middlings in comparison with many other feeds, he cannot expect his re- sults will be economical even though they may be large. A comparison of plate Xo. 28 with plate Xo. 25 shows wheat middlings to contain .8 per cent more fat than low- grade flour, but 10.3 per cent less digestible carbohydrates and 1.4 per cent less digestible orotein. Like low-grade flour, but to a lesser extent, wheat middlings be- come sticky and pasty when mixed with saliva, and, therefore, their use should be employed with other feeds that will counteract this disadvantage. 60 Feeding the Dairy Cow Where wheat middlings can be purchased at a price as low as ground corn or ground wheat, they may be advisably used as a sub- stitute for a portion of these other feeds. Where higher in price they should be used merely to furnish bulk, protein and mineral matter. Bran Bran is one of the very best feeds for dairy cattle. It combines many virtues for which it is difficult to substitute other feeds, al- though when the price of this by-product exceeds its real value suc- cessful substitution is possible. Bran is bulky. Being composed of the outer layers, or cover- ing, of the wheat kernel, bran of acceptable quality is light and flaky, and, when added to the ration in liberal amounts, renders the ration more readily digestible than though a heavier feed were used. The greatness of this bulk as compared with other concen- trated foodstuffs is made apparent by plate No. 29. Bran is extremely palatable to the dairy animal and eaten with avidity. Because of this palatability and its light, bulky nature, it has a cooling effect upon the digestive system. Where rations are composed largely of bran, cows are not so liable to sicken or go "off feed" as when rations are compounded without its use. Bran has a laxative effect upon the digestive system of the ani- mal, which action, until recently, was presumed to be due to its physical character. More recently experiments conducted at the New York Experiment Station seemed to demonstrate that the large amount of phosphorus present in the mineral matter of bran not only accounts for the laxative effect but also for the fact that the condition of the animal is so well preserved when bran is liberally fed. This determination was by a system of experiments where whole bran was fed in comparison with washed bran or bran from which the mineral matter had been leached by washing with water. It was found quite definitely that bran from which the mineral mat- ter had been extracted encouraged a larger milk flow, but that whole bran encouraged a higher percentage of butterfat and a more laxa- tive condition of the digestive apparatus. Plate No. 30 is of interest and value in that it shows the pres- ence of 6.3 pounds of ash per hundredweight of bran. This is a much larger percentage of mineral matter than is contained in any feed heretofore considered in this discussion. This illustration also points to the deficiency of bran, which is its content of indigestible ma- terial, amounting to 26.5 per cent. This, added to the 10.1 pounds of water contained in each hundredweight of bran, points to the ex- Water, 10. 1 pounds. Dry matter, 89.9 pounds. PLATE 29. ^00 pounds wheat bran- exact volume. 12x12x73^ inches. Water, 10.1 pounds Ash, 6.3 pounds Digestible material, 57.1 pounds. 1% 300 pounds wheat bran — exact volume, 1 2xl2x73>4 inches. (60A) Water. 10.1 pounds s, ^t "W K Indigestible material, 26.5 pounds. Ash. 6.3 pounds. Protein, 12.5 pounds. (.'arbohydrates, 41.6 pounds Fat, 3 pounds. PLATE 31 ^011 pounds wheat bran — exact volume^ 1 2x12x73^ inches. Wheat and Its By-Products 61 travagance of paying the large prices that are now current for this by-product. In each ton of bran the purchaser secures 732 pounds of water and indigestible material and only 1,268 pounds of digest- ible nutrients which go to produce milk and butterfat. So well recognized, however, is the fact that bran is a useful and valuable food for dairy cattle, feeders have permitted them- selves to disregard the fact that equal value can be supplied by the use of cheaper feed. On many dairy farms extensive use of wheat bran largely decreases the profit from milk and butterfat production. At present prices there is no justification in purchasing bran from the standpoint of furnishing protein, carbohydrates or fat. This fact is illustrated definitely by plate No. 31, which shows the low content of each of these nutrients as compared with other foods that can be purchased at a trifle higher price per ton. Because of this the wise feeder will secure the necessary digestible nutrients Jrom other sources, and, if he finds it necessary to use wheat bran at all, will use it in a limited manner merely to add bulk, palatability and phosphorus to the ration. At certain seasons of the year wheat bran is comparatively cheap in price and if the feeder is thoughtful he will estimate closely the amount necessary for his feeding operation, covering an entire year, and lay in his supply at that time. Unless he does so, he can rest assured that he can secure much more economical results by employing other feeds and using very lightly of bran. There are conditions which often exist on dairy farms when the use of wheat bran is essential and when no other feed can be suc- cessfully substituted. These conditions exist at parturition time and when animals are out of condition. Even though bran com- manded a higher price per ton than it does at the present time, its use could well be employed for preparing animals for freshening or for conditioning the over-worked digestive apparatus. All dairy cows should be taught to eat bran mashes with avid- ity. When the cow approaches within two weeks of freshening, her concentrated ration should consist of a liberal supply of bran mixed with ground oats and linseed meal worked into the form of a mash with water. At this period the cow will learn, with a day or two of teaching, to eat such mashes, and as parturition approaches she will round into perfect condition to give birth to her offspring and start on her new lactation period. Three or four days following freshening she may be returned to solid feed and, if the price of bran indicates the necessity, this by-product may gradually be eliminated from the ration, either in whole or in part, and other foods sub- stituted. 62 Feeding the Dairy Cow Now that the cow has become accustomed to mashes and rel- ishes them, at any time during her milking period when she tires of solid feed and begins to decline in milk flow, she may have her di- gestive apparatus rested by substituting bran mashes for a short time in place of the more solid food to which she has been subjected. So valuable is bran in any ration, it can well be used when the price is within reach. Always it can and should be used for special purposes. The feeder should bear these two facts in mind and use bran liberally when its worth justifies its price, and to an extent price should be overlooked when its use is employed for special pur- poses. When bran was extremely cheap, advisors became so accus- tomed to recommending its use that it seems difficult for them to overcome the habit. Even today dairy farmers in all parts of the world are advised to use wheat bran largely ; and this in the face of the fact that in most sections it has reached a price where the feeder can secure all of the values bran possesses from other foodstufifs, at a cheaper price, by properly mixing them. As surely as dairying is carried on for the profit which accrues from it, the dairyman should use bran judiciously, in accordance with its necessity and its worth compared with its cost. CHAPTER V. OATS As a single concentrated feed for all classes of dairy animals oats have no superior. When ground, crushed or rolled they are pal- atable, bulky, light, easily digested, and when fed in abundance with leguminous hays and silage they furnish digestible feeding nutrients in just about the proper proportion. In fact, oats illustrate as nearly as one single grain can what a concentrated dairy ration should be. Practical feeders have long recognized this fact, and even those who doubt the value of a balanced ration, when referred to as such, dis- cover in oats — which by themselves form a balanced ration — a feed most suitable for growing young animals, feeding work horses and stimulating large milk production. Trainers of race horses have been the most persistent champions of oats. It is generally believed among horsemen that a peculiar characteristic possessed by oats, and not by any other grain, is that of imparting stamina and vim to the animal fed largely of them. Even chemists have in the past believed they had discovered the presence of an alkaloid and to this they have attributed the value pe- culiar to oats. Whether this is the solution of why this grain meets with so general favor with the practical feeder is not definitely known. There are several well defined reasons why oats, especially when properly combined with other feeds, should prove very satisfactory in formulating rations. They are extremely palatable. Only one cow have I ever known that would not with avidity and in abundance eat ground oats. They are bulky, as illustrated by plate No. 32, and, therefore, they are not only readily digested but, because of the beneficial effect they have on the digestion of other concentrates with which they are mixed, they aid in the digestion of the entire ration. Because of their light, bulky, palatable character, animals eat largely of them with more safety than though they were more concentrated and less readily di- gested. Plate No. 33 indicates — as is the case with bran — that oats con- tain an appreciable amount of indigestible material. This fact is due to the presence of the hull, which is largely crude fibre and of little feeding value other than adding bulk. On account of this, and be- cause ground oats cost so much they are considered too expensive where economical, as well as large, results are the aim. For special purposes it is permissible to feed them. Under most conditions the Oats 65 no other time is it so important to use excellent methods in feeding dairy cows as during the 60-day period just referred to. The manner in which a cow is brought through this part of her year governs very largely the amount of milk and butterfat she will yield during her lactation period. For young and growing animals it is well known that oats are excellent. It is difficult, indeed, to provide a ration for young, grow- ing calves without the use of oats. Up to the time a calf reaches the age of one year it is permissible and advisable to feed whole oats. This is because one of the points to be observed in feeding calves is to develop and distend the digestive apparatus. A characteristic of the young calf's feeding power is that whole oats are thoroughly and readily digested. After the calf has passed the age of one year, how- ever, changes take place in the digestive apparatus, and no longer can whole oats be fed with economy because a large percentage of them passes on undigested and is wasted. Expensive as oats are for feeding purposes when ground, they may be considered from 10 to 21 per cent more expensive when fed whole. Experiments show that when fed alone, or with other con- centrates, from 10 to 25 per cent are wasted because undigested. With the exception of when oats are fed to young calves, they should be thoroughly ground in order to accomplish the purpose for which they are given and to make their use other than prohibitive -because of cost. It is true that one distinct advantage with regard to oats is that they are in most sections, home grown. Nevertheless, they have a distinct market value, so that with the exception of using them for special purposes their use should be determined on a business basis and with regard to furnishing the ration with palatability, bulk, mineral matter and digestible nutrients in the most efficient and economical manner. At elevators where they are screened there is an ofifal consist- ing of the very lightest kernels, and these are valuable in accord- ance with the proportion of the kernel to hull, which is not usually very large. If these light oats are to be used at all, they should be secured at a very low price. In oatmeal factories the oat hulls, the light oats and oat dust are made available as by-products, but these are utilized very largely by commercial feed manufacturers and not o-enerally available. Even though they were, their value would be large or small according to the manner in which they were mixed with other feeds. They are useful very largely for giving bulk and palatability to other feeds with which they are mixed, and appar- ently the stimulating properties of oats are contained in these by- product materials. 64 Feeding the Dairy Cow wise feeder will arrange his rations in a manner necessitating the smallest possible use of oats in order to enlarge his profits. Experiment has shown ground oats to be at least 10 per cent more valuable for stimulating milk production than is bran. There- fore, in choosing between bran and oats the feeder can by bearing this comparison in mind determine for himself when it is economical to use oats for general feeding purposes. For instance, when bran costs $25 per ton, ground oats costing $27.50 per ton are economical to feed in substitution for bran or in conjunction with it. Mineral matter to the extent of 3.3 pounds is found in 100 pounds of oats. This and the 64.9 pounds of digestible dry matter constitute the real feeding value of a hundredweight of oats. This is not a large amount as compared with other foods such as ground corn, gluten meal, cottonseed meal, oil meal, etc. The distribution of digestible nutrients in ground oats is shown >\ plate No. 34. Although oats are not high in protein they are not exceptionally high in carbohydrates and fat either. Therefore, the proportion of protein to carbohydrates and carbohydrate equivalent's is as one pound is to six pounds. It is this proportion of nutrients that renders ground oats well balanced as a sole ration. Under certain conditions the cost of digestible nutrients is a con- sideration of secondary importance. For this reason there are times when oats can be used though they seem expensive. No feed is jnore useful for conditioning cows to freshen and for starting them on their yearly lactation period than ground oats. Every hard-working cow should be turned dry and given six weeks rest between lactation periods. As soon as completely dry, system- atic and liberal feeding should be commenced. Ground oats are ex- cellent for the purpose, and cows may be fed from 8 to 12 pounds without danger to their health. Such feeding adds flesh, strength and stamina to the cow's body and brings her through the parturition period in a most excellent condition. She gives birth successfully to a strong, rugged calf and starts her year's work in a most commend- able manner without being overfed at this time when naturally she is weakened from the efifects of parturition. More than this, she milks with persistence because she is able to reserve for a long time the sur- plus flesh and stamina she has been encouraged to store in her body. Expensive, therefore, as oats may be and even though too expensive to feed under ordinary conditions, they arc one of the most econom- ical feeds for use during a period covering 30 days prior to freshening, when the purpose for which feed is given is to establish certain con- ditions, and for 30 days following freshening, when the purpose is that of encouraging regular and large daily increase of milk yield. At Water, 10.8 pounds. Dry matter, 89.2 pounds. 4I^^7m\^^ PLATE Z2. 1 00 pounds ground oats- exact volume, 12x12x56.5 inches. Water. 10.8 pounds Indigestible material, 21 pounds Ash, 3-3 pounds Digestible material, 64.9 pounds PLATE M. 100 pounds g:round oats — exact volume, 12x12x56.5 inches. (64A) Indigestible material, 21 pounds. Ash, 3.3 pounds. fc^%4f^/' /^' r-^ ('arbohydrates. 51.4 pounds. Fat, 4.1 pounds. PLATE 34 100 pound'-, ground oatb — exact volume, 12x12x56.5 inches. Missing Page Oats 67 Oat Meal or Rolled Oats It sometimes occurs, though seldom, that the feeder finds oat meal, which for some reason or other is not suitable for human food, available for feeding purposes. Perhaps it has become a trifle moldy, old or dry and is unsalable. In such instances it can be purchased as cheaply as or sometimes more cheaply than ground oats. When this opportunity presents itself the wise feeder will certainly pur- chase it in preference to any other oat product. Experience teaches that where price makes it possible to use oat meal, it is one of the very best of foods for stimulating milk production. Seemingly it has all the value of ground oats with the disad- vantage, occasioned by a large percentage of the indigestible ma- terial, removed. It is a much heavier product and not so bulky, as is illustrated by plate Xo. 35. It is very palatable and easily digested. Cows can eat largely of oat meal or rolled oats without any ill ef- fects. There is no better food for conditioning cows for freshening; neither is there a better food for stimulating rapid increase in milk production after freshening, without overfeeding, than rolled oats. There are expert and experienced feeders striving for large rec- ords with the economy of production a secondary consideration who use rolled oats during the first 30 days of a cow's lactation period with much success. Because of the expense, however, they are used sparingly and more largely as an appetizer and a stimulator than as a real source of feeding nutrients. That rolled oats are more valuable to a considerable extent than are ground oats is made apparent by comparing plate Xo. 36 with plate X'o. 33. In 100 pounds of rolled oats there are 2.9 pounds of water, 6.6 pounds of indigestible matter and 1.3 pounds of min- eral matter less than in a like amount of ground oats. Because of this, there are 10.8 pounds more digestible material. In other words, there is considerably more feeding value in rolled oats than there is in a like amount of ground oats. Therefore, it is only reasonable to conclude that rolled oats are worth approximately 17 per cent more for feeding purposes, so that, when ground oats are selling for $36 per ton, $42 per ton for rolled oats would not be more expensive, and their use at this price could be employed for special purposes, provided the feeder was justified in using ground oats at so high a price as $36 per ton. The only criticism offered in the use of either ground or rolled oats is that they are so expensive nowadays that by-products can be substituted for them, rendering feeding operations more economical and securing equally as good results. 68 Fei-dinc the Dair's Cow _ :^* 5 W 1 '''^U, ^ "^^€i^ ■r K ^ ^ * ■f R- * Q ^-1 .'r'fk:^ UJ = .-S v^i:u.^.t^"' Pa\ Oats 69 Schumacher Feed In the process of manufacturing rolled oats, the by-products are light oats, oat hulls, oat clippings, oat middlings, and oat shorts. There seems to be a general belief that these by-products in them- selves are very lacking in feeding value. To a large extent this is true, but the manufacturers of oat meal, like other manufacturers, realize that, in order to pay the largest possible price for oats and at the same time sell the resulting oat meal product as cheaply as possible, so it will be a ruling factor in competitive commercial channels, they must make the best possible use of their by-products. Therefore, these undesirable parts eliminated from the oat meal are mixed with such other ingredients as will insure feeding value. They are then thoroughly mixed and ground. The resulting product is Schumacher feed. This feed, although finely ground, is quite bulky ; in fact, 100 pounds of it occupies the same space as a like amount of rolled oats. The water content, as indicated by plate No. 38, is practically the same as that of ground oats, so it also contains a like amount of dry matter. A comparison of plates Nos. 33 and 34 with plates Nos. 39 and 40 will be of much interest, for they reveal the fact that .Schumacher feed and ground oats are largely the same with regard to the digestible nutrients, the ash and the digestible material con- tained in them. The largest difference between these two feeds is that ground oats are much more bulky and perhaps a trifle more palatable. Experienced feeders of dairy cattle through practical trials have learned, however, that Schumacher feed is almost, if not quite, as ^aluable for feeding dairy cows as are ground oats. Because of the high price of oats, Schumacher feed is quite generally used on farms where thoughtful feeders are striving for large and economical results. The Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station experi- mented with Schumacher feed to determine its feeding value and its digestibility of nutrients. (See plates Nos. 38, 39 and 40.) The Massachusetts station says: "The digestibility, as well as the com- position, of this feed resembles that of oats." Because Schumacher feed resembles oats so closely, there would be no justification for a farmer using it in preference to ground oats; in fact, we would be inclined to advise the use of ground oats instead, because they are a home-raised product, while Schumacher feed is a commercial product and must be purchased off the farm ; but there is a controlling factor which prohibits our recommending the use of ground oats and also encourages us to use Schumacher feed. This 70 Feeding the Dairy Cow factor is the difference in the cost. Rather recently it has been possible to purchase Schumacher feed for approximately $10 less per ton than ground oats. In substituting this by-product for ground oats, when it is gradually done, the feeder will find that cows will yield quite as large an amount of milk and butterfat and at consider- ably less expense. So long as the present variation in price between these two use- ful foods continues to exist, the farmer who raises oats will be justi- fied in marketing them, instead of having them ground, and purchas- ing Schumacher feed in their place to feed with the other feeds in use. In so doing, a very perceptible saving will be made, resulting in a more economical production of milk and butterfat. CHAPTER VI. FLAX AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS The average annual production of flaxseed in the United States from 1909 to 1913 was 20,(X)0,000 bushels. In 1914, 16,000,000 busheh were harvested and a like amount is estimated as the yield of 1915. In 1909, according to the report of the United States Department of Agriculture, 25,767,000 bushels were harvested. These figures show the rapidity with which the growing of flaxseed in the United States has decreased. It is generally believed that the growing of flax should be limited to new land. In addition to the flaxseed grown in this country, millions of bushels are imported. Primarily, its value is based upon the linseed oil which can be extracted from it. Linseed meal, or oil meal, is merely a by-product of the linseed oil .factory. Flaxseed meal, or ground flaxseed, would be very valuable to feed in- small amounts to dairy cattle were it not' for the fact that its cost prohibits its use for this purpose. It is especially valuable for feeding with skim-milk to calves because of its digestibility aiid its high content of fat. So saturated with linseed oil is ground flaxseed that the chemical analysis shows 29 per cent of digestible fat as com- pared with only 17.1 per cent of carbohydrates and 20.6 per cent of protein. Owing to the fact, however, that carbohydrates serve the same purpose as fat in foodstuffs, it is doubtful if ground flaxseed can economically be fed to any large degree even to calves. In special instances its use may be advised to a limited degree. Raw linseed oil extracted from ground flaxseed has great value in the dairy. This is especially true where cows are being fed for large production. Very often cows fed heavily sicken of their feed and are troubled with indigestion. Unless given immediate aid at such times serious results follow and the' cow refuses to produce profitably during the remainder of her lactation period. The feeder who closely watches his cows wiir detect the first symptoms of an animal "going oflf feed." He will then decrease per- ceptibly the amount of feed given, and, if the trouble seeins severe, ne will take the entire ration away from the animal for one or two feeds. In place of her regular ration, he will find tbat a quart of raw linseed oil, given as a drench in a careful manner so as not to choke the cow, will not only adjust the digestive activities of the cow but will furnish nutriment in sufficient abundance to maintain her milk flow and butterfat production. Feeding the Dairy Cow J^ • 1 1 ^ ■^ — '" a"* V ^5^.