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 DATE 
 
 DUE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 il flH%| 
 
 l ^*%^ L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 QAYLORO 
 
 
 
 PRINTED IN USA 
 
THE WORKS OF XENOPHON 
 
THE 
 
 WORKS OF XENOPHON 
 
 , p i i t i \ 
 KM «• ^' 
 
 TRANSLATED BY 
 
 H. G. DAKYNS, M.A. 
 
 LATE ASSISTANT MASTER IN CLIFTON COLLEGE 
 
 IN FOUR VOLUMES 
 
 VOL. III.— PART II 
 
 THREE ESSAYS : ON THE DUTIES OF A CAVALRY GENERAL, 
 ON HORSEMANSHIP, AND ON HUNTING 
 
 Honljon 
 
 MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited 
 
 NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 1897 
 
 All rights reserved 
 
/\,\ 074-35 
 
 cjh° 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The interest attaching to the three " minor works " of 
 Xenophon, translated in this volume, will be found, I 
 think, altogether disproportionate to the length of the 
 treatises themselves, which, if small in compass, are 
 rich in matter of a kind to fix the attention of many 
 different readers. 
 
 To the critical scholar the writings, as handed down 
 to us, are interesting for many special reasons, which 
 I need not further dwell on here ; to the student of 
 Greek literature they are important as specimens of 
 a type of writing somewhat analogous to the review 
 article familiar to us in the journalistic literature of 
 our own day. As the product of a particular author's 
 pen, they throw light at once on the problems of the 
 age in which he wrote and reveal certain mental and 
 moral characteristics of the man himself. In other 
 words, they have, like all the writings commonly 
 attributed to Xenophon, not only their peculiar literary 
 worth, but also a certain biographic value. 
 
 From a somewhat different point of view, regarded 
 as early specimens of what we should nowadays speak 
 of as technical treatises (dealing respectively with 
 particulars concerning the organisation and hand- 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 ling of a cavalry force at Athens, 365 B.C., shortly 
 before the battle of Mantinea ; horses and horseman- 
 ship ; dogs, and matters incidental to the chase), they 
 appeal not only to archaeologists and specialists, but 
 to the public at large, and in particular to those 
 members of the community who, professionally or as 
 laymen, happen to take an interest, scientific or anti- 
 quarian or directly practical, in the kind of topics 
 dealt with. I think of military experts — members of 
 the mounted service in particular ; of the historian of 
 cavalry tactics ; of the country gentleman devoted, 
 like Xenophon himself, to horses and dogs, to life in 
 the open air, to sport of many kinds ; of non- 
 sportsmen and lay persons, IBimrai, of whichever sex, 
 who are fond of animals, or happen to have a taste 
 for natural history ; and lastly, in accordance with the 
 spirit of our own age, of the scientific student bent 
 on examining the evolutional side of the matter, 
 whether in reference to cavalry tactics or to various 
 forms of sport ; the fixity or variation of equine, 
 canine, and other animal types ; the relation of so- 
 called civilised man to domesticated and wild animals. 
 To each and all of these readers — and clearly the 
 list is not exhaustive — our author will have something 
 to say. It is not about the charm and delectation 
 of his utterance that I am concerned ; but rather, 
 lest having undertaken to play the part of an inter- 
 preter, I should find that I have played it ill, to the 
 detriment of Xenophon and of those " English readers " 
 to whom these translations are primarily addressed. 
 
 The text which I have followed, as heretofore, is 
 that of Gustave Sauppe, his editio stereotypa, the occa- 
 sional variations from which, derived mainly from the 
 texts of Schneider or L. Dindorf, are, I hope, always 
 
PREFACE vii 
 
 noted at the bottom of the page. As classical scholars 
 are well aware, the whole series greatly needs re-editing. 
 There has been no thorough edition, with a com- 
 mentary, of any one of them, for a long time past. 
 There are, however, several serviceable translations — 
 that of the Hipparchicus (with text) (1807), by Paul- 
 Louis Courier, the well-known French Horse-Artillery 
 officer and Greek -scholar ; of the vrepl mtttww}? (with 
 text) (1807), by the same editor and translator. This 
 latter work will be found also translated by Richard 
 Berenger, in vol. i. of his History of the Art of Horse- 
 manship ( 1 7 7 1 ); and, to come to quite modern times, in 
 The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon, translated, with 
 chapters on the Greek Riding-horse, and with notes, by 
 Morris H. Morgan, Ph.D., Assistant- Professor in Harvard 
 University. Of this book I cannot speak too highly. 
 It came into my possession just when I was engaged 
 in correcting the proofs of my own version. Conse- 
 quently I abstained from reading the translation, though 
 I profited by some of the notes. I have since read 
 the translation, which I find in a certain quality of 
 style (which perhaps I may call directness) different 
 and superior to my own. If only for the sake of the 
 illustrations, it is a work which every country gentle- 
 man and archaeologist should possess, but further 
 encomium would be out of place on my part here. 
 
 Before coming to the Cynegeticus, I wish to record 
 my obligations to the three works which I have found 
 most helpful in connection with the two companion 
 treatises already named. (It is a striking fact that all 
 three are by foreign scholars.) These are — 
 
 (1) Les Cavaliers Athiniens, par M. Albert Martin, 
 an almost exhaustive monograph on the origin, status, 
 and organisation of the Knights at Athens from every 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 point of view (except that of the tactician, though 
 there is an exceedingly interesting chapter entitled 
 " Role militaire des Cavaliers," which contains a sketch 
 of the history of Athenian cavalry operations between 
 44 S B.C. and 328 B.C.). 
 
 (2) Geschichte des Griechischen Kriegswesens von 
 der altesten Zeit bis auf Pyrrhos, nach den Quellen, 
 bearbeitet von W. Riistow und Dr. H. Kochly. To 
 the authors of this work I have had occasion to 
 express my indebtedness more than once. It is still, 
 I believe, far the best treatise on ancient military 
 tactics, though I can conceive a work written by an 
 English or American scholar based upon it which 
 would be of great service to the student. At present, 
 to clear one's ideas concerning cavalry tactics (a small 
 part of the matter, though the one with which we are 
 at present concerned), it is necessary to turn to 
 Arrian, Diodorus, and Polybius, or else to the modern 
 historians, Gibbon, Arnold, Grote. 
 
 (3) Un Cheval de Phidias, par Victor Cherbuliez. 
 Of this exquisite treatise on Greek art it is impossible 
 to speak too praisingly. No modern writer, as far as 
 I know, has done more to give Xenophon's treatise on 
 Horsemanship its proper place in literature. No one 
 certainly has so clearly appreciated the close connec- 
 tion between Xenophon's fine literary study of eques- 
 trian splendour and its loveliest embodiment in plastic 
 art. 
 
 The Cynegeticus was translated in An ix. (1801), 
 as the title-page has it, by the well-known Greek 
 scholar and Professor of Greek Literature in the College 
 de France, J. B. Gail, under the title Les Cynege'tiques, 
 ou Traite" de la Ckasse, Histoire naturelle ancienne, 
 I re partie, faisant suite aux editions de Buffon im- 
 
PREFACE ix 
 
 prime"es par Diterville et Saugrain. There is also a 
 useful German translation, with annotations, entitled 
 Xen. iiber die Jagd, verdeutscht und erlautert von T, W. 
 Lenz (1823). I have further found Eugene Talbot's 
 notes to his Traduction from time to time of use. In 
 an oldish book, Essays on Hunting, with an Introduc- 
 tion, describing the Method of Hare-hunting practised 
 by the Greeks, by William Blane (1788), will be found 
 translations of some sections of the Cynegeticus, with 
 much superlative praise of its author. " I have been, 
 indeed, astonished in reading the Cynegeticos of Xeno- 
 phon, to find the accurate knowledge that great man 
 had of the nature of the Hare, and the method of 
 hunting her, and to observe one of the finest Writers, 
 the bravest Soldiers, the ablest Politicians, the wisest 
 Philosophers, and the most virtuous Citizens of anti- 
 quity, so intimately acquainted with all the niceties 
 and difficulties of pursuing this little animal, and 
 describing them with a precision that would not 
 disgrace the oldest sportsman of Great Britain, who 
 never had any other idea interfere to perplex his 
 researches." Lastly, I have to name what strikes me 
 as the best commentary on the Cynegeticus which I 
 have ever seen, in the shape of a review article in 
 Macmillan's Magazine, to which frequent reference is 
 made in the notes to my own translation. It is 
 entitled A Day with Xenophon's Harriers. The author 
 writes at once as a scholar and a sportsman, and the 
 translations interspersed in his text, I must again 
 admit, as in the case of Dr. Morris Morgan's Horse- 
 manship, are vastly superior to my own in the way of 
 directness of speech. The writer does not fall behind 
 William Blane either in enthusiasm for coursing or 
 admiration for the ancient many-sided man, author, 
 
x PREFACE 
 
 military-commander, sportsman, now a veteran, " toil- 
 ing up the slopes of Mount Pholoe, and persisting in 
 the pursuit even when his hounds are dead beat, rather 
 than give his hare up for lost " ; and thus concludes, 
 " We would gladly end with the impassioned defence 
 of sport which closes his essay, but we have already 
 given quotations enough. It is a sufficient apology 
 for hunting that its virtues found their first exponent 
 in the pupil of Socrates, the leader of the Ten 
 Thousand, the author of the Memorabilia, the Cyro- 
 paedia, and the Anabasis" 
 
 For much direct or indirect help I am again in- 
 debted to several friends, and first and foremost to the 
 Hon. J. W. Fortescue, who, though a stranger to me 
 personally, has been at pains to read a portion of my 
 proof-sheets, and has saved me from slips into which 
 my ignorance alike of cavalry tactics and of coursing 
 hares — " since I am but a layman " — would certainly 
 have betrayed me ; to two old Cliftonian friends, 
 with whom I have discussed the technical terms and 
 the relation of ancient to modern cavalry tactics- 
 Major G. J. Younghusband and his brother Captain 
 Frank Younghusband ; lastly, to my relative, Captain 
 F. de Bude" Young. Their interest in these writings I 
 take to be of happy omen. 
 
 H ASLEMERB, January 1897. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface ...... v 
 
 Introduction ..... xiii 
 
 Annotated Analysis — 
 
 HlPPARCH ..... xliv 
 
 Horsemanship . . . . Hi 
 
 Hunting . . . . lx 
 
 The Duties of a Hipparch . . . i 
 
 On Horsemanship . . . -37 
 
 On Hunting : a Sportsman's Manual, commonly 
 
 called Cynegeticus . . -73 
 
 Index . . . . .127 
 
On the Three Opuscula included in this Volume 
 A Comment 
 
 * # * The three works in question appear in the canon or list of works 
 recognised by Greek grammarians in the days of Cicero as written by 
 Xenophon (which we owe to Diogenes Laertius ; see Trans, vol. i. note A, 
 i. and ii., pp. xliii.-xlix.), traditionally entitled — 
 
 (i) [7T7ra/>X"r6s (Hipparchicus , s. de Magistro Equitum libellus), i.e. a 
 treatise (\6yos) concerning the Hipparch (or cavalry general at 
 Athens). 
 
 (ii) irepl lir?riiri/s (de Re Equestri), i.e. a treatise concerning the art of 
 Horsemanship. 
 
 [i. and ii. are companion treatises.] 
 
 (iii) Kvvi)yeTtii6s (Cynegeticus, s. de Venatione), i.e. a treatise concerning 
 the Chase (or On Hunting: a sportsman's manual). 
 
 A. General Characteristics. — The treatises are "technical," as we should 
 say, or more strictly in accordance with ancient terminology, 
 "political essays" on "practical" matters. 1 
 
 Among the minor works (opuscula politico) attributed 
 to Xenophon, the three compositions now before us may 
 claim to hold a place apart, as being in the modern sense of 
 
 1 It is well to emphasise this point, because, owing to the technical quality 
 of their contents, the literary value of the treatises is apt to be overlooked. 
 See the curt allusions to them in Miiller and Donaldson's Hist, of the Lit. oj 
 Ancient Greece. Professor Mahaffy is much more satisfactory, Hist, of Gk. 
 Lit. vol. ii. p. 285 foil. (ed. 1880). 
 
xiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 the term to a large extent technical treatises, since, whatever 
 further object their author had in view in penning them, they 
 deal directly with practical affairs. As their reputed author 
 might himself have phrased it, they embody arguments 
 (Xoyovs) intended to make those whom he addresses in each 
 case 1 more capable of right action {irpaKTiKtarkpovs), more 
 efficient with regard to matters of such immediate concern as 
 (i) the duties of a cavalry commander (at Athens); 2 (2) the 
 art of horsemanship (from the point of view particularly of a 
 military horseman) ; or lastly, (3) the business of the chase 
 (both as an end in itself, and further as a basis or means of 
 education). The modern reader should bear in mind, how- 
 ever, that from a more general point of view and in accord- 
 ance with ancient phraseology, all three may claim to be 
 regarded, no less than the* pamphlet On Revenues or the 
 essay On the Polity of the Lacedaemonians? as " political " 
 essays (ttoXitlkoI Xoyot) — the attempts of a writer (or speaker) 
 who is, after his own sort, at once an educator and a publicist, 4 
 to deal with certain questions of the time, now in a hortatory, 
 quasi-paedagogic manner, and now with some pretence to 
 oratorical display. 5 
 
 B. Remarks supplementary to those already made in vols. i. and ii. of this 
 translation, concerning the genuineness, design, date of composition, 
 etc., of the treatises i. and ii., and of iii., in order. The passages 
 referred to are as follows : — 
 
 Vol. i. p. xlv., external evidence for the three tracts (Note on Diogenes 
 Laertius). — The witness of Deinarchus (the orator), b. 361 B.C., fl. 
 336 B.C. ; of Demetrius Magnes (the grammarian), fl. 55 B.C. ; of 
 Diodes, fl. 100 B.C. (also of Magnesia, a grammarian), ap. Diog. 
 Laert. Life of Xenophon. 
 
 1 The hipparch ; the purchaser of a horse ; the younger generation. 
 
 2 365 B. c. , or thereabouts. See below for this date. 
 
 3 Translated in vol. ii. The Hipparchicus and the pamphlet On. Revenues 
 have much in common. 
 
 4 Like his more illustrious literary contemporary Isocrates, to whose 
 theory of culture he somewhat holds. See Prof. Jebb, Att. Or. ii. ch. xiii. ; 
 also some remarks in Hellenica Essays, "Xenophon," p. 376. 
 
 5 Not unlike a contributor to the Spectator in the last century, or as might 
 a modern journalist in a series of letters to the Times or in an article for a 
 Review. 
 
INTRODUCTION XV 
 
 Vol. i. p. xlviii. (Note on the canon).— The witness of Demetrius Magnes, 
 also ap. Diog. Laert. 
 
 ib. pp. lxxxi. lxxxii. (Sketch).— As to how Xenophon came to write 
 the Hipparch in his old age (act. 69 circa), and why he should 
 take rb Itttik6i> under his protection. 
 
 ib. p. cxl. (Sketch). — Xenophon as a cavalry reformer. 
 
 ib. p. cxxix. and note 2 (Sketch).— Opportunity for sport, horsemanship, 
 etc., at Scillus, 387-369 B.C. circa, al. 368. 
 
 ib. p.cxxxi. and note4(Sketch). — As to dates of composition: Cynegeticus 
 in part pre-Scilluntian ; Hipparch, and irepl lir ; , post-Scilluntian. 
 
 ib. p. cxxxi. and notes 1, 4 (Sketch). — Design and occasion of the 
 Hipparchicus. Note 1, a sign and seal of reconciliation with his 
 country; note 4, 365 B.C. (after Roquette). 
 
 ib. p. cxxxv. notes 1, 2 (Sketch). 
 
 ib. p. cxxxviii. foil. (Sketch). — The author's criticism of Iphicrates at 
 Oneion, 370-369 B.C. Hell. VI. v. 51, 52 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 185) 
 || Hipparch, viii. 10 (below, p. 28). 
 
 , Autobiographic interest of the Hipparchicus 
 and the pamphlet On Revenues (irbpoi). 
 ffiv 9e$ passage, Hipparch, ix. 8, 9 
 (below, p. 31 foil.) ; cf. peroration to 
 the irbpoi, vi. 1-3 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 
 349)- 
 
 Vol. i. p. lxxiv. (Sketch). — Pedagogic style of the Cynegeticus ; disci- 
 pline of the chase ; scenery suited alike to Attica (Parnes, Pen- 
 telicus, Hymettus or Brilessus) and to the Triphylia (Mount 
 Pholoe). 
 
 ib. p. clxv. and note I (Sketch). — The author's manner of composition ; 
 enthusiastic style of the Cynegeticus ; probably, if an early work, 
 rehandled later ; grandson - editorship question. Cf. Pol. Lac. 
 (Trans, vol. ii. p. Ixxiii.). 
 
 ib. p. cxlvi. and note 4 (Sketch). — Xenophon's kindliness to animals 
 and other amiable traits, discoverable in these minor works ; his 
 pride in Athens. 
 
 To speak first of the twin treatises, (i.) The Hipparchicus 
 (and, to a slightly less degree, the sequel to it) 1 is singularly 
 
 1 As far as I know (and I regret to say that my knowledge is second- 
 hand), only two modern critics have doubted the genuineness of the irepl 
 
 ib. p. cxlvi. foil, 
 
 (Sketch). 
 
 Vol. ii. p. lxxviii. 
 
 (Introd. Ways and Means.) 
 
XVI INTRODUCTION 
 
 free from those suspicions which we have seen to attach, 
 rightly or wrongly, to many of the writings which the ancient 
 world confidently assigned to Xenophon. Not only is the 
 authorship of the Hipparch unassailed, but, as I have already 
 stated, the circumstances under which the author penned it, 
 even to the date of publication, seem clearly to reveal them- 
 selves. If it be asked why this particular treatise is less 
 " suspected " than any other of the minor works of Xenophon, 
 the answer would appear to be, not that the external evidence 
 of its genuineness is exceptionally strong x (since, if that were 
 all, the authorship of the Cynegeticus would have been equally 
 well established — see below), but that the testimony from 
 within is positively and negatively weightier than it is in other 
 cases. The style and manner of thought and speech, the 
 indefinable something suggestive of Xenophon's particular 
 self, the thumb-mark evidence, as it were, on the positive 
 side ; and, on the negative, the absence of question-raising 
 topics, eccentric matter, puerile or " sophistic " argument ; 
 and summarily, of those puzzling anomalies of style, phrase- 
 ology, and so forth, which in spite of traditional beliefs and 
 such external evidence as we possess (never very strong, it 
 must be admitted), are apt to suggest to the modern critic, 
 instinct with the spirit of a-Keij/is, that the particular work 
 before him has either in its entirety been falsely attributed to 
 
 iirin.Ki)s — Caspers and Beckhaus, — the latter attributing its authorship to 
 Xenophon's grandson, concerning whom see Sauppe, Ages. Praef. p. 128 ; 
 Grote, H. G. ix. 246, note 2. Another critic, Nitsche, regards the work as 
 composite. 
 
 1 See the passage quoted from Demetrius Magnes by Diog. Laert. in his 
 Life of Xenophon, § 12, and in my Trans, vol. i. pp. xlvii. lvi. : riBvriKe Se 
 iv Koptvdtp, Sis tfyqin AtjjmJt/jios 6 Mayvris, fjSti 5ijXa5-Jj yepoubs Ixavuis, av^p 
 ra re SXAa 7e7oy<bs ayaBbs Kal Si) Kal <pl\iiriros Kal tpiKoKivqyos Kal to.ictuc6s 
 (lis (k tuiv ffvyypafifiATuii' SrjKov ■ eitreffis re Kal ipiXoB&rris Kal lepeta Smyv&vai 
 Uavbs Kal laKparqv f7;X<i<ras ok/m/Sus. ' ' Xenophon died (the grammarian 
 Demetrius Magnes tells us) at Corinth and at a ripe old age ; a man to whom 
 the title good applies on many grounds ; devoted to horses and dogs and a 
 good tactician, as is proved by his own compositions ; a religious man withal, 
 fond of sacrificing and skilled in the diagnosis of victims ; an admirer and 
 zealous imitator of Socrates." He then proceeds to enumerate his works, 
 and amongst the books which he composed (<Tvviypa\)/e) names, as I have 
 already said, our three treatises, which certainly prove that their author was 
 devoted to horses and dogs and had a taste for military tactics — facts which, 
 however, are equally testified to by almost every one of the works big or 
 small attributed to Xenophon. 
 
INTRODUCTION xvii 
 
 Xenophon, or else been to such an extent worked over (inter- 
 polated or mutilated) by some one of his later editors, that it 
 can hardly claim to be regarded as an authorised production of 
 his single pen. Not only, I repeat, is the Hipparchicus singu- 
 larly exempt from such questionable matter, but it is singularly 
 full of Xenophon's idiosyncrasy. And further, if it be once 
 admitted that the work is genuine, its autobiographic value 
 makes itself felt at once. 1 There is, indeed, only one other 
 of the minor works which can compare With the Hipparchicus 
 in this respect (and that after a severer struggle to establish 
 its claim to genuineness, as readers of my former volumes 
 will recollect 2 ) — I mean the pamphlet On Revenues, a writing 
 composed, if we are right in so piecing together stories current 
 in antiquity, under circumstances 3 akin to those which induced 
 the author, whilst still an exile, to address a treatise on the 
 duties of a cavalry commander to one of the hipparchs of 
 the year. 4 On this head, and in reference to the date and 
 design of this twin treatise, I may perhaps be permitted to 
 refer my readers to page cxxxv. notes i and 2, of my first 
 volume. 
 
 It is there contended, in accordance with the statement of Deinarchus 
 apparently, or of the orator as quoted by Diodes (ap. Diog. L., Life, 
 § 10), that at a certain date (369 B.C. circa), the Athenians having 
 passed a decree to aid the Lacedaemonians (in their struggle against the 
 Thebans), Xenophon (who was still living in exile either in Elis at Scillus 
 or Lepreum, or at Corinth probably) sent his sons to Athens to serve as 
 knights in belialf at once of their own and their adopted country, and that 
 the sentence of banishment under which their father lay was rescinded 
 presumably about the same date, the two incidents being possibly con- 
 
 1 " Profecto quis Xenophon fuerit, quae ejus de variis rebus sententia, 
 brevissimus ille Hipparchici liber (non plus quam 24 paginas editionis Teub- 
 nerianae implet) non minus bene quam Cyropaedia docet " (J. J. Hartman, 
 An. Xen. N. p. 320). 
 
 2 See Trans, vol. i. p. cxxxv. foil, note 2 ; vol. ii. pp. lxxvii. lxxviii. 
 
 3 i.e. to please the leading statesman of the day — Eubulus. 
 
 4 There is nothing indeed to prove that the treatise was written to a 
 particular individual, and if any one likes to believe that the hipparch addressed 
 is an abstract being, and that the treatise itself is a counsel of perfection con- 
 cerning t6 lirmKdv addressed to Athens at a particular moment of Attic 
 history, it is open to him to do so. But I confess, I strongly incline to the 
 former hypothesis. 
 
 .J VOL. Ill — 2 b 
 
xvm INTRODUCTION 
 
 nected as cause and effect. The internal evidence of the double treatise, 
 evidently written by a man of mature age (Horsemanship, i. I.; below, 
 p. 37), and apparently addressed to the hipparch of the year during an 
 interval of peace (Hipparch, i. 19, iv. 6 ; below, pp. 6, 15) when there 
 was a prospect of a war with the Boeotians (ib. vii. 3 ; below, p. 23), points 
 (as Roquette shows, de Vit. Xen. ii. 24, pp. 95, 96) to the year 365 B.C. as 
 the date of publication, and is conclusive as to the completeness of the 
 author's reconciliation with his country. 
 
 Roquette's argument may be briefly tabulated thus : — 
 
 Hipparchikos composed after 369 B.C. (date at which banishment was 
 rescinded), 
 proved by (1) use of particles ; 
 
 (2) iv. 8, old man's experiences ; 
 
 (3) ix. 4 ; cf. Hell. VI. iv. 10, after Leuktra ; 
 
 still more by i. 19, 20; iv. 6, advice to a hipparch in peace time, but 
 
 not without prospect of war some day against the Boeotians : 
 ergo, not in 369 B.C., when the Athenians had a force of 12,000 men 
 under Iphicrates at the Isthmus, Hell. VI. v. 49 ; Diod. 
 xv. 63 ; 
 nor in 362 e.c, when Cephisodorus with a body of Athenian 
 
 cavalry was before Mantinea, Paus. viii. 9, 10 ; 
 but in 365 B.C., when, after the occupation of Oropus, there was 
 
 apprehension of Boeotia at Athens 1 : 
 as a fact, Athens, deserted by her allies, Hell. VII. iv. I foil., 
 
 only came to blows with Thebes in 362 B.C. ; 
 not after 362 B.C., a time of general peace ; moreover in 361 B.C. 
 the pro-Theban party was dominant in Athens : Callistratus 
 exiled; see Grote, H. G. x". 482 (Trans, vol. ii. p. lvii.). 
 
 (ii.) The ire.pl «r7ri/ojs. Concerning the tract on Horseman- 
 ship, nothing further needs to be said in this place save that, in 
 the absence of strong internal arguments derived from structure 
 and subject matter to the contrary, it follows in the wake of 
 the earlier composition, to which, as regards topic, it is 
 clearly supplementary (see the last chapter, on arms and 
 armour for horse and man, and the reference, so often cited, 
 to the military treatise, kv hkpy \6ya> Se&jAiorat). 
 
 (iii.) We pass on to the Cynegeticus, as to which the case 
 is by no means so clear. I will say at once that I hold to the 
 opinion that this is probably an early work of Xenophon's, re- 
 handled and re-edited, with additions (not improbably) by 
 
INTRODUCTION xix 
 
 himself or under his inspiration when an old man. In 
 making this avowal, I may add that I have no wish to enforce 
 a particular view of the matter dogmatically, nor indeed do 
 I hold to it pertinaciously, but only as that which, after 
 weighing the pros and cons, I find, on the whole, the easiest 
 solution of the many and obvious critical questions raised by 
 this highly interesting work. If Xenophon did not write a 
 work on this subject, he clearly ought to have done so ; and 
 if this particular work is by his hand, it is unlucky for us that 
 it does not bear what I have called the thumb-mark stamp of 
 his mature style. As I have said above, it is not for lack of 
 external evidence 1 (such as it is) that many modern critics 
 are disposed to regard the work as spurious, but on account 
 of the aforesaid intrinsic difficulties. 
 
 1 This indeed, if any special weight is due to the testimony of the 
 distinguished writer and man of action of the Flavian age, the admirer and 
 imitator of our author, who rejoiced in the nom de flume of Xenophon 
 (the younger), to wit Arrian, is pro tanto stronger. See Trans, vol. i. 
 Introd. p. xxviii. for a note on this remarkable man. For his imitation 
 of Xenophon and the sobriquet he adopted, see Dr. Leonhard Schmitz' 
 article in the Diet, of Gk. and Rom. Biog. s.n. : "Arrian was one of the 
 most active and best writers of his time. He seems to have perceived from 
 the commencement of his literary career a resemblance between his own 
 relation to Epictetus and that of Xenophon to Socrates." With this view 
 he published not only several works concerning his master : (i) Biarpifiai 
 '"Ettiktijtov ; (ii) bp.Mai. 'Ettikt^tov ; (iii) iyxeiptSiov 'Ettikt^tov ; and (iv) 
 a life of the philosopher, corresponding to Xenophon's dTro/WTj/toxeifyiara 
 and other works concerning Socrates, but also an ivifSatris 'AXe^dvSpov (an 
 account of the Asiatic expedition of Alexander the Great, again in imitation 
 of Xenophon) ; and in imitation not of Xenophon, but of Ctesias (in the 
 Ionic dialect), a work on India, t& 'Ivducd, not to mention other geographical, 
 historical, and biographical works — some of which are lost — (a periplus of 
 the Euxine ; lives of Dion and Timoleon ; rb. fierb, ' A-~K£%av$pov — (a history of 
 the Parthians, of Bithynia, of the Alani) ; and lastly two treatises, one entitled 
 KvvTjyeriKds, with which we are immediately concerned, and the other a work 
 On Tactics, X67os to,ktik6s or rtxvri Ta.Kri.K-q, concerning which Dr. Schmitz 
 says : ' ' What we now possess under this name can have been only a section 
 of the work, as it treats of scarcely anything else than the preparatory exer- 
 cises of the cavalry, but the subject is discussed with great judgment, and 
 fully shows the practical judgment of the author." The resemblance of 
 this work to Xenophon's linrapx^ds is obvious. That of the KwqyenKbs to 
 the treatise before us is still more close, since the one is written in continuation 
 of the other. I again quote Dr. Schmitz : "It (the Treatise on the Chase) is 
 so closely connected with the treatise of Xenophon on the same subject, that 
 not only is its style an imitation of the latter's, but it forms a kind of supple- 
 ment to Xenophon's work, inasmuch as he treats only of such points as he 
 
XX INTRODUCTION 
 
 What these critical difficulties are will be best seen by 
 considering the structure of the work, which is found to be 
 tripartite ; that is to say, it easily breaks up into a practical 
 treatise on the chase, cap. i. 18 (s. cap. ii. i) — xi. 4, 
 written evidently by an expert, as any modern sportsman 
 would be the first to admit, in a bright and eager style which 
 does not, howeyer, very closely resemble the style of the 
 hnrapxi'Kos or the irepl wnruojs (there is a great dearth of the 
 particles ye p-qv and there are other differences). This treatise 
 is encysted, as one might say, in a somewhat remarkable 
 educational essay (a wapalvto-vs), the style of which is very 
 different from that of the treatise itself, reminding one, if of 
 Xenophon at all, of Xenophon the reputed author of the 
 Agesilaus or of the Pol. Lac. (as to which see Trans, vol. ii. 
 pp. lxiii. foil., lxxiii. foil.). In other words, it is preceded by 
 a curious mythological Preface, cap. i. 1-17 (s. 18), and con- 
 cludes with two chapters on Education : cap. xii., on the 
 advantages to be got from hunting; and cap. xiii., an Epilogue 
 (a somewhat querulous attack on the "sophist of to-day," 
 
 found omitted in Xenophon." In fact, Arrian wishes, so he tells us, to build 
 upon Xenophon re the KwriyeriKis much as Xenophon built on Simon re the 
 wepl lirirucrjs. The opening words of Arrian's treatise are worth quoting 
 in anticipation of the view put forward concerning the possibly hybrid com- 
 position of Xenophon's treatise, as we now possess it, with the mythological 
 preface and all. They show that in Arrian's time the arrangement of 
 the text so far resembled ours, and that Arrian's literary taste was not 
 offended by it. Whether he was likely to be a good judge of Xenophon's style 
 or not, I cannot say. His own treatise begins thus : Hwo^iWi t<? TpiWov 
 \4\eKTcu 8cra ayadb. &,v8pi!nrois &irb Kwriyeaibii/ ylyverai, koX ol Tai8ev94vTes 
 iiirb Xclpuivi. tV iraidevtrLV Ttt,im\v Hirws defxpiKeis re fya,v koX ^vrifioi &vb. tt)V 
 'EXXdSa, k.t.X. " Xenophon, the son of Gryllus, has told us what blessings 
 mankind derive from hunting, how dear to heaven also and how honoured 
 throughout Hellas were those (hero) pupils trained under Cheiron in this educa- 
 tion. He has told us in what respects the art of hunting resembles that of 
 war ; the time of life at which it is desirable to betake one's self to the work, 
 the build and temperament of the sportsman ; all about nets also, of every 
 sort and kind, and the whole paraphernalia necessary, and how to set traps 
 for wild animals that can only be captured trap-wise. He has told us all 
 about hares, their nature and how they roam, and where they make their 
 forms, and how to seek for them ; also about hounds, what kinds are clever at 
 picking the trail out, and which are bad ; and how to detect either kind, by 
 what points and behaviour. There are further remarks about the hunting of 
 pigs and deer, of bears and lions, and how by skill or craft these animals may 
 be captured. As to any topics which my predecessor would seem to have 
 omitted in his discussion, not from carelessness, but through ignorance of the 
 
INTRODUCTION xxi 
 
 "the modern type of teacher," and on "sophistic" as op- 
 posed to " cynegetic " education). The style of both these 
 chapters, especially the latter, is un-Xenophontine, though the 
 sentiments are Xenophontine enough. 
 
 I confess I find it hard to believe that Xenophon wrote 
 the mythological Preface, which, both as regards topic and 
 treatment, feels to me like the composition of a later age. 
 So might a Greek of the Macedonian or Roman period have 
 written. I am not learned enough to say whether a writer of 
 Xenophon's temperament, either when quite a youth or in a 
 senile frame of mind, could possibly have written in this way. 
 I cannot find anything in Isocrates, 1 or again in Philistus or 
 Theopompus, which much resembles it ; though if we had 
 the whole literature of the period 400-350 b.c. circa before 
 us, including sacred genealogies and mythologising histories, 
 and in particular the epideictic treatises of rhetoricians, we 
 might very likely chance upon its analogue. Grote, the 
 historian, finds nothing monstrous in the supposition that 
 
 Celtic breed of hounds (i.e. greyhounds) and the Scythian and Libyan type 
 of horse, I propose to supplement them. I who bear the same name as he 
 and am of the same city [Athens ; Arrian was born in Nicomedia, but was a 
 citizen of Athens, and also of course a civis Romanus\ have concerned myself 
 with the same matters as he from my youth — to wit, hunting, and general- 
 ship, and philosophy — and herein I only follow his example who thought it 
 incumbent on him to supplement what Simon had failed to state completely 
 concerning horsemanship, not out of jealousy of Simon but as being of use 
 to mankind, in his opinion." 
 
 He then proceeds to discuss the working of Celtic hounds, and the 
 treatise is mainly of coursing, which Xenophon knew little about (see cap. xvi. ). 
 In the article "A Day with Xenophon's Harriers," the reader will find some 
 interesting remarks on the relation of Arrian to Xenophon, and his relative 
 merit as a sportsman. If he was not devoted like Xenophon to woodcraft, 
 he was none the less fond of dogs. See capp. iv. v. , a touching description 
 of his own favourite hound " Horme" • &ffre o{ik &v dKvrjffai fiot ookuj ko.1 rb 
 ftvofia avaypaipai ttjs tcvv6s t u)s iced £s OaTepov d7roXe\et00<u aOrifs, Hti fy tLpa 
 BevoipuivTi Ttp 'A&Tjvatcp Ktitav 'OpfiT} foo/m, &kvt&tt) re Kal (rofpUTd-Trj Kai 
 Tpaordrfi. " I do not know why I should hesitate to record the name, so 
 that it may be left to aftertime concerning her that Xenophon the Athenian 
 (sc. the writer Arrian himself) had a hound named Horme, the fleetest, cleverest, 
 and gentlest hound that ever was. " Aristides, Pollux, Athenaeus, Harpocration , 
 Stobaeus, not to speak of the testimony of Diog. Laert. and his authorities 
 (see above), besides Arrian, quote or refer to the Cynegeticus as a work of 
 Xenophon. See Sauppe, Praef. Ann. Crit. to Xen. Liber de Ven. p. 255. 
 
 1 The language of his encomium Helenae, the tooovtov . wore and 
 
 the p.h . . . Si type of sentence, is the nearest approach. 
 
xxn INTRODUCTION 
 
 Xenophon should have so written, 1 but my instinct is the 
 other way. Accordingly I await the verdict of the future. 
 
 With regard to the conclusion : chapter xii. (especially the 
 earlier portion of it, xii. 1-9) seems to me quite after the manner 
 of Xenophon, whom I should expect to point the moral of a 
 practical treatise on hunting precisely in this way. It reminds 
 me of the Cyropaedia. As to chapter xiii. (or indeed xii. 
 10-22; xiii. 1 to the end), I do not feel so clear. 2 If written 
 by Xenophon, it was not by Xenophon surely in his youth, 
 but in his old age ; and it savours to me of oral dictation 
 unrevised. 3 The sentiments I take to be Xenophontine, but 
 the language Isocratid. 4 So might the old man have growled 
 out his sentiments to a favourite amanuensis or to that 
 amiable literary grandson who was to be his editor, with 
 whom the critics have made us so familiar. 5 Supposing 
 they are an editor's work — say, according to the theory of 
 Lincke and others, Xenophon's grandson — the question is 
 whether, apart from style, there is an echo in them of 
 Xenophon's viva voce talk about the chase and its origin, or, 
 again, about " sophistic " versus " athletic " training. It should 
 be further noticed that chapter xii., if genuine throughout, 
 carries with it chapter i., unless the words &v iTrepv rjo-d-qv 
 (§ 18) in reference to Cheiron's pupils were foisted into the 
 
 1 See H. G. i. p. 551, a paragraph concerning the historians later than 
 Thucydides, by whom the myths were handled : ' ' Xenophon ennobled his 
 favourite amusement of the chase by numerous examples chosen from the 
 heroic world, tracing their portraits with all the simplicity of an undiminished 
 faith." 
 
 2 See Grote, H. G. ix. 497. 
 
 3 See some observations (Trans, vol. i. p. cxlv. note 3 ; vol. ii. p. lxxvi. ) 
 concerning Xenophon, i^/ijiadfy, and on the "oral" mannerism of the Pol. 
 Lac. " valeat quantum." 
 
 4 So J. J. Hartman, An. Xen. N. p. 351 : " Non Xenophon libri auctor 
 est sed 'IcoKpariSeis quidam, qui arroganter et rixantis in modum loqui a 
 magistro suo docuit." 
 
 5 See Trans, vol. i. p. cxlv. and note 3 ; vol. ii. p. lxviii. I must remind 
 my readers that this personage owes his very existence — or shall I say his 
 subjective immortality? — to Grote, who, in a note to vol. ix. of his Histoty, 
 p. 246, pointed out that the Xenophon who was the subject of a pleading 
 before the Athenian Dikastery, composed by the orator Deinarchus (after 
 336 B.C.), could not be the historian himself, but might very well be a 
 grandson bearing his name. 
 
INTRODUCTION xxiii 
 
 text by the same (editorial) hand that wrote the prefatory 
 chapter. 1 
 
 As to the date of the composition, I have nothing to add 
 to what I have said in my first volume (Sketch of the Life of 
 Xenophon, p. lxxiv. and note i ; ib. p. cxlv. and note i). Capp. 
 ii.-xi. may have been Xenophon's earliest work, composed 
 perhaps (if I am right as regards the date of his birth) when he 
 was aet. 18-20 in 413-41 1 B.C., and if so, it might even have 
 been published (circulated in some way or other) as early as 
 403-401 b.c. ; but as far as the irapaiveo-is goes (i. 18, kyll, 
 /iev oZv irapaivZ tois vans, k.t.X. — a note resumed in xii. 14, 
 epaxrdels 8>v Jyu) irapaivio : and again, xiii. 9, to, p.ev ovv tSv 
 a-ocfjuTTWv TrapayyeX./jMTa wapaivQ <f>v\a,TTecr6a.<, : and finally, 
 ib. 1 7, tovs viovs tovs Troiovvrai a lydt TrapaivZ), this, I take 
 it, would be quite out of place on the lips of a young man, 
 though seemly and natural enough on the part of an oldish 
 man addressing younger people; and so, if for no other 
 reason, I hold to the opinion that even if the treatise was a 
 work of his youth the author rehandled it in his old age 
 (362-354 B.C. circa). 2 
 
 1 Or it may be maintained that Xenophon is only responsible for the 
 opening words of cap. i. , the long list of heroes taught by Chieron being an 
 editor's interpolation. 
 
 2 I recollect that when, many years ago, I first read the Cynegeticus as a 
 whole, I was much impressed with its vividness, its brightness, and its air 
 of youthful fervour, and when I came to examine critical views later on, it 
 seemed to me that Cobet (who, I think, rejects the mythological list of 
 chapter i. as too absurd) said exactly the right thing as regards the body of 
 the work. Apropos of the passage about the hare which William Blane 
 takes as his motto (oSria S£ ivtxo.pl tan rb 6-qplov, k.t.X., v. 32), "The 
 animal is so pleasing that whoever sees it either trailed, or found, or pursued, 
 or taken, forgets everything else that he is most attached to" [or rather 
 "every other love," irikdBotr' b\v d tov iptfiy], Cobet says, "Cynegeticus 
 ante reliquos omnes a Xenophonte scriptus est ; spirat enim fervorem 
 quendam juvenilis animi 6vfj.oei.dovs re ko.1 ipuriKov et in iis quae amet et 
 admiretur modum nullum servantis." It was interesting, too, to find that 
 Roquette's examination of particles pointed in the same direction, but I 
 eventually stuck at the hortatory, quasi-paedagogic tone, which seems to me 
 that of an old man. Hence I finally settled down into my present persuasion. 
 I cannot conclude this note without quoting one of the ablest Xenophontean 
 scholars of recent times, Mr. Herbert Richards, where, in the Classical 
 Review, x. 6, he says, in a notice of Holden's edition of the Oeconomicus, ' ' It 
 is much to be wished that so excellent a Xenophontean scholar should edit 
 more of the opera minora than the Oeconomicus and the Hiero. There is not 
 
xxiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 C. In reference to structure and subject matter, and the author's treat- 
 ment of the topics dealt with in these Essays. 
 
 %* As a help to the student with the Greek text, chapter, and para- 
 graph before him, I have inserted below an analysis of each of the three 
 works with annotations. 
 
 The compositions before us, whether we regard them as 
 literary essays written with a certain " political " end in view, 
 or as technical treatises embodying the wisdom of a recognised 
 authority on military affairs, horsemanship, and the business 
 of the chase, present in common certain interesting features, 
 which may conveniently be discussed under the following 
 heads : 
 
 (i.) The quality and distinctive features of these literary 
 essays. 
 
 (ii.) Their essential value as technical treatises from a 
 modern point of view. 
 
 (i.) Regarded as literary essays the writings before us are, 
 to put it broadly, chiefly interesting, I suppose, as products 
 of a particular type of Hellenic intellect — Xenophon's an 
 Athenian — dealing with certain practical concerns at a 
 particular moment of Hellenic or more precisely Attic 
 historical development. The distinctive features, involving 
 as they do certain peculiarities (from a modern point of view) 
 in the handling of the topics dealt with by the author, can 
 obviously have but one explanation. They are the reflex 
 partly of the author's personality, and partly or indeed chiefly 
 of past ethnical conditions. In other words, some of these 
 distinctions are idiosyncratic, whilst others of them run deep 
 
 one of them, even including the Hipparchicus and the De Re Equestri, that 
 would not repay editing, and some of them call for it very distinctly. The • 
 political tracts, whether Xenophon's or not, are interesting and important, yet 
 there has been no thorough edition, with a commentary, of any one of them, 
 for a long time past. The tract On Hunting, besides raising some curious 
 critical questions, is fairly readable, and in England ought to be read." It is 
 too late, alas ! now to echo the hope concerning the particular editor, but 
 that some competent scholar should undertake to complete the work which 
 Dr. Holden had made his own is obvious. Why should not Mr. Herbert 
 Richards himself? His notes on the Symposium in the same number of the 
 Classical Review sound now like a kind of pledge. 
 
INTRODUCTION xxv 
 
 down into the underlying base-rock on which the ancient 
 Hellenic civilisation rests — from which (to pursue the meta- 
 phor) its eternally beautiful flora sprang, and the supreme 
 genius of the Attic intellect and spirit towered aloft, in a region 
 remote from ourselves and the more sombre splendours of our 
 own flourishing modern civilisation. 1 
 
 *** The following table will conveniently explain what is meant by 
 distinctive qualities due to personal and general (i.e. ethnical) causes. 
 
 Personal. — The idiosyncrasy of Xenophon, his "personal 
 equation," as we say nowadays, means, as I have attempted to 
 show in my biographical sketch, that he was emphatically 
 pious (his inner self), that he had a natural, or Socratically- 
 induced, propensity to " educate " others (his second nature), 
 and that he possessed to a remarkable degree the shrewdness 
 and practical wit of his fellow-countrymen, along with a sense 
 of beauty only not remarkable because it too is part and 
 parcel of his Attic inheritance. 
 
 (a) As to his piety, his 1)0os Oeoireph as the ancient critics called it (see 
 Sketch, Trans, vol. i. p. lxxxvii.), his SanSaiiiovla, as one might 
 perhaps name it, in reference to the well-known characterisation 
 of this same Athenian people four centuries later by St. Paul ; 
 since if ever an Athenian was, Xenophon was " reverent," as Mr. 
 Ruskin has it, "of the angels of God" 2 — nowhere does this 
 characteristic reveal itself more clearly than in the tone of the 
 Hipparchicus. Note the opening passage : 
 
 (i) Hipparch, i. I (below, p. i) as compared, for instance, with the 
 first sentence of the Horsemanship, i. i (below, p. 37), which is 
 
 1 As to " some of the actual truths respecting the vital force in created 
 organism, and inventive fancy in the works of man, which are more or less 
 expressed by the Greeks, under the personality of Athena," see The Queen of 
 the Air (John Ruskin). As to the flora and fauna of our own region, the 
 scientific inquirer can see at o. glance that certain intellectual and spiritual 
 products of which we justly boast are not indigenous, but are simply varieties 
 or modified species of root-ideas which originally flourished on the soil of 
 Ancient Greece, though others are peculiar to our own base-rock, and others 
 again are derived from other climes. As to military tactics, the root of the 
 matter is to be found in Ancient Greece. 
 
 2 I must draw attention once more to the most intelligent, inspired and 
 inspiring, appreciation of Xenophon's religious nature, with which I am ac- 
 quainted. It is contained in the Editor's Preface to Bibliotheca Pastorum, 
 vol. i. p. xxv. foil. 
 
xxvi INTRODUCTION 
 
 after all a sequel, — the one being illustrative of the pious God- 
 fearing man, and the other of the same man's practical common - 
 sense, and both of the disciple of Socrates (see Mem. I. i. 6-9, 
 Trans, vol. iii. part i. pp. 2, 3). "As regards the ordinary 
 necessities of life, his advice was : ' Act as you believe these things 
 may best be done.' But in the case of those darker problems 
 the issues of which are incalculable, he directed his friends to 
 consult the oracle whether the business should be undertaken or 
 not." Clearly the purchase of a horse belongs to things in the 
 sphere of the determined to a large extent ; whereas " there is a 
 side to strategy which," the hipparch must bear in mind, "the 
 gods reserve to themselves." As a matter of state regulation, 
 moreover, the commander of cavalry would be called upon to 
 offer sacrifice on state occasions, in accordance with the general 
 view of the Greek mind with regard to the sphere and function of 
 religion (see below). The recognition of the importance of the 
 religious initiative &pxe<rOai dirk 0eSv is what marks the orderli- 
 ness and piety of the writer. But 
 
 (2) The same personal religious note is struck more clearly in the aiv 
 
 9«J (D-V.) passages throughout the treatise — v. 14; vi. 1 ; vii. 3, 
 4, 14 ; ix. 8 (as I have had occasion more than once to notice), 
 for which the author himself thinks it necessary to apologise. 
 
 (3) Cynegeticus. — The Preface to the tract On Hunting, ch. i., if by 
 Xenophon, as Grote almost persuades one to believe it is when 
 he says, "Xenophon ennobled his favourite amusement of the 
 chase by numerous examples chosen from the heroic world, tracing 
 their portraits with all the simplicity of an undiminished faith " 
 {H. G. i. 551), points the same moral, and so do 
 
 (4) The passages in the body of the work, which I have little doubt ' 
 
 is Xenophon's — v. I4=p. 89 below — " these are for the goddess " ; 
 and vi. 13 = p. 96, on which I have already commented; and so, 
 lastly, 
 
 (5) Also the thoroughly Xenophontine passage: "the pursuit of 
 
 virtue," xii. i8-22=pp. 121, 122; and the equally Xenophontine 
 conclusion of the tract: "the gods actors and spectators," xiii. 
 17, i8 = p. 126. 
 
 (£) As to his "paedagogic" propensity: Xenophon is nothing if not an 
 educator of youth, which indeed is partly his Socratic second-self. 
 It is akin to that <pi\av8poiirla, "humanity," of his which makes 
 him kindly disposed to dumb animals no less than to various 
 sorts and conditions of men and women, slaves and so forth (see 
 Sketch, p. cxlvi.; Hellenka Essays, "Xenophon," p. 351), and is 
 
INTRODUCTION xxvii 
 
 exemplified here in his precepts with regard to the rational 
 treatment of a horse, e.g. 
 (i) Horsemanship, vi. 13-16, "the one best principle, the golden 
 rule, in dealing with a horse is never to approach him angrily," 
 etc. (below, p. 52), and is derived from a certain ethnical quality 
 of the Athenians as a people. See the delightful " Causeries 
 Athemennes " of V. Cherbuliez, Un Cheval de Phidias, p. 129 
 foil., where the chevalier, one of the interlocutors, emphasises the 
 point at some length : " L'equitation est intimement U6e avec 
 l'lducation ; a vrai dire, ce n'en est qu'un chapitre ; comme on 
 eleve les enfants, on e"levera les chevaux. Lisez Platon exposant 
 l'art de former les hommes, et Xenophon devisant apres Simon 
 des pratiques a suivre pour dresser un cheval ; chez l'un et l'autre, 
 vous trouverez et les memes principes et la meme m&hode." See 
 again 
 
 (2) ib. ix. 9-i2 = pp. 60, 61, below; x. I4=pp. 63, 64; xi. 6 foil. 
 
 = p. 65 foil., and the tract 
 
 (3) On Hunting, passim, especially the fine passage (already referred 
 to) in ch. xii. =p. 118 foil, on " hunting as a training for war." 
 
 (7) As to his shrewd practicality (Attic iyxhoia) : this quality pervades all 
 
 three essays, and gives them their perennial value as technical 
 treatises (see below), and so, too, does that other Attic quality, 
 that instinctive love of the beautiful, 
 
 (8) His artistic touch, which, however, is so intimately connected with his 
 
 parentage and bringing-up that it is simpler to speak of it under 
 our next heading. 
 
 Ethnical. — Religion and Art are twin characteristics of the 
 Greek intellect and spirit. To these must be assigned much 
 in the treatment of topics which to the differently-constituted 
 modern mind may seem strange and indeed even out of place. 
 Thus we are to explain in 
 
 (1) The Hipparch the amount of space given to sacred and ceremonial 
 matters in the training of the state cavalry with a view to the 
 processional march. To repeat what I have said elsewhere ' : the 
 insertion of pompous regulations which have scarcely any parallel 
 in a similar modern treatise, 2 is to be explained by the close con- 
 
 1 Hellenica Essays, "Xenophon," p. 375. 
 
 2 Her Majesty's Household troops throw little light on this side of the 
 matter, which, however, in Xenophon's time could hardly have been omitted ; 
 or, more correctly, in our cavalry-drill books, among miscellaneous duties 
 
xxvm INTRODUCTION 
 
 nection in a Greek city community between the citizen soldier's 
 service as a defender of his country and his employment in 
 religious processions during peace. 1 
 (2) The tract on Horsemanship continues the topic so far as the 
 training of the horse suited for processions is concerned, e.g. ch. x. 
 how to give a horse high airs, ch. xi. of a horse adapted to parade 
 and state processions ( = pp. 61-66, below). N.B. § 8, "such are 
 the horses on which gods and heroes ride, " e.g. on the Parthenon 
 frieze. 
 
 Akin to religion is art as a second characteristic of the 
 Greek, and in particular of the Attic mind : the aesthetic 
 point of view. 2 Throughout the twin treatise to kuAov, the 
 
 certain sections doubtless will be given to ceremonial, e.g. parade movements, 
 mounted guards, royal escorts, state processions, jiring a feu-de-joie, funerals, 
 but, with the exception of the last, none of these are of a religious nature. 
 
 1 This, which is a commonplace of philosophers and historians inter- 
 preting the ancient world of Greece and Rome, and indeed points to the root 
 distinction between ancient and modern views of religion and the state, needs 
 no further illustration here ; but, as bearing directly on the matter before us, 
 I cannot forbear quoting a passage much to the point from M. Adalbert 
 Martin's treatise on Les Cavaliers Athiniens above referred to. This work, 
 600 quarto pages in length, not one of which could well be spared, is itself a 
 testimony to the value which a learned modern historian finds in Xenophon's 
 treatise (see below). The passage occurs in livre ii. 2me partie, ch. x. , 
 Observations gdnirales sur les concours et la part qu'y prennent les cavaliers, 
 p. 283 foil. : ' ' Dans l'antiquite' la religion est partout ; elle est melee a tous 
 les actes de la vie publique et de la vie privee. La patrie n'est qu'une des 
 formes de la religion ; avoir une patrie, ce n'est autre chose qu'avoir des dieux 
 nationaux ; etre citoyen d'une ville, c'est surtout avoir le droit d'assister un 
 culte public ; les parents d'une mSme famille, les membres d'une meme gens, 
 les citoyens d'une meme ville se reconnaissent a ce qu'ils ont les dieux 
 communs. Une ffite en l'honneur des dieux etait done un acte de la plus 
 haute importance. La divinity, ou, ce qui est la meme chose, sa statue 
 habite dans son temple, bati generalement dans 1'endroit le plus inaccessible 
 de la cite' ; la faire sortir de ce sanctuaire pour la promener dans la ville, 
 quelquefois meme hors des murs, 6tait chose tres grave. Autour de cette 
 divinity, qui gtait la plus grande force de l'Etat, on rangeait toutes les forces 
 de l'Etat, toute l'armge nationale; hoplites, cavaliers, ephebes, tous sont la 
 couverts de leurs plus riches armures, pares de leurs plus beaux ornements ; 
 dans une texte" (C.I. A. iii. 1132, 1. 9, "t^s ii/Upas, iv ?j npbs t^v "E\evalva 
 t) aroank iropeierai" [and cf. Hell. I. iv. 20, of the processional march con- 
 ducted to Eleusis by Alcibiades, Sept. 408 B.C.]), "la procession est designee 
 sous le nom de trrpani, l'armee ; aux Dionysies, c'est a l'archonte eponyme 
 que la statue du dieu est confiee ; il est responsable de tout ce qui peut lui 
 arriver (Dem. c. Mid. 9, scolie)." [Midias was himself a hipparch.] 
 
 2 See on this head The Greek View of Life, by G. Lowes Dickinson, an 
 interesting "introduction" (at once popular and philosophic) "to Greek 
 
INTRODUCTION xxix 
 
 Beautiful, ringing changes with to dya66v, the Good, is every- 
 where the chief standard of reference, but koXov is so un- 
 English an epithet that it can scarcely be translated without 
 paraphrase, whereby this essentially Greek idea is apt to be 
 lost or obscured in any English rendering ; at any rate, it is 
 so in mine. (The Germans, French, and Italians appear to 
 be much better off with their schb'n, beau, betto.) 
 
 Hipparch, capp. 1-3 passim. 1 
 
 At chapter iv. we are quit of ceremonial, and the treatise becomes a 
 drill book, concerning evolution, manoeuvre, etc. , but the aesthetic 
 note Kakbv (pulcrum-honestum) is sounded spontaneously from 
 time to time, e.g. 
 
 ib. iv. 15 = p. 17, below, KaXbv /t&v . . . KaXbv 84, "your game is," or 
 better, ' ' you have a golden opportunity," in reference to tactics 
 of cavalry versus an enemy between two strategic points. 
 
 ib. vii. I2 = p. 25, "the fine chance"; ib. 14, "God helping, it would 
 be a feat of arms. " 
 
 (ii.) It is not contended that these treatises have or ever had 
 any claim to rank highly among those ttoXltikoI \6yoi of the 
 day, the production of which, in the opinion of Isocrates, the 
 great master of the art of political-essay writing, guarantees to 
 the author the title of philosopher — refused to the verbose or 
 disputatious professor of wisdom. 2 We have hardly the means, 
 moreover, of gauging the value attached by contemporaries to 
 
 literature and thought, for those primarily who do not know Greek," pp. 
 
 15. IQ 7- 
 
 1 For the sake of the student I append a list of the passages referred to : — 
 Hipparch., i. 7, otXQv KaXQv . . koXus : ib. 8, twv KaX<2v : ib. n, ra iv 
 
 l-mriK.% Xafiirpd : ib. 14, 15, 20, ayadbv, ayadbv, ayaObv : ib. 22, 
 an appeal to (piXon/da in the interests of the higher beauty, tov 
 KaXus ye oTrXioSrjvai ; ib. 25, ko.\i2s, us K&Wurra ; ib. 26, the 
 analogue of the chorus. 
 
 ib. ii. i, k&Wutto., Hpiara. 
 
 ii. iii. 1, Ka.Wi.ep-/io-et. rots 6eoh . . . KdWurra (a passage much to the 
 point = p. 10 below) : ib. 2, koXSv: ib. 4, ko\6i/ : ib. 5, Ayada teal 
 KaKb. Kal toIs Bearais i)84a iarru : ib. 6, KaXbv : ib. 9, K&WLtrra ; N.B. 
 ib. 10, KaXbv /lev . ■ Ka\bv 84: ib. n, yopybv, <sep.vbv, Kakbv: 
 ib. 13, voKeiuKiirepa . . . Kal xaivbrepa, here you have the prac- 
 tical man : ib. 14, rb acripaXes Kal rb KaXbv, here both notes are 
 struck together. 
 
 2 See Isocr. Against the Sophists (Or. xiii. 391 B.C.); On the Antidosis 
 (Or. xv. 3S3 B.C.) ; and cf. Cyneget. xiii. 
 
xxx INTRODUCTION 
 
 any of these minor works. The mere fact that they were 
 thought to be written by Xenophon would in itself perhaps 
 have sufficed to preserve them, but the gain to ourselves of 
 their preservation is undeniable. What, then, is their worth 
 to ourselves ? and at this time of day ? Let us consider. 
 
 Accidental Value. — It will be found, I think, to be partly 
 accidental, so to speak, and antiquarian. Just as the bio- 
 grapher finds in the Hipparch (or the pamphlet On Revenues) 1 
 suggestive material for the study of the author's life, so the 
 archaeologist will find in all three of them a mine of informa- 
 tion on a variety of topics. 
 
 The Hipparchicus is a locus classicus concerning 
 
 (i) The Knights, as an order of the state in Athens, 2 playing their 
 part as a separate class, constitutionally speaking, of wealthy 
 proprietors, with certain political duties devolving on them, and, 
 historically judged, with a certain aristocratic bias politically, 
 and so forth ; or again, 
 
 (2) As serving in the state cavalry (like our yeomanry cavalry in the 
 
 days before regular armies) as a military force ; or again, concerning 
 
 (3) Processions (an integral part of Athenian religious and aesthetic 
 
 life). 
 
 (4) Early cavalry tactics, formation, evolution, etc. 
 
 The tract On Horsemanship is no less a locus classicus concerning 
 
 (1) The anatomy, points, treatment, training, etc., of the horse before 
 
 the inventions of the shoe, the saddle, the stirrup, etc. 
 
 (2) Concerning bits and other gear ; or again, 
 
 (3) Cavalry armour and weapons (at a certain date in history). (A 
 
 reform lurks here ; see below.) 
 
 The tract On Hunting is actually the earliest treatise on sport and 
 
 ( 1 ) Methods of sport, at a time when nets and calthrops were legitimate 
 
 means of capture ; on nets, traps, and other gear, now unsports- 
 manlike, perhaps peculiar to the poacher, but then fashionable. 
 
 (2) The points and training of hounds (we are concerned with at least 
 
 two breeds), collars, surcingles, etc. 
 
 1 For the connection see Sketch (Trans, vol. i.). 
 a See Grote, H. G. ix. 253 ; A. Martin, op. cit. 
 
INTRODUCTION xxxi 
 
 (3) On animals (as creatures to be hunted), hares, deer and pig, 
 leopards and lions (valuable pre-Aristotelian notes) ; clubs, boar- 
 spears, etc. 
 
