3III ' i ii !!■ t' '■■'ri ' ■ ■ " ■ ' '■' .■ ilUii CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924028623688 Dominion of New Zealand / 3 1924 028 623 688 o •J z hj w >: X w w D THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND BY SIR ARTHUR P. DOUGLAS, Bt. BOSTON LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY 1909 TO THE EARL OF RANFURLY, G.C.M.G., ETC., WHO RENDERED SUCH GOOD SERVICE TO NEW ZEALAND DURING HIS SEVEN YEARS OF OFFICE AS ITS GOVERNOR PREFACE Those who have resided in New Zealand for any length of time generally become enthusiastic about the dominion, its history, its rapid rise, and its many attractions. It is especially dif&cult to avoid superlatives if one has had there, like the author, many experiences of colonial life under varied circumstances during a considerable number of years. He has, however, endeavoured to steer a middle course and to tell an unvarnished tale. His aim throughout has been to write a book to which reference could be made with confidence and, at the same time, to avoid burdening its pages with unnecessary details. The temptation to record here and there one's personal impressions, as in the chapter on the Flora of the dominion, has been great, but he has left all such word-painting to the guide-book writer. It may be said without exaggera- tion that the natural beauties of the dominion baflBe description. They must be seen to be thoroughly appreciated. Exigencies of space have only permitted a brief allusion to many matters of general and political interest on which one would have liked to dwell, such as the advance of New Zealand on the road to prosperity, the growth of democratic ideas and the probable effect of the latter on the future of the country. He has not specifically referred in the body of the work, except in the chapter on Geology, to those whose writings he has freely made use of. He would like, however, especially to record here his Viii PREFACE obligations to the authors of the following books, etc., from which he has obtained much valuable information :— Captain Cook's Journal, edited by Captain Wharton, R.N. The Long White Cloud (Ao-tea-roa), by WiUiam Pember Reeves. The Colony of New Zealand, by William Gisbome. Adventure in New Zealand, by Edward Jerningham Wakefield ; edited by Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G. Birds of New Zealand, by Sir Walter Buller, K.C.M.G. Manual of New Zealand Flora, by T. F. Cheeseman. Grasses and Forage Plants of New Zealand, by Thomas Mackay. Ferns and Fern Allies of New Zealand, by G. M. Thomson. Plants of New Zealand, by R. M. Laing and E. W. BlackweU. Animals of New Zealand, by Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., and James Drummond. Forest Flora of New Zealand, by Thomas Kirk. His grateful thanks are also due to the Earl of Ranfurly, G.C.M.G., for allowing him access to his extensive library of books referring to New Zealand. If the perusal of the following pages leads to an increased interest in one of the most loyal and most prosperous parts of the Empire beyond the seas, and if the work proves of practical value to those who contemplate setthng in the dominion, the author will feel that his labours have not been in vain. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PART I— DISCOVERY AND EARLY HISTORY CHAPTER I DISCOVERER AND OTHER EARLY VISITORS FAGE Tasman — Captain Cook — Result of Cook's explorations — Discoveries by Captain Sever — Other early visitors to New Zealand — Burning of a village by De Surville and consequences — Captain Vancouver — Sir James Ross . . 1 CHAPTER II ACQUISITION Appointment of Mr. Busby as British Resident — Dispute with Baron de Thierry — Captain Hobson appointed Governor — Signing of Treaty of Waitangi — New Zealand made an independent colony . . . . . . . . 13 CHAPTER III BOUNDARIES AND AREA Addition of the Cook group and other Pacific islands to the Dominion — Acreage — Attempt to colonize Sunday Island — Description of annexed islands . . . . . . . . 18 CHAPTER IV EARLY COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT Troubles with the Maori — Missionary enterprise — Whale- fishing — Attempts at colonization — Forming of settle- ments — ^The New Zealand Land Company the first true settlers — The Wairau massacre — Trouble with the Maori — Appointment of Captain Grey — Uncertainty of Government as to best method of controlling the colony 28 ix I a — (2136) CONTENTS CHAPTER V THE MAORI RACE PAGE Origin of the Maori race — The Maori reUgion — Physical qualities — Clothing — Occupation — Characteristic traits — Numbers . . . . . . • • ■ • • ■ . . 47 PART II CHAPTER I PHYSICAL AND ARTIFICIAL FEATURES New Zealand originally a small group of islands — Mountains — Lakes — Plains — Rivers — Springs — Harbours . . . . 59 CHAPTER II SCENERY country teeming with interesting features — -Beautiful scenery — The Southern Alps — Geysers . . 68 CHAPTER III CLIMATE Lowest death-rate in the world — Temperature — Rainfall — PrevaiUng winds — Comparative temperatures . . . . 74 CHAPTER IV GEOLOGY Some sources of author's information — Varieties of geological features — Coal — Copper — Gold — Other minerals . . .. 81 CHAPTER V FLORA General remarks — The pine — ^Value of Kauri gum — Beech forests — The Nikau palm — Open country vegetation . . 87 CONTENTS XI CHAPTER VI FAUNA PAGE The only indigenous mammal — Other animals introduced — Amphibia — ReptUia — The Tuatara — Insects — Birds — - The Kiwi — The Kea — The Tui — Sea birds — Game birds 116 PART III CHAPTER I DEVELOPMENT, 1853-1870 First General Assembly — Appointment of Sir T. G. Browne as Governor — Dissatisfaction of the Maori — DiflS.culties of government— Formation of a native department— The Maori determine to have a king — War — Governor's proclamation — Proclamation withdrawn — Handing over to New Zealand Government the conduct of native affairs — Serious con- dition of affairs — Massacre at Poverty Bay — General progress of the colony — Earthquake at Wellington . . 145 CHAPTER II CONSTITUTION, GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND FRANCHISE Past and present constitutions — The Legislature — The Governor — The Legislative Council — The House of Representatives — The Franchise — Qualifications of electors — Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 CHAPTER III LOCAL AND MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT Division into counties and boroughs — Population — Franchise system — Harbour boards .. .. .. .. .(175 CHAPTER IV TAXATION Principle of taxation — Exemptions from land-tax — Provisions to prevent evasion of land-tax — Income-tax — Who are exempted from income-tax . . . . . . 181 Xll CONTENTS CHAPTER V NATIVE QUESTION PAGE No native question — ^Maori Parliament . . . . . . 191 CHAPTER VI CUSTOMS AND TARIFF Customs — Rates of duty on various items — Reciprocal trade 194 CHAPTER VII GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS Original and present seat of government — ^Method of ad- ministration — Duties of the Public Trustee — ^The Civil Service .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 201 CHAPTER VIII FINANCE General government — Local governing bodies — Tables from Official Year Book 208 CHAPTER IX EDUCATION Omission of religious teaching — Education on national defence — Higher education— Scholarships — ^Manual and technical education — Schools of Mines — Institutions . . 214 CHAPTER X CONTROL OF THE SALE OF ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS Local option — Dominion divided into licensing districts — How voting is conducted — Local option statistics — Hours of closing Ucensed houses — Prohibited persons — Clubs — Method of dealing with habitual drunkards . . . . 222 CHAPTER XI RAILWAYS Railways under Government control — Facilities for travelling — Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . , . . 231 CONTENTS Mil CHAPTER XII OLD AGE PENSIONS p^^^ How the Old Age Pensions Act is administered — Who are and who are not ehgible for pensions . . . . . . 235 CHAPTER XIII LABOUR AND THE LABOUR LAWS Labour laws introduced by Progressive ministry — Duties of Labour Department — Factories Act — Hohdays — Shops and Offices Act — ^Wages Protection Act — ^Workmen's Wages Act — Public Contracts Act — Contractors and Workmen's Liens Act — Coal Mines Act — Mining Acts Compilation Act — Workers' Dwelling Acts — Government Advances to Workers' Act — Strikes and lock-outs . . 238 CHAPTER XIV BANKING AND WEALTH Number of banks in New Zealand — Banking legislation — Savings Banks — Value of securities, amount of deposits, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 CHAPTER XV DEFENCE First scheme mooted for defence of the Dominion — Services rendered by Sir William Jervois and Major-Genl. Shaw — Australasian Naval Defence Act — Compulsory service — Rates of pay in the Militia — ^Volunteers — The Defence Act Amendment Act — The Defence Council . . . . 261 CHAPTER XVI LAW AND JUDICIAL 279 CHAPTER XVII POLICE 282 CHAPTER XVIII ALIEN QUESTION Legislation regarding Chinese immigration — Persons prohibited from landing — Penalties . . . . . . 284 XIV CONTENTS PART IV— SOCIAL LIFE IN THE DOMINION CHAPTER I RELIGIOUS, SOCIAL, AND DOMESTIC LIFE ; DRINK AND GAMBLING P^ot Statistics on religious bodies — ^Early development of intelligence in children — ^How New Zealand women occupy themselves — The fanner's life — ^Entertainments — The servant question — Shops and stores — ^Effect of wealth on social life . . . . . . . . . . 289 CHAPTER II SPORT Football — Bowls — ^Hunting — ^Deer — Duck-shooting — Pheas- ants — ^Pig-hunting — Game season and cost of Ucences — ^Trout-fishing — ^Fishing season and cost of licences — Yachting — Swimming — ^Walking and racing — ^The " totalisator " — Remarks on cUmbing — Motoring . . 300 CHAPTER III THE PRESS Newspapers — Names of leading dailies — Publications . . 316 CHAPTER IV LITERATURE AND ART Absence of Dominion Uterature — Musical education — ^Art . . 320 PART V— TRADE, COMMERCE, AND INDUSTRY CHAPTER I THE LAND, AND HOW THE COLONIST HAS USED IT Peist destruction of forests — ^Forest department — Far min g — Facts connected with grain growing — Agricultural industries — Schools of farming . . . . . . . . 325 CHAPTER II LAND SYSTEM Terms of Constitution Act of 1852 — Proportions of area owned at present day by the State, the white settier, and the Maori — Method of disposing of Crown Lands — ^The unproved farm settiement — ^The village settiement — Maori Lands Administration Act . . . . . . . . 337 CONTENTS XV CHAPTER III LAND DISTRICTS p^^ob Division of land districts — ^Agricultural industries of Auckland — Hawke's Bay — Wellington — TaranaH — Marlborough — Westland — Canterbury — Otago — Southland 351 CHAPTER IV MINING Mining industry — Gold — ^Number of mines — Coal-mining — Figures— Metals 361 CHAPTER V SEA FISHERIES Prospects of local supply — Conditions of export — Oyster fisheries — Fish-hatcheries . . . . . . _ ™ 365 CHAPTER VI SHIPPING Time and trouble saved since introduction of steamers — Courtesy of present-day ships' masters — Description of vessels 368 CHAPTER VII MANUFACTURES Development of industries — Table of industries and wages — Emplo3rment of labour — ^Mills and factories — Shops . . 370 PART VI— THE DOMINION AND ITS RELATION TO THE EMPIRE CHAPTER I LOYALTY AND IMPERIALISM Attachment to the Mother Country — ^Three great expressions of loyalty — ^The Boer War 375 XVI CONTENTS CHAPTER II IMPERIAL DEFENCE p^^ge What Imperial Defence means — Strengthening of New Zealand ports — Mutual obUgations — ^Naval Reserve — Imperial Defence versus Militarism — ^Plans of defence discussed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 PART VII— DEVELOPMENT DURING RECENT YEARS DEVELOPMENT — 1870 TO 1908 General progress — Policy of Sir JuUus Vogel — ^Act for Abohtion of Provinces, 1875 — ^Premiership of Sir George Grey — Triennial ParUament Act, 1879 — The Parihaka troubles, 1881 — Direct steamship communication between New Zealand and Great Britain, 1883 — ^Volcanic eruptions at Tarawera, 1886 — One man, one vote, 1890 — Noted statesmen — ^Acts of ParUament — ^Noteworthy events of last ten years . . . . . . . . . . 389 PART VIII HINTS, ROUTES, COST OF LIVING, ETC. General advice to intending emigrants — ^Routes — Cost of living — Openings for employment — ^Fares . . . . 405 Appendix I. Population II. Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics III. Average Rates of Wages in each Provincial District of New Zeeiland during the year 1907 rv. Imports and Exports V. Shipping VI. Postal and Electric Telegraph VII. PreUminary Expenses VIII. Particulars as to Steamship Routes IX. Principal Pubhc Works Expenditure Index 410 413 421 427 431 433 435 436 437 438 ILLUSTRATIONS QUEEN S WHARF, WELLINGTON Frontispiece FACING PAGE WHARVES AND SHIPPING (AUCKLAND) ... 22 WANGANUI RIVER 36 WANGANUI RIVER 62 WAIMANGU GEYSER 72 SUGARLOAF, BEALEY GORGE 98 A RAW SUGAR STORE (CHELSEA, AUCKLAND) . .126 HAMILTON (WAIKATO DISTRICT) 154 CHRISTCHURCH, CANTERBURY 222 DUNEDIN, LOOKING SOUTH 280 GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS, WELLINGTON . . . 296 LYTTELTON 312 MOUNT COOK AND ST. DAVID'S DOME . . . 316 GOLD DREDGE, BULLER GORGE 360 AOROA MILLS, NAIROA RIVER 372 GOVERNMENT EXPERIMENTAL STATION (WAERENGA) . 392 INTRODUCTION Amongst the many oversea possessions of the British Crown, there are some which undoubtedly have greater historical interest than New Zealand as judged from an old world standpoint. In other words, New Zealand was not one of those round which, or on behalf of which, battles were fought to decide who was to be the possessor and what should be England's position amongst the nations of the world. New Zealand was peacefully acquired without any struggle with foreign powers. It has, nevertheless, a history of its own which is of the greatest interest. Dis- covered by a celebrated Dutchman only two hundred and sixty-six years ago, circumnavigated and its coastline surveyed by one of England's greatest mariners only a hundred and forty years ago, and made one of England's colonies less than seventy years ago, it has passed through native wars and stormy times of trial to occupy a position second to none among the dominions beyond the seas of His Majesty King Edward the Vllth. Inhabited as it was in bygone days by savage tribes who were cannibals, and who were always fighting amongst themselves, but who are now at peace not only with one another but with the race which took their country under its flag, it holds a place of honour amongst the territories that have been added during the last seventy years to the dominions acknowledging the sovereignty of the British Crown. Whether one turns to the history of the ancient race who were the occupiers of the soil when the islands were first discovered, or to the history of the white people who first came to hve in them, to the story of the early settlers after the annexation, or to that of the people who now live there, all is found to be of absorbing interest. THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND PART I DISCOVERY AND EARLY HISTORY CHAPTER I DISCOVERER AND OTHER EARLY VISITORS Tasman — Captain Cook — Result of Cook's explorations — ^Discov- eries by Captain Sever — Other early visitors to New Zealand — Burning of a village by De Surville and consequences — Captain Vancouver — Sir James Ross. New Zealand was discovered in 1642 by the great Dutch navigator, Abel Jansen Tasman, who first sighted it on the 13th of December in that year, in the yacht " Heemskirk," in which, accompanied by a small vessel called the " Zeehan," he was making a voyage of discovery. Tasman's stay in New Zealand waters was not a long one, as, after sailing along the west coast of the South Island and anchoring for a short time in Golden Bay, on the north-west coast of that island, which he called " Massacre Bay ' ' on account of an attack which was made upon one of his boats' crews when four men were killed, he went north along the west coast of the North Island, and, having named the north-west extremity of that island Cape Maria Van Diemen, and sighting some islands to the northward which he named the " Three Kings," he continued his voyage. 1 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Except for the fact of the discovery of a hitherto un- known land, and the geographical knowledge attained through the enterprise of the great Dutch navigator, there was no immediate practical result from this voyage. Tasman beheved New Zealand to belong to a great southern continent. His stay, however, was so short in its waters that he was prevented from finding out his mistake or giving any adequate description of this new land. It remained for the great Enghsh explorer and navi- gator. Captain Cook, to complete the work commenced by Tasman. The Royal Society in 1768 urged upon the Govern- ment the importance of making further explorations in the Pacific Ocean and of obtaining an observation of the transit of Venus the next year. Owing to Captain Cook's reputation as a skilled navi- gator, seaman, and scientific explorer, he was chosen for the command. His selection was fully justified by the great success he achieved. Cook was then directed to find and secure the ship that, in his opinion, would be the most suitable for this voyage of discovery. He chose a Whitby-built coUier of 370 tons, and after her purchase by the Government she was named the " Endeavour," and Cook was appointed heutenant in command. Cook's first voyage, therefore, although made in a vessel which he considered to be most suitable for the task he had undertaken, was accomphshed in one so small that it would be considered in these days almost dangerous to make, in a vessel of the same size, a voyage of quite ordinary length. Cook, however, like all those seamen of the old days, was ready to embark on a voyage and undertake explorations of seas the dangers of which were quite unknown. Cook sailed from England on the 24th August, 1769, 2 COOK'S FIRST VISIT on his first voyage to Southern Seas. This voyage it was proposed should include the observation of the transit of Venus, a visit to Tahiti, and the discovery of a southern continent then supposed to exist. On leaving Tahiti he sailed for the south and sighted the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand on October 6th, 1769. The point of land first seen was called " Young Nick's Head " after a boy named Nicholas Young, who was the masthead-man that caught the first ghmpse of the coast. After working his ship in towards the land during the 7th October Cook anchored on the 8th in the bay which he named " Poverty Bay," because, as shown by his journal, he failed to obtain supplies there. These, how- ever, he was able to get in the " Bay of Plenty," and it is somewhat curious that these two incidents resulted in a remarkable misnomer, a most fertile district being associated with the name of Poverty, while another dis- trict not nearly so highly favoured was connected with that of Plenty. On the 1 1th October Cook left Poverty Bay, and saiUng south named an island off the Mahia Peninsula " Portland Island " on account of its resemblance in his opinion to Portland BiU in the English Channel. Continuing his voyage south he named a bay " Hawke's Bay " after Sir Edward Hawke, the First Lord of the Admiralty, and the south-east point of it he called " Cape Kid- nappers," on account of an attempt made there by the Maoris to seize a Tahitian boy he had on board. On October 17th Cook decided to turn northward again, and named the cape off which he did so " Cape Tumagain." It was only four months after this that Cook saw this cape again when he approached it from the south after he had circumnavigated the North Island. On leaving Cape Tumagain on his voyage north Cook called in at a bay named by the natives Tolaga Bay, where 3 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND he obtained necessary supplies of water, and stayed for some little time. On October 30th he left Tolaga Bay and still sailing north passed the easternmost point of New Zea- land ; and named it " East Cape," then he passed a bay, which he named " Hick's Bay " after one of his heuten- ants. Then standing to the north-west he sighted an island and named it " White Island," but, strange to say, although the volcano then must have been active. Cook did not make any special record of it. He next visited Mercury Bay, so named on accoimt of the transit of Mercury having been observed there. Here he hoisted the flag that he called the " Union Colours," and took possession of the place in the name of His Majesty George III. He left on November 15th, and stUl pushing to the north-west he sighted a cape and named it " Cape Colville," surveyed and named the " River Thames," visited the Bay of Islands, named the " North Cape, ' ' and sighted The Three Kings. Without attempting to anchor Cook sailed past Cape Maria Van Diemen. A stormy voyage then began to the southward as the " Endeavour " thrashed her way down the west coast of the North Island. On January 16th, 1770, the " Endeavour " came to an anchor in Ship Cove, which Ues upon the south side of the straits ever since known by the name of their great discoverer. Thus one hundred and twenty-eight years elapsed between the day that the first white man's ship anchored off this part of the coast of New Zealand and the day that the " Endeavour " reached her anchorage in the same waters. Before leaving the anchorage Cook, for the second time in a few months, hoisted the Union Flag in New Zealand, and took possession of a place in the name of His Majesty. The place where he hoisted the Flag on the second occasion he named " Queen Charlotte's Sound." COOK'S FAREWELL Efforts were made by Cook to ascertain whether the natives at this place remembered any of the incidents that occurred during Tasman's visit in 1642, but nothing seemed to have been fixed in the native mind of what took place so far back. After leaving this anchorage the " Endeavour " was worked to the eastward through the straits. After naming a cape on the north side of the eastern entrance to the straits " Cape PaUiser " and the cape on the southern side " Cape Campbell," Cook turned north and reaching Cape Tumagain at the point from which he sailed northward on October 17th, 1769, completed the arduous task of circumnavigation of the North Island. After leaving Cape Tumagain the " Endeavour " stood to the eastward, and shortly after bore up for the south with the view of discovering the exact position and extent of the country whose north-east cape Cook had named Cape Campbell when he passed through Cook's Strait. On February 14th the vessel was off the Kaikoura Peninsula. On the 17th Banks' Peninsula was passed and named by Cook " Banks' Island," as he was under the impression that it did not form a portion of the main- land. On March 10th the southern portion of Stewart's Island was sighted and named " South Cape." On February 14th a bay was sighted and named " Dusky Bay," as also a sound, named by him " Doubtful Sound," and on the 23rd he sighted the north-west point of the South Island, which point was afterwards to be called Cape Farewell. On February 27th Cook anchored in a bay on the north coast of the South Island and named it " Admiralty Bay." It is recorded that he then said : " As we have now circumnavigated this country it is time for me to think of quitting it." On March 31st anchor was weighed, and Cook, naming 5 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND his point of departure "Cape Farewell," sailed to the westward. Cook visited New Zealand on five separate occasions. On the first, as already detailed, he completely decided the position and extent of this land which had only been once before seen by Europeans. He estabhshed the fact that it was composed of separate islands, made careful and accurate surveys of many places, and named several; made close observations of the coimtry and its possibilities, as far as could then be ascertained ; acquainted himself with the manners and customs of the inhabitants, and performed a feat of inestimable benefit to the empire. The editor of Cook's journal. Captain W. J. Wharton, R.N., bears testimony to the value of these wonderful performances of the great navigator and to the marvellous accuracy of his work. Cook's account of New Zealand, as set forth in the journal, show him to have been the most painstaking and accurate recorder of all that he saw, and the opinions that he formed have been almost entirely borne out by the experience of those who have since hved there. As Captain Wharton says of his survey of the coast : " The astonishing accuracy of his outline of New Zealand must be the admiration of all who under- stand the difficulties of lapng down a coast." Here it may be noted that, although Cook has been accused by certain writers of harshness towards the natives, the evidence upon which they rely by no means bears them out. Further testimony is also borne to the accuracy of Cook's work by E. J. Wakefield in his book, Adventures in New Zealand, in which he says, when speaking of his ship first making the land : " The headlands were easily recognizable from Cook's chart." Cook was accompanied on his first voyage by Mr. (afterwards Sir) Joseph Banks, Dr. Solander, a Swedish naturalist, and Mr. Green, of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, who all volimteered for service in the cause of science. It was thought that the 6 COOK'S ACCURACY two former would have greater opportunities of collecting specimens and of giving an account of the natural history of the country than Cook who, as Commander of the Expedition, would probably not have time for such occupation. The services of these two eminent men are well known, and no reflection of any kind is cast upon them when it is said that Cook's personal observations contributed greatly to the vast sum of knowledge gained for his country by that one expedition. The notable part taken by Mr. Green is well known, and it is said that he contributed very largely to the success of the observations made in Mercury Bay. Cook was very fortunate also in Banks having been able to induce a native called Tupia from Tahiti to accompany him on his voyage to New Zealand, as it turned out that his services were invaluable, owing to the fact that the language he spoke was to a great extent understood by the natives of the newly-discovered land. Cook did not confine his great services to his own country, but with an eye to the benefit of the people whose land he discovered, he sowed wheat and other useful food plants. In recounting certain later visits to Queen Charlotte's Sound he speaks of having seen some of the gardens made by Sir Joseph Banks and himself, and mentions that he found most of the plants whigh they had sown on his first visit flourishing luxuriantly. This supplies another instance of the thorough and painstaking way in which Cook carried out all his work. He also landed cocks and hens and pigs, and when one bears in mind the few places in which Cook was able to do so, it is somewhat remarkable that their progeny were many years afterwards found to have spread themselves over a vast extent of country. This appears to have been more especially the case with the pigs which have afforded much food and sport, not only to the native race but to the Colonists. THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND In 1788 Macaulay and Curtis Islands of the Kermadec Group were discovered by Captain Sever of H.M. Trans- port " Lady Penrhyn " ; in 1793 Raoul Island, of the same group by D'Entrecasteaux, and named in 1796 Sunday Island by Captain Raven of the transport " Britannia " ; in 1790 the Chatham Islands by Lieutenant Broughton in H.M.S. " Chatham " ; in 1800 Antipodes Island by Captain Pendleton; in 1806 the Auckland Islands by Captain Briscow of the whaling ship " Ocean "; in 1810 Campbell Island was discovered by Captain Hasalburg in the brig "Perseverance." The Bounty Islands were discovered by Captain Bhgh in H.M.S. " Bounty " in 1788, and possession of them was taken by Captain G. Palmer in H.M.S. " Rosario " on July 9th, 1880 ; and in 1777 Cook discovered the group of islands ever since known by his name. Other Early Visitors to New Zealand Besides the discoverer whose work has already been detailed there were other visitors to the shores of New Zealand who contributed largely to the general knowledge of the coimtry. Amongst these were the French Captain, De Surville, who was there in 1769 in the " St. Jean Baptiste," and was actually in the North Island at the same time as Cook when employed in the great task accomplished by him on his first voyage. They, how- ever, did not meet one another, and it seems doubtful whether at the time either had knowledge of the presence of the other. De Surville's stay in New Zealand lasted only about a fortnight. In 1772 Marion du Fresne came to New Zealand on an exploring expedition, having under his command two vessels named " Mascarin " and " Marquis de Castries." Both of these explorers gave French names to certain places, although Cook had already named them. De SiuvDle called Doubtless Bay " Lauriston," and Du 8 MAORI AND THE FRENCH Fresne called Mount Egmont " Le Pic Mascarin," but both places appear on the chart under the names given by Cook. Both the French expeditions ended badly. De Surville, on his arrival at Mangonui, near the Bay of Islands, was received with open arms by the Maori, but the hope of any good result arising from this visit was entirely destroyed by a discreditable incident. He had sent some invalids on shore to recuperate and the most friendly relations were being estabhshed when suddenly all was changed. When they were being taken back to the ship bad weather prevented them getting on board, and they had to land again. Unfortunately, at the time one of the ship's boats was lost. De Surville took for granted that the Maori had stolen it, and having enticed on board the chief, who had treated his sick so kindly, he detained him . He then burned the native village and sailed with his prisoner on board. The unfortunate man died shortly after having been taken away from his native land. In 1772, when Marion du Fresne arrived in the Bay of Islands, the memory of the disgraceful occurrence bore its natural fruit. Sick Frenchmen were again landed and as before the Maori treated them with kindness. Du Fresne was inchned to accept this attention to his men as evidence of good faith, and allowed discipline to become slack, notwithstanding a warning given by Crozet, his second in command. He was also deceived by the atten- tion bestowed upon himself personally. Shortly after- wards he went on shore with sixteen officers and men at the invitation of a chief. They never returned. As there did not seem to be any cause for alarm at the non-appearance of the captain and his party some men were sent on shore the next day in one of the ship's boats for water. Not many hours after one of the men who had gone in the boat swam off to the ship and told the commanding officer that the Maori had attacked and killed all the rest. THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Crozet, who was engaged with sixty men in felling Kauri trees for spars, on being informed of this, withdrew to the beach. The Maori, who then appeared in large numbers, called out to him that Marion and those who accompanied him had been killed and eaten. Crozet waited until his return on board before taking any steps to avenge the death of his captain and shipmates. He then ordered a heavy fire to be directed at the natives on the beach. The next day he took the further measure of landing some men with orders to destroy a village. This they did and also kiUed many natives. This party soon ascertained the fate of Marion and their shipmates, as the chief who had invited the latter ashore was seen to be wearing part of the captain's uniform. A quantity of human flesh was also found. The Maori said that their visitors had defiled their sacred places and had ill-treated some of their chiefs. Crozet said that his people had given no cause of offence. It is quite reasonable to suppose that the Europeans were entirely ignorant of the laws or significance of the Maori custom of " tapu " or making sacred. The ill-treatment of the chiefs was a matter about which there were different accounts given by each side. There can be no doubt that the massacre was due to the Maori desire to get revenge for the ill-treatment of their chief by De Surville. The savage had remembered. Crozet, having prepared the ships under his command for sea, left New Zealand as quickly as possible. It may here be said that Crozet bore testimony to the marvellous accuracy displayed by Cook in surveying and lapng down the coast-line of the northern part of New Zealand. Mention must also be made of other explorers who came to New Zealand in the latter part of the eighteenth century and the following few years. 10 DISCOVERIES BY THE FRENCH ■ Captain Vancouver in the "Discovery" stayed for some weeks in Dusky Sound in 1791. During that time much useful and interesting botanical information was obtained. In 1824 the French surveying vessel " Coquille," Captain Duperry, was in the Bay of Islands. Two ardent naturalists who were on board added further to the botanical knowledge in regard to the islands. One of them, afterwards Admiral D'Urville, again visited New Zealand in 1827 when he was in command of the " Astrolabe " the same vessel in which he served when she was named the " CoquiUe." He was the discoverer of the strait called the " French Pass," which lies between the mainland of the South Island and an island called " D'Urville ' ' after him. Having thus added to the geo- graphical knowledge of Cook's Straits he passed up the east coast of the North Island as far as Whangarei, where he made a short stay. He then left for the south and anchored off Auckland Harbour. Here he made several excursions and acquired knowledge as to the position of Manukau Harbour, which is separated by only a narrow isthmus from the harbour off which he anchored. He left his anchorage by the Waiheke Channel, which was somewhat a risky performance. After a northern cruise he anchored in the Bay of Islands whence he left New Zealand. He spent a couple of months altogether on the coast. The scientific information obtained during this voyage together with that obtained by Duperry, as well as a portion of the botanical knowledge gained during Cook's second voyage, was published in 1832 through the medium of the French Government. In 1833 H.M.S. " Buffalo " arrived in New Zealand in search of a cargo of kauri spars which were thought would probably prove of great value. Dr. Dieffenbach travelled over a considerable area in both the North and South Islands during the years 11 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND 1839-40 and '41, and also the Chatham Islands, when he was naturahst to the New Zealand company. Dr. Dieffenbach's weU-known work on New Zealand is of world-wide reputation. During 1837 the Auckland Islands were visited by the French Antarctic expedition tmder Admiral D'UrviUe. D'Entrecasteaux was off the coast of New Zealand in 1793, but his stay did not produce any appreciable result. In 1840 Sir James Ross, the celebrated Arctic explorer, arrived in New Zealand in command of the " Erebus," accompanied by the " Terror," commanded by Captain Crozier. During this voyage, which was undertaken for the purpose of the investigation of the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism, he went to the Auckland and Campbell Islands as well as to Stewart Island and made some remarkable observations. At the former island, in the port named after him he remarked upon the small islet called Shoe Island, that it was one mass of magnetic ore. Ross, after making his celebrated discovery of land in the Antarctic Circle, returned once more to New Zealand and stayed for three months at the Bay of Islands. One volume of Sir Joseph Hooker's valuable work on Antarctic flora dealt entirely with the results of his observations at the Auckland and Campbell Islands. 12 CHAPTER II ACQUISITION Appointment of Mr. Busby as British Resident — Dispute with Baron de Thierry — Captain Hobson appointed Governor — Signing of Treaty of Waitangi — New Zealand meide an independent colony. Although the fact of Cook having in 1769 hoisted the British flag both in the North and South Islands, and having on both occasions stated that he took possession in the name of His Majesty George III, it was followed by no practical result at the time. Nevertheless it paved the way to New Zealand becoming finally a portion of the British dominions beyond the seas. No further steps leading in the direction of annexation were taken until some ten years after Cook's final depar- ture from New Zealand (in 1777). However in 1787 it was included in the boundaries laid down in the pro- clamation constituting New South Wales a portion of the King's dominions, although it was not specifically named. The first step towards exercising any direct British influence in New Zealand was the appointment of Mr. Busby in 1832 as British Resident. Mr. Busby was sent over by the New South Wales Government because the state of affairs amongst the Europeans had become so bad that it was felt that something ought to be done. The home government knew nothing about the matter themselves, and it occurred to them that the easiest way out of the difficulty was to direct that a British Resident should be sent over. Then they washed their hands of the whole business. To a man who was not fitted in any way for dealing \with a situation such as was to be found in New Zealand 13 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND at this time the outlook must have been indeed a grave one. Mr. Busby appears to have been a man who, though well-intentioned, had not the remotest idea as to what there was to be done, nor how to set about doing anything, even when he had ascertained the position of affairs. To make his troubles the worse, those who had appointed him did not seem to have any greater grasp of the subject than he had. Consequently his instructions were vague, and no power to do an3rthiQg was given him. It was said at the time that he was in the position of a man-of- war without guns. The position might be more aptly described as that of a man-of-war without ammunition. Mr. Busby represented the vessel with pennant flying and gims on board, but with nothing in the maga2!ines to enable the guns to be used. During the time that Mr. Busby was the Resident, King William IV recognized the natives of New Zealand as an independent people and granted them a so-called national flag. Mr. Busby then entered into a paper warfare with one Baron de Thierry, who called himself " King of New Zealand " on the strength of his having, as he imagined, bought through a missionary a consider- able tract of land. Mr. Busby's action in this case, as well as in one which he called granting a " constitution " to the natives, brought on him both censure and ridicule, and after having lived six years in the country, he departed. This dispute of Mr. Busby's had, however, the effect, which was quite unintentional on his part, of drawing the attention of the authorities in England to the designs of the French upon New Zealand. England's position in regard to the country had become a curious one. First Cook had hoisted the EngHsh flag on two separate occasions and had claimed British sovereignty. Then followed a period when it was practically a " no-man's-land." This in turn was fol- lowed by a British Resident being appointed during whose 14 NEW ZEALAND A BRITISH COLONY term of office the King of England addressed the New Zealand natives as an independent people. At last, however, from various causes, including that of the desire of the French to colonize the country, it became evident to the EnglishGovemment that something must be done if they desired to make New Zealand a British colony. They determined, therefore, on sending a Governor with powers to make a treaty with the natives, if possible, and to proclaim British sovereignty. On January 29th, 1840, Captain Hobson, R.N., landed in the Bay of Islands armed with authority to enter into a treaty with the natives to cede their lands to the British Crown. He was also empowered to proclaim New Zealand a British colony as soon as the cession by the natives had been granted, and to assume the position of Lieutenant-Governor. On the day following his arrival. Captain Hobson issued two proclamations on behalf of Her Majesty. One of these asserted Her Majesty's authority over British subjects in New Zealand. The other declared that the Queen would not recognize the validity of any titles to land which had not been granted by the Crown, and that any purchase of native lands which took place subse- quently to the proclamation would not be recognized. At the same time, the boundaries of New South Wales were extended so as to include any land in New Zealand over which Her Majesty acquired sovereignty. On February 5th a large assembly of natives and Europeans was held at Waitangi, in the Bay of Islands. Captain Hobson addressed the gathering and announced Her Majesty's desire to obtain the consent of the Maoris to a treaty prepared with a view to ceding to her the sovereignty of the islands, while at the same time it guaranteed to them full and undisturbed possession of their lands and properties subject to Her Majesty's exclusive right of pre-emption over such portions of the 15 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND same as they might wish to part with. Her Majesty also granted to the natives by the treaty all the rights and privileges of British subjects. On February 6th the negotiations were continued and on that day the Treaty of Waitangi was signed. Five hundred and twelve Chiefs signed the treaty within six months, and it may fairly be said that it was fuUy accepted by the Maori people. The French bishop evidently considered himself to be the principal person in the country next to the Governor, and it was through no fault of his that the Chiefs signed the treaty. It was perfectly clear that the Act of Sovereignty was not performed a moment too soon. On May 21st, 1840, proclamations were issued by Captain Hobson in the name of Her Majesty declaring her sovereign rights over the Islands by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi. Thus, some seventy years after Cook had, during his first voyage, claimed possession of New Zealand in the name of His Majesty George III, did the islands which he had circmnnavigated become in reality part of the British dominions. Notwithstanding, however, that Hobson had issued the proclamation of sovereignty over the South Island, the British flag was not hoisted there at the same time. It was only through some words incautiously dropped by the Captain of the French frigate, " L'Aube," that the Lieutenant-Governor became aware of the intention of the French to hoist their national flag there. Hobson took immediate steps to prevent any possible question arising as to British rights in the south by at once sending off H.M.S. " Britomart," commanded by Captain Stanley, R.N., to hoist the British flag. The ' ' Britomart" was able to successfully accomphsh her mission by arriving at Akaroa a few days before the French man-of-war arrived there. By this prompt action of the Lieutenant-Governor the British rights of sovereignty 16 TREATY OF WAITANGI DISCUSSED over the whole of New Zealand were clearly established. In November, 1840, New Zealand was formally sepa- rated by the Crown from the colony of New South Wales and became in itself a distinct part of the British dominions. Much discussion has arisen from time to time about the Treaty of Waitangi in regard to its fairness to the Maori. It has been said that the native possessors of the land could not have understood a treaty which had been put before them in a hasty manner. Possibly it may be the case that they did not fully grasp the whole of the meaning of the various terms embraced in the document which they were asked to sign. They had, however, been thoroughly informed by the missionaries that they were not losing their land by it, and that they would be under the rule of a great sovereign who granted them her protection equally with all the other peoples who were her subjects. The Maori, owing to their contact with Europeans, must have been perfectly well aware that they were not going to be allowed to quietly retain the country for themselves. The position in which they were situated was one which laid them open to having their lands taken from them gradually by the adventurers already with them, if even their country were not seized by some power which would not have troubled to make any treaty at all. 17 a— (2136) CHAPTER III BOUNDARIES AND AREA Addition of the Cook group and other Pacific islands to the Dominion — Acreage — Attempt to colonize Snnday Island — Description of annexed islands. According to the proclamation of January 30th, 1840, issued by Captain Hobson, R.N. (the first Governor), the boundaries of the then colony were the following degrees of latitude and longitude, viz., on the north, lat. 34° 30' S. ; on the south, lat. 47° 10' S. ; on the east, long. 179° E. ; and on the west, long. 166° 5' E. By Royal Letters Patent in 1842, and by an Act of the Imperial Parliament in 1863, the boundaries of the colony were altered to em- brace an area between 33° and 53° south lat. and between 162° east long, and 173° west long., thus embracing the Chatham, Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, and Bounty Islands. On June 21st, 1887, the Kermadec Islands, which are between 29° and 32° south lat. and 177° and 180° west long., were by proclamation annexed to and became part of New Zealand. In June, 1901, by proclamation a further addition was made to New Zealand by which the Cook group and other Pacific islands and territories comprised within certain boundaries, were included, nicildng a somewhat rrr^;ular figure. These boundaries are shown in ofl&dal documents to be as follows : — From a point at the intersection of the twenty-third d^ree of south latitude and the one hun- dred and sixth degree of west longitude due north to the intersection of the eighth degree of south latitude, and the one hundred and fifty-sixth de^ee of west longitude; then due west to the point of intersection 18 PROCLAMATION OF NEW TITLE of the eighth degree of south latitude and the hundred and sixty-seventh degree of west longitude ; then due south to the point of intersection of the seventeenth degree of south latitude and the hundred and sixty-seventh degree of west longitude ; then due west to the point of intersection of the seventeenth degree of south latitude and the hundred and seventieth degree of west longitude ; then due south to the point of intersection of the twenty-third degree of south latitude and the hundred and seventieth degree of west longitude, and thence due east to the point of intersection of the twenty- third degree of south latitude and the hundred and fifty-sixth degree of west longitude. It will thus be seen that the Dominion of New Zealand, to which dignity the colony was raised by Royal Pro- clamation on September 10th, 1907, consisted of territories l3dng within limits not absolutely continuous but within a series of more or less scattered boundaries. The dominion has an area of 104,751 square miles, which is less than that of Great Britain and Ireland by 16,554 square miles, and is composed of the following islands, viz. : — Firstly Those comprised within the boundaries laid down in 1863, namely; — The North Island. This, with its adjacent islets, has an area of 28,459,500 acres. The Middle Island (generally spoken of as the "South Island "). This, with its adjacent islets, has an area of 37,456,000 acres. Stewart Island. This, with its adjacent islets, has an area of 425,390 acres. The Chatham Islands, situated 536 miles east, off nearly the centre of the Middle Island, have an area of 239,920 acres. 19 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND The Auckland Islands, about 200 miles south of Stewart's Island, have an area of 210,650 acres. The Campbell Islands, some httle distance to the south and east of the Auckland Islands, have an area of 45,440 acres. The Antipodes Islands, to the north-east of Campbell Island, have an area of 12,960 acres. The Bounty Islands, which are a small group of rocky islets, are north of Antipodes Islands and have an area of 3,300 acres. Secondly Islands annexed under the Royal Proclamation of 1887 : The Kermadec Islands, lying about 614 miles north- east of the Bay of Islands in the North Island, have an area of 8,208 acres. Thirdly Islands annexed in 1901, and contained within the boundary Unes prescribed by an Imperial order in Council and a New Zealand Proclamation deahng with the annexation: — The Cook group of islands, and islands outside the said group. All these islands he about north-east of the Bay of Islands, and contain areas as follows : the Cook Group, 150 square miles ; the Islands outside the group, 130 square mUes. On Sunday Island, which is the principal one of the Kermadec Group, a family named BeU resided for many years. An ineffectual attempt was made to colonize it, and when the island was visited in 1900, rehcs of the colonization were found in fallen trees intermixed with tropical vegetation. Curtis Island is vmdoubtedly the summit of a volcano of which the centre of the island was evidently the crater. It would seem as if a portion of this had at some time been blown out, as boats can 20 COOK GROUP row right inside. On landing the ground underfoot is found to be quite hot. The surf-bound Macaulay Island is only noticeable from the fact that it is the home of many wild goats, which are the progeny of half-a-dozen landed there by the New Zealand Government. It is somewhat difficiilt to account for the real reason for the annexation of these islands, unless it be their close proximity to the main islands of the colony. Colonization is impossible. When the naval Commander-in-Chief, at the time of the proposed annexation, was consulted as to whether he concurred in the proposal, he replied that he saw no objection, but that he could not conceive how anybody could either want to annex, or even go to, such a desolate spot. These islands are visited once a year by a New Zealand Government steamer. The Cook Group, as well as the others included in the boundaries of 1901, had, for some time prior to their annexation, been under British protection, and under the jurisdiciion of the Governor of New Zealand. The British Resident was an ex-member of the New Zealand House of Representatives, but his administration was not successful. Troubles arose everywhere. In 1898 Colonel Gudgeon, who had seen much service in the Maori wars and who had been Under-Secretary for Defence, and was at that time a Native Land Court Judge — a most suitable officer for the appointment — was sent to Rarotonga as British Resident. In 1899 the Governor (Lord Ranfurly) paid a visit to Rarotonga with great advantage to the colony and to the island. He inquired into and settled most of the grievances. Rarotonga is a very fine specimen of the volcanic order of islands and is of considerable size and beauty. It attains a height of about 2,100 feet. It is well watered and the soil is generally fertile. There is a good road for 21 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND nearly the whole of the twenty-three miles of circumfer- ence, and a good building has been erected for the accommodation of visitors, who are expected when the tourist traf&c, which is almost certain to arise, is fully developed. The products axe copra, cocoa-nuts, cofEee, oranges, and bananas. Owing to the care with which large areas are being planted with the latter fruit, the amount exported is increasing very rapidly. The island, which is about 1,600 miles from Auckland, is visited monthly by a steamer of the Union Steamship Company of New ^aland, and at intervals by others, according to trade requirements. Niue, which is the largest of those aimexed, is pm-ely coral. It has an area of 100 square miles, a circum- ference by road of forty miles, and reaches an altitude of about 220 feet at its highest point. Large areas are covered with forest, of which the timber is valuable and possibly may be made available for milling piuposes. This, however, is somewhat doubtful. The great drawback on this island is want of water. Mangaia is the second in size amongst the Cook Islands and is another specimen of volcanic formation. Its principal export is coffee of a very superior quahty. These islands are swept by hmricanes about every eleven years. Amongst the remaining islands composing the new territory, Suwarrow and Penrhyn need only be mentioned. Suwarrow has a good harbour, with a depth of water at the entrance that wiU admit vessels dra\ving up to 20 feet. One of the small reef islets known as " Anchor- age," is an Admiralty Reserve. Large quantities of valuable pearl-shell were at one time procured here, and it is anticipated that this wiU again be the case, when the shell-beds have had the rest they require. 22 o z > Pi < X TERRITORIES RECENTLY ADDED' Penrhyn is a purely coral island, and is said to be the best in the Pacific for pearl-shell. In a lagoon in the interior there is an area of twenty -four square miles covered with the shell. The people were destroying the young oyster in their greed to discover pearls, but this has now been prevented by dividing the lagoon into three parts, which are alternately closed to fishing. The annexation of these islands was carried out by Lord Ranfurly, the Governor of New Zealand in 1900, who went there in H.M.S. " Mildura " for that purpose. The most difficult part of the task was at Nine, where the King — Togia — could not see what was to be gained by annexation when the island was already under a protectorate. They were afraid that cession meant losing their lands. All was, however, satisfactorily explained, and the British flag was hoisted with the ceremony always observed on such occasions. Penrh}^ had already been annexed in 1888 by Captain Sir WiUiam Wiseman, Bart., in H.M.S. " Caroline," but the ceremony was repeated in 1900. The revenue for Cook's Islands for 1906-7 was £9,840 7s. 4d., and the expenditure £6,416 6s. 6d., leaving a surplus of £3,424 Os. lOd. The value of the exports from all these islands, except Niue, for 1906-7,was £45,925. The principal are copra, coffee, bananas, oranges, pine-apples, hme-juice and pearl-shell. The imports during the same period amounted to £41,437. From the island of Niue the exports were valued at £7,958. The Auckland Islands are four: Enderby Island (in the north ) ; Main Island ; Adams or South Island (the two are separated from each other by Camley Harbour, or Adams Straits ) ; and Disappointment Island off the west coast of the Main Island. 23 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Port Ross, at the north-east end of Main Island, wjls described by the French seaman D'Urville as one of the best harbours in the world, which was certainly an ex- aggeration. The port was named after the great explorer who anchored there in the forties with H.M. Ships " Terror " and " Erebus " on his voyage to the south. At the mouth of the harbour is a small islet called Shoe Island, described by Ross as a lump of magnetic ore. There are several harbours on the east coast. It is worthy of notice that all the harbours on these southern islands are on the east coast, as if shelter had been designed by Providence from the heavy westerly weather generally prevaihng in these latitudes. Carnley Harbour is in reality more correctly described as a strait, as there is an opening to the sea at its western end. This opening, however, is of no value whatever, as it is narrow with a swift current, and would be extremely difficult of navigation under even the most favourable circumstances. Just off the southern end of this narrow opening is Monument Island, so called on account of its formation. The sight from the chffs on the west end of Adams Island, during a heavy westerly gale with the seas breaking over Monument Island, is not only magnificent but shows that little value can be attached to this narrow western passage. The gnarled and distorted appearance of the trees, with their heads bowed to the east, shows how great is the force of the constant westerly winds. The open land is, generally speaking, formed of huge blocks of soil covered with grass of a tussocky, or tufty, nature. Further evidence is afforded of the violence of the gales in this part of the world by the fact that areas of nearly a quarter of an acre of these blocks of earth are to be seen turned completely upside down. In the north, at Port Ross, there was at one time a settlement from which great things were expected. The 24 OTHER OUTLYING ISLANDS head of this community called himself the " Lieutenant- Governor " ; but the difficulties encountered proved too great, and the undertaking was abandoned. Attempts have since been made at sheep farming, but it does not seem probable that they will be successful. Campbell Island has two harbours, of which the largest is " Perseverance," about half-way down the east coast. This island is covered with tussocks like the open land of the Auckland Islands and, like it, is wind-swept. The chffs on the northern side are forbidding in appearance, and the whole outlook on approaching this island is more dismal than in the case of the others. There is a large waterfall over the Northern Cliffs, but this, on the occasion of the writer visiting the island in 1894, was converted by the wind into a column of spray blown upwards into the air. The Antipodes Islands have an almost continuous, bold, and precipitous coast. There is no harbour, but an anchorage is obtainable on the eastward side under certain conditions of weather. The principal island is composed of high imdulating hills which are somewhat flattened towards the centre. The land is covered with the same sort of huge tussocks as the Auckland and Campbell Islands. The scenic effect of this island is far grander than it is in the others. The view in passing round it is both grand and impressive. The cliffs are of a deep chocolate colour, covered at their base with long trails of ribbon-like seaweed, or kelp. The latter rise and fall with the motion of the sea, which is of the most intense ultramarine colour. The combined effect is beautiful beyond description. Here may be seen a certain parrakeet to be found nowhere else in the world. It is remarkable for the way in which it burrows in the tussocks in which it makes its home. The bird life in all these islands is extraordinary, as far as sea-birds are concerned. 25 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND The penguin, the albatross, the mollymawk, and many others are to be found here in thousands. The Bounty Islands can only be described as a group of thirteen rocks which are generally sea and storm swept. The Chatham Islands, which he 536 miles to the east- ward of Lyttelton, consist of two principal islands, and some small islets. The larger of the two contains 222,000 odd acres, of which 46,000 are occupied by a lagoon. Pitt Island is separated from it by Pitt Strait. There is some forest, but the greater portion is covered with grass, some native, and some raised from British seed. Sheep far min g is the industry on these islands. At one time they were occupied by the Morioris, a race of people from Polynesia, but they were decimated by the Maori, and none of the race now remain. Some hieroglj^hics are to be found carved on a sandstone cliff near the centre of the main island, but by whom it is unknown. Neither the Morioris nor the Maori can give any account of these carvings. Steamers from Lyttelton visit the Chathams about every six weeks dining the winter. In the summer there is practically a weekly service. Owing to the many shipwrecks which had taken place on the desolate islands to the south, and to the fact that a long time might elapse without castawa)^ being dis- covered, the Government decided on having them regularly visited. They have also for some years past maintained depots on them for the use of shipwrecked mariners. These depots are huts containing food, clothing, medicine, tools, and other stores of use to those who may have imfortunately been cast away. On the Auckland Islands three lifeboats are kept in places where they are most likely to be found usefuL 26 DEPOTS FOR WRECKED MARINERS On the Kermadecs and Three Kings in the north depdts are also maintained. Finger-posts are erected on all the islands, with the words " To the Depot," in order that shipwrecked sailors may be guided to where they can obtain all that has been provided for their comfort. On one occasion, sad to relate, owing to want of ordinary courage and enterprise, eleven men of the " Spirit of the Dawn," which was wrecked on the Antipodes Islands, remained for eighty-eight days on the beach without making any attempt to climb up the sloping height above them to see what there was on the island. They were dis- covered by the Government steamer "Hinemoa" on one of her periodical visits . The captain of the steamer walked over to them from the landing place on the other side of the island in about three-quarters of an hour and told them how they were starving in the midst of plenty. The only answer they could give was that one of their number had managed to climb up part of the way, but had been greeted with the sound of wild beasts roaring, and had gone back to his shipmates. The only sound that he could have heard was the lowing of one of the cows liberated on the island, or the bellowing of the bull that was there to keep them company. Sheep and goats have also been landed on these islands and have increased in number. The guns and ammunition in the depots provide the means of slaughter. The Government steamers visit the southern islands twice a year, when they overhaul the depots, renew the stores when necessary, and search dihgently for castaways. The isleinds axe visited in the intervals by one of H.M. ships, and thus as much as possible is done to help those who may have been shipwrecked. The northern islands are visited once a year by the Government steamers and perform the same service. 27 CHAPTER IV EARLY COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT Troubles with the Maori — Missionary enterprise — ^Whale- fishing — Attempts at colonization — Forming of settlements — The New Zealand Land Company the first true settlers — The Wairau massacre — Trouble with the Maori — ^Appoint- ment of Captain Grey — ^Uncertainty of Government as to best method of controlling the colony. From time to time during the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early years of the nineteenth century traders, whalers, and others came to New Zealand and estabhshed a community in the Bay of Islands, in the North Island. The port of Sydney seems to have been the spot from which most of these people came, attracted doubtless by the stories which had reached them from previous visitors. That no descent of the same nature had hitherto been made seems somewhat difficult to understand. The colony of New South Wales had been estabhshed for some time, and adventurous spirits had never been foimd lacking among British seamen. The distance between Sydney and the Bay of Islands was only between 1,100 and 1,200 miles, and although the sea that separates them is frequently stormy, it had not as great dangers as many others. The accounts that various writers give of the class of people who came over to New Zealand at that time, including runaway convicts, supply evidence that the community was not hkely to be a well-ordered one, or one that would readily submit to control. It was, indeed, asking people who were in many cases almost the scum of the earth, to submit to what they had alwas^s been seeking to avoid. As there was no one who could exercise 28 MAORI AND EUROPEAN TRADERS any control over them the only possible result followed. Troubles at once arose with the Maori. Trade had commenced between the two races, and the articles of barter that were brought into the country by the white people were not those hkely to benefit the natives. Guns, ammunition, and rum seem to have been the principal items of the goods imported for trade purposes. In exchange for these were offered curious weapons, food, flax fibre, native mats, and various other things likely, from their rareness at the time, to be very saleable in Sydney. The trade was not, however, confined altogether within such small bounds. There was a considerable amount of timber, very suitable for masts and spars, which was available and anxiously sought after. A trade in native heads sprang up, not because the imme- diate traders themselves wanted them, but on account of the high prices given for them by European collectors of curiosities. In a country where life was held very cheap a supply could readily be furnished. Missionary effort was at last the method by which this trade was abolished. From representations made to him by the missionaries, the Governor of New South Wales took steps at once to put a stop to it by issuing a pro- clamation imposing a heavy fine on any one convicted of trading in heads, with the additional penalty of exposure of the offender's name. It was none too soon that this disgusting trade was done away with, one in which the European connoisseurs shared the disgrace with the actual buyers. The influence of the missionaries is said also to have been the means of abolishing the art of tattooing. For this they do not seem to have had the same justification, but there can be no doubt that they were the earliest pioneers of real civilization. They were called to the country by the accounts received from time to time of the deplorable moral condition of the bulk 29 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND of the white population, and of the bad influence they were exercising over the Maori — an influence that was as disgraceful to those who exercised it as it was disastrous to the natives. It undoubtedly may be asserted that the advent of the missionaries to the shores of New Zealand paved the way for the settlement and colonization of that country. The first of these to arrive were two la5rmen. Hall and Kendall, who were sent over to New Zealand by the Rev. Samuel Marsden in a vessel purchased by himself on account of the impossibility of getting one in any other way. This was due to the foul massacre of almost all on board the " Boyd " in revenge for the cruel flogging of a Maori named Tawa, who, with other Maori, was working his passage from Sydney to England in the vessel. The " Boyd" called at New Zealand to get some spars on her way. Tawa told his countrymen of what he had suffered, and showed them the scars. The tribe to which he belonged determined to have revenge for this insult to one of their kinsmen. They laid their plans skilfully and with extreme treachery, and murdered nearly all on board. The crews of the whaling vessels in the Bay of Islands, driven almost to frenzy by this brutal murder, determined to take fiill retribution. Wrongly informed that the chief Te Pahi, who had helped to rescue a woman and two children, had taken a prominent part in the massacre, they destroyed his village and everything else they could. They also killed many men, women, and children. The two missionaries, after a stay of five years, returned to Sydney in 1814 accompanied by two natives, of whom one Hongi afterwards made himself notorious in savage warfare. In that year Marsden himself went to New Zealand accompanied by Kendall, Hall, and another named King, who took their famihes with them. Some mechanics also went with the party. The ship took over 30 MAORI AND THE MISSIONARIES cattle, horses, agricultural implements and goods for barter. Marsden's scheme was comprehensive. He laid down a special line of work for each of his colleagues. His idea was to promote the industries of civUization at the same time as he preached Christianity. Marsden's first work in New Zealand was that of endeavouring to make peace between some rival tribes then at war, and in this he was successful. During the seven visits he made to New Zealand his influence for good over the Maori was enormous. In 1819 the Church of England missionaries were increased in number. In 1822 the Rev. Samuel Leigh arrived to take up work on behalf of the Wesleyans, and founded a station which was destroyed five years afterwards. It was subsequently rebuilt and the Wesleyan Mission was continued with redoubled energy. In 1838 the French Roman Cathohc Bishop PompaUier arrived at Hokianga in the north with several priests. In 1842 Bishop Selwyn arrived in the colony. This remarkable man gained a great influence over the Maori, and won the esteem of the white population. He was twenty-seven years in the colony, and during that time visited every part of it and established an enduring reputation for zeal and energy. It might, perhaps, have been better had he confined his energies to purely mis- sionary work. The names of the two brothers WiUiams, Henry and WilUam, will long be remembered for their efforts in the missionary cause. A German Mission was estabhshed in the Chatham Islands in 1846. There was apparently the greatest good feeling between the representatives of the various creeds until the arrival of the French. The early years of missionary effort in New Zealand were not crowned with great success from a spiritual point of view. The Maori, however, were 31 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND keenly alive to the material advantage they gained by the teaching they received. Trade in land began to spring up very early and was the principal cause of the troubles that afterwards arose. It was not hkely that with the Maori anxious to sell anything, not only what he possessed, but also what he could get anywhere, and with the class of people prepared to buy, things would go smoothly. It was also not at aU. probable that in dealing with savage tribes other causes of trouble would not arise. The Maori had his ovra custom of dealing with what he considered insults to be avenged or rights to be obtained. Killing was to him the simplest way of settling the matter. The white man was not so accus- tomed to this rough and ready mode of settling things, but finding that he must to a certain extent adopt the same plan, he entered into the fighting arena with considerable zest and skill. There also appeared at this time men who were called " Pakeha Maori," foreigners who had become Maorified. They were Europeans who had probably stayed in the coimtry when visits had been made by ships in earUer daj^. Some no doubt came at the time when trade began to spring up between Sydney and New Zealand. At all events, they went to Uve amongst the tribes. They were not, as can easily be imagined from the fact of their having left their own race to Uve among savages, a very reputable body. They had, however, their use. With their know- ledge of a certain class of European customs, as well as of Maori ways, they were useftil as go-betweens in the trade springing up. The Maori made much of them in every way. The whalers who had been attracted to the waters by the reported presence of a large number of whales had in the meantime commenced a very remunerative trade, and established whaling stations at different places in both islands. Whale oil and whalebone fetched good 32 THE PAKEHA MAORI ARRIVE prices and the whaling was carried on both from the ships in the ordinary way and by whale boats from the shore stations. The money for these estabhshments was found by the merchants in New South Wales who had recognized the importance of the trade and the riches they would probably obtain from it. The whaling might have lasted for many years longer than it did had not every " fish," young or old, that could possibly be taken been harpooned and " tried down." The crews of whahng vessels were made up of men who were well known to be of a very rough class, to say the least of it. They could and did teach the Maori a great deal that was useful and made good boatmen and sailors of them, but they also did much to prevent them from becoming reaUy civilized. During this period the missionaries were patiently working amongst the natives, spreading the cause of Christianity and tr}^ng by their teaching and personal example to lead the people to abandon their savage life. Thus various influences prepared the native inhabitants for the great change that was before long to come in regard to their position and relationship to the outer world. The first attempt at colonization was made in 1825, when a company was formed in England to purchase land and settle people in the northern part of the North Island. Nothing came of this adventure except the purchase of a tract of land near Hokianga and a long voyage by the intending colonists. These adventurers found on their arrival that everjrthing did not appear in the same light as in the mental sketch they had made before leaving England. The inhabitants of the land they came to were savages who indulged in practices leading the new comers to see that all would not go as smoothly as they expected. This, together with many other 33 3— (3l»6) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND dif&culties which arose, made most of them think that it was better to make the first loss the least loss, and to try colonizing experiments mider easier circumstances. The English Government of the time was not favour- able to the annexation of New Zealand. Aided as it was in this determination by the advice of the Church Missionary Society, nothing was done and opposition was shown to all schemes propounded. Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who may be called the great colonizer of his day, was however determined that the hand of the Government should be forced, and that the scheme of colonization which was being worked out in his brain should be a real living thing. He wanted to estabhsh a fresh field for commerce and enterprise, and was determined to do so in the form which he considered would be of benefit both to England and New Zealand. He did it in the manner which seemed calculated to give the best results, and whatever may have been the faults of his scheme, he settled in the country the people who laid the foundation upon which New Zealand's present prosperity has been built. Amongst other things to be recorded to the credit of the great originator of this colonization scheme is the fact that, largely through his influence. New Zealand was saved from being turned into a convict settlement. In 1837 " The New Zealand Association," of which he was the leading spirit, was formed to give effect to his scheme, but the difficulties placed in the way by the Enghsh Government, owing principally to the opposition of the missionaries, proved too strong and nothing came of the proposal at the time. In 1839, however, the Association became the " New Zealand Land Company," and although the directors were baffled on many occasions in the same way as the moving spirits of its predecessors, they determined to carry out their plans. This necessitated their proceeding 34 THE GREAT COLONIZER with colonization in what was practically a foreign country. In May, 1839, the " Tory" was despatched as the first of the ships of the New Zealand Land Company, and in her sailed Colonel Wilham Wakefield. On August 15th she arrived at Queen Charlotte's Sound, and shortly after- wards, September 20th, proceeded to Port Nicholson which had been recommended by the Directors of the company as the most suitable place for founding a settlement. Colonel Wakefield at once commenced bar- gaining with the Maori for land and ultimately purchased a large quantity which, according to his own account, amounted to about twenty million acres. The company had meanwhile been carrying out its plans in England for bringing together a body of people selected on account of their fitness for this great under- taking. These became, under its auspices, the first true settlers in the country and in September, 1839, the first detachment sailed for Port Nicholson, where they arrived in January, 1840. The first settlement was made at Petone, which has an open beach directly facing the entrance to the harbour and exposed not only to the full force of the heavy gales which blow from the southward but also to the accompan3ang heavy sea. In fact, no worse position could well have been found. Shortly afterwards the settlement was shifted to the spot where the city of Wellington now stands. Other settlements soon followed. Wanganui, about four miles from the mouth of the river of that name, on the west coast of the North Island, was founded in 1840. In 1841 a settlement was made at Taranaki, on the same coast, with a town named New Pljnnouth as capital. In the same year, 1841, the company founded Nelson at the northern end of the South Island. In 1847 and 1850 respectively were founded in the South Island the settle- ments of Otago and Canterbury through the medium 35 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND of, but not directly by, the New Zealand Land Company. The question as to whether the directors of the company were actuated by a desire to promote colonization, or by a motive of gain alone, is one which has been very fully discussed by historians of New Zealand, and the opinions of statesmen of that colony, as weR as those of colonists, have differed considerably. It must be said, in fairness to the company, that although many of the steps that they took were not such as, with the hght of present knowledge of the coimtry and its natives, would now be taken or tolerated, yet they set on foot a system of colon- ization which has been of enormous benefit not to the dominion alone but to the empire generally. It must be remembered that the New Zealand Association was formed with the idea of simply colonizing a new country. It must also be borne in mind that the change to the New Zealand Land Company and its formation as a joint stock company was forced upon the promoters by the action of the English Government. The troubles that arose from the transactions in land between the natives and Europeans were continual, and led to comphcations which it took many years to settle satisfactorily. Massacres and wars followed the early transactions and also those of later times. No other result could be expected. The original owners looked upon the new arrivals as interlopers ; the latter, in their turn, looked upon the natives as people who had no right to sole possession of the entire country. In fact, all Europeans practically considered that a savage race had no justification for being in possession of a rich and fertile country which was wanted by white people. The purchases of land by the New Zealand Company have often been spoken of as having been carried beyond all bounds of fair dealing. It does not seem that such was the case, however. 36 a ANNEXATION BECOMES NECESSARY The company iindoubtedly did not give the natives large prices for the land they bought, or claimed to have bought. Goods to the amount of about £9,000 which consisted principally of trade-muskets and guns, tobacco, and many other things that are always enticing to savage tribes, were given for the purchase of an enormous territory which the chiefs sold to the company. The chiefs knew perfectly weU that, according to the Maori laws and customs, they were not entitled to sell the land belonging to their tribes. Trade, however, Wcis trade, and here were things offered to them that they were longing to have, and there was the land which to a great extent was left unused by them, and which they could pass over to the white people in exchange. Land-grabbing was not confined to the company altogether. Before the settlers of the company came there had been trafl&c in land of very much the same nature. Even some of the missionaries had dealt in land, and had given what could not be caUed extravagant sums for it. Deeds had been brought over from Sydney, containing all the usual legal wording and paraphernalia by which land could be conveyed from the natives to the Europeans. What could the natives understand of the documents ? Nothing. The home government eventually saw that annexation was inevitable, and they sent over Captain Hobson, R.N., to make the first move. Until his arrival in New Zealand, which almost coincided with the arrival of the colonists in the south, the Bay of Islands had been practically the centre of ever5rthing as far as white settlement was concerned, and he naturally went there. Afterwards he went further south and established the seat of govern- ment at Auckland, in a part of the country much belauded by Cook. The Governor issued a proclamation that he would not recognize the pm^chases of land made by the New Zealand 37 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Company. This not only put the settlers in an awkward position but naturally irritated them greatly. Difficulties arose between the colonists and the natives. The latter were themselves already quarreUing with one another over their respective rights in the land that had been sold. The Governor, owing to reports received by him, sent down his Colonial Secretary to put down what was considered an act of insulsordination. The southern settlers had had the wisdom to take steps to protect themselves. In the form in which they had done this they exceeded their rights. They had set up a provisional government. There could not be two governments, and the official one did not seem to them to have any inclina- tion to help them. Undoubtedly, if the Governor had at once gone down and made the seat of government in Cook's Straits, it would have been better for the country. He had, however, more than one issue to deal with. The original place of white settlement, as has already been said, was in the north, and more was known about that part than any other. The missionaries were not in favour of the company and they were able to sway the Governor's movements to a considerable extent. The land question being the principal matter in dispute, and that which had to be dealt with els soon as possible, if real peace and settlement were to be arrived at, it was neces- sary to have someone with power to deal with the matter. A commissioner was accordingly sent out from England after considerable delay. He, assisted by two other land commissioners, commenced inquiries, and after a time decisions were given which made some people sanguine that an end to the matter was approaching. This did not however, arrive until after many years had passed. Captain Hobson died in office from paralysis which seized him not long after his arrival in New Zealand. One can, therefore, when considering his actions, only 38 HOBSON AND THE SETTLERS feel surprise that his judgment was not more hampered by the mental suffering inseparable from the knowledge of the fatal character of his disease. When one considers that Captain Hobson came into a country where the natives were savages, and where the European population was described as being absolutely lawless, indeed almost the scum of the earth, it seems marvellous that he shotdd have been able to accomplish as much as he did during the time he held office. Hobson's instructions from the home government were, from ignorance of the situation, quite inapphcable and he was told to carry out certain things practically im- possible. That his actions were, at aU events, highly appre- ciated by the natives is shown by the fact that when he died, and a Maori chief was asking Her Majesty to appoint a new Governor, his expression was " Let him be a good man like the Governor who has just died." After Hobson's death, in 1842, the government was administered for a time by Lieutenant Shortland, R.N., who had formerly been first heutenant of a ship Hobson commanded. During his term of office there took place what is known as the " Wairau Massacre," which resulted in the death of twenty-two Europeans. Captain Wake- field, the company's agent in Nelson, who had been much irritated by the delays in dealing with the lands in his district, determined to bring things to a head. Two celebrated Maori chiefs, Te Rauparaha and Rangihaeata, denied that they had sold certain land which the company said they had. The chiefs based their title on the old Maori custom of right by conquest, and when the surveyors commenced to do their work they drove them off the land and burned down the huts they lived in. Wakefield then determined to arrest them on a charge of arson and, having obtained the necessary warrant, went out with the Nelson police magistrate and a party to do so. After a scufile the 39 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND natives fired upon the settlers who, surprised by the attack, could not be induced to stand their ground notwithstanding the entreaties of their leader. Wakefield gave himself up with eight others to Rauparaha, but Rangihaeata, who had another feud to settle with the English, butchered all of them. ' It can be imagined how serious was the loss of prestige to the Europeans. Nothing was done to show the Maori that the English power was strong enough to inflict heavy punishment on them for their brutality. There were some Englishmen who espoused the cause of the other side, and held that right was on the side of the Chiefs, and that their own countrymen were the aggressors. The Acting-Governor was, moreover, ham- pered with the debts handed down to him and all the other troubles which had harried his predecessor. He had not enough money to carry out the work of govern- ment ; he could not borrow it, and the EngUsh Government would not give him ciny. Perhaps Lieutenant Shortland had not the qualities necessary for his position but he received no support from anyone. His successor. Captain Robert Fitzroy, R.N., arrived in December, 1843, as Governor, and found that he had tumbled into a hornet's nest. He landed only to receive reports of dissatisfaction and unrest from every part of the colony occupied by Europeans. The natives, no doubt emboldened by their success in the Wairau, were everj^where inclined to be insolent and hostile. There were no troops, and there was not any money. Fitzroy foimd fault with everyone and insulted many, including his predecessor. He tried to butter up the natives by telling them that they were right as regards the miserable occurrence in the Wairau. He sowed the seeds of discontent in r^ard to the actions of the Govern- ment, and of hostility towards the natives, by his decisions 40 A BLOW TO BRITISH PRESTIGE in an important land question in Taranaki. He made regulations in regard to the prominent question of purchase of land from the Maori, and cancelled them as soon as he had made them. He took the advice of those who urged him to temporize with the Maori. In fact, he seems to have done everything that would cause confusion. The Maori were quite well aware that they now had matters practically in their own hands and they took fuU advantage of the position. Lastly, Fitzroy got into a war with the natives which did not end until a year after he had left the country. This was commenced by Hone Heke cutting down the flagstaff on which the English flag was flying at Kororareka and plundering the place. Some of the natives of Heke's tribe were friendly to the English and a sort of peace was temporarily patched up. It did not last long, for the flagstaff was again cut down. It was re-erected and was thought to be sufficiently guarded by a blockhouse and party of bluejackets from H.M.S. " Hazard," then lying in the bay, and some soldiers. It was not ! Heke again attacked the town and cut down the flagstaff. Some fierce fighting took place in which Captain Robertson, of H.M.S. " Hazard," and Lieutenant Philpotts, of the same ship, behaved with great courage, the former being badly wounded. The town of Kororareka was burnt. This was again a great blow to British prestige. Worse was in store. Troops arrived from Sydney and it was determined to follow Heke up, and make an end of the matter. The English were, however, badly beaten in attacks on two pahs, Okaihau and Ohaewai. Before the attack on the latter was made artillery had been procured from Sydney, but even that made no difference. The Maori were naturally triumphant and thought, not without reason, that they were a superior race to the English. As if to 41 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND strengthen the grounds they already had for this, namely, having beaten the Enghsh, the Governor attempted to make peace with them. This sort of weakness was fuUy calculated to make the Maori treat the English with contempt. By this time the home government had made up their minds that they must try another governor ; so Captain Fitzroy was re-called. Captain Grey, who afterwards became Sir George Grey and was then Governor of South Australia, was selected for the position. He was an energetic and capable man who had the reputation of having accomplished great things in the colony he was leaving. He was also a man of great determination and courage. Grey was more lucky than his predecessor, for he was supplied with both troops and money. He resumed the pre-emptive right of the Crown over the native lands which had been weakly abandoned by Fitzroy when in straits for money. He knew that war and settlement could not go on at the same time. He did the wise thing at once in prohibiting the sale of firearms to the natives, and in breaking off aU negotiations with the chiefs who had commenced the late war, and who, owing to their previous successes, considered themselves masters of the situation. Having made up his mind that the war must be ended, and the mastery of the Europeans asserted, he decided to do so at once. Taking with him a strong force of sailors and soldiers under the command of Colonel Despard, who had fought in the before-mentioned engagements, and accompanied by a strong force of friendly natives, he attacked a pah belonging to Kawiti, the aUy and feUow- insurgent of Heke. Having once commenced he did not leave off until he had done what he came for, and after some days' fighting he took the pah, with but small loss. 42 BRITISH POWER RE-ASSERTED This ended the war and showed the natives that they were not invincible. The Chief Rangihaeata, of Wairau fame, had been creating disturbances around the Cook Straits settlements. The Governor determined to put an end to this trouble also. It took longer to do this than it had to finish matters in the north. The area of distur- bance was larger, and the troops had to be kept continually on the move through bush and other difficult country. The Governor, however, had laid his plans weU, and drove the Maori into districts where they could get but little to eat. Empty stomachs had much to do with ending the campaign. The Governor, feeling sure that Rangihaeata's old friend and ally, Te Rauparaha, was advising and helping as much as he could those actively employed in these disturbances, determined to put it out of his power to do so. He captured Rauparaha by a clever ruse, and kept him where he could do no harm. Shortly after this native wars ceased for many years, with the exception of a quickly-ended trouble on the south-west coast of the north island at Wanganui. The Governor was made a K.C.B. for his successful conduct of the operations just described, an honour well deserved. It can be imagined with what relief the home govern- ment greeted the news of the successes achieved. It was a pleasant contrast to the tale of unfortunate occurrences that had previously reached them. Sir George Grey now settled himself down to deal with other matters than war, but which were of equal, if not greater, importance. He endeavoured to make both natives and white people alike see that the best thing for the country was peace, and that they should work together to promote the well-being of the land they lived in. This was a difficult task, as it could not be expected that the Maori would quietly accept the position that 43 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND they were to be only a part of the system regulating the immagement of the islands instead of having the complete control as they had prior to the arrival of the British. The white people also had their grievances, many of them substantial ones, and these they brought before the Governor at every opportunity, and in the most forcible manner they could. They for their part could not under- stand why those who had come to New Zealand, because of the country being annexed by their sovereign, should not have the greater rights of the two races. The Governor Hstened to the troubles of both sides, and by his tact and firmness met with great success on the whole. Amongst ether things, he employed both natives and soldiers in making roads. These were of distinct advan- tage in settling the country, as not only did they enable the white people to spread out and to have good means of communication between their farms and hamlets, but they also permitted the more rapid movement of troops. Native hospitals were estabhshed and the Maori were encoiuraged to become civihzed and to foUow European ways. Sir George also interested himself very much in the South Island settlements of Otago and Canterbury, and infused into the whole community a desire to push forward rapidly and judiciously the settlement of the cormtry. He had able helpers in carrying out the work he had planned. The Chief Justice, Sir WiUiam Marten, the Attorney-General, Mr. Wilham Swainson, and Bishop Selwyn, the first Bishop of New Zealand, were men of capacity and power. In 1846 Earl Grey had passed an act through the English Parhament to provide for further government in New Zealand. Sir George Grey prevented its adoption in its entirety in that country. The authorities at home seemed unable to make up their nmids as to which way they should govern the colony. At one time the natives 44 CONSTITUTION GRANTED were to be disregarded as being only savages, at another they were to be treated as feUow-countrymen. Some of the most influential men in New Zealand, including the Chief Justice and the Bishop, were among those most opposed to certain points in Earl Grey's charter, on the ground of their being unjust to the natives. At all events, that portion of it which granted representa- tive institutions was suspended by Imperial Statute in March, 1848. In the meantime Sir George Grey had been sworn in as Govemor-in-Chief of the Islands, and as Governor of the Provinces of New Ulster and New Munster, which had been formed under the charter. A Lieutenant-Governor was also appointed to each province. This all came to an end in 1853 when the Constitution, which is dealt with in another chapter, was granted to the colony as it then was. During Sir George Grey's governorship the Colonial Office set themselves to work to placate the New Zealand Land Company for the hostility previously shown to it. Wiser councUs would have prevented such having ever been the case. Much money would have been saved, ill- feeUng prevented, and colonization would have progressed rapidly. In 1853 Sir George Grey assumed the office of " Governor of the Colony of New Zealand " after the passing of the Constitution Act, and at the end of that year he left the colony. He returned, however, in 1861. The termination of Sir George Grey's first period of office seems to be a convenient point at which to close the account of what may be termed the first period of the development of New Zealand. The initial difficulties of founding the colony had been practically overcome, colonization was going on smoothly, the early wars with the natives had ended, and the colony had representative government. 45 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Judged by the standard of the present day it might be said that the first three governors failed as administrators. It is only fair, however, to take into account when passing judgment on their actions, how extremely diflBlcult were the circumstances by which they were surrounded. The home government was both indifferent and ignorant, and so was the British pubhc generally. The Europeans in the country they were called upon to govern were, with few exceptions, ready to prey upon the natives and were averse to law. The Maori, who were cannibals and savages, belonged to various tribes, each with its own leaders. There was no great head over all with whom the Governor could negotiate. The missionaries were inclined, on the whole, to take the part of the natives. In fact, they wished to Christianize the people of the country and form them into an independent nation. Their Utopian idea was impossible of realization. The Governors had but few men of high capacity and large administrative experience with whom to confer. When one fairly considers aU the difficulties which they had to contend with, we should be slow to condemn their conduct of affairs too harshly. Before he entered on office in New Zealand Sir George Grey had had the experience of administering another colony. This was now most valuable. He had the good fortune to foUow, in New Zealand, those on whom the task had fallen of establishing the ground-work of govern- ment. He had also been placed in a better position than his predecessors as regards power, soldiers, and money. Furthermore, he had -not the unpleasant experience of missionaries interfering in matters which did not come within the scope of their proper functions. 46 CHAPTER V THE MAORI RACE Origin of the Maori race — The Maori religion — Physical qualities — Clothing — Occupation — Characteristic traits — Numbers. When Captain Cook was writing in his journal about the natives of New Zealand, he used the following words : — " The language spoken by both the South Sea Islanders and the New Zealanders is sufficient proof that they have one origin or source, but where this is even time perhaps may never discover." This forecast of the position was not very wide of the mark. It is perfectly true that the researches of diligent students into the question of origin of the Maori people have given us in their writings much interesting informa- tion on the subject, and undoubtedly have proved that the Maori are a branch of the Pol}mesian race. The actual position of the spot whence they started for New Zealand does not seem to have been so clearly established. The Maori say that they came from Hawaiki, and Mr. Percy Smith in his book Hawaiki, the Original Home of the Maori, gives it as his opinion, after very close and painstaking search into the matter, that the Hawaiki of the Maori is the area comprising all the groups of islands round Tahiti. If one bears in mind that everything connected with the early history of the Maori race rests on no more sohd foundation than tradition, one can realize the difficulty of fixing absolutely the place from which those started who first landed in New Zealand. The Maori set great store on their " genealogies," which they have taken the utmost pains to transmit by 47 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND word of mouth ; but, while one marvels at the elabora- tion of detail and expresses one's admiration of the way in which these traditions have been handed down from generation to generation, one must not be betrayed into too much confidence as to their rehabihty from the point of view of the historian. Taking then their traditions as the source of informa- tion from which the early wanderings of the Maori can be traced, it may be stated that the Maori came over to New Zealand in seven or eight canoes, about the year 1350, and it is said that the axes used in building them were made out of greenstone brought from New Zealand by a canoe in which a previous voyage had been made to that country. From those who came over in these canoes, which were double-decked, sprang the race of natives which was foTmd by Cook on his visits to New Zealand. The Maori went to the North Island, on their arrival, and have almost entirely remained there. The native population in the South Island, Stewart's Island, and the Chatham Islands even now only amounts to about 3,000. The Maori found, it is said, a race of people in occupa- tion of the islands when they arrived and, being deter- mined to assert their own right of possession, practically exterminated them. There is, however, a tribe still in the north, in the Urewera country, claiming to be directly descended from the original occupants. The result of the struggle was the usual one — ^the more powerful race prevailed. That they were sailors and navigators is shown by the fact that, wherever they came from, they must have crossed majiy miles of ocean in their canoes on their voyage to New Zealand and were very acctirate in making the land when approaching that country. No accidental stroke of fortune could have ensured such success . It must have been the outcome of some study of the laws of nature. 48 MAORI TRADITIONS A Maori clerg5mian, the Rev. Wild Te Paa, writing recently to a New Zealand journal on the subject of the departure of the Maori from Polynesia, said that he attributed it to their having come to the conclusion from the movements of certain birds that there must be land in the direction towards which the latter took their flight. These birds, the godwits, armually reach New Zealand from Siberia, and are said to pass over Tahiti on their way. The writer of the letter says that the Maori, having once made up their minds that these birds were going south to some unknown land, decided to take them as their guides and started on a voyage of discovery which took them to New Zealand. Other Maori do not accept this idea, as they one and all cling to the belief that the spirits furnished the reason for their departure from Hawaiki. It seems quite likely, however, that the Maori, who are great observers of nature, decided from the regular movements of these birds on their own migration to southern lands. The Maori mythology is based upon a legend which in certain ways is extraordinarily similar to the account given of the creation of the world in the book of Genesis. The stages of development of the various parts of creation occupied periods of time, the length of which is as difficult for us to estimate as the length of a " day " in the Pen- tateuch. Step by step things proceeded in the progress of creation. There is, however, this great difference between the two accounts, the Maori believes that more than one deity took part in the formation of the various elements. For example, Light, according to Maori mjd;hology, was evolved by a forced separation of Rangi (Heaven) and Papa (Earth), a god and goddess who through all preced- ing ages had been united, their children meanwhile being compelled to dwell in darkness. This separation was accomplished by Tane (god of forests and birds), who 49 4-(ai36) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND exerted his supernatural force to effect the evolution of Light and Darkness, both of which were an absolute necessity for those over whom he presided. The history of the relations between men and the Supreme is also strikingly different inasmuch as the Maori gods exhibited human passions like those of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Their reUgion was that of the worship of the spirits of the Good Departed, and they attributed to their priests the power of holding communication with the occupants of the higher spirit world. They beheve in various gradations of rewards for the souls of the departed, the spirits of chiefs and priests going into everlasting light in the midst of the sky, while those of common men are doomed to everlasting darkness in the depths of the sea. They do not beheve in the resurrection of the body or pimishment in an after life, considering that the retribution for a man's evil deeds fall upon him during his Ufe on earth. The Maori are, physically, a very fine race, weU-buUt and miiscular, the males being about the average height of EngMshmen, namely 5 ft. 6f in. Their skin is of a hght brown colour, their cheek bones high, their noses straight with somewhat extended nostrils, Mps thick, mouth wide disclosing very fine teeth, eyes very dark and penetrating, and hair generally black. They exhibit great excitement at times, both in discussions among themselves and also with Europeans, making use on such occasions of a great deal of violent gesture. In old days both men and women were considerably tattooed, but the custom has now practically died out. Their clothing originally was of the scantiest descrip- tion. The women wore a sort of Mlt. Mats were worn by both males emd females, and some of them were of great value. Like nearly all savage races they decorated themselves fancifully with ornaments of various kinds. 50 MAORI AND THEIR PRIESTS Amongst the most highly prized was one which they wore suspended round their necks. It was made of greenstone. Many imitations of these neck ornaments are to be found in shops in the British Isles. In the old days they had no firearms ; they used spears and clubs. All the former and some of the latter were made of wood. The clubs had different names and were constructed of various materials, such, for instance, as greenstone and whalebone. Where all fared aUke in the matter of weapons, the Maori were not able to put down their victories to superiority possessed, by one side over the other, in implements of warfare. The descriptions given of their war dances show that these were, to say the least of it, very vigorous and well suited to rouse to a state of frenzy both performers and onlookers. The ceremony adopted on the occasion of a death was, especially in the case of a chief, extremely weird, and indeed up to the present day the funeral rite is very much of the same description. The ceremony sometimes lasts for several days, and during that time those engaged in it alternately feast and weep. They had a practice of making things " sacred," and when those who touched whatever had been placed in that position, or indeed in many cases entered into an area that had been made " sacred," they were liable to punishment by death. The practice of making things " sacred " is carried out up to the present day, but, needless to say, the punishment awarded does not embrace the death penalty. The priests were naturally those who were entrusted with undertaking the duties necessary for making " sacred " whatever was deemed proper for such a proceeding. The powers of the priests were, as in the case of many other races, very great. The Maori were divided, and still are, into tribes, and most of their wars were connected either with land or women. Their chiefs held their position by hereditary 51 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND right (through the female branch faihng male issue) and were exceedingly autocratic. They held the land for their respective tribes. They could not declare at their own instance either for keeping peace or making war, but doubtless their opinions as to the desirabUity of either one or the other had a great effect in helping the tribes to come to a decision. The occupations of the Maori, when not fighting, were those of building for themselves huts to live in, fishing, pig-himting, and cultivating as much of the land as they considered necessary to provide for their wants. The sweet potato, which they had brought over with them, they cultivated in large quantities. This was doubtiess due to the fact that it was a food they were accustomed to in the land from which they came and the value of which was known to them. They had learnt the value of canoes, long before they came to New Zealand, as is clear from their voyage to that country. Having been accustomed to canoe-building, they continued the practice in their new home, in order that they might carry out their fishing expeditions, and also that they might make journeys, either by the sea or by river. The Maori fortified their villEiges with a considerable amount of science. Considering that, many years after their landing in New Zealand, these fortified villages were able to resist the attacks of Europeans who brought both guns and small arms to bear upon them, it seems some- what remarkable that they were ever taken by direct assault during their tribal wars. After firearms had been brought into the country they considerably modified the details of construction of their fortifications, but the general principles remained the same. There was no written language among the Maori, and indeed, excepting what has been taught to them by Europeans, they have none up to the present day. 52 MAORI AS SAILOR AND FIGHTER Their legends, songs, and proverbs are numerous, and are preserved by being transmitted verbally from one generation to another. Many of their songs are emotional, and this is especially the case when they are used as death laments. Their amusements in early days were numerous, and were doubtless handed down from the time of their existence in the land from which they came to New Zealand. One of the games which they played was " Knuckle-bones," a game not unknown among civilized races. The Maori had not apparently many diseases in days gone by, and doubtless many of those from which they suffered were derived from germs they brought with them to the country. Consumption appears to have been one of the most prevalent diseases, and no doubt the fatal results have been much increased since they adopted the custom of wearing European clothes. Such clothes were not suitable to the life they led in their villages, or pahs, or to their previous surroundings. Some of their remedies were exceedingly drastic, as, for instance, hanging by the heels, over a fire, one who had nearly been drowned, with a view to a cure by the direct effects of smoke. They had, however, always ready to their hand at Rotorua, Taupo, and elsewhere the hot baths, both of mud and water, for use as remedies in many diseases for which they were suitable, and of which Europeans now so largely avail themselves. Their food was the dog, the pig, and the Maori rat, various kinds of fish, the sweet potato, fern root, and some of the succulent parts of the cabbage tree and the nikau palm. They particularly liked shark after it had been reduced to an almost inconceivable state of rotten- ness. Probably many of their diseases could be traced to their consumption of this abominable food. The odour from this delicacy is almost poisonous to a European. That they were savages and cannibals was very quickly 53 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND discovered by some of the earliest visitors to the shores of New Zealand. They proved themselves to be fine and generous fighters during the wars which took place between them and the British at various times after the annexation of the country. They have exhibited shrewdness and capacity in all the business and poUtical undertakings with which they have been connected. They have shown, by the advantage they have taken of the schools provided for them, which are attended by no less than seven thousand native children, that they value education highly, and many of them enter the University, take degrees, and prove themselves to be quite up to the average as clergjnnen, doctors, and lawyers. It must not be thought that they did not value education before its advent in European form ; but the education that they received at that time was not on the Mnes accepted as necessary by what are known as civilized races. It fitted them, however, for the Ufe they had to lead. It made every man capable, either as sailor or soldier, of being able to fight for his tribe and, if needs required, for his country. It ensured that those who proved themselves most capable and fearless in war should lead them when meeting their enemies. The education of the Maori was further developed by the teaching of the priests who, versed in all the traditions of the race, communicated them to their most promising pupUs considered fit to become leaders of the people. Technical education, moreover, was not neglected, as the weapons with which they fought, and the implements of the chase, as well as those suf&cient for their agriculture, were admirably constructed. The supernatural played a considerable part in their system and all sorts of circumstances arose that were attributed to that cause. Their laws and customs, including land tenure and 54 THE LOYAL MAORI many other important matters connected with the welfare of the race, were very compUcated. Complications in such matters, however, have not been entirely confined to the Maori race. The tribal wars were always fiercely fought out to the bitter end. They were commenced for the purpose of conquest, and were carried on until that end was attained. The Maori quickly learned from' their European visitors the value of firearms, and procured them as soon as they could do so. One Christianized chief, who visited England in 1820, having during his visit seen how civiUzed nations were armed with weapons that enabled them to destroy their enemies with greater rapidity than his own countrymen could with their's, determined to procure some of a similar kind. He returned to New Zealand via Sydney, and there converted the valuable presents he had received into the where- withal to buy guns and ammunition. Having procured these he continued his voyage, and on his arrival in his native land used them to such advantage that he was able to kill two thousand of his not so well armed adversaries more expeditiously than he could have done before. The Maori of the present day live perfectly amicably amongst their white neighbours. They have certain laws affecting their own lands, but are otherwise practically subject to the same laws as the white population, and obey them just as well. They are very loyal to the nation which annexed their country and to the Ruler of the Empire of which it forms a part. Their anxiety to serve the Queen during the Boer war, when they begged in thousands for permission to be included in the contingents which went to South Africa, was a strikingly expressed evidence of this loyalty. The Maori has but Uttle desire to do any agricultural work, or indeed any work that requires constant apph- cation. It is true that they farm certain pieces of land 55 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND in various districts, but it is done in a most perfunctory manner, and is in most cases left entirely alone if some- thing of a more interesting nature turns up, or if they feel more indolent than usual. They, however, do a considerable amoimt of shearing for their white neighbours, and do it well. They prefer staying in their pahs and passing a quiet, do-nothing Mfe. This is, generally speaking, only fol- lowing the usual custom of the races coming from equatorial regions. They go to the towns and frequently become loafers round hotels and bUHard-rooms, because they have not, and do not want, anything better to do. They, in most cases, wear European clothes which under the ordinary conditions of pah Mfe are quite unsuitable. The number of Maori wives of Emropeans increased nearly eight per cent, between 1901 and 1906. This is an undesirable state of affairs, as not only are half-caste progeny in most cases dehcate, but they lose the best characteristics of one race without bringing out those of the other. The Maori at present are in the stage of having to a large extent parted from their native state, and yet not having completely arrived at one of civilization. They are, however, rapidly attaining the latter condition. An illustration of this has been afforded by the fact that in certain places where the entire population practically consisted of Maori they asked permission to themselves make their own regulations suitable to their local concerns and their especial wants. Parhament, recognizing that to do what was asked would tend to their higher civiliza- tion, legislated in 1900 with a view to this being done. It is stated that the Maori have recentiy been asking to have control of their own lands. Should such be the case, a further instance is afforded of their desire to be more closely drawn into the civihzed circle. For years past they have accepted the decision of the Native 56 RELATIONS BETWEEN TWO RACES Land Court, and the superior courts of law as to the ownership of their tribal lands. The Maori have certainly not been losers by their absorption in the British community consequent on the annexation of their country. Large reserves of land have been made for them which are inalienable. The land held by the Maori has equally with that now possessed by the Europeans risen enormously in value owing to the settlement of the coimtry. Many of the Maori are very rich and enjoy their wealth by participating in the sports and luxuries introduced by the Europeans. The census of 1901 showed that there were 43,143, exclusive of half-castes, in the dominion. In 1906, under the same conditions there were 47,731. It is extremely improbable that the increase shown is due to any real addition to the number of Maori. It is almost certain to be the result of better enumeration. 57 PART II CHAPTER I PHYSICAL AND ARTIFICIAL FEATURES New Zealand originally a small group of islands — Mountains — Lakes — Plains — Rivers — Springs — Harbours. New Zealand, at one age in the world's history, was a small group of islands, which at a later period was elevated until it became a part of a large continent, and was afterwards isolated through the sinking of a portion of the mainland. The action of the various forces of nature which have contributed to the country attaining its present condition has resulted in different physical features in each of the main islands. The North Island extends over a httle more than seven degrees of latitude, and is about five hundred miles in actual land length between its northern and southern points. The greater portion of the island is mountainous, although there are considerable areas of plain and fairly level country. Generally speaking, however, it may be described as a hilly country. Enormous areas were undoubtedly covered with forest in days gone by, but gradually much of this has disappeared from a variety of causes. The main range of mountains in this island lies rather on the eastward side, the general direction of the range being N.W. and S.E. Its northern and principal portion is named Ruahine, and extends for a distance of about eighty miles. A mountain gorge then divides the range, and the southern portion which extends over forty miles is called Tararua. The mountains in this range 59 THE DOMINIOK OF NEW ZEALAND do not in some cases exceed more than 1,500 feet in height, and never more than 4,000 feet. When the southern extremity of the Tararua division of the range is reached, the mountains take a more easterly direction and continue to the southernmost point of the island. Parallel with the main range, but further to the west- ward and extending much further to the northward, there is another called the Kaimanawha range. The principal mountains, as distinguished from ranges, are Tongariro, Ruapehu, and Mount Egmont. The latter is an extinct volcano, and rises to the height of 8,260 feet. Its summit is covered with perpetual snow. When seen from the sea, on approaching New Zealand from the westward, one is strongly reminded of the appearance of Mount Fusiyama in Japan. Tongariro consists of a number of volcanic cones. Of these Ngauruhoe, 7,515 feet is the highest. Next in order comes the cone called the Red Crater, 6,140 feet high, and, lastly, Te Mari, which reaches 4,990 feet. These craters are stOl active, and form what may be called safety vents. Ngaimihoe was quite recently in active eruption. Ruapehu hes to the southward of Tongariro. It attains a height of 9,008 feet, and is therefore clothed with perpetual snow for some distance from its summit. At the bottom of the crater on the top of this moimtain there Mes a lake about 300 feet in diameter which is subject to slight eruptions. When these occur large quantities of steam are given off from the lake. Only thirteen years ago an eruption took place and a few hot springs were formed. The lake is 300 feet below the enclosing peaks, which are covered with ice and snow. In the centre of the island hes Lake Taupo, the principal lake in the North Island. Out of it flows the Waikato river on its way to the sea far away to the northward. The Huka Falls, on the Waikato, form one of the most beautiful sights in this part of the country. The other 60 THERMAL SPRINGS lakes are not of any great size. Lake Waikaremoana in the Poverty Bay district is about eleven miles long and has a breadth of eight miles at its widest part. North of the city of Auckland, in the Bay of Islands district, is a lake called Omapere, which is about three miles by two, and is an old crater. In what is known as the Waikato country there are two lakes, Waikare and Whangape. The former of these is about six miles by three, and the other five miles by one. In the Wairarapa valley in the south-east of the island is Lake Wairarapa, about twelve miles long and four broad. The remainder of the lakes worth mentioning are in the thermal springs area, which is not far from Tauranga on the shore of the Bay of Plenty. They are from seven to eight miles long and three to six miles wide. Of these the principal are Rotorua, Rotonia, and Rotoiti. The hot springs district just referred to is the most remarkable feature in the country. It constitutes one of the physical wonders of the world. In it are lakes and springs, mud volcanoes, and other remarkable wonders of nature of an astonishing character. Further allusion to these wiU be found in the chapter on scenery. The plains are principally on the western side of the island. The most remarkable are the Kaingaroa plains, near Taupo. They extend over a considerable area, and are formed entirely of pumice. The navigable rivers of the North Island are but few. The principal are the Waikato, the Thames, the Wan- ganui, and the Manawatu. The first named is navigable by small steamers for about one hundred miles from its mouth, which is not far to the southward of Manukau Harbour on the west coast. The Thames flows northward from its source north of Taupo, and empties itself into the Firth of Thames to 61 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND the westward of the Coromandel peninsula. This river is navigable for but a short distance and only by small steamers. The Manawatu rises to the eastward of the Ruahine range and falls into the sea on the south-west coast of the island. It is navigable by small steamers for a few miles from its mouth. The Wanganui river rises near the centre of the island and falls into the sea not very far from the Manawatu. This river is navigable by small trading vessels as far as the town of the same name and by excursion steamers for many miles further. The principal harbours are all on the east coast, those on the west side being all bar harbours. It may be said, strictly speaking, that Wellington Harbour is not on the east coast. It is, however, to the eastward side of the south-western extremity of the island. As in the southern outljnng islands, so in this North Island occurs the peciiliarity of all harbours of any value being on the east side. The South Island is separated from the North Island by Cook's Strait. This strait is about sixteen miles across at its narrowest point, and ninety nules at its widest. The South Island extends over about six degrees of latitude. The extreme land length is about 525 miles from Jackson's Head in Cook's Strait to Pu5^s^ur Point at the extreme south-west. A main mountain range extends practically from one end of the islcmd to the other and lies nearer to the western than the eastern side. The general character of the South Island is moun- tainous like its sister island in the north, and like the latter has large areas of plains and undulating land. The largest continuous area of flat land in the whole dominion 62 W > FIORDS AND SNOW-CLAD PEAKS is comprised in the Canterbury Plains in the South Island. These plains are about 100 miles in length, and contain about 3,000,000 acres. The principal features of the South Island are the magnificent range of mountains, called the Southern Alps, and the fiords or sounds on the south-western coast. Some of the mountains in the southern range attain a great height, the highest peak being that of Mount Cook, which reaches 12,349 feet. Mount Eamslaw, Mount Sefton, and other splendid peaks rise to a great height. Amongst the latter must be mentioned Mount Aspiring, with its height of 9,049 feet. The snow line being at the height of 7,500 feet many of the giants of the Southern Alps are always clothed in snow for thousands of feet from their summits. Mention must also be made of the Hanmer thermal springs district in the northern part of the Canterbury provincial district, and about thirty miles from the coast. This is not as large as the area of springs at Rotorua in the North Island nor so wonderful, but still of much interest. On the south-west coast are some remarkable fiords, extending over a coast-hne of about 130 miles. These may be said to be one of the grandest examples of sea fiords in the world. The extraordinary depth of water in them is one amongst their many remarkable features. The lakes in the South Island are numerous, some of them being of great size and depth. They are principally to be found south of Mount Cook, but the northern and western portions of the island also claim their share. The largest lake is Te Anau, which has an area of about 130 square miles. Lake Wakatipu is another of the larger lakes. It has an area of about 114 square miles, and is situated more than 1,000 feet above sea-level. It is exceedingly deep. 63 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Lake Wanaka has an area of seventy-five square miles, and Lake Manapouri of fifty-six. Lakes Hawea, Ohau and Pukaki are aU more than 1,000 feet above the sea. Lake Tekapo is more than 2,000 feet above sea-level. All these lakes are of glacial origin and very deep. The South Island rivers are, with but few exceptions, practically mountain torrents. The Clutha is the largest river in the dominion and the volume of water discharged by it into the sea is calculated to be 1,600,000 cubic feet per minute. It cannot truly be described as a navigable river as it is only passable for about thirty miles from its mouth, and then only by small steamers. Three rivers on the west coast are navigable for a few miles from the sea. These are the BuUer, the Grey, and the Hokitika. The last named can scarcely be termed navigable. The BuUer and the Grey now admit steamers of considerable draught to the towns of Westport and Greymouth respectively. The rivers have without doubt considerably altered the condition of vast areas. Floods of extraordinary volume have during comparatively recent years caused a large quantity of land through which they have rushed to become in some cases perfectly useless from the debris scattered over many square miles of country. On the other hand, large districts have been increased in fertUity by the alluvial deposits with which the land has been covered. What happened in by-gone ages it is impossible to say, but there are evidences of many of those rivers having at one time flowed through the country at a much higher level than now. The principal harbours in the South Island are Nelson, L5rttelton, Port Chalmers (the Dunedin seaport), and the Bluff. There is also a fine harbour at Akaroa on Banks' 64 SHELTERED EAST COAST Peninsula. On this island it will again be found that the natural harbours are on the east coast, or else placed in such a position as to be protected from westerly winds and seas. The fiords can scarcely be considered harbours. Stewart Island, the southernmost of the main islands, separated from them by Foveaux Strait, hcis a very broken coast-line and is, generally speaking, rugged and covered with dense bush. Towards its southern extremity there is a range of mountains of which the highest peak is Mount Angelem. This mountain rises to a height of 3,200 feet above sea-level and has an extinct crater at its summit. The principal bays and harbours are, hke those of the North and South Islands, aU on the east coast. Half Moon Bay, well known to whalers in days gone by, is the principal port. Patterson Inlet, to the northward of this bay, and Port Pegasus to the southward, are fine sheets of water, the latter being land-locked and a very fine harbour. Roimd the coast of New Zealand are to be found many small islands, amongst which the following may be named : The Three Kings, Great and Little Barrier, Great Mercury, White Island, and Kaplti off the North Island ; and D'UrviUe and Resolution off the coast of the South Island. There is also a group of rocky islets called the Snares to the southward of Stewart Island. White Island must be particularly referred to on account of its containing an active volcano. This island is situated to the north-east of the Bay of Plenty, and is in the direct line of volcanic energy extending from Ruapehu through the hot spring district away to the imknown. From the foregoing sketch of the physical features it wiU be observed that volcanic action has produced the peculiar configuration of the North Island while in the South Island glacial action has been predominant. 65 3— (3136) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND The principal artificial features of New Zealand may be described as consisting chiefly of the great lines of railway, which now traverse the coimtry nearly from end to end, and the harbom^ and lighthouses which have been constructed to promote the development of trade. Of the latter the principal in the North Island is that of Napier, the port of Hawke's Bay. This harbour must alwa57s be an important one on account of the large and fertile district for which it is the outlet. Whether it win ever fulfil the expectations of its designers and promoters is another matter. Turning to the South Island, but without mentioning nattural harbours that have been improved, one must point to Oamaru and Timaru on the east coast, and Gre5nnouth and Westport on the west. Timaru harbour is enclosed by a breakwater and covers an area of fifty acres. Ships of very large tonnage are able to visit this port in favour- able weather to discharge and ship cargo for the large and importcint district of South Canterbury. Oamaru has also a harbour formed by a breakwater, but its capacity for the reception of large vessels is not so favourable as in the case of Timaru. Westport is a harbour of importance, as it was an absolute necessity to provide one for the great export of coal from the rich mines of the southern part of the Nelson district. It is a bar harbour, but the important works that have been carried out have made it now possible for vessels of considerable size to go up the river to the town, where immense facihties are provided for the shipment of coal. Grejmiouth again is an instance of a bar harboiu" which, through the necessity of providing an outlet for its produce, was made available in the interests of the dominion for the passage of vessels of a large size. The hghthouses are widely spread round its coast, and their lights are of a high ckss order. Some of the 66 WELL-LIGHTED COAST-LINE principal lighthouses in the North Island are Cape Maria Van Diemen, East Cape, Cape PaUiser, Pencarrow Head (entrance to Wellington Harbour), Tiritiri near Auckland Harbour, Cape Egmont, Manukau, and Stephen Island in Cook's Straits ; in the South Island, Cape Campbell, Godley Head, Akaroa Head, Taiaroa Head, Cape Saunders, Nugget Point, Puysegur Point, Cape Foulwind and Farewell Spit. There is scarcely a point of any importance to mariners that is left without a hghthouse, and many of them are in telephonic communication with the telegraph system. The apparatus used in the great majority of these lighthouses is the most improved order of dioptric. 67 CHAPTER II SCENERY A COUNTRY teeming with interesting features — Beantifnl scenery — ^The Southern Alps — Geysers. It is almost impossible to describe the scenery of this wonderland of the south embracing as it does nearly every variety to be found in the countries of the world. The traveller visiting New Zealand, no matter where he may land, wiU find something of absorbing interest and beauty to greet him on his arrival. Landing at Auckland, after having passed through the quiet waters of the Hauraki Gulf, with its irmumerable islands clothed with verdure, he will find himself in a city in a sub-tropical climate with flowers and plants from all parts of the world growing in their natural beauty. Going north from Auckland he will find what remains of the great Kauri forests, which were at one time spread over a large portion of this end of the country. If he turns south he wiU soon find himself in the great hot spring district which, though it caimot be described as " beautiful," yet presents a picture of wild grandeur and weirdness scarcely to be surpassed anywhere. Here, and still further south in the same district, he wUl find evidences of the great forces of nature which have, not only in 6a.ys gone by, but also in later years, made the country an object lesson of their power. Miles of pumice show what those volcanic mountains, long since extinct as far as human knowledge goes, ejected from their subterranean depths. If the traveller after reaching Lake Taupo turns to the eastward he wiU joruney through a country desolate for a long distance, but gradually emerging into forest-dad 68 JOURNEYS BY SEA AND LAND hills for many miles. He will then pass on through lower and well-cultivated lands until he reaches Napier on the east coast. Should he, instead of turning to the eastward, decide to continue his travels in a southerly direction, he will cross over Lake Taupo, and finally after journeying down the far-famed Wanganui River, with its bush-clad banks towering above him, reach the town of the same name. He can then turn again to the south-west through a country which at one time was dense bush, but is now cultivated land, and dotted with settlements. At the end of the line of railway, which has taken him from Wanganui, he wiU reach Wellington. Here again he will meet with a view which must appeal to his sense of that which is beautiful. The generally foam-flecked harbour, surrounded by high hills on almost every side, save where the eye lights on the Rimutaka range standing out in the far distance at the end of the long Hutt valley, is a scene of wonderful beauty. Crossing Cook's Straits he can pass through the sounds, on the north coast of the South Island, which have beauties of their own that cannot fail to attract the eye of the traveller. Arriving at Nelson the journey can be continued through bush and along the banks of rivers which both provide great and ever-varying scenic effects. Going still farther south, the wanderer in this truly wonderful land can reach the towns of Westport and Greymouth and gaze at the marvellous seascape provided by the Pacific Ocean. Crossing over the dividing range from Greymouth to the east coast, mountains, rivers, and bush again furnish a variety of scene that can never be effaced from the memory. The traveller, once across the Southern Alps, fuids himself approaching the city of Christchurch situated on the vast plain which extends south for many miles. Large areas of cultivated land are now to be 69 THE DOMINION OF NEW 2EALAND found, presenting a wonderful effect suggestive of peace and comfort. Had the tourist gone from Wellington to Lyttelton by steamer he would have seen as he passed along the coast the snow-clad Kaikoiuras and in the back- ground many of the giant mountains of the Southern Alps. He has now arrived at L5^telton, the port of Christchurch. Leaving Christchurch by train he passes for a consider- able distance through a flat coimtry that has been called uninteresting. Flat as it is, and possessing no natural beauty, it yet presents to the eye a pictiure of rest and peacefulness which cultivated land alone can give. Far away in the distance, moreover, are to be seen the South- em Alps, perpetually crowned with snow which in winter covers them to their base. Passing away from the plains the journey is continued over an undulating coimtry, for the most part under tillage, and with homesteads scattered here and there. Joumejdng still further south, the country shows another aspect as the train climbs the steep cliffs with the ocean thimdering at their base. Then, again, the train descends through a wild-looking but charming country until it reaches Port Chalmers. Thence on to Dunedin the train follows a winding course beside the long stretch of inland sea leading to the port of Dunedin. Departing from Dunedin again by traiu, the joiumey is continued through fertile plains and over rolling downs, by mountains, and over rivers until 139 nules have been traversed and InvercargOl is reached. The traveller's search for beautiful scenery need not, however, end with the journey that has been taken from Auckland to the south. His time wiU be well spent in visiting some of the lakes in the North Island and making short journeys here and there to see the wonderful beauties of its bush country. 70 GLACIERS AND FERTILE PLAINS When he reaches Christchurch he can make a journey to Hanmer and see a thermal spring district with different surroundings to those of the north. To reach Hanmer he will have passed through fertile plains and wiU have viewed scenery of a varied description. When he returns to Christchurch he can travel south as far as Timaru, and there turn off to visit the wonder- ful glacier region in the neighbourhood of Mount Cook. Returning from that ice-bound country he can travel to Dunedin or Invercargill, and from either of those places make a journey to the beautiful southern lakes and look on marvellous mountain and forest scenes. From Lake Te Anau he can pass on through the heart of the mountains, with various marvels of nature displayed on every side, until he reaches Milford Sound. Milford Sound is the northern of the thirteen fiords embraced in the coast-line of some 130 miles on the south- western side of the South Island, which are wonderful in their beauty and grandeur. These sounds, of world-wide renown, are guarded on either side of their entrances by towering mountains whose steep sides are clothed with verdure wherever plant Ufe can exist. The Southern Alps present features of grandeur that many noted alpine cUmbers describe as not being sur- passed anywhere in Europe. The glaciers are remarkable for their size and beauty, and one of them at least can compare favourably with any glacier in the world. This is the Tasman Glacier with an area of 13,644 acres ; a length of eighteen miles, and an average width of more than a mile and a half. (The Alletsh Glacier in Switzer- land has an average width of one mile.) The glaciers on the western side are of extraordinary beauty, as from the greater steepness of the mountain slopes they descend to within 100 feet of sea-level, their base lying amongst the evergreen bush. 71 THE DOMINION OF NEW 'ZEALAND In the chapter on Ph5^ical Features allusion has been made to the thermal springs area of the North Island, but a Httle further description wiU be of interest. In the first place, this geyser land is one of great antiquity. Geologists tell us that the geysers are the oldest in the world, with the exception of those in Wyoming and Idaho in the United States of America. The area of volcanic activity is about 150 miles long and twenty nules wide, stretching in a diagonal direction from White Island in the Bay of Plenty to Ruapehu, south of Taupo. That part of the thermal region of most interest to the traveller may be said to centre roimd and about Rotorua. There are, however, many wonders to be seen at Tikitere, near Rotorua ; at Waiotapu ; at Wairakei, on the way to Taupo from Rotorua, and at Orakei-Korako, where a white terrace is being formed similar to that destroyed during the eruption of Tarawera in 1886. Beautiful lakes, some fringed here and there by bush, boiling springs, mud volcanoes, and geysers are to be found almost everywhere. Although some of the lakes add a touch of beauty to the scene, the general feeling aroused on visiting the district is that of wonder and awe. Tikitere, with its boiling pools and ponds of seething mud ; Lake Roto- mahana lying over the site of the far-famed Pink Terraces, and not far from Tarawera and Whakarewarewa, with its numerous geysers, one and all provide a series of marvels dif&cult to be described. Near Lake Roto- mahana is the wonderful Waimangu Geyser, which throws up a column of mud and water to an amazing height. The greatest altitude reached is estimated at 1,500 feet. There are, however, both at Whakarewarewa and Wair- akei many geysers which eject huge columns of water at fixed intervals with the regularity of clockwork. The wonders of this marvellous district do not, however, end here. VaUejrs enveloped in steam from the innumer- able fumaroles and hot springs, and mountains whose 72 WAIMAXGl- GEYSER GEYSERS AND VOLCANOES craters at one time belched forth the debris now scattered in all directions are evidences of the forces that have made this country so very remarkable. One cannot leave this geyserland without alluding to the appropriate touches of life that the Maori lends to the picture. Scattered about here and there are the villages in which hve the descendants of that native race that centuries ago came from Hawaiki to occupy the land. Here they spend their time probably much in the same way that their ancestors did, and, Uke them, cook their food at the boiling springs. To do justice here to all that is marvellous and beautiful in the scenery of New Zealand would be an impossible task. An attempt, however, has been made to show that there is much to attract the lovers of the wonders of nature. Some claim for New Zealand scenery the distinction of being the finest in the world. That, however, is too much to say, but it may safely be asserted that it is well worthy of comparison with other countries long renowned for their scenic charms. 73 CHAPTER III CLIMATE LowiiST death-rate in the world — Temperature — Rainfall — Prevailing winds — Comparative temperatures. The fact that New Zealand's death-rate is the lowest in the world may be attributed in great measure to its extremely healthy climate, which resembles in many ways that of England. It is however drier, warmer, and more equable. In both countries there are varieties of climate dis- tinguishing one district from another, sometimes to a remarkable extent. This is due to proximity of moun- tains, wind-swept plains and the hke, as well as to relative distance from the equator. Just as Strathpeffer in Scotland differs in climate from Falmouth in Cornwall, so does Rotorua in New Zealand's northern island difEer from Dimedin in the southern. Speaking generally, it may be said that both England and New Zealand enjoy immunity from climatic dis- agreeables associated with other countries. There is no lengthened period of extreme heat or of extreme cold in either country. The nights in both are almost always cool ; indeed, they are invariably so in the dominion. The change in temperature after sunset, however, is a good deal more marked in the latter than it ever is in England, for in New Zealand one feels suddenly at that time a chilliness never experienced in the mother country. In both coimtries long droughts are almost unknown. This gives New Zealand a great advantage over many other parts of Australasia as a place for breeding sheep and cattle. The rainfall in both countries is pretty evenly divided over the twelve months of the year. Neither country is deluged with torrential rain except 74 VARIETIES OF CLIMATE on very rare occasions. Indeed, there are but few places in either where the average annual amount measured is really excessive. There are, it is true, exceptional places, such as Hokitika, where the average amount of rain annually recorded is very great, but the number of these rainy spots is small and they are all on the west side of the dominion. There is a similarity between England and New Zealand as regards the dryness of the east side of the country compared with the west. For example, we find in the case of New Zealand that, on an average, there are in Christchurch on the east side only 123 days in the year on which any rain falls, while in New Plymouth on the west side the average is 185. In other words, there are sixty-two more wet days annually in the western town than in Christchurch on the east coast. Similarly we find in England the aimual average number of rain-da5rs at Shoeburyness on the east coast is only 140 while at Falmouth on the west coast it is 211. The comparatively greater dryness of New Zealand, as a whole, compared with England and Wales is hable to be somewhat exaggerated in the minds of those who have lived in both countries, for in New Zealand it rains during the night more frequently than in the day-time. The result of this is that one hears less grumbling in the dominion about the rain than in the mother country. The New Zealand farmer often sows his seed during the warm sunshine of one day, and on awaking the next morning finds that it has been watered by cool rain during the night, and that he can proceed with his work during the bright sunshine of another day. Of course, such a satisfactory alternation is not by any means constant, but it occurs much more frequently in New Zealand than in the mother country. Again, the average quantity of measured rain that comes down in the dominion during the fewer rain-days 75 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND annually is greater than what is measured in England during the twelvemonth, though the number of rain-days is larger in the mother country. In the latter 33 inches, on an average of thirty-five years' observations, make up the total amount measured in a year. This quantity is spread over 180 rain-days, while in New Zealand no less than 53f inches, on an average, are measured annually, albeit the number of rain-da)^ is no more than 161. In other words, less than two-tenths of an inch of rain falls, on an average, during the twenty-four hours of each rain-day in England while in the dominion the quantity in the same period amoimts on an average to upwards of three-tenths of an inch. Or, to put it in fewer words, the rain is heavier in New Zealand while it lasts than it is in England. The foregoing figures woiild require to be somewhat modified as far as the mother country is concerned if Scotland and Ireland were included in the calculations, for in both these divisions of the United Kingdom there is considerably more rain, on an average, measiured annually than in England and Wales and it falls on a greater number of da5rs in the year. The above facts are set forth with further detail in the following table : — AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL AND RAIN-DAYS IN New Zealand and the Three Divisions OF THE United Kingdom. (The figures in the case of the United Kingdom are derived from observations extending over the thirty-five years, 1871-1905) NEW ZEALAND ENGLAND SCOTLAND IRELAND Nortli Island Soath Island WALES Inches Rain- days Inches Rain- days Inches Rain- days Inches Rain- days Inches Rain- days East side West side 38 46 147 178 35 116 136 185 28 38 177 184^ 41 51 218 206 37 39 227 205 Mean. . 