-. .. *** f*' « ^^# '^s -m «»6 ■ 1 _j3 rt -^ OT 0) 3 !S^- IMSS^^W w - 1 -^ H '^ '/, < -3 oj — '-t oT SoE Flax and Its By-Products 73 During the St. Louis World's Fair cow demonstration, when the cows under the writer's supervision were feeding close to the limit of capacity day after day, it was necessary to keep the digestive ap- paratus of every cow in as nearly perfect working order as possible. As a matter of fact, the digestive system of the cow is the hardest- worked portion of her body. So long as it is kept in healthy working order, the cow can be induced to do her very best in the yield of milk and butterfat. To insure this, raw linseed meal — in five-gallon lots — was kept available at all times. Upon the first indication of a cow weakening in digestive capacity her regular grain ration was Avithheld and for it a quart of raw linseed oil was given. When the following feeding time arrived, if the cow gave evidence that her con- dition was again normal and her appetite was customarily voracious, her regular ration, decreased a pound or two, was given her. Other- wise, another quart of raw linseed oil was given her instead. With such treatment, begun in time, I have seldom seen a case of indiges- tion so severe that the substitution of two quarts of raw linseed oil for two regular feeds of concentrates would not restore a normal diges- tion. Raw linseed oil is more advisable than, a radical physic, if the case is taken in time, because it is not only a cooling, sdothing bowel corrective, but furnishes nutriment to the extent that the cow is en- couraged to continue to milk quite as largely as though her regular concentrated ration were being fed. Those who use linseed oil for this purpose, however, should be very insistent when purchasing it that raw linseed oil is furnished; because boiled linseed oil, which is so largely used in mixing paint, is poisonous when administered internally to animals. Of greatest importance to the dairymen is linseed meal. There are two types of this by-product known as old process linseed meal and new process linseed meal. The old process results when the oil is pressed from the seed by hydraulic pressure. When the oil is ex- tracted by treating flaxseed with the chemical naphtha, the resulting residue is steamed, dried and ground, and known as new process oil meal. Most of the oil meal manufactured in this country is by the old process. This is fortunate because it is superior, all things con- sidered, in feeding value as a comparison of the analyses implies. Digestible Nutrients Oil meal — Water Ash Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat 9.1 9.7 5.4 5.5 30.2 31.7 32.6 37.9 6.7 2.8 74 Feeding the Dairy Cow New process oil meal has a larger content of protein and carbo- hydrates but old process oil meal excels in fat. Primarily, linseed meal is used because of its high content of protein, and, from this standpoint, the new process meal would be superior by 1.3 per cent of this nutrient. However, it is not to be denied that protein can be secured more cheaply from other available foodstuffs than it can from linseed meal, and, were this the only con- sideration, there would be little justification in its use. Oil meal has a secondary value, which, in conjunction with its high content of pro- tein, renders its use advisable on every dairy farm for certain pur- poses. It possesses a physical value not possessed by other feeds, and this value apparently increases in proportion to the amount of oil or fat present. Because of this, old process meal, which is prac- tically as valuable as the new process for furnishing digestible pro- tein, is superior. Especially when animals are on dry feed, old process oil meal is serviceable in keeping the digestive apparatus in healthful, working condition, and, used in amounts varying from one to two pounds daily, greatly aids the digestion of other foods. The only objection to linseed meal is that it is expensive for fur- nishing nutriment. Its cost is governed largely by supply and de- mand. Feeders in foreign countries are very partial to oil cake, and large tonnages of it are exported from the American mills. The cake differs from the meal in that it is unground. It is pre- ferred to the meal by foreign feeders because it is less expensive and there can be no adulteration. The foreign feeder believes that an excel- lent opportunity is offered for mixing adulterants with the linseed when it is ground and sacked. The American feeder can well afford to consider purchasing linseed in cake form, rather than meal, for the same reasons, and especially because it can be bought for at least $5 per ton less than where it must be ground and sacked. Furthermore, when stored in cake form and broken or ground just before feeding, the rich, nutty flavor which adds to palatability is retained. Linseed meal or cake is especially valuable to use in fitting ani- mals for sale or show purposes. Shortly after its use is adopted, the feeder perceives that the hide of the animal softens, the hair becomes more silky and the animal takes on a more lively, active, energetic ap- pearance. These are merely indications of an active, thrifty, efficient digestion, for it is well known that the hide and hair are merely con- tinuations of the inner vital organs of the animal. The condition of the digestive apparatus is readily reflected in the hide and hair of the animal. Therefore, any food that acts favorably upon the healthful- Flax and Its By-Products 75 iiess of the digestive apparatus indicates itself in outward appear- ances and handling quality. In preparing cows for freshening, oil meal is exceptionally val- uable, and, fed with ground corn, ground oats and bran at the rate of two pounds daily for 60 or 90 days prior to freshening, it devel- ops a condition of quality and snappiness in the cow that insures successful parturition and promptness in coming' to her maximum flow of milk. From. the standpoint of supplying protein and mineral matter, linseed meal is valuable. For these purposes alone, however, the great demand from Europe makes it possible for the American farmer to supply rations with these requirements more economi- cally from other feeds. From the standpoint of accomplishing such purposes as already referred to and for keeping the animal in a healthful, thrifty, vigorous condition, there is no feed that can en- tirely take the place of linseed. Considering these facts, the careful feeder who demands uniformly large results will always keep on hand enough linseed meal, or linseed cake, so it can be used in limited amounts as occasion and necessity demand. In sections where it is necessary to purchase commercial fertil- izers and in sections where fertility of the land should be conserved — and this means every section of the world — there is a third dis- tinctive value which oil meal, like all other such feeds, possesses. Valuing nitrogen at 20c per pound, phosphoric acid and potash each at 5c per pound for fertilizing purposes, it is to be found that one ton of old process linseed mea:l contains $24.71 worth of these fer- tilizing ingredients. When fed to livestock a large percentage of this value remains in the excrement and can be transferred to the fields if the barnyard manure is properly cared for. The fact that such commercial foods carry so much fertilizing value has not in the past been considered seriously enough by the American farmer. It is for this reason, that to a very large extent, the fertility of American farms has been and is being transferred across the ocean to enrich European lands, and this is one reason v^Hy, even though European farms have been cultivated so much longer than have American farms, the average production per acre is greater. CHAPTER VII. RYE AND RYE SHORTS Rye and its by-products are not largely used, neither are they considered, to any great extent, in compiling dairy rations. Rye and rye shorts, as shown by the accompanying plates, are carbonaceous in character, concentrated in form, and, according to analysis, should prove valuable as dairy feeds. Both are palatable to the animal, and both, especially rye shorts which is a by- product in the milling of rye flour, are cheap in price per ton. Di- gestible feeding nutrients, both protein and carbohydrates, can often be purchased very cheaply as in rye and rye products compared with other foods containing as large an amount of food value. There are three great objections to rye and rye shorts as dairy foods, however, and these reasons undoubtedly account for the fact that rye and its by-products, where fed at all to livestock, are used almost exclusively for hog feeding purposes. Rye imparts to milk, produced by its use, a characteristic, dis- agreeable flavor, and when butter is made a bitter taste is present. Were this the only objection, it could be overcome readily by limit- ing the use of rye to three or four pounds daily and by feeding this immediately after milking. In sections where rye shorts and rye bran can be secured at a price sufficiently low to justify their use, the dairyman, after assuring himself that there is no ergot on it, can well afford to utilize these by-products to a limited degree and in a judicious manner. Undoubtedly the most serious objection to rye, rye shorts and other by-products is the likelihood of ergot being present. It is a well known fact that ergot causes abortion, and, in many instances where indications have led to the belief that contagious abortion had attacked the herd, investigation proved that ergot, secured by the cows from such a source as rye, wild rye, rye straw or from cer- tain wild grasses, had caused the trouble. In addition to causing abortion, ergot also poisons cattle, causing symptoms much like those of paralysis. The animal becomes lame in the hind quarters, her legs swell, later she loses much of her hair and Very often the bush of the tail is lost. In severe cases animals lose their hoofs and die. Ergot is not always present in rye and the occurrence of abor- tion and poisoning is not the rule. For this reason, it is usually con- sidered safe to feed rye in small amounts. Those accustomed to Rye and R"i'E Shorts 77 V « • '■■"■/■■■' ' s-v " ' * .* ' '.^ H "♦ , * ^ » * ' '.* » .' , , k .^ . / y\- * '**;^' *5 -■2 J' § 3 S^^ ■ - 1. c O 0^ ti O O & fcJ3 2 & & vT 3 « ttJ p p :^ o 0^ t; o o WII"^'" iHif^r'i Hf .1 '-»;"-> _*,^s .-*#.- r- * i.K'- ' ' ft'-. f^'^^ ' ^ J 6 a 78 Feeding the Dairy Cow feeding it soon learn to detect the appearance of ergot and thereby eliminate the difficulty that would be experienced by one not famil- iar with this fungus growth which is occasionally present and cre- ates havoc. Rye is more largely used as a green feed, or soiling crop, and for this purpose it is especially valuable. Sown in the fall, it fur- nishes green feed later in northern climates than most any other grass or cereal. When spring opens, the rye field is the first to be- come green, and it furnishes green food earlier than any other pas- ture grasses or soiling crops. Fed green, rye is very palatable and stimulating to milk production. It is perfectly safe to use as a late green feed for fall and an early green feed for spring, but, as it ap- proaches maturity, the feeder should make certain that it carries no ergot if he would continue its use as a feed instead of plowing it under as a green manure or removing the cattle and letting the rye mature as a cereal crop. As a rule, rye commands a good price on the market. Where, as is usually the case, it is possible to secure other foods for dairy purposes, the advisable plan is to dispose of the rye and secure other foods, the use of which is safer and the feeding value of which is greater. Rye is largely used for distilling purposes, and dried distillery grains are considered among the most valuable of dairy feeds. In a later chapter, however, it will be shown that when they result from the use of rye they are the least valuable of the various kinds of distillery grains manufactured. Rye is often referred to as "the crop of poverty" or "the poor man's crop," and it is a well known fact that it will grow and thrive on land where other crops will not. It might also be referred to as the poor cow's crop, for a careful study of its value as dairy feed jhows conclusively that, other than in the green state, it does not especially encourage large production. Rye is the least advisable grain ,that can be grown for dairy purposes except that it is very hardy and can be gtown in many .■sections with more certainty than can other grains. This, together with the fact that rye shorts can oftentimes be purchased cheaply, furnishing protein and carbohydrates in a digestible, palatable form at small cost, is the only reason why rye and its by-products should be considered at all for feeding dairy cattle. R\-E AND Rye Shorts 79 H ■ Its ^> ^^J^'-i."^ H ' 1 • '" ' - ' ^ 1*5 1. 1 \ *^, .^■"^.d**^ fM I— I 00 CHAPTER VIII. PARLEY AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS More bulky than corn, wheat or rye, less bulky than oats and equally as palatable as either, barley is a grain worthy of more gen- eral recognition as a home grown food for dairy cattle than it re- ceives in this country. It is highly prized in Europe, especially in Denmark, for feeding all classes of livestock, and likewise it is quite largely used in the western coast states of this country. Where corn matures and yields well barley is not raised for feeding purposes because it is of the same carbonaceous character as corn, its yield is less per acre, and, because of its beards, it is more disagreeable to harvest. I'urthermore, when it is grown and harvested, the demand for it has been so great for brewing purposes provided the kernel is light and plump in color, that the economical method has been to sell the grain and replace it with less expensive feeds. In analysis barley is very similar to corn, wheat and rye. A comparison of plates Nos. 50, 51 and 52 with those illustrating the feeding nutrients contained in corn, wheat and rye will prove inter- esting because it will show the close relationship of these feeds as de- termined by the chemist. Barley leads in mineral matter, carrying 4.5 per cent, or .9 per cent less than oats. It has an added value for feeding dairy cattle because of this. Barley contains more indigestible material than corn, wheat or rye, but this naturally follows as a result of the greater amount of bulk furnished by the hulls, which also tend to increase the mineral matter. Compared with corn, wheat and rye, barley contains less diges- tible carbohydrates. It is richer in protein and much lov\'er in fat than corn and it contains approximately the same amount of fat as wheat and rye and somewhat less protein. So closely do these feeds resemble each other from the chemist's standpoint that, were there no other factors to be considered, they might well be used interchangeably pound for pound and one would prove equally as advisable to use in compounding rations for dairy animals as the other. In palatability and physical character barley ranks a close second to corn and, in sections where corn does not ma- ture well, barley is suggested as its logical substitute. In fact, tlie question as to which should be used for furnishing carbohydrates is answered by the availability and cost per hundredweight. Barley and Its By- Products 81 Further than this, every dairy farm should raise seme barley. Ground and fed in limited amounts it gives \ariety to the ration and adds to its efficiency. For special purposes, such as fitting for sale or show, it has a distinct value, especially when boiled and fed mixed vvith chaffed hay, bran and oil meal. Used in this manner as a sub- stitute for one regular feed daily, or as an extra evening feed, it gives a healthful, glossy appearance to the hair of the animal and insures a soft, pliable, elastic touch to the hide. Like oats, there is a certain value possessed by barley which the chemical analysis does not dis- close but which is revealed by the animal to which it is fed. An excellent method of raising barley for feeding purposes is to grow it with oats. Because of its strength of stem it aids in keeping the oats from lodging, and, as almost as large a yield of oats can be secured, the barley will practically be raised extra on the same acre- age. Grown in this manner, the high price barley usually brings does not tempt the feeder to sell it. He, therefore, reserves it for feeding purposes. For growing barley in this manner, one or two parts should be sown with three parts of oats. Feeders who recognize that nearly every summer has its drouth. during which time cows decrease very seriously in milk flow unless there is green feed, now follow the practice of soiling. For this pur- pose, oats and field peas are largely used and soy beans or cowpeas farther south. In place of oats, barley is well worthy of considera- tion to be used for soiling purposes. In certain sections it thrives better than oats and it will withstand hot, dry weather better. As barley approaches the dough stage, if it is not cut for soiling purposes, it will make excellent hay for winter feeding. When the value of barley becomes as fully recognized by breed- ers of dairy cattle as it now is by breeders and exhibitors of horses and beef cattle, its use will be more prevalent. Sometimes conditions are such that digestible and palatable car- bohydrates can be secured more cheaply from barley than from other home-grown feeds. Barley By-Products The chief reason why barley has not been more generally used as a food for dairy cows is because of the high price it has com- manded for brewing purposes. In most sections equally good re- sults can be secured from cheaper substitutes. Where this is the case, it is better to sell the barley, using only the less salable por- tions of the crop. Even as barley is so excellent for feeding dairy animals, so are its by-products, and usually they can be secured at prices warranting a judicious use of them. 82 Fffdixg the Dairy Cow Dry matter, 89.8 pounds PLATK 50. lUU pounds ground barlcy- txact volume, 12x12x36.87 inches Digestible materia], 66.9 pounds. "v* !&<>*"* PLATE 51. 100 pounds ground barley- t-xact volume. i;xl2>;,16 87 inches In the process of inaltinc;", barley is first softened in large vats of warm water and then spread out in thin layers and licated to a temperature that will encourage tlie sjirouting- of it. This is for the purpose of couN'ertinc;' the larux- anmunl of starch found in barle)' into sugar, and, when the highest possible percentage of sugar is developed, the ]),'n"le\' is (In injughl \- dried under steam pressure. The .sprouts are then separated from the kernels and are of no further Bari.e^- axd Its H^-Pkoducts 83 Watef, 10.2 pounds. Ash, Carbohydrates, 52.5 pounds. use in the malting- process, lliese are termed malt sjjrtjuts, and their chief value is for feeding' purposes. Malt sprouts as indicate 1 by plate No. 53, are hulk}- in character; and, because they are kiln-dried, the_y contain only a small ai-notmt of mois- ture. One of the chief ol)jec- tions to them is that they lack palatability ; therefore, they must be considered as an ad- junct to rations rather than the principal part of them. A\'hen soaked for 10 or 12 hours malt sprouts take up large volumes of Avater and are an excellent form of suc- culence when fed in this man- ner. As shown in plate No. 54, malt sprouts contain a very large amount of ash and min- eral matter, and again in this respect their use at the rate of two or three pounds daily per cow is advisable. Plate No. 55. when com- pared with plate No. 31 of a previous chapter, illustrates forcibly the feeding value of malt sprouts as compared with bran. Both feeds are high in ash, low in carbohydrates and fat, and of a bulky nature. The chief difference, as shown by the chemist's analysis, is that malt sprouts are much higher in protein, and from this standpoint it would appear the}' are consid- erabl}' more \-aluable. Practical experience, however, does not agree w-ith chemical analysis because animals do not eat malt sprouts \vith the same avidity that they eat Ijran, and, therefore, the san-ie response is not to be expected, for palataliility is a factor for careful consideration in \-aluing foodstuffs quite as is chemical analv^is. Fat, 3.4 pounds. f^^v rrsx<^: vw-'^k^ PLATE 52, 100 pounds ground barley- exact volume. 12x12x36.87 inches 84 Feeding the Dairy Cow When fed at the rate of two to four pounds daily mixed with other foods, cows become accustomed to malt sprouts and do not object to their presence in the ration. Their use to this extent is advisable when — as is generally the case — they can be purchased at a price less than bran, because malt sprouts add protein in a cheap form to the ration. They are one of the most liberal sources of mineral matter, which often is lacking in the dairy cow's ration. They are bulky, and because of this they assist in the digestion of other foods. When succulence is lacking, malt sprouts, thoroughly soaked, serve well the purpose, although they can be fed dry. Other foods can be used for all of these purposes to as good advantage ; therefore, the chief reason why the feeder should give his consideration to this by- product when securing his feed supplies is that it is low in price, and, used in a limited way, may be substituted in part for other foods and to decrease perceptibly the cost of rations, thus making the production of milk and butterfat more economical. After the malt sprouts have been eliminated from the barley the remainder is known as malt. As the process of beer manufac- ture progresses, the liquid containing the sugar is extracted. This is the only part of the barley for which the brewer has direct use, and all that remains constitutes another by-product to be disposed of through the most available channels. This by-product is termed wet brewers' grains because, when first the sugar has been taken from them, they are heavily loaded with water. They contain less than 25 per cent of dry matter. At large breweries there are great volumes of wet brewers' grains, for the small percentage of the barley eliminated in the form of malt sprouts and soluble sugar leaves a large percentage of the original barley in the form of wet grains. In the wet form, brewers' grains are a most excellent food for the dairy cow. They are very palatable, succulent and stimulating to milk production. The analysis shows them to contain in addi- tion to 77 per cent of water, 1 per cent of ash, 4.6 per cent of protein, 8.7 per cent of carbohydrates and 1.5 per cent of fat. Compared with silage, roots, pasture grasses or other succulent foods, brewers' grains rank much higher in analysis, which illustrates their value to feeders living close enough to the point of manufacture to haul a fresh supply of them daily. Because of their high content of mois- ture, they can neither be shipped long distances nor held long — unless ensiled — so that their use in the wet stage is for local con- sideration only. Barley and Its By-Products 85 In many instances their use by dairymen selling city milk has been prohibited by city milk authorities. This, however, has not been the fault of the brewers' grains, but the fault of the users. Because of their cheapness, feeders are inclined to handle them care- lessly and over-feed them. As a result the milk produced becomes tainted, not from the grains that are eaten, but from the portion al- lowed to remain in the feed boxes, on the feeding floor and around the barn. Naturally, because of their wet nature, they ferment, be- come putrid, and the air in and about the barn becomes permeated with the objectionable odor, which is certain to find its way into the milk and render it unfit for human food. Care, such as should be practiced in any dairy barn where food, to be consumed in the raw state, is being prepared for infants as well as adults, will entirely eliminate this objection. In a western city a few years ago the use of wet brewers' grains as a food for cows producing milk for the city's supply was for a time prohibited because of the belief that children drinking the milk would develop the taste for alcoholic beverages. The fallacy of this action, however, becomes apparent when it is realized that brewers' grains are really more free from this objection than barley, for, in reality, they represent barley with that portion from which beer is made taken away. Therefore, ' this objection is worthy of no con- sideration, either on the part of the dairyman or his customer. Merely because wet brewers' grain can be purchased cheaply is no reason why they should be fed carelessly or why they should be wasted. In fact, because of their wet nature, they should be handled more carefully than dry foods; and, because they are rich in feeding nutrients, they should be fed judiciously. A daily ration of one pound for each pound of milk yielded, up to 40 pounds, will furnish a sufficient amount of succulence, and, fed with 10 or 12 pounds of hay and a grain mixture of ground corn and other carbo- naceous foods, this by-product will prove to be an advisable food, because it is a cheap and palatable source of succulence and protein well balanced with carbohydrates, fat and ash. To prove valuable, however, the rule of feeding an abundance of dry matter with it must be closely followed. Because of the great abundance of the supply of brewers" grains, they usually exceed the demand by large amounts. To find an outlet for them, they are kiln-dried, sacked and offered as dried brewers' grains. Their use is not fully appreciated by the American feeder and they are largely exported to be fed in Europe. Because of the large amount of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash they carry, this exporting process really amounts not only to the loss of an 86 Fi'i'Oixr, T! [ [■: P ^ ]-^' Cow Watr.-, .6 pOLinds Dry matter, 92.4 pounds. '/*l V 'St > : - •?' t^ftv'' * ^ - •1'' '*,*» ** .'* T V i'^r. ' • ,i PLATb: 53. 100 ijouii.l^ mall ^iirouls- exact vnhinii'. lJxlJx,!0,87 iliL-hcs. Ash, 6.1 uouinls. DiR-estili niatL'i'i.al 60 iHiUrnls ►ft y' /*>= ,^, VMK '«W. I'L.VTU: 54. lllll |>uui|ils m.lU .siruUls — cx.irt ^ithnnr. 12xlJx.!6.87 inches. excellent protein foiKlstiilT, hut |)ennit.s the h-urojjean feeder to (lr:;\\' from this country much ol the richness ni mir h:irle\'-L;"ri )\\'inL;" farms. This is one illustration nf Imw the luiropean farmer encourages his animals to produce uKjre largely and liow he increases the richness of his farm year after year; and, lik'cvvise, it is an illustration of how the American faruK.'r ON'crh idles his o])]iortunities for encoura.g- ing large production and permits the fertility that should TukJ its Barley and Its By-Products 87 Water, 7.6 pounds. Indigestible material. 17.3 pounds. Ash, 6,1 pounds. Protein, 20.3 pounds. i|5 ?