 Essential Value. — But if this is their accidental value a 
 theure au'il est, from a scientific " evolutional " point of view 
 they possess a more essential value, appealing at once to the 
 practical expert and to the philosophic student of history in 
 the widest sense. To the military expert, to the horseman 
 military or other, to the sportsman and "country gentleman," 
 they present a side of positive practical value and interest 
 which speaks for itself, and on which it would be impertinent 
 for a layman and plain person to enlarge. Only, I conjecture 
 that the military expert will find the chapters of the Hipparch 
 on reconnaissance and screening duties, along with the scattered 
 precepts of the old general and military reformer, the more 
 valuable, for reasons which will presently appear ; whereas the 
 horseman's interest in the irepl linriKrjs will be maintained 
 throughout ; whilst, lastly, that of the sportsman and country 
 gentleman will probably be concentrated on the coursing of 
 hares, and possibly the chapter on wild-boar hunting. And 
 so again, to put the matter negatively, least of all will the 
 expert (he who, in Xenophontean language, has the iirunr)^ 
 of the matter) or the philosophic student be disposed to 
 belittle the value, let us say, of the military treatise on the 
 ground that the scale of operations is small and the number 
 of troops concerned (a couple of regiments made up of ten 
 squadrons = 1000 men and horses) insignificant; 1 or again, 
 that certain " ruses " would be impossible now with our field- 
 glasses and other mechanical improvements, since even so 
 these instances have their value historically and their analogue 
 in practice ; 2 or, similarly, that the methods of sport in fashion 
 
 1 See Hellenica Essays, " Xenophon,'' pp. 375, 376. 
 
 2 Let any one compare Hipparch, v. 8 foil. (p. 19, "mock ambuscades," 
 "false information," etc.) with Lord Wolseley's remarks as to Fevers- 
 ham's dispositions near Keynsham upon a certain occasion as ' ' affording a 
 good illustration of how it is that disasters are brought about ; whilst those of 
 Monmouth show how great is the advantage gained by cleverly-spread false 
 information as to your intentions. The general who has thoroughly deceived 
 his enemy has already half beaten him " (Marlborough, xxxix. p. 326). This 
 yv&W is quite in Xenophon's manner; cf. Hipparch, v. 9 (p. 20). "In 
 
xxxn INTRODUCTION 
 
 in ancient Greece are somewhat arrier'es now. Such 
 animadversions are obviously out of place. It is not, of 
 course, in reference to the standard of absolute perfection (as 
 if indeed there could be such a thing in the art of strategics, 
 for instance), but relatively and by comparison that these 
 writings are found to be of durable interest. 
 
 But not further to labour the point, let us briefly apply 
 the test of relative value to Xenophon's Hipparchicus from 
 the point of view of an historical student, acquainted at any 
 rate with the military operations of the Greeks from the end 
 of the Persian wars to the battle of Crannon, 480-322 B.C., as 
 recounted by the contemporary historians Thucydides and 
 Xenophon down to the battle of Mantinea, 362 B.C., and at 
 second hand by such writers as Diod. Siculus and Arrian for 
 the subsequent interval. 1 This period, a century and a half, 
 
 fact there is no instrument of war more cunning than chicanery," or again, . 
 in reference to a change of arm, the newly-introduced snaphance or flint- 
 musket : ' ' Whilst match-locks were in use, it was no uncommon ruse at 
 night to impress your enemy with an exaggerated notion of your strength by 
 placing lines of sticks, with burning slow-matches attached to them, in front of 
 a position to be defended" (ib. note to p. 328). Cf. Hipparch, v. 6 (p. 19) 
 concerning a ' ' ruse " practised by two considerable generals, Agesilaus and 
 Antipater. See ad loc. 
 
 1 " Le siecle qui va de l'an 431 a l'an 322 est une epoque importante 
 dans l'histoire de l'art militaire. Une revolution, preparee depuis longtemps, 
 se termine a la fin de cette periode : elle a pour resultat de donner a la 
 cavalerie, qui n'avait encore qu'un rdle secondaire sur les champs de bataille, 
 une action decisive," A. Martin, op. cit. p. 427 foil. ; ch. i. R6le militaire 
 des cavaliers. Cf. Riistow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 70 foil. , (bk. ii. ) Von der 
 Vertreibung der Perser aus Griechenland bis auf die Schlacht von Mantinea, 
 (ch. i. ) Geschichtliche Uebersicht, (ch. iii. p. 134) Bewaffnung and Ele- 
 mentartaktik, Reilerei, (ch. iv. p. 142) Taklik der verbundenen Wajjen : 
 Diet. Gk. and Rom. Antiquities, "Exercitus. " See also the same authorities, 
 and Grote, H. G. xii. pp. 75-90, for the military organisation of Philip and 
 Alexander. The history of this revolution briefly stated is somewhat as 
 follows : At the starting-point chosen we are in the full swing of Doric (repub- 
 lican) tactics, which had long superseded the old Homeric (feudal) tactics. 
 The shock of shields is the great feature of the battle, which is still a chival- 
 rous dydv. The effect of the Persian wars, and of Persian cavalry tactics, is 
 the first moment. The Persian cavalry tactics versus infantry was till the end 
 an affair of missiles and not of shock ; irritating but not decisive like the charge 
 of the Numidians under Hannibal two centuries and a half later. See Arrian 
 Anab. Alex. iii. 15. 4, otfre &,KOvnafUf In, otfre 4!-e\ryfju>is rSm hvav, ijirep 
 linrofMxias SUti, lxP& VT0 > about the Persian cavalry at Arbela when driven to 
 despair by Alexander's hand-combat-attack. The result was a transformation 
 of tactics, amongst other things the invention of cavalry to defend and protect 
 
INTRODUCTION xxxiii 
 
 practically includes the whole life of Attic cavalry as a military 
 force. The interest of such a student will ere long be centred 
 on chapter vii., which is clearly the key to the situation. The 
 author in penning his remarks has no intention to write an 
 
 hoplites. This reform was worked out between Plataeae and Chaeronea. During 
 the Peloponnesian war the function of cavalry and light troops was mainly nega- 
 tive — to defend hoplites against cavalry and light troops. They were posted as 
 a rule on either wing ( " C'est toujours la disposition classique jusqu'a Frgderic 
 et Napoleon," Thiers, Consulat et Empire, xx. 742 foil.), their function being 
 (1) to engage the enemy's cavalry and light troops before or coincidently 
 with the main heavy-infantry battle which decided the day ; (2) to protect 
 the infantry in case of defeat or to enforce pursuit in case of victory. [This 
 rule does not, however, preclude the intervention of cavalry in an infantry 
 battle on occasion ; thus, so far from merely skirmishing, the Syracusan 
 cavalry did not hesitate to charge home against the left wing of the 
 Athenian hoplites on the slopes of Epipolae, 414 B.C., with complete 
 success. ' ' In the course of the battle the cavalry attacked the left wing of 
 the Athenians, which was opposed to them, and put them to flight ; the 
 defeat became general, and the whole Athenian army was driven back by 
 main force within their lines" (Jowett, Thuc. vii. 6).] The Peloponnesian 
 war was a twenty-seven years' education in the art of war, and many changes 
 in all arms were wrought before it ended : e.g. just as Sphacteria taught the 
 advantage of \jh\oI (light troops in general), so many functions of a cavalry 
 force were taught (the Athenians at any rate) (1) during the successive invasions 
 of Attica by Lacedaemonian hoplites and Boeotian cavalry during the Archi- 
 damian war ; as also (2) on the Sicilian expedition, where the invading force 
 was handicapped by its relative deficiency in that arm ; and immediately 
 after, during the final Deceleian phase of the great war. 1 In sum : the 
 change of tactics between Plataeae (an unaided hoplite victory over Persian 
 cavalry), and the collapse of the Syracusan expedition, due largely to the fact 
 that the Athenian hoplites were not sufficiently aided by cavalry, implies the 
 recognition of the use and employment of cavalry in protecting infantry in all 
 sorts of ways. This may, perhaps, be regarded as the second moment. 
 Another result of the Peloponnesian war was the development of a soldier 
 class. Military service became a profession, whilst the citizen militia tended to 
 be atrophied. The third moment is intimately connected with the rise of mer- 
 cenary troops and professional soldiering. It is exemplified by the Cyreian 
 expedition. Xenophon himself is regarded as the author of various military 
 reforms (see Anah. passim), as, for instance, of the attack not in line but in 
 columns of sections, 6p8ioi X6%oi {ii. IV. viii.; Trans, vol. i. p. 205). Note 
 also his organisation of a squadron of cavalry, and the subsequent perform- 
 ances of that handful of brave men under Lycius (ii. III. iii. n foil. ; IV. 
 iii. 22, vii. 24), and, later on, Timasion (it. VI. iii. 12, v. 28 ; VII. iii. 46). 
 Xenophon's reforms are all in the direction of greater mobility (see note, 
 
 1 For Sphakteria, see Thuc. iv. 31-39. As to the Boeotian cavalry, see Thuc. iy. 95 ; 
 cf. Hipparch, vii. The passages concerning Athenian cavalry defeats in the Sicilian 
 expedition are: Thuc. vi. 20-22, 37, 43, 64, 66, 69-72, 74, 88, 91, 93, 94, 9 8 (exceptionally 
 a victory scored to the Athenian cavalry, supported by hoplites, over Syracusan 
 cavalry), 101, 102; vii. 1, 4-6, 11, 13, 33, 75, 78-81, 84, 85. The question of Nicias' 
 generalship is another matter. 
 
 VOL. Ill 2 C 
 
xxxiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 exhaustive treatise on cavalry tactics. It is only by the way 
 and in the absence of other first-hand documents that the 
 pamphlet serves the purpose of an ancient cavalry-drill book. 1 
 What he does propose to do, the task he sets himself, is to 
 give general directions to the cavalry commander of the day 
 
 below), so are those of Iphicrates, e.g. his famous peltasts ' ' Iphicratidae." The 
 development of light infantry preceded that of cavalry in southern and central 
 Hellas owing to the nature of the country, since oix lirira.irlii.yi ^ X&PV 
 (Herod, ix. 13) holds good not only of Attica, but applies to Peloponnese and 
 the districts south of Thessaly to a large extent, and accounts for the relatively 
 slow growth of cavalry tactics in those parts by comparison with the north — 
 that is to say, Thessaly, the free states of Chalcidicg, and Macedonia. Had 
 the southern districts not been so mountainous, no doubt cavalry would at 
 this time have taken the start which, with certain preludings in Thessaly 
 under Jason, and elsewhere, it eventually did under Philip of Macedon and 
 Alexander. To return to Iphicrates, his light-infantry reforms = lightening 
 defensive arms in order to give greater force to weapons of offence. The 
 function of cavalry in the strategy of the same general is mainly confined to 
 (1) reconnaissance ; (2) pursuit of the enemy (cf. the saying attributed to him, 
 ' ' the light-armed are the hands, the horse the feet, the infantry the breast, 
 and the general the head," Plut. Pelop. 2). The fourth moment: After 
 Iphicrates came the Theban tacticians, and notably Epaminondas, whose 
 reforms concern the disposition of heavy infantry : the famous Xo|^ <j>£\ay^ ; 
 weight given to the phalanx, and also to cavalry ; the interspersion of light 
 infantry (&fuiTToi.) between the ranks of his cavalry (a reform with which Xeno- 
 phon may perhaps be also partly credited, at least theoretically ; see Hipparch). 
 Fifth moment : The Macedonian epoch introduces the final phases, and may 
 be spoken of as inaugurating the triumph of cavalry, the national arm of the 
 Macedonian tribes. The Thessalians (the best cavalry folk in Hellas proper) 
 were speedily amalgamated by Philip and Alexander, who together must be 
 credited with the final development of Hellenic strategy in all its branches : 
 Heavy infantry (" Companions"), drilled to the use of the long two-handed 
 pike or sarissa ; light infantry (hypaspists), more lightly armed ; other 
 "hoplites," volunteers from various parts of Greece, armed with the large 
 shield and one-handed pike ; light troops (acontists, archers, etc. ) ; heavy 
 cavalry (Macedonian and Thessalian), armed with the xyston ; light cavalry 
 (sarissophori or lancers) ; an effective siege train. It is said that Alexander 
 first charged heavy infantry with cavalry front to front (as opposed to a flank 
 attack, I presume), and decided the day at Chaeronea. This arm, which had 
 previously been to the rest of the army as 1 to 10, under Alexander was as 
 1 to 6. 
 
 1 Aeneas Tacticus (see note to Hell. VII. iii. 1 ; Trans, vol. ii. p. 208) is 
 the only contemporary writer on tactics, and a single section of his work on 
 siege operations (teichomachy), Commentarius poliorceticus, alone survives. 
 Most valuable it is, but what a pity we have not the other sections on hoplo- 
 machy, hippomachy, and the rest. How thankful should we be for a copy of 
 the notes of an oral lecture on strategics by Dionysodorus or some other 
 roaming ' ' sophist, " the shallowness of whose conceptions was so great a 
 scandal to Socrates. See Mem. III. i. 1 ; Plato, passim. 
 
INTRODUCTION xxxv 
 
 which will help him to discharge his duty successfully during 
 his period of office, at a time when certain storm-clouds 
 on the political horizon suggest that Athens, now isolated, 1 
 with a power such as Thebes in close proximity, may find 
 herself forced to repeat the experiences of the Archidamian 
 war. That being so, the directions for the handling of the 
 cavalry force in the field tend to narrow themselves to the 
 tactics of guerilla warfare. Such are the self-imposed limita- 
 tions of the writer, who under other circumstances, or as the 
 member of some other Greek state — let us imagine for the 
 moment Olynthus or one of the free states of the Chalcidice" 
 — would have emphasised another function of the arm in 
 which he took so profound an interest. In that case we 
 should have had less of guerilla and more concerning the 
 skilful handling of a regiment of cavalry in the field supported 
 by light infantry (since at Olynthus such was the main bulk 
 of the citizen army). Had he, again, been a Theban, writing 
 in the interests of that power and at so critical a moment, 
 we may be sure we should have heard a great deal more (and 
 it would have been highly valuable) with regard to the improved 
 tactics of Epaminondas, which directly concerned cavalry as 
 well as heavy infantry, the greater depth and solidity of the 
 formation, with a[j.unroi or light-infantry columns interspersed 
 (to which indeed we have an allusion), all calculated to give 
 the particular arm a separate organic independence and greater 
 mobility in attack, as was presently plainly discovered to be 
 the case on the field of Mantinea. To point out hiatuses in 
 Xenophon's treatise may seem but a poor compliment to the 
 memory of a great soldier, and unseemly on the part of a 
 translator not himself an expert in military affairs. But my 
 object rather is to remove obstacles with a view to a truer 
 appreciation of an author whose work can only be fairly 
 judged in its relation to the time when and the circumstances 
 under which he wrote, but whose right to speak authoritatively 
 I take to be unquestionable. 
 
 The treatise, limited in scope as it is, is still a valuable 
 index, the best indeed we have, to a particular " moment " in 
 
 1 See for date, above, p. xviii. 
 
xxxvi INTRODUCTION 
 
 Attic (a sub-branch of Hellenic) cavalry tactics. 1 Its perusal 
 naturally suggests to the mind of the reader certain questions : 
 as to the history of this arm during the period preceding 
 365 B.C. (the assumed date of the composition); as to the 
 reforms contemplated by Xenophon; and as to the future 
 destiny of the arm. To answer the first would imply taking 
 a coup (Fail of all preceding cavalry actions, and selecting 
 those which throw light on the handling of the force in rela- 
 tion to heavy and light infantry and light troops generally. 
 That the mind of Xenophon was crowded with such images 
 is obvious. 2 Many epoch-making occurrences known to 
 him from history, or hearsay in his boyhood — many crucial 
 incidents learnt on contemporary evidence, or else "autop- 
 tically " — many in which he had himself taken his full share, 
 would present themselves to his mind, surveying the whole 
 history of the cavalry of Athens from its first practical organisa- 
 tion under Pericles, shortly before the beginning of the 
 Peloponnesian war, to the present moment. But the actual 
 incidents are by no means all. The interpretation of their 
 meaning, the lessons that they taught, the ideal recasting of 
 them as they might have been, the reforms called for — these, 
 too, would crowd in upon his mind, as his historical writings, 
 the Anabasis, with the several parts of the Hellenica, and the 
 present treatise, testify. And as to the future, certain reforms 
 are definitely stated or referred to here. 3 Some others it is 
 not hard to divine as impending. In the Cyropaedia, at any 
 rate, we shall find him giving free rein to his imagination 
 
 1 As to Thessalian cavalry tactics, see Riistow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 247, 
 for the rhomboidal disposition due to Jason. [I assume that the emendation 
 IASQN for IAEON is correct.] As to the superiority (1) of the Thessalians 
 as a cavalry people, see Thuc. i. 107 ; Xen. Hell. IV. iii. ; (2) of the Mace- 
 donians, re the exploits of Derdas (the ruler of Elimia) against the 
 Olynthians (also strong in cavalry), Hell. V. ii. 38 foil. ; iii. 1 foil. 9 foil. 
 
 2 Xenophon's coup d'ceil as editor (?) of Thucydides, as author of the 
 Sequel to Thucydides = Hell. A, of the Anabasis and the Hellenic History 
 proper, would necessarily embrace nearly the whole period dealt with in note 1 , 
 p. xxxii. He definitely refers to the tactics of Iphicrates at Oneion, 369 B.C. ; 
 whilst clearly he has in his mind the affair of Dascylium, 396 B.C., and such 
 incidents as those of Hell. II. iv. 6; V. iv. 39; VII. i. 16; IV. iii. 7; VII. 
 i. 20, etc. 
 
 3 The reforms named are ( 1 ) tactical formation (Spartan model) , Hipparch ; 
 (2) to give greater mobility jn skirmishing and charging, ii. ; (3) of weapons, 
 
INTRODUCTION xxxvii 
 
 over the whole range of strategics, and amongst other reforms 
 depicting the future of this arm as capable of being utilised 
 on a grand scale, forecasting, that is to say, after his manner 
 certain historical developments which had been maturing 
 under Jason and Epaminondas, and now Philip of Macedon, 
 and which were destined to reach their consummation under 
 Alexander the Great. 1 Xenophon, as Mr. Ruskin has observed 
 in another context, is not only a simple-minded Athenian 
 warrior and philosopher, but "in the strictest sense of the 
 word a poet." As one who gazes into a crystal mirror, he 
 recalls past images and forecasts future potentialities. 
 
 Such are the questions directly suggested to the mind of 
 the careful student as he weighs the subject-matter of this 
 twin treatise. Another problem of a more formidable char- 
 acter yet remains. To the student of military history and the 
 art of war, the resolution of such questions as those above 
 referred to leads inevitably and in the long run to the further 
 inquiry — what light do these old writings throw upon the 
 history of cavalry "ab ovo " — itself a branch of strategic 
 evolution regarded as a whole ? A formidable problem indeed, 
 and one to which it is not for me, iSitonjs yap dpi, to make 
 more than a passing reference. Yet even a layman may see 
 that the process of strategical evolution, cavalry tactics among 
 the rest, for all practical purposes and in reference to the 
 study of the art of war, like that of any other art, resembles, 
 to use a metaphor, a parallel series of wave-movements along 
 a coast-line, — a tidal progress and regress with a gradual gain 
 and a gradual loss, the pulsations of which depend partly on 
 configuration ; that is to say, the circumstances of the parti- 
 cular folk concerned. These are emerging from a relatively 
 barbaric condition — but full of vigour and aptitude ; those are 
 at the top of civilised hmrr-qp-r], and if regressing, it is owing 
 to some secular change — the spirit and necessity of the times 
 
 with a view to shock, ib. ; (4) use of ifuwroi, ib. In the Cyropaedia, a sort 
 of tendenz-historical-romance, we shall have to consider other more ques- 
 tionable ' ' ideal " reforms, such as those of war-chariots, where the poet seems 
 to have got the better of the soldier. Xenophon is like the hero of ' ' Locksley 
 Hall," who, dipping into the future, has 
 
 Heard the heavens fill with shouting, and there rain'd a ghastly dew 
 From the nations' airy navies grappling in the central blue. 
 1 As part of the general " Entwickelung." 
 
xxxviii INTRODUCTION 
 
 — their day is past. A change of arms and a consequent 
 change of tactics has brought about a revolution in the art of 
 war as a whole, or an entire alteration in the relative position 
 of various kinds of arms. So, to take a trite instance, feudal- 
 ists warfare was killed by the introduction of firearms. So, 
 to take an instance nearer to our immediate subject, Philip of 
 Macedon overtopped the Theban hoplite-phalanx by improved 
 weapons of attack and a more solid formation than even 
 Thebes could boast of, though the Theban development itself 
 might well be regarded as a TpiKvpia, a high tidal wave of 
 heavy-infantry tactics, the highest ever attained by the small 
 citizen armies of central and southern Hellas. So too as 
 regards parallelism Friedrich's reforms and tactics in the battle 
 of Leuthen present a striking counterpart to those of Alex- 
 ander in the battle of Arbela. 1 
 
 1 As throwing light on the whole matter I cannot forbear quoting part 01 
 Grate's famous description of Arbela side by side with Carlyle's equally well 
 known comment on Friedrich's tactics at Leuthen. Both incidents, it will be 
 seen, turn upon the use these two great generals made of a particular manoeuvre 
 due in the first instance to the genius of Epaminondas, his redoubtable X6|?j 
 0dXa7£, or, as we should say, (chelon movement in attacking. 
 
 Battle of Arbela, September 331 B.C. "As soon as the chariots were 
 thus disposed of, and the Persian main force laid open as advancing behind 
 them, Alexander gave orders to the troops of his main line, who had hitherto 
 been perfectly silent, to raise the war-shout and charge at a quick pace, at 
 the same time directing Aretes with the Paeonians [the light cavalry] to repel 
 the assailants on his right flank. He himself, discontinuing his slanting 
 movement to the right, turned towards the Persian line, and dashed, at the 
 head of all the Companion-cavalry, into that partial opening in it which had 
 been made by the flank movement of the Baktrians. Having by this opening 
 got partly within the line, he pushed straight towards the person of Darius, 
 his cavalry engaging in the closest hand-combat, and thrusting with their 
 short pikes at the faces of the Persians. Here, as at the Granikus, the latter 
 were discomposed by this mode of fighting, accustomed as they were to rely 
 on the use of missiles, with rapid wheeling of the horse for renewed attack" 
 (Grote, H. G. xii. 219). 
 
 Battle of Leuthen, 5th December A.D. 1787. " His (Friedrich's) plan of 
 Battle is soon clear to him : Nypern, with its bogs and scrags, on the 
 Austrian right wing, is tortuous impossible ground, as he well remembers, no 
 good prospect for us there : better ground for us on their left yonder, at 
 Leuthen, even at Sagschutz, farther south, whither they are stretching them- 
 selves. Attempt their left wing ; try our oblique order " [" schrage Stellung," 
 let the hasty reader pause to understand, "is an old plan practised by 
 Epaminondas, and revived by Friedrich"] "upon that, with all the skill that 
 is in us ; perhaps we can do it rightly this time, and prosper accordingly ! 
 That is Friedrich's plan of action. The four columns once got to Borne shall 
 
INTRODUCTION XXXIX 
 
 To come back to our twin treatise and affairs of the 
 moment. " Historical parallels " so called are treacherous 
 arguments to lean upon at best ; particularly in the hands of 
 the tSttoTijs, that is to say, an amateur who may readily mistake 
 a merely superficial resemblance between two periods for a 
 deeper correspondence than the facts will justify. With this 
 caution I proceed to draw attention to a certain apparent 
 parallelism between the condition of the Attic cavalry 1 in the 
 year 365 B.C., and that of the same arm in this country about 
 the date of the battle of Edgehill, a.d. 1642. 2 If this re- 
 fall into two ; turn to the right and go southward, ever southward : they are 
 to become our two lines of Battle, were they once got to the right point south- 
 ward. Well opposite Sagschiitz, that will be the point for facing to left, and 
 marching up ' in Oblique Order ' with the utmost faculty they have ! " . . . 
 " I know not at what point of the course, or for how long, but it was from 
 the column nearest him, which is to be first line, that the king heard borne 
 on the winds amid their field-music, as they marched there, the sound of 
 Psalms, many-voiced melody of a church hymn well known to him [' Giei 
 dass ich thu' mit Fkiss was mir zu thun gebiihret'~\ which had broken out, 
 band accompanying, among those otherwise silent men." . . " Nadasti, a 
 skilful War-Captain, especially with Horse, was beautifully posted about 
 Sagschiitz; his extreme left folded up en. potence there {elbow of it at 
 Sagschiitz, forearm of it running to Gohlau eastward) ; potence ending in 
 firwood Knolls with Croat musketeers, in ditches, ponds, difficult ground, 
 especially towards Gohlau. He has a strong battery, 14 pieces, on the 
 Height to rear of him, at the angle or elbow of his potence ; strong abatis, 
 well manned, in front to rightwards : upon this, and upon the Croats in the 
 firwood, the Prussians intend their attack. General Wedell is there, Prince 
 Moritz as chief, with six battalions, and their batteries, battery of 10 
 Brummers and another ; Ziethen also and Horse : coming on in swift fire- 
 flood, and at an angle of forty-five degrees. Most unexpected, strange to 
 behold ! From south-west yonder ; about one o'clock of the day." — Carlyle, 
 Hist, of Frederick the Great, v. p. 243 foil.; it. p. 248. 
 
 1 One might perhaps say, the cavalry in general of the small republics of 
 southern and central Hellas. As we went north we should perhaps find a 
 somewhat different state of things. Jason's reforms, which had already 
 come, and those of Philip and Alexander, which were impending, imply 
 certain qualitative differences as regards stamina of horses and men, as also 
 the type of cavalry tactics in use among the Thessalians, Olynthians, and the 
 Macedonian tribes. 
 
 2 I hope the same military friend whom I have before referred to will 
 pardon me if, like Teucer, having shot this shaft, I seek refuge behind his 
 shining shield : 
 
 airhp 6 aBris iibv, irais £>s iirb /uiripa, Siaicev 
 els AlavB' • 6 Si juv o&Ke'C Kpiwraaxe <paeu>$. 
 
 11. viii. 271. 
 
 As to the feasibility of " modernising" the terminology of the Hipparchicus, 
 
xl INTRODUCTION 
 
 semblance is real, it may be explained on the supposition that 
 by lucky chance we have caught the English and Attic cavalry 
 (in spite of the two thousand years which separate them) at a 
 corresponding stage in the natural and orderly development 
 of the arm ; and further, that the background of affairs — the 
 conditions, that is to say, under which this force in either case 
 was raised (as part of a national militia) ; the " plastic raw 
 material " " ready to obey the craftsman's skill " ; * the political 
 (or social) status of the mounted trooper ; 2 the yeoman-like 
 service ; the stamina also of the men and horses ; the facilities 
 or the reverse of enlisting the force ; the means of its support 
 even to the question of pay 3 — present many features in 
 common. 
 
 I presume that though the world has known few finer 
 cavalry leaders than Cromwell (or Rupert as regards dash), 
 though there was never greater pluck than that which the rival 
 cavalries displayed in the field at Edgehill and a dozen later 
 battles, yet no one would select that particular period of our 
 own military annals as representing other than a relatively 
 low-water mark in the history of cavalry. And the same would 
 apply (mutatis mutandis) as regards pluck of the men and 
 ability of particular leaders to Xenophon's time.* It was in 
 fact in each case a transitional moment in the handling of the 
 arm, both as regards evolution and manoeuvre, and in reference 
 to attack. In order to see to what things were finally tending, 
 
 he writes : " It is hopeless, I think, to attempt to bring Xenophon in line 
 with the drill-book of 1895 ; with that of 1645 it is easier ; for then the 
 cavalry attack, as in Xenophon's time, was an attack, not of shock, but of 
 missiles." . . . " I may add that the essential difference between ancient and 
 modern cavalry drill is that now all changes of direction are executed by 
 divisions of squadrons or whole squadrons ; then (and in our own civil war) 
 they were only executed by the same change on the part of every man. Now 
 you wheel a squadron bodily to the right about ; then every horse turned 
 individually right about on his own ground." 
 
 1 Think of the ' ' new model " three years after Edgehill ; and cf. Hipparch, 
 capp. i. and vi. ad in. 
 
 2 "The men of honour " and ' ' the staid, most pacific, solid Farmer " (see 
 Carlyle, Cromwell, i. 100 foil.) ; in other words, the koKoI Ki.ya.Bot, and the 
 " Ischomachuses. " 
 
 3 KaT&ffTacns, "stoppage." 
 
 4 One thinks of Xenophon and Iphicrates, of Jason, of Epaminondas, all 
 cavalry leaders or reformers. 
 
INTRODUCTION xli 
 
 we should have to turn over a few pages of history in either 
 case : in our own to the true commencement of modern tactics 
 under Frederick the Great, and again, later, Napoleon ; and in 
 the case of the Attic cavalry to the days of Alexander, and 
 later, again, of Hannibal and his Numidians. 
 
 Let us confine ourselves to the attack. What was the 
 state of affairs, and what its explanation ? The Greek cavalry 
 tactics — as indeed those of heavy infantry, to which it was in 
 the first instance merely subsidiary — still carried with them 
 something appropriate to the fighting of the heroic feudal 
 times. A pitched battle was a sort of collective and multiform 
 duel, conducted in a series of bouts — an aywv between two 
 armies in phalanx, supported by cavalry and light troops, 
 placed originally on either wing ; 1 and the business of the 
 latter was to skirmish merely, as a preliminary to the real 
 engagement, or, at best, as the infantry swung round towards 
 the right, 2 to take a wing of the enemy's infantry in flank, or 
 to prevent one of their own wings being outflanked; and 
 ultimately to protect their own infantry in retreat if beaten, or 
 if victorious to enforce pursuit. The cavalry engagement was 
 still in fact a species of knightly tourney. The cavalry tactics 
 of the Persians (who preferred not to charge home 3 against 
 heavy infantry) did not in the early days suggest the advantage 
 to be derived from shock, though in his Asiatic campaign 
 (396, 395 B.C.) it gave a leader like Agesilaus, inspired (if 
 tradition reports correctly) by Xenophon, 4 a lesson to improve 
 the stamina of his horses and men, and to Xenophon himself 
 suggested an improved weapon, which in a mttke, such as even 
 the tourney on occasion led to, would enable the Greek 
 trooper to strike home with greater effect. Shock tactics, if 
 the phrase may be applied to the overwhelming crash of a 
 solid body of horse charging an enemy front to front, came 
 with the general improvement of strategics — in other words, 
 the gradual differentiation of cavalry as a separate and inde- 
 
 1 See above, p. xxxii. n. 1 ; Thuc. v. 67 ; Aristoph. Knights, 241 ; Aristot. 
 trepl k6<t/iov, 6. 399 B. 
 
 2 See Riistow and KSchly, op. cit. p. 126. 
 
 3 See Herod, ix. 20-24 ; c f- -Anab. VI. v. 30 foil. (Trans, vol. i. p. 267). 
 
 4 See Sketch, Trans, vol. i. p. cxiii. 
 
xlii INTRODUCTION 
 
 pendent organ under Alexander the Great. 1 The character- 
 istics of cavalry encounter in the civil war, though similar in 
 many respects, and tending to like modifications in the future, 
 have of course a different history. The relatively low state of 
 development of the arm, tactically speaking, is here to be 
 accounted for by the paramount fact that the invention of 
 gunpowder, or rather its application to war in the shape of fire- 
 arms in the middle of the fifteenth century, had entirely altered 
 the relation and relative importance of infantry to cavalry, and 
 still left its traces on the slowly reviving art of mounted war- 
 fare. One trace which directly concerns us is the dependence 
 which the trooper had come to place on the firearm rather 
 than the arme blanche. Another will be found, I think, in the 
 formation 2 in which the cavalry squadron entered battle. 
 I believe that further instances of the application of Xeno- 
 phon's principles to warfare in the last three centuries might 
 be furnished by military historians. 3 But here, with apologies 
 
 1 Alexander's reforms (including the organising of heavy and light cavalry 
 and "dragoons," with their appropriate tactics) lay along the lines suggested 
 by Epaminondas and Jason, the Cromwells and Gustavuses of the time, and 
 by such a Rupert-like person as Derdas, with the cavalry material to hand 
 of the northern free states of Thessaly and the Macedonian tribes. To 
 complete the parallel, as Friedrich Wilhelm of Brandenburg, the Great Elector, 
 to his son, so Philip of Macedon to Alexander. Both fathers had prepared 
 the way for their respective sons by military reforms, and an army organisation 
 which gave a supreme genius for war its opportunity. 
 
 2 See Th. Pasquier, Bsquisses historiques sur la cavalerie, p. 43, on the 
 reforms of Gustavus Adolphus, an interesting passage. 
 
 3 In justification of the above remarks, the following passages, culled from 
 certain modern authorities, cannot, I think, fail to be interesting. Whether I 
 put in any way the right construction on them is another question. My 
 object is served if I succeed in rousing the attention of more competent 
 inquirers, in kindling at any rate the interest of some perhaps youthful 
 student. I wish to do what I can to set a stone rolling, since, as my friend 
 says, " there is room for a long essay on the subject." 
 
 ' ' Seeing the vast benefit which infantry derived from the growing power 
 of firearms, cavalrymen in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were tempted 
 to discard the tactics on which they had hitherto relied, and which were their 
 special characteristic, and sought aid also from powder and ball. Thus it 
 was that the greatest of German soldiers found his regiments, when he came 
 to the throne, halting to fire a volley ere they delivered their charge, and it 
 required all the strength of character of a man exceptionally strong-willed to 
 stamp the heresy out." — Major E. S. May, Guns and Cavalry, p. 7. 
 
 ' ' The Ironsides too of Cromwell, whom I regard as the best cavalry 
 leader these lands have ever produced, could not shake off entirely the evil 
 
INTRODUCTION xliii 
 
 to the military expert for having so far overstepped the limits 
 of my province, which is simply the interpretation of Xenophon, 
 I desist. 
 
 fashion of the day, but when they engaged an enemy were usually drawn up 
 five deep. The front rank fired its two pistols and filed away to the rear to 
 reload, then the second rank did likewise, and similarly in due course the 
 third rank replaced it. When the word was given to charge, the men steadied 
 themselves ere they delivered their onset, fired their pistols and fell to with 
 their swords, supplementing their rush, it is said, by flinging their empty fire- 
 arms in the faces of their opponents ! I believe Cromwell latterly understood 
 more fully the true application of cavalry, and discountenanced firing previous 
 to a charge ; but certainly the usual tendency of cavalry tactics during the 
 seventeenth century was a false one. Such indeed was the prestige then 
 attaching to powder and ball, that though few can have fallen by them 
 under such conditions, the whole spirit and dash of horsemen were sacrificed 
 in their favour. Prince Rupert, however, whose name has become a synonym 
 for fiery valour, appreciated the mischief of the tendency, and may be credited 
 with at any rate an endeavour to make cavalry rely only on inertia and swift 
 moment in their first onset." — lb. p. 25 foil. 
 
 "According to Bulstrode Whitlock's Memoirs, quoted in Gardiner's 
 History of the Civil War, vol. ii. p. 146, the following instructions were 
 issued just before the battle of Edge-hill. He says : ■ Just before we began 
 our march Prince Rupert passed from one wing to the other giving positive 
 orders to the Horse to keep as close as possible, keeping their ranks with 
 sword in hand to receive the enemy's shot, without firing either carbine or 
 pistol until we broke in among the enemy, and then to make use of our fire- 
 arms as need should require, which was punctually observed.' " 
 
 ' ' At the battle of Auldearn, fought on the 9th of May 1645, we read that 
 ' Lord Gordon ' (who commanded Montrose's horse) ' by this time charges 
 the left wing, and that with a. new form of fight, for he discharges 
 all shooting of pistols and carbines, only with their swords to charge quite 
 through their enemies' (Gardiner, ii. ii. 226). Montrose had probably 
 profited by Cromwell's example, but the generality of cavalry soldiers did not. " 
 — May, ii. p. 27. 
 
 And here is a passage from Lord Wolseley's Marlborough (ii. 237), 
 " Campaigns of 1691 " : "At times the two armies remained for days in close 
 proximity. There was a great deal of mutual reconnoitring, the commanders 
 rising betimes to inspect one another's positions. On these occasions there 
 was often much firing between the outposts and what our soldiers called 
 ' pickeering, ' a term applied to the practice common amongst volunteers and 
 other gentlemen who followed both headquarters of riding out in front to fire 
 their pistols at one another. In those frequent skirmishes much powder was 
 expended, but little execution done." 
 
ANALYSIS OF THE THREE TREATISES HERE TRANSLATED 
 WITH ANNOTATIONS 
 
 Hipp arch 
 
 Cap. i. §§ I, 2 (Trans, p. i). — Prefatory remarks (addressed apparently to 
 some hipparch of the day). 1 
 
 §§ 3"8 (pp. 2, 3). — The hipparch's duties (in general) in the form of 
 memoranda (iuro/«'i}/iMiTa) concerning, §§ 3, 4, the horses and 
 their feet. §§ 5, 6, the trooper : seat on horseback, good disci- 
 pline. § 7, the hipparch, his responsibility in chief; aided by, 
 § 8, the phylarchs, and the Bouli (the Senate or Council), in 
 which he must have "orators" who will help to "put on the 
 business." 2 
 
 §§ 9-26 (pp. 3-7). — The same in greater detail. § 9, the class of 
 "knights" (at Athens). § 10, legal pressure, where to be 
 applied. §§ II, 12, moral pressure, on the lads themselves and 
 their guardians. 3 §13, how the breed of horses may be improved. 
 § 14, vicious animals and, § 15, kickers to be cast. § 16, the 
 author's recipe for strengthening the horses' feet. § 17, how 
 the trooper's skill may be improved in leaping and mounting 
 and, § 18, in keeping a firm seat : 4 § 19, by patriotic appeals to 
 the trooper's amour propre ; § 20, by cross-country rides, etc. 
 
 1 The exordium of a writer at once pious and practical. As to " date," 
 see above. 
 
 2 As Oliver Cromwell might have said. See P.S. to his Letter (" Eastern 
 Association, " nth September 1643) XVII. ap. Carlyle, To Oliver St. John, Esq. 
 . . . (re listing of his "Ironsides"): "There, is no care taken how to maintain 
 that Force of Horse and Foot raised and a-raising for my Lord of Manchester. 
 He hath not one able to put on ' that business. ' The Force will fall if some 
 help not. Weak counsels and weak actings undo all ! [two words crossed out]. 
 All will be lost, if God help not ! Remember who tells you." — Cromwell's 
 Letters and Speeches, vol. i. p. 137. 
 
 3 Here speaks the good citizen, the bon pere de famille, the "modern" 
 man. 
 
 4 It should be borne in mind that the stirrup was not as yet invented. 
 
HIPPARCH xlv 
 
 § 21, in javelin-throwing, by competitions conducted by the 
 rival squadron-leaders (phylarchs). § 22, in dressing, ac- 
 coutrement, etc., by similar appeal to the <pi\unfiia, native 
 ambition of the squadron-leader, who will regard the splendour 
 of his corps a rarer ornament than his own uniform. 1 § 23, 
 noblesse oblige, and they have the "allowance" to fall back 
 on. § 24, a spirit of discipline, how to be created : by reasoning 
 and the "logic of facts"; § 25, the force of example, "like 
 hipparch like phylarch." § 26, let prizes be offered to be com- 
 peted for by the several squadrons, an argumentum ad hominem 
 which no Athenian can possibly resist. 2 
 
 Cap. ii. §§ 1-9 (pp. 7-10). — Of evolutions : suited to (1) processions in honour 
 of the gods; (2) to field-day manoeuvres, etc., in peace time; 
 and (3) to those of actual warfare. § 2, taking the political 
 division of ten tribes (<pv\al) as the base of the formation, there 
 will be ten squadrons under their respective phylarchs, and each 
 squadron will consist of files of ten men (decads), with their 
 decadarchs or file-leaders. § 3, and ten serre-files ; on what 
 principle these are to be chosen ; § 4, and the ranks between. 
 § 5, of the second captain or lieutenant. § 6, advantage of this 
 formation. § 7, of a regiment of cavalry drawn up in this 
 formation. § 8, and the elasticity thereby gained ; § 9, on the 
 march and in battle. 3 The above are fundamentals which 
 
 1 Again one thinks, mutatis mutandis, of Cromwell and his Ironsides. 
 (To recall more modern illustrations might be invidious. ) See Letter XVI. : 
 ' ' I beseech you be careful what Captains of Horse you choose, what men be 
 mounted ; a few honest men are better than numbers. Some time they must 
 have for exercise. If you choose godly honest men to be Captains of Horse, 
 honest men will follow them, and they will be careful to mount such. The 
 King is exceeding strong in the West. If you be able to foil a force at the 
 first coming of it, you will have reputation, and that is of great advantage in 
 our affairs. God hath given it to our handful ; let us endeavour to keep it. 
 I had rather have a plain russet-coated Captain that knows what he fights for, 
 and loves what he knows, than that which you call 'a Gentleman,' and is 
 nothing else. I honour a Gentleman, that is so indeed ! " — lb. i. p. 134. 
 
 2 This is one of our author's stock maxims. The language, toSto ir&vTas 
 6tp,ai 'ABijpaiovs ye puiXio-ra irpoTptirew els (pChovutlav, is biographically 
 interesting. See Sketch (Trans, vol. i. pp. cxiv. cxlvi. ). 
 
 3 A friend, who is also a military expert, reminds me that "classical 
 models were adopted by all Europe at the renaissance of the art of war in 
 the sixteenth century. Aelian " [Aelianus Tacticus, a Greek writer who 
 lived in Rome, wrote a work in fifty-three chapters on the military tactics 
 of the Greeks (irepl aTparrfiiKuiv T&^euv 'EWtivlkSv), which he dedicated 
 to the Emperor Hadrian : Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, 
 s.n.] "was the favourite author of Maurice of Nassau, and many of Xenophon's 
 recommendations are incorporated into the English drill-books of the sixteenth 
 
xlvi ANNOTATED ANALYSIS 
 
 concern every member of the force, if it is to prove efficient as 
 a body. 
 
 Cap. iii. §§ 1-14 (pp. 1-10). — Special duties devolving on the commander or 
 "hipparch." 
 
 § 1, in general — (a) religious : sacrificial, and in reference to 
 sacred processional marches. (|3) military : reviews, tourna- 
 ments, field-day evolutions, etc. 
 
 § 2, the same in detail: topographical, order of the procession : 
 at the gallop. § 3, position of the lance. § 4, slow march. 
 § 5, a novel element. 1 
 
 §§ 6, 7, (a.) evolutions suited to "the Lyceum" (the march past). 
 
 § 8, gallop down a steep. 
 
 § 9, evolutions suited to the SoKifiaalcu (test-drill). 
 
 §§ 10-13, evolutions suited to reviews in "the Hippodrome.'' 
 
 § 14, evolutions suited to the hard ground of "the Academy.'' 
 Cap. iv. §§ 1-20 (pp. 13-18). — § 1, (/3) manccuvre: the march: horse and 
 man to be spared fatigue as much as possible ; how. 2 
 
 § 2, squadrons to be rested in turn. § 3, formation varying with 
 the ground ; effect of such manoeuvre. 
 
 § 4, reconnaissance, scouting, etc. 3 
 
 § 5, double line of scouts. § 6, topographical knowledge of home 
 and hostile country : to be acquired by the hipparch in peace 
 time. §§ 7, 8, secret service : information to be got from 
 merchants and pedlars : 4 ^/evdavr6/i.o\oi. § 9, orders to be 
 passed byword of mouth rather than by "herald" ("trumpeter"). 
 §§ 10-12, of advanced guards: eyii /iiv del iiraivio, k.t.X. : " 
 secret versus open pickets and outposts. § 13, "never incur 
 unnecessary danger." § 14, "attack at the weakest point." 
 
 and seventeenth centuries. Ten in rank and ten in file = 100 men was a 
 common formation. And as to the second captain (0 dipr/yoi/icvos) or lieu- 
 tenant (in Henry VIII.'s and Elizabeth's time petty captain), his place was 
 always in rear of the troops in the old days. The lieutenants of the Iron- 
 sides rode there. Now they are in front." 
 
 1 Xenophon imixo.voti.k6s (inventive) : reform of cavalry spectacle in 
 reference to the practical end in view, and also improvement of the service. 
 One would like to have the history of all this, and the names of the inventive 
 hipparchs. One would like to know what weight was attached to Xenophon's 
 treatise, and whether his suggestions were carried out. See A. Martin, op. 
 cit. pp. 267, 268. 
 
 ' Xenophon* orpcmjyiKis, directions based on experience, no doubt. 
 
 3 Cf. Anab. VI. iii. 19 (Trans, vol. i. p. 257). 
 
 4 Cf. Cavalry Drill Book, Part II. §4, Questioning: "clergymen, game- 
 keepers, etc." 
 
 5 Xenophon, old soldier ; ego, style ; one overhears the voice of the old 
 sportsman. 
 
HIPPARCH xlvii 
 
 § 15, " if occasion offers, on both flanks." § 16, " seize a coign 
 of vantage and bide your time." § 17, " always attack a weaker 
 with a stronger force"; coups de main. §§ 18-20, lessons in 
 guerilla tactics to be learnt from kites and wolves. 1 
 
 Cap. v. §§ 1-15 (pp. 18-21). — Inventiveness required of the cavalry general. 
 § 1, relative pace of horse and foot a matter of instinctive 
 knowledge in every horseman ; beyond which the commander 
 should be able to recognise at a glance ground suitable for 
 cavalry, etc. §§ 2, 3, he should be crafty and inventive in 
 various ways : specimens of J ni;x a '"5/«™- § 4, the author 2 will 
 set forth the procedure in certain crucial instances. § 5, know- 
 ledge of his horses' stamina a sine qua non : how gained. 
 §§ J, 6, how to give a troop an appearance of numerical strength ; 
 § 7, or, conversely, to make a large body appear small. § 8, 
 how to work on the enemy's fears or turn his confidence to 
 account. § 9, inventiveness a personal matter, not to be learnt 
 by rule of thumb. § 10, "nothing like craft in war." " Learn 
 a lesson from children playing irotslvSa." s § 11, we must even 
 pray for craft as we pray for other resources. § 12, sea and land 
 may be turned to account and played off craftily, one against 
 the other. § 13, need of fi/umroi to be instilled into the mind 
 of the state by the hipparch. § 14, in all act "with God." 4 
 § 15, how a reputation for recklessness and a reputation for 
 over-cautiousness may be utilised. 
 
 Cap. vi. §§ 1-6 (pp. 21, 22). — Need of sympathy between officer and men. 
 
 § I. Here, as elsewhere, the clay must be ready to the hand of 
 the potter. In other words, the Apxo^evoi. must be plastic 
 in the hands of the Sp^uc, 5 who must win the affection 
 and confidence of his men, not only by his greater sagacity in 
 all that concerns encounter with the enemy, but, § 2, as regards 
 commissariat, security of retreat, defensive outposts, etc. ; § 3, 
 and on active service by carefulness in the matters of forage, 
 quarters, water-supply, etc. — by keeping an eye, in fact, on 
 the interests at. all times of those under him ; § 4, showing that 
 
 1 The author illustrates more suo " socratically. ' 
 
 2 As the result of personal observations doubtless, embodied didactically 
 here and dramatically in the Cyropaedia. 
 
 3 For this dictum of the author's and " socratic " illustration cf. Cyrop. I. iv. 
 
 4 The author's favourite precept. The personal and religious note is 
 remarkable. Xenophon is a sort of Hellenic Havelock. 
 
 6 Cf. Cyrop. I. vi. 20-25. The whole chapter is a reduplication or ex- 
 pansion of our treatise as far as the special duties incumbent on an 6.px<av are 
 concerned. 
 
xlviii ANNOTATED ANALYSIS 
 
 he can practise what he preaches ; § 5, proving himself the 
 superior of his followers in all sorts of physical accomplish- 
 ments, from mounting a horse, onwards ; § 6, and by his 
 obvious moral excellences. 
 
 Cap. vii. §§ 1-15 (pp. 22-25). — Suggestions for the proper handling of a 
 cavalry force in Attica, in reference to the particular needs of 
 the moment. 1 
 
 § 1, respects in which a general of cavalry at Athens should excel 
 in dealing single-handed with a rival cavalry 2 numerically 
 equal to his own, and backed by a large force of heavy 
 infantry. § 2, whether offensively or defensively. 
 
 § 3, aiiv 0e#, God helping, the outlook would not be so bad 
 supposing the state decided to sally out en masse to protect the 
 rural districts, since, aim dey, by the blessing of God, the 
 Athenians are every bit as good physically and morally as the 
 Boeotians. 3 § 4, but on the supposition that the old Periclean 
 policy during the Peloponnesian war is adopted, and the defence 
 of the country districts is left entirely to the cavalry, then the 
 cavalry general will need peculiar qualifications, providentially 
 bestowed, of intellect ; § 5, and physique. §§ 6, 7, his best 
 chance, to divide his force into a corps of observation to act on 
 the defensive, and a guerilla force for offensive purposes. § 8, 
 watching his opportunity; § 9, when blunders on the part of the 
 invading force occur, as assuredly they will ; § 10, to strike a 
 blow and rapidly retire. §11, the opportunity presented at the 
 passage of a river or defile (TafueiaaaBcu). 4 § 12, the right 
 hour to attack. 5 § 13, harassing the enemy's advanced posts ; 
 § 14, and, God helping, aim 0e<J>, raiding his territory; § 15, and 
 capturing frontier outposts, etc. 
 
 1 circa 365 B. c. Situation : Boeotians hostile ; the Athenian infantry 
 retired within the walls ; fleet depended on, as during the Peloponnesian war ; 
 duty devolved on cavalry of (a) protecting the country outside of the city as 
 far as possible, as in the old Deceleian days (a function which the less efficient 
 members of the force may perform adequately, since ' ' fear is a great avp.- 
 0i)\a£ " ), so that the pick of the cavalry will (j3) be able to act, not as an army, 
 but as an efficient guerilla force, and harass the enemy in all sorts of ways. 
 
 2 i.e. the Theban. 
 
 3 The writer's heart warms with anti-Theban animosity ; old thoughts 
 come back to him. See Mem. III. v. 3, the same sentiment, totidem verbis. 
 
 4 Exemplified in modern times during the War of Liberation at Saranta 
 Potamoi in the Morea ; so I am told. 
 
 6 A reminiscence of the author's, 404 B.C. ; see Hell. II. iv. 6 (Trans, 
 vol. i. p. 64) ; and again, 369 B.C., Hell. VII. i. 16 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 190). 
 
HIPPARCH xlix 
 
 Cap. viii. §§ 1-25 (pp. 25-31).— Ok the superiority of morale needful to 
 such a force, with further maxims and expedients. 
 § 1, to damage a larger force the smaller must make up for paucity 
 of numbers by efficiency. (They must appear as iaicryral versus 
 Idiwrai. ) § 2, man and horse in thorough training. § 3, what 
 is meant by training, and its advantages shown by illustrations. 1 
 § 4, don't forget straps (the Keicpi<pakos [see Horse, vi. 8] or 
 " headstall " is a net of straps). 2 §§ 5-7, a fortiori argument from 
 gymnastic in favour of hippie askesis. § 6, that aim ISpuri, 
 this fled' ijSovijs. (SS irpbs tI i)86 ; reasoning, and note the 
 author's enthusiasm for riding : "here is fulfilled the aspiration, 
 ' Would I were a bird ! ' ") 3 §7, victory on the battlefield is in 
 itself more glorious than victory in the games : the umpires are 
 gods and award a diadem of happiness to the victorious state. 4 
 § 8, arguments from privateering ; a word in favour of "robbery 
 under arms " in case of extreme necessity. § 9, a maxim. § 10, 
 precautions neglected at times by generals : 6 in attacking a 
 supposed weaker force; § 11, "excess of victory," rb iroXii 
 viK&v, never regrettable ; §§ 12-14, m attacking a superior force. 
 § 15, false ambuscades, etc. § 16, some cases in which a few 
 men will suffice ; where paucity of numbers is a guarantee rather 
 
 1 Professionals v. amateurs ; men v. women ; winged creatures v. reptiles ; 
 sound v. halt ; seeing v. blind. Cf. the language of a writer in Macmillaris 
 Magazine (October 1896), No. 444, p. 408, "Our Yeomanry"- "Their 
 function would be to hang like a cloud of wasps round an advancing enemy, 
 seeing, hearing, and stinging, as their superior knowledge of a strongly 
 enclosed country gave them opportunity." 
 ' 2 See Cyrop. VI. ii. 32. 
 
 3 Cf. Herod, iv. 132, Spcis di jtidXiora ohc lliririp : Cyrop. IV. iii. 15, 
 where the same image is expanded in an elaborately humorous speech put 
 into the mouth of Chrysantas in seconding the proposal of Cyrus to institute a 
 force of cavalry (the Persians have hitherto been a force of infantry) : 
 ' ' For my part, my desire to learn horsemanship is so great that I flatter 
 myself if I once become a horse soldier, I shall find myself a sort of flying 
 man, 'a hippocentaur, ' that can be taken to pieces at the end of the day's 
 work and be put together again, only better oft than the hippocentaur, as I 
 shall have four eyes and four ears, with all the advantages of a horse and 
 man combined." The whole passage wittily sets forth in a rhetorical manner 
 the merits of the service ; and, as far as argument goes, is a set-off to the 
 humorous description of the defects of the Persian cavalry from the point of 
 view of a hellene heavy-infantry soldier, in Anab. III. ii. 17 foil. (Trans, vol. 
 i. p. 156). 
 
 4 A pretty sentence, even if the wreath be somewhat blood-stained.. Here 
 follow further maxims and expedients. 
 
 6 e.g. Iphicrates at Oneion, 368 B.C. See Hell. VI. v. 51 (Trans, vol. ii. 
 p. 185). 
 
 VOL. Ill 2 d 
 
1 ANNOTATED ANALYSIS 
 
 of success. §§ 17, 18, in case of equality of numbers between 
 the combatants as regards cavalry : hints for handling the force. 
 § 19, and of the use of i/uinroi, foot soldiers interspersed 
 among the cavalry : * a dictum of the author's, 6pQ y&,p t& 
 irapASo^a. § 20, illustrations of the same. § 21, to find men 
 to carry out these dispositions loyally is the difficulty rather than 
 the tactics themselves. § 22, a problem for the hipparch to 
 solve, who must be \4yeiv Kal iroietv roiavra licavfo dtp &v ol 
 dpxipevoi, k.t.X., able by speech and conduct to kindle the 
 right enthusiasm in his subordinates (cf. Mem. III. iii. 11).. 
 §§ 23-25, 2 in case of cavalry skirmishing between hostile camp. 3 
 § 23, the orthodox rule criticised. § 24, a recommendation of 
 the author (see Horse, viii. 12 for a similar injunction). § 25, 
 novel tactics. 
 
 Cap. ix. §§ 1-9 (pp. 31-33). — Concluding observations. § I, the rules pre- 
 scribed in such a manual as this are not hard and fast, but to 
 be carried out as circumstances require. 
 
 § 2, of all memoranda the best is : take pains, pains, pains to 
 give effect to what you recognise to be best ; without inp.i\ua 
 no amount of correct theory will bring forth fruit in husbandry, 
 or seafaring, or rule, or anything. 
 
 § 3, on foreign brigades. An important practical reform : the full 
 complement of 1000 horse might be much more easily reached 
 by the enlistment of 200 foreign troopers (cf. Revenues, ii. 5). 
 The foreign element will create rivalry and emulation — will 
 
 1 Tactics borrowed apparently from the Thebans ; at any rate employed 
 with success by Epaminondas at Mantinea, 362 B. c. See Hell. VII. v. 24. 
 
 2 Curiously appended or inserted here, or have the preceding §§21, 22 
 ["To make these dispositions . . resolution of their souls"], which form 
 a natural climax to the chapter, got out of place in front ? 
 
 3 Such preliminary cavalry engagements, as a prelude to the heavy infantry 
 battle, were common enough ; cf. Hell. VII. i. 20, where the historian 
 describes the exploits of a small squadron of Celto-Iberian cavalry sent by 
 Dionysius to aid the Lacedaemonians, 369 B.C. The recommendation which 
 the author here lays down (§ 24), and which he repeats below (Horse, viii. n), 
 for the proper manoeuvring of such a force may possibly be mentally associated 
 with that incident. The point of it seems to be a departure from pedantic 
 rules. Apparently it was the orthodox fashion for both sides to manoeuvre, 
 slowly advancing until they reached the ground midway between the two 
 camps, when they quickened and let fly their missiles, and again slowly 
 retired. Xenophon, as I understand, advises that, instead of playing this 
 game, the leader should choose some moment, when retiring slowly before 
 the enemy or the enemy from him, to increase the pace and convert the feint 
 manoeuvre into a real attack. It must be borne in mind that the attack in 
 any case was not a shock attack, but an advance to discharge missiles and 
 retreat. 
 
HIPPARCH li 
 
 raise the standard of efficiency. § 4, so it was at Lacedaemon, 
 so elsewhere ; foreign brigades pay. 1 § 5, the question of cost ; 
 facilities for getting pay out of wealthy old men, orphans, etc. 2 
 § 6, metic service. § 7, H/uTiroi — -where to find good raw 
 material for this arm under the present circumstances. 3 
 §§ 8, 9, the author defends his motto, rh aiv 6eQ irpirreiv. 1 
 
 1 See Cyrop. for the working out of this idea on a grand scale. One 
 would like to know the date at which the Lacedaemonian cavalry began to 
 improve after the lesson taught to Sparta at Leuctra, 371 B.C., when it was 
 at its worst. 
 
 - See, on this whole topic, Albert Martin, Les Cavaliers Athtniens, livre 
 iii. ch. v. "La solde de la cavalerie." 
 
 3 In these §§ 3-7 one hears the voice of the political reformer of the 
 Revenues. See Trans, vol. ii. p. 325 foil. , an argument pro tanto for the 
 genuineness of that tract if our present one be genuine, as assuredly it is. 
 
 4 The old man relapses into an ancient mood of mind and even mode of 
 expression. See Mem. I. i. 19 ; Symp. iv. 48 and passim. 
 
Horsemanship 
 
 A COMPANION TREATISE TO THE PRECEDING (see below, Cap. xii. 14, 
 ad fin. iv friptp \6y(f) 
 
 Cap. i. §§ 1-17 (Trans, pp. 37-42). — § 1, Preface, explaining the author's 
 standpoint : Simon's work on the same subject 1 : how to avoid 
 being cheated in the purchase of a horse. 
 
 § 2, points of a young unbroken horse: physique: first, the feet: 
 an analogy. 2 § 3, the horn: "frog" the hoof: a saying of 
 Simon's. 
 
 § 4, the other points upwards : pasterns and coffin. § 5, bones of 
 the shanks (metacarpals and metatarsals') : the vepovri (back sinew, 
 .al. suspensory ligament 1). § 6, knees. § 7, the thighs below 
 the shoulder-blades (i.e. "arms" and "gaskins ") : chest. § 8, the 
 neck (an illustration, more Socratico). § 9, the jaws : the eyes. 
 § 10, the nostrils. § 11, crest and ears: the "withers" : back. 
 § 12, sides and belly : loins. § 13, quarters. § 14, thighs (and 
 buttocks') : 3 analogy of man (wore Socratico). § 15, M« stones? 
 hocks, etc. §§ 16, 17, how to forecast the size of the grown 
 animal : length of shanks ; summary of points. 5 
 
 Cap. ii. §§ 1-5 (pp. 42, 43). — § 1, method of breaking, not necessary to 
 discuss, as there are professional breakers everywhere, and 
 those whom this treatise concerns are sure to be rich enough 
 to employ them, while giving their own energies to other 
 matters. § 2, but it would be well to give the breaker "sug- 
 gestions" (InroSelyimTa) in what direction he is to emphasise 
 
 1 Quoted § 3 ; xi. 6. 2 More Socratico. Cf. Mem. III. i. 7. 
 
 3 Cf. below, xi. 2.. 
 
 4 This concerns the full-grown animal. It will be borne in mind that 
 the Greeks used entire horses, not geldings. 
 
 5 The author's love of animals and taste for natural history are apparent in 
 these (pre-Aristotelian) observations, and passim. 
 
