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 Anglo-Saxon house : 
 
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 CAYLORD 
 
 
 PHINTSO IN U ».A. 
 
 
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 THE A1L0-8M0N HOUSE 
 
 ITS CONSTRUCTION DECORATION AND FURNITURE 
 
 TOGETHER WITH AN INTRODUCTION 
 ON 
 
 ENGLISH MINIATURE DRAWINd OF THE 10" AND 11'" CENTURIES 
 
 INAUGURAL- DISSERTATION 
 
 PRESENTED TO THE 
 UNIVERSITY OP LEIPZIG 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE TAILOR FILES 
 
 -»»<• 
 
 LEIPZIGR. 
 
 PRINTED BY OSWALD SCHMIDT. 
 1893. 
 
 e 
 
 S.y. 
 
A, 2 1 32 /,3 
 
Preface. 
 
 The material for the present dissertation was obtained, 
 almost exclusively, from the manuscript Claudius B. IV. (Bri- 
 tish Museum), since this Ms. offers the greatest abundance 
 of architectural drawings. Yet I have not hesitated to make 
 use of drawings to be found in other illuminated Mss. of this 
 period in the British Museum, as may be seen from the 
 frequent references to Tiberius C. VI., Cleopatra C. VTII., 
 Julius A. VI., and Harleiana 603. Such references are used, 
 however, only when a particular cut in one of the latter is 
 unquestionably superior to any in Clan. B. IV in regard to 
 the point in question. 
 
 A word may suffice to explain the abbreviations used. 
 When no Ms. is indicated, the cut is to be understood as being 
 taken from Clau. B. IV., otherwise the abbreviations Tib. 
 Cleo. Jul. or Harl. are invariably added. The letter "a" 
 signifies the front, and "b" the back or reverse of a 
 folio, while the Roman numerals indicate the order of 
 the cut upon the page; e. g. CI. 141 (b. I.) means the 
 first cut on the reverse side of Folio 141 in Ms. Cleopatra. 
 The marginal references to Plates are but guides to the 
 four plates which are to be found bound into the back of 
 the thesis. 
 
 Lastly, it will be noticed that I have avoided, for 
 the most part, a strict comparison with the Anglo-Saxon 
 literature. This I have purposely done since an extended 
 or even partial comparison would have made the present 
 
 1* 
 
work of too great compass. I have here dealt exclusively 
 with the illuminations, with the aid of all that has been 
 previously done in the field of domestic Architecture 
 both among the Anglo-Saxons and the kindred Germanic 
 nations. 
 
 Leipzig, Jan. 28., 1893. 
 
 G. T. F. 
 
Table of Contents. 
 
 page 
 
 I. Introduction 7 
 
 a) The Irish School of Miniature Drawing 9 
 
 b) The English School of the lOth and 11th Centuries .... 11 
 
 c) Later Development 12 
 
 II. The Manuscript Claudius B. IV 13 
 
 III. The Development as shown in Claudius B. IV 15 
 
 Type vs. true Delineation from Nature 
 
 THE ANGLO-SAXON HOUSE. 
 
 IV. The Anglo Saxon Dwelling: 
 
 a) The Common Germanic Type and A.-S. Representative ... 24 
 
 b) The External Appearance of the House 29 
 
 o) The Internal Appearance of the House 34 
 
 d) The Construction of the House 37 
 
 e) Ornamentation of the Exterior 45 
 
 f) The Interior and its Decorations 51 
 
 g) The Furniture 1) The Seat of Honor or Throne 53 
 
 2) The Bed 60 
 
 3) The Table 62 
 
 4) The Dest for Writing 65 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis bool< is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027954282 
 
Introduction. 
 
 Before the end of the twelfth Century, two great eras 
 of Anglo-Saxon Art had arisen, flourished, and each in its 
 turn, sunk into the past as chapters for the great history of 
 the development of Art. Neither was destined to be lost, 
 yet, after the coming of the Norman Conqueror,*) the indivi- 
 dual characteristics of each, sank so far into the background 
 in consequence of the materially different taste of the Norman, 
 that the beauty of these English schools, which had, un- 
 questionably, surpassed all continental contemporaries and 
 vied with the products of the East in splendor and brilliancy — 
 lost its independence and originality to survive only in the 
 scanty remnants of more modern schools of decorative art. 
 Such a loss is to be sincerely regretted since the art of these 
 periods, together with the allied architectural development, 
 possessed that one quality of inestimable worth in such a 
 field — individuality; an individuality alike beautiful and 
 
 ') It may be said that today, in England, no remnants of unquestion- 
 able authenticity remain as examples of this Anglo-Saxon Period ot 
 Architecture. So complete was the destruction caused by the Normans 
 — and so thorough their energy in rebuilding — that practically nothing 
 of this interesting period remains. 
 
 C. Schnaase ("Geschichte der bildenden Kvinste im Mittelalter". 
 Bd. IV, S. 380) mentions the following examples of churches in which 
 Saxon influence is traceable 
 
 Church at Dover (just within Walls) 
 „ „ Brixworth. 
 „ „ Earls Barton. 
 
— 8 — 
 
 interesting — yet dependent enough upon surrounding influences 
 to make its successive steps of progress a complete study in 
 themselves. 
 
 These two great schools, then, flourished in England 
 between the 8"' and 12"' Centuries; the first (8*" and 9*'' cys.) 
 is not, in the strictest sense English, but rather Irish, since 
 the distinctive style upon which the whole type depends, 
 originated in the monasteries and cloisters of Ireland, but 
 found its complete development upon the neighboring Eng- 
 lish soU. 
 
 The second, which flourished from the beginning of 
 the 10* to the close of the ll''' Century, goes back to the 
 same Irish School for its source, but became in the course of 
 time so altered by the influence of the so called CarloAangian 
 school that it must be judged as a most perfect development of 
 these two sources — and at the same time, in consequence 
 of its combined characteristics — more beautiful than either 
 original. 
 
 No study of the illuminated Mss. which date from these 
 periods may be undertaken, at least, if such study be with 
 a view to discovering thereby the manners, customs and 
 peculiarities of the Saxons, without some previous knowledge 
 of the individual characteristics of these two schools. More 
 especially is this the case in the Mss. of the 11"^ and 12 Cys, 
 . in which the fixed conventionalities of miniature drawing 
 (illumination proper) have given way to a freer, more lifelike 
 delineation of objects and persons. Here each cut is made 
 up largely under such influences, and, only after most careful 
 study, is one enabled to eliminate all foreign and artistic 
 elements, and thereby get near to the real truth and form of 
 the objects represented. This fact is of vast importance in 
 consideration of such a subject as that of the present thesis 
 — -'The A. S. House". The illuminations to be considered 
 abound in instances of such influences, all of which must be 
 carefully eliminated before we may hope to arrive at a true 
 conception of the object in view. 
 
TJie striking clmraderistics of the two schools ■ 
 a) THE IRISH MINIATURE DRAWING. (8"> and 9* Cys.) 
 
 Schnaase remarks that the Irish took the first steps 
 toward the founding of a neiv scliool of miniature drawing.') 
 Whence it came will perhaps forever remain a question. Is 
 it Byzantine, or is it, as some believe, of Egyptian origin? 
 The latter supposition is an absurdity, since no such school 
 ever existed in Egypt. The best result is undoubtedly that 
 to which Schnaase himself comes, viz., that the origin is to 
 be found in Ireland itself and the peculiar style is but a 
 natural outgrowth from the character of these northern 
 people. 
 
 At the time when the Irish style arose , the glory of 
 illuminative art centered in the capital of the Eastern Empire 
 — where, in fact, it is supposed by many to have originated. 
 The power of the Christian church had long rested there, even 
 before the final rupture in 726 A. D. Thus it happens that 
 only in later years, when once again the supremacy of the 
 western Church had been recognized— we are enabled 
 to find a distinctive Roman art — (the so — called debased 
 Roman) which in part is closely followed by the English 
 school. 
 
 The Germanic tribes developed a style of illumination 
 peculiar to themselves and striking in its originality — the 
 result of the combination of oriental types with a native bar- 
 baric element. Nowhere is this more clearly illustrated than 
 in the Irish scliool — the parent of all northern deve- 
 lopment. 
 
 The material for such illumination is drawn from the 
 four following sources: first the textile art, eg. plaits, bows, 
 ziz-zags, knots and geometrical figures; second, the simpler 
 forms of animal life, such as birds, lizards, dogs, dragons: 
 third, those borrowed from metal work, eg. spirals and 
 
 ') Cf. Dr. Karl Schnaase's "Geschichte der bildenden Kfinste im 
 Mittelalter". Diisseldorf 1854. Bd. IV, S. 456. 
 
— 10 — 
 
 scrolls; and lastly, the human figure. *) No trace of foliage 
 work is to be found but the whole design consists of an 
 intricately interwoven mass of the objects already mentioned. 
 The birds and animals are weird and fantastic — always 
 holding to the most rigid laws of conventionality. Endless 
 bodies of scrolls , twisting and twining in seemingly aimless 
 entanglement, but suddenly emerging and terminating in heads 
 of animals, birds or men. The bodies are crude and conven- 
 tional — in most cases, only a portion being represented, yet 
 always in closest connection with the main body of the design. 
 The human form is freely represented — still each limb or 
 feature is but a pattern. The face is drawn squa/rely in 
 front — the eyes, ears, and mouth types and not represen- 
 tations of nature. The limbs are large and terminate in 
 inticate scrolls. The costumes are but masses of color 
 without naturalness — but shaped into geometrical form. The 
 whole lends an effect of complex masses of closely but skil- 
 fully interwoven threads, bands, or ribbons — lengthened and 
 enlarged into animal bodies. The coloring is bright and 
 varied — yet at the same time consistent. The letters are 
 large and of extreme intricacy — usually bordered by one or 
 more rows of red dots — which custom forms a most striking 
 characteristic of the Irish style. ^) 
 
 Such was the so-called Irish school of illumination, which 
 however did not continue long in England in all its strict 
 individuality and purity. As early as the beginning of the 
 9*'' Cy., this style became so mingled with the technical 
 effects of Roman influence that the combined qualities led to 
 that greater and perhaps more famous English School. 
 
 ') I have followed in general the description of these following 
 schools, as geven by 
 
 Schnaase (G. d. b. K.) and also. 
 
 Woltmann & Woermann's "History of Painting", Vol. I, p. 188 if. 
 
 Yet the views here presented are based largely upon a careful 
 examination of the Mss. of these periods. 
 
 2) cf. Plate I. No. III. (I. fol. 31. a.). 
 
— 11 — 
 
 b) ENGLISH SCHOOL OF THE 10*" AND ll*'' CENTURIES. 
 
 With the reign of King Aelfred a new life had begun 
 for the Anglo Saxons — alike intellectually and artistically. 
 Manuscripts were largely introduced from foreign lands — 
 particulary from Italy and France. The art of miniature 
 drawing advanced with equal pace but its style was funda- 
 mentally altered. Roman influence and particularly simplicity 
 of workmanship, as found in Carlovingian models, supplanted 
 the intricate Irish design. The leaf — debased form of the 
 Roman acanthus — now became the basal type in place of 
 heads and bodies of animals. The intricate laced-work was 
 stiU much used but of a less conventional form. This 
 style is indebted to the French for its abundance of 
 rich ornamental border-work. These frames or borders of 
 the pages — which had previously been masses of interlaced 
 scrolls — gave way to richly colored pillars surmounted 
 by graceful arches of rare designs. Profuse border-work 
 took the place of the lettered page and with it came 
 freedom from conventionality in the delineation of life. The 
 human figure was freed from its entanglement amid scrolls 
 and bands and given a more fitting place in the body 
 of the page. The body is free, expressed with much greater 
 activity, and depends less upon type. To be sure, the 
 proportions are still bad — the hands and feet dispropor- 
 tionately large and the limbs crude. But the symmetrical 
 regularity with which the shoulder curves into the arm and 
 the waist into the hip — a great fault in Irish work — is 
 to a considerable degree overcome. All the beauty of the 
 Irish band-work has been added to the grand but simple 
 qualities of the Roman form. 
 
 This style continued to acquire richness in its growth 
 until, throughout Europe, it was sought and distinguished 
 from all other illuminative art, as "Opus Anglicum", which 
 fact points to the esteem in which it was held.') 
 
 ') For confirmation of this fact cf. T. Wright's "Histori/ of Domestic 
 Manners and Sentiments in Eng. during the Middle Ages". London 
 
— 12 — 
 
 In the Benedictional of St. Aetlielwold, tlie style of 
 workmanship is thus mentioned. "I5thelwold commande.d a 
 monk subject to him to write the present book and ordered 
 also to make in it many arches, elegantly decorated and filled 
 up with various ornamental pictures, expressed in divers beautiful 
 colors and gold.^) 
 
 c) LATER DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 This beautiful work developed in two different lines, the 
 one in the direction of extreme ornamental finish and the 
 second, into complete simplicity. 
 
 The result of the first was a florid style of interlacing 
 branches and leaves, with richly drawn columns of Eoman 
 and Grecian types — all finished in beautiful colors and gold. 
 It points to the usual extreme which follows a symmetrical and 
 consistent climax in the field of art. Yet this extreme was 
 beautiful, although gaudy, and in the height of its glory 
 (middle of 12"' Cy) surpassed all other schools in point of 
 elegance and richness of color. 
 
 The second line of development was — as has been 
 said, in the direction of simplicity. We have already seen 
 how the Anglo-Saxon school borrowed from the Carlovingian 
 a greater freedom in the delineation of the human figure. 
 Nor did this development confine itself to the portrayal of 
 man, but animals, birds, foliage — in short all nature — began 
 to assume a more appropriate, a more lifelike appearance. 
 The artist seems to strive for greater freedom in order 
 that he may better express himself and portray objects and 
 
 1862. Also the books of Schnaase and Nonnanu montioned before. 
 Likewise Henry Shaw's "A Handbook of the Art of Illumination, as 
 practiced during tho Middle Ages". London 186fi. p. 16. 
 
 ') of. H. H. Humphrey, "The Illuminated Books of the Middle 
 Ages". London 1844/49. p. 2. 
 
— 13 — 
 
 persons as they appear to him in life. One by one the fixed 
 rules of conventionality are broken. The beautiful but stiff 
 and ornamental border gives way to a plain but more lifelike 
 drawing of some scene. The architectural surroundings gradually 
 assume the proper forms of houses and cast aside formal regu- 
 larity. The beautifully illuminated initial letter is supplanted 
 by some appropriate drawing for the adjoining text. In short 
 the illuminator has developed into an illustrator, and all his 
 efforts have this in view. It is, then, in such a period as 
 this that we must look for the dawn of illustration, not as 
 is often asserted — in much later time. The change has 
 already taken place and the excess of beauty and richness 
 in illumination has brought with it the necessary return to 
 simplicity and truthfulness to nature. 
 