<. way to his farm, to be taken over the ocean to enrich a farm there. Plate No. 56 shows dried brewers' grains to contain a small amount of moisture. Be- cause of this they will keep in- definitely under ordinary stor- age conditions. They are bulky and palatable, and prove help- ful to a ration because of this. Plate No. 58 shows them to rank well with oats and bran in mineral matter and carbohydrates and to be more valuable for supplying protein and fat. More than this, the practical feeder agrees with the chemist. He finds that dried brewers' grains rank well with bran and are almost, if not quite, equal to ground oats in stimulating milk production and the health of the animal. If other succulence is available, brewers' grains should be fed dry, mixed with other concentrates; but if no other succulence is present, they may be moistened. Their nature is such that they take up large quantities of water and form a most suitable, suc- culent, palatable, easily-di- geste'd food. Their use is ad- visable and depends upon their cost. Where they can be purchased as cheaply as bran, and from 8 to 10 per cent more cheaply than ground oats, they may well be considered as a part of the dairy cow's ration. A knowledge of feeds and of their feeding and fertilizing values is of tremendous importance to every farmer. This subject should receive more consideration than it does. Carbohydrates, 47.4 pounds. Fat, 1.3 counds. >• >'.* ' v, ■^'- '>i ',.3 i PLATE 55. pounds malt sprouts — exact volume, 12x12x36.87 inches. CHAPTER IX. distillers' dried grains Corn, oats, barley and rye are the grains most largely used in the manufacture of whisky and alcohol. Briefly, these grains are ground, softened with water and mashed. At the proper time malt is mixed with the mash, causing the starches of the grains to be changed to sugar. When this is accomplished, yeast is added and the sugar is converted -into alcohol. Distilling follows and there remains a residue known as distillery slop. Because nothing has been removed from the grains except starch — which represents only a portion of the carbohydrates — a proportionately large amount of the raw material remains in the slop. As has been noted in the study of other by-products, the re- moval of a portion of one nutrient increases the other nutrients, and this is true with regard to the dry matter of distillery slop. By removing a large portion of the carbohydrates, there results an in- creased percentage of the indigestible material, protein, ash and fat. In the early history of distilling, the slop was a waste product. Later its feeding value for beef cattle was recognized and extensive feeding lots were installed at all distilleries, and up to now, thou- sands of steers are finished annually by employing little food other than the slop direct from the distillery. Furthermore, the dairyman who lives close enough to a distillery finds this slop an excellent food for stimulating milk production when fed judiciously with foods that supply the required amount of dry matter necessary for persistency of production. Having gained knowledge of the feeding value contained in the dry matter of the slop, and desiring to extend the demand for this by-product, many distillers have installed dryers for evaporating the moisture, and when this is done distillers' dried grains with less than 10 per cent of moisture are secured. When the moisture is thus reduced, the grains are sacked and it becomes possible to keep them indefinitely under ordinary storage conditions. The feeder of dairy cows has been quick to recognize the merits of distillers' dried grains and their use is very general among dairy- men. However, it should be remembered that a wide variation ex- ists in their valre, according to the raw material from which they are made. Distillers' Dried Grains SO In the manufacture of alcojiol, corn is used almost entirely and the grains from this source are known to be of highest feeding value. When whisky is distilled, the grains rank in value according to the percentage of corn used, therefore, those grains resulting from the distilling of rye whisky are of the lowest feeding value because very little corn is used. With these facts in mind, the feeder is enabled to select dis- tillers' grains according to their feeding value, which, when por- trayed by guaranteed analysis, will show them to vary in content of protein from 33 per cent in the very best grade to 14 per cent in the very poorest. This feature is not objectionable to the buyer who purchases feeds with regard to their real feeding value because he pays for a feed in accordance with its analysis, and he varies the amount of each food when mixing rations according to the nature of the feeds available, and the needs of each cow. Distillers' dried grains are not palatable to cows. They have a peculiar, sour taste and smell which vary according to the length of time fermentation has been permitted to continue before the moisture is evaporated from the slop. This is not a serious objec- tion. Cows soon become accustomed to the taste and eat the grains with much relish. Then it is found that the sour taste has a ten- dency to sharpen the appetite, and the objectionable feature becomes a favorable factor. As shown by plate No. 59, these grains are very light and bulky, comparing favorably with bran in this respect. Because of this, they can be fed heavily with little danger of harming the animal, and it is for this reason that those who feed for large records use them very extensively in substitution for foods of a like feeding value that are less bulky. Compared with bran and various other bulky foods, it will be seen by plate No. 60 that distillers' dried grains are largely digesti- ble, there being in 100 pounds of the feed 74.4 pounds of digestible material. The large ash content is also a useful factor and the 16.4 pounds of indigestible material being of a flaky, bulky nature adds to, rather than detracts from, the merits as a foodstuff for ruminat- ing animals. In analysis, the grains, if of a superior quality, rank high in the scale of food values. This is especially true of the content of di- gestible protein and fat as illustrated in plate No. 61. Because of the large amount of digestible protein and fat, combined in a feed so bulky in character, only good results are to be expected where its use is employed in accordance with the demands of the cow. In ihe hands of the practical, experienced feeder, distillers' dried grains Water, 7.5 pounds. Dry matter, 92.5 pounds. PLATE 56. 100 pounds brewers' grains — exact volume. 12x12x61,45 inches. Waler. ,5 pounds. Indigestible material, 30.9 pounds. t*.' r^ 4-1! Ash, 3.5 pounds. Digestible material, 58.1 pounds. :#s M ISJN ii.;*- i4^ '% 1 LAiL 57. 100 pounds Ijrewers' grains — exact volume, 12x12x61.45 inches. (88A) Water. 7.5 pounds. Indigestible -, material, 30.9 pounds. .Ash, 3.5 pounds. .:m-,ikyi m Protein. 21.5 pounds. Carbohydrates, 30.5 pounds. Fat, 6.1 pounds. PLATE 58. 100 pounds brewers' grains — exact volume, 12x12x61.45 inches. KiiiiuiNc, TJiii Da I in (.■<)\ Water, Dry niattL-r. 93.4 puuiuls. fen J^ '& *.4/«F4£| PT.ATF. 59. ino poiui.ls ilvic.l S t t\ .:- ^'Mmml PLATE 60. 100 pounds iJrit'd distillers* grains— exact viduniu, lJ:<\2K~ir, ilK'llL'S. Distillers' Dried Graixs 91 Water 6.6 pounds. Indigestible materia.!, 16.4 pounds. Ash, 2.6 pounds •^ f^--'-. Protein. 22.4 pounds. , -s - I Carb 40 )ohy O O u O 2 to a o- CL| P. _^ ^rt -t3 to "^ ^ c o Root Crops 101 The cost of one pound of butterfat with ration' II (hay, grain and mangels) was 27.4c. This was considered too high to be eco- nomical. The cost of one pound of fat with ration III (hay, grain, man- gels and silage, grain ration redwced one-half by substituting man- gels) was 20.75c. Since the cost of one pound of fat in the check group averaged for the two years 20.6c, ration HI was considered economical. One pound of dry matter in mangels is a little more than equal to one pound of dry matter in silage. One pound of dry matter in mangels is equal to one pound of dry matter in grain, and mangels may replace one-half the ordinary grain ration with mixed hay and silage. Accepting the average price of commercial feeding stufifs at $30 per ton, and considering one pound of dry matter in mangels equal to one pound of dry matter in grain, mangels may be used eco- nomically in the ration to replace one-half the grain ordinarily fed when they can be produced and stored ready for feeding at $4 per ton. In arriving at this conclusion, the average amount of dry mat- ter in grain is considered to be 90 per cent, and in mangels to be 12 per cent. It would seem to be a safe assumption that farmers can raise mangels for $4 per ton and thus reduce their feed bill very materially by the judicious use of mangels to replace one-half of the grain ordinarily fed in the rations. A possible explanation of the value of roots is suggested by plate No. 66, which shows the small amount of indigestible material con- tained in 100 pounds of sugar beets ; but, again, plate No. 67 causes one to wonder at the possibility of roots being substituted for grain when there is contained in 100 pounds of sugar beets only 1.2 pounds of digestible protein, 12.8 pounds of carbohydrates and .1 of a pound of fat. In his bulletin Professor Wing quotes from experiments, made at the Ohio Experiment Station by Thorne, Hickman and Falken- bach, the following results, which show conclusively why, under present conditions, root crops are not more generally used, and why, for several years, they will be raised for special purposes only. The feeding of beets to milch cows increased the consumption of other foods and of total dry matter. Beets always increased the flow of milk and the total yield of butterfat, but this increase has never been sufficient to offset the ad- ditional consumption of food. 102 Feeding the Dairy Cow Cows fed* on beets showed an increase in live weight, while those fed on silage remained about the same. Beets did not increase the amount of water drank, although fed in such quantities as to increase the water content of the food 30 pounds per day. The experiments did not justify the assumption that the dry matter of beets is any more effective, pound for pound, than the dry matter of silage made from well-matured corn containing 13 to 18 per cent of grain. In the region where the tests were made, and at the average of 10 years' culture of corn and field beets side by side, two pounds of dry matter was produced in the form of corn silage at a less cost than one pound of dry matter in the form of beets. ■ A question was suggested by the experiments as to whether beets might not be used to advantage in comparatively small quan- tities, fed as appetizers. While silage made from comparatively ma- ture corn showed best results in general, the experiments suggested that the silage should be made before the corn has reached full ■ maturity. CHAPTER XII. DRIED BEET PULP During the period intervening between 1878 and 1915 the amount of beet sugar produced in the United States annually grew from 100 tons to 413,954 tons. The people of the United States consume annually 77.54 pounds of sugar per capita, which is more than double the average amount consumed per capita in all Europe. In round numbers, 3,800,000 tons of sugar are used in this country annually, while the combined production of cane and beet sugar is less than half that amount. That which is not produced at home must be imported, which, in the face of the success attained in various parts of the United States in pro- ducing both cane and beet sugar, seems just as ill advised as the ex- porting of valuable fertility-carrying foodstuffs which should be fed to farm animals at home. Where beet sugar factories are located and properly operated, farmers find the raising of beets very profitable, and learn that the wet beet pulp, which is a by-product of the sugar factory, is a most excellent, succulent, palatable food that is extremely stimulating to large and economical milk production. When the beets are pulled and topped the farmer hauls them to the factory, where they first pass through several water baths and are scrupulously cleansed. The next process is to pass them through a series of knives, which reduce them to long shreds no thicker than a common lead pencil. The shreds, or cosettes, as they are called, pass through a number of cylinders or cells in each of which they are treated with hot water, which washes out the sugar. When this process is completed, the sweet liquor is drawn off and the residue, or wet beet pulp, is expelled in large piles to be hauled to adjacent farms, fed at the factory during the winter to fattening steers, or pre- served in huge silos. Where factories are suffi;ciently prosperous, much of the surplus water is pressed from the mass and the remainder, except 8 or 9 per cent, is eliminated by kiln drying. Fortunate, indeed, is the dairyman who lives close enough to a sugar beet factory to be able to haul the wet pulp daily to his farm for feeding purposes. As a means of encouraging farmers to raise beets, many factories furnish the wet pulp in abundance free for the hauling; others charge a nominal fee of 50c per load. Because this wet pulp contains all the nutrients of the sugar beet except the sugar, 104 Feeding the Dairy Cow Water, S.2 pounds. Dry matter, 91.8 pounds. Water, pounds. IndiKC-stiljle materia], 17.7 pounds. Ash, 3.5 pounds. Digestible material, 70.6 pounds. PLATE 68. 100 pounds dried beet pulp — exact volume, 12x12x46. 0'-> inches. PLATE 69. 100 pounds dried beet pulp- exact volume, 12x12x46.09 incliea. its value approaches the value of the original beet, and the cost is so small that, where judgment is used in feeding, its use renders the cost of milk production small. Contrary to the general opinion, the pulp, even though piled carelessly in large piles, can be fed all year. It sours slightly but does not spoil, and, when it has fermented, cows eat it, seemingly, with Dried Beet Pulp 103 Water, 8.2 pounds. Ash, 3.5 pounds. more relish than when the pulp is fresh, and the results from the standpoint of milk produc- tion are equally favorable. As is usually the case when any feed is very cheap, wet beet pulp is liable to be overfed. The dairyman is encouraged to in- crease the amount from day to day as his cows become accus- tomed to it, because they like it better than any other feed, and with each increase there comes an increase in milk flow. If given all the wet pulp they will eat, cows care little for hay and grain and apparently do not eat enough dry matter to protect their bodies and provide for the unborn calf. As a result, the calf when born very often is in a weak, emaciated condition, predisposed to scours, and often does not live. This is not the fault of the beet pulp but is due to injudicious use of it. To se- sure the best results, the feeder should watch closely the daily ration of each cow, from which he would raise a strong, vigor- ovis calf, and make certain that she eats a sufficient amount of hay and grain to protect her own body and that of her un- born offspring from possible emaciation. Accurate results secured from the use of the wet beet pulp for feeding dairy cows at the Cornell University Experiment Station are as follows : The cows, as a rule, ate beet pulp readih' and consumed from 50 to 100 pounds per day, according to size, in addition to the usual feed of eight pounds of grain and six to 12 pounds of hay. Carbohydrates, 65.2 pounds. PLATE 70. 100 pounds dried beet pulp — exact volume, 12x12x46.09 inches. (100 A) 106 Feeding the Dairy Cow The dry matter in beet pulp proved to be of equal value, pound for pound, with the dry matter in corn silage. The milk-producing value of beet pulp as it comes from the beet sugar factory is about one-half that of corn silage. Beet pulp is especially valuable as a succulent food, and, where no other such food is obtainable, it may prove of greater comparative value than is given above. Excellent as is the wet pulp for feeding purposes, dried beet pulp is better. It is more convenient to feed, can be mixed with other rations — either dry or moistened — and is not so liable to be overfed. In the sugar factory when the sweet liquor is withdrawn the beet shreds pass directly to the drying kiln before any fermentation has taken place, and within one hour the moisture has been reduced to a minimum and a palatable, bulky, easily digested food is sacked preparatory to storage and shipment. It is interesting to compare the accompanying plates with those illustrating the feeding value of sugar beets and note the great change in the bulk, moisture and content of nutrients occasioned by ex- tracting the sugar and water from the original beets. Plate No. 68 shows vividly the increase in bulk and dry matter at the expense of the moisture contained in the sugar beet. By taking away the water and sugar, plate No. 69 shows the enlarged amount of indigestible material and ash, and, by comparing plate No. 70 with plate No. 67 it will be readily noted how the protein and carbohydrates have been increased and the trace of fat present in sugar beets has been en- tirely eliminated by the process. Dried beet pulp is especially palatable to cows, and, being bulky, it proves an excellent addition to almost any ration. Practical feed- ers find that, like roots of various sorts, it proves more valuable than the chemical analysis would indicate. This is, no doubt, due to the fact that the original value of the sugar beet is retained, and, there- fore, the belief is encouraged that the American feeder can secure equally good results by using this useful dried beet pulp as the European feeder secures from raising and feeding beets and man- gels. When silage or other succulent food is available in abundance dried beet pulp can be fed without moistening at the rate of from three to five pounds daily. One of the readers of The Dairy Farmer has advised us that, because of the poor quality of hay at his command, he is sub- stituting five pounds of dried beet pulp for seven and one-half pounds of hay and securing excellent results. Dried Beet Pulp 107 One of the great values of dried beet pulp is that of furnishing succulence to a ration in the absence of other watery foods. When used in this manner, it serves a double purpose — that of supplying food nutrients and adding succulence. Exhibitors of show cattle find it a most serviceable feed because they can carry it with them and soak it with water whenever succulent food is needed, and thereby avoid the inconvenience of locating roots or silage at each of the fairs at which they exhibit. At the New Jersey Experiment Station it was found that with corn silage valued at $4 per ton and dried beet pulp at $20 per ton milk could be produced 3.31 per cent cheaper and butter for 3.48 per cent less by using silage instead of the pulp. This suggests that it may be better to use dried beet pulp in conjunction with silage rather than substituted for it. As a further proof of this, it was found that when molasses beet pulp cost $20 per ton the dried beet pulp substituted for it in' the grain ration produced milk at a saving of 3.09 per cent and butter at a saving of 4.7 per cent, showing dried beet pulp to be superior to the molasses beet pulp. But, when mo- lasses beet pulp was substituted for hominy feed at $23 per ton, which feed is equal to corn meal in feeding value, it was found that milk was produced for 6.02 per cent less cost and butter at a saving of 6.3 per cent. This would indicate that dried beet pulp is a much more economical feed than hominy feed when the comparative prices are in the ratio of $20 per ton for the former and $23 per ton for the latter. Valuable as is hominy feed on every dairy farm, it is especially valuable where the aim is to make large milk and butter records and in those sections where protein feeds are plentiful and either succu- lent foods or those rich in carbohydrates are scarce. CHAPTER XIII. MIXED FEEDS Classed with foods known as concentrates are various mixed feeds, many of which are proving so satisfactory in general use that they have become as staple as grains and even more staple than many of the by-product feeds. Much prejudice has in the past- centered about mixed feeds. Ex- periment stations and writers have been slow to recommend the use of these commercial mixtures. The one real, well-defined reason for this is because many of those who manufactured such feeds in former years either lacked the knowledge necessary to compound a feed that was at once economical and useful, or their consideration was given more largely to making quick profits for themselves rather than sure profits for those who purchased their feeds. Waste products of various sorts, such as ground corn cobs, weed seeds, oat hulls, cottonseed hulls, etc., were used as fillers and as such constituted a large percentage of the mixture. With the filler was mixed certain percentages of feeds useful in feeding value and of a palatable nature, so the final food would be readily eaten. Extravagant claims were made for such feeds, and, even though large prices were exacted, extensive sales were made. The more useless the mixture the louder its supposed virtues were heralded and the larger its sales in many vicinities. Further- more, there seemed to be the unscrupulous in every community who were capable of selling the unsuspecting feeder a ration compounded by a certain secret process from mysterious roots, herbs, grains, etc., which, without a doubt — although necessarily it was quite expensive — would do wonderful things for him who would believe and through faith buy a ton or a carload and feed it to his animals. It was good for all classes of animals but best for the kind of which the farmer had the greatest number. Quite naturally there were hundreds of disappointed feeders. The silver-tongued salesman could convince them of the merits of his feed, but the farm animals were traitors. They would not bear evi- dence favorable to his claims. Those manufacturers who were sincere in their efforts to furnish an efficient mixed feed suffered, because the same honesty that im- pelled them to put value into their products prohibited them from making dishonest claims of the results the feeder might expect. A peculiar condition existed. Mixed Feeds 10^ Experiment station chemists began analyzing these various feeds and exposing the true composition of them. But, as rapidly as one feed was thus disposed of another sprang up to take its place. Finally a general distrust in mixed feeds became prevalent and the honest manufacturer was compelled to sufifer with and because of the un- scrupulous competitor. To cope with the situation and protect both feeder and honest mixed feed manufacturer laws were passed in various states which made it compulsory that every sack of feed, other than the natural grains, be branded with the true analysis of its contents. Most states have, through their pure food departments, enforced these laws in a most commendable manner, so that feeds are no longer purchased on a basis of some peculiar, mysterious effect they will have upon the animals to which they are fed. They are sold on the basis of the actual food riutrients and crude fibre contained in them. Because of this the feeder whose knowledge leads him to buy protein, carbo- hydrates, fat and mineral matter in a form at once palatable, easily digested and reasonable in price is in a position to use his own judg- ment and make as wise a selection of food as anyone. So strict have the feed laws been that very often it is now true that commercial feeds really contain a higher percentage of protein and a lower percentage of crude fibre than their guaranteed analysis shows. There is naturally a very wide variation in feeding values of one and the same food. This is even more true of grains and hays than it is of by-product foods and inixed feeds. When first harvested, because of the large amount of water present, the percentage of dry matter and the feeding nutrients are comparatively low. As feed dries, these nutrients increase in direct ratio to the decrease in moisture content. Again, a sack of ground feed may analyze uniformly the same from top to bottom when it leaves the mill, but, through handling in transportation, the heavier parts may settle to the bottom, causing a much different analysis for one part of the sack than the other parts when it finally reaches the feeder. This is even more true of carloads of feed when shipped in bulk.. Furthermore, to analyze every ton of feed leaving the numerous large mills of this country would involve a great expense and the services of an army of chemists. To simplify the process, millers and manufacturers are inclined to employ a factor of safety and label the feed they offer for sale with a guaranteed analysis low enough so it will be sure to pass inspection favorably. In other words, feed dealers are now compelleH by law to underestimate the value of 110 Feeding the Dairy CoW their feed, if they would be safe, rather than attach to them the ex- travagant claims which formerly were so customary. This is the convenient thing for the manufacturer of by-products to do. Bran, linseed meal, cottonseed meal, etc., have become well- known, staple products. During the milling season the average analysis is obtained from time to time, and sacks are labeled accord- ing to the variation which exists. But the manufacturer of mixed feed has found that a certain analysis secures the best results, and he realizes that satisfied customers are his best advertisements. He realizes that to succeed he must maintain a uniform quality and com- position in his feed. He uses the various by-products as well as ground grains in his process of manufacture. To uphold the standard he has set for his feed it is necessary for him to analyze, not only every carload of foodstuffs he buys, but, because of the variations of analyses in one and the same car, he must take samples from various parts and determine the exact feed- ing value of each. The results thus secured by his chemists tell him how to mix the feed — what proportion of each to use to insure that, when finally his special brand of feed is made, it will be up to its usual standard. This is one great advantage the mixed feeds of to- day have over all other feeds. If a commercially mixed food is good at all, it is uniform in quality at all