HORSEMANSHIP . liii 
 
 the training : an analogy (more suo Somatically). § 3, there are 
 qualities of temper which the young horse can acquire under an 
 intelligent groom, and should possess before he is handed over 
 to the breaker. §§ 4, 5, hints as to these, patting, etc. : curing 
 " nervousness " by common-sense and gentle handling. 1 
 Cap. iii. §§ 1-12 (pp. 43-46).— § 1, of purchasing a riding horse, already 
 broken and full-grown : a charger, we will suppose. " Memo- 
 randa" of points to ascertain : imprimis as to age: "has he 
 shed his 'milk-teeth' (yvii/iovas) ? " § 2, "will he take the 
 bit, etc. , quietly ? " § 3, " how does he stand being mounted ? " 
 § 4, " separation from his fellows, etc. ? " § 5, use of the volte 
 (irtSri) for detecting a hard mouth : obedience to the rein. § 6, 
 response to the whip : an illustration (more Socratico). § 7, the 
 test to include qualities requisite in war, e.g. leaping, etc. : gallop- 
 ing down steep pitches, etc. (cf. Hipparch, i. 18; Econ. xi. 17). 
 § 8, "with teaching, practice, and habit these can be acquired, 
 provided he is sound 'and free from vice." 2 § 9, " over-timidity " 
 a worse defect. § 10, " viciousness, " "skittishness." § 11, 
 " reluctance to being bitted or mounted " ■ a final test of 
 pluck and " last " suggested. § 12, a summary of good qualities 
 needed in a war-horse to content the owner. 
 
 Cap. iv. §§ 1-5 (pp. 46, 47). — § 1 (the purchase effected), concerning the 
 stable (stall, horse-box, etc. ), which should be under the master's 
 eye : the advantages of a secure position where the food can't 
 be stolen from the bin. § 2, and where, if the animal takes to 
 scattering his food (a sign of " barley surfeit "), the action will 
 be at once detected, and veterinary aid called in, if necessary : 
 a medical note : analogy of human subject. 3 § 3, food and 
 exercise : construction of the floor : to prevent damp, and to 
 harden the feet. §4, "Grooming" after the morning's feed : 
 best type of stable-yard : the author repeats with slightly more 
 detail a plan of his own (as suggested in the Hipparch, i. 16, 
 p. 6, above) for hardening the hoof, § 5, and frog : 4 of 
 " suppling " the mouth. 
 
 Cap. v. §§ I -10 (pp. 47-49). — Daily duties of 'the groomin attendance on a horse: 
 " never to knot the halter at the point where the headstall is 
 
 1 The good sense and humanity of the author himself are obvious here and 
 throughout these treatises passim. 2 Sagacious observations. 
 
 3 It would be interesting to collect passages showing Xenophon's 
 acquaintance with the art of healing (medicine and surgery) throughout his 
 writings. 
 
 4 As the Greeks did not shoe their horses, this was of supreme importance, 
 of course. 
 
liv ANNOTATED ANALYSIS 
 
 attached to the horse's head," to avoid setting up sores. § 2, 
 "to carry out the dung and litter to a set place daily." § 3, 
 to attach the muzzle when taking him out to groom or to the 
 rolling-ground, or indeed anywhere, as a safeguard against 
 savage outbursts. 1 § 4, "in tying him up, to fasten the halter 
 at a point above his head." § 5, " to begin with the head and 
 mane in rubbing down and cleansing various parts of the 
 body " : observations as to hairy parts. § 6, the head to be 
 drenched with water simply : so the forelock : use of the fore- 
 lock to the animal (a naturalist's observation). § 7, so, too, the 
 tail and mane. § 8, mane, forelock, and tail given for the sake 
 of pride and ornament : a current belief and custom in proof 
 that the mare takes pride in her flowing mane. §§ 9, 10, 
 washing of legs, hoofs, and belly to be dispensed with : rubbing 
 and currying by hand recommended. 
 
 Cap. vi. §§ 1-16 (pp. 50-52). — The same topic cmtinued. §§ 1, 2, posture to 
 be observed by the groom in currying, etc., to avoid kicks and to 
 enable him to clean the frog by folding back the hoof. § 3, 
 " always approach from the side. " § 4, " do not lead the horse 
 behind " : § 5, "nor let him go forward on a long rein." § 6, 
 ' ' lead from the side " •- advantage of these rules. § 7, rules for 
 inserting the bit. § 8, an infallible method when the horse refuses. 
 § 9, two fundamental lessons of the stable' — (1) never to lead the 
 horse by a single rein of the bridle, for fear of spoiling his mouth : 
 (2) to judge at what distance from the corners of the mouth to 
 keep the bit : and why. § 10, supreme importance of getting 
 the horse to take the bit readily. § n, the best method of 
 habituating him, through pleasant associations. 2 § 12, the 
 groom should know how to give a leg up in the Persian fashion 
 of mounting, in case of need. 3 § 13, the golden rule, never to 
 approach a horse in anger, a dictum of the author's as to dpyfi. 4 
 §§ 14, 15, intelligent (and humane) treatment of a nervous 
 horse based on association of ideas. 5 § 16, if the groom knows 
 how to make the horse lower his back (iTo^iieaBai) to 
 facilitate mounting, good ; but the horseman should learn to 
 
 1 See above, i. 15 and iii. 10 ; below, ix. 12. We are concerned with 
 stallions. 
 
 2 Here, and elsewhere, Xenophon shows not only his intelligence of 
 animals, but as to a sound system of education. See §§ 13-15. 
 
 3 See above, Hipparch, i. 17. It will be borne in mind that the Greeks 
 had no stirrups. 
 
 4 See ref. ad loc. 
 
 5 Cf. Hunting, vii. 12. 
 
HORSEMANSHIP lv 
 
 vault on to horseback unaided, and for good reasons ; and from 
 the off side as well as the near ; see below, vii. 3. 1 
 
 Cap. vii. §§1-19 (pp. 52-56).— Directions for the rider {a cavalry soldier). 
 § I, methods of mounting. § 2, the right posture. § 3, he 
 should learn to mount also on the off side. § 4, which may be 
 of great service in the field. § 5, seat on horseback : firm 
 adhesion of the thighs a sine qua non for delivering a sabre-cut 
 or hurling the javelin. 2 § 6, posture of leg below the thigh, 
 § 7, and of body above the hips, supple. § 8, of steadying the 
 horse whilst taking the reins, grasping the lance, etc. § 9, the 
 reins. § 10, pace at starting, how to hold the reins. § 11, of 
 falling into the trot (leading on the left foot). § 12, quickening 
 to the gallop. § 13, of the exercise called the viSri (volte?). 
 § 14, the longitudinal better than the circular. § 15, the horse 
 to be "supported" at the turns. § 16, of collecting, § 17, and 
 putting him to the gallop, as a practice for the charges and 
 retirings of the cavalry skirmish. § 18, further exercises. § 19, 
 of dismounting : ' ' choose the scene of his exertions as the place 
 at which to dismiss him" (on the ''association of ideas" prin- 
 ciple of education ; see above, ii. 5, vi. 10 ; below, viii. 10, 
 x. 13 ; Econ. xiii. 6 foil.). 
 
 Cap. viii. §§ 1-14 (pp. 56-59). — Of training the horse in various exercises 
 with a view to the emergencies of war. § 1, to race up and 
 down hill : take fences, etc. § 2, this is not a mere repetition 
 of the topic handled, e.g. above (in hi. 7, 8), but a direction to 
 
 1 As the Greeks had no stirrups, the horseman must mount ( 1 ) either unaided 
 in the manner described vii. 1 (the correct method for an athletic man) ; or 
 (2) vault on to horseback by help of his spear (ii. ), (and if the animal were of 
 large build, a horse of the best Thessalian (or Macedonian) breed, of the 
 Bucephalus type, such aid would clearly be a gain, however superfluous in the 
 case of the small " cobby " horse of this treatise, " such as we see represented 
 on the Elgin Marbles," according to Stonehenge and other authorities) ; or (3) 
 by aid of an dvajSoAeiis, skilled to give the horseman a leg up "in the Persian 
 fashion " (vi. 12 ; cf. Arrian, Anab. I. xv. 8 ; IV. xiii. 1 ; Livy, xxxi. 37) ; 
 or, doubtless (4), by means of a natural bank or artificial mounting block, 
 such as Caius Gracchus supplied the streets of Rome with (Plut. C. Grac. vii. ). 
 The horse, on his side, could be trained (1) to lower his back ({nro^d- 
 fetrtfai) by stretching out his forelegs and spreading his hind-quarters ; or (2) to 
 bend his knees as if about to kneel (6ic\d{eiv) in a crouching attitude. For 
 this whole matter, see Courier, op. cit., trad. p. 64, note 1 ; note, adloc. p. 93 ; 
 A. Martin, op. cit. p. 399; Morris H. Morgan, op. cit. p. 137 foil., and 
 woodcuts there given. 
 
 2 It will be borne in mind that the trooper derived no assistance from 
 stirrup or saddle-bow, the "saddle" being nothing more than a quilted 
 saddle-cloth, so strapped that it should not slip. 
 
lvi ANNOTATED ANALYSIS 
 
 the horseman how to train his horse, e.g. §§ 3, 4, to leap, first, 
 by the leading rein, etc. § 5, secondly, with the rider on his 
 back. § 6, how to force the pace down hill : "first teach him 
 on soft ground " ; no risk : witness the Persians and Odrysians. 1 
 § 7, of the horseman's posture, balance, etc., in galloping and, 
 § 8, in leaping, etc. § 9, these exercises to be varied as much as 
 possible as regards place and duration. § 10, venatio belli 
 meditatio, hunting a martial exercise in itself, where possible, or, 
 failing that opportunity, sham fights of a couple of horsemen. 2 
 § n, rules for both combatants at the grip. § 12, skirmishing 
 tactics. 3 §§ 13, 14, the right principle of education in dealing 
 with animals 4 (incapable of appeals to reason through X670S by 
 rewards and penalties through association of ideas). 
 
 Cap. ix. §§ 1-12 (pp. 59-61). — Treatment of a spirited (and, again, of a. 
 sluggish) horse. 
 
 § 1, recapitulatory: topics treated of — (1) hints for purchasing 
 a colt ; (2) hints for purchasing a full-grown horse ; (3) of 
 management ; (4) of a charger's accomplishments. New 
 topic : how to deal with a horse of a particular sort, fiery or, 
 again, sluggish. 
 
 § 2, temper or spirit in a horse defined by help of an analogy (more 
 Socratico). 
 
 § 3, "minimise annoyance by quiet procedure." § 4, avoiding 
 sudden "fits and starts." § 5, coaxing him to calm down. 
 § 6, the right method, § 7, and the wrong, of toning down his 
 spirit. § 8, " don't indulge his eagerness to race. " § 9, " trust to 
 a ' smooth ' bit and a light hand " • the rider must habituate 
 himself to keep a quiet seat, etc. 5 § 10, a propos of the con- 
 ventional lip and palate sounds for quieting and rousing the 
 horse, which are a matter of association merely. § 11, the 
 author suggests that when the fiery war-horse hears the clarion 
 and the shout of battle, and would naturally begin to paw the 
 ground, etc., then is the right moment to avoid excitement : halt 
 and rest him, and give him a feed. § 12, but really an over- 
 spirited horse is not suitable for the purposes of war. As to the 
 sluggish animal, a directly converse treatment is the only thing. 
 
 1 A reminiscence of old days possibly. See Sketch, Trans, vol. i. p. cix. ; 
 Hell. III. ii. 2 (Trans, vol. ii. p. n). 
 
 2 Cf. Cyrop. II. iii. 17-20, an infantry sham fight. 
 
 3 See note to Hipparch, viii. 23, above. 
 
 4 Cf. modern Greek rh &\oyov, i.e. V animal par excellence=\h& horse. 
 
 6 Xenophon is nothing if not pedagogic. Such self-restraint will become 
 a second nature, and the horse will catch the infection of the rider's tranquil 
 manner. 
 
HORSEMANSHIP lvii 
 
 Cap. x. §§ 1-17 (pp. 61-64). — How to give a horse {a charger) " high airs" 
 § 1, a proud carriage, how given : the wrong principle (§ 2, 
 pulling at the mouth with the bit : applying spur and whip, 
 with results the opposite of those desired). § 3, the right 
 (riding on a loose rein, permitting the horse freedom to arch 
 his neck, etc.), § 4, imitated from nature (note the " airs " assumed 
 by a stallion in the presence of mares). § 5, in fact, not to do 
 violence to nature, but to consult her and follow her lead at 
 every turn, that is the one principle never to be lost sight of. 1 
 § 6, artificial aids, e.g. of the bit : two sorts of bit — the rough 
 and the smooth. § 7, the latter furnished with large discs ; the 
 use of these. § 8, the bit must be flexible (a " Socratic" illus- 
 tration). § 9, and so serve as a player. § 10, a flexible bit 
 described : also, § 1 1, a stiff bit. § 12, in training him to 
 proud action by means of the bit, the same system of rewards 
 is to be used as supra. § 13, " association of ideas." § 14, a 
 swift pace natural to the horse in liberty : but remember fafikv 
 &yav, " don't overdo it." § 15, 2 presuming he has got the first 
 lesson of the riding-school (see above, vii. 17) well by heart 
 (the passade) ; § 16, he is ripe to practise the airs we are here 
 concerned with (the pesade, curvet, etc.) : a concrete presenta- 
 tion of the same. § 17, effect on the spectators. 3 
 
 Cap. xi. §§ I-I3(pp. 64-66). — Of a horse adapted to parade and state processions. 
 § I, a horse for processions (7ro/£7nK<Ss), 4 a high-stepping prancer 
 (fieriupos), brilliant, splendid animal (Ka/arpSs), must combine 
 qualities of soul and body of a high order. § 2, what shape best : 
 flexible legs not everything, but he must have supple haunches. 
 § 3, artificial aids to assist these airs. § 4, other methods. § 5, 
 the secret of education, in the author's opinion. § 6, a dictum of 
 Simon's as to wrong and right method of teaching : illustration 
 from dancing : " what we need is that the horse should of his 
 own accord exhibit his finest airs and paces at set signals. " 6 
 § 7, how this spontaneous display of his finest airs may be made 
 agreeable to the horse, and wifh what splendid artistic effect. 
 
 1 Xenophon is an artist with a sympathetic eye for animals : a naturalist 
 also with a scientific (psychologically correct) instinct for methods of training. 
 See Victor Cherbuliez, Un Cheval de Phidias, p. 143 foil. 
 
 2 See Berenger, The History and Art of Horsemanship, vol. ii. "the 
 Manage," ch. xv. of Passades ; ch. xvi. of Pesades ; also ch. xx. of Caprioles. 
 
 3 See V. Cherbuliez, op. cit. p. T48. These sections are a splendid bit 
 of word-painting on the part of the author, who is at once enthusiastic and 
 naturalistic. 
 
 4 See A. Martin on the force of this epithet, op. cit. p. 206. 
 6 See Berenger, op. cit. ii. p. 109. 
 
lviii ANNOTATED ANALYSIS 
 
 § 8, " such are the horses on which gods and heroes are repre- 
 sented as riding." 1 § 9, a scene in the streets and squares of 
 Athens : the crowd looking on : folk of all ages feasting their 
 eyes on u. curveting war-horse : one hears the exclamations ! 
 (cf. Theocr. xv. 53 : 6p8bs aviara b irippos • tS us &ypios). 2 §10, 
 the squadron-leader (phylarch) or a general of cavalry (hipparch) 
 mounted on such a horse must not be content with his personal 
 display. § 11, his troop must be considered. § 12, "the 
 collective thud, the general neighing and snorting, and the 
 stately forward movement of the whole company," important 
 to the pageant. § 13, one word more : a piece of practical 
 advice from an economical point of view. 
 
 Cap. xii. §§ 1-14 (pp. 67-69). — On the arming of a cavalry soldier and his 
 charger. 
 § 1, defensive armour : the thorax (or " corselet "), well 
 fitting : with, § 2, throat-piece. § 3, Boeotian helmet. § 4, 
 lower part of the mail coat, how to be constructed : "flaps." 3 
 § 5, the sleeve or gauntlet (rij>/ %iipa) on the left arm. § 6, for 
 the right, a wing-like apparatus appended to the corselet (at the 
 shoulder). § 7, and on the arm itself a sort of greave. § 8, the 
 horse's armour : frontlet, breastplate, and thigh-pieces, serving 
 as cuirass for the trooper himself. § 9, the saddle a quilted 
 saddle-cloth. § 10, shins and feet protected by leathern gaiters. 
 The above, 0eQv "CKeuv Hvtuv, will serve as defensive armour. 
 § 11, weapons of offence: a fmx al P a > machaera, "bill" (or 
 "sabre"), rather than a £/</>os, xiphos, "straight sword." § 12, 
 two 7raXri Kpavi'Cva (darts) " of cornel wood," in place of a 
 single S6pv Kap.dKi.vot>, " reed spear," recommended : why. 4 § 13, 
 
 1 e.g. on the frieze of the Parthenon. 
 
 2 This fine study of collective equestrian splendour and effect is com- 
 parable (in literature to the description of the war-horse in the Book of Job, 
 and still more exactly) in plastic art to the Parthenon frieze. § 9, it shows 
 how naturally the artistic soul will have its say in an Athenian. Moreover, 
 the individual leads up to the collective capacity. Other voices besides that 
 of the artist make themselves heard : the good citizen's, the cavalry expert's, 
 the kindly father's, and preceptor's. (N.B. the transition to the second 
 person singular, iav iY/v airols offros, § 12. ) But the author does not end 
 on this note : his last word, § 13, is practical — Socratic — and (such is his 
 idiosyncrasy) religious, f)i> p.i) n BaipjovLov KtSKiri (sic Xenophon, passim; and 
 below, xii. n, dewv t\eav 6vtuv. See his own apology for the repetition of the 
 phrase civ 0e(j) Tpdrreiv in the companion treatise, ix. 8). 
 
 3 See Riistow and Kochly, A. Martin, Morris H. Morgan, ad loc. 
 
 4 In the Cyropaedia, I. ii. 9, he arms the Persian cavalry with two iraXrii 
 of cornel wood. Is this ideal and Xenophontine ? or is it " historic " and 
 Oriental (the national Persian arm), and did Xenophon get the hint from 
 
HORSEMANSHIP lix 
 
 long-range shooting recommended : why : attitude in taking 
 aim, etc. § 14, thus far for an ISulmjs, a private individual : 
 special companion treatise gives details for " hipparch," 
 quern vid. 1 
 
 Persia? Was it in that case a "Cyreian" invention? — traditionally so 
 regarded, I mean. See the important passage in Hell. III. iv. 14, describing 
 a brush between Persian and Hellenic cavalry in the neighbourhood of 
 Dascylium (Agesilaus' campaign in Asia, 396, 395 B.C.), in which the latter 
 were worsted, being armed with Sbpara {Kajiaiava.), which snapped at the 
 first onset, whilst the Persians carried upaviXva ttoKtA.. It looks as if Xenophon 
 wished to improve the Hellenic by adopting the Persian arm. 
 
 1 iv Mpip Xo7v SeSijXwrai, in reference to the author's (earlier) tract on 
 the duties of a cavalry commander. 
 
Cynegeticus : a Tract on Hunting 
 
 Cap. i. §§ 1-17 (Trans, pp. 73-77). — Proem concerning the mystery of 
 hunting and other chivalrous pursuits : the divine invention of 
 the chase, and of the heroes trained in this school by the centaur 
 Cheiron (see below, xiii. 6). 
 § 18 (p. 77). — irapalvens, personal exhortation of the author (or his 
 editor), iyCi p&v tibv irapai»&, k.t.X. : "do not despise hunting, 
 or the rest of a noble education ! that is my advice to the 
 young." 
 
 Cap. ii. §§ 1-9 (pp. 77-79). — Practical details. § 1, the time of life at which 
 to begin hunting. § 2, equipment. § 3, the net-keeper. §§ 4-8, 
 nets, three sorts of: "small," "road," and "haye": their 
 construction : props and manner of fixing. § 9, bags and bill- 
 hooks. 
 
 Cap. iii. §§ i-ii (pp. 79-83). — Of hounds suited to the chase (i.e. "harriers"), 
 " Castorian " and "Alopecid." §§ 2, 3, defects, physical and 
 moral, which hounds are liable to. §§ 4- io, discovered in their 
 several modes of hunting a line of scent. § II, whether natural 
 or the result of bad training, a stumbling-block to the keen 
 sportsman. 
 
 Cap. iv. §§ 1-8 (pp. 83-86). — Characteristics, bodily and other, of a good 
 hound. § I, points in detail. § 2, summarily. § 3, in following 
 up a line of scent. 1 § 4, behaviour when the hare is seen. § 5, 
 
 1 Ixvereiuaav, we are concerned chiefly with nose work, though at times 
 the language is suggestive of the eye. Indeed, in his descriptions Xenophon 
 seems to picture the hare going through her doubles and twistings rather than 
 the hounds unravelling the line. Still his enthusiasm for nose work is patent. 
 Note that he will not let his men halloo if they catch a view of the hare (v. 15), 
 wishing his hounds not to hunt with their eyes but their noses ; on the other 
 hand, it is clear that hounds were bred some for nose and others for speed. 
 See Mem. III. xi. 8 ; Cyrop. I. vi. 40. 
 
CYNEGETICUS lxi 
 
 when once she is off, SuaxbvTwv. § 6, of four points in par- 
 ticular. §§ 7, 8, as to colour and hair. 
 §9-11 (p. 86).— As to ground and season. § g, the scene: hills 
 and fells better than fields and low-lying farm-lands. . § io, 
 advantage of rough ground for working the pack. § n, times 
 vary with the season of the year. 
 
 Cap. v. §§ 1-34 (PP- 86-93).— Concerning the hare. § i, effects of season, 
 etc., on tracks and scent; § 2, and the nose of the hound. 
 § 3, effect of moisture on scent, § 4, of rains : full moonlight 
 unfavourable (a pretty picture " among the trees of the forest, 
 where the fox and the hare bid each other good-night "). § 5, 
 how scent lies at different seasons of the year. § 6, convoluted 
 tracks in spring (the "coupling" season). § 7, scent of the 
 line leading to the hare in form lies longer than that of a hare 
 on the run : why : how the nature of the ground affects scent. 
 § 8, 1 puss's resting-places. § 9, predilections of the hare in 
 constructing her form : behaviour when on the run. § 10, 2 
 posture of the hare when reclining. §11, motion of the eyelids, 
 awake : of nostrils, asleep. § 12, preference for lowlands in 
 spring : unwilling to start from her form when dogs are near her. 
 § 13, fecundity of the hare : scent of leverets. 3 § 14, " These 
 are for the goddess " •- yearlings flag after first ring. § 15, how 
 to proceed with the pack in following up scent. § 16, the 
 creature's dread of eagles overhead and of the hounds at her 
 feet. § 17, 4 which hares give the best chase. § 18, facilities ac- 
 cording to colour, etc. , of the ground. § 19, behaviour of the hare 
 towards hounds : "playing the mannikin." § 20, " danger de- 
 viseth shifts." § 21, which make the longest burst, which 
 the shortest. § 22, two kinds (varieties ? or species ?) of hare. 6 
 
 1 Good specimen of "enthusiastic" style. 2 A naturalist's note. 
 
 3 Xenophon qua naturalist is a forerunner of Aristotle. 
 
 4 The epithets Upeioi, ireSivol, FKeioi, ir'KAvrjTes ( = Spo/nalm, supra ?) do 
 not point to differences of species, but of temporary habitat, I take it. Cf. 
 infra, § 22. Xenophon is often obscure in this way. 
 
 6 Stio Si ko.1 ra 7&17 iarlv airwv. Is Xenophon to be relied on ? A 
 friend writes to me : ' ' Possibly the distinction is rather fanciful than other- 
 wise. It is an old failing, I believe, of crude naturalists to subdivide species 
 unduly. I have heard vehement discussions over the corpses of woodcocks 
 as to whether two birds, from a slight difference in length of bill, were of 
 distinct breeds. Hares of the mountain and plain might well bear different 
 fur. ' ' See further the Natural History of the Hare (Fur and Feather Series), by 
 the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, chap. i. "Studies in Hare Life." This writer, 
 speaking of the brown hare, 1 says, p. 3 foil. : " It is not a native of Ireland. 
 
 1 Lepus timidus, Linnaeus. 
 
lxii ANNOTATED ANALYSIS 
 
 § 23, distinguishing marks. 1 § 24, 2 islands favourable to in- 
 crease of the small kind, owing to the absence of foxes and 
 eagles, those birds frequenting high mountains, which are 
 rarely a feature of small islands. § 25, hares practically 
 "protected" in most of the islands for various reasons. 
 § 26, defective eyesight of the hare to be explained by the 
 construction of the organ, etc. § 27, and other peculiarities of 
 the animal, asleep and in movement. 3 § 28, alarm at its 
 pursuers robs the timid creature of prescience. 4 § 29, it would 
 easily escape if only it held on uphill, instead of circling round 
 and making for its home : seldom fairly run down, but, when 
 
 . . Elsewhere in Europe the brown hare seems to be at home, in all the more 
 temperate countries. It shows a decided aversion to damp climates, thriving 
 best in a moderately dry atmosphere. The high mountains and bleak pla- 
 teaus of Central and Northern Europe are naturally ill adapted to the consti- 
 tution of the brown hare. Accordingly this animal is replaced in elevated 
 or inclement regions by the Hue or variable hare} which contrives to pick up 
 a living in the most desolate and forbidding districts. It is this animal which 
 takes the place of the brown hare in Ireland. 2 Some naturalists have 
 separated the Irish variety of the variable hare from the typical form, but it is 
 questionable whether such a step can be considered prudent. As for the 
 brown hare, it must be said that considerable differences exist between 
 examples obtained in Northern and Southern Europe. . . . We are thrown 
 back upon the conclusion of Blasius, who investigated the subject some years 
 ago. The skins which he examined had been obtained from different parts of 
 Europe. Their study induced him to believe that we should recognise three 
 distinct races of the brown hare. Of these, the form with which Englishmen 
 are least acquainted is the hare of North- East Europe. This animal possesses 
 fur of a thick texture, and shows a tendency to become white in winter, a 
 circumstance which might be expected to enhance the chance of its escaping 
 from its enemies during severe weather such as is often experienced in 
 Russia. The central race, which includes our English hare, is characterised 
 by the possession of fur of moderate texture. It shows a disposition to 
 become gray in winter. To find the third race of brown hare recognised by 
 the German specialist just quoted, it is necessary to go to the extreme south 
 of Europe. This hare of the Mediterranean sub-region differs from the 
 animal we know so well at home in the relative thinness of its pelage. Its 
 ears are but scantily clothed with fur. It is a redder animal than our hare. 
 Mr. Abel Chapman says that it is more brindled in colour than our insular 
 form. Another point of distinction lies in the inferior size of the Medi- 
 terranean hare." (The italics are mine.) See further, op. cit. pp. 9 foil. ; 
 ch. ii. " Pages of Hare Lore," p. 43. 
 
 1 These seem explicit enough ; but the matter needs threshing out. 
 
 2 A scientific observation after the manner of Gilbert White. 
 
 3 A quasi-scientific observation. 4 A sympathetic passage. 
 
 1 Lepus variabilis, Pallas. 
 
 2 See op. cit. p. 43. Also in Scotland, there called the Scotch or -white hare. 
 See St. John, Sport, etc., in Morayshire, p. 82, and Classified Index of the vertebrate 
 animals alluded to, p. 317. 
 
CYNEGETICUS lxiii 
 
 caught, a victim of a misfortune belied by physical conforma- 
 tion : a marvel of speed and lightness. 1 § 30, bodily endow- 
 ments : points of the hare. § 31, mode of progression : never 
 walks, 2 but leaps. § 32, uses its ears to steer and turn by. 
 § 33> 3 *'» laude leporis. § 34, observations about tpya, cultivated 
 lands : springs and streams. 4 
 
 Cap. vi. §§ 1-26 (pp. 94-102).— §§ i-4, of a pack of hounds: §§ 5-10, of the 
 net-keeper : §§ 1 1-26, of the master and a day with the harriers. 
 § 1, harness and gear of hounds: collar, leash, and surcingle; 
 special use of the latter. §§ 2-4, what hounds are to be taken 
 out, and when not : weather favourable and not too windy, 
 every other day : not to go after foxes : vary the ground : make 
 an early start. §§ 5-10, equipment of net-keeper: his duties: 
 when and how to fix the nets : further duties : when the hare 
 is caught :. marking, etc. § 11, the sportsman, hunting dress 
 and accoutrements of. § 12, to the hunting-ground in silence. 
 § 13, hounds ready in leash : with a prayer to Apollo and 
 Artemis Agrotera, 6 he lets loose one hound, the most saga- 
 cious member of the pack. § 14, as soon as this one 6 carries 
 a line straight away from the tangle of lines, another, and a 
 third, and then the others one by one, 7 himself following, 
 without hurry : not to over-excite them. § 15, 8 the hounds at 
 work. § 16, in proximity to the hare's form. § 17, "away 
 she goes" : view halloo ! hounds after her in full cry. § 18, 
 the hare will presently double, and make for home : 9 further 
 
 1 This is almost after the manner of Michelet. 
 
 2 Mr. Barrett Hamilton measured the successive leaps of an Irish hare 
 while chased by a dachshund (over snow), and found them to consist of the 
 following distances measured in inches : 90, 46, 90, 45, 86, 42, 62, 44, 86, 
 47, 60, 120. The largest leap = 10 feet, and the writer adds : " Probably 
 the hare whose leap I measured would have added another foot to her best 
 efforts if she had had a brace of greyhounds at her heels." Zoologist, 1888, 
 p. 259, ap. Macpherson, op. cit. p. 32. 
 
 3 After the manner of Charles St. John. 
 
 4 This true sportsman is a religious, law-abiding man. 
 
 5 Not only is Xenophon himself a religious man, but the chase is itself a 
 sacred business. Cp. the old customs, e.g., of Manx fishermen when the fleet 
 assembles for the herring fishery. 
 
 filai/ Kiva. Did Xenophon hunt with a bitch pack ? Not altogether, I 
 imagine (see vi. 2, and, more conclusively, vii. 6), of whelps, tovs ipphas, 
 "dogs" fit for hunting at ten months; tAs ByXelas, "bitches," at eight. 
 rj Ktiwv, {1) generic = hound ; (2) poetical. Cf. Soph. Aj. 8 ; Eur. Hipp. 18. 
 
 7 N.B. dvofiao-rl, a sympathetic touch ; and below, § 20. 
 
 8 The style is graphic and exhilarating in this enthusiastic description of 
 the hunt. Cf. Cyrop. for similar stylistic qualities in descriptions of the chase 
 and battle. ' See above, v. 29. 
 
lxiv ANNOTATED ANALYSIS 
 
 proceedings : cry to keeper to "mark." § 19, if caught, beat 
 up another : if not, after her hounds : master left behind : 
 inquiries. § 20, hounds overtaken : various directions, ivo- 
 IuhijtI, to different hounds in different tones of voice. § 21, if 
 at fault, try back. § 22, at last they have got the line of 
 scent. 1 § 23, the rumble-cum-tumble of the hounds : the 
 master's part. 2 § 24, the net-keeper's. § 25, hounds have 
 had nearly enough : time to hunt up the hare that lies dead- 
 beat : working of the hounds again for this purpose : various 
 encouragements according to the nature of the hound. § 26, 
 pack up and home : care for the hounds' feet (see above, 
 iv. 10). 
 
 Cap. vii. §§ 1-12 (pp. 103-106). — §§ 1-4, of breeding and treatment of puppies. 
 § 5, names for hounds. §§ 6-12, training of young hounds. 
 
 § 1, the right season to put the bitch to the dog. § 2, when she 
 will best hold : treatment during pregnancy. § 3, and of the 
 litter. §4, feeding -of puppies. § 5, hound-names should be 
 short and easy to call out : a list of. § 6, age at which they may 
 be taken out to hunt, according to sex. § 7, training. § 8, danger 
 of over-exertion in case of a good pup. § 9, different treatment 
 of less good type. § 10, young hounds not to stray. § n, to 
 be fed at the nets, which will train them to come back there. 
 § 12, the master should, as far as possible, give them their 
 food himself. 3 
 
 Cap. viii. §§ 1-8 (pp. 106-108). — Oj tracking hares in winter. 
 
 § I, set out after a fall of snow deep enough to cover the 
 ground completely. § 2, without hounds, along with a com- 
 panion to carry the nets. § 3, the medley of tracks and the 
 hare's wiliness. 4 §§ 4-8, procedure : the hare's difficulty in 
 ploughing its way through snow. 
 
 Cap. ix. §§ 1-20 (pp. 108-112). — Of hunting deer. 
 
 § 1, "Indian" hounds the right sort. § 2, mode of capturing 
 quite young " fawns " in spring : set off before daylight with 
 hounds and a supply of javelins: reconnoitring. § 3, the hinds 
 
 1 Note the pUe-mile of participles here. 
 
 2 Xenophontine word-painting. 
 
 3 This passage reminds one of Horsemanship, ii. 3, and is pro tanto a 
 proof of common authorship (i.e. genuineness), bearing the impress of 
 Xenophon's sympathy and common-sense ; association of ideas a first prin- 
 ciple of education. 
 
 4 Worthy of Gilbert White. 
 
CYNEGETICUS lxv 
 
 and their young. §§ 4-7, procedure. 1 §§ 8-10, mode of cap- 
 turing those of a larger growth : separating them from the 
 herd, and running them down. § 11, capture of deer by foot- 
 gins, irodotrrpipcu. §§ 12, 13, construction of these. §§ 14-16, 
 how to set these cunningly in the ground : the keen smell and 
 wariness of the deer. § 17, the right time to inspect the traps. 
 §§ 18, 19, pursuit of a deer caught by the foot in one of these 
 gins. § 20, danger of approaching a stag even so trammelled : 
 let fly your javelins : capture of deer without aid of gin or 
 calthrop by sheer " coursing " in hot summer time : when hard 
 pressed the deer will take to water, etc. 
 
 Cap. a. §§ 1-23 (pp. 112-119). — Of hunting the wild pig." 
 
 § 1, equipment: the kinds of hound needed — "Indian," "Cretan," 
 "Locrian," "Laconian" — and of these the best to be had. 
 § 2, nets. § 3, javelins, boar-traps, foot-traps : need of a large 
 party of hunters. § 4, mode of tracking (by scent ?) and dis- 
 covering lair of the wild pig : a " Laconian " hound. § 5, her 
 working : traces of the boar. § 6, his lair. § 7, fixing of the 
 toils. § 8, that done, setting the hounds on. § 9, the boar at 
 bay. § to, boar and hounds : the huntsman's part. § 1 1, in 
 case the animal turns, how to handle the 7rpo/3Wuoj\ § 12, at 
 close quarters : the home-thrust. § 13, how to proceed in case of 
 missing : "fall flat. " § 14, the sole means of escape through a 
 diversion made by a fellow-hunter. § 15, on one's legs again, 
 and how to proceed : "safety not to be won nobly save by 
 victory." § 16, a final tussle. § 17, the heat of the boar's tusks. 3 
 § 18, boar and sow. § 19, another mode of attack and capture 
 of wild pig by nets fixed on his run. § 20, or, that failing, by 
 chase in sultry weather : a monster in strength, but asthmatic. 
 § 21, when the animal is dead-beat and stands at bay, need of 
 getting to close quarters : danger of the sport. § 22, import- 
 ance of posture in handling the spear : foot-traps also used, 
 with an appeal to the boar-spear in the end. § 23, difficulty of 
 capturing sounders : fierceness of boar and sow in defence of 
 their young. 4 
 
 Cap. xi. §§ 1-4 (pp. 119, 120). — Concerning big game. 
 
 § 1 , hunting of larger game — lions, lynxes, panthers, bears : the 
 
 1 Note the practical quasi-scientific observations of the sportsman-naturalist 
 in these sections and the next also. Cf. Aristotle, who, in writing of animals, 
 derived his information from people like Xenophon, no doubt. 
 
 2 Wild-boar hunt, an ancient heroic business, epic, sculpturesque. 
 
 3 An ancient belief. 4 A naturalist's observation. 
 
 vol. in — 2 e 
 
lxvi ANNOTATED ANALYSIS 
 
 mountainous regions where these are to be found. § 2, mode 
 of capture — by poison ; § 3, by parties of armed horsemen ; 
 § 4, by pitfalls : a goat used as a decoy. 
 
 Cap. xii. §§ 1-22 (pp. 120-124). — Thus far concerning practical details. It 
 remains to consider the advantages to be got from hunting. 
 
 § 1, the devotee of this art is rewarded by improving his health, 
 quickening his senses of sight and hearing, postponing old age. 
 But further : the chase is the school of war. 1 
 
 § 2, in detail — he will learn to stand toil : it will come easy to 
 him to march without fatigue on the worst ground under arms ; 
 to bivouac in the open ; to stick to the post assigned. 
 
 § 3, in hostile encounter— the charge : ready response to the 
 word of command : courage not to leave the ranks will come 
 natural to him. § 4, so, too, pursuit of the flying enemy over 
 every sort of ground : or in case of some reverse to their own 
 side, among forests, precipices, and other difficulties of ground 
 their woodcraft will stand these old hunters in good stead, to 
 the saving of themselves and others. § 5, how often has a 
 small body of healthily-trained huntsmen rescued a mob of 
 fellow -combatants from the grasp of the antagonist, routing 
 him in the flush of victory. 2 
 
 § 6, old customs of the state to encourage hunting : our forefathers 
 knew its value as a training in hardihood. § 7, the young 
 especially should have this exercise secured to them for its fine 
 moral effect, since education in truth and reality makes a. 
 man sober-minded and just. 8 It is the beginning of virtue, 
 positively and negatively. § 8, this pleasure does not hinder 
 
 1 So we with our cricket, football, "runs," etc., "the playing fields of 
 Eton," the "close" at Rugby, etc., not to speak of fox-hunting; and cf. 
 Lord Wolseley, The Soldier's Pocket-Booh. 
 
 2 This enthusiastic description ends, after the manner of the author, with a 
 sentenlia. Cf. Hell. V. ii. 7 ; iii. 7. 
 
 3 Cf. Milton, On Education : ' ' The exercise which I commend first is the 
 exact use of their weapon, to guard, and to strike safely with edge or point ; 
 this will keep them healthy, nimble, strong, and well in breath ; as also the 
 likeliest means to make them grow large and tall, and to inspire them with a 
 gallant and fearless courage, which, being tempered with seasonable lectures 
 and precepts to them of true fortitude and patience, will turn into a mature 
 and heroic valour, and make them hate the cowardice of doing wrong. They 
 must be also practised in all the locks and gripes of wrestling wherein 
 Englishmen were wont to excel, as need may often be in fight to tug, to 
 grapple, and to close. And this perhaps will be enough, wherein to prove 
 and heat their single strength." When we come to the Cyropaedia we shall 
 find the thesis elaborately worked out. 
 
CYNEGETICUS lxvii 
 
 its devotee from other noble aims, as do some other base 
 pleasures which are ill to study. In the hunting-field is bred 
 a race of true soldiers and generals. § 9, men who have 
 stamped out all hybristic evils from body and soul, and im- 
 planted in their stead a longing after virtue. These are our 
 ipurrot, true aristocrats. These will not stand by and see their 
 city and their country devastated without striking a blow. § 10, 
 charge, that the chase will divert from domestic duties, rebutted. 
 § II, given "public," then "private" virtue, inclusively and a 
 fortiori, will come. 1 § 12, it is envy which is at the bottom of 
 this talk : some of those vain babblers would sooner (I do 
 believe) perish than owe salvation to another's virtue. (It is the 
 old story.) " Pleasure, pleasure, pleasure. " Self-indulgence, 
 that's it — egging people on to call black white and make the 
 worse appear the better cause. § 13, through vain words they 
 arouse hatreds, and through evil deeds bring down diseases, 
 losses, death it may be, on their own selves, children, and 
 friends : having their senses dulled to things evil and feverishly 
 alive to pleasure. § 14, the true cure : the pursuit I recom- 
 mend, viz. the chase. § 15, the essence of this noble education, 
 endurance of toil for unselfish ends, with saving effect ; of the 
 other, selfish pleasure-seeking. § 16, and the end, a dwarfing 
 of true manhood, and "uneducated" vituperation of "true 
 culture." 2 § 17 (look on this picture! and on that!). § 18, 
 in praise of the chase — i.e. painful discipline (of which the 
 chase is literally and in its very nature a specimen) leading 
 to virtue, as the heroes of old time (mentioned above) 3 
 brought up at the feet of Cheiron testify. §§ 19-22 (and these 
 things are an allegory), the quest of virtue : why all men love 
 her, and why many fall away in the quest : if only she were visible 
 to the eye of flesh, as is the beloved object of a man's passion, 4 
 to what height of self-respect and goodness would we not rise ! 
 
 1 Or, "Given that the devoted sportsman is educating himself to be 
 useful to his fatherland in the highest degree, it follows he will not neglect his 
 private duties, for with the ship of the state the domestic fortunes of each one 
 must sink or swim ; so then, so far from being the destroyer of his own, he 
 is the saviour of other private fortunes and his own. " Such, if I understand 
 him aright, is the wisdom (or anti-sophistic argument) of the writer, be he 
 Xenophon himself or some other. 
 
 2 tois Treirai.Sevnhoi.s. Cf. Cyrop. I. ii. 3, possibly an "undesigned co- 
 incidence " in proof of common authorship. 
 
 3 &v iire/ir/iaSriv. These words, unless interpolated, carry with them the 
 prefatory chapter. See Introd. p. xxii. 
 
 4 See Hellenica Essays, p. 354. 
 
lxviii ANNOTATED ANALYSIS 
 
 but now in our blindness we lose faith. 1 Yet virtue is an 
 immortal presence everywhere, honouring the good and 
 bringing the base to dishonour. Could we but realise that she 
 is watching us, how eagerly would we essay the toilful 
 training she insists on, and lay her captive at our feet I 
 
 Cap. xiii. 1-18 (pp. 124-128). — Epilogue on "sophistic" as opposed to 
 " cynegetic " education. 
 § 1, the training of the "sophists" so called, in spite of their pro- 
 fessions, abortive in leading the young to virtue : the modern 
 sophist, ol vvv o-oipuTTal : 2 frivolous character of the modern 
 sophistic literature. 3 § 2, only leading to waste of the 
 student's time, if not worse (cf. above, xii. 13). § 3, 
 plenty of far - fetched phraseology in these writings, but 
 little of solid, wholesome sentiment {sententiae, yvufiai). 
 § 4, speaking as [a mere layman, 4 the author cannot put 
 the case about education better than (in the "gnomic" fashion 
 of Hesiod) thus: "best to be taught the good by one's 
 own nature, next best by those who truly know some good," 
 rather than those who have an art to deceive. § 5, an apology 
 for his own style, rots ixev bvbfuusai oi o-e<To<purfie'i>ws \fy(a, which 
 lacks subtle phraseology : subtlety not his aim but rather rightly- 
 conceived thoughts : it is not words but thoughts and noble senti- 
 ments {yi>&fuu) that educate. § 6, 6 he is not singular in his 
 / reproach of the modern type of sophist (a very different person 
 from the philosopher) as a professor of word-subtleties not ideas : 
 1 Cf. Tennyson, The Voyage: 
 
 Her face was evermore unseen. 
 
 Schneid. cf. Plat. Phaedr. 250 D : 
 
 6^/is, rf (f>p6v7]ffLS oi% oparai ' Seivovs yap av Trapelxev fpuyras, et tl tqloutov 
 
 &clvt7]s tvapyes etSuKop irapetxero els ftiptv Ibv. 
 
 Formam quidem ipsam, Marce fill, et tanquam faciem honesti vides : quae 
 
 si oculis cerneretur, mirabiles amores, ut ait Plato, excitaret sapientiae. — Cic. 
 
 de Off. i. 5. 1. 
 
 " For sight is the keenest of our bodily senses ; though not by that is wisdom seen ; 
 her loveliness would have been transporting if there had been a visible image of her, and 
 the same is true of the loveliness of the other ideas as well " (Jowett). 
 
 " One would like to see these ypdfifmTa. Was Polycrates' Kartf/opla S<o- 
 Kp&rovs a sample possibly ? Cf. Isocr. Enc. Hel. 
 
 3 See above, xii. 13. 
 
 4 iyib de ISiiirrfS fiiv elfu. The apologetic phrase would suit Xenophon 
 admirably. See K. Joel, Der echte und der Xen. Sokrates, pp. 67, 68. 
 
 6 tytyovai Se . . . Sti iv roh bvofuuai ao<pl$ovro.i ko.1 ovk iv rots voij/taow. 
 Note the form of sentence — intentionally aecroipLiriie'vws, I should say. The 
 next sentence is probably corrupt ; see note ad loc. Cf. Isocr. Against the 
 Sophists, 294 : dXXa koX tois ivBvivhfiaai irpeirovTus 8\ov rbv X670X Karawoi- 
 KiXeu ko.1 tois ivofxaviv eip&Bfiws xal fn.oviri.Kus ehreXv, k. t. \. 
 
CYNEGETICUS lxix 
 
 the advantage of an orderly sequence of ideas. § J, what he 
 would wish to be the fate of his own (writings?), that they should 
 not seem to be but be in fact useful and stand the test of criticism 
 for all time. § 8, the sophist's point of view quite other : decep- 
 tion and personal gain ; hence the stigma attaching to the name. 1 
 § 9, the author's advice, 2 then, is to mistrust the iraparpyi'Kiw.Ta 
 (catchwords) of the sophist and not to contemn the hSvpfi- 
 fiara (enthyme'mes) of the philosopher : sophist and philosopher 
 compared. The sophist is a hunter after wealthy young men : 
 how different the philosopher's 3 attitude to riches. § lo, 4 it is 
 an easy transition from the sophist to the teachers of political 
 (that is, forensic or deliberative) discourse ; 5 in private petti- 
 foggers, in public politicians of the baser sort : both follow the 
 path of self-aggrandisement and represent the Kanol versus the 
 dpio-roi. of the community. 6 § n, Private people (iStwrai) and the 
 state (ru ttjs vohews) are alike preyed upon by these ko.koI, who 
 are less serviceable to the public safety than the veriest layman ; 
 and look at their physique ! Think of huntsmen by contrast. 
 § 12, antithesis between sportsmen and self-seeking professional 
 politicians : 7 both wage war, but the one against beasts, the other 
 against friends ; 8 points in favour of the huntsman. § 13, the 
 moral and intellectual education of the chase. § 14, he must 
 overmatch in toil and wit the boar or lion at bay. § 15, a re- 
 
 1 The question is at what date the distinction between aoipujTal and 
 <pi\6ao<poi. began to be drawn. 
 
 2 wo.pa.ivC>, the repetition of the word (see i. r8 ; below, 17) is perhaps im- 
 portant in reference to the genuineness of the treatise. The distinction drawn 
 between the philosopher and the sophist — the true and false teacher — is noble . 
 enough and worthy of the Socratic Xenophon. As to the description of the 
 sophist, ol fitv yap ffotpiffraX irXovtrlovs ko.1 vtovs dyptovTaiy cf. Plat. Sophist. 
 The metaphor of the chase is further important to the thread of the discourse. 
 
 3 e.g. Socrates or, at a later date and from a very different standpoint, 
 Isocrates. 
 
 4 rods iirl ras ir\eovet-tas eliqj lovras, k.t.X. Cf. Isocr. Against the 
 Sophists, 295. 10, concerning " the pretentious school of sophists which has 
 lately sprung up," 391, 390 B.C. "They professed to teach men political 
 discourse" ; but really "they undertook to be teachers of meddlesomeness 
 and greed," irok\nrparmaaivi\% KaX ir\eore£tas imiaTi\ao.v elvai. SiS&OKakoi. 
 See Jebb, Att. Or. ii. p. 133. 
 
 6 Cf. Isocr. Antid. § 203. 
 
 6 Note the political terms. 
 
 ' Somewhat " sophistically " drawn out. 
 
 8 As to " wild beasts " being "enemies of the whole community," this is 
 true enough of lions and lynxes and wild boars perhaps ; but horses and deer 
 — surely the remark is made <reao<pi.iTiUv(iK, or inadvertently. So again below, 
 § 14, surely he is thinking of "big game." 
 
lxx ANNOTATED ANALYSIS 
 
 statement of the author's position re the two sets of people and 
 their types of hunting (see § 9, above). § 16, 1 a further antithesis 
 re (1) KaKotfSeut. and alaxpoxipSeia, (2) as to (pwfi, speech, 2 (3) 
 as to "things divine." § 17, that the gods themselves are 
 said to delight in the Hpyov, 3 so that the young who act upon the 
 author's advice may well be found to be BeotpiKeh re koX ei5iTe/3eis, 4 
 feeling that their doings are watched by gods. 6 § 18, 6 " These 
 are the youths for me," the author adds. " Nay, what has sex 
 to do with it? were not Atalanta and Procris beloved of 
 Artemis ? " 7 
 
 * # * Whether this epilogue — a layman's criticism of 
 current educational methods — be written by Xenophon or 
 not, may be hard to decide, but in any case the chapter is 
 important as setting forth a theory of education very different 
 from that ordinarily held nowadays or then. [Cf. Cyrop. I. i. 
 for a similar distinction between the " Persian," i.e. an ideal 
 (idealised Lycurgean) type of education and that in vogue at 
 Athens.] The theory is based on the need of sincerity, truth, 
 justice, self-denying toil as subjects to be taught and essential 
 to the curriculum. " Sport " has this to say for itself as opposed 
 to " word-fence " — it is, as far as it goes, an education of the 
 real sort. It brings out faculties of body and soul desirable in 
 the good citizen — the stalwart man — the apicrros who will see 
 to it that his state is not wronged nor her territory laid waste. 
 It fits in to war on the one hand and to agriculture on the 
 other (cf. Econ. vi. 10). 
 
 1 For KaKorjBaa, cf. Isocr. Antid. 303 ; alaxpoKiptiua, cf. Plat. Laws, 
 754 E. 
 
 2 A singular passage. See perhaps Isocr. Antid. 337. 
 
 3 Or " work " par excellence of the chase, a remark quite in the manner of 
 Xenophon. 
 
 4 Cf. Plat. Euthyphro. 
 
 ■' See above, xii. 22, concerning "virtue." 
 
 6 A good climax. I have little doubt that old Xenophon, through his 
 sympathy with young people and sport, did exhort his sons (and grandsons 
 perhaps) and their friends after this fashion. See Horsemanship, ad in. 
 cf. Anab. V. iii. 10 ; Cyrop. I. iv. 7 foil. 
 
 7 Here the writer seems to be harking back to cap. i. somewhat. 
 
THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH 
 
THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH 1 
 
 OR 
 
 COMMANDER OF CAVALRY AT ATHENS 
 
 i- i-3 
 
 I. — Your first duty is to offer sacrifice, petitioning the gods 
 to grant you such good gifts 2 as shall enable you in thought, 
 word, and deed to discharge your office in the manner most 
 acceptable to Heaven, and with fullest increase to yourself, 
 and friends, and to the state at large of affection, glory, and 
 wide usefulness. The goodwill of Heaven 3 so obtained, you 
 shall proceed to mount your troopers, taking care that the full 
 complement which the law demands is reached, and that the 
 normal force of cavalry is not diminished. There will need to 
 be a reserve of remounts, or else a deficiency may occur at 
 any moment, 4 looking to the fact that some will certainly 
 succumb to old age, and others, from one reason or another, 
 prove unserviceable. 
 
 But now suppose the complement of cavalry is levied, 5 the 
 duty will devolve on you of seeing, in the first place, that your 
 horses are well fed and in condition to stand their work, 
 
 1 For the title, etc., see Schneid. Praemon. de Xen. 'lirir. Boeckh, 
 P. E. A. 251. 
 
 2 Or, " with sacrifice to ask of Heaven those gifts of thought and speech 
 and conduct whereby you will exercise your office most acceptably to the gods 
 themselves, and with ..." Cf. Plat. Phaedr. 273 E ; Euthr. 14 B. 
 
 3 The Greek phrase is warmer, 8eQv 8' t\euv ivrav, " the gods being 
 kindly and propitious." Cf. Plat. Laws, 712 E. 
 
 4 Lit. "at any moment there will be too few." See Les Cavaliers Athi- 
 niens, par Albert Martin, p. 308. 6 Lit. " in process of being raised." 
 
 VOL. Ill 2 B 
 
2 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH ch. i. S 3 -8 
 
 since a horse which cannot endure fatigue will clearly be 
 unable to overhaul the foeman or effect escape ; x and in the 
 second place, you will have to see to it the animals are 
 tractable, since, clearly again, a horse that will not obey is 
 only fighting for the enemy and not his friends. So, again, 
 an animal that kicks when mounted must be cast ; since 
 brutes of that sort may often do more mischief than the foe 
 himself. Lastly, you must pay attention to the horses' feet, 
 and see that they will stand being ridden over rough ground. 
 A horse, one knows, is practically useless where he cannot 
 be galloped without suffering. 
 
 And now, supposing that your horses are all that they 
 ought to be, like pains must be applied to train the men 
 themselves. The trooper, in the first place, must be able to 
 spring on horseback easily — a feat to which many a man has 
 owed his life ere now. And next, he must be able to ride 
 with freedom over every sort of ground, since any description 
 of country may become the seat of war. When, presently, 
 your men have got firm seats, your aim should be to make as 
 many members of the corps as possible not only skilled to 
 hurl the javelin from horseback with precision, but to perform 
 all other feats expected of the expert horseman. Next comes 
 the need to arm both horse and man in such a manner as to 
 minimise the risk of wounds, and yet to increase the force of 
 every blow delivered. 2 This attended to, you must contrive 
 to make your men amenable to discipline, without which 
 neither good horses, nor a firm seat, nor splendour of equip- 
 ment will be of any use at all. 
 
 The general of cavalry, 3 as patron of the whole department, 
 is naturally responsible for its efficient working. In view, how- 
 ever, of the task imposed upon that officer had he to carry 
 out these various details single-handed, the state has chosen 
 to associate 4 with him certain coadjutors in the persons of the 
 
 1 Or, ' ' to press home a charge a Voutrance, or retire from the field 
 unscathed." 
 
 2 Lit. ' ' so that whilst least likely to be wounded themselves, they may 
 most be able to injure the enemy." 3 See Mem. III. iii. 
 
 4 Cf. Theophr. xxix. The Oligarchic Man : ' ' When the people are deliber- 
 ating whom they shall associate with the archon as joint directors of the 
 procession" (Jebb). 
 
ch. ,. § 8... WITH REGARD TO HORSES AND MEN 3 
 
 phylarchs (or tribal captains), 1 and has besides imposed upon the 
 senate a share in the superintendence of the cavalry. This being 
 so, two things appear to me desirable ; the first is, so to work 
 upon the phylarch that he shall share your own enthusiasm 
 for the honour of the corps ; 2 and secondly, to have at your 
 disposal in the senate able orators, 3 whose language may instil 
 a wholesome fear into the knights themselves, and thereby 
 make them all the better men, or tend to pacify the senate 
 on occasion and disarm unseasonable anger. 
 
 The above may serve as memoranda i of the duties which 
 will claim your chief attention. How the details in each case 
 may best be carried out is a further matter, which I will now 
 endeavour to explain. 
 
 As to the men themselves — the class from which you will 
 make your pick of troopers — clearly according to the law you are 
 bound to enrol " the ablest " you can find " in point of wealth 
 and bodily physique "; and " if not by persuasion, then by pro- 
 secution in a court of law." 5 And for my part, I think, if legal 
 pressure is to be applied, you should apply it in those cases 
 where neglect to prosecute might fairly be ascribed to interested 
 motives ; 6 since if you fail to put compulsion on the greater 
 people first, you leave a backdoor of escape at once to those 
 of humbler means. But there will be other cases ; 7 say, of 
 young men in whom a real enthusiasm for the service may be 
 kindled by recounting to them all the brilliant feats of knight- 
 hood ; while you may disarm the opposition of their guardians 
 by dwelling on the fact that, if not you, at any rate some future 
 hipparch will certainly compel them to breed horses, 8 owing 
 
 1 Or, "squadron-leaders." 2 " Honour and prestige of knighthood." 
 
 3 " To keep a staff of orators. " Cf. Anai. VII. vi. 41 ; Cyrop. I. vi. 19 ; 
 Hell. VI. ii. 39 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 151). 
 
 4 " A sort of notes and suggestions," " mementoes." Cf. Horsemanship, 
 iii. 1, xii. 14. 
 
 6 Lit. "by bringing them into court, or by persuasion," i.e. by legal if 
 not by moral pressure. See Martin, op. cit. pp. 316, 321 foil. 
 
 6 i.e. • ' would cause you to be suspected of acting from motives of gain." 
 
 7 Reading fori Si tea! ofis: or if as vulg. (ti Si ml, "More than that, it 
 strikes me one may work on the feelings of young fellows in such a way as 
 to disarm." See Hartman, An. Xen. N. 325. 
 
 8 Cf. Aesch. P. V. 474 ; Herod, vi. 35 ; Dem. 1046. 14 ; Thuc. vi. 12 ; 
 Isocr. irepi toC feOyous, 353 C. Iiriror/jo^etK 8' AriXf'M™' 8 ™» eiSainove- 
 ctt&tw Ipyov iarl. See Prof. Jebb's note to Theophr. Ch. vi. p. 197, note 16. 
 
4 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH ch. ,. § n-rf 
 
 to their wealth ; whereas, if they enter the service x during your 
 term of office, you will undertake to deter their lads from mad 
 extravagance in buying horses, 2 and take pains to make good 
 horsemen of them without loss of time ; and while pleading in 
 this strain, you must endeavour to make your practice corre- 
 spond with what you preach. 
 
 To come to the existing body of knights, 3 it would tend, 4 
 I think, to better rearing and more careful treatment of their 
 horses if the senate issued a formal notice that for the future 
 twice the amount of drill will be required, and that any horse 
 unable to keep up will be rejected. And so, too, with regard to 
 vicious horses, I should like to see an edict promulgated to the 
 effect that all such animals will be rejected. This threat would 
 stimulate the owners of such brutes to part with them by sale, 
 and, what is more, to exercise discretion at the time of purchase. 
 So, too, it would be a good thing if the same threat of rejection 
 were made to include horses that kick on the exercising-grounds, 
 since it is impossible to keep such animals in the ranks ; and in 
 case of an advance against a hostile force at any point, 6 they 
 must perforce trail in the rear, so that, thanks to the vice of 
 the animal which he bestrides, the trooper himself is rendered 
 useless. 
 
 With a view to strengthening the horses' feet : if any one 
 has an easier or more simple treatment to suggest, by all means 
 let it be adopted ; but for myself, as the result of experience, 
 I maintain that the proper course is to lay down a loose layer 
 of cobbles from the road, a pound or so in weight, on which 
 the horse should be put to stand, when taken from the manger 
 
 1 Lit. " if they mount. " 
 
 2 Like that of Pheidippides in the play ; see Aristoph. Clouds, 23 foil. And 
 for the price of horses, ranging from 3 minas (=£12 circa) for a common 
 horse, or 12 minas (say ^50) for a good saddle or race-horse, up to the extrava- 
 gant sum of 13 talents (say 3000 guineas) given for "Bucephalus," see 
 Boeckh, P. E. A. (Eng. tr. ), p. 74. Cf. Isaeus, 55. 22 ; 88. 17 ; Lys. de 
 Maled. 133. 10 ; Aul. Gell. Nod. Att. v. 2. 
 