 The development is gradual but unmistakable. Not 
 without a great effort does the Anglo-Saxon artist give up 
 the common types and conventionalities — this influence is seen 
 in each line that he draws. Traces of the preceding schools 
 are apparent in all work of the transition period — clearly 
 and distinctly defined. 
 
 The manuscript Claudius B. IV, from the illustrations in 
 which the material of the present thesis is drawn — belongs 
 exactly to this period (middle or latter half of the 1 V^ Cen- 
 tury) and illustrates all the sti'iking peculiarities. 
 
 II. 
 
 The manuscript, Cottoniana Claudius B. IV, now in the 
 British Museum (London), contains an Anglo-Saxon Paraphrase 
 of the Pentateuch together with the Book of Joshua, written 
 by Aelfric. ') 
 
 The date of composition can not be ascertained with cer- 
 
 ') The exact date of this manuscript can not be ascertained — 
 since no reference thereto is made in the book itself. Still it was, in all 
 probability executed within some 60 to 75 years after the date given as 
 the probable time of the original: viz. Middle or latter half of llth Cy. 
 
— 14 — 
 
 tainty but, in all probability, is not for from the year 997 
 or 998 (since in this and the other copies Aelfric calls him- 
 self "priester".^) 
 
 Besides the text are to be found some two hundred 
 and twenty illuminations, illustrative of different passages 
 in the paraphrase , so that the book is of inestimable value 
 both from the standpoint of its literary contents and still 
 more so on account of the actual portrayal of the manners, 
 customs, and dress of the Anglo-Saxons of that period. To 
 be sure, the real delineation of life, as found in this and 
 other manuscripts of its class, ^) is at the expense of the 
 beauty which characterizes the usual miniature drawing; yet 
 this transition between cold conventionality and freedon of 
 expression, forms in itself a period of art, a link in the long 
 line of development. We cannot wonder that the eye 
 accustomed to the regularity of border illumination should, 
 with difficulty, draw life in all its activity and freedom. 
 No radical change could possibly take place, but in accordance 
 with the usual laws of development , we find in all this 
 period a union of the first with the last, the earlier 
 with the later, while each and every trace of the earlier 
 forms is clearly defined in the drawings of the later. The 
 beautifully interwoven bands and ribbons of Irish work form 
 excellent patterns for branches and foliage. Add but the 
 Roman acanthus leaf to this and the vine is complete.') In 
 similar manner the graceful architectural column of the 
 Carolingian style offers material for a developed house, yet 
 so mingled and diffused with attributes of its prototype that 
 the borrowed elements must be first eliminated before we 
 may hope to obtain a true picture.'') Such is the case 
 
 ') cf. Prof. Wiilker's "Grundriss zur Geschichte der A. S. Litteratur". 
 Leipzig 1885. § 549-551. 
 
 2) The most important are as follows: Tiberius C. VI, Cleopatra 
 C. VIII., and Julius A. VI., all in the British Museum, and the Caedmon 
 Mss. in Bodleiana. 
 
 3) Vgl. Plate I. No. I. (fol. 17 a. I.) 
 
 *) Vgl. Plate 111. No. I. (fol. 24 b). II. No. II. (fol. 37 b). II. 
 No. V. (fol. 23 b. 3). 
 
— 15 — 
 
 throughout in the illuminations of 01. B. IV and a considera- 
 tion of this particular Ms. will suffice for this whole period 
 of art. 
 
 III. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT IN CLAUDIUS B. IV: TYPE VS. TRUE 
 DELINEATION FROM NATURE. 
 
 "We have already seen that the artists of freer — or as 
 some would term it, barbarous style of illumination, are in- 
 debted to two great periods of miniature drawing, first, the 
 neighboring Irish school and second, the debased Roman *) for 
 I shall so name this second, although most of the models 
 were, without doubt, of French workmanship. The Carlo- 
 vingian style is, however, so manifastly built up from the 
 Roman that the names might well be considered synonymous. 
 It remains now to find exactly to what degree the illu- 
 strations in CI. B. IV must be considered art types and not 
 true delineations from nature. 
 
 In the structure of the house, the style of design is, to a 
 great degree, dependent upon the French. The chief 
 characteristic and beauty of Carlovingian work manship 
 consists of a profuse border ornamentation of architectural 
 design. The sides of the illuminated pages are adorned 
 with beautifully finished columns, capitals, and bases, while 
 the top of the page is ordinarily rounded into a graceful 
 arch. The ornamentation of the pillars and capitals is chiefly 
 some Roman-acanthus design. '•*) This style the Anglo Saxon 
 has openly borrowed and incorporated in his architectural 
 forms. 
 
 ') This came to the Saxons chiefly through thfe French (as represented 
 by the Carlovingian School). 
 
 2) This will scarcely be found amply illustrated in the accompanying 
 plates. Unfortunately such plates are the most numerotts in the Ms. and 
 yet their dependence upon mere miniature type and style (the Carlo- 
 vingian) is so manifiat as to render them usiless as material for such a 
 work as the present. 
 
— 16 — 
 
 In CI. B. IV, where the cuts are small and badly executed, 
 this influence is not so readily seen, but still is unquestionably 
 there. For example, in the architectural surroundings of the 
 thrones of kings and powerful personages, the whole may 
 be considered in no other light than that of a free use 
 of architectural finish as appropriate background for the 
 royal seat. The design is in no degree a truthful portrayal of 
 internal decoration — on the contrary, only an ideal, artistic 
 finish. ') We must look to the cruder, simpler cuts to find 
 the necessary true delineations. The next step is, naturally, 
 a combination of the real and ideal and, accordingly, many 
 pictures (for the most part ideal designs) are finished with 
 portions of real houses ; eg. a pure Roman arch to which is 
 fantastically added a tiled roof and peaked towers, or a 
 similar arch with large gables and towers. A favorite 
 method of drawing a complete structure is as follows : the 
 king, with attendant guests, is seated in the center of the 
 picture. Over thei6 is drawn a series of two or more 
 ornamental arches, often supported by pillars and large 
 enough to enclose the assembled company. Above all this 
 may be seen the tiled roof, slanting sharply until it meets 
 the architectural finish. The angles between the arches are 
 filled with diminutive towers and gables while the whole 
 may be given a natural appearance by means of high towers 
 on either side extending to a level with and sometimes 
 above the roof. ^) 
 
 In other cases, the process has advanced somewhat 
 farther. The sides of the house may be finished with 
 architectural designs, while the roof is perfectly drawn from 
 real patterns, the whole giving the appearance of a roof 
 supported by a row of richly decorated columns. ^) 
 
 The last step is that in which the entrance or gateway 
 alone is dependent lipon some earlier influence. Such plates 
 
 ') Good examples of such traces may be seen in Plate XXIV 
 (Tib. 5 b). 
 
 2) Vgl. Plate III. No. I. (fol. 24 b). Plate II. No. V. (fol. 23. b. 3). 
 ' 3) Vgl. Plate II. No. III. (fol. 31. a. I.) Plate II. No. I. (fol. 32. a. I). 
 
— 17 — 
 
 are common and oftentimes beautifully drawn. ') There can 
 be but little doubt but that such was actually used in A. S. 
 Architecture. 
 
 In other plates, two portions of the city wall may be 
 finished with columns, while the space between is spanned by 
 a gracefully curving arch. 
 
 Only one fact remains to be mentioned and that too 
 belongs more to technique than to influence. It may be 
 frequently seen that the artist has, as it were, tacked the 
 front elevation of the house directly upon the side. Such an 
 occurrence can only be accounted for when we consider the 
 ignorance of perspective at this, period. The artist, being 
 unable to draw both front and side, has given the one heside 
 tlie other.''-) 
 
 In the field of external and internal ornamentation, the 
 A. S. artist is indebted alike to Irish and to Carlovingian 
 models. 
 
 It would be impossible in such an introduction as this 
 to enter into a fuU discussion of the extent to which the 
 Anglo-Saxon, as well as other Germanic nations are indebted 
 to the peculiar types of the early Irish school. ^) Not alone 
 does this occur in miniature drawing, but the whole field of 
 art is so pervaded by this one style that the influence 
 becomes recognizable at the first glance. Such remains are 
 far more numerous in Norway, but in the few that are still 
 left to us in England, e. g., the tombstones and wayside crosses, 
 ornamentation of armor and vessels, the fact is clearly proved 
 that art in general was borrowed from manuscript illumi- 
 nation. 
 
 1) Vgl. Plate II. No. 2 (fol. 37. b). Plate II. No. 6 (fol. 32. a. 11). 
 
 2) Vgl. Plate II. No. 5 (fol. 23. b. III). 
 
 3) Vgl. "Denkmaler einer sehr ausgebildeten Holzbaukunst aus den 
 friihesten Jahrhunderten in den inneren Landschaften Norwegens", brsg. 
 J. C. Dahl, (Dresden) 1837, und auch Schnaase's "Geschichte der hilden- 
 den Kunste im Mittelalter" , likewise Rudolf Henning's "Das deutsohe Haus" 
 p. 61. In these works a full description may be found of the peculiar 
 external and internal ornamentation of houses in Denmark, Sweden and 
 
 -Norway. The whole is traced by Schnaase to an Irish origin. 
 
 2 
 
— 18 — 
 
 In the present Ms. examples of such work are numerous, 
 the most noteworthy may he said to be the following: 
 
 The decorations of the shafts, capitals and bases of the 
 columns, ') the friezes of the walls, 2) the iron ornamentation 
 as well as the panels of the doors, and the carved work 
 upon the chairs and beds =*) are all dependent upon the same 
 hand design, interminglid with curious heads of animals and 
 birds. The drgtperies upon the walls and doors, as well as 
 clothing and armor are universally adorned with ornaments 
 of similar design. It must be born in mind throughout, that 
 such work is relieved by the use of the acanthus leaf — which 
 will be noticed particularly in the consideration of the devel- 
 opment of the landscape. 
 
 No better example of a free use of such elements could 
 be found than the prows of ships which in Folios (14. a II), 
 (14. b), (lo. a),*) represent the Ark as conceived by the 
 artist. Long bands colored in blue and yellow emerge from 
 the mouth and neck of the fantastically conceived heads of 
 monsters of indescribable sort. These bands twine among 
 themselves or about the animals neck, disappearing in the 
 carved portions of the beak -and, in turn, emerging in similar 
 form or as broadened acanthus leaves. Such designs as this 
 are represented upon the corners of houses and columns 
 throughout the Ms. ^) Yet more interesting to observe and 
 fruitful to trace, is the almost entire dependence of the artist 
 upon such models for his delineaticm of the objects of Nature. 
 A iigure, an architectural ilourish, or a border may be designed 
 with great skill, but for his interpretation of the different 
 forms of natural phenomena and particularly for the landscape, 
 the artist is still bound by the hard and fast lines of con- 
 ventionality. Each and every object becomes a type and however 
 
 '■) Vgl. PI. IV. Nos, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 
 
 2) Vgl. PJ. III. No. 9 (T. fol. 13. b). 
 
 3) Vlg PI. IV. No. 10. (fol. 56. b. III). Vgl. PI. IV. Noa. 18, 19, 
 20. Vlg. PL IV. Nos. 15, 21. 
 
 *) Vgl. PI. I. Nos. (4 and 5). 
 
 5) Vgl. PI. 11. No. 3. (fol. 31. a. I). 
 
— 19 - 
 
 often it may be represented, one find little if any deviation 
 from tlie fixed standard. 
 
 The tree is but a solid, clumsy trunk terminating in an 
 oval mass of green. There are -no leaves, no branches — 
 only stubby little bunches protruding here and there from the 
 body of the tree which may suggest broken branches or 
 sprouts. *) Leaves, in the solid mass of what typifies foliage, 
 are suggested by sliort circular dashes, or regular tile-like 
 compound curves. Gradually however the branches begin to 
 assume form, and this slight development may be traced in 
 CI. B. IV., particularly in loUo 7 (a), where the separation 
 from the mass becomes necessary, the representation being 
 the temptation of Eve where the Serpent is found twining among 
 the branches. In other Mss. e. g. Tib. C!. VI., the development 
 becomes very marked. The foliage has assumed a more wavy 
 form, the branches are separate and distinct from the body 
 of the tree, while the trunk assumes more slender and graceful 
 proportions. Wherever the tree is to be found, whether 
 growing from the earth, or a separate piece, it is invariably 
 suggested by the branch-like protrusions over its surface. 
 
 Much more originality and freedom is shown in the 
 delineation of the trees than in that of the shrubs and bushes. 
 In the latter strict conventionality is rigidly adhered to. In 
 fact, they can scarce be called types, for so formal is their 
 portrayal and wanting in originality, that the finished picture 
 gives the impression of a nicely conceived design. Here the 
 artist is more than commonly dependent upon the acanthusleat. 
 
 Folio 36 (b. I) furnishes us with a perfect example. The 
 central figure is a beautiful scroll design. The two sides 
 are perfectly similar, each branch being exactly balanced by 
 a similar one upon the opposite side. The stem or trunk is 
 represented as an upright succession of out-growing stems, 
 from the junctions of which proceed stems or branches 
 finished with acanthus leaves , strictly conventional in form. 
 The two bushes upon either hand hold less firmly to 
 
 1) Vgl. PI. I. No. VII (fol. 7. a). 
 
— 20 — 
 
 the usual types , the trunks being longer and more slender, 
 while the branches emanate from separate portions of the 
 stem near the top. 
 
 In Folio 93 (a. II) the drawing of the palm trees is 
 interesting. There are two rows, each containing some twelve 
 conventional acanthus designs, no one of which bears the least 
 resemblance to a palm-tree. The artist has evidently seized 
 upon this as an excellent opportunity to show his power in 
 original designing, for no two trees are at all similar but 
 all are more artistically conceived patterns. 
 
 With such a use of the acanthus leaf the artist has 
 joined the entwining branches, particularly so in the portrayal 
 oi vines. Take, as exa,m^le, Noah's vinyard (in Folio 17. a. 2).') 
 The trellis is formed of a single horizontal rod resting in 
 the crotched ends of two uprights. Around this trellis wind 
 the many branches of the vines, twisting in and out in most 
 intricate fashion. Here and there upon the stems are attached 
 the conventional acanthus leaves while the ends of the vines 
 terminate commonly in species of blossom made of five circular 
 petals. No better illustration of the adaptation of the Irish 
 band-work to the portrayal of nature may possibly be found. 
 The one is fitted perfectly to the drawing of the second and 
 has been unscrupulously borrowed. 
 
 The grass of the fields is rarely represented. Only in ' 
 one instance (Folio 7. b. II) are long blue blades to be found 
 and here the representation is quite natural. 
 
 Earth and sky conform to one type in the mind of the 
 A. S. artist. The form may be described as long series of 
 compound curA^es one emanating from the other. Such a type 
 lends itself very appropriately to the conception of the clouds 
 and so they are always represented; long series of such 
 connected compound curves alternating with wavy lines of 
 similar length and regularity. But for the representation of 
 the earths surface, such a method is less commendable. The 
 earth thus becomes one extant of waving, hill-like surfaces. ^) 
 
 >) Vgl. PI. I. No. I (fol. 17. a. I). 
 