42 162 75 160 33 1 180 I 46 212 1' 38 216 76 MOUNTAIN WINDS The smallest quantity of rain measured up to a recent date in any year at a single New Zealand station was fifteen inches at Clyde, the chief town of Vincent County, in the old provincial district of Otago. The largest in the dominion was 228 inches. This was actually in the same provincial district as Clyde, namely, at Puysegur Point, Fiord County. These two places are within 150 miles of each other, and the great difference between the two records bears out the assertion by travellers that there is scarcely another place of similar extent on the globe where, within a comparatively small area, so great varieties of climate can be found as in New Zealand. Much of this variety is due to the loftiness of moimtains such as the Ruahines in the North Island and the Southern Alps and Kaikouras in the South. Close to the western shore of the South Island, for instance, you may be traveUing on a level with the sea in a balmy atmosphere, but before you have proceeded a dozen miles inland you find the air chilled by glaciers, and you are close to mountains covered with perpetual snow. From these mountains there often springs up quite suddenly a wind whose force no one could reahze who had not lived in the dominion. This wind is cold at first, but its chilliness and moisture are gone by the time it has blown across the wide expanse of plain stretching towards the eastern coast. In many parts, indeed, of the dominion this wind is on the eastern side associated with leaden- coloured skies, weird-looking sunsets, and a hot-house- like atmosphere. The oppressiveness is mitigated, however, during the winter months of May, June, and July. When this wind is blowing the best thing to do, if one wishes to be at all comfortable, is to retire within a closely shut-up house into which the fumace-hke blast is unable to penetrate. In contrast to this the south wind which blows occasionally across the lower part of 77 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND the South Island reminds one that the Antarctic regions are not many hundred miles away. The air is seldom quite stiU in the dominion. The leaves of the trees are almost always in motion. This is especially remarkable about sundown, at which time there invariably springs up a breeze which is most refreshing. We cease to wonder at this breeziness when we remember the geographical position of New Zealand — a great hulk as it were, moored in the middle of a vast ocean, the largest water-surface on the globe, and no great tract of land within 900 nules. It must also be borne in mind that both islands are very narrow and that no part of the inland country is more than fifty miles from the sea-coast. This constant stirring of the air by the breeze has doubtless something to do with the remarkable healthi- ness of New Zealand. The germs of disease get no chance of remaining long vmdisturbed in any part of the dominion. While movement of the air is more constant in New Zealand than in the mother country, the latter suffers more frequently from destructive gales than the dominion. The fierce storm which uproots giant oaks in England is almost unknown in New Zealand. On the other hand, there is no city or town in the United Kingdom so con- tinuotisly swept by high winds as Wellington. Some speak of New Zealand's capital as the breeziest large city in the world. It is interesting to note that the prevailing direction of the wind in the dominion is from the south-west. This is more marked on the east side of both islands. The next most frequently recorded direction is the north-east. The following table shows the relative frequency of each direction for both islands as noted at the thirteen observa- tories which on the east side are at Auckland, Rotorua, 78 A BREEZY CITY Gisborne, and Meeanee in the North Island ; and Hanmer Springs, Christchurch, Lincohi College, and Dunedin in the South Island : those on the west side being at Plymouth, Moumohaki, Levin and Wellington in the North Island, and at Hokitika in the South Island. Out of every hundred records Direction made of the Direction of the of Wind. Wind. EAST SIDE. WEST SIDE. N. 16-7 N.E. 6-6 29'6 E. 6-6 .... S.E. 13-3 2-2 S. 6-6 2-2 S.W. 100 432 W. 100 91 N.W. 30-0 13-6 New Zealand being much nearer to the equator than England is, one might expect to find the heat greater during the summer months in the dominion than in the mother country. This, however, is not the case. The shade thermometer rose but a trifle higher in Auckland during the hottest month, January, in any year for which there are records than 84° F., whereas at Greenwich in England during the same period it reached 95° on more than one occasion. The following table shows the average of the extreme temperatures recorded in the thirteen places in the dominion where there have been systematic observations made during a number of years. The places are given in the order of their geographical position, the first four in each island being on the east side and the others on the west. 79 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND COMPARATIVE TEMPERATURES OF NEW ZEALAND Meteorolc^cal Observatories. Maximum °Fahr. Minimnm " Fahr. North Island : — e /Auckland 80-25 38-25 S Rotorua 89-62 24-4 1 Gisbome 99 31 H Meeanee 87 28-25 » /New Plymouth 85 30-75 5 Monmohalri . . 77-85 29-15 Levin (State Farm) 81-26 26-33 S Wellington . . 78-8 31-87 South Island : — o /Hanmer Springs 89-25 19-25 0) Christchurch. . 88 55 24-1 3 Lincoln Coll. (Canterbuiy) 89-4 23-75 H Dunedin • . . 83-5 28-25 1^}H°^^ 83 27-75 80 CHAPTER IV GEOLOGY Some sources of author's information — Varieties of geological features — Coal — Copper — Gold — Other minerals. For the technical details of this chapter the writer is indebted to the many eminent authorities on the subject, who have made the rock formation of New Zealand their special study. The following are a few of the sources from which he has derived the greater part of the facts here given : — Detailed account of the Geological and Mineral Products of New Zealand (published in 1886 as separate guide to the Geological Branch of the Indian and Colonial Exhibition). The Mineral Wealth of New Zealand, by Dr. Mackintosh Bell, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.G.S., Director of the New Zealand Geological Survey. (Paper read before the Colonial Institute, London, and published in Vol. XXXIX of Proceedings.) Various works by Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., the predecessor of Dr. Mackintosh Bell in the Geological Department, and others. It is most interesting to note the remarkable variety of geological phenomena presented throughout the dominion. Thus one finds in the North Island hot springs, solfataras, geysers, and other evidences of up- heavals in days gone by, while most of the Middle Island is made up of moimtainous districts and extensive snow 81 6— (3136) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND fields from which come glaciers, often larger and grander than those of Switzerland and the Caucasus. Ilie mountains in the North Island have for their main structure Paleozoic or very early Mesozoic sediments. Over these are Tertiary sediments. There is a large part of the island, particularly towards the centre, composed of volcanic rocks of the Pleistocene age. The geological section of the South Island is more complete, and the igneous rocks cover a wider petro- graphical range. Old crystalline schists are found in the heart of the Southern Alps, and some of the hills that run parallel to them. These are flanked with Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata of various periods. Underneath the Canterbtiry Plains on the east side of the South Island and the flat land on its west coast is rock composed to a great extent of tertiary strata. This also appMes to many parts of the same island both north and south of the " Westland Coastal Plain." Throughout a large part of the South Island may be found gravels of relatively recent date and having a varied origin, fluviatile, marine, and glacial. Igneous rocks form only a comparatively small portion of this island. They are, however, of very varied petrographic forms. They make up the whole of Banks' Peninsula, and are found near Dunedin on the east side. They are also found in the south-west comer, where granite is so abundant, and in the ridges along the western coast. The " mineral belt " of the Nelson and Westland dis- tricts is principally composed of disjointed sheets of dunite and other magnesian rocks. Stewart Island is composed almost entirely of granites and aUied plutonics. The importance to the dominion of its mineral wealth may be inferred from a consideration of the output of coal alone which reached in 1907 a total of nearly two million tons, the approximate total output to the end 82 DISTRIBUTION OF COAL of the same year having reached nearly twenty-five and a quarter millions, valued approximately at ;fl3,000,000. The coal of New Zealand is interesting from the geolo- gist's point of view, as it differs from that found in Europe and from most of that in North America, in not being of carboniferous age but much later. As regards petroleum the lowest beds are probably of Miocene age. The upper beds are apparently Pliocene. The deposits of Iron ore differ remarkably in different parts of the dominion. That in the North Island consists of magnetic iron sands, aU more or less titaniferous, which are concentrated in thick beds on the shores of the Tasman Sea, in the district of Taranaki. Pure black sand is here interstratified with felspaltic quartz sand, containing titaniferous magnetite, and with others practically free from iron. The black sand has had its origin apparently in the disintegration of hornblende andesites and more basic volcanics ; volcanics and tufa are widely distributed round the Egmont volcano. The rocks in the Southern Island in which iron ore occurs are metamorphic and consist of hornblendic and micaceous schists, sideritic limestones, and cherty quartzites which Professor Cox classifies as Silurian. The ore is a high grade hydrous haematite, the impurities being phosphorus, sulphur, titanium, and a httle siHca and alumina. It has been the result of the concentration of iron oxide by meteoric waters in Cape Farewell peninsula near the most northern point of the South Island. Also the distribution of coal is singularly interesting, as it is found in nearly every part of the dominion. This widespread distribution makes up for the narrowness of the coal seams and the shallowness of the basins in which it is found. There are various grades of coal differing greatly as to the amount of ash they have and the degree of heat which they produce ; at Kaitangata, Shag Point, and Nightcaps are found fairly wide seams of lignites of 83 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND very good quality. In the hiUy country surrounding the Canterbiuy Plains are to be found widely distributed seams of lignites. This coal is not so highly carbonised as are the coals in the South. Bituminous coal is found in Greymouth and Brunnerton iu the Westland District, and in Westport and Puponga in the Nelson District. To the very superior quality of Westport coal for steaming was due in great measure, the escape of H.M.S. Calliope on the remarkable occasion ia 1889 when the gale at Samoa was so severe that all the foreign men-of- war were either lost or stranded, and the Calliope alone succeeded in steaming out of the harbour in the teeth of the hurricane. The Japanese have shown how highly they esteem its value as steam coal, by pmchasing large quantities for their Navy. In the North Island coal is principally found near Auckland and Whangarei. This coal is in general inter- mediate in state of carbonation between the bituminous coals and lignites. No extensive seams of coal have as yet been found in New Zealand, though there is a very small deposit in early tertiary sediments at Cabbage Bay in the Hauraki peninsula, which owes its high percentage of fixed carbon to the metamorphism produced by the extension of flows of andesite. Some of the lignite seams of Canterbury, also, are said to be in part altered to Anthracite as a product of contact metamorphism. Copper ores are foimd in both islands. The most common is a cupriferous pyrite. In one mine in the South Island important oxidation products are encoun- tered giving very rich, though small, lodes above the water level. In the North Island the principal copper- bearing mineral is chalcopj^te associated with iron pyrites and molybdenite. This is near the sea in Wanganui County. In the same island, but some way 84 VALUE OF COAL TO THE NATION from the coast, there is a copper deposit in Paleozoic strata, near WoodvUle. Gold is found pretty generally throughout the dominion. One of the greatest gold mines in the world is the Waihi, in Ohinemuri County in the North Island. It is the centre of the goldfield in the Hauraki peninsula, part of the Auckland land district. The most important veins in this peninsula are in the andesitic flows, or in the fine- grained andesitic tuffs. They are mainly deposits by hot siliceous solutions carrying a great deal of hydrogen sulphide in pre-existing fissures, greatly enlarged by replacement of the wall rock. The gold in the Waihi mine is contained chiefly in a well demarcated ore-shoot with considerable horizontal continuation and with longi- tudinal extension from level to level. The metal is very rarely visible to the naked eye, though a considerable portion exists as free gold. In the South Island the veins at Reefton consist chiefly of auriferous quartz. This contains a quantity of pyrites and often stibnite but rarely chalcopyrite. Reefton is in the County of Inangahua, and is at present the most important centre of quartz mining in the South Island. Among the ancient crystalline schists and Paleozoic argillites and grauwackes which form so much of the strata of this island, quartz veins are common. They are in rocks which exhibit physiographicaUy mature and sub-mature forms, and are therefore but the remnant of former veins, the upper, and probably richer, part having been removed in the extensive and varied denudation which the country has undergone. The quartz, which in the South Island is of the highest value, is of the character described by the miners as " Magpie stone." This is merely quartz enclosing small angular fragments of argilUte or grauwacke. These latter are the prevailing rocks of the Reefton district. 85 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Platmum occurs associated with silver, but not in suf&dent quantity to be of economic value, except when found with gold. Platiniferous quartz veins occur in the district of Westland, in the South Island, in sheets of altered magnesian eruptives. The ratio (approximate) of platinum and silver in the platiniferous quartz that has been analysed is seven parts of silver to one of platinum. The precious " Greenstone " of commerce, the much valued Pounamu and Tangiwai of the Maori, the mineral Nephrite, is a massive actinohte or allied amphibole. It occurs in a talcose matrix, a product also, Mke the mineral nephrite itself of metamorphism of the magnesian eruptives. Some light has been thrown on the general question of the genesis of ore deposits by the fact that a variety of metals are being deposited by the Hot Springs of New Zealand. Dr. J. S. Maclaurin, the Dondnion Analyst, found on analysis of sinter taken from the rim of a very ebuUient spring in the Maori settlement of Whakare- warewa, Rotorua County, that it contciined gold to the amount of 1 dwt. 4 grs. per ton, and silver to the amount of 4 oz. 18 grs. per ton. A similar result has been yielded by observations at the hot springs in the centre of existing hydrothermal activity, the Taupo Volcanic zone in the centre of the North Island. The geological history, of which some account has been attempted to be given, has aspects which are of more interest to the general reader than the facts, as sohd as the rocks themselves, which tell of ancient formations and upheavals that may engross the mind of the student. These aspects, which deal with the utiUzation of the stones, ores, and metals evolved from what to the unscientific mind seems to be chaos, wiU be found in the descriptions of the mining and other Uke industries. 86 CHAPTER V FLORA General remarks — The pine — ^Value of Kauri gum — Beech forests — The Nikau palm — Open country vegetation. In this land of many surprises the botanist has his full share. How great the attraction it affords for the naturalist may be inferred from the large number of scientific men who have, ever since the time of Cook's discovery of the Islands in 1769, visited them for the special purpose of botanical research. We do not wonder at this when we contemplate the great number of its indigenous plants, which, owing to the varieties of the temperature according to locality, furnish a collection ranging from those of semi-tropical climes to those of Alpine regions. The slight seasonable variations of temperature, the unusual amount of bright sunshine, with a sufficient rainfall and heavy dews, make these islands a veritable garden in which aU plants grow in healthy luxuriance. Though luxuriant in growth, the native vegetation, speaking generally, is lacking in brightness of colour. The only exception is when the crimson rata and pohutu- kawa are in flower. No field scarlet with poppies, no hill-side purple with heather, nor forest decked with the delicate tints of spring, or ablaze with the brilhant colouring of an English autumn will delight the eye. Before him are stretched endless tracts of dense bush whose trees of evergreen give a general sombreness to the vegetation, there being scarcely a deciduous tree in the whole country. The open country shows more variation in colouring. The Manuka and fern 87 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND land, the tussock-clad plains, all have their distinctive characteristics. The tree grouping of the bush varies greatly according to locahty, temperature, and soil. In the north part of the North Island the Kauri appears to be locally exclusive, no forest tree of any importance being found grouped with it. The same applies to the low-land forests of the South Island where the Rimu forms the characteristic feature of the bush. In the sub-alpine western ranges of the South Island the Nothofagus, one of the beech family, is the " monarch of the bush." The varieties of beech are themselves claimishly exclusive, for we find nothing but the Nothofagus Solandri in the Oxford and Alford forests, while the motmtain districts are often clothed alone by the Nothofagus Cliffortioides. However, in many parts, especially in districts near the coast, this local exclusiveness is not observed. There we find an assortment of almost every variety of tree known in the dominion, growing side by side. In the Auckland district we find the Kauri, Agathis Australia, which at one time must have dominated the whole district, for its deposits of gum are found over extensive areas showing that in those days the country must have been a vast Kauri forest. The Kauri is the finest of aU the pine family and is pecuUar to the dominion. A forest of these beautiful trees presents an impressive appearance. Their gigantic piUar-hke stems suggest the wonderful force of nature, for they rise often to 100 feet, not a twig interrupting the symmetry of their trunks for at least seventy feet from the ground. The girth of these trees is in proportion to their height. In Mercury Bay is to be found a specimen which is thirty-five feet in diameter. As it takes 300 years for one of these trees to attain a diameter of five 88 A GIANT PINE feet, there is little doubt that this monster tree has few, if any, contemporaries in the world. In its early develop- ment the Kauri has two seed leaves which are narrow and flat, and thus it differs entirely from those of the pine family found in the northern hemisphere. The fertilizing flowers grow on separate cones on the same tree. The male catkin is larger than the female. The cone is almost round in shape, and is from two to three inches in dia- meter. It contains several seeds. Each seed is provided with a translucent wing which enables it to be carried long distances by the wind. In colour the bark is of a leaden grey. When seen in certain lights the trunk appears to be, as it were, surrounded by a haze-like mist. This peculiarity gives a most unusual and beautiful general effect to a Kauri forest, in a country where the atmosphere is so clear that every twig on a tree stands out boldly against the sky. There is seldom a decayed tree met with in a Kauri forest. The wood, which is extremely durable and flexible, is used for masts and spars of ships, and for boat-building, as weU as for furniture, doors, and window-sashes. It is of a rich amber shade, and takes a very fine polish. Mottled Kauri is much valued for decorative purposes. There is not a part of this tree which is not resinous. Withered leaves even exude drops of this valuable sub- stance which wiU also collect in masses from the point of fracture of even a branch broken off from the trunk. To give an idea of the value of Kauri gum as an asset in the dominion, it may be stated that nearly 10,000 tons were exported in the year 1907 at £57 per ton. The best class of gum frequently reahses as much as ;fl00 per ton. Up to the end of 1907 the value of the exported gum was over £12,000,000. It is used for various purposes, the highest grades of varnish being made from it. The gum varies in colour from pale yeUow to golden brown ; sometimes it is almost black. Beautiful transparent 89 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND specimens are found in which leaves and insects are embedded. The undergrowth of this bush is not dense. In it are to be found clumps of Nikau palm and groups of a small species of fern tree. The wiry and delicate branches of the Lygodium Articulaium are here and there entwined with one another making an almost impenetrable screen. The Alseuosmia displays its handsome dark crimson flowers whose dehcate scent perfumes the air. Mosses and ferns carpet the groimd and cover the tree roots. This xmdergrowth seems singularly suitable for the display of the glorious trunks of these giant trees to the greatest advantage. It will ever be a cause of regret that owing to fires and the indiscreet destruction, for commercial purposes, of these Kauri forests, they are fast disappearing. It is to be hoped that the Government wiU consider the sug- gestion to preserve as a State forest the magnificent Waipona Kami forest, thus leaving to future generations a magnificent heritage which wiU form one of the greatest attractions of visitors to the dominion. Of beeches in New Zealand there are six species. Three of these are represented by magnificent forest trees attaining the height of over ninety feet, the remaining species being of smaller growth and never exceeding forty feet in height. The beech forests of New Zealand are of two t3rpes. In one, the Oxford and ALford forests for example, the clannish exclusiveness preveuls to which reference has already been made. Here side by side fine specimens of the Nothofagus Solandri are to be found raising their dark brown lofty trunks, which have a diameter of four feet or more, to a height of 100 feet, the wide-spreading horizontal branches either overlapping those of their neighbours or meeting them almost tip to tip. 90 BEECH AND BIRCH A visit to a beech forest shortly before sunset leaves an impression not readily forgotten, for at this time rays can find their way among the interlacing branches, and light them up so that the bronze green leaves seem covered with burnished gold, throwing the dark stems into relief in a manner impossible to describe. An equally beautiful effect is produced by the silver rays of the rising moon which light up the bush till one almost fancies one is in fairyland. The beech forests which clothe the mountain sides display no exclusiveness, for here all species of the Notho- fagus are found growing together. As regards the soil it grows in, the beech is by no means exclusive, for it is found growing equally well in swampy ground and on the arid mountain side. It ought to be here noted that the beech is incorrectly called by the settler the " birch." Its different varieties are known as the white, red or black, and sUver birch. This error is quite pardonable as the tree resembles the birch more in growth and leaf than it does the graceful and large leafed beech of the northern hemisphere. The sombreness of the foliage of the beech forest is lessened by the long trails of bearded lichens of a silver grey colour which hang from almost every branch and give a distinctive character to the trees. The parasite Loranfhus Tetrapetalus, a variety of mistletoe, grows in great masses on the branches of the beech trees, and nothing more gorgeous can be seen than these gloomy trees decorated with masses of its scarlet flowers. The undergrowth in the beech bush is not dense. Whether taken as a separate tree or when massed in some vast forest, the beech tree has few, if any, equals in the dominion as regards beauty or elegance of form. It is a remarkable fact that no beeches are found an5^where on Stewart Island. 91 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND In the mixed bush no one tree dominates to the exclu- sion of others, the Rata, Rimu, Nikau pahn, Totara, Tree- fern and many other forest trees, endless shrubs, lianes, and ferns being here gathered together. By their vigorous growth they show that they have secured soil and situation suitable to their requirements. Little or no light penetrates this dense bush, for the forest trees grow with scarcely a yard between tnmk and trunk, their spreading branches often overlapping. Overhead storms may rage and try the strength of the stoutest tree ; torrential rain may faU, but their destruc- tive power is greatly lessened as regards the undergrowth by the protection afforded by the evergreen giants over- head. So dense is this tangled mass of vegetation that it is almost impossible to force a passage through it without the assistance of a slasher or bOlhook, the Supple- jack and the Bush-Lawyer vieing with each other in barring the progress of the explorer. From whatever aspect we view this bush, sombre must be the word apphed to its colouring. Yet this does not detract from the great charm it possesses for all lovers of nature. What at first appears but a mass of leaves, more or less ahke, is found on close investigation to consist of a number of plants varying greatly in form and shade. As the explorer cuts his way through this tangle of evergreen he will see creepers whose habits of growth are quite unknown to him. At every step he takes he wiU crush dehcate ferns and mosses whose charms he has hitherto admired amongst the most treasured of those in his carefully tended fernery in the Old Country. Aloft he win see miniature hanging gardens whose beauty he longs to inspect. Nor wiU this long be denied him, for doubtless he wUl presently come across one of these gardens, which has sUpped from its moorings, lying at the base of one of the giant trees. He will find that it consists of a tangled mass of thickly matted roots, which 92 PALMS AND TREE FERNS form the base for many a healthy seedling. Such a one, should it be a climber, having ^this bed of ferns as its starting point, will begin by throwing its tendrils round the nearest trunk and then coiUng itself round and round till it reaches the topmost branches, or else it will descend as a trailer to the ground, take root again, and once more ascend and add to the bewildering entanglement of the bush. Should the explorer come suddenly on a deU where the Nikau palm has grouped itself in large numbers, he may be forgiven if for a moment he fancies himself transported to a tropical forest, for as he gazes on fan-like leaves interlacing each other as they curve upwards to the sky, he wOl realize that here is a growth quite unknown in the forests of the northern hemisphere. The bright green stems of the Nikau shine like pohshed marble, presenting such a smooth surface that the boldest creeper seldom, if ever, gets root hold. This gives a distinctive character to these Nikau stems in a bush where every tree is more or less covered with parasites. From these hving pillars appear to spring Gothic-like arches formed by the long and graceful leaves that meet overhead and make a roof which for beauty and luxuriance could not be rivalled in the tropics. For beauty of form and growth the Tree-fern is a close competitor with the Nikau palm. The explorer of the bush might hesitate to say which of these beautiful plants claims his greatest admiration. On their deeply scarred, dark brown trunks he sees graceful fronds forming over- head a canopy that often reaches to a height of from twenty-eight to forty feet. On the fronds are shades of brown, green, gold, and silver which, blended together, make a most harmonious colouring for this canopy of ferns. To add to the charm of the scene perchance the beautiful clematis has thrown its tendrils round the fern 93 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND tree trunks and climbing upwards has scattered among the fronds a shower of its beautiful white blossoms. On all sides innumerable shrubs invite his inspection, many of them possessing foliage and flowers of remarkable beauty. As a rule, these flowers are small and deeply buried in the foliage, but they repay a close investigation, exhibiting as they do many peculiarities of shape and colouring. Should the explorer visit the bush during the summer, he would find its fringe decked with flowers. At that season the lace bark is a mass of white bloom ; while the New Zealand bramble throws over the ground and shrubs aUke its encircling branches covered with sprays of white flowers. The ribbon wood and the wild cherry look as if powdered with snow, so profusely are they covered with their beautiful and delicate white flowers. To complete this snow-white floral decoration the clematis and the large New Zealand convolvulus throw their mantle over many a shrub and tree. It is incorrect to suppose that bush wiU die unless very large areas are left intact. A moderate-sized bush could be preserved in perfection if fenced round to prevent cattle from destroying the tmdergrowth. As surely as the latter is destroyed or much disturbed so surely will it affect the forest trees. One by one these will show signs of decay and in a few years the giants of the forest will have lost their vigour. For the botanist, chmbing plants of aU kinds have a great attraction, and no country in the world with a ^ temperate chmate like New Zealand can show such a varied collection of these. The cable-hke stem of the Rubus may often be seen suspended from the extreme end of a branch some seventy feet above the ground, while the roots of the cHmber are at the base of the tree itself. There is no visible mode by which it could have attained its lofty position. The 94 THE PARASITE CONQUERS method it has pursued is that in its early stages it mounted the forest tree, dimbing in a cat-hke fashion by dinging to the tree' s trunk with the daws with which its stem and leaves are provided. In due time the tree top was reached. By degrees its stem grew heavier and became detached from the trunk. In falling it was caught by a branch, where it took firm hold and so remained suspended. The structure of the stem of these climbers is often very interesting and their power of holding great weights attached to them is quite wonderful. Together with these climbers are to be found many varieties of epiph5d;es. There are several parasites indigenous to New Zealand. As regards number and variety of these two last-mentioned species New Zealand contains almost as many as are to be found in a dense tropical forest. Unfortunately, utilitarian necessities have caused much of the natural beauty of the open country to disappear. What remains, however, cannot fail to attract attention by reason of its vastness and great variety. There are, as already stated, different classes of vegetation found in the open country :-;- 1. Fern ; 2. Manuka scrub ; 3. The real scrub ; 4. Tussock grass. (1) Bracken is to be found in all parts of both islands. In the Auckland district, however, and further north, this fern is the distinctive feature of the vegetation in the open country. Here, not many years ago, one might have seen square mUe after square mile covered with a veritable forest of bracken growing to the height of from ten to thirteen feet. A great variety of heaths also formed then a feature of this fern land, but their insignifi- cant flowers of pale yeUow or white appearing amongst 95 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND their sage green leaves failed to brighten the generally sombre landscape. (2) The term " scrub " is apphed to two widely different fanuhes of plants. The Manuka (tea-tree) called by the settler " scrub," belongs to the Myrtle family, Myrtaceae, whereas the real scrub belongs to the genus Coprosma. The Tea-tree, Maori name " Manuka," is a shrub or tree, the latter sometimes attaining the height of thirty feet. It is the most common of aU New Zealand plants and certainly the most beautiful. Its long, flexible branches covered from tip to base with white cup-shaped flowers, having centres of piirple black, make it a most attractive plant for floral decorations of aU kinds. Its leaves are leathery, very small and narrow, having sharp points. The seed is contained in woody capsules of a red brown coloinr. The seed is often to be seen side by side with the flower. The whole plant contains an aromatic oil. The early settlers occasionally made a decoction of it ; hence it was called by them " tea-tree." The wood is i^ed by the Maori to make paddles for their canoes. With it they formerly made spars and it is used much for post and rail fencing. (3) The genus Coprosma contains most of the plants found in the real scrub that covers the wind-swept districts of Otago and Southland. Here, as in the southern outlying islands, these small plants prostrate themselves, and their wiry branches, having a natural tendency to intertwine 'with one another, are caused by the force of the wind to become a tangled mass resembling a thick wire mat. It is impossible to force a passage through this natural entanglement, and it is equally hopeless to try and walk any distance over it. (4) This tussock formation may stUl be met with throughout both islands, but more generally in the South Island. In the plant formation of this part of the dominion will be found several varieties of the genus Aciphylla (The 96 A MORNING RIDE parsley and carrot family) ; the Cabbage Tree or Palm- Lily; the Toi-toi, Arundo Conspicua ; the Flax plant, Phormium Tewa;*;, and the Nigger Head, CarexSecta,\>ts\A.ts many interesting small shrubs. The tussock grass grows on detached hillocks of decayed vegetable matter varying in size according to age and the amount of the vegetable deposit, some hiUocks are only a few inches, others from two to four feet high. On the Antipodes and other southern islands these hillocks are to be found as high as five feet. Coarse grasses of several varieties grow on these mounds. Their blades are generally wiry and as regards colouring are of a yellowish green or straw colour. A country covered with tussock reminds one of a field of over-ripe grass. Yet, notwithstanding the general monotony of this yellow-green colouring, the effect is far more pleasing than might be imagined. This is probably owing to the clearness of the atmosphere, which enables one to see plant life under the most favour- able circumstances. At sunrise and sunset this open country is seen to the greatest advantage. Who could forget the charm of an early morning ride across the native plain, with a lovely sky overhead rivalling that of Italy and an atmosphere of crisp air bathed in sunshine, making the tussock seem ablaze with gems ; every blade of grass jewelled with dew drops, and a network of cobwebs sparkling with the latter thrown over flax, bush, and shrub ahke. The graceful plumes of the toi-toi are seen waving to and fro in the breeze, while here and there clumps of shrubs stand out amongst the otherwise unbroken expanse of open country, and the stately cabbage tree gives an almost tropical appearance to this charming panorama. The sunset lights on these plains must be seen to be thoroughly appreciated. At a distance one sees lofty mountains with snow-capped peaks bathed in the glowing ra37s of the setting sun. The shadows make the base and 97 7— (2lj6) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND sides of the mountains, sombre enough before, assume a still deeper hue. Across the plains the lingering rays of the stm light up the tussock grass, till it looks a veritable sea of golden waves on which float, hke stately ships, patches of flax and clumps of verdant shrubs. The early settler in the South Island must have been greatly struck with the vastness of these plains, for in that island the tussock formation was most highly developed. One plain alone contained no less than two-and-a-half milhon acres of this tussock-clad land representing a stretch of over 100 miles of open country. This tussock formation may still be met with throughout the South Island generally. In the North Island where roads are made through the bush the tall trees and umdergrowth are cleared for the length of a chain on either side. Inmiediately after the clearing has been made the " cabbage-tree " palm-lily, frequently shoots up in great numbers though there may be none of the same tree within a considerable area. The growth of these young palms by the roadside has a most pleasing effect, giving one the idea that they have been pmposely planted to add to the attraction of the way-side. The Alpine vegetation of New Zealand must be of the deepest interest to the botanist, not only on accoimt of the mmaber of its indigenous plants, but because of the remarkable fact that plants which in the northern hemi- sphere grow only at the highest altitudes, are here found in the lower passes and even in the beds of mountain streams. The rugged inland range in the centre of the province of Nelson called the Spencer Mountains, as well as the other ranges in that part of the South Island, were some sixty years ago thoroughly explored and many imique species found. The Southern Alps have received their full share of 98 o « o o TREASURES FOR THE BOTANIST exploration, and have proved a never-ending source of wonder and delight. In sheltered spots on the low mountain passes of the Kaikoura range on the north-east side of the South Island may be found plots where a variety of native flowers grow in wild profusion. For beauty of form and diversity of shape this alpine foliage has no equal. It is true that all the flowers are white, but this does not detract from their charm for they seem to harmonise with the snow-capped mountains which tower over these alpine beds. In these natural gardens the botanist may make acquaintance with no less than thirty-five varieties of the genus Celmisia, which will be specially referred to further on. There are also to be found three varieties of Ranunculus, all of which have distinctive character- istics. Again, he will find in the genus Cotula a unique specimen. From the above it will be seen that the botanist need not be a mountaineer to enable him to study alpine flora, for he will find exceptional plants growing within his easy reach. The Chatham Islands can boast of many indigenous trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, none more beautiful can be imagined than the noble Myosotidium Nobile (the Chatham Island Lily). The inaccessibility of the southern outl5ring islands allows only a favoured few to study the habits of their varied and unique flora. Of the Auckland and Campbell Islands it may be said that there is not on the surface of the globe a group of islands perfectly isolated and limited in extent which can boast of two such beautiful plants peculiar to themselves as the Pleurophyllum speciosum and the Cotula flwmosa. The variety of indigenous plants, as already stated, is very numerous, and it will only therefore be possible here to give a short account of some of those which seem to possess a special interest. Amongst the forest 99 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND trees the pine family form a unique and interesting group. The Rimu {Dacrydium Cupressinum) is perhaps the most graceful and attractive tree in the New Zealand bush, its pale green drooping branches forming a striking contrast to the erect and rigid growth of the other pines. The fruit is tiny with a red cup, somewhat resembling an acorn, holding a blue-black seed. The contrast between the bright berries and the pale green fohage has a charming effect. The timber is in colour either red or yellow, and beautifully marked. The Matai {Podocarpus Spicata) , when young or even up to twenty years of age, has a drooping and fem-like foMage of a dark red colour on copper-tinted branches. When matiure it is a spreading tree with erect and rigid branches. The wood is most valuable and takes so high a polish as to give a reflection nearly equal to that of a looking-glass. Planks of this timber when exposed to the weather for any length of time become so hard that a nail cannot be driven into the wood imless previously bored. The Kawaka {Ltbocedrus Doniana) is a lofty pine sometimes reaching a height of 100 feet and more. The yoimg tree has fohage resembhng that of the one last mentioned. The timber is of a dark red colour. It is beautifully marked and is much valued for ornamental work. The Totara {Podocarpus Totara) and the White Pine (Podocarpus Dacrydioides ; Maori name, " Kahikatea ") resemble each other, incismuch as their tninks are often branchless to a height of seventy to ninety feet from the ground. The timber of the Totara is highly prized where extreme durabUity is desired. This is especially the case when the heart only is used for any work underground. A remarkable fact, however, in connection with this timber may be mentioned. When used for fencing posts 100 MONARCHS OF THE BUSH in sand it gets worn away at the surface of the ground much more quickly than posts made of Matai wood. The trunks have for years been used by the Maori for making canoes, some of which are eighty feet in length. The foUage of the Totara somewhat resembles that of the EngUsh yew. The White Pine when young has flat, bronze-coloured leaves, which become scale-like in appearance as it grows to maturity. The tree is often covered with masses of red berries which are quite deUcate in flavour. The timber is very tough and is used in the manufacture of butter-boxes and is pulped for making paper. It is liable to be affected with dry rot and is, therefore, not of much value for building purposes. The Kauri (Agathis Australis), which is the giant of the New Zealand bush, has already been described. The Titoki {Alectryon Excelsum) is one of the best known of the bush trees, and grows to a height of about sixty feet. The distinguishing feature of this tree is the great beauty of its fruit which grows in large clusters and may be said to be the handsomest to be met with in New Zealand. The exterior brown sheU-like cap contains a rough, bright scarlet case, much resembling a raspberry from which appears a black shiny seed. The Puriri (Vifex Lucens) is a fine tree from fifty to sixty feet high and has large handsome, bright green leaves and bright red flowers. The wood is most valuable on account of its durability under nearly all conditions. The Pukatea {Laurelia-NovcB-ZealandicB) is one of the loftiest of forest trees, having been known to attain the height of 160 feet. The trunk is from three to five feet in diameter, and is often flanked by spreading buttresses. The laurel-hke dark green shiny leaves form a marked contrast to the pale grey trunk and branches. The Honey Suckle (Knightia Excelsa) is a handsome tree of erect growth often reaching the height of 100 feet. The fohage is dark olive green, the leaves are oblong and 101 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND about foiir to eight inches in length. The flowers, which somewhat resemble a bottle-brush in shape, grow on a stem about four inches long and two inches in diameter. Their texture is velvety and they are dark crimson. The wood is beautifully marked, of a greyish colour pencilled with a darker shade, and is much used for ornamental work. There are seven varieties of the Rata {Metrosideros) pecuhar to New Zealand. Five of them are climbers, of which one {Metrosideros Robusta), the North Island Rata, is especially worthy of mention. This species encirdes a tree with its vines eventually crushing out its life and raising itself into a handsome forest tree of from fifty to 100 feet. It has dark green myrtle-like fohage. Its clusters of crimson flowers, in shape like a " Turk's head broom," are massed together on the ends of every branchlet. The bud presents a pleasing contrast to the dark fohage, being covered with a silver down. This climber often germinates as an epiphyte high up in the forks of a tree. The seeds are very hght and are blown by the wind up to the highest branches. From on high this chmber throws down its vines ; these take root and throw out other rootlets which grow together round the base of the tree. From these grow new vines, which gradually enclose the tree stem. The Shining Rata (Metrosideros Lucida) is a tree which grows to a height of about sixty feet. It has dark shining leaves which, when young, are smooth and silky. The stamens are about one inch long, and are of a dark crimson colour. A variety has been met with that has a yellow flower. This tree is to be seen to perfection when at Christinas time it is in fuU flower covering the slopes of the Southern Alps with a blaze of crimson blossom. It is worth while making a journey of thousands of rmles to see a forest of these magnificent trees in fuU bloom. 102 FOREST TREES IN FLOWER Eveiywhere throughout New Zealand, however, where the Rata grows, the mass of colour formed by these glorious flowers, is a thing to be remembered, particularly when viewed from high ground from a little distance. There is also a small white-flowering Rata, a chmbing shrub which grows in the North Island adding greatly to the beauty of the bush. The Tawa {Beilschmiedia Tawa) is a forest tree of from sixty to seventy feet high. Its leaves are narrow and pale green. It has numerous slender branches, giving it an elegant appearance. The flower is insignificant and yellowish white ; the fruit resembles a damson. It grows abundantly in hiUy districts. The timber is of no especial value. The Downy 'RB.ia.^Metrosideros Tomentosa; Maori name, " Pohutukawa ") is described by many botanists as the handsomest flowering tree of the New Zealand flora. It attains the height of seventy feet. Its foliage is singularly attractive and, when the breeze moves its leaves gently to and fro, the contrast of their dark green surface to their soft silver hnings, gives this tree a character purely its own. Its massive bushy-shaped clusters of flowers composed of thousands of scarlet stamens with golden tips have in the sunlight a dazzling effect. The rosette- shaped bunches of snow-white buds, with their soft velvety covering, give an additional charm to this hand- some tree. It rarely grows far from the sea. It prefers rocky ground and may often be seen chnging to the cliff side, its roots and boughs touching the water. When passing through the Hauraki Gulf and approaching the shores of Auckland at Christmas time, this tree is seen in its fuUest glory. The Karaka family {Corynocarpacece) : this genus has only two species. The Karaka (Corynocarpus IcBvigata) 103 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND is found only in New Zealand. The other is found in New Caledonia and the adjacent islands. It is a very handsome tree with bright dark green laurel-hke leaves. Its clusters of bright golden-orange damson-shaped berries are very striking. It is a favourite tree of the Maori, by whom the fruit is much used. The kernel is extremely poisonous. The Puta-puta-weta (Carpodetus Serratus) is a tree about twenty feet in height. Its growth is remarkable, its branches spreading in a fan-hke maimer. Its leaves are beautifully veined and are marked hke mottled marble. It has small white flowers, which are sweetly scented, and are buried deeply in the leaves. The fruit has the peculiarity of taking twelve months to ripen. Fruit and flowers may often be seen on the same branch. This tree proves most attractive to that unattractive grub, the Weta, which bores its longitudinal tunnels in all directions through the trunk. Of the Matipo family (PiUosporacecB) the Pittosporum Ralphii may be mentioned. This variety is pecuMar for the graceful growth of its branches, being less compact than the two former. It is found chiefly in the North Island, and is very easy to cultivate. It has dark crimson beH-hke flowers with golden anther tips. The foUage when young is almost white, and this combined with the crimson of the flower and the bright green of the matured leaves, gives us a reaUy charming large shrub. The Tree Fuchsia (Fuchsia Excorticata) is a tree from 10 to 45 feet in height. Its bark is of a light red colour. The leaves are dehcate in texture and bright green with a white under-surface. The colouring of the flower is rendered very striking by the contrast of the beautiful waxy yeUow of the calyx and the intense blue of the pollen. The flowers possess an unusual amount of honey. Of the genus Veronica there are many species. Of these Veronica Speciosa is the handsomest. Its long 104 A UNIQUE SPECIMEN flower stalks are closely packed with numbers of tiny purple flowers. Its silvery young branches and glossy green leaves make it a very noticeable shrub. The genus Nothopanax contains five species, all indi- genous to New Zealand. They consist of shrubs or trees remarkable for the variation of leaf-form to be found on the same tree as it passes through its different stages tiU it reaches maturity. Even when matured there is often a striking difference in the leaf -form on the same tree. Nearly aU these varieties are suitable for cultivating as ornamental trees. Their foliage is handsome, and their branching hmbs give a lightness and elegance to their form. There is only one species of the genus Meryta to be found in New Zealand. It is the Puka {Meryta Sinclairii), and is, perhaps, one of the most remarkable trees belonging to the New Zealand flora. It is certainly one of the rarest. It usually grows from twelve to twenty feet high, though fine specimens have attained the height of thirty-five feet. Its foliage is most distinctive in character. The leaves are very large, measuring from nine to twenty inches in length and from four to ten in breadth. They are of a dark bottle-green colour, the edge of the leaf being waved. The flower is greenish yellow and grows on erect stems at the extremity of the branches. The fruit is abundant, of oblong shape about three-quarters of an inch long, and is of a rich purplish glossy black. For many years only one specimen of this tree was known to exist. It grew at Paparaumu, Whangaruru Harbour, in the Auckland district. It is easy to cultivate and grows with great rapidity. A specimen under cultivation is reported to have grown in eight years to a height of eighteen feet, while its spreading crown of branches measured sixteen feet in diameter and the trunk had a circumference of twenty-four inches. Hinau (Elceocarpus Dentatus). This shrub is always 105 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND the first to appear after the bush has been destroyed. It is a most attractive shrub, and when a good speci- men is met with it is often so completely covered with masses of cream-coloured flowers resembling sprays of Uhes-of-the-valley that they bury the leaves in their profusion. Houi (Hoheria Populnea), is called by the settlers, " The Lace Bark," on accotmt of the inner bark being perforated with a lace-hke tracery. The Maori are said to have made a decoction of this plant, which possessed sedative qualities. Ribbon-wood (Gaya LyaUii) is a beautiful shrub found only on the moimtains in the South Island. It sheds its leaves and has autumnal tints. It has a white cherry-like blossom, and when in fuU bloom in March it makes a startling contrast to the sombre bush. Its leaves of tender green add much to its beauty. The Thick-leafed Lance-wood {Pseudopanax Crassi- folium ; Maori name, " Horoeka ") is a handsome spreading tree from twenty to sixty feet high, with a trunk ten to twenty inches in diameter. The difference between the infant plant and the matured tree is so great that at one time they were thought to be different trees. This was the case when the tree was discovered by Dr. Solander, who accompanied Captain Cook on his first voyage. The seedlings have five oblong or oval shaped leaves growing close together at the top of the stalk at right angles to it. These are quickly succeeded by narrow hnear leaves half-an-inch broad, deeply toothed, and of a rough texture. The single stem often reaches a height of twenty feet, and has with its hanging leaves much the appearance of a gigantic closed umbrella. It remains in this state often for thirty years, when a great transformation takes place. Branches are developed, and the tree becomes round-headed. 106 THE SUPPLE-JACK LILY The Yellow Kowhai (Sophora Tetraptera) is a handsome tree occasionally reaching a height of forty feet. It is found growing in great numbers on river flats. It is one of the few New Zealand trees which lose their leaves. It is the earhest tree to flower. Its sulphur-yellow flowers, with their old gold calyx, grow in pendant clusters at the ends of the numerous short branchlets. The flower appears when the leaves are in bud, at which time they are covered with a golden brown down, then the whole tree resembles a golden ball. The wood is beautifully red, pencilled with grey. The genus CUanthus has one representative, and that perhaps the most gorgeous of New Zealand's flowering shrubs, the Red Kowhai (CUanthus Puniceus). It is a small shrub with Ught green silky branches, leaves pinnate. Its flowers of bright scarlet resemble in shape a parrot's beak. They grow in masses. This plant in a wild state is gradually disappearing from the New Zealand flora and now is only to be found on the Great Barrier Island. To the Lily family (Liliacece) belong in New Zealand seven genera. Of these the Supple-jack (Rhipogonum Scandens) is the last plant one would expect to find classed under the lily tribe. It is a curiously vigorous climber to be found in every bush. Its leaves are leathery, a dark ohve green colour, oblong in shape, and are found in any number at the ends of the shoots. The flower is greenish and insignificant ; it grows on straight stems and is succeeded by handsome crimson berries about the size of peas. The genus Cor dy line has five species. The Cabbage Tree, or Palm Lily {Cordyline Australis), is the only one that need be mentioned. From its very tropical appear- ance it forms the most marked feature in New Zealand landscape. The young plants with their compact heads 107 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND of long grass-like leaves have a pleasing effect when growing out of a bed of ferns and mosses. As the tree matures, its long bare stem often spreads out into a number of branches, each branch crowned with a bushy head of leaves. The white flower is sweet scented, and grows on drooping stems. The fruit is waxy and of a pink colour. The genus Phormium has only one representative, the remarkable species Phormium Tenax, which is found nowhere in the world except in New Zealand and the Norfolk Islands. The lance-hke leaves have no foot- stalk, but spring immediately from the crown of the plant forming a handsome clump often many feet in diameter. The dark brown flower-stalks are hollow and of a fibrous texture, often reaching a height of fifteen feet. The flowers are more curious than beautiful. They are of a red-brown colour and resemble as to shape a large crimson salvia. This plant is most useful to the settler, supplying him with an excellent substitute for string and rope, as even in its green state it is pliable. Its strength is most remarkable. A large industry has sprung up in the preparation of its fibre for home and export purposes. The plant is said to possess valuable medicinal properties, but up to the present none but Maori and bushmen have used it for curative purposes. There is only one representative of the Passion-flower family, Passiflora Tetrandra. It is a chmber with glossy leaves one and a half to four inches long. The delicate flowers are green with beautiful coronas of white or yellow filaments. The fruit is very handsome and of a bright orange colour. To the genus Clematis belong nine species, two having pure white flowers, the remaining seven having greenish yellow, or yellowish. The most conspicuous of the species 108 SETTLER'S VEGETABLE FRIEND is the Clematis Indivisa. The leaves are thick and glossy. The flower is star-shaped and of a pure white colour. It blooms in great profusion, and when its tendrils are looped from tree to tree, these masses of beautiful white flowers light up in a charming manner the dense green bush. The feathery seed is as attractive as the flower, as it has long silky silvery plume-hke heads. The Maori call this plant Pua-wananga — the sacred or sanctified flower. The Prostrate Fuchsia {Fuchsia Procumbens) is, as its name denotes, a creeper. It is an exceedingly pretty plant when grown in a flower pot, as its slender stems, from six to eighteen inches in length, will completely cover the pot. The plant is a profuse bloomer. The colouring of its flowers is most striking. The berries are much larger than the flower and of a shining red colour. It is to be found on sandy or rocky places. The Orchid family (OrchidacecB) has many genera and species in New Zealand, but they are mostly insignificant bloomers, though possessing many unique attractions for the lover of nature. Corysanthes Macraniha is the largest of all the species. It grows in swampy ground in both islands. Its leaves are very thick and about one and a half inches broad. The flower, with a diameter of about one inch, is of a deep purple colour. It has long-tailed sepals and petals resembling in shape a cockroach. The New Zealand Edelweiss (Helichrysum Grandiceps) is a tufted herb with a stem from one to seven inches high. Its leaves are silvery white on both sides. It has an abundance of white velvety flowers. To the genus CarmichcBlia belong two of the most remarkable and characteristic plants of the New Zealand Flora. Carmichcelia Nana is a small sub-alpine shrub of only four inches in height, while Carmichcelia Flagelliformis attains a height of sometimes four feet. Both are 109 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND distinguished by the absence of leaves on the matured plant. They have grooved, flattened branches, the groove being pale green and the rib yellow. The flowers are often dainty in form. They are of various colours : white, red, or hlac. A strange appearance is given to these shrubs by the blunted end of the brcinches, suggesting that the plant has been chpped. The genas Myosotidium has a flower which for beauty of form and colouring can have few if any equals. Its leaves are of the richest dark green colour and very shining, and they are deeply furrowed. The velvety flowers of azure blue with purple circle round the golden eye, grow in large flat clusters on long flower stems, and are succeeded by seeds the size of a hazel nut. This plant is foimd only on the Chatham Islands, and in a wild state is fast disappearing. It is, however, largely cultivated. The representatives of the Daisy, Dandehon, and Thistle family in New Zealand are, strange to say, in most cases shrubs, such as the genus Olearia, which has ten species, aH of which are indigenous to New Zealand. Olearia Insignis is a shrub from one to eight feet in height. It has broad, shiny leaves covered beneath with a silver powder. It has large daisy-hke flowers with ragged white rays. Notothlaspi Rosulatum. This plant has been described by Kirk as one of the most remarkable known. It is a small fleshy branched Alpine herb growing in p5n-amidal form, though it has Mttle or no stem. It forms a rosette or cushion of leaves, which, when young, are clothed with ribbon-hke hairs. When the plant matiires the leaves become glabrous, or nearly so. The leafless flower-stalk is about the thickness of one's finger, and is crowned with a dense mass of flowers, which have a sweet orange-like odour. It grows on shingly ground and its long tap-root 110 AN INSECT DEVOURER is supplied with every drop of rain that falls on the plant, the leaves being so arranged that they overlap each other hke the tiles of a house and the rain runs off them as if from a roof. The Sundew family, Droseracece, has four species belong- ing to it, all more or less remarkable for their carnivorous habits. Drosera Auriculata is a most interesting plant with pink or purple flowers. If an insect chances to alight on the flower it is instantly enclosed, and when the flower re-opens, nothing remains of the insect but the dried skin. In twelve hours it will reduce to shreds a piece of beef steak. The genus Ranunculus. There is no more stately alpine plant than the Ranunculus Lyallii, often called by the settlers the Mount Cook Lily. It greatly resembles the English King-cup, only that its flowers are pure white and of a waxy texture. It has an erect juicy stem, and its leaves, dark green and glossy, are cup-shaped, often measuring fifteen inches across. The genus Caltha (Caltha Novce-ZelandicB) is a stout, fleshy, alpine plant with yeUow flowers. It has large heart- shaped leaves whose construction is most remarkable. The stomata are found on the upper surface of the leaves, and its apparatus for storing water is in the lower part. At the base of the leaf the lobe is bent upwards, or is even turned right over upon the blade. It is remarkable that many of the Iv3rworts are to be found only on the most remote of the southern outl5dng islands. Their tropical-like growth suggests a habitat in every respect dissimilar to that in which we find them. The soil in which these plants grow is composed of the fibrous roots, dead leaves and wood of the Olearia, a handsome shrub which grows in great abundance, together with a thick deposit of guano. It is to the latter's stimulating and invigorating powers that the vegetation 111 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND of these desolate islands owes its vigour and richness of growth. The Polar Slilbocarpa (Maori name, " Punui ") is a fine herbaceous plant growing plentifully along the shores of the Auckland, Antipodes, Macquarie, and Campbell Islands. To the genus Pleurophyllum belong two species of large pereimial succulent herbs. Pleurophyllum Speciosum is a very handsome plant, its distinguishing features being the large clusters of purple flowers cro\vning the heads of erect stems often three feet in height. The leaves, which measure from six to eighteen inches long and from four to ten inches in breadth, are thick and leathery with little or no stalk, and have deeply-marked longitudinal parallel ribs from fifteen to twenty in mmiber. When this noble plant is seen growing in masses as it does in the Auckland and Campbell Islands, it fills the beholder with wonder that a plant of such luxmious growth should be found on these desolate islands. There are on these islands other species of this genus which are all indigenous. Of the genus Cdmisia there are at least thirty-five species and these axe aU indigenous. This genus is found in no other part of the world except in Australia and Tasmania, where one species is to be met with. These plants form the most attractive of the Alpine flora. The large daisy-like flowers are very similar in each species, the only difference being in size. The great difference, however, between the various species is in the leaves. Cdmisia Coriacea has broad, leathery leaves, their upper surface is woolly, and the lower one is covered with a silver down. In length they are from eight to twenty inches and from three-quarters to three inches in width. They have deep longitudinal furrows nmning the whole length of the leaf. The flower-stalks are densely covered with a silvery cotton down and are from ten to thirty-six 112 "VEGETABLE SHEEP" inches in height. The flower is from one and a half to four inches across The rays are very numerous and spreading. This plant is easily cultivated, and when it is, it develops pecuharities not observed in its wild state. This genus is found in the Alpine districts of both islands. To the genus Haastia belongs Haastia Pulvinaris, a most remarkable shrub, which for its eccentric habits of growth and appearance probably has no equal. It is found growing in low, compact masses, often covering twelve to twenty square feet. Its branches are all the same length, and grow side by side so closely that it is impossible to pass one's finger between them. The growth of the leaves is stiU more remarkable. They are half-an- inch in length, and are so closely packed together that they overlap till the individual leaf is indistinguishable in the jumbled and tangled mass of foliage. In exposed positions these plants develop a wooUy hair with which the leaves are quite covered. This is possibly a protection to the plant as it grows in most exposed positions, and often at an elevation of 6,000 feet above the sea-level. Its woolly hair coupled with its shape, which has an outhne somewhat resembling that of a sheep, has caused it to be called the " vegetable sheep." Many botanists consider it one of the most remarkable plants in the vegetable kingdom. To the genus Raoulia belong three species, aU small alpine herbs growing in dense tufted masses. The leaves are small and often silky or wooUy. As regards imported trees and plants, they are too numerous to be given here in a detailed list. From every clime have been brought fruit and ornamental trees. Here may be seen the noble pines of Norway sheltering from wind and storm the graceful palms of Africa. The oak, the elm, and the beech may have twining round their 113 8— (2136) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND trunks some delicate creeper from Madeira and California, and mider their shade may grow masses of primroses, and in strange contrast with these simple English flowers may be seen climips of stately Arum Lihes. In the North Island grow the lemon, the orange, the persimmon, the loquat, the tree-tomato of Japan, and many other semi-tropical fruits. In both islands flourish English fruit-trees. To give an idea how up-to-date the dominion is in the matter of importation of the new varieties of fruit trees on a large scale, it may be mentioned there were sent for exhibition in London in 1908, 300 varieties of apples, and thirty-seven of pears. The astonishing rapidity of the growth of imported trees has already been mentioned. The following facts may be given in illustration. In the North Island a Pinus Insignis was planted in 1883 and was cut down in 1899, when it was found to measure 100 feet in height, while its trunk was nine feet in circimiference. This remark apphes also to the smaller plants that have been imported. For example, at Sunmer, in the South Island, in December, 1908, a hedge of sweet peas was found to have attained the great height of eleven feet. Weeds have, unfortunately, been imported in grass and other seeds, and have taken only too kindly to the soil. So serious was the outlook of the damage they were causing that the Government passed an Act, called the " Noxious Weed Act," compelling settlers to pay more attention to the condition of their lands, and prevent the spread of injurious vegetation. That the climate wfll alter many of the characteristics of imported plants is more than probable ; that in years to come they will furnish the botanist with interesting studies and reflections as to the effect of change of habitat in the case of many members of the vegetable kingdom. New Zealand has been described as the "Land of 114 STAMPING OUT WEEDS Ferns." Their name is legion. The fern-leaf is the emblem of the dominion. This badge was worn by the men of the contingents who fought in South Africa. The Government have asked the home authorities to allow them to substitute the fern-leaf for the laurel wreath, which now forms the centre of the flag used by His Excellency the Governor. Much of the beauty of the bush, river banks, and even arid mountain sides is due to the profusion and luxuriance of the fern growth. 115 CHAPTER VI FAUNA The only indigenous mammal — Other animals introdnced — Amphibia — ReptUia — The Tuatara — Insects — Birds — The Kiwi — The Kea — ^The Tni — Sea birds — Game birds. If to the botanist the varied and large percentage of indigenous flora of these islands is a never-ending source of wonder and deUght, so to the zoologist must be the fauna. He is not confronted by a bewildering nmnber of different specimens. He may well be startled to find that in a country pecuUarly suitable for supporting animal life there is only one order of indigenous mammals — ^the Chiroptera. This order iadudes the genus Mystacops. One species, short-tailed bat, Mystacops Tuberculatus, is pecuhar to New Zealand. This bat is of considerable interest to the naturalist, as it possesses ph5rsical pecuharities found in no other species. The interesting httle creature is fast disappearing. This is not to be wondered at when it is remembered that the bush was its habitat. When the bush was being felled, himdreds of bats might have been found in the hollows of decayed trees. The fires which followed destroyed them in great numbers. It rested with man to add new mammak to New Zealand's single genus. Upwards of 500 years ago these islands, after centuries of complete isolation, began to be inhabited by mem, who added to the fauna he found there two mammals. When the Maori landed they brought with them the dog and the rat. With regard to the former, ilr. Anderson, who accompanied Captain Cook on his third vo5rage, says it had rough hair and 116 DISAPPEARANCE OE THE BAT pricked ears and somewhat resembled the common sheep dog. The Maori bred numbers of these dogs for eating, the flesh being greatly esteemed by them. Captain Cook described it as sweet and delicate in flavour. These dogs fed principally on fish. Several were taken on board Cook's ships to be used as food. At first they seemed dull and stupid, but afterwards, when made pets of, showed an average amount of inteUigence. They were timid creatures and have quite disappeared. The rat stiU exists and has taken its toll in the destruction of bird life. After the lapse of 400 years, one more addition was made to the mammals. In 1773 Captain Cook, on his second voyage round the world, let loose three pigs in Queen Charlotte's Sound. Their descendants soon stocked the bush and some of them are still to be found in scattered spots in both islands. To give an idea of the astonishing increase of these animals. Dr. Hochstetter, who visited the colony in 1862, stated that three men in twenty months killed on 250,000 acres, 25,000 pigs, and pledged themselves to kiU 15,000 more. The number of mammals was again added to sixty-four years ago. Settlers, who then arrived from Great Britain, brought with them sheep and cattle, horses, cats, and dogs. The colonists deplored the absence of game and set themselves the task of introducing from the Motherland and elsewhere wild animals and birds. The Rabbit was the first to be introduced, and taking kindly to the open tussock land, increased by hundreds of thousands yearly. Vast tracts of land were made practically useless by its ravages. The matter became so serious that innumerable Acts were passed to ensure the destruction of the rabbit and settlers were compelled to take steps to that end. 117 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND One of the means adopted was the mtroduction of the ferret, the stoat, and the weazel. These vermin helped to destroy the rabbit, but this step has often been bitterly regretted on account of the harm they have done. The Hare was introduced and has taken kindly to its new surroundings, and being so easily kept within bounds, can do no appreciable harm. The Acclimatization Societies introduced many years ago both Red and Fallow Deer with great success. More recently the Axis Deer (or Chital) and the Sambur from India as well as the Moose from America, have been let loose in the various forest reserves. Wallabies and Kangaroos were introduced by the late Sir George Grey and let loose on his island home at Kawau, where they have floinished. The Opossum has been introduced from Australia and has developed better and thicker fur than in its own country. On the west coast of the South Island, in the moun- tainous country surrounding Pelorus Soimd, herds of wild Goats are to be fotmd which attain an unusually large size. The variety of colours of their coats show that the animal was previously domesticated. In the Forest Reserve near Mount Cook, the Shar of the Himalayas has been turned out and finds its new home most suitable. Horses, which have become wild, are to be met with on the Kaingaroa Plains between Taupo and Napier. The race has much degenerated, but they are of some value as their skins are used for making motor coats and rugs. Of the Cetacea, two are worthy of special mention. One, the Pigmy Whale (Berardius), is only to be fovmd in the seas around New Zealand. It therefore may be said to rival the short-tailed bat in exclusiveness. It is a small animal of its kind ; its length seldom exceeding ten feet. It is of little value to the whaler. 