times and can be depended upon. Under present conditions it is the business of the manufacturer of mixed feed to mix the very best feed possible in the most econom- ical manner. He makes it his business to contract for the purchase of the constituent parts of his feed when these can be bought cheap- est; and, instead of buying in 100-pound lots, ton lots, or even car- load lots, he buys by the trainload, thereby availing himself of the most reasonable prices. Very often, because of this, the feeder is enabled to secure in certain mixed feeds a ration that is always uni- form in character, containing exactly the essentials for large produc- tion, more cheaply than he can secure the same nutrients from other sources. The present day manufacturer of mixed feeds is, as a rule, a close student of feeding problems. He has a keen knowledge of food values, the analysis of foods, their digestibility, and the physical char- acter of each. With the assistance of his chemists, he is enabled to mix a more uniformly well balanced feed than is the farmer. Being so extensive a purchaser, he is enabled to secure more cheaply the various grains and by-products that constitute his feed than the local feed dealer who purchases only in carlots as the demand asserts itself. With his machinery he can mix feed cheaper and more thor- oughly than it can be done on the farm with a scoop shovel. Mixed Feeds 111 These are a few of the factors that make it possible for the whole- sale feed-mixer to be a true friend of the feeder, and rapidly his services are being appreciated even by the extensive feeder who purchases in carload lots. Of greater service still is this manufacturer to the small feeder. Variety is one of the chief essentials of a successful ration. To buy to the best advantage necessitates buying in carlots. This not only secures a wholesale rate but makes a saving in freight rates. The feeder who can use only one carload of feed at a time must buy small amounts of various feeds at relatively higher prices if he would mix these himself. One carload of mixed feed properly se- lected, on the other hand, furnishes a variety of food, as well as the nutrients he desires. To such a feeder the knowledge, efficiency and services of a wholesale mixer are most valuable. Because it is to the advantage of the manufacturer of mixed feeds, he considers the needs of his customers. In some sections an abundance of carbonaceous feeds is raised on farms, while in other sections protein foods are grown almost to the exclusion of carbo- hydrate foods. Therefore, according to the locality in which the feed is offered for sale, manufacturers mix foods rich in protein or in carbohydrates so that they can be used to the best advantage for balancing farm-grown grains and roughages. Surely there are many economic reasons why the wholesale mixer of feeds should be able to co-operate with the feeder to the advantage of each other. In thousands of instances this is being accomplished. In other instances conditions are yet such that the feeder is warranted in mixing his own feed, because he possesses a knowledge that enables him to do so efficiently, and because he is so located that he can purchase the parts of a ration and mix them himself more cheaply than he can buy them ready mixed. With these facts in mind the feeder will do well to lay aside prejudices, study the conditions on his own farm and determine in a systematic manner just what it is necessary for him to secure to perfect the ration he would feed his cows. When he knows and realizes definitely what he needs he is in a position to make selec- tion intelligently. He can then go on the market, either personally or through correspondence, and determine a most advantageous .source of supply. If, after investigation, he finds it is more economical for him to secure the feeding nutrients his home-grown feeds lack by pur- chasing by-product feeds and mixing them himself, it is to his ad- vantage to do so. On the other hand, if he finds that his needs can best be supplied by one or more of the commercially mixed feeds, 112 Feeding the Dairy Cow and that by their use he can make a saving in the cost of his ration, as well as a saving in the labor required for mixing feed on the farm, then certainly it is to his advantage to use the mixed feed which he will nowadays find up to the standard of guaranteed an- alysis and uniform in composition. There are so many mixed feeds on the market, most of them using as a basis the grains and by-products which have already been discussed, it is almost, if not quite impossible for us to deal with them individually as we have with the grains and by-products. The knowledge possessed, however, of the feeds that have been considered in detail will enable the feeder to determine by comparison the value of any one of the various mixed feeds. CHAPTER XIV. SILAGE Practical experience and scientific experiments have demon- strated conclusively to the student of feeding problems and to the feeder of livestock that succulence is essential in the ration. True as this is in the feeding of all classes of livestock, it is especially- true with regard to feeding dairy cattle. This is one point about which doubt no longer exists. And, many years before it became a settled fact in this country, it was well known and universally rec- ognized by the farmers of Europe. Had the method of furnishing succulence in the older countries been by the use of the silo, this useful structure would have come more rapidly into general use here because the feeder has' long rec- ognized the expertness of the European livestock breeder and feeder and realized that succulent foods have been a great aid to them. To supply succulence by the use of root crops, however, has not been altogether practical in this country because farming con- ditions are vastly different from those in Europe, where lands are high-priced, labor plentiful and cheap and where corn is not so gen- erally grown. To furnish succulence for rations, the European live- stock man raises roots and feeds them abundantly. This is one of the chief factors that has enabled him to develop all breeds of live- stock to such a high plane of perfection that the breeder of American livestock is compelled to bring across the ocean regular importa- tions of fresh blood with which to improve the American animal. So long as experience pointed to root crops as the sole source of succulence, winter rations in the northern part of the United States lacked entirely in this essential respect. Where lands are cheap and farming operations extensive, labor scarce and high- priced, such intensive agriculture as is necessary to grow root crops successfully is not favored. Therefore, in his efiforts to develop livestock, the American breeder was greatly handicapped because, without some succulent food available for all the year, complete suc- cess cannot be obtained. Only 39 years ago the silo was introduced into this country from France, where, in 1875, Auguste Goffart announced the success- ful results he had secured from experiments, covering several years, with preserving forage. The discovery was of so great import that the French government awarded him the Cross of the Legion of Honor. 114 Feeding the Dairy Cow Fig. I. Fig. 2. PLATE 71. 100 pounds mature corn silage — exact volume, 15x15x29.5 inches. Figure 1, water, 73.7 pounds; figure 2, dry matter, 26.3 pounds. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. PLATE 72. 100 pounds mature corn silage — exact volume, 15x15x29.5 inches. Figure 1 water, 73.7 pounds; figure 2, indigestible material, 7.8 pounds ; figure 3, ash, 1.7 pounds; figure 4, digestible material, 16.8 pounds. Roughage feeds being of a more bulky nature than concentrates necessitates the use of wider plates for illustrating the exact volume occupied by 100 pounds of feed. In considering the concentrated feed a recepta- cle 12 inches square was used with height varying according to the bulkiness of the feed. A receptacle 15 inches square will neces- sarily be used for a container for 100 pounds of roughage so that the length of the plates will be in keeping with the size of our pages. The lightness of the dry matter in silage is well illustrated in this plate, where a com- parison is made with water, the exact weight of which is definitely known. The 26.3 pounds of dry matter in 100 pounds of silage occupies 2H times as much space as 73.7 pounds of water is definitely known to occupy. After the silo was introduced into this country, it gradually be- came known that green corn could be preserved in a wholesale man- ner and provide succulence. All sorts of objections were lodged against its use. Condensers refused to buy milk from farms where 'My- SlLAC£ 115 Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. i'ig. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. silage was fed. Many doctors prescribed against the use of milk produced by silage-fed cows for babies and invalids. Farmers be- lieved the acid in the silage would eat out the linings of the stomachs and intestines of their cows and make their teeth fall out. Some there were who thought it would cause tubercu- losis, and others could not be- lieve that green feed, put in any structure, could possibly fail to spoil. All of these prejudices, along with others, had to be overcome and proved false so that a gen- eral use of the silo did not begin until 12 or 15 years ago. Since that time the silo has so demon- strated its value that it has be- come as prevalent as the hay- mow or the corncrib, with the result that today dairy cows in this country are yielding amounts of milk and butterfat greater than they are anywhere else in the world. As is illustrated by plate No. 71, in comparison with plate No. 65, corn silage contains nearly twice as much dry matter as does Ihe sugar beet. This is a point in favor of silage because it indi- cates greater feeding value than is to be found in roots, and the small amount of succulence replaced by dry matter is not sufficient to detract greatly from the factor of succulence, because in 100 pounds of mature silage there is found 73.7 pounds of moisture as compared with 83.6 pounds in sugar beets. It is also interesting to compare plates No. 66 and No. 72. This comparison denotes clearly the advantage root crops have over silage. There are only 1.4 pounds of indigestible material in 100 pounds of sugar beets, while in 100 pounds of corn silage 7.8 pounds of indigestible material are found by chemical analysis. But, to offset this, there is nearly twice as much ash or mineral matter found PT \TP 100 pounds mature corn silage — exact vqlume, 15x15x29.5 inches. Figure 1, water, 73.7 pounds; figure 2, indigestible material, 7.8 pounds; figure 3, ash, 1.7 pounds; figure 4, protein 1.1 pounds; figure 5, carbohydrates, 15 pounds; figure 6, fat, .7 pounds. 116 Feeding the Dairy Cow in silage and the total digestible material is more than one-third greater, showing that, although corn silage is not so highly digesti- ble as are roots, the combined digestible feeding value is greater. By comparing plates No. 67 and No. 72>, it is likewise found that corn silage is considerably more valuable than root crops in supply- ing digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat, the real feeding nutri- ents. Therefore, from the standpoint of chemical analysis alone, the feeder is justified in considering corn silage superior to sugar beets as a feed for dairy cows. In physical character silage is more bulky than root crops, and this is another point much in its favor that should not be overlooked. This is one distinct improvement the use of corn silage has added to the system of feeding cows. It is now customary on most dairy farms to feed grain mixed with the silage, and by so doing the entire ration is rendered bulky and succulent to the extent that it digests more readily and efficiently than though the concentrated foods were fed alone. The advantage of this system is well illustrated by an experi- ment conducted at the agricultural experiment station of Illinois, where one lot of steer calves was fed rations consisting of corn silage, oats and hay, and another lot shock corn, oats and hay. The average number of pounds meat made per acre when silage was fed with oats and hay was 385.35 ; when shock corn was fed with oats and hay, the average number of pounds of meat made per acre was 337.91 — a difference of 47.5 pounds per acre in favor of a system of silage feeding. Pigs were permitted to follow both lots of calves. Where the steers were fed silage, 97.69 per cent of the meat produced was beef and 2.31 per cent was pork. Where the shock corn was fed, 84.22 per cent of the meat produced was beef and 15.78 per cent was pork. It is clearly shown by this test that where silage was fed a much larger percentage of the feed was digested by the steers, for the pigs following this lot of calves made a much smaller gain than those following the steers fed shock corn. This is of special im- portance to the feeder of dairy cows, because he cannot employ the service of pigs to save undigested portions of the feed excreted by the cow in the same manner as is possible for the feeder of beef cat- tle ; and, even though he could, it is more advisable for him to so prepare the feed of the cow that she can digest the largest possible percentage of it, because her services are more valuable for produc- ing milk and butterfat than for preparing feed for pigs. In addition to being a most excellent source of succulence and bulk, corn silage has proved from practical experience to be one of Silage 117 the most efficient foods for stimulating large and economical milk and butterfat production. The excellent, results secured by the prac- tical feeder have been warranted by all experiments that have been performed for determining the real food value of silage. C. G. Williams, at the Ohio station, conducted an experiment to deter- mine the value of silage as a substitute for a portion of grain ration fed to dairy cows. One lot of cows was fed an average daily ration of 58 pounds of silage, 6.8 pounds of mixed hay, 2 pounds oil meal and 2 pounds of bran. Another lot was fed 4.7 pounds of corn stover, 6.4 pounds of mixed hay, 2.5 pounds of oil meal, 5 pounds of corn meal and 6 pounds of bran. Both lots received from their rations practically the same total amount of dry matter, protein, car- bohydrates and fat. The silage used in the test was a mixture of one ton of soy beans and cowpeas to two and one-half tons of silage corn. There were nearly twice as many soy beans in the mixture as cowpeas. In the one ration over 50 per cent of the dry matter was derived from silage and less than 18 per cent was derived from grain. In the other ration, 57 per cent of the dry matter was derived from grain, no silage being fed. Ten cows representing five different breeds were fed this ration from two to four months, five cows tak- ing the test the full four months. The cows fed the silage ration produced 96.7 pounds of milk and 5.08 pounds of butterfat per 100 pounds of dry matter. The cows fed the grain ration produced 81.3 pounds of milk and 3.9 pounds of butterfat per 100 pounds of dry matter. The cost of feed per 100 pounds of milk was 68.7c with the silage ration and $1,055 with the grain ration. The cost of feed per pound of butterfat was 13.1c with the silage ration and 22.1c with the grain ration. The average net profit per cow per month (over cost of feed) was $5,864 with the silage ration and $2,465 with the grain ration. It was also noted, by averaging the daily production of th' cows for the time they were on test and comparing this with thei average daily production for the month previous to the beginnin; of the experiment, that the silage-fed cows shrank only 2.84 per cen, in milk and increased 1.89 per cent in butterfat production. The grain-fed cows shrank 9.11 per cent 'n milk and 14.18 per cent in butterfat production. Commenting on the results of the expe'-iment, Williams con- cludes : "The facts herein reported seem to justify the conclusion that silage can be made to take the place of a considerable portion of the 118 Feeding the Dairy Cow grain ration. It is believed that by growing more of the feeds rich in protein— clover, alfalfa, soy beans, cowpeas, field peas, vetches — and ensiling them or feeding them as hay, it will be possible to further reduce the amount of grain fed." Silage can not be used as a sole ration. It is so bulky and con- tains so much moisture and so small a percentage of protein that to attempt securing profitable milk production from it, without supple- menting it with leguminous hays and concentrated feeds, would be unreasonable; and practical experience indicates that it is impos- sible to secure satisfactory results from silage alone. Used, how- ever, as a source of bulk, succulence and carbohydrates, in conjunc- tion with foods that furnish protein and dry matter, no feed is su- perior to it. There is a general belief that, even though silage is fed in abundance, greater production can be stimulated by adding roots to the ration. This method is largely practiced by feeders who are striving to make large records with cows, the cost of milk produc- tion being of secondary importance. There is no doubt that root crops used in this manner serve to increase the yield of milk and thereby the production of butterfat. Not only are additional food nutrients, succulence, palatability and variety added to the ration, but it must be conceded that roots have a very beneficial effect upon the general health and digestive capacity of the cow. When a cow is being worked to the limit of her ability, any food that will serve these joint purposes is advisable to use. But under ordinary conditions, where profit from milk production is even a more im- portant factor than extreme greatness of yield, the addition of roots to the ration will increase the production with sufficient profit to pay for the roots and the extra labor of feeding them. This illus- trates in a forceful way the value of silage as a source of succulence. There are instances when, for economical results, silage can be over fed. This condition seldom, if ever, prevails in the corn belt, as the stalks and leaves of the plant would be largely wasted if not made into silage, and where leguminous hays are, as a rule, scarce and expensive. But, in those sections where clover, alfalfa, soy beans, cowpeas, vetches or field peas are raised so abundantly and corn is raised with difficulty and at great expense, feeding nutrients can be secured more cheaply from the leguminous hays than from silage. Under such conditions economy calls for corn silage to be used in limited amounts for supplying succulence, bulk, variety and palatability. For these purposes, 10, 15 or 20 pounds of silage daily will serve the purposes for which it is best adapted, leaving the cow to secure the remaining nutriment needed for her main- Silage 119 tenance and milk production from cheap protein hays supplemented with grain feeds. This indicates that the economy of a food depends not only upon its value and cost, but also upon the value and cost of other foods available for use either in substitution of or to be fed with the food in question. An objection lodged against silage is that it contains so much acid it is harmful to the animals eating it regularly. There is no foundation for this opinion. Experience with silage has now ex- isted over a sufficient period of years so that many very old cows can be found that have eaten silage regularly since calfhood with- out any serious efifects. Contrary to the theoretical idea, the con- sensus of evidence points to the fact that healthfulness has been in- creased by the silage. Commenting upon this subject, Esten and Mason, of the Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station of Connecticut, after an extensive investigation of silage fermentation, report : "The amount of acid consumed by the cow is quite startling. Suppose a cow is fed 40 pounds of silage in a day. In this silage there is about 10 ounces of pure acid which would be equivalent to the cow drinking seven quarts of vinegar a day. The equivalent for a man would be three pints of vinegar a day. These amounts of vinegar would certainly be damaging in either case. But since acetic acid is much less in amount than a favorable lactic acid, its presence does not seem to be harmful. The lactic acid is very beneficial as an appetizer and as a tonic to digestion. It also inhibits the growth of the undesirable bacteria in the alimentary canal, alleged to prevent in man that serious disorder, auto-intoxication, which is the forerunner of a whole train of ailments attacking the animal organisms such as cold, headache, rheumatism, gout, and so forth." It has also been quite conclusively proved that silage, judi- ciously fed, does not affect adversely the milk produced. Condensers that formerly refused milk from farms where silage was fed now advocate the use of silos. It is true that where cows are overfed on silage, and uneaten portions are permitted to remain in the feed boxes and about the barn to putrefy, unfavorable odors are gener- ated which perm^eate the air. Where such a condition exists, milk absorbs these odors and becomes undesirable. This is not a fault of the silage, however, but a fault of the system employed in its use and reflects discredit upon the dairyman rather than upon the silage. To determine the actual efifects of silage upon the flavor of milk, several experiments have been performed. At the Oregon Exper- iment Station A, L, Knisely found that cows fed on silage produced 120 Feeding the Dairy Cow milk with a different odor from that produced by cows fed on hay, although the odor was in no way disagreeable. At the Wisconsin station King found that when silage was fed a short time before milking a sweetish odor was inparted to the milk, but when fed just after milking the fact that silage had been fed could not be detected even by experts. At the Illinois Experiment Station, Professor Fraser divided the college dairy herd into two lots. To one of these lots 40 pounds of corn silage was fed daily to each cow and the other lot was fed only clover, hay and grain. The milk from both lots was handled in exactly the same manner, and samples from each lot were sub- mitted to 372 persons for an opinion as to its comparative flavor and for determination of any objectionable taste or odor that might be present. As a result 60 per cent of those making the trial were in favor of the silage milk, 25 per cent in favor of that produced from hay and grain, while 11 per cent of those making the examination could detect no difference on which to base a choice. The peculiar- ity of this experiment was that the percentage in favor of the silage milk was much higher when the silage was fed at the time of milk- ing than when it was fed an hour before or an hour after milking. On this subject. Professor Plumb, of the Ohio State University, comments as follows : "It is now generally recognized that, with the modern methods of using silage and the proper precautions to prevent the milk after it has been drawn from the cow being tainted with the objectionable odor of badly fermented silage, the material may be freely used with- out danger of injury to the quality of dairy products." There is a widespread prejudice against feeding silage to herd bulls and young calves. It is based on the belief that silage fed to bulls interferes with their fecundity and when fed to calves causes scours. While overfeeding likely substantiates the belief, a moderate use of silage is advisable for furnishing succulence to the rations of both of these classes of animals. It should be used, however, as a source of succulence rather than of food nutrients, and 15 or 20 pounds daily should be the maximum amount given the herd sire. Young calves should receive only small amounts fed with their grain ra- tions to the extent of giving bulk and adding succulence. Where fed thus judiciously no ill results will follow, and the health of the animals will be bettered rather than injured. As an economic factor the silo is of especial value. The stalk and leaves of the corn plant represent 40 per cent of the feeding nutrients. Where the silo is used they are completely saved; otherwise they are left in the field, some to be cut and shocked for Silage 121 feeding purposes, but mostly to be left standing for pasturing, for the nutrients to be washed away by the rains, for many of the leaves to be blown away and for the stalks to be cut, burned or plowed under in the spring. With the annual production of ears valued in round numbers at $2,673,000,000, without silos there would annually be wasted a large percentage of the corn stalks and leaves, the nutriment value of which equals more than $1,500,000,000. Oftentimes— in years gone by — while this great wealth of valuable food was locked up in snow-bound fields, good cattle without available food starved in barns, sheds and yards and their owners were compelled to send them to market to prevent complete loss. No greater extravagance was ever practiced by intelligent, thoughtful pople in times of peace- ful occupation. When it is conceded that silage is essential to successful feed- ing operations in winter, then it must be admitted that in most sec- tions the summer silo is quite as important as is the winter silo. Hardly a summer passes that a severe drouth is not experienced. Pastures dry up and grasses fail to grow. It is not customary on a large percentage of farms to feed cows when they are on pasture and the consequence is that, suffering from heat and flies, they fail to secure the food necessary for maintaining their bodies and per- sistently producing the amount of milk to which they are accus- tomed. The milk flow declines, cows become poor and emaciated and profits in the dairy are turned to losses. When this condition obtains, even though rains may come to revive the pasture and cows may retain their former condition of