 3 Or, "As regards those who are actually serving in the cavalry. 1 ' For a 
 plausible emend, of this passage (§ 13) see Courier (Notes sur le iexte, p. 54) ; 
 L. Dind. ad loc. 
 
 4 Lit. " the senate might incite Jo . . ." 
 
 Reading (iv, or if k&v with the MSS. , trans. ' ' even in case of an ad- 
 vance against the enemy." 
 
ch. ,.§i6.i 9 TRAINING OF THE TROOPER 5 
 
 to be groomed. 1 The point is, that the horse will keep per- 
 petually moving first one foot and then another on the stones, 
 whilst being rubbed down or simply because he is fidgeted 
 by flies. Let any one try the experiment, and, I venture to 
 predict, not only will he come to trust my guidance, but will 
 see his horse's hoofs grow just as round and solid as the 
 cobbles. 
 
 Assuming, then, your horses are all that horses ought to 
 be, how is the trooper to attain a like degree of excellence ? 
 To that question I will now address myself. The art of leap- 
 ing on to horseback is one which we would fain persuade the 
 youthful members of the corps to learn themselves ; though, 
 if you choose to give them an instructor, 2 all the greater credit 
 to yourself. And as to the older men you cannot do better 
 than accustom them to mount, or rather to be hoisted up by 
 aid of some one, Persian fashion. 3 
 
 With a view to keeping a firm seat on every sort of ground, 
 it may perhaps be thought a little irksome to be perpetually 
 marching out, when there is no war; 4 but all the same, I 
 would have you call your men together and impress upon them 
 the need to train themselves, when they ride into the country to 
 their farms, or elsewhere, by leaving the high road and galloping 
 at a round pace on ground of every description. 6 This method 
 will be quite as beneficial to them as the regular march out, and 
 at the same time not produce the sense of tedium. You may 
 find it useful also to remind them that the state on her side 
 is quite willing to expend a sum of nearly forty talents 6 yearly, 
 so that in the event of war she may not have to look about for 
 cavalry, but have a thoroughly efficient force to hand for active 
 service. Let these ideas be once instilled into their minds, 
 and, mark my words, your trooper will fall with zest to prac- 
 
 1 See below, Horse, iv. 4. The Greeks did not " shoe " their horses. 
 
 2 Like Pheidon, in the fragment of Mnesimachus's play The Breeder 
 of Horses, ap. Athen. See Courier, ib. p. 55. 
 
 3 See Anab. IV. iv. 4 (Trans, vol. i. p. 188) ; Horsemanship, vi. 12 
 (below, p. 51). 4 In the piping days of peace. 
 
 6 SesEcon. xi. 17. Cf. Theophr. Ch. viii. The Late Learner : Kal els aypbv 
 i(j>' Xirirov dXKorplov Karoxoi/ievos &/Ja /ieXcrax i7nr(£fe<70<u, Kal ireaOiv tt\v 
 KttpaXty Kareayhai, ' ' Riding into the country on another's horse, he will 
 practise his horsemanship by the way, and falling, will break his head" (Jebb). 
 
 6 =j£io,ooo circa. See Boeckh, op. cit. p. 251. 
 
6 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH ch. .. § 19-23 
 
 tising horsemanship, so that if ever the flame of war burst 
 out he may not be forced to enter the lists a raw recruit, 
 unskilled to fight for fame and fatherland or even life itself. 
 
 It would be no bad thing either, to forewarn your troopers 
 that one day you will take them out yourself for a long 
 march, and lead them across country over every kind of 
 ground. . Again, whilst practising the evolutions of the rival 
 cavalry display, 1 it will be well to gallop out at one time to one 
 district and again to another. Both men and horses will be 
 benefited. 
 
 Next, as to hurling the javelin from horseback, the best 
 way to secure as wide a practice of the art as possible, it 
 strikes me, would be to issue an order to your phylarchs that 
 it will be their duty to put themselves at the head of the 
 marksmen of the several tribes, and to ride out to the butts 
 for practice. In this way a spirit of emulation will be roused 
 — the several officers will, no doubt, be eager to turn out as 
 many marksmen as they can to aid the state. 2 
 
 And so too, to ensure that splendour of accoutrement which 
 the force requires, 3 the greatest help may once again be looked 
 for from the phylarchs ; let these officers but be persuaded that 
 from the public point of view the splendid appearance of their 
 squadrons * will confer a title to distinction far higher than 
 that of any personal equipment. Nor is it reasonable to 
 suppose that they will be deaf to such an argument, since the 
 very desire to hold the office of phylarch in itself proclaims a 
 soul alive to honour and ambition. And what is more, they 
 have it in their power, in accordance with the actual provisions 
 of the law, to equip their men without the outlay of a single 
 penny, by enforcing that self-equipment out of pay 6 which the 
 law prescribes. 
 
 1 Lit. " the anlhippasia." See iii. 11, and Horsemanship, viii. 10. 
 
 2 On competition cf. Cyrop. II. i. 22, and our author passim. 
 
 3 Or, "a beauty of equipment, worthy of our knights." Cf. Aristoph. 
 Lysistr. 561, and a fragment of The Knights of Antiphanes, ap. Athen. 
 503 B, -k&mt ' AfiaK&elas K^pas. See Hiero, ix. 6 ; Horse, xi. 10. 
 
 4 Lit. "tribes," <pvhal (each of the ten tribes contributing about eighty 
 men, or, as we might say, a squadron). 
 
 6 i.e. the Ka.T6.aTa.tns, "allowance," so technically called. Cf. Lys. for 
 Mantitheos; Jebb, Aft. Or.). 246 ; Boeckh, P. E. A. II. xxi. p. 263 ; K. F. 
 Hermann, 152, 19 ; Martin, op. cit. p. 341. 
 
S 1'i.Vr* 5 ""} THE PHYLARCHS OR SQUADRON LEADERS 7 
 
 But to proceed. In order to create a spirit of obedience 
 in your subordinates, you have two formidable instruments : 1 
 as a matter of plain reason you can show them what a host of 
 blessings the word discipline implies ; and as a matter of hard 
 fact you can, within the limits of the law, enable the well- 
 disciplined to reap advantage, while the undisciplined are 
 made to feel the pinch at every turn. 
 
 But if you would rouse the emulation of your phylarchs, if 
 you would stir in each a personal ambition to appear at the 
 head of his own squadron in all ways splendidly appointed, 
 the best incentive will be your personal example. You must 
 see to it that your own bodyguard 2 are decked with choice 
 accoutrement and arms ; you must enforce on them the need 
 to practise shooting pertinaciously ; you must expound to 
 them the theory of the javelin, yourself an adept in the art 
 through constant training. 3 
 
 Lastly, were it possible to institute and offer prizes to the 
 several tribal squadrons in reward for every excellence of 
 knighthood known to custom in the public spectacles of our 
 city, we have here, I think, an incentive which will appeal to 
 the ambition of every true Athenian. How small, in the like 
 case of our choruses, the prizes offered, and yet how great the 
 labour and how vast the sums expended ! * But we must dis- 
 cover umpires of such high order that to win their verdict will 
 be as precious to the victor as victory itself. 
 
 11. — Given, then, that your troopers are thoroughly trained 
 in all the above particulars, it is necessary, I presume, that 
 they should further be instructed in a type of evolution the 
 effect of which will show itself not only in the splendour of 
 the great processions 5 in honour of the gods, but in the 
 manoeuvres of the exercising-ground ; in the valorous onslaught 
 
 1 "The one theoretic, the other practical." 
 
 2 Techn. Trp63po/ioi, possibly=the Hippotoxotai, or corps of 200 mounted 
 archers — Scythians; cf. Mem. III. Hi. 11. Or, probably, "mounted skir- 
 mishers," distinct from the 1-wirvroi.bro.i. Cf. Arrian, An. i. 12. 7. See 
 Aristot. Ath. Pol. 49. 5. 
 
 s Reading as vulg. elffriyoio, or if with L. D. ^7010 (cf. above, § 21), trans, 
 "you must lead them out to the butts yourself." 
 
 4 See Hell. III. iv. 1 5 ; Hiero, ix. 3 ; Cyrop. I. vi. 18 ; Martin, op. cit. p. 260 f. 
 6 e.g. the Panathenaic, as depicted on the frieze of the Parthenon. 
 
8 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH ch. i.. § i-s 
 
 of real battle when occasion calls ; and in the ease with 
 which whole regiments will prosecute their march, or cross a 
 river, or thread a defile without the slightest symptom of 
 confusion. What this formation is — essential, at least in my 
 opinion, to the noblest execution of their several duties — I will 
 now, without delay, endeavour to explain. 1 
 
 We take as our basis, then, the constitutional division 
 of ten tribes. 2 Given these, the proper course, I say, is 
 to appoint, with the concurrence of the several phylarchs, 
 certain decadarchs (file - leaders) 3 to be selected from the 
 men ripest of age and strength, most eager to achieve some 
 deed of honour and to be known to fame. These are to form 
 your front-rank men; 4 and after these, a corresponding number 
 should be chosen from the oldest and the most sagacious 
 members of the squadron, to form the rear-rank of the files' or 
 decads ; since, to use an illustration, iron best severs iron when 
 the forefront of the blade 5 is strong and tempered, and the 
 momentum at the back sufficient. 
 
 The interval between the front and rear-rank men will best 
 be filled supposing that the decadarchs are free to choose their 
 own supporters, and those chosen theirs, and so on following 
 suit ; since on this principle we may expect each man to have 
 his trustiest comrade at his back. 
 
 As to your lieutenant, 6 it is every way important to 
 appoint a good man to this post, whose bravery will tell ; and 
 
 1 Or, ' ' what this best order is, the adoption of which will give these 
 several features fair accomplishment, I will without further pause set forth." 
 
 2 See Revenues, iv. 30 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 340). 
 
 3 Decadarchs, lit. commanders of ten, a "file" consisting normally (or 
 ideally) of ten men. Cf. Cyrop. II. ii. 30 ; VIII. i. 14. It will be borne in 
 mind that a body of cavalry would, as a rule, be drawn up in battle line at 
 least four deep (see Hell. III. iv. 13, Trans, vol. ii. p. 28), and frequently 
 much deeper. (The Persian cavalry in the engagement just referred to were 
 twelve deep. ) 
 
 4 See Cyrop. III. iii. 41, 57 ; VI. iii. 24, 27 ; VII. i. 15 ; Pol. Lac. xi. 5 
 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 315). These front-rank men would seem to correspond to 
 our ' ' troop guides," and the rear-rank men to our serre-files to some extent. 
 
 6 Cf. Aelian Tact. 26, ap. Courier. 
 
 6 t&v d(pi]yoij/iievov, lit. "him who leads back" (a function which would 
 devolve upon the oipayos under many circumstances). Cf. Cyrop. II. iii. 21 ; 
 Hell. IV. viii. 37 ; Plat. Laws, 760 D. =our "officer serre-file," to some 
 extent. So Courier: " Celui qui commande en serre-Jile. C'est chez nous le 
 capitaine en second." See below, p. 29. 
 
ch. ii. § 5.9 NORMAL FORMATION OF THE SQUADRON 9 
 
 in case of need at any time to charge the enemy, the cheering 
 accents of his voice will infuse strength into those in front ; or 
 when the critical moment of retreat arrives, his sage conduct 
 in retiring will go far, we may well conclude, towards saving 
 his division. 1 
 
 An even number of file -leaders will admit of a greater 
 number of equal subdivisions than an odd. 
 
 The above formation pleases me for two good reasons : in 
 the first place, all the front-rank men are forced to act as 
 officers ; 2 and the same man, mark you, when in command is 
 somehow apt to feel that deeds of valour are incumbent on 
 him which, as a private, he ignores ; and in the next place, at 
 a crisis when something calls for action on the instant, the 
 word of command passed not to privates but to officers takes 
 speedier effect. 
 
 Supposing, then, a regiment of cavalry drawn up in this 
 formation : just as the squadron-leaders have their several 
 positions for the march (or the attack 3 ) assigned them by the 
 commander, so the file-leaders will depend upon the captain 
 for the order passed along the line in what formation they 
 are severally to march ; and all being prearranged by word 
 of mouth, the whole will work more smoothly than if left 
 to chance — like people crowding out of a theatre to their 
 mutual annoyance. And when it comes to actual encounter 
 greater promptitude will be displayed : supposing the attack is 
 made in front, by the file-leaders who know that this is their 
 appointed post ; or in case of danger suddenly appearing in 
 rear, then by the rear-rank men, whose main idea is that 
 to desert one's post is base. A want of orderly arrangement, 
 on the contrary, leads to confusion worse confounded at every 
 narrow road, at every passage of a river ; and when it comes 
 to fighting, no one of his own free will assigns himself his 
 proper post in face of an enemy. 
 
 1 Or, " the rest of the squadron. " Lit. " his own tribesmen." 
 
 2 i.e. all find themselves in a position of command, and there is nothing 
 like command to inspire that feeling of noblesse oblige which is often lacking 
 in the private soldier. See Thuc. v. 66 ; Pol. Lac. xi. 5 (Trans, vol. ii. 
 
 P- 3i5)- 
 
 3 Lit. "where to ride, 1 ' i.e. in what formation whether on the line of 
 
 march or in action. 
 
 VOL. Ill 2 C 
 
io THE DUTIES OF A HIPP ARCH {™; "{J % % 2 
 
 The above are fundamental matters not to be performed 
 without the active help of every trooper who would wish to be 
 a zealous and unhesitating fellow-worker with his officer. 1 
 
 in. — I come at length to certain duties which devolve 
 upon the general of cavalry himself in person : and first and 
 foremost, it concerns him to obtain the favour of the gods by 
 sacrifices in behalf of the state cavalry ; and in the next place 
 to make the great procession at the festivals a spectacle worth 
 seeing ; and further, with regard to all those public shows 
 demanded by the state, wherever held, 2 whether in the grounds 
 of the Academy or the Lyceum, at Phaleron or within the 
 hippodrome, it is his business as commander of the knights 
 to see that every pageant of the sort is splendidly exhibited. 
 
 But these, again, are memoranda. 3 To the question how 
 the several features of the pageant shall receive their due 
 impress of beauty, I will now address myself. 
 
 And first to speak of the Processions. 4 These will, I 
 think, be rendered most acceptable to Heaven and to earth's 
 spectators were the riders to ride round the Agora and 
 temples, commencing from the Hermae, and pay honour 
 to the sacred Beings, each in turn, whose shrines and statues 
 are there congregated. (Thus in the great Dionysia 5 the 
 choruses enhance their gracious service to the other gods 
 and to the Twelve with circling dance. 6 ) When the circuit 
 is completed, and the riders are back again in front of the 
 Hermae, it would add, I think, to the beauty of the scene 7 
 if at this point they formed in companies of tribes, and 
 
 1 Cf. Hiero, vii. 2 ; Cyrop. II. iv. io. 
 
 2 Cf. Theophr. Ch. vii. (Jebb ad loc. p. 204, n. 25) ; and for the topo- 
 graphy see map, Athens and Piraeus, to face p. 76 of Trans, vol. i. 
 
 3 See above, i. 9, and read ravra fiiv SXXa iiro/i.vfiiiaTa, or if with 
 Pantazid. &?rXa, trans. " these are simply memoranda. " 
 
 4 rds 7ro/iirds. See A. Martin, op. cit. 147, 160. For the topography see 
 Leake, Top. Ath. i. 253. 5 Celebrated in March (Elaphebolion). 
 
 6 Or, " by dancing roundelays in honour of the gods, especially The 
 Twelve" ; and as to the Twelve cf. Aristoph. Knights, 235, Birds, 95 ; Plat. 
 Laws, 654 ; Paus. i. 3. 3 ; 40. 3 ; viii. 25- 3 ; Plut. Nic. 13 ; Lycurg. 198. 
 
 7 Or, "it would be a beautiful sequel to the proceedings, in my opinion, 
 if at this point they formed in squadron column, and giving rein to their 
 chargers, swept forward at full gallop to the Eleusinion." See Leake, op. cit. 
 i. 296. 
 
ch. in. § 2 . 7 PANATHENAIC PROCESSIONAL MARCH u 
 
 giving their horses rein, swept forward at the gallop to the 
 Eleusinion. Nor must I omit to note the right position of 
 the lance, to lessen as far as possible the risk of mutual 
 interference. 1 Each trooper should hold his lance straight 
 between the ears of his charger, which in proportion to the 
 distinctness given to the weapon will rouse terror, and at the 
 same time create a vague idea of multitudinousness. 2 
 
 As soon as they have ceased from the charge at full gallop, 
 the pace should at onoe be changed ; and now, with footing 
 slow, let them retrace their course back to the temples. In 
 this way every detail characteristic of knightly pageantry 3 will 
 have been displayed to the delight of god and man. That 
 our knights are not accustomed to these actual evolutions, 
 I am well aware ; but I also recognise the fact that the per- 
 formances are good and beautiful and will give pleasure to 
 spectators. I do not fail to note, moreover, that novel feats 
 of horsemanship have before now been performed by our 
 knights, when their commanders have had the ability to get 
 their wishes readily complied with. 
 
 But now, let us suppose it is the occasion of the march- 
 past, 4 in the grounds of the Lyceum, before the javelin- 
 throwing. The scene would gain in beauty if the tribal 
 squadrons were to ride in line of columns 6 as if for battle, in two 
 divisions, five squadrons in the one and five in the other, with 
 the hipparch and the phylarchs at their head, in such formation 
 as to allow the whole breadth of the racecourse to be filled. 
 Then, as soon as they have gained the top 6 of the incline, 
 which leads down to the theatre opposite, it would, I think, 
 
 1 Lit. " Nor will I omit how the lances shall as little as possible overlap 
 one another." 
 
 2 Lit. ' ' Every trooper should be at pains to keep his lance straight between 
 the ears of his charger, if these weapons are to be distinct and terror-striking, 
 and at the same time to appear numerous." 
 
 3 Lit. "everything that may be performed on a mounted horse." 
 Possibly, as Cobet suggests, tcakd has dropped out. See Horsemanship, 
 xi. 3, 6 (below, p. 65). 
 
 4 BieXaivutinv iv Avicelip. See A. Martin, op. cit. 196 ; cf. Arist. Peace, 356. 
 D Or, as we might say, "in regimental order, " " with the commanding 
 
 officer in front and their respective squadron-leaders" ; and for the Lyceum 
 see Hell. I. i. 33 ; II. iv. 27. 
 
 6 Lit. " the apex of the confronting theatre. " 
 
12 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH or. ui. 8 7-« 
 
 be obviously useful here to show the skill with which your 
 troopers can gallop down a steep incline x with as broad a 
 front as the nature of the ground permits. I am quite clear 
 that your troopers, if they can trust their own skill in gallop- 
 ing, will take kindly to such an exhibition ; while as 
 certainly, if unpractised, they must look to it that the 
 enemy does not give them a lesson in the art some day, 
 perforce. 
 
 , To come to the test manoeuvres. 2 The order in which 
 the men will ride with showiest effect on these occasions 
 has been already noted. 3 As far as the leader is himself 
 concerned, and presuming he is mounted on a powerful horse, 
 I would suggest that he should each time ride round on the 
 outer flank ; in which case he will himself be kept perpetually 
 moving at a canter, and those with him, as they become the 
 wheeling flank, will, by turns, fall into the same pace, with this 
 result : the spectacle presented to the senate will be that of 
 an ever rapidly moving stream of cavaliers ; and the horses 
 having, each in turn, the opportunity to recover breath, will 
 not be overdone. 
 
 On occasions when the display takes place in the hippo- 
 drome, 4 the best arrangement would be, in the first place, that 
 the troops should fill the entire space with extended front, so 
 forcing out the mob of people from the centre ; 5 and secondly, 
 that in the sham fight 6 which ensues, the tribal squadrons, swiftly 
 
 1 See Horsemanship, viii. 6 (below, p. 57) ; Anab. IV. viii. 28. 
 
 2 SoKiixaolais, reviews and inspections. See A. Martin, op. cit. p. 333. 
 
 3 Where? Some think in a lost passage of the work (see Courier, p. in, 
 n. 1) ; or is the reference to ch. ii. above? and is the scene of the do/a/wo-lai 
 Pbaleron? There is no further reference to ri ^aXr/poT. Cf. § 1, above. 
 See Aristot. Ath. Pol. 49 (now the locus classicus on the subject), and 
 Dr. Sandys ad loc. The scene is represented on & patera from Orvieto, now 
 in the Berlin Museum, reproduced and fully described in The Art of Horse- 
 manship ty Xenophon, translated, with chapters on the Greek Riding-Horse, 
 and with notes, by Morris H. Morgan, p. 76. For the manoeuvre see below, 
 note, p. 33. 
 
 4 In the hippodrome near Munychia, I suppose. See Map, Trans, vol. i. p. 76. 
 
 5 Lit. ". . .it would be beautiful to form with extended front, so as to 
 fill the hippodrome with horses and drive out the people from the central space, 
 beautiful to . . " The new feature of the review would seem to have been the 
 introduction of a sham fight in three parts, down to the customary advance of 
 the whole corps, iirl <pd\a-yyos. Cf. Virg. Aen. v. 545 foil. But see Martin, 
 op. cit. 197. 6 Lit. " the anthippasia." 
 
CH. Ill 
 CH. IV. 
 
 ;|"' 2 14 }test MANOEUVRES AND TOURNAMENTS 13 
 
 pursuing and retiring, should gallop right across and through 
 each other, the two hipparchs at their head, each with five 
 squadrons under him. Consider the effect of such a spectacle : 
 the grim advance of rival squadrons front to front ; the charge ; 
 the solemn pause as, having swept across the hippodrome, 
 they stand once more confronting one another ; and then 
 the trumpet sounds, whereat a second and yet swifter hostile 
 advance, how fine the effect ! — and once again they are at the 
 halt ; and once again the trumpet sounds, and for the third 
 time, at the swiftest pace of all, they make a final charge 
 across the field, before dismissal ; after which they come 
 to a halt en masse, in battle order ; and, as now customary, 1 
 ride up to salute the senate, and disband. These evolutions 
 will at once approve themselves, I think, not only for their 
 novelty, but for their resemblance to real warfare. The notion 
 that the hipparch is to ride at a slower pace than his phylarchs, 
 and to handle his horse precisely in their style, seems to me 
 below the dignity of the office. 
 
 When the cavalry parade takes place on the hard- 
 trodden 2 ground of the Academy, I have the following advice 
 to give. To avoid being jolted off his horse at any moment, 
 the trooper should, in charging, lean well back, 3 and to 
 prevent his charger stumbling, he should while wheeling 
 hold his head well up, but along a straight stretch he should 
 force the pace. Thus the spectacle presented to the senate 
 will combine the elements of beauty and of safety. 
 
 iv. — To pass to a different topic: on the march, the general 
 will need to exercise a constant forethought to relieve the horses' 
 backs and the troopers' legs, by a judicious interchange of riding 
 and of marching. Wherein consists the golden mean, will not 
 be hard to find; since "every man a standard to himself," 4 
 applies, and your sensations are an index to prevent your 
 fellows being overdone through inadvertence. 
 
 But now supposing you are on the march in some 
 direction, and it is uncertain whether you will stumble on 
 
 1 " As is your custom. " See Mem. III. iii. 6. 
 
 2 Cf. Thuc. vii. 27. 3 See Horsemanship, vii. 17 (below, p. 55). 
 " The phrase is proverbial. Cf. Plat. Theaet. 183 B. 
 
i 4 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH ch. iv. § 3-5 
 
 the enemy, your duty is to rest your squadrons in turn ; 
 since it will go hard with you, if the enemy come to close 
 quarters when the whole force is dismounted. 1 Or, again, 
 suppose the roads are narrow, or you have to cross a defile, 
 you will pass, by word of mouth, the command to diminish 
 the front ; 2 or given, again, you are debouching on broad roads, 
 again the word of command will pass by word of mouth, to 
 every squadron, " to increase their front " ; or lastly, supposing 
 you have reached flat country, "to form squadron in order 
 of battle.'' If only for the sake of practice, it is well to go 
 through evolutions of the sort ; 3 besides which it adds pleasure 
 to the march thus to diversify the line of route with cavalry 
 manoeuvres. 
 
 Supposing, however, you are off roads altogether and 
 moving fast over difficult ground, no matter whether you are 
 in hostile or in friendly territory, it will be useful if the 
 scouts attached to squadrons 4 rode on in advance, their duty 
 being, in case of encountering pathless clefts or gullies, to 
 work round on to practicable ground, and to discover at 
 what point the troopers may effect a passage, so that whole 
 ranks may not go blindly roaming. 5 
 
 Again, if there is prospect of danger on the march, a 
 prudent general can hardly show his wisdom better than by 
 sending out advanced patrols in front of the ordinary ex- 
 ploring parties to reconnoitre every inch of ground minutely. 
 So to be apprised of the enemy's position in advance, and at 
 as great a distance off as possible, cannot fail to be useful, 
 whether for purposes of attack or defence ; just as it is 
 useful also to enforce a halt at the passage of a river or 
 some other defile, so that the men in rear may not knock 
 their horses all to bits in endeavouring to overtake their 
 
 1 See Hell. V. iv. 40 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 129) for a case in point. 
 
 z Or, "advance by column of route." See Hell. VII. iv. 23. 
 
 " Or, " it is a pleasant method of beguiling the road." Cf. Plat. Laws, 
 i. 625 B. 
 
 4 t&v iiiri)perCbv=" ground scouts," al. "orderlies." Ordonnances, trabans 
 (Courier). See Riistow and Kbchly, p. 140. Cyrop. II. i. 21 ; II. iv. 4 ; 
 V. Hi. 32 ; VII. v. 18, and VI. ii. 13 ; Anab. I. ix. 27 ; II. i. 9 ; where 
 "adjutants," "orderlies" would seem to be implied. 
 
 6 Al. "to prevent whole divisions losing their way." Cf. Anab. VIII. 
 iii. 18 (Trans, vol. i. p. 257). 
 
ch. iv. § s-9 ON THE MARCH — INTELLIGENCERS 15 
 
 leader. These are precepts known, I admit, to nearly all the 
 world, but it is by no means every one who will take pains to 
 apply them carefully. 1 
 
 It is the business of the hipparch to take infinite pre- 
 cautions while it is still peace, to make himself acquainted 
 with the details, not only of his own, but of the hostile 
 territory ; 2 or if, as may well betide, he personally should 
 lack the knowledge, he should invite the aid of others 3 
 — those best versed in the topography of any district. Since 
 there is all the difference in the world between a leader 
 acquainted with his roads and one who is not ; and when it 
 comes to actual designs upon the enemy, the difference be- 
 tween knowing and not knowing the locality can hardly be 
 exaggerated. 
 
 So, too, with regard to spies and intelligencers. Before war 
 commences your business is to provide yourself with a supply 
 of people friendly to both states, or maybe merchants (since 
 states are ready to receive the importer of goods with open 
 arms) ; sham deserters may be found occasionally useful. 4 
 Not, of course, that the confidence you feel in your spies 
 must ever cause you to neglect outpost duty; indeed your 
 state of preparation should at any moment be precisely 
 what it ought to be, supposing the approach or the imminent 
 arrival of the enemy were to be announced. Let a spy be 
 ever so faithful, there is always the risk he may fail to report 
 his intelligence at the critical moment, since the obstacles 
 which present themselves in war are not to be counted on the 
 fingers. 
 
 But to proceed to another topic. The enemy is less likely 
 to get wind of an advance of cavalry, if the orders for march 
 were passed from mouth to mouth rather than announced 
 by voice of herald, or public notice. 5 Accordingly, in addition 
 
 1 See Econ. xx. 6. foil. 
 
 2 Or, " with hostile and friendly territories alike." 
 
 3 Lit. "he should associate with himself those of the rest" ; i.e. his 
 colleagues or other members of the force. 
 
 4 Cf. Cyrop. VI. i. 39, where one of the Persians, Araspas, undertakes to 
 play this r61e to good effect. 
 
 6 i.e. "given by general word of command, or in writing." As to the 
 " word-of-mouth command," see above, §3 ; Hell. VII. v. 9 (Trans, vol. ii. 
 p. 228) ; and for the "herald," see Anab. III. iv. 36 (Trans, vol. i. p. 169). 
 
16 THE DUTIES OF A HIPP ARCH ch.iv.| 9 -i 4 
 
 to 1 this method of ordering the march by word passed along 
 the line, the appointment of file-leaders seems desirable, who 
 again are to be supplemented by section-leaders, 2 so that the 
 number of men to whom each petty officer has to transmit an 
 order will be very few ; 3 while the section-leaders will deploy 
 and increase the front, whatever the formation, without con- 
 fusion, whenever there is occasion for the movement. 4 
 
 When an advanced guard is needed, I must say for my- 
 self I highly approve of secret pickets and outposts, if only 
 because in supplying a guard to protect your friends you 
 are contriving an ambuscade to catch the enemy. Also the 
 outposts will be less exposed to a secret attack, being them- 
 selves unseen, and yet a source of greater alarm to the enemy ; 
 since the bare knowledge that there are outposts somewhere, 
 though where precisely no man knows, will prevent the enemy 
 from feeling confident, and oblige him to mistrust every tenable 
 position. An exposed outpost, on the contrary, presents to the 
 broad eye of day its dangers and also its weaknesses. 8 Besides 
 which, the holder of a concealed outpost can always place a few 
 exposed vedettes beyond his hidden pickets, and so endeavour 
 to decoy the enemy into an ambuscade. Or he may play the 
 part of trapper with effect by placing a second exposed outpost 
 in rear of the other ; a device which may serve to take in the 
 unwary foeman quite as well as that before named. 
 
 Indeed I take it to be the mark of a really prudent general 
 never to run a risk of his own choosing, except where it is 
 plain to him beforehand, that he will get the better of his 
 adversary. To play into the enemy's hands may more fitly be 
 described as treason to one's fellow -combatants than true 
 manliness. So, too, true generalship consists in attacking 
 where the enemy is weakest, even if the point be some 
 leagues distant. Severity of toil weighs nothing in the scale 
 against the danger of engaging a force superior to your own. 6 
 
 1 Reading irpbs Tip 5ii it. , or if irpbs rb . . . transl. ' ' with a view to. " 
 
 2 Lit. pempadarchs, i.e. No. 6 in the file. See Cyr<$. II. i. 22 foil., iii. 21. 
 
 3 Lit. " so that each officer may pass the word to as few as possible." 
 
 4 Cf. Anah. IV. vi. 6 (Trans, vol. i. p. 197). 
 
 5 Lit. "makes plain its grounds of terror as of confidence." 
 
 6 N.B. Throughout this treatise the author has to meet the case of a small 
 force of cavalry acting on the defensive. 
 
ch. iv. § i S ., 9 PICKETS— OUTPOSTS— COUPS DE MAIN 17 
 
 Still, if on any occasion the enemy advance in any way to place 
 himself between fortified points that are friendly to you, let 
 him be never so superior in force, your game is to attack 
 on whichever flank you can best conceal your advance, or, 
 still better, on both flanks simultaneously; since, while one 
 detachment is retiring after delivering its attack, a charge 
 pressed home from the opposite quarter cannot fail to throw 
 the enemy into confusion and to give safety to your friends. 
 
 How excellent a thing it is to endeavour to ascertain an 
 enemy's position by means of spies and so forth, is an ancient 
 story ; yet best of all, in my opinion, is it for the commander 
 to try to seize some coign of vantage, from which with his own 
 eyes he may descry the movements of the enemy and watch 
 for any error on his part. 1 
 
 Whatever may be snatched by ruse, thief fashion, 2 your 
 business is to send a competent patrol to seize ; or again where 
 capture by coup de main 3 is practicable, you will despatch a 
 requisite body of troops to effect a coup de main. Or take the 
 case : the enemy is on the march in some direction, and a 
 portion of his force becomes detached from his main body or 
 through excess of confidence is caught straggling; do not 
 let the opportunity escape, but make it a rule always to pursue 
 a weaker with a stronger force. 4 These, indeed, are rules of 
 procedure, which it only requires a simple effort of the mind 
 to appreciate. Creatures far duller of wit than man have 
 this ability : kites and falcons, when anything is left unguarded, 
 pounce and carry it off and retire into safety without being 
 caught; or wolves, again, will hunt down any quarry left 
 widowed of its guard, or thieve what they can in darksome 
 corners. 5 In case a dog pursues and overtakes them, should 
 he chance to be weaker the wolf attacks him, or if stronger, 
 the wolf will slaughter 6 his quarry and make off. At other 
 
 1 As, e.g. Epaminondas at Tegea. See Hell. VII. v. 9 (Trans, vol. ii. 
 p. 227). 
 
 2 e.g. defiles, bridges, outposts, stores, etc. 
 
 3 e.g. a line of outposts, troops in billets or bivouac, etc. 
 
 4 " It is a maxim, the quarry should be weaker than the pursuer." 
 
 5 Zeune cf. Ael. N. A. viii. 14, on the skill of wolves in hunting. 
 
 6 For d7roir0d£as Courier suggests iiroairiaas, "dragging off what he 
 can." 
 
18 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH {§U: v V |\. , f ,a °~ 
 
 times, if the pack be strong enough to make light of the 
 guardians of a flock, they will marshal their battalions, as 
 it were, some to drive off the guard and others to effect the 
 capture, and so by stealth or fair fight they provide themselves 
 with the necessaries of life. I say, if dumb beasts are capable 
 of conducting a raid with so much sense and skill, it is hard 
 if any average man cannot prove himself equally intelligent 
 with creatures which themselves fall victims to the craft of man. 
 
 v. — Here is another matter which every horseman ought 
 to know, and that is within what distance a horse can over- 
 haul a man on foot ; or the interval necessary to enable a 
 slower horse to escape one more fleet. It is the business rather 
 of the cavalry general to recognise at a glance the sort of 
 ground on which infantry will be superior to cavalry and where 
 cavalry will be superior to infantry. He should be a man 
 of invention, ready of device to turn all circumstances to 
 account, so as to give at one time a small body of cavalry 
 the appearance of a larger, and again a large the likeness of a 
 smaller body ; he should have the craft to appear absent when 
 close at hand, and within striking distance when a long way 
 off; he should know exactly not only how to steal an enemy's 
 position, but by a master stroke of cunning 1 to spirit his 
 own cavalry away and, when least expected, deliver his attack. 
 Another excellent specimen of inventiveness may be seen in 
 the general's ability, while holding a weak position himself, to 
 conjure up so lively an apprehension in the enemy that he 
 will not dream of attacking ; or conversely, when, being in a 
 strong position himself, he can engender a fatal boldness 
 in the adversary to venture an attack. Thus with the least 
 cost to yourself, you will best be able to catch your enemy 
 tripping. 
 
 But to avoid suspicion of seeming to prescribe impossible 
 feats, I will set down, in so many words, the procedure 
 in certain crucial instances. 
 
 The best safeguard against failure in any attempt to 
 enforce pursuit or conduct a retreat lies in a thorough know- 
 
 1 Or, " sleight of hand " ; and for ic\hrTav = escamoter see Anab. IV. vi. 
 ii, 15 ; V. vi. 9 (Trans, vol. i. pp. 198, 229). 
 
ch.v.8 4-8 ARTS OF WAR IN FACE OF THE ENEMY 19 
 
 ledge of your horses' powers. 1 But how is this experience to 
 be got ? Simply by paying attention to their behaviour in 
 the peaceable manoeuvres of the sham fight, when there is no 
 real enemy to intervene, — how the animals come off, in fact, 
 and what stamina they show in the various charges and retreats. 
 
 Or suppose the problem is to make your cavalry appear 
 numerous. In the first place, let it be a fundamental rule, if 
 possible, not to attempt to delude the enemy at close quarters ; 
 distance, as it aids illusion, will promote security. The next 
 point is to, bear in mind that a mob of horses clustered together 
 (owing perhaps to the creatures' size) will give a suggestion of 
 number, whereas scattered they may easily be counted. 
 
 Another means by which you may give your troop an 
 appearance of numerical strength beyond reality consists in 
 posting, in and out between the troopers, so many lines of 
 grooms 2 who should carry lances if possible, or staves at any 
 rate to look like lances — a plan which will serve alike whether 
 you mean to display your cavalry force at the halt or are 
 deploying to increase front : in either case, obviously the 
 bulk and volume of the force, whatever your formation, will 
 appear increased. Conversely, if the problem be to make 
 large numbers appear small, supposing you have ground at 
 command adapted to concealment, the thing is simple : by 
 leaving a portion of your men exposed and hiding away a 
 portion in obscurity, you may effect your object. 3 But if the 
 ground nowhere admits of cover, your best course is to form 
 your files 4 into ranks one behind the other, and wheel them 
 round so as to leave intervals between each file ; the troopers 
 nearest the enemy in each file will keep their lances erect, 
 and the rest low enough not to show above. 
 
 To come to the next topic : you may work on the enemy's 
 fears by the various devices of mock ambuscades, sham relief 
 parties, false information. Conversely, his confidence will 
 
 1 i/iireipla, " empirical knowledge. " 
 
 2 Cf. Polyaen. II. i. 17, of Agesilaus in Macedonia, 394 B.C. (our author 
 was probably present) ; IV. iv. 3, of Antipater in Thessaly, 323 B.C. 
 
 3 Lit. "steal your troopers." See note 1, preceding page. See Cyrop. 
 V. iv. 48. 
 
 4 Lit. "form your decads (squads of ten ; cf. our 'fours') in ranks and 
 deploy with intervals." 
 
20 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH ch. v. 8 8-. 3 
 
 reach an overweening pitch, if the idea gets abroad that his 
 opponents have troubles of their own and little leisure for 
 offensive operations. 
 
 But over and beyond all that can be written on the 
 subject — inventiveness is a personal matter, beyond all 
 formulas — the true general must be able to take in, deceive, 
 decoy, delude his adversary at every turn, as the particular 
 occasion demands. In fact, there is no instrument of war 
 more cunning than chicanery ; 1 which is not surprising when 
 one reflects that even little boys, when playing " How many 
 (marbles) have I got in my hand?" 2 are able to take one 
 another in successfully. Out goes a clenched fist, but with 
 such cunning that he who holds a few is thought to hold 
 several ; or he may present several and appear to be holding 
 only a few. Is it likely that a grown man, giving his whole 
 mind to methods of chicanery, will fail of similar inventive- 
 ness ? Indeed, when one comes to consider what is meant 
 by advantages snatched in war, one will find, I think, that the 
 greater part of them, and those the more important, must be 
 attributed in some way or other to displays of craft ; 3 which 
 things being so, a man had better either not attempt to 
 exercise command, or, as part and parcel of his general equip- 
 ment, let him pray to Heaven to enable him to exercise this 
 faculty and be at pains himself to cultivate his own in- 
 ventiveness. 
 
 A general, who has access to the sea, may exercise the 
 faculty as follows : he may either, whilst apparently engaged 
 in fitting out his vessels, strike a blow on land ; 4 or with a 
 make-believe of some aggressive design by land, hazard an 
 adventure by sea. 5 
 
 I consider it to be the duty of the cavalry commander to 
 point out clearly to the state authority the essential weakness 
 
 1 Cf. Cyrop. IV. ii. 26 ; VII. i. 18. 
 
 2 Trofflvda, lit. " How many? " (i.e. dice, nuts, marbles, etc.) ; cf. the old 
 game, ' ' Buck ! buck ! how many horns do I hold up ? " Schneid. cf. Aristot. 
 Rhet. iii. 5. 4. 
 
 3 "Have been won in connection with craft." See Cyrop. I. vi. 32; 
 Mem. III. i. 6 ; IV. ii. 15. 
 
 4 A ruse adopted by Jason, 371 B.C. Cf. Hell. VI. iv. 21 (Trans, vol. ii. 
 p. 164). 
 
 5 Cf. the tactics of the Athenians at Catana, 415 B.C. Thuc. vi. 64. 
 
cS: v'i.Vi-3 5 } SYMPATHY BETWEEN OFFICER AND MEN 21 
 
 of a force of cavalry unaided by light infantry, as opposed to 
 cavalry with foot-soldiers attached. 1 It is his duty also, having 
 got his footmen, to turn the force to good account. It is 
 possible to conceal them effectively, not only between the 
 lines, but in rear also of the troopers — the mounted soldier 
 towering high above his follower on foot. 
 
 With regard to these devices and to any others which 
 invention may suggest towards capturing the foeman by force 
 or fraud, I have one common word of advice to add, which is, 
 to act with God, and then while Heaven propitious smiles, 
 fortune will scarcely dare to frown. 2 
 
 At times there is no more effective fraud than a make- 
 believe 3 of over-caution alien to the spirit of adventure. This 
 itself will put the enemy off his guard and ten to one will 
 lure him into some egregious blunder ; or conversely, once 
 get a reputation for foolhardiness established, and then with 
 folded hands sit feigning future action, and see what a world 
 of trouble you will thereby cause your adversary. 
 
 vi. — But, after all, no man, however great his plastic skill, 
 can hope to mould and shape a work of art to suit his fancy, 
 unless the stuff on which he works be first prepared and 
 made ready to obey the craftsman's will. Nor certainly where 
 the raw material consists of men, will you succeed, unless, 
 under God's blessing, these same men have been prepared and 
 made ready to meet their officer in a friendly spirit. They must 
 come to look upon him as of greater sagacity than themselves 
 in all that concerns encounter with the enemy. This friendly 
 disposition on the part of his subordinates, one must suppose, 
 will best be fostered by a corresponding sympathy on the part 
 of their commander towards the men themselves, and that not 
 by simple kindness but by the obvious pains he takes on their 
 behalf, at one time to provide them with food, and at another 
 to secure safety of retreat, or again by help of outposts and 
 the like, to ensure protection during rest and sleep. 
 
 1 Or, " divorced from infantry." In reference to dfuiriroi, cf. Thuc. v. 57 ; 
 Hell. VII. v. 23 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 232) ; and below, viii. 19, p. 29. 
 
 2 Or, ' ' and then by the grace of Heaven you may win the smiles of 
 fortune," reading with Courier, etc., iVa koX i) t6xV awe-waivy. Cf. Cyrof. 
 III. iii. 20. 3 § 15 should perhaps stand before § 13. 
 
22 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH {SvnV^" 
 
 When on active service 1 the commander must prove him- 
 self conspicuously careful in the matter of forage, quarters, 
 water-supply, outposts, 2 and all other requisites; forecasting 
 the future and keeping ever a wakeful eye in the interest of 
 those under him ; and in case of any advantage won, the truest 
 gain which the head of affairs can reap is to share with his 
 men the profits of success. 
 
 Indeed, to put the matter in a nutshell, there is small 
 risk a general will be regarded with contempt by those he 
 leads, if, whatever he may have to preach, he shows himself 
 best able to perform. 
 
 Beginning with the simple art of mounting upon horseback, 
 let him so train himself in all particulars of horsemanship 
 that, to look at him, the men must see their leader is a horse- 
 man who can leap a trench unscathed or scale a parapet, 3 or 
 gallop down a bank, and hurl a javelin with the best. These 
 are accomplishments which one and all will pave the way to 
 make contempt impossible. If, further, the men shall see in 
 their commander one who, with the knowledge how to act, has 
 force of will and cunning to make them get the better of the 
 enemy ; and if, further, they have got the notion well into their 
 heads that this same leader may be trusted not to lead them 
 recklessly against the foe, without the help of Heaven, or despite 
 the auspices, — I say, you have a list of virtues which will make 
 those under his command the more obedient to their ruler. 
 
 vii.- — If prudence may be spoken of as the one quality dis- 
 tinctive of true generalship, there are two respects in which a 
 general of cavalry at Athens should pre-eminently excel. Not 
 only must he show a dutiful submission to the gods ; but he 
 must possess great fighting qualities, seeing that he has on 
 his borders a rival cavalry equal to his own in number and 
 backed by a large force of heavy infantry. 4 So that, if he 
 undertake to invade the enemy's territory unsupported by the 
 
 1 A l. "on garrison outpost duty." 
 
 2 Reading (pvKAKwv, or if with Courier 0v\6.kui>, "haversacks," i.e. "la 
 farine, le contenant pour le contenu." s Or, "stonewalls," "dykes." 
 
 4 The reference is doubtless to the Thebans. Unfortunately we do not 
 know, on good authority, how many troops of either arm they had in the 
 field at Leuctra or at Man tinea. 
 
ch. vii. § 2-5 IN CASE OF WAR WITH THE BOEOTIANS 23 
 
 other forces of the city, 1 — in dealing with two descriptions 
 of forces single-handed, he and his cavalry must look for a 
 desperate adventure; or to take the converse case, that the 
 enemy invades the soil of Attica, to begin with, he will not 
 invade at all, unless supported by other cavalry besides his 
 own and an infantry force sufficient to warrant the supposition 
 that no force on our side can cope with him. 
 
 Now, to deal with this vast hostile array, if only the city 
 will determine to sally out en masse to protect her rural 
 districts, the prospect is fair. Under God, our troopers, if 
 properly cared for, are the finer men ; our infantry of the line 
 are no less numerous, and as regards physique, if it comes to 
 that, not one whit inferior, while in reference to moral quali- 
 ties, they are more susceptible to the spur of a noble ambi- 
 tion, if only under God's blessing they be correctly trained. 
 Or again, as touching pride of ancestry, what have Athenians 
 to fear as against Boeotians on that score ? 2 
 
 But suppose the city of Athens determine to betake her- 
 self to her navy, as in the old days when the Lacedaemonians, 
 leagued with the rest of Hellas, brought invasion ; 3 and is 
 content once more simply to protect her walls through thick 
 and thin. As to protecting what lies outside the city wall she 
 looks to her cavalry for that ; and single-handed her troopers 
 must do desperate encounter against the united forces of 
 the enemy. I say, under these circumstances, we shall need 
 in the first place the strong support of Heaven ; and in 
 the second place, well will it be for us if our cavalry com- 
 mander prove himself a consummate officer. 4 Indeed, he 
 will have need of large wisdom to deal with a force so vastly 
 superior in numbers, and of enterprise to strike when the 
 critical moment comes. 
 
 He must also, as it appears to me, be capable of great 
 physical endurance; 5 since clearly, if he has to run full tilt 
 
 1 Lit. "without the rest of the city," i.e. the hoplites, etc. 
 
 2 See above, Mem. III. v. 3, p. 92, where it is contended that in pride of 
 ancestry Athenians can hold their own against Boeotians. 
 
 3 See Thuc. ii. 13, 14, 22, etc., and in particular iv. 95, Hippocrates' 
 speech before the battle of Delium, 424 B.C. 
 
 4 A "parfait mar^chal." See Econ. xiii. *, note 2. 
 
 5 So Jason, Hell. VI. i. 4 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 138). 
 
24 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH ch. vii. § 5-10 
 
 against an armament present, as we picture, in such force that 
 not even our whole state cares to cope with it, it is plain he 
 must accept whatever fate is due, where might is right, him- 
 self unable to retaliate. 
 
 If, on the contrary, he elect to guard the territory outside 
 the walls 1 with a number just sufficient to keep a look-out on 
 the enemy, and to withdraw into safe quarters from a dis- 
 tance whatever needs protection, — a small number, be it 
 observed, is just as capable of vedette duty, as well able, say, 
 to scan the distant horizon, as a large ; and by the same token 
 men with no great confidence in themselves or in their horses 
 are not ill-qualified to guard or withdraw within shelter 2 the 
 property of friends ; since fear, as the proverb has it, makes 
 a shrewd watchman. The proposal, therefore, to select from 
 these a corps of observation will most likely prove true 
 strategy. But what then of the residue not needed for out- 
 post duty ? If any one imagines he has got an armament, he 
 will find it miserably small, and lacking in every qualification 
 necessary to risk an open encounter. 
 
 But let him make up his mind to employ it in guerilla 
 war, and he will find the force quite competent for that, I 
 warrant. His business, so at least it seems to me, will be to 
 keep his men perpetually in readiness to strike a blow, and 
 without exposing himself, to play sentinel, waiting for any 
 false move on the part of the hostile armament. And it is a 
 way with soldiers, bear in mind, the more numerous they are, 
 the more blunders they commit. They must needs scatter of 
 set purpose 3 in search of provisions ; or through the disorder 
 incidental to a march, some will advance and others lag be- 
 hind, beyond a proper limit. Blunders like these, then, our 
 hipparch must not let pass unpunished (unless he wishes the 
 whole of Attica to become a gigantic camp) ; 4 keeping this 
 
 1 Or, " His better plan would be to." 
 
 2 Reading avaxuptfa"- Cf. Cyrop. II. ii. 8; Anat. V. ii. 10; or if avaxoipelv 
 ek, transl. "or retire into safe quarters." See Hell. IV. vi. 4 (Trans, vol. ii. 
 p. 71). s eiri/xeXeigi. Cf. Cyrop. V. iii. 47. 
 
 4 Lit. "or else the whole of Attica will be one encampment." As 
 at the date of the fortification of Decelea (413 B.C.), which permanently com- 
 manded the whole country. SeeThuc. vii. 27. Al. Courier, "autrement vous 
 n'avez plus de camp, ou pour mieux dire, tout le pays devient votre camp." 
 
CH, 
 CH 
 
 : vin.Vr 15 } HANDLING OF A GUERILLA FORCE 25 
 
 single point steadily in view, that when he strikes a blow he 
 must be expeditious and retire before the main body has time 
 to rally to the rescue. 
 
 Again, it frequently happens on the march, that an 
 army will get into roads where numbers are no advantage. 
 Again, in the passage of rivers, defiles, and the like, it is pos- 
 sible for a general with a head on his shoulders to hang on 
 the heels of an enemy in security, and to determine with 
 precision x the exact number of the enemy he will care to deal 
 with. Occasionally the fine chance occurs to attack the foe 
 while encamping or breakfasting or supping, or as the men 
 turn out of bed : seasons at which the soldier is apt to be 
 unharnessed — the hoplite for a shorter, the cavalry trooper for 
 a longer period. 2 
 
 As to vedettes and advanced outposts, you should never 
 cease planning and plotting against them. For these in their 
 turn, as a rule, are apt to consist of small numbers, and are 
 sometimes posted at a great distance from their own main 
 body. But if after all it turns out that the enemy are well 
 on their guard against all such attempts, then, God helping, 
 it would be a feat of arms to steal into the enemy's country, 
 first making it your business to ascertain 3 his defences, the 
 number of men at this, that, and the other point, and how 
 they are distributed throughout the country. For there is 
 no booty so splendid as an outpost so overmastered; and 
 these frontier outposts are especially prone to be deceived, 
 with their propensity to give chase to any small body they set 
 eyes on, regarding that as their peculiar function. You will 
 have to see, however, in retiring that your line of retreat is 
 not right into the jaws of the enemy's reliefs hastening to the 
 scene of aption. 
 
 viii. — It stands to reason, however, that in order to be 
 able to inflict real damage upon a greatly superior force, the 
 weaker combatant must possess such a moral superiority over 
 the other as shall enable him to appear in the position of an 
 
 1 See Anai. II. v. 18 (Trans, vol. i. p. 136) ; Cyrop. III. iii. 47 ; IV. i. 
 18. TaiueiaaaBw., " with the precision of a controller. " 
 
 2 Cf. Hell. II. iv. 6 ; VII. i. 16. 
 
 3 Or, "having first studied." Cf. Mem. III. vi. 10. 
 
 VOL. Ill — 2 D 
 
26 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH ch. v.n, 1 1- 5 
 
 expert, trained in all the feats of cavalry performance in the 
 field, and leave his enemy to play the part of raw recruits or 
 amateurs. 1 
 
 And this end may be secured primarily on this wise : 
 those who are to form your guerilla bands 2 must be so 
 hardened and inured to the saddle that they are capable of 
 undergoing all the toils of a campaign. 3 That a squadron 
 (and I speak of horse and man alike) should enter these lists 
 in careless, disorderly fashion suggests the idea of a troop of 
 women stepping into the arena to cope with male antagonists. 
 
 But reverse the picture. Suppose men and horses to have 
 been taught and trained to leap trenches and scale dykes, to 
 spring up banks, and plunge from heights without scathe, to 
 gallop headlong at full speed adown a steep : they will tower 
 over unpractised opponents as the birds of the air tower over 
 creatures that crawl and walk. 4 Their feet are case-hardened 
 by constant training, and, when it comes to tramping over 
 rough ground, must differ from the uninitiated as the sound 
 man from the lame. And so again, when it comes to charging 
 and retiring, the onward-dashing gallop, the well-skilled, timely 
 retreat, expert knowledge of the ground and scenery will assert 
 superiority over inexpertness like that of eyesight over blindness. 
 
 Nor should it be forgotten, that in order to be in thorough 
 efficiency the horses must not only be well fed and in good 
 condition, but at the same time so seasoned by toil that they 
 will go through their work without the risk of becoming 
 broken-winded. And lastly, as bits and saddle-cloths (to be 
 efficient) 6 need to be attached by straps, a cavalry general 
 should never be without a good supply, whereby at a trifling 
 expense he may convert a number of nonplussed troopers into 
 serviceable fighting men. 6 
 
 But if any one is disposed to dwell on the amount of 
 
 1 Cf. Cyrop. I. ■!. ii ; Mem. III. vii. 7. 
 
 2 Or, add, "for buccaneers and free-lances you must be." 
 
 3 Lit. "every toil a soldier can encounter." 
 
 4 See Horse, viii. 6 (below, p. 57) ; cf. Hunting, xii. 2 (below, p. 118) ; 
 Cyrop. I. vi. 28 foil. 
 
 5 [XP'i <r '/ ia ] I* D. For the iirdfivriiM itself cf. Cyrop. VI. ii. 32. 
 
 6 Or, ' ' thus at a trifling outlay he will be able to render so many non- 
 efficients useful. " A I. " make the articles as good as new. " 
 
cH.vm.§s-9 PHYSIQUE AND MORALE V. NUMBERS 27 
 
 trouble it will cost him, if he is required to devote himself to 
 horsemanship so assiduously, let him console himself with the 
 reflection that the pains and labours undergone by any man 
 in training for a gymnastic contest are far larger and more 
 formidable than any which the severest training of the horse- 
 man will involve ; and for this reason, that the greater part of 
 gymnastic exercises are performed "in the sweat of the brow," 
 while equestrian exercise is performed with pleasure. Indeed, 
 there is no accomplishment which so nearly realises the 
 aspiration of a man to have the wings of a bird than this of 
 horsemanship. 1 But further, to a victory obtained in war 
 attaches a far greater weight of glory than belongs to the 
 noblest contest of the arena. 2 Of these the state indeed 
 will share her meed of glory, 3 but in honour of victory in war 
 the very gods are wont to crown whole states with happiness. 4 
 So that, for my part, I know not if there be aught else which 
 has a higher claim to be practised than the arts of war. 
 
 And this, too, is worth noting : that the buccaneer by 
 sea, the privateersman, through long practice in endurance, is 
 able to live at the expense of far superior powers. Yes, and 
 the life of the freebooter is no less natural and appropriate to 
 landsmen — I do not say, to those who can till and gather 
 in the fruit of their fields, but to those who find themselves 
 deprived of sustenance ; since there is no alternative — either 
 men must till their fields or live on the tillage of others, other- 
 wise how will they find the means either of living or of 
 obtaining peace ? 5 
 
 Here, too, is a maxim to engrave upon the memory : in 
 charging a superior force, never to leave a difficult tract of 
 ground in rear of your attack, since there is all the differ- 
 ence in the world between a stumble in flight and a stumble 
 in pursuit. 
 
 1 Cf. Cyrop. IV. iii. 15 ; Herod, iv. 132 ; Plat. Rep. v. 467 D. 
 
 2 Cf. Eur. Autolycus, fr. 1, trans, by J. A. Symonds, Greek Poets, 2nd series, 
 p. 283. 
 
 3 Cf. Plut. Pelop. 34 (Clough, ii. p. 235) : ' 'And yet who would compare 
 all the victories in the Pythian and Olympian games put together, with one of 
 these enterprises of Pelopidas, of which he successfully performed so many ? " 
 
 4 " To bind about the brows of states happiness as a coronal. ' ' 
 6 Cf. Econ. v. 7. 
 
28 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH ch. vm. § 1015 
 
 There is another precaution which I feel called upon to 
 note. Some generals, 1 in attacking a force which they im- 
 agine to be inferior to their own, will advance with a ridicu- 
 lously insufficient force, 2 so that it is the merest accident if 
 they do not experience the injury they were minded to inflict. 
 Conversely, in attacking any enemy whose superiority is a well- 
 known fact, they will bring the whole of their force into action. 
 
 Now, my maxim would be precisely converse : if you attack 
 with a prospect of superiority, do not grudge employing all 
 the power at your command ; excess of victory 3 never yet 
 caused any conqueror one pang of remorse. 
 
 But in any attempt to attack superior forces, in full 
 certainty that, do what you can, you must eventually retire, 
 it is far better, say I, under these circumstances to bring a 
 fraction only of your whole force into action, which fraction 
 should be the pick and flower of the troops at your command, 
 both horses and men. A body of that size and quality will be 
 able to strike a blow and to fall back with greater security. 
 Whereas, if a general brings all his troops into action against a 
 superior force, when he wishes to retire,- certain things must 
 happen : those of his men who are worse mounted will be 
 captured, others through lack of skill in horsemanship will be 
 thrown, and a third set be cut off owing to mere difficulties 
 of ground; since it is impossible to find any large tract of 
 country exactly what you would desire. If for no other 
 reason, through sheer stress of numbers there will be collisions, 
 and much damage done by kicks through mutual entangle- 
 ment; whereas a pick of horse and men will be able to 
 escape offhand, 4 especially if you have invention to create a 
 scare in the minds of the pursuers by help of the moiety 
 of troops who are out of action. 6 For this purpose false 
 ambuscades will be of use. 
 
 1 Or, "one knows of generals," e.g. Iphicrates at Oneion, 369 B.c. 
 Cf. Hell. VI. v. 51 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 185 note) ; also Sketch, vol. i. p. 
 cxxxix. 2 Lit. " an absolutely weak force. " 
 
 3 Or, "a great and decided victory." Cf. Hiero, ii. 16. 
 
 4 Or, "by themselves," reading t£ airlov, as L. Dind. suggests. Cf. Polyb. 
 x. 40. 6, or if as vulg. i£ airwv (sub. xeipffiy, Weiske), transl. "to slip through 
 their fingers. " 
 
 6 Zeune and other commentators cf. Liv. v. 38 (Diod. xiv. 114), but the 
 part played by the Roman subsidiarii at the battle of the Allia, if indeed 
 
ch. viii. § ij-.g CAVALRY ATTACK 29 
 
 Another serviceable expedient will be to discover on which 
 side a friendly force may suddenly appear and without risk to 
 itself put a drag on the wheels of the pursuer. Nay, it is self- 
 evident, I think, that, as far as work and speed are concerned, 
 it is the small body which will assert its superiority more rapidly 
 over the larger, and not vice versa, — not of course that the 
 mere fact of being a small body will enable them to endure 
 toil or give them wings ; but simply it is easier to find five men 
 than five hundred, who will take the requisite care and pains 
 with their horses, and personally practise of their own accord 
 the art of horsemanship. 
 