118 THE PROTECTED WHALE The other, the Goose-Beak Whale (Ziphius Cavirostris), belongs to a species becoming very rare. Its colouring is peculiarly striking, as its back is blue-black, while the rest of its body is silvery white. Its habits are solitary. Those who have visited Nelson and seen " Pelorus Jack " disporting himself round their steamer will be interested to hear that he belongs to this species. For years he has devoted his attention to steamers entering and leaving Pelorus Sound. He always appears at the same spot and follows a steamer to a certain distance. He repeats his attentions to each steamer that approaches. Many have been the suggestions as to why he lived this solitary Ufe. Now that it has been proved beyond doubt that he is a goose-beaked whale no further explanation is required. The Government passed an Act protecting him for five years on account of the great interest he has aroused. In the order Camivora are found the Sea Leopard, the Sea Lion, the Sea Elephant and the Fur Seal. The Sea Leopard (Ogmorhinus Leptonyx ; Maori name, " Pakaka ") is a native of the ice packs of the Antarctic regions. It visits New Zealand on rare occasions when it wanders as far north as the Chatham Islands. It is extremely savage and will attack a man. The Sea Lion {Arctocephalus Hookeri ; Maori name, " Wakaha") is a formidable looking animal. The male has his neck and shoulders covered with long coarse hair which he raises when enraged, uttering at the same time a loud roar. Over rough tussock country they can easily outrun a man. When roused the Sea Lion is very fierce. Fortunately a smart blow on the tip of the nose with a stout stick will render it temporarily senseless. The male is of a blackish grey colour, while the female is of a pale grey, golden buff or silver, and is spotted with creamy white. The fur is of no value. The Sea Elephant {Macrorhinus Leoninus) is, according to Captain Hutton, occasionally seen on Campbell Island, 119 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND but its principal home is on the Max;quaries. It is an enormous creature of very quiet disposition, and spends most of its time basking on the rocks. The old ones have a species of trunk. The Fm- Seal [Arctocephalus Forsteri ; Maori name, " Kekeno ") is found on the Snares, Botmty Islands, and the Sounds of the South Island, also on the Seal rocks ofi Westport on the same island. When in 1792 the sealers visited these inhospitable shores they found millions of seals. In Dusky Bay one vessel alone secured 4,500. For about ten years the sealers visited New Zealand intermittently, but in 1803 a sjTstematic trade was commenced by a Sydney firm. This for a time proved a most lucrative undertaking, but the wholesale slaughter, regardless of season, nearly exterminated the species, and the trade had to be aban- doned. The Government, fearing the total disappearance of the Fin- Seal, passed an Act proclaiming a dose season. Of amphibious animals. New Zealand again displays a great deficiency, there being but one sohtary species : Liopelma Hochstetteri — ^the New Zealand Frog. Of its habits Uttle is known, except that it occupies a limited area, being found on the Coromandel Peninsula at Huia on the north side of the Manakau Harboru", and at OpotiM, in the same district. It hves in rock pools and hiU streams, and is fast dying out. There are no venomous reptiles of any sort or kind in the dominion, whereas in Austraha many deaths occur annually owing to their presence. The harmless Lizard is the sole reptile of New Zealand. It is represented by fourteen varieties of the true hzard, and one variety of a hzard-like reptile, the Tuatara. Of the true lizard, only one need be referred to, the NauUinus Grayi (the Green Lizard ; Maori name, " Kaka- riki"), and that on accoimt of the superstitious dread that the Maori have of it. The reptile itself, whether 120 THE MARVELLOUS REPTILE dead or alive, was an object of universal fear among them, albeit it has a length of only six and a half inches. We now come to the most ancient and most remarkable of living reptiles in the whole world, the Tuatara {Sphe- nodon Punctatus). It is about twenty inches long. In its structure it shows great peculiarities. It has an affinity to the crocodile, having at the same time bird-like ribs. The jaws are very strong, and the teeth, which are serrated above and below, interlock, enabling it to grip very firmly an3d;liing it lays hold of. It has a rough skin of a greenish yellow colour. The females are larger than the males and darker. But the greatest peculiarity of this reptile is the presence of a third eye placed between and somewhat behind the two serviceable eyes. The study of this peculiarity has done much towards finding the solution of a problem of the greatest possible interest to the whole scientific world — a problem which has been looked upon as one of the most difficult in biology. L3dng above the centre of the brain of man is a httle gland named from its pine-cone shape, the pineal gland. Until recent years the function of this gland was entirely unknown, and had been the subject of the strangest guesses. In times past, foiled in their endeavour to account for the mysterious little gland, the old anatomists got over the difficulty and smothered their doubts by concluding that as the pineal gland was not anything else, it must be " the seat of the soul." So great a philosopher as Descartes, who died in the year 1650, accepted this absurdity without a murmur. This was solemnly passed on from book to book up to the very end of the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth century they honestly owned that nobody knew anything at all about it, but hoped that research would some day lead to the truth. Several anatomists of that century had fallen upon what has finally proved to be the right guess, but it was not until 121 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND a few years ago that which guess was the right one was decided once for all. Then the dissection of the head of a Tuatara led to the discovery of the origin of the pineal gland in verte- brates. It was found that in the centre of the Tuatara's forehead, between the two eyes and only hidden by a thin membrane of skin, there lay hidden another eye, useless indeed and in a primitive state, but still an eye. This eye, it was fotmd, formed the fore-end of the pineal gland. This right researching . . . " like a vein of ore The further traced enriched them still the more." The central eye of the Tuatara was not a third eye in process of development, but the first and single eye in process of being discarded by gradual degeneration continued through many generations. Professor Parker has observed that in the Tuatara the nerve of the pineal eye degenerates before the animal reaches maturity, so that the organ would appear — ^though evidently from its structure an organ of sight — ^to have now entirely or nearly lost its function. Not a gain, then, of a third eye the Tuatara was making, but the loss of the first eye. The first eye, at one time his only eye, was in process of ages going, but with the vast gain, by way of substitution, of the laterally placed eyes — ^in other words, the development of a pair of eyes for one central eye. The one eye becoming less effective as the pair of eyes became more effective, then useless, and lastiy sunk back into the head and hidden by a covering of skin. When the Maori came they found great numbers of the Tuatara on both islands, but from the newcomers and their dogs it received severe treatment, and later the pigs worked sad havoc amongst these defenceless creatures. It has disappeared from the mainland and is now only found on a few islets off the coast. It is now strictly preserved by the Government. The holes in which it 122 BUTTERFLIES AND DRAGON-FLIES lives are usually formed in soft sand or shingle. It feeds on insects, but when in captivity it displays a great Uking for fresh meat. It is said to have, like all lizards, a great love of music. Dr. Dendy states that the earlier stages of development resemble those of the tortoise ; it is only later that its lizard-like character appears. In no other country on the face of the globe can this extremely interesting animal be found. There is a little animal found in New Zealand which also plays an important part in the story of evolution, namely, the Peripatus, which is something like a cater- pillar. It is about three inches long and Hves in damp spots under the back of dead timber or under wet stones. Hitherto only nine species of the genus Peripatus have been found in widely separated parts of the world, but the genus differs so markedly in certain important features of its organization from all the rest of the " Arthropods " that it has been assigned a class all to itself in that great division and the class is named the Onychophora. A drawing of the Cape species of Peripatus is given in Parker and HasweU's Text-book of Zoology, 1897, at page 560, but so important is the genus in the science of zoology that an exhaustive monograph has now been written upon it by the distinguished French biologist, M. E. L. Bouvier, in his volume published in Paris in 1907. Of insects indigenous to New Zealand there are but few varieties. Butterflies are but poorly represented and none are of glorious colouring. The dragon-fiies cannot vie with those of the old world in size or beauty. Moths are numerous, but there are few varieties. The Cockchafer {Meloloutha Vulgaris), a beetle of the family Lamiellicornes, proves itself most destructive to vegetation, both as a grub and when matured. The grub will destroy whole fields of grass. Cockchafers deposit 123 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND their eggs to a depth of four inches thus making it very difl&cult to destroy the grub. Rooks and other imported birds have aided in their destruction. Of Spiders there are none of any great size. The " Katipo " is a small black spider with a blood-red mark on its head and back. Its sting is very poisonous. It is to be found in decayed logs and dry seaweed on the sea-coast. The Mason Bee, chiefly found in the North Island, is a very annoying insect as it elects to make its nest in keyholes, or walls, and in the folds of a mackintosh coat, or wherever it can find a suitable place. The Weta is a large white grub about two inches in length, which bores tunnels through trees, perforating them in aU directions. This grub is much valued by the Maori for food ; they make a case of clay in which they bake it. Mosquitos in bush country and in swampy land swarm by millions and are most venomous, but apparently the malaria-bearing species is absent. Fhes, especially in the country districts, are extremely objectionable as well on account of their nmnber and their habits. Both the Blue-bottle and the Brown-bottle fly are most destructive to woollen materials, depositing their innumerable eggs on the rough surface which is thus permanently injured. Of imported insects the Honey-bee and the Bumble-bee have been the most satisfactory. The latter has fertiUzed the red clover and created a new industry thereby. Other insects which have been accidentally imported, such as Scale-bMght and Codlin-moths, have worked extensive havoc in fruit orchards. Snails were unknown until about twenty-five years ago, when, unfortunately, they were brought to the colony in the earth surrounding pot plants. They are now a regular pest. 124 MARVELS OF MIGRATION Of the Caterpillars which were imported the small black and red furry variety is the most destructive. They will destroy whole fields of com by nipping off the ears. The rivers of New Zealand, when the white man arrived, contained only eels, lamprey, cray-fish, and inangas, the last somewhat resembling whitebait. The Acclimatization Societies have changed all this, and now the rivers and lakes are alive with varieties of trout, introduced from all parts of the world. The Salmon has again and again been put into rivers seemingly most suitable for their development, but never was a full-grown one caught before the year 1908. Of indigenous birds there are thirty-eight species in the dominion, as far as is at present known. It is remark- able that many of the species show great weakness of flight as in the case of the fern bird, the crow, the thrush, the tui and the huia, while others cannot fly at all. Of the latter the most noteworthy are the kiwi, the wood- hen, the kakapo, and the flightless duck which is found only on the Auckland Islands. That there should be any migratory birds in the dominion is much to be wondered at. It cannot be in search of food, for of this there is abundance in the land they are leaving. The Long-tailed Cuckoo pays its annual visit to New Zealand from New Guinea, a distance of over 2,000 miles, with but few resting places en route. Year after year, century after century, the Godwit (Limosa Novce-ZealandicB ; Maori name, " Kuaka ") wings its flight to and from Siberia. Towards the end of March these birds assemble in hundreds of thousands at the North Cape to arrange for their departure. These flights afford a perfect study of the power of organization possessed by birds. Collecting in parties of from 700 to 1,000 they rise from the beach in long Unes and with Httle 125 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND or no clamour form into semicircles and momit high into the air. Sometimes the start has evidently not been conducted to the general satisfaction. They, in that case, descend to the beach, re-arrange themselves, and wdthout scarcely a cry once more start on their long journey. Every year, at exactly the same date, they collect in the same spot. During their flights those forming the main body fly in silence, but should there be any stragglers they raise shrill and plaintive cries which are, apparently, unheeded by the main body. They take their departine in companies of from 700 to 1,000, these companies keeping a suitable distance from each other. They return to New Zealand in quite small parties and their advent is almost unobservable. It is not till Christmas time that they are to be seen in numbers at their old quarters. Some of these birds remain the whole year in New Zealand, becoming very tame during the winter. This being the case it is strange that neither the Maori nor settlers have ever seen their nests. The natives catch large numbers of them in snares made by attaching to Manuka poles a network made with strips of flax. They are much valued as food by the Maori, and are cooked like the English woodcock, the stomach being r^arded as a tit-bit. There are birds which originally were migratory and have now made New Zealand their permanent home, and only move from one island or one part of the country to another. Amongst these the Hawks and the White Heron should be mentioned. There are two Hawks indigenous to New Zealand. One of these, the Quail Hawk (Nesierax Novcb Zealandiez ; Maori name " Ka-rewa-rewa "), is a true falcon and is a large powerful bird. The other, the Bush Hawk (Nesierax Australis ; Maori name, " Ka-rewa-rewa "), is smaller and quicker on the wing. Both are singularly bold and savage birds. 126 Q Z < o < 1-1 w w « o <: o A PLAGUE OF BIRDS The White Heron (Herodias Timoriensis ; Maori name, " Kotuku "). Owing to wanton destruction this bird is almost extinct. By its extermination the dominion has lost one of its most beautiful and statuesque-like birds, for a white heron watching for its prey was a sight that no lover of bird Ufe could ever forget. For hours it would stand motionless, its snow-white body standing out in bold relief against the dark background of reeds and rushes. When its prey appears it does not move its body the least bit, but stretches its neck, and, with graceful Ughtning-hke darts catches its fish and instantly returns to its motionless position. The Kaka (Nestor Meridionalis) is a very remarkable parrot. Its general colouring is ohve brown, top of the head grey, abdomen and over the tail a purpUsh red ; at the back of the neck it has a thin ring of yellowish red. In its habits it is gregarious. When Kakas mate they show a great affection for each other being seldom seen apart. They prove themselves most devoted parents. Kakas are honey-loving birds. Insects also form a large part of their diet. It is said of Kakas that those who live near homesteads soon acquire a liking for fresh meat. Occasions have been known when these birds have for some unaccountable reason migrated in flocks, as occurred when they invaded Otago in 1856. Their numbers then were such that great consternation arose among the settlers as to what destruction might be caused if such inroads were repeated. That there was reason for these fears may be gathered from the fact that every available spot over a large area was covered by the invaders. On the Tokomairiro Plains of Otago the birds were so closely packed that they fought for perch room on the posts and rails of the fences. The same plague on a smaller scale has happened with regard to the green Parrakeet in Canterbury. Of the Parrakeets (Psittacidce) there are six species to 127 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND be found on the mainland. One species is found only on the wind-swept southern outlying islands of the dominion. These desolate islands are the last place where a Parrakeet could reasonably be expected to hve. They burrow in the roots of the tussock grass, making tunnel-Uke dwellings, where they hve in pairs. The Kakapo (Stringops Habroptilus) is a ground parrot of large size, a bird which New Zealand claims as her exclusive possession. It has many starthng characteristics. It is described as repaying kindness with gratitude, and showing the affection and fidehty of the dog. It is as playful as a kitten, and will romp and enter into a game with much interest and intelligence. It has very decided ways of showing its pleasure. It wiU plume itself, nestle against the object that pleases it, utter a strange noise hke a grunt of satisfaction, and wind up with a screech of joy. It has httle or no power of flight. It is a " night bird," spending the day in its burrows. It is a very large eater, as is necessary on account of much of its food being by no means nutritious, mosses, Mchens, and the hke. Nevertheless at certain seasons it is very fat, and is said to have an excellent flavour. Its plumage, which is remarkably fluffy, is of a pale green colour deUcately pencilled with Mght brown, resembMng that of the clumps of moss, which cover the arid mountain regions in which it makes its home. It has a powerful beak, on either side of which are black hairy feathers standing out straight and giving it quite a fierce appearance. The Kea {Nestor Notdbilis). This parrot is essentially a mountain species breeding in inaccessible ledges on the rugged slopes of the Southern Alps. Its natural food is grubs, insects, and the seeds of Alpine plants. In severe weather, when its food becomes scarce in the high altitudes, it descends to the plains. It hops rather than walks. It is semi-nocturnal and dehghts in moonhght nights when numbers may be seen busily searching for grubs. It has 128 THE SHEEP-KILLING BIRD four distinct cries, mewing like a cat, uttering a shrill whistle, making a clucking sound, and imitating a person suppressing a loud scream. In its disposition it is sociable and inquisitive and resents most violently any attempt to keep it caged. It will enter a camp, take up everything, examine it closely, and often carry something away with it. It is about the size of a rook. Its plumage is dull green, each feather being edged with black. Over the tail and beneath the wings it is red. The lower feathers of the wings are blue, barred with yellow. The tail is green with bars of black near the tip. This bird has an evil reputation for killing sheep and a price is placed on its head. In Otago the County Councils offer 2s. 6d. per bird, and the Government adds a subsidy of 6d. a head. It is recorded by the Lands Department that on a station at Lake Wanaka 200 sheep were killed in one night. In his book on New Zealand, Birds, Sir Walter Buller describes how puzzled sheep- owners and shepherds were at what they thought a new disease amongst the sheep. " The first appearance of this supposed disease is a patch of raw flesh on the loins of the sheep about the size of a man's hand. From this wound matter continually runs down the side, taking the wool completely ofE the part it touches, and in many cases death is the result. At last one of the shepherds noticed a mountain parrot attacking a sheep and picking the sore, and the animal seemed unable to rid itself of the bird. The parrots were watched when the sheep were being mustered in high ground. They were observed to surround a sheep which was freshly bleed- ing from a small wound in the loin. The birds come in flocks and attack a sheep at random, each alighting on the animal's back in turns and tearing the wool out, and making the sheep bleed, till the animal runs away from the rest of the flock. The birds then pursue their victim, attacking it and forcing it to run about till it becomes stupid." It is suggested that the Kea developed this carnivorous habit by feeding at homesteads on sheep's heads and offal, and plucking at the sheepskins hung out to dry. There is another suggestion offered, namely, that the bird 129 9— (2136) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND tears to pieces in search of grubs a plant called Raoulia Mammillaris. This plant by its shape and wooUy leaves so greatly resembles a sheep that it has been named the Vegetable Sheep. The Bell Bird {Anthornis Melanura ; Maori name, " Makomako ") is the bird whose sweet note Captain Cook more than 100 years ago described as having been heard a quarter of a mile from the shore when his ship was anchored in Queen Charlotte's Sound. He may well have been charmed with this songster's beU-Uke note, which in sweetness and depth of tone surpasses the English nightingale. At Queenstown on Lake Wakatipu not many years ago the sweet notes of these birds might have been heard at the first gleam of dawn in such a volume that it seemed as if hundreds of them were calling to one another. When the sun rose aU became still. Whether the Takahe {Notornis Hochstetteri) was to be found aUve was, for many years, a subject of much speculation. When Mr. W. Mantell in 1847 discovered its bones in volcanic ashes they were looked upon as the skeleton of an extinct bird, and it was not until 1849 that a hving specimen was discovered by sealers visiting Duck Cove, Resolution Island. Thirty years passed and no more was heard of the Takahe till one was killed by some men on the Te Anau Downs. Its skin and skeleton can be seen in the Dresden Museum. Another bird was caught at Lake Te Anau in 1898. Each of these birds showed great pluck, fighting fiercely before capture. It is about the size of a turkey and of a very powerful build. It has a back of ohve green shot with black. The wings are blackish blue. Its head, neck, and the lower surface of its body are dark purphsh blue, the imder tail coverts are white. The Wood-pigeon (Hemiphaga Nova-ZealandicB ; Maori 130 A SWEET SONGSTER name, " Kuku ") is one of the most beautiful birds in the dominion. Its head, neck, and back are of a bright shining coppery purple, its breast of coppery green, and its tail of glossy black form a striking contrast to the pure white of its abdomen and the bright pink of its legs and feet. It lives on berries, and when these are in abundance it is in its prime. The Maori have a way of preserving it thus : They make an ingenious sort of basket out of the bark of the " Rimu." In it they pack the pigeons closely together, and pour melted fat over them to the depth of an inch. The Grey Warbler {Pseudogerygone Igata ; Maori name, " Riro-Riro ") is found in both islands. In the Chatham Islands a larger species is to be found. It is a cheerful, industrious little bird and is never stiU for a moment. It has a sweet merry note, and when singing raises its white-tipped tail into a fan-like shape. It builds its nest in shrubs. The nest is suspended from a branch by its top, and is kept in place by stays attached to twigs. The hole to the nest is on the side, and is protected with a porch-like structure. It is strange that the cuckoo should choose as a nest in which to deposit its eggs one to which entrance can only be gained with difficulty. The size of the hole and its position seem to render it impossible for so large a bird as the cuckoo to lay its egg directly in the nest. It has, however, been suggested by way of explana- tion that the egg is laid on the ground, and carried by the cuckoo and lowered into the nest. Like the Tuatara the Kiwi belongs to a tribe, Apteryx, whose ancient history is wrapped in complete mystery. There are five members of this family. Their plumage is brown flaked with black, the only variation being in the shade. The feathers resemble fur, and a Maori mat made from the feathers of the Brown Kiwi is not unlike Russian Sable. The smaller of the species is about the size of a barn-door fowl, and the larger the size of a 131 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND turkey. The late Dr. Parker of Dunedin considered the Kiwi nearly allied to the Moa though differing from it in some important respects. It is a strikingly nocturnal bird, burying itself in the dense bush during the day-time when it remains in a deep sleep. The shape of this remarkable bird is that of an elongated cone gradually tapering forwards. Its head is small with a long curved bill ; it has no tail, and its wings appear only as crooked appendages terminating in a curved homy claw. Its legs and feet are heavy, giving it a most ungraceful appearance. It is stated by the Maori that the bird buries its egg, that it then burrows underneath it, and exposes about one-third of its lower end ; under this it sits and thus hatches the egg. The male bird is much smaller than the female. The egg is white and out of aU proportion to the size of the bird, being almost as large as the male bird. Notwithstanding all efforts to preserve this bird it is fast disappearing. Of the genus Ocydromus, or Wood Hen (Maori name, " Weka "), there are five species. They are found only in New Zealand. Some are peculiar to the South Island and some to the North. The plumage resembles hair rather than feathers. The Weka has not the power of flight but it can run at a great pace and is very clever at avoiding capture. It is a bom thief and \vill carry away almost anything, especially if it is bright and ghttering. The homestead dust-heap is a source of end- less joy to a Weka, if such a thing as a sardine-tin is to be found. Two of these birds may often be seen fighting for the same object, and when that is the case it is often a fight to the death. Although occasionally it Villg or steals a chicken, it is nevertheless a good friend to the settier, as it destroys a grub which attacks the roots of Enghsh grasses. It has a weird cry, and when several Wekas are within calling distance they may be heard answering each other. 132 "MORE PORK" There are two Owls, the Laughing Owl (Sceloglaux Albi- facies ; Maori name, " Whekau ") and the More-pork (Ninox-NovcB-ZealandicB ; Maori name, "Rum"). The former is becoming very rare owing to its food supply having become inadequate through the destruction of the native bush. Its habits are nocturnal, and it lives in the bleakest and most deserted country it can find. The other owl is one of the best-known bush birds, on account of its extraordinary cry, which absolutely resembles the words, " More Pork." It is much smaller than the Laughing Owl and is a pretty httle bird with soft fluffy brown plumage. It may be found in the dense bush in many parts of the country where it hides itself in the darkest spots. It is sad to see the state of con- fusion into which this friendly little bird gets when by chance it is driven into daylight. There are two species of Crow (Maori name, " Kokako ") . Each species is identified with one particular island. The Crow is a beautiful bird with a fine erect car- riage. The plumage is of a dark blue grey, and it has a largely developed wattle of a bright orange colour. It has a musical note which can be heard at a great distance. The male is said to have six distinct notes, and these he raises in sweet song to cheer his mate when she sits upon her nest. Crows were originally found all over the colony, but settlement has driven them back into the mountains. The Stitch Bird (Pogonornis Cinda ; Maori name, " Hihi ") has quite disappeared from the mainland and has sought the peaceful shelter of Little Barrier Island, but even there it is rarely seen. The Huia (Heteralocha Acutirostris) affords to the ornithologist a study of a wonderful natural peculiarity. This consists in a difference in the formation of the bill of the male and that of the female. In the case of the male the beak is straight ; in the female it is curved into a 133 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND full semicircle and is much stronger than the males. This difference in formation of the biUs led many ornitho- logists to imagine that the male and female belonged to different species. Sir Walter Buller's theory that the difference in the bills enables the birds to perform different offices in searching for their food has now been generally accepted. Huias are beMeved to be monogamous, the cock bird keeping from season to season with the same hen. Their greenish-black plumage resembles in shade and gloss that of the English Starling and they are about the size of that bird. The orange wattles, white-tipped feathers in the tail, and the ivory-colomred beak form a striking contrast to its greenish blue-black plumage. This bird has alwa57s been an object of interest to the Maori, as its tail feathers form part of the distinguishing head ornaments of the chiefs. The Huia frequents a limited area in the North Island between Wellington and Hawke's Bay. Without fear of contradiction the Prosthemadera Novts- Zealandics (Maori name, " Tui ") may be paid the comph- ment of being considered the best known and best beloved of New Zealand's birds. There is something irresistibly attractive in its joyous activity, as it darts from one tall flax stick to another. With head bent downwards over the flowers it thrusts its beak far into the blossoms and drinks of the honey, which is its favourite food. It is a veritable acrobat, and it is quite a pretty sight to watch a party of these birds sporting in the open at the edge of the bush. It has a cheerful note, which it raises in great excitement when it is performing its aerial gymnastics. It has bright glossy feathers of a bluish or greenish black which glisten in the sunlight. On its wings are two patches of white feathers. It has roiand its neck and shoulders a collar of white half-curled feathers, which look as if they had been powdered over the general plumage 134 TWO GREAT PETS in that part of the bird's body. Two tufts of pendant white curly feathers adorn the front of the neck. From these adornments, resembMng as they do the bands worn by the parson in the good old days, it has received the name of the Parson Bird. The Tui, during the breeding season, has very large ideas as to how much of the bush belongs to it, and will attack intruders who venture to approach when its mate is sitting. In captivity these birds are subject to fits of a distressing kind ; they have convulsions, then become rigid and froth at the beak. Hot applications seem to relieve their sufferings. They are very tenacious of Ufe. A bird which had been left for dead at night was found in the morning hopping about happily in the house. They talk readily and have a wonderful power of imitating their teacher's voice. The wife of the writer had a pair for eighteen months. They were seldom in their cage, but wandered about the house and garden, never showing any desire to stray. They learned to imitate their owner's voice, when calling the servants, to such perfection, that one morning the maids arose to their caU to find that the Tui were earlier risers than their mistress. The Swamp Hen {Porphyria Melanonotus ; Maori name, " Pukeko ") is a beautiful bird. Its back, neck, and abdomen are blue-black, its breast of a lovely shade of indigo blue ; the under feathers of its very short tail are white. It has long legs of a deep red colour. Its beak is ivory white. It is described as occasionally feeding itself like a parrot by holding its food in its claws. It seldom appears in the open during the day, but hides itself in flax bushes and reeds. It feeds early in the morning and in the evening, its principal food being vegetable substances, but it also eats insects. The Kingfisher {Halcyon Vagans ; Maori name, " Kotare ") is not so bright in plumage as the English 135 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND species, but is more voracious, not contenting itseli with fish diet, but devouring mice, bees, beetles, and young birds, and even chickens. A most noisy but kindly bird is the Saddle Back (Creadion Carunculaius ; Maori name, " Tieke "). Its constant chattering seems to betoken merriness of heart and cheerfulness of spirits. Its movements are pecuUarly its own, as it starts off half-hopping, half-flying, making leaps from bough to bough, appearing and disappearing from view with Ughtning-hke rapidity. It has httle power of flight and is seldom seen out of the dense bush. In colour it is funereal, the whole bird being of a bluish- black tint, the strange saddle-hke marking on its back being as dark as jet. There are four species of the New Zealand Robin. It greatly resembles in its habits and movements the Enghsh Robin Redbreast but is somewhat smaller. Two varieties have greenish-black breasts and abdomen, while the plumage of the others is jet black. The Robin is of a friendly disposition, and becomes so tame that in a bush camp it wiU. hop about quite rmconcemedly picking up crumbs. It is one of New Zealand's sweetest songsters, and has a very far-reaching note for so small a bird. It is an insect eater, and helps the colonists by destroying many of their pests. The Brown Creeper {Finschia NovcB-Zealandice ; Maori name, " Toitoi ") has a reddish-brown head, back, and tail. At the side of its head there is a patch of dark grey, and the same colour is found on the nape of the neck. The breast is of a fawn colour. The tail feathers have a large spot of yellowish brown on them. The Bush Canary (Maori name, "Mohua") has a harsh shrill note, which is in great contrast to the sweet notes of its caged cousin in the old country. Its head, breast, and abdomen are yellow, the back and tail beii^ a brownish-yeUow colour. It is an active little bird and 136 THE HANDSOME DUCK may be seen running from one clump of moss to another in search of insects. It is found only in the South Island. There are four species of Wren, all pecuhar to the colony. The Green Wren is a dainty little person to be seen creeping over mosses and lichens in search of insects. The Rock Wren inhabits the mountain ranges in the South Island. It feeds upon insects and has a Uzard-like movement as it runs into holes in the rocks when alarmed. The Bush Wren (Maori name, " Tititipounamu ") lives in the sub-Alpine forests of both islands. The Stephen Island Wren has become extinct having faUen a victim to the rat. It was said to be semi -nocturnal. The Maori in the early days called these birds Atuas, which being interpreted means " Birds of the Divinity." Of the genus S-phenceacus, the Fern Bird (Maori name, " Matata "), there are two species pecuhar to New Zealand and one in the Chatham Islands. It is among those birds that are becoming scarce, owing to their destruction by bush fires. It falls an easy victim to the flames, its indifferent powers of flight preventing it from escaping. It is a very shy bird and sohtary in its habits. When seen running up the fern stems or the stalks of the flax or toi-toi it might be mistaken for the EngHsh field mouse so greatly does it resemble the latter in colour and movement. Who could fail to admire the graceful httle Fan-tail, genus Rhipidura, as with tail erect and drooping wings it alights on a bough to catch an insect, and then flutters ofE, tail erect, and threads its way among the leaves ? It is the busiest of birds being constantly at work. Its sweet note may be heard before sunrise and after sunset. The Paradise Duck {Casarca Variegata ; Maori name, " Putangitangi ") is a strikingly handsome bird. Black feathers cover the head and neck and breast of the male bird. Its back has black feathers pencilled transversely 137 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND with white. Its abdomen is red, pencilled with black. The upper parts of the wings are white. It is remarkable that the plmnage of the female is more striking than that of the male, and that she has a white head and breast. These birds become very tame when mimolested and may be seen feeding on lawns close to homesteads. This bird is becoming rare on accomit of the easy prey that it becomes to some sportsmen. There are also to be found the New Zealand grey Duck {Anas super ciliosa); the Grey Teal {Neiiion Castaneum) ; the Brown Duck (Maori name, " Patake ") ; the White- winged Duck (Nyroca Australis) ; the Black Teal (Fuli- gula Novce-ZeoLandice), and the Blue Mountain Duck (Maori name, " Whio ") . Of the genus Hy-potcenidia there are five species : the Pectoral Rail (Maori name, " Mohopereru ") ; the Macquarie Island Rail, the Mangare Rail, the Auckland Islands Rail, and the Dieffenbach's Rail. The first- mentioned species is fotmd on the mainland, the remainder on the outl5dng southern islands. They never rise on the wing unless in great danger, and even then they only fly short distances. They feed on sedges, and are said to swallow sand to help digestion. The genus Botaurus has only one representative, Botaurus Pcedloptilus (the Bittern). This bird has become rare owing to the large areas of swamp lands having been drained. Thinornis Novez-ZealandicB, "The Sand- plover" (Maori name, "Kxikuruatu"). This species is becoming very rare. The Thinornis Rossi, the Auckland Island Sand-plover, is found only on that island. Of the genus Gallinago there are three species all found on the outl5rag islands. The Auckland Island Snipe (Gallinago Aucklandica) is a heavier and shorter legged bird than the one found in Europe. In these uninhabited islands the bird is very tame, having httle or no fear of man. It is a slow flyer and usually remains on the wing 138 TiHE TAME SNIPE only while it covers a short distance. In its methods of flight it preserves the zig-zag dashes of the snipe of the northern hemisphere. Its back is red-brown speckled with black, its breast and abdomen almost white, neck and breast thickly flaked with brown, and head strangely marked on either side of beak with a dark brown stripe from the nostrils under the eye to the back of the head and another in an oblique direction on each cheek. The Snares Snipe {Gallinago Huegeli) greatly resembles the last, but its breast and abdomen are barred with blackish brown. They are found only on these rocky storm-swept islands. The Chatham Island Snipe {Gallinago Pusilla). The back of this bird is red-brown spotted with black, abdo- men fulvous, and breast white, closely spotted with brown. The head is marked in a similar manner to that of the Auckland Island Snipe having longitudinal brownish lines on the top. The New Zealand Mutton Bird {Puffinus Griseus). These birds are occasionally to be fotmd breeding on the southern part of the North Island. In the southern part of the South Island they are to be found in millions. There they have formed extensive rookeries. They possess when matured little or no beauty of form or colouring, their general tone being sooty brown. Their wing feathers have each a dark shaft. When quite young they are pretty fluffy Uttle things resembhng balls of grey swansdown. These birds are extremely interesting on account of their gregarious habits and strange flights. They leave their rookeries at stated periods and return to them with the greatest regularity, reappearing almost at the same hour and day year after year. An example of the gregariousness of these birds will be exemplified by the following account given by Captain Waller of the "Westphalia." He reports that "on 139 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND one occasion while on a passage from New Zealand to Australia he steamed thirty miles through flights of Mutton Birds which extended for three or four miles on each side of his vessel. Occasionally they settled on the water to feed and then they covered the surface and looked like a reef of black rocks." The Kermadec Mutton Bird (Mstrelata Neglecta ; Maori name, " Piakoia " in imitation of its cry). This bird pays yearly visits to the Kermadec Islands, there to breed. It arrives at the end of August or early in September. Its breeding grounds are to be found aU over the islands, but it favours the hilltops. It does not burrow like most of its species, but lays its egg on the bare groimd or in the roots of trees. It only lays one egg. It varies much in colour, but its general toning is brown and white. The young birds are much valued as food. They are killed just as they are losing their down and before the new feathers are formed. They are salted and smoked or pickled in brine. In one year in Denham Bay alone over 12,000 of these birds were preserved. Of the genus Phalacrocorax (Cormorants ; New Zealand name, " Shags "), New Zealand has more species than any other coimtry in the world, having no less than fifteen. Two of these are foimd nowhere else — the Phalacrocorax Brevirostris (the White-throated Shag) and the Pied Shag (Maori name, " Kawau "). On the east coast of North Island, near Matata, these birds form " shaggaries " of great extent and their habits of Hfe are most interesting. Here their nests are crowded together on the branches of the Pohutukawa which overhang the cliffs. When the old birds are preparing or repairing their nests and the young birds are still in the neighbour- hood of their nest, they often come to an untimely end by being thrown from the tree branches by the old birds, who fight most fiercely for the dry sticks, moss, and pieces of seaweed which are used for nest-making. Seaweed 140 THE PENGUIN ROOKERIES seems to be much valued for the purpose of building, as the birds wiU go far in search of it and often dive a great depth into the sea to procure it. When the old birds are fighting the young ones are tumbled by dozens down the cUffs and become an easy prey to harriers who are always to be seen hovering over these shaggeries. The young shags are much valued by the Maori, who preserve them in fat or bj' salting them. These birds wander far from the coast and may be seen looking most forlorn perched on a shag in a river-bed. The Pied Shag varies from others of its species in the fact of its not being gregarious. There are four species of Penguins peculiar to New Zealand : the Crested, Big Crested, Royal and the Yellow-eyed. The Crested Penguin, (Maori name, " Tawaki ") breeds on the Snares and sometimes on the South Island. The remainder breed on the southern outl5dng islands, where they have large " rookeries." Of the family Diomedeidiz (the Albatrosses) there are four species found on various islands : — The Wandering Albatross (Maori name, " Toroa ") ; The Royal Albatross ; The Snowy Albatross; The Sooty Albatross. These species never consort when they Uve on the same island, their breeding grounds are far apart. Only one egg is laid. It is interesting to observe that the Albatross takes three years before its plumage becomes that of the adult, and that for one year the chick remains on the nest, being only visited by its parents at dawn every morning to be fed. At the end of the year the old birds return, and remove the young bird from the nest, which they prepare for the next occupant. The banished young bird remains with its parents during the breeding season, and seemingly annoys them greatly by pecking at their heads, even making the skin quite sore. It is not tiU the 141 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND young axe eighteen months old that they go far out to sea, and then they accompany their parents. It is much to be regretted that with the destruction of the bush so many of the most interesting birds should have disappeared from the mainland, and it has been owing to the forethought of the Government that these species have not, like the Moa, become totally extinct. The Government have set aside three sanctuaries, one on Little Barrier Island in the north, another on Resolution Island in the south, and the third on Kapiti Island on the south-west coast of the North Island. Experts are appointed to look after the welfare of the feathered tribes committed to their charge. These efforts have been crowned with great success, some of the rare species having even increased in nmnbers since the sanctuaries were estabhshed. The efforts to introduce game birds into the colony have not in all cases been successful, the Partridge having quite died out. The Pheasant, both English and Chinese, when first introduced promised to be a great success. Their numbers increased rapidly, imfortunately only to decrease as quickly, and it is feared they wiU share the fate of the Partridge. The introduction of Quail has proved most successful. Of this bird three species can now be found in New Zealand. The Cahfomian Mountain Quail, the Cali- fomian Quail, and the Austrahan Quail. Some idea of the way these birds have increased may be gathered from the following accotmt. It is reported that in Pelorus Sound in August, 1908, settlers suffered great loss to their crops by the voracious appetites of the Cahfomian Quail, which arrived in thousands sweeping everything before them. The following imported game birds are to be found in various parts of the dominion : — 142 THE BIRDS' SOCIAL BARRIER English and Chinese Pheasants. French Partridges. CaJifomian Quail. Califomian Mountain Quail. AustraUan Quail. Enghsh Mallard. Australian Plovers. English Green Plovers (Peewits). Pintail Quail. Ostrich farming has been successfully carried on in the Auckland district, and the feathers from these birds are exceptionally fine. Emus are to be seen on private properties in various parts of the dominion, and seem to thrive. Some of the smaller introduced birds have found in the bush a place of escape from the destroying hand of man, where they have been able to increase and multiply without fear of molestation. This has been carried to a dangerous extreme in the case of the house-sparrow, which has become such a pest that many methods have of necessity been adopted to keep their numbers within bounds. From Mr. T. W. Kirk's observations, the sparrow in its new home indulges in five broods a year. The introduction of English small birds has doubtless done much to keep in check insect pests. The study of their habits in their new surroundings is extremely inter- esting to the observer. They never, for instance, consort with the native birds. There is a " social barrier," as it were, set up which time has failed to break down. One may see tuis, warblers, bell-birds, and others belonging to New Zealand amicably feeding and bathing together on one side of a lake, while the imported EngUsh birds, starlings, thrushes, blackbirds, and the hke, stay by themselves in another place. There is an interesting question being constantly suggested by the failure of certain species to estabUsh 143 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND themselves in the dominion, while others of similar habits as regards feeding, etc., succeed admirably. Again, we would Uke to have an explanation why some of the imported birds, such as the goldfinch and the black- bird, have found their way unassisted across the hundreds of miles of ocean separating New Zealand from the Auckland Islands, whereas the starling and scores of others have never gone beyond the shores of the dominion. Animal Ufe in New Zealand owes much both to the Government and the various Acchmatization Societies. The former for their efforts already aUuded to in con- nection with bird sanctuaries, and the latter for their continuous and valuable assistance in increasing the number of all kinds of animals, birds, and fishes. The dominion would have had much fewer attractions for the tourist and the naturahst but for these excellent arrangements. 144 PART III CHAPTER I DEVELOPMENT, 1853-1870 First General Assembly — ^Appointment of Sir T. G. Browne as Governor — Dissatisfaction of the Maori — DifBculties of govern- ment — Formation of a native department — The Maori determine to have a king — War — Governor's proclamation- Proclamation withdrawn — Handing over to New Zealand Government the conduct of native affairs — Serious condition of affairs — Massacre at Poverty Bay — General progress of the colony — Earthquake at Wellington. When Sir George Grey left the colony in December, 1853, the personal rule of governors came to an end. Repre- sentative institutions had been granted and responsible government was now to commence. Pending the appointment of a successor to Sir George Grey, the govern- ment was administered by Colonel W5myard, the senior miUtary officer in New Zealand. In 1854 the first General Assembly met. No good whatever arose, or could arise from such a meeting. It had not power to do anything, apparently, but pass addresses to the Governor. The Executive Council, which had existed in the later days of personal rule, was still there, and very naturally the members of it did not wish to find themselves in the position of being suddenly ejected from office without some compensation. The Administrator could not give it to them. A compromise was attempted by the latter appointing three members of the General Assembly to the Executive, and by the old Executive promising to resign when pensions were 145 10 — (3136) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND allotted to them. Like many other attempts at com- promise, in which the details have not definitely been laid down in writing, this came to nothing. The new members of the Executive said that the Administrator had not kept his promise as he had not called upon the old members to resign. He rephed that they had not passed the Pensions Bill. Two Ministers were appointed, without any good arising, and practically the whole system of responsible government remained in abeyance. In the meantime. Sir Thomas Gore Browne was appointed Governor and arrived in September, 1855. He took the proper measures for the establishment of responsible government and in November, 1855, the first members of the House of Representatives were elected. In May of the following year the first Ministry was ap- pointed, and %vithin a month of their taking office no less than three changes of Ministry took place. The difficulties with which both the Governor and the Parhament were faced were by no means small ones. The colonists looked forward with pleasure to the management of the affairs of the country being entirely left in the hands of representatives elected by themselves. Many of them no doubt thought that the time had arrived when all their troubles and all the things they had complained of would find remedies. Hopes were of course entertained by some that the land question and the Maori question would now soon be solved. The Maori did not hke the change, as far as they were able to understand it. They found that instead of being able to deal only with one person, and he the Governor and practical ruler of the coimtry, they would now have to bring aU their grievances before a n\miber. They found that in the great change of system of government which had been hailed with joy by the white race, they had practically no share. The native land question and all 146 TROUBLES OF A GOVERNOR the troubles connected with its purchase, including that of its lawful ownership by the various tribes, were matters that had to be dealt with. The views also of the colonists, on matters connected with the treatment of the natives and their lands, differed considerably. The provincial governments, which had been brought into existence prior to the first parliament, had been for some time working out the problem of how best to manage their own affairs and provide revenue for their own requirements. That they always tried to get as much power as possible into their hands was only natural. Each province represented, to those who lived in it, a little kingdom which it was their duty to develop as much as possible. One of the first provincial requests was that they should have the control of the Crown Lands situated in the respective provinces, and retain the revenue obtained from their sale. This was granted. The provinces in the North Island, where the Maori possessed most of the land and would not seU it, could get but little revenue, and were always in financial trouble ; while those in the south, which had plenty of crown land for sale and no native difficulty, were always in the happy position of having an abundance of money in their treasuries. Above all things in importance stood that of the native policy to be pursued. The Governor having received authority from the Imperial Government to retain in his own lands all matters affecting the Maori, especially the land question, proceeded to act in the way that appeared to him best calculated to give effect to imperial promises in reference to the natives, as well as dealing fairly with the colonists. The Parhament had the power of the purse, while the Governor had the Executive control. It was perfectly obvious that the position thus estab- lished in regard to native affairs alone, was one which 147 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND was certain to cause considerable anxiety as to the future. It can easily be imagined that with even the difficulties already alluded to, the task before both Governor and Parhament was no easy one. Some of them provided cause for disagreements, which, unfortunately, resulted in wars between natives and colonists, leading to much bloodshed and greatly retarding the progress of the colony. As a starting point for dealing with the native question, a Native Department was formed which had as its head a Native Secretary. The person who was appointed to the position was Mr., afterwards Sir, Donald McLean, who was selected on accoimt of his knowledge of the language, character, and customs of the natives. Sir Donald was also the Commissioner of Land Purchase, and in that position acted for the Government in obtaining lands that the natives were desirous to sell. The natives who had always been suspicious that the principal aim of the Government was to get their land from them, looked upon this dual appointment with disfavour. It was, however, impossible to make provision for every doubt that might arise in the minds of the Maori as to the good faith of the Government in its dealings with them. A relaxation of a law made by Sir George Grey, which prohibited the sale of firearms to the Maori, resulted in disaster to the colonists in the future. The Government pursued a pohcy of concOiation towards the natives with the hope that it would tend to civilizing them and making them contented. They gave them schools, but not being able to provide sufficient money to maintain them, they dwindled away. They made many presents to them of all sorts of things suitable for the furtherance of agri- cultural, milling, house-building, and other industries. They provided them with instructors, and they passed laws with a view to controlling native districts in harmony 148 THE KING-MAKER with the desires of the Maori themselves. For a time the Maori took great interest in the various industries, and actually went so far as to found technical schools in which trades were taught by white employers. Notwithstanding the benefits that they were receiving, the Maori were discontented and made up their minds that by the worry of perpetual demands they could get more. The white people at the same time felt that they were being entirely neglected, and that their position amongst the natives was far from secure. The Maori thought, and with some reason, that they themselves and their lands would be overwhelmed by the multitude of white people coming to their shores, and they also saw that the divisions between themselves prevented their showing a united front towards those whom they looked upon as their common foe. They determined, therefore, to have a king of their own. Taking advantage of the Bible training that they had received, they used certain passages of Scripture in support of their view that they should make one. Wiremu Tamihana, the " King-maker," as he was called, quoted words from a verse in the eighth chapter of I Samuel : " Make us a king to judge us," evidently having in his mind the words which followed, namely, " like all the nations." The original intention of the peaceful " King- maker " to have two nations in the country, each owning allegiance to its own sovereign, although it might have seemed feasible to him, was, of course, out of the question. There could not be " two kings in Brentford." The native movement in king-making might have had no evil effects, and if left alone, and if all concerned had been possessed of peaceful intentions, would probably have died a natural death. This, however, was not the case. There were some advocates of it who would have liked to sweep the pakeha or foreigner into the sea, and thought that they might now be able to do so. 149 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND An incident shortly occurred which was the beginning of a war that lasted for some years. This it could not possibly have done had it not been for the existence of the king movement which practically enforced the participation in the contest of tribes remote from the seat of trouble, and not concerned in the matter in dispute. A chief named Wiremu Kingi, who had obtained an over- powering influence in the district of Taranaki, where the dispute occurred, precipitated war. In 1859 a Maori, named Te-Teira, offered to the Governor to sell him his land at Waitara to the northward of Taranaki. Wiremu Kingi, who based his right to have something to say on the matter on the ground that he had been asked by Te-Teira to settle on part of the land, opposed the sale and said he would not allow it to take place. There were, of course, white S5anpathisers with the natives, among whom were the Bishop of New Zealand and the Chief Justice, who supported Wiremu Kingi in the matter. The Governor, acting on the advice of the Government officials who had shown to him that Te-Teira was completely within his rights in selling the land, treated Wiremu Kingi as an interfering mischief-maker. A sturvey of the land was ordered, but the surveyors, at the instigation of Wiremu Kingi, were turned off. This led to instructions being given to occupy the land with troops. Wiremu Kingi's pah was attacked, and a war commenced in 1860 which soon brought into the field all the tribes who had ranged themselves under the flag of the Maori king. The war was the beginning of a series of severe struggles with the natives in various parts of the North Island which only ended in 1870. The state into which the Taranaki settlement was plunged can easily be imagined. Farms were deserted, women and children were conveyed to places of safety, even as far as Nelson in the South Island, and the capital town was practically turned into an armed camp. About 150 SUBMISSION OR WAR 3,000 imperial troops, mostly drawn from Australia, were there, ready for any military movement that might be necessary. These were supplemented by a local mUitia enrolled from among the settlers in the district. The time that had elapsed since the war at Kororareka, and various minor outbreaks of hostiUty on the part of the Maori that took place up to the year 1848, had, to a large extent, lulled the colonists into a state of security, and the statement that " the best way to secure peace is to be ready for war," was treated as one with which they had no concern. The Imperial Government approved of the action taken in New Zealand with regard to native affairs. This, combined with the Governor's view, that the war in Taranaki had been forced by the Maori, was undoubt- edly the cause of his determining to bring the matter to a definite conclusion. He accordingly issued a proclamation in which he demanded : — (1) From all : — Submission without reserve to the Queen's sovereignty and the authority of the law ; (2) From those who are in possession of plunder : — Restitution of that plunder ; (3) From those who have destroyed or made away with property : — Compensation for the losses sustained. The Maori, of course, advanced aU sorts of arguments to prove that they were not the aggressors in the late war and that their reason for setting up a king was in the interests of peace. The Governor naturally saw that there was not going to be any submission on the part of the Maori, and that war was the only way by which he could compel them to obey the proclamation. Before any action could be taken. Sir Thomas Gore Browne's term of office expired, and he left the colony in 1861. Sir George Grey, who had left New Zealand in 1853, was again appointed as Governor. 151 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND The proclamation issued by Sir Thomas Gore Browne was withdrawn, and it was hoped that a condition of peace would ensue. Notwithstanding, however, the efforts of the Governor and of the peace-lo\Tng premier. Sir WiUiam Fox, although a general war was averted, occasional acts of hostihty were conunitted by the Maori. These, together with the pronounced warlike intentions of the king party, led to a war with Waikato, which was continued in that and adjacent parts of the country until 1864, when there was a lull. On the 26th February, 1863, an important event occurred, when Sir George Grey, with the sanction of the Imperial Government, handed over to the New Zealand Government the conduct of native affairs. This involved the payment by the colonists of some of the heavy military expenditure which was to follow. An idea may be formed of the extent to which military forces became necessary, when it is stated that the number of regular troops in New Zealand increased between June, 1863, and August, 1865, from 5,245 to 10,047. The naval authorities were also called upon to provide a considerable contingent. The troops reused by the colony amounted to about 10,200 in addition. The whole of the forces were imder the command of General Sir Duncan Cameron, who carried out the campaign on a system which did not commend itself to either the Governor or the colonists. Probably it was scientific, but it was slow and did not suit the needs of the bush warfare in which the troops were engciged, and in the art of which the Maori were past-masters. It should be stated that throughout the wars which took place between the Maori and the Europeans the assistance rendered by the tribes friendly to the latter was always ungrudgingly given, and was of enormous value. Majors Kepa (Kemp) and Ropata Wahawaha may be particularly mentioned as chiefs who did great 152 A SAD DISASTER service for the Queen, who presented them with swords of honour for their loyalty and distinguished conduct. During the Waikato war, which was conducted with extreme caution, to say the least of it, victory rested with the Europeans on every occasion of importance, with the exception of the assault on the Gate Pah, near Tauranga, on the Bay of Plenty. The Pah, which is the Maori name for a stockade, was placed in a position well selected by the Maori on account of its natural advan- tages. It consisted of a strongly palisaded redoubt flanked on either side by a swamp, between which and the redoubt were strongly entrenched rifle-pits. This was invested by a British force consisting of about 1,700 soldiers, sailors, and marines. The artillery power available consisted of five rifled breech-loading Armstrong guns (one of them of large calibre), two 24-pounder howitzers, and fourteen mortars. After a large amount of artillery fire, a practicable breach was made in the works and the assault took place. The assaulting column consisted of 150 seamen and marines, and the same number from the 43rd Regiment. After forcing an entrance into the pah the assailants met with a fierce resistance, during which many of the officers were killed, including almost aU the leaders. Then one of those unaccountable panics took place which occasionally demoralize even veterans, and the attack was converted into a repulse. The attack was not renewed on account of the night coming on. A fresh assault was contemplated on the morrow, but during the night the enemy escaped. The British losses were put down at 1 1 1 killed and wounded. The native losses were not ascertainable, but must have been severe. Previous to this action there had been a severe engage- ment at Rangiriri on the Waikato, where the natives were defeated with considerable loss. There were several others in which we were successful, including one at 153 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Ngaruawahia, when the British flag was hoisted on the Maori king's flagstafi. After the battle of Te Ranga on June 21st, 1864, there was a luU for a time in the fighting. In the end of 1864, Sir George Grey confiscated the lands of the insurgent natives in the Waikato under the power given to him to that end by an Act passed in December, 1863. A serious addition to the difi&culties that had to be contended with arose from the adoption by a certain portion of the Maori of what was called the Hau-Hau rehgion. This seems, imfortunately, to have had its origin in a wrong conception of the teaching they received from the missionaries. The whole thing was repulsive and horrible to an extreme, and brought out the most savage instincts of a most savage people. Under the guise of this so-called rehgion, the Hau, Haus perpetrated the most abominable cruelties and crimes. There had been some Mttie fighting in the Taranaki and Wanganui districts during the time the Waikato war lasted which was confined to attacks on mihtary outposts. The white settiers had, however, been confined to the small towns by the gangs of marauders, and the roads between the two districts were impassable. Sir Duncan Cameron came do^v'n to Wangantii with 6,000 troops to end this state of affairs. His timidity in conducting this campaign earned for him the nickname by the Maori of the "Lame Seagull." Grave disputes had arisen between the Governor and the General and these did not fail to contribute to the difficulty of the position. On one occasion the General n^lected to attack a pah called Wereroa, on the ground that his force was insufficient for the purpose. The Governor got together a force of some 300 friendly natives and 164 colonial troops, and mth the promise of the moral support of 200 r^ulars, undertook and accomplished 154 PRISONERS ESCAPE the task of taking the pah. This occupied only two days. During this period the question of the withdrawal of the imperial troops was engaging the attention of ParUa- ment, and Sir Frederick Weld, the Premier, strongly urged that it should be done. It was true that the war was not at an end, and that the task to be entered on by the colony after the withdrawal was a serious one. On the other hand, the employment of imperial troops was a heavy drain on the finances of the colony. The Imperial Government were tired of the mention even of the word New Zealand and jumped at the chance of getting the troops out of the country. This was slowly carried out and eventually completed. From the time that the imperial troops ceased to take an active part in military operations, the colonial forces, with the invaluable aid of the native allies, had many severe engagements with the insurgent Maori, in which they were generally successful. One of the worst incidents that took place and one that enraged the colonists almost beyond measure was the massacre of thirty-two Europeans at Poverty Bay, by a band of natives under the leadership of a Hau-Hau ruffian, named Te Kooti. The Government had sent a considerable number of prisoners, taken in one of the campaigns, to the Chatham Islands. Amongst these was Te Kooti. He planned the escape of himself and his feUow-prisoners in a very clever way, and succeeded in the project. A schooner called " The Rifleman " arrived at the Chatham Islands with stores for the guard stationed there, as well as for the prisoners. The guard having been reduced in numbers were insufficient for their duty. They were overpowered, the schooner was seized, and the prisoners made their way in safety to Poverty Bay. Unsuccessful attempts were made to arrest them, and, 155 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND finally, Te Kooti, after inciting his followers to take vengeance on the Europeans, swooped down on Poverty Bay and committed the atrocious massacre already alluded to. Steps were immediately taken to ensure his capture, if possible. His force was pursued from place to place and many fights ensued dining which numbers of his band were made prisoners. Although wounded, he mcinaged to escape from all his pursuers and finally took refuge in the king coimtry, where he was left alone. The valour and loyalty of our native aUies was a prominent feature in the long-sustakied pursuit of Te Kooti and the many engagements that took place during that time. Another savage, named Titokowaru, was chased by Colonel, afterwards Sir George, Whitmore from the Wanganui district into the fastnesses of the interior and, hke Te Kooti, left alone. The dreams of independence which the Maori treasiu"ed, as well as their hopes of being lords over the Europeans, were completely ended by the assertion of the white power in the wars which ended in 1870. It would be impossible to mention all the noted colonists who played the principal parts in this theatre of war. Suffice it to say, that Sir George Whitmore and Colonel McDoneU, not to speak of many other brave and capable leaders, particularly distinguished themselves in the later campaigns. Sir Harry Atkinson, afterwards for many years Premier, proved himself to be a distinguished, plucky, and capable soldier in the earher days in Taranaki. The valour, capabUity, and endurance of the colonial forces was fully proved during their many campaigns and hard fights. They were the men who, fuUy understanding the country and the natives, were able to show themselves to be masters in the art of bush-fighting, and with them rests the honour of having brought to a successful conclusion the last Maori war. 156 A BRIGHTER PROSPECT It is pleasant to be able to turn from the sketch given above of the stirring events in the North Island, which were not only disastrous to its inhabitants, but to the progress of the colony as a whole. The South Island, although it had to aid in the cost of the wars, had no native difficulty. The provinces in that island had been able to go on with their development quite undisturbed. The province of Otago, which had its origin in the settlement founded by Scotsmen as a home beyond the seas for their feUow-countrymen, in 1848, was being gradually filled with a people who were determined to exhibit the characteristics of their race for shrewdness and industry and making the most of their resources. It contained a large area of land suitable for settlement, although to enable this to be carried out, the hardships and difficulties which the early colonists had to contend with were very great. The land revenue soon reached a considerable amount. In 1858 it totalled £46,000 and was judiciously spent in roads and bridges and other effective means of opening up the country. The population of Otago province in 1848 was 444 ; in ten years it amounted to 10,500, and in 1867 it was 56,520. The thoroughness with which preparations for the settlement of this province were made, may be instanced by the fact that the plans for the capital town, Dunedin, had been drawn out in Edinburgh before the first settlers started from the Mother Country. An enormous impetus was given to the development of the province during these years by the discovery of gold in 1861 at Gabriel's GuUy in the Tuapeka district. People flocked to the goldfields from Australia and elsewhere and by 1863 Otago had an output of gold amounting to two millions sterling. The revenue at the same time had amounted up to £470,000. The province of Otago originally contained aU the land in the South Island to the south of the Waitaki River. 