strength and flesh, they do not return to their previous flow of milk. They may increase slightly, but never — until they freshen again — will they produce as largely as before they declined in milk flow on account of food shortage. Thoughtful dairymen in all sections of the country now realize that in order to maintain large and steady milk flow they must pro- vide against summer drouths. It is true that this can be done by summer soiling or raising of green feeds with which to supplement pastures. In the absence of the silo this method is advisable. Commenting on the value of soiling crops and silage for dairy cows in summer, Woll, Humphrey and Oosterhius of Wisconsin, write as follows : "That corn silage can be used to greater advantage than soiling crops in supplementing poor pastures and in keeping up a uniform and economical flow of milk has been demonstrated for three succes- sive summers in feeding the university dairy herd. By the use of 122 Feeding the Dairy Cow silage in summer the cows will be in better condition to enter the fall and winter, and the annual profit for the year will be increased." The records of milk production for the two groups differed very- little. For the three years the cows fed soiling crops produced 195.7 pounds more milk than the silage-fed cows, but 40 pounds more solids and 35.84 pounds more butterfat were produced by the silage-fed cows. The silage-fed group received 1,740 pounds more dry matter than did the soiling-crop-fed cows, but the soiling-crop cows consumed 420 pounds more protein during the trial than did the silage-fed cows. Green corn is more commonly used for corn silage, and, because it is generally grown and most difficult to store in forms other than as silage, it is most to be recommended for silage purposes. More than this, the character of the plant is such that the very best silage is made from it. Reference is often made to making silage from clover, alfalfa, soy beans, cowpeas, etc. This is advisable only when corn is not available or when it is impossible, because of weather conditions, to save these crops in the form of hay. Ensiled by them- selves, they do not make as acceptable silage as corn. One distinct reason why this is true is cited by Esten and Mason, of the Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, as follows : "From a theoretical standpoint, if mixtures of some legume with corn could be siloed it would secure a complete balanced food. Un- fortunately, the best legumes for this purpose are the clovers, which are ready for cutting in June. Only a second growth of clover could be siloed with corn in September. There, are, however, two legumes which grow very well in Connecticut, cowpeas and soy beans, and these crops are ready to harvest by the time corn is ready to be cut. A mixture of three parts corn and two of cowpeas or soy beans makes a very good combination. The advantage of mixing these is that the corn has the sugar which, turned into acids, will preserve both the corn and legume at the same time. The result of siloing legumes alone is not satisfactory. The legumes, not having much sugar, do not aiTord the production of sufficient acid to pre- vent the fermentation of the high protein content of the legume. The protein is broken down into strong-smelling substances which are the result of incipient decay. It is likely to injure the legume as a food and to affect the quality of the milk in taste and smell." One of the best methods of employing legumes for mixing with corn in the silo is to plant them together. It is now possible to secure attachments for corn planters which will enable the seeding of soy bean or cowpea seed in the hill with the corn. By selecting Silage 123 a variety of either cowpeas or soy beans that will mature at the same time corn matures, one of these legumes can be checked in the hill with the corn and a double crop produced which, when en- siloed at the proper stage of maturity, will make a very excellent quality of silage. There are two reasons why this method is pref- erable to growing the corn and the legumes separately. In the first place, a larger tonnage of silage can be secured per acre, and, sec- ondly, both the corn and the legumes are cut at one operation and handled with one set of machinery. To illustrate the comparative feeding value of the various varieties of silage, of which it should be remembered corn is the standard, the accompanying table from Henry's "Feeds and Feed- ing," shows the dry matter and digestible feeding nutrients: E C 3 ^- B. ... _=> S o _ r 4?:5 11 &.0 T-T 2.-0 l-S" /■P /•S" 40 10 I3.T 4^0 12 40 10 RT 4<> f U a.o f-O go ;5- /.o /.o 40 w |3^T 4-4.2 \4 40 10 l">,.T 4-A IS a.o fc-,T 2.0 /o /•f> (0 40 10 I'lS 4-A :^ 16 4- to 17 4 6. a 16 4-.T.R 19 4+0 20 44 f. 21 4-S-.0 22 44q 23 4-4? 24 44 .T 2S 44.. 1 » 44;^ 27 4-.'?.T X 440 29 .. 43,R JO + 2,0 Jl a.o t-.T £.0 1.0 1.0 I.S 40 10 14? 4a,.(? To»t 67* "170* W* 42.0* 36f* n^ ia4o* 310* jvn* ISBI."? Cm. l^'W M.o(. ff'5' f?t j.ik ik |3.H> #a3a jtyra Tot Cos al Lbi. t of Fe Mltt.fi .t^: .. A«ei rage Te NetP „.i:.% rofttM. i6L± Otal Lbs Stonmi/ ncom^ ^.2j?.a. 3t?'"""^V liberal use of protein in a palatable form accomplishes this. At the end of the first month of lactation the purpose of the feeder changes. The cow has reached the climax of her production if all has gone well, Feed and Care After Freshening 237 and she is much poorer than when she freshened. The purpose from this point on through the lactation period is to retain as large a milk flow as possible and keep the cow in good form, health and vigor. To continue feeding a very narrow ration would cause the cow, if she is a good, well bred, hard-working dairy cow, to become too poor to work persistently, and in most sections the ration would be more expensive than necessary. Therefore, the October rations for the cow, Spot, will appear something like the monthly feed sheet on the preceding page. It will be noted that an attempt has been made to reduce the per- centage of protein and to increase the carbohydrates. However, the fact that an excess of protein has appeared in the ration up to this point does not indicate that the amount called for in addition to that called for by the balanced ration theory has been wasted. This would have been true had the excess been measured by carbohydrates and fat, but not so with protein, because, if more protein is fed than the cow has use for in maintaining her body and manufacturing the pro- tein portions of her milk, she uses it for the same purpose as she would carbohydrates. She has the power to do this, but one should not permit this fact to lead to the belief that she also has power to use carbohydrates and fat in substitution for protein. She does not, neither does any other animal. Therefore, be it never forgotten that, regardless of how abundantly a cow may be fed other nutrients, if an undersupply of protein is given this becomes the limiting factor. The cow will draw upon her body for awhile but soon her milk flow will become reduced to an amount which contains approximately that amount of digestible protein afforded by the ration minus that re- quired for maintaining the animal body. If, however, protein, will serve the purposes of carbohydrates and fat, the reader may question why one needs to use care to feed a definite amount of these two nutrients so long as the ration is abun- dant and contains a liberal amount of protein. There are numerous reasons. Protein concentrates are not as palatable, as a rule, as those that are carbonaceous. An excess of protein may over-stimulate the cow ; cause her to over-produce until she weakens, when she declines in production rapidly. Overfeeding protein has ill effects on the repro- ductive organs. These objections alone suffice to show that over a long period of time cows produce less largely than though the propei amounts of each nutrient were fed. Moreover, in most sections pro- tein feeds are the most expensive so that, though feed may not be wasted, there is a very evident waste of money occasioned by excessive cost of production. 238 Feeding the Dairy Cow In changing the ration of Spot, therefore, an attempt is made to gradually add carbohydrates, cheapen the ration at the same time, and still maintain the productive principles of it. Bran, though comparatively cheap per ton, is usually an expen- sive food because of the large amount of indigestible material it con- tains, there being a total of only 60.9 pounds of digestible nutrients in 100 pounds. Ground corn, also cheap per ton, contains 83.8 pounds of digest- ible nutrients per hundredweight. Therefore, gradually the bran is reduced to 2 pounds daily while the ground corn is increased to 3.5 pounds. The same objections may be lodged against ground oats, 100 pounds of which contain only 70 pounds of digestible nutrients, even though they are of high quality. For 1 pound of ground oats a pound of ground corn is added, which increases the digestible nutri- ents, especially the carbohydrates, in the ration, and decreases the cost of it. It is not wise to wholly eliminate oats and bran from the mixture unless they are extremely high in price, for both are pala- table, bulky, and furnish mineral matter in desirable forms. Oftentimes, however, other foods, such as Schumacher, sell cheaper and can be substituted without detracting from the producing value of the ration. It will be noted that we assume the cow is eating more silage also. This she will naturally do as she overcomes the effects of parturi- tion, and in most parts of the country feeders begin depending more largely upon winter roughages and less upon pastures by October. By referring back to the early chapters of these articles one can analyze the ration and determine how closely it provides for the cow and the milk she is yielding by dividing the content of protein, car- bohydrates and fat contained in 100 pounds of each feed used by 100 and multiplying by the number of pounds used in the ration. Thus we find 100 pounds of ground oats contain 9.4 pounds of protein, 51.4 pounds of carbohydrates, 4.1 pounds of fat. Therefore, 1 pound of ground oats contains .094 pound of protein, .514 pound of carbohy- drates, .041 pound of fat, and 2 pounds of ground oats contain .188 pound of protein, 1.028 pounds of carbohydrates, .082 pound of fat. Pounds digestible nutrients in ration Pounds Protein Carbohydrates Fat Corn silage Clover hay 40 10 2 4 2 2 2 15^ 63.5 .44 .76 .188 .276 .250 .604 .604 .550 3.672 6.00 3.93 1.03 2.76 .83 .88 .65 .33 16.41 .28 .18 .082 .140 .060 .088 .134 .129 1.093 Wheat bran Gluten meal Linseed meal Cottonseed meal Total Feed and Care After Freshening 239 By this simple process the digestible nutrients of all food com- prising the ration can be determined and the amount of each nutrient afforded arrived at in the foregoing table. The discussion previously showed how the nutrients in the ration were used by Spot — an individual cow weighing 1,000 pounds, with ability to yield 45 or 46 pounds of 4 per cent milk — and leads the thoughtful reader to desire how to figure for himself and determine how nearly rations fit other cows of different weights and various de- grees of ability. To do this the feeder must realize, first of all, that nature protects the cow against thoughtless, heartless owners. It is provided that to live the cow keeps for maintaining her own body a certain fixed amount of nutriment before she begins working for her master. This is well, for the machine must be kept in working order if it is to work eificiently. It is quite definitely known that for this purpose .07 pound of pro- tein, .7 pound of carbohydrates, .01 pound of fat in digestible form are required for each 100 pounds the cow weighs. Therefore, the 800-pound cow requires .56 pound of protein, 5.60 pounds of carbohy- drates, 08 pound of fat, or a total of 6.24 pounds of digestible nutrients, while the 1,600-pound cow must have 1.12 pounds of protein, 11.2 pounds of carbohydrates, .16 pound of fat, or a total of 12.48 pounds of digestible nutrients to be used solely for keeping the body in repair healthful and prepared to work. This fact should show the feeder who skimps the feed of his cows the folly of his ways, for surely it proves that he is practicing a false economy that robs his purse. Spot's weight being 1,000 pounds, .7 pound protein, 7 pounds of carbohydrates, .1 pound of fat must be subtracted from the respective nutrients she received on October 7th, which leaves 2.97 pounds of protein, 9.41 pounds of carbohydrates and .993 pound of fat to be used for milk-making purposes. To illustrate how necessary this extra nutriment is for milk- making purposes the following table compiled b}' T. L. Haecker, which shows what milks containing various degrees of fat are made of, is valuable : Per cent Per cent Per cent sugar or fat protein carbohydrates 3.0 2.68 4.60 3.5 2.81 4.75 "i.O 3 08 4.85 4.S 3.27 4.97 5.0 3.45 4.98 5.5 3.65 4 92 6.0 3.82 4.91 6.5 4.12 4.90 Progressing with this information in mind and having access to many years of feed and milk records of the Minnesota University 240 Feeding the Dairy Cow dairy herd. Professor Haecker has determined the amount of the various nutrients that are absolutely necessary for the production of 1 pound of milk of various tests. The following table is compiled from his findings : Nutrients Required for One Pound of Milk Pounds digestible nutrients required One lb. of Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat 3 per cent m'ilk 3.3 per cent milk 3.5 per cent milk .047 .048 .049 .051 .054 .056 .057 .058 .060 .062 .064 .065 .067 .070 .072 .20 .21 .22 .23 .24 .25 .26 .27 .28 .29 .30 .31 .32 .33 .34 .017 .018 .019 .020 4.0 per cent milk 4.3 per cent milk .021 .022 4.5 per cent milk .023 4.7 per cent milk .023 .024 5.3 per cent milk 5.5 per cent milk 5.7 per cent milk 6.0 per cent milk .025 .026 .027 .028 029 6.5 ner cent m'ilk .029 Knowing the amounts of the three nutrients available for milk- making, knowing the test of a given cow, and knowing the amount of each nutrient necessary for making one pound of milk, the task of checking up the accuracy of a ration is an easy one. The table shows that to produce a pound of 4 per cent milk re- quires .054 pound of protein, .24 pound of carbohydrates and .021 pound of fat. It is merely a problem of division, as follows: 2.97 pounds of protein divided by .054 equals 55 : 9.41 pounds of carbohy- drates divided by .24 equals 40 ; .993 pound fat divided by .021 equals 47. This makes it apparent that there is yet too much protein — enough for 55 pounds of milk — only enough carbohydrates for 40 pounds and enough fat for 47 pounds. The cow being on corn silage, which, like linseed meal, is laxative, the latter a high protein feed, should have corn substituted for half of it, and because a further addition of carbohydrates should replace protein the gluten meal and cottonseed meal are reduced to 1 pound each. It may be expected, as indicated on the monthly feed sheets, as the ration thus approaches accuracy in supplying the demands of the cow, she increases in milk flow, and, although in September, when she gave 46 pounds of milk, it was believed she had reached her cli- max, she has been further encouraged with the result that she has reached 46.3 pounds when under careless feeding methods she would have declined in milk flow. By again checking up the ration in the manner outlined, it will be found that a ration sufficiently perfect for all practical pur- poses of maintaining the cow and producing 46 pounds of milk is now Feed and Care After Freshening 241 in use. The cow is producing well. It will be advisable to continue with this ration till she begins tiring of it, watching her milk produc- tion to detect the first signs of this. It is to be expected that as the cow advances in lactation she will decrease in milk flow, but the careful feeder will guard against too rapid a decrease, for he knows that it is very difficult, if not impos- sible, to bring a cow back to her former flow after she has fallen to any great extent. As may be expected, Spot begins giving less milk the last of the month. We will try adding to her ration one-half pound of cottonseed meal and note how she starts working in November. The Third Month An evident decrease in milk flow, even though slight, leads the feeder to change the ration. The natural tendency is to give addi- tional food, but this does not always enlarge production. Every cow has two limits, the ability to give a certain amount of milk of definite richness, and the capacity for eating and digesting a certain amount of food. To feed successfully, to command a large and economical production, to guard the future usefulness of the cow, the feeder must recognize this fact and have knowledge of the limits of ability and capacity of each cow he feeds. In no other way can he know that he is furnishing the proper ration either in amount or quality. In this regard there are three distinct classes of cows: (a) the class whose ability to yield milk and capacity to eat and digest food are equal, or nearly so ; (b) the class with capacity to handle large amounts of food but lacking in ability to yield milk; and (c) the class with ability to produce much milk but so lacking in capacity that their extra ability is useless because they are unable to handle enough food to tax it. These three classes of cows may be illustrated as follows : 'Ability Class A - Capacity 'Ability Class B Capacity r Ability Clacs C Capacity The cow highly developed in both capacity and ability seldom gives trouble to the careful feeder. She eats well at all times and re- sponds with certainty to good care and abundant, well balanced ra- tions. Unfortunately, these cows are not in the majority and are represented by the great record cows of the various breeds. 242 Feeding the Dairy Cow As a rule, the cow's capacity to eat food is greater than her ability to give milk. This is invariably true of scrub, grade and lowly bred cows. It has been assumed to be the case with Spot. With such cows the feed and milk sheet are a safe guide because, by manipulating the ration in the manner demonstrated, the limit of the cow's ability is determined long before she is eating as much food as her capacity will permit. In other words, she could eat more food without sickening or impairing her future usefulness. In the past, the objection to feeding more heavily than the cow's ability would warrant has been less than it is today, when feeds of all kinds and dairy products are so high in price. However, it is well known that all feed given, over and above that which is necessary to stimulate the cow's greatest ability, is wasted and worse than wasted because it taxes the digestive apparatus and in return yields nothing. It is equally true that, if overfed, the cow will yield less than her maximum, because some of the energy she might use in making milk she must use in digesting unnecessary food. Thus, even as there is a loss oc- casioned by underfeeding, a double loss results from overfeeding and from using rations improperly balanced. It causes a waste of food and a sacrifice of milk. There is quite a large class of cows whose ability to produce milk surpasses their capacity to eat and digest food. These are cows re- sulting from breeding butter records to butter records without regard to constitution and capacity, two very important characteristics of type. So greatly is the milking function developed in these cows that they continue to increase in milk yield with every increase made in the ration. In this manner they encourage the feeder, who following the dictates of the scales and test alone, and failing to observe closely enough the physical condition of the cow, continues to raise the ra- tion. Then the inevitable happens. Too much feed is given. The cow sickens, refuses to eat, declines rapidly in milk flow, becomes gaunt, and much skill is necessary to revive a normal condition. Never again is" she as good a cow as she was before she "went ofif feed." Ever afterward she will be more difficult to feed. She will be more susceptible to overfeeding because her digestive system, inherently under-developed, has been further weakened as a result of overfeeding. Such cows are often encountered by the feeder who tries for large records, and it not uncommon to find them in any herd where the attempt is made to secure large and profitable pro- duction. The careful feeder is always on the lookout for such cows. When one is found in the herd, additional judgment on his part is called into service. In addition to studying the milk and feed sheet he watches Feed and Care After Freshening 243 the cow— both ends and the middle of her. When the eye begins to get dull, when the hide begins to get hard, the hair harsh and standing on end, and when the solid excrement shows the digestive apparatus is not working efficiently, the ration should be decreased. MONTHLY FEED SHEET ■Name of CowSnhX-. Herd No. JS}.. IrtBatn-Mflirtk.lt^l^Ol Freshened. Ma^^i T.-B£L^4* \^ 4-2..5 2 ^0 /O 4-a.n 3 ? 7.0 a.o 1.0 to l-,T 4-0. 10 /4T 41.0 4 >4-D. ID 4-1..?- 5 a 7-5" a.o 1.0 1.0 t-S +a ffi^ 4-1.2: 6 4-0. ID 4-0.0 ? a 7.0 a..o l.O 1.0 l-f 4-0. ID rf^ 3^1.1 e 4-0. in I'f.V 9 a bS a.o 1.0 1.0 l-,T 4-0. 10 /f.n ?q.f) 10 4-0. 10 3'l.i 11 a (,.0 ao 1.0 1 i.T 4-0. 10 /IT 7 1 40.0 12 1 4-0 ID 31 (, 13 ?- 4.0 aa 1.0 1.0 1-T 4-D ID ^TO "if.B 14 aq.T IS "^5.2. 16 3 ^U iC u pounds pounds pounds pounds per cent per cent 1 11 23.1 1.09 .75 .09 3.2 8.1 2.2-22.3 2 10 49.0 1.66 1.79 .14 3.7 8.3 2.7-23.6 3 12 31.2 1.58 .55 .07 1.8 4.4 1.5-11.3 4 S 25.5 1.10 .76 .08 3.0 7.5 2.2-15.9 3 8 18.6 .83 .61 .07 3.2 7.9 3.8-12.5 6 15 28.4 .80 1.87 .16 10.2 20.1 4.4-37.5 7 8 13.5 .59 1.25 .13 9.3 22.4 9.6-58.5 8 10 26.8 .85 1.08 .08 4.t) 9.2 2.8-19.7 9 6 12.0 .54 .59 .06 4.9 11.5 4.3-21.3 10 10 11.7 .61 .81 .12 6.9 19.1 3.9-71.9 11 11 16.0 .62 1.02 .10 6.4 16.2 4.4-72.1 12 8 20.8 .92 1.68 .18 8.1 19.7 5.5-57.2 University herd 25 22.3 .93 1.01 .09 4.5 9.2 3.0-30.2 Total and average 142 1.08 .10 5.3 12.6 1.5-72.1 266 Feeding the Dairy Cow practical dairy farms. The preceding table shows the average yield of milk and fat secured by milking as generally practiced, that pro- ''■'.ced by after milking, the average gain and the range in gain of but- terfat for the individual cows of the herds. It will be noted that there was a total average daily gain of 1.08 pounds of milk, .10 pound of butterfat, and that these gains amounted to an increase in production of 5.3 per cent in milk and 12.6 per cent in butterfat. The most striking knowledge is that portrayed by the column which shows the great difference in gain of individual cows in every herd experimented with. The fact that the variation ranges from 1.5 per cent to 72.1 per cent shows plainly that every milker should be equipped with knowledge of udder manipulation that such knowledge may be employed with cows where it is most necessary at least. The results of the experiment show conclusively that it is profitable to methodically manipulate the udders of all cows at every milking, and very apparently it is absolutely essential in order to se- cure more than 28 per cent of the production certain cows are capable of yielding. So fully is this recognized in Denmark — which country is noted because of the large average production secured from her cows — that one-week short courses are held for the specific purpose of teaching how cows should be milked. Women, boys, and girls attend these short courses by the thousands because they are the ones who do most of the milking in Denmark. The result is that, instead of being considered a necessary task and irksome duty, milking there is considered a most honorable mission, and those who milk cows pride themselves in doing so efficiently, scientifically, even artistically. There can be no doubt that this education in milking cows, which is so generally given in Denmark, accounts largely for the extra pro- duction. Although the scholar secures the diploma after attending school only one week, Denmark has, by appreciating the discovery of Dr. Hegelund, profited to the extent of millions of dollars annually and attained the distinction of being by far the greatest dairy country, size considered, in the world. An excellent method of udder manipulation, which may be very profitably employed by those who milk cows, and especially by those desiring to secure record production, is shown by the accompanying illustrations. When the first milking is finished, the front quarters are firmly pressed together and then like pressure is applied to the hind quarters, according to Figure A. The front and rear quarters on one side are then grasped with the hands and pressure applied as shown in Figure B. The process is duplicated with the quarters on the other side. Then, reaching as high as possible, the milker grasps the two rear quarters and presses as illustrated by Figure C. The same manipulations are then accorded the front quarters. These operations Milking the Cow Correctly 267 Figure C. Reaching as high as possible, the milker grasps the hind quarters and presses. require the expenditure of but a few minutes as one becomes expe- rienced in practicing them. The attempt should be to gently apply just enough pressure to every part of each quarter to massage thoroughly the entire udder. This stimulates the glands to further action and causes the secretion of additional milk. With the use of the full hand the cow is again milked. Because the manipulations have encouraged the extra milk secreted to fill the 268 Feeding the Dairy Cow milk cisterns, milking is quickly done. If no further effort is made results such as the Hegelund method insure will be secured, but ad- ditional and even richer milk is yet available. As illustrated by Figure D, the milker uses both hands in securing the few final strips from each teat. With one hand the udder, up close to the body, is grasped and pressed while with the other hand the milk encouraged by this movement is drawn. The same move- ments are practiced on each of the quarters. Udder Manipulation Is Practical The over-practical dairyman may insist that too much time, effort and theory are required for such a process of milking. The answer to this claim is that whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well; that, when a milker becomes accustomed to the method, little or no more time is required to milk a cow than is required by hap- hazard milking and that, even though a minute or more is required, the extra amount of milk, and the richness of it, together with the persistency encouraged in the cow and the added development she attains, insure profit greater in most instances than the total profit secured from ordinary milking. That this is true has been conclu- sively proved by all experiments and experience. On that day, when Germany crossed the Belgian border, the people of America entered upon a period different from any other they had ever experienced; a period when more than ever before they needed to look to that which has been wasted in the past for the profits of the future. The milk sacrificed by common milking is ex- travagant waste and in a large portion of instances measures the dif- ference between profit and loss. With land, labor, feed and cows high in price there can be no question as to the advisability of milking good cows, provided they are milked efficiently ; otherwise, there is much doubt. Most Objections Are False Ones A further objection to the manipulation method of milking is that it is liable to cause cows to withhold their milk at the first milking, awaiting the second milking. On the contrary, however, experiments show that the opposite is true. As the cow advances in lactation and becomes accustomed to this thorough milking, less milk is secured following the manipulations. There may also be a belief that because the cow is so thoroughly milked at one milking she will give less at the next. In this instance, also, the opposite is true. The more the udder is massaged, provided it is gently done, the more the glands are stimulated and because of the manipulation and the extra thorough milking occasioned thereby, the amount of milk secured at each succeeding milking will be greater than though the cow had been less thoroughly milked. MiLKIXG THE Cow CORRECTL-i' 269 Fig. D. Both hands are used in securing the final fe%v strips from each teat. Beneficial Effects Transmitted Whether the beneficial eft'ects upon the cow will be inherited b)- her offspring is a question of whether acquired characteristics are transmitted to the offspring. If so — and there is favorable reason for believing in the affirmative — the daughters of efficiently milked coa\"S will be inherently greater producers and the sons of such cows will transmit the large producing characteristics to their daughters. 