CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library 3 1924 032 176 749 olin,anx The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032176749 ""Ill iiii iiiiiii III iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiNniiiiiiii|iiiin II iiiiiinniiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMHiimi iniiiiii ii i » i i rn'm ! GEO GRAPH\1 iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiimiiiiMiiimiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiii i imiiiiiiiii»iiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiii|jiiiiiipiii^ rT"""IIHIII[|'iiiBi»iiiiiiiiiii " i|nil"IIM«lll«lllllllliiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiii laiii iiiiii iiini;: Ms ■^T WITH MAPS A"M#^LLUSTRATIONS I ^ PREPARED EXPRESSf^ FOR THIS WORK BT EMINENT AFRICAN ARTISTS I NEW YORK ■:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Ml , A- ^2-4-3^ Uf>JIVERSfTV UeiRARY y" PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT. In presenting to the public this work on geography, the publishers respectfully invite the attention of Boards of Education, teachers, and parents to the following statement of its plan and leading features : The study of geography is now, much more than at any former pe- riod, an essential element in education. It is second in importance only to reading, writing, and rudimentary arithmetic. The newspaper is and must continue to be the chief source of that knowledge of cur- rent events which is indispensable to every intelligent person. Its telegrams and other items and articles necessarily assume that the reader possesses a knowledge of certain geographical facts. It is the aim of this work to present and impress these facts. To this end the careful selection and arrangement of topics have been regarded as matters of prime necessity in order to insure such a unity of plan as to present a simple, yet practical, definite, and coher- ent view of the subject. The geography of commerce has been made the leading line of thought, because commerce, domestic and foreign, is becoming more and more a dominant interest in the affairs of the leading nations of the world, and because no other department of the general subject presents in such bold relief their rivalries and mutual dependencies. It involves a systematic presentation of the resources and industries of countries as dependent upon climate, soil, mineral deposits, and other physical conditions. It also includes all important information concerning cities and towns as commercial, manufacturing, and mining centres, and an outline of the system of transportation, domestic and international. The tables of reference show the total imports and exports of all the maritime nations, and particularly the commerce of each of these countries with the United States. The work is essentially in two distinct parts — a physical geography and a political geography. The physical geography is treated with sufficient fulness, and presents no difficulty greater than the de- scription of a chain of mountains or of the course of a river. A systematic outline of this department will be found in the questions of the general review. Each of the two parts has a series of special maps, exercises, and descriptions. Each series is complete in itself, and may be so taught if it be thought desirable. Again, by a differ-, ence in type and by the arrangement of the questions, each series pre- sents the choice of a simple outline or a fuller course. The questions are so clearly related to the maps and the text as to avoid the serious difficulties , which frequently arise from obscurity in this connection. The cities and towns called for by the text are at once pointed out both by the prominence of the type and by a peculiar device of color which will be found upon the maps. Among the many other original matters of great practical importance to pupils and teachers are the map showing the divisions and subdivis- ions of the United States, and the Industrial and Commercial Map of the United States, exhibiting the leading industries and resources of the country, and its various existing and proposed systems of transportation by railroad, coast lines, and interior water-ways, the whole for the first time so simply and clearly presented as to be easily committed to memory. The definitions are few and brief, and, like the rest of the work, are expressed in the simplest language which the subject will allow. The map-drawing exercises and the tabular reviews are simple and practical, and will commend themselves to teachers. The perfect clearness and legibility of the maps and the character of the type used in the text prevent injury to the sight of the pupil and teacher. In view of the limited time which can be given to geography in school, this treatise has been made as concise as possible, without lim- iting its comprehensiveness. This is not only very desirable in itself, but was made necessary by the large type and the great space given to the instructive pictorial illustrations. While great care has been taken to reject all matter not strictly relevant, it is believed that no other School Geography presents so many essential facts and principles in so few words. The character of the type and the quality of the illustrations, maps, paper, and binding (if this work leave it without a rival in the beauty and excellence of its mechanical execution. The work in all its details shows that the author is a practical teach- er, to whom the difficulties of the class-room are thoroughly familiar. \^^lit AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 187;, by Hakper & Bkothers, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at W-lsliington. Copyright, 1885, by Hakpkk & Bkotucks. TABLE OF CONTENTS. ►-♦ — O O— < I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. XL XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. xxrii. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. PAGE The Earth : Its Shape and Size, .... 1 Motions of the Earth 2 Circles of the Earth, 3 Latitude. — Longitude. — Zones, ... 3 Globes and Maps, 4 Divisions of the Land, 5 Elevations of the Land, 5 Divisions of the Water, .... 6 Divisions of Geography, ... .6 Map-Drawing, 7 Questions on the Map of the Western Hemi- sphere, .8 Review Exercises, 8 Questions on the Map of the Eastern Hemi- sphere, . . ...... 10 Review Exercises, . . . . . iO Continents, 12 Islands, 12 Mountains, ■ 13 Plateaus or Table- lands, 13 Lowland Plains, 14 Oceans, 14 Drainage Waters. — Rivers, 14 Lakes. — Glaciers and Icebergs, . . . 15 Ocean Currents, 16 Winds, 16 Climate 17 Races of Men, 18 Conditions of Society, ; 18 Government, 18 Questions on the Physical Map of North America, . . 