157 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND In 1861 the southern port was constituted a province, which was named Southland. In 1870, however, it was re-united to Otago. The province of Canterbury was situated in the district selected by an Association formed in 1849 to promote colonization. In 1850 the first settlers arrived. Some ten years before this, however, some enterprising Scots had ventured to settle in the district and had cattle and sheep, as weU as some cultivated land, to greet the view of the arriving colonists. The province, when first con- stituted, stretched right across the island and included territory which in 18^ became the province of Westland. ': It was the original intention of the Association to found a purely Church of England settlement, but this exclusive- ness could not be maintained if real colonization was to be encouraged — colonization, that is to say, by people who, whatever their rehgion or sect, were prepared to turn a wilderness into cultivated country. The country was particularly suited for pastoral pursuits ; sheep were introduced and every advantage taken of promoting the success of that industry. Agri- culture was also soon carried on over a considerable area. The capital of this province was named Christchurch, and was intended to be a city with collies, churches, and other adjuncts suitable for a Church of England settle- ment. It has the churches, including a cathedral of that body, but it also has similar sacred buildings connected with other rehgious communities. A few years after the colony was founded a college was estabhshed which may be called the " Harrow of New Zealand." Education formed part of the settlement scheme, and as money became available schools were liberally provided. Two thousand colonists had arrived by the end of 1851, and by the end of 1852 the population had risen to 3,400. The province was enabled by its land revenue 158 RUSH OF GOLD-SEEKERS to do much to forward settlement. Roads and bridges were constructed, and the provision of good communica- tion between Christchurch and its port, L5H:telton, was hurried on. So swiftly was this accompUshed that in 1863 the first portion of the railway line between the two towns, which was also the first railway in New Zealand, was opened for traffic. The dividing range of hiUs presented an obstacle to complete communication for a time, but a tunnel, one and a half miles long, was pierced by December 1st, 1867, and on that day through trafiic was established. The province of Nelson, which was the home of a settle- ment founded by the New Zealand Association in 1841, was also being peacefully developed. In it was discovered in 1857 the first payable gold-field in New Zealand and in that year 10,437 ounces of gold were obtained. Gold had also been discovered in the province of Marl- borough, which had been formed out of the Nelson territory in 1859. Owing to the discovery of gold on the west coast of the South Island in 1864, a great rush took place of miners and other gold-seekers from the Australian colonies, as well as from parts of New Zealand. The great influx of people into this part of the coimtry and the diffi- culties of administration due to geographical position led to Canterbury being divided into two provinces. The portion carved out was given the name of "Westland Province." Townships, as they are unhappily called in the colonies, soon sprang up and trade developed, especially with Australia. This part of the country which had, up to the advent of the searchers after gold, been practically occupied only by a few Maori, and was in its natural state of dense bush, suddenly became an important centre of busy life. Steamers had appeared on the coast of the southern island which showed that trade was now coming into existence and was worth seeking. All 159 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND prospects in the south were becoming brighter very quickly. In the North Island, although the native wars and the consequent state of unrest had caused misery and despondency, there were signs of better times coming. Hawke's Bay had become partly settled through the energy of enterprising men who were determined to make homes for themselves in that rich country, and to further colonization. Sheep farms were being created and cigriculture was commenced. Gold had been discovered in the Coromandel and Thames districts, and the gold mining industry was developing. The Provincial Council in Auckland commenced, in 1863, the construction of a railway. The dark shadow of the wars was beginning to pass away, and good hope for the future was held by all. Considerable excitement and alarm had been caused in WeUington in 1848 by an earthquake which shook down buildings and destroyed much property. The people were naturally very much alarmed, and thought that the addition of earthquakes to wars, would make the coimtry uninhabitable. Some of them even took to a ship to leave the country, but shipwreck prevented them from canying out their plans. Earthquakes are now much more Ughtly thought of, but they take place not infrequently and are sometimes severe in both islands. Much had been done to advance the general well-being of the colony, notwithstanding all the trials it had gone through siace representative government was granted. In 1861 the Bank of New Zealand was incorporated. In 1866 steam mail communication with the western world was established and, in the same year, the first telegraph cable was laid across Cook's Strait. In 1867 an Act was passed with the object of promoting science and art in 160 EARTHQUAKE ALARMS the colony, and also one dividing the colony into Maori electorates. Thus for the first time the Maori could be directly represented in Parliament. In 1869 a Govern- ment Life Insurance Department was estabUshed by Act of Parliament. Movements tending to the development of the resources of the colony and the comfort of its people, and conse- quently to its prosperity, were thus being made steadily and with due rapidity. A glance at the rise of the European population and the revenue of the colony during the two periods 1840- 1852 and 1853-1870 will be interesting, as showing what British enterprise had been able to accomphsh in that short time. The first period embraces the time between the arrival of the first governor, and the end of the administra- tion of the country as a Crown Colony. The second period is that between the granting of responsible government, and the end of the wars with the Maori. In 1840 the population, exclusive of the military, was 2,050. The revenue was ;^926. In 1852 the population, on the same basis, was 27,633 and the revenue £75,764. In 1870 the population was 248,000 and the revenue was ;f960,368. The value of New Zealand produce exported in 1853 was £303,282. In 1870 it was £4,544,682. 161 II— <«I3*) CHAPTER II CONSTITUTION, GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND FRANCHISE Past and present constitutions — The Legislature — ^The Governor — The Legislative Council — The House of Rejjresentativra — The Franchise — Qualifications of electors — ^Elections. Prior to the present constitution having been granted, an attempt was made by Earl Grey, Secretary of State for the Colonies, to provide one of his own initiation, but being quite unsuitable to the conditions prevailing in the colony, it practically was never brought into force. This affords an instance of the imdesirabihty of those who occupy important posts in the Home Government assuming that they alone are capable of dealing with the affairs of the various dependencies of the Crown, while in reality they are entirely ignorant of the local conditions, the neglect of which must alwa}^ result in failure. Under the constitution framed by Earl Grey, the colony was divided into two provinces, New Ulster and New Mimster. A Lieutenant-Governor was appointed to each province, but their reign was short and their duties approximately nil. The present constitution, which owes its origin to Sir George Grey, one of the earMer governors of New Zealand, has stood the test of some fifty years' trial, and experience shows that it was weE conceived, and has been worked wisely and judiciously. Some few alterations were made by the Home Government in the scheme which he first submitted. The principal alteration was that of nomina- tion by the Crown, for life, of the members of the Legisla- tive Council, instead of their being elected by Provincial Coimcils, which latter bodies were to be brought into existence by the proposed constitution. 162 MAKING THE PROVINCES The Legislature consists of the Governor, the Legislative Council, and the House of Representatives, and has remained practically unaltered up to the present day. The powers granted to the Legislature were such that they could make any laws provided that these were not opposed to the spirit of the law of England, that they did not levy duties on the supplies for Her Majesty's forces, and that the laws were not at variance with imperial treaties. Certain acts were subject to disallow- ance by the Sovereign within a fixed time. In sotne few cases, reservation for the Sovereign's pleasure was necessary. The entire revenue was put at the absolute disposal of the Colonial Legislature, subject to the payment of certain sums specially authorised by the Act granting the constitution. Any revenue unappropriated was ordered to be divided among the provinces, according to the proportion of gross revenue raised by each. The abolition of the provinces of course nullified this provision. Under the constitution the colony was divided into six provinces, each of which was to have an Elective Council. The election was in each case for four years, subject always to dissolution by the Governor, when fresh elections had to be held. The Superintendent was elected by the whole of the provincial electors, and the Council by the electors of the various districts into which each province was divided. The number of provincial governments was afterwards increased to nine. The Provincial Councils were, in like manner, allowed to make certain laws in connection with the government of their provinces ; but customs, superior courts of law, coinage, postal service, Ughthouses, Crown and native lands, and a few other matters, were excluded from their powers of operation. Acts passed by the provincial legislatures were subject either to disallowance by the Governor or reserved till his pleasure was signified. Of course, the provincial legislatures could not make laws 163 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND contrary to the laws of England. Any laws, however, made by them were subject to being over-ridden or modified by Acts of the Colonial Legislature with which they were not consistent. The provincial superintendents had no special administrative powers. While the machinery of the constitution was on the point of being set in motion, an imfortunate mistake was made by Sir George Grey, as he called into being the minor elements of the Government, namely, the provinces, instead of first starting the controUing power — the legislature. The Governor, who is appointed by the Sovereign, is of course the head of all things colonial, and is really the visible link that connects the dominion with the Crown. He is the representative of the Sovereign, and in that capacity signs documents, authorizes through the Gazette many matters decided on by His Majesty's Ministers, who are reaJly the masters of the situation in the dominion. He also opens Parhament, when he reads to the assembled legislators the speech which has been composed by the Cabinet. He is the channel through which all official communications proceed, and under the terms of the constitution he assents to bills passed by the General Assembly, subject to the reservations, etc., already alluded to, and finally he presides over the Executive. The salary of the Governor is £5,000 a year, in addition to which he receives an annual allowance from the dominion of ;f 1,500 for his estabUshment and £500 for travelling expenses. It must not be thought, however, from this short description that what the Governor does for the coimtry is confined to these official functions. His personal influence coimts for a good deal in matters of supreme importance. The Legislative Council was, as already stated, com- posed of members nominated for hfe by the Crown. In 1891 an Act was passed making future appointments to 164 PAID COUNCILLORS that House tenable for seven years only, dating from the writ of summons to the Council, by the Governor. Such councillors may, however, be reappointed, and it is very frequently done. The Act also gave power to the Council to elect their own Speaker for a period of five years. The qualifications for appointment as a member of the Legislative Council are that each person must be a male of the age of twenty-one years, a subject of the British Sovereign, either bom a British citizen, or naturalized under any Imperial Act, or any Act of the New Zealand General Assembly. Civil servants and contractors to the public service of over £50 are ineligible for appointment. There are now forty-eight members of the Legislative Council. There cannot be less than ten, but otherwise the number is unlimited. Each councillor is paid £200 a year, by monthly payments, and it is, therefore, practically a salary. Travelling expenses to and from Wellington are allowed. A deduction of £1 5s. per sitting day is made after an absence of fourteen days in any one session, unless it is caused by illness or any other unavoid- able cause. These conditions seem to be sufficiently elastic. Under an Act passed by the Legislative CouncU in 1891 a member vacates his seat if he : — (fl) takes an oath of allegiance, or makes any acknow- ledgment or declaration of obedience to any foreign prince or power ; (6) does anything by which he becomes a subject or citizen of any foreign power ; (c) becomes bankrupt or compounds with his creditors ; (d) is a pubUc defaulter, is attainted of treason, or convicted of felony or any other grievous crime ; (e) if he resigns his seat by writing under his own hand and such resignation is accepted by the Governor ; 165 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND (/) if for more than one whole session he absents himself from the Council without the permission of the Governor notified to the Cotmdl. By the Coimcil's standing orders, one fourth of its members, exclusive of those on leave of absence, must be present to enable a meeting to be constituted. It should, however, be noted that the Council has itself power to alter this rule from time to time, should it desire to do so. The House of Representatives was formerly elected for five years, subject to dissolution, at any time, by the Governor. In 1879, however, an Act was passed making Parhaments trieimial, subject as before to dissolution by the Governor at any time. Many members have expressed the opinion, that in the first year of a new parhament they are begirming to learn their business ; in the second they really do work ; and in the third they are talking to their constituents. There is a good deal of truth in this, but the period is not likely to be altered. The number of members of the House of Representa- tives is eighty ; seventy-six are Emropeans, and four are Maori. These mmabers were fixed by statute in 1900. Prior to 1908 the North Island returned thirty-eight Eiu"opean members, and the Middle (better known as the " South ") Island also returned thirty-eight members. There are three Maori members from the North Island, and one from the South Island. An Act providing, amongst other things, for two permanent Commissions, named respectively the North and South Island " Repre- sentation Commission," was passed in 1905, which enabled the representation of the people in parhament to be property apportioned. The two Commissions sit as one, to fix the number of districts for the North and South Islands. That being done they confine their functions to their separate islands. The districts for representation purposes have their boundaries formed upon the basis of the census results. 166 ADULT SUFFRAGE In computing the population for electoral purposes, 28 per cent, is added to the rural population, that is, to the number of persons living outside towns of 2,000 inhabitants and over. Then the total European popula- tion, with the 28 per cent, added, is divided by the number of districts and the quotient gives the number of members for each district. The Commissioners have power to make certain allowances by way of either addition or deduc- tion in both rural and city electorates, so that proper consideration can be given to the various features which would affect an equitable construction of the districts. In a country where adult suffrage exists the census is the best guide for adjusting the representation of the people in parhament. For instance, by the census of 1901 the South Island had thirty-six members, and the North Island thirty-four, and the districts having been again defined on the basis of the census of April, 1906, the South Island returned at the 1908 General Election thirty-five members and the North Island forty-one. Every registered elector being of the male sex and who does not come under any of the disqualifications laid down by the Electoral Act of 1905, is eligible for membership of the House of Representatives. Civil servants and contractors to whom payment of pubUc money to the amount of £50 in any one year, either directly or indirectly, on account of work done by them for the pubhc service, are not ehgible for election, and therefore cannot sit or vote. This last disquahfication, it will be seen, appUes equally to the House of Representatives and the Legislative Council. A member of the House of Representatives cannot become a civil servant within twelve months of ceasing to be a member. The members of the House of Repre- sentatives are paid £25 per month, subject to certain deductions for absence during session, unless that absence is caused by sickness or other unavoidable circumstance. 167 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Travelling expenses to and from Wellington are also allowed to enable them to attend the session. They are thus very comfortably salaried for three years. The allowances and expenses were settled by Act in 1901. For Exiropean parMamentary representation every adult who has been one year in the colony, and three months in one district is entitled to vote. No person is entitled to be registered in more than one electorate, and, consequently, he can only vote in the electorate in which he resides. AH the elections are held on the same day. In 1896 an Act came into force which swept away every vestige of property qualification. For some time previous to that year a freeholder of property to the value of £25, held for six months prior to the day of registration, could register, if not already on the roll owing to residential qualification. In 1893 came into force the Act which granted the franchise to women. Women, however, are not ehgible for election to the House of Representatives, or for nomination as members of the Legislative Council. Great arguments have taken place from time to time as to who was the originator of the scheme for granting votes to women. Four pubhc men, each of whom was at one time Premier, brought this great question to the front, and never ceased to urge its importance. Foremost amongst these was Sir John Hall, who, whether in or out of power, was always using his best endeavours to get the necessary measure placed on the statute-book. He never was able, however, to get it through as one of his own measures ; but to Mr. Seddon was granted the opportunity of doing so, and he availed himself of it. There had been practically no agitation on the part of women in favour of this great constitutional change. Doubtiess, however, the interest taken by some of them in the question of prohibition led to their endeavouring to get the franchise, 168 WOMEN AND TEMPERANCE with the view of bringing temperance matters more prominently forward. Many things were, of course, said by both the supporters and opponents of the measure, as to what would happen if women were given the vote, and no doubt each pohtical party hoped the change would strengthen its position. It is almost impossible to estimate what effect the extension of the franchise to women has had upon general legislation, but the practical result has been that they have simply increased the size of the recorded vote. In other words, they have done what many people expected them to do, namely, voted with their men-kind. They have been quite contented with the man-made laws which gave them the vote, and there are no signs that they wish to extend their privileges and go into the actual hurly- burly of politics by becoming ehgible for membership of the House of Representatives. Women took the matter very quietly and said to themselves : " Well ! we have got the vote and now we must use it." They probably went to their nearest male relatives, or closest friends of that sex, and asked them what was the best way to exercise their newly-found powers. At all events, they took the new task in hand cheerfully, as they have done in the case of every one of the many tasks that have fallen to their lot in colonial Ufe. Family harmony has not been disturbed, nor have discordant elements been introduced into the relationship of the sexes to one another. Women went to the poll in great numbers at the first election after they obtained the vote, and the proportion per cent, of those on the roU who voted was very high, 85" 18. Although it is true that the percentage of female voters was greater in 1905 than in 1902, it should be stated that the percentage in 1893 (the year in which the franchise was granted to them) was greater than in 1905. It may be, however, that the comparison between the years 1902 and 1905 indicate a greater interest being taken in 169 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND parliamentary elections ; stiU it is not at all safe to assume that such is the case. Every seaman engaged in any ship owned or registered in New Zealand is considered to be a resident there during the time he is so employed. He can claim to be enrolled in the district in which is situated the port at which his ship usually calls, after he has satisfied the registrar of electors of the district as to the validity of his claim. On the strength of his enrolment, any seaman appearing personally before a registrar or collector of customs, and demanding an " Elector's Right," is entitled to have one given to him. Any seaman who is the holder of an Elector's Right, may vote in any part of the dominion for the election of a member of the House, for the district in which he is enrolled at either a by or General Election. He can get from the collector of customs, or, in the case of there not being one at the place where he is, the post- master, or returning officer of the district, a baUot paper on which to record his vote. This voting paper is enclosed in an envelope addressed to the returning officer of the proper district, in the presence of the voter, and sent by the local official to the said returning officer. He can exercise his vote at any time between the issue of the writ and the close of the poU. The collector of customs, or other duly authorized official, must telegraph every day between the issue of the writ and the dose of the poU to the returning officer of the district in which an election is being held, the number of ballot papers appUed for and exercised, and which have been sent by him to the returning officer. The number marked on the " Elector's Right " for which a ballot paper has been issued must also be stated. The returning officer then compares the signature of the voter on the apphcation- for-a-ballot paper with that on the demand for an " Elector's Right." If satisfied that they are the same, he places the paper in the ballot-box. This right of the 170 THE SAILORS' VOTE seaman cannot be in force for more than twelve months from the date of appUcation, but it can be renewed. The general roU of electors is closed annually on April 15th, and after that supplementary roUs are made up. No additions can be made to the latter after the issue of the writ. The registrars of electors are responsible for the roUs being kept in proper order. Every registrar of births and deaths must send to the registrars of electors before the fifth day of each month a list of aU adult deaths registered by him during the preceding month. Registrars of marriages have also to send, in the same manner, a list of the marriages of adult women registered by him. Aliens, lunatics, and people convicted of offences punish- able by death, or one year or more of imprisonment cannot be on any roll, unless they have received a free pardon or undergone the punishment to which they were sentenced. Candidates at elections can have the free use for their meetings, except for the charges of lighting and cleaning, of all primary schools receiving a parliamentary grant. Every candidate has to deposit with the returning officer £10 when he is nominated. Unsuccessful candidates who do not poU one-fourth of the total number of votes cast for the successful candidate, forfeit their deposits. Any candidate may withdraw not later than five clear days before poUing day. If this is done in proper form his deposit is returned to him. At all elections the poUing day is a public holiday, after midday. No liquor can be sold in a pubhc-house between noon and seven p.m. on polling days. The Deputy returning officer of every poUing booth must announce at the close of the poll, the numbers of votes given for the respective candidates. As before stated there are four Maori members of the House of Representatives, the districts returning them being : — 171 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND The Northern Maori District. The Extern „ „ The Western „ „ The Southern „ „ The members must be chosen by the votes of the adult Maori inhabiting the several districts. Every adult Maori can vote, except those disqualified by conviction of an offence pimishable by death or by imprisonment with hard labour for three years or more. Every male Maori elector can be a member. Half-castes can vote as, and for Europeans. The extreme simpUdty of the franchise and dectoral arrangements in New Zealand is well worthy of note. If the voters do not exercise their privileges, it is not because they have any difficulty in arriving at their powers, but because they do not caxe sufficiently about the matter to use them. There is no plural voting, and every election throughout the dominion is held on the same day. This last provision has the advantage of preventing electors from, so to speak, running with the hare and hunting with the hoimds. When there are many what are now called " Mandates " the electors are not able to see what has been the result of other elections, and thus be able to vote on the winning side. Thus there is secured a much truer reflex of the opinion of the country than is obtained under other conditions. The electoral law of 1905, which has been quoted,^came into effect at the recent General Election of 1908. Elections in New Zealand are very quiet and prosaic affairs in comparison with those held in the Mother Country. There are neither bands, colours, nor placards, and, as has been already stated, the pubhc-houses are closed during a large portion of the polling day. There is, of course, much excitement, as must always be the case 172 QUIET ELECTIONS when any important matter has to be settled by a public vote, and the friends of the various candidates naturally endeavour to secure votes for their especial favourite. When the total poll is declared, which it usually is on polling day, the pros and cons raise cheers or groans at the result and then the whole matter is concluded. In the large towns the enterprising newspapers display at the close of each poll, on screens, probably by electric light, the figures received from time to time from the various electoral districts, showing the number of votes recorded for each candidate. There is a little more noise perhaps than in the smaller places, and the crowd which had assembled to see the results disperses quietly with the knowledge that for three years, except in the case of a dissolution, or by-election, there will not be any more excitement of the same nature. The second ballot was introduced into the elective system of the dominion during the last session of ParUa- ment, and under it many of the elections of 1908 were decided. This system was not introduced without much heated argument, during which some proposals in the bill first presented to Parliament were eliminated. This Act introduced a great change in the electoral system, and it will be well to describe what that is. No candidate can claim to be elected unless he has received an absolute majority of votes at the regular poU. This means that a candidate to be successful at the poll must receive more than one half of all the votes recorded. If he does not do so, then a second ballot is taken between the two candidates securing the greatest number of votes. Only two candidates can compete under the second ballot. Should such a thing occur as the second and third candidates securing an equal number of votes then the 173 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND returning officer gives a casting vote in favour of either of the candidates as he may think fit. The candidate who receives the greatest number of votes at the second ballot is elected. No candidate can withdraw from the second ballot. The second ballot must be taken on the seventh day after the close of the poU on the first ballot, except ia certain districts where, on account of the difficulties of the country, fourteen days are allowed. The expenses of a candidate in a second ballot are limited to fifty pounds. These expenses are refunded to each candidate to an extent not exceeding fifty poimds, according to the decision of the ilinister of Finance. Twenty-two second ballots became necessary at the General Election held in November, 1908. 174 CHAPTER III LOCAL AND MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT Division into counties and boroughs — Population — Franchise system — Harbour boards. When the abolition of the provinces took place in 1876, counties were created. This, of course, involved the necessity of steps being taken to provide the machinery for carrying out this new form of local government. The Act, which was passed in 1875, has been amended from time to time when better methods of conducting local government were shown by experience to be necessary. By this Act New Zealand was divided into counties and boroughs. Certain outl57ing islands are not within county boundaries. Stewart Island is a county by itself, and the Chatham Islands also form one county. Boroughs are not included in counties for coimty government purposes, although geographically within them, but all other towns are. The dominion is at present divided into ninety-eight counties, of which there are sixty-one in the North Island and thirty-five in the South Island. The remaining two counties are those just mentioned. Under the provisions of various Acts dealing with counties new ones may be added or divisions made of those already constituted, as necessity arises. The county population is 249,752 in the North Island and 208,560 in the South Island. The two counties, Stewart Island and Chatham Islands, had at the time of the last census (1906) a population of 288 and 197 respectively. This brings the county population to a total of 458,797. The boroughs number 105, and have a population of 424,614 persons. There are also within the counties, road districts and town districts. Of these 175 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND there are 209 road districts and forty-four town districts. There are twenty-eight Harbour Boards. In addition to the foregoing there are river districts, drainage districts, water supply districts, and harbour boards, all of which exercise the necessary functions imphed by their names. The franchise system in the case of boroughs is that each person of the age of twenty-one years, entitled to be enrolled, has one vote, and no more, derived from one of the following qualifications. (a) According to law the owner in a borough of freehold property, the capital value of which is not less than £25. The fact of there being any other person in occupation of any part of the land as a tenant does not affect the owner's rights. (6) One whose name appears in the rate-book in respect of any rateable property in any borough, (c) One who has been for at least three months prior to making up the Usts of electors a tenant or sub- tenant of either the whole or part of a building in the borough of which the rent is not less than £10 a year. No person can be entered on the burgess hst for more than one qualification ; but if he has more than one he can choose which he desires to be enrolled under. If either a husband or a wife has a qualification it is possessed by both of them. The Town Clerk is responsible for the electors' hst being made out aimuaUy and kept up-to-date. The Council has power to make any necessary corrections in the hst. '^A borough, as usual everywhere, consists of a mayor, coimciUors, and burgesses. The mayor is elected by all the electors of a borough. The Council of a borough, which is not divided into wards, must have not less than six or more than twelve councillors, with, of course, a mayor as president. 176 MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT In the case of a borough which is divided into wards and which has a population not exceeding 30,000, the number of councillors is as just quoted. Should the population exceed 30,000 there cannot be less than twelve or more than fifteen councillors. Any person can be elected either as Mayor or councillor who is a quahfied elector under the conditions already quoted. There are certain grounds of disqualification, as for instance being a lunatic, an alien, an undischarged bankrupt, or one who has been convicted of certain offences, unless the punishment awarded has been completed, or a free pardon granted ; or a person concerned in any contract with the Council exceeding £b for one contract or ;^10 altogether in one year. Candidates for office, either as Mayor or Councillor, have to deposit £10 with the returning officer when they are nominated. Any candidate who does not poll one-eighth of the number of votes given to the successful one, forfeits his deposit. The council has considerable powers in connection with lev)dng general and special rates for various purposes, amongst which may be quoted Ughting, pubhc works, water supply, etc. Strong powers are given to the Council to enable them to deal firmly with the very important matter of sanitation. In fact, a Council is enabled to do everything necessary for the well-being of the community, including the erection of dwellings for the workers. In the case of counties, every person of the age of twenty-one years, whose name is on the electors' roU of a riding of a county, is a county elector as long as that roU is in force. Every person whose name is on the valuation roU of any road or town district in a riding or on the electoral roll of any outlying district is also an elector. Miners holding a " miner's right " have one vote in 177 12 — (2136) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND the riding in which they have resided for two months prior to an dection. Rolls are made up for each riding. There cannot be more than nine ridings in a comity. The voting power is as follows : — Those persons shown on the valuation roll of a comity as having rateable property not exceeding £1,000 in value have one vote ; those ha^'ing imder the same conditions property exceeding £1,000 in value, but not exceeding £2,000 have two votes ; those whose property exceeds £3,000 in value have three votes. Three votes is a limit which cannot be exceeded in any case. Any qualified elector can be elected as a county councillor. Certain persons are ineligible for election under the same disqualification conditions as exist in the case of boroughs. The Clerk of the Council is charged with the duty of preparing by the 22nd April in each year a list of all the county electors in each riding. The names of all those who have not paid their rates on the preceding 31st March are omitted from the lists. The governing body of a county consists of a chairman and council. The chairman is elected by a new council at its first meeting and after that every year at the annual meeting. Each riding elects its own councillor. There cannot be less than six or more than nine coimdllors, except in the case of coimties which under the powers given in the Act become united. Then there must be one councillor for each riding. The council has power under the various Acts to levy general and special rates for various purposes, to obtain loans, to deal with pubUc works, tel^raphs, harbour works, tramways, irrigation, drainage, charitable institutions, agricultural coU^es, etc. 178 HARBOUR MANAGEMENT It would be impossible to give an account that would clearly show the duties and responsibilities of all the local bodies in New Zealand, but owing to the prominent position that is occupied by the harbour boards, to whom is entrusted the management and regulation of shipping in the various ports, a short description of their constitution and duties may be given. Prior to 1878, although there were certain Acts dealing with marine questions generally, the various ports and harbours were dealt with by ordinances especially affecting the province in which they were situated. The Act of 1878 laid down that harbour boards should be constituted of : — {a) Members appointed by the governor. (6) Ex-officio members, either as chairmen of chambers of commerce, mayors of boroughs, chairmen of town boards, or chairmen of county councils, etc., according to the circumstances of the particular place, (c) Elected members : some by borough or county councils ; some by chambers of commerce from amongst their members ; others by ratepayers in certain areas affected, and by those paying shipping and harbour dues. Extensive powers were naturally given to the harbour boards for the control and management of harbours to enable them to deal fully with the matters of pilots and pilotage dues, buoys, lights, wrecks, harbour dues, etc. The foregoing gives a somewhat technical account of both general and local government throughout the dominion, and the very simple arrangements by which the franchise is exercised by the electors in New Zealand, arrangements which both in regard to parliament and local councils enable the citizens of the dominion to enjoy their privileges with a minimum of trouble to themselves. 179 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Thus the general reader wiU be able to draw comparison with methods which prevail in other parts of the Empire, and the intending settler will be able tp form some idea of the different systems of government which he will find in the country of his adoption. 180 CHAPTER IV TAXATION Principle of taxation — Exemptions from land-tax — Provisions to prevent evasion of land-tax — Income-tax — Who are exempted from income-tax. The direct taxation in New Zealand has twice varied in form during the past twenty years. In 1878 a land-tax was passed during the premiership of Sir George Grey, but it did not commend itself to the community generally, and was replaced by a property-tax shortly after the defeat of his ministry in July, 1879. This tax was in turn repealed on the advent to power of the party now in office and a Land and Income Assessment Act was passed. In October, 1892, the first Land-tax and Income-tax Act came into existence on the basis of the Assessment Act already referred to. An Amending Act was passed in 1893 and this was followed in 1900 by an Act to consolidate previous legislation and is called the principal Act. A Land and Income Assessment Act was passed in 1907 which is considered to form part of the principal Act and deals almost entirely with the graduated land-tax which will hereafter be referred to. In 1908 another Act under the same title was passed. The principle of the taxation brought into existence by the legislation of 1892 is however maintained through- out. The object of the legislation in regard to land taxation has been to break down any land monopoly and the aggregation of large estates. The income-tax is a graduated one and is therefore based upon the principle that those who are best able to contribute to the funds of the State shall pay more than 181 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND those who are not so favourably circumstanced. This is a perfectly equitable principle. There is now a combined land and income-tax in force. The latter is le\'ied on aU incomes except those derived from rents or profits connected with the direct use or cultivation of land, and interest from mortgages of land. The land-tax is a capital tax and therefore, of course, the income derived from land is not taxed under the income-tax. Mortgages on land are also taxed on their capital value. The Indirect Taxation is made up of customs duties, and excise duty on beer made in the dominion. The land-tax is assessed on the gross saleable value of the land, less the value of all the improvements made upon it. That is, the taxpayer escapes all land taxation on the material and labour that he has made use of for the improvement of the land he occupies. The following is the wording of the Act : — " The unimproved value of any piece of land means the smn which the owner's estate or interest therein, if unencumbered by mortgage or other charge thereon, and if no improvement existed on that particolar piece of land, might be expected to realize at the time of \-alnation, if ofiered for sale on such reasonable terms and conditions as a bona fide seller might be expected to require." The following are the principal data on which " unimproved value " is determined :— (a) Increased value of the land due to the successful working of other lands in the same district. (b) Progressive works carried out by the State. (c) General prosperity of the country. (d) High markets for produce, etc. Every owner of land of which the imimproved value, together with mortgages owing to him (but after the deduction of mortgages owing by him) does not exceed jf 1,500, is allowed an exemption from taxation of £500. Where the value exceeds £1,500 the exemption diminishes by £\ for every £2 of increases value. TTius, after the 182 UNIMPROVED VALUE value of the land has reached £2,500 there is no exemption. There are two taxes levied on land : — (a) Ordinary Land-tax ; (6) Graduated Land-tax. (c) The Ordinary Land-tax is as foUows : — One penny in the pound on the unimproved value ; mortgages on land are also taxed at the rate of three farthings in the pound on the capital value. (d) The Graduated Land-tax is payable on the assessed value of unimproved land, when that amount reaches £5,000. The scale begins at one-sixteenth of a penny in the pound on the assessed value of land from £5,000 to £7,000, and reaches thirteen-sixteenths of a penny in the case of land valued at from £35,000 to £40,000. Between the unimproved values of £40,000 and £41,000 the rate of taxation is eight shUlings for every £100 of such value. For every additional £1,000 of value after £40,000 the percentage is increased by one-fifth of a shilling. The increased rate of these percentages is in each case charged on the total unimproved value of the land. The rates just quoted reach their maximum when the value of the land reaches £200,000. After £200,000 value is reached the rate of taxation becomes £2 for every £100 of value. On the 31st March, 1910, the progressive scale of percentages will be increased by 25 per cent, on aU land over £40,000 in value, other than that used for business purposes. Business premises mean land included in the area of a building used for business purposes only, together with such additional land immediately adjoining it which has not a greater area than the building itself. This additional land must be used and occupied in connection with the business carried on in the building. A building is considered to be used for business purposes when it is used exclusively or principally by the owner 183 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND or any occupiers for canying out any business, trade, or industry. The value of minerals, timber, and flax is not taken into account in valuing land, and consequently no land-tax is payable on accoimt of their value. Everyone getting profit out of minerals, timber, or flax, whether it is obtained by rent, royalties, or commercial undertakings is charged under income-tax. Should the commissioner however not be satisfied that the working of the minerals, etc., is carried on in good faith and to proper extent, then the minerals, etc., are assessed for land-tax. In addition to the taxation already referred to, there is yet another form which appHes to owners of land of a greater value than £5,000 who are absentees. In this case the graduated tax is fifty per cent, higher than in the case of the ordinary taxpayer. An absentee is defined as one who has not been himself present in New Zealand for two years out of the four immediately preceding that for which the graduated tax is assessed. Should, however, a person have acquired all the land he owns in New Zealand within foxu: years of that in which the graduated assessment is made, and have been in the dominion at least half of the time between first acquiring land and the year of assessment, he is not considered an absentee. The following are the general exemptions from land-tax : (a) All land or mortgages on land owned by The Crown ; Local authorities ; Friendly societies ; Building societies ; PubHc charitable or pubUc educational institutions not carried on for pecuniary profit ; Savings banks ; Commissioners of PubHc Sinking Funds ; 184 THE ABSENTEE AND THE TAX Religious societies, so far as the proceeds are devoted to the support of aged or infirm clergy or their widows or children. (6) All native land not leased to or occupied by any person other than the native owners. (c) The site of : — A place of worship for any reUgious society or a place of residence for any of the clergy or ministers of such society ; A charitable or educational institution (or other than a public institution referred to above under a) not carried on exclusively for pecuniary profit. This exemption does not extend to more than fifteen acres ; A public hbrary, athenaeum, mechanics' institute, public museum, school of mines, or masonic lodge; A show-ground or place of meeting of any agricultural society ; A public cemetery or public burial ground ; A public garden, domain, recreation ground, or other public reserve ; A public road or street ; A public railway to the extent of the land actually used for permanent way and for yards, sheds, and buildings for purposes of traffic only ; (d) The value of timber, minerals, and flax ; (e) The mortgages of banking companies and loan building and investment companies whose head offices are in New Zealand. Land-tax assessments are made and the accounts are posted to taxpayers about the 1st November in each year, and are payable about the middle of that month. Fourteen days are allowed for pa5niient. At the expira- tion of the fourteen days there is a further impost of ten per cent, on unpaid taxes. The tax may be paid either direct to the Commissioner of Taxes, or at any postal money order office in the dominion. 185 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND The number of land-tax payers in the year 1897-1898 was 13,132, and the amount of tax collected was £267,286. In 1907-1908 the number of taxpayers was 28,991 and the tax received £537,846. A large amount of detail in connection with the New Zealand land taxation has been given in order that readers who wish to obtain information on the subject may easily gather the reasons that have influenced the l^^slature. The guiding principles of land valuation have also been given at some length, in order to show what is considered in New Zealand to be the right interpretation of the term " unimproved value." Many provisions have been made to prevent the land-tax being evaded, for example : — Shareholders are Uable as if owners of a company's land in proportion to their interest in the paid-up capital ; The buyer in possession of land is liable to the tax although conveyance has not been executed ; The seller remains hable until fifteen per cent, of the purchase money is paid ; A trustee is liable as if beneficially entitled ; Mortgagees are not hable, but mortgagees-in- possession are hable to the tax like lessees. It will be seen that not only has every precaution been taken to prevent any evasion of the land-tax, but that the form in which it is levied ensures that the principle guiding its foundation shall be fully maintained. The absentee-tax seems very suitable to the conditions of a country which is being developed. It reminds those who have acctunulated large properties from which they obtain considerable wealth that it is their duty to spend a great portion of it in the country whence it was derived, thus benefiting the whole population. 186 INCOME-TAX EXEMPTIONS Young communities naturally say that in the com- mencement of their life they wiU not allow old world usages that are unsuitable to the condition of a new country to be engrafted in their legislative system. In 1896 an Act was passed by which the whole of the land valuation required either by the general government or by local bodies has to be carried out by valuers employed by the State, who receive a regular salary and are reliable officers. This has saved an enormous amount of trouble, as prior to the Act coming into force separate valuers were temporarily appointed by the various Government depart- ments when valuations were required, and the same state of affairs existed as regards local bodies. Now there is uniformity and direct responsibility. In former years the valuation was often carried out very imperfectly and by very unreliable people. The income-tax is assessed only on incomes derived from other sources than those of the use or produce of land. Each taxpayer is allowed an exemption up to £300, with an additional allowance on life insurance premiums on the taxpayer's own life up to £50. This £300 exemption is not allowed in the case of those (whether firms or individuals) who do not reside in the dominion, nor in the case of a company. All incomes between £300 and £1,300 pay a tax of sixpence in the pound. Incomes over £1,300 pay a tax of sixpence in the pound on the first £1,000, and one shilling in the pound on any amount over that. The incomes exempted from taxation are : — The Crown ; The salary and emoluments of the Governor ; Local authorities ; 187 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Friendly societies, as regards business connected with their membership only ; Building societies ; PubUc, charitable, and educational estabhshments ; Savings banks ; The Commissioners of General Government and local body sinking funds ; The funds of rehgious societies which are devoted only to the support of old and infirm ministers and their famihes ; Imperial pensioners, on pensions paid by the Crown and already taxed in the United Kingdom or some British possession ; Co-operative dairy factory companies, on income derived from the dairy produce supphed by its own shareholders ; Pubhc societies not carrying on business for pecuniary gain; The owner of land in respect of rent or profits derived from its direct use and cultivation. A mortgagee of land. Returns of income received by all persons, firms, and companies have to be furnished by them annually. These retmns must be in the hands of the Commissioners of Taxes in Wellington by the 1st of June in each year, and must include particulars of the actual income of the year ending the preceding 31st March. The assessments in connection with income are sent out about the 1st January in each year. They are made payable about the 31st of that month, but fourteen days' grace is given for the payments. After the days of grace have expired an additional ten per cent, has to be paid. It is needless to say that the Government has every return closely examined by the officials of the tax office, and takes every precaution to prevent any evasions. 188 EDUCATION OF THE TAXPAYER Special powers are given under the Act for enabling the Commissioner to examine all the books of a taxpayer, and to call at any time for papers, etc., containing evidence of the taxpayer's income. Government depart- ments, local authorities, and every firm, etc., have to furnish annual returns of the amounts paid to their several employees. Penalties are, of course, provided for not making returns, or for doing so incorrectly or fraudulently. It is claimed by the authorities that a very perceptible improvement can be noticed in the taxpayer's book- keeping since the first years of the imposition of the income-tax. The tax has therefore not only realized a considerable sum of money, but has had an educative effect. As regards permissible deductions, it may- be said that they only comprise losses, and such expenses as must necessarily be incurred in the production of an income. The net assessed income was in 1908, £7,260,713. The number of income-tax payers was 10,420. The income- tax yielded in the year 1907-1908, £304,904. In the year after the imposition of the income-tax, 1892-1893, the amount paid under that tax was £67,367. It is said by the Registrar-General, the writer of the book from which the above figures are taken {New Zealand Official Year Book), that the statements of the amounts given for the period 1892-1895 must be accepted with caution, as the number of persons liable to the tax may not have been really ascertained. Granting that to be the case, stUl the increased amount paid each year affords evidence of steadily advancing prosperity. ! The increased receipts from income-tax between the years 1897-98 and 1907-8 amounted to about 212 per cent., whereas the increase of population during the same period was only about 30 per cent. 189 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND The general Government taxation for the last two financial years was as foUows : — Yeas Ending 31st March, 1907. 31st March, 1908. Indirect taxation.. ;f3,048,622 ;f3,21 7,538 Direct taxation .. |l,215,933 ^^1,428,216 Total .. ;f4,264,555 ;^4,645,754 This shows an amount of taxation per head of the mean European population of £B Os. 4d. The taxation levied by the various local bodies for the year ended March 31st, 1907, the latest period for which figures are available, was £1,338,536, or £\ 9s. 8d. per head on the same basis as quoted above. This shows the total amount of taxation per head to be £6 10s. It may be said that this is a heavy burden for the people of the dominion to bear, but it is evident from the flourishing condition of the country, and the general indications of continued prosperity, that it is by no means insupportable. 190 CHAPTER V NATIVE QUESTION No native question — ^Maori Parliament. There is one subject always of great interest in regard to any country occupied by distinct races. Especially is this the case with regard to any part of the British dominions, in which the original occupiers have eventually lost the dominant position they held, and have become subjects of the Crown on an equality with those who have acquired the country. Information is commonly sought for by the query : " How does the native question stand ? " As regards the Dominion of New Zealand, the answer might be summed up shortly in the words : " There is none." Happily for New Zealand the wars which ended in 1870 practically settled once and for all the question of supre- macy. A recurrence of hostihties is impossible, not only on account of the great preponderance in numbers of the European population, but also because the Maori themselves are a law-abiding people, who have seen the advantages they have gained by becoming subjects of the British Crown. They join in the making of the laws of the country, they have their " reserves " of which they know they will never be deprived, and they participate in the conditions which have arisen from the active prosecution of all the public works, and from the other national movements that have resulted in the great prosperity and general well-being of the whole community. 191 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND The " King Coimtry " has ceased to exist as one closed to the Etiropeans, and the Urewera cotmtry — ^peopled by a powerful tribe which was never conquered, and would not, after the Maori wars ceased, have any communication with the white race — ^is now open to aU. In 1904 this country was visited by the Governor, Lord Ranfurly, at the express invitation of the Maori, who received him with every native honour and greeted him as a friend. The Urewera natives pride themselves on being the direct descendants of the people found by the Maori on their arrival in New Zealand. The Maori have what they call a "Parliament." It is purely an informal gathering which is held, now at one place, now at another, in the North Island, and is called by the chiefs to discuss some grievance or another, as well as legislation coimected with the Maori race. These meetings are looked upon by many of the Europeans with ridicule, and as held only to afford opportunities to the Maori of displaying their great powers of oratory. They are, however, of value in making known the ilaori feehngs on many matters, and act distinctly as safety-valves. That there wiU be for a long time to come many subjects affecting the relations between both races which need calm discussion and careful adjustment goes without sa5dng, but that there wiU ever arise again an5rthing that can be called a " Native Question " in the sense that generally apphes to that term is quite impossible. The old tribal antipathies may still to some extent exist, indeed, it is certain that they do, but these cannot in any way affect the present friendly feeling so advantageous to both Maori and Europeans. That the tribes are as one in their loyalty to the British Crown was amply proved by the large nixmber of Maori who volunteered for service in South Africa during the Boer war and by the disappointment they obviously felt when circumstances rendered it impossible to accept their 192 LAW-ABIDING NATIVES proffered aid. It would scarcely be possible to imagine that these people, who were so anxious to assist in asserting the supremacy of British arms in South Africa, should endeavour to do anything antagonistic to British rule in their own country. 193 • 3— ("36) CHAPTER VI CUSTOMS AND TARIFF Customs — Rates of duty on various items — Reciprocal trade. As in other countries, so in New Zealand, the earhest means by which revenue was raised was through customs duties. That the inhabitants should be satisfied with a system of raising money, which, in their opinion, was a burden upon the trade of the country, could not be expected. The Governor of the day, in the endeavour to please the trading community, abolished customs duties in the North, with the natural result that other parts of the country clamoured for a like concession. In order to please everybody he abohshed these duties altogether. He then introduced a property-tax to take the place of those abolished. This being stiU more distasteful, customs duties were levied once more. In order that pubhc works may be carried on and the necessities provided for, which are inseparable from the government of any coimtry, money must be raised somehow. A system had to be devised by which every section of the community would contribute to the com- mon fund necessary for these purposes. Customs duties, to a certain extent, met that requirement. In the imposition of the duties New Zealand has been guided by the principle of helping to provide the necessary revenue while at the same time encouraging its growing industries. The rate at which duties are levied has, of necessity, been altered from time to time so as to meet varying requirements. The result is at all events that, while a considerable contribution is made to revenue, there are at the same time about 56,000 people employed 194 TOBACCO AND ALCOHOL TAXES in industries whose annual output may be estimated at over twenty-three millions sterling. The customs duties on goods imported into New Zealand are levied by ad valorem duties in some cases, and by specific charges of varying amounts in others. The ad valorem duties range from 5 to 40 %. The latter rate is charged on clothing made to the order or measurement of residents in the dominion for their individual use, and also upon volunteer clothing made from measurements sent from New Zealand. It is somewhat difficult to understand why these particular classes of goods were selected for special treatment. In the case of all prison-made goods imported there is a further duty of 20 %. Excise duties are levied upon beer made in New Zealand, tinctures, and other medicinal preparations made with spirit, and on cigars, cigarettes, snuff, and tobacco manufactured in the dominion. Speaking generally of the tariff, it may be said that dutiable articles are divided into sixteen classes. Class I. — Foods and Articles for Human Consumption For this class there are thirty-one items bearing a fixed duty — five bearing a 20% ad valorem duty and two 25%. Class II. — Tobacco For this class the rates are fixed. Cigarettes, cigars, and snuff being subject to a duty of 7s. the lb., tobacco 3s. 6d. the lb., except unmanufac- tured, which is entered for manufacture in a licensed factory in New Zealand. In this case the duty is 2s. per lb., but it bears excise duty according to a varying scale when manufactured into cigars, etc. Class III. — Alcoholic Beverages In this class all the items are taxed at fixed rates, 195 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND spirits bearing a duty of 16s. per gallon. Wines from 2s. to 9s. per gallon, the lower rate being leviable on certain wines imported under the New Zealand and South African Reciprocity Act. Ale and beer, 2s. per gallon. Class IV. — N on- Alcoholic Beverages Some subject to fixed rates and some to 20% ad valorem duties. Class V. — Drugs, Medicines, etc. Some subject to fixed rates, and others to 20 % ad valorem duties. In this class opium is rated at £2 per lb., but none can be imported in any form suitable for smoking. Class VI. — Clothing and Textile Goods One item, " Raw Cotton," pays a fixed rate of 4d. per lb. AU other items bear ad valorem duties ranging from 20 to 40%. Class VII. — Leather and Manufactures of Leather Some items bear duties at fixed rates and some ad valorem duties ranging from 15 to 22J- %. Class VIII. — Furniture and Household Furniture The items all bear ad valorem duties. These range from 20 to 25%. Class IX. — China, Glass and Earthen Goods Some items at fixed rates, and some ad valorem duties of 20 and 25 %. Class X. — Fancy Goods, Musical Instruments, etc. Two items at fixed rates, and the rest duties of 20 and 25 % fl^ valorem. Class XI. — Paper Manufactures and Stationery Some articles are at fixed rates, and some are charged ad valorem duties ranging from 15 to 25 %. 196 MANUFACTURED ARTICLES TAXED Class XII. — Manufactures of Metal In this class some items are charged with duties at fixed rates, and others with ad valorem duties ranging from 5 to 25 %. Class XIII. — Timber and Articles made from Timber Timber manufactured into posts, rails, shingles, etc., and sawn timber are charged at varjang fixed rates, and others are subject to ad valorem duties of 20 %. Amongst these articles are motor vehicles of which 6,205 were imported in 1907, and 532 of which were of British manufacture. Class XIV. — Oils, Paints, etc. Here, as in other classes, certain goods are charged at fixed rates while some bear an ad valorem duty, in this case 25 %. Class XV. — Agricultural and Farm Products, etc. Here, again, certain items are charged under fixed rates, while others bear an ad valorem duty, the latter being 20 %. Under those charged at fiiced rates, homed cattle are charged at 10s. each and horses £\. Class XVI. — Miscellaneous In this class thirteen items are subject to fixed rates, one to an ad valorem duty of 10 %, nine to 20 %, and four to 25 %. The customs tariff was completely revised in 1907, when many articles were placed upon the full list and some had increased duties placed upon them. When the revision was being made, some changes in the preferential tariff took place, by which the surtax on various goods not the produce of the British dominions was increased. The full effect of all these tariff charges cannot be ascertained until all the details for 1908 have been analysed in the dominion. 197 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND It is sufficient to say that imder the present tariff two- fifths of all the items come mider the preferential system to be hereafter alluded to. It may be of interest to compare the duties on certain articles of consumption which are levied in the Mother Country and New Zealand respectively. For example : — Artides. Duty in Great Britain, | Doty in New Zealand. Tea Cocoa and Chocolate Roasted Coffee and Chicory Raw Coffee . . . . Sugar Treacle and Molasses 5d. per lb. 2d. ., „ 2d 14s. per cwt. From lOd. to Is.lOd. per cwt. From Is. to 2s. 9d. per cwt. On tea not the' Jjroduce of the . Empire, 2d. per lb. ' 3d. per lb. 3d. „ „ Free. Free Free The customs duties secured during the financial year ended March 31st, 1907, was £2,941,040, and the excise duty on beer was £107,582. liie revenue from those duties per head of the Euro- pean population was £3 7s. 2d. in 1906 and £3 9s. 7d. in 1907. The excise duty dming that period varied only 2^ pence. The customs revenue for the financial year ended on March 31st, 1908, was £3,103,565, and the revenue from excise duty on beer during the same period was £113,973. The customs revenue has been increased by the " Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act," but the exemption in favour of British-grown tea has resulted in a considerable loss to the revenue. In 1903 a departure was made from the general prin- ciple with regard to customs duties. This was in the introduction of the S57stem of preference imder certain conditions. In the year named an Act called " The 198 FIRST STEP IN RECIPROCITY Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act " was passed. This contained provisions of a far-reaching nature embodied in the following explanatory statements. Reciprocal Trade When any country, being part of the British Dominions, reduces or abolishes, or proposes to do so, the duty on any product or manufacture of New Zealand, the Governor is authorized to enter into an agreement to reduce or abohsh the duty on. any articles the produce or manufacture of such country to an extent that the established revenue so remitted shall equal as nearly as possible the remission by that country. Such agreements, however, require ratification by ParHament. Similarly where any country, not being part of the British Domin- ions, reduces or abolishes, or proposes to do so, the duty on any product or manufacture of New Zealand, the Governor is authorized, subject to, or by virtue of a treaty with his Majesty, to negotiate for an agreement to reduce or abolish the duty on any articles the produce or manufacture of such country to such an extent that the estimated revenue so remitted in New Zealand shaU equal as far as possible what is remitted by that country, subject to Parhamentary ratification. New Zealand, having made up its mind to adopt a system of preferential trade, lost no time in taking steps to that end. To give immediate practical effect to this decision an additional duty was imposed on certain articles which were not of British origin. The increased duties are set forth in the "Tariff Act," 1907. Take cement, for example. The duty is increased 100 %. In the case of bicycles and similar machines, and all parts connected with them, candles, clocks, earthenware, firearms, and many other things it would be impossible to mention, the duty is increased 50 %. There are some articles in 199 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND the case of which the increase of duty only amounts to 20 %, in others to only 10 %. In regard to the way in which the Reciprocity principle laid down by the Act of 1903 has been carried out, an illustration may be found in " The New Zealand and South African Customs Duties Reciprocity Act, 1906," which provides for a reduction of duties on certain articles imported from South Africa in return for remis- sions on produce sent from New Zealand to the colonies in that country. It should be mentioned that no duty is leviable in the dominion on tea produced in any country under the British Crown, except it is in packets not exceeding one poimd in weight. It will be perfectly evident from what has just been stated that, although powers were given under the Act of 1903 to enter into negotiations with countries other than British dominions, the main object was to promote trade within the Empire. 200 CHAPTER VII GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS Original and present seat of government — Method of administration — Duties of the Public Trustee — The Civil Service. The seat of government, as originally chosen by the first Governor, was at Auckland and doubtless it was one which at the time was the best that could have been selected. It was in the centre of that part of the country which was best known, and where practically all the Europeans in the colony were to be found, as well as the Maori with whom the principal negotiations were being carried on. It had a good harbour and seemed best suited for any sea trade that might then be developed. Indeed, at the time of the annexation of New Zealand, comparatively little was known of other parts of the islands. Every European settlement up to that time, all trade, and practically aU visits to the islands had been confined to the northern parts. The central of&ces of the various government departments were naturally established in Auckland, a town at almost one end of the islands, over which administration was just commencing. It was perfectly obvious that as coloniza- tion proceeded and as people began to settle in various places throughout the length and breadth of New Zealand, some more central position must be selected as the seat of government. After considerable discussion, one might almost say wrangling, the legislature decided that some position in Cook's Straits must be, in the interests of all concerned, chosen for the seat of government. An impartial committee, composed of high officials from three of the Austrahan colonies, was appointed to select the place, and decided upon WeUington. It seems almost impossible to believe nowadays that the committee could have hesitated about coming to a 201 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND decision. Wellington not only has the natiu'al advantage of a fine harbour, but is situated in the best position as a distributing centre, having easy access at all times for vessels, not only from all dominion ports, but from every part of the world. In 1865 the seat of government was removed to what was then only a small town but which has since developed into a large city situated on the north side of Cook's Straits. In Wellington aU government departments took up their home for that year, and there they have kept on growing from the very few that were necessary in the old days to what have become requisite for administration at the present time. In the early days the offices of the various departments were scattered about Wellington wherever housing-room could be found. In 1870, however, a pubhc works pohcy was initiated. This embraced the control of almost everything that tended to the material development of the coimtry, such as immigration, roads, bridges, telegraphs, railways, water-supply, hghthouses, goldfields, and purchase of native lands. To this was added, in later years, the construction of harbour defences and the exploitation of tourist and health resorts. Dining the sixteen years that followed the initiation of a pubUc works policy the net expenditure amounted to £23,250,000 ; smce then, that is up to the 31st March, 1908, it has mcreased by £23,500,000; the net expenditure during the last financial year embraced within this period being £1,909,686. From this pohcy arose the necessity of creating depart- ments for carrying it out and enlarging the functions of administration. Centralization became an absolute re- quirement. The result was the concentration of the government offices in what was said at the time to be the largest wooden building in the world. 202 A GREAT DEVELOPMENT Even that building, however, has not been suflftciently large to hold all the offices and staffs now necessary. By way of preface, it may be said that in New Zealand almost everything is controlled by the Government. The Government departments are consequently very numerous. To give an account of all the departments, and the work of administration performed by each of them, would be of little general interest. Suffice it to say, that almost everything affecting the advancement of the interests of the dominion and the well-being of its citizens is dealt with comprehensively by one of the many departments. The duties of administration are widespread. Under the departments of land and survey is to be found a board for dealing with the preservation of scenery, and a State forest branch with a chief forester, as well as trained experts in charge of the State nurseries. In the agricultural department, which only came into existence some twenty years ago, there has been an extra- ordinary development. It would seem as if there could be no further extension of its varied duties. There is a veterinary division with its chief veterinarian and pathologist aided by a qualified staff. There are meat inspectors and laboratories ; a dairy division with its commissioner, its instructors, and its produce graders ; a biological and horticultural division with a biologist ; a fruit-preserving expert ; a bee expert, pomologists, and inspectors of orchards as well as of imported fruits ; a poultry division with its experts, and its graders ; a fibre division with its experts, graders, and instructors ; a viticultural division ; a manure-sterilizing division, and also one for dealing with Hve stock and the necessary experimental farms. This large department also issues most valuable leaflets and books of instruction on every subject which can possibly be of interest to those engaged in country life. 203 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND There axe, as might be naturally expected, departments for public works, finance, taxation, agriculture, defence, education, postal and telegraphic matters, customs, justice, police, and many other subjects which must form p£irt of the administration of any country. New Zealand having decided that it is the duty of the State to undertake the management and control of many other matters, has had to add to the list those required for dealing with the administration of land, native affairs, railways, mines, hospitals, and charitable aid, hfe and fire insurance. State coal mines, industries and commerce, laboiu", old-age pensions, and many others. For instance, there is a " Department of Tourist and Health Resorts " which spreads throughout the world all possible tEiformation as to the great beauty and grandeur of the scenery of New Zealand and the value of its spas and sanatoria. This department is charged with the development and super- vision of these health resorts and with guiding and aiding the toiuist and seekers after health in every possible way. It also gives to the world the most reUable information as to the excellent provision afforded by the dominion for all classes of sport. In order to carry out this comprehensive work a large staff is necessarily required. This includes a journalist, district agents in the dominion itself, as well as in other parts of the world, engineers, medical ofl&cers, and, last but not least, a balneologist. This department has only been in existence for a very few years, but it has done much during that time to spread the knowledge of the beauty and grandeur of the scenery, and the benefit that must accrue to invalids by visiting its many health resorts. In this New Zealand is only following the example set, especially by Switzerland and Austria, among countries in the old world, which are officially endeavouring to attract tourists. Amongst the many departments that have been created 204 A PUBLIC BOON in New Zealand there is not one which has proved its value more fuUy than that of the " PubUc Trustee." The dominion owes a debt of gratitude of no ordinary kind to Sir JuHus Vogel for having estabUshed this excellent institution. The boon that this has been to all classes of the community can hardly be over-rated. One can rarely take up a newspaper in England without seeing some case reported in which there has been con- siderable loss through the careless or fraudulent action of private trustees. In New Zealand there need be no anxiety on the part of anyone either in reference to the creation of a trust, the execution of a will, the administration of a property, or the settlement of private trusts in which the parties do not agree, not to mention many other things of a Uke nature. The Public Trustee has also to undertake the management and protection of the affairs of limatics, and the administration of certain lands connected with the reserves for Maori tribes. It would be almost impossible to mention the many and varied duties imposed upon him in connection with his important office. f ■ The administration of the estates in connection with those members of the contingents who were kiUed, or died, during the Boer war affords a conspicuous example of the value of this department. It enabled aU those affected to have their affairs more promptly dealt with than could otherwise have been the case, and also at much less cost. When one remembers what a difference the death of a private trustee makes in the administration of property, one can estimate how great is the advantage of an office in which the work is carried on continuously, irrespective of any personal change. The boon that this has been to all classes of the community can hardly be over-rated. 