 But supposing the chance should occur of entering the 
 lists against an equal number of the enemy's cavalry, accord- 
 ing to my judgment it were no bad plan to split the 
 squadron into divisions, 1 the first of which should be com- 
 manded by the squadron-leader, and the other by the ablest 
 officer to be found. This second -officer 2 will for the time 
 being follow in rear of the leading division with the squadron 
 leader ; and by and by, when the antagonist is in near 
 proximity, and when the word of command is passed, form 
 squadron to the front and charge the hostile ranks 3 — a man- 
 oeuvre calculated, as I conceive, to bring the whole mass down 
 upon the enemy with paralysing force, and to cause him some 
 trouble to extricate himself. Ideally speaking, both divisions 4 
 will be backed by infantry kept concealed in rear of the 
 cavalry ; these will suddenly disclose themselves, and rushing to 
 close quarters, in all probability clench the nail of victory. 6 
 So at any rate it strikes me, seeing as I do the effects of what 
 is unexpected, — how, in the case of good things, the soul of 
 man is filled to overflowing with joy, and again, in the case of 
 
 1 ' una salus fugientibus, " was scarcely happy. Would not Hell. VII. v. 26 
 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 232) be more to the point? The detachment of cavalry 
 and infantry placed by Epaminondas ' ' on certain crests, to create an appre- 
 hension in the minds of the Athenians " in that quarter of the field at Mantinea 
 was a ixi)x°-"VP ia of the kind here contemplated. 
 
 1 Or, "troops." 
 
 2 See above, ii. 5, p. 8, u. 6. 
 
 3 Possibly on flank. See Courier, p. 35, on Spanish cavalry tactics. 
 
 4 Lit. "supposing both divisions to be backed by footmen," etc. For 
 these ti/uirwoi see above, v. 13, p. 21, n. 1. 
 
 6 Or, " achieve a much more decisive victory. " Cf. Cyrop. III. iii. 28. 
 
30 THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH ™. vm. § ig- 24 
 
 things terrible, paralysed with amazement. In proof of what 
 I say, let any one reflect on the stupor into which a body of 
 men with all the weight of numerical advantage on their side 
 will be betrayed by falling into an ambuscade ; or again, on 
 the exaggerated terror mutually inspired in belligerents during 
 the first few days, of finding themselves posted in face of 
 one another. 
 
 To make these dispositions is not hard; the difficulty 
 is to discover a body of men who will dash forward 1 and 
 charge an enemy as above described intelligently and loyally, 
 with an eager spirit and unfailing courage. That is a prob- 
 lem for a good cavalry general to solve. I mean an officer 
 who must be competent so to assert himself in speech or 
 action 2 that those under him will no longer hesitate. They 
 will recognise of themselves that it is a good thing and a 
 right to obey, 3 to follow their leader, to rush to close quarters 
 with the foe. A desire will consume them to achieve some 
 deed of glory and renown. A capacity will be given them 
 patiently to abide by the resolution of their souls. 
 
 To turn to another matter, take the case in which you have 
 two armies facing one another in battle order, or a pair of 
 fortresses 4 belonging to rival powers, and in the space between 
 all kinds of cavalry manoeuvres are enacted, wheelings and 
 charges and retreats. 6 Under such circumstances the custom 
 usually is for either party after wheeling to set off at a slow 
 pace and to gallop full speed only in the middle of the course. 
 But now suppose that a commander, after making feint 8 in 
 
 1 TapeKQuTas, in reference to § 18 above, -rrapcXauvot, "form squadron to 
 the front." 
 
 2 " To be this, he must be able as an orator as well as a man of action." 
 Cf. Mem. II. iii. n. 
 
 3 Cf. Tennyson's The Charge of the Light Brigade : 
 
 Their's not to make reply, 
 Their's not to reason why, 
 Their's but to do and die. 
 
 4 At. " fields and farmsteads between." 
 
 6 Or, "retirements," see Horsemanship, viii. 12 (below, p. 58); Cyrop. 
 V. iv. 8 ; Hell. IV. iii. 6 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 53) ; Ages. ii. 3 (ii. p. 246). 
 
 6 Or, " having preluded in this fashion. " See Theocr. xxii. 102: 
 rbv fih &va^ irdpa^ev tr&aia X e P ff ^ irpodeiKvtis H&i>To9ei>, 
 " feinting on every side " (A. Lang). Al. " having given due warning of his 
 intention." Cf. Aristot. H. A. ix. 37. 
 
c":™.'^' 23 "} CAVALRY REFORMS 31 
 
 this style, presently on wheeling quickens for the charge and 
 quickens to retire, — he will be able to hit the enemy far 
 harder, and pull through absolutely without scathe himself 
 most likely ; through charging at full speed whilst in proximity 
 to his own stronghold (or main body), and quickening to a 
 gallop as he retires from the stronghold (or main body) of the 
 enemy. If further, he could secretly contrive to leave behind 
 four or five troopers, the bravest and best mounted of the 
 squadron, it would give them an immense advantage in falling 
 upon the enemy whilst wheeling to return to the charge. 1 
 
 ix. — To read these observations over a few times will be 
 sufficient, but for giving them effect the officer will need per- 
 petually to act as circumstances require. 2 He must take in 
 the situation at a glance, and carry out unflinchingly whatever 
 is expedient for the moment. To set down in writing every- 
 thing that he must do, is not a whit more possible than to 
 know the future as a whole. 3 But of all hints and sugges- 
 tions the most important to my mind is this : whatever you 
 determine to be right, with diligence endeavour to perform. 
 For be it tillage of the soil, or trading, or seafaring, or the art of 
 ruling, without pains applied to bring the matter to perfection, 
 the best theories in the world, the most correct conclusions, 
 will be fruitless. 
 
 One thing I am prepared to insist on : it is clear to myself 
 that by Heaven's help our total cavalry force might be much 
 more quickly raised to the full quota of a thousand troopers, 4 
 and with far less friction to the mass of citizens, by the enrol- 
 ment of two hundred foreign cavalry. Their acquisition will 
 be doubly helpful, as intensifying the loyalty of the entire force 
 and as kindling a mutual ambition to excel in manly virtue. 
 
 1 Cf. Aristoph. Knights, 244 (Demosthenes calls to the hipparchs [?]) : 
 
 HvSpes ^77i5ff ' dW dfifoov, K&TravaffTptyov ir&hiv. 
 
 2 irp&s rb iraparvyx&vov, lit. "to meet emergencies." Cf. Thuc. i. 122 : 
 ' ' For war, least of all things, conforms to prescribed rules ; it strikes out a 
 path for itself when the moment comes " (Jowett). 
 
 3 Or, ' ' is about as feasible as to foretell each contingency hid in the womb 
 of futurity." 
 
 4 See Schneid. ad loc. ; Boeckh, P. E. A. pp. 263, 264 ; Herod, vi. 112 ; 
 Thuc. vi. 31 ; Aristoph. Knights, 223 ; Aeschin. De F. L. 334-337. See for 
 this reform, Trans, vol. i. p. cxl. ; vol. ii. lxxxii. ; Martin, op. cit. 343, 368. 
 
32 THE DUTIES OF A IIIPPARCH ch. ix. g 4 -8 
 
 1 
 
 I can state on my own knowledge that the Lacedaemonian 
 cavalry only began to be famous 1 with the introduction of 
 foreign troopers ; and in the other states of Hellas everywhere 
 the foreign brigades stand in high esteem, as I perceive. Need, 
 in fact, contributes greatly to enthusiasm. Towards the neces- 
 sary cost of the horses I hold that an ample fund will be pro- 
 vided, 2 partly out of the pockets of those who are only too 
 glad to escape cavalry service (in other words, those on whom 
 the service devolves prefer to pay a sum of money down 
 and be quit of the duty), 3 and from wealthy men who 
 are physically incompetent; and I do not see why orphans 
 possessed of large estates should not contribute. 4 Another 
 belief I hold is that amongst our resident aliens 5 there are 
 some who will show a laudable ambition if incorporated with 
 the cavalry. I argue from the fact, apparent to myself, that 
 amongst this class persons are to be found most zealously 
 disposed to carry out the part assigned to them, in every other 
 branch of honourable service which the citizens may choose to 
 share with them. Again, it strikes me that if you seek for an 
 energetic infantry to support your cavalry, you will find it in a 
 corps composed of individuals whose hatred to the foe is 
 naturally intense. 6 But the success of the above suggestions 
 will depend doubtless on the consenting will of Heaven. 7 
 
 And now if the repetition of the phrase throughout this 
 treatise " act with God," surprises any one, he may take my 
 word for it that with the daily or hourly occurrence of perils 
 which must betide him, his wonderment will diminish; as 
 
 1 "Entered on an era of prestige with the incorporation of," after 
 Leuctra, 371 B.C., when the force was at its worst. See Hell. VI. iv. 10 
 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 161). 
 
 2 Or, " money will be forthcoming for them. ' ' Cf. Lys. Against Philon, 
 xxxi. 15 ; Martin, op. cit. 319. 
 
 3 Cf. Hell. III. iv. 15 ; Ages. i. 23. Courier brackets this sentence [In 
 . iirireiav] as a gloss ; Martin, p. 323, emends. 
 
 4 As to the legal exemption of orphans Schneid. cf. Dem. Symm. 182. 15 ; 
 Lys. Against Diogeit. 24. 
 
 6 Lit. "metoecs." See Revenues, ii. (Trans, vol. ii. pp. 329, 330). 
 
 6 Lit. " men the most antagonistic to the enemy." Is the author think- 
 ing of Boeotian emigres? Cf. Hell. VI. iii. 1, 5 (Trans, vol. ii. pp. 152 
 foil. ) ; Diod. xv. 46. 6. 
 
 7 Lit. ' ' with the consenting will of the gods these things all may come to 
 pass." 
 
ch.ix.S9 "ACT WITH GOD" 33 
 
 also with the clearer recognition of the fact that in time of war 
 the antagonists are full of designs against each other, but the 
 precise issue of these plots and counterplots is rarely known. 
 To what counsellor, then, can a man apply for advice in his 
 extremity save only to the gods, who know all things and fore- 
 warn whomsoever they will by victims or by omens, by voice or 
 vision ? Is it not rational to suppose that they will prefer 
 to help in their need, not those who only seek them in time 
 of momentary stress and trouble, but those rather who in the 
 halcyon days of their prosperity make a practice of rendering to 
 Heaven the service of heart and soul ? l 
 
 1 See Sketch (Trans. voL i. p. cxlvii.). 
 
 Note on hi. 9 (above, p. 12). 
 
 I am indebted to a friend for the following suggestion in reference to these 
 manoeuvres : ' ' The point, I think, is that the squadrons wheeled about, and 
 the leader being on the wheeling or outer flank could set the pace and bring 
 the men round quicker. Possibly it was executed first one way and then the 
 reverse to make a kind of endless chain — like our ' musical rides.' Then the 
 leader would have to move from flank to Sank." 
 
ON HORSEMANSHIP 
 
ON HORSEMANSHIP 
 
 i. i 
 
 i. — Claiming to have attained to some proficiency in horse- 
 manship 1 ourselves, as the result of long experience in the 
 field, our wish is to explain, for the benefit of our younger 
 friends, what we conceive to be the most correct method of 
 dealing with horses. 
 
 There is, it is true, a treatise on horsemanship written by 
 Simon, the same who dedicated the bronze horse near the 
 Eleusinion in Athens 2 with a representation of his exploits 
 engraved in relief on the pedestal. 3 But we shall not on that 
 account expunge from our treatise any conclusions in which 
 we happen to agree with that author ; on the contrary we 
 
 1 Lit. ' ' Since, through the accident of having for a long time ■ ridden ' 
 ourselves, we believe we have become proficients in horsemanship, we wish to 
 show to our younger friends how, as we conceive the matter, they will proceed 
 most correctly in dealing with horses." iirireieiv in the case of Xenophon= 
 serve as a lirweis, whether technically as an Athenian " knight " (see Trans, 
 vol. i. p. lxxi. ) or more particularly in reference to his organisation of a troop 
 of cavalry during "the retreat" (Anab. III. iii. 8-20), and, as is commonly 
 believed, while serving under Agesilaus (Hell. III. iv. 14) in Asia, 396, 395 
 B.C. ; see Sketch, p. cxiii. 
 
 2 L. Dind. [in Athens]. The Eleusinion. For the position of this 
 sanctuary of Demeter and Kore' see Leake, Top. of Athens, i. p. 296 foil. For 
 Simon see Sauppe, vol. v. Praef. to de R. B. p. 230 ; L. Dind. Praef. Xen. 
 Opusc. p. xx.; Dr. Morris H. Morgan, The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon, 
 p. 119 foil. A fragment of the work referred to, irepl etSovs Kal iKhoyrjs tiriruv, 
 exists. The MS. is in the library of Emmanuel Coll. Cant. It so happens 
 that one of the hipparchs (?) appealed to by Demosthenes in Arist. Knights, 242, 
 
 Avdpes iiririjs, irapaydveaBe ' vvv A Kaipbs, !> 2l/jum, 
 & ILavalri, obx i\are irpds rb Segidv ntpas ; 
 bears the name. 
 
 3 Lit. " and carved on the pedestal a representation of his own perform- 
 ances. " • 
 
38 ON HORSEMANSHIP ™. i. § i-4 
 
 shall hand them on with still greater pleasure to our friends, 
 in the belief that we shall only gain in authority from the fact 
 that so great an expert in horsemanship held similar views to 
 our own ; whilst with regard to matters omitted in his treatise, 
 we shall endeavour to supply them. 
 
 As our first topic we shall deal with the question, how a 
 man may best avoid being cheated in the purchase of a horse. 
 
 Take the case of a foal as yet unbroken : it is plain that 
 our scrutiny must begin with the body ; an animal that has 
 never yet been mounted can but present the vaguest indica- 
 tions of spirit. Confining ourselves therefore to the body, the 
 first point to examine, we maintain, will be the feet. Just as 
 a house would be of little use, however beautiful its upper 
 stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they ought 
 to be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and 
 in particular a war-horse, 1 if unsound in his feet, however 
 excellent his other points ; since he could not turn a single 
 one of them to good account. 2 
 
 In testing the feet the first thing to examine will be the 
 horny portion of the hoof. For soundness of foot a thick 
 horn is far better than a thin. Again it is important to notice 
 whether the hoofs are high both before and behind, or flat to 
 the ground ; for a high hoof keeps the " frog," 3 as it is called, 
 well off the ground ; whereas a low hoof treads equally with 
 the stoutest and softest part of the foot alike, the gait 
 resembling that of a bandy-legged man. 4 " You may tell a 
 good foot clearly by the ring," says Simon happily; 5 for 
 the hollow hoof rings like a cymbal against the solid earth. 6 
 
 And now that we have begun with the feet, let us ascend 
 from this point to the rest of the body. The bones 7 above 
 
 1 Or, "and that a charger, we will suppose." For the simile see Mem. 
 III. i. 7. 
 
 2 Cf. Hor. Sat. I. ii. 86 : 
 
 regibus hie mos est : ubi equos mercantur, opertos 
 inspiciunt, ne, si facies, ut saepe, decora 
 molli fulta pede est, emptorem inducat hiantem, 
 quod pulchrae chines, breve quod caput, ardua cervix. 
 
 and see Virg. Georg. iii. 72 foil. 3 Lit. " the swallow. " 
 
 4 Al. " a knock-kneed person. " See Stonehenge, The Horse (ed. 1892), 
 
 pp. 3, 9. 5 Or, " and he is right." 
 
 6 Cf. Virg. Georg. iii. 88 ; Hor. Epod. xvi. 12. 
 
 7 i.e. "the pasterns (ptaoKwlq) and the coffin should be ' sloping.' " 
 
CH - '• § 4-8 POINTS OF THE HORSE 
 
 39 
 
 the hoof and below the fetlock must not be too straight, 
 like those of a goat ; through not being properly elastic, 1 legs 
 of this type will jar the rider, and are more liable to become 
 inflamed. On the other hand, these bones must not be too 
 low, or else the fetlock will be abraded or lacerated when the 
 horse is galloped over clods and stones. 
 
 The bones of the shanks 2 ought to be thick, being as they 
 are the columns on which the body rests; thick in them- 
 selves, that is, not puffed out with veins or flesh ; or else in 
 riding over hard ground they will inevitably be surcharged 
 with blood, and varicose conditions be set up, 3 the legs 
 becoming thick and puffy, whilst the skin recedes ; and with 
 this loosening of the skin the back sinew 4 is very apt to start 
 and render the horse lame. 
 
 If the young horse in walking bends his knees flexibly, 
 you may safely conjecture that when he comes to be ridden 
 he will have flexible legs, since the quality of suppleness 
 invariably increases with age. 5 Supple knees are highly 
 esteemed and with good reason, rendering as they do the 
 horse less liable to stumble or break down from fatigue than 
 those of stiffer build. 
 
 Coming to the thighs below the shoulder-blades, 6 or arms, 
 these if thick and muscular present a stronger and handsomer 
 appearance, just as in the case of a human being. Again, 
 a comparatively broad chest is better alike for strength and 
 beauty, and better adapted to carry the legs well asunder, so 
 that they will not overlap and interfere with one another. 
 Again, the neck should not be set on dropping forward 
 
 1 Or, "being too inflexible." Lit. "giving blow for blow, overmuch like 
 anvil to hammer." 2 i.e. " the metacarpals and metatarsals." 
 
 3 Or, ' ' and become varicose, with the result that the shanks swell whilst 
 the skin recedes from the bone. " 
 
 4 Or, "suspensory ligament"? Possibly Xenophon's anatomy is wrong, 
 and he mistook the back sinew for a bone like the fibula. The part in 
 question might intelligibly enough, if not technically, be termed irepbvt), being 
 of the brooch-pin order. 
 
 5 Lit. "all horses bend their legs more flexibly as time advances." 
 
 6 Lit. " the thighs below the shoulder-blades " are distinguished from " the 
 thighs below the tail " (below, § 14). They correspond respectively to our 
 " arms" (i.e. forearms) and " gaskins," and anatomically speaking=the radius 
 [os brachii) and the tibia. 
 
4 o ON HORSEMANSHIP ch. ,. § 8-12 
 
 from the chest, like a boar's, but, like that of a game- 
 cock rather, it should shoot upwards to the crest, and be 
 slack 1 along the curvature ; whilst the head should be bony 
 and the jawbone small. In this way the neck will be well in 
 front of the rider, and the eye will command what lies before 
 the horse's feet. A horse, moreover, of this build, however 
 spirited, will be least capable of overmastering the rider, 2 
 since it is not by arching but by stretching out his neck and 
 head that a horse endeavours to assert his power. 8 
 
 It is important also to observe whether the jaws are soft 
 or hard on one or other side, since as a rule a horse with 
 unequal jaws 4 is liable to become hard-mouthed on one side. 
 
 Again, a prominent rather than a sunken eye is suggestive 
 of alertness, and a horse of this type will have a wider range 
 of vision. 
 
 And so of the nostrils : a wide -dilated nostril is at once 
 better than a contracted one for respiration, and gives the 
 animal a fiercer aspect. Note how, for instance, when one 
 stallion is enraged against another, or when his spirit chafes in 
 being ridden, 5 the nostrils at once become dilated. 
 
 A comparatively large crest and small ears give a more 
 typical and horse -like appearance to the head, whilst lofty 
 withers again allow the rider a surer seat and a stronger 
 ■adhesion between the shoulders and the body. 6 
 
 A " double spine," 7 again, is at once softer to sit on than 
 a single, and more pleasing to the eye. So, too, a fairly deep 
 side somewhat rounded towards the belly 8 will render the 
 
 1 "Slack towards the flexure " (Stonehenge). 
 
 2 Or, ' ' of forcing the rider's hand and bolting. " 
 
 3 Or, "to display violence or run away." 
 
 4 i.e. "whose bars are not equally sensitive." 
 
 Or, "in the racecourse or on the exercising -ground how readily he 
 distends his nostrils." 
 
 6 Or if with L. D. [ra! t$ <n&/um], transl. "adhesion to the horse's 
 shoulders." 
 
 7 Reading after Courier pdxu 76 irfv. See Virg. Georg. iii. 87, ' ' at 
 duplex agitur per lumbos spina. " " In a horse that is in good case, the back 
 is broad, and the spine does not stick up like a ridge, but forms a kind of 
 furrow on the back" (John Martyn) ; "a full back," as we say. 
 
 8 Or, "in proportion to." See Courier (Du Commandement de la Cavalerie 
 et de I' Equitation : deux livres de Xenophon, traduits par un officier 
 d'artillerie a cheval), note ad loc. p. 83. 
 
ch...§i2-i6 EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS 41 
 
 animal at once easier to sit and stronger, and as a general rule 
 better able to digest his food. 1 
 
 The broader and shorter the loins the more easily will 
 the horse raise his forequarters and bring up his hindquarters 
 under him. Given these points, moreover, the belly will 
 appear as small as possible, a portion of the body which if 
 large is partly a disfigurement and partly tends to make the 
 horse less strong and capable of carrying weight. 2 
 
 The quarters should be broad and fleshy in correspondence 
 with the sides and chest, and if they are also firm and solid 
 throughout they will be all the lighter for the racecourse, 
 and will render the horse in every way more fleet. 
 
 To come to the thighs (and buttocks) : 3 if the horse have 
 these separated by a broad line of demarcation 4 he will be 
 able to plant his hind -legs under him with a good gap 
 between ; 5 arid in so doing will assume a posture 6 and a 
 gait in action at once prouder and more firmly balanced, and 
 in every way appear to the best advantage. 
 
 The human subject would seem to point to this conclusion. 
 When a man wants to lift anything from off the ground he 
 essays to do so by placing the legs apart and not by bringing 
 them together. 
 
 A horse ought not to have large testicles, though that 
 is not a point to be determined in the colt. 
 
 And now, as regards the lower parts, the hocks, 7 or 
 shanks and fetlocks and hoofs, we have only to repeat what 
 has been said already about those of the fore-legs. 
 
 I will here note some indications by which one may 
 
 1 i.e. "and keep in good condition." 
 
 2 Al. ' ' more feeble at once and ponderous in his gait. " 
 
 3 Lit. "the thighs beneath the tail." See above, § 7, p. 39, for this ter- 
 minology. 
 
 4 Reading TXarelf ry ypa/ilirj SiupuT/ulvovs (xV- sc - tne perineum. Al. 
 Courier (after Apsyrtus), op. cii. p. 14, 7tXot«s re koX fi-)) dieo-Tpa./j./itiiovs, 
 " broad and not turned outwards." 
 
 s Or, " he will be sure to spread well behind," etc. 
 
 6 rty inrtficurai, tech. of the crouching posture assumed by the horse for 
 mounting or "in doing the demi-passade " (so Morgan, op. cit. p. 126). See 
 below, vi. 16 ; xi. 2. 
 
 7 twv K&TwBev iarpayiXuv, $ KvrjfiQiv, lit. ' ' the under (or hinder ?) 
 knuckle-bones (hocks ?) or shins " ; i.e. anatomically speaking, the os calcis, 
 astragalus, tarsals, and metatarsal large and small. 
 
 VOL. Ill — 2 E 
 
42 ON HORSEMANSHIP {%Lu*ft,T 
 
 forecast the probable size of the grown animal. The colt 
 with the longest shanks at the moment of being foaled will 
 grow into the biggest horse ; the fact being — and it holds of 
 all the domestic quadrupeds 1 — that with advance of time the 
 legs hardly increase at all, while the rest of the body grows 
 uniformly up to these, until it has attained its proper symmetry. 
 Such is the type 2 of colt and such the tests to be applied, 
 with every prospect of getting a sound -footed, strong, and 
 fleshy animal fine of form and large of stature. If changes 
 in some instances develop during growth, that need not 
 prevent us from applying our tests in confidence. It far 
 more often happens that an ugly-looking colt will turn out 
 serviceable, 3 than that a foal of the above description will 
 turn out ugly or defective. 
 
 ii. — The right method of breaking a colt needs no descrip- 
 tion at our hands. 4 As a matter of state organisation, 6 cavalry 
 duties usually devolve upon those who are not stinted in 
 means, and who have a considerable share in the government; 6 
 and it seems far better for a young man to give heed to his 
 own health of body and to horsemanship, or, if he already 
 knows how to ride with skill, to practising manoeuvres, than 
 that he should set up as a trainer of horses. 7 The older man 
 has his town property and his friends, and the hundred- 
 and-one concerns of state or of war, on which to employ 
 his time and energies rather than on horsebreaking. It is 
 plain then that any one holding my views 8 on the subject will 
 
 1 Cf. Aristot. de Part. Anim. iv. 10 ; H. A. ii. i ; Plin. N. H. xi. 108. 
 
 2 Lit. ' ' By testing the shape of a colt in this way it seems to us the 
 purchaser will get," etc. 
 
 3 For the vulg. eirxpbtusToi, a doubtful word = "well coloured," i.e. 
 "sleek and healthy," L. & S. would read etixP 00i (cf. Pol. Lac. v. 8). L. Dind. 
 conj. eiipwoToi, "robust"; Schneid. eSxpw'ot, "serviceable." 
 
 4 Or, "The training of the colt is a topic which, as it seems to us, may 
 fairly be omitted, since those appointed for cavalry service in these states are 
 persons who," etc. For reading see Courier, Notes, p. 84. 
 
 6 " Organisation in the several states." 
 
 6 Or, "As a matter of fact it is the wealthiest members of the state, 
 and those who have the largest stake in civic life, that are appointed to cavalry 
 duties." See Hipfarch, i. 9. 7 Cf. Econ. iii. 10. 
 
 8 {yd. Hitherto the author has used the plural fytfi» with which he 
 started. 
 
In.Vi S ~} TRAINING OF THE COLT 43 
 
 put a young horse out to be broken. But in so doing he ought 
 to draw up articles, just as a father does when he apprentices 
 his son to some art or handicraft, stating what sort of know- 
 ledge the young creature is to be sent back possessed of. 
 These will serve as indications 1 to the trainer what points he 
 must pay special heed to if he is to earn his fee. At the 
 same time pains should be taken on the owner's part to see 
 that the colt is gentle, tractable, and affectionate, 2 when 
 delivered to the professional trainer. That is a condition of 
 things which for the most part may be brought about at 
 home and by the groom — if he knows how to let the 
 animal connect 8 hunger and thirst and the annoyance of flies 
 with solitude, whilst associating food and drink and escape 
 from sources of irritation with the presence of man. As the 
 result of this treatment, necessarily the young horse will 
 acquire — not fondness merely, but an absolute craving for 
 human beings. A good deal can be done by touching, stroking, 
 patting those parts of the body which the creature likes to 
 have so handled. These are the hairiest parts, or where, if 
 there is anything annoying him, the horse can least of all 
 apply relief himself. 
 
 The groom should have standing orders to take his charge 
 through crowds, and to make him familiar with all sorts of 
 sights and noises ; and if the colt shows signs of apprehension 
 at them, 4 he must teach him — not by cruel, but by gentle 
 handling — that they are not really formidable. 
 
 On this topic, then, of training, 5 the rules here given 
 will, I think, suffice for any private individual. 
 
 in. — To meet the case in which the object is to buy a 
 horse already fit for riding, we will set down certain memoranda, 6 
 
 1 Reading vToSety/iara, " finger-post signs, " as it were, or "draft in out- 
 line"; al. iiroiiv/iixaTa =" memoranda. " 
 
 2 "Gentle, and accustomed to the hand, and fond of man." 
 
 3 Lit. " if he knows how to provide that hunger and thirst, etc. , should be 
 felt by the colt in solitude, whilst food and drink, etc. , come through help 
 of man." 4 Or, " is disposed to shy. " 
 
 6 Or, ' ' In reference to horsebreaking, the above remarks will perhaps be 
 found sufficient for the practical guidance of an amateur." 
 
 6 ' ' Which the purchaser should lay to heart, if he does not wish to be 
 cheated." 
 
44 ON HORSEMANSHIP ch.hi.Ii-6 
 
 which, if applied intelligently, may save the purchaser from 
 being cheated. 
 
 First, then, let there be no mistake about the age. If the 
 horse has lost his mark teeth, 1 not only will the purchaser's 
 hopes be blighted, but he may find himself saddled for ever 
 with a sorry bargain. 2 
 
 Given that the fact of youth is well established, let there 
 be no mistake about another matter : how does he take the 
 bit into his mouth and the headstall 3 over his ears ? 
 There need be little ambiguity on this score, if the purchaser 
 will see the bit inserted and again removed, under his eyes. 
 Next, let it be carefully noted how the horse stands being 
 mounted. Many horses are extremely loath to admit the 
 approach of anything which, if once accepted, clearly means to 
 them enforced exertion. 
 
 Another point to ascertain is whether the horse, when 
 mounted, can be induced to leave other horses, or when being 
 ridden past a group of horses standing, will not bolt off to 
 join the company. Some horses again, as the result of bad 
 training, will run away from the exercising-ground and make for 
 the stable. A hard mouth may be detected by the exercise 
 called the ireSr) or volte 4 and still more so by varying the 
 direction of the volte to right or left. Many horses will not 
 attempt to run away except for the concurrence of a bad 
 mouth along with an avenue of escape home. 5 
 
 Another point which it is necessary to learn is, whether 
 when let go at full speed the horse can be pulled up 6 sharp 
 and is willing to wheel round in obedience to the rein. 
 
 It is well also to ascertain by experience if the horse you 
 
 1 Or, " the milk teeth," i.e. is more than five years old. See Morgan, 
 p. 126. 
 
 2 Lit. ' ' a horse that has lost his milk teeth cannot be said to gladden 
 his owner's mind with hopes, and is not so easily disposed of." 
 
 3 Kopvtpaia, part of the xaX«"5s gear. See below, 6 foil. 
 
 4 See Sturz, s.v. ; Pollux, i. 219. Al. "the longe," but the passage 
 below (vii. 14) is suggestive rather of the volte. 
 
 6 A I. "will only attempt to bolt where the passage out towards home 
 combines, as it were, with a bad mouth." t\ . . . £K(pop&="the exit from 
 the manege or riding school." 
 
 6 avaKafn^iveTai, " come to the poise" (Morgan). For iiroiTTpiipeaSai see 
 ix. 6 ; tech. "caracole." 
 
ch. m. §6-11 A HORSE BROKEN FOR CAVALRY SERVICE 45 
 
 propose to purchase will show equal docility in response to 
 the whip. Every one knows what a useless thing a servant 
 is, or a body of troops, that will not obey. A disobedient horse 
 is not only useless, but may easily play the part of an arrant 
 traitor. 
 
 And since it is assumed that the horse to be purchased is 
 intended for war, we must widen our test to include every- 
 thing which war itself can bring to the proof: such as leap- 
 ing ditches, scrambling over walls, scaling up and springing off 
 high banks. We must test his paces by galloping him up 
 and down steep pitches and sharp inclines and along a slant. 
 For each and all of these will serve as a touchstone to gauge 
 the endurance of his spirit and the soundness of his body. 
 
 I am far from saying, indeed, that because an animal fails 
 to perform all these parts to perfection, he must straightway 
 be rejected ; since many a horse will fall short at first, not 
 from inability, but from want of experience. With teaching, 
 practice, and habit, almost any horse will cotne to perform all 
 these feats beautifully, provided he be sound and free from 
 vice. Only you must beware of a horse that is naturally of 
 a nervous temperament. An over-timorous animal will not 
 only prevent the rider from using the vantage-ground of its 
 back to strike an enemy, but is as likely as not to bring him 
 to earth himself and plunge him into the worst of straits. 
 
 We must, also, find out if the horse shows any viciousness 
 towards other horses or towards human beings ; also, whether 
 he is skittish ; 1 such defects are apt to cause his owner 
 trouble. 
 
 As to any reluctance on the horse's part to being bitted 
 or mounted, dancing and twisting about and the rest, 2 you will 
 get a more exact idea on this score, if, when he has gone 
 through his work, you will try to repeat the precise opera- 
 tions which he went through before you began your ride. Any 
 horse that having done his work shows a readiness to undergo 
 it all again, affords sufficient evidence thereby of spirit and 
 endurance. 
 
 1 Or, " very ticklish. " 
 
 2 Reading tS.Wo. SiveifiaTa, lit. "and the rest of his twistings and 
 twirlings about." 
 
46 ON HORSEMANSHIP {cSiiv.'f "2 
 
 To put the matter in a nutshell : given that the horse is 
 sound -footed, gentle, moderately fast, willing and able to 
 undergo toil, and above all things x obedient — such an animal, 
 we venture to predict, will give the least trouble and the 
 greatest security to his rider in the circumstances of war-; 
 while, conversely, a beast who either out of sluggishness needs 
 much driving, or from excess of mettle much coaxing and 
 manoeuvring, will give his rider work enough to occupy both 
 his hands and a sinking of the heart when dangers thicken. 
 
 iv. — We will now suppose the purchaser has found a horse 
 which he admires ; 2 the purchase is effected, and he has 
 brought him home — how is he to be housed? It is best 
 that the stable should be placed in a quarter of the establish- 
 ment where the master will see the horse as often as possible. 3 
 It is a good thing also to have his stall so arranged that there 
 will be as little risk of the horse's food being stolen from the 
 manger, as of the master's from his larder or store-closet. To 
 neglect a detail of this kind is surely to neglect oneself ; 
 since in the hour of danger, it is certain, the owner has to con- 
 sign himself, life and limb, to the safe keeping of his horse. 
 
 Nor is it only to avoid the risk of food being stolen that a 
 secure horse-box is desirable, but for the further reason that 
 if the horse takes to scattering his food, the action is at once 
 detected; and any one who observes that happening may 
 take it as a sign and symptom either of too much blood, 4 which 
 calls for veterinary aid, or of over-fatigue, for which rest is the 
 cure, or else that an attack of indigestion 5 or some other 
 malady is coming on. And just as with human beings, so 
 with the horse, all diseases are more curable at their com- 
 mencement 6 than after they have become chronic, or been 
 wrongly treated. 7 
 
 1 Al. "thoroughly." 
 
 2 Lit. ' ' To proceed : when you have bought a horse which you admire and 
 have brought him home." 
 
 3 i. e. ' ' where he will be brought as frequently as possible under the 
 master's eye." Cf. Econ. xii. 20. 
 
 4 " A plethoric condition of the blood." 
 
 6 KpiBlcuris. Lit. " barley surfeit " ; " une fourbure." See Aristot. H. A. 
 viii. 24. 4. = i.e. "in the early acute stage." 
 
 7 Al. "and the mischief has spread." 
 
CH, 
 
 CH. 
 
 ;Z'$P } THE STABLE; MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET 47 
 
 But if food and exercise with a view to strengthening the 
 horse's body are matters of prime consideration, no less im- 
 portant is it to pay attention to the feet. A stable with a 
 damp and smooth floor will spoil the best hoof which nature can 
 give. 1 To prevent the floor being damp, it should be sloped 
 with channels ; and to avoid smoothness, paved with cobble 
 stones sunk side by side in the ground and similar in size to 
 the horse's hoofs. 2 A stable floor of this sort is calculated to 
 strengthen the horse's feet by the mere pressure on the part in 
 standing. In the next place it will be the groom's business to 
 lead out the horse somewhere to comb and curry him; and 
 after his morning's feed to unhalter him from the manger, 3 
 so that he may come to his evening meal with greater relish. 
 To secure the best type of stable-yard, and with a view to 
 strengthening the horse's feet, I would suggest to take and 
 throw down loosely 4 four or five waggon-loads of pebbles, each 
 as large as can be grasped in the hand, and about a pound in 
 weight ; the whole to be fenced round with a skirting of iron 
 to prevent scattering. The mere standing on these will come 
 to precisely the same thing as if for a certain portion of the 
 day the horse were, off and on, stepping along a stony road ; 
 whilst being curried or when fidgeted by flies he will be forced 
 to use his hoofs just as much as if he were walking. Nor is it 
 the hoofs merely, but a surface so strewn with stones will tend 
 to harden the frog of the foot also. 
 
 But if care is needed to make the hoofs hard, similar 
 pains should be taken to make the mouth and jaws soft ; 
 and the same means and appliances which will render a man's 
 flesh and skin soft, will serve to soften and supple a horse's 
 mouth. 5 
 
 v. — It is the duty of a horseman, as we think, to have 
 his groom trained thoroughly in all that concerns the treat- 
 
 1 Lit. "A damp and smooth stable floor may be the ruin of a naturally 
 good hoof." It will be understood that the Greeks did not shoe their horses. 
 
 2 See Courier, p. 54, for an interesting experiment tried by himself at 
 Bari. s Cf. Hipfarch, i. 16 (above, p. 4). 
 
 4 Or, " spread so as to form a surface." 
 
 B Or, "maybe used with like effect on a. horse's mouth," i.e. bathing, 
 friction, oil. See Pollux, i. 201. 
 
48 ON HORSEMANSHIP ch. v. § 1-5 
 
 ment of the horse. In the first place, then, the groom should 
 know that he is never to knot the halter x at the point where 
 the headstall is attached to the horse's head. By constantly 
 rubbing his head against the manger, if the halter does not 
 sit quite loose about his ears, the horse will be constantly 
 injuring himself; 2 and with sores so set up, it is inevitable 
 that he should show peevishness, while being bitted or 
 rubbed down. 
 
 It is desirable that the groom should be ordered to 
 carry out the dung and litter of the horse to some one place 
 each day. By so doing, he will discharge the duty with least 
 trouble to himself, 3 and at the same time be doing the horse 
 a kindness. 
 
 The groom should also be instructed to attach the muzzle 
 to the horse's mouth, both when taking him out to be groomed 
 and to the rolling-ground. 4 In fact he should always muzzle 
 him whenever he takes him anywhere without the bit. The 
 muzzle, while it is no hindrance to respiration, prevents biting ; 
 and when attached it serves to rob the horse of opportunity 
 for vice. 6 
 
 Again, care should be taken to tie the horse up with the 
 halter above his head. A horse's natural instinct, in trying to 
 rid himself of anything that irritates the face, is to toss up his 
 head, and by this upward movement, if so tied, he only slackens 
 the chain instead of snapping it. In rubbing the horse down, 
 the groom should begin with the head and mane ; as until 
 the upper parts are clean, it is vain to cleanse the lower ; 
 then, as regards the rest of the body, first brush up the hair, 
 by help of all the ordinary implements for cleansing, and then 
 beat out the dust, following the lie of the hair. The hair 
 on the spine (and dorsal region) ought not to be touched with 
 any instrument whatever ; the hand alone should be used to 
 rub and smooth it, and in the direction of its natural growth, 
 
 1 Lit. "by which the horse is tied to the manger" ; " licol d'icurie." 
 
 2 Al. "in nine cases out of ten he rubs his head . . and ten to one 
 will make a sore." 
 
 3 Al. " get rid of the refuse in the easiest way." 
 
 4 Cf. Econ. xi. 18 ; Aristoph. Clouds, 32. 
 
 6 Or, " prevents the horse from carrying out vicious designs." 
 
ch. v. § 5-1° DAILY DUTIES OF THE GROOM 49 
 
 so as to preserve from injury that part of the horse's back on 
 which the rider sits. 
 
 The head should be drenched with water simply ; for, being 
 bony, if you try to cleanse it with iron or wooden instruments 
 injury may be caused. So, too, the forelock should be merely 
 wetted ; the long hairs of which it is composed, without hinder- 
 ing the animal's vision, serve to scare away from the eyes 
 anything that might trouble them. Providence, we must 
 suppose, 1 bestowed these hairs upon the horse, instead of 
 the large ears which are given to the ass and the mule as a 
 protection to the eyes. 2 The tail, again, and mane should be 
 washed, the object being to help the hairs to grow — those in 
 the tail so as to allow the creature the greatest reach possible 
 in brushing away molesting objects, 3 and those of the neck in 
 order that the rider may have as free a grip as possible. 
 
 Mane, forelock, and tail are triple gifts bestowed by the 
 gods upon the horse for the sake of pride and ornament, 4 
 and here is the proof: a brood mare, so long as her mane 
 is long and flowing, will not readily suffer herself to be 
 covered by an ass ; hence breeders of mules take care to 
 clip the mane of the mare with a view to covering. 6 
 
 Washing of the legs we are inclined to dispense with — 
 no good is done but rather harm to the hoofs by this daily 
 washing. So, too, excessive cleansing of the belly is to be 
 discouraged; the operation itself is most annoying to the 
 horse ; and the cleaner these parts are made, the thicker the 
 swarm of troublesome things which collect beneath the belly. 
 Besides which, however elaborately you clean these parts, 
 the horse is no sooner led out than presently he will be just 
 as dirty as if he had not been cleaned. Omit these ablutions 
 then, we say ; and similarly for the legs, rubbing and curry- 
 ing by hand is quite sufficient. 
 
 1 Lit. "The gods, we must suppose, gave . . 
 
 2 Lit. "as defences or protective bulwarks." 
 8 Insects, etc. 
 
 4 d,y\aias tvem (a poetic word). Cf. Od. xv. 78 ; xvii. 310. 
 
 6 For this belief Schneid. cf. Aristot. H. A. vi. 18 ; Plin. viii. 42 ; Aelian, 
 H. A. ii. 10, xi. 18, xii. 16, to which Dr. Morgan aptly adds Soph. Fr. 587 
 ( Tyro), a beautiful passage, x6fais Si t4i/6os \ay%6.viti twXov dlKTjv, K.r.X. (cf. 
 Plut. Mor. 754 a). 
 
50 ON HORSEMANSHIP ch.vi.Jj-? 
 
 vi. — We will now explain how the operation of grooming 
 may be performed with least danger to oneself and best ad- 
 vantage to the horse. If the groom attempts to clean the 
 horse with his face turned the same way as the horse, he runs 
 the risk of getting a knock in the face from the animal's knee 
 or hoof. When cleaning him he should turn his face in the 
 opposite direction to the horse, and planting himself well out 
 of the way of his leg, at an angle to his shoulder-blade, pro- 
 ceed to rub him down. He will then escape all mischief, and 
 he will be able to clean the frog by folding back the hoof. 
 Let him clean the hind-legs in the same way. 
 
 The man who has to do with the horse should know, with 
 regard to this and all other necessary operations, that he 
 ought to approach as little as possible from the head or the 
 tail to perform them ; for if the horse attempt to show vice he 
 is master of the man in front and rear. But by approaching 
 from the side he will get the greatest hold over the horse with 
 the least risk of injury to himself. 
 
 When the horse has to be led, we do not approve of 
 leading him from in front, for the simple reason that the person 
 so leading him robs himself of his power of self-protection, 
 whilst he leaves the horse freedom to do what he likes. On 
 the other hand, we take a like exception to the plan of 
 training the horse to go forward on a long rein 1 and lead the 
 way, and for this reason : it gives the horse the opportunity of 
 mischief, in whichever direction he likes, on either flank, and 
 the power also to turn right about and face his driver. How 
 can a troop of horses be kept free of one another, if driven in 
 this fashion from behind ? — whereas a horse accustomed to be 
 led from the side will have least power for mischief to horse 
 or man, and at the same time be in the best position to be 
 mounted by the rider at a moment's notice, were it necessary. 
 
 In order to insert the bit correctly the groom should, in 
 the first place, approach on the near 2 side of the horse, and 
 then throwing the reins over his head, let them drop loosely 
 
 1 See a passage from Strattis, Chrys. 2 (Pollux, x. 55), irpbtmye rhv 
 irCSKov dr/jf/za, irpoerXajSuu' rbv iyoyyia, Ppaxtrrepov. oi% °Pt s 8™ &|8o\6j 
 itrnv ; 
 
 2 Lit. " on the left-hand side. " 
 
ch. vi. § 7- I2 RATIONAL TREATMENT OF THE HORSE 51 
 
 on the withers ; raise the headstall in his right hand, and 
 with his left present the bit. If the horse will take the bit, it 
 is a simple business to adjust the strap of the headstall ; but 
 if he refuses to open his mouth, the groom must hold the 
 bit against the teeth and at the same time insert the thumb 1 
 of his left hand inside the horse's jaws. Most horses will 
 open their mouths to that operation. But if he still refuses, 
 then the groom must press the lip against the tush 2 ; very 
 few horses will refuse the bit, when that is done to them. 3 
 
 The groom should be taught two fundamental lessons : in 
 the first place, never to lead the horse by a single rein, the 
 effect of which is to make the horse hard-mouthed on one side ; 
 in the next place, at what distance from the jaws to keep the 
 bit ; for if it lies too much against them, it will make the mouth 
 callous and consequently less sensitive ; or if it is allowed to 
 drop far forward in the mouth, it gives the horse the oppor- 
 tunity of taking it between his teeth and refusing to obey. 
 
 The groom can hardly be too much alive to the following 
 points * * * if any work is to be done : 4 in fact, so important 
 is it that the horse should readily take his bit, that, to put 
 it tersely, a horse that will not take it is good for nothing. 
 Now, if the horse be bitted not only when he has work to 
 do, but also when he is being taken to his food and when 
 he is being led home from a ride, it would be no great marvel 
 if he learnt to take the bit of his own accord, when first 
 presented to him. 
 
 It would be good for the groom to know how to give a 
 leg up in the Persian fashion, 5 so that in case of illness or 
 infirmity of age the master himself may have a man to help 
 him on to horseback without trouble, or, if he so wish, be able 
 to oblige a friend with a man to mount him. 6 
 
 1 rbv jjAyav SAktvXov, Hdt. iii. 8. " i.e. " canine tooth. " 
 
 3 Or, " it is *. very exceptional horse that will not open his mouth under 
 the circumstances." 
 
 4 Reading with L. Dind. %P^I ^ T ^ v iTriroKd/wv ml t& rmide . . . 
 irapu£Sv6cu, et n Sci irovav, or if as Schneid. , Sauppe, etc., xPV W t&v 
 t-n-irov frij Kard, roidSe, k.t.X. , transl. "the horse must not be irritated in 
 such operations as these," etc.; but ™aSe="as follows," if correct, suggests 
 a lacuna in either case at this point. 
 
 6 Cf. Anab. IV. iv. 4 ; Hipparch, i. 17 ; Cyrop. VII. i. 38. 
 6 An 6,va.pd\eAs. Cf. Plut. C. Gracch. 7. 
 
52 ON HORSEMANSHIP {ch! vn.Vi 3 " 16 " 
 
 The one best precept — the golden rule — in dealing with 
 a horse is never to approach him angrily. Anger is so 
 devoid of forethought that it will often drive a man to do things 
 which in a calmer mood he will regret. 1 Thus, when a horse 
 is shy of any object and refuses to approach it, you must teach 
 him that there is nothing to be alarmed at, particularly if he 
 be a plucky animal ; 2 or, failing that, touch the formidable 
 object yourself, and then gently lead the horse up to it. The 
 opposite plan of forcing the frightened creature by blows only 
 intensifies its fear, the horse mentally associating the pain he 
 suffers at such a moment with the object of suspicion, which 
 he naturally regards as its cause. 
 
 If, when the groom brings up the horse to his master 
 to mount, he knows how to make him lower his back, 8 to 
 facilitate mounting, we have no fault to find. Still, we 
 consider that the horseman should practise and be able to 
 mount, even if the horse does not so lend himself; 4 since on 
 another occasion another type of horse may fall to the rider's 
 lot, 5 nor can the same rider be always served by the same 
 equerry. 6 
 
 vn. — The master, let us suppose, has received his horse 
 and is ready to mount. 7 We will now prescribe certain rules 
 to be observed in the interests not only of the horseman but 
 of the animal which he bestrides. First, then, he should take 
 the leading rein, which hangs from the chin -strap or nose- 
 band, 8 conveniently in his left hand, held slack so as not to 
 
 1 Cf. Hell. v. iii. 7 (Trans, vol. ii. p. 1 14) for this maxim. 
 
 2 Al. " if possibly by help of another and plucky animal." 
 
 3 &7ro/3i|3<£fe(T0ai. See above, i. 14 ; Pollux, i. 213 ; Morgan ad he. 
 " Stirrups were unknown till long after the Christian era began." 
 
 4 Or, "apart from these good graces on the animal's part." 
 ! Asa member of the cavalry. 
 
 6 Reading fiXXp. Al. reading 4\\ws with L. D., "and the same horse 
 will at one time humour you in one way and again in another." Cf. viii. 13, 
 a. 12, for {/Tnjperelv of the horse. 
 
 7 Reading 6rav . . . irapa.b'&iijra.i . . lis tivaflritrdiieiios. Or, reading 
 Srav irapaS^rtrai rbv liriria (sc. 6 tviros) lis &,vo>fi-q<yQp,zvov, transl. ' ' the horse 
 has been brought round ready for mounting." 
 
 8 So Courier, " la muserolle." It might be merely a stitched leather strap 
 or made of a chain in part, which rattled ; as ■xp v( ">X a ^ lvov ira.Ta.yoi> \f/a\iup 
 (Aristoph. Peace, 155) implies. " Curb" would be misleading. 
 
ch. vii, § i-s OF MOUNTING, AND A GOOD SEAT 53 
 
 jerk the horse's mouth, whether he means to mount by 
 hoisting himself up, catching hold of the mane beside the ears, 
 or to vault on to horseback by help of his spear. With the 
 right hand he should grip the reins along with a tuft of hair 
 beside the shoulder-joint, 1 so that he may not in any way 
 wrench the horse's mouth with the bit while mounting. In 
 the act of taking the spring off the ground for mounting, 2 he 
 should hoist his body by help of the left hand, and with the 
 right at full stretch assist the upward movement 3 (a position 
 in mounting which will present a graceful spectacle also from 
 behind); 4 at the same time with the leg well bent, and taking 
 care not to place his knee on the horse's back, he must pass 
 his leg clean over to the off side; and so having brought 
 his foot well round, plant himself firmly on his seat. 6 
 
 To meet the case in which the horseman may chance to 
 be leading his horse with the left hand and carrying his spear 
 in the right, it would be good, we think, for every one to 
 practise vaulting on to his seat from the right side also. In 
 fact, he has nothing else to learn except to do with his right 
 limbs what he has previously done with the left, and vice versa. 
 And the reason we approve of this method of mounting is 6 
 that it enables the soldier at one and the same instant to get 
 astride of his horse and to find himself prepared at all points, 
 supposing he should have to enter the lists of battle on a 
 sudden. 
 
 But now, supposing the rider fairly seated, whether bare- 
 back or on a saddle-cloth, a good seat is not that of a man 
 seated on a chair, but rather the pose of a man standing 
 upright with his legs apart. In this way he will be able 
 to hold on to the horse more firmly by his thighs ; and this 
 
 1 " Near the withers. " 
 
 2 Or, "as soon as he has got the springing poise preliminary to mount- 
 ing." 
 
 3 "Give himself simultaneously a lift." Reading (ktsIvuv, or if ivrdvuv, 
 "keeping his right arm stiff." 
 
 4 Or, ' ' a style of mounting which will obviate an ungainly attitude 
 behind." 
 
 5 Lit. "lower his buttocks on to the horse's back." 
 
 6 Lit. " One reason for the praise which we bestow on this method of 
 mounting is that at the very instant of gaining his seat the soldier finds him- 
 self fully prepared to engage the enemy on a sudden, if occasion need." 
 
54 ON HORSEMANSHIP cH.vn.fs-i* 
 
 erect attitude will enable him to hurl a javelin or to strike a 
 blow from horseback, if occasion calls, with more vigorous 
 effect. The leg and foot should hang loosely from the knee ; 
 by keeping the leg stiff, the rider is apt to have it broken 
 in collision with some obstacle ; whereas a flexible leg 1 will 
 yield to the impact, and at the same time not shift the thigh 
 from its position. The rider should also accustom the whole 
 of his body above the hips to be as supple as possible ; for 
 thus he will enlarge his scope of action, and in case of a tug 
 or shove be less liable to be unseated. Next, when the rider 
 is seated, he must, in the first place, teach his horse to stand 
 quiet, until he has drawn his skirts from under him, if need 
 be, 2 and got the reins an equal length and grasped his spear 
 in the handiest fashion ; and, in the next place, he should 
 keep his left arm close to his side. This position will give the 
 rider absolute ease and freedom, 3 and his hand the firmest hold. 
 
 As to reins, we recommend those which are well balanced, 
 without being weak or slippery or thick, so that when necessary 
 the hand which holds them can also grasp a spear. 
 
 As soon as the rider gives the signal to the horse to start, 4 
 he should begin at a walking pace, which will tend to allay 
 his excitement. If the horse is inclined to droop his head, 
 the reins should be held pretty high ; or somewhat low, 
 if he is disposed to carry his head high. This will set off 
 the horse's bearing to the best advantage. Presently, as 
 he falls into a natural trot, 6 he will gradually relax his 
 limbs without the slightest suffering, and so come more 
 agreeably to the gallop. 6 Since, too, the preference is 
 given to starting on the left foot, it will best conduce to that 
 lead if, while the horse is still trotting, the signal to gallop 
 should be given at the instant of making a step with his right 
 foot. 7 As he is on the point of lifting his left foot he will 
 start upon it, and while turning left will simultaneously make 
 
 1 i.e. "below the knee" ; " shin and calf." 
 
 2 Lit. " pulled up" (and arranged the folds of his mantle). 
 
 3 eftrraXiararos, " the most business-like deportment. " 
 
 4 "Forwards ! " 5 Or, " the true trot. 
 
 6 4irippa^So(j>ope!t>, "a fast pace in response to a wave of the whip." 
 
 7 See Berenger, i. p. 249 ; also the Cavalry Drill Book, Part I. Equi- 
 tation, § 22, The Canter. 
 
ch.vii.I.2-18 EXERCISES OF THE RIDING-SCHOOL 55 
 
 the first bound of the gallop ; 1 since, as a matter of instinct, a 
 horse, on being turned to the right, leads off with his right 
 limbs, and to the left with his left. 
 
 As an exercise, we recommend what is called the volte, 2 
 since it habituates the animal to turn to either hand ; while a 
 variation in the order of the turn is good as involving an 
 equalisation of both sides of the mouth, in first one, and then 
 the other half of the exercise. 3 But of the two we commend 
 the oval form of volte rather than the circular ; for the horse, 
 being already sated with the straight course, will be all the 
 more ready to turn, and will be practised at once in the 
 straight course and in wheeling. At the curve, he should be 
 held up, 4 because it is neither easy nor indeed safe when the 
 horse is at full speed to turn sharp, especially if the ground is 
 broken 5 or slippery. 
 
 But in collecting him, the rider should as little as possible 
 sway the horse obliquely with the bit, and as little as possible 
 incline his own body ; or, he may rest assured, a trifle 
 will suffice to stretch him and his horse full length upon 
 the ground. The moment the horse has his eyes fixed on 
 the straight course after making a turn, is the time to urge 
 him to full speed. In battle, obviously, these turns and 
 wheelings are with a view to charging or retiring; conse- 
 quently, to practise quickening the pace after wheeling is 
 desirable. When the horse seems to have had enough of the 
 manege, it would be good to give him a slight pause, and then 
 suddenly to put him to his quickest, away from his fellows 
 first, 6 and now towards them ; and then again to quiet him 
 down in mid-career as short as possible ; 7 and from the 
 halt once more to turn him right-about and off again full 
 charge. It is easy to predict that the day will come when there 
 will be need of each of these manoeuvres. 
 
 1 T7;s (TtffKeXlcrews, ' ' he will make the forward stride of the gallop in the 
 act of turning to the left." See Morgan ad loc. 
 
 2 iriit], figure of eight. See above, iii. 5. 
 
 3 Or, " on first one and then the other half of the manege." 
 
 4 iTo\afi,p&veiv. See Hipparch, iii. 14, p. 13 ; Hunting, iii. 10 ; vi. 22, 
 of a dog. B &t6kpotov, al. iirlicpoTov, " beaten, hard-trodden ground." 
 
 6 yivTQi, " of course. " 
 
 7 Or, "within the narrowest compass " ; "as finely as possible." 
 
56 ON HORSEMANSHIP {S:«n*|T s 
 
 When the moment to dismount has come, you should 
 never do so among other horses, nor near a group of people, 1 
 nor outside the exercising-ground ; but on the precise spot 
 which is the scene of his compulsory exertion there let the 
 horse find also relaxation. 2 
 
 vm. — As there will, doubtless, be times when the horse 
 will need to race ' downhill and uphill and on sloping 
 ground ; times, also, when he will need to leap across an 
 obstacle ; or, take a flying leap from off a bank ; 3 or, jump 
 down from a height, the rider must teach and train himself 
 and his horse to meet all emergencies. In this way the two 
 will have a chance of saving each the other, and may be 
 expected to increase their usefulness. 
 
 And here, if any reader should accuse us of repeat- 
 ing ourselves, on the ground that we are only stating now 
 what we said before on the same topics, 4 we say that this is 
 not mere repetition. In the former case, we confined ourselves 
 to advising the purchaser before he concluded his bargain 
 to test whether the horse could do those particular things ; 5 
 what we are now maintaining is that the owner ought to 
 teach his own horse, and we will explain how this teaching 
 is to be done. 
 
 With a horse entirely ignorant of leaping, the best way is 
 to take him by the leading rein, which hangs loose, and to get 
 across the trench yourself first, and then to pull tight on the 
 leading-rein, to induce him to leap across. If he refuses, some 
 one with a whip or switch should apply it smartly. The 
 result will be that the horse will clear at a bound, not the dis- 
 tance merely, but a far larger space than requisite ; and for 
 the future there will be no need of an actual blow, the mere 
 sight of some one coming up behind will suffice to make him 
 leap. As soon as he is accustomed to leap in this way you 
 
 1 Or, " a knot of bystanders " ; cf. Thuc. ii. 21. 
 
 2 Or, as we say, " be caressed, and dismissed." 
 
 8 iKTTt]5av = exsilire in altum (Sturz, and so Berenger) ; "to leap over 
 ditches, and upon high places and down from them." 
 
 4 Or, " treating of a topic already handled," above, iii. 7, 8. 
 
 5 i.e: possessed a certain ability at the date of purchase. 
 
ch. vin. 1 5.9 LEAPING, TROTTING, GALLOPING 57 
 
 may mount him and put him first at smaller and then at 
 larger trenches. At the moment of the spring be ready to 
 apply the spur ; and so too, when training him to leap up and 
 leap down, you should touch him with the spur at the critical 
 instant. In the effort to perform any of these actions with 
 the whole body, the horse will certainly perform them with 
 more safety to himself and to his rider than he will, if his 
 hind-quarters lag, in taking a ditch or fence, or in making an 
 upward spring or downward jump. 1 
 
 To face a steep incline, you must first teach him on soft 
 ground, and finally, when he is accustomed to that, he will 
 much prefer the downward to the upward slope for a fast pace. 
 And as to the apprehension, which some people entertain, 
 that a horse may dislocate the shoulder in galloping down an 
 incline, it should encourage them to learn that the Persians 
 and Odrysians all run races down precipitous slopes ; 2 and 
 their horses are every bit as sound as our own. 3 
 
 Nor must we omit another topic : how the rider is to ac- 
 commodate himself to these several movements. 4 Thus, when 
 the horse breaks off into a gallop, the rider ought to bend 
 forward, since the horse will be less likely to slip from under; 
 and so to pitch his rider off. So again in pulling him up 
 short 5 the rider should lean back ; and thus escape a shock. 
 In leaping a ditch or tearing up a steep incline, it is no bad 
 plan to let go the reins > and take hold of the mane, so that 
 the animal may not feel the burthen of the bit in addition to 
 that of the ground. In going down a steep incline the rider 
 must throw himself right back and hold in the horse with the 
 bit, to prevent being hurled headforemost down the slope 
 himself if not his horse. 
 
 It is a correct principle to vary these exercises, which should 
 be gone through sometimes in one place and sometimes in 
 
 1 Lit. " in making these jumps, springs, and leaps across or up or down. ' ' 
 
 2 Cf. Anab. IV. viii. 28 (Trans, vol. i. p. 209) ; and so the Georgians to 
 this day (Chardin ap. Courier, op. cit. p. 70, n. 1). 
 