21 Description of Physical North America, . 10 Climate, Vegetation, and Animals of North America, 19 Questions on the Political Map of North America, 22 Review Exercises, ... ... 22 Questions on the Physical Map of the United States, 24 Position, Area, and Surface of the United States 24 Western Half of the United States, . . 24 Eastern Half of the United States, . . .26 Divisions and Subdivisions of the United States, 29 Review of Political Map of the United States, 32 PAGB XXXIX. Description of Political United States, . . 33 XL. Government of the United States, . . . .35 XLI. Questions on the Map of the North Atlantic States, or New England, .... 37 XLI I. Review Exercises, 37 XLIII. Description of the North Atlantic States, or New England, 37 XLIV. Questions on Map of the Middle Atlantic States, 41 XLV. Review Exercises, . . .... 41 XL VI. Description of the Middle Atlantic States, . . 41 XLVII. Questions on the Map of the South Atlantic and South Central States, 44 XLVIII. Review Exercises, . . .... 44 XLIX. Description of the South Atlantic States, . . 46 L. Description of the South Central States, . . 47 LI. Questions on Map of the North Central States, 48 LII. Review Exercises, . 48 LIII. Description of the North Central States, . . 50 LIV. Questions on the Map of the West Central States AND States of the Plains : Northern Divisions, 53 LV. Review Exercises, ....... 53 LVI. Questions on the Map of the West Central States AND States of the Plains : Southern Divisions, 54 LVII. Review Exercises, ....... 54 LVIII. Description of the West Central States, . . 53 LIX. Description of the States of the Plains, . . 56 LX. Questions on the Map of the Western or Highland States, . . .59 LXI. Review Exercises, ...... 59 LXII. Description of the Western States ; Rocky Mount- ain Division, 59 LXIII. Description OF THE Western Statcs : Basin Division, 61 LXIV. Description OF THE Western States: Pacific Division, 62 LXV.' Industries of the United States 64 LXVI. Transportation, 64 LXVIa. The Old, or Local Standard, Time, . . . 129 LXVI^. The Railroad or Hour-belt System, or New Stand- ard Time, ........ 129 LXVII. Questions on the Map of the Dominion of Canada, 68 LXVIII. Review Exercises, 68 LXIX. Description of Canada and Newfoundland, . . 68 LXX. Questions on the Map of Mexico, Central America, AND THE West Indies, 73 LXXI. Review Extercises, 73 LXXII. Description of Mexico, 71 LXXIII. Description of Central America, . . . .71 TABLE OF CONTENTS. LXXrV. Description of the West Indies, .... LXXV. Questions on the Physical Map of South Amer- ica, LXXVI. Surface of South America, LXXVII. Questions on the Political Map of South Amer- ica, LXXVI 1 1. Review Exercises, . ... LXXIX. Description of Political South America, LXXX. Questions on the Physical Map of Europe, LXXXI. Description of Physical Europe, LXXXII. Questions on the Political Map of Europe, LXXX II I. Review Exercises, LXXX IV. Governments and Population of Europe, . LXXXV. Questions on the Map of the British Isles, . LXXXVI. Review Exercises, 88 LXXXVII. Description o? the British Isles, LXXXVIII. Questions on the Map of Western and Central Europe, LXXXIX. Review Exercises, XC. Description of Western and Central Europe. . XCI. Description of Austria, Turkey, Greece, and Denmark, XCII. Questions on the Map of the German Empire, Netherlands, and Belgium, .... XCI 1 1. Review Exercises, PAGE 73 XCIV. 15 XCV. 16 XCVI. XCVII. 78 XCVIII. 78 XCIX. 78 C. 83 CL 83 86 CIL 86 88 CIIL 88 CIV. 88 CV. 90 CVI. 93 cvn. 93 . CVIII. 93 CIX. ex. 95 CXI. 97 98 Description of the German Empire, Nltheklands, and Belgium, .98 Questions on the Physical Map of Asia, . ■ ^^^ Description of Physical Asia, . 103 Questions on the Political Map of Asia, . • 103 Review Exercises, . . . . 103 Description of Political Asia, . 105 Description of British India and Tndo-China, . 107 Description of Persia, Afghanistan, Beloochistan, Arabia, and Turkey, . ..108 Questions on the Map of Oceanica and the Phys- ical Map of Australia, no Review Exercises, . . . no Description of Oceanica, . .112 Questions on the Physical and Political Map of Africa, . . . ns Review Exercises, ... . . 115 Description of Physical Africa, . . .116 Description of Political .Africa, . . . .117 Description of Caucasian Africa, . . . .118 Description of Negro Africa, . . . .119 General Review Exercises, . . . 122,123 Cartography, 104 Tables, ... . . .125 Pronouncing Vocabulary, .... 126 127, 128 MAPS. PAGE Western Hemisphere, '••«.... 9 Eastern Hemisphere, jj Physical North America, 20 Political North America, 23 Physical United States, 25 United States in Groups 28 Political United States, . . . , . , . 30 31 North Atlantic States, or New England, .... 36 Middle Atlantic States, 4q South Atlantic and South Central States, ... 45 North Central States, 49 West Central States and States of the Plains : Northern Division, 52 West Central States and States of the Plains : Southern Division, . . ,, „, •••••.. 55 Western or Highland States, . eo Commercial and Industrial United States, Dominion of Canada, Mexico, Central America, and Uest Indies, Physical South America, . . . '. Political South America, .... Physical Europe Political Europe, British Isles, Western and Central Europe, German Empire, Netherlands, and Belgium, Physical Asia, Political Asia, .... Oceanica and Physical Australia, . Physical and Political Africa, Map of the Principal Ocean Trade Routes of World, the 120, PAGE 66,67 69 72 7-t 79 82 89 92 97 100 102 111 114 121 MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. I. THE EAETH: ITS SHAPE AND SIZE. 1. Geography is a descripiion of the surface of the earth, and of its countries and their inhabitants. 2. The shape of the earth is nearly that of a ball, globe, or sphere. The earth does not appear to be shaped like a ball, but looks like a large plain, stretching out in every di- rection. The reason of this is that we see only a small part of it at one time. Note. — To ensure correct conceptions on the part of the pupil, it is recom- mended that the lessons on iVIathematical Geography be illustrated by means of a globe. 3. We know that the earth is shaped like a ball from the following facts : First. Ships have sailed around it. Second. When a ship sails away from the land, the hull or body first disappears from sight, then the sails, and last the tops of the masts. When a ship is coming in from sea, the tops of the masts are seen first, then the sails, and lastly the hull or body. If the surface of the water were fiat, the hull would be seen as soon as the masts. In like manner, in travelling across broad plains we see the tops of distant mountains long before their bases are visible. THE EARTH: SHAPE, SIZE, AND MOTIONS. Third. The shadow which the earth casts upon the moon is always circular. A ball or sphere being the only body that always casts a circular shadow, we conclude that the earth has the shape of a ball or sphere. 