 2) Vgl. particularly in reference to this, the two cuts made from 
 Cleopatra C. VIII (Folios 28. b. I and 27. b. II) both or Plate XXVII. 
 
— 21 — 
 
 For the formation of hills these curves Rise to a much 
 higher level and. descend upon the other side. Not only in 
 CI. B. IV but in all the Mss. of this period the artists adhere 
 to this one type for the earth's surface. 
 
 In the early pages of the Ms. ') the artist finds abundant 
 opportunity for the delineation of animal life. These Folios treat 
 of the Creation. The fowls of the air, the beasts of the 
 iield and, finally, Man, are drawn with varied success in point 
 of truthfulness to nature. ^) These again are but types , for, 
 were it not for the horns of the cattle and sheep, the beard 
 of the goat and the lump of the camel, the cuts might 
 serve as well for one as for the other. Each animal has its 
 tjHpe with slight variations in size and form. The whole 
 delineation is but a succession of curves, the neck curving 
 slightly from the back and the legs from the body. So also 
 in case of the birds, the body, wings, and tail are all successions 
 or variations of ciu'ves, offering little originality. The feathers 
 too are short circular dashes. 
 
 The artist seems to have had little difficulty in drawing 
 garments, and this may be accounted for when we think that 
 the manuscripts had for ages been filled with representations 
 of Saints and Church Fathers. When once the clothing is 
 removed, the artist becomes lost in the maze of anatomical 
 structure. 
 
 For such a cause as this, the style of this period has 
 been called barbarous by many commentators. ') Without 
 doubt it deserves the reproach for little or no skill is displayed 
 in this brance of drawing. 
 
 Here again body and head are but patterns. *) The 
 figure as a whole, is composed of hoios and knots. The eyes, 
 nose, and mouth are but slight dashes of the brush while 
 
 1) d. h. Claudius B. IV. 
 
 ^) Vgl. the one Plate made in regard to this point : Plate I. No. II 
 (fol. 48. b). 
 
 3) This whole style of "Miniature Drawing" is characterised as a 
 "barbaric outgrowth of a once beautiful Art" in the "History of Painting" 
 by Woltmann and Woermann. 
 
 *) Vgl. PL I. Nos. 6 and 7. 
 
— 22 — 
 
 the hands and feet are large and disporportionate. I cannot 
 refrain from quoting a passage from Woltmanns and Woermanns 
 "ffistory of Painting" (p. 188, vol. I) which describes the 
 general appearance with wonderful truthfulness: "The lanky 
 figures with attenuated limbs, lifeless heads and wild fluttering 
 draperies, with fidgety creases at the edges and often 
 exaggerated in their movements, but with all this rawness 
 of treatment, the compositions, often containing many figures, 
 show a surprising number of lively motives and happily 
 devised incidents." 
 
 The drawing is oftentimes bad, but still a great advance 
 has been made. The forms have stepped down from there 
 frames and taken on life and action. There is movement, 
 if without grace, and there is life, even though the limbs be 
 but successions of badly drawn curves. Even in the drawings 
 of Tiberius 0. VI, which has been so often cited— there 
 remains a stiffness of limbs and joints which marxs the 
 picture — although many of the curves of the body are drawn 
 with much accuracy. 
 
 THE LANDSCAPE. 
 
 Twice in the course of the whole Ms. the artist has 
 raised himself from the level of the ordinary designer, and 
 in these two plates — crude and primitive as they are — 
 we possess the actual germs of a landscape. The text to be 
 illustrated is descriptive of the river which flows from the 
 garden of Eden and reads as follows: ' 
 
 ("Daet flod is ^anon todseled on feower ean. An ea of 
 ^am hatte flson — seo gseS anbutan ?>8et land ^set is gehaten 
 evila^ — ^aer ^ser gold wyxS ~| ^ses landes gold is goldas .... 
 Sser beoS eac gemette Sa gimriistanas ^ellunn ~| honynclumis." ') 
 
 This cut alone may be called a real painting. All con- 
 ventionality is thrown asid^^and the brush alone serves to 
 illustrate the contents of the text. The quadrangular surface 
 
 1) or this one " | ^oetflod eode of stowe to stowe >8ere wynsumnysse 
 to wcBteringeiiiie neorxnawang." 
 
— 23 — 
 
 of the frame or border is colored in dark red, shading to a 
 blue near to the picture. The yellow of the vellum serves 
 as an appropriate color for the sky, while the body of the 
 river is painted in green. All other elements are omitted — but 
 the triumph remains in this alone that the rigidity of type 
 has once given way to the free use of the brush. 
 
 In all other examples that we have considered, the 
 diiferent forms of nature have been represented as individuals 
 forms — alone and distinct. In no one instance do we find 
 the whole combined in one comprehensive sketch. To be 
 sure, in (Folio 34. a. II) which represents Lot hidden in the 
 mountain cave, there is much more breadth of conception,— 
 yet all is conventional and the mountain holds to the strict 
 formula of representation for the earth's surface. 
 
 The emancipation was only accomplished piece by piece. 
 As soon as the individual forms were bettered the finished 
 whole followed immediately,. Still the great advancement 
 which the Ms. 01. B. IV demonstrates is that so often 
 mentioned— a stip toward freedom of design and delineation. 
 Barbarous as the style may be, we cannot but admire this 
 early step from illumination to illustration. 
 
IV. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon House (ll'" Century). 
 
 a) THE COMMON GERMANIC TYPE AND ITS A.-S. 
 REPRESENTATIVE. 
 
 Before entering into a minute description of the Saxon 
 house in all its particulars, it may be well to give, as briefly 
 as possible, a short sketch of the probable form of the 
 original Germanic House together with its development in 
 England. 
 
 Two fundamentally diiferent opinions have been advanced 
 in regard to the form of the original Germanic House; the 
 first, the theory of unity, or the form in which mem and beast 
 were sheltered under one and the same roof;^) and the second, 
 that of multiplicity, where not only man and beast, but also 
 each separate department of the household, demanded its sepa- 
 rate structure.''-) Whichever may have been the real original 
 form, the consideration of the house of the German in his 
 continental home becomes of great importance to the present 
 subject, since it is there that we must look for facts to sub- 
 
 ') This view is particularly upheld in regard to the German house 
 by Heinrich Otte in his "Gesohichte der deutschen Baukunst von der 
 Romerzeit bis zur Gegenwart". (Bd. I, p. 45.) Leipzig, 1861. He 
 believes the early houses in Saxony in which all is comprised within one 
 structure, to be the original whereas, 
 
 2) Moritz Heyne in "Germania X", p.. 94 gives priority to the 
 Frankish house — of more than one building. 
 
— 25 — 
 
 stantiate certain views, and— of still greater importance — for 
 the testimony which the literature furnishes. 
 
 The iirst of the theories given above is, perhaps, more 
 strongly upheld, and yet, upon careful examination of the 
 German house, the following peculiarity becomes unmistakable, 
 viz., as one approaches nearer to the North Sea, the 
 tendency toward separate structure becomes greater. Rudolf 
 Henning, in his excellent treatise, "Das deutsche Haus", lays 
 particular stfess upon this fact and finds particularly in the 
 Frisian house the tendency to combine three or more houses 
 clearly defined.*) Such was true, without doubt, in the case 
 of the English house. For a great part, the houses must 
 have been separate structures, although the tendency to join 
 the smaller buildings to the main house, in shape of sheds and 
 ells, seems to have begun at an early date. 
 
 Turning from Germany, which probably has undergone 
 radical changes from the strong civilizing influences of the 
 continent, we may find, in- the more secluded districts of 
 Nortvay, a better field for research in regard to the original 
 Germanic house.-) There, among the remains of a well 
 developed system of architecture, are to be found many 
 instances of separate structures in the building of the House. 
 These too, in all probability, come very near to an original 
 type. The houses are universally built of wood, large, irreg- 
 ular, and built either entirely distinct from one another, or 
 joined closely wall to wall. Each individual structure contains 
 rarely more than one room, whereas, in some instances, a 
 sleeping apartment seems to have been added as an ell. The 
 old custom of the great hall in which the leader received and 
 
 ') I have made use of the treatise as it appeared in Ten Brink 
 und Scherer's "Quellen und Porschungen", Bd. 47, p. 43, also published 
 as a separate work; "Das deutsche Haus in seiner historischen Bnt- 
 wickeluDg" von Rudolf Henning. Strassburg, 1882; auch London, 
 1882. 
 
 -) I have here followed the description of the Norwegian house, as 
 given by Dahl in his work upon the remains of this early architecture in 
 Norway, "Geschichte einer sehr ausgebildeten Holzbaukunst in den innereu 
 Landschaften Norwegena" von J. C. Dahl. Dresden, 1837. 
 
— 26 — 
 
 entertained Ms retainers, is commonly adhered to, while apart 
 from this stood the separate buildings, each for some parti- 
 cular purpose. In the sagas of the North there was a separate 
 house for each of the household needs, and the actual remains, 
 which are unquestionably of great antiquity, reproduce these 
 customs with striking truthfulness. 
 
 The Gothic house likewise, as far as may be judged 
 from literary remains, coincides with these views of the Ger- 
 manic type.') The different structures which made up the 
 house were numerous , separate , and ordinarily used for a 
 single purpose. All the small peculiarities which distinguished 
 the house of the northern nations from that of the south 
 seem to be reproduced and illustrated in the Gothic liter- 
 ature. 
 
 Such was, in all probability, the common Germanic type. 
 We know from the description of Tacitus that the Germanic 
 village was scattered over a large extent of territory'-') — yet, 
 not alone the village, but the home of the private individual, 
 must be conceived as being made up of distinct structures, 
 which, taken as a whole went to make up the home. 
 
 In England, this custom of building separate structures is 
 clearly demonstrated in the literature and in illuminations of the 
 existing manuscripts. An inquiry into the literature does not 
 belong to the field of the present treatise, yet it may be well, 
 before leaving the "A. S. house in reference to its dependence 
 upon a Germanic type", to mention the important instances in 
 which this custom of separate structure finds its strongest proof. 
 
 In the Harlein manuscript No. 603^) there occurs a most 
 important cut. The Ms. contains many inferior representations 
 of houses but Folio 67 (b) may be said to picture the A. S. 
 house in all its details. The picture is designed as an illustra- 
 tion for the 91st Psalm^) and represents the righteous and 
 
 •) I have followed the comparison made by Henning (Das deutsche 
 Haus). p. 121. 
 
 2) Vgl. Tacitus' "Germania" 16. 
 
 3) Harleiaa a 603 in the British Museum. The following description 
 is made from personal examination of the Mss. 
 
 ^) Psalm CXI in the "Vulgata". (Psalm CXII in "King James Version"), 
 
— 27 — 
 
 generous lord feeding and clothing the poor, within his own house- 
 hold. ') The master of the house is seen in the arched doorway, 
 together with his wife, distributing loaves to the hungry- 
 while in the doorway of an adjoining structure other members 
 of the household are dispensing clothing. In this home, the 
 distinct structures are four in number, while the addition of 
 three ells or sheds, increases the number to seven. In the 
 center stands the great hall, in front of which is to 
 be seen a semi-circular entrance or porch surmounted by a 
 cupola, which, in turn, is supported by pillars and arches. 
 To the left, is a second quadrangular building, built partly 
 of stone with large arched doorway and small windows. 
 This was the living-apartment either of the master or of his 
 retainers. This, second structure seems to join the hall — wall 
 to waU— for about a fourch of its entire length. A shed or 
 ell is attached to the side of this second house while to the 
 side of the eU still another smaU structure is built on. 
 
 On the right of the main hall stands the small church 
 or chapel which is distinguishable by its cross. Another 
 shed or ell is joined to the chapel, while behind the whole 
 structure rises a small portion of the sides and roof of a circular 
 building. Here then are four distinct buildings— joined to each 
 other only enough to permit of passing from one to another. 
 The tendency to join the separate structure to the main 
 house, as an ell or shed, is also fully illustrated. 
 
 In Claudius B. IV., B'olio 89 (b. 11),^) we possess most 
 conclusive proof— although the cut is one of the poorest in 
 the Ms. The picture seems to be a cross-section of four 
 ^adjoining buildings.') The houses seem to be simply framed, 
 each with its peaked roof and inner supporting — column. 
 
 particularly illustrating^ the fol. passages : 3. "Wealth and riches shall 
 be in his house and his righteousness endureth forever." 9. "He hath 
 dispersed, he hath given to the poor, his righteousness endureth for- 
 ever, etc." 
 
 1) Wright, in his "Homes of other Days", (a later edition of the 
 book already mentioned) gives also a description of this cut. 
 
 2) Vgl. PI. III. No. "VIII (fol. 89 b. II). 
 
 ■*) Only three of the four buildings have been reproduced. 
 
— 28 — 
 
 Most singularly, however, the structures are joined side to 
 side— if we may trust the illuminations— one wall serving for 
 the side of two buildings. 
 
 In Folio 31 a. II., two and perhaps three separate struc- 
 tures are represented while upon the side of the more remote, 
 two sheds have been added.') 
 
 In Folios 32 (a) and 38 (b), taken from Cleopatra C. VIIL, 
 we find two perfect illustrations of the exact method in which 
 the sheds were added to the main structure. '^ 
 
 Such, then, seems to have been the method, or, better the 
 style, which the Anglo-Saxon inherited from the great Ger- 
 manic stock: — a group of separate structures, wholly apart 
 from one another or, in a measure, joined side to side. This 
 style of domestic architecture appears to have been preserved 
 from the time of the earliest migrations to the island, to the 
 coming of the Norman Conqueror. Each of the chief house- 
 hold needs demanded its individual building. There was, 
 before all, — particularly in the homes of the wealthy and 
 more powerful — the great hall where the noble feasted and 
 drank with his friends and retainers. Besides this, we must 
 include within the picture the other important buildings — 
 the treasure room, the stable, the kitchen and the washroom. 
 
 Yet, all this time, the tendency toward concentration 
 was in progress - - particularly in the towns and cities where 
 the land rose greatly in value and the houses conformed 
 naturally to the demands of the time. We have already seen 
 that this tendency can be clearly marked in all the manu- 
 scripts of the period. First, we find the separate structure; 
 secondly, the buildings are more closely united; thirdly, the 
 adjoining buildings are confined to small side buildings or 
 ells; and lastly, all or much is included under one roof in 
 the form of separate rooms. 
 
 In the middle of the 11"^ century, when, in all probability, 
 the Ms. Claudius was made, the Anglo Saxon culture had 
 reached its highest point. The language existed in all its 
 
 ') Vgl. PI. III. No. n (fol. 31 a. II). 
 2) Vgl. Plate IV. No. I (C. fol. 32 a). 
 