 3 Lit. " as are those of the Hellenes." 
 
 4 Or, " to each set of occurrences." 
 
 6 Al. "when the horse is being brought to a poise" (Morgan) ; and see 
 Hermann ap. Schneid., d.va.\a/j.f}&vav = retinere equum, anhalten,- pariren. 
 i.e. "rein in" of the "Parade." 
 
 VOL. Ill 2 F 
 
58 ON HORSEMANSHIP cH.vn..§ 9 -i 3 
 
 another, and should sometimes be shorter and sometimes longer 
 in duration. The horse will take much more kindly to them 
 if you do not confine him to one place and one routine. 
 
 Since it is a matter of prime necessity that the rider 
 should keep his seat, while galloping full speed on every 
 sort of ground, and at the same time be able to use his 
 weapons with effect on horseback, nothing could be better, 
 where the country suits and there are wild animals, than to 
 practise horsemanship in combination with the chase. But 
 when these resources fail, a good exercise may be supplied in 
 the combined efforts of two horsemen. 1 One of them will 
 play the part of fugitive, retreating helter-skelter over every 
 sort of ground, with lance reversed and plying the butt 
 end. The other pursues, with buttons on his javelins and 
 his lance similarly handled. 2 Whenever he comes within 
 javelin range he lets fly at the retreating foeman with his 
 blunted missiles ; or whenever within spear -thrust he deals 
 the overtaken combatant a blow. In coming to close quarters, 
 it is a good plan first to drag the foeman towards oneself, and 
 then on a sudden to thrust him off; that is a device to bring 
 him to the ground. 3 The correct plan for the man so dragged 
 is to press his horse forward : by which action the man who 
 is being dragged is more likely to unhorse his assailant than 
 to be brought to the ground himself. 
 
 If it ever happens that you have an enemy's camp in front, 
 and cavalry skirmishing is the order of the day (at one time 
 charging the enemy right up to the hostile battle-line, and 
 again beating a retreat), under these circumstances it is well 
 to bear in mind that so long as the skirmisher is close to his 
 own party, 4 valour and discretion alike dictate to wheel and 
 charge in the vanguard might and main ; but when he finds 
 himself in close proximity to the foe, he must keep his horse 
 well in hand. This, in all probability, will enable him to do 
 the greatest mischief to the enemy, and to receive least 
 damage at his hands. 
 
 The gods have bestowed on man, indeed, the gift of 
 
 1 Ivirbrra. A poetic word ; "cavaliers." 2 Or, "manipulated." 
 
 8 Or, ' ' that may be spoken of as the ' purl trick ' " ; "it will unhorse him if 
 anything." * See Hipparch, viii. 23 (above, p. 30). 
 
:m"l\-T I4r } MOUNTED TROOPER AND HORSE 59 
 
 teaching man his duty by means of speech and reasoning, 
 but the horse, it is obvious, is not open to instruction by 
 speech and reasoning. If you would have a horse learn to 
 perform his duty, 1 your best plan will be, whenever he does 
 as you wish, to show him some kindness in return, and when 
 he is disobedient to chastise him. This principle, though 
 capable of being stated in a few words, is one which holds good 
 throughout the whole of horsemanship. As, for instance, a 
 horse will more readily take the bit, if each time he accepts it 
 some good befalls him; or, again, he will leap ditches and spring 
 up embankments and perform all the other feats incumbent 
 on him, if he be led to associate obedience to the word of 
 command with relaxation. 2 
 
 ix. — The topics hitherto considered have been : firstly, how 
 to reduce the chance of being cheated in the purchase of a colt 
 or full-grown horse ; secondly, how to escape as much as possible 
 the risk of injuring your purchase by mishandling ; and lastly, 
 how to succeed in turning out a horse possessed of all the quali- 
 ties demanded by the cavalry soldier for the purposes of war. 
 
 The time has come perhaps to add a few suggestions, in 
 case the rider should be called upon to deal with an animal 
 either unduly spirited or again unduly sluggish in disposition. 
 The first point to recognise is, that temper or spirit in a 
 horse takes the place of passion or anger in a man ; and 
 just as you may best escape exciting a man's ill-temper by 
 avoiding harshness of speech and act, so you will best 
 avoid enraging a spirited horse by not annoying him. Thus, 
 from the first instant, in the act of mounting him, you should 
 take pains to minimise the annoyance ; and once on his back 
 you should sit quiet for longer than the ordinary time, and so 
 urge him forward by the gentlest signs possible ; next, beginning 
 at the slowest pace, gradually work him into a quicker step, 
 but so gradually that he will find himself at full speed without 
 noticing it. 3 Any sudden signal will bewilder a spirited horse, 
 
 1 See above, p. 52, note 6. 
 
 2 Lit. "if every time he performs the word of command he is led to expect 
 some relaxation." 
 
 3 Or, "so that the horse may insensibly fall into a gallop." 
 
60 ON HORSEMANSHIP ch. ix. § 4 -io 
 
 just as a man is bewildered by any sudden sight or sound or 
 other experience. [I say one should be aware that any unex- 
 pected shock will produce disturbance in a horse.] 1 
 
 So if you wish to pull up a spirited horse when breaking 
 off into a quicker pace than requisite, you must not suddenly 
 wrench him, but quietly and gently bring the bit to bear upon 
 him, coaxing him rather than compelling him to calm down. 
 It is the long steady course rather than the frequent turn which 
 tends to calm a horse. 2 A quiet pace sustained for a long 
 time has a caressing, 3 soothing effect, the reverse of exciting. 
 If any one proposes by a series of fast and oft-repeated 
 gallops to produce a sense of weariness in the horse, and so 
 to tame him, his expectation will not be justified by the result ; 
 for under such circumstances a spirited horse will do his best 
 to carry the day by main force, 4 and with a show of temper, 
 like a passionate man, may contrive to bring on himself and 
 his rider irreparable mischief. 
 
 A spirited horse should be kept in check, so that he does 
 not dash off full speed ; and on the same principle, you 
 should absolutely abstain from setting him to race against 
 another ; as a general rule, your fiery-spirited horse is only 
 too fond of contention. 6 
 
 Smooth bits are better and more serviceable than rough ; 
 if a rough bit be inserted at all, it must be made to resemble 
 a smooth one as much as possible by lightness of hand. 
 
 It is a good thing also for the rider to accustom himself 
 to keep a quiet seat, especially when mounted on a spirited 
 horse ; and also to touch him as little as possible with any- 
 thing except that part of the body necessary to secure a firm 
 seat. 
 
 Again, it should be known that the conventional " chirrup " 6 
 
 1 L. Dindorf and others bracket, as spurious. 
 
 2 Or, " long stretches rather than a succession of turns and counter 
 turns," diro<rT/)o0a(. See iii. 5, note 6. 
 
 3 Reading rarai/wi with L. Dind. 
 
 4 &yav jila, vi agere, vi uti, Sturz ; al. " go his own gait by sheer force." 
 6 Reading crx^Sbv yi.p koX <pi\. ol 6v/i. , or if . . . 0! tpih. koX 6. transl. 
 
 ' ' the more eager and ambitious a horse is, the more mettlesome he will tend to 
 become." 
 
 6 Al. "whistling," and see Berenger, ii. 68. iroirirv<r/t&s, a sound from the 
 lips ; K\wy/i6s, from the cheek. 
 
cniiViT*"} TREATMENT OF THE SPIRITED ANIMAL 61 
 
 to quiet and "cluck" to rouse a horse are a sort of precept of 
 the training school ; and supposing any one from the begin- 
 ning chose to associate soft soothing actions with the " cluck " 
 sound, and harsh rousing actions with the " chirrup," the horse 
 could be taught to rouse himself at the " chirrup " and to calm 
 himself at the "cluck" sound. On this principle, at the 
 sound of the trumpet or the shout of battle the rider should 
 avoid coming up to his charger in a state of excitement, or, 
 indeed, bringing any disturbing influence to bear on the 
 animal. As far as possible, at such a crisis he should halt and 
 rest him ; and, if circumstances permit, give him his morning 
 or his evening meal. But the best advice of all is not to get 
 an over-spirited horse for the purposes of war. 
 
 As to the sluggish type of animal, I need only suggest to 
 do everything the opposite to what we advise as appropriate in 
 dealing with an animal of high spirit. 
 
 x. — But possibly you are not content with a horse service- 
 able for war. You want to find in him a showy, attractive 
 animal, with a certain grandeur of bearing. If so, you must 
 abstain from pulling at his mouth with the bit, or applying the 
 spur and whip — methods commonly adopted by people with 
 a view to a fine effect, though, as a matter of fact, they 
 thereby achieve the very opposite of what they are aiming at. 
 That is to say, by dragging the mouth up they render the 
 horse blind instead of alive to what is in front of him ; and 
 what with spurring and whipping they distract the creature to 
 the point of absolute bewilderment and danger. 1 Feats in- 
 deed! — the feats of horses with a strong dislike to being ridden 
 — up to all sorts of ugly and ungainly tricks. On the con- 
 trary, let the horse be taught to be ridden on a loose bridle, 
 and to hold his head high and arch his neck, and you will 
 practically be making him perform the very acts which he 
 himself delights or rather exults in ; and the best proof of the 
 pleasure which he takes is, that when he is let loose with 
 other horses, and more particularly with mares, you will see 
 him rear his head aloft to the full height, and arch his neck 
 
 1 Al. " the animals are so scared that, the chances are, they are thrown 
 into disorder." 
 
62 ON HORSEMANSHIP ch. x. § 4-9 
 
 with nervous vigour, 1 pawing the air with pliant legs 2 and 
 waving his tail on high. By training him to adopt the very 
 airs and graces which he naturally assumes when showing off to 
 best advantage, you have got what you are aiming at — a horse 
 that delights in being ridden, a splendid and showy animal, 
 the joy of all beholders. 
 
 How these desirable results are, in our opinion, to be 
 produced, we will now endeavour to explain. In the first 
 place, then, you ought to have at least two bits. One of 
 these should be smooth, with discs of a good size ; the other 
 should have heavy and flat discs 3 studded with sharp spikes, so 
 that when the horse seizes it and dislikes the roughness he 
 will drop it ; then when the smooth is given him instead, 
 he is delighted with its smoothness, and whatever he has learnt 
 before upon the rough, he will perform with greater relish on 
 the smooth. He may certainly, out of contempt for its very 
 smoothness, perpetually try to get a purchase on it, and that 
 is why we attach large discs to the smooth bit, the effect of 
 which is to make him open his mouth, and drop the mouth- 
 piece. It is possible to make the rough bit of every degree 
 of roughness by keeping it slack or taut. 
 
 But, whatever the type of bit may be, let it in any case be 
 flexible. If it be stiff, at whatever point the horse seizes it he 
 must take it up bodily against his jaws ; just as it does not 
 matter at what point a man takes hold of a bar of iron, 4 he 
 lifts it as a whole. The other flexibly constructed type acts 
 like a chain (only the single point at which you hold it re- 
 mains stiff, the rest hangs loose) ; and while perpetually hunt- 
 ing for the portion which escapes him, he lets the mouth- 
 piece go from his bars. 5 For this reason the rings are hung 
 in the middle from the two axles, 6 so that while feeling for 
 
 1 yopyoi/ievos, with pride and spirit, but with a suggestion of ' ' fierceness 
 and rage," as of Job's war-horse. 
 
 2 " Mollia crura reponit," Virg. Georg. iii. 76 ; Horn. Hymn, ad Merc. 
 
 3 See Morgan, op. cit. p. 144 foil. 
 
 4 Or, "poker," as we might say ; lit. " spit." 
 
 5 Schneid. cf. Eur. Hippol. 1223. 
 
 6 See Morgan, note ad loc. Berenger (i. 261) notes : "We have a small 
 chain in the upset or hollow part of our bits, called a Player, with which the 
 horse playing with his tongue, and rolling it about, keeps his mouth moist 
 
ch. x. § 9-is AIRS AND GRACES — TYPE OF BIT 63 
 
 them with his tongue and teeth he may neglect to take the 
 bit up against his jaws. 
 
 To explain what is meant by' flexible and stiff as ap- 
 plied to a bit, we will describe the matter. A flexible bit is 
 one in which the axles have their points of junction broad 
 and smooth, 1 so as to bend easily; and where the several 
 .parts fitting round the axles, being large of aperture and not 
 too closely packed, have greater flexibility ; whereas, if the 
 several parts do not slide to and fro with ease, and play into 
 each other, that is what we call a stiff bit. Whatever the 
 kind of bit may be, the rider must carry out precisely the same 
 rules in using it, as follows, if he wishes to turn out a horse 
 with the qualities described. The horse's mouth is not to 
 be pulled back too harshly so as to make him toss his head 
 aside, nor yet so gently that he will not feel the pressure. 
 But the instant he raises his neck in answer to the pull, 
 give him the bit at once ; and so throughout, as we never 
 cease repeating, at every response to your wishes, whenever 
 and wherever the animal performs his service well, 2 reward 
 and humour him. Thus, when the rider perceives that the 
 horse takes a pleasure in the high arching and supple play 
 of his neck, let him seize the instant not to impose severe 
 exertion on him, like a taskmaster, but rather to caress and 
 coax him, as if anxious to give him rest. In this way 
 the horse will be encouraged and fall into a rapid pace. 
 
 That a horse takes pleasure in swift movement, may be 
 shown conclusively. As soon as he has got his liberty, he sets 
 off at a trot or gallop, never at a walking pace ; so natural and 
 instinctive a pleasure does this action afford him, if he is 
 not forced to perform it to excess ; since it is true of horse 
 and man alike that nothing is pleasant if carried to excess. 3 
 
 But now suppose he has attained to the grand style when 
 ridden, — we have accustomed him of course in his first exercise 
 
 and fresh ; and, as Xenophon hints, it may serve likewise to fix his attention 
 and prevent him from writhing his mouth about, or as the French call it, 
 faire ses forces." 
 
 1 i.e. " the ends of the axles (at the point of junction) which work into 
 each other are broad and smooth, so as to play freely at the join." 
 
 2 " Behaves compliantly. " See above, p. 52, n. 6. 
 
 8 L. Dind. cf. Eur. Med. 128, to. 5' inrep^dWovT ovSt'va Kaipliv. 
 
64 ON HORSEMANSHIP {™; xi.Vi 5 -3 7 " 
 
 to wheel and fall into a canter simultaneously; assuming 
 then, he has got that lesson well by heart, if the rider pulls 
 him up with the bit while "simultaneously giving him one of 
 the signals to be off, the horse, galled on the one hand by 
 the bit, and on the other collecting himself in obedience 
 to the signal " off," will throw forward his chest and raise his 
 legs aloft with fiery spirit ; though not indeed with suppleness, 
 for the supple play of the limbs ceases as soon as the horse 
 feels annoyance. But now, supposing when his fire is thus 
 enkindled x you give him the rein, the effect is instantaneous. 
 Under the pleasurable sense of freedom, thanks to the 
 relaxation of the bit, with stately bearing and legs pliantly 
 moving he dashes forward in his pride, in every respect 
 imitating the airs and graces of a horse approaching other 
 horses. 2 Listen to the epithets with which spectators will 
 describe the type of horse : the noble animal ! and what 
 willingness to work, what paces, 3 what a spirit, and what mettle ; 
 how proudly he bears himself 4 — a joy at once, and yet a terror 
 to behold. 
 
 Thus far on this topic ; these notes may serve perhaps 
 to meet a special need. 
 
 xi. — If, however, the wish is to secure a horse adapted 
 to parade and state processions, a high stepper and a showy 5 
 animal, these are qualities not to be found combined in 
 every horse, but to begin with, the animal must have high 
 spirit and a stalwart body. Not that, as some think, a horse with 
 flexible legs will necessarily be able to rear his body. What 
 we want is a horse with supple loins, and not supple only 
 but short and strong (I do not mean the loins towards the 
 tail, but by the belly the region between the ribs and thighs). 
 That is the horse who will be able to plant his hind-legs well 
 under the forearm. If while he is so planting his hind- 
 
 1 Cf. Hell. V. iv. 46, "kindled into new life." 
 
 2 See above, p. 61. 3 linraariiv, " a true soldier's horse. " 
 
 4 aofiapbv, ' ' what a push and swagger " ; ko.1 ap.a ijSiv re koX yopybv Ibeiv, 
 " ala fois doux et terrible a voir," see Victor Cherbuliez, Un Cheval de Phidias, 
 p. 148. 
 
 6 Xafiirpbs. Cf. Isae. xi. 41 (On the estate of Hagnias) ; Lys. xix. 63 (de 
 Bon. Arist. ). 
 
ch. xi. § 3.9 UN CHE VAL DE PHIDIAS 65 
 
 quarters, he is pulled up with the bit, he lowers his hind-legs 
 on his hocks 1 and raises the forepart of his body, so that 
 any one in front of him will see the whole length of his belly 
 to the sheath. 2 At the moment the horse does this, the 
 rider should give him the rein, so that he may display 
 the noblest feats which a horse can perform of his own 
 free will, to the satisfaction of all spectators. 
 
 There are, indeed, other methods of teaching these arts. 3 
 Some do so by touching the horse with a switch under the 
 hocks, others employ an attendant to run alongside and strike 
 the horse with a stick under the gaskins. For ourselves, 
 however, far the best method of instruction, 4 as we keep 
 repeating, is to let the horse feel that whatever he does in 
 obedience to the rider's wishes will be followed by some rest 
 and relaxation. 
 
 To quote a dictum of Simon, what a horse does under 
 compulsion he does blindly, and his performance is no more 
 beautiful than would be that of a ballet-dancer taught by 
 whip and goad. The performances of horse or man so 
 treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather 
 than of grace and beauty. What we need is that the horse 
 should of his own accord exhibit his finest airs and paces at 
 set signals. 5 Supposing, when he is in the riding-field, 6 you 
 push him to a gallop until he is bathed in sweat, and when 
 he begins to prance and show his airs to fine effect, you 
 promptly dismount and take off the bit, you may rely upon it 
 he will of his own accord another time break into the same 
 prancing action. Such are the horses on which gods and 
 heroes ride, as represented by the artist. The majesty of men 
 themselves is best discovered in the graceful handling of such 
 animals. 7 A horse so prancing is indeed a thing of beauty, a 
 
 1 See Berenger, ii. 68. 2 Lit. "testicles." 
 
 3 Lit. " People, it must be admitted, claim to teach these arts in various 
 ways — some by . . . others by bidding . . ." 
 
 4 Reading 6i8a<rKa\i£iv, al. 8i5a.tr KaXiav, "systems." Schneid. cf. Herod, 
 v. 58.' 
 
 6 Or, "by aids and signs," as we say. 
 
 6 Or, " exercising-ground. " See above, Hipparch, ii. 1. 
 
 7 Or, ' ' and the man who knows how to manage such a creature grace- 
 fully himself at once appears magnificent." 
 
66 ON HORSEMANSHIP ch.xi.§ 9 -i 3 
 
 wonder and a marvel ; riveting the gaze of all who see him, 
 young alike and graybeards. They will never turn their 
 backs, I venture to predict, or weary of their gazing so long as 
 he continues to display his splendid action. 
 
 If the possessor of so rare a creature should find himself 
 by chance in the position of a squadron leader or a general of 
 cavalry, he must not confine his zeal to the development of 
 his personal splendour, but should study all the more to make 
 the troop or regiment a splendid spectacle. Supposing (in 
 accordance with the high praise bestowed upon the type of 
 animal) 2 the leader is mounted on a horse which with his 
 high airs and frequent prancing makes but the slightest move- 
 ment forward — obviously the rest of the troop must follow at 
 a walking pace, and one may fairly ask where is the element 
 of splendour in the spectacle ? But now suppose that you, 
 sir, being at the head of the procession, rouse your horse and 
 take the lead at a pace neither too fast nor yet too slow, but 
 in a way to bring out the best qualities of all the animals, 
 their spirit, fire, grace of mien and bearing ripe for action — 
 I say, if you take the lead of them in this style, the collective 
 thud, the general neighing and the snorting of the horses 
 will combine to render not you only at the head, but your 
 whole company 2 down to the last man a thrilling spectacle. 
 
 One, word more. Supposing a man has shown some 
 skill in purchasing his horses, and can rear them into strong 
 and serviceable animals, supposing further he can handle them 
 in the right way, not only in the training for war, but in 
 exercises with a view to display, or lastly, in the stress of 
 actual battle, what is there to prevent such a man from 
 making every horse he owns of far more value in the end 
 than when he bought it, with the further outlook that, unless 
 some power higher than human interpose, 3 he will become the 
 owner of a celebrated stable, and himself as celebrated for his 
 skill in horsemanship. 
 
 1 Reading as vulg. tiis /iA\utto, iirtuvovin rois Toioirovs tinrovs, Ss. L. 
 Dind. omits the words as a gloss. 
 
 2 Reading oi (for 8<roi) av/iTrapeird/ievoi. See Hartman, An. Xen. Nov. 
 xiv. p. 343. 
 
 3 Or, ' ' there is nothing, humanly speaking, to prevent such a man. ' ' For the 
 phrase see Mem. I. iii. 5 ; cf. Cyrop. I. vi. 18 ; and for the advice, Econ. iii. 9, 10. 
 
ch. xii. § i-6 OF ARMS DEFENSIVE AND OFFENSIVE 67 
 
 xii. — We will now describe the manner in which a trooper 
 destined to run the risks of battle upon horseback should be 
 armed. In the first place, then, we would insist, the corselet 
 must be made to fit the person ; since, if it fits well, its weight 
 will be distributed over the whole body ; whereas, if too loose, 
 the shoulders will have all the weight to bear, while, if too 
 tight, the corselet is no longer a defensive arm, but a " strait 
 jacket." 1 Again, the neck, as being a vital part, 2 ought to 
 have, as we maintain, a covering, appended to the corselet and 
 close-fitting. This will serve as an ornament, and if made as 
 it ought to be, will conceal the rider's face — if so he chooses 
 — up to the nose. 
 
 As to the helmet, the best kind, in our opinion, is one of 
 the Boeotian pattern, 8 on the principle again, that it covers all 
 the parts exposed above the breastplate without hindering 
 vision. Another point : the corselet should be so constructed 
 that it does not prevent its wearer sitting down or stooping. 
 About the abdomen and the genitals and parts surrounding 4 
 flaps should be attached in texture and in thickness sufficient 
 to protect 6 that region. 
 
 Again, as an injury to the left hand may disable the 
 horseman, we would recommend the newly-invented piece of 
 armour called the gauntlet, which protects the shoulder, arm, 
 and elbow, with the hand engaged in holding the reins, being 
 so constructed as to extend and contract ; in addition to which 
 it covers the gap left by the corselet under the armpit. The 
 case is different with the right hand, which the horseman must 
 needs raise to discharge a javelin or strike a blow. Here, 
 accordingly, any part of the corselet which would hinder action 
 ought to be removed ; in place of which the corselet ought to 
 
 1 Cf. Mem. III. x. 
 
 s L. Dind. cf. Horn. II. viii. 326 : 
 
 . . . 6'0t K\r)ts iirtdpyei 
 a.$x* va ' Te trT7]d6s re, fjakiffTO. d& icalpihv tariv. 
 "Where the collar-bone fenceth off neck and breast, and where is the most 
 deadly spot" (W. Leaf). 
 
 3 Schneider cf. Aelian, V. H. iii. 24 ; Pollux, i. 149. 
 
 4 Schneider cf. Anab. IV. vii. 15, and for koX ra /cteXij), conj. KikXp, "the 
 abdomen and middle should be encircled by a skirt." 
 
 5 Lit. "let there be wings of such sort, size, and number as to protect 
 the limbs." 
 
68 ON HORSEMANSHIP ch.xii.S6-i* 
 
 have some extra flaps * at the joints, which as the outstretched 
 arm is raised unfold, and as the arm descends close tight again. 
 The arm itself, 2 it seems to us, will better be protected by a 
 piece like a greave stretched over it rather than bound up with 
 the corselet. Again, the part exposed when the right hand is 
 raised should be covered close to the corselet either with 
 calfskin or with metal ; or else there will be a want of protec- 
 tion just at the most vital point. 
 
 Moreover, as any damage done to the horse will involve his 
 rider in extreme peril, the horse also should be clad in armour 
 — frontlet, breastplate, and thigh-pieces ; 3 which latter may at 
 the same time serve as cuisses for the mounted man. Beyond 
 all else, the horse's belly, being the most vital and defenceless 
 part, should be protected. It is possible, to protect it with 
 the saddle-cloth. The saddle itself should be of such sort 
 and so stitched as to give the rider a firm seat, and yet not 
 gall the horse's back. 
 
 As regards the limbs in general, both horse and rider may 
 be looked upon as fully armed. The only parts remaining are 
 the shins and feet, which of course protrude beyond the 
 cuisses, but these also may be armed by the addition of gaiters 
 made of leather like that used for making sandals. And thus 
 you will have at once defensive armour for the shins and 
 stockings for the feet. 
 
 The above, with the blessing of heaven, will serve for 
 armour of defence. To come to weapons of offence, we re- 
 commend the sabre rather than the straight sword, 4 since from 
 the vantage-ground of the horseman's position the curved blade 
 will descend with greater force than the ordinary weapon. 
 
 Again, in place of the long reed spear, which is apt to be 
 weak and awkward to carry, we would substitute two darts of 
 cornel-wood ; 5 the one of which the skilful horseman can let 
 
 1 irpoaderal, " movable," "false." "For yiYyktiiAovs L. & S. cf. Hipp. 411. 
 12; Aristot. de An. iii. 10. 9 =" ball-and-socket joints. " 
 
 2 i.e. "forearm." s Cf. Cyrop. VI. iv. 1 ; VII. i. 2. 
 
 4 The /j.&xaipa (or kottIs), Persian fashion, rather than the {£0os. Cyrop. 
 I. ii. 13. 
 
 6 For these reforms, the result of the author's Asiatic experiences perhaps, 
 see Sketch (Trans, vol. i. p. cxl. ) ; and cf. Hell. III. iv. r4 ; Anab. I. viii. 3 ; 
 Cyrop. I. ii. 9, 
 
ch. xn. § 12-14 IMPROVEMENTS IN THE WEAPON 69 
 
 fly, and still ply the one reserved in all directions, forwards, 
 backwards, 1 and obliquely ; add to that, these smaller weapons 
 are not only stronger than the spear but far more manageable. 
 
 As regards range of discharge in shooting we are in favour 
 of the longest possible, as giving more time to rally 2 and 
 transfer the second javelin to the right hand. And here we 
 will state shortly the most effective method of hurling the 
 javelin. The horseman should throw forward his left side, 
 while drawing back his right; then rising bodily from the 
 thighs, he should let fly the missile with the point slightly 
 upwards. The dart so discharged will carry with the greatest 
 force and to the farthest distance ; we may add, too, with the 
 truest aim, if at the moment of discharge the lance be directed 
 steadily on the object aimed at. 3 
 
 This treatise, consisting of notes and suggestions, lessons 
 and exercises suited to a private individual, must come to a 
 conclusion ; the theory and the practice of the matter suited 
 to a cavalry commander will be found developed in the com- 
 panion treatise. 4 
 
 1 Reading els TotimaOev after Leoncl. Cf. viii. 10 (above, p. 58). 
 
 2 Al. " to turn right-about." 
 
 3 " If the lance is steadily eyeing the mark at the instant of discharge." 
 
 4 In reference to the treatise which has preceded on the office of a com- 
 mander of cavalry. 
 
ON HUNTING 
 
 A SPORTSMAN'S MANUAL 
 
 COMMONLY CALLED 
 
 CYNEGETICUS 
 
ON HUNTING 
 
 A SPORTSMAN'S MANUAL 
 
 i. 1-4 
 
 i. — To the gods themselves is due the discovery, 1 to Apollo 
 and Artemis, patrons of the chase and protectors of the 
 hound. 2 As a guerdon they bestowed it upon Cheiron, 3 by 
 reason of his uprightness, and he took it and was glad, and 
 turned the gift to good account. At his feet sat many a 
 disciple, to whom he taught the mystery of hunting and of 
 chivalry 4 — to wit, Cephalus, Asclepius, Melanion, Nestor, 
 Amphiaraus, Peleus, Telamon, Meleager, Theseus and Hippo- 
 lytus, Palamedes, Odysseus, Menestheus, Diomed, Castor and 
 Polydeuces, Machaon and Podaleirius, Antilochus, Aeneas 
 and Achilles : of whom each in his turn was honoured by the 
 gods. And let none marvel that of these the greater part, 
 albeit well-pleasing to the gods, nevertheless were subject to 
 death, — which is the way of nature, 6 but their fame has grown, 
 — nor yet that their prime of manhood so far differed. The 
 lifetime of Cheiron sufficed for all his scholars ; the fact 
 being that Zeus and Cheiron were brethren, sons of the same 
 father but of different mothers — Zeus of Rhea, and Cheiron 
 
 1 For the relation of this introduction to the treatise see Introd. Remarks. 
 
 2 Or, "This thing is the invention of no mortal man, but of Apollo and 
 Artemis, to whom belong hunting and dogs. " For the style of exordium L. 
 Dind. of. (Ps. ) Dion. Art. rhel. ad in. ; Galen, hagog. ad in. ; Alex. Aphrodis. 
 Proil. 2 proem. 
 
 3 The wisest and "justest of all the centaurs," Horn. //. xi. 831. See 
 Kingsley, The Heroes, p. 84. 
 
 4 Or, ' ' the discipline of the hunting field and other noble lore. " 
 
 Lit. "since that is nature, but the praise of them grew greatly." 
 
 VOL. Ill 2 G 
 
74 ON HUNTING ch...§ 4 -8 
 
 of the nymph Nai's ; 1 and so it is that, though older than all 
 of them, he died not before he had taught the youngest — 
 to wit, the boy Achilles. 2 
 
 Thanks to the careful heed they paid to dogs and things 
 pertaining to the chase, thanks also to the other training of 
 their boyhood, all these greatly excelled, and on the score of 
 virtue were admired. 
 
 If Cephalus was caught into the arms of one that was a 
 goddess, 3 Asclepius 4 obtained yet greater honour. To him 
 it was given to raise the dead and to heal the sick, whereby, 6 
 even as a god among mortal men, he has obtained to himself 
 imperishable glory. Melanion 6 so far excelled in zest for toil 
 that he alone of all that flower of chivalry who were his rivals 7 
 obtained the prize of noblest wedlock with Atalanta; while 
 as to Nestor, what need to repeat the well-known tale ? so far 
 and wide for many a day has the fame of his virtue penetrated 
 the ears of Hellas. 8 
 
 Amphiaraus, 9 what time he served as a warrior against 
 Thebes, won for himself the highest praise ; and from heaven 
 obtained the honour of a deathless life. 10 
 
 Peleus kindled in the gods desire to give him Thetis, and 
 to hymn their nuptials at the board of Cheiron. 11 
 
 I According to others, Philyra. Pind. Pyth. iii. i, ijffeXov Xelpavd xe 
 HKvplSav ; cf. Pyth. vi. 22 ; Nem. iii. 43. 2 See Paus. iii. 18. 12. 
 
 3 Hemera (al. Eos). For the rape of Cephalus see Hes. Theog. 986 ; Eur. 
 Ion, 269 ; Paus. i. 3. 1 ; iii. 18. 7. 
 
 4 Lat. Aesculapius. Father of Podaleirius and Machaon, "the noble 
 leech," //. ii. 731, iv. 194, 219, xi. 518 ; Od. iv. 232. 
 
 5 Cf. Anao. I. ii. 8 ; Lincke, z. Xen. Krit. p. 299. 
 
 6 Melanion, s. Meilanion, Paus. iii. 12. 9 ; v. 17. 10 ; v. 19. 1. 
 
 7 ' ' Which were his rival suitors. " As to Atalanta see Paus. viii. 45. 2 ; 
 iii. 24. 2 ; v. 19. 2 ; Grote, H. G. i. 199 foil. 
 
 8 Lit. ' ' the virtue of Nestor has so far penetrated the ears of Hellas 
 that I should speak to those who know." See Horn. //. i. 247, and passim. 
 
 9 Amphiaraus. Pind. Nem. ix. 13-27; Olymp. vi. 11-16; Herod, i. 52; 
 Paus. ix. 8. 2; 18. 2-4 ; ii. 23. 2 ; i. 34 ; Liv. xlv. 27 ; Cic. de Div. i. 40. 
 See Aesch. Sept. «.. Th. 392 ; Eur. Phoen. 1122 foil. ; Apollod. iii. 6 ; Strab. 
 ix. 399, 404. 10 Lit. " to be honoured ever living. " 
 
 II For the marriage of Peleus and Thetis see Horn. //. xxiv. 61 ; cf. 
 Pope's rendering : 
 
 To grace those nuptials from the bright abode 
 
 Yourselves were present ; when this minstrel god 
 
 (Well pleased to share the feast) amid the quire 
 
 Stood proud to hymn } and tune his youthful lyre {Homer's II. xxiv.). 
 
ch. i. § 8-n MYSTERY OF HUNTING AND OF CHIVALRY 75 
 
 The mighty Telamon x won from the greatest of all states 
 and wedded her whom he desired, Periboea the daughter of 
 Alcathus ; 2 and when the first of Hellenes, 3 Heracles i the 
 son of Zeus, distributed rewards of valour after taking Troy, 
 to Telamon he gave Hesione. 5 
 
 Of Meleager a be it said that, whereas the honours which 
 he won are manifest, the misfortunes on which he fell, when 
 his father 7 in old age forgot the goddess, were not of his own 
 causing. 8 
 
 Theseus 9 single-handed destroyed the enemies of collec- 
 tive Hellas ; and in that he greatly enlarged the boundaries of 
 his fatherland, is still to-day the wonder of mankind. 10 
 
 Hippolytus n was honoured by our lady Artemis and with 
 her conversed, 12 and in his latter end, by reason of his 
 sobriety and holiness, was reckoned among the blest. 
 
 Palamedes 13 all his days on earth far outshone those of 
 his own times in wisdom, and when slain unjustly, won 
 
 Prof. Robinson Ellis ( Comment, on Catull. lxiv. ) cites numerous passages : 
 
 Eur. /. in T. 701 foil., 1036 foil. ; Pind. Isthm. v. 24 ; Pyth. iii. 87-96 ; Isocr. 
 
 Evag. 192. 6 ; Apoll. Rh. iv. 791 ; //. xxiv. 61 ; Hes. Theog. 1006, and Epithal. 
 
 (ap. Tzetz, Prol. ad Lycophr. ) : 
 
 rpis /id/tap Alcuddri Kal rerpaKis S\/3ie II?;XeO 
 8s tol<t8' iv peydpois Upbv \4x os elaavafialvus. 
 
 1 See //. viii. 283 ; Paus. i. 42. 1-4. 
 
 2 Or Alcathoiis, who rebuilt the walls of Megara by Apollo's aid. Ov. Met. 
 viii. 15 foil. 
 
 3 Reading 6 Trpuros ; or if with L. D. tois Tpibrois, ' ' what time Heracles 
 was distributing to the heroes of Hellas (lit. the first of the Hellenes) prizes of 
 valour, to Telamon he gave." 4 See Horn. II. v. 640 ; Strab. xiii. 595. 
 
 6 See Diod. iv. 32 ; i. 42. 
 
 6 For the legend of Meleager see //. ix. 524-599, dramatised by both 
 Sophocles and Euripides, and in our day by Swinburne, Atalanta in Calydon. 
 Cf. Paus. iii. 8. 9 ; viii. 45. 4 ; Ov. Met. viii. 300 ; Grote, H. G. i. 195. 
 
 7 i.e. Oeneus. //. ix. 535. 
 
 8 Or, " may not be laid to his charge." 
 
 9 See Mem. II. i. 14 ; III. v. 10 ; cf. Isocr. Phil, in ; Plut. Thes. x. foil.; 
 Diod. iv. 59 ; Ov. Met. vii. 433. 
 
 10 Or "is held in admiration still to-day." SeeThuc. ii. 15 ; Strab. ix. 397. 
 
 11 See the play of Euripides. Paus. i. 22 ; Diod. iv. 62. 
 
 12 Al. " lived on the lips of men." But cf. Eur. Hipp. 85, vol koX typei/it 
 Kal \6yois a' afielf}o/uu. See Frazer, Golden Bough, i. 6, for the Hippolytus- 
 Virbius myth. 
 
 13 As to Palamedes, son of Nauplius, his genius and treacherous death, see 
 Grote, H. G. i. 400 ; Mem. IV. ii. 33 ; Apol. 26 ; Plat. Apol. 41 ; Rep. vii. 
 522 ; Eur. fr. Palam. ; Ov. Met. xiii. 56 ; Paus. x. 31. 1 ; ii. 20. 3. 
 
76 ON HUNTING ch.i.**i-i 4 
 
 from heaven a vengeance such as no other mortal man 
 may boast of. x Yet died he not at their hands 2 whom some 
 suppose ; else how could the one of them have been accounted 
 all but best, and the other a compeer of the good ? No, not 
 they, but base men wrought that deed. 
 
 Menestheus, 3 through diligence and patient care, the out- 
 come of the chase, so far overshot all men in love of toil that 
 even the chiefs of Hellas must confess themselves inferior 
 in the concerns of war save Nestor only ; and Nestor, it is 
 said, 4 excelled not but alone might rival him. 
 
 Odysseus and Diomedes 5 were brilliant for many a single 
 deed of arms, and mainly to these two was due the taking of 
 Troy town. 6 
 
 Castor and Polydeuces, 7 by reason of their glorious dis- 
 play of arts obtained from Cheiron, and for the high honour 
 and prestige therefrom derived, are now immortal. 
 
 Machaon and Podaleirius 8 were trained in this same 
 lore, and proved themselves adepts in works of skill, in 
 argument and feats of arms. 9 
 
 Antilochus, 10 in that he died for his father, obtained so 
 great a glory that, in the judgment of Hellas, to him alone 
 belongs the title " philopator," "who loved his father." 11 
 
 1 For the vengeance see Schol. ad Eur. Orest. 422 ; Philostr. Her. x. 
 Cf. Strab. viii. 6. 2 (368) ; Leake, Morea, ii. 358 ; Baedeker, Greece, 245. 
 
 2 i.e. Odysseus and Diomed. (§ 11, I confess, strikes me as somewhat 
 in Xenophon's manner.) See Mem. IV. ii. 33 ; Apol. 26. 
 
 3 For Menestheus, who led the Athenians against Troy, cf. Horn. //. ii. 
 552 ; iv. 327 ; Philostr. Her. ii. 16 ; Paus. ii. 25. 6 ; i. 17. 6 ; Plut. Thes. 
 
 32. 35- 
 
 4 Or, " so runs the tale," e.g. in The Catalogue. See//, ii. I.e. : N&rrwp ofos 
 i/ufec, "Only Nestor rivalled him, for he was the elder by birth" (W. Leaf). 
 
 5 The two heroes are frequently coupled in Homer, e.g. //. v. 519; x. 
 241, etc. 
 
 6 Or, "were brilliant in single points, and broadly speaking were the 
 cause that Troy was taken." See Hygin. Fab. 108 ; Virg. Aen. ii. 163. 
 
 7 Castor, Polydeuces, o. Pollux — the great twin brethren. See Grote, 
 H. G. i. 232 foil. 
 
 8 As to the two sons of Asclepius, Machaon and Podaleirius, the leaders 
 of the Achaeans, see //. ii. 728 ; Schol. ad Pind. Pyth. iii. 14 ; Paus. iii. 26 ; 
 iv. 3 ; Strab. vi. 4 (284) ; Diod. iv. 71. 4 ; Grote, H. G. i. 248. 
 
 9 Or, " in crafts, in reasonings, and in deeds of war." 
 
 10 Antilochus, son of Nestor, slain by Memnon. Od. iv. 186 foil. ; Pind. 
 Pyth. vi. 28 ; Philostr. Her. iv. ; Icon. ii. 281. 
 
 11 Lit. " to be alone proclaimed Philopator among the Hellenes. ' ' Cf. Plat. 
 
c"'.H.Vr 8 "} THE HEROES TAUGHT BY CHEIRON 77 
 
 Aeneas 1 saved the ancestral gods — his father's and his 
 mother's ; 2 yea, and his own father also, whereby he bore off 
 a reputation for piety so great that to him alone among all 
 on whom they laid their conquering hand in Troy even the 
 enemy granted not to be despoiled. 
 
 Achilles, 3 lastly, being nursed in this same training, be- 
 queathed to after-days memorials so fair, so ample, that to 
 speak or hear concerning him no man wearies. 
 
 Such, by dint of that painstaking care derived from 
 Cheiron, these all proved themselves ; of whom all good 
 men yet still to-day are lovers and all base men envious. So 
 much so that if throughout the length and breadth of Hellas 
 misfortunes at any time befell city or king, it was they who 
 loosed the knot of them ; 4 or if all Hellas found herself con- 
 fronted with the hosts of the Barbarians in strife and battle, 
 once again it was these who nerved the arms of Hellenes to 
 victory and rendered Hellas unconquered and unconquerable. 
 
 f For my part, then, my advice to the young is, 5 do not 
 
 / despise hunting or the other training of your boyhood, if you 
 
 / desire to grow up to be good men, good not only in war but 
 
 in all else of which the issue is perfection in thought, word, 
 
 L and deed. 
 
 11. — The first efforts of a youth emerging from boyhood 
 should be directed to the institution of the chase, after 
 which he should come to the rest of education, provided he 
 
 Laws, 730 D, " He shall be proclaimed the great and perfect citizen, and bear 
 away the palm of virtue" ; and for the epithet see Eur. Or. 1605 ; /. A. 638. 
 
 1 As to Aeneas see Poseidon's speech, //. xx. 293 foil. ; Grote, H. G. 
 i. 413, 427 foil. 
 
 2 Cf. Hell. II. iv. 21 (Trans, vol. i. p. 68). 
 
 3 "The highest form that floated before Greek imagination was Achilles," 
 Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of History (Eng. tr. p. 233) ; and for a 
 beautiful elaboration of that idea, J. A. Symonds, Greek Poets, 2nd series, ch. ii. 
 
 4 Reading i\iovTo abrois, or if as L. D. , Si airois, transl. ' ' thanks to 
 them, they were loosed." 
 
 6 See Sketch (Trans, vol. i. p. lxxiv.) ; L. Dind. cf. (Ps.) Aristid. ii. 786. 
 
78 ON HUNTING =«• ■■• § '-3 
 
 have the means and with an eye to the same ; if his means be 
 ample, in a style worthy of the profit to be derived; or, if 
 they be scant, let him at any rate contribute enthusiasm, in 
 nothing falling short of the power he possesses. 
 
 What are the aids and implements of divers sorts with 
 which he who would enter on this field must equip himself? 
 These and the theory of each in particular I will now explain. 
 With a view to success in the work, forewarned is forearmed. 
 Nor let such details be looked upon as insignificant. Without 
 them there will be an end to practical results. 1 
 
 The net-keeper should be a man with a real passion for the 
 work, and in tongue a Hellene, about twenty years of age, of 
 wiry build, agile at once and strong, with pluck enough to 
 overcome the toils imposed on him, 2 and to take pleasure in 
 the work. 
 
 The ordinary small nets should be made of fine Phasian 
 or Carthaginian 3 flax, and so too should the road nets and the 
 larger hayes. 4 These small nets should be nine-threaded [made 
 of three strands, and each strand of three threads], 5 five spans 6 
 in depth, 7 and two palms 8 at the nooses or pockets. 9 There 
 should be no knots in the cords that run round, which should be 
 so inserted as to run quite smoothly. 10 The road net should be 
 twelve-threaded, and the larger net (or haye) sixteen. They may 
 be of different sizes, the former varying from twelve to twenty-four 
 
 1 Or, ' ' The question suggests itself — how many instruments and of what 
 sort are required by any one wishing to enter this field ? A list of these I pro- 
 pose to give, not omitting the theoretical side of the matter in each case, so 
 that whoever lays his hand to this work may have some knowledge to go upon. 
 It would be a mistake to regard these details as trivial. In fact, without them 
 the undertaking might as well be let alone." 
 
 2 toiVois, "by this, that, or the other good quality." 
 
 3 Phasian or Carchedonian. Cf. Pollux, v. 26. 
 
 4 dptcvs, ivoSia, StKTVa. 
 
 6 [L. Dind. brackets.] See Pollux, v. 27, ap. Schn. 
 
 6 ffiriBa/i^, a span (dodrans) = 7J inches. Herod, ii. 106 ; rpurTlSafios, 
 Hes. Op. 424 ; Plat. Ale. i. 126 c ; Aristot. H. A. viii. 28. 5 ; Polyb. v. 3-6. 
 
 7 rd fiJyeBos, see below, x. 2. 
 
 8 Or, "eight fingers' breadth + " = 6 inches + . TakaurrJ) or iraXaonj, a 
 palm or four fingers' breadth = 3 inches + . 
 
 9 Toils Pp6xovs, a purse or tunnel arrangement with slip loop. See below, 
 vi. 7, 9 ; ix. 13, 15 ; x. 2, 7. 
 
 10 Reading ixpuadwaav 5£ ol ireptSpofioi dvdfifjuiTot. Lit. ' ' the cords that 
 run round should be inserted without knots." See Pollux, v. 28 foil. 
 
cH.iu.Vi 7 ~} HUNTING EQUIPMENT 
 
 79 
 
 or thirty feet, the latter from sixty to one hundred and twenty 
 or one hundred and eighty feet. 1 If larger they will be un- 
 wieldy and hard to manage. Both should be thirty-knotted, 
 and the interval of the nooses the same as in the ordinary small 
 nets. At the elbow ends 2 the road net should be furnished 
 with nipples 3 (or eyes), and the larger sort (the haye) with 
 rings, and both alike with a running line of twisted cord. The 
 pronged stakes 4 for the small nets should be ten palms high, 5 
 as a rule, but there should be some shorter ones besides ; 
 those of unequal length will be convenient to equalise the 
 height on uneven ground, and those of equal length on level. 
 They should be sharp-tipped so as to draw out easily 6 and 
 smooth throughout. Those for the road nets should be twice 
 the height, 7 and those for the big (haye) nets five spans long, 8 
 with small forks, the notches not deep ; they should be stout 
 and solid, of a thickness proportionate to their length. The 
 number of props needed for the nets will vary — many or few, 
 according to circumstances; a less number if the tension on 
 the net be great, and a larger number when the nets are slack. 9 
 Lastly, for the purpose of carrying the nets and hayes, for 
 either sort 10 there must be a bag of calf-skin ; and billhooks to 
 cut down branches and stop gaps in the woods when necessary. 11 
 
 in. — There are two breeds of sporting dogs : the Castorian 
 and the fox-like. 12 The former get their name from Castor, 
 
 1 Lit. " 2, 4, s fathoms ; io, 20, 30 fathoms." 
 
 2 &Kpw\t vioi<s, elbows, Pollux, v. 29 ; al. aKpokivlais, L. & S. , " on the 
 edges or borders. " 3 pMurois, al. "tufts." 
 
 4 <rx<*A(Ses, forks or net props. Cf. Pollux, v. 19, 31. 
 
 5 i.e. 30 + inches = 2 \ + ft. , say 36 inches = 3 ft. 
 
 6 eiirepta-TtuTTot. ra dicpa, al. ' ' they should be made so that the nets can 
 be fitted on and off easily, with sharp points " ; or " off the points easily." 
 
 7 SiirXdnai, i.e. 20 palms = 60 + inches, say 72, or 6 ft. 
 
 irevTevirWapuH, i.e. 5 x 7J inches = 37^ inches = 3 ft. ij inch; al. 5x9 
 inches = 45 inches =3 ft. 9 inches. 
 
 9 Or, " if in the particular position the nets are taut, a larger if they lie 
 slack." 
 
 10 Reading, with Lenz, eKarepois, or if, as C. Gesner conj., $ itcdrepa, 
 transl. " or either separately." 
 
 11 Or, "for the purpose of felling wood and stopping up gaps where 
 necessary." 
 
 12 Kaoropiai, or Laconian, approaching possibly the harrier type ; d\w?re- 
 Ktties, i.e. vulpocanine, hybrid between fox and dog. 
 
80 ON HUNTING ch. hi. § 1-3 
 
 in memory of the delight he took in the business of the chase, 
 for which he kept this breed by preference. 1 The other breed 
 is literally foxy, being the progeny originally of the dog and 
 the fox, whose natures have in the course of ages become 
 blent. 2 
 
 Both species present a large proportion of defective 
 animals 3 which fall short of the type, as being under- 
 sized, or crook-nosed,* or gray-eyed, 5 or near-sighted, or 
 ungainly, or stiff-jointed, or deficient in strength, thin-haired, 
 lanky, disproportioned, devoid of pluck or of nose, or unsound 
 of foot. To particularise : an under-sized dog will, ten to one, 
 break off from the chase 6 faint and flagging in the performance 
 of his duty owing to mere diminutiveness. An aquiline nose 
 means no mouth, and consequently an inability to hold the 
 hare fast. 7 A blinking bluish eye implies defect of vision ; 8 
 just as want of shape means ugliness. 9 The stiff-limbed dog 
 will come home limping from the hunting-field ; 10 just as want 
 of strength and thinness of coat go hand in hand with 
 incapacity for toil. 11 The lanky-legged, unsymmetrical dog, 
 with his shambling gait and ill-compacted frame, ranges heavily; 
 while the spiritless animal will leave his work to skulk off out 
 of the sun into shade and lie down. Want of nose means 
 scenting the hare with difficulty, or only once in a way ; 
 and however courageous he may be, a hound with unsound 
 
 I Or, ' ' get their appellation from the fact that Castor took delight in the 
 business of the chase, and kept this breed specially for the purpose." A I. 
 Sie^>6Xa(ev, " propagated and preserved the breed which we now have. " See 
 Darwin, Animals and Plants under Domestication, ii. 202, 209. 
 
 a Or, "and through lapse of time the twofold characteristics of their 
 progenitors have become blent." See Timoth. Gaz. ap. Schneid. ad loc. for 
 an ancient superstition as to breeds. 
 
 8 Or, ' ' defective specimens (that is to say, the majority) are to be noted, 
 as follows." 
 
 i ypviral. See below, iv. 1. 
 
 x<ty>oiro(. Al. Arrian, iv. 4, 5. 
 
 6 Or, ' ' will probably retire from the chase and throw up the business 
 through mere diminutiveness." 
 
 7 Or, "a hook-nosed (? pig-jawed, see Stonehenge, The Dog, p. 19, 
 4th ed. ) dog has a bad mouth and cannot hold." 
 
 8 Or, "a short-sighted, wall-eyed dog has defective vision. 1 ' 
 
 9 Or, "they are weedy, ugly brutes as a rule." 
 
 10 Or, " stiffness of limb means he will come off." Cf. Mem. III. xiii. 6. 
 
 II Lit. "a weak, thinly-haired animal is incapable of severe toil. " 
 
ch. in. § 3 . 7 HOUNDS BRED OUT OF THE SPARTAN KIND 81 
 
 feet cannot stand the work, but through foot- soreness will 
 eventually give in. 1 
 
 Similarly many different modes of hunting a line of scent 
 are to be seen in the same species of hound. 2 One dog as 
 soon as he has found the trail will go along without sign 
 or symptom to show that he is on the scent ; another will 
 vibrate his ears only and keep his tail 3 perfectly still ; while 
 a third has just the opposite propensity : he will keep his 
 ears still and wag with the tip of his tail. Others draw 
 their ears together, and assuming a solemn air, 4 drop their 
 tails, tuck them between their legs, and scour along the line. 
 Many do nothing of the sort. 6 They tear madly about, 
 babbling round the line when they light upon it, and sense- 
 lessly trampling out the scent. Others again will make 
 wide circuits and excursions ; either forecasting the line, 6 
 they overshoot it and leave the hare itself behind, or every 
 time they run against the line they fall to conjecture, and 
 when they catch sight of the quarry are all in a tremor, 7 and 
 will not advance a step till they see the creature begin to stir. 
 
 A particular sort may be described as hounds which, when 
 hunting or pursuing, run forward with a frequent eye to the 
 discoveries of the rest of the pack, because they have no con- 
 fidence in themselves. Another sort is over-confident — not 
 letting the cleverer members of the pack go on ahead, but keep- 
 ing them back with nonsensical clamour. Others will wilfully 
 hug every false scent, 8 and with a tremendous display of 
 eagerness, whatever they chance upon, will take the lead, con- 
 
 1 Or, ' ' Nor will courage compensate for unsound feet. The toil and moil 
 will be too great to endure, and owing to the pains in his feet he will in the 
 end give in." 
 
 2 Or, "Also the same dogs will exhibit many styles of coursing : one set 
 as soon as they have got the trail pursue it without a sign, so there is no means 
 of finding out that the animal is on the track." 
 
 3 "Stern." 
 
 4 Or, " with their noses solemnly fixed on the ground and sterns 
 lowered." 
 
 6 Or, " have quite a different action " ; " exhibit quite another manner." 
 
 6 i.e. "they cast forward to make short cuts," of skirters too lazy to run 
 the line honestly. 
 
 7 Reading Tpi/tovm, "fall a-trembling " ; al. drpi/iovai, "stand stock- 
 still" ; i.e. are "dwellers." 
 
 8 Al. " seem to take pleasure in fondling every lie. " 
 
82 ON HUNTING ch. in. § 7-10 
 
 scious all the while they are playing false; 1 whilst another 
 sort again will behave in precisely similar style out of sheer 
 ignorance. 2 It is a poor sort of hound which will not leave 
 a stale line 3 for want of recognising the true trail. So, 
 too, a hound that cannot distinguish the trail leading to a 
 hare's form, and scampers over that of a running hare, hot 
 haste, is no thoroughbred. 4 
 
 When it comes to the actual chase, some hounds will show 
 great ardour at first starting, but presently give up from weak- 
 ness of spirit. Others will run in too hastily 6 and then balk ; 
 while others again will tumble idiotically into the high road 
 and go hopelessly astray, as if they had lost the sense of hear- 
 ing altogether. 
 
 Many a hound will give up the chase and return from mere 
 distaste for hunting, 6 and not a few from pure affection for 
 mankind. Others with their clamorous yelping on the line 
 do their best to deceive, as if true and false were all one to 
 them. 7 There are others that will not do that, but which in 
 the middle of their running, 8 should they catch the echo of a 
 sound from some other quarter, will leave their own business 
 and incontinently tear off towards it. 9 The fact is, 10 they 
 
 1 Or, ' ' fully aware themselves that the whole thing is a make-believe. " 
 '' Or, "do exactly the same because they do not know any better." 
 8 {k t&v rpi/i-fuir). Lit. " keep away from beaten paths," and commonly 
 of footpaths (see below, v. 18, vi. 9), but here, as in iv. 3 below, apparently 
 of the hare's habitual "run," not necessarily lately traversed, still less the true 
 line. Cf. below, v. 6 ; vi. 14; viii. 3. Cf. "musets." 
 
 4 Lit. ' ' A dog who on the one hand ignores the form track, and on the 
 other tears swiftly over a running track, is not a well-bred dog." Al. to, 
 eivcua, " traces of the form " ; Td.8pofw.1a, " tracks of a running hare. " See 
 Sturz, s.v. Spo/mws. Below, v. 7. 
 
 6 So L. & S., ivoBiovaiv = " cut in before" the rest of the pack and over- 
 run the scent. Al. " flash in for a time, and then lose the scent. " 
 
 6 Or, \ua6Bi\pov, " out of antipathy to the quarry." For tpCkavBpoyirov cf. 
 Pollux, ib. 64 ; Hermog. ap. L. Dind. 
 
 7 Or, "unable apparently to distinguish false from true." See Sturz, s.v. 
 irmeurBat. Cf. Plut. de Exil. 6. Al. " Gaily substituting false for true. " 
 
 8 " In the heat of the chase. " 9 " Rush to attack it." 
 
 10 The fact is, there are as many different modes of following up the chase 
 almost as there are dogs. Some follow up the chase daa<pQs, indistinctly ; 
 some 7ro\i> viroKafi^dvovo-ai, with a good deal of guess-work ; others again 
 Sofafowrai, without conviction, insincerely ; others, weTrXaaiiAvws, out of 
 mere pretence, pure humbug, make-believe, or <j>9ovep£s, in a fit of jealousy, 
 £kkvi>ov{tl, are skirters ; al. iKmvovai, Sturz, quit the scent. 
 
ch.'.v.'I, 10 '" } PHYSICAL AND MORAL DEFECTS 83 
 
 run on without clear motive, some of them ; others taking too 
 much for granted ; and a third set to suit their whims and 
 fancies. Others simply play at hunting; or from pure 
 jealousy, keep questing about beside the line, continually 
 rushing along and tumbling over one another. 1 
 
 The majority of these defects are due to natural dis- 
 position, though some must be assigned no doubt to want of 
 scientific training. In either case such hounds are useless, and 
 may well deter the keenest sportsman from the hunting field. 2 
 
 The characteristics, bodily and other, exhibited by the finer 
 specimens of the same breed, 3 I will now set forth. 
 
 iv. — In the first place, this true type of hound should be 
 of large build ; and, in the next place, furnished with a light 
 small head, broad and flat in the snout, 4 well knit and 
 sinewy, the lower part of the forehead puckered into strong 
 wrinkles; eyes set well up 5 in the head, black and bright; 
 forehead large and broad; the depression between the eyes 
 pronounced ; 6 ears long 7 and thin, without hair on the 
 under side ; neck long and flexible, freely moving on its 
 pivot; 8 chest broad and fairly fleshy; shoulder-blades detached 
 a little from the shoulders ; 9 the shin-bones of the fore-legs 
 should be small, straight, round, stout, and strong ; the elbows 
 straight ; ribs 10 not deep all along, but sloped away obliquely ; 
 
 1 Al. " unceasingly tearing along, around, and about it." 
 
 2 Or, " Naturally dogs like these damp the sportsman's ardour, and indeed 
 are enough to sicken him altogether with the chase. " 
 
 3 Or, "The features, points, qualities, whether physical or other, which 
 characterise the better individuals." But what does Xenophon mean by toO 
 aiirou y^vovs ? 
 
 4 Pollux, v. 7 ; Arrian, Cyn. iv. 
 
 s periwpn, prominent. PSeeSturz, s.v. 
 
 6 rets Siaxplcreis ftadetas, lit. ' ' with a deep frontal sinus. " 
 
 7 Reading /hoik pa, or if /uxpd, "small." 
 
 8 A I. " well rounded. " 
 
 9 ' ' Shoulder-blades standing out a little from the shoulders " ; i.e. " free. " 
 
 10 i.e. " not wholly given up to depth, but well curved" ; depth is not 
 everything unless the ribs be also curved. Schneid. cf. Ov. Met. iii. 216, 
 "et substricta gerens Sicyonius ilia Ladon," where the poet is perhaps 
 describing a greyhound, " chyned like a bream." See Stonehenge, pp. 21, 
 22. Xenophon's " Castorians " were more like the Welsh harrier in build, 
 I presume. 
 
84 ON HUNTING ch. iv. § 1-4 
 
 the loins muscular, in size a mean between long and short, 
 neither too flexible nor too stiff; 1 flanks, a mean between 
 large and small ; the hips (or " couples ") rounded, fleshy 
 behind, not tied together above, but firmly knitted on the 
 inside ; 2 the lower or under part of the belly 3 slack, and the 
 belly itself the same, that is, hollow and sunken ; tail long, 
 straight, and pointed ; * thighs (i.e. hams) stout and compact ; 
 shanks (i.e. lower thighs) long, round, and solid; hind-legs 
 much longer than the fore-legs, and relatively lean ; feet round 
 and cat-like. 5 
 
 Hounds possessed of these points will be strong in build, 
 and at the same time light and active ; they will have sym- 
 metry at once and pace ; a bright, beaming expression ; and 
 good mouths. 
 