205 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND The extent to which advantage has been taken of this department may be judged from the following table. Administeked by Public Trustee 1907. 1908. Wills, tills Is and private estates, including sinking funds acconnts in 1907 . . PnbUc Sinking Funds 3,486 790 Value. 3,236,322 1,353,835 Kmnber. 3,817 901 54 Value. 2.677.409 1,388,580 973,946 4,276 4,590,157 4,772 5,039,935 The capital funds of the Public Trust Office which have been invested amounted on March 31st, 1908, to ^2,444,712. Another branch of the Civil Service has also been of inestimable value to the pubhc inasmuch it has carried out the important work of land transfer. This is made as simple as possible with great benefit to all concerned. The Act under which it came into existence was passed in 1870 as the " Land Transfer Act." An Act passed in 1871 abolished all pensions in the Civil Service except as regarded those who were members at the time. Those entering the Service after the above- mentioned year receive certain benefits on retirement under a contributory scheme in which they bear their full share. It is somewhat curious that when the Act granting pensions to Civil servants was passed a corresponding one was not placed on the statute-book making provision for pensions for the mihtary forces. The Civil servants were secure in their pensions, but those who were fighting in the field in the old days and enabling them to hold their positions had no certain reward. The " Mihtary Pensions Act " that was passed dealt only with pensions for wounds, sickness, etc., and compassionate allowances 206 LAND EASILY TRANSFERRED to widows and families of those who died or were killed in the service of the dominion. One of the principal departments of the Civil Service is that of the High Commissioner in London. Through that department proceed all the delicate transactions of the dominion government with those on this side of the world, and from it every information connected with the country can be conveniently obtained and is always most readily and promptly supplied. For many years the Civil Service was not classified except in the case of two of its branches — the Railways and Post Office — and there was no proper and regulated scheme of superannuation. From this want of system both the country and the service suffered. In 1907, however. Acts were passed dealing with both these important matters to the benefit of aU concerned. It will be seen by the foregoing that the government departments are numerous and charged with the adminis- tration of almost everything that comes into the life of the citizens of the dominion. It will, moreover, be apparent from the instances quoted that when once a department is created its work is thorough and has far-reaching results. It should also be mentioned that in the Civil Service of the dominion the necessity of doing something in aid of protecting the country has not been neglected. This may be seen from the fact that under the Education Depart- ment there is a public schools' cadet branch. Evidence of the value placed on a mihtary training of the young is also afforded by the fact that cadets in the Civil Service are required, after arriving at the age of eighteen years to serve for three years in a volunteer corps. To ensure that this regulation is not neglected the responsibility is thrown upon aU heads of departments of seeing that they join a corps and serve for the time laid down. 207 CHAPTER VIII FINANCE Generai, goventment — Local governing bodies — Tables from Official Year Book. To enter into the whole question of finance connected with the dominion would be to undertake a task not only requiring such a mastery of the subject as but few possess, but involving the deaJing with so many separate accounts and transactions that one may weU be excused from taking more than a cursory glance at the matter. General taxation, which is intimately connected with finance, has been dealt with elsewhere. 1. General Government By the Statement of the Minis ter of Finance on July 7th, 1908, it is shown that the revenue for the last financial year was £9,059,946, an increase over the previous one of £656,871. The expenditure during the same period was £8,213,965. The following figures which are taken from the state- ment already alluded to will prove of interest as showing the progress of the dominion. [ Excess of Yccir. ' Revenue. Expenditure. Revenue over ! expenditure. 1903-4 ;f7,02 1,386 ;£6,434,281 ;^587,105 1904-5 1 7,282,870 6.635,902 646,968 1905-6 ! 7,584,359 7,122,340 462,019 1906-7 8,399,075 7,774,926 624,149 1907-8 9,055,946 8.213,965 1 841,981 Attention may here be drawn to the large proportion of revenue derived from customs and beer duty, viz., £3,217,538. 208 THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MONEY The revenue per head of the mean population in the year 1903-4 was £8 12s. 5d., and in 1907-8 it was ^9 15s. lOd. The total revenue to which this last calculation refers includes a sum of £8,043, described in the ofi&cial Year Book for 1908 as recoveries in respect of expenditure in previous years. Again, quoting the same authority, a surplus is shown on the year's transactions of £850,024. Adding to this the surplus of the previous year £717,825, there foUows a total surplus of £1,567,849. Out of this sum, £800,000 was transferred to the Public Works Fund. This left a balance of £716,849 on March 31st, 1908. As regards the Pubhc Debt of the dominion the following is taken from the Financial Statement : — " The gross public debt on March 31st, 1907, was ;f64, 179,040. On March 31st last it was ;£66,453,897, or an increase of ;^2,274,857. " This may appear to be a very large increase, but so long as the policy is to acquire land for close settlement, construction of railways, roads and bridges, lending to local bodies, and making advances to settlers is approved of by ParUament, the pubhc debt of the dominion must go on increasing, and it must not be forgotten that our assets, many of them direct interest-bearing, propor- tionately increase. A large portion of this increase is devoted to expenditure of a reproductive character." The charges of the public debt for the year 1907-8 are shown to be £2,187,427. It may be remembered here that £11,740,527 of the pubhc debt was raised in New Zealand. Many of the items composing the public debt are interest-bearing investments, as, for instance, " Land Settlement," " Native Land Purchases," " Lands Im- provement," " Loans to Local Bodies," " New Zealand Consols," " Advances to Workers," " Bank of New Zealand Preferred Shares," and " Reserve Fund Securities." PubUc works expenditure represents items of a repro- ductive nature, such as railways, roads, and bridges, 209 t4— (1136) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND telegraphs, inmiigratioii, and many other services of a hke nature. The institution of pubhc works induced immigration, which in its turn caused a further demand for the extension of railways, telegraphs, roads, etc., without which the settlement of the country could not proceed. The more the country became settled the greater was the reproductive power of the works executed. 2. Local Governing Bodies The indebtedness on account of outstanding loans on March 31st, 1907, was £11,616,048. On the 31st March, 1897, it was £6,793,398. The increase, therefore, during that period of ten years was £4,822,650. In addition, there was a net indebtedness on account of Government Loans of £1,647,273. Taking the same period as before this form of indebtedness has increased by £936,914. The total revenue for the year ended March 31st, 1907, from rates, licences, rents, government, and other sources was £2,812,440. In 1897 it was £1,363,573. Again, taking a period of ten years, an increase of £1,448,867 is shown. In addition to revenue proper, £1,227,473 was received by these bodies. The receipt of this sum is due to moneys specially raised for such operations as the con- struction of public works. The total receipts for the year ended March 31st, 1907, were £4,039,913, and the expenditure £3,897,515. AH measures regulating the borrowing powers of local bodies are dealt with by consohdated statutes. The conditions regarding the interest and period of the loans to local bodies by the Government are as under : — At the option of the authority concerned: — (a) Four and one half per cent, per year for a period of twenty-six years ; or 210 MUNICIPAL BORROWING POWERS (6) Four per cent, per year for a period of twenty-two years ; or (c) Three and a half per cent, per year for a period of forty-two years. The following tables taken from the official Year Book of 1908 will show the position of the local bodies as regards their net indebtedness and the annual charge. 211 ss o PS < X o < Z Z < Q Z < IS. Z3 ill- < a H I o ^ » = . a - =-S-2 a S = oa Ed <— CO — t^-««OOCDOtN. o CO ncii-iOio «D OT •-•" ®~ 00 10 ■eoesi ;sc4 0ir^ioo ^ i- u BS ■< a o n •< u o o ■< o I-) o"'!'o o » ca w tV^ m O o O a , : o >. : s 00 cd o H O U O UCQHC i'3-B IflO s ^1 5 si5 «t 0) 0) Oi r* P W C g tfl 03 So, g .^-^ " a O p S d g H H-t oj m 5 oo R !> CO 05 M Q - M to dl 13 d S ■o a ■ ■ :: a O O M-l t:« ° d 9 i 03 bo 43 1(2 2 03 ■"■o o MO*' Q d !1C a < 8SS'S8,R8S,§ fn L^ ip H -^tN^O ■^ n'lo'eo o ^^ . .§ .^. . . . ^ O). mo o lO ID w>: :■?. : : : : ? o o o t-tf " • "O • ■ "Q • o • o ^ ^ : : °- : : : : : : 8 R'S.ggRg?, ^ m « U-) ^s s •^ • -^ •S Q o *N.oo . Is q_ o^ Tj ■* , , m ^. u-i - ovoo Oioo oo N ^ S « ■? o o ^o o o tt- 'St « 1 en « ^ 8? 88 8§ J i^> : w m" ! roen * o"io « o o 5 ■ i^ „ H *HJ O • o * " -iJ- ' ■-f Q „ ^^ . . 8 o w « u ^ cB ::::::: : ;a >, g Q d _2 cc 45-3 Christchurch 1 Counties .. Boroughs . . Town Boards Road Boards River Boards Water-supply Harbour Boar Drainage Boar 5 "3 iS o o o o O 8,858 O in ^ ^ o" o oooo 58?,8 10UT*0 «n 00 « in • * * — " s .£ 1 Q Ji q_ . q_ . ". 1 fe Q o ■H y •^ 8 §. § — ■y 1 'O'P -13 11^ o 1? oughs er Bo hour inage 2 IS l2lfi. 1 lOM c'tCvo'dlwo'oo v> m ■>ii- M .f^ 0^ • - ■«ih • m • Tho ■* ' * -^ • ' «■ w * 03 o» • • o u ' •<» oo » fno O O O O ^ n m *M w^O w M M oo o M M CO o o • • •* ■* ts ootn ooooo m ■^ u->»S « • O.0O 0*00 00 oo tOC4 m g " N 4 8 .5S8 . .88 on S f-i fO N M rs. o ■* op op 5 cn o „ 5 ' ^ „ „ o ■ o ■* " -+ o ^ • • o o w « u a fc -a T) i a . (^ "-if n churc es . ghs.. Boar Boar Boar -supp ur B ige B n •3 Christ Count Borou Town Road River Water Harbo Dram g •3 o-a M boo *|3 11 I- \i !SS CHAPTER IX EDUCATION Omission of religions teaching — Education on national defence — Higher education — Scholarships — ^Manual and technical education — Schools of Mines — ^Institutions. The educational work of New Zealand was carried out in early days by each Province on the plan that seemed best suited to local requirements. After the Provinces were abolished in 1876 it became an absolute necessity that some national system should be established. The system decided on Wcis that of free, secular, and com- pulsory education in primary schools. AH children between seven and fourteen years of age, imless there is proof that they are getting sufficient education elsewhere, are obhged to attend the pubhc schools. The subjects taught are very numerous, and seem to embrace everjdihing that can be turned to use in after life. The omission, however, of any form of reUgious teaching is a distinct blot on the system adopted by the colony for the training of its young people. Rehgious teaching is, however, allowed in school buildings, out of school hours, if the committee choose to give permission. The Roman CathoUc children, as might be expected, take but httle advantage of the education which the State affords. Use is, however, made of the pubhc schools by almost all other children of whatever class in hfe they may belong to. In 1906, with an estimated European population of 908,726 there were 1,847 pubhc schools open to Euro- peans and half-castes hving among them, and the average yearly attendance was some 122,000. In the same year 214 BOYS TAUGHT A NATIONAL DUTY there were 100 native schools with an average yearly attendance for the years 1905 and 1906 of about 6,800, the total estimated Maori population being 47,731. An important point in connection with the education of the young in New Zealand should be particularly noted, it is that of preparing them for taking part in the defence of their country. The Education Act lays down that " In public schools provision shall be made for the instruc- tion in mihtary drill of all boys." Education Boards are also informed that it is their duty to see that aU children over eight years of age are taught physical drill. The result has been that there are 280 cadet corps, with a strength of about 15,000. The ruling body in educational matters is the Depart- ment of Education, which is presided over by a minister of the Crown who is called the Minister of Education. This department, which came into existence about thirty years ago, has made a great difference in the educational standard of the dominion. New Zealand may now be said to possess a system of national educa- tion to which there is nothing superior, if we except the blot already referred to, in any part of the British dominions. As an evidence of this it may be said that young people who receive their early education in the primary schools of the dominion have been extremely successful in open competitions for honours in the Mother Country. This shows that the ground-work of education is well laid. Higher education is admirably provided for. There are not only secondary schools, at which higher education is given free to those who have attained the necessary qualifications, but also "District High Schools" at which educational advantages can be obtained at certain low rates. The capstone is put to these excellent arrange- ments by the system of examination provided by the New Zealand University. 215 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND It should be noted that this University is not a teaching body, but has power to confer degrees on those who have availed themselves of the advanced education afforded by the colleges affihated to it, viz. : Auckland University College, Canterbury College, Victoria College (Wellington), and Otago University. Any degree con- ferred by the University is by Royal Charter declared to be entitled to " rank, precedence, and consideration " throughout the British Empire as fuUy as if it had been conferred by any University in the United Kingdom. With a view to encouraging higher education the granting of National Scholarships was estabhshed by Act in 1903. There are both junior and senior scholar- ships, the fluids being proA^ded from the dominion exchequer. The former are offered, at the rate of one for each education district, to children under fourteen years of age whose parents have an income not exceeding £250 a year. They are tenable for three years and are available for higher education under the general system of the dominion. Twenty Senior Scholarships are granted annually to those who have held Junior Scholar- ships, and are awarded on the result of a University quaUfying examination. They can be held by persons of either sex not more than nineteen years of age. In the case of both Junior and Senior Scholarships, those who are compelled to hve away from home in order to carry out their studies receive £30 per annum in addition to the value of the scholarship and tuition fees. The Victoria College in Wellington, was, through the instrumentahty of the late Right Honourable R. Seddon, brought into a real hving existence in 1897 by an Act " to promote higher education by the estabhshment of a college at Wellington in commemoration of the sixtieth year of the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria." This college is intended to meet the requirements of not only the Provincial District of Wellington but also of 216 HIGHER EDUCATION ENCOURAGED Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Nelson, Marlborough, and Westland. It receives a grant of £4,000 a year from the Consoli- dated Fund, and also an endowment of 4,000 acres of land. A Queen's Scholarship Act, passed in 1903, provided for the establishment of six junior and four senior scholar- ships in connection with Victoria College, and out of its funds. The conditions of tenure are the same as for National Scholarships. These have since been merged in the National Scholarships. A half-hearted attempt was made in 1894 to establish a college in WeUington by an Act which said that there should be such an institution. No grant or endowment, however, was made and therefore nothing could be done except the election of some members to the Council. The Act of 1897 required the Council to give six scholar- ships each year to boys and girls under fourteen upon the results of an examination under conditions laid down by the Council. The Auckland University College receives a grant of £4,000 under statute and has also an endowment of land amounting to about 35,000 acres. The University of Otago and Canterbury College were founded and endowed by the provincial districts in which they were respectively situated. For the purposes of the administration of primary education the dominion is divided into thirteen districts. Each of these districts is further sub-divided into school districts, in each of which there is a school committee elected by the householders. The supreme educational authority in each district is called an Education Board, the members of which are elected every three years by the School Committees. The income of each Education Board is derived from an annual grant of £250, plus a sum sufficient to pay the salaries of teachers and pupil 217 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND teachers in the district, together with lis. 3d. per annum for each child in daily average attendance at a public school. In addition to the above, the receipts from the numerous educational reserves are paid to the Boards together with varying sums for the maintenance and support of nominal or training schools, for school build- ings and for technical education. The Boards also receive some income locally from rents, fees, etc. The training of teachers occupies an important position in the educational system and is carried out in a sound and scientific manner. There is a non-residential Train- ing College in Auckland, one in WeUington, another in Christchurch, and a fourth in Dunedin. The total annual cost of maintaining these four training colleges is about £34,000 a year. This includes the cost of teaching about 1,800 children in the practising schools wisely provided for aiding the training of teachers. Scholarships, both junior and senior, are annually awarded by the Education Boards. They provide the principal means of entry to secondary schools for the most promising primary school pupils. The junior scholarships are Umited to children from thirteen to fourteen years of age, and are usually tenable for two years. The senior scholarships extend the advantages of secondary education to an additional two or three years. The value of these scholarships, judged merely from a monetary point of view, is not great. They have, however, the effect of offering widespread educational advantages. Through the operation of granting free places in secondary schools, with a preference to scholarship- holders, each scholarship carries with it the benefit of free tuition. A lodging or travelling allowance is also given under certain circumstances. Arrangements of far-reaching effect now in force also admit pupils of fair promise to free tuition in the higher schools. 218 THE TEACHERS TAUGHT It will be seen, therefore, that free tuition from the primary school to the University can be obtained by those taking advantage of the opportunities offered to them. There were 463 Education Board Scholarships current at the end of 1906. They ranged in annual value from £40 to £1 5s. The cost to the various Boards was £8,488. By means of further scholarships and bursaries oppor- tunities are afforded of free tuition at the University Colleges. Thus from the early stages of primary education to a University degree free tuition is available to those proving themselves deserving of it. Manual and technical education, which form such a necessary part of the training of the people of any country, occupies a prominent place in the national system of the dominion. In addition to the instruction and examinations carried out by the various controlling authorities for the dominion, the Education Department annually conducts examinations for the Board of Educa- tion, South Kensington, and for the City and Guilds of London Institute ; for the former in subjects of science and art, and for the latter in technological subjects. In the examinations held in 1906, 358 out of the 559 candidates passed in science and art, and 154 out of 236 in technological subjects. Canterbury College has a School of Engineering and Technical Science providing courses for a University degree of B.Sc. in connection with those subjects. There is also an Agricultural College in the same district, which affords opportunities of acquiring a thorough knowledge of scientiiic and prac- tical agriculture. This coUege has a large land endow- ment providing an income of £1,500 a year. The experimental farm in connection with this coUege is worked on a highly scientific system, and is of high educational value. 219 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Schook of Mines are established in districts where mining is actually carried on, and during their twenty- three years of existence have been of enormous assist- ance to those who have taken up mining and metallurgy as a study. The Government gives four scholarships annually in connection \vith these schools. They are tenable for three years and of the annual value of £50. The recognition of the great value of this important subject is also shown by the fact that a professional chair of mining and metaUtirgy is maintained in Otago University. Towards this an annual grant of £500 is made by the Government. The school and college classes for technical education afford instruction in almost everything that can possibly enter into the life of every citizen of the country. The cost to the Government of manual and technical instruction was £63,255. There are also eleven industrial schools, of which seven are maintained by the Government and fom: by private endowment assisted by certain Government grants. There is an institute for the blind which is maintained principally by voluntary contributions. There are how- ever four members of the Board of Trustees who are appointed by the Government, which gives a subsidy of 24s. in the pound on the amount privately subscribed. There is also a school for deaf mutes at Sumner near Christchurch. The value of hbraries as an aid to education are thoroughly realised, and subsidies are granted annually rmder certain conditions. Of these one is that the subsidy must have been expended in the purchase of books. Four himdred and twenty-two hbraries were subsidized in the year 1906-7. The amoTmt spent on education out of the consolidated fund in the year ended March 31st, 1908, was £821,423, over 16s. per head of the population. 220 SPECIAL SCHOOLS At the end of 1906 there were also 308 private schools, which were attended by 17,131 children. Of these private schools more than one half were Roman Cathohc, with an attendance of 11,498 children. The total number of children of European descent attending school in 1906 was 159,281, inclusive of 17,131 securing private tuition. There were also 7,073 native children attending school. As an instance of the advance of education in the dominion it may be mentioned that while in 1874 only 68' 15 of the population could read and write the proportion now stands at 83' 50. From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that no opportunity has been neglected by the dominion of putting the secular education of the people on a sound and practical basis. 221 CHAPTER X CONTROL OF THE SALE OF ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS LocAi option — ^Dominion divided into licensing districts — ^How voting is condncted — ^Local option statistics — ^Hours of closing licensed houses — ^Prohibited persons — Clubs — Method of dealing with habitnal dmnkards. The whole question of licensing in New Zealand rests entirely with the pepole. Local Option is the law of the land. It was first carried in Parhcunent in 1881 without tiouble, because it was the wish of the people that each district in the colony should decide for itself what was best for its own circumstances. The question of compensation did not arise. Therefore no comparison is possible between New Zealand and Great Britain. In order that the opinion of the inhabitants may be arrived at from time to time a poU is taken every three years. The dominion is divided for this purpose into a number of " hcensing districts," and the poll in each of these is final as far as it is concerned. So that the matter may be simplified as much as possible, the electoral dis- districts for the House of Representatives and the licensing districts are identical. There is an exception to this, however, in the case of the principal cities — ^Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin ; as although each city is divided into three separate electorates, yet it is for local option voting treated as a single district. The voters for the House of Representatives are the same as those for local option. The poE on both matters is taken on the same day at the same time, and in the same polling booths. The questions submitted in r^ard to local option are as follows : — (1) WTiether the number of Ucences existing in the district shall continue ; 222 CO w z < o o HOW LOCAL OPINION IS GAUGED (2) Whether the number shall be reduced ; (3) Whether any licences whatever shall be granted. The decision as to each of the above questions depends in the case of No. (1) on an absolute majority of all the voters whose votes are recorded. In the case of No. (2) on an absolute majority of all the voters whose votes are recorded. In the case of No. (3) on a majority of not less than three-fifths of all the voters whose votes are recorded. When the necessary majority is obtained in the case of No. (3) the other two questions are answered in the negative and no licences can be granted. The voter may vote for one or two of these proposals but no more. If none of the proposals is carried by the prescribed majority the Hcences continue as they are until the next poll. The Licensing Committee (of which the Stipendiary Magistrate is ex-officio Chairman) has only limited powers in connection with the amount of reduction in the number of hcences. The Act prescribes that when a reduction vote is carried, if the total number of publicans' licences does not exceed ten, it shall be reduced by at least one ; if over ten and not exceeding thirty, by at least two ; and when the total number exceeds thirty by at least three. The limits of reduction are also laid down. The Committee may not reduce the number by more than 25 per cent, in any case. Thus the limits are as follows : — No. of Licensed Houses. Minimum Reduction. Maximum Reduction. Not exceeding 10 1 2 16 2 4 20 2 5 24 2 6 28 2 7 30 2 7 32 3 8 223 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Forfeitures are not included when calculating the necessary reductions. Should no hcence be carried in the Wellington district then no hquor can be sold in the Parliament Buildings. None can be sold in those buildings imder any circumstances on Sundays, or after 10 p.m. on week daj^. LOCAL OPTION STATISTICS From the Date of the Act of 1881 Table I year's polling. lit estimated popolatioii. Popolatioa is'li'^i Iff 1 1 1 ^i^ of the Domiaion. III 8Bl Spltlti G( Totnl of Splrlluc Liquor 517,707 1882! See no te below 12-22 10-523 0-351 l-153'l2-027 575,226 1885 1 See no te belojw 11-46 8-414 0-261 fl-899i 9-574 607,380 1888 See no te belo'.w 9-10 7.133 0-167 0-820i 8-120 634,058 1891 See no'te belo w 8-13 7-646 0-172 0-699 8-517 686,128 1894* 62 1^ 14 1 35 6-84 7-391 0-144 0-648, 8-183 0-663 8-599 0-72010-022 729,056 1897 62 52j 10 7-21 7-790 0-146 768,278 1900 62 42 1 19 9-50 9-15€ 0-152 832,505 1903 68 31 9 4 24 10-70 9-460 0-149 0-75510-364 908,726 1906 68 is: 4 6 40 10-52 9-569 0-143 0-773,10-485 0-806illll5 929,404 1907; .. , ..: .. .. 1908 1 68 1 14^ 8 12 10150 0-159 34 .. .. . . • Thefirst as to the result of on widdb iBODiea voted, and the fiist year ftx whidi lecocds are avaHable the Hrfnsrne poll. LOCAL OPTION STATISTICS FSOM the Date of the Enactment op 1881 Table II Convictions for Drunkenness during year after Licensing Poll. In Magistrates' Courts. Balclntha Clinton . . Ashbnrton Invercargin , In 1882 In 1885 In 1 In , In 1888il891|1894 In In 1 In 1897 1900!l903 In 1906 I 37 22 3 25i 9 Ij 8| 2 4 15 10 17; 4 i i: 2 2 225 248 170 142: 118 47 ! 90 i 58 42 186 213 155 98 116 92 1521194 1 1^ 224 DRASTIC LICENSING LAWS At the date of the Ucensing poll 1905, 182,884 votes were recorded for the continuance of hcences ; 151,057 for reduction, and 198,768 for no licence. These figures taken by themselves do not indicate any general opinion in favour of prohibition, but when taken in conjunction with the fact that in thirty-six out of the sixty-eight licensing districts the majority of the votes was in favour of no-licence being granted at all it does afford strong evidence in that direction. The first of the preceding tables shows some remarkable results as to the consumption of beer, wine, and spirits per head of the population, and convictions for drunken- ness per thousand of the population since 1881, which was the first year in which local option was introduced. The second table exhibits the effect of prohibition in certain towns in districts where prohibition has been decided upon. In compiling the first table the statistics of drunkenness and consumption of alcoholic liquor have been taken for the year following the licensing polls in order that the effect of the poll may be judged. There is one exception to this, as the effect of the poU of 1908 cannot yet be ascertained. The towns shown in the second table are those in which the results of the convictions in the Magistrates' Courts are available. The laws in connection with licensing generally are very comprehensive, and in some cases may be considered drastic. The following are some of the points which are especially worthy of mention. The regular hour for closing is 10 p.m. every night except Sunday, on which day no licensed house is allowed to be open for the sale of alcoholic drinks. This latter restriction applies to Christmas day and Good Friday. They must also be closed between noon and 7 p.m. on days on which polling takes place for the House of 225 15— (2136) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Representatives and Local Option, and for Licensing Committees. The hours may be extended under certain circum- stances but in no case beyond midnight. No licensed premises are allowed to be open before six in the morning. A widow may obtain a hcence, or a married woman who is under a protection order, but no other woman at all. No woman can be employed in the sale of liquor for more than ten hours out of the twenty-four, and never after 11 p.m. Every licensee who permits gambling on his premises is hable to a fine of ^f 10. He is hable to the same fine if he allows any young person under eighteen to be supplied with spirituous hquors, unless such person is resident on the premises or a bond fide guest or lodger. He is hable to a similar penalty if he allows its sale to a prohibited person, or to one who is intoxicated. Any person on licensed premises becomes equally with the hcensee hable to a similar fine if he (or she) supphes hquor to anyone coming under the above-mentioned category. An Inspector may enter hcensed premises at any time to inspect or prevent infractions of the law. Tied houses are absolutely forbidden. The Governor can proclaim native districts as being areas iu which the sale of drink is prohibited. Heavy penalties are imposed on those who endeavour to sell or introduce Hquor into such districts. A hcensee may not sell hquor to any female Maori. A penalty not exceeding £5 is incurred by anyone sending a child under thirteen for hquor to a hcensed house. No new wholesale hcence can be granted authorizing the sale of Hquor from any place within a borough or town district in which a pubhcan's Hcence does not exist. A " prohibited person " (in the terms of the Act of 1881) is a person with regard to whom suf&cient evidence has been given in open court, that he, or she, endangers or 226 CLUBS AND LICENCES interrupts the peace and happiness of his, or her, family or misspends, wastes, or lessens his, or her substance, or greatly injures his, or her, health. Any two justices presiding in open court shaU forbid by writing any licensee to seU to such prohibited person any alcoholic liquor for the space of one year. This prohibition can be renewed by the justices at their discretion from year to year. Any prohibited person trying to obtain fermented or spirituous liquor from any licensee is liable to a fine of £10, or in default hard labour for three months. If a person against whom a " prohibition order " has been made enters or is found on any licensed premises (while the order is in force) he is liable to a penalty of £5. In the case of any person who has been convicted of drunkenness three times within six months a magistrate may issue a prohibition order against him. Anyone can apply for a prohibition order against himself under the same circumstances, and the magistrate may grant the same without hearing the case in court. Every club must have a charter and no club of less than twenty members can get one. A £5 fee has to be paid to the fund of the local body in which it is situated by every club which has a charter. Clubs are subject to exactly the same conditions as licensed houses as regards hours of closing, sale of liquor, gambling, etc. The Club Charter is the same as a publican's licence, and the secretary occupies the same position as a licensee. Clubs are subject to inspection by any person appointed by the Colonial Secretary for that purpose. Any club situated in a district where no licences are permitted has its charter suspended as far as the sale of liquor is concerned during the continuance of such prohibition. No liquor is allowed to be exported from New Zealand 227 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND to the Cook and other islands in the group annexed in 1901, and none can be imported from an5nvhere except by permission of the Commissioners in the various islands. Neither can any be manufactured for sale or ordinary consumption ; but it is permitted for medicinal, rehgious, and other necessary purposes. The excellent provisions in connection with these islands are much to be com- mended as preventing the debasing conditions arising from the sale of drink which generally accompany its introduction amongst uncivUized aborigines. Not only have the laws been devised to prevent the acquirement of drinking habits, but also to provide for the protection of the weak-willed against their special temptation. The laws take cognizance therefore of the position of the unfortunate person who has become an inebriate in the techniced sense of the term, by encouraging the establishment of institutions for their treatment. An " habitual drunkard," as defined by the Act of 1906, is one "who has been three times convicted for dnmkenness within the nine months preceding." Such person, in addition to, or in heu of, any penalty to which he, or she, has become liable, may be committed by the convicting magistrate to any " institution, society, or body of persons whose objects are the care and reclamation of persons addicted to drink and authorized by the Governor to receive and detain persons under the Habitual Drunkards Act, 1906." This order must specify the period (which must not be less than nine months) during which the person so committed shall be detained in the institution. Anyone escaping from an institution of the kind during the currency of the order may be retaken and punished, as in the case of escape from lawful custody. As the result of the Ucensing poll at the recent General Election a no-hcence vote has been carried in six more districts. This brings the total up to twelve. Reduction 228 EVERY CLASS INCLUDED of licences was carried in eight districts. In forty-three districts there was a majority of votes in favour of no- licence, but they were not sufficient in number to make up the three-fifths required by law. The position there is as foUows : — Continuance wiU prevail in forty-eight districts, reduction wUl be made in eight, and prohibition wiU exist in twelve. The number of votes recorded on the three separate questions sub- mitted to the electors at the last five local option polls are shown hereunder : — Votes recorded for :- - Year. Continuance. Reduction. No License. 1896 1899 1902 1905 1908 139,580 142,443 148,449 182,884 186,302 94,555 107,751 132,240 151,057 161,815 98,312 118,575 151,524 198,768 209,144 The trend of all the legislation here alluded to has been with the object of making the inhabitants of New Zealand an example of sobriety to the rest of the civilized world. In deaUng with this most important subject the donainion had no past to take into consideration. It had an absolutely "clean sheet." It determined, therefore, that no half-hearted attempts should be made, but that the legislation should go into what was, in its opinion the root of the matter. However strong the measures may appear, an admirable consistency in dealing with every class of the community is obvious throughout. There is, however, no doubt that New Zealanders are not addicted to drinking in excess, and it would seem that there was less necessity in their country than in almost any other to introduce the prohibition question into the legislation of the dominion. As far as one can judge at present, however, the effect has not been such as 229 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND prohibitionists anticipated. It further appears most unfortmiate for a country where the Government is spending thousands annually in advertising the attrac- tions it offers in sport, health resorts, and scenery, that any laws should be made tending to lessen the comforts of tourists. 230 CHAPTER XI RAILWAYS Railways under government control — Facilities for travelling — Statistics. The establishnient of railways in a new country according to a comprehensive scheme is one of the greatest aids to its settlement and development. Great agricultural, pastoral, and other industrial pursuits, the prosperity of which is vital to a country, cannot flourish without cheap and rapid means of transport. In 1860 the first contract was entered into for the con- struction of any railway in New Zealand. In 1870 only forty-six miles of railway were open. On March 31st, 1908, the miles open for traffic were 2,474. The whole of the railways in the dominion are now under the Govern- ment and administered by a department under the control of the Minister for Railways, the last piece of private line in the colony having been recently acquired. A line connecting Auckland and Wellington has just been completed, and passengers arriving at the Bluff, the southernmost port in New Zealand, can travel by train from that point to places many miles north of Auckland, with the exception of 175 miles' steamer journey between Lyttelton and Wellington. The construction in a young country which still numbers less than a million people, within a period of thirty-eight years, of the railways necessary for making such a journey possible has been a great feat considering the character of the country. But not only has that been done, but branch lines have been pushed into almost every district where settlement has been carried on. The history of the construction of the railway between 231 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND the east and west coasts of the South Island is somewhat interesting. It was originally undertaken by a private company formed in England, but after some years it was taken over by the Government for reasons unnecessary to enter into. Many enquiries had previously been made by the Government as to the engineering difficulties to be encountered ; also as to the feasibiUty of its construction and working on a remimerative basis ; but the reports did not appear to justify the colony in undertaking the work. The political pressure exerted was however too strong to allow the Govermnent to disregard the matter, and the result was that sufficient inducements were offered to enable the work to be undertaken by private enterprise. There is no doubt that the increased faciUties to be obtained by connecting country districts and shipping ports will develop coal mining, saw miUing and other industries on both coasts to the great general advantage of the dominion. Whether the railway connection between the two coasts, taken by itself, wiU ever lead to a remunerative result, seems extremely doubtful. The principle on which the railways were constructed was that of advancing settlement and consequently the opening up of new country ; the cheapening of transit, and generally of increasing the productiveness of the colony by estabhshing good means of communication between the country districts and the various shipping ports. To some it may seem curious that the location of the railwa)^ was in the first instance confined mainly to the coastline where the competition of water carriage would probably act as a deterrent to their success. The reason for this having been done will however become apparent when it is realized that in a new country the earUest arrivals naturally settle down on the land most accessible, and nearest to their only Une of commimication with the outer world — the ocean. As these settlements spread 232 A GENERAL RAILWAY SCHEME the natural tendency is still to push the outposts of civili- zation along the coasts and thus keep up a regular line of communication between these various points and shipping ports. This being the case it was evidently necessary that railway communication should be provided in the first instance between one settlement and another, if profitable returns from the expenditure were to be quickly obtained. As time went on it became not only practicable but it was poUtic to make lateral branches from the main lines. The following table illustrates the effect of what railway development has done for the dominion during the last fifteen years. No. OF Passehoers ahd AuOUHT OP Produce and Live Stock Carried. Durmg the Year. No. of MUes open No. oi Passen- gers, ex- clusive of Season Ticket Holders. Season Tickets issued. Wool Tons. Timber Tons. Grain Tons. Minerals Tons. Horses and Cattle. Sheep and Pigs. 1892-93 1897-98 1902-03 1907-08 1,886 2,055 2,291 2,474 3,759,044 4,672,264 7,575,390 9,756,716 16,504 48,660 "8,431 185,174 96,842 103,055 116,309 120,593 169,9x0 313,073 436,008 616,892 (523,637 427,448 718,376 739,568 884,031 1,048,868 1,604,426 2,319,913 46,590 54,871 115,198 169,174 1,359,860 2,399,379 3,883,177 4,719,997 It will be seen from the foregoing table what an advantage to the dominion has been the rapid extension of the railways. The cost to the country of producing this valuable asset has been comparatively smal , for there is a return being made at the present time of three-and-one-third per cent. on the capital invested on the Unes already open. The net earnings per average mile open come to £328. The amount already spent upon lines that are working has exceeded £24,250,000, and the capital cost per mile has been £9,849. No comparison can be drawn between the cost of making railways in New Zealand and in England. In the latter case the construction proceeds in a country where all the natural difficulties and peculiarities are 233 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND well known. In New Zealand on the other hand it has to be carried out in a land where everything is in its virgin state, and where the engineering diffioilties are greatly enhanced owing to the necessity of proceeding step by step through a practically unknown country. The completion of the railway between Wellington and Auckland, supplementing the long established line between L5rttelton and the Bluff, has done much towards attaining the objects aimed at in the original scheme. In the South Island progress was comparatively easy. Although engineering difficulties existed there was no native question. In the North Island progress could not be so rapid because, although the native question was at an end as regards a considerable area, there remained a district to be traversed where it stiU existed. Friendly relations which had by degrees been established between the two races gradually bore fruit and finally led to the entire disappearance of that obstacle. Thus it became possible, by the Maoris realizing the great advantages of complete union with the Europeans, to carry out the scheme in its entirety. As an instance of how thoroughly the scheme has been carried out it may be noted that a traveller can now start from the southernmost port of the dominion at seven in the morning of one day, and arrive at Auckland in the North Island at the same hour on the next day but one, thus completing in forty-eight hours a journey of 995 miles, of which, as already stated, 175 are by steamer. 234 CHAPTER XII OLD AGE PENSIONS How the Old Age Pensions Act is administered — Who are and who are not eligible for pensions. An interesting event in the life of New Zealand and one which has caused considerable attention to be drawn to provision for the maintenance of the aged poor in comfort was that of placing an Old Age Pensions Act on the statute book. A Bill to that effect was introduced into the House of Representatives by the late Premier in 1896, but did not meet with the approval of Parliament. In the following year a Bill with the same object was again introduced, but although it was passed in the House of Representatives it met with rejection in the Legislative Council. In 1898 both houses approved of the measure and it became law. The Act has been amended from time to time and is, for the present, finally dealt with in a Consolidated Act of 1908. It would be imagined that in a country such as New Zealand where a high rate of wages generally prevails, legislation of this nature was required less than elsewhere. Many are of opinion that such is the case. It must however be borne in mind that there is always a certain section of the people who from one cause or another have not been so successful as some of their fellow-citizens. They may have saved a certain amount but not sufficient to enable them to spend the later years of their lives in the comfort generally experienced by the mass of the people. The Act of 1898 provided for a pension of £18 per annum without contribution from those benefited. An 235 THE DOMINION OF NEW 2EALAND amending Act of 1905 increased this pension to £26 per annum. The Act is administered by a Registrar at Headquarters under the control of the Minister of Finance. Under the Registrar are seventy-five deputies, one in each district into which the colony is divided. In districts other than the chief centres of population the work of the deputies is carried out by the clerks of the Stipendiary Magistrates' Courts. The Stipendiary Magistrates investigate all claims and have the power of granting or refusing the pensions. The pensions are available to all residents in the dominion except : — (a) Maori who receive votes of money other than pensions granted under an Act of 1863. (6) Aliens. (c) Naturalized subjects who have not been naturalized one year. (d) Chinese or other Asiatics whether naturalized or not. To enable an apphcant to qualify for a pension he must : — (1) Have reached sixty-five years of age. (2) Have resided continuously in New Zealand for twenty-five years. Note. — ^Four years' absence are allowed to an applicant who was not out of the country during the twelve months immediately preceding the day on which the original Act was passed and where his total actual residence is not less than twenty-five years. (3) Not during the past twelve years have been impris- oned for four months, or on four occasions for an ofEence punishable by twelve months' imprisonment. (4) Not during the past twenty-five years have been imprisoned for five years for any offence. (5) Not during the past twelve years have deserted his wife and children. 236 HELP FOR OLD WORKERS (6) Have lived a sober and reputable life during the past five years. (7) Not have a yearly income exceeding £60. (8) Not have accumulated property of a net value exceeding £260. (9) Not have deprived himself of property or income to quahfy himself for a pension. Every appUcant has to fill in certain forms to enable his statement to be verified. These forms embrace enquiries of banks, insurance companies, etc., and of the police. A Stipendiary magistrate may hear all cases in camera. The full pension can be reduced by £1 for every £10 of net accumulated property. The limit of income for a married couple (including pension) is £90. An equad distribution between husband and wife of all property owned by either or both is provided for in the Act. On March 31st, 1908, 13,569 persons were receiving pensions, the total amount paid being £325,199. 237 CHAPTER XIII LABOUR AND THE LABOUR LAWS Labour laws introduced by Progressive ministry — ^Duties of Labour Department — ^Factories Act — ^Holidays- — Shops and OfSces Act — ^Wages Protection Act — Workmen's Wages Act — Public Contracts Act — Contractors and Workmen's Liens Act — Coal Mines Act — ^Mining Acts Compilation Act — ^Workers' Dwelling Acts — Government Advances to Workers' Act — Strikes and lock-outs. The legislation known as the " Labour Laws " of New Zealand began on the advent to power in 1891 of what has been called the Progressive Ministry. Indeed it may be called a continuous Ministry as it has occupied the Government benches for a period of only two years, less than that which earned a similar name for its predecessors. Over forty laws on what is practically the protection of labom have been passed. The ramification of these laws is enormous, and the matters dealt with appear in certain cases to be quite beyond the reasonable requirements of those workers in whose interest they are made. The position however was this. The party which came into power in 1891 was bound to take iato consideration the views of those who had returned them and to do as much as they could to satisfy them. It was moreover perfectly justifiable that in a new country, the industrial life of which was practically only then assuming large proportions, those responsible for its government should particularly turn their attention to the position occupied by labour. Some members of the Government had seen the sad condition of the manual workers in the mother country — indeed had been personally affected by the condition of labour there. 238 THE WORKING MAN'S PROTECTION It was therefore only natural that a government influ- enced by these considerations shoiild say, " We will not in this country allow such a condition of affairs to arise. We will now while we have the power make laws that will absolutely prevent old world abuses from being repeated in this country. We will make the condition of our manual workers such that they can live in comfort, and be kept free from any risk of unfair treatment at the hands of their employers. As has been shown already, the "labour laws" are the outcome of the policy of the 1891 Administration to legislate principally for the protection of what are called the working classes, by which they really meant only those who are manual workers. There is no doubt that much of the legislation was justified, has led to a condition of affairs affecting that particular branch of the workers which has made them practically independent, and which can never be materially altered so as to be seriously injurious to their interests. Before going further one cannot but express regret at this restrictive use of the term " working classes." It has caused a feeling that " class legislation " was being introduced. For that feeling there is some reason. There is scarcely a political speech made by men of the party now in power, without allusions to the great benefits the working classes have derived from the legislation since 1891. Such allusions are a direct appeal to one section of the people to return to power a government pledged to advance the interests of that particular section. It must not be assumed, moreover, that those who have opposed some of the details of this legislation are not equally anxious for the welfare of the country and necessarily therefore for the happiness and comfort of the manual workers. Whatever may be said as regards the introduction of 239 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND the labour laws, they have at all events had one beneficial effect, viz., that of spreading a knowledge of sanitation, and therefore attracting greater attention than heretofore by everyone to subjects of the most vital importance to the whole community. AH the Acts in connection with Labour are adminis- tered by a State-department, presided over by a Minister of Labour. The Secretary for Labour is the officer entrusted with the detail working of the department, as well as being the pivot round which everything turns in connection with the carrying out of the entire scheme. The duties of the Labour Department are laid down under an Act of 1903, although that Department existed many years previously to that date. They are stated to be as follows : — (1) To administer the labour laws of New Zealand. (2) To obtain and disseminate knowledge on all matters connected with the industrial occupations of the people with a view to improving the relations between employers and workers. (3) To coUect and publish reliable information con- nected with the industries of the dominion and the rate of wages. Great powers are given to the officers of the department to enable them to procure the necessary information. The Secretary for Labour is also R^istrar of Industrial Unions under the Act known as the " Industrial Condhation and Arbitration Act." The department also watches the labour market and finds employment through its widely distributed agencies for a large number of people. According to the latest return, employment was found during the year ended March 31st, 1908, for 6,300 men, who had 4,413 persons dependent upon them. The total number of unemployed in 1906, the latest year for which figures are avculable, is shown as 9,561. The average number of men who 240 THE DEPARTMENT ON THE WATCH were employed by the Government during the year 1907-8 on various pubUc works was 5,132. With reference to the above it will be of interest to state that since about the year 1890 the great bulk of Government railway and road works, as well as much building, have been carried out under a co-operative system. The object of co-operative labour on Public Works is obviously to let out work direct to the workmen and thus enable them to earn wages which they are certain to receive. To the Government the advantage accrues of its having complete control over expenditure on any work. Under the usual system contracts once let were bound to continue in force unless the Government was prepared to pay compensation. The latter might possibly assume alarm- ing proportions. Now they can continue or discontinue a work, or allow it to proceed at such a rate of time and expenditure as may be found convenient. It also finds the materials and thus is able to ensure their being of the best class. The works are carried out under the direct supervision of the Government engineers and other pubhc officials. The rules of employment are that those not previously employed are taken on before those who have already had employment ; men resident in the neighbourhood of the works are chosen in preference to those non-resident ; married men get the preference over those who are single. " The Factories Act " is one which affects the largest number of manual workers, and is extremely comprehensive. A factory means a place where two or more people are engaged in manufacturing articles for sale. AH bake- houses, all laundries, and all places wherein Asiatics are employed are also factories, even where only one person is engaged. Every factory must be registered, and the 241 |6 — (2136) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND owner of every unregistered factory is liable to a fine of £5 for every day it remains unregistered. The hours of occupation for both males and females are very strictly regulated. A male worker over sixteen years of age may not be employed for more than forty- eight hours in one week ; for more than eight hom^ and three-quarters in any one day, nor for more than five hours consecutively without an interval of at least three- quarters of an horn: for a meal. If working hours are extended beyond these limits, then every person so employed must be paid overtime at not less than one-fourth as much again as the ordinary rate. Those whose ordinary wages do not exceed 10s. per week must be paid overtime at not less than 6d. an hour ; and for those whose wages exceed 10s. a week a minimnm rate of 9d. an hour is fixed. Special provisions for women and bo}^ are also made. They may not be employed, except in woollen mills, for more than forty-five hours, excluding meal times, in any one week, for more than eight hours and a quarter in one day, for more than four hours and a quarter continuously without an interval of at least three-quarters of an hour for a meal, and never after 1 o'clock in the afternoon of the weekly half-hoUday. In woollen mills women over the age of eighteen and boys, may not be employed for more than forty-eight houre in one week, exclusive of meal times, for more than eight and three-quarters in one day, or for more than foiu- hours and a quarter continuously without an interval of at least three-quarters of an hour for a meal. The rate of overtime payment is the same as that for men. Their overtime is restricted to three hours in one day, and t\*'o consecutive days in each week. It is also restricted to thirty days in each year. During such work they cannot be employed continuously for more than four hours without an interval of half an hour for rest and refreshment. 242 PROTECTION OF YOUNG WORKERS The regulations for keeping all records of overtime worked are much of the same class as those prevailing in the United Kingdom. If no notice to work overtime has been given on the day before it is required every woman or boy living more than one mile from the factory must either receive a sufficient meal or Is. to purchase one before commencing work. In any factory emplo5dng more than six women or boys a proper room for meals must be provided. This room must be furnished with seats and tables, and made comfortable, to the satisfaction of an Inspector. No girl or boy under fourteen years can be employed in a factory except in special cases authorized by an Inspector. In the Government handbook on the labour laws it is said that practically this authorization is never given. The following restrictions as to the nature of their employment are also rigidly enforced : — • {a) No girl under fifteen can be employed in a printing office ; nor one under sixteen in making or finishing salt, bricks or tiles. (b) No girl under eighteen can be employed in melting and annealing glass. (c) No girl or boy under sixteen may be employed at dry-grinding metals or dipping matches. {d) No woman or boy under eighteen can be employed in any room where white lead is manufactured, or mirrors are silvered by the mercurial process. Those under sixteen years of age cannot be employed in a factory unless the occupier holds a certificate from an Inspector as to fitness. This certificate cannot be given unless the boy or girl has passed the State School Fourth Standard or a similar educational test. Every person employed in factories must in the first instance receive an ordinary weekly wage of not less than 5s. and this amount must be increased at the rate of not less than 3s. a week for every 243 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND succeeding year of empIo5mient until they are twenty years of age. The occupier of any factory mtist allow every woman and every boy under eighteen years of age a whole hohday on Christmas Day, New Year's Day, and the birthday of the reigning Sovereign. A half -hohday must also be allowed on every Saturday after 1 p.m. Wages at the same rate as for ordinary working days have to be paid for whole and half-hohdays. Especial provisions are made in the Act for the prevention of one of the greatest evils to which manual workers can be subjected — " Sweating." It is said by the Secretary for labour that those provisions have almost entirely stamped it out in New Zealand. To attain this desirable end, every factory-occupier who lets out textile or shoddy material for work outside his factory must keep a record of the name and address of the person taking the work, its description, and quantity, and the amount of remunera- tion. If this work is to be done in a place which is not a registered factory, a label must be attached to the goods, showing by whom, and where it was made. Every article made outside the factory which has not got a label affixed entails a fine of £1 on the occupier of the factory for which it is made. Every person who knowingly sells, or attempts to do so, such an article without the proper label, is hable to a fine of £10 ; and any person who wilfully removes the label before sale is Uable to a fine of £20. These regulations have not put an end to sweating but have prevented goods being made up in dirty or unhealthy places, thus benefiting the general community. Special provisions have also been made to prevent workers being induced to take work home to be finished after their ordinary day's work is ended. These are also said to have been effective. If any person does work for the factory in which he or she is employed elsewhere 244 SANITATION CLOSELY GUARDED than within it, then the occupier is Uable to a fine not exceeding £10, and the worker to one not exceeding £5. In every factory where work is carried on by more than three persons on a floor above the ground floor, efficient fire escapes must be provided, and every provision is made to secure the adoption of this very necessary precaution. Sanitation is a matter which is most fully and effectively dealt with in the provisions to that end, laid down in the New Zealand Act. Especial precautions are also taken to prevent the spread of infectious diseases through the sale and manufacture of goods under conditions inimical to the public health. " The Shops and Offices Act " is another statute which affects the conditions of the lives of many workers. Various districts, some called " combined " and some " separate," are constituted for the purposes of this Act. All shops, except fruiterers, confectioners, refreshment- room keepers, etc., have to be closed on one working day in each week at 1 p.m. for the remainder of the day. The day for the half-holiday is decided as follows : In a " separate " district a special meeting of the local authority is convened in January in each year for the purpose. The Mayor or Chairman informs the Minister as to the day decided upon and he gives notice thereon through the Government Gazette. In a " combined " district the various local authorities appoint delegates to a conference every January. When this conference has selected a day the Minister is notified and the day is duly gazetted. If Saturday is made a half-hohday, a butcher, a hair- dresser, a tobacconist or a photographer, may keep open on that day but must in that case close on some other afternoon. The Minister may cause every shop in a district to be closed at a specified hour each evening on the requisition 245 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND of a majority of those keeping the shops if they are aU British subjects, and the local authority verifies the fact of their being a majority, or he may restrict this early closing to one particular trade upon a requisition made in like manner by the shopkeepers concerned. The hours after which no shop-assistant can be employed in or about a shop are scheduled in the Act for thirteen different trades. A shop-assistant cannot be employed for more than fifty-two horns in one week, nor more than nine hours excluding meal times, in one day, except on one day in each week when they may be employed for eleven hours, excluding meal times. They cannot either be employed for more than five hours continuously \rithout an interval of at least one hour for a meal. A shop-assistant's work- ing hours may be extended under special circumstances for three hovis a day, but not for more than thirty days in one year. Overtime must be paid for at the same rates as for workers rmder the Factories Act. Assistants receiving more than £200 a year cannot claim for over- time. Sitting accommodation must be provided and available for all female assistants. Every office must be closed by 1 o'clock in the after- noon on Saturdays, and by 5 p.m. on every other working day. Exceptions to this regulation are made in the case of banks, mercantile and other hke offices. Wages have to be paid to the office assistant for the statutory half hohday or any holiday. Provisions are also made for regulating the hours of work on special occasions, such as balance days, etc. The sanitation of offices is also fuUy dealt with. Overtime has to be paid for at a rate of not less than 9d. an horn". Those receiving wages exceeding £200 a year cannot claim for overtime. It seems curious that shop-assistants should be allowed to work longer hours than manual workers. " The Truck Act " is one to prevent the pa5mient in goods of any part of a worker's wages. Exceptions are 246 SHOP ASSISTANTS' HOURS however made in the case of advances for the supplies of food, tools, etc., to men engaged in felling bush. Under the " Wages Attachment Act " no order can be made attaching or charging the wages of any workman by any court, judge or magistrate, unless the wages exceed £2 per week. A " Wages Protection Act " was also passed to guard against any deduction being made from wages for the purpose of pa5dng premiums on accident-insurance policies. Under this Act not only does the above condi- tion apply, but no insurance company can receive from a worker any money in regard to any policy of insurance for the purpose of indemnifjdng an employer against liability, or for compensation for injury to a worker by an accident. " The Workers' Compensation for Accidents Act " is a very comprehensive one. It is based upon the principle that the cost of an accident to a workman should be borne by the business as a portion of the legitimate expenses of carrying it on. In order that too great expense may not fall suddenly on any employer a provision is made under the " Government Insurance Act " for insuring employers against the risk of having to pay compensation. In this Act under the term " worker " every person of any age or of either sex is included who is under contract with an employer as regards employment to which the Act relates whether on land, or on board a ship in New Zealand waters. All workers in the service of the Crown are included, except those in the naval or military service, for whom definite provision has been made otherwise. This Act applies to employment in any industrial, commercial or manufacturing work carried on by an employer as part of his trade or business ; to mining, quarrjdng, engineer- ing, building or other hazardous work carried on by an employer or on his behalf, whether as part of his business or trade or not, to agricultural labour, including 247 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND horticulture, forestry, etc. ; and to work carried on by the Crown or a local authority if the emplo5nnent is one to which the Act would apply in the case of a private employer. An employer is not liable if the injury to the worker does not disable him from earning fuU wages for at least one week, nor if an accident arises from the worker's serious and wilful misconduct. Under any other circumstances an employer is hableto pay compensation : — (a) When partial or total incapacity results from an accident. In this case the compensation is to be a weekly pa5raient not exceeding 50 per cent, of the worker's average weekly earnings while at work during the preceding twelve months. This pay- ment cannot exceed £2 per week, and the total habUity of the employer cannot exceed £300. Compensation by way of a lump sum may how- ever be made instead of by weekly pajmients upon the parties agreeing to the amount, or by decision of the Arbitration Court if appUed to. {b) When death results from the injury. In the case of one who leaves dependants whoUy dependant on him the compensation cannot be less than £200 or more than £400 less any weekly payments such as have been already referred to. If the dependants are only partly dependant on the worker then the compensation is to be a reasonable sum, not exceeding £400. In the case of a worker who leaves no dependants a stun not exceeding £30 may be paid for medical and biuial expenses. There are special provisions dealing with such workers as wharf labourers, stevedores, and lumpers, and for those employed in mines, factories, house-building and ships. There are many other Acts dealing with the protection of workers, but it is only necessary to mention a few of them. 248 PROMPT PAYMENT OF WAGES " The Workmen's Wages Act" is one of importance. Under it the wages due to any workman are a first charge against any moneys due to a contractor by an employer. Any workman whose wages are unpaid for twenty-four hours after they are due can legally attach moneys payable by the employer to the contractor until they are paid. Unless there is any written agreement to the contrary aU wages must be paid once a week. " The Public Contracts Act " provides that in every con- tract let by the Government or any public body the contractor must pay his men the wages for overtime, holidays, etc., at the rates which are generally considered usual and fair for labour in the locality where the work is carried on. " The Contractors and Workmen's Liens Act " entitles a person who has done any work on land, buildings or chattel to a lien on the property. This can only be exercised to a certain amount. Wages have priority of claim against other services. The protection of workers' wages is aJso secured under other Acts, amongst which may be mentioned " The Bankruptcy Act " and " The Companies Act." The former gives priority of payment to wages or salaries over other debts, and the latter the same priority in the case of the winding up of a company. " The Coal Mines Act " of 1905 says that no female, and no boy under thirteen years of age, can be employed in any capacity in or about a mine. This Act also lays down that overtime rates are to be paid to any miner working underground for more than eight hours a day. The time is to be reckoned from when the miner enters the underground workings until he leaves them. The owner of every coal-mine has to contribute to a fund for the necessary relief of coal-miners injured at work, and for the reUef of the families of coal-miners killed or injured while at work. 249 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND "The ^fining Acts Compilation Act " of 1905 and Amend- ing Acts of later dates deal with miners other than those employed in coal-mines. In the Act of 1905 it is laid down that no female, and no male under eighteen years of age, can be employed in or about a mine. The law as to payment for overtime is the same for these miners as for those employed in coal-mines. There are also laws for compelling the provision of proper sleeping and other accommodation for workers employed as sheep-shearers. Sleeping accommodation must be provided in the proportion of not less than 240 cubic feet for each shearer. Separate places have to be pro^aded for Chinese. Agricultmral labourers have also in like manner to be provided with comfortable housing accommodation. There is further an Act to provide for the due and proper construction of all scaffolding. " The Workers' Dwellings Acts " were passed to make provision for acquiring land, and building on it houses for those engaged in labour. This measure is said to have been introduced on account of the excessive rents which workmen had to pay in the chief centres. These dwellings can only be provided for those who are really manual labourers and are landless. The rental is calculated on the cost of the dwelling. " The Government Advances to Workers Act," 1906, enables one engaged in either manual or clerical work, and not in receipt of more than £200 per annum to borrow from the Government up to £200 to build himself a house. In 1899 an Act was passed under the title of " The Labour Day Act." This makes the second Wednesday in October in each year a pubHc hohday to be known as Labour Day. It will be seen from the foregoing that almost every step has been taken by the Legislature to promote the welfare of the worker under aU conceivable circumstances. 