— 29 - 
 
 purity, Art in all its beauty, and Architecture— in sprite of 
 the unfavorable account of "William of Malmesbury') — must 
 have reached, at least, a fair state of perfection and beauty- 
 At all events, it possessed originality. 
 
 Today, few, if any traces of such architecture are to be 
 found in England. It has given way to the more highly 
 developed and, unquestionably, more beautiful style of the 
 Normans. All that we know, or all tliat we may ever know of 
 this original development of architecture in England must, 
 for the greater part, be collected from the scattered remains 
 in the Anglo-Saxon manuscripts. 
 
 b) EXTERNAL APPEARANCE OF THE HOUSE. 
 
 Without some fairly beautiful types of domestic architec- 
 ture actually before the eye, the untrained hand of the illu- 
 minator could never have produced such unique and tasty 
 structures as are actually to be found in the Mss. of this century. 
 To be sure they are crude and stiff, in many ways ill 
 proportioned, and devoid of all perspective. Yet there is a 
 straightforward simplicity in each which immediately appeals 
 to our interest. Externally, the Anglo-Saxon house is represen- 
 ted as being plainly, yet skilfully constructed and decorated 
 in the prevalent style which will be described later on. 
 Internallj', the house seems, for the most part, to have been 
 small (rarely more than one story in height), simply furnished, 
 but quite gorgeously decorated. 
 
 The individual building is commonly quadrangular in 
 form, with enough variation in size to serve the purposes 
 of the household and the needs of its owner. This quadran- 
 gular building becomes by no means, monotonous, since the 
 representation of circular and oval structures is surprisingly 
 frequent throughout the Mss. Such circular buildings are, 
 in part, separate houses, and, in part, merely porches, or, as 
 
 ') The passage is often quoted from William of Malmesbury in 
 which he describes the Saxons, at the time of the conquest, as living 
 "in dissipation and extravagance, in houses mean and despicahh". 
 
— 30 — 
 
 we may say, hall-ways to the main building. We are at 
 first inclined to consider these circular structures as mere 
 cuts drawn after the models of some foreign school, yet such 
 is not the case, since all the Mss. of the period agree in 
 this particular, and, furthermore, there is no such round 
 type to be found in any school of miniature drawing. 
 The building material is almost universally of wood— only 
 in rare instances, are the foundations represented as being 
 constructed of stone. Both exterior and interior are finished 
 in timber, oftentimes carved, and worked into curious designs. 
 The outer surface of the house is rarely left plain but,, 
 ordinarily relieved by long horizontal strips of narrow timber. 
 The roof joins closely upon uprights of the side walls — rarely 
 if ever projecting far enough over the wall to represent 
 eaves. The roof is either peaked, — the sides sloping gradually 
 form the ridge-pole to the eaves — or circular, when so de- 
 manded by the shape of the building. These circular roofs 
 bear a striking resemblance to the rounded cupola of Byzan- 
 tine architecture. The roof slopes from the peak to the 
 junction of the wall in gently rounding curves. The main 
 building seems to have occupied but a small portion of the 
 whole space allotted to the whole household. Adjacent and 
 adjoining buildings, ells, porches, sheds, and towers (circular 
 or quadrangular) partially, and, at times, wholly concial the 
 body of the main building. The adjoining buildings are 
 either entirely distinct or joined, in part, or, as a whole, to 
 the side of the hall. The sheds either join squarely upon 
 the wall of one of the houses, or are attached to the main 
 walls in the form of ells, each shed possessing its own roof. 
 In many cases, long towers (square and circular) are attached 
 to one of the walls of the principal building — exending to, or 
 even above, the roof. Each tOwer is independently finished 
 with tiled roofing. 
 
 One of the most strikingly characteristic touches which 
 the artists have given to the illuminations are the countless 
 diminutive towers which ornament the roof. This is so 
 prominent that, when a number of such structures are 
 represented as a whole, these same little towers represent a 
 
— 31 — 
 
 most noticeable part.') No chimneys are to be found — in 
 fact their advent belongs to a later period.') Nor is the 
 "testudo" — or covered means of exit, for the smoke — to be 
 seen. Whether this is a neglect or the part of the artist 
 or whether the doors and unnumerable small windows 
 served as conductors for the smoke— it is impossible to saj'. 
 Yet one thing immediately impresses you as being at least 
 probable, namely, that these countless small tower-like 
 structures which have already been described may have 
 served as a means of exit for tlie smoke, and form the 
 forerunners of the modern chimney. These small towers are 
 always built upon the roof either at the center of the ridge 
 pole or at the back or front of the building (sometimes both). 
 The sides are short, capped with peaked roofing, and usually 
 containing a number of small slashes or windows. At this 
 advanced age, the doors could scarcely have served univer- 
 sally as means of exit for the smoke from the hearth. Further- 
 more, no "testudo" is to be found, and it may be only just to 
 conjecture that these small chimney — like structures served 
 for the purpose mentioned — although, by no means, directly 
 connected with the hearth. They are possibly more elaborate 
 ''Hestudos" . 
 
 The roofs of the buildings are either tiled or shingled 
 — many diiferent varieties of the latter being noticeable in 
 the drawings. The description of these will be found on later 
 pages. The buildings are usually one story high — although 
 structures of two stories are unquestionably to be seen in 
 some of the more pretentions houses. The fact that houses 
 of two or perhaps more stories were not unknown to the 
 artist, is proved by the illustration of Noah's Ark which has 
 three distinct floors. In the lower, are to be seen the animals, 
 in the middle, the birds and fowl, while Noah and his family 
 seem to have appropriated the upper story. 
 
 One or more doors are represented within the walls of 
 
 1) Vgl. PI. in. No. I (fol. 24 b). PI. II. No. V (fol. 23 b. 3). 
 
 2) Chimneys were quite universally used in the ISth Cy — their ad- 
 vent belongs, probably, to the second half of the previous Cy. 
 
— 32 — 
 
 the house— usually in the center of the shorts sides or ends. 
 This is particularly noticeable in the drawing of one of the 
 circular buildings, where the perspective is clearly enough 
 marked to allow both doors to be seen. In many cases, the 
 door is concealed behind the arched entrance or porch, which, 
 in turn, is finished with plain columns and singled roof, 
 although these same porches often contain the most elaborately 
 decorated columns and capitals.') 
 
 The windows are few and usually similar in construc- 
 tion to the doors — although, naturally, smaller in size. In 
 Noah's Ark, the window is protected by means of a shutter, 
 hung in the same manner as the doors. Glass (although quite 
 commonly used for drinking vessels) was, probabjy, never used 
 for windows. 
 
 The universal means of obtaining air and light, as well 
 as of furnishing an exit for the smoke within, appears to 
 have been small window-like openings in the walls and towers. 
 These openings oftentimes give a fantastic appearance to the 
 exterior of the house, since they are found, not only as the con- 
 ventional and usual long, narrow slit, but also as circular 
 openings — square and oblong cuts — and many quite fantastic- 
 ally conceived in design. In this regard, it is often hard to 
 distinguish whether the above mentioned forms are intended 
 to represent windows or merely external decorations. We 
 may set the common type without difficulty — since the pre- 
 valence of the long, narrow opening puts the question beyond 
 doubt. 
 
 In all the Mss., the free use of color upon the exterior 
 seems to have been recognized. Red, green, blue, and yellow 
 — both in solid body-color and in partial tones — are used 
 with unsparing hand. Necessarily, the artist has greatly 
 exaggerated this brilliancy, yet, deducting all the mistakes of 
 the artist, we shall find that the result compares very 
 favorably with the description given in the literature.'') In 
 
 1) Vgl. PI. II. No. I (fol. 32 a. I). 
 
 2) An exhanstive inquiry into the adjectives used in A. S. littera- 
 ture, in regard to the appearance of the house e. g, gold-fah, fattum 
 fah, sinc-fah etc. etc., would be both interesting and helpful to the 
 
— 33 — 
 
 fact, the Anglo-Saxon's eagerness for brilliant color can 
 scarce be much exaggerated in the manuscripts. The exterior 
 wall of the house seem either to have been painted in one 
 solid body color, or left with the natural color of the 
 timber. The edges of the eaves, the frames of the windows 
 and doors, and the entire surface of the towers, are ornamented 
 with various yet nicely blended colors. The eaves and arched 
 entrances to the porches are bordered with serrated orna- 
 ments painted in blue and red, or with intricately worked 
 bands in color or carving.') 
 
 We shall see , in the more complete description of 
 of the columns,^) that many were turned and represented 
 alternating bodies of convex, concave, and cylindrical divisions 
 — separated by narrow beaded edges. These different portions 
 are colored in well ordered tones, as well as the capitals, 
 which permitted of still greater variety in coloring. The 
 shaft of the column, when not curved, is often painted 
 in pretty designs, at times in parallel rows, and at other- 
 times, in broad spirals which encircle the shaft from top to 
 bottom. The shingles of the roof are often colored, this — 
 added to the fact that the tiles or shingles themselves are 
 varied in size and form — lends a still more pleasing effect. 
 
 The exterior of the house was ornamented not only with 
 color but probably quite as much with designs of carved 
 wood- work. The peak of the gable, for example, is quite 
 commonly finished with a leaf-like ornament which strongly 
 resembles the French "fleur-de-lis". In the Beowulf, we learn 
 that the gables were crowned with antlers of enormous size. ^) 
 This seems to have remained customary until a very late 
 period, since, in the illustration on Folio 67 (b.), Harleiana 
 603, which has already been mentioned, both skull and antless, 
 are affixed to the gable. 
 
 In general, however, the drawings in the manuscripts 
 
 understanding and appreciation of the external appearance of the 
 house. 
 
 1) Vgl. PI. II. No. I. Fol. 32. a. I. 
 
 2) Vgl. page 50. 
 
 3) Vgl. Beowulf 11. 80—81. "Sele hlifade heah and horn-geap". 
 
 3 
 
- 34 — 
 
 are too small and badly finished to give us an adequate idea 
 of the extent to which wood carving was used by the Anglo- 
 Saxons in exterior and interior ornamentation. The proof 
 which we posses for this fact is meager but conclusive, as 
 will be seen in the chapter upon the subject. Yet, outside 
 of England, in lands where the methods of building and 
 decorating coincide closely with those of the Saxons -the 
 prevalence of such work is seen in well preserved remains. 
 For example, in Norway, in the wooden church at Urnes 
 (which, I may here add, may, in all its completeness, be 
 patterned, part by part, by drawings in A. S. Mss.) the whole 
 wall is decorated with such fantastic carved work of Wsh 
 design. ') 
 
 Other work of this sort is found in the church at Urnes, 
 though less skilfully done. 
 
 Besides such complete examples as these, scattered 
 specimens of beautifully carved window and door frames 
 are to be seen in the various Museums. No better proofs 
 may be had than the three beautiful specimens of such work 
 in the South Kensington Museum (London), in the Architectural 
 Court. Two of the specimens are of Norwegian and the third 
 of Irish origin — both representing clearly that adaptation of 
 the Irish band-work to carved ornamentation. 
 
 c) INTERNAL APPEARANCE OF THE HOUSE. 
 
 Access to the interior of the main house (the Hall) is 
 obtained, first, through a small porch, and then by means of 
 a single door, entering directly into the hall itself. The use 
 of this porch is not one of immediate importance but serves 
 rather as an ornamental finish to the front elevation of the 
 house. In form, it is either rectangular or semi-circular, pro- 
 tected ordinarily by a gracefully peaked or curved roof. The 
 sides consist chiefly of plain pillars, in many cases supporting 
 an arched frieze immediatily below the roof. The floor of 
 
 ') Vgl. Carl Schnaase (Gesch. d. b. K. im Mittelalter). page 445. 
 Vol. IV. 
 
— 35 — 
 
 this porch seems, ordinarily, to have been raised a slight 
 distance ahove the earth — forming a platform or approach to 
 the door itself. ') It may be well to mention here that many 
 of the circulars structures which appear in the manuscripts 
 are little more than porches. This is the porch which was 
 furnished with a bench upon which the guests sat and there 
 laid aside there armor before being summoned to the interior 
 of the house. This reference is of frequent occurrence in the 
 literature. 
 
 Passing across this raised entrance to the house, one 
 comes to the door which opens immediately into the hall. In 
 most of the neighboring buildings, this is the only entrance— 
 the porch being dispensed with, or perhaps, more properly 
 speaking, being considered as a necessary part of the hall 
 alone. This door opened outwards and was adorned with heavy 
 hinges and metal ornaments. In form it seems to have been 
 narrow in proportion to its length and invariably rounded at 
 the top. 
 
 Once within the main hall, the first thing to attract the 
 attention would, in all probability, be the large pillar or 
 pillars which supported the roof. In many instances, there 
 seems to have been rows of such columns extending along 
 the center of the room and, in the Mss., ornamented with 
 capitals and surface designs. 
 
 The inner walls were, undoubtedly, rarely finished but 
 covered with hangings and curtains — the designs upon which 
 are, in Claud. B. IV., unique and well arranged. Unfortunately, 
 the ignorance of the laws of perspective and, still more, the 
 carelessness of the artists have left us with meager repre- 
 sentations of interiors, so that the facts that we are able to 
 find must be gleaned from material scattered here and there. The 
 hearth is never represented — but we shall not come far from 
 the truth, should we place it at the center of the room near 
 the pole or column which supported the roof. 
 
 ') The best representation of this porch or "Vorballe" is obtained 
 from the plate on Folio 67 (Harleiana 603. B. M.). All the details are 
 clearly portrayed. The cut has been reproduced by Thos. Wright (Homes 
 of Other Days) p. 26. 
 
 3* 
 
- 36 — 
 
 In the center, either of the end of the hall opposite the 
 main entrance, or of one of the long sides, is situaded the 
 seat of honor, which is either a more pretentious throne, 
 cross-legged seat, or a long bench upon which master of the 
 house sat surrounded by his family and honored friends. In 
 the Ms. Claud. B. IV., this seat of honor is usually placed in 
 the middle of the end opposite the entrance, while the benches 
 for the retainers and guests, extend along the two long sides. 
 We possess representations of benches seating from ten to 
 thirteen persons. 
 
 If the person of honor represented be a king or chieftain, 
 he is invariably attended by his body guard or armor bearer, 
 who stands to the right of the royal personage, bearing 
 shield and drawn sword. 
 
 Chairs are represented in many illustrations, usually 
 differing only in a sKght degree from the heavy straight- 
 back chairs of the 14*'' and lb"' Cys. These, however, are 
 almost universally confined to the use of the ladies room or 
 bed rooms — the more substantial benches being better fitted 
 for the needs of the great hall. 
 