270 Feeding the Dairy Cow Udder Troubles Prevented As a rule, the majority of udder troubles are due to ineffi'cient milking. Blind quarters, uneven and unbalanced udders, as well as those diminutive in size, are caused by careless, haphazard milking. Very seldom indeed do udder troubles occur when cows are thoroughly milked and the udders massaged twice or oftener daily. As a matter of fact, it is well known that the best treatment that can be afforded an udder troubled with garget or other infection is thorough massag- ing and frequent and thorough milking. If for no other reason a methodical system of milking should be employed except for develop- ing udders and keeping them shapely in form and in healthy, working condition, this reason would suffice to make it advisable. Milking Becomes a Profession Best of all, the milker becomes impressed with the fact that his duty is more than merely that of pulling teats. He becomes imbued with the importance of his work. He realizes that his mission is one of furnishing the most necessary of human foods. His job becomes a profession, and, realizing that he is accomplishing as useful and as necessary a mission as is any man in the world, the milking of cows ascends to a plane of dignity equal to any other phase of agriculture. Useful Supplement to Machines Gradually hand milking is giving way to machine milking, and where machines are used the udder manipulations are even more necessary. In most instances it will be found more advantageous in securing all the milk a cow yields, in encouraging her persistency and in avoiding udder troubles to massage the udder and permit the milk- ing machine to do the stripping rather than to detach the machine and strip the udder by hand. It has seemed strange that manufacturers of milking machines have not carried on more exhaustive experiments along this line in an attempt to avoid after-milking cows by hand, but, great and successful as is the use of milking machines at the pres- ent time, the milking machine industry is yet in its infancy and much can be reasonably expected in the near future. CHAPTER XXXIX. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HERD BULL If milk and butterfat production is considered merely on a tem- porary basis or from the viewpoint of what can be secured from day to day, it makes little difference how the bull is fed and cared for. But those who look far into the future with a determination to build up permanently the production of their herds know that the herd sire is a great essential factor in building up production from generation to generation. Increased production, accomplished by improved methods of feeding cows and caring for them, amounts to little if it is offset by breeding the herd downward with inferior bulls or with good bulls improperly cared for. It is, therefore, essential that the services of only good bulls, properly fed and cared for, are employed. When the bull is a year old he is ready for light service if he has been liberally and intelligently fed and well raised. At this time he should be considered as a herd sire, and no longer as a calf. He should be handled, cared for and fed as a bull at all times, that his usefulness and value will not only be conserved but increased. If a bull is good enough to begin using, he is good enough to use throughout his serv- iceable life unless his daughters when they come to milking age prove him a failure. The usual custom of using a bull only two or three years and then sending him to slaughter is one of the most abominable practices, occa- sioning one of the most sinful and extravagant wastes practiced by the American farmer, dairyman and breeder. Inferior bulls should never be placed at the head of herds and, if by chance such a bull is found in service, he should be sent to the butcher at once ; but the bull that proves himself capable of bettering the individuality and increasing the production of a herd should be prized highly, cared for properly an^ kept in service throughout his lifetime. This indicates that which is true — that no bull whose indi- viduality and breeding denote that he should be a great sire should ever be destroyed until his true worth is known. One reason why many good bulls are sacrificed is .that a new bull is substituted to prevent inbreeding. This is not a logical reason and is responsible, to a very large de- gree, for so many nondescript bulls being in service. If every good purebred, successful sire would be reserved by his owner to be used on his own granddaughters, one of the most successful plans of line- 272 Feeding the Dairy Cow breeding would thereby be inaugurated. A greater general improve ment of the herds of this country would result from a wholesale application of this plan than from any other. Dairymen object to paying what a really good bull is worth because they figure they can use him only two or three years and will then have to suffer a considerable financial loss when he must go to the butcher. Therefore, they purchase the kind of calves which will return them the original cost price, or nearly that much, when the butcher buys them. If, on the other hand, a herd sire was purchased with the understanding that he would be used for 10 or 12 years, the dairyman could see his way clear to purchase bulls of higher char- acter that would improve his herd with certainty. The only objections to this plan are that two bulls instead of one must be kept in service, that bulls become vicious, and, as they become old, their prepotency becomes impaired. To build up a herd successfully, however, it is necessary to keep more than one bull in service, and it should be remembered that it costs less to keep an extra bull on the farm than it does to purchase new bulls often and run the chance of securing an occasional one that will tear down the improvement that former bulls have built up. Therefore, this objection needs no further discussion except the sug- gestion that community breeding, or two neighboring dairymen going together and using their bulls interchangeably, will solve in the best possible manner the problem of conserving exceptionally good bulls. The question as to whether bulls become vicious or impotent depends almost entirely on the care, feed and management afiforded them. Bulls do not become vicious, as a rule, unless viciousness is encouraged by mistreatment ; and bulls do not become impotent, as a rule, unles impotency is encouraged by mismanagement or improper feeding. When the bull is placed in service he should be given a roomy, light, comfortable, dry box stall that is always kept clean and well bedded. Such a stall should open into a paddock consisting of approxi- mately one acre of ground fenced so strongly that the bull will never conceive the idea that it is possible for him to break out. Such a stall and paddock provide ample room for every necessity of the bull. The stall provides for protection and comfort and the paddoci offers opportunity for sufficient exercise in the fresh air and sunshin( to insure excellence of health. The paddock fence should be made of heavy woven wire attached to strong, well set posts, and, if necessary, reinforced with barbed wire or planks. It should not be a tight board fence which places the bull in solitary confinement, for nothing tends more toward promot- Care and Management of the Herd Bull 273 ing viciousness in any animal than penning him up in such a way that he has no freedom whatever. When the bull is yet young he should be trained. He should be treated kindly but firmly and taught to know and respect his master. A strong, smooth ring of copper or gunmetal should be placed in his nose and this should be examined occasionally and replaced with a new one at first indication of weakening. The first lesson the bull should be taught is that of permitting himself to be caught by the ring. Then, leading him to water once or twice daily and leading him out for service will quickly teach him that being caught by the ring and leading are not experiences to be dreaded. Unless he is abused at some time this training will last him as long as he lives, and, although he should always be led with a staff after he is more than a year old, he can always be handled with safety unless in some way or other he has become spoiled. This system of management will also prevent impotency, provided the bull is not overworked. Never should he be permitted to serve a cow more than once at one heat period. Additional services make conception no more certain and needlessly overtax the sire. Seldom, if ever, is it necessary or advisable to use him more than once daily and, until he is 18 months old, two or three services a week are all that should be permitted. The following of this rule prohibits per- mitting the bull to run with the herd, a practice which is abominable in that it is dangerous, wears out useful breeding animals, causes them to become vicious and makes it impossible for the dairyman to keep a record of breeding dates, which is one of the great essentials in se- curing and raising calves successfully. To prevent contagious disease and keep the bull in healthful breeding condition, the sheath should be thoroughly cleansed with a mild, non-irritating, efficient disinfecting solution following each serv- ice. This can best be accomplished by tying the bull following service and by the use of a large syringe, douching the sheath with two or three syringefuls of the solution. If care is taken to handle the bull gently and to make sure that the disinfectant solution is never too strong, it will be found to be a very simple as well as advisable operation to follow. In fact, where this plan is strictly adhered to, contagious abortion seldom makes its appearance, and in case it does it is quickly stamped from the herd. Where this plan is not followed it is almost impossible to get rid of contagious abortion, once it has attacked a herd. Very often bulls — especially those that are allowed to wear their horns — molest fences and are difficult to catch. For these reasons it is not advisable to let them run loose, even in their paddocks. In such 274 Feeding the Dairy Cow cases a strong wire cable may be tightly drawn from the front of the box stall to the far end of the paddock at a height such that a ring sliding on it when a chain connects it with the bull's ring, will just pass under the top of the box stall door frame. This plan gives the bull almost as much freedom as though he were running loose, it pro- vides him ample opportunity for exercise and yet it keeps him under the absolute control of his master. It is a plan which enables one to handle any bull, even though he may be inclined toward viciousness. In fact, it is less difficult to preserve the usefulness of a bull which it is necessary to handle in this manner than it is one of a dull, slug- gish nature, because the active bull will take daily exercise of his own accord sufficient to keen him in the best possible breeding condition, while the one of a more sluggish temperament will fail to do so. In the latter case, as such bulls attain age, exercise being so necessary to preserve potency, it will be found advisable to provide some system of exercise such as working the animal on a treadmill, leading him a mile or so daily, or placing in his paddock one or two younger bulls that will encourage him to take sufficient exercise. Expressed in a few words, the care and management which sires should receive consist of keeping the bull under control and yet pro- viding him with comfortable conditions and sufficient exercise, and preventing overservice. Where the attempt is made the ingenuity of man suffices to accomplish the desired end. By controlling the bull according to his individual requirements it is possible for his attendant to treat him with firmness and yet with kindness. It should be remembered that bulls have minds of their own and use them. Seldom, if ever, will they attack their attendants when their attendants are alert and on guard. This is the reason why gentle bulls are the most dangerous. Mean bulls are always watched closely, but much confidence is placed in gentle bulls, with the result that invariably serious accidents are traced to gentle bulls carelessly handled rather than to active bulls carefully managed. Because herd sires are kept for the purpose of transmitting their most valuable characteristics, it is essential that they be managed in such a way as to make this possible, and likewise it is necesary to feed them in such a manner that no valuable characteristic possessed by them will lie dormant and not be transmitted to their oflfspring. Bulls should be kept in good condition, which is a state of being neither too fat nor too poor. If allowed to become emaciated their offspring will be deprived of many inherent qualities of excellence. On the other hand, if the bull is permitted to become overfat, and to remain that way for a considerable period of time, he is quite liable to become impotent and useless. Until they have reached maturity, bulls should be fed rather lib- Care and Management of the Herd Bull 275 erally of a growing ration. An abundance of clover hay or other leguminous hays is advisable. Roots and silage may be fed but in amounts more limited than to dairy cows. Green soiling crops or pasturage are always advisable when in season. An excellent grow- ing ration is one consisting of two parts ground corn, two parts ground oats, two parts bran, and one part oil meal. This ration, or its equivalent composed by using similar feeds, is excellent for bulls of all ages. When the bull has reached maturity it often becomes necessary to limit the amount of roughage to keep the animal in readily service- able condition and, as a rule, when the bull has reached complete de- velopment very little grain is necessary to keep him in prime condi- tion. Even as "the eye of the master fatteneth his cattle," so does the eye of the master determine by the condition of the bull the amount of roughage and grain he should have daily. As in feeding cows, this can be determined in no other way ex- cept by a consideration of the individual. Some bulls can consume large volumes of roughage and yet remain in condition to serve promptly, while others become slow or even absolute failures if too much roughage is fed. Also, there are bulls which require, even after they have attained maturity, from 8 to 12 pounds of grain daily to keep them in the most thrifty and prepotent condition, while others, if fed more than four or five pounds of grain daily, become overfat, sluggish, and their years of usefulness are shortened. On the average farm little consideration has in the past been given to the feed, care and treatment of bulls, although there is fast becom- ing a recognition of the fact that only the best of bulls should be used. Fortunate is the farmer, dairyman or breeder who succeeds in secur- ing a bull, sufficiently well bred, good enough in individuality, and pre- potent enough to transmit the best characteristics of himself and his ancestry to his offspring. This being true, the worth of such a bull should be recognized and he should be kept in that condition which will insure his greatest activity over the longest possible period of time. This can be accomplished only by surrounding him with treat- ment, care, feed and management that will maintain him from week to week and from year to year in the most thrifty, vigorous, healthful condition conducive to longevity and service. CHAPTER XL. THE CARE OF THE CALF No discussion on feeding the dairy cow is complete unless it in- cludes information relative to the feeding of calves. In fact, the fac- tors most essential to success in dairying, as well as in breeding dairy cattle, are those pertaining to the use and care of good sires and the raising of calves properly and developing them into good cows. Under the best of conditions it is doubtful if dairying can be made satisfactorily profitable from the standpoint of milk produc- tion alone. The one who prospers with dairy cattle is the one who feeds and cares for his cows so as to encourage large, economical pro- duction as a result, and then increases his profits by so raising the heifer calves, sired by good purebred sires, that they will grow into cows superior to their mothers. Such an one is able to sell, each year, nearly half of his cows, filling their stalls with heifers that have grown to cowhood under conditions most conducive to profitable production. Such an one is more than a dairyman. He is a breeder, and, even though he milks only grade cows, he finds much pride and profit in building better herds generation after generation. He is not the one who says: "I milk just grade cows; therefore, I need only a cheap bull," for he soon learns that quite as good a bull is needed for building up a herd of grades as is needed for building up a herd of purebreds. Very recently an illustration in proof of this statement came to my attention. Six years ago a young man in northern Iowa began dairying with just good grade cows. He used the best sires he could procure, consecutively, raised the calves well and, as they reached cowhood, placed them in the stalls from which their less desirable mothers had been sold. His neighbor, an older man, started breed- ing purebred cattle 25 years ago. He was careless about the sires he used and failed to raise his calves well. The dairyman decided to sell his grades and go into the purebred business. At the same time the breeder decided to sell his purebreds and quit. Buyers visited both farms. They paid $111 a head for the grades and $100 a head for the purebreds. In one instance the owner, although his females were all grades, was a breeder as well as a dairyman. In the other instance the owner, although all of his cattle were purebreds, was just a dairyman. The one was prosperous. His cattle had made him a small fortune in six years. In fact, I dare say he made more profit and obtained more real enjoyment from his cattle in six years than his neighbor did in 25 years. The Care of the Calf 277 Counterparts of this illustration are plentiful. Some men breed up, others down. And so it must be apparent to the reader that, to obtain real success and pleasure from dairying, it is necessary not only to feed and care for cows properly; it is necessaryto use good, well bred and well cared for bulls always and then to raise the calves properly. Profits will result, as a rule, from milk production, but more and surer profits will come from the sale of cows whose places are to be filled with daughters which each generation are better than were their mothers. Given strong, healthy, vigorous calves at birth, the problem of calf rearing is not a difficult one. In herds where both cows and sires have been fed and cared for according to suggestions given in previ- ous chapters calves wiU come exceedingly strong, healthy, vigorous and well formed. At birth the desirable characteristics of their an- cestors will be dominant, for they have been well developed by feeding the calf prior to birth through its mother, and, because the sire was in most potent condition, his characteristics and those of his ancestors will assert themselves. When the cow gives birth to the calf, she transfers to man the obligation of further developing the desirable characteristics and the growth of the youngster. For the sake of the cow as well as of the calf it advisable for the attendant to be present during the process of parturition. Assistance in delivery is sometimes necessary. Oc- casionally a calf comes with phlegm in its nostrils or throat or with a membrane over its nostrils. These must be removed at once, for, as soon as the umbilical cord is broken, the calf must start breathing promptly or smother. Such a membrane is easily removed from the nostrils by hand and such phlegm as may be in the throat can be easily removed by opening the calf's mouth and blowing in it. Sometimes, coo, especially in the case of young heifers, the mother is liable to abuse the calf and she has been known to hook or tramp the infant to death. Every such obstacle can- be overcome by the attendant being present at parturition time, which is especially advisable where the calves are prized highly. As soon as the calf is born and starts breathing, the umbilical cord should be thoroughly disinfected by rubbing it well with a 5 per cent solution of efficient disinfectant. This is so important that it should become a rule followed strictly on every dairy farm. A large peicentage of calf diseases, such as white scours, hemorrhagic sep- ticaemia, etc., result from open wound infections. The most prolific source of such infections is the open umbilical cord which has not been disinfected. By becoming infected at the time of birth or shortly fol- lowing, the germs begin multiplying but may not assert themselves 278 Feeding the Dairy Cow until several weeks later, when the calf becomes ill and dies before the trouble can be diagnosed or the life of the calf saved. It is well to disinfect the umbilical cord or, better, the entire navel, twice daily until the umbilical cord has become thoroughly sealed. There are some who practice tying a strong cord, thoroughly saturated with dis- infectant solution, around the umbilical cord as close to the body as possible. The only objection to this method is that complete drainage of the umbilical cord is prohibited if the cord is tied tightly, but the advantage is that one application of disinfectant solution to the navel suffices. It is customary to leave the calf with the mother for the first 48 hours. This is permissible provided the udder and teats of the cow are kept clean so that the calf does not take dirt, germs and foreign substances that may stick to the teat, into its stomach. Some calves are lost in this way, when their lives could be saved by feeding them with their mothers' milk right from the start. There is just enough liability of bowel infection occurring from nursing the mother that freshens in a stall, so that the extra precaution is recommended of tak- ing the calf away from the mother even before it has nursed at all. By so doing, the calf is more easily taught to drink than though left with the cow to nurse a few times. On the other hand, the youngster aids greatly in relieving inflammation which may be present in the udder and, by remaining with its mother, it is afforded milk of proper tem- perature and at sufficiently frequent intervals in the most convenient manner. The plan is, therefore, permissible, provided the udder and teats of the cow are kept clean. When the calf is taken from the cow, it should be placed in a box stall that is kept scrupulously clean and well bedded. It should be warm, well lighted and well ventilated. Calves placed in stalls that are damp, dirty, dark and poorly ventilated cannot be expected to live. It is so easy to admit sunshine and fresh air into the calf stall and it is so easy to keep the stall dry, clean and well bedded that there is no excuse for keeping a calf in any other kind of stall. So much depends upon this one factor that, unless suitable quarters of this sort are ar- ranged, there is little use trying to raise calves successfully. It cannot be done. Teaching the calf to drink is a very simple task and