4. A diameter of a sphere is any straight line drawn through the centre from surface to surface. The diameter of the earth is nearly eight thousand miles. 5. A circnmference of a sphere is the greatest distance around it. The circumference of the earth is nearly twenty-five thousand miles. 6. The surface of the earth contains nearly two hun- dred millions of square miles. 7. The horizon is that circle upon which the earth and the sky appear to meet. That point of the horizon towards which your shadow falls at noon is called north.* The opposite point is called south. If you face the north, your right hand is to- wards the east, and your left hand is towards the west. 8. North, east, south, and west are called the cardinal The points midway between these are called northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest. 9. The compass is an instru- ment used by mariners and sur- veyors. It consists of a circular card representing the horizon and its points. Over the centre of the card is a magnetic needle, balanced on a pivot: this needle points to- wards the north. SOUTH. Questions. — What does this section tell about? — 1. What is geography? 2. What is the shape of the earth ? How does the earth appear to us? Why is this? — 3. What is the first fact by which we linow that the earth is a globe ? The second fact ? The third fact ? — 4. What is a diameter of a sphere ? How long is the earth's diameter? — 5. What is a circumference of a sphere? Hon- long is the earth's cir- cumference ? — 6. How many square miles in the surface of the earth ? — 7. What is the horizon? Which way is north, south, etc.? — 8. Which are the cardinal points? The points between these .' — G. Describe the compass. * This is true only in the Northern Hemisphere. North Pole II. MOTIONS OF THE EAETH. 1. The earth has two constant motions, the daily and the annual. 2. The daily motion of the earth is its rotation on one of its diameters. The direction of the motion is from west to east : this causes the sun to appear to move from east to west. The sun appears to rise in the east because the place where we are is moving towards it ; it appears to set in the west because the place where we are is moving from it. The diameter on which the earth turns is called its axis. The time in which the earth turns on its axis is called a day. 3. The daily rotation causes the succession of day and nig^ht. Each place is carried into the sunlight, and then into the shade of the earth. 4. The poles are the points at the ends of the axis. One is called the North Pole, the other the South Pole. 5. The swiftness of the rotation has caused the earth to be slightly flattened at the poles, and to bulge out a little midway between them. A globe flattened at the poles is called an oblate spheroid. The length of the earth's axis, or shortest diameter, is 7899 miles ; the longest diameter is 7925 miles, circumference is 24,899 miles. Note.— The polar diameter is about one three-hundredth less than the equatorial. 6. The earth moves around the sun in a nearly circu- lar path, called its orbit. The time in which the earth revolves around the sun is called a year. It contains nearly 365^ days. This motion is called the annual revolution. 7. The axis of the earth is inchned to its orbit. This inclination never changes. 8. The annual revolution of the earth and the inclina- tion of its axis cause the change of the seasons. Questiozas.-What does this section tell about.?-!. How manv motions has the e.rth? What are they?-L>. What is the daily motion of the e.-.rth> In what duection ,s It ? How does the sun appear to move ? W hv d>.os it appo ,r to rise and set ? What is the axis of the earth ? What is a dav ?-,■>,. Wluu i. caused bv the d >ilv rotation of the earth?-!. What are the poles? What are thcv cllcd >--, What effect has the swiftness of the rotation f W h.u name is s;iven to the true si, u,". of the earth ? What ,s an oblate spheroid ? How many miles difference between the longest and the shortest diameter ? I low long is the greatest circumference ?— ti \v 1, „ iMier motion has the earth ? Wliat is the shape of its path ? Its name ? What is, vc,r? How long is it?— 7. Wh.u is the position of the earth's a.\is? Does the inelin»n> change f— 8. What cause the change of the seasons f ' " The greatest THE CIRCLES OF THE EARTH.— LATITUDE.— LONGITUDE.— ZONES. III. THE OIEOLES OF THE EAETH. 1. The circles of the earth* are lines imagined to be drawn on its surface. Tiiese circles are of two kinds — great circles and small circles. 2. A ^reat circle is one that divides the earth into two equal parts. Each of these parts is called a hemi- sphere, which means a half-sphere. 3. A small circle is one that divides the earth into two unequal parts. 4. Every circle is divided into 360 equal parts called degrees ; each degree is divided into 60 equal parts called min- utes; and each minute into 60 equal parts called seconds. The smaller the circle, the short- er are the degrees. Degrees DEGREES OF THE CIRCLE. are marked °, minutes ', and seconds ". Thus twelve degrees, fifteen minutes, and ten seconds are written 12° 15' 10". 5. The Equator is that great circle which is midway between the poles. It divides the earth into a Northern and a Southern Hemisphere. NORTH POLE. NORTH POLE. SOUTH POLE. SOUTH POLE 6. Heridian circles are those great circles which pass through the poles. Each divides the earth into an Eastern and a Western Hemisphere. 7. A meridian is half of a meridian circle, and ex- tends from pole to pole. . 8. Parallels are small circles parallel to the Equator. The principal parallels are the two tropics and the two polar circles. * In Geometry, a distinction is made between the circle and its boundary line or circumference. The ciixle is really the space or surface bounded by the circumfer- ence. This distinction is not necessary in Geography. la 9. The tropics are those parallels which are 23-| de- grees from the Equator. The northern is called the Tropic of Cancer, and the southern the Tropic of Cap- ricorn. 