 The center of the floor is either left bare or tiled with 
 variagated bricks. The sides along by the benches seem to 
 have been planked. Furthermore, the feet were also protected 
 from the earth by means of footstools — the surface of which 
 was draped with embroidered coverings. The tables are of 
 various lengths and forms, always suited to accomodate the 
 number of guests. The legs of the tables are commonly plain 
 but, in some instances, they seem to have been tastefully 
 carved and otherwise ornamented. The top is covered with 
 cloth of beautiful color — draped and falling in neat folds from 
 the edge of the board. These tables — particularly the long 
 ones for the accomodation of many persons — seem to have 
 been temporary structures, probably consisting of long boards 
 (as the A. S. word "bord", signifying table, would suggest) 
 and supported by means of uprights with branching legs. 
 They were moved in position before the guests before the 
 meal, and, immediately after it, taken away. The guests sat 
 upon the long benches along the waUs and — when eating — are 
 
— 37 — 
 
 served from the opposite side of the table, only one side being 
 occupied by those feasting. The dishes are simple in design 
 but show a variety which would suggest skill in workmanship. 
 
 The interior of the adjoining buildings and smaller attached 
 rooms cannot be so accurately described— since the only one 
 carefully represented in Glau. B. IV. is the room of the mistress 
 of the house and several smaller rooms which are undoubtedly 
 bedrooms. These are universally small— one storied — so that, 
 in most cases, we may judge them to be mere sheds or ells 
 added to the main house. The decorations correspond in 
 general to those of the main hall — though usually simpler and 
 less assuming. 
 
 The bed seems to have been made either as a fixed 
 portion of the room or as an entirely independent piece 
 of furniture with high head and foot boards. In many cases, 
 the room seems to have been just wide enough to accomodate 
 one bed, either upon the end or one side. The prevalence of 
 instances in which the great cushions rest directly upon the floor 
 gives sufficient proof that a bedstead or even bunk was quite 
 a luxury. The Anglo Saxons seem to have slept quite com- 
 monly upon heavy mattings laid directly upon the floor. 
 The front and sides of the beds are not uncommonly draped 
 with pretty curtains. 
 
 These small sleeping rooms served, in many cases, as the 
 private apartments for the women. In other instances, the 
 women seem to have occupied more pretentious apartments 
 — probably separate or adjoining buildings. 
 
 The other rooms and separate buildings must have been 
 numerous but drawings of them fail in Ms. CI. B. IV., as well 
 as other Mss. of this Century. There is but one cut in which 
 the artist has clearly drawn an interior destined for a definite 
 purpose. In this illumination we find Joseph's store house 
 portrayed. The large square interior — filled with sacks of 
 grain — differs in no way from the ordinary structure. 
 
 d) THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HOUSE. 
 
 Whatever material is to be had from the manuscript 
 Claudius B. IV. in regard to the method of building as prac- 
 
— 38 - 
 
 ticed among the Saxons must be gathered from casual sug- 
 gestions scattered throughout its pages. A single occurrence 
 is not always sufficient to establish the rule, but the frequent, 
 sometimes constant use of certain fixed designs, materials, and 
 methods leads to the establishment of rules which governed 
 the Saxon in his building. 
 
 As regards material, there can be little doubt but that 
 the Anglo-Saxon house was built almost exclusively of wood. 
 A structure built of stone may be detected by the method of 
 representation, viz., the parallel lines drawn horizontally across 
 the walls and cut by short intersecting lines. As illustrations of 
 this , we may take the outer walls of the fortifications. In 
 only two instances among the illustrations of houses, are 
 there even suggestions that the lower portions may have been 
 constructed of brick or stone.') The foundation was com- 
 monly of stone and in representing this the artists have 
 undoubtedly exaggerated its height. It is but an instance of 
 bad proportion which has been found to be the case so 
 often. ^) Structures built of wood are uniformly drawn with 
 plain surfaces.') 
 
 A second and interesting proof that the use of brick 
 and stone was more uncommon, may be had from the fact 
 that in all pictures representing the construction of a house, 
 the proportion of carpenters to masons is in the ratio 
 of nine to one. The carpenter is universally represented 
 with hammer and nails — while, in three instances alone, we 
 may conjecture that the workmen are masons. Folio 19 (a) 
 
 ') Vgl. PI. III. No. III. (fol. 19 a.), PI. II. No. VI. (fol. 32 a. II,), 
 in all probability the outer wall. 
 
 ') Tbis is particularly noticeable in the cut on Folio 67 (Harleiana 
 603) which has been already referred to. The stone portions of the walls 
 in some cases extend nearly to the roof.— only a small portion being 
 left for the windows. 
 
 3) Schnaase (Gesch. d. b. K. im M.) gives as his view, that, in Eng- 
 land, nearly all structuree — even of churches — were built of word. (Bd. IV. 
 p. 380). It is also interesting to compare the similar developement in 
 wooden buildings in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Particularly so 
 that of Norway as described by Dahl (in Gesch. e. s. a. H. i. i. L. Nor- 
 wegens). 
 
— 39 — 
 
 has frequently been used to illustrate the fact that mijch of 
 the Saxon house was built of stone. Yet this cut, which 
 represents the building of the Tower of Babel, cannot be too 
 literally construed, since the artist has simply illustrated the 
 whole of the sentence "Uton timbrian us ceastre and stypel", 
 and the stone portion represented is the city wall — not that 
 of the house.') 
 
 Yet the use of stone could not have been extremeley 
 uncommon since in the two churches represented or Folios 32 
 (a) and 33 (b) from Cleopatra C. VIIL, the foundation is in 
 one case built of stone, while in the other, the church appears 
 to have been constructed entirely of the same material.^) 
 
 The timbers were hewn into the required form with large 
 broad-axes, the best representation of which is found on Folio 
 14 (a) where Noah is in the act of hewing a timber for the 
 Ark. When once placed in the desired position, these timbers 
 are held to one another and to the uprights by means of 
 spikes or large nails — the tUes of the roof and hinges of the 
 doors being made fast in similar manner. Stagings are frequently 
 represented, being constructed of planks supported by means of 
 long narrow horizontal timbers, which in turn are held in the 
 crotched ends of uprights. Besides such stagings, perfectly 
 constructed ladders are of frequent occurrence. One of the 
 finest of these is found in the illumination which represents 
 Jacob's Dream. 
 
 ') Vgl. Plate II (19, a), where only a portion has been reproduced. 
 The whole is to be found on Plate IV in the "Horda Angeleynna" by 
 Joseph Strutt (London, Vilbl&]. Compare also the description of this 
 cut in Moritz Heyne's, "Ueber die Lage und Construction dor Halle 
 Heorot im angelsachsischen Beowulfsliede", Paderbom, 1864, p. 38. The 
 description in general is accurate but the following mistakes become 
 evident upon closer study of similar cuts in Mss. I. "ein Arbeiter auf 
 einem Geriiste stehend, das zwei andere mit gehobenen Armen stiitzen." 
 A fault of perspective, the staging is supported by crotched uprigMs — as 
 is universally found. II. "Diese Thiire kann sich, der daran stehenden 
 Saulen wegen, nur nach innen offnen." A second fault because ot poor 
 perspective. The doors open almost universally outward. III. "Dass 
 derselbe etwa aus Ziegeln aufgefuhrt oder vlelleicht schon abgeputzt set." 
 This point has already been discussed. 
 
 2) Vgl. PI. IV. No. I. (C. fol. 32 a). 
 
— 40 — 
 
 TJie outer ivalls of tJie house were supported by long 
 upright timbers. Proof of tbis is to be found in two cuts in 
 which cross sections are represented: Folios 89 (b. II) and 14 
 (a. II). ') From the upper end of these timbers, the roof rises 
 to the ridge-pole which, in turn, is supported by the column 
 within the house. ^) These various points of structure may be best 
 seen in the pqrely drawn but useful cut on Folio 89 (b II). 
 
 The illumination which represents Noah's Ark — Folio 14 
 (a. II)^s also useful and worthy of more careful description. 
 Upon the solid body of the boat, which itself is planked with 
 long timj)ers extending fore and aft, is built the house-like 
 structure for the reception of animals and fowl. The whole 
 building is three stories in height — the second and third 
 stories each smaller than the one next below. The upper 
 portion alone has a slanting roof — and that too, not to a 
 ridge-poll' but topped by a flat roof. In the lower story is 
 to be seen a large door, and in the upper story, a Avindow 
 similar in construction and form. 
 
 These outer walls of the house were not infrequently 
 ornamented, as Avell as strengthened by columns or pillars, 
 which are ordinarily placed at the four corners of the 
 building. 
 
 The form of tlie separate buildings shows great variety 
 and freedom of design — the majority being rectangular, while 
 the remainder are circular or oval. The rectangular buildings, 
 in general, follow so closely to the general description which 
 has already been given that they need no further mention, 
 yet it still remains to establish, if possible, the construction 
 and purpose of the peculiar circular structures. 
 
 There are in all, in ( 'laud. B. IV., eight plates illustrative 
 of such circular rooms. ^) There are also many other plates 
 which represent portions of the roof but those only have been 
 mentioned where some portion of the house itself is visible. 
 
 ') Vgl. PL III. No. 8. (fol. 89 b. II). 
 
 2) Vgl. PL III. No. 8. (foL 89 b. II). PL II. No. 5. (fol. 23 b. III). 
 
 3) VgL Polio 31. (b.II), Folio 63. (a. II), Folio 34. (a. I), Folio 44. 
 (b. I.) Plate II, Folio 35. (b. I), Folio 37. (b) Plate II, Folio 36. 
 (b. II). 
 
- 41 — 
 
 In the instances cited above, the room seems to have been 
 used for the following purposes: 
 
 1. In three cases, as the Main or Eeception Hall. 
 
 2. In three cases as the Sleeping Koom and, 
 
 3. In one case, as a Dining Hall. 
 
 Yet since, as we have seen, the dining was nearly 
 always in the Main Hall, — the last must be counted among the 
 first. Thus it is fair to conclude that this circular building 
 was a style common to any of the more important needs of 
 the household — yet, from the nature of its structure and the 
 table given above, it seems to have been particularly adapted 
 to the purposes for which the Hall was built. In such a 
 room as this, the master might have full view upon all sides. 
 In one instance (Folio 31. b. II) the two sons-in-law of Lot sit 
 in the center of such a room and there receive the message 
 sent by Lot concerning the doom of Sodom. 
 
 Yet, all things being considered, we must not judge too 
 liberally concerning such structures, for, without doubt, they 
 were in most cases the circular porches already described as 
 ornamenting the main entrance to tJw hallJ) Folio 44 (b. I)'^) 
 is clearly such an instance and yet immediately within 
 Abraham is seated feasting. So small an obstacle as the 
 front wall of the house was no hindrance to the imagination 
 of the Saxon artist. 
 
 In construction, these circular structures were similar to 
 the rectangular buildings — the outer walls being made of 
 wood. One peculiarity is noticeable, namely, that the two 
 extremities of the diameter are usually ornamented with 
 towers extending somewhat above the roof. These, in cases 
 where the circular building is to be considered as complete 
 in itself, are a sort of round ells. In the instances where 
 the buildings are to be construed as porches, they are mere 
 small, ornamental towers which serve to finish the wall. 
 In some cases, these circular buildings are furnished with 
 
 1) The best proof of this is to be found in Harleiana 603. 
 
 2) Vgl. Plate II. No. 4. (fol. 44 b. I). The persons (6 in number) 
 seated within have not been reproduced. 
 
— 42 — 
 
 two doors while in others, the outer surface is devoid of all 
 further iinish. 
 
 The roofs of the Imlls and adjoining buildings differ as 
 widely as the buildings themselves. In short, they are made 
 to suil^ the size and form of the structures which they cover. 
 The common style is that of the peaked or ordinary ridged 
 roof.') Next in order of frequency would come the circular 
 roof. ') In the instances of the curved roof the lines slope from 
 a central point tothe edge of the walls in gentle, but very pleasing 
 curves. The last to be mentioned are the roofs of the adjoining 
 sheds and ells.'^) As has already been mentioned, these have 
 been much misrepresented and wholly misunderstood— simply 
 because of the inability of the artist to represent perspective. 
 The roof of the shed is attached, at the upper portion, directly to 
 the side of the building and slopes thence quickly to the 
 uprights. Sometimes the shed takes the form of an ell, attached 
 to the house at theback, thus possessing its own peaked roof.') 
 
 The boards which rested upon the rafters, are protected 
 hy means of tiles or shingles. The consideration of these leads 
 us immediately into difiiculty, both on account of the care- 
 lessness of the artist and, still more important, the want of 
 actual specimens by which the different forms may be verified. 
 In Claudius B. IV alone, no less than seven different kinds of 
 coverings for the roof are represented. It may be possible 
 that some of these different forms represent thatch or reed 
 roofings, yet even with the assistance of the literature, the 
 question remains one of extreme difficulty. 
 
 The type which is ordinarily used may be easily identified 
 as the tile or shingle, similar to those so commonly used 
 today. This shingle is represented, in the drawings, as being 
 of various lengths, rounded at the lower end, and always 
 placed so as to cover the joint made by the two shingles 
 immediately below.*) The shingle is held to the boards of 
 
 1) Vgl. Examples on Plates II, III, and IV. 
 
 2) Vgl. PI. III. No. 11. (fol. 31 a. II). 
 
 3) Vgl. Folio 67 (Harleiana 603). 
 
 *) Best representations of this common type may be seen on PI. II. 
 No, v., PI. III. No. II , PL III. No. VIII. 
 
— 43 — 
 
 the roof by means of a nail, which is indicated in the drawings 
 by a point in the center of the shingle. 
 
 In other cases, the shingle is square — extending, probably 
 in similar manner, over the joint of the two immediately 
 beneath — the nail being driven in the lower left hand corner. ') 
 Such shingles as these afford excellent opportunities for 
 decoration not only because of their different form but 
 also, the various colors with which they were painted. 
 Sometimes a square tile is divided into two triangular halves, 
 the two portions being painted in different colors — the colors 
 of one, corresponding to those of its neighbors.'^) To relieve 
 this apparent monotony, the shingles are suddenly divided 
 in the opposite direction. 
 
 Still another peculiarity of arrangement appears in the 
 cuts where the roof is divided perpendicularly into equal 
 portions by means of long strips of wood extending from the 
 ridge-pole to the eaves. These strips are, in all probability, 
 intended to represent long strips of wood which cover the 
 cracks made by the long boards which cover the roof 
 Furthermore th«se perpendicular sections are again intersected 
 by short horizontal strips, in which divisions, the shingles 
 are nailed side by side. ^) These varieties are, in truth, mere 
 ornamental contrivances for roof decorations. 
 
 In Ms. Harleiana 603. (Folio 67 b.), there occurs a peculiar 
 variation from all found in Claud. B. IV. In this, the whole 
 roof of the hall is simply divided into square surfaces or 
 portions of equal size. Such a roof as this — upon the Main 
 Hall — in all probability represents a metal covering, the 
 divisions marked, merely indicating the joints of the metal 
 plates. 
 
 There remain yet to be described the peculiar coverings 
 of the circular roofs and herein lies the great difficulty. The 
 general appearance of these may be described as follows: 
 long lines radiate from the peak in the center, to the outer 
 
 1) Vgl. 22 (a. I) not reproduced. 
 