demands no discussion except to state that the calf should be permitted to become hungry and then patiently encouraged to drink. Both overfeeding and underfeeding cause trouble. If overfed the calf scours. If underfed it becomes weak and quickly succumbs to any sickness that may attack it. Therefore, the feeder should care- fully consider the amount of milk the calf should have and vary the amount with the different calves according to their size and vigor. The Care of the Calf 279 While young the calf should be fed at least three times daily. Two pounds at a feed three times a day will suffice at first, and this amount can gradually be increased, watching each day to detect any indica- tion of approaching scours. Calves vary so greatly in their digestive capacities, which govern the amount of milk they should have, that no hard and fast rules can be given. As in feeding cows, the feeder must govern his operations by catering to the individuality of the animal. This requires the use of scales. A large percentage of calf trouble could be eliminated if the feeder would weigh the milk given the calf and not increase by amounts larger than one-half pound in any one day. By so doing and by watching closely the condition of the calf, any intelligent feeder can determine for himself better than anyone else can determine for him how much milk the calf should have. Temperature of Milk Even as scales are necessary in determining the amount of milk a calf should have, so is a floating thermometer (which can be secured from any dairy supply house cheaply) necessary in providing milk of the proper temperature. Calves fed warm milk one day and cold milk the next do not thrive. More often they die. Nature has provided for calves to take milk directly from the teat of the cow and to secure it at body temperature, which ranges from 98 to 100 degrees Fahren- heit. Not only should milk be fed at a temperature corresponding, but it should be fed at the same temperature each time. This can be accomplished by milking the cow and taking the milk direct to the calf but it can be better done by the use of a floating thermometer. Quality of Milk R. M. Washburn has recently completed very extensive experi- ments to determine the proper richness of milk for feeding young animals. These experiments show with much conclusiveness that the best richness to feed is 2V2 per cent. The matter of which breed fur- nishes the milk is shown to be of little importance. It is indicated that by standardizing rich milk, either by separating and taking away part of the butterfat or by adding skim-milk to reduce the test to a richness of 2V2 per cent, the best of results may be expected provided the milk is fed at the right temperature. The feeding of over-rich milk tends to cause the animal to become overfat at the expense of growth, or to scour. Cleanliness All feeders know so well that feeding utensils should be kept scrupulously clean that this phase of the subject should need little or no discussion. Suffice to say that if pails are not thoroughly cleansed and sterilized by rinsing with scalding water or by subjecting them to 280 Feeding the Dairy Cow steam, bacteria multiply and trouble follows. In fact, cleanliness, regularity and proper temperatures are the three factors which are ab- solutely essential in successful calf raising. Dirt, irregularities, and adverse temperatures cause more trouble in raising calves than all other factors combined. Feeding Grain When the calf is a few days old it will begin eating grain. Then, if allowed to run with other calves, a little stanchion and feed box should be provided for it so that, immediately after it has drunk its milk, it may be securely fastened and encouraged to eat grain which may consist of two parts oats, two parts corn, two parts bran and one part oil meal, or any ration of this character composed of feeds upon which calves thrive. It is advisable to encourage calves to eat grain at the earliest possible date, for, by tying them up immediately after they drink their milk and instilling in them the habit of eating grain at once, the pernicious habit of sucking each other's ears and teats is overcome. The principal cause for heifers freshening with uneven udders and blind quarters is that when they are young they are per- mitted to be sucked. This is also the reason why cows oftentimes suck themselves or each other. Moreover, when calves begin eating dry feed the danger of scours is minimized and the calves grow more rapidly and become more thrifty and vigorous. Feeding Hay In raising calves it is quite as essential that their digestive appa- ratus be developed, and distended as it is that growth be promoted. To accomplish this, it is advisable to encourage the eating of much roughage. It is surprising how large an amount of bright, well cured clover hay calves will eat if the opportunity is afforded. As soon as the calves begin eating grain, good clover hay should be put before them at regular intervals so that twice daily they may eat all they desire. Clover hay is specified because it contains the growing mate- rials calves need, and seemingly they thrive much better on clover hay than they do on timothy or alfalfa. If fed alfalfa hay they are liable to be affected with scours. Feeding Silage While calves are young, it is not advisable to feed them largely with silage. They secure succulence from the milk, and experience teaches that by withholding further succulence the youngsters are en- couraged to eat more largely of grain and hay, which results in greater and more rapid development. Exercise As indicated before, sunshine and fresh air are essential. Also it is well for calves to be permitted to exercise at will. Therefore, dur- The Care of the Calf 281 ing the warm portions of days in winter and the cool portions of days in summer, it is well to permit calves to be out in the open where they may exercise freely and take advantage of all the sunshine and fresh air that is available. Pasturing If the calf is born in the fall and wintered properly it should be allowed the run of a small pasture or grass paddock during the sum- mer. The grass must not be depended upon, however, to supply all of the food the calf needs. Grass is largely water and the young calf can hardly eat enough to secure sufficient nutrients for proper growth. It is, therefore, well to continue feeding grain through the first summer and, when the grass becomes dry and short, it is advisable to offer the youngster dry hay once or twice daily. By so doing growth and development continue in a satisfactory manner. Otherwise the animal ceases to grow, becomes stunted and does not develop into the ex- cellent cow it should become. There are those who contend that young calves should not be pastured the first summer. The reasons substantiating their claim are that the calf's stomach is not large enough so that sufficient grass can be eaten to supply the needs of the youngster, and that hot weather and flies are more detrimental to calves than to older animals. These objections, however, may be overcome by keeping calves in cool, darkened, dry, well ventilated quarters, free from flies in the day- time, feeding them hay and grain in amounts such as they will clean up readily, and allowing them to go to pasture during the hours of dark- ness. It is surprising what a large amount of hay calves will eat under this system of management and how excellently they will thrive. Bearing in mind that the manner in which a calf grows during its first year determines to a large extent its excellence at maturity, the wise dairyman and breeder will take particular pains to so manage the youngsters that they will grow with regularity every day. To accomplish this necessitates, keeping the calves under conditions that are comfortable and healthful and supplying proper foods in "sufficient abundance so that the digestive apparatus will be kept in most efficient condition and at all times distended to the extent that most excellent development is assured . Feeding Skim-milk All calves should be kept upon whole-milk for the first two weeks. It is during this period that greatest difficulty is experienced from such troubles as scours, calf cholera, pneumonia, etc. Calves born healthy and strong are not born to die and, regard- less of what breed they belong to, they can be successfully raised if a definite, advisable system of regular care and treatment is provided. There is no other phase of dairying which requires so much skill. 282 Feeding the Dairy Cow so much patience and so much judgment as the feeding of young calves. The first and most important essential is that the quarters where calves are stationed be free from germ life. This necessitates the stalls being cleaned and bedded daily and disinfectants being used freely that every nook and corner, which under careless conditions harbor disease-producing germs, be cleaned and disinfected regularly. When the calf is two weeks old, if the opportunity is granted, it will begin nibbling hay and grain. It should be encouraged in this venture because, as soon as a liberal amount of roughage and grain is eaten by the calf, the likelihood of scours is greatly lessened. It is then time to begin changing the calf from whole-milk to skim-milk. This should be done very gradually. Two weeks should be taken in changing the calf onto a complete ration of skim-milk. Moreover, the skim-milk added to the whole-milk should be of the same tempera- ture as the whole-milk, or 98 degrees Fahrenheit. Feeding chilled milk to baby calves is enough to cause scours. Every day the calf scours its growth is checked and it should be remembered that, once a calf begins scouring, it is more susceptible to digestional disorders in the future. Very often one case of scours is sufficient to take the life of a youngster. While the change is being made from new milk to skim-milk the liquid ration should not be increased, because feeding an extra amount of skim-milk will not take the place of the butterfat removed from the whole-milk, and time enough awaits to increase the amount given after the calf has successfully been transferred to a complete ration of skim-milk. The foam which rises on top of skim-milk as it comes from the separator should not be given to small calves. It causes them to bloat and this often terminates in scours. After the calf is on a complete ration of skim-milk it is advisable to increase the amount given very gradually, being careful never to overfeed. The amount of skim-milk varies according to the size, strength and condition of the calf, and this can be determined only by the feeder who learns by studying each individual calf. There is no better feed than skim-milk for young animals, so that it should be used as largely as possible and its use continued for six months, or even longer, if an economical supply is available. As a precaution against scours and for providing bone and muscle- growing material in the most digestible form, blood meal, or, better, blood flour, which can be secured from all large packing concerns, may be used to excellent advantage by putting a teaspoonful in the calf's milk and gradually increasing this so that when the calf is six The Care of the Calf 283 weeks old it will be receiving a tablespoonful with each portion of milk it drinks. Skim-milk already rich in protein will be rendered richer in this respect, which makes it even more advisable to feed freely of a grain ration supplying carbohydrates and fat, as corn, oats and oil meal do. Buttermilk This by-product, being of practically the same composition as skim-milk, will produce as good results in raising calves as will skim- milk. More care is necessary in teaching calves to drink buttermilk because it is sour, but, if it is gradually substituted, as it and skim- milk should be, calves will take kindly to it, make just as good growth and be even less subject to scours than though they were fed skim- milk. Care, of course, should be taken to feed the buttermilk at each feeding period in a conditon as nearly uniform in acidity as possible. A precaution that should be taken in feeding milk to calves is to make sure the milk is not infected with the disease germs of tuber- culosis, white scours, or contagious abortion. Skim-milk or buttermilk secured from sources that permit the mixing of milk from many herds, or where milk is fed from a herd suspected of being affected with either tuberculosis or contagious abortion, should be thoroughly pasteurized before feeding. There is no method by which a clean herd can be developed from a diseased herd with certainty unless this precaution is followed. Water Some calf raisers erroneously believe that because calves have milk to drink they need no water. As a matter of fact, when given the opportunity and provided with clean water of suitable temperature, calves drink large amounts and thrive accordingly. They will not grow satisfactorily unless they are thus provided for. Calf Meals There are many very excellent calf meals on the market which can be purchased at prices warranting their use. The manufacturers of these feeds have given the subject of calf feeding careful study because the sucess of their business depends upon the excellence of the results that may be secured when their feeds are put to practical use. For this reason the directions of the manufacturers should be followed to the letter when their feeds are used, and if this is done there is no doubt that additional gain in growth and condition may be expected. Where whole-milk is sold, the problem of raising calves is more difficult and it is then that calf meals are absolutely essential. In the 284 Feeding the Dairy Cow beginning they should be used with whole-milk, which can be gradu- ally eliminated by substituting warm water in its place. Experience shows that very excellent calves can be raised in this manner, especially when they are well fed and given hay in addition. Also, whey resulting from cheesemaking can be used to advan- tage when the nutrients that have been taken away are replaced with calf meal of a suitable character. It cannot be expected that calves will look as sleek and fat when they are raised on calf meals and warm water or whey, but the scales will show that the calf is making almost, if not quite, as large growth. Where special pains are taken it will be found that at maturity the calves will have developed into just as good cows, as large in size and as excellent in dairy proclivities as though they had been raised on milk, and the cost of raising them will have been considerably less, except where an abundance of skim-milk is available. Calf Scours Even when most careful attention is given to the feeding and care of calves, scours sometimes occur. Upon the first indication im- mediate attempts should be made to check the disease. The amount of milk should be reduced and two or three ounces of castor oil given the calf by pouring it on the root of the tongue. If this is done soon enough and the milk ration reduced no further trouble should be ex- perienced. If the scours do continue, a solution composed of one-half ounce of formalin in 15/4 ounces of water should be provided and one tea- spoonful for each pound of milk fed should be given until scouring ceases. An excellent remedy for curing severe cases of scours is as fol- lows: One ounce bismuth subnitrate, one ounce salol and three ounces bicarbonate of soda given at the rate of one teaspoonful three or four times per day in three ounces of milk as a drench. Usually the treatment will check the most serious case of common scours in a day or two. Such remedies, however, should not be depended upon, for it should be remembered that preventing scours by careful, regular management is the real secret of successful calf raising. White Scours This variety of scours is one of the most serious diseases affecting calves. It attacks the infant shortly after birth and is usually fatal. Prevention by disinfecting the navel cord as soon as the calf is born and keeping the cord properly sterilized in this manner is the best pre- caution against this deadly disease. As soon as a case is noted in the herd the affected calf should be isolated, and all milking utensils and calf pens thoroughly cleansed The Care of the Calf 285 and disinfected, so that the disease will not spread through the herd. Sometimes the formalin or the bismuth-salol treatment recom- mended previously will aid in checking white scours but prevention and isolation are more to be trusted. Pneumonia The death loss from pneumonia in young calves is much larger than is usually believed because the trouble is not diagnosed properly. Pneumonia results from improper ventilation of the calf barn, from permitting drafts and from exposure occasioned bv radical changes of temperature. Pneumonia can be absolutely prevented by keeping calves in warm, dry, well ventilated quarters and giving them access to warm, fresh air and sunshine. Calves attacked by pneumonia lose their appetites, breathe hard, become fevered, a rattle can be heard in the lungs, and there is usually a discharge from the nostrils. Pneumonia is often infectious. An affected calf should at once be removed from the herd, and stalls cleaned and thoroughly disin- fected. Cold compresses should be placed over the lungs, an abun- dance of fresh air supplied, and the bowels should be kept in laxative condition. A mustard plaster application is the best additional treat- ment to be suggested, and as a rule these precautions carefully and diligently followed will save the life of the calf, which otherwise will certainly be lost. Calf Colic Overfeeding, giving milk of different temperatures or subjecting calves to cold drafts causes calf colic, which results in violent pains in the stomach. The calf when attacked becomes restless, and often- times kicks and bawls. If the colic is severe prostration follows and in a short time the calf dies unless aid is given. An excellent preventive of calf colic is an always available sup- ply of salt and charcoal, mixed, one part of the former and two part^ of the latter. This may be kept in a frequently cleaned box in the calf stall, and where it is offered in this manner it will be surprising what a large amount of charcoal and salt is eaten by calves. For the calf that becomes colicky a prescription should be pro- vided consisting of a teaspoonful of turpentine and a tablespoonful of raw linseed oil. This mixture should be given as a drench every two hours until the calf regains normal condition, but, as a rule, one dose will suffice. Blackleg This disease affects cattle under two years of age, but usually calves under one year old. All cattle men are familiar with the char- acteristics of blackleg and realize that it is more prevalent in certain sections than in others. 286 Feeding the Dairy Cow The only safe and certain method of prevention, as well as the most economical method, is to vaccinate calves against the disease. The general belief is that calves arc more susceptible to blackleg if they are thriving especially well or if, after thriving especially well, they are permitted to decline in condition rapidly. Dehorning Young Calves Breeding of purebred cattle as a rule do not favor dehorning calves. They much prefer to train the horns while the calf is young in the manner most acceptable to the particular breed being raised. There is no doubt that the elimination of horns decreases the selling price of most breeds of dairy cattle because a well trained pair of proper-sized horns undoubtedly adds to the general appearance. Where dehorning is advisable, it should be done while calves are young. When two weeks of age a small button may be felt just breaking through the skin on the young calf's head. At this time, after clipping the hair from around the button and saturating the surrounding skin with oil or grease to prevent it being burned, caustic potash may be applied. Care being taken to wrap the stick of caustic so the fingers will n t be burned, the button should be rubbed vigorously, making sure that the application is sufficiently thorough th.it scars or stunted, ugly horns will not result. For two or three days care should be taken to prevent the calf from getting its head wet, for this will cause the caustic to run down over the face and possibly into the eyes with serious results. Caustic potash will not remove horns at a later date, unless by the use of a knife the horny covering, is removed. This can be done even when the calf is a month old, but applying the treatment at the age of 10 days or two weeks is much more successful and much simpler. Lice Calves infested with lice do not thrive. Frequent examinations should be made to make sure lice are not present on the calves or in the barn. If lice are discovered the firsts thing to do is to get entirely rid of them. This necessitates a complete cleaning of the barn and the disin- fection of it by thoroughly spraying every crack and corner with a 5 per cent solution of coal tar dip. The calves should be washed with a solution of coal tar disinfectant ranging in strength from 3 to 5 per cent. If this is done in cold weather the calves should be rubbed with dry cloths and kept blanketed until dry to prevent their catching cold. Crude oil may be used instead of coal tar disinfectant by carefully and thoroughly rubbing it over every portion of the body. The Care of the Calf 287 These treatments will not kill the nits or eggs that may be pres- ent so that the barn disinfection and the treatment of the calves must be repeated in seven or eight days. In this manner the calves and the premises can be rid of these abominable growth destroyers. Ringworm It is not at all uncommon for calves to be troubled with ring- worm. If left to run its course it will eventually disappear, but in the meantime the calf is rendered uncomfortable and unsightly. By washing the affected parts of the skin and applying a liquid made by dissolving two ounces of sulphate of copper in one gallon of boiling water, or by painting the affected part of the skin with tinc- ture of iodine the ringworm will be promptly removed. Warts The appearance of warts on calves is of great frequency. The objection to them is that they are unsightly, although there is no evidence that they affect the growth of the calf or cause other disturb- ances. However, it is best to get rid of them and there are many ways of doing so. Large warts should be twisted off with the fingers or cut off with scissors, and the roots should be cauterized or painted with iodine. If this fails to kill them, a more severe treatment will be necessary. The skin and hair surrounding the warts should be greased and the warts burned off by touching them with a feather or swab saturated in nitric acid or sulphuric acid. Whichever treatment is adopted, two or three applications may be necessary, and when the wart is killed the scar should be treated with lard or carbolated vaseline to soften it and hasten the growth of hair. On parts where such severe treatment is not possible, a mixture of one part salicylic acid and seven parts collodion should be painted on the warts and allowed to dry. In two or three days the dead scabs should be removed and the warts again treated. By following this treatment the warts will soon disappear without injuring the animal in any way. Removing Extra Teats When the calf is very young examination should be made of the udder and teats. Occasionally calves are found which have two teats grown together or "webbed." Such calves cannot successfully be treated and will never grow into satisfactory cows. They should be vealed for they will be good for neither milking nor breeding pur- poses. Occasionally a rudimentary teat is found growing on one of the regular teats. If the calf is allowed to grow to cowhood without treat- 288 Feeding the Dairy Cow ment the result is serious. The cow gives milk out of the rudi- mentary as well as from the end of the teat and, even if the influence is not adverse in other respects, it certainly makes milking the cow very disagreeable and it is impossible to milk her by hand in a san- itary manner. If such a rudimentary appears on a teat it should be clipped off close to the teat with a pair of sharp scissors and the wound cauterized with caustic potash. It will then heal and give no further trouble. More often rudimentary teats are found growing between the teats and on the rear of the udder. These are not harmful except that they detract from the appearance of the cow and serve no useful purpose. Therefore, these rudimentary teats should be removed. They can easily be clipped off with sharp scissors and the wound cauterized or a silk thread may be tied tightly around them close to their attachment and they will soon disappear. Separate the Calves At the age of three rr four months male and ' ;male calves should be placed in separate lots. If kept divided in this manner all danger of accidental breeding is avoided. Otherwise an occasional heifer be- come pregnant at so early an age as to handicap her future useful- nes Other than this division of the calves, it will be found better to allow several calves to run and feed together. The experienced herds- man knows that calves eat better, take more exercise and seem to thrive better where two or more calves live together than where one lives alone. Weaning At the age of six or seven months, or sooner if there is a scarcity of skim-milk, calves may be weaned. If they have been encouraged to do so, they will be feeding well on hay, grain, grass, or silage and roots when this age is reached and they will not greatly miss the milk. They should continue to receive good care, however, and be fed so abundantly that growth and development will not be sacrificed for even a day until they have reached cowhood. Fall Calves Best Not only for the sake of large and profitable production on the part of the cow should calves be born in the fall, but circumstances are such that in behalf of the calf itself it is better that it be born in the fall rather than at