10. The polar circles are those parallels which are 23-^ degrees from the poles. The northern is called the Arctic Circle, and the south- ern the Antarctic Circle. i3JjN. 235SS 'S3J4S. SOUTH POLE THE CIRCLES OF THE EARTH. Questions (I.) — 1. What are the circles of the earth ? How many kinds of circles ? What are they? — 2. What is a great circle.' What is a. hemisphere? — 3. What is a small circle ? — i. How is every circle divided ? How are degrees divided ? How are minutes divided ? — 5. What is the Equator ? Into what does it divide the earth ? — 6. What are meridian circles? Into what does each divide the earth? — 7. What is a meridian ! — 8, What are parallels ? Which are the principal parallels. — 9. What are the tropics ? Give the name of each ? — 10. What are the polar circles ? Give the name of each ? (II.)— Read ,S2° 15' 47" ; 49° 1 1' 37". Which is larger, a degree of the Equator or of a tropic? Why? Of the Equator or of a meridian ? Why? Of a tropic or of the Arctic Circle ? Why ? Which is the greater, the Eastern Hemisphere or the North- ern ? Why ? How many meridian circles may there be ? How many Equators ? How many parallels ? How many meridians ? IV. LATITUDE -LONGITUDE -ZOFES. 1. liatitnde is distance north or south from the Equa- tor. It is measured, in degrees, on a meridian. Places between the Equator and the North Pole are in north latitude ; those between the Equator and the South Pole are in south latitude ; those on the Equator have no lati- tude. The poles have the greatest possible latitude, which is 90 degrees. 2. IiOn§;itnde is distance east or west from a selected meridian. It is measured, in degrees, on the Equator or any parallel. The selected meridian is called the first meridian. The meridian in most common use is that which passes through Greenwich Observatory, near London. In the United States the meridian of Washington is sometimes used; in France that of Paris ; in Germany that of Berlin ; etc. Places on the first meridian have no longitude. The greatest longitude is 180 degrees, east or west. A degree of any great circle measures 60 geographical miles, or about 69-i- statute miles of the United States. A degree on the parallel of 60° is just half as long. 3. Zones are broad belts or divisions of the earth's surface parallel to the Equator. They are bounded by the tropics and the polar circles. ZONES.— GLOBES AND MAPS. 4. There are five zones : one Torrid, two Temperate, and two Frigid Zones. 5. The Torrid Zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn. Torrid means hot. This zone is the hottest part of the earth, because the sun is always shining directly down upon some part of it. It is 47 degrees wide, or 23^ degrees on each side of the Equator, and is the largest zone. 6. The IVorth Frigid Zone extends from the Arctic Circle to the North Pole. The South Frigid Zone extends from the Antarctic Circle to the South Pole. Frigid means frozen. The Frigid Zones are the coldest parts of the earth, because the sun shines upon each of them during only a part of the year, and with very slanting rays. Each extends 23-^ degrees from the pole at its centre. They are the smallest, least important, and least known of the zones. The South Frigid Zone is not known to have one human inhabitant. 7. The IVorlh Temperate Zone extends from the Arctic Circle to the Tropic of Cancer. The 8onth Temperate Zone extends from the Antarctic Circle to the Tropic of Capricorn. Temperate means moderate. Each of the Temperate Zones is 43 The North Temperate Zone is the most imper- ii contains nearly three fourths of degrees wide. tant portion of the world. the human race. Note. — The axis of the earth is inclined 23J degrees towards its orbit. This determines the breadth of the several zones, the tropics being 23J degrees from the Equator, and the polar circles being 2,SJ degrees from the Poles. The four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and win- ter, are found only in the Temperate Zones. MAP OF THE ZONES. NORTH POLE. SOUTH POLE. SOUTH POLE. Questions (I.) — 1. What is latitude f How is it measured ? On what ? In what directions? What places are in north latitude? In south latitude? What places have no latitude ? What places have the greatest latitude ? How many degrees ? 2. What is longitude ? How is it measured ? On what? In what directions ? What is the name of the meridian from which longitude is reckoned ? What places have no longitude ? What is the greatest longitude a place can have ? — 3. What are zones ? By what are they bounded ? — 4. How many zones are there ? Name them. — .5. Where is the Torrid Zone ?— 6. The North Frigid ? The South Frigid ?— 7. The North Tem- perate Zone ? The South Temperate Zone ? Which zones have four seasons during the year ? (II.) — 2. What meridian is in most common use? What meridian is sometimes nsed in the United States ? In England ? In France ? In Germany .' — 3. How many miles in a degree of a great circle ? On the parallel of 60° ? — 5. Which is the hottest zone? Why? What does its name mean? How wide is it? What great circle passes through the middle of it ?— fi. Which zones are the coldest parts of the earth . Why ? What does their name mean ? What point in the centre of each ? How wide are they ? — 7. How wide are the Temperate Zones ? What does their name mean . Which is the largest zone? The smallest? The hottest? The least important? Why ? The most important ? Why ? Where are the coldest parts of the Temperate Zones ? Where are the warmest parts ? V. GLOBES AND MAPS. MAP OF THE WORLD. 1. The surface of the earth may be represented by globes and maps. 2. A §^Iohe is a sphere representing the form of the earth, its circles, and the principal divisions of the land and water. 3. A map is a representation of the whole or a part of the earth's surface on a plane. A plane is a flat surface. The surface of a sphere can not be exactly represented upon a plane. Small portions of the earth's surface can be more correctly represented upon maps than very large ones. 4. Parallels cross the map from side to side ; meridians, from top to bottom. East is in the direction of the par- allels towards the right ; west, towards the left. North is in the direction of the meridians towards the top; south, towards the bottom. 5. Figures showing the latitude are placed on the sides of the map; those showing the longitude are placed at the top and the bottom. Exception.— In the maps of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres the longitude is marked on the Equator. Pm°'^^M'^''~^- "°'' "'^ "'' '"'■'■='" "f "^« ^=""^ ^^ represented ?-■:, What i. a globe ?-3. What is a map ?-4. How are parallels represented upon a map > How are meridians represented? Which w.-iy is east? West? iorth ? South >- Whal'exceptiln'? " ''"""' "" '"■"""''= P'"^' ' '''°" ^^''"^^'"S the longitude ? (H.)