 2) Vgl. 63 (b. I) not reproduced. 
 
 3) Vgl. Folio 63 (b. I) not drawn. 
 
— 44 — 
 
 circumference of the circular roof. The sections thus formed 
 are divided into portions of equal length by means of double 
 dissecting lines.') We learn form the more careful represen- 
 tations in Harleiana 603. (Folio 67 b.), that these small sections 
 or rows of sections are cylindrical — or better still, convex in 
 shape. This fact is also indicated by the cuts in CI. B. IV., 
 since the short dissecting lines are invariably curved. 
 
 The question remains, what do these drawings really 
 represent? There seems but one plausible explanation for 
 these, namely, that they represent a more skilfully executed 
 convex tile. There is still another possibility and that is, 
 that this is but a method of representing a reed roof, the 
 lines being the strings which made the reeds fast to the 
 roof. This latter view is, however, far less probable. 
 
 TJie doors of the period seem to have been simple struc- 
 tures of wood. They are solid in structure, high, but narrow, 
 the top (as has been said) being invariably rounded.'') This 
 seems to have been a distinguishing type of the architecture 
 of this period. 
 
 The doors are, in many cases, heavily laden with two or 
 three enormous hinges, curiously designed. Ordinarily, the hinges 
 extend more than three fourths of the entire width of the 
 door, and terminate in arabesque scrolls, while, from the upper 
 and lower side of the main arm of the hinges, other branches 
 radiate at more or less regular intervals. Entirely independent 
 of these hinges, may often be seen other branches and scrolls 
 so that the door may be said to be literally laden with metal 
 work. Such work, in all probability served both as ornamen- 
 tation for the door, and — perhaps more specifically— as a means 
 of strengthening the boards from without. The finest instance 
 of such work is to be found or Folio 14 (a. II), the represen- 
 tation of Noah's Ark. The hinges, in this pictvire, conform 
 to the usual type, but besides these may be seen a long metal 
 rod extending from the top to the bottom of the door along 
 
 1) Vgl. PI. II. No II. (fol. 37 b). PI. II. No. I. (fol. 32 a. I). PI. II. 
 No. VI. (fol. 32 a. II). 
 
 2^ Vgl. PI. II. No. V. (fol. 23 b. III). 
 
— 45 — 
 
 the center. From this rod radiate, from the top and sides, 
 numerous short spirals of tasteful desi^s. 
 
 Besides these hinges and other metal ornaments, there 
 frequently occurs the staple and ring. The whole is so simply 
 drawn that a closer examination ^h'ads to no further results. 
 
 The windoivs of tu.o kinds, either large openings with 
 hinged shutters, very similar to, although smaller than, the 
 doors, or, as is usually the case, mere long and narrow openings 
 cut in the side of the wall. ') Nothing need be said in regard 
 to the former, since they resemble the doors so closely. Yet 
 they never appear to have been ornamented with the metal 
 work, as in the case of the doors. One instance (Folio 67 b. 
 Harleiana 603) is worthy of mention. In this drawing the 
 window is cut into the side of an ell, — the top of the window 
 and shutter being square (or at right angles with the sides) 
 thus forming the only exception to the rule which seems to 
 have demanded a rounded top. The shutters found in this 
 plate, as also in 14 a. I., open outward. 
 
 The second and far more usual style of windows is the simpler 
 opening or cut into the house wall. These are ordinarily 
 represented in the sides of the wall near to the eaves, or, in 
 other cases, cut into the sides of the small ells and towers. They 
 are commonly long and narrow, although in many instances 
 they seem to have deviated from the original purpose of admitting 
 air and light, to one of mere ornamentation. This is illustrated 
 by the instances in which they are round, square, and even cut 
 into greater variety of form. The most of such small cuttings 
 and windows must have been without all permanent means 
 of covering. 
 
 e) ORNAMENTATION OF THE EXTERIOR. 
 
 Should we include within such a description, the decorative 
 art as found upon the Churches, such a discussion might form 
 in itself a separate treatise. This, however, will be carefully 
 
 ') These occur in all the pictures of houses. Vgl. Plates II., III., 
 and IV. 
 
— 46 — 
 
 avoided, only so much material being drawn threform as may 
 be judged to apply alike to the church and to the house. 
 
 All the necessary material may be drawn from four 
 plates, the first three form the Ms. Claudius B. IV: 
 
 I. Folio 14 (a. II), including also similar bits from the 
 
 Folios 14 (b); 15 (a); and 15 (b).') 
 II. Folio 124 (b)— a beautifully decorated exterior. 
 
 III. Folio 32 (a. I)^) an example of the usual method 
 of pafnting in domestic architecture, and 
 
 IV. Folio 13 (b)— secleted from Ms. Tiberius C. VI., 
 which — although clearly representative of church 
 architecture — nevertheless presents many features 
 which belong equally well to the house.') 
 
 We have already seen, in the Introduction, how all the 
 ornamentation both of the interior and exterior were depen- 
 dent upon the style of drawing practiced in the miniature 
 work, whereas all such work may be said to go back, for 
 its peculiarity in style, to the early Irish School of Miniature 
 Drawing*) — a peculiar style of workmanship which is more 
 commonly called "arabesque". 
 
 We might possibly question the accuracy of such draw- 
 ings as are to be found in the Mss., and attribute much to 
 the imagination of the A. S. artist— did we not possess proof 
 that such decorations are unquestionably true representations, 
 in the fact that a style, similar almost to the minutest detail, 
 flourished in Norway and Denmark, and is illustrated today 
 by perfectly preserved specimens. ^) Such a style was strikingly 
 original, and pleasing because of its fantastic character. 
 
 We may assume as a first principle, that the Anglo- 
 Saxon house was decorated both with painting and with 
 carved word — in most cases, probably, by a combination of 
 the two. 
 
 ') Vgl. PI. I. Nos. IV and V (fol. 15 a and b). 
 
 2) Vgl. PI. n. No. I (fol. 32 a. I). 
 
 3) Vgl. PI. III. No. IX (T. fol. 13 b). 
 
 *) Schnaase (Gesch. d. b. K.) traces all such work, both in England, 
 Norway, Demnark, and quite universally throughout the continent, back 
 to Irish origin. 
 
 5) Vgl. J. C. Dahl's (D. e. s. a. H. i. i. L. N.), Dresden, 1837. 
 
— 47 — 
 
 In the field of external painting, the cut upon Folio 13 
 (b) Tiberius C. VI. affords the best example. ') The building- 
 is two stories in height surmounted by a tower. A flight of 
 three steps led to the lower story. The faces of these steps 
 are painted in two designs, the lower and upper, in the 
 following manner: around the steps at equal distance from 
 the edge is drawn a line (which may possibly indicate that 
 the whole is paneled). The interior surface is divided by 
 means of double alternating dissecting lines so joined as to 
 form triangular parts, wliile the space between these parallel 
 lines is relieved by three or more dots (strongly suggestive 
 of Irish influence).'^) The middle step contains six geometrical 
 figures. Above the upper step rises the lower story of the 
 building, the lower portion of which is supported by five 
 columns each with short shaft and large bases and capitals. 
 The latter are freely painted or carved, as are also the 
 shafts. Still above the capitals is seen a narrow arched 
 frieze similarly decorated with scroll designs. The trimmings 
 of the outer edge of the walls and roof are throughout beaded 
 or dotted. Above the main body of the house rises a gallery — 
 bordered by heavy columns (only one being visible in the 
 cut). This column is without base or capital, but around the 
 shaft extends a double-lined spiral. The frieze above this 
 is likewise decorated with scrolls and dots. 
 
 The highest portion of the structure seems to represent 
 a tower or cupola, supported by three graceful columns, lined 
 and dotted, while the arched frieze above contains painted 
 scrolls of symmetrical acanthus design. 
 
 No better representation of this somewhat ornate style 
 of decoration may be had. Most of the designs were probably 
 painted — only in the case of the bases and capitals of the 
 columns, may we suspect them to represent carving. 
 
 The cut on Folio 32 (a. I)^) represents a painted door- 
 way of arched pattern. Its surface is decorated with short 
 
 <) Vgl. Plate III., No. 9, (T. fol. 13. b). 
 
 2) Vgl. Introduction, p. 10. 
 
 3) Vgl. PI. II. No. I (fol. 32 a. I). 
 
— 48 — 
 
 dashes of red, drawn in slight curves left and right from 
 the center. The entire upper edge is bordered by a serrated 
 row of blue points. The frames of the small windows are 
 also painted in blue and red. 
 
 On Folio 14 (a. 11) the carved prows are brightly painted 
 in blue and yellow, while the separate planks of the ship 
 are colored in neutral tints. The doors and windows, in 
 light Vermillion. 
 
 In carved work, the Anglo Saxon seems to have followed 
 similar methods — the result being a unique combination of 
 complex Irish band-work with the addition of the Roman 
 acanthus. The description of a few such examples will sufiice 
 for the whole style. 
 
 Folio 124 (b) is unquestionably the finest bit of designing 
 in the manuscript. The whole structure seems to represent 
 an ideal church front, or possibly, the vaulting of an interior. 
 The capitals of the three heavy columns are massive and 
 magnificently drawn examples of the acanthus leaf carved in 
 wood — the gracefully curved petals of which hang far out 
 over the body of the shafts. Connecting the three columns 
 are two arches, formed of combined rounded and angular 
 strips. Within the open space left between these strips at 
 the peak, are to be seen similar ornaments of acanthus design, 
 the petals of which wind in and out among the strips — thus 
 supporting there own weight. Above and connecting these 
 extends a single curved arch. 
 
 Still, in regard to such carving, the oft mentioned cuts 
 on Folios 14 (a. II), 14 (b), and 15 (b), are of great assistance, 
 the figures upon the prows and sterns of the different pictures 
 which illustrate the Ark, being most perfect examples of such 
 carved work. In each case, the prow is represented as the 
 head of some grotesque monster — usually with the head, 
 ears, and nose, of a dog or wolf and the neck of some sea 
 monster. From the mouth and back of the neck protrude long 
 bands which twine and interweave among themselves, as well 
 as the ornamental strips upon the ships prow — now ending in 
 perfect spirals and again, in enlarged leaf designs. Some of 
 these bands are painted blue throughout their entire length, 
 
— 49 — 
 
 others yellow, while the whole design may be complicated 
 and confined at the center by means of a bright red ring. 
 In Folio 14 (a. II) the monster seems to hold in its beak 
 the branching leaves of the acanthus, wliile from the neck 
 protrudes an ornament much resembling the mane of a horse.') 
 The stern of the Ark in this cut is decorated with the tail 
 of a fish carved into somewhat conventional shape. 
 
 In the cut or Folio 31 (a. I)''') the corner of the porch — 
 immediately above the capital of the column — is finished with 
 a similar scroll of leaf pattern. 
 
 In addition to these ornaments, we may mention the 
 peculiar little figure which is so frequently used to finish 
 the peak of the gable , in form very similar to the French 
 "fleur-de-lis". 
 
 The influence which the Carlovingian school of miniature 
 painting exerted upon the later English work, leaves, as one 
 of its most important results, a great number of examples of 
 the different styles of columns used in architectural design. 
 No one fixed style , however , seems ever to have been held 
 to, but the same drawing will often contain specimens of 
 unadorned shafts finished with capitals of Irish band-work, 
 side by side with turned columns or those of pure Roman 
 design. 
 
 The style most prevalent was the plain shaft, with 
 equally simple capital and base. In short, it was little more 
 than an upright, finished at top and botton with a simple 
 block of wood. Such hardly deserve the name of columns. 
 Yet the more pretentious columns were by no means rare — 
 particularly in the construction of the porch and the more 
 important buildings, as we may see by a closer examinations 
 of the illuminations.') 
 
 The fluted shaft is rarely met with and, in cases where 
 
 ') Vgl. Plate I , Nos. IV. and V. (fol. 15 a and b). 
 
 2) Vgl. Plate II. No. Ill (fol. 31 a. I). 
 
 3) Cf. Plate IV, where I have collected all the various examples of 
 columns to be found in Claudius B. IV. The drawings are arranged in 
 regular order, beginning with the simplest which was little more than 
 a pole— to those of complex design, particularly in capital and base. 
 
 4 
 
— 50 — 
 
 it actually occurs, the drawing is always much more suggestive 
 of external painting than of actual fluting. 
 
 That style which we must consider most typically Saxon 
 is the style which is ordinarily called the "turned" column. 
 Its general appearance resembles very strongly the round of 
 a modern balustrade.') The body of the shaft is divided 
 into short sections, from five to eight in number, the surfaces 
 of which are either concave , convex , or bell-shaped. These 
 separate sections are, in turn, tiers bf circular disks from 
 three to five or eight in number, the whole shaft being often 
 surmounted by a small capital of acanthus design. In Folio 
 32 a. I. the different sections are painted in yellow and brown. 
 
 A most perfect reproduction of this column is to be 
 found in the stone pillars which support the frame of the 
 arched window in the old tower (of an old Saxon Chui'ch) at 
 Earls Barton. The form is identical with those represented 
 in the illuminations. In regard to such pillars, Schnaase 
 justly remarks that such work is evidently borrowed from the 
 "turner's art".''') 
 
 In general, the shafts show slight variations; it is in 
 the capitals that the great divergence is to be found. The 
 favorite type in the latter is the scrolling acanthus — resembling, 
 in many cases, a debased Corinthian column. Still scarcely 
 less frequently we meet with the entwined band-work which 
 found its way into the capital, as well as upon the broad surface 
 of the shaft. Such carved capitals are also brightly colored — a 
 favorite method seems to have required that the background 
 sliould be painted in some dark tone — thus leaving the figured 
 leaf in bold relief, either left unpainted or colored in some 
 bright tint. The same method seems also to have been used 
 upon the surface of the solid carved-wood-work. Thus we 
 find the broad panels carved and colored in pleasing variety — 
 the friezes painted with equal care, and above all, well formed 
 columns or pillars adorned with equally consistent design. The 
 
 ') Vgl. PJ. IV. No. IV and PJ. II. No. I (fol. 32 a. I). 
 ^) Vgl. Schnaaae's "Geschichte der bildenden Kunste". Bd, IV. 
 p. 383. 
 
— 51 — 
 
 whole may well point to a height of excellence in decoi-ative 
 art which was surpassed only by similar development in the 
 Miniatm-e Painting of the same period. 
 
 f) THE INTERIOR. 
 
 In the Ms. Claudius B. IV., the building most frequentlj' 
 represented is, naturally, the main hall, or, as we may per- 
 haps better call it, the Audience Boom. *) lIoreoYer, this room 
 is seldom represented in its entirety but generally only a 
 small portion about the seat of honor — a di-awing of this 
 sort offering the artist a better opportunity for pure archi- 
 tectural designing. This is the room which, taken in the 
 broadest signification, served as a place of meeting, for con- 
 versation, for audience, and for conviviality. 
 