 In following up scent, 6 see how they show their mettle by 
 rapidly quitting beaten paths, keeping their heads sloping to 
 the ground, smiling, as it were, to greet the trail ; see how 
 they let their ears drop, how they keep moving their eyes to 
 and fro quickly, flourishing their sterns. 7 Forwards they 
 should go with many a circle towards the hare's form, 8 steadily 
 guided by the line, all together. When they are close to the 
 hare itself, they will make the fact plain to the huntsman by 
 the quickened pace at which they run, as if they would let 
 him know by their fury, by the motion of head and eyes, by 
 rapid changes of gait and gesture, 9 now casting a glance back 
 and now fixing their gaze steadily forward to the creature's 
 
 1 Or, " neither soft and spongy nor unyielding." See Stonehenge, p. 23. 
 
 2 " Drawn up underneath," lit. "tucked up." 
 
 3 A I. "flank," " flanks themselves. " 
 
 4 Or, as we should say, "stern." See Pollux, v. 59 I Arrian, v. 9. 
 
 5 See Stonehenge, p. 24 foil. 
 
 6 Lit. "Let them follow up the trail" ; and for "beaten paths," see 
 above, iii. 7, note 3. 
 
 7 Lit. " fawning and wagging their tails. " 
 
 8 Lit. "bed" or "lair." 
 
 9 Or, ' ' by rapid shiftings of attitude, by looks now thrown backward and 
 now forwards to the ..." Reading koX dirb tSsv dva^Xe/Mfidruv ml 
 i/j.^\e/j,fj,druv twv iirl rds xadebpas tou X. , or if with L. D. , ko.1 airo twv 
 a. Kal tppXefifiaTaji/ els tt\v OXtjv koX dvacrTpefifmruv tujv tirl rds k., 
 transl. ' ' now looking back at the huntsman and now staring hard into the 
 covert, and again right-about-face in the direction of the hare's sitting- 
 place. ' 
 
ch. IV . § 4.8 DESCRIPTION OF A GOOD HOUND 85 
 
 hiding-place, 1 by twistings and turnings of the body, flinging 
 themselves backwards, forwards, and sideways, and lastly, by 
 the genuine exaltation of spirits, visible enough now, and the> 
 ecstasy of their pleasure, that they are close upon the quarry. 
 
 Once she is off, the pack should pursue with vigour. 2 
 They must not relax their hold, but with yelp and bark full 
 cry insist on keeping close and dogging puss at every turn. 
 Twist for twist and turn for turn, they, too, must follow in a 
 succession of swift and brilliant bursts, interrupted by frequent 
 doublings ; while ever and again they give tongue and yet 
 again till the very welkin rings. 3 One thing they must not do, 
 and that is, leave the scent and return crestfallen to the 
 huntsman. 4 
 
 Along with this build and method of working, hounds 
 should possess four points. They should have pluck, sound 
 feet, keen noses, and sleek coats. The spirited, plucky hound 
 will prove his mettle by refusing to leave the chase, however 
 stifling the weather ; a good nose is shown by his capacity for 
 scenting the hare on barren and dry ground exposed to the 
 sun, and that when the orb is at the zenith ; 5 soundness of 
 foot in the fact that the dog may course over mountains 
 during the same season, and yet his feet will not be torn to 
 pieces ; and a good coat means the possession of light, thick, 
 soft, and silky hair. 6 
 
 As to the colour proper for a hound, 7 it should not be 
 simply tawny, nor absolutely black or white, which is not a 
 sign of breeding, but monotonous — a simplicity suggestive of 
 the wild animal. 8 Accordingly the red dog should show a 
 
 1 Lit. "form" ; "the place where puss is seated." 
 
 2 Lit. "let them follow up the chase vigorously, and not relax, with 
 yelp and bark." 
 
 3 dtKalois, Sturz, " non temere"; "and not without good reason." Al. 
 " a right good honest salvo of barks, and . . 
 
 4 Lit. "Let them not hark back to join the huntsman, and desert the 
 trail." 
 
 6 i.e. "at mid-day"; or, " in the height of summer " ; al. "during the 
 dog-days " ; " at the rising of the dog-star. " 
 
 6 See Pollux, ib. 59 ; Arrian, vi. 1. 
 
 7 See Stonehenge, p. 25 ; Darwin, op. cit. ii. 109. 
 
 8 But see Pollux, ib. 65, who apparently read yevvaiov toOto t6 airKovv 
 dXXA flijpifiSes ; al. Arrian, vi. See Jacques du Fouilloux, La Vinerie (ap. 
 E. Talbot, CEuvres computes de Xinophon, traduction, ii. 318). 
 
86 ON HUNTING {£."'£*'"' 
 
 bloom of white hair about the muzzle, and so should the 
 black, the white commonly showing red. On the top of the 
 thigh the hair should be straight and thick, as also on the 
 loins and on the lower portion of the stern, but of a moderate 
 thickness only on the upper parts. 
 
 There is a good deal to be said for taking your hounds 
 frequently into the mountains; not so much for taking 
 them on to cultivated land. 1 And for this reason : 
 the fells offer facilities for hunting and for following the 
 quarry without interruption, while cultivated land, owing to 
 the number of cross roads and beaten paths, presents oppor- 
 tunity for neither. Moreover, quite apart from finding a hare, it 
 is an excellent thing to take your dogs on to rough ground. 
 It is there they will become sound of foot, and in general the 
 benefit to their physique in working over such ground will 
 amply repay you. 2 
 
 . They should be taken out in summer till mid-day ; in 
 winter from sunrise to sundown ; in autumn any time except 
 mid-day; and in spring any time before evening. These times 
 will hit the mean of temperature. 3 
 
 v. — The tracks of hares are long in winter owing to the 
 length of night, and short for the opposite reason during 
 summer. In winter, however, their scent does not lie in early 
 morning, when the rime is on the ground, or earth is frozen. 4 
 The fact is, hoar frost by its own inherent force absorbs its 
 heat, whilst black frost freezes it. 5 
 
 The hounds, moreover, with their noses nipped by the cold, 6 
 cannot under these conditions 7 use their sense of smell, until 
 the sun or the mere advance of day dissolves the scent. Then 
 
 1 Or, " pretty often, and less frequently over. " 
 
 2 Lit. ' ' they must be benefited in their bodies generally by working over 
 such ground." 
 
 3 Or, "You may count on a moderate temperature at these times." 
 
 4 Or, "when there is hoar frost or black frost " (lit. " ice "). 
 
 5 Or, "the ice congeals them," "encases as it were in itself the heat," 
 i.e. the warm scent ; aliter, " causes the tracks to freeze at the top." 
 
 6 Reading /ittAnwucu, Cobet, N. Led. 131. Mnem. 3, 306 ; Rutherford, 
 N. Phry. p. 135. =" nipped, or numb with cold." For vulg. /w.\a.Kiw<rat 
 = ' ' whose noses are tender," see Lenz ad loc. 
 
 7 Lit. ' ' when the tracks are in this case. " 
 
ch. v. §2.5 CONCERNING HARES 87 
 
 the noses of the hounds recover, and the scent of the trail 
 begins to exhale itself perceptibly. 1 
 
 Heavy dews also will obliterate scent by its depressing 
 effect ; 2 and rains occurring after long intervals, while bringing 
 out odours from the earth, 3 will render the soil bad for scent 
 until it dries again. Southerly winds will not improve 
 scent — being moisture - laden they disperse it; whereas 
 northerly winds, provided the scent has not been previously 
 destroyed, tend to fix and preserve it. Rains will drown 
 and wash it away, and so will drizzle ; while the moon by 
 her heat 4 — especially a full moon — will dull its edge ; in fact 
 the trail is rarest — most irregular 6 — at such times, for the 
 hares in their joy at the light with frolic and gambol 6 literally 
 throw themselves high into the air and set long intervals 
 between one footfall and another. Or again, the trail will 
 become confused and misleading when crossed by that of 
 foxes. 7 
 
 Spring with its tempered mildness is the season to render 
 the scent clear, except where possibly the soil, bursting with 
 flowers, may mislead the pack, by mingling the perfume of 
 flowers with the true scent. 8 In summer scent is thin and 
 indistinct ; the earth being baked through and through absorbs 
 the thinner warmth inherent in the trail, while the dogs them- 
 selves are less keen scented at that season through the general 
 relaxation of their bodies. 9 In autumn scent lies clean, 
 all the products of the soil by that time, if cultivable, being 
 already garnered, or, if wild, withered away with age, so that 
 the odours of various fruits are no longer a disturbing cause 
 through blowing on to the line. 10 In winter, summer, and 
 
 1 As it evaporates. A liter, "is perceptible to smell as it is wafted by the 
 breeze to greet them." 2 Cf. Plut. Q. Nat. 917 F, ap. Schneid. 
 
 3 Cf. Theophr. C. PI. xix. 5, 6 ; xx. 4. 
 
 4 Reading rtf 0epfi$. Aristot. Gen. An. iv. 10. Zeune cf. Plut. Symp. 
 iii. 10, 657. Macrob. Sat. vii. 16 ; Athen. 276 E. Al. rb 0ep/i6v, as below, 
 § 5. See Lenz ad loc. " the moon, especially a full moon, dulls the heat (or 
 odour) of the tracks." 6 Cf. Poll. v. 67 ; it. 66. 
 
 6 " Playing with one another, in the rivalry of sport." 
 
 7 Lit. " when foxes have gone through before. " 
 
 8 i.e. " with the scent into a composite and confusing whole." 
 
 9 Or, ' ' owing to the relaxed condition of their frames. " 
 
 10 Lit. " The fruity odours do not, as commingling currents, injure the rail. " 
 
88 ON HUNTING ch. v. § 5-10 
 
 autumn, moreover, as opposed to spring, the trail of a hare lies 
 for the most part in straight lines, but in the earlier season it 
 is highly complicated, for the little creatures are perpetually 
 coupling and particularly at this season, so that of necessity 
 as they roam together for the purpose they make the line 
 intricate as described. 
 
 The scent of the line leading to the hare's form lies longer 
 than that of a hare on the run, and for this reason : in proceed- 
 ing to her form the hare keeps stopping, 1 the other is in rapid 
 motion ; consequently, the ground in the one case is thickly 
 saturated all along with scent, in the other sparsely and 
 superficially. So, too, scent lies better in woody than 
 on barren ground, since, whilst running to and fro or 
 sitting up, the creature comes in contact with a variety of 
 objects. Everything that earth produces or bears upon her 
 bosom will serve as puss's resting-place. These are her screen, 
 her couch, her canopy ; 2 apart, it may be, or close at hand, or 
 at some middle point, among them she lies ensconced. At 
 times, with an effort taxing all her strength, she will spring 
 across to where some jutting point or clinging undergrowth on 
 sea or freshet may attract her. 
 
 The couching hare 3 constructs her form for the most 
 part in sheltered spots during cold weather and in shady 
 thickets during the hot season, but in spring and autumn 
 on ground exposed to the sun. Not so the running 4 animal, 
 for the simple reason that she is scared out of her wits 
 by the hounds. 6 
 
 In reclining the hare draws up the thighs under the 
 flanks, 7 putting its fore-legs together, as a rule, and stretching 
 them out, resting its chin on the tips of its feet. It spreads 
 
 1 ' ' The form tracks are made by the hare leisurely proceeding and 
 stopping at times ; those on the run quickly." 
 
 2 Lit. "Anything and everything will serve to couch under, or above, 
 within, beside, now at some distance off, and now hard by, and now midway 
 between." 
 
 3 ' ' The form-frequenting hare. " 
 
 4 "Her roving congener," i.e. the hunted hare that squats. The dis- 
 tinction drawn is between the form chosen by the hare for her own comfort, 
 and her squatting-place to escape the hounds when hunted. 
 
 6 i.e. " the dogs have turned her head and made her as mad as a March 
 hare." 1 Pollux, v. 72. 
 
ch. v. § IO -i6 HABITS OF THE ANIMAL 89 
 
 its ears out over the shoulder-blades, and so shelters the 
 tender parts of its body; its hair serves as a protection, 1 
 being thick and of a downy texture. When awake it keeps 
 on blinking its eyelids, 2 but when asleep the eyelids remain 
 wide open and motionless, and the eyes rigidly fixed ; during 
 sleep it moves its nostrils frequently, if awake less often. 
 
 When the earth is bursting with new verdure, 3 fields and 
 farm-lands rather than mountains are their habitat. 4 When 
 tracked by the huntsman their habit is everywhere to await 
 approach, except only in case of some excessive scare during 
 the night, in which case they will be on the move. 
 
 The fecundity of the hare is extraordinary. The female, 
 having produced one litter, is on the point of producing a 
 second when she is already impregnated for a third. 5 
 
 The scent of the leveret lies stronger 6 than that of the 
 grown animal. While the limbs are still soft and supple they trail 
 full length on the ground. Every true sportsman, however, 
 will leave these quite young creatures to roam freely. 7 " They 
 are for the goddess." Full-grown yearlings will run their first 
 chase very swiftly, 8 but they cannot keep up the pace ; in 
 spite of agility they lack strength. 
 
 To find the trail you must work the dogs downwards 
 through the cultivated lands, beginning at the top. Any hares 
 that do not come into the tilled districts must be sought in 
 the meadows and the glades ; near rivulets, among the stones, 
 or in woody ground. If the quarry makes off, 9 there should 
 be no shouting, that the hounds may not grow too eager and 
 fail to discover the line. When found by the hounds, and the 
 chase has begun, the hare will at times cross streams, bend 
 and double and creep for shelter into clefts and crannied 
 
 1 Or, "as a waterproof." 2 So Pollux, ib. 
 
 3 ■ ■ When the ground teems with vegetation. " 
 
 4 Or, " they frequent cultivated lands," etc. 
 
 6 Re hyper-foetation cf. Pollux, v. 73, ap. Schneid. ; Herod, iii. 108 ; 
 Aristot. H. A. iv. 5 ; Eratosthenes, Catasterism, 34 ; Aelian, V. H. ii. 12 ; 
 Plin. N. H. viii. 55. 
 
 6 Cf. Pollux, v. 74. 
 
 7 aipiaai, cf. Arrian, xxii. 1, "let them go free"; Aesch. P. V. 666; 
 Plat. Prot. 320 A. 
 
 8 Or, " will make the running over the first ring. " 
 
 9 Or, "shifts her ground." 
 
 VOL. Ill 2 H 
 
90 ON HUNTING ch. v. § 16-21 
 
 lurking-places ; l since they have not only the hounds to dread, 
 but eagles also ; and, so long as they are yearlings, are apt 
 to be carried off in the clutches of these birds, in the act of 
 crossing some slope or bare hillside. When they are bigger they 
 have the hounds after them to hunt them down and make away 
 with them. The fleetest-footed would appear to be those of 
 the hills, those of the flats are less so, and the slowest those of 
 the low marsh lands. The vagabond kind 2 addicted to every 
 sort of ground are difficult to hunt, for they know the short 
 cuts, running chiefly up steeps or across flats, over inequalities 
 unequally, and downhill scarcely at all. 
 
 Whilst being hunted they are most visible in crossing ground 
 that has been turned up by the plough, if, that is, they have 
 any trace of red about them, or through stubble, owing to 
 reflection. So, too, they are visible enough on beaten paths or 
 roads, presuming these are fairly level, since the bright hue of 
 their coats lights up by contrast. On the other hand, they are 
 not noticeable when they seek the cover of rocks, hills, screes, 
 or scrub, owing to similarity of colour. Getting a fair start of 
 the hounds, they will stop short, sit up and raise themselves up 
 on their haunches, 3 and listen for any bark or other clamour of 
 the hounds hard by ; and when the sound reaches them, off 
 and away they go. At times, too, without hearing, merely 
 fancying or persuading themselves that they hear the hounds, 
 they will fall to skipping backwards and forwards along or 
 across the same trail, 4 interchanging leaps, and interlacing 
 lines of scent, 6 and so make off and away. 
 
 These animals will give the longest run when found upon 
 the open, there being nothing there to screen the view ; the 
 shortest run when started out of thickets, where the very dark- 
 ness is an obstacle. 
 
 1 Or, ' ' in their terror not of dogs only, but of eagles, since up to a 
 year old they are liable to be seized by these birds of prey while crossing some 
 bottom or bare ground, while if bigger . . ." 
 
 2 oi . . . irXavTJTai, see Ael. op. cit. xiii. 14. 
 
 3 Cf. the German "Mannerchen machen," "play the mannikin." Shaks. 
 V. and A. 697 foil. 
 
 4 Passage imitated by Arrian, xvi. 1. Cf. vi. 5 below. 
 
 6 Lit. "imprinting track upon track," but it is better perhaps to avoid 
 the language of woodcraft at this point. 
 
ch. v. § 22-26 TWO KINDS OF HARE 91 
 
 There are two distinct kinds of hare — the big kind, 
 which is somewhat dark in colour * with a large white patch 
 on the forehead ; and the smaller kind, which is yellow-brown 
 with only a little white. The tail of the former kind is 
 variegated in a circle ; of the other, white at the side. 2 
 The eyes of the large kind are slightly inclined to gray; 3 
 of the smaller, bluish. The black about the tips of the 
 ears is largely spread in the one, but slightly in the other 
 species. Of these two species, the smaller is to be met with in 
 most of the islands, desert and inhabited alike. As regards 
 numbers they are more abundant in the islands than on the 
 mainland ; the fact being that in most of these there are no 
 foxes to attack and carry off either the grown animal or its 
 young ; nor yet eagles, whose habitat is on lofty mountains 
 rather than the lower type of hills which characterise the 
 islands. 4 Again, sportsmen seldom visit the desert islands, 
 and as to those which are inhabited, the population is but thinly 
 scattered and the folk themselves not addicted to the chase ; 
 while in the case of the sacred islands, 5 the importation of 
 dogs is not allowed. If, then, we consider what a small propor- 
 tion of hares existent at the moment will be hunted down and 
 again the steady increase of the stock through reproduction, 
 the enormous numbers will not be surprising. 6 
 
 The hare has not a keen sight for many reasons. To 
 begin with, its eyes are set too prominently on the skull, 
 and the eyelids are clipped and blear, 7 and afford no protec- 
 tion to the pupils. 8 Naturally the sight is indistinct and 
 
 1 MirepKvot.. Cf. Pollux, v. 67 foil., " mottled with black. " Blane. 
 
 2 Reading irapaaapov, perhaps " mottled" ; vulg. irapa<rqpov. Al. irapa- 
 ffvpov, " 6court£e," Gail. 
 
 3 iiroxdpoiroi, "subfulvi," Sturz, i.e. "inclined to tawny"; al. "fairly 
 lustrous." Cf. ijj.iia.Ti. pM y\avKas x a P mr & TE P a 7roXXii' 'ASdvas, Theocr. xx. 
 25 ; but see Aristot. H. A. i. 10 ; Gen. An. v. 1, 20. 
 
 4 Lit. "and those on the islands are for the most part of low altitude." 
 
 6 e.g. Delos. See Strab. x. 456 ; Plut. Mor. 290 B ; and so Lagia, 
 Plin. iv. 12. 
 
 6 Lit. "As the inhabitants hunt down but a few of them, these constantly 
 being added to by reproduction, there must needs be a large number of 
 them." 
 
 1 Or, "defective." 
 
 8 Al. " against the sun's rays." 
 
92 ON HUNTING ch. v. §27-30 
 
 purblind. 1 Along with which, although asleep, for the most 
 part it does not enjoy visual repose. 2 Again, its very fleetness 
 of foot contributes largely towards dim-sightedness. It can 
 only take a rapid glance at things in passing, and then off 
 before perceiving what the particular object is. 3 
 
 The alarm, too, of those hounds for ever at its heels pur- 
 suing combines with everything* to rob the creature of all 
 prescience; so that for this reason alone it will run its 
 head into a hundred dangers unawares, and fall into the 
 toils. If it held on its course uphill, 6 it would seldom meet 
 with such a fate; but now, through its propensity to circle 
 round and its attachment to the place where it was born 
 and bred, it courts destruction. Owing to its speed it is not 
 often overtaken by the hounds by fair hunting. 6 When 
 caught, it is the victim of a misfortune alien to its physical 
 nature. 
 
 The fact is, there is no other animal of equal size which 
 is at all its match in speed. Witness the conformation of its 
 body : the light, small drooping head [narrow in front] ; 7 
 the [thin cylindrical] 8 neck, not stiff and of a moderate 
 length; straight shoulder-blades, loosely slung above; the 
 fore-legs attached to them, light and set close together ; 9 the 
 undistended chest ; 10 the light symmetrical sides ; the supple, 
 well-rounded loins ; the fleshy buttocks ; the somewhat sunken 
 flanks ; u the hips, well rounded, plump at every part, but 
 with a proper interval above ; the long and solid thighs, on 
 the outside tense and not too flabby on the inside; the 
 
 1 Or, " dull and mal-concentrated. " See Pollux, v. 69. 
 
 2 i.e. "its eyes are not rested, because it sleeps with them open." 
 
 3 i.e. "it goes so quick, that before it can notice what the particular 
 object is, it must avert its gaze to the next, and then the next, and so on." 
 
 4 /ierd roirwv, sc. " with these other causes " ; al. " with the dogs " ; i.e. 
 "like a second nightmare pack." 
 
 6 Reading 6p8iov, or if 6pB6v, transl. " straight on. " 
 
 6 xari ir6das, i.e. "by running down"; cf. Mem. II. vi. 9; Cyrop. I. 
 vi. 40, re two kinds of hound : the one for scent, the other for speed. 
 
 7 Reading Karuipepij [orejWji' Ik tov HixwpoaBev]. See Lenz ad loc. pp. 
 23, 24. Pollux, v. 69. 
 
 8 Reading [Xeirrov, 7repi0e/»}]. 
 
 9 aiyxuka, al. ' ' compactly knit. " 
 
 10 Lit. oi fSapirovov, "not deep sounding "= oi capKudes, Pollux, it. 
 
 11 Reading \a.yova.s iypds Xayapds Ixavois. 
 
ch.v.§ 3 o-34 PHYSICAL CONFORMATION 93 
 
 long, stout lower legs or shanks; the fore-feet, exceedingly 
 pliant, thin, and straight; the hind-feet firm and broad; 
 front and hind alike totally regardless of rough ground ; the 
 hind-legs far longer than the fore, inclined outwards somewhat ; 
 the fur x short and light. 
 
 I say an animal so happily constructed must needs be 
 strong and pliant; the perfection of lightness and agility. 
 If proof of this lightness and agility be needed, here is a fact 
 in illustration. When proceeding quietly, its method of 
 progression is by leaps : no one ever saw or is likely to see 
 a hare walking. What it does is to place the hind-feet in 
 front of the fore-feet and outside them, and so to run, if 
 running one can call it. The action prints itself off plainly on 
 snow. The tail is not conducive to swiftness of pace, being 
 ill adapted by its stumpiness to act as a rudder to direct 
 the body. The animal has to do this by means of one or 
 other ear; 2 as may be seen, when she is on the point 
 of being caught by the hounds. 3 At that instant you may 
 see her drop and shoot out aslant one of her ears towards 
 the point of attack, and then, apparently throwing her full 
 weight on that pivot, turn sharp round and in a moment leave 
 her assailants far behind. 
 
 So winsome a creature is it, that to note the whole of 
 the proceedings from the start — the quest by scent, the 
 find, the pack in pursuit full cry, the final capture — a man 
 might well forget all other loves. 4 
 
 Here it should be added that the sportsman, who finds 
 himself on cultivated lands, should rigidly keep his hands 
 off the fruits of the season, and leave springs and streams 
 alone. To meddle with them is ugly and base, not to speak 
 of the bad example of lawlessness set to the beholder. 
 During the close season 6 all hunting gear should be taken 
 down and put away. 
 
 1 Tplx^l^" " the coat. " 
 
 2 So Ael. N. A. xiii. 14. 
 
 3 Pollux, v. 71. For punctuation, see Lenz ad loc. p. 25. 
 
 4 See Arrian, xvi. 6, his criticism. Schneid. cf. Plut. Mor. 1096 c. 
 Hermog. iii. 319. 11, ed. Walz. 
 
 6 Al. "wahrend der Jagdferien," Lenz; "on Sundays," as we might 
 say. See some remarks on § 34 in Hellenica Essays, " Xenophon," p. 349. 
 
94 ON HUNTING ch. vi. § 1-5 
 
 vi. — The equipment of the dogs consists of collar straps, 
 leashes, and surcingles, 1 and the collar should be broad and 
 soft so as not to rub the dog's coat ; the leash should have a 
 noose for the hand, 2 and nothing else. The plan of making 
 collar and leash all in one is a clumsy contrivance for keeping 
 a hound in check. 3 The surcingle should be broad in the 
 thongs so as not to gall the hound's flanks, and with spurs 
 stitched on to the leather, to preserve the purity of the 
 breed. 4 
 
 As to taking the hounds out to hunt, no hound ought to be 
 taken out which refuses its food, a conclusive proof that the 
 animal is ailing. Nor again, when a violent wind is blowing, 
 for three good reasons : the scent will not lie, the hounds 
 cannot smell, 5 neither the nets nor hayes will stand. In 
 the absence, however, of any of these hindrances, take 
 them out every other day. 6 Do not let your hounds get into 
 the habit of hunting foxes. Nothing is so ruinous ; and just 
 at the moment when you want them, they will not be forth- 
 coming. On the other hand, vary the hunting-ground in 
 taking them out ; which will give the pack a wider experience 
 in hunting and their master a better knowledge of the country. 
 The start should be early in the morning, unless the scent is 
 to fail the hounds entirely. 7 The dilatory sportsman robs the 
 pack of finding and himself of profit 8 Subtle and delicate 
 by nature, scent will not last all day. 
 
 The net -keeper should wear a light costume. His 
 business is to fix the nets about the runs, 9 paths, bends, and 
 hollows, and darksome spots, brooks, dry torrents, or peren- 
 nial mountain streams. These are the places to which 
 
 1 ffTeXfwvttu, al. Te\a/uovlai, broad belts or girths, corselets. Pollux, v. 55. 
 
 2 Pollux, v. 56. 
 
 3 Lit. ' ' since those who make the collar out of the leash do not keep 
 hold [al. take care) of their hounds well." 
 
 4 See "A Day with Xenophon's Harriers," Macmillaris Mag. Jan. 1895, 
 p. 183. 
 
 5 "You cannot trust the hound's nose." 
 
 6 ' ' Every third day," Sid, Tpirijs rfjs ii/iifias. 
 
 7 Lit. _' ' in order that they may not be deprived of following up the scent. " 
 
 8 Or, ' ' a late start means the hounds will be robbed of a find and the 
 huntsman of his reward." 
 
 9 See Pollux, v. 35. 
 
ch. vi. § 6-10 DUTY OF THE NET-KEEPER 
 
 95 
 
 the hare chiefly betakes itself for refuge ; though there are of 
 course endless others. These, and the side passages into, 
 and exits from them, whether well marked or ill denned, 
 are to be stopped just as day breaks; not too early, so 
 that, in case the line of nets be in the neighbourhood 
 of covert to be searched for game, 1 the animal may not be 
 scared at hearing the thud close by. 2 If,, on the contrary, 
 there should be a wide gap between the two points, there is 
 less to hinder making the net lines clear and clean quite early, 
 so that nothing may cling to them. The keeper must fix the 
 forked props slantwise, so as to stand the strain when sub- 
 jected to tension. He must attach the nooses equally on the 
 points ; and see that the props are regularly fixed, raising the 
 pouch towards the middle ; 3 and into the slip-rope he must 
 insert a large, long stone, to prevent the net from stretching 
 in the opposite direction, when it has got the hare inside. 
 He will fix the rows of poles with stretches of net sufficiently 
 high to prevent the creature leaping over. 4 In hunting, " no 
 procrastination " should be the motto, since it is sportsmanlike 
 at once and a proof of energy by all means to effect a capture 
 quickly. He will stretch the larger (haye) nets upon level 
 spaces ; and proceed to plant the road nets upon roads 
 and at converging points of tracks and footpaths ; 5 he must 
 attach the border-ropes to the ground, draw together the 
 elbows or side ends of the nets, fix the forked props between 
 the upper meshes, 6 adjust the skirting-ropes upon the tops, and 
 close up gaps. 
 
 Then he will play sentinel and go his rounds ; if a prop 
 or funnel wants supporting, he will set it up ; and when 
 the hare comes with the hounds behind her he will urge her 
 
 1 Al. "of the game to be hunted up." 
 
 2 ofioO, " e propinquo. " Schn. cf. Cyrop. III. i. 2 ; VI. iii. 7. 
 
 a Or, "giving the funnel or belly a lift in the middle." KEKpv<pa\ov, 
 Pollux, v. 31. See below, x. 7. 
 
 4 This sentence according to Lenz is out of its place, referring solely to the 
 haye nets ; the order of the words should be rh. §k SIktvo. Teu/trw 4v Awedots. 
 oToix'f^TW Si, k.t.\. If so, transl. "He should stretch the hayes on level 
 ground and fix, etc. ; The road nets should be planted . . . etc." 
 
 6 Al. "at convenient points or where paths converge." See Schneid. s.v. 
 (rupdipovTa. 
 
 * capSovlav, Pollux, v. 31. Al. " fixing the stakes between the edges. " 
 
96 ON HUNTING ch.vi. §i°-is 
 
 forwards to the toils, with shout and halloa thundering at 
 her heels. When she is fairly entangled, he is to calm the fury 
 of the hounds, without touching them, by soothing, encouraging 
 tones. He is also to signal to the huntsman with a shout, 
 that the quarry is taken, or has escaped this side or that, 
 or that he has not seen it, or where he last caught sight 
 of it. 1 
 
 The sportsman himself should sally forth in a loose, light 
 hunting dress, 2 and footgear 3 to match ; he should carry a 
 stout stick in his hand, the net-keeper following. They should 
 proceed to the hunting-field in silence, to prevent the hare, if 
 by chance there should be one close by, from making off at 
 the sound of voices. When they have reached the covert, 
 he will tie the hounds to trees, each separately, so that they 
 can be easily slipped from the leash, and proceed to fix the 
 nets, funnel and hayes, as above described. When that is 
 done, and while the net -keeper mounts guard, the master 
 himself will take the hounds and sally forth to rouse 
 the game. 4 Then with prayer and promise to Apollo 
 and to Artemis, our Lady of the Chase, 5 to share with 
 them the produce of spoil, he lets slip a single hound, the 
 cunningest at scenting of the pack. [If it be winter, the hour 
 will be sunrise, or if summer, before day-dawn, and in the 
 other seasons at some hour midway.] As soon as the hound 
 has unravelled the true line 6 he will let slip another ; and 
 then, if these carry on the line, at rapid intervals he will slip 
 the others one by one ; and himself follow, without too great 
 hurry, 7 addressing each of the dogs by name every now and 
 then, but not too frequently, for fear of over-exciting them 
 before the proper moment. 
 
 Meanwhile the hounds are busily at work ; onwards they 
 press with eager spirit, disentangling the line, double or treble, 
 
 1 Or, " ' caught,' ' escaped' (this side or that), ' not seen,' ' marked.' " 
 
 2 i)i).eKT)\iAvT)v=-nlgligi, plain, unpretentious. 
 
 3 Pollux, v. 1 8. 
 
 4 See above, v. 15 ; below, x. 4 ; al. " intent on the working of the pack." 
 
 5 " To thee thy share of this chase, Lord Apollo ; and thine to thee, 
 O Huntress Queen ! " 
 
 6 Or, " carries a line straight away from the many that interlace." 
 
 7 Or, "without forcing the pace." 
 
CH - VI - § '5-i8 A DAY'S HUNTING 97 
 
 as the case may be. 1 To and fro they weave a curious 
 web, 2 now across, now parallel with the line, 3 whose threads 
 are interlaced, here overlapped, and here revolving in a circle ; 
 now straight, now crooked; here close, there rare; at one time 
 clear enough, at another dimly owned. Past one another 
 the hounds jostle — tails waving fast, ears dropt, and eyes 
 flashing. 
 
 But when they are really close to the hare they will make 
 the matter plain to the huntsman by various signs — the 
 quivering of their bodies backwards and forwards, sterns and 
 all ; the ardour meaning business ; the rush and emulation ; 
 the hurry-scurry to be first ; the patient following-up of the 
 whole pack ; at one moment massed together, and at another 
 separated ; and once again the steady onward rush. At 
 last they have reached the hare's form, and are in the act 
 to spring upon her. But she on a sudden will start up and 
 bring about her ears the barking clamour of the whole pack as 
 she makes off full speed. Then as the chase grows hot, the 
 view halloo ! of the huntsman may be heard : " So ho, good 
 hounds ! that's she ! cleverly now, good hounds ! so ho, good 
 hounds !" 4 And so, wrapping his cloak 5 about his left arm, 
 and snatching up his club, he joins the hounds in the race 
 after the hare,- taking care not to get in their way, 6 which 
 would stop proceedings. 7 The hare, once off, is quickly out 
 of sight of her pursuers ; but, as a rule, will make a circuit 
 back to the place where she was found. 8 
 
 1 " Discovering two or three scents, as the case may be" ; " unravelling 
 her line, be it single or double." 
 
 2 irpotpopetaBai. = Sidfra-ffat, Pollux, vii. 52. Schneid. cf. Aristoph. 
 Birds, 4, diro\oi/j,e$' (JXXws rty bSbv irpot\>opovfukva. 
 
 Still up and down, old sinner, must we pace ; 
 
 'Twill kill us both, this vain, long, wearing race (Kennedy). 
 
 3 See above, v. 20 ; Arrian, xx. -z. 
 
 4 Reading lii nives, l& Kives, ao<pu>s ye & Kivcs, /raXffis 7e Si Kives. Al. 
 iio Kiives, to KaKus="To her, dogs! that won't do ! " "Ho, ho, Hunde ! 
 Ho, ho, falsch ! Recht so, Hunde ! schon so, Hunde ! " (Lenz). 
 
 5 S ainrtx*™ 1 - " the shawl or plaid which he carries on his shoulders." 
 See Pollux, v. 10. 
 
 6 "Not to head the chase." Sir Alex. Grant, Xen. p. 167. 
 
 7 &iropov, "which would be awkward" (see Arrian, xxv. 8). 
 
 e "Where the nets are set," Sir A. Grant. See his comment, I.e. 
 
98 ON HUNTING ="■ vi. § 18-22 
 
 He must shout then to the keeper, "Mark her, boy, 
 mark her ! hey, lad ! hey, lad ! " and the latter will make known 
 whether the hare is caught or not. Supposing the hare to be 
 caught in her first ring, the huntsman has only to call in 
 the hounds and beat up another. If not, his business is 
 to follow up the pack full speed, and not give in, but on 
 through thick and through thin, for toil is sweet. And if again 
 they chance upon her in the chevy, 1 his cheery shout will be 
 heard once more, " Right so ! right so, hounds ! forward on, 
 good hounds ! " 
 
 But if the pack have got too long a start of him, and he 
 cannot overtake them, however eagerly he follows up the 
 hunt, — perhaps he has altogether missed the chase, or even 
 if they are ranging close and giving tongue and sticking 
 to the scent, he cannot see them, — still as he tears along he 
 can interrogate the passer-by : " Hilloa there, have you seen 
 my hounds ? " he shouts, and having at length ascertained their 
 whereabouts, if they are on the line, he will post himself close 
 by, and cheer them on, repeating turn and turn about the 
 name of every hound, and pitching the tone of his voice sharp 
 or deep, soft or loud ; and besides all other familiar calls, if 
 the chase be on a hillside, 2 he can keep up their spirits 
 with a constant "Well done, good hounds! well done, good 
 hounds ! good hounds ! " Or if any are at fault, having 
 overshot the line, he will call to them, " Back, hounds ! 
 back, will you ! try back ! " 
 
 As soon as the hounds have got back to (where they 
 missed) the line, 3 he must cast them round, making many a 
 circle to and fro ; and where the line fails, he should plant a 
 stake 4 as a sign-post to guide the eye, and so cast round the 
 dogs from that point, 6 till they have found the right scent, with 
 coaxing and encouragement. As soon as the line of scent is 
 
 1 diravTcHo't. didjKovffat. cl{it6v, al. "come across the huntsman again." 
 
 2 Or, "if the chase sweeps over a mountain-side." 
 
 3 irpofftrrutrL, al. " whenever they check. " 
 
 4 Al. (1) " take a stake or one of the poles as a sign-post," (2) " draw a 
 line on the ground." 
 
 5 crvrdpeiv. Zeune cf. Cyrop. VII. v. 6, "draw the dogs along by the 
 nets." Blane. 
 
ch. vi. s 22-23 WITH THE HARRIERS 99 
 
 clear, 1 off go the dogs, throwing themselves on to it, springing 
 from side to side, swarming together, conjecturing, and giving 
 signs to one another, and taking bearings 2 they will not mis- 
 take — helter-skelter off they go in pursuit. Once they dart off 
 along the line of scent thus hotly, the huntsman should keep 
 up but without hurrying, or out of zeal they will overshoot the 
 line. As soon as they are once more in close neighbour- 
 hood of the hare, and once again have given their master 
 clear indications of the fact, then let him give what heed he 
 can, she does not move off farther in sheer terror of the 
 hounds. 
 
 They meanwhile, with sterns wagging, tumbling and leaping 
 over one another's backs, 3 at intervals loudly giving tongue, 
 and lifting up their heads and peering into their master's face, 
 as much as to say, " There is no mistake about it this time," 4 
 will presently of themselves start the hare and be after her 
 full cry, with bark and clamour. 6 Thereupon, whether the 
 hare falls into the toils of the funnel net or rushes past out- 
 side or inside, whatever incident betide, the net -keeper 
 must with a shout proclaim the fact. Should the hare be 
 caught, the huntsman has only to begin looking for another ; 
 if not, he must follow up the chase once more with like 
 encouragement. 
 
 When at length the hounds show symptoms of fatigue, 
 and it is already late in the day, the time has come for 
 the huntsman to look for his hare that lies dead-beat ; nor 
 must he wittingly leave any patch of green or clod of earth 
 untested. Backwards and forwards he must try and try again 
 the ground, 7 to be sure that nothing has been overlooked. 
 The fact is, the little creature lies in a small compass, and 
 from fatigue and fear combined will not get up. As he leads 
 
 1 " As the scent grows warmer," the translator in Macmillan's Mag. 
 above referred to. Aristot. H. A. ix. 44. 4. 
 
 2 Lit. " fixing landmarks for themselves. " 
 
 3 Or, "whisking their tails and frisking wildly, and jostling against one 
 another, and leaping over one another at a great rate." A I. "over one 
 obstacle and then another." 
 
 4 Or, "this is the true line at last." 
 
 5 Al. "with a crash of tongues. " 
 
 6 Lit. "anything which earth puts forth or bears upon her bosom." 
 
 7 Or, " Many and many a cast back must he make." 
 
loo ON HUNTING ch. vi. § 3S> 26 
 
 the hounds on he will cheer and encourage them, addressing 
 with many a soft term the docile creature, the self-willed, stub- 
 born brute more rarely, and to a moderate extent the hound of 
 average capacity, till he either succeeds in running down or 
 driving into the toils some victim. 1 After which he will pick 
 up his nets, both small and large alike, give every hound a 
 rub down, and return home from the hunting-field, taking 
 care, if it should chance to be a summer's noon, to halt a 
 bit, so that the feet of his hounds may not be blistered on the 
 road. 
 
 1 The famous stanzas in Venus and Adorns may fitly close this chapter. 
 
 And when thou hast on foot the purblind hare, 
 Mark the poor wretch, to overshoot his troubles 
 How he outruns the wind and with what care 
 He cranks and crosses with a thousand doubles : 
 
 The many musets through the which he goes 
 
 Are like a labyrinth to amaze his foes. 
 
 Sometime he runs among a flock of sheep, 
 To make the cunning hounds mistake their smell, 
 And sometime where earth-delving conies keep, 
 To stop the loud pursuers in their yell, 
 
 And sometime sorteth with a herd of deer : 
 
 Danger deviseth shifts ; wit waits on fear : 
 
 For there his smell with others being mingled, 
 The hot scent -snuffing hounds are driven to doubt, 
 Ceasing their clamorous cry till they have singled 
 With much ado the cold fault cleanly out ; 
 
 Then do they spend their mouths : Echo replies, 
 
 As if another chase were in the skies. 
 
 By this, poor Wat, far off upon a hill, 
 
 Stands on his hinder legs with listening ear, 
 
 To hearken if his foes pursue him still : 
 
 Anon their loud alarums he doth hear ; 
 
 And now his grief may be compared well 
 To one sore sick that hears the passing-bell. 
 
 Then shalt thou see the dew-bedabbled wretch 
 Turn, and return, indenting with the way ; 
 Each envious brier his weary legs doth scratch, 
 Each shadow makes him stop, each murmur stay : 
 
 For misery is trodden on by many, 
 
 And being low never relieved by any. 
 
ch. vii. § i. s NAMES FOR HOUNDS 101 
 
 vii. — For breeding purposes choose winter, and release the 
 bitches from hard work ; 1 which will enable them to profit 
 by repose and to produce a fine progeny towards spring, 
 since that season is the best to promote the growth of the 
 young dogs. The bitch is in heat for fourteen days, 2 and 
 the moment at which to put her to the male, with a view to 
 rapid and successful impregnation, is when the heat is passing 
 off. Choose a good dog for the purpose. When the bitch is 
 ready to whelp she should not be taken out hunting con- 
 tinuously, but at intervals sufficient to avoid a miscarriage 
 through her over-love of toil. The period of gestation lasts for 
 sixty days. When littered the puppies should be left to their 
 own dam, and not placed under another bitch ; foster- 
 nursing does not promote growth in the same way, whilst 
 nothing is so good for them as their own mother's milk and 
 her breath, 3 and the tenderness of her caresses. 4 
 
 Presently, when the puppies are strong enough to roam 
 about, they should be given milk 6 for a whole year, along 
 with what will form their staple diet in the future, but nothing 
 else. A heavy diet will distort the legs of a young dog, en- 
 gender disease in other limbs, and the internal mechanism will 
 get out of order. 6 
 
 They should have short names given them, which will be 
 easy to call out. 7 The following may serve as specimens : — 
 Psyche, Pluck, Buckler, Spigot, Lance, Lurcher, Watch, 
 Keeper, Brigade, Fencer, Butcher, Blazer, Prowess, Craftsman, 
 Forester, Counsellor, Spoiler, Hurry, Fury, Growler, Riot, 
 Bloomer, Rome, Blossom, Hebe, Hilary, Jollity, Gazer, Eye- 
 bright, Much, ■ Force, Trooper, Bustle, Bubbler, Rockdove, 
 
 1 Or, "Winter is the time at which to pair dogs for breeding, the bitches 
 to be released from hard work, so that with the repose so secured they may- 
 produce a fine litter in spring." 
 
 2 Lit. "this necessity holds." Cf. Aristot. H. A. vi. 20; Arrian, xxvii., 
 xxxi. 3. 
 
 3 Cf. Eur. Tro. 753, ffl xptarbs i/Si irveOfm. 
 
 4 Cf. Arrian, xxx. 2 ; Pollux, v. 50 ; Columella, vii. 12, 12, ap. 
 Schneid. 
 
 6 See Arrian, xxxi. ; Stonehenge, p. 264. 
 
 6 Or, "the internal organs get wrong" (&StKa). Cf. Memorabilia, IV. 
 iv. 5. 
 
 7 Cf. Arrian, xxxi. 2 ; Oppian, Cyn, i. 443 ; ap. Schneid. 
 
ON HUNTING 
 
 CH. vii. I 5-7 
 
 Stubborn, Yelp, Killer, Pele-m61e, Strongboy, Sky, Sunbeam, 
 Bodkin, Wistful, Gnome, Tracks, Dash. 1 
 
 The young hounds may be taken out to the chase at the 
 age of eight months 2 if bitches, or if males at the age of ten. 
 They should not be let loose on the trail of a hare sitting, 3 but 
 should be kept attached by long leashes and allowed to follow 
 on a line while scenting, 4 with free scope to run along the trail. 6 
 
 As soon as a hare is found, provided the young hounds 
 have the right points 6 for running, they should not be let 
 loose straight off : the huntsman should wait until the hare has 
 got a good start and is out of sight, then let the young hounds 
 
 1 The following is Xenophon's list : — 
 
 ^"X?! — S°ul- 
 
 817465= Spirit. 
 
 II6p7ra£ = Hasp of shield. 
 
 Sriipctf = Spike of spear at the butt end. 
 
 A07X17 = Lance. 
 
 A6xos= Ambush, or "Company." 
 
 $povp&= Watch. 
 
 $i)Xo| = Guard. 
 
 Td£is = Order, Rank, Post, Brigade. 
 
 Hi</jwx = Swordsman. 
 
 *6ko| = Slaughterer, cf. " King Death. ' ' 
 
 $\iyav = Blazer. 
 
 'AXk7J = Prowess, Victory. 
 
 Veix af = Craftsman. 
 
 'TXeiis = Woodsman, "Dashwood." 
 
 Mi}8as = Counsellor. 
 
 XlbpSwv = Spoiler, "Rob Roy." 
 
 "Znripxuv = Hastener, "Rocket." 
 
 'Opri} = Fury, Rage. 
 
 Bpi/ioiv = Growler, Roarer. 
 
 "T/3/hs = Hybris, Riot, Insolence. 
 
 GiXXuK = Blooming, ' ' Gaudy. " 
 
 'Pii/i?; = Strength, "Romeo." 
 
 'AjiBeis — Blossom. 
 
 "H/3ct= Youth. 
 
 Tr/Beis = Gladsome. 
 
 Xa/><£ = Joy. 
 
 Aeiffffiav = Gazer. 
 
 Afryii = Daybeam. 
 
 IloXiis = Much. 
 
 Bia = Force. 
 
 2tix«» = Stepping in rank and file. 
 
 HfTrovS^i = Much ado. 
 
 BpOas = Gusher. 
 
 Oli>ds=(i) Vine, (2) Rockdove. See 
 Aristot. H. A. v. 13, 14 ; i. 3, 
 10 ; Ael. N. A. iv. 58. = Col- 
 umba livia = rockdove, the colour 
 of ripening grapes ; al. olpds = 
 the vine. 
 
 Srepp6s= " Stiff," " King Sturdy." 
 
 J$.pairri = Clamour. Cf. Plat. Rep. 
 607 B. 
 
 Kafvw = Killer. 
 
 Tfy>/3as = ' ' Topsy-turvy. " 
 
 'Z6£vb)v= Strong man. 
 
 MW)p = Ether. 
 
 'AktLs = Ray of light. 
 
 Alwh — Spear-point. 
 
 N6?/s = Clever (girl). 
 
 Tvdfai = Maxim. 
 
 2ri/3ui< = Tracker. 
 
 'Op/i-fl = Dash. So Arrian ( Cyn. viii. 
 5) named his favourite hound. 
 For other names see Herodian, irepl fwv. X. (on monosyllables), 12. 7 ; 
 Corp. Inscr. iv. p. 184, n. 8319 ; Arrian, v. 6, xix. ; Colum. vii. 12, 13. 
 According to Pollux, v. 47, Xenophon had a dqg named iTiroxiiiTavpos 
 (cf. Cyrop. IV. iii. 17). 2 Cf. Pollux, v. 54; al. Arrian, xxv., xxvi. 
 
 3 Pollux, v. 12. 4 "The dogs that are trailing," Blane. 
 
 5 See Stonehenge, ■ ■ Entering of greyhound and deerhound, of foxhounds 
 and harriers," pp. 284, 285. 
 
 6 For points see the same authority : the harrier, p. 59 ; the foxhound, p. 54. 
 
ch. vii. § 8-11 TRAINING OF YOUNG HOUNDS 103 
 
 go. 1 The result of letting slip young hounds, possessed 
 of all the requisite points and full of pluck, 2 is that the sight 
 of the hare will make them strain too violently and pull them 
 to bits, 3 while their frames are as yet unknit ; a catastrophe 
 against which every sportsman should strenuously guard. If, 
 on the other hand, the young hounds do not promise well 
 for running,* there is no harm in letting them go. From the 
 start they will give up all hope of striking the hare, and conse- 
 quently escape the injury in question. 5 
 
 As to the trail of a hare on the run, there is no harm in 
 letting them follow it up till they overtake her. 6 When the 
 hare is caught the carcass should be given to the young hounds 
 to tear in pieces. 7 
 
 As soon as these young hounds refuse to stay close to the 
 nets and begin to scatter, they must be called back ; till they 
 have been accustomed to find the hare by following her up ; or 
 else, if not taught to quest for her (time after time) in proper 
 style, they may end by becoming skirters 8 — a bad education. 9 
 
 As long as they are pups, they should have their food 
 given them near the nets, when these are being taken up, 10 so 
 that if from inexperience they should lose their way on the 
 hunting-field, they may come back for it and not be alto- 
 gether lost. In time they will be quit of this instinct them- 
 selves, 11 when their hostile feeling towards the animal is 
 developed, and they will be more concerned about the quarry 
 than disposed to give their food a thought. 12 
 
 1 See Arrian's comment and dissent, xxv. 4. 
 
 2 Lit. ' ' which are at once well shaped and have the spirit for the chase in 
 them." 
 
 s Al. " they will overstrain themselves with the hare in sight, and break 
 a blood-vessel." See Arrian, xxxi. 4, p-rfyvwrai yap aureus al \ay6ves. 
 4 Or, "are defectively built for the chase." 
 Or, "will not suffer such mishap." 
 
 6 Perhaps read Jus av 6i\an, "as long as they choose." The MSS. have 
 
 7 See Stonehenge, p. 287, ' ' blooded, so as to make him understand the 
 nature of the scent " ; ib. 284. 
 
 8 Zkkvvoi, cf. above, iii. 10; Arrian, xxv. 5. 
 
 9 Trorqpbv /idffij/xo, ib. 9. 10 avaipGivrai sc. al Apxves, see above, vi. 26. 
 
 11 Or, " abandon the practice. " 
 
 12 See Stonehenge, p. 289 (another context) : " . . . the desire for game 
 in a well-bred dog is much greater than the appetite for food, unless the stomach 
 has long been deprived of it. " 
 
io 4 ON HUNTING {SSii.V.% 
 
 As a rule, the master should give the dogs their food with 
 his own hand ; since, however much the animal may be in 
 want of food without his knowing who is to blame for that, it 
 is impossible to have his hunger satisfied without his forming 
 an affection for his benefactor. 1 
 
 viii. — The time to track hares is after a fall of snow deep 
 enough to conceal the ground completely. As long as there 
 are black patches intermixed, the hare will be hard to find. 
 It is true that outside these the tracks will remain visible for 
 a long time, when the snow comes down with a north wind 
 blowing, because the snow does not melt immediately ; but 
 if the wind be mild with gleams of sunshine, they will not last 
 long, because the snow is quickly thawed. When it snows 
 steadily and without intermission there is nothing to be done ; 
 the tracks will be covered up. Nor, again, if there be a strong 
 wind blowing, which will whirl and drift the snow about and 
 obliterate the tracks. It will not do to take the hounds into 
 the field in that case; 2 since owing to excessive frost 
 the snow will blister 3 the feet and noses of the dogs and 
 destroy the hare's scent. Then is the time for the sportsman 
 to take the haye nets and set off with a comrade up to the 
 hills, and leave the cultivated lands behind ; and when he has 
 got upon the tracks to follow up the clue. If the tracks are 
 much involved, and he follows them only to find himself 
 back again ere long at the same place, 4 he must make a series 
 of circuits and sweep round the medley of tracks, till he finds 
 out where they really lead. 6 
 
 The hare makes many windings, being at a loss to find a 
 resting-place, and at the same time she is accustomed to 
 deal subtly 6 in her method of progression, because her foot- 
 steps lead perpetually to her pursuit. 
 
 1 Or, " If want in itself does not reveal to him the cause of his suffering, 
 to be given food when hungry for it will arouse in him affection for the donor. " 
 
 2 Lit. " I say it is no use setting out with dogs to this chase." 
 
 3 /cdei. Cf. Arrian, xiv. 5. 
 
 4 Reading jJKOVTa sc. rbv Kvyriyirriv ... or if iJKovTa, tctiicXovs [sc. rb. 
 txvrf], transl. ' ' if the tracks are involved, doubling on themselves and 
 coming back eventually to the same place." 
 
 5 Or, ' ' where the end of the string is." 
 
 6 rexy&ieiv. Cf. Ael. N. A. vi. 47, ap. Schneid. A fact for Uncle Remus. 
 
ch. vm. 8 4-8 OF TRACKING HARES IN WINTER 105 
 
 As soon as the track is clear, 1 the huntsman will push on 
 a little farther ; and it will bring him either to some embowered 
 spot 2 or craggy bank ; since gusts of wind will drift the snow 
 beyond such spots, whereby a store of couching - places 3 is 
 reserved ; 4 and that is what puss seeks. 
 
 If the tracks conduct the huntsman to this kind of covert, 
 he had better not approach too near, for fear the creature 
 should move off. Let him make a circuit round ; the chances 
 are that she is there ; and that will soon be clear ; for if so, 
 the tracks will not trend outwards from the place at any point. 6 
 
 And now when it is clear that puss is there, there let 
 her bide ; she will not stir ; let him set off and seek 
 another, before the tracks are indistinct ; being careful only 
 to note the time of day ; so that, in case he discovers 
 others, there will be daylight enough left him to set up the 
 nets. 6 When the final moment has come, he will stretch the 
 big haye nets round first one and then the other victim (pre- 
 cisely as in the case of one of those black thawed patches 
 above named), 7 so as to enclose within the toils whatever the 
 creature is resting on. 8 As- soon as the nets are posted, up 
 he must go and start her. If she contrive to extricate herself 
 from the nets, 9 he must after her, following her tracks ; and 
 presently he will find himself at a second similar piece of 
 ground (unless, as is not improbable, she smothers herself in 
 the snow beforehand). 10 Accordingly he must discover where 
 she is and spread his toils once more ; and, if she has energy 
 still left, pursue the chase. Even without the nets, caught 
 she will be, from sheer fatigue, 11 owing to the depth of the 
 
 I "Discovered." 2 " Thicket or overhanging crag. 
 
 3 etivdnfia, " places well adapted for a form." 
 
 4 Al. ' ' many places suited for her form are left aside by puss, but this she 
 seeks." 
 
 6 L. Dind. emend, oida/ioi, ' ' the tracks will not pass in any direction 
 outwards from such ground." 
 
 6 Al. " to envelop the victims in the nets." 
 
 7 In reference, apparently, to § 1 above. 
 
 8 Lit. "whatever the creature is in contact with inside." 
 
 9 Cf. Aesch. Prom. 87, Srifi rpdirqi TiJirS' iKKv\ia6i]<7u rixos. 
 
 10 Or, " if the creature is not first suffocated in the snow itself. 
 
 II See Pollux, v. 50. "She must presently be tired out in the heavy 
 snow, which balls itself like a fatal clog clinging to the under part of her hairy 
 feet." 
 
 VOL. Ill — 2 I 
 
106 ON HUNTING {cE:™§ 8 i-3~ 
 
 snow, which balls itself under her shaggy feet and clings to 
 her, a sheer dead weight. 
 
 ix. — For hunting fawns 1 and deer, 2 Indian dogs 3 should 
 be employed, as being strong, large, and fleet-footed, and not 
 devoid of spirit ; with these points they will prove well equal 
 to the toil. 
 
 Quite young fawns 4 should be captured in spring, that 
 being the season at which the dams calve. 5 Some one should 
 go beforehand into the rank meadowlands 6 and reconnoitre 
 where the hinds are congregated, and wherever that may be, 
 the master of the hounds will set off — with his hounds and a 
 supply of javelins — before daylight to the place in question. 
 Here he will attach the hounds to trees 7 some distance off, for 
 fear of their barking, 8 when they catch sight of the deer. 
 That done he will choose a specular point himself and keep 
 a sharp look-out. 9 As day breaks he will espy the hinds lead- 
 ing their fawns to the places where they will lay them severally 
 to rest. 10 Having made them lie down and suckled them, 
 they will cast anxious glances this way and that to see that no 
 one watches them ; and then they will severally withdraw to the 
 
 1 See Horn. //. xxii. 189, a. 361 ; Od. iv. 336 ; Aelian, N. A. xiv. 14, 
 xvii. 26 ; Geopon. xix. 5. 
 
 2 i) i\a<pos (generic, Attic) =hart or hind, of roe [Capreolus capred) or red 
 ( Cervus elaphus) deer alike, I suppose. See St. John, Nat. Hist, and Sport 
 in Moray. 
 
 3 Of the Persian or Grecian greyhound type perhaps. See Aristot. H. A. 
 viii. 28 ; Aelian, N. A. viii. 1 ; Pollux, v. 37, 38, 43 ; Plin. H. N. vii. 2, 
 viii. 28 ; Oppian, Cyn. i. 413. 
 
 4 See above, v. 14. I do not know that any one has answered Schneider's 
 question : Qitidni sensum eundem servavit homo religiosus in hinnulis f 
 
 5 " The fawns (of the roe deer) are born in the spring, usually early in 
 May," Lydekker, R. N. H. ii. p. 383; of the red deer "generally in the 
 early part of June," ii. 346. 
 
 6 6pydSas= " gagnages," du Fouilloux, " Comment le veneur doit aller en 
 queste aux taillis ou gaignages pour voir le cerf a veue," ap. Talbot, op. cit. 
 i. p. 331. 7 Or, "off the wood." 
 
 8 It seems they were not trained to restrain themselves. 
 
 9 Or, "set himself to observe from some higher place." Cf. Aristoph. 
 Wasps, 361, vvv Si {$v Sir\ois \ &v5pes bifKhat Starai-d/ievot \ ko.t& t&s SMovs 
 aKomtooowTai. Philostr. 784. 
 
 10 See Pollux, v. 77 ; Aristot. H. A. ix. 5. Mr. Scrope ap. Lydekker, 
 R. N. H. ii. p. 346, states that the dam of the red deer makes her offspring 
 "lie down by a pressure of her nose," etc. 
 
ch. ix. § 3.10 METHOD OF CAPTURING FAWNS 107 
 
 side opposite and mount guard, each over her own offspring. 
 The huntsman, who has seen it all, 1 will loose the dogs, and 
 with javelins in hand himself advance towards the nearest 
 fawn in the direction where he saw it laid to rest ; carefully 
 noting the lie of the land, 2 for fear of making some mistake ; 
 since the place itself will present a very different aspect on 
 approach from what it looked like at a distance. 
 
 When his eye has lit upon the object of his search, he 
 will approach quite close. The fawn will keep perfectly still, 
 glued s as it were to earth, and with loud bleats suffer itself 
 to be picked up ; unless it happen to be drenched with rain ; 
 in which case, it will not stay quiet in one place. No doubt, 
 the internal moisture of the animal congeals quickly with the 
 cold 4 and causes it to shift its ground. Caught in that case 
 it must needs be ; but the hounds will have work enough to run 
 the creature down. 5 The huntsman having seized the fawn, 
 will hand it to the keeper. The bleating will continue ; and 
 the hind, partly seeing and partly hearing, will bear down full 
 tilt upon the man who has got her young, in her desire to 
 rescue it. Now is the moment to urge on the hounds and ply 
 the javelins. And so having mastered this one, he will pro- 
 ceed against the rest, and employ the same method of the 
 chase in dealing with them. 
 
 Young fawns may be captured in the way described. Those 
 that are already big will give more trouble, since they graze 
 with their mothers and the other deer, and when pursued re- 
 tire in the middle of the herd or occasionally in front, but very 
 seldom in the rear. The deer, moreover, in order to protect 
 their young will do battle with the hounds and trample them 
 under foot ; so that capture is not easy, unless you come at 
 once to close quarters and scatter the herd, with the result 
 that one or another of the fawns is isolated. The effort im- 
 plies 6 a strain, and the hounds will be left behind in the first 
 
 1 Lit. "when he sees these things." 
 
 2 Or, " the features of the scene " ; " the topography. " 
 
 3 ini<ms (see viii. 8, above), "noosling, nestling, buried." 
 