-S. What is a plane ? Can the surface of a sphere be exactly represented ,mon amap? Why? (Experiment with the peel of half of ..n or..nge,) Which c"KZie the more accurate, a map of a large portion of the earth's surface or one of a Jn! n portion ? Why ? Which represents the earth with more e.xactness, a globe or I 'r.T> Why ? & a map r PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: DIVISIONS AND ELEVATIONS OF THE LAND. NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN HEMISPHERES. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. VI. DIVISIONS OF THE LAUD. 1. The surface of the earth con- sists of land and water. About one fourth is land, and about three fourths water. The Northern Hemi- sphere contains about three times as much land as the Southern ; the Eastern Hemi- sphere about two and a half times as much as the West- ern. The earth may be so divided that nearly all the land would be in one hemisphere, and the other would be nearly all water. 2. The land sur- face of the earth is divided into continents and islands. 3. A continent is a very large body of land. 4. There are six continents. Four are in the Eastern Hemisphere — Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Two are in the Western Hemisphere — North America and South America. The three large continents of the Eastern Hemisphere are joined into one great land-mass called the Old World (see map on page 4). The united continents of the Western Hemisphere form the New World. It is so called because discovered only a few centuries ago. Some geographers call the Old World the Eastern Continent, and the New World the Western Continent or the American Continent. 5. An island is a body of land entirely surrounded by water. Australia, the smallest continent, is much larger than tne largest island. The chief distinction between a continent and an island is the difference in size. 6. An arcliipela^o is a group of islands. 7. A peninsula is a body of land nearly surrounded by water. 8. A cape is a point of land extending into the water. A mountainous cape is called a promontory. A cape is usually much smaller than a peninsula. LAND AND WATER HEMISPHERES. NATURAL DIVISIONS OF LAND AND WATER. 1. Island. 5. Isthmus. 9. Lake. 13. Mountain. 17. Shore. 2. Peninsula. 6. Archipelago. 10. Sound. 14. Mountain Range. 18. Cape. 3. Bay. 7. Riiier. 11. Hill. 15. Table-land. 19. Volcano. 4. Strait. 8. Delta. 12. Crater. 16. Plain. 20. Sea. A coast or shore is the land bordering on the water. Coasts are often broken by peninsulas and capes. 9. An isthmus is a neck of land connecting two larger bodies of land. Questions (I.) — 1. Of what does the surface of the earth consist? How much is land ? How much is water .' — 2. How is the land surface divided ? — 3. What is a continent ? — 4, How many continents are there ? How many in the Eastern Hemi- sphere? Name them. How many in the Western Hemisphere? Name them. — 5. What is an island ? — 6. What is an archipelago ? — 7. What is a peninsula ? — 8. What is a cape ? — 9. What is an isthmus ? (U.) — 1. Which has the more land, the Northern Hemisphere or the Southern ? How many times as much ? The Eastern Hemisphere or the Western ? How many times as much ? What is meant by the land hemisphere ? — 4. What is meant by the Old World ? What other name is given to it by some geographers ? What is meant by the New World ? Why so called ? What other name has it ? — 5. How does the smallest continent compare with the largest island ? What is the chief distinction between a continent and an island ? — 7. What is a promontory ? What is the chief difference between a cape and a peninsula ? Whatis a coast or shore ? By what are coasts broken ? VII. ELEVATIONS OF THE lAND. 1. The chief elevations of the land surface are mount- ains, table-lands or plateaus, and lowland plains. Mountains and plateaus are sometimes called highlands. The height of elevations is reckoned from the surface or level of the sea. 2. A mountain is a very high elevation of land. If the elevation is not very high, it is usually called a hill. The summit of a mountain is its highest point ; the base is its foot; the slopes are its sides. 3. A range or chain is a line of mountains or hills. ELEVATIONS OF THE LAND.— DIVISIONS OF THE WATER.— DIVISIONS OF GEOGRAPHY. 4. A volcano is a mountain which sends forth flames, melted rock, clouds of steam, ashes, or other heated sub- stance, from an opening called a crater. 5. A table-land or plateau is a broad extent of high land. Table-lands are often crossed or bordered by mountain ranges. The breadth of a mountain is generally less than that of a plateau. 6. A lowland plain is a broad extent of land not much above the level of the sea. A valley is land between hills or mountains. A desert is a barren tract of land. An oasis is a low fertile spot in a desert. 7. The natnral divisions of the land are continents and islands. Their shores have peninsulas, capes, and isthmuses; their surfaces have mountains, plateaus, and lowland plains. If we imagine a division of land to be cut through from side to side and down to the level of the sea, the outline representing the edges of such a cut is called a section. IMAGINARY SECTION OF CONTINENT. Questions (I.)— 1. Name the three chief elevations of thS land.— 2. What is a mountain ?— 3. A range or chain ?— 4. A volcano ? A crater ?— 5. A table - land or plateau ?— 6. A lowland plain ?— 7. What are the natural divisions of the land .' What projections have their shores ? What elevations have their surfaces .' (II.) — 1. What are mountains and plateaus sometimes called ? From what are their heights reckoned?— 2. What is a hill.? What is the summit of a mountain? The base? The slopes? — 5. Which is broader, a mountain or a plateau? By what are table-lands sometimes crossed or bordered .?— 6. What is a valley? A desert? An oasis.'— 7. What is a section? VIII. DIVISIONS OF THE WATER. 1. The waters on the surface of the earth are divided into ocean waters and drainage waters. 2. The ocean is the great body of salt water that sur- rounds all of the continents. Its five principal divisions are also called oceans : namely, the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian, the Arctic, and the Antarctic Oceans. 3. A sea is a large division of the ocean nearly enclosed by land. The ocean itself is sometimes called the sea. 4. A g'nlf or bay is a body of water in a bend of the coast. As there is but little difference between seas, gulfs, and bays, these •names are sometimes given to similar bodies of water. A haven or harbor is a small bay in which ships are safe from storms. 5. A strait or channel is a narrow passage connecting two larger bodies of water. A sound is a shallow channel or bay. 6. An ocean current is a great stream of water flow- ing through the ocean. 7. The drainage waters, or waters on the surface of the land, are rivers and lakes. 