250 AN ADVANCE MOVEMENT It is stated in the Ofl&cial Year Book for 1908 with reference to wages and food in the dominion : — " That the result of the whole workings was to show that wages and prices for necessary foods had advanced at nearly equal rates in thirteen years." The rise in wages is found to have been at the rate of 23 per cent., and that of food at 22 per cent. The average rate of wages and price of provisions for the year 1907 as given in the ofiicial Year Book for 1908 will be found in Appendix III. The Act which has been of most interest to the world at large is that which was passed in 1894 for the com- pulsory settlement of all disputes between employers and employed. It was interesting from the fact of its being the first that had ever been introduced to deal with the matter. From every part of the British dominions all eyes were turned to see whether it would diminish, if it did not end, the evil effects on trade of " strikes " and " lock-outs." The author of this most advanced piece of legislation was the late High Commissioner of New Zealand, the Hon. W. P. Reeves, the first occupant of the position of Minister of Labour. His ardent wish was to bring to pass a state of affairs in which, by establishing definite and legal adjustments between Capital and Labour, an era of industrial peace would ensue to the benefit of the whole community in the dominion. The Act was described as one " to encourage the forma- tion of industrial unions and associations, and to facilitate the settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration." It has since been legally known by the name of " The Industrial Concihation and Arbitration Act." That it would fulfil all that was hoped for by its author could not be expected. The subject was one too large to admit of settlement by one statute. The diffi- culties surrounding the situation are well summed up in the the words of Mr. E. Tregear, the Secretary for Labour : — 251 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND " The necessity of continuous amendment has been thrust upon the Legislature through the principle of industrial arbitration of a judicial character being entirely unique and without statutory precedent. The law on this subject has to be kept flexible in order to meet the continual necessities of change and growth." It was expected by the author of this measure that conciliation by means of the Q)urts provided for dealing with disputes in the incipient stage would prevent the necessity of frequent appeal to Arbitration by the Court of Final Settlement. This has been proved not to be the case. The Act has moreover not caused the end of strikes, but it has ameUorated the conditions under which they usually occxu". It could scarcely be expected that employers would look with much favoiu" on an Act that considerably curtailed their powers of dealing with those they employed and generally speaking had a tendency to favour the interests of the latter. It has been said that the power of the Arbitration Court to lay down a rate of wages for a stated period has been of great benefit to the employers, as they were thus able to calculate with certainty on one fixed item connected with their business. This is perfectly true, but on the other hand workers have been able to calculate on a fixed remuneration for their labour in any trade whatever might be the state of the market for the article they produced. The Maritime strike of 1889, which as far as Xew Zealand was concerned was a most unjustifiable one, led the workers to see that their position was a strong one numerically. This enabled them to realize that the power required to redress any grievance they might suffer from was now within their grasp. The Secretary for Labour is the R^istrar of Industrial Unions. The first Act has been many times amended, and the last word for the present was said in an amending Act in October, 1908. 252 A MARITIME STRIKE Industrial Unions consist of any society lawfully associated for protecting or furthering the interests of employers or workers. An industrial union must be regis- tered. Registration takes place after compUance with certain necessary provisions as to rules, etc. A certificate of incorporation is then given. Such union can sue or be sued for the purposes of this Act. In the case of employers an industrial union must consist of not less than three persons ; in the case of workers of not less than fifteen. Any council or other body whatever may be its designation representing not less than two industrial unions of either employers or workers may be registered as an " industrial association." The decisions, etc., of the Arbitration Court apply equally in the case of unions and associations. The Secretary for Labour is the Registrar of Industrial Unions and Associations. For purposes of administration the dominion is divided into several industrial districts. What one may call the lower courts for dealing with industrial matters are named " Councils of ConciUation." These consist of a Com- missioner appointed by the Governor and one, two, or three assessors to assist him in the investigation of a dispute. These assessors are appointed on apphcation to the Commissioner by the unions or associations involved. Every person recommended as an assessor must be one who is, or has been, actively engaged either as employer or worker in the industry or industries affected by the dispute. Power is however given to the Commissioner to appoint one not so engaged, if he considers that by so doing the settlement of the dispute will be assisted. If a settlement can be arrived at by the Council the terms have to be set forth in an industrial agreement. If one is not arrived at, and there seems to be no probability of such being the case, then the matter goes to the Arbitration Court. 253 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Four Commissioners are appointed for the dominion and the jurisdiction of each extends over one or more industrial districts. The Arbitration Court is presided over by a Judge appointed by the Governor. He must be one eUgible for appointment as a Judge of the Supreme Court. His position as regards tenure of office, salary, emoluments, privileges, etc., is the same as that as Judge of the Supreme Court. Provision is made for the temporary appointment of some Judge during the illness of the permanent one. On question of law the Judge of the Arbitration Court may state a case for the opinion of the Court of Appeal. There are two nominated members of the Arbitration Court, one recommended by the employers' unions and one by those of the workers. Notwithstanding the aim of the original Act being to prevent either employer or employed from resorting to means other than those provided by a court of law for settling industrial disputes, strikes stiU took place. The workers were not obedient to the orders of the Arbitration Court. The Amendment Act of 1908 clearly describes the meaning of both " strike " and " lock-out." A " strike " means the act of any number of workers discontinuing their employment or breaking their contracts of service when due to a combination of workers, (a) With the intention to compel an employer to agree to terms of emplojnnent or to comply with the workers' demands ; (b) to cause loss or inconvenience to an employer in the conduct of his business, or with the object of instigating or helping any other strike ; (c) to assist workers in the employment of any other employer to compel or induce him to agree to terms of emplo5mient or to comply with the demands of workers. A " lock-out " means the act of an employer closing 254 PENALTIES ON BOTH SIDES his place of business or suspending or discontinuing any branch of it with the object of : — {a) CompeUing or inducing workers to agree to terms of emplo5niient or to comply with the demands of an employer ; (b) Causing loss or inconvenience to workers or inciting to procure a lock-out by intending to assist other employers. An " unlawful strike " is defined as one in which workers are bound at its commencement by any industrial award or agreement affecting the industry in which such strike arises. An "unlawful lock-out' is defined as one in which any employer is bound by any industrial award or agreement affecting the industry in which such lock-out occurs. The penalties on parties to a strike or lock-out if at the commencement of either there existed any award or industrial agreement affecting the industry concerned. {a) For every worker a penalty not exceeding £10 in the case of such a strike ; (b) For every employer one not exceeding £500 in the case of such a lock-out. Every person who incites or instigates an unlawful strike or lock-out, or its continuance, or assists anyone to become a party to either such a strike or lock-out, is liable, if a worker, to a penalty of £10. An industrial union or association, trade union, or employer, or anyone not a worker, is liable to a penalty not exceeding £200. Any person who makes any gift of money or other valuable for the benefit of any person, or association, connected with an unlawful strike or lock-out is considered to have aided them unless able to prove the contrary. If the majority of members of any industrial union or association are parties to a strike or lock-out then the union or association to which they belong is considered to have been an instigator. 255 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND There are penalties to which employers are liable if they dismiss a worker because he is an officer or member of an industrial tmion, has been an assessor on a Council of Concihation or entitled to the benefit by any award. There are also special penalties in r^ard to strikes or lock-outs in the specified industries which follow : — (a) The manufacture or supply of gas ; (6) The production of electricity for hght or power ; (c) The slaughtering or supply of meat for domestic consumption ; {d) TTie supply of water to the inhabitants of a borough, or any other place ; {e) The supply of milk for domestic consumption ; (/) The sale or delivery of coal whether for domestic or industrial purposes ; {g) The working of any ferry, tramway, or railway used for the pubHc carriage of goods or passengers. Any person employed in the above industries who strikes without having given his employer, within one month of striking, not less than fomteen days' notice signed by himself, or strikes before the expiration of the notice given by him, is hable on summary conviction before a magistrate to a fine not exceeding £25. An employer who locks out without giving similar notice to his employees is liable on simmiary conviction before a magistrate to a fine not exceeding £500. The relations between Capital and Laboiu" are of such vital importance that it has been thought well to state in considerable detail the efforts New Zealand has been making to deal with one portion of this extremely difficult problem. 256 CHAPTER XIV BANKING AND WEALTH Number of banks in New Zealand — Banking legislation — Savings Banks — Value of securities, amount of deposits, etc. At the end of the year 1907 there were five banks of issue doing business in New Zealand. Two of these, the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand, are entirely New Zealand institutions. As is only natural, the development of banking in a country which has reached a time of great prosperity has been very considerable. In the year 1870, which marked the commencement of a distinct period in the life of the dominion, the deposits in banks of issue were £3,127,769, the assets £6,315,354, and the liabilities £3,819,670. In that year the deposits were £18 per head of the mean population. Advancing twenty years, in 1890 we find the deposits to have been £12,368,610, the assets £17,735,259, the liabilities £13,356,598. The deposits were £19-92 per head. In 1907 the deposits amounted to £23,517,111, the assets to £26,584,239, and the liabihties to £25,334,348. The deposits in 1907 were £25-59 per head. The ratio of advances to deposits was 132-84 per cent, in 1880, and 84-35 per cent, in 1907. The value of bullion and coin in the banks in 1890 was £2,591,189, out of which coin represented £2,421,530. In 1907 the value of coin and bullion stood at £4,984,566, out of which coin represented £4,814,908. In 1907 the amount of advances was £19,838,799, or £21-58 per head of the mean population. Special banking legislation has been passed from time 257 17— (2136) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND to time, the principal part being in connection with the Bank of New Zealand. In 1893 an Act was passed giving power to the share- holders or proprietors of any bank, by extraordinary resolution, to authorize its capital to be increased to such an amount and upon such terms as they might deem expedient. Power was also given to grant the holders of shares in the increased capital special privil^es notwithstanding anything contained in the bank charter. A Bank Note Issue Act was also passed pro^'iding that notes issued or circulated in the dominion by any bank, should be to the amount of the issue authorized, a first charge on aU the assets and property of the bank which are assets for the payment of its debts and obhgations in the dominion. In 1894 an Act was passed guaranteeing out of the Consolidated Fund a special issue of shares by the Bank of New Zealand to the amoimt of £2,000,000 sterling. In 1895 further legislation was made in coimection with the same institution. In 1898 a Committee of the House of Representatives having inquired into the affairs of the Bank of New Zea- land an Act was passed dealing with its administration. That Act provides for the Constitution of a Board of Directors consisting of six persons, four to be appointed by the Governor in Council and two to be elected by the shareholders. Strong powers are given to the Governor in Coimdl in connection with audit. Fmrther legislation was made in 1903 and 1904 in connection with the affairs of the bank. The sa\ings banks business of the dominion is prac- tically entirely carried out by the government through the Post Office. There are, however, five private savings banks. 258 THE NATION'S WEALTH The number of post offices open for savings bank business at the end of 1907 was 563. The total number of open accounts at the end of that year was 319,773, or one in every 2-91 of the population. In the year 1906 the number of open accounts was 298,746. The value of accounts not exceeding £20 was £212,605 in 1906, and £226,012 in 1907. On 31st December, 1907, securities to the value of £11,575,979 were held in the name of the Postmaster- General on account of the savings banks. Of this amount £10,121,558 were invested in New Zealand Government securities, £850,895 in local bodies securities, and £543,526 in various securities. The total amount deposited in the private savings banks at the end of 1907 was £1,036,568. The deposits in the savings banks on December 31st, 1907, amounted to £12,825,063. The average amount to the credit of each depositor was £35 3s. lOd. The amount per head of the population, £13 15s. lid. Taking the total deposits of banks of issue at the end of the year to be equal to the average deposits for the four quarters and adding the deposits in both classes of savings banks a total amount is shown of £34,157,403, not including Government moneys. The question of the wealth of the dominion may here be mentioned. According to the official Year Book of 1908, which only purports to give a rough approximation of the facts as far as private wealth is concerned, the following appears to be the case. Aggregate private wealth on December 31st, 1906, £304,654,000. The pubhc property, which includes Crown and all other lands not being private property as well as aU public works, is estimated to have a value of £62,041,000. To this has to be added the value of Native lands and 259 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND improvements, exclusive of lessees' interests, which is estimated at ,^9,708,000. The total value of public property, private wealth, and native lands cimounts then to £376,403,000. The private wealth represents net wealth, but the debt of the general government and the local authorities on account of loans raised out of the dominion must be deducted. This debt amounts to £58,965,000. Deducting this from the total amount of £376,403,000 there remains at the end of 1906 pubhc and private wealth of the value of £317,438,000. 260 CHAPTER XV DEFENCE First scheme mooted for defence of the Dominion — Services rendered by Sir William Jervois and Major-Genl. Shaw — Australasian Naval Defence Act — Compulsory service — Rates of pay in the Militia — Volunteers — The Defence Act Amendment Act — The Defence Council. Although the Maori wars ceased in 1870, the unsettled condition of native affairs with the consequent possibility of hostilities breaking out again, necessitated the maintenance of considerable military forces. The neces- sary administration and control was carried out by the Defence Department, which had been created under the Minister of Defence in the early years of the employment of colonial troops. In 1885 the defence forces consisted of the Armed Constabulary and an Auxiliary force of Volunteers. Up to that time the only defence question to which any attention had been paid was that of being ready to repress internal disorder. War between Russia and Great Britain however then became imminent, and the colony was brought face to face with a new position, which compelled the setting up with as little delay as possible, an organization suitable for dealing with external defence also. It was necessary at once to provide some sort of defence against the attacks by sea which were sure to take place should war be declared. The question arose : " What ought we to do ? " A sort of council of war, consisting of the Ministers and all those considered best able to give advice on the matter, was therefore immediately summoned. It was fortunate for the colony that the Governor at this time was Lieu tenant-General Sir WiUiam Jervois, R.E., as he was 261 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND able from his great experience, to give the Council the very best advice as to the measures to be undertaken, and afterwards to assist the Government in carrying out what was decided upon. Not only was the advice of Sir WiUiam Jervois of inestimable value, but when it w£is afterwards decided that the defence of the principal harbours should be by permanent works and submarine mines, his very great knowledge of the subject enabled the Government to carry out the scheme with confidence. In fact, no greater authority on such matters could possibly have been consulted. Subsequently, the Government had the advantage of consulting Major-General H. Shaw, R.E., who had come to reside in New Zealand. The value to the dominion of this officer's services cannot be too highly estimated. They were placed imreservedly at the disposal of the Government at a time when his great knowledge of harbour defence was of supreme importance. Some years before this time some 7-inch and 64 pr. rifled muzzle-loading guns, and four spar-torpedo boats had been obtained ; but any defence against enemies from without was not considered a contingency requiring immediate attention. Accordingly, the guns had been placed in sheds and the torpedo boats put out of sight as useless encumbrances. Now that war was very likely to commence \\ithin a few da}^ it became necessary to bring them to hght and make the best possible use of them. Land was immediately purchased, forts suitable for the guns were designed and ^he necessary work immediately commenced. The torpedo boats were overhauled and made ready for service as expeditiously as possible. The Armed Constabulary was drawn upon at once to provide the officers and men necessary for artillery work. Instructors were obtained from amongst those residents in the colony who had formerly served in the Royal Artillery, and a few from within the Armed Constabulary 262 THE DOMINION'S HANDY MEN itself. Training proceeded continuously. Crews for the torpedo boats were obtained from those men of the Armed Constabulary who had followed the calling of the sea. The colony was fortunate in having such an excellent force to draw upon for the various services required at the time. The high rate of intelligence possessed by the members of the force and their capability for adapting themselves to any kind of work was now of enormous value. Auckland was at the time considered by the Naval Authorities to be the most important harbour to be defended, and therefore energy was principally directed to making that place as secure as possible under existing circumstances. A "torpedo corps," as it was called, was also formed from officers and men then resident in the colony, but who at one time had served in the Royal Navy or Royal Engineers, together with men from the Armed Constabulary who had also been in the former branch of the Imperial Services. A submarine minefield was designed and, mainly by the assistance rendered by the Royal Navy, the mines were laid in what was probably the first minefield in Australasian waters. Retired naval officers who were living in the colony were engaged to superintend such naval defence as was possible and to instruct the crews of the torpedo boats. Steps were also taken for pre- venting the coal-mines within reasonable distance of any port being utilized by the men-of-war of the probable enemy. In fact, everything that could possibly be devised for the defence of the colony with the means available was carried out as quickly as possible. Such were the first efforts to provide external defence. Happily the maintenance of peace prevented the necessity of putting them to a test. The danger to which the colony was exposed by not being prepared in any way to defend its own shores, was however fully recognized. 263 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND The result of this was that a system of defence was estabhshed applicable to aU eventualities. The measures necessary for defending the colony were commenced at once, have been continuously proceeded with, and are being carried on steadily at the present moment. The Government determined that as far as possible everything connected with defence should from the commencement be done on the most recently approved and up-to-date principles. Guns and other war material of the latest pattern were ordered. Fortifications were planned by imperial officers after the newest designs. By them also the sites considered most suitable for submarine mine- fields were selected and the stores most inmiediately necessary were ordered. The main principles of the scheme of defence were that the chief towns, and consequently centres of trade of the colony should be made as secure as possible from attack ; that there should be safe anchorages in time of war at the principal ports for merchant vessels trading to, or in the colony, and last but not least, that efficiently-protected coaling stations for British men-of-war should be provided. Such were the lines on which external defence was commenced, and on which it has been continued ever since. That alterations in the plans of defence for particular districts have been made from time to time goes without saving. That this principle was correct may be gathered from the fact that Article IX of the Agreement under the " Australasian Naval Defence Act, 1908," reads as foUows — " The Imperial Government recognise the advantages to be derived from making Australasia a base for coal and supphes for the squadrons in Eastern waters." Modifications of original designs frequently become necessary. Military science is always advancing, and the most recently acquired knowledge of the art of war renders changes imperative from time to time. In addition it may also be said that experts do not always agree. 264 A COMMENCEMENT MADE However the Government did all that they possibly could to obtain the best advice, and when obtained to carry it out, as far as the circumstances of the colony permitted. The very first thing to strike the people of any country would naturally be that what was worth having was worth preserving. This is not always the case, however, and the Government have found at times that defence expenditure is very unpopular with some of the repre- sentatives of the people in Parliament. The work, nevertheless, has gone steadily on, and the colony ex- pended nearly four millions of its money in the twenty- two years between 1885 and 1907 in that very necessary part of State insurance — defence. The expenditure on defence during the year 1907-8 was £197,579, and £250,000 wiU be required for the year 1908-9. This expenditure does not include the sum paid annually under the Australasian Naval Defence Act which amounts to £100,000. That no time was wasted after the principle had been adopted, that defence against attacks by sea was necessary, may be gathered from the following historical summary. At the beginning of 1885 there was no defence at all. By the end of 1889 not only had the necessary forts and other works been brought to an advanced stage of com- pletion, but more than forty modem breech-loading and quick-firing guns had been mounted and equipped in addition to the rifled muzzle-loading guns already alluded to. The submarine minefields in Auckland and WeUington had been surveyed, mines and stores of the most recent patterns provided, and advanced preparations had been made for la5dng down mines in two of the best equipped minefields in the world. While these works were proceeding, the training of men required for the working and control of the various imple- ments of war had not been neglected, and although it could not be expected that the training of aU concerned 265 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND had reached a state of perfection, yet remarkable progress had been made. The branches necessary for full develop- ment of the work were gradually being brought into existence. The State branch of the Defence Department, which of course existed in former times had now thrust upon it the duty of obtaining large quantities of warlike material which had hitherto been unknown to it even by name. The aim of the Government was, as has already been said, to keep everj^hing up to modem requirements. Prior to 1885 the mihtary administration was carried out under various MiUtia and Volunteer Acts suitable to the forces employed under the defence conditions then existing. In 1886 it became necessary to provide for an entirely diflEerent state of things. The outcome was the passing of the " Defence Act, 1886," known as the principal Act until 1908, when all previo\is Acts were consohdated. Under this Act the Armed Constabulary disappeared and a new force called the Permanent Militia was brought into being, the first members being taken from the mihtary body just done away with. The Permanent MiUtia was divided into two branches. Artillery and Torpedo Corps. Later these became Artillery and Engineers, and were by the gracious authority of the Crown designated the " Royal New Zealand Artillery " and " Royal New Zea- land Engineers." These are now, however, embraced in one corps, " The Royal New Zealand Artillery." This is the only permanent mihtary force in the dominion. Great consideration was given to the question of the organization and administration of the Volunteers, and regulations based on those of a similar nature for the Imperial Service were framed under the Act, and became law after receiving the authority of the Governor and Commander-in-Chief in the usual form. Under this Act also all male inhabitants of New Zealand, including 266 A NATIONAL FORCE natives, between the ages of seventeen and fifty-five, resident in the country for six months, became Uable for military service. The Militia was divided into three classes : — {a) Unmarried men between the ages of 17 and 30. (6) Married men between the same ages, and all unmarried men between 30 and 40. (c) Married men between the latter ages, and all unmarried men between 40 and 55. Exemptions from service were necessarily made in the case of : — {a) Executive Councillors, Judges of the Supreme and Native Land Courts ; (b) Members and officers of the General Assembly ; (c) Secretaries and Under-Secretaries of the General Government ; (d) Resident Magistrates, Sheriffs, and Constables ; (e) Post, telegraph, and railway employees ; (/) Medical men and clergymen ; (§■) Enrolled volunteers ; (h) Those unfit for service by reason of physical infirmity. Power was given to the Governor to exempt by pro- clamation natives in any district, as might seem to be advisable. Provision was also made for protecting the interests of miners or holders of miners' rights in claims or "water-rights," when called out for service in the militia. Under an Amendment Act of 1900 the necessary powers were given to the Governor for dividing the dominion into such military districts and sub-districts as were deemed necessary, and for the appointment of enrolment officers. Great powers are given to these officers to ensure a proper enrolment. Amongst these may be mentioned that of being able to compel all licensed public-house keepers and all lodging-house keepers, as well as owners of private 267 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND dwelling houses, to supply the neimes and ages of aU adult males resident with them. The rolls must be posted in conspicuous places in each district, and if anyone hable to be enrolled is not on the list he must send notice of the omission to the enrolment officer. Penalties are enacted for refusing to give information. By the same Amendment Act an Imperial Reserve was estabhshed for service under certain conditions. The power given to the Governor under the Act just mentioned for establishing mili tary districts has been exercised by him. The dominion has been divided into five districts, Auckland, Wellington, Canterbvuy, Nelson, and Otago. These have been again divided into sub-districts which are the same as those for electoral purposes. This is a sound and simple form of sub-division, fully providing for enrolment of the mili tia when necessary. The Defence Forces of the dominion, of which the Governor is Commander-in-Chief, at present consist of:— (1) The Royal New Zealand Artillery, the only corps now belonging to the Permanent Militia. (2) The Volunteers. Either Europeans or natives may be enrolled in the Permanent ilihtia, and are hable for service either in, or beyond, the dominion. They may be employed also as a pohce force in case of any sudden or extraordinary disturbance of the peace. The Permanent Mihtia is properly prohibited from canvassing or taking part in any election for members of the House of Representatives. They are, however, allowed to vote at an election. A Permanent Mihtia man has to serve for eight years. Of this service five years must be continuous. At the end of the latter period he is enrolled in the reserve for the remaining three years, unless he prefers to remain on the active List. Reserve men are hable to be recalled at any time to active service. If the Permanent Mihtia is not 268 HOW THE SOLDIER IS PAID on active service a member of that force is able to obtain his discharge as follows : — (a) During the first three years' service on a payment (b) At any time during the succeeding two years on a payment of £2 ; (c) After five years' service without payment. Men so discharged are, however, put on the reserve, and are hable to be called out for active service during any of the remaining period of the eight years for which they originally enrolled. The pay of the officers of the Permanent Militia is as follows : — Major in command, £325 with ;^50 house allowance. Captains from £275 to £225 with free quarters, to £220 with £50 house allowance. Lieutenants from £215 to £175. The following are the rates of pay and allowance for Warranty, Non-commissioned Officers, and Rank and File of the Permanent Force : — {a) Regimental Sergeant-Major, 10s. per diem and £50 per annum house allowance. (b) Gunnery Instructor on appointment, 9s. 3d. per diem ; after three years' service, 10s. per diem. (c) Company Sergeant-Major and Quarter-master- Sergeant on appointment, 9s. per diem ; after three years' service, 9s. 6d., and after six years, 9s. 9d. {d) 2nd Class Master Gunner on appointment, 9s. 3d. per diem. After three years' service, 10s. (e) Sergeants on appointment, 8s. 6d. per diem ; after three years' service, 8s. 9d. (/) Corporals on appointment, 8s. per diem ; after three years' service, 8s. 3d. (g) Bombardiers on appointment, 7s. 6d. per diem ; after three years' service, 7s. 9d. (h) Artificers on a shding scale rising according to service to a maximum rate of lis. per diem. 269 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND {i) Rank and file, ordinary pay, 6s. per diem. This can be increased by their passing examinations for efficiency in their duties. The highest rate of proficiency pay is Is. per diem. There is also another or second-class rate of 6d. per diem. A further increase can be obtained by good conduct pay to be awarded at the following rates : — After 5 years' service . . . . . . . . 3d. per day „ 10 „ „ 6d. „ „ ,. 15 „ 9d. „ „ „ 20 „ .. Is.Od It will thus be seen that a man by exercise of intelli- gence and apphcation to his work can increase his pay to 7s. a day throughout his service, and that after five years' service with good conduct he can again increase it according to the scale just given, until he reaches a maximum of 8s. a day. Lodging allowances may also be granted on the following scale if public quarters are not available : — Warrant Officers and Staff Sergeants . . ;f25 per annum Sergeants . . . . . . . . . . . . ^20 „ Rank and FUe £15 „ There is also a rate of pay fixed for the various ranks of the Artillery when employed as instructors to the Volunteers. A comparison of these rates of pay will show that the pay of the officers is much less in proportion than that of aU ranks below them. The strength of the Permanent Militia on February 29th, 1908, was 307. It is proposed to reduce this force in the future, and to simply retain a sufficient number to act as instructors to and perform duties of specialists with the Volunteer Garrison Artillery which is now linked with it for coast defence work. The Volunteers are composed of : — (fl) Field and Garrison Artillery ; (b) Mounted Rifles ; 270 TRAINING THE BOYS (c) Infantry, including Cycle Corps ; (d) Field Hospital and Bearer Corps ; (e) A Reserve Corps. The Reserve Corps are principally formed from Infantry and Mounted Corps who have been unable to maintain the strength laid down by the regulations for Volunteer Corps, or are not sufficiently close to lines of communica- tion for mobilization and frequent practical instruction. There are also as adjuncts to the Volunteer force Defence Rifle Clubs and Defence Cadets. The former, of which there are 143, receive an annual free grant of ammunition for those members who have qualified in certain simple drills and exercises laid down by regulation. They are included in the Defence Annual Musketry Course, and are under the superintendence of an officer on the staff of the Inspector-General. The report of the latter for 1908 shows that under present conditions the Defence Rifle Clubs have not come into line with the defence forces of the dominion. They have devoted their energies merely to shooting. This, he points out, although an excellent foundation for the training of a soldier, is in itself not sufficient to fit him for taking any real part in the defence of his country. Defence Cadets, of whom there are fifty-nine corps, are boys, principally from school, who are voluntarily learning drill, musketry, and other military training, so as to fit themselves in early life for future service to the dominion in the active force. The number of cadets undergoing training in the same year was 3,158. The annual capitation granted to each efficient garrison and field artillery and infantry volunteer is £2 10s. To each efficient mounted volunteer, £3 10s. To each efficient cadet, 12s. 6d. To each efficient reservist, 5s. Any Volunteer after one year's service may quit the corps in which he is enrolled upon giving three months' 271 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND notice. Should he however be compelled to leave the district in which his corps is serving a fortnight's notice is sufficient. The Commissioned company officers are elected by two-thirds or more of the members of each corps at a meeting convened by advertisement. They then receive acting appointments, until they have passed the examinations laid down by r^ulations for the various ranks, after which they receive commissions. Election of officers is not suitable to any form of mihtary service. Qiques can be, and are, formed amongst members of corps to advocate the claims of particular candidates, and a man may be elected on account of his being a good fellow, instead of his suitability' for the position of an officer bearing His Majesty's commission. The maximum rate of pay of officers conunanding districts is £400 per annum They also receive free quarters or a house allowance of £50. The pay of the officers of the instructional staff ranges from £275 to £200 per annum with house allowances varving from £50 to £25. The pay of the non-conunissioned officers ranges from £180 to £150 per annum. As was shown in connection with the Permanent Mili tia, so here it will be seen that the pay of the officers is much less in proportion than that of the non-commissioned officers. In 1886 the forces were armed with the old Snider rifles and carbines. Following the changes which took place in the Imperial Service as regards the matter, the Snider was replaced by the Martini-Henr)', which in turn was succeeded by the Martini-Enfield and by the Lee-Enfield, with which magazine rifle the forces are now all armed. The provision of ammunition for these arms was also a matter requiring constant change. Much was procured from the War Office, but this had also to be augmented by supphes from private firms. The difficulties attending the provision and maintenance of what was required were 272 A USEFUL COMPANY much lessened by the estabUshment in Auckland of the Colonial Ammunition Company. This company, under contracts with the Government, has for some years supplied by far the greater part of the ammunition required. An officer is stationed in Auckland for testing supplies under contract. The company has kept itself well up-to-date in aU machinery and appliances, and an excellent quality of output has been maintained. The fact of being able to obtain large supplies of small arm ammunition of a good quality in the dominion itself has been and will continue to be an enormous aid to its defence. It would be impossible to describe all that has been done in the past and is still being carried out, to improve the defence of the dominion, but sufficient has been said to show that no efforts towards that end have been spared. The total strength of the forces of the dominion, as shown in the Report of the Council for the year ending on the 29th February, 1908, was as follows : — Headquarters and district stafi . . . . 64 Royal New Zealand Artillery Volunteers . . Rifle Clubs Defence Cadets . . Reserve Corps 307 12,834 3,369 3,158 215 Total .. „. 19,947 This total shows that of the male population between the ages of twenty-one and fifty-five there is one individual out of every twenty-one serving in the Defence Forces of the dominion. The following point in connection with the defence must however be mentioned. f - The Imperial Government having decided to dispense with submarine mines as a means of defence the dominion has done likewise. The desirability of following the Imperial defence measures as closely as possible is 273 i8— (ai36) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND certainly commendable. Different conditions are, how- ever, to be fomid in the oversea dominions and the Mother Country. These sometimes affect the measures taken. This presumably has been fully considered on the occasion here referred to, but the defence will be much weakened unless replacement of the mines by other submarine methods has been provided for. Up to 1906 the Defence Department was administered, under the Minister of Defence, by the Under-Secretary who was one of the chief officials of the General Govern- ment. The occupant of this office was not necessarily a soldier, although he frequently was, or had been one. In 1890 it appeared to the government of the day that although there was an officer appointed to inspect and report on the condition and efficiency of the forces it was desirable that a Commander of the Forces should be obtained. The officer first appointed was a captain in the Royal Artillery selected by the Imperial authorities, and he was succeeded in due course by a Major from the same arm of the service. He in turn was followed by an officer who had seen considerable service in the cavalry both in India and South Africa. This dual form of administration was not a success, as there were too many occasions on which divided authority interfered with a proper conduct of business. The officers first appointed could not understand the position. They were not able to see that the Defence Department was a branch of the civil service of the country, and was, as in the case of all others, under the control of a minister of the Crown, administered through its official head in conformity with the usages of all branches of that service. They assumed that the command of the forces gave them control over everj^thing in the department. Any division between its civil and mihtary branches seemed to them impossible, and a great deal of confusion necessarily resulted. The officer last 274 CHANGE IN ADMINISTRATION appointed to the office of Commander of the Forces had had considerable experience of command in the Imperial service, and during the South African war a large number of New Zealand troops had served under him. He did everything in his power to prevent any possible friction arising between the civil and military authorities of the department. " The Defence Act Amendment Act" of 1906 completely ended the foregoing system. By that Act a Defence Council was created under the Presidency of the Minister of Defence. The power given by the Act of 1900 to the Governor to appoint a Commander of the Forces is, however, still retained. The Council consists, in addition to the President, of five members as foUows : — (a) Chief of the General Staff : First Military Member. (6) Adjutant and Quarter-master-General : Second Military Member. (c) Inspector-General : Third Mihtary Member. {d) Finance Member. (e) Secretary. Four of these (a) (c) (d) and (e) are Colonels in the New Zealand Militia, and the fifth (b) is an officer of the British regular army. The pay of the members of the Council of Defence, with the exception of the Finance member, is £500 per annum and a house allowance of ;£75. The Finance member, who is also Secretary to the Treasury, receives £100 per annum and no house allowance. The pay of the Headquarters staff ranges from £500 per annum in the case of the Director of Engineer services with £50 house allowance, to £215 per annum in the case of the Inspector-General's staff officer whose house allowance is £25 per annum. It is unnecessary to describe their various duties ; suffice it to say that they are laid down on the lines recommended by the Imperial Defence Committee for 275 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND the guidance of the various colonies. It may be well, however, to quote from the Report of the Defence Council for 1907 as to what its duties are : — " The Council of Defence is an advisory body to the Honorable the Minister of Defence on all matters connected with defence. It also prepares and puts before the Minister such subjects as may be necessary for his consideration and decision. The Government and Parliament declare the policy and vote the suppUes, the Council advising and carrying out that poUcy to the b^ advantage on the supply granted." The institution of the Defence Council is the best thing that has been done in the dominion towards obtaining good administration of everything connected with its forces. The Report of the Defence Council for 1907 gives an account of its first meeting, January 7th, of that year, and of the decisions arrived at on various subjects. Extracts from some of these will prove of interest. As regards "Pohcy" the following appears in the Report: — ' ' Taking all circumstances into consideration, it was decided that the poUcy of defence should, for the present, continue purely voluntary." After some remarks as to how administration would be carried out to ensure efficiency, etc., the subject is closed with these words : — " Should the Volunteer Force not be maintained or brought up to an efficient state, volunteering has had its last chance. If the general public are in earnest as to defence, they must themselves assist and ensure that under the voluntary- system sufficient enlistment is made and that once men are enlisted they attend regularly. The alternative is a S3rstem of universal or compulsory training whereby the burden of service in the defence forces will be more evenly distributed." Apparently the Voluntary system did not proceed at a satisfactory rate, as not so very long after the Defence Council had thus formally given expression to its defined policy, it is reported that it was found necessary to submit to the Minister for his approval that the first-class of the 276 THE CITIZENS* DUTY Militia should be called out. It was not approved of by the Premier. This was probably due to his desire to afford a little more time to the people of the colony to consider whether they would avail themselves of the " last chance." It should, however, be mentioned — to make the matter prefectly clear — that the Force required is definitely fixed for service in defence of the dominion, that is, home defence, and that contingents for oversea service are to be raised and equipped as a special force. The matter may be summed up as follows : — The dominion must be defended. It will be done by voluntary means if possible, but if the country does not rise to that, then it must be done compulsorily. There has been much discussion by public men and in the Press on this question, and undoubtedly the general opinion is in favour of universal training for the defence of the dominion. Nothing could be clearer and nothing could be better than thus bringing forcibly before the citizens of any country that the first duty of its manhood is to fight for it when the need arises. One other point in the Report of 1907 deserves special mention. It is stated that : — " The scheme of harbour defence is in accordance with the recommendation of the Imperial Defence Committee, and the naval policy of the Empire." No better proof than this could be given that the original scheme of external defence — defence of the principal ports — was based on proper lines, and in accordance with the only policy to secure the very existence of the Empire — that of Naval Defence. There is one item in the report alluded to above which shows that special significance has been attached to the thorough training of the officers of the Royal New Zealand Artillery, and Royal New Zealand Engineers. These corps as already stated have now been merged into one. The item referred to is that the officers of these two 277 THE DOMINION Of NEW ZEALAND branches have all undergone training in England. This is a step in the right direction. The aim of the dominion should be that no military positions should be too high to be held by officers of its own force who have been thoroughly trained, and shown themselves fitted for the most important military duties. The report of the Council of Defence for 1908 shows that the education of the officers is a matter occupying their earnest attention, as in it they recommend that a school of instruction shall be established on the lines of the one now in existence in Kingston, Canada. The same report demonstrates progress in the organisa- tion requisite to enable all branches of the forces to be used to the greatest advantage in the defence of the dominion. 278 CHAPTER XVI LAW AND JUDICIAL The laws under which everyone Uves in New Zealand are the laws of England as existing on January 14th, 1840, so far as they are appUcable to the circumstances of the colony, and so far as since that date they have been modified by statutes made by the legislature of New Zealand. What these modifications amount to may be realized by the fact that no less than 4,310 Acts and Ordinances have been made. Certainly about half of this legislation consists of local and personal Acts. In 1908 an immense mass of it was consolidated, but even now the statutory law of New Zealand is a formidable collection. By the year 1895 the accumulation became so unwieldy that a Commission was appointed to carry out the details of consolidation. In 1908 the first instalment of the work of the Com- mission was issued in five volumes consisting of 208 Consolidated Acts, and a short Act was passed by the Dominion Parliament repealing the numerous Acts about to be superseded and replacing them by consohdated Acts. Many Acts will have to remain in operation till the consolidation has been completed. It must not be forgotten that besides the legislation by the central government there were stiU left in operation between the years 1852 and 1876 some of the laws made by the Parliaments of the Provinces before the latter were abolished. It was not until 1892 that the bulk of the Ordinances made by those Provinces was done away with by the central government. Even to this day a 279 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND residue of some 200 stiU have fiill legal effect within the boundaries of the defunct Provinces. These legislative survivals only refer, however, to such minor matters as drainage, gas, water, and local cemeteries. At the present day, therefore, in New Zealand, to ascertain the law as to some subject not covered by colonial statutes it is necessary to turn to some old English statutes, to ascertain what has been the custom that has governed a similar point in England as far back as even the thirteenth century. Justice is administered by a system copied from that of England. There is a Supreme Court which has within the dominion a jurisdiction similar to that which the High Court of Justice has in England. The Supreme Court was first created in the year 1841 by an Ordinance of the first Governor of the Colony, the powers of the court being defined in that Ordinance. In 1882 a code of civil procedure in the Supreme Court was estabUshed to cover any possible omissions from former Acts. It was given all judicial jurisdiction which may be necessary to administer the laws of the colony. There are six judges of the Supreme Court, one being Chief Justice and the other five having districts assigned to them, viz., two at Wellington, and one each at Auckland, Christchurch, and Dtmedin. A Court of Appeal is formed which consists of two or more Judges of the Supreme Court sitting together, and the decisions of the Court of Appeal axe final as regards tribunals of the dominion. There is appeal in criminal cases as well as in civil cases. The Court of Appeal may give leave to either party to appeal to the Privy Council. Next in degree to the Supreme Court come the District Courts with civH jurisdiction up to £500 and criminal jurisdiction as to felonies and indictable misdemeanours except treason, murder, or any felony punishable with more than seven years' penal servitude, and certain other 280 a D o O o o 1-1 o w Q THE DOMINION*S LAW-GIVERS offences set out in the Act which created these Courts. Appeals in both civil and criminal cases from the District Court to the Supreme Court are provided for. Next below the District Courts come those of the Stipen- diary Magistrates, with three degrees of jurisdiction : the lowest up to £100, the next up to £200, and the next the special jurisdiction including partnership accounts, actions for libel or slander, bequests involving sums up to £200, and injunctions concerning personal property up to £500, or land up to a rent value of £210. Appeal from these courts is to the Supreme Court. Courts to provide for the special circumstances of mining districts are called " Wardens' Courts " with elaborate provisions for the administration of justice with appeal to the District Court. 281 CHAPTER XVII POLICE Prior to 1886 the police duties of the dominion were carried out by the Armed Constabulary. In that year a pohce force was established by Act, and is administered through one of the government departments — ^the Police Department. At the head of the force and of the depart- ment is the Commissioner, an officer appointed under the Act referred to. Under the conditions prevailing in the dominion this is a distinct advantage. In cases of crime to be detected or dealt with in any form there is no division of control or authority. This leads to simpMfication of aU measures necessary for the maintenance of order and to accuracy in aU statistics regarding crime in the dominion. The finger-print sj^stem of identification receives much attention and every member of the force is fuUy instructed in its details. The Commissioner of Pohce in his Report for 1908 bears striking testimony to the value of the system by his statement that criminals have been identified in many parts of the world through finger-prints taken in New Zealand. The total pohce strength in the dominion on 31st March, 1908, was 734 of all ranks. The cost during the previous financial year was £158,000. The proportion of pohce to popiilation is one in 1,331 at a cost of 33. 2Jd. perinhabitant. This places New Zealand in both cases in the first position among the Austialasian States. The nearest approach to New Zealand as regards the proportion of pohce to population is in South Australia where it is one to 1,023, and as regards cost in Tasmania where it is 33. lOd. per inhabitant. The rates of pay of the police force are : — 282 CRIMINALS IDENTIFIED Commissioner . . . . . . . . . . ;^600 per annum. Inspectors from ;£330 to ^440 Sub-Inspectors .. .. „ ^260 „ ^310 Sergeant-Major . . . . . . . . 12s. Od. ,, day. Sergeants .. .. from 10s. Od. to lis. 6d. Constables.. .. ,, 7s. Od. „ 9s. Od. Chief Detectives . . „ 13s. 6d. „ 15s. 6d. Detectives.. .. ,, 9s. 6d. ,, 14s. 6d. Finger-print Expert ;^200 The Commissioner remarks in his report that there is no lack of candidates. In 1899 a Police Provident Fund was established by Act and has proved not only of much benefit to the members of the force, but has been the cause of saving the govern- ment from an expenditure of about £19,000. The Fund provides the retiring allowances and pensions of the force. It took the place of one established in 1886 called the Police Reward Fund. The 1899 Fund consists of the moneys transferred from the fund just mentioned ; fines under the Police Force Act of 1886, levies on the pay of the members of the force, and certain sums paid out of the Consolidated Fund. It is administered by a Board consisting of : — The Minister of the Department. The Public Trustee. The Commissioner and the Inspector of Police in Wellington. It will, of course, be understood from the foregoing account of the force that members have to take duty in any part of the dominion. It is yet possible that the police will, in future, be brought into the general superannuation scheme not long since brought into force. At present they are not at all incUned to abandon what they have already secured. The cost of the force per inhabitant has not varied much during the past eight years. In 1900 it was 2s. lOJd. and in 1908 it was 3s. 2id. 283 CHAPTER XVIII ALIEN QUESTION L^islation regarding Chinese immigiation — ^Persons pixdiibited fioca landing — Penalties. The alien question must alwa)^ be an important one as regards the conditions of any country, but more especially is it the case when a dominion such as New Zealand has to be considered. In New Zealand the principal aim of restrictive legisla- tion in this matter has been the exclusion of the Chinese in any nmnber likely to be of material harm morally or economically to the whole community. Whatever may be the position of the Chinese as regards habits of industry — ^and no one can deny their possession of that quahty — it was evident that their arrival, possibly in hordes, could only result in the Em-opeans finding themselves displaced from their emplojonent, and the dominion eventually becoming practically a Chinese colony instead of a British one. The Government having the power to legislate for the preservation of the dominion for the white race took steps to ensiure that the influx of the yellow element should be practically put an end to. The principle involved in this proceeding gave rise to much discussion in the Mother Country, but that definite official opinion is now in favour of their action may be gathered from a pubhc statement reported to have been made on October the 28th, 1908, by the Under-Secretary for the Colonies, who declared that as far as AustraUa was concerned, he " agreed that it should be reserved for the white races provided they proved themselves sufficiently prolific." He also said that : " As long as the statesmen in those colonies, backed 284 EXCLUSION OF ASIATICS by the unanimous opinion of their own people, said that their countries could only be well governed if the exclusion of Asiatics were maintained, the Government at home must endorse their proposals." In order that the means adopted should be effectual the Government passed an Act placing a poll-tax on all Chinese arriving in the country. This was first fixed at £10 per head and was afterwards raised to ;£100. The following is a risume of some of the provisions of the Act to ensure the end desired. The master of any ship having Chinese passengers on board must declare to the customs authorities the number on board, and before any are landed he must pay £100 for each immi- grant. In the case of any vessel arriving in New Zealand with more than one Chinese passenger for each 200 tons of her tonnage, the owner, master, or charterer is liable on conviction to a penalty not exceeding £100 for each Chinese passenger carried in excess. There may appear to be a degree of hardship in the penalties thus imposed on owners, masters, and agents of ships, but the desire of the Chinese to emigrate to countries where they could work under what to them would be easy conditions, well protected and under comfortable circumstances, was perfectly well known to shipping circles in China and offered opportunities of fuU ships at good rates. It was no concern of theirs whether Chinese flooded New Zealand or not. The steady decrease of the number of Chinese in the dominion was satisfactory between the years 1891 and 1906, as may be judged from the following figures. In 1891 there were 4,444; in 1901, 2,857; and in 1906, 2,570. By the end of 1907, however, the number of Chinese had increased to 2,724. It doubtless became evident to the Government during that year that the measures taken in the past had not been sufficient to prevent the number of Chinese becoming unduly increased, as in the year referred to they added to 285 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND the stringency of the regulations. The principal point in the Act of 1907 was the imposition of a reading test. Under this regulation Chinese immigrants are not allowed to land tmless a principal officer of customs is satisfied that each of them can read a printed passage of not less than 100 words of the Enghsh language, selected at the officer's discretion. Any Chinaman dissatisfied with the officer's decision may appeal to a magistrate, who can administer any further reading test that he thinks fit. His decision is final. A great majority of the Chinese in the dominion petitioned the Governor against this legisla- tion principally on the ground that the question had not been adequately considered. The petition was forwarded to the home government for consideration. The Act was reserved for the assent of His Majesty which has since been given. The dominion is justified in preserving to its own people the fruits of all their labour and expenditure in developing and civilizing the coimtry, and excluding the yellow race, who do not in reahty contribute to the wealth and well- being of the community. An overwhelming proportion of Chinese emigrants go to countries other than their own with but one specific object, namely, that of acquiring wealth which they intend to take back with them to China. The legislation has not been confined to China alone, as New Zealand was determined to preserve her people from contamination through all who were deemed undesirable persons. To give effect to this fundamental principle Acts dealing with the restriction of immigration were passed in 1899 and 1906. By the first-mentioned Act it was laid down who should be the persons to be pro- hibited from landing in New Zealand. The following are the important provisions : — (I) PROfflBiTED Persons. 1. Any person other than those of British (including 286 A PETITION FROM THE CHINESE Irish) birth and parentage, who when asked to do so by an officer appointed under the Act, fails to himself write out and sign in the presence of that officer in any European language an application according to a prescribed form. In this case anyone dissatisfied with the decision of the officer can appeal to the nearest Stipendiary Magistrate, who can make such inquiries as he thinks fit. His decision is final. 2. Any person who is an idiot, or insane. 3. Any person suffering from a contagious disease which is loathsome or dangerous. 4. Any person arriving in New Zealand before the end of the second year from the completion of a term of imprisonment for an offence, which in New Zealand would be punishable by death, or by two years' imprisonment or upwards, not being a political offence, and no pardon having been granted. II. Alternatives. Anyone not coming under 2, 3, or 4 will be allowed to stay in New Zealand provided : — (a) He deposits £100 before landing, and (6) obtains within fourteen days of landing a certificate that he does not come within the prohibitions laid down by the Act. If within the period just mentioned he obtains the necessary certificate his deposit is returned. III. — Penalties. If the certificate is not obtained the £100 deposit is forfeited and he is considered to be a prohibited immi- grant who has landed unlawfully in New Zealand. Any person who lands unlawfully is not only liable to the penalty of £100 but also to be removed from the dominion. Pending his removal he may be detained in prison for any period up to six months. When the £100 penalty is paid he can be released, on 287 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND finding two approved securities in £50 each, that he will leave New Zealand within a month. The owner and master of a vessel which brings to New Zealand prohibited immigrants who land unlawfully are liable to heavy penalties for disregarding the Act. They must also defray all expenses incurred by the authorities in connection with their neglect to conform to the regula- tions. In default of pa5mient of penalties, the vessel may be sold. Those who wilfully assist prohibited immigrants to break the law are themselves liable to heavy penalties. The question of keeping the oversea dominions of the British Empire exclusively for white men is a very complex one, so different are the circumstances sur- rounding it in the various colonies and dependencies of the Crown. In almost every one of these it assumes a different aspect. It wiU, however, be seen that great pains have been taken La New Zealand to prevent not only Chinese but all other undesirables from landing in the dominion. 288 PART IV SOCIAL LIFE IN THE DOMINION CHAPTER I RELIGIOUS, SOCIAL, AND DOMESTIC LIFE ; DRINK AND GAMBLING Statistics on religious bodies — Early development of intelligence in children — How New Zealand women occupy themselves — The farmer's life — Entertainments — The servant question — Shops and stores — Effect of wealth on social life. The religious bodies in the dominion are, perhaps, more numerous than in any other country with the same population. The returns obtained since the census of 1906 from the people themselves show that there were in all thirteen well-known denominations and two groups of sects not contained within those usually specified. There were also four divisions classed under " no denomination," as well as one under the heading " No rehgion." In addition to the above there were 24,325 inhabitants who objected to state their denomination, and 1,884 who gave no answer at all on the matter. The Church of England numbered 368,065 or 41*51 per cent, of the total ; Presbyterians, 203,597 or 22-96 per cent. ; Roman Catholics, 126,995 or 14-32 per cent. ; Methodists, 89,038 or 10-06 per cent. ; and Baptists, 17,747 or 2 per cent. The other sects and denominations in no case represented more than 1 per cent. 289 19 — (M36) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Among those alluded to as belonging to one or other of the denominations included within the two groups referred to above the following may be mentioned : — Brethren, Church of Christ, Christadelphians, Swedenborgians, Seventh Day Adventists, Mormons, SpirituaUsts, Buddhists, and Confucians. Under the head of " No denomination " are included Freethinkers nimibering 3,116 or 0'35 per cent., and Agnostics numbering 734 or 008 per cent. As the cities and towns of the dominion resemble to some extent those of the Mother Country as regards style of architecture, etc., so does the domestic and social Ufe of the dwellers bear a similarity which makes the new- comer feel that he has not quite turned his back on old England. The dogged determination of the Britisher to carry with him wherever he goes aU the customs associated with home Mfe in the Mother Country is exhibited in New Zealand to a very marked degree. The children possess more than the average amoimt of inteUigence such as we are accustomed to in those of tender years in England. Many a colonial child would not fear to take a journey from Auckland to Invercargill at an age when his cousin in England would fear to take a country walk without the protection of his nurse. They are quick to grasp ideas and, generally speaking, display an interest in their school hfe, avaihng themselves of the excellent opportunities offered them. The school training they receive is calculated to develop their inteUigence and powers of observation, the home life cultivates habits of self-reliance. New Zealand has shown an excellent example by the way she takes care that the youth of the dominion shall become indoctrinated during school Mfe with obhgations due to the Empire at large. AU are systematicaUy instructed in the public schools as to the duty they owe 290 THE NATIONAL FLAG SALUTED to the State and are taught to respect the national flag. The Union Jack floats during the hours of instruction from a flagstaff erected in the grounds of every school throughout the country, and on " Dominion Day " (26th Sept.) a formal ceremony is held, during which the flag is saluted by every child in the school. To encourage a taste for making the most of the natural beauties of their country the children are led to take an interest in the planting of trees and flowers, and a day called " Arbour Day " is set apart each year as a holiday in which they are induced to take their share in the beautifying of public parks and thoroughfares. A laudable ambition is engendered in the mind of the youth as he grows up by seeing how successful have been those in prominent positions whose early advantages were certainly not greater than if even equal to his own. The father may say to his son : " Look at So-and-so ; he landed without the proverbial half-crown even, and now he owns his thousands of acres and has the prefix of Honorable before his name." The lad may have pointed out to him that the coveted position of Premier of the dominion is held by a man who commenced life in a humbler walk perhaps than his own. If a colonial's heart is in his work there are few things he cannot accomplish. He may be a little too " cocksure," but extreme confidence has its advantages. As time goes on, however, and he sees a little of the world he finds that his opinions require to be somewhat modified. The young people of the dominion show great skill in whatever requires physical energy, and are very keen on all kinds of games and sports. This independence of character and self-reliance is not confined to one sex. The woman reared in the dominion is conspicuous for her perseverance and adaptability to surroundings. Many New Zealand women have obtained distinction in their university careers and 291 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND brought credit to the dominion by literary and scientific achievements. The way in which the New Zealand housewife takes her share, often more than her share, in the everyday struggle of up-country life is proverbial. Nor does she confine herself merely to the achievements of home hfe. When any subject of general interest to the community turns up she is ready to take her share in moulding pubUc opinion, and shows an organizing skill in pohtical matters. The influence she is able to exercise is much enhanced owing to the universal hospitahty so conspicuous in the dominion. Thus the New Zealand woman is thrown in contact imder the most favourable circumstances with members of both sexes in various walks of life. The up-country hostess in the dominion ofttimes shows a resourcefulness in providing for an unexpected number of guests, and her graciousness of manner as well as the absence of ceremony with which she dispenses the hospitahty of her house are most characteristic. She may have had to cook the dinner, but she makes no concealment of the fact. All is done cheerily and brightly, and she is ready to take her share in whatever may at the time be interesting those round her hospitable table. Not only does she show herself to be quite at home in all domestic matters, but she finds time to attend to the garden and poultry-yard, and sometimes may be called upon to bring up a motherless calf or lamb. It must not be supposed from the above that in New Zealand woman has all work and no play. That such was more or less the case in the early daj^s of the colony there is no doubt, but the present great prosperity of the dominion has brought to many a woman weU-eamed leisure, and has made it unnecessary for the rising genera- tion to lead the strenuous hfe of their parents. The woman of leisure in New Zealand employs her time in much the same way as one in England or other European 292 A TRUE WOMAN Countries, and is surrounded by the same luxuries to be found in old lands. As is the mother so must the daughter be. In many an up-country settlement they must be prepared to take their share in the drudgery of domestic hfe when it is out of the question to have a servant on account of the wages required or the dearth of supply. Nothing comes amiss to these young people in kitchen work, laundry work, etc. If a horse is wanted for riding or driving, one of them will go into a paddock, catch a horse and saddle or harness it. Similarly in details of domestic life they get into the habit of turning their hand to everything and seem to take to it very pleasantly. The children of the weU-to-do are frequently sent to Europe to finish their education, not so much on account of the mere educational advantages, for these can be obtained in the dominion, but in order that the young mind may be enlarged by a more extended view of life. Many young people also visit Europe to specialize in one or other of the arts or sciences. The comfortable houses even in the most remote parts represent almost palaces to those who lived in the colony in early days. They possess accommodation and con- veniences often longed for, but not obtainable, forty years ago. For instance, the kitchen range, often the most modern type, has replaced that terror of the newcomer, the colonial oven. Until experience of the latter had been gained as to its mysterious manage- ment many a joint was burnt to a cinder, or else it arrived on the table as if it had never been even near the fire. Nowadays one frequently comes across, in both town and country, houses planted in the middle of park-like grounds or gardens, as well kept up as in the Mother Country, and of which the domestic appointments leave little or nothing to be desired. 