any other season of the year. The fall-born calf passes its first six months of life while on milk during that portion of the year when it can be kept indoors and when time permits giving it the very best care. By the time grass comes it is ready to wean and large enough to take exercise on luxuriant The Care of the Calf 289 pastures when heat and flies are not severe and to be kept very cheaply by an additional small amount of grain and hay. By the time the calf is a year old and ready to enter winter quarters it has made sufficient growth so that it can be wintered the second year very cheaply on clover hay, silage, corn stover, and other roughages with a small quantity of concentrated feed of a character and in such quan- tity as will balance the roughage and keep the yearling growing until grass comes again. It can then be turned to pasture and required to shift largely for itself as long as pastures are good. Breeding Heifers of the smaller breeds should be bred to freshen at the age of 24 months. If they were born in the fall they will freshen the second fall following, which is a distinct advantage. Heifers of the larger breeds should not be bred until they are 18 months of age. When heifers approach freshening they should be handled in iden- tically the same manner as has been advised for preparing cows to freshen. Then they will come into cowhood with udders well developed and be ready to yield profitably with first calf. It is even more essential that an attendant be present when the heifer freshens than it is when older cows freshen. For some reason or other, heifers seem to become unduly excited wheirthe calf is born and it is not uncommon for them to bawl, paw their bedding and handle the calf very roughly, oftentimes going so far as to trample the calf to death. If the attendant is present, he can quiet the heifer and if necessary, remove the calf to another stall. It is needless to say that in breaking heifers to milk the milker should be quiet and handle the young mother gently, even though she may be inclined to kick and otherwise object to being milked. Harsh, cruel treatment at this time is liable to ruin the heifer as a milk cow for life, while patient and gentle handling will show her that she is not to be harmed and she will quickly reconcile herself to giving her milk freely. Some heifers and cows refuse to give their milk when the calf is first taken from them. When this is the case, the trouble can be rectified by placing the calf in a stall where the cow can see it. She will then give her milk without further trouble. The First Lactation Period The question of how good a cow the heifer is to develop into is largely a question of how well she is handled during her first lactation period. Even as speed is developed in trotting-bred horses by requiring them to trot as fast as they can without harming their future usefulness, even while young, so is milk production encouraged in the cow bred for milk by requiring her to yield as largely as possible 290 Feeding the Dairy Cow without injuring her future usefulness, even when she is young. Therefore, it) is advisable to start the heifer on a small ration of about five pounds of concentrates in addition to her roughage when sh>; has been fresh from two to four days and, by increasing her ration one-half pound every other day as advised in bringing an older cow to her milk, she is encouraged to give her maximum flow of milk when she has been fresh about 30 days. Then, if the cow is fed an abundant, well balanced ration, kept in just good, thrifty condition and encouraged to milk persistently throughout the year, being aided in doing so by surrounding her with comfortable- environment during the entire year, she will develop the habit of persistency and each year following she will respond to proper care and feed and milk largely and persistently. Cost of Raising Calves To properly raise a calf from birth to milking age requires mucli intelligent judgment, labor and expense. This is true in normal times and it is doubly true in war times. Various experiments have been performed and accurate accounts kept by various experimenters to determine the exact cost of raising a calf to the age of two years, and all seem to agree that, where exact records are kept of every expense, as should be the case, the cost ranges from $60 to $75. The following table compiled by Dr. Lindsey from the experiments of Bennett, Cooper and Trueman shows the cost other than for food of a two-vear-old heifer: Bennett & Cooper Trueman $ 8.00 3.65 2.38 .55 3.00 2.93 $10.00 Interest on value of heifer Interest on buildings Interest on equipmert Bedding General expense 2 00 4.00 Total $20.51 $16.00 With labor as scarce and expensive as it is at the present time, the above charges will be found to be quite conservative. Dr. Lindsey presents an additional table which includes cost other than for food and has compiled the following table which shows the total net cost of a well fed heifer raised to the age of two years : Bennett & Cooper ^ (Wisconsin) Trueman (Connecticut) Lindsey (Mass.) $ 7.00 40.83 20.51 $ 4.00* 55.00 16.00 $ 4.00 57 73 Other costs 20.51 $68.34 8.00 $75.00 5.00 $82.24 8.00 $60.34 $70.00 $74.24 *Added by Lindsey. The Care of the Calf 291 This definite information, showing the cost of raising a heifer to be more than is generally realized, should not prove to be a dis- couragement and cause dairymen to believe they cannot afford to raise heifer calves. On the contrary, the information should impress them with the true value of their heifers and cows and cause them to think seriously regarding the kind of heifer calves they will raise in the future. It costs no more to raise a good heifer calf than a poor one and very little less to raise a stunted, worthless calf than one that is vigorous, well grown and possessed of its real inherent dairy qualities to the extent that it will be worth its cost of raising and more when it reaches cowhood. No better argument could be cited in proof of the advisability of using only good, purebred sires from highly productive ancestry. It is not uncommon to hear dairymen state that they cannot purchase as good cows as they can raise, and the statement is very true. It is the height of folly for a dairyman who has been in business for years to be compelled to depend upon purchasing cows or to be content with milking cows of a mediocre sort. The question is often asked, "Where can I secure good cows?" The answer is self-evident, and there is only one logical answer. It is, "Breed and raise them." The one who depends solely upon milk production for his profit is not likely to fare extra well over a long period of years. He who is sufficiently thoughtful to see into the future and to know what good cows he can breed, raise and develop by using only the best sires, raising the heifer calves by the most acceptable methods and developing their dairy characteristics so that they will prove more efficient milk producers than their mothers, will invariably find that the most profitable phase of dairying results from the surplus cows he has for sale each year. No better plan can be followed by the dairyman or breeder than that of using such excellent sires, raising and developing his heifers so well that each generation finds his herd more productive than it was the generation before. This enables him to sell each year his older cows, keep the younger ones and breed upward. This is not only the profitable plan, but it is the system which adds pleasure to dairying. There is no man so devoid of pride but that he will be highly gratified if, after dairying for a number of years, he can go into his barn and find there a herd of cows such that no herd is superior and every one of them bred, raised and developed by him- self. This is not only possible ; it is practical ; and is but the certain result of systematic, intelligent breeding. When it is so evident that superior, highly profitable cows can be bred from mediocre ones merely by the use of good sires and satisfactory methods of care, feed 2'J2 Feeding the Dairy Cow and management, the one who contents himself with continuously milking common, lowly productive cows throughout a lifetime writes his own indictment. If it were necessary it would be excusable. Because it is not necessary and because good herds can be developed merely by adding thought and intelligent effort with scarcely no additional expense, there can be no logical excuse for not building up a herd superior in productivity and uniformity of type and conior- Raising Bull Calves He who is a good enough breeder to raise service bulls for others should be proud of his vocation. There is no more laudable occupa- tion than the breeding and raising of sires that will aid others in building their herds better. On the other hand, he who raises bull calves from grade cows, or even from poor purebred cows, in either event sired by poorly bred sires, and then passes them on to breed someone else's herd downward is an undesirable citizen. Therefore, bull calves that are not really fit for reproducing their own likeness and the likeness of their ancestors should be vealed as early in life as posible. It is unprofitable to raise them for beef if they are dairy bred and statistics show that, under conditions which have existed for the past several years, it is not profitable to raise them for beef even though they are beef bred unless especially favor- able conditions for beef cattle raising and feeding exist on the farm. If the calf is well bred and a good individual it should be raised and placed where it can serve in bettering the production of a herd. Bull calves are raised quite like heifer calves until they are six or eight months of age. Then the time comes when they realize their sex. Bull rings should be placed in the youngsters' noses and train- ing should begin that they will be well mannered fellows so far as manners can be educated into bulls. They should be taught to lead. This is usually accomplished by taking them to water with a lead rope instead of driving them. Bulls, even when young, should be handled firmly, but not roughly. It is a mistake to unnecessarily abuse bulls, for this generates in them an antagonistic temperament and causes them to become unruly. One should never play with bulls, even when they are calves ; neither should one go to the other extreme and abuse them. It is well to tie the calves up at the age of six or eight months to teach them that they can be handled and that they do possess a master determined to control them. Bulls, like heifers, should be kept thriving and growing from birth to serviceable age. When a year old light service may be given them. One or two cows a week with only one service for each is as heavy as they should be worked at first. The Care of the Calf 293 By feeding him well and keeping him growing the bull may be put into regular service at the age of 18 months, provided he is kept away from the regular herd and permitted to serve each cow only once. The most ruinous practice, and one which undoubtedly accounts for many of the mediocre animals sired by purebred sires, is permitting the bull to run with the herd. Not only does this result in poor offspring, but it uselessly wears out the sire that would remain serv- iceable many years longer if he were intelligently handled. When the young bull goes into service his care, feed and manage- ment should be the same as that described in a previous chapter for service bulls. When raised for sale the bull should be raised in identically the same way as the one which is to be retained on the farm for service, and when selling time comes he should be in the best possible condi- tion, so that he will please the prospective buyer and later prove satisfactory, producing for his purchaser offspring better than the cows to which he is bred. CHAPTER XLI. FITTING ANIMALS FOR SALE Health, large production, rapid growth, complete development and regularity of reproduction are the factors uppermost in the considera- tion of the breeder and dairyman as they conduct the daily operations incident to care, feed and management of cattle. The successful one, however, cannot expect to always keep for himself every animal he raises. If his herd is purebred he has young bulls to dispose of occasionally and, be the herd purebred or grade, there comes a time when surplus females are to be sold. Investigations show that when feed, labor and equipment are expensive, large profits do not accrue from milk production alone, even where good cows are kept under the most approved conditions. In many businesses the profits made on the principal articles manu- factured are small. The large gains come from the by-products. And so it is with dairying. Were it not for the manure, the skim-milk and the calves, dairying would be a rather discouraging business, as is testified to by those who fail to utilize to best advantage these by- products. The skim-milk and manure pay best when properly conserved and used on the farm but surplus stock must be sold to realize gain. Grant- ing the correctness of the statement that the fundamental purpose of the dairy cow is to produce milk and butterfat, there is an economic fact that must be recognized if large annual profits are to be expected with certainty, and that is that the yearly increase of the herd must return a fair income either in cash, or by increasing the cattle assets of the dairy. It is for this reason that excellence of conformation, beauty of contour, richness of quality, uniformity of type and abun dance of style are to be prized almost, if not quite, as highly a> largeness and economy of production. It is for this reason that all operations pertaining to breeding, feeding and managing the dairy herd should be conducted on the big broad basis of producing milk and butterfat largely and economically while at the same time the herd is being built up along lines that will make all surplus animals — male and female — marketable at prices which will insure, beyond a doubt, profits worth while in return for efforts and intelligence expended. This means that animals offered for sale either privately or at auction should be so fitted and conditioned that the best qualifica- tions they possess will be readily apparent to the prospective pur- chaser. Fitting Animals For Sale 295 Fortunately, the care, feed and management which insure desir- able production, growth, development and reproduction also develop in the animal the best possible condition for sale purposes. The well bred cow that is producing largely is always in demand at a favorable price. The healthy heifer or heifer calf that is vigorous, thrifty and growing well always finds a favorable market, and the young pure- bred bull backed up by acceptable records indicating that he will sire calves that will grow into large, handsome, highly productive cows sells quickly as a result of judicious advertising. And yet there are various little things requiring small effort, trifling expense and very little additional time that add perceptibly to the attractiveness of animals and, therefore, to their selling prices. It is desirable, but not always practicable, to keep the herd always in attractive form, and it is essential to complete success to specially fit those individuals that are for sale. Taking it for granted that the suggestions of the former chapters have been followed, such animals will be in prime condition for adding the few finishing touches. These should begin with daily grooming. Animals must be clean to be attractive. The curry comb should be used on the flanks, legs and belly only. The rest of the body should be cleaned with a soft brush and flannel rag. Vigorous yet gentle rubbing and grooming remove dirt and dust from the hide and hair, encourage oily secretions, and thereby soften the hide and hair, giving a bright, lustrous appearance indicative of quality. Animals like to be groomed and nothing else quiets and gives them confidence in their caretakers so quickly. Blanketing with a light cover, so made that it will remain on, keeps the animal clean, quickens the arrival of the handling qualities desired in the hair and hide and eliminates the necessity of clipping the entire body. Individuals naturally hard- hided and coarse-haired should wear a heavy blanket under the light one, and some animals should wear two, or even three, especially if the weather is cool. Well mannered animals always outsell unruly or awkward ones, other things being equal. Every animal offered for sale should be provided with a neat halter and lead rope or strap and be taught to lead and stand posed at the end of this strap while being examined. A decent price should not be expected for an animal that stands with head down, with feet in four wrong directions, with back lowered, with rump drooping or with belly drawn up, when it is realized that but a few minutes a day for a short period of time is required to lead the same animal to water and to teach it to stand at the end of the lead strap with head up, feet under the body, back straight and rump elevated, showing at its best. 296 Feeding the Dairy Cow When the animal has been conditioned and trained even to this slight, inexpensive degree, its value has been enhanced no less than 10 per cent, and oftentimes 100 per cent may be added. More can yet be done if desired, but not much. A pair of power clippers is an excellent investment on every farm, for as much differ- ence can be made in the appearance of an animal by clipping its head, ears and tail as can be made in the appearance of a long-haired man by the use of the same sort of an instrument in cutting his hair. But a few minutes is required for performing the task. It is well to clip the belly of dairy cattle that their mammary veins will show to best advantage and so that the milk wells can be located with greatest ease. Cows should have all long hairs clipped from their udders, for this adds to the appearance of cleanliness and quality thereof. Especially does clipping add to the attractiveness of the dehorned cow's head, which is homely indeed in the eyes of most prospective purchasers if long, ragged hairs take the place of well trained, small, incurving horns. But all horns are not assets. Long, sharp, misshapen horns detract from the selling value. The shrewd cattle man sees to it that every calf's horns start growing in the right direction and in accord- ance with the requirements of the score card of the breed his herd represents. If necessary he employs the use of horn trainers, which can always be secured at reasonable prices. As some cows and bulls grow old their horns naturally grow long and unsightly, often causing the wearers to become troublesome among their companions. Whether such animals are to be sold or kept, the sharp points should be sawed off and with rasp and file the horns should be reduced in size and rounded at the ends. Very long, coarse, ugly horns can be shortened and made sightly by filing the ends down to the quick once a month. After the horns are reduced in size and filed into proper shape, sandpaper, followed with emery paper, will smooth away the scratches, and these, followed with metal polish applied vigorously with a flannel cloth, will make of the vicious, long, crooked horn, which detracts from value, a sightly attachment which will add to the appearance and, therefore, add to the demand for the animal and to her selling price. It may appear to the ultra-practical dairyman and breeder that these suggestions are far-fetched and that much time, effort and ex- pense would be incurred in carrying them out ; but it should be remem- bered that it is impossible to prepare a cow so she looks better than she really is, that only by preparing her to look her best can she be made to create a true impression on the prospective purchaser and bring for her owner her full value. After going to all the expense of Fitting Animals For Sale 297 time, effort and study to breed good cattle it is wasteful to sacrifice them by refusing to add the few hours and little expense necessary to show them posed gracefully at the end of a neat lead rope, with horns trimmed and polished, heads, tails, udders and bellies clipped, and their hair and hide conditioned to show the true quality they possess. The ones who profit most in the diamond industry are those who secure the diamonds in the rough and by cutting and polishing them reveal the real beauty and value they possess. So it is with cattle. Will you sell yours at a loss after years of patient effort in breeding, raising and developing, and let some one else in a few hours double their value by training and conditioning them ; or will you add a few hours to the years you have already spent and earn for yourself the added profit in dollars and reputation? Preparing for Auction It is doubly necessary to prepare cattle that are to be sold at auction. When selling privately the prospective purchaser may listen. to reasons why the animals appear untidy ; it may be possible to con- vince him that they are large, economical producers and worthy to enter his herd, but cattle sell quickly at auction and the buyer bids according to the way the animal and its pedigree look to him on that day. There is no time for excuses or explanations. It has been many times truly said that good care, feed and management command bet- ter prices at the ringside of an auction sale than anywhere else. To prepare a herd for auction the seller should plan far ahead. All females of milking age should be as nearly fresh and milking as largely as it is possible to have them, for, unwise as it is in many respects, a buyer will pay more for fresh cows than for those that are dry and soon to freshen, although in the latter case he could buy two for the sum he is willing to pay for one. However, most buyers fear to trust their judgment and take the risk of buying a dry cow, pre- ferring to purchase one fresh and showing at her best. Therefore, it is but the part of wisdom for the seller to recognize the demand of the market and have his supply fit the demand as closely as possible. There have been times when milking cows solely for manufactur- ing milk and butterfat was unprofitable. There have been times when raising cattle for sale only was unprofitable. The rule is that profits accruing from one without regard to the other are doubtful. But history does not and probably never will tell of the time when it has been or will be unprofitable to breed and develop good, large, hand- some, highly productive dairy cattle, encourage them by efficient care, feed and management to produce at their best and, by proper fitting and advertising, sell the annual surplus from the herd for what it is really worth according to the demands of the market. The Cow That Got a Chance Ti 1 1 HER RECORD As displayed at the J 1 49 pounds Butterfat National Dairy Show - \ _ r-^o i ka-ii I 2,5z3 pounds iVlilk S ((iW is I aim uis Mrs. ( )'( ',v:u\\, (lie Kra'U' JiTsc)', which was <_■ \hiln1 ('(I at ihr N a ( i u n a 1 I )ali-_\- Shew a I ( nhlllll Ills, ( Ihic. I'lhS, hy llic Vlliliil Slairs Dr- |iarl nil-Ill iif A.^ri culture, as the ]iiiiiicsl cii\\' 111 ihi' llanicsvinc, (llii.i, Cow 'I'cslinn' Assii- cialiiiii. She was heaileil fill- the h 11 t r h r r \\ hen I 'rul . I I iiL^h ( :. \'an I'c'll. ediliir nf 'j-he haii-.v h' a r 111 er, sa\\' lier, hiiiixeil her ci\er, saiil she was a l^imkI cow ami hiin,L;lu lier. lie [iri niLilit her t.i The I I a i r \- 200 Days in 1919 369.31 poundsButterlat hariner's hi,- fan I 7,263 pounds Milk it Walerhid, linxa. Tile k n I) w" leil).^'e that rrnfessiir Van I'elt has aci|nirecl during many years of raising and jiulgin.u; dairy cattle cnahled hiin to recognize this cow and to feed her to prohtahle iirodiictioii according to his life's study ol getting nia-\iiniini results from \arions feeds, esiiecially those grown on ycnir o«ii larin. This knowled.ge and lif^-'s slud_\' and work can he yours for it is assemhled in two great hooks that should he in llic possession of e\er>eine inti-resteii in the dairy industry. Coid''DenwiislratLOih- '& „«/.&rVmlVt- 'Van Pelt's Cow Demonstration" trlls I'l il.iiiy I'dvv. Il.ivv In Irll :i y, I COW fr ,-1 i„..,|- (,iir. Th, lur IHiinCs «lil. I, iiLik" ,1 cnw, N .in ciii f'rl ,'ill Ihis intnnn.iliMii linlil Ihis l.nnk. "How to Feed the Dairy Cow" llv I'lnf. Ihc'li i:. \'. rll ]liir,T,'iurs in f,-. ■,!',. Wlilil w.nl. Vnll cm csiKcl o( lliini. I h nv In KV\ iiit; v;,lll,-s mil of In,,- Iilic.'.l frrds, I low In CI I nn-s ill frrJinc. Hin innnm.n fr.rls riinl llii'ii- iisrs. ,'\ I k lli;il will Mivr ^ liiiinlir.ls nf ,l,ill;iis .■!■ II ,1 ^IlLlll III III. THESE TWO BOOKS ARE FOR YOU Scnil Two 1 llnc-\'.-,ir .Siili.srnpl inn.s lo Thr D.iiry l.-.-irni .-It .$1.1111 riicli ;iiiil Un- linoks will lie Mi.iilnl ynu linsl|i.-ii The Easy Way to Secure The Two Dairy Books "Van Pelt's Cow Demonstration" == AND =^ "How to Feed the Dairy Cow" By Hugh G. Van Pelt Secure a friend or neighbor as a subscriber to The Dairy Farmer for three years for only One Dollar and send it with your own three-year subscription and you will receive the two books postpaid. It is so easy, just send your check for $2.00 with your name and that of a friend and the books will be mailed. Use This Order Blank The Dairy Farmer Waterloo, Iowa, U. S. A. 19 Gentlemen: Enclosed find my check for $2.00 for which enter the following two sub- scriptions for three years each: 1 Name R. F. D Box_ Postoffice State 2 Xame R. F. D Box_ Postoffice State The two subscriptions for three years each as listed above entitle me to Two Dairy Books — ".Van Pelt's Cow Demonstration" and "How to Feed the Dairy Cow" — to be mailed postpaid to the following: Name R- F- D Bo.x Postoffice State Fill in the blank carefully and attach your check to it and mail it at once. A big reward for a little efifort. FRED L. KIMBALL CO. \ foremost livestock printers of the united states Waterloo, Iowa .i,inhiii|!|!lli,l||l!;ii,ij| |l|t||l M,lllli|l|!lJi! siiiii iiliii ' 1,,l,l aiiiiiiiiaiiiiiiiiiiiii i liii^