8. A river is a large stream of fresh water. A river flowing into another is called a branch or tributary. The place where a river begins or rises is its source ; the place where it flows into a sea, lake, or another river is its mouth. 9. A lake is a body of water wholly or nearly sur- rounded by land. 10. The natural divisions of the water are oceans, rivers, and lakes. The subdivisions or arms of the ocean are called seas, gulfs, bays, sounds, straits, and channels. Questions (I.) — 1. Into what two great divisions may the waters be divided? — 2. What is the ocean? To what else is the name given? Name them. — 3. What is a sea ? What is the ocean sometimes called .' — i. What is a gulf or bay ? — 5. A strait or channel ? — 6. An ocean current ? — 7. Which are the drainage waters .'' — 8. What is a river .' — 9. What is a lake ? — 1 0. Name the natural divisions of the water. What are the subdivisions or arms of the ocean called ? (II.) — t. What three names are sometimes given to similar bodies of water? Why? What is a haven or harbor.' — 5. What is a sound.' — 8. What name is given to a river flowing into another ? What is the source of a river ? The mouth ? IX. DIVISIONS OF GEOGKAPHT. 1. Geography may be divided into Mathematical Geog- raphy, Physical Geography, and Political Geography. 2. Mathematical Geography is a description of the form, size, position, motions, circles, and zones of the earth. and of the relative positions of places on its surface. 3. Physical Geography is a description of the nat- ural divisions of the surface of the earth. It treats, first, of its simplest divisions into land, water, and atmos- phere ; second, of the position, distribution, and extent of the land and water, and of the great currents in the water and in the atmosphere ; third, of the character of the climates in dif- ferent parts of the earth, and the distribution of minerals, plants and animals; and, fourth, of the laws, causes, mutual relations', and consequences of these facts, and of many of those of Mathe- matical Geography. 4. Political Geography is a description of the nations and peoples of the earth, their social condition, and the countries they inhabit. " '"!'"^'V'" '''°""' °^ '°^"'' "''''' ''^'''' '"d^^tn^l P-oduc .on , and commerce. The Political Geograpbv of a counlrv is so closely dependent upon its Physical Geographv that the Uvo should be studied together. GecShy::::^^^;-^^;;:-^-^"''?^;^^/^^^'-^- '''-' ^^ '^'^"--<'«' fa 1 ;- nat IS Fhysiuil Geography ?— +. What is IVMiticil (V-ography ' Ti '^J; •";'!' Z^^''^ ''°" "'^ *'■■"' ''•'"■' "f Physical Geocrapln' treat' The ^^/ .:> > Ihe third? T e fourth?-4. What does TolLal GeogVa^.y include ? ',^1 IS It dependent? ° r j i-'jion wh.u MAP DRAWING: TO THE TEACHER.— SKETCHING FOR REVIEW. M AP-D RAW I N G. TO THE TEAOHEE. Map-drawing, as a branch of the study of Geography, presents itself under two aspects and as two distinct exercises. First and most important. Sketching. This is an exercise by means of which the leading facts of local geography are rapidly and efficiently reviewed in the construction of quickly drawn outline maps, approx- imately correct, and showing the actual condition of the pupil's knowl- edge of the location of mountains, rivers, railways, towns, etc. The ex- ercise is best prepared for in the class-room ; it can then be gone over at home by the pupil, if thought desirable ; and should finally be re- viewed and repeated in the class- room as the equivalent of a recita- tion. An illustration of the method is given below. // should be remem- bered that the chief object of this exer- cise is not to test the pnpiPs skill in map -drawing, but his knowledge of location. The second kind of exercise in map-drawing is that known as Car- tography. This is much more elab- orate, exact, and deliberate than sketching, and aims to present an accurate copy of some particular map. It is a valuable exercise, training the pupil to close and mi- nute observation both of the prin- cipal and of the less important con- tents of the map, and to careful and artistic manipulation. The simplest and most efficient method of pursu- ing this exercise is illustrated in the concluding portion of this book. Where circumstances will permit, it is advisable that the exercises in sketching should precede those in cartography. Those, however, who choose to begin with cartography, and omit sketching until a later stage, may readily do so. sKETonma for eeview. Preparatory. — After the map questions relating to any state, let it be Elaine, for instance, have been carefully studied, all the pupils of the class should take their slates and pencils and sketch the simple outlines of the state with the map open before them; the sketch should be drawn upon as large a scale as the size of the slate will conveniently allow. In the first lessons it will be well to let each pupil be furnished with a slip of stiff paper or card-board, divided into equal parts, to be used in measuring. A model is furnished at the foot of this page. In the second and more important review, in which the map is to be drawn from memory, the measure should not be used. The exercise will then be a sort of free-hand drawing. The work will be quite crude in the first attempts, but with repetition, practice, [ and reasonable pa- tience, very neat I I I I I I work can be pro- OUTLINE MAP OF THB STATE OF MAINE. duced. One or more of the class should draw the map on a large scale upon the blackboard. First Step. — Teach the pupils to estimate, approximately, of course, the proportion or relation between the length of the state and its breadth, measuring in the direction of the meridians and parallels whenever pos- sible. Let the estimate first be made by the eye only, then stated, and lastly tested by the measuring-slip. Questions. — Is Maine longer from east to west or from north to south? (North to south.) How much longer? (One fourth^ Second Step. — Lead the pupils to observe the number (usually four), direction, and length of the lines bounding the state, and whether they are straight or curved or otherwise. This step will usually require more time and care than any other. Questions. — How many lines form the boundary of Maine? (Five.) How many of them are partly or entirely straight ? In what general direction does each lie ? Which is the shortest line ? ( The northern.) Which is the longer boundary, the northwestern or the western ? The eastern bound- ary or the coast line ? Third Step. — Draw the outline boundary. First draw lightly the line of great- est length, A A, and that of greatest breadth, B B; many states are so simple as not to require these lines. Draw the northern boundary; the northwestern ; the western ; the east- ern; the coast. As soon as the third step is complete, it will be well to inspect the work. Do the same at the close of each succeeding step, or even after each separate item. Fourth Step.