293 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND There is a general alertness in aU that goes on in colonial life which is suitable to the brightness and cheeriness of the country. The working man has not too many hours of toil and has many relaxations. The business man commences his occupation at an earlier hour than is common in England, but he has compensation in the absence of many of the strict conventionalities of the Mother Country. Club life exists in much the same way as it does in England and has similar comforts. It is, however, more extended, inasmuch as the working man has a greater opportimity of joining in it than those in a similar rank in hfe in England. The life of the up-country man, should he be a farmer, has much in it that is enviable. Firstly, his hfe is a healthy one. To this many a dehcate youth from across the sea can testify, and has Uved to bless the day when he turned his thoughts to New Zealand. The colonial farmer or farm hand is almost certain to be a good rider, for from childhood he has probably in company with his brothers and sisters daily mounted some quiet old horse for a ride of several miles to school. One may see two or three of these youngsters on a horse as happy as kings. The farmer's life is full of interest, especially if his should be a cattle-run. There at cattle mustering with a good horse under him, probably as keen as himself at heading a refractory beast, he has real sport hard to beat. Bush-feUing has its peculiar excitement and the acquiring of skill in its execution has its attractions. To see one of the monarchs of the forest fall by the work of his hands is a thrilUng experience. In fact the up-country man has a far better time on the whole than his women- kind. He may have to engage in hard phjTsical labour, but there is in his occupation a certain amount of variety, and aU his work is in the open. The question is often asked as to what is the position as regards drink and 294 A LIGHT-HEARTED PEOPLE gambling. Speaking generally, the colonial proper, that is the man born in the dominion, is not given to excessive drinking. All are, however, given to gambhng, perhaps not more than those in other parts of the British dominions, but certainly not less. Thousands of people who go to a race meeting do so simply for the purpose of putting money in the totalisator. They care and know nothing about the horses concerned. It is the gamble and not racing that attracts them. Opportunities for recreation are numerous for the inhabitants of both town and country. The sixteen registered holidays of the year secure for every one a healthful rest from the routine of daily life. The colonials take their pleasures Hght-heartedly and enjoy them thoroughly. In the cities and all the principal towns plays are produced by good companies that visit them from time to time, and concerts both vocal and instrumental are of frequent occurrence. Some of the best artistes, musical and dramatic, visit the country and give the people in this far-off land an opportunity of seeing acting and hearing voices that have a world-wide reputation. The crowds at theatres and concerts show how attractive such enjoyments are to the people, whose applause gives evidence as to how keen is their apprecia- tion. Race meetings afford other opportunities for the pleasure seeker to enjoy himself thoroughly. The prin- cipal race meetings provide perhaps the greatest social functions of the year. The country picnic is a favourite pastime, and this is natural in a country where, when it is fine, the atmospheric conditions are so favourable and the weather so thoroughly delightful that to stay indoors would be almost a crime. Moreover, there is no part of the country where the dwellers in towns may not quickly and easily reach places suitable for such enjoyments. 295 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Dandng is a great source of pleasure and the colonial is noted for proficiency in the art. It has been stated else^ere what an amount of sport of all kinds is available for those who have the leisure to enjoy it. WeUington being the seat of government and the place of residence of His Excellency the Governor all official functions are held there. The Governor holds yearly a levee which is largely attended by both officials and civilians. There is nothing in the dominion which corresponds to the " Drawing-rooms " as held in England. Government House, however, dispenses hospitality on a large scale, and dinner parties, balls, and garden parties seem to follow one another in quick succession, especially when Parhament is sitting. When those who occupy the highest position in the dominion take an interest in the people and their pursuits and show by their kindness and gradousness of manner, as well as by their courtesy, that everyone, whatever may be his or her social position, is a welcome guest, a real influence for good is sure to be exerted. This was never more strikingly exemplified than when Lord and Lady Ranfurly were at Government House. During the " season " in Wellington there is a good deal of entertaining outside Government House, both public and private balls and parties being not infrequent. " At Homes " are the order of the day and there is many a bridge party given, as that insidious game has taken as firm a hold in the Antipodes as it has in the old world- In other parts of the country outside Wdlington balls are given frequently during the winter months of June, July, and August. Even in remote up-country settle- ments very enjoyable social gatherings take place in a town-hall or other pubhc room, at which dandng is kept up to the early hours of the morning. At these gatherings 296 ill CHARITIES SUPPORTED one is often amazed at, and cannot help admiring, the zest with which dancing is engaged in by one who has been at work from six o'clock the previous morning, and may have many miles to ride before getting home when the party is over. Great interest is taken by colonials in getting up enter- tainments on behalf of charities, and considerable talent is often exhibited on these occasions. The servant question in New Zealand has always been a serious one and at the present moment it has reached an acute stage. This probably has arisen from the prosperity of the dominion, enabling the small settler with daughters to either keep the latter at home or to give them the " advantage " of technical education as offered to all and sundry by the Government. Such so-called " education " naturally unfits them for domestic service. The shops and stores are generally of a high class. It is true that such mammoth establishments as " Harrods " or the " Army and Navy Stores " are not to be met with ; yet the excellence of the goods in the New Zealand shops compares favourably with what one finds in such world- renowned emporiums as those mentioned. In shop windows may be seen the latest fashions, or even in some cases the advance fashions, this is rendered possible by the seasons of New Zealand and England being reversed. A buyer in London is therefore enabled to procure from wholesale houses fascinating confections in dress and millinery and ship them to New Zealand before they appear in the home shops. At any hour of the day in the principal cities one may see women whose perfectly fitting tailor-mades, dainty linen frocks, or well-cut blouses and skirts, all locally made, would arouse the admiration and envy of many a smart woman in the old country. This speaks volumes for the enterprise of those who have secured such excellent results, considering what large salaries must be offered to induce the designers of these 297 THE DOMINION OF NEW ^ALAND costumes to travel so far afield as New Zealand. The dominion wiU doubtless in the future draw from its own ranks workers who can take leading positions as designers and fitters, but up tiU quite recently the only way by which the best instruction in many trades could be secured was by importing skilled instructors from Europe. To many in the dominion a pohtical career offers considerable attractions. It may, indeed, be spoken of as a profession in many cases. The payment of the honorarium of £300 a year in monthly instalments makes it possible for a family man without means to gladly accept the position. There is also the advantage of travelling free by rail from one end of the dominion to the other, which may mean a great deal to a Member of Parliament whose occupation outside his political work compels him to travel. There is also attached to the pohtical career the prospect of one day occup5nng a seat in the Cabinet, or at least having the honom^ of being raised to the Upper House. Though of late years the persoimel of the House has greatly altered, whether for better or worse remains to be seen, those who have large investments or undertakings in the country are now not in so large a proportion as in days gone by. Now labour has a predominating influence. As might be expected under the circumstances alluded to above, there is alwa}^ a large proportion of young members to be found on the benches of the Houses of Representatives. Although in New Zealand there is not the same great disparity of income which one finds in the Mother Country yet there are many people who may without exaggeration be described as rich. Wealth has its effects in the dominion as elsewhere and society, as it is generally understood, is equally influenced by the assumptions too often associated with its possession. The period dxuing which it has held its sway has only extended over a com- paratively few years, but it has already lessened the 298 The pow£r of w£ALf h attractiveness which was so characteristic of social life in New Zealand in days gone by. Another reason for this change is that nowadays travelling is so much more easily accompUshed, and journeys to Europe are so frequently made, that many things formerly looked upon as luxuries are now considered necessities. Whatever may be our regrets at these changes in the character of social life in the dominion, one may hopefully look forward to the future of New Zealand as a country which will continue to supply the British Empire with some of the best elements that have combined to make it the greatest in the world's history. 299 CHAPTER II SPORT FooTBALi. — ^Bowls — Hunting — ^Deer — Dnck-shooting — ^Pheasants — Pig-hnnting — Game season and cost of licences — Trout- fishing — Fishing season and cost of licences — ^Yachting — Swimming — Walking and racing — The " totalisator " — Remarks on climbing — Motoring. The people of New Zealand are devoted to all kinds of sport and athletics, and almost every leisure hour is occupied in taking part in them either as performers or spectators. Racing, himting, fishing, shooting, rowing, cricket, yachting, golf, football, and tennis, besides many other sports, have each their votaries who enter into them with zest, showing that out-of-door amiisements form a really important part of the national Ufe. Although New Zealanders are not able to show a pre- eminence in all forms of sport, they cire still able to point to many in which they have proved their ability to do more than hold their own. For instance, the rowing championship of the world is at present held by a Wanganui scuUer, and the same position was previously held by one bom in the dominion. The " AU-Black " Rugby Football Team, which visited England in 1905, was also able to show that in another form of pecuharly British sport they were practically invincible. In fact, they took Englishmen completely by storm owing to the dash and excellence of their play. New Zealand may claim also to have furnished lawn tennis players of world-wide renown, such as Wilding and Parker, who have established their right to be reckoned amongst the finest exponents of the game in both hemispheres. 300 MANY FORMS OF SPORT Rugby football is without doubt the game of New Zea- land and arouses an enthusiasm not approached by any other. It is played as it should be, with vigour and science, by men imbued with the true spirit of sport and not with the desire of making money out of their powers. Cricket is not taken up with anything approaching the same amount of enthusiasm, and no high standard of excellence has been attained in the dominion, although there are some really good individual players. Golf has taken firm hold within the last twenty years in the same way that it has in England, and there are many good links to be found in various parts of the country. The championship of Australia has been won on more than one occasion by a New Zealander, and the championship of New Zealand has been won by a Maori. The game of bowls has many devoted adherents, and every town of any size has one or more good greens which are crowded with players in summer during the long evenings, and on every holiday. On the club grounds are to be found fine pavilions having every comfort suggested by modern ideas. In a country where nearly everyone rides, polo, as might be expected, takes a prominent place, and many interesting battles are fought, not only locally but in Australia, by teams of no mean standard of excellence. The necessity of having the particular class of pony required for this game was early recognized and has now become an important item in horse-breeding. Many first-class polo ponies have been exported to India and Australia, as well as to England, and have found a ready sale at high prices. Hunting, owing to there being no foxes, cannot be compared with the same sport in the old country, but there are packs of hounds in many places, and both the hare and the drag afford many a good run. It must not be thought, because hunting can only be obtained in this 301 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND form, that no excitement is attached to it The country which is hunted over gives opportunities that cannot be surpassed for trying the sta3nng and jumping powers of hunters as well as the nerve of the rider and his skOl in horsemanship. Many of those who hunt in England would find, if they followed that sport in New Zealand, not only the timber and other fences they were accustomed to but also at times nerve-trying bare wire fences in their most unattractive form. The marvellous mariner in which horses wiU take wire jumps even in cold blood, in hunters' tests at agricultural shows, is something that miist be seen to be appreciated. The sport has resulted in the breeding of a fine class of horses of the hunter class. The general turn out of the field may not be so superlatively smart as what one would expect at a meet of the Quom, but both men and women take part in the sport in large numbers, and their well-fed and weU-groomed horses would bear favourable comparison with many in the old country. Outside New Zealand it is often supposed that no care whatever is taken of horses in the dominion, but although the climate, in the North Island at all events, permits of their being turned out all the year round with only a rug on, the colonist knows far better than to allow an animal to become useless, through not being properly looked after. There is an abundance of deer, both red and fallow, to be found in certain districts throughout the dominion, which afford sport under varied conditions of interest and excitement. The first red deer imported into New Zealand were a stag and two hinds, which were given by Lord Petre, and landed in the Nelson Province in 1861. These were followed in 1862 by some which were obtained from the Royal Park at Windsor through the gracious assistance of the late Prince Consort, and sent to the Wairarapa. There they have increased in number 302 DEER-STALKING enormously, and developed great size and magnificent heads. By some it is said that this is due to a German strain in the blood, but it would appear also to be accounted for by the change of climate, environment, and a fuU supply of suitable feed, to say nothing of the large areas of really dense natural forest which afford undisturbed sanctuary. The sport is one which is not very extensively taken up by New Zealanders generally. It occupies too much time for those who are usually fully employed in the occupations of their daily life. Deer-stalking, however, draws people from many parts of the world as the general excellence of the sport to be obtained is, perhaps, unequalled anywhere else. In addition to this, the extraordinary cheapness of deer-stalking in the dominion attracts to its shores many who are devoted to it but unable to enjoy the sport in the old country, on account of the almost prohibitive cost. Red deer were imported into Otago in 1871, and have also developed into large herds. They are also to be found in parts of Canterbury, and as they increase will doubtless spread over other districts of the dominion which they may find suitable to their habits. The finest head ever seen in New Zealand was obtained in Canterbury in 1907. The measurements of the two antlers were respectively forty-seven and forty-two and a half inches. The districts in which these deer are to be found vary very much in character, those in the south being mountainous and requiring considerably more activity as well as involving much greater fatigue than is required in others. In contrast to these is the Wairarapa district, north of Wellington, where the country does not present such great difficulties. The country in which deer-stalk- ing is to be obtained is in all cases truly wild, inasmuch as most of it is in its virgin state and is not land that has been withdrawn from pastoral purposes for conversion into 303 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND deer forests. Some of the best stocked deer forests are on private property, but landowners are always ready to afford every facility to true sportsmen to enjoy deer stalking. Fallow deer are to be found in the Waikato, Auckland, Wanganui, Nelson, Marlborough, and Otago districts. Sambur, or the Ceylon Elk, and Axis deer have been imported and placed in districts considered climatically suitable for their development. They are strictly protected, and it is as yet impossible to say what effect they wiU have on the sport of the dominion. The table on page 305 shows how inexpensively, in regard to fees, deer-staUdng can be obtained in New Zealand. There is good duck-shooting to be had in several parts of New Zealand, the grey duck affording as much wild sport as is to be found anywhere as far as flight shooting is concerned, as they are strong on the wing. Many of the swamps and lakes being absolutely covered with them there is excellent opportunity of getting very good sport, when they are moving from pool to pool or lake to lake. Decoy shooting is much in vogue on Lake EUesmere, in Canterbury, but does not afford the same real enjo5mient. In fact, it has become there almost a trade. There are also one or two descriptions of teal to be found affording much the same sport as in the old country. The Paradise duck stiU affords a so-called form of sport, but owing to its extraordinary tameness and easy flight, it has been nearly exterminated by those to whom shooting at something appears to be a necessity. Black swans are also to be found in large numbers on the lakes. They fly at a considerable height in moving from one place to another, thtis affording many a good sporting shot to one who happens to be out at night after wild fowl. Quail shooting is to be had in abundance in some places 304 I •I s .a -t-t 4J +J .S +» .S -M •a o -a o — ;-) ^ ;-j a I a J3 « S CO 2 en ^ ra pO 4J .S 4J -M Ill ^ " I o •-< ^ CO « „ =2 B ■a ^ S M a. ■c •o a o =3 < S 3 ^ B ■a p< u ra.-2 PiOi : : ^ o ■d "d a V 9i es PJ C< h o a » O & g S o o ■oa "oa (2(2 ^(2 (^ : ^ s ^■S : •c ■s .s <«Q p al 43 H 2, ■s<^ ^ ^0 a a SCO o (3 ^ so — (3136) '■c 2 a <4 3 i2 -3 P fe a S en 305 to -rt 3 3 8 oiS das'-"" 2; w oa 5 3 (3 o CO U CL b S « .9 -^^ I " rt " "^ '3°l-« o oj 'd o 3 rt S «* S rt ri 'o M III fl CO hH [■z . Sja'C ?'0 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND and partioilarly in the Nelson district, but these birds seem to be less numerous than formerly. The shooting to be found in the open on the hill-sides, where scrub does not abound, gives very good sport. Shoiild there, however, be cover, in the shape of bushes of any sort lying closely together, there is none, as they lie very close and are up out of one patch of scrub and into another very quickly. The result is that they afford a momentary opportunity at very short range, which, if taken advantage of, results in their being blown to pieces. There are hards in many parts of the country, which provide fair coursing, and such sport as usually attends that class of shooting. They attain a much greater average in weight than their kindred in the old country and are more prolific. The average weight of full-grown hares may be taken at ten pounds. Pukeko, or swamp hens, give but poor sport, as they are great runners, and it is difi&cult to get them up. When they do take to the wing they are slow fliers and easy to hit. Walking through a swamp in line up wind by several guns is the best way to get any sport out of Pukeko shooting. Speaking generally, the success of shooting as a sport has not been as marked as it was expected to be when game birds were imported. Tliey have not made the necessary headway to enable shooting to be carried out on a large scale. Partridges, except a few of the French red-legged kind which are found in isolated places, have completely disappeared. Pheasants are now confined to a few limited areas, and as there is no possibility of breeding and preserving, in the old country sense of the word, they will probably never increase in sufficient numbers to provide any shooting worth speaking of. In many places in the North Island, only a few years ago, it almost seemed as if 306 THE EVERLASTING RABBIT they would increase, but the clearing and burning of bush and scrub-land, necessary in breaking in new country, destroyed nests and eggs by hundreds. Hawks, weasels, stoats, and ferrets, not to speak of poison laid down for rabbits, have also contributed largely to their destruction. Pig-hunting has provided a sport that is not to be despised, although it may not be permissible to class it with pig-sticking in India. Those, however, who are fortunate enough to have taken part in a real bush hunt with dogs well trained for that sport will have found that it is not entirely devoid of incident. A good old boar, when he has been properly worried from place to place, and is determined to make a fight of it, shows very often quite enough sport to satisfy even the most ardent sportsman. Goat shooting may not, perhaps, be classed amongst the best of sports, but it nevertheless affords a healthful recreation to many who enjoy a hard day's work climbing rugged and dangerous rocky country in the pursuit of game. Those who take up this sport are well rewarded for their trouble, as they are often able to obtain unusually fine skins and heads. Wild-cattle shooting has provided very exciting sport in some of the bush districts ; but as the bush is rapidly disappearing owing to the necessities of settlement it is becoming year by year less easy to obtain. Rabbit shooting can unfortunately be obtained in almost every part of New Zealand as the little pest has found its way to every spot where grass grows. Rabbit killing is taken up with the sole object of extermination. A large industry has now developed in frozen rabbits, and in rabbit skins ; every means being employed by the rabbiters to turn them into pounds, shiUings, and pence. 307 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND The following table shows the shooting season and the cost of licences : — Game Seasons Native and imported game, 1st May to 31st July. Licence fee. £1. Licences are procurable from the secretanes of the respective Acclimatization Societies, or from the postmasters in their districts. Note. — The year 1901 and every third year thereafter will be a close season for native game, t.e., pigeons, kakas, cind pnkeko. Whatever may be the case as regards the position that New Zealand holds generally in the world of sport, there is no doubt that in trout fishing she holds absolute pre- eminence. Where else in the world could the catch of one district of one particular class of trout taken with the rod alone amount to fifty-two in seven months ? Such was actually the case, however, in the two small lakes of Rotoiti and Rotoma and the neighbouring streams within the narrow boundaries of Rotoma County during a recent season. The fishing may not present the pleasure of walking along the banks of a stream amongst the quiet and charming surroundings characteristic of English scenery, but for quality and quantity of fish the sport in New Zealand cannot be equalled. That the fisherman may find almost every description of trout on which to exercise his sldll may be gathered from the fact that Brown trout. Loch Leven trout, Scotch bum trout, Califomian rainbow trout, and American brook char have been distributed in the various rivers and streams according to the suitabihty of the latter to the various classes of fish. The trout in the Rotoma district are of the rainbow species, and are admirably suited to its waters, as may be gathered from the account already given of the large catch made in the year 1905-6. Here trout running to twenty poimds and over may be caught A friend of the writer's, Icinded before breakfast six of these fish, totalling thirty-two pounds. 308 THE FISHERMAN'S PARADISE The American brook char, although it reached abnormal size and weight in the eariy years after its introduction up to even thirty pounds, did not seem incUned to make a permanent home of the rivers although they went up there to spawn. They went down to the sea in pursuit of small fish for food, and developed into a powerful and heavy sort of sea trout which have afforded fine sport, and doubtless have given rise to the idea that salmon had established themselves. The brown trout has developed enormously, and in some of the big lakes, such for instance as Wakatipu, many scaling over twenty-five pounds are often caught. In these lakes no lure invented by man has any chance ; the net is the only means of capture. The largest fish, brown trout, are usually caught with a minnow, at the mouths of the rivers in the South Island. The fly-fisher has, however, ample scope for display of his skiU in New Zealand, and good fish up to even eight pounds can be landed. The rivers, streams, and lakes are teeming with fine fighting fish which give good sport to anyone really devoted to angling, even if they do not attain extraordinary weights. Fish hatcheries have been established in almost every part of New Zealand where the circumstances are suitable, and by them the lakes, rivers, and streams throughout the dominion have been, and are still being, stocked with the trout which make the islands so famous for the attractions it offers to the fisherman. Praiseworthy attempts have been made by the Accli- matization Societies and private individuals, for upwards of thirty years to introduce salmon into the rivers. Reports as to salmon having been caught have appeared from time to time, but with one exception did not bear sufficient scientific endorsement. In the Report, however, of the Marine Department for the year 1908 the Chief Inspector of Fisheries states that at last, after many years, 309 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND a specimen of a New Zealand bred fish has been submitted to him which he is able to identify as a quinnat salmon. The Government has been at great pains for a considerable time to introduce Atlantic salmon, and has imported large quantities of ova. It is to be hoped that the one identified specimen of salmon may prove the forerunner of a great many successors, and establish sahnon fishing as a sport. To the Acclimatization Societies is due the success which has attended the importation and distribution of trout. They have not only spent large sums in that work, but they have diffused knowledge and always shown a willingness to give every information on the subject to those interested. This, too, without any reward except the knowledge that they have thus increased the many attractions of the dominion. It may be remarked that fishing can be obtained in every lake, river, or stream in New Zealand as, although some of the fishing waters are within private bounds, such a thing as refusal of permission to fish is almost unknown. It must be mentioned that the aid given by the Govern- ment to the Acclimatization Societies has been most valuable to the dominion. As an example of this it may be pointed out that in one Government handbook alone, sixty-five rivers and streams are given as available for fishing, together with the means of access and the accommodation available. The foUoAving table will show at how small a cost fishing hcences may be obtained. It also shows the season in which the sport may be indulged in. Fishing Seasons The fishing season throughout the dominion is from the 1st October to the 30th of April, except in the Auck- land District, where it is from the 1st of November to the 310 COLONIAL YACHTSMEN 15th of April, and Rotoma County, where it is from the 1st of November to the 30th of April. Men's licences . . . . • • £i per season Ladies' ,, . . . . . . 5s. „ ,, Boys' (under 16 years) licences 5s. „ Licences are available throughout the dominion, and are procurable from the secretaries of the respective Acclimatization Societies, or from postmasters in their districts. Yachting is a sport to which some of the New Zealanders are much devoted and which has increased considerably of late years. It is rather astonishing that it has not become a much greater pastime, as there are many parts of the dominion particularly suitable for developing a passion for hfe on the sea which is characteristic in every island race, especially those having their origin in the British Isles. Auckland is the New Zealand home of yachting, as the sheltered waters of the Hauraki Gulf form the best cruising ground imaginable. Here yachts may be seen in numbers in the summer time studding the harbour and its approaches with their white sails. It is the only place in the dominion where yachting is carried on to any appreciable extent, although some is also to be had at Wellington, Lyttelton, and Port Chalmers. The yachts are small in comparison with those one is accustomed to in English waters. Yacht-building, how- ever, is yet in its infancy in New Zealand. Regattas are got up wherever yachts are to be found, not only as an outlet for the passion inherent in every Briton for a race in some form or other, but also to provide a real gala day for the people. Great crowds are to be seen at aU regattas, which embrace both saihng and rowing races. The desire to excel in the handling of yachts is, of course, a passion amongst the yacht sailors, and they show considerable skill by the way they manage these small 311 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND craft under aU conditions of weather. The rivahy between the different yachting centres is very keen, and small craft are sailed even from one end of the dominion to the other, on what may be fairly called stormy coasts, to compete at regattas. Swimming is a sport largely cultivated and with much advantage to the people of the dominion. Some well contested events take place at the numerous races. Pedestrian contests take place throughout New Zealand and evoke much interest. Some good records have been made in the country, and New Zealanders may be found in important races in many parts of the world doing credit to the athleticism of their native coimtry. Racing is undoubtedly the leading sport of the dominion, and is one which occupies more attention on the part of all grades of the commimity than any other. The Britons brought their love of raciog with them, and the Maori rapidly acquired it and are as keen about it as the Europeans. The breeding of racehorses is an established industry, and every opportunity has been taken advantage of to procure the best blood. The result has been that some New Zealand-bred horses have won honours for their country in other parts of the world. High prices are given for thoroughbreds, as was shown at a recent sale in Christchtu-ch, when 4,500 guineas were given for a two-year old daughter of " Multiform," who was himself fourteen years old and fetched 3,750 guineas at the same Scde. Wealthy racing dubs are to be found throughout New Zealand and the sport is encouraged by them in every possible way. Important meetings are held at all the principal places, and small indeed is the place that cannot boast of something in the way of a race meeting. An annual New Zealand Racing Conference is held at which 312 ^ RACE MEETINGS the weighty matters in connection with the sport are fully dealt with. Racing is not confined to one particular form ; flat racing, steeple-chasing, hurdle-racing, and trotting all contribute their quota to the development of the various sporting procUvities of the people. It can safely be said that there are almost more racing days in every year in New Zealand in proportion to its population than are to be found in any other part of the British dominions. The principal racing centres are Auckland, Napier, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. These provide meetings at which a marvellously high standard is reached considering the age of the colony. The chief of the dominion fixtures in the year are the New Zealand Cup and the Grand National, which are both run at Christchurch. The race meetings draw people of every class, and are the occasion of some of the greatest social functions in the dominion. The principal race-courses present on a day of some special importance a kaleidoscopic view of a well-dressed, happy crowd bent on enjoyment. Here one sees the carriages and motors of the well-to-do arriving with their occupants, while trains, trams, and every description of vehicle come laden with crowds of those not so highly favoured by fortune, but who never- theless are determined to take their full share in the pleasures of a general hoUday. Up country race-meetings, though not presenting such varying effects in colour and style, stiU show the general desire for making a race day one of local importance. The carriages and motors will still be there, but buggies, spring carts, and saddle horses will have brought the mass of the people instead of the trains and trams. The sanction given by the Government to betting in connection with racing has been weU-established for 313 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND nearly twenty years through the " Totalisator." This machine provides a form of betting to be foimd on every race-course in the dominion. AH risks of unfairness are entirely eliminated by its operations. licences for its use are sanctioned by the Minister of Internal Affairs. The number of licences issued during the year 1907-8 was 159. The percentage paid to the Treasury on the money invested was £30,000, and the amoimt invested by the pubhc was £1,999,757. Alpine climbing is a sport which may be said never to have possessed any particular charm for many New Zealanders. It only came into prominence about twenty- five years ago, and then was taken up by only a few adventurous spirits such as Messrs. Malcolm Ross, Mainwaring, Harper, Dixon, Clark, Fyfe, Graham, and a few others. ilrs. Malcolm Ross accompanied her husband on many occasions, and proved herself a worthy mountaineer. The whole lesson of Alpine dimbing had to be learnt from the very commencement by New Zealand dunbers, who were only guided by pluck and determination to attain the necessary qualifications. The history of some of the feats performed by the plucky band of young New Zealanders is told in a quiet and modest way in books by Malcolm Ross, Mainwaring, and Harper, which afford most interesting reading. Green and Fitzgerald gave great impetus for a time to this sport, but it does not seem to have had many votaries. Green, speaking of his first sight of the Tasman Glacier, remarked that the scene completely asserted its own grandeur, surpassed anything he had ever met with, and that he tried vainly to recall a view in Switzerland to compare \vith it. The Government, have with a view to providing for the wants of tourists, established an hotel in the Alpine regions and made the principal places of interest easily 314 THE ADVENT OF THE MOTOR accessible for those who are prepared to undertake the more moderate forms of Alpine cUmbing. One of the most remarkable ascents of Mount Cook, the highest mountain in New Zealand, was made by three of the earliest pioneers of the sport in that country. Motoring can perhaps hardly be called a sport, especially from the point of view of the pedestrian, and yet it is a pastime for those who are able to indulge in it. As in the western parts of the world So in the eastern has the motor become a permanent institution during the past few years. No doubt in years to come New Zealand wiU itself hold the position of being the battle ground on which will be decided the merits of locaUy-built cars in competi- tion with those built in the old world. In the meantime motoring has its usefulness and will give increased opportunities to New Zealanders for taking part in that now much-loved recreation, " the week end." It will be seen by what has been said on the subject of sport that in New Zealand there are opportunities for all to indulge in it in almost every form known. 315 CHAPTER III THE PRESS Newspapers — ^Names of leading dailies — ^Publications. In January, 1908, there were 232 newspapers in the dominion, or about one to every 2,000 adults. This goes far to prove that education has led to an increasing demand for Uterature. Although New Zealand has not the benefit of the services in journalism of such writers as those who contribute to the leading newspapers in the Mother Country, it can be confidently asserted that even cimongst the latest started up-country newspapers there are few as bad as some of the halfpenny productions of the United Kingdom. The larger morning newspapers are well-conducted and edited, and contain a large emiount of information on poMtics and other matters of interest concerning New Zealand as well as other parts of the world. The telegrams received from England and other places outside the dominion are not as full as they might be, but they contain sufficient to keep everybody informed of what is going on. One can find r^ularly in them compressed details of what events have taken place up to the hour of going to press, from the result of a debate in the British House of Commons or some fateful event in the Balkan Provinces, down to which side won the football match between the Australians and some English county. The social part of the newspapers is very much on the same line as those in the old country. The movements 316 o a > < a a z < o o o 2; o FAIRNESS OF THE PRESS of distinguished persons are recorded with faithful accuracy, the only difference being that while in England one hears that Lord So-and-so has gone to Paris and Lady This-or-that has given a dinner party, in New Zealand the chroniclers of events can only state, for instance, that the Minister for Agriculture has gone to Christchurch, or that Mr. Brown has bought a farm in the Waikato. The desire for information as to the move- ments and doings of notabilities is, however, as keen in New Zealand as in England, and is necessarily fully supplied. Racing news is also as eagerly sought for in the east as in the west, and is fully provided for in the columns devoted to that purpose in most of the newspapers. The wealth of information, however, on matters of real value to the people which is contained in the principal newspapers is enormous. The notes on all matters in connection with agricultural and pastoral pursuits, which are the chief factors in the progress of the dominion, reports on produce markets throughout the world, and all the movements that promote true interest in country life are fully given, and are of the greatest value. The other industries of the dominion are not forgotten and copious information on every matter in connection with them is supplied both daily and weekly. A considerable portion of space is of course devoted to political matters, and strong opinions as to the merits or demerits of any measures affecting the Ufe of the people which are proposed by the Government of the day, are as fuUy expressed in New Zealand as in the United Kingdom. It may, however, be said, in all fairness to the press of the dominion, that as a rule the articles dealing with political questions are not couched in tones of excessive bitterness. There are, of course, times when matters affecting the 317 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND relationship between employers and employed, and also the general conditions under which the country shall be governed, arouse great excitement. On these occasions the newspaper warfare is conducted with considerable asperity, but not more perhaps than such great issues naturally arouse. The leading daily papers are the Otago Daily Times (Dunedin); The LytteUon Times and The Press (Christchurch) ; The New Zealand Times, The Dominion, and Evening Post (Wellington) ; The Hawkes Bay Herald (Napier); and the Auckland Herald. The Weekly Graphic (Auckland) and the weekly editions of several, if not all, the leading newspapers are issued with numerous illustrations exhibiting high artistic excellence and compare favourably with most of the illustrated newspapers in England. Indeed, they are a great deal better than many of them. In addition to general newspaper literature there are papers whose columns are devoted to technical, com- mercial, religious, scientific and other subjects, such, for instance, as horticulture, mining, poultry-farming, and shipping. ThTis the wants of every description of reada are supphed. With such a record as this New Zealand may well be proud of the journalistic progress that has been made in its short life as one of the children of the Mother Country. No magazines or periodicals in the ordinary acceptance of the term are now published in the dominion. The wants of readers of such Uterature have up to the present been almost entirely supphed by the importation in large numbers of English magazines. It is imfortunate that the efforts hitherto made to establish periodical Uterature have not met with the success they deserved, but the time for full appreciation of such good work as they contained has not arrived. There is no real cause for despair, how- ever, as the literary talent of the dominion is being gradually developed, the University yielding each year 318 THE READERS' WANTS SUPPLIED an increasing supply of women and men of high intellectual attainments in that direction. Although there are no magazines there are several monthly publications dealing with various subjects, such for instance, as Church matters, the Stage, Defence, Freemcisonry, and Shipping. 319 CHAPTER IV LITERATURE AND ART Absence of Dominion literatore — Musical education — ^Art. That there is no dominion literature in the usual accepta- tion of the term can hardly be considered extraordinary. Although education is highly prized and has been widely taken advantage of, there has not yet been time for the evolution of a Uterature having its origin in New Zealand. Signs are not wanting that the materials are in existence, many articles ha%'ing appeared in the dominion's ephe- meral Uterature, much above the average standard. It must be remembered, moreover, that the population of New Zealand has yet scarcely reached one million, and that hardly a generation has passed since the University began to give an impetus to higher learning. The result of this encouragement of education of a high class is sure to show itself before many years, and we may fairly hope that, ere another generation has passed, some valuable work of a New Zealand writer wiU have been given to the world. Nature has provided the country itself with so many exceptional charms, and there is so much in the surround- ings of the people to excite the imagination, that there is an ample field for the poet and the word-painter. There are, moreover, so many social and poUtical problems in the solution of which New Zealand is taking a prominent part, that it only wants the combination of Uterary skill with philosophic thought for the production of more than one work of value to the pubhcist. If one takes a survey of the history of Uterature through- out the world one cannot help being struck by the fact that the greatest writers appeared when the greatest events were taking place in each country. 320 THE COLONIAL MUSICIAN New Zealand is a young country. When years roll round and great events occur affecting the dominion, of which we can form no idea at present, the time will surely produce the man. It must not be supposed that there is any wish to ignore the literary productions of the few who have made their mark in the dominion, but the sum of all these individual efforts has not yet been sufficient to establish for New Zealand a reputation as a nursery for high-class literature. Although New Zealand up to the present has not 5delded literature that comes up to such a high standard it must not be supposed that it is not valued. On the shelves of libraries in the dominion examples of the best productions of classical authors, ancient and modern, are to be found, and there is abundant evidence that these are widely read. As regards Music, the same may be said as was remarked under the head of hterature. The country is too young to justify one in expecting the production of any work of world-wide renown. The colonial of to-day is no more musical than his English ancestor, albeit schools of music are well attended and many of the young people have studied in the conservatoires in England and other parts of the world. Up to the present neither a vocalist nor an instrumentalist has gained any peculiarly distinctive reputation outside the dominion. It is true that there are a few vocalists and instrumentaHsts of merit who have appeared before audiences in the old country with credit to themselves and enjoyment to their hearers, but no one has yet been placed among the great performers of the day. It is said that the climate is not suitable to the production of the magnificent voices which have distinguished more than one Austrahan. Music is taught in schools and occupies a fair proportion of the time devoted to education generally. More advantage is being taken of the steadily increasing 321 21 — (2136) THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND opportunities for hearing good music interpreted by vocalists and instrumentalists of repute from the old world who visit the dominion. An impetus was undoubtedly given to the cultivation of classical music through the high standard set in 1906 by the orchestra at the Christchurch Exhibition. Pro- fessional musicians of higher standing than heretofore are now being attracted to the dominion by the greater encotiragement held out latterly to good teachers. Thus the musical education of the people is progressing. Musical societies, choral societies, and Lieder-tafels, as well as orchestras and mihtary bands, have long been part of the social hfe of every town in the dominion. Church music has wonderfully improved of late years, some of the choirs now showing marked abUity. Much good may be anticipated from the incorporation of the Musicians' Society. Up to the present no composer has appeared in New Zealand whose name could be mentioned in the same breath with those belonging to older countries, who have attained world-wide reputation. It is not forgotten that great praise has been bestowed on the author of one opera emanating from New Zealand and connected with old Maori history. In reference to Art the same remark may be made. No native of New Zealand has given to the world any work of note. The art schools, of which there are many, are crowded with pupils on whom much pains are bestowed by highly competent teachers, and good, results are obviously following. The examinations held through these schools by the Kensington Board of Education and the City and Guilds of London Institute show that great advantage is taken of the opportunities they afford, and that a high standard of excellence is being attained. Of sculpture there is none deserving special notice. 322 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ART With few exceptions there is scarcely a painter whose work would stand comparison with that of any prominent exhibitor in the old country. It may, however, in fairness be said that there are pictures by New Zealand artists incomparably superior to many seen on the walls of exhibitions in England. When talking of New Zealand art it has been the custom to mention the names of many who have painted pictures of New Zealand scenery — fine pictures undoubtedly, but not the product of New Zealand art. The subjects of these pictures were no doubt pro- vided by the country, but the talent of the artists had been developed before they ever landed on its shores. Pictures by some New Zealand artists are of undoubted merit, and thus one is lead to the conclusion that great developments may be looked forward to in the future. The artistic taste undoubtedly exists, but opportunities for cultivating it in its highest form have hitherto not been as numerous as one could have wished. Art societies are to be found throughout the dominion, and they are the means of exciting interest in what must have a refining influence not only on the exponents themselves, but on those who see their finished work. Thus we see that, albeit no New Zealander has attained celebrity in the world of music or of the fine arts, taste is being steadily cultivated, and one is justified in antici- pating that ere long a genius will arise in the dominion whose work will obtain a world-wide reputation. 323 PART V TRADE, COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY CHAPTER I THE LAND, AND HOW THE COLONIST HAS USED IT Past destruction of forests — Forest department — Farming — Facts connected with grain growing — Agricultural industries — Schools of farming. An endeavour has already been made to give a description of the long-stretching islands that stand out of the South Pacific Ocean in the region that has been called by some the under-world of Great Britain. An imaginary journey has been taken from the extreme northern point of the islands for a thousand miles and more to the southernmost point " in the roaring forties." The size of the islands has been compared with that of Great Britain, their geologic structure roughly sketched, and a few facts given as to the climate of the different districts of each island. The material aspect of the islands has been considered, but not the change that man has wrought upon their surface. That vast changes, and changes productive of effects of a lasting nature have been worked upon the face of the islands needs no telling. An attempt wiU now be made to try to reahze the degree of those changes and their main causes. As to what degree of surface-change was made before the coming of the white man by the Maori, or the previous inhabitants of the islands, one can now but form a guess. In that Maori period of perhaps 600 years the greatest change was due to the destruction of forest by fire. The evidence that we of to-day have of devastation in far- past times is that upon wide tracts of land that are now 325 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND open and treeless, and have been treeless as far back as the white man's memory goes, there still remain traces of forests that have disappeared. Various grasses two or three feet high, or fern twice that height, are spread over what was once forest land, where the land is flat. Here the soil could not be washed away, and therefore the grass and fern were able to spread over cind protect it. Upon the steep hiU-sides there undoubtedly stood at one time magnificent timber-trees, but the soil was washed away by hea^'v• rains, and those hill-sides are still almost barren because nature has been deprived of her power to again cover them with vegetation. How far the Maori is answerable for the destruction that took place in his day no one now can tell. Whether the Maori or his foregoers ever wilfully set fire to the bush, or whether the bush fires in his day were due solely to mischance or carelessness we do not know, but that wide ranges of bush land were destroyed by fire in the Maori period is certain. It is, of course, conceivable that at some time or other the forest may have been swept away by fire not caused by man. Lightning may have set the tall, dry grass afire on the plains and wind may have whirled the fire along to the forest. Such a cause, however, in such a dimate as New Zealand would, it is dear, be of the rarest occur- rence, even throughout several centuries. The bush fires of Maori times must therefore have been the work of the Maori. Whatever devastation may be attributable to the Maori, we must do hiTn the justice to remember that he thought but littie of the bush and had no idea of value in its ownership. He might at long intervals have wanted a tree to hollow into a great war-canoe, he might have wanted a beam or two for his whare or a few more posts for the defence of his Pah. Up to that time there were no other inhabitants of the islands to require timber, and the 326 THE PASSING OF THE FOREST Maori before the coming of the first white man had no conception whatever of any outer world inhabited by men who might covet the possession of his forests. The Maori then is but Uttle to blame as a forest wrecker j but, on the other hand, it must be said that he did nothing to produce that which might compensate for the loss of the forest. But what of the white man ? What change for better or worse has the colonist made upon the territory that came into his possession stiU rich with many millions of acres of forest ? What lasting harm and what lasting good, and which outweighs the other ? Who also is answerable for the harm that has been done, and who should have the praise for good amends made ? Could an old settler of the earliest days revisit the spot where he made his first home in the bush he would most likely find the face of the country so utterly changed that he would not know the old place, even if he could find it. It might even still be covered by the unsightly wreckage of burnt bush or perhaps the last skeleton of a tree might have decayed and vanished and the land become overspread with English grass. A less pleasant picture might, however, be before him, a wilderness of bad land, half the soil already washed away and no rich grass to compensate for half the waste that had been made of aU the wealth of forest that had gone, never to grow again. The whole truth as to the unchecked waste that has been made with the forests of New Zealand is difficult to find out. The mere measurements guessed at further on are so great that it wiU be a help here to recall the comparative areas of New Zealand and the United Kingdom, just to afford a scale. The area of the old country is nearly 78,000,000 acres, of which about 13,000,000 are mountain heath and rough grazing country, nearly 29,000,000 are permanent pasture, and nearly 19,000,000 arable land. 327 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND First, then, with regard to New Zealand forest. As much of it lies in hilly or even mountainous country, only a rough estimate of its area can be made. The calculations inade at various times even by the government officials vary widely. For instance, in the Immigrants^ Guide, published in 1906, the area is approximated at 20,000,000 acres. Yet in 1873 Dr. Hector made out that as far back as 1830 the acreage was 20,370,000, that in 1868 it was about 15,250,000, and in 1873, when he was writing, only a Uttle over 12,000,000. In the report of the Lands Department for 1893 under the same heading the total is put at 20,578,000 acres. This seems to be too great, because the yearly destruction of forest, even that upon Crown Land alone and apart from forest upon land privately owned, has averaged about 70,000 acres. This, if we accept Dr. Hector's figures, would bring the total down to 10,600,000 acres in 1893, to as httle as 9,690,000 acres in 1906, and in 1909 to something imder 9,500,000 acres. Whatever the acreage of forest land that is left may be, one thing is quite dear from the special report made for the Government ia 1905 that there was in that year only timber enough left to last for another seventy years at most. Alcirming though this is it does not mean that at the end of sixty-six years from now there will be no forest whatever left stemding in New Zealand. It means that there will be no timber left of the kind thought good enough at the present day for the saw-nulls, but that a large quantity of inferior timber would still be left standing. Although the forest out of which the good timber had been all cut would then be described as " worked out bush," yet the land would not be bare, £md the smaller growths remaining would still help to act as a rain-sponge. This would let the rain get away slowly and safely and 328 PLANTING TREES thus lessen the constant danger of floods caused by a treeless hilly country. The story of the destruction of forests by man through- out almost all the world is not pleasant reading. The desolation that has come by that one folly upon country after country is a terrible warning. Few governments are strong enough, however, to put a stop to such wastefulness, and to firmly and wisely control the use of forest-land for the benefit of the community. National wealth from the bush alone might have been secured for many generations had it been possible to confine settlement to open land ; much of the bush indeed was inaccessible in the early days, and some of it would have been of no value even if settlement on it had been possible. This was especially the case in the North Island. To enable even settlement to be carried on it was an absolute necessity to fell the trees, while the construction of many of the railway lines and other public works would have been out of the question without clearing away the bush. It is easy to be wise after the event. Forty years later than it should have been done, a Forest Department was created and several timber reserves placed under its control. After a brief life of nine years this feeble beginning was given up. In the early nineties a Forestry Department was again formed and reserves put under its control, so that by the year 1906 2,300,000 acres were so protected. The Forestry Department, in addition to protecting the reserves placed under its care, has also numerous tree- nurseries in different parts of the dominion, and with the many millions of seedlings that it raises forms plantations where they are known to be most wanted. Efforts are made by it to induce settlers and landowners of aU classes to plant and protect trees, and there can be no doubt that a generation hence the benefits of reforestation will have 329 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND well begun to be felt in some districts. The waste of the past is now realized and there is a general determination on ah sides not to allow the bush lands to be denuded. It must not be thought that because such vast extent of bush has vanished for ever the soil which grew it has become useless. It has been calculated that over 8,000,000 acres of land that were covered with bush have been changed into pasture land by the scattering of the seed of valuable grasses upon the ashes of the burnt trees. Within a year or fifteen months of this sowing the ground is fit for hght graziug. Recurring to the question of how much man has changed the physical aspect of the country, the bush country must be left and attention turned to the plains and the lower hills. When looking upon them, the change that has altered the whole landscape would dehght the heart of any settler who knew the coimtry as it was ia the early days of colonization. When he first saw the country those immense plain* were wide, treeless expanses of yellowish white tussock or of the darker bracken-like ferns. Thus they remained for many years as sheep-runs with only a few acres here and there of ploughed land round the larger homesteads. Gradually, however, the face of the country became altered. Agricultural and pastoral pursuits became profitable and shipments of produce were made to the old world. Thanks to the great expansion of settlement and in- creased facUities of communication that began in 1870 an enormous advance in farming took place. Fire and the plough soon began to sweep away the native vegeta- tion from hvmdreds of square miles of the plains and hiUs. Not many years afterwards it was possible to look down upon thousands of acres patterned out in sharp-cut angles of ever\' form and colour as the seasons came rotmd. There woiild be no grief for the loss of the endless 330 CULTIVATION PROGRESSES and wearisome tussock, and one feels that no wrong has been done to nature here, and that aU this wide change has been an immeasurable gain. Take, for instance, the Canterbury plains ; not a genera- tion ago they covered an unbroken area of 3,000,000 acres of tussock, not a tree to be seen and only here and there an unattractive wool-shed and a small match-board viUa-like house not far off. Not many acres of that great plain now remain unfenced or uncultivated. Plantations and hedgerows have grown up and the whole landscape has lost the deserted look that it once bore. Other large areas throughout the country also show smiling home- steads and cultivated land where all was in its virgin state not many years ago. But to take the cultivation of the dominion as a whole, the first kind, in extent, is the grass land. Perhaps the land that has been surface-sown can hardly be classed as cultivated, but still it shows the labour of the colonist, not so much in the sowings but in the clearing, burning and fencing it has necessitated. Nearly aU the area of this kind consists of land from which the bush has been burnt off and the seed scattered on the ashes. True " cultivation," in the right sense of the word, has been given to no less than 5,000,000 more acres of land that are now in grass or clover after ploughing or harrowing. White clover is everywhere. You find it in the most remote parts of the country, the seed being probably carried to some extent by stock. It is said by some that it is to a certain extent disappearing in many parts of the country, but where once it has actually taken hold of a fern country it kills the fern by slow degrees. Until the bumble-bee was brought to New Zealand in 1885 there was no insect that could fertihze the red clover. Since then other kinds of bumble-bee have been brought and now the clover seed crop is an important thing. An 331 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND acre of red clover may yield in hay and seed from £8 to £10. The 13,000,000 acres of sown-grass land in New Zealand does not sound great when compared with the 29,000,000 of permanent pasture of Great Britain, but still it is an area far greater than all the sown-grass land in the whole of Austraha and Tasmania. So productive is this sown- grass land in New Zealand when good and suitable seed has been used that it jrields about nine times as much as in Austraha, and is therefore equal for grazing purposes to an area in Austraha nine times as great. The value of the surplus grass and clover seed that was exported to other parts of the world in 1906 was close on £90,000, and on Banks' Peninsula the growing of cock's- foot seed has been a staple industry for more than a generation. Next in area come the green crops, of which there were a httle over a mUhon acres in 1908. Then the grain-crops of about 647,000 acres, the oats being about double the wheat and the wheat five times the acreage of the barley. It seems that the good prices the farmer has in recent years been getting for his frozen mutton, wool, and butter have led him to drop wheat-growing to such an extent that the dominion has been producing only about enough for herself, leaving httle or none over for export. Thus has the colonist used the land that has been given him. iluch has been lost, but much has been gained. With more experience and care better results will foUow. For all this change of surface, if we look stiU further we shall find that even at this day half the area of the islands still have just the same appearance as when the white man first saw them. Let us take it that only 10,000,000 of acres of bush still remain imtouched, yet to be added to that area there are stiU 22,500,000 acres of land covered with tussock and fern, and these together form just one half of the country. 332 A MARVELLOUS ADVANCE In line with all the British colonies competing for immigrants of the best class and provided with a little capital, the New Zealand Government issues admirable pamphlets free, as guides for farmers and others, and some of them are good reading for other than those who are intending to make New Zealand their home. Every important detail that a farmer wants to know beforehand is anticipated and answered for him. The comparative cost of working a farm in New Zealand and in England is carefully worked out and aJl manner of useful hints are given. It must often strike the readers of such pamphlets about British colonies that the accounts given are too hopeful, and that there are some drawbacks which are not disclosed. The pamphlets which have been referred to are, however, very fair statements of the conditions of New Zealand farming. In a country extending over thirteen degrees of latitude, and with a chmate suitable for the production of almost every description of grasses and cereals, it would indeed be a wonder if agricultural and pastoral farming did not form the principal industry. The marvellous advance in farming within a comparatively short period bears testi- mony to the suitability of the land and the energy and capabihty of the cultivators of the soil. The description of the climate of New Zealand will have given an idea of the variety that is to be found in different parts of the islands. A short account of the various Land Districts which will be found elsewhere will show their respective suitability to the different classes of farming. At present it will suffice to say that every branch of both pastoral and agricultural farming is carried on in the dominion with gain both to the country and the farmer. Grain forms one of the principal items on the agri- cultural list. The area sown in grain has, however, decreased of late years owing to pastoral farming affording better results. 333 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Some of the land in the dominion is, however, excep- tionally suitable for the production of wheat. Other parts again are renowned for. the high quahty of oats produced. In some districts the soil is admirably adapted to the growth of barley and very large yields are obtained. It may be well to mention here some of the facts connected with grain growing in the dominion. {a) Wheat. In 1908 the area imder wheat was 193,031 acres for threshing, and 858 acres for chaff, ensilage, etc. The yield was 28' 84 bushels per acre against 27' 18 in the preceding year. (b) Oats. The area sowed for grain in 1908 was 386,885 acres. This showed an increase of about 35,000 acres over the preceding year. The average jdeld per acre in 1908 was 38" 82 bushels. In 1907 it was 31-83. In addition to the area sown for grain there were 294,638 acres sown for stock-feeding, ensilage, etc. (c) Barley. The total area sown in 1908 was 41,235 acres. Of this area 36,177 acres were sown for threshing, the yield being 32- 15 bushels per acre. (d) Maize. This has become a crop of considerable importance. The area sown for grain in 1908 was 8,869 acres. The average jaeld per acre was 56' 74 bushels. A considerable area is also sown in Rye. The increase in 1908 over 1907 was approximately 1,100 acres. As regards root crops, it may be said that potatoes, timiips, rape, kale, mangolds, and carrots are grown in largely increasing quantities with great success. As pastoral farming increases, so wiU the areas devoted to the growth of what is necessary for the feeding of stock. 334 AN ELECT DEPARTMENT New Zealand being particularly suited for grazing purposes the area of sown grass lands is rapidly increasing. Pastoral farming has received in the past and continues to receive an enormous amount of attention on the part of those occupied in grazing and rearing stock. The Government is also taking the greatest care that every information shaU be supplied to those engaged in this important industry. They moreover take every step to ensure that freedom from disease shall be secured as far as possible and that dairy farming shall be carried out under conditions which wiU secure to the consumer of its products immunity from disease caused by disregard of necessary precautions. Enormous sums are spent annually in procuring the best strains of blood and thus obtaining for the dominion the distinction of being in the foremost rank of pastoral countries. Dairy farming has developed enormously during the past twenty years and is now one of the principal industries, thanks chiefly to co-operation on the part of the farmers. The increase in land cultivated, stock held, and other cognate information on the results of the past ten years is shown in a convenient form in an Appendix. Under the Department of Agriculture there are also many industries which are of growing importance to the State, but which can only be briefly alluded to. Bee culture, viticulture, horticulture, poultry-keeping, hop- culture, flax-grading and culture, and many others receive the continuous attention of the department. Inspectors are ever on the alert to see that the strictest attention is paid to the regulations in regard to preparing produce for the market, and instructors diligently aid the people in conducting the various industries on economical and scientific lines. There are eight experimental farms under the control 335 THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND of a director. At each of these every branch of work connected with agriculture, the treatment and rearing of hve-stock, and the industries just mentioned is most thoroughly dealt with, the experiments made being most carefully recorded for the benefit of the pubUc. The growth of sugar-beet is receiving considerable atten- tion as providing the possible groundwork of an industry of great importance. Last but not least, a school for the practical instruction of young farmers has been established. The amount of information contained in the yearly report of the Depart- ment of Agriculture is enormous, and shows the great importance that is attached to giving sound teaching on all matters connected with the land. There is scarcely a page in this Report that does not teem with information of the highest value to farmers. Experiments in the laboratory and the field ; descriptions of the various insect pests and how they should be dealt with ; details regarding the perfect animal and the im- perfect, no matter of what class, and how to treat the diseases affecting them — ^in fact, every practical point is touched on in the volume. Besides this Report the Department issued upwards of a quarter of a miUion pamphlets last year, and all at the pubhc expense. It was wise poHcy on the part of the State to supply gratu- itously information of such a valuable kind. The Depart- ment exercises its functions with great tact and discretion, and this is fully recognized by those who are brought in contact with it. From what has been said, it may be gathered that the white man has turned to good account the land he has occupied, has made amends for any harm he has done, and is ready to more fully develop the resources of what once was apparently almost useless country. 336 CHAPTER II LAND SYSTEM Terms of Constitution Act of 1852 — Proportions of area owned at present day by the State, the white settler, and the Maori — ^Method of disposing of Crown Lands — The improved farm settlement — The Village Settlement — Maori Lands Administration Act. Now that we have seen what the country was like when first it came under British rule in 1840 and how it now appears, let us look for a moment at the terms upon which possession of it was given in 1852 to the small community of white people under the Constitution Act of that year. The word " given " has been used advisedly, for although the General Assembly established by the Act was merely empowered to regulate the sale of waste lands of the Crown in New Zealand the whole proceeds were to be retained as revenue. The Assembly had not to account to the Home Government for one penny received or to refund any of the considerable sums that had been expended upon the colony in earlier days. There was a stipulation that the New Zealand Company, which had bought large tracts of land from the natives, should be paid a certain sum for the land that the new Colonial Government now took over from them. There was a further stipulation that no private individual could buy land from the natives, but that the Government alone might do so. No attempt was made by the old country to exact either present or future payment from the new. The right of possession of whatever land in New Zealand was then vested in the Crown was to all intents and purposes freely given to this miniature new community entirely for its own benefit. Whatever the colonists might thenceforth choose to do with their own, it was clear 337 ss—