 A second apartment, which not infrequently occupies a 
 separate building, is the Bed Boom (A. S. "bur" or the "bryd 
 bur" of the Beowulf), or, according to the more usual inter- 
 pretation of the word, the women's apartment. There are, in" 
 all, some nineteen drawings which illustrate this "bur". 
 
 In one single instance. Folio 64 (a. I), we find the 
 representation of a Store House, the nature of which is made 
 known both by the text which it illustrates, and sacks of 
 grain which are stored within. 
 
 No other individual buildings are to be identified for, 
 although many illuminations are to be had where several 
 buildings are represented, the nature of the individual struc- 
 tures remains a matter of conjecture, except in the case of the 
 main hall. The drawings of the latter (the Hall) are noticeably 
 different from those of the neighboring buildings. It is usually 
 the central and largest building in the groupe, commonly 
 finished at the main entrance with a porch, better constructed 
 and more profusely decorated. Yet, in regard to the interior, 
 we seldom find much more than the bare architectural finish 
 for the seat of honor. The artist seems to have cared to do 
 little more than represent the royal personage within an appro- 
 
 1) The A. S. "halle". 
 
— 52 — 
 
 priate frame. An entire ignorance of perspective still further 
 deprives us of any conception of the sides of the room or of 
 the roof. In short, we have the flat surface of the remoter wall, 
 together with stray hits illustrative of construction and art, 
 in which the artist seems to have been unwillingly drawn 
 from his favorite types. Fortunately, such casual examples as 
 these suffice to furnish material for a detailed description of 
 the interior decorations and furniture in common use. 
 
 INTERIOE DECORATIONS. 
 
 In the door- ways, upon the walls in all portions of the 
 room, at the sides of the "heah-setl", and before the beds, 
 are to be found hangings wr curtains, tastefully fashioned and 
 still more beautifully embroidered. No one object is more 
 familiar in the drawings of the A. S. home than these beauti- 
 ful hangings. There use must have been universal. 
 
 They occur almost invariably in pairs of equal length 
 and breadth — joined corner to corner in the center of the 
 pole at the top, and thence draped back to the wall below. ') 
 
 In rare instances we find but a single curtain hung from 
 a rod by means of rings similar to those in use today. ^) 
 In such cases as this, the curtain is hung in a door way. 
 
 The upper edge of the curtains, instead of being fastened 
 flat to the wall or rod, are held from five or six points, 
 thus allowing the curtain to fall in folds rather than in a 
 solid surface. Besides the folds, the surface of the curtain 
 is generally ornamented at the top and bottom with wide 
 borders, as well as artistically embroidered designs. We 
 know, from the literature of the. period, that such embroidery 
 was famous throughout Europe, and the drawings in the 
 Mss. goe far to substantiate this, as we shall see more 
 clearly illustrated by the embroidery upon the furniture. 
 These curtains either hung loosely from the wall, or are 
 draped back in the manner above mentioned. 
 
 ') Vgl. PI. II. No. VI (fol. 32 a. Ilj. 
 2j Vgl. PI. 11. No. I (fol. 32 a. I). 
 
— 53 ^— 
 
 In Folio 27 (b. I), two beds are represented side by side. 
 Before one of these, which seems to occupy the entire end 
 of a small ell, hangs a single curtain, while before the 
 second, two are to be seen, draped back to the foot and head 
 of the bed. 
 
 In Folio 23 (b. Ill) '), the curtains are hung from scrolls 
 which ornament the ceiling — each curtain being turned once 
 around the neighboring pillar. This twining of the curtain 
 around the a pillar seems, from the frequency of its occurrence, 
 to have been a favorite style of di'aping.^) The finest 
 example occurs on Folio 55 (b. Ill), where the curtain is 
 turned once around one of the posts which forms the head- 
 board of the bed. 
 
 The body color of the draperies is commonly red and 
 blue, relieved by borders and designs in gold and colors. 
 
 These curtains, however, form but a small portion of 
 the interior decorations — the greater portion by far being 
 found upon the cushions of the benches and the seats of the 
 chairs and stools, all of which will be more carefully con- 
 sidered in the examination of the different articles of fur- 
 niture. 
 
 (1) 
 
 THE SEAT OF HONOR OR THRONE (A. S. "heah-setl", 
 "setl", and the simpler form "stol"). 
 
 In Claudius B. IV., this seat or throne (accordingly as 
 the text demands) is invariably represented in the center of 
 that portion of the room pictured in the drawing. This fact 
 is particularly noticeable in the drawings of circular buildings, 
 where the seat is always in the center, the two doors being 
 represented or either hand. 
 
 In the cuts on Folios 24 (b)'0, and 23 (b. Ill), the seat 
 
 1) Vgl. PI. n. No. V (fol. 23 b. III). 
 
 2) Vgl. PI. II. No. V (fol. 23 b. Ill), and PI. IV. No. X (fol. 56 b. III). 
 •■') Vgl. PI. III. No. I (fol. 24 b.) the seat— which is not reproduced 
 
 — is situated at the back of the structure represented; so is also the 
 case in PI. II. No. V (fol. 23 b. III). 
 
— 54 — 
 
 of honor is in the middle of one of the long sides of the 
 quadrangular room. This is proved in each case by the 
 representation above of one of the slanting surfaces of the 
 roof. This seems to be the ease quite commonly and it is 
 more than probable that the seat of lionor occupeed the 
 center of one of the long sides, quite as often as the middle 
 of the end — though the balance of proof goes to strengthen 
 the latter view, particularly in the earlier literature. Thus 
 the doors would be in the middle of the two ends, whereas, 
 if the "heah-setl" was in the center of the rear end of the 
 hall, the door must be placed a little to one side. 
 
 This seat of honor is always represented as a chair or 
 stool of more elaborate design in striking contrast to the 
 usual benches upon which the rest of the company sat. 
 Chairs were undoubtedly great luxuries and intended only 
 for the use of persons of high rank and dignity. Sometimes 
 they are large enough to accommodate two persons, in which 
 case the wife shared her husband's seat. 
 
 Along the walls of the long sides, and — in cases where 
 the "heah-setl" itself occupied the center of this — at the ends 
 of the building, extended the hcnclies for the members of the 
 family and guests. With such an arrangement as this, we should 
 in all probability, find the liearth in the very center of the 
 room — unfortunately, no representations are to be had from 
 the illuminations. 
 
 The seat of Honor or throne is , as we have seen, 
 distinct from the neighboring benches — large enough to 
 accommodate one, and, in rare cases, two persons. When more 
 than two persons are seated, the seat loses its distinguishing 
 characteristics and becomes a bench. In the Ms. Claud. B. IV., 
 the following different varieties occur, which may serve to 
 illustrate the general types of the "heah-setl": 
 
 I. Wa may take as example of the better sort, the 
 drawing found on Folio 60 (a. IT) where Joseph is seated in 
 state, as Pharaoh's "gerefa". His elevated seat may best be 
 described as a somewhat elaborate cross-legged stool, raised 
 above the surface of the floor by means of a single step. 
 He is clothed in the usual long flowing tunic woon by old 
 
— 55 — 
 
 men and those of high rank. Beneath liis feet is seen a 
 foot-stool covered with a cloth bearing a worked pattern. At 
 his back stands his body guard with drawn sword and dressed 
 in full armor. The general appearance of the surroundings 
 of the seat fo honor is, in all cases, very similar to this — the 
 variety is to be found only in the chairs themselves.') 
 
 II. The type most frequently met with is best illustrated 
 upon Folio 41 (b). "^) This example may also serve a double 
 purpose since it is one of the few instances Avhere the seat 
 is large enough to accomodate two. 
 
 The seat of this chair is a long soKd piece, rounded at 
 both ends and supported by a soKd paneled base (instead of 
 legs). In some cases it is questionable whether this base is 
 solid, or consists of two round supports. The best proof that 
 it is usually solid may be had from the cut from Julius 
 A. VI., where the whole strongly resembles a couch, the base 
 of which is soKd. Upon the surface of the seat is a thick 
 cushion which protrudes from either side of the covering. The 
 two ends of the base, which may also be seen beyond the 
 covering, are constructed in various ways in different cuts — 
 either sloping inward or outward to a common center or left 
 perpendicular as in the case of Folio 46 (a. I.) '), where the 
 feet alone seem to be paneled and finished with a border. 
 This same example offers a still more striking difference, in 
 the fact that it is furnished with a back — ^^composed of two 
 uprights, capped with acorn-like ornaments and connected near 
 the top by a horizontal rod. In all other instances, such seats 
 are wholly without back. 
 
 III. The stool or cross-legged seat needs further description 
 on account of its different varieties. 
 
 The modern "camp-stool" (so called) is a perfect repre- 
 sentation of the same.^) The seat is supported by means of 
 
 1) Vgl. PI. IV. No. XII. (fol. 43 a. II). 
 
 2) Vgl. Plate IV. No. XI (fol. 58. a). Other examples occur on fol. 
 Folios: 41. (b. II); 68. (b. I); 58. (a); 45. (b. I); 69. (b. II); 22. (b. II); 
 48. (a. II). 
 
 3) VrI. PL IV. No. XVI. (fol. 46 a, I). 
 *} Vgl. PI. IV. No. XII. (fol. 43 a. 11). 
 
— 56 — 
 
 four legs made of narrow (probably rounded) rods, the upper 
 extremeties of which are usually finished with ball-like caps and 
 the lower ends, with fantastic claws which serve as feet. These 
 claws are sometimes of enormous size and apparently beautifully 
 carved. A thick cushion rests upon the seat, which, in turn, 
 is made fast to the legs of the stool near to the top. In 
 the manuscript, only two legs are seen but this is a mere 
 fault of drawing. 
 
 IV. In FoHo 27 (b. I.), occurs a wide variation from 
 this general type, the drawing of which approaches very 
 near to a modern chair. ') The seat is solid, either regularly 
 upholstered or covered with a heavy cushion. The legs are 
 crossed, as in the examples already mentioned — but do not 
 extend above the seat of the chair. A second radical difference 
 is seen in the back, which consists of two uprights joined 
 to the corners of the seat and to the lower ends of the legs. 
 The upper ends of these two supports are ornamented with 
 curious heads of animals or birds. 
 
 V. A very odd variety is found on FoUo 23. (b. HI), ^) 
 in which the broad seat is supported by four perpendicular 
 legs of considerable thickness and finished at the bottom 
 with broad feet. These uprights extend but a short distance 
 above the seat and are capped with carved heads of birds, 
 as in the last example The seat is still further supported 
 by short rods or rounds which extend from the center of the 
 bottom of the seat to the base of the legs. 
 
 VI. The most beautiful and luxurious seat represented 
 in CI. B. IV., is Pharaoh's throne on Folio 91 (a). ') The cut 
 is, unfortunately, poorly finished, still we are able to see that 
 the portions drawn are chiefly cushions or divans. Cf. later 
 description of furniture decorations. 
 
 VII. This example, [Folio 136 (b. I)], may be scarcely 
 called a seat. The whole may be described as an inclined 
 plain extending from the wall to the floor upon the upper 
 
 1) Vgl. PI IV. No. XX. (fol. 27 b. I). 
 2j Vgl. PI. IV. No. XIX. (foL 23 b. III). 
 3; Vgl. PI. IV. No. XVII. (fol. 91 a). 
 
- 57 -- 
 
 surface of whicli is to be seen a cushion of more than 
 ordinary tliickness. The wliole presents the oeneral appearance 
 of a divan. 
 
 Mil. In Folio 45 (I). III.) '). we possess the drawing: of 
 a perfect chair according- to the modern interpretation of 
 tlie word. The seat is one solid piece, supported by four leg-s— 
 the two in front being slunt. while those behind extend above 
 the seat and serve as back of the chair. Beneath the seat. 
 the leg's are connected by broad rounds — the chaii-. as a 
 whole, is solid but not at all suggestive of the nicety and 
 finish wliich characterises the fiu-niture in general. 
 
 All these preceding examples represent the seats which 
 served as thrones . and seats of honor. They seem also to 
 have been commonly used in the priAate apartments of the 
 women. There still remain the long mifs or benches which 
 were occupied by the guests and retainers. -) This bench is 
 represented in the drawings as accommodating from three to 
 fifteen pei-sons. In general, it probably extended tlie whole 
 length of the long side. 
 
 In Folio 29 (b). we have, without doubt, a cross-section of 
 the same which helps materially in determining its structm-e.') 
 The bench is made of two pieces— a solid plank perpendicularly 
 set. upon which rests another board extending back to the 
 wall. A tliird boaixl holds the seat fi-om the rear. Beneath, 
 the seat seems to be supported by props of narrow timber 
 extending diagonally across the inner space. In the present 
 instance an inclined siu-face in fi-ont serves as a foot-rest. 
 ^^^lether the benches were also mad last to the wall or left 
 to be i-emoved at will, mav not be determined, but the 
 
 n Vgl. ri. IV. No. XT. (fol. 45 b. nil 
 
 -) Rudolf Henning (J). A. H.l p. 140. thus dosoribes tho common 
 northern Hall : "In the long northern hall, the benches vrero along both 
 loiiLT sides while the king sat in the middle of one. the honored guests 
 in the other. In the second form, the king sat in the middle of one 
 of the gables, while the long benches were arranged along tho loug 
 jidej-ii, the center of which sat the relatives or honoi-ed friends." 
 It is pleasing to notice how closely this corresponds to the cuts 
 found in the .V. S. Mss. 
 
 '1 Vgl. PI. IV. No. XVIII. tfol. 29 bl 
 
— 58 — 
 
 instance cited above seems to support the latter view. The 
 outside surface of the benches seems in some cases to have 
 been ornamented yet this is more often concealed by the large 
 covering which is usually thrown over the whole. The wall 
 serves as the only back to the seat. At times of eating or 
 feasting, long tables were placed immediately before these 
 benches. 
 
 In front of the thrones, chairs, and benches, are com- 
 monly found footstools of various size and form. ') 
 
 These are usually cubical — yet vary greatly in accordance 
 with the nature and height of the seat, some being mere 
 inclined planes, as indicated in Folio 29 (b). 
 
 Another extreme is found in those which are either 
 very low or — as is more probably the case— mere mats or 
 woven rugs for the feet. In all cases, the footstool is either 
 painted or pannelled and covered with a cloth with embroidered 
 pattern. 
 
 Decorations upon the Furniture. 
 
 The general nature of the ornamentations upon the 
 chairs and seats is in exact accordance with the style of 
 art which was prevalent at this period. The Irish school in 
 particular made use of the various forms of animal life as 
 well as the human iigure. These features the Anglo Saxon 
 has borrowed and used freely in all branches of art — but in 
 none more so than in his wood carving. For instance, the 
 legs of the chairs were carved into figures of birds, dogs, and 
 other animals. A favorite ornament for the back of the 
 chair seems to have been the head of a dog, finished with 
 the long hooked beak of the bird, while at the same time 
 the lower ends of the legs broadened into huge birds-claws. 
 