— Sketch the mount- ains, if there are any. Questions. — What mountains in Maine, and where are they ? Draw thenu Fifth Step. — Draw the rivers, first noticing the direction of each. Questions. — What boimdary river on the north ? Draw or go over it. On the east ? Name the three chief riv- ers in the state. Draw the Penob- scot. The Kennebec. The Andros- coggin. Two or three chief lakes. Sixth Step. — Locate the principal cities and towns, beginning with the capital. Use a star (*) for the cap- ital, and a small circle or dot (o •) for the other cities and towns. Questions.— What city is the capital ? On what riv^r ? Locate it. Name and locate the largest city. What city on the Penobscot ? On which side of the river ? Locate it. Where is Lew- iston ? Biddeford ? (Other cities and towns may be drawn if required.) Seventh Step.-^Draw the chief railroads. Question. — Between or through what towns and cities is each ? A further step, involving another form of review, is to require the pupils to add initial letters to the several points drawn : Rivers — A. R., K. R., P. R., St. J. R., St. C. R. Cities— X., P., L., B. In rapid work, I the writing or print- ing of the full name I I I I [ I will take too much time. PHYSICAL WESTERN HEMISPHERE: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. -REVIEW EXERCISES. PHYSICAL WESTERN HEMISPHERE. X. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Continents. — What two continents are in the Western Hemisphere ? By what isthmus are they connected? What three oceans wash the shores of North America ? Which one is on the north ? On the east ? On the west? What ocean bounds South America on the north and east? On the west? What ocean south? Islands. — What large island northeast of North America ? What island is east of it? What archipelago between Greenland and the continent ? What island near the eastern point of North America ? What group southeast? What archipelago between North and South America ? Which are its two largest islajids ? What group north of Cuba ? What group northeast ? What group at the southern end of South America ? What group east ? What group in the Pacific Ocean near the parallel of twenty north? Of fifty north? Of forty south? What general name is given to the islands of the Pacific ? Peninsulas. — What peninsula in the northwestern part of North America? In the eastern part? In the western part? What two near the island of Cuba ? Capes. — What cape at the southern point of Greenland? At the eastern point of Newfoundland ? At the southern point of California? What cape of North America is near Asia? What cape opposite? What cape is the northern point of South America? The eastern point? The southern point ? The western point? Mountains. — What chain of mountains in the western part of North America? In the eastern part? In the western part of South America? In the eastern part ? On which side of South America are there many volcanoes? (See red dots on the map.) On which side of North America? Plains and Plateaus. — What plateau in the northern part of North America? What low plain? In the central part? What high plains west of the central plain ? What plateau west of the Rocky Mountains ? What is the name of its southern part? What plateau in the eastern part of South America? In the northern? In the western? What plains in the southern part ? North of the plateau of Guiana? South? Seas, Gulfs, and Bays. — What bay west of Greenland ? In the Arctic Plain? What gulf west of Newfoundland? South of North America? What island and two peninsulas nearly close that gulf? What sea south of the West Indian Archipelago? Between Alaska and Asia? Straits. — What strait connects Behring Sea with the Arctic Ocean? At the entrance of Baffin Bay? Of Hudson Bay? Between Cuba and Florida? Between Tierra del Fuego and the continent? Rivers. — What river flows through the northwestern part of the Arctic Plain? Into what ocean? What river flows into the Gulf of St. Law- rence ? From what lakes ? From what plain ? What other river flows through that plain? Into what gulf? What branch has it? What river of North America flows into the Pacific Ocean ? From what plateau? Into what ocean do the rivers of South America flow? Which is the greatest river of South America? Through what plains does it flow? What river north of the Amazon? What river in the southern part of South America ? Ocean Currents. — What current flows from the Strait of Florida? Across what ocean ? In what direction ? What current flows from Baffin Bay? What current northeast of South America? Southeast? West ? What current crosses the Pacific near the Equator ? Near the parallel of fifty north ? Zones. — What circle crosses the northern part of North America? In what zone is Cuba ? The Sandwich Islands ? The Mississippi River? In what zones is North America? South America? XI. EEVIEW EXEEOISES. Continents. — How bounded^ Model for stating Boundaries. — South America is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Antarctic Ocean, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. North America? South America? Islands. — In what direction from the nearest land? By what waters sicrroimded i Model.— Newfoundland is east of North America, and is surrounded by the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic Ocean. Arctic Archipelago ? Greenland? Iceland? Newfoundland? Azores? Bermuda Islands? Bahama Islands? West Indian Archipelago? Cuba ? Hayti ? Falkland Islands ? Tierra del Fuego ? New Zealand Islands? Sandwich Islands ? Aleutian Islands ? Oceanica? Peninsulas. — From what part of the continent does it project ? Into what water, or between- ivhai waters ? Model. — California projects from the western part of North America, between the Gulf of California on the east and the Pacific Ocean on the west. Labrador? Florida? Yucatan? California? Alaska? Capes.— i7-(?OT what land does it project i From what part of it i Into what body of water ? Model. — Cape Race projects from the eastern part of Newfoundland into the Atlantic Ocean. Farewell? Race? St. Lucas? Prince of Wales? Gallinas? Horn? St. Roque ? Blanco ? East Cape ? Mountains. — In what part of the contitiefit are they ? In what direc- tions do they extend? Model. — Appalachian, in the eastern part of North America, extend northeast and southwest. Appalachian? Rocky? Brazilian? Andes? Plains and Plateaus. — Where situated? Model. — Arctic Plain is in the northern part of North America? Arctic Plain ? The Great Plains ? Central Plain ? Plains of the Orinoco? Plains of the Amazon? Plains of La Plata ? Arctic Plateau? Western Plateau ? Mexican Plateau ? Plateau of Guiana ? Plateau of Brazil ? Plateau of Bolivia ? Oceans. — Of what continents does it wash the shores? or, around what pole is it ? Model.