 4 " The blood runs cold. " 
 
 6 Or, " but it will give them a good chase ; the dogs will have their work 
 cut out." 
 
 6 Lit. " after that violent effort. " 
 
108 ON HUNTING ch.ix.» 10.15 
 
 heat of the race, since the very absence of their dams 1 will 
 intensify the young deer's terror, and the speed of a fawn, 
 that age and size, is quite incredible. 2 But at the second or 
 third run they will be quickly captured ; since their bodies 
 being young and still unformed cannot hold out long against 
 fatigue. 
 
 Foot-gins 3 or caltrops may be set for deer on mountains, 
 in the neighbourhood of meadows and streams and wooded 
 glens, on cross-roads i or in tilled fields at spots which they 
 frequent. 6 These gins should be made of twisted yew twigs 6 
 stripped of the bark to prevent their rotting. They should 
 have well-rounded hooplike " crowns " 7 with alternate rows of 
 nails of wood and iron woven in the coil. 8 The iron nails 
 should be the larger, so that while the wooden ones yield to 
 the foot, the others may press into it. 9 The noose of the 
 cord which will be laid upon "the crown" should be 
 woven out of esparto and so should the rope itself, this kind 
 of grass being least liable to rot. The rope and noose itself 
 should both alike be stout. The log or clog of wood attached 
 should be made of common or of holm oak with the bark 
 on, three spans in length, and a palm in thickness. 10 
 
 To set the trap, dig a hole in the soil to a depth of fifteen 
 inches, 11 circular in shape, with a circumference at top exactly 
 corresponding to the crown and narrowing towards the bottom. 
 For the rope and wooden clog likewise remove sufficient earth 
 to let them both be lightly buried. That done, place the foot- 
 gin deep enough to be just even with the surface of the soil, 12 
 
 1 Or, ' ' alarm at the absence of the herd will lend the creature wings. " 
 
 2 Or, "is past compare" ; "is beyond all telling." 
 
 " iroSoBTpi.fiai., podostratai so called. Cf. "the boot.'' 
 
 4 iv rats 5i68ot.s, " at points where paths issue," or " cross." 
 
 5 7t/p6s S n irpoaVg, "against whatever they are likely to approach." 
 
 " Or, " should be woven out of Smilax" ; " Ebenholt" Lenz ; " Ifs,' 
 Gail. 7 t&.s 5i <TTe<f>ivas eiK. {%■ ' ' having circular rims. " 
 
 8 iv t£ irXoK&vip (al. irXoicdfup) = the plaited rope, which formed the 
 ffTetp&vq. See Pollux, \. 32, ap. Schneid. and Lenz. 
 
 9 *Al. " so as to press into the foot, if the wooden ones yield." 
 
 10 'Or, " 27 inches x 3." 
 
 11 Or, ' ' remove a mass of soil to the depth of five palms so as to form a 
 circular hole corresponding in size with the rim above-named." 
 
 12 Or, ' ' like a door over the cavity, somewhat below the surface, flatwise " ; 
 i.e. " in a horizontal position. " 
 
ch. ix. § i 5 .!8 OF HUNTING DEER 109 
 
 and round the circle of the crown the cord -noose. The 
 cord itself and wooden clog must now be lowered into their 
 respective places. Which done, place on the crown some 
 rods of spindle-tree, 1 but not so as to stick out beyond the 
 outer rim; and above these again light leaves, such as the 
 season may provide. After this put a final coating of earth 
 upon the leaves ; in the first place the surface soil from the 
 holes just dug, and atop of that some unbroken solid earth 
 from a distance, so that the lie of the trap may be as much as 
 possible unnoticed by the deer. Any earth left over should be 
 carried to a distance from the gin. The mere smell of the 
 newly-turned-up soil will suffice to make the animal suspicious; 2 
 and smell it readily she will. 
 
 The hunter should take his hounds and inspect the traps 
 upon the mountains, early in the morning if possible, though 
 he should do so also during the day at other times. Those set 
 on cultivated land must always be inspected early, before the 
 sun is up in fact, 3 and for this reason : on the hills, so desert 
 is the region, 4 the creatures may be caught not only at night 
 but at any time of day ; while, on the cultivated lands, owing 
 to their chronic apprehension of mankind in daytime, night 
 is the only time. 5 
 
 As soon as the huntsman finds a gin uprooted he will let 
 slip his hounds and with cheery encouragement 6 follow along 
 the wake of the wooden clog, with a keen eye to the direction of 
 its march. That for the most part will be plain enough, since 
 stones will be displaced, and the furrow which the clog makes 
 as it trails along will be conspicuous on tilled ground ; or if 
 the deer should strike across rough ground, the rocks will 
 show pieces of bark torn from the clog, and the chase will 
 consequently be all the easier. 7 
 
 1 So literally, but really Carthamus creticus, a thistle-like plant used for 
 making spindles (Sprengel ap. L. & S. ), the Buonymus europaeus being our 
 spindle- tree. Aristot. H. A. ix. 40, 49 ; Theocr. iv. 52. 
 
 2 Lit. "if she once sniffs the new-turned soil the deer grows shy, and 
 that she will quickly do." See Plat. Laws, 933 A; Phaedr. 242 c\*Mem. 
 II. i. 4. 3 " Before the sun is up." 
 
 4 Or, " thanks to the lonesomeness of the region." 
 
 " It is night or never, owing to the dread of man which haunts the 
 creature's mind during daytime. " 6 See vi. 20; " with view-halloo. " 
 
 7 Or, " along that track will not be difficult." 
 
no ON HUNTING {Sill 1 .! 9 .' *°~ 
 
 Should the deer have been caught by one of its fore-feet 
 it will soon be taken, because in the act of running it will beat 
 and batter its own face and body; if by the hind-leg, the 
 clog comes trailing along and must needs impede the action 
 of every limb. Sometimes, too, as it is whirled along it will 
 come in contact with the forked branches of some tree, and 
 then unless the animal can snap the rope in twain, she is fairly 
 caught ; there ends the chase. But even so, if caught in this 
 way or overdone with fatigue, it were well not to come too 
 close the quarry, should it chance to be a stag, or he will 
 lunge out with his antlers and his feet ; better therefore let 
 fly your javelins from a distance. 
 
 These animals may also be captured without aid of gin or 
 caltrop, by sheer coursing in hot summer time ; they get so tired, 
 they will stand still to be shot down. If hard pressed they will 
 plunge into the sea or take to water of any sort in their per- 
 plexity, and at times will drop down from sheer want of breath. 1 
 
 x. — To cope with the wild boar the huntsman needs to 
 have a variety of dogs, Indian, Cretan, Locrian, and Laconian, 2 
 along with a stock of nets, javelins, boar-spears, and foot-traps. 
 
 To begin with, the hounds must be no ordinary specimens 
 of the species named, 3 in order to do battle with the beast in 
 question. 
 
 The nets should be made of the same flaxen cord 4 as 
 those for hares above described. They should be forty-five 
 threaded in three strands, each strand consisting of fifteen 
 threads. The height from the upper rim 5 (i.e. from top to 
 bottom) should be ten meshes, and the depth of the nooses or 
 pockets one elbow-length (say fifteen inches). 6 The ropes 
 
 1 " From mere shortness of breath.'' 
 
 2 For these breeds see Pollux, v. 37 : for the Laconian, Pind. Fr. 73 ; 
 Soph. Aj. 8 ; cf. Shakesp. Mids. N. D. iv. 1. 119, 129 foil. 
 
 3 Or, " these hounds of the breed named must not be any ordinary speci- 
 mens " ; but what does Xenophon mean by 4k tovtov tov yhovs ? 
 
 4 i.e. "of Phasian or Carthaginian fine flax." See above, ii. 3. 
 6 tov Kopvipalov. See above, ii. 5. 
 
 6 Trvyibit. The distance from the elbow to the first joint of the finger 
 
 Herod, ii. 175. 
 
! 
 
 ch.x.§2- s METHOD OF HUNTING WILD BOAR m 
 
 running round the net should be half as thick again as the cords 
 of the net ; and at the extremities * they should be fitted with 
 rings, and should be inserted (in and out) under the nooses, 
 with the end passing out through the rings. Fifteen nets will 
 be sufficient. 2 
 
 The javelins should be of all sorts, 3 having blades of a 
 good breadth and razor-sharpness, and stout shafts. 
 
 The boar-spears should in the first place have blades 
 fifteen inches long, and in the middle of the socket two solid 
 projecting teeth of wrought metal, 4 and shafts of cornel-wood 
 a spear-shaft's thickness. 
 
 The foot-traps should resemble those used for deer. 
 
 These hunts should be conducted not singly, 6 but in / rl 
 parties, since the wild boar can be captured only by the col- 
 lective energy of several men, and that not easily. 
 
 I will now explain how each part of the gear is to be used 
 in hunting. 
 
 The company being come to some place where a boar is 
 thought to lie, the first step is to bring up the pack, 6 which 
 done, they will loose a single Laconian bitch, and keeping the 
 rest in leash, beat about with this one hound. 7 As soon as she 
 has got on the boar's tracks, let them follow in order, one after 
 another, close on the tracking hound, who gives the lead to 
 
 1 iir dxpois. Cf. ai,pio\ei>iots (above, ii. 6). 
 
 2 Reading licaval, vid. Lenz ad loc. and ii. 4. 
 
 3 Al. "of various material." See Pollux, v. 20 ap. Schneid. 
 
 4 Wrought of copper (or bronze). 
 
 5 Lit. "There should be a band of huntsmen"; or, " It will take the 
 united energies of several to capture this game." See Horn. //. ix. 543, of 
 the Calydonian boar : 
 
 rbv 5' vl6s Olvijos air^KTetvev M.e\£aypos, 
 iroXKiwv (k iroklwv Brfpifropas dvSpas aydpas 
 koX KtWs ' oil p&v yap k' eod^ij iratipotai fipoTdiaiv' 
 Tocrcros ftjK, iroWoiis 8£ Tvprjs ^7T^3)7<r' a\eyeu>T}s. 
 
 ' ' But him slew Meleagros the son of Oineus, having gathered together 
 from many cities huntsmen and hounds ; for not of few men could the boar 
 be slain, so mighty was he ; and many an one brought he to the grievous 
 pyre" (W. Leaf). 
 
 6 Kvvriyitnov, ' ' a hunting establishment, huntsmen and hounds, a pack 
 of hounds," L. & S. cf. Herod, i. 36 ; Pollux, v. 17. In Aristot. H. A. viii. 
 5. 2, of wolves in a pack ; v. p.ovoTeipcu. inrdyeui — "stealthily"? 
 
 7 Or, " go on a voyage of discovery." 
 
112 ON HUNTING ch.x. §5-7 
 
 the whole company. 1 Even to the huntsmen themselves 
 many a mark of the creature will be plain, such as his foot- 
 prints on soft portions of the ground, and in the thick under- 
 growth of forests broken twigs ; and, where there are single 
 trees, the scars made by his tusks. 2 As she follows up the 
 trail the hound will, as a general rule, finally arrive at some 
 well-wooded spot ; since, as a general rule, the boar lies en- 
 sconced in places of the sort, that are warm in winter and 
 cool in summer. 
 
 As soon as she has reached his lair she will give tongue ; 
 but the boar will not get up, not he, in nine cases out of 
 ten. The huntsman will thereupon recover the hound, and tie 
 her up also with the rest at a good distance from the lair. 3 
 He will then launch his toils into the wild boar's harbourage, 4 
 placing the nooses upon any forked branches of wood to 
 hand. Out of the net itself he must construct a deep forward- 
 jutting gulf or bosom, posting young shoots on this side and 
 that within, as stays or beams, 5 so that the rays of light may 
 penetrate as freely as possible through the nooses into the 
 bosom, 6 and the interior be as fully lit up as possible when 
 the creature makes his charge. The string round the top of 
 the net must be attached to some stout tree, and not to any 
 mere shrub or thorn-bush, since these light-bending branches 
 will give way to strain on open ground. 7 All about each net it 
 will be well to stop with timber even places 8 "where harbrough 
 
 1 Reading rjj Ixvevotiari, or if vulg. Ixvefoei, transl. " set her to follow the 
 trail, at the head of the whole train." 
 
 2 Schneid. cf. Aristot. H. A. vi. 18 ; Plin. viii. 52 ; Virg. Georg. iii. 
 2 SS> " >P se ru ''r dentesque Sabellicus exacuit sus " ; Horn. //. xi. 416, xiii. 475 ; 
 Hes. Shield, 389 ; Eur. Phoen. 1389 ; Ovid, Met. viii. 369. 
 
 3 Lit. ' ' accordingly recover the dog, and tie her up also with the 
 rest," etc. 
 
 4 Sp/wvs. Lit. " moorings, " i.e. " favourite haunts. " Cf. ovaopim below. 
 Al. " stelle die Fallnetze auf die Wechsel," Lenz. 
 
 b avrripidas. See a note in the Class. Rev. X. i. p. 7, by G. S. Sale : "It 
 can only mean long sticks used as stretchers or spreaders to hold up the net 
 between and beyond the props." Cf. Thuc. vii. 36, 2. 
 
 6 Or, ' ' within the bay of network. " 
 
 7 <Tvv£x 0VTaL & I" ?* tpihois al ft. " Denn diese werden an unbestandenen 
 Orten durch die Leine niedergezogen," Lenz; (rvviXKovrai conj. Schn. ; 
 avvipxovTai al. , " concurrent, " vid. Sturz. 
 
 8 to. ditroppM, met. from ' ' bad harbourage. " Cf. Aesch. Pers. 448 ; Ag . 
 194. Cf. Lat. " importunus, " also of " rough ground. " 
 
ch.a. | 7 -n THE WILD BOAR AT BAY 113 
 
 nis to see," so that the hulking brute may drive a straight 
 course 1 into the toils without tacking. 
 
 As soon as the nets are fixed, the party will come back 
 and let the hounds slip one and all ; then each will snatch 
 up his javelin z and boar-spear, and advance. Some one man, 
 the most practised hand, will cheer on the hounds, and the 
 rest will follow in good order at some considerable distance 
 from one another, so as to leave the animal a free passage ; 
 since if he falls into the thick of them as he makes off, there 
 is a fair chance of being wounded, for he will certainly vent 
 his fury on the first creature he falls foul of. 
 
 As soon as the hounds are near his lair, they will make their 
 onslaught. The boar, bewildered by the uproar, will rise up 
 and toss the first hound that ventures to attack him in front. 
 He will then run and fall into the toils ; or if not, then after 
 him full cry. 3 Even if the ground on which the toils environ 
 him be sloping, he will recover himself promptly ; 4 but if level, 
 he will at once plant himself firm as a rock, as if deliberating 
 with himself. 6 At that conjuncture the hounds will press hard 
 upon him, while their masters had best keep a narrow eye upon 
 the boar and let fly their javelins and a pelt of stones, being 
 planted in a ring behind him and a good way off, until the 
 instant when with a forward heave of his body he stretches 
 the net tight and strains the skirting-rope. Thereupon he 
 who is most skilful of the company and of the stoutest nerve 
 will advance from the front and deliver a home thrust with his 
 hunting-spear. 
 
 Should the animal for all that rain of javelins and stones 
 refuse to stretch the skirting-rope, should he rather relax 6 in 
 that direction and make a right-about-face turn bearing down 
 on his assailant, there is nothing for it, under these circum- 
 stances, but to seize a boar-spear, and advance ; firmly clutch- 
 ing it with the left hand forward and with the right behind ; 
 
 1 Or, " make his rush. " 
 
 2 Lit. " then they will take their javelins and boar-spears and advance." 
 
 3 Or, "a pretty chase must follow." 
 
 4 Or, " if within the prison of the net the ground be sloping, it will not 
 take long to make him spring up; he will be up again on his legs in no time." 
 
 5 Or, " being concerned about himself. " 
 
 6 inavicLs. See Sturz, s. v. 
 
ii 4 ON HUNTING cb.x.|.i-i« 
 
 the left is to steady it, and the right to give it impulse ; and 
 so the feet, 1 the left advanced in correspondence with the 
 left arm, and right with right. As he advances, he will make 
 a lunge forward with the boar-spear, 2 planting his legs apart 
 not much wider than in wrestling, 3 and keeping his left 
 side turned towards his left hand ; and then, with his eye 
 fixed steadily on the beast's eye, he will note every turn and 
 movement of the creature's head. As he brings down the 
 boar-spear to the thrust, he must take good heed the animal 
 does not knock it out of his hands by a side movement of the 
 head ; 4 for if so he will follow up the impetus of that rude 
 knock. In case of that misfortune, the huntsman must throw 
 himself upon his face and clutch tight hold of the brushwood 
 under him, since if the wild boar should attack him in that 
 posture, owing to the upward curve of its tusks, it cannot get 
 under him ; 5 whereas if caught erect, he must be wounded. 
 What will happen then is, that the beast will try to raise him 
 up, and failing that will stand upon and trample him. 
 
 From this extremity there is but one means of escape, and 
 one alone, for the luckless prisoner. One of his fellow-hunts- 
 men must approach with boar-spear and provoke the boar, 
 making as though he would let fly at him ; but let fly he must 
 not, for fear of hitting the man under him. The boar, on see- 
 ing this, will leave the fallen man, and in rage and fury turn to 
 grapple his assailant. The other will seize the instant to spring 
 to his feet, and not forget to clutch his boar-spear as he rises 
 to his legs again ; since rescue cannot be nobly purchased save 
 by victory. 6 Let him again bring the weapon to bear in the 
 same fashion, and make a lunge at a point within the shoulder- 
 
 1 Lit. ' ' forwards the left foot will follow the left arm and the right foot 
 the other." 
 
 2 "Statum venatoris aprum venabulo excipientis pinxit Philostratus, " 
 Imag. i. 28, Schn. 
 
 3 Or, ' ' he will step forward and take one stride not much longer than 
 that of a wrestler, and thrust forward his boar-spear." 
 
 4 Cf. Hes. Shield, 387 ; Horn. //. xii. 148 : " Then forth rushed the twain, 
 and fought in front of the gates like wild boars that in the mountains abide 
 the assailing crew of men and dogs, and charging on either flank < they crush 
 the wood around them, cutting it at the root, and the clatter of their tusks 
 waxes loud, till one smite them and take their life away " (A. Lang). 
 
 5 iiroKa^eCv, "pick him up (and gore him)." 
 
 6 ' ' Safety can only be won with honour by some master-stroke of victory. ' ' 
 
ch.x. §i6-i 9 A POPULAR BELIEF 115 
 
 blade, where lies the throat; 1 and planting his body firmly 
 press with all his force. 2 The boar, by dint of his might and 
 battle rage, will still push on, and were it not that the teeth 
 of the lance-blade hindered, 3 would push his way up to the 
 holder of the boar-spear even though the shaft run right 
 through him. 4 
 
 Nay, so tremendous is the animal's power, that a property 
 which no one ever would suspect belongs to him. Lay a few 
 hairs upon the tusk of a boar just dead, and they will shrivel 
 up instantly, 5 so hot are they, these tusks. Nay, while the 
 creature is living, under fierce excitement they will be all 
 aglow ; or else how comes it that though he fail to gore the 
 dogs, yet at the blow the fine hairs of their coats are singed 
 in flecks and patches ? 6 
 
 So much and even greater trouble may be looked for from 
 the wild boar before capture ; I speak of the male animal. If it 
 should be a sow that falls into the toils, the huntsman should 
 run up and prod her, taking care not to be pushed off his legs 
 and fall, in which case he cannot escape being trampled on 
 and bitten. Ergo, he will not voluntarily get under those feet ; 
 but if involuntarily he should come to such a pass, the same 
 means 7 of helping each the other to get up again will serve, as 
 in the case of the male animal ; and when he has regained 
 his legs, he must ply the boar-spear vigorously till she too has 
 died the death. 
 
 Wild pigs may be captured further in the following fashion : 
 The nets are fixed for them at the entrances of woody glens, 8 
 in coppices and hollows, and on screes, where there are 
 outlets into rank meadow-lands, marshes, and clear pools. 9 
 
 1 a(j>ayi]. Aristot. H. A. i. 14. 2. "Straight at the 'jugular.'" 
 
 2 Or, ' ' throwing his whole weight on the thrust, press home with all his 
 force." 
 
 3 Or, " but for the intervention of the two projecting teeth of the lance- 
 blade." Seethe account of a passage of arms between Col. Pollok and a 
 boar in his Incidents of Foreign Sport and Travel. There the man was 
 mounted, but alone. 
 
 4 Lit. ' ' force his heavy bulk along the shaft right up to the holder of the 
 boar-spear." 6 eiSis, i.e. " for a few seconds after death. " 
 
 G The belief is still current, I am told, in parts of India. 
 
 7 Siavavrdo-eis, " the same methods of mutual recovery. " 
 
 8 A I. " at the passages from woodland lakes into oak-coppices." 
 
 9 idara, "waters," lakes, pools, rivers, etc. 
 
n6 ON HUNTING cn.x.g.g-^ 
 
 The appointed person mounts guard at the nets with his boar- 
 spear, while the others work the dogs, exploring the best and 
 likeliest spots. As soon as the quarry is found the chase 
 commences. If then an animal falls into the net, the net-keeper 
 will grip his boar-spear and 1 advance, when he will ply it as 
 I have described ; if he escape the net, then after him full cry. 
 In hot, sultry weather the boar may be run down by the 
 hounds and captured. Though a monster in strength, the 
 creature becomes short of breath and will give in from sheer 
 exhaustion. 
 
 It is a form of sport which costs the lives of many hounds 
 and endangers those of the huntsmen themselves. Supposing 
 that the animal has given in from exhaustion at some moment 
 in the chase, and they are forced to come to close quarters ; 2 
 whether he has taken to the water, or stands at bay against 
 some craggy bank, or does not choose to come out from some 
 thicket (since neither net nor anything else hinders him from 
 bearing down like a tornado on whoever approaches) ; still, 
 even so, advance they must, come what come may, to the attack. 
 And now for a display of that hardihood which first induced 
 them to indulge a passion not fit for carpet knights 3 — in 
 other words, they must ply their boar-spears and assume 
 that poise of body 4 already described, since if one must 
 meet misfortune, let it not be for want of observing the 
 best rules. 6 
 
 Foot-traps are also set for the wild boar, similar to those 
 for deer and in the same sort of places ; the same inspections 
 and methods of pursuit are needed, with consequent attacks 
 and an appeal to the boar-spear in the end. 
 
 Any attempt to capture the young pigs will cost the 
 huntsman some rough work. 6 The young are not left alone, 
 
 1 Or, "and proceed to tackle him." 
 
 2 Reading irpoaUvai \rk irpofSiXta]. [The two last words are probably 
 a gloss, and should be omitted, since Trpoaiivai (from irpo<ri7)/u) t& 7r/>oj36Xia 
 = " ply," or "apply their boar-spears," is hardly Greek.] See Schneid. Add. 
 et Corr. and L. Dind. ad Ice. 
 
 3 iKToveiv, "to exercise this passion to the full." 
 
 4 Lit. "assume their boar-spears and that forward attitude of body." 
 
 5 Lit. "it will not be at any rate from behaving correctly." 
 
 6 Lit. "the piglings resent it (sc. rb a\l<rKe<r$cu) strongly"; al. "the 
 adult (sub. t6 6rjploi>) will stand anything rather." 
 
Ixi-Vm} of hunting lions AND BIG GAME 117 
 
 as long as they are small ; and when the hounds have hit upon 
 them or they get wind of something wrong, they will disappear 
 like magic, vanishing into the forest. As a rule, both parents 
 attend on their own progeny, and are not pleasant then to 
 meddle with, being more disposed to do battle for their young 
 than for themselves. 
 
 xi. — Lions, leopards, lynxes, panthers, bears, and all other 
 such game are to be captured in foreign countries — about 
 Mount Pangaeus and Cittus beyond Macedonia ; * or again, 
 on Mysian Olympus and Pindus ; or again, in Nysa beyond 
 Syria, and upon other mountains suited to the breeding of 
 large game. 
 
 In the mountains, owing to the difficulty of the ground, 2 
 some of these animals are captured by means of poison — 
 the drug aconite — which the hunters throw down for them, 3 
 taking care to mix it with the favourite food of the wild beast, 
 near pools and drinking-places or wherever else they are likely 
 to pay visits. Others of them, as they descend into the plains 
 at night, may be cut off by parties mounted upon horseback 
 and well armed, and so captured, but not without causing 
 considerable danger to their captors. 4 
 
 In some cases the custom is to construct large circular 
 pits of some depth, leaving a single pillar of earth in the centre, 
 on the top of which at nightfall they set a goat fast -bound, 
 and hedge the pit about with timber, so as to prevent the 
 wild beasts seeing over, and without a portal of admission. 
 
 1 Of these places, Mt. Pangaeus (mod. Pirnari) (see Hell. V. ii. 17), Cittus 
 (s. Cissus, mod. Khortiatzi), N.W. of the Chalcidice, Mysian Olympus, and 
 Pindus are well known. Nysa has not been verified hitherto, I think. 
 Sturz cf. Bochart, Hieroz. Part I. lib. iii. c. 1, p. 722. Strabo, 637 (xv. 1. 7), 
 mentions a Mount Nysa in India sacred to Dionysus, and cites Soph. Frag. 
 782 — 
 
 S8ev KareWov ttjc /3e/3aicxiw^i;<' 
 
 /SporoKTi fcXeiefy' NOffax . . . k.t.\. , 
 but it is a far cry from Xenophon's Syria to India. Possibly it is to be sought 
 for in the region of Mt. Amanus. 
 
 2 Or, "the inaccessibility of their habitats." 
 
 3 ' ' The method is for the trapper to throw it down mixed with the food 
 which the particular creature likes best." 
 
 4 For the poison method see Pollux, v. 82 ; Plin. H. N. viii. 27. 
 
ii8 ©N HUNTING {SS.Vm 
 
 What happens then is this : the wild beasts, hearing the bleat- 
 ing in the night, keep scampering round the barrier, and find- 
 ing no passage, leap over it, and are caught. 1 
 
 xn. — With regard to methods of procedure in the hunt- 
 ing-field, enough has been said. 2 But there are many bene- 
 fits which the enthusiastic sportsman may expect to derive from 
 this pursuit. 3 I speak of the health which will thereby accrue 
 to the physical frame, the quickening of the eye and ear, the 
 defiance of old age, and last, but not least, the warlike train- 
 ing which it ensures. To begin with, when some day he has 
 to tramp along rough ways under arms, the heavy infantry 
 soldier will not faint or flag — he will stand the toil from being 
 long accustomed to the same experiences in capturing wild 
 beasts. In the next place, men so trained will be capable of 
 sleeping on hard couches, and prove brave guardians of the 
 posts assigned them. In the actual encounter with the enemy, 
 they will know at once how to attack and to carry out the word 
 of command as it passes along the lines, because it was just so 
 in the old hunting days that they captured the wild game. If 
 posted in the van of battle, they will not desert their ranks, 
 because endurance is engrained in them. In the rout of 
 the enemy their footsteps will not falter nor fail : straight as 
 an arrow they will follow the flying foe, on every kind of 
 ground, through long habituation. 4 Or if their own army 
 
 1 See Tales from the Fjeld, Sir George W. Dasent, ' ' Father Bruin in the 
 Corner." t 
 
 2 Or, *' Respecting the methods employed in different forms of the chase, 
 I have said my say. " As to the genuineness of this and the following chapter 
 see L. Dind. ad loc. ; K. Lincke, Xenophtm's Dialog, irepl oiKovofilas, p. 132. 
 
 8 Lit. "this work"; and in reference to the highly Xenophontine argu- 
 ment which follows see Hellenica Essays, p. 342 ; cf. Cyrop. I. vi. 28, 39-41. 
 4 " For the sake of ' auld lang syne.' " 
 
ch. xh. §4-7 HUNTING A TRAINING FOR WAR 119 
 
 encounter a reverse on wooded and precipitous ground beset 
 with difficulties, these will be the men to save themselves with 
 honour and to extricate their friends ; since long acquaintance 
 with the business of the chase has widened their intelligence. 1 
 
 Nay, even under the worst of circumstances, when a whole 
 mob of fellow-combatants 2 has been put to flight, how often 
 ere now has a handful 3 of such men, by virtue of their bodily 
 health 4 and courage, caught the victorious enemy roaming 
 blindly in some intricacy of ground, renewed the fight, and 
 routed him. Since so it must ever be ; to those whose souls 
 and bodies are in happy case success is near at hand. 5 
 
 It was through knowledge that they owed success against 
 their foes to such a training, that our own forefathers paid so 
 careful a heed to the young. 6 Though they had but a scant 
 supply of fruits, it was an immemorial custom "not to 
 hinder 7 the hunter from hunting any of earth's offspring " ; 
 and in addition, " not to hunt by night 8 within many fur- 
 longs of the city," in order that the adepts in that art might 
 not rob the young lads of their game. They saw plainly that 
 among the many pleasures to which youth is prone, this one 
 alone is productive of the greatest blessings. In other words, 
 
 1 Or, "will place them on the vantage-ground of experts." 
 
 a Or "allies." 3 Or, " a forlorn hope. " 
 
 4 eie&q., al. eiragta, "by good discipline." 
 
 5 "Fortune favours the brave," reading t6 eirvxwiu (L- D.) ; or if toO 
 evrvxTJatu, (vulg. ) ' ' those whose health of soul and body is established are 
 ipso facto nigh unto good fortune." 
 
 " Al. "looked upon the chase as a pursuit incumbent on the young." 
 
 7 jj.ii kuXlW [SicV] rb fajdkv rdv iirl Tjj yg <pvo/iivoiv iypeieiv. The 
 commentators generally omit Sid, in which case translate as in text. Lenz 
 reads fj.^ tcwkieiv 01a nifih/ (see his note ad v. 34), and translates (p. 61), 
 " Dass man die Jager nicht hindern solle, in allem was die Erde hervorbrachte 
 zu jagen," ' ' not to hinder the huntsmen from ranging over any of the crops 
 which spring from earth " ; (but if so, we should expect Sick firiSivos). Sturz, 
 s.v. Aypeiav, notes "festive," "because the hunter does not hunt vegetable 
 products." So Gail, "parce que le chasseur rien veut pas aux productions de 
 la terre." 
 
 8 Or, "set their face against night-hunting," cf. Mem. IV. vii. 4; Plat. 
 Soph. 220 D : " Stranger. There is one mode of striking which is done at 
 night, and by the light of a fire, and is called by the hunters themselves 
 firing, or spearing by firelight" (Jowett) ; for which see Scott, Guy Man- 
 nering, ch. x. It seems ' ' night hunting was not to be practised within a certain 
 considerable radius, whereby the proficients in that art might deprive (lit. in 
 order that they might not deprive) them (the young huntsmen) of their game." 
 
120 ON HUNTING ch. xn. § 7-13 
 
 it tends to make them sound of soul and upright, being trained 
 in the real world of actual things 1 [and, as was said before, 
 our ancestors could not but perceive they owed their success 
 in war to such instrumentality 2 ] ; and the chase alone deprives 
 them of none of the other fair and noble pursuits that they may 
 choose to cultivate, as do those other evil pleasures, which ought 
 never to be learned. Of such stuff are good soldiers and good 
 generals made. 3 Naturally, those from whose souls and bodies 
 the sweat of toil has washed all base and wanton thoughts, who 
 have implanted in them a passion for manly virtue — these, I 
 say, are the true nobles. 4 Not theirs will it be to allow their 
 city or its sacred soil to suffer wrong. 
 
 Some people tell us it is not right to indulge a taste 
 for hunting, lest it lead to neglect of home concerns, not 
 knowing that those who are benefactors of their country and 
 their friends are in proportion all the more devoted to 
 domestic duties. If lovers of the chase pre-eminently fit 
 themselves to be useful to the fatherland, that is as much as 
 to say they will not squander their private means ; since 
 with the state itself the domestic fortunes of each are saved or 
 lost. The real fact is, these men are saviours, not of their 
 own fortunes only, but of the private fortunes of the rest, 
 of yours and mine. Yet there are not a few irrational people 
 amongst these cavillers who, out of jealousy, would rather 
 perish, thanks to their own baseness, than owe their lives 
 to the virtue of their neighbours. So true is it that the 
 mass of pleasures are but evil, 5 to which men succumb, 
 and thereby are incited to adopt the worse cause in speech 
 and course in action. 6 And with what result ?- — from vain and 
 empty arguments they contract enmities, and reap the fruit of 
 evil deeds, diseases, losses, death — to the undoing of them- 
 
 1 Lit. " in truth and reality (not among visionary phantoms)." 
 
 2 These words are commonly regarded as an addition ; and what does re 
 signify ? 
 
 3 Or, " Here you have the making of brave soldiers and generals. Here 
 in embryo are to be found your future soldiers and generals worthy the name. " 
 
 4 oStoi &piffTOt : these the prima virorum, the true aristocrats. 
 
 5 See Hellenica Essays, p. 371. 
 
 6 " To depravity of speech and conduct " (whether as advocates or per- 
 formers). See Aristoph. Clouds. 
 
ch. xii. § 13-18 GLORY OF STRENUOUS LIVING 121 
 
 selves, their children, and their friends. 1 Having their senses 
 dulled to things evil, while more than commonly alive to 
 pleasures, how shall these be turned to good account for the 
 salvation of the state ? Yet from these evils every one will 
 easily hold aloof, if once enamoured of those joys whose 
 brief I hold, since a chivalrous education teaches obedience 
 to laws, and renders justice familiar to tongue and ear. 2 
 
 In the one camp are those who, subjecting themselves 
 ever to new toil and fresh instruction, have, at the cost of 
 lessons and exercises painful to themselves, obtained to their 
 several states salvation ; and in the other are those who for the 
 very irksomeness of the process choose not to be taught, but 
 rather to pass away their days in pleasures unseasonable — 
 nature's abjects these. 3 Not theirs is it to obey either laws 
 or good instruction ; 4 nay, how should they, who never toil, 
 discover what a good man ought to be? — in other words, 
 wisdom and piety are alike beyond their power. Subject to 
 indiscipline, they have many a fault to find with him who is 
 well educated. 
 
 Through the instrumentality of such as these nothing can 
 go well ; whereas every blessing which mankind enjoys has 
 been discovered by the efforts of the nobler sort. Nobler, I 
 say, are those who choose to toil. 5 
 
 And this has been proved conclusively by a' notable 
 example. If we look back to the men of old who sate at the 
 feet of Cheiron — whose names I mentioned — we see that it was 
 by dedicating the years of their youth to the chase 6 that they 
 learnt all their noble lore ; and therefrom they attained to 
 great renown, and are admired even to this day for their 
 virtue — virtue who numbers all men as her lovers, as is very 
 plain. Only because of the pains it costs to win her the greater 
 
 1 Or, "bring down on themselves, their children, and their friends a 
 string of misfortunes in the shape of diseases, losses, or even death." 
 
 2 ' ' For what does a chivalrous education teach save to obey the law, 
 and to make the theme of justice familiar to tongue and ear?" 
 
 3 Lit. "the sorriest of mankind these by nature." 
 
 4 Or, " virtuous argument " ; XSyois &yaBoh, lit. "good words." 
 
 3 Or, ' ' of choice spirits ; and who are the choice spirits ? — Clearly 
 those who choose to toil." 
 
 6 Or, ' ' that they made their first essay in hunting when mere boys, and 
 from hunting upwards were taught many noble arts. " 
 
 VOL. Ill 2 K 
 
^, T TTTT1 . Trr , TXT „ /cH. XII. § 18-22 
 
 122 ON HUNTING |ch. xmi'i 1-3 
 
 number fall away ; for the achievement of her is hid in 
 obscurity; while the pains that cleave to her are manifest. 
 Perchance, if only she were endowed with a visible bodily 
 frame, men would less have neglected her, knowing that 
 even as she is visible to them, so they also are not hid 
 from her eyes. For is it not so that when a man moves 
 in the presence of him whom he dearly loves, 1 he rises 
 to a height above himself, being incapable of aught base 
 or foul in word or deed in sight of him ? 2 But fondly 
 dreaming that the eye of virtue is closed to them, they are 
 guilty of many a base thing and foul before her very face, 
 who is hidden from their eyes. Yet she is present every- 
 where,- being dowered with immortality; and those who are 
 perfect in goodness s she honours, but the wicked she thrusts 
 aside from honour. If only men could know that she regards 
 them, how eagerly would they rush to the embrace of toilful 
 training and tribulation, 4 by which alone she is hardly taken ; 
 and so should they gain the mastery over her, and she should 
 be laid captive at their feet. 
 
 xiii. — Now what astonishes me in the " sophists," as they 
 are called, 5 is, that though they profess, the greater part of 
 them, to lead the young to virtue, they really lead them in 
 the opposite direction Never have we set eyes on the man 
 anywhere who owed his goodness to the sophists of to-day. 6 
 Nor do their writings contain anything 7 calculated to make 
 men good, but they have written volumes on vain and frivolous 
 subjects, in which the young may find pleasures that pall, 
 but the essence of virtue is not in them. The result of 
 this literature is to inflict unnecessary waste of time on 
 those who look to learn something from it all and look 
 in vain, cutting them off from wholesome occupations and 
 even teaching what is bad. I cannot then but blame them 
 
 1 Lit. " is beheld by his beloved. " Cf. Symp. iv. 4; viii. 31. 
 
 2 Lit. " in order not to be seen of him. " 
 8 Lit. " good with respect to her." 
 
 4 Or, " to those toils and that training." 
 
 5 Cf. Isocr. Against the Sophists ; Antidosis ; Hel. Encont . / Plato, Sophist. 
 
 6 Who are these of vvv <ro<purral ? 
 
 7 Lit. ' ' do they present writings to the world. ' 
 
cur. xui. § 3-7 THE MODERN TYPE OF SOPHIST 123 
 
 for certain large offences 1 more than lightly ; but as regards 
 the subject-matter of their writings my charge is, that while 
 full of far-fetched phraseology, 2 of solid wholesome sentiments, 
 by which the young might be trained to virtue, I see not a 
 vestige. Speaking as a plain man, I know that to be taught 
 what is good by one's own nature is best of all, 8 and next best 
 to learn of those who really do know some good thing rather 
 than of those who have an art to deceive. It may well be that 
 I fail to express myself in subtle language, 4 nor do I pretend 
 to aim at subtlety ; what I do aim at is to express rightly- 
 conceived thoughts such as may serve the need of those who 
 have been nobly disciplined in virtue ; for it is not words and 
 names that give instruction, but thoughts and sentiments 
 worthy the name. 
 
 Nor am I singular in thus reproaching the modern type of 
 sophist (not the true philosopher, be it understood) ; it is a 
 general reproach that the wisdom he professes consists in 
 word-subtleties, not in ideas. 5 Certainly it does not escape 
 my notice that an orderly sequence of ideas adds beauty to 
 the composition : 6 I mean it will be easy to find fault with 
 what is written incorrectly. 7 Nevertheless, I warrant it is written 
 in this fashion with an eye to rectitude, to make the reader 
 
 1 Or, " as to certain weightier matters gravely." 
 
 a ^juara = "words and phrases" ; yvw/mi = "moral maxims, just 
 thoughts. " 
 
 3 " Being myself but a private individual and a plain man.'' According 
 to Hartman, A. X. N. p. 350, "ridicule detorquet Hesiodeum'' : 
 
 offros fiiv irav&purTos 8s o.vt$ tt&vto. voi\o~r) 
 i<r$\bs 8' afi K&Keivos 8s eS dirbv-ri. irWiyrcu. 
 
 4 A I. "in true sophistic style." The writer seems to say: "I lack 
 subtlety of expression (nor is that at all my object) ; what I do aim at is to 
 trace with some exactness, to present with the lucidity appropriate to them, 
 certain thoughts demanded by persons well educated in the school of virtue." 
 
 6 ivopaai, "in names"; vo-tipac, " thoughts and ideas. " 
 
 6 Or, "I am alive to the advantage to be got from methodic, orderly 
 expression artistically and morally." 
 
 7 This passage, since H. Estienne (Stephanus) first wrote against it 
 "huic loco meae conjecturae succumbunt," has been a puzzle to all com- 
 mentators. The words run : oi \av8ava Se yae 8ti koXSs koX Qrjs yeypd<p8ai 
 [yiypairrai in the margin of one MS.] - fiij.Si.ov yd.p tartu airrois raxi p-t\ bp8Qs 
 ^/jL^aa-dai.- khItoi yeypawraL ye ofrras k.t.X. For raxi ph 6p9w (1) raxi n 
 p.1) ipBus, (2) Tb (or t&) M 6p$Qs, have been suggested. It is not clear whether 
 afrroU =roh ffotpurrals (e.g. " it will be easy for these people to lay a finger at 
 
 VOL. Ill — 2 K2 
 
I2 4 ON HUNTING ch. xm. S 7-10 
 
 wise and good, not more sophistical. For I would wish my 
 writings not to seem but rather to be useful. I would have 
 them stand the test of ages in their blamelessness. 1 
 
 That is my point of view. The sophist has quite 
 another — words with him are for the sake of deception, 
 writing for personal gain ; to benefit any other living soul at 
 all is quite beside his mark. There never was nor is there 
 now a sage among them to whom the title " wise " could be 
 applied. No ! the appellation "sophist" suffices for each and 
 all, which among men of common sense 2 sounds like a 
 stigma. My advice then is to mistrust the sonorous catch- 
 words 3 of the sophists, and not to despise the reasoned 
 conclusions 4 of the philosopher; for the sophist is a hunter 
 after the rich and young, the philosopher is the common 
 friend of all ; he neither honours nor despises the fortunes of 
 men. 
 
 Nor would I have you envy or imitate those either who 
 recklessly pursue the path of self- aggrandisement, 5 whether 
 in private or in public life ; but consider well 6 that the best of 
 men, 7 the true nobility, are discovered by their virtues ; 8 they 
 
 once on blots, however unfairly"), or=To« ovyypapt/ian (sc. my(?) composi- 
 tions ; so airA, § 7 below, ai yap SoKelv aira jiov\ofi.ai k.t.X. ) (e.g. "since it 
 will be easy offhand to find fault with tkem incorrectly ") [or if rot /A7/ 6pd<as, 
 "what is incorrect in them"]. I append the three translations of Gail, Lenz, 
 and Talbot. ' ' Je sais combien il est avantageux de presenter des ouvrages 
 m&hodiquement ecrits ; aussi par la meme sera-t-il plus facile de prouver aux 
 sophistes leur futility ! " pifSiov yap i<TTai [sub. i/ioi\ p.iiJ.\paa6ai airois Taxi) 
 (t6) ,iir) (sous-entendu) yeypaipdai dpffus (Gail). "Zwar entgeht mir nicht, 
 dass es schbn sey die Worte kunstvoll zu ordnen, denn leichter wird ihnen 
 sonst, schnell, aber mit Unrecht zu tadeln" (Lenz). "Aussi leur sera-t-il 
 facile de me reprocher d'ecrire vite et sans ordre " (Talbot). As if Tax» pi) 
 6p8ws were the reproachful comment of the sophist on the author's treatise. 
 
 1 i.e. "the arguments to be blameless at once and irrefutable for all 
 time." 
 
 2 L. Dind. cf. Eur. Heracl. 370, irov ravra Ka\u>s av eti) | 7rapd y' eS 
 tj>povovaiv ; 
 
 3 irapayye\iw.Ta. Cf. Aesch. Ag. 480, "telegraph"; Lys. 121. 32; 
 Dem. 569. 1, "words of command" ; Dion. H. De Comp. 248, "instruc- 
 tions, precepts." 4 ivdviiinuxra. 
 
 5 Or, "surrender themselves heedlessly to the ways of self-seeking." But 
 the phraseology here seems to savour of extreme youth, or else senility. 
 
 6 ivdviajdivTa. Query, in reference to ivdv/iij/mTa above ? 
 
 7 Reading avSpuiv. For the vulg. aiTwv see Schneid. ad he, who 
 suggests two Acrrwv. e " Recognisable for the better. " 
 
ch.xiii.§io. i5 A WORD IN FAVOUR OF THE CHASE 125 
 
 are a laborious upwards -striving race; whilst the base are 
 in evil plight 1 and are discovered by their demerits. 2 
 Since in proportion as they rob the private citizen of his 
 means and despoil the state 3 they are less serviceable with a 
 view to the public safety than any private citizen ; 4 and what 
 can be worse or more disgraceful for purposes of war than 
 the bodily form of people so incapable of toil ? 5 Think of 
 huntsmen by contrast, surrendering to the common weal 
 person and property alike in perfect condition for service 
 of the citizens. They have both a battle to wage certainly : 
 only the one set are for attacking beasts ; and the other their 
 own friends. 6 And naturally the assailant of his own friends 
 does not win the general esteem ; 7 whilst the huntsman in 
 attacking a wild beast may win renown. If successful in 
 his capture, he has won a victory over a hostile brood ; or 
 failing, in the first place, it is a feather in his cap that his 
 attempt is made against enemies of the whole community ; 
 and secondly, that it is not to the detriment of man nor for 
 love of gain that the field is taken ; and thirdly, as the out- 
 come of the very attempt, the hunter is improved in many 
 respects, and all the wiser : by what means we. will explain. 
 Were it not for the very excess of his pains, his well-reasoned 
 devices, his manifold precautions, he would never capture the 
 quarry at all ; since the antagonists he deals with are doing 
 battle for bare life and in their native haunts, 8 and are 
 consequently in great force. So that if he fails to overmatch 
 the beasts by a zest for toil transcending theirs and plentiful 
 intelligence, the huntsman's labours are in vain. 
 
 I go back to my proposition then. Those self-seeking 
 politicians, who want to feather their own nests, 9 practise 
 
 1 "They are not famous but infamous"; "the bad fare as their name 
 suggests " (i.e. badly). 
 
 2 ' ' Recognisable for the worse." 
 
 3 Or, "what with private extortions and public peculation." 
 
 4 tuv ISuiit&v, "laymen," I suppose, as opposed to "professional" 
 lawyers or politicians. 
 
 6 "What with their incapacity for hard work, their physique for purposes 
 of war is a mockery and a sham." 6 Cf. Plat. Soph. 
 
 7 Or, "earns but an evil reputation in the world." 
 
 8 " They are being bearded in their dens." 
 
 9 Or, " Those people who would fain have the lion's share in the state." 
 
126 ON HUNTING ch. xiii. S 15-18 
 
 to win victories over their own side, but the sportsman con- 
 fines himself to the common enemy. This training of theirs 
 renders the one set more able to cope with the foreign foe, 
 the others far less able. The hunting of the one is carried on 
 with self-restraint, of the others with effrontery. The one 
 can look down with contempt upon maliciousness and 
 sordid love of gain, the other cannot. The very speech 
 and intonation of the one has melody, of the other harshness. 
 And with regard to things divine, the one set know no obstacle 
 to their impiety, the others are of all men the most pious. 
 Indeed ancient tales affirm 1 that the very gods themselves 
 take joy in this work 2 as actors and spectators. So that, 3 
 with due reflection on these things, the young who act upon 
 my admonitions will be found, perchance, beloved of heaven 
 and reverent of soul, checked by the thought that some one 
 of the gods is eyeing their performance. 4 
 
 These are the youths who will prove a blessing to their 
 parents, and not to their parents only but to the whole state ; 
 to every citizen alike and individual friend. 
 
 Nay, what has sex to do with it ? It is not only men 
 enamoured of the chase that have become heroes, but among 
 women there are also to whom our lady Artemis has granted 
 a like boon — Atalanta, 5 and Procris, and many another 
 huntress fair. 
 
 1 Or, " an ancient story obtains. " 2 Sc. " of the chase. " 
 
 3 Or iirapx&v = " it may be considered as given." Scheid. cf. Pol. Ath. 
 iii. 9, Ibare iiir&pxeiv Sf^fioKparlav elvat. 
 
 4 Lit. "that the things in question are beheld by some divinity." 
 
 5 Atalanta, Procris. Cf. Callim. Dian. 209, 215. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Academy (s. Akademeia), the, at 
 Athens, Hipparch, iii. i, p. 10; hard 
 ground of, ib. ib. 14, p. 13. 
 
 Achilles (son of Thetis and Peleus), 
 sat at the feet of Cheiron as a dis- 
 ciple, Hunt. i. ks, 4, p. 73 foil. ; ib. 
 ib. 16, p. 77. 
 
 Aeneas (son of Venus and Anchises), 
 a disciple of Cheiron, Hunt. i. 2, 
 p. 73 ; ib. ib. 15, p. 77. 
 
 Aether, a name suitable for a hound 
 (see list), Hunt. vii. 5, p. 102. 
 
 AichmS, a name suitable for a hound 
 (see list), Hunt. vii. 5, P- 102. 
 
 Aktis, a name suitable for a hound 
 (see list), Hunt. vii. 5, p. 10J. 
 
 Alcathus, father of Periboea, tntnt. i. 
 
 9. P- 75- 
 AlkS, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 Amphiaraus (one of the "seven" 
 
 against Thebes), a disciple of 
 
 Cheiron, Hunt. i. 2, p. 73 ; ib. ib. 
 
 8, p. 74- 
 Antheus, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 
 5. P- i°2- 
 Antilochus (son of Nestor), a disciple 
 
 of Cheiron, Hunt. i. 2, p. 73 ; ib. 
 
 ib. 14, p. 76. 
 Apollo, Hunt. i. 1, p. 73 ; ib. vi. 13, 
 
 p. 96. 
 Artemis, Hunt. i. x, p. 73 ; ib. v. 14, 
 
 p. 89 ; ib. xiii. 18, p. 126 ; Hippo- 
 
 lytus honoured by, ib. i. 1 1 , p. 75 ; 
 
 vows made to her, ib. vi. 14, p. 
 96. 
 
 Asclgpius (Lat. Aesculapius), (son of 
 Apollo and Coronis), a disciple of 
 Cheiron, Hunt. i. a, p. 73 ; ib. ib. 
 6, p. 74. 
 
 Atalanta, Hunt. i. 7, p. 74 ; ib. xiii. 
 18, p. 126. 
 
 Athenians, their ambition re public 
 spectacles, Hipparch, i. 26, p. 7 ; 
 their pride of ancestry, ib. vii. 3, 
 p. 23 ; cf. Mem. III. v. 3. 
 
 Athens, the duties of a general of 
 cavalry at, Hipparch, passim ; in 
 case of invasion, ib. vii. 1, p. 22 ; 
 the city of, ib. ib. 4, p. 23. 
 
 Attica, in case of invasion, how de- 
 fensible, Hipparch, vii. 2, p. 23. 
 
 Augo, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 p. 102. 
 
 Bia, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 p. 102. 
 
 Boeotian helmets, Horse, xii. 3, p. 
 67. 
 
 Boeotians, compared with the Athen- 
 ians, Hipparch, vii. 3, p. 23. 
 
 Brem6n, a hound's name, Hunt..m. 
 5, p. 102. 
 
 Bruas, a. hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 p. 102. 
 
 Carthaginian (Karchedonian) flax, 
 Hunt. ii. 4, p. 78. 
 
128 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Castor (brother of Polydeuces and 
 Helena), a disciple of Cheiron, 
 Hunt. i. 2, p. 73 ; ib. ib. 13, p. 76 ; 
 a breed of dog named " Castorian " 
 after, ib. iii. 1, p. 79. 
 
 Cephalus (husband of Procris), a dis- 
 ciple of Cheiron, Hunt. i. 2, p. 73 ; 
 "snatched" by the goddess of 
 Dawn, ib. ib. 5, p. 74. 
 
 Chara, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5> 
 p. 102. 
 
 Cheiron, his uprightness, Hunt. i. 1 ; 
 his hero-pupils, ib. ib. 2 foil. ; his 
 parentage, ib. ib. 4, p. 73 ; ib. ib. 
 
 8, p. 74 ; ib. xii. 18, p. 121. 
 Cirrha (s. Kirrha), a hound's name, 
 
 Hunt. vii. 5, p. 102. 
 Cittus [s. Kittos, mod. Khortiatzi), 
 
 Mount, Hunt. xi. 1, p. 117. 
 Cretan (boar) hounds, Hunt. x. i, p. 
 
 no. 
 
 Diomedes {s. Diomed, son of Tydeus), 
 a disciple of Cheiron, Hunt. i. 2, p. 
 73 ; ib. ib. 13, p. 76. 
 
 Dionysia, the great festival of, Hip- 
 parch, iii. 2, p. 10. 
 
 Eleusinion, the, temple of Demeter 
 at Athens, Hipparch, iii. 2, p. n ; 
 Horse, i. 1, p. 37. 
 
 Getheus, a hound's name, Hunt. 
 
 vii. 5, p. 102. 
 GnomS, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 
 Hebe, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 Heracles (son of Zeus and Alcmene), 
 
 Hunt. i. 9, p. 75. 
 Hermae, the (at Athens), Hipparch, 
 
 iii. 2, p. 10. 
 Hesione (daughter of Laomedon, king 
 
 of. Troy, sister of Priam), bestowed 
 
 by Heracles on Telamon, Hunt. i. 
 
 9, P- 75- 
 
 Hippodrome, the, at Athens (near 
 Munychia?), Hipparch, iii. 1, p. 
 10 ; cavalry manoeuvres in, ib. ib. 
 
 10, p. 12. 
 
 Hippolytus (son of Theseus and Hip- 
 
 polyta), a disciple of Cheiron, Hunt. 
 
 i. 2, p. 73 ; honoured by Artemis, 
 
 ib. ib. 11, p. 75. 
 HormS, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 Hyleus [s. Huleus), a hound's name, 
 
 Hunt. vii. 5, p. 102. 
 
 Kain6n (s. Caenon), a hound's name, 
 
 Hunt. vii. 5, p. 102. 
 Kraugfi (j. Craug£), a hound's name, 
 
 Hunt. vii. Si P- 102. 
 
 Lacedaemonians, the, their inva- 
 sions of Attica, Hipparch, vii. 4, 
 p. 23 ; improvement in their cavalry, 
 ib. ix. 4, p. 32. 
 
 Laconian (boar) hounds, Hunt. a. 1, 
 p. no. 
 
 Leuss&n, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 
 5. P- ioz- 
 Lochos, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 Locrian (boar) hounds, Hunt. x. 
 
 1, p. no. 
 LonchS, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 
 5. P- i°2- 
 Lyceum, the, Hipparch, iii. 1 , p. 10 ; 
 at Athens, a "march-past" in the 
 grounds of, ib. ib. 6, p. n. 
 
 Mach AON, son of Asclepius, a disciple 
 
 of Cheiron, Hunt. i. 2, 14, pp. 73, 
 
 76. 
 Medas, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 Melanion, a disciple of Cheiron, Hunt. 
 
 i. 2, 7, pp. 73, 74. 
 Meleager, a disciple of Cheiron, Hunt. 
 
 i. 2, 10, pp. 73, 75. 
 Menestheus (son of Peleus), a disciple 
 
 of Cheiron, Hunt. i. 2, 12, pp. 73, 
 
 76. 
 
 Na'is, the nymph, mother of Cheiron, 
 
 Hunt. i. 4, p. 74. 
 Nestor, a disciple of Cheiron, Hunt. 
 
 i. 2, 7, p. 73 foil. ; ' ' alone rivalled " 
 
 Menestheus in war, ib. ib. 12, p. 
 
 7<\ 
 
INDEX 
 
 129 
 
 Noes, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 Nysa, Mount, " over Syria," Hunt. 
 
 xi. 1, p. 117. 
 
 Odysseus (Lat. Ulysses), a disciple 
 
 of Cheiron, Hunt. i. 2, p. 73 ; ii. 
 
 it. 13, p. 76. 
 Odrysians, the, ride their horses at 
 
 speed downhill, Horse, viii. 6, p. 
 
 57 ; cf. Hell. III. ii. 4. 
 Oenas, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 Olympus, in Mysia, Hunt. xi. 1, p. 
 
 117. 
 OrgS, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 
 Palamedes (son of Nauplius), a dis- 
 ciple of Cheiron, Hunt. i. 2, p. 73 
 (cf. Apol. 32 ; Cic. de Off. iii. 26) ; 
 his wisdom ; unjustly slain, Hunt. 
 
 i. 11, p. 75- 
 
 Panathenaic processional march, Hip- 
 parch, iii. 2 foil. , p. 10 foil. 
 
 Pangaeus, Mount (mod. Pinari), in 
 Thrace, the haunt of big game, 
 Hunt. xi. i, p. 117. 
 
 Peleus, a disciple of Cheiron, Hunt. 
 i. 2, 8, pp. 73, 74- 
 
 Periboea, the daughter of Alcathus, 
 won by Telamon, Hunt. i. 8, 
 
 P- 75- 
 Persian, the, fashion of mounting, 
 Hipparch, i. 17, p. 5 ; Horse, vi. 12, 
 
 P- Si' 
 Persians, run races down steep slopes, 
 
 Horse, viii. 6, p. 57. 
 Phaleron, Hipparch, iii. 1, p. 10. 
 Phasis, flax from, Hunt. ii. 4, p. 78. 
 Phlegdn, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 
 5, p. 102. 
 Phonax, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 
 5, p. 102. 
 Phroura, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 
 5, p. 102. 
 Phulax, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 Pindus, Mount, frequented by wild 
 
 beasts, Hunt. xi. 1, p. 117. 
 Podaleirius (son of Asclepius), a dis- 
 
 ciple of Cheiron, Hunt. i. 2, p. 73 ; 
 
 it. it. 14, p. 76. 
 Polydeuces (Lat. Pollux), a disciple 
 
 of Cheiron, Hunt. i. 2, p. 73 ; ii. 
 
 it. 13, p. 76. 
 Polys, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 Porpax, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 Porthon, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 
 5. P- 102. 
 Procris, a huntress, /fra/. xiii. 18, 
 
 p. 126. 
 Psyche, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 
 Rhome (Lat. Roma), a hound's name, 
 Hunt. vii. 5, p. 102. 
 
 Simon, an Athenian, author of a 
 treatise on Horsemanship ; dedi- 
 cated the bronze horse near the 
 Eleusinion, Horse, i. 1, 3, p. 37 
 foil. ; a dictum of, quoted by the 
 author, ii. xi. 6, p. 65 ; cf. Arrian, 
 Cyn. i. 4. 
 
 Sperchon, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 5, p. 102. 
 
 Sponde, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 5, p. 102. 
 
 Sterrhos, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 5, p. 102. 
 
 Sthendn, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 5, p. 102. 
 
 Stib6n, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 p. 102. 
 
 Stichfin, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 5, p. 102. 
 
 Styrax, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 p. 102. 
 
 Taxis, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 
 p. 102. 
 Telamon (brother of Peleus, father of 
 
 Ajax), a disciple of Cheiron, Hunt. 
 
 i. 2, p. 73 ; Heracles' devotion to, 
 
 it. it. 9, p. 75. 
 Teuch6n, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 
 5, p. 102. 
 Thalldn, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 
 S, p. 102. 
 
i3° 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Thebes, Hunt. i. 8, p. 74. 
 
 ThSseus, a disciple of Cheiron, Hunt. 
 
 i. 2, p. 73 ; enlarged the borders 
 
 of his fatherland, ib. ib. 10, p. 75. 
 Thetis, the marriage of, and Peleus, 
 
 Hunt. i. 8, p. 74. 
 Thumos (s. Thymus), a hound's name, 
 
 Hunt. vii. 5, p. 102. 
 Troy, taken by Heracles, Hunt. i. 9, 
 
 p. 75 ; by the Achaeans, ib. ib. 13, 
 p. 74 ; Aeneas saved his ancestral 
 gods at the taking of, ib. ib. 15, 
 
 P- 77- 
 Turbas, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 5, 
 p. 102. 
 
 XiphSn, a hound's name, Hunt. vii. 
 5. P- I02- 
 
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