 In one of the cuts in Julius A. VI., the long seat which 
 accommodates three persons, is decorated at one end with the 
 figure of an enormous swine, at the other end, with an equally 
 curious figure of a lion or some beast of similar appearance. 
 
 ') Vgl. Cuts already mentioned. 
 
— 59 — 
 
 The beaks of the ships — which have already been mentioned, 
 point to the curious style which originated in the Irish 
 monasteries. 
 
 Oftentimes the flat surfaces upon the different articles 
 of furniture were gaily painted, e. g., in Folio 136 (b. I). 
 The whole triangular surface is divided into three unequal 
 portions. The uppermost and narrowest portion is painted 
 a brilliant yellow, which, in CI. B. IV., usually represents gold 
 (no gold being used in the illuminations). The next lower 
 surface is of a dark blueish-brown ground, relieved by bright 
 red scrolls. The body color of the lower , portion is vermilion, 
 ornamented with scrolls of deeper red, shaded in white (as is 
 usually the custom at this period, since the shading with 
 neutral truts or deeper tones was unknown). The whole 
 forms one of the most beautiful bits of furniture in the 
 Ms. — lending a simplicity of effect and unity of tone which 
 might well do credit to a much later period. 
 
 In Folio 60 (b. II) ') the two portions of the surface are 
 painted in different designs of star-shaped pattern. 
 
 For the comfort of those occupying these chairs and 
 benches, thick cushions were used upon the seat. These are 
 of various size and thickness, while the covering was, in 
 all probability, some coars woven material, as may be judged 
 from the method of representing the surface by close, diagonally 
 intersecting lines. These also are represented in the illumi- 
 nations, of many and beautiful colors. 
 
 The most richly appointed throne in the Ms. is the one 
 already referent to, [Folio 91. (a)].-) The seat is composed 
 of three distinct portions, first a seat upon which is placed 
 a cushion of bright vermilion and secondly, two broad divans, 
 both broad at the further end, and approaching the seat in 
 complex curves. The upper one is colored a rich purple — 
 and the lower a bright green. The broders of the separate 
 cushions, as well as that of the footstool, are in gold (represented 
 by yellow). 
 
 1) Vgl. PI. IV. No. XXI (fol. 60. b. II). 
 
 2) Vgl. PI. IV. No. XVII (fol. 91. a). 
 
— 60 — 
 
 Rich coverings of bright colors and designed with scrolls 
 and figures, finished the decoration of the seats and benches. 
 The breadth of the covering is usually adapted to the size of 
 the object which it covers— yet of a length which permitted 
 it to hang in folds to the floor. Such coverings are used for 
 seats of all lengths — from the single "heah-setl" to the long 
 bench which accommodated many people. The long bench in 
 CI. B. IV. Folio 50 (b) upon which fifteen persons are seated, 
 is covered with a vermilion cloth of equal length. 
 
 Upon the outer surface of these cloth coveri|igs orna- 
 mental designs were embroidered in colors and gold. Indeed, 
 it was through the skillfulness of the A. S. women in 
 such work as this, that throughout Europe, all specimens 
 of exceptionally fine workmanship became known as "Opus 
 Anglicum." The proof of its beauty is indicated by the esteem 
 in which it was held by other nations.') 
 
 (2) 
 THE BEDS. 
 
 If the drawing in the Mss. are to be considered trust- 
 worthy, we must assume in the beginning that, even at the 
 time of the Ms. Claudius B. IV. (11*'" Cy), the bed,— taken 
 in its modern signification of bedstead — was a great luxury. 
 Not only the guests and retainers but also, for, the most part, 
 the members of the family slept either upon the floor or upon 
 rude benches attached to the wall. Seven eighths of all the 
 cuts represent the custom as such. 
 
 According to the illuminations, the body of the person 
 seems surrounded by a border or rim of nearly the same 
 form as the body itself. Such representations mean simply 
 that the person lay, not upon the floor, but upon thick mats 
 or cushions of some material stuifed probably with straw. 
 The head and shoulders are usually raised somewhat by me'ans 
 of pUlows or bolsters. Hence, according to Wright ("A. S. 
 
 ') Cf. Wright's "History of Eng. Culture", p. 66; also Sharon Turner's 
 "A. History of the Anglo-Saxons", Bd. 3. (London, 1823.) 
 
— 61 — 
 
 Culture" p. 59) we are able to account for the Saxon words 
 which signify bed, viz., hcence (bench) and streow (straw), since 
 the bed itself usually consisted of a sack (A. S. swccing), 
 filled idth straw and laid upon a bench or hoard. 
 
 There is one curious instance on Folio 35 (a. I) where 
 the body of the person rests upon sacks laid directly upon 
 the floor, whereas the bolsters which support the head are 
 supported by two short props or legs, thus raising the upper 
 portions of the body and doing away with the use of 
 superfluous pillows. 
 
 The benches and beds seem to have been placed at the 
 sides and ends of the small chambers, which, as we have 
 seen, were attached to the buildings in form of ells or sheds, 
 and shut oif by curtains. Yet the piece of furniture which 
 today is commonly called the bedstead — is not infrequently 
 found, there being, in all, five such drawings in Claud. B. IV. 
 
 For closer examination of the drawings, we may easily 
 bring all examples under one of the two following divisions : 
 
 I. the hunk, which was attached to the wall of one of 
 the adjoining sheds or ills and, 
 
 II. the led, which, being independent of surroundijigs, 
 appears in the from of the modern bedstead. 
 
 I. 
 
 The one illumination on Folio 27 (b. II) will serve to 
 illustrate the nature of this group. 
 
 Two low ells or sheds are represented adjoining one 
 another — the side of one joined to the end of the other (as 
 is shown by the portions of the roof). In the shed to the 
 left is to be seen a low bunk, supported by short props and 
 occupying the entire end of the structure. In front hangs a 
 curtain suspended from a rod by rings, and thrown back a 
 short distance from the head of the bed. In the small 
 chamber to the right, the bunk is similar in all particulars 
 with this exception, that its seems to extend along the long side 
 of the room instead of the gable. Two curtains are draped 
 from the center of the pole and caught back at either wall. 
 
— 62 — 
 
 Upon these bunks are laid sacks and bolsters, while the 
 bodies of those sleeping within are covered with the usual 
 coverlets or "bed-reafe". 
 
 II. 
 
 Under the second group, we have three cuts, on Folios 
 34 (b); 55 (b. Ill);') and 122 (b). The first and last are 
 almost identical in form. 
 
 The body of the bed is a long piece of timber, rectangular 
 in form and broad enough to accommodate two persons. 
 In each instance there is a head-board but no foot-board. 
 In 34. (b), the headboard is perpendicular, rounded slightly 
 at the top and finished on either side with scrolled orna- 
 ments. Over all is thrown a plaited covering of red. 
 The head-board in 122 (b) is much simpler, being formed 
 of plain uprights topped and connected by a triangular finish. 
 Both these examples are without sides and ends. 
 
 In Folio 34 (b), the flat body of the bed is supported 
 by two legs at the head and one at the foot; while in 122 (b) 
 only the two legs at the head are visible. The seemingly 
 sloping surface of the bed in these two instances is simply 
 the fault of the artist and alfords a most interesting example 
 of inability to reproduce perspective. 
 
 Folio 55 (b. Ill) diff'ers from the two already described 
 only in the solid sides and end. These planks which extend 
 from the surface of the bed to the floor are either paneled 
 or painted. The upright which forms part of the head-board, 
 is round, and finished at the top with arabesque head. 
 
 (3) 
 THE TABLE (A.-S. %<yrd"). 
 
 In Claudius B. IV., there occur four drawings in which 
 the chieftain is feasting with the members of his family and 
 guests.') Adding to these, Folio 5 (b) from Tiberius C. VI., 
 
 1) Vgl. PI. IV. No. X (fol. 55. b. III). 
 
 2) Vgl. PI. IV. No. XIII. (fol. 31. b. I). Vgl. PI. IV. No. XIV (fol. 
 35. b. I). 
 
— 63 — 
 
 and Folio 15 (a) from Cleopatra 0. VIII., we possess material 
 enoug-h to establish with certainty the most important facts 
 concerning the construction and furnishings of the Anglo- 
 Saxon table. 
 
 I. The table varied in size according to the number of 
 persons to be accommodated. Hence it was merely a temporary 
 structure. They vary in the Mss. from the short oval table 
 for two or three persons to the long rectangular board which 
 was placed before the benches. 
 
 II. The tables were removed when no longer in use. 
 In the case of the short tables, the board is usually supported 
 by a single board leg with wide foot. These were in all 
 probability permanent, as. e. g., in the cut which is taken from 
 Cleopatra C. Ylll., where the single leg is supported by a 
 broad branching- foot. The small table on Folio 5 (b) Tiberius 
 C. YI., seems to be supported by two such legs with carved 
 feet. In all other cases the legs are concealed by the long 
 table cloth, but, judging from the size, the legs were only 
 temporary. 
 
 ni. The guests sit only upon one side — the other remaining 
 free for the approach of the servants in attendance. 
 
 IV. The place of honor seems invariably to be at one 
 end of the long side. 
 
 In general, it may be added that the tables were narrow 
 in comparison to those of our own day. The sides of the 
 long tables are straight while the ends are either cut squarely 
 at right angle ') or slightly rounded. -) The surface of the 
 table is invariably covered with a cloth (A.-S. "bord-hrsegl" 
 or "mj'se-hrsegl"), laid smoothly upon the board and falling 
 in folds from the edges and corners. These table cloths are 
 represented in colors and often with a rich border near 
 the edge. 
 
 Upon the tables are seen dishes of various forms and 
 sizes, which contain the larger portions of food — also knives 
 and spoons, differing but slightly from those in present use. 
 
 ') Vgl. PL IV. No. XIV (fol. 35. b. I). 
 2) Vgl. PI. IV. No. XIII (fol. 31. b. I). 
 
— 64 — 
 
 There are no forks to be seen. The advent of this article 
 for table use belongs to a much later period. The drinking 
 vessels are either horns or goblets with rounded bottoms.') 
 In all the Mss. which have been used in the preparation 
 of this treatise, there occurs but one instance where 
 the goblet is represented as having a foot. This is to 
 be found in Tiberius C. VI. Folio 10 (b), among the costly 
 gifts which Satan offers as a temptation to Christ. This 
 goblet is of solid gold ornamented with gems. 
 
 The drinking cups without feet, when filled, were held 
 in the hand and rarely placed upon the table. 
 
 The drinking-horn is, in all the Mss., the favorite drinking 
 vessel — although at the time of the 1 1**" century, it seems to 
 have given way considerably to the glass cup which was 
 more rare and costly. The horns are represented as being 
 tipped with gold or brass and, in general, correspond very 
 nearly to the specimens which are to be seen today in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 It does not belong, in any way, to the provence of this 
 work to discuss the various dishes which are represented in 
 the Mss. yet it may not be considered out of place to make 
 note of the following observation: 
 
 Thos. Wright, both in the "English Culture" and also in 
 his "Essays on Archaeological Subjects" ^) speaks of the probable 
 use of the bucket as the usual utensil for carrying the beer. It 
 may be added that these buckets are frequently found in 
 the Saxon burging grounds throughout England. They are 
 generally made with wooden sides but with rims and handles 
 so richly ornamented that one must doubt whether they were 
 actually used for common household purposes. 
 
 The drawings of the Mss. will, in no single instance, 
 confirm such a use as that supposed by Mr. Wright. It seems 
 only probable that if such buckets were in common use at 
 
 ') Vgl. Thos. Wright's "English Culture" p. 17. From the natme 
 of these goblets (without base or rest), he derives the word "tumbler." 
 
 2) Vgl. "Essays on Archaeological Subjects" by Thos". Wright, 
 Vol. I. p. 139. (London) 1861. 
 
— 65 — 
 
 the table, the A. 8. artist would not have omitted to represen 
 it ill some of the many instances where drinking is represented. 
 Buckets are frequently represented, for example in Folio 94 
 (a. n), where they are used by the C!hildren of Israel in 
 gathering- the manna. At the tables, on the contrary, either 
 a larger horn or a large earthern vessel is always used to 
 hold the beer. 
 
 (4) 
 THE DESK FOR WRITING. 
 
 There remains yet to be described, only one article of 
 furniture — tlw desk for writing — which, to be serve, belonged 
 in no way to the home, but to monastery. 
 
 Such a desk is represented in three cuts. Folios 95 (b. II), 
 101 (a. I), and 138 (b). 
 
 Folio 138 (b) contains a most skillfully drawn cut and 
 may well serve as a type for the whole. The surface of the 
 desk is large enough to accommodate the heavy volume in 
 which Moses is writing. The desk slopes gently toward the 
 person and is covered with a rich blue cloth which falls in 
 folds some distance below the edge. The leg or support is 
 beautifully turned or cut from a solid piece, the diiferent 
 portions of which are colored in brown and yellow. This 
 support, in turn, fits into a branching stand formed of three 
 (probably four) legs, curved and finished — as is commonly 
 the case — in the claws of a bird. At the junction of these 
 legs with the main support the parts extend upward and end 
 in spirals. The desk is, without doubt, the most beautiful bit of 
 furniture in the Ms. and points to a high standard of skill 
 in cabinet-making. 
 
VITA. 
 
 I was born in I'drtland. Maine. V. S. A.. Seiitember 23, 
 ]866 and received ni}- earl,y edncation in tlie pnblic schools 
 of my native city. In (September, 18P5. entei'ed Bowdoin 
 College (Brnnswick, Mt\) from which institutinn I was gradnated 
 in June 1889. 
 
 The following year, "89 — "90, 1 iieard pnst-graduate courses 
 in English. German, and Histury in Johns Hopkins University. 
 (Baltimore, Md.). The Collegiale .year (if '90— '91 1 spent in 
 Bowdoin College as Tutor in Languages. In June. 1891, I 
 was elected Instructor in Modern Languages at the same 
 institution with have of al)sence for two yeai's. Lince that 
 time I ha^e pursued the study of English, (ici'iuan, and 
 Philosophy at the University of Leipzig where I have heard 
 Professors "\^'iilker. Sie\-ers. Heinze, ^Masins and Settegast. 
 also Privatdocenten. Dr. Fliigel, and Dr. \^^itkowski. I ha^'e 
 been, for three semesters, a I'egular member of Prof Wiilker's 
 „English Seminar" and Prof Sievers' "Pro-Seminar" in German. 
 
 I take i)cca,sion here to express my deep gratitude to 
 all my jirofessors who have so kindly offered me counsel and 
 personal guidance during my study in Leijizig. particularly, 
 however, to Prof, ^^'ulker through whose personal kindness 
 I haA'e been guided in my work l)otli in (Termany and in 
 P^ngland. 
 
 Leipzig. .Jan. 28, 1890. George Taylor Files. 
 
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