— Pacific Ocean washes the western shores of North and South Amer- ica ; Antarctic or Southern Ocean, around the South Pole. Arctic or Northern ? Antarctic or Southern ? Atlantic? Pacific? Seas, Gulfs, and Bays. — What coast does it indetit or 7Msh ! Of ivhat ocean or other body of water is it an arm ? Model.- Hudson Bay indents the northeastern coast of Xovth America, and is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean. Baffin Bay ? Hudson Bay ? Gulf of St. Lawrence ? Gulf of Mexico ? Caribbean Sea ? Behring Sea ? Straits.— .^t'M'tCT/ what lands ? What boaters decs it connect? Model.— Behring Strait, between Asia and North America, connects the Arctic Ocean with Behring Sea. Behring? Davis? Hudson? Florida? Yucatan Channel? Magellan? Rivers.— /« what continent does it rise? In what part of it? In what mountains? In what direction docs it flow ? Into what water? Model.— Missouri River rises in the Rocky Mountains in the western part of North America, and flows southeast into the Mississippi River. Mackenzie? St. Lawrence ? Mississippi? Missouri? Columbia? Ormoco ? Amazon ? La Plata ? Ocean Currents.—/// ivhat ocean? In what part of it? /« what direction does it floic ? Model.— Brazilian Current, in the southwestern part of the Atlantic Ocean flows towards the southwest. ' * Polar? Gulf Stream? Equatorial? Brazilian? Peruvian? T;uvjn Stream ? ^' ^' A j^£ .'^C |iiiii'|i'|i||'|||iifiiiiiii'fii!ii|i , ' ^_ ^lMihiiMilB,iBimij tgBI n ^ ^ -^ • 'in'*^ '= \^-^ ^ =>> 2a EowTlalnB * Plateaus Very IllghXanii Volcanoes Djieetion of Currents ICopfngU, 1875, bjf Harper Ji SrtiChtri.i 10 PHYSICAL EASTERN HEMISPHERE: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES. PHYSICAL EASTERN HEMISPHERE. XII. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Continents.— What four continents are in the Eastern Hemisphere ? Which three are united into one great land -mass? What isthmus between Asia and Africa? Which is the largest of these four conti- nents? The next in size? The smallest? What ocean bounds Europe and Asia on the north ? What ocean east of Asia ? What three oceans border on Australia ? What three continents border on the Indian Ocean ? What ocean west of Europe and Africa ? Islands. — What two groups of islands are east of Asia? What archi- pelago southeast ? What four great islands in the Malaysian Archipel- ago ? What island north of Australia ? South ? Southeast of Africa ? What group west of Earope ? What island northwest ? What islands in the Arctic Ocean ? What islands west of Africa ? Northwest ? What lands in the Antarctic Ocean? Peninsulas. — What peninsula in the northeastern part of Asia? In the eastern part ? Southeastern ? Southern ? In the southern part of Indo-China? What island south of Hindostan ? What peninsula in the southwestern part of Europe? In the northwestern part? Capes. — What cape at the northern point of Europe? At the northern point of Asia ? At the southern point of Malay Peninsula ? Of Hin- dostan ? At the eastern point of Africa ? At the northern point ? The western point ? The southern point ? Near Cape Agulhas ? Mountains. — What mountains in the southern part of Europe ? Be- tween Europe and Asia? In the southern part of Asia? For what are the Himalaya Mountains remarkable? {They are the highest in the world.) How high is the highest peak? {About h\ miles.) \Vhat mountains near the centre of Asia? In the northern part of Africa? In the southern part? In the southeastern part of Australia? What archipelago contains many volcanoes ? Plains, Plateaus, and Deserts. — What is the chief plain in Europe ? What plain in the north of Asia? AVhat plain south of the Arctic Plain ? What plain in Eastern Asia ? In Southern Asia ? \^'hat plateau north of the Himalaya Mountains ? South of the Altai ? What plateau in the western part of Asia ? What one southwest of the plateau of Iran? What other peninsula of Asia contains a plateau? Which continent is nearly covered by plateaus? What desert in the plateau of Mongolia ? In what part of Africa is the great desert of Sahara? For what is it remarkable? {It is the largest desert in the world.) In what other part of Africa is there a desert ? Seas, Gulfs, and Bays. — What sea west of Kamtchatka ? Of the Japan Islands? Of Corea? Of the Philippine Islands? In the Malay- sian Archipelago ? West of Hindostan ? Of Arabia ? Between Africa and Europe ? East of the British Islands ? Northeast of the Mediter- ranean ? East of the North Sea ? What gulf west of Africa ? East of Arabia ? What bay east of Hindostan ? West of Europe ? Straits. — What strait between Java and Sumatra? Between Tas- mania and Australia ? Between Australia and New Guinea ? At the entrance of the Mediterranean Sea ? At the entrance of the Red Sea ? What channel between Madagascar and Africa ? Eivers. — What three rivers of Asia flow into the Arctic Ocean ? What four rivers in Eastern Asia ? What river flows into the Bay of Bengal ? The Arabian Sed. ? What river of Africa flows into the Gulf of Guinea? The Atlantic Ocean? The Mediterranean Sea? What river of Europe flows into the Caspian Sea? What rivers flow into the Black Sea ? Lakes. — What lakes in South Central Africa ? What two lakes in Western Asia are called seas? What lake in Australia? Ocean Currents. — What current flows westward through the Indian Ocean ? What current southwest of Africa ? Northwest of Europe ? Zones. — What circle crosses the northern part of Asia ? What crosses the desert of Sahara? What continents does it cross, great circle crosses Lr rneo ? What continent does it cross ? circle crosses Australia? What other continent does it cross, circle bounds the South Frigid Zone? What lands does it cross what zone is Sumatra ? Nova Zembla ? Cape of Good Hope ? Mediterranean Sea? In what zones is Africa ? Asia? Europe? tralia? circle What What What ? In The Aus- XIII. EEVIEW EXEEOISES. [For method of recitation, see XI.] Continents. — How bounded I Europe? Asia? Africa? Australia? Islands. — In what direction from the nearest land? By what waters stirrounded ? Japan Islands? Malaysian Archipelago? Philippine Islands? Java? Celebes ? Sumatra ? Borneo ? New Guinea ? Tasmania ? Mada- gascar ? Ceylon ? British Islands ? Iceland ? Spitzbergen ? Nova Zembla? Madeira Islands ? Canary Islands? St. Helena? Peninsulas. — From what part of the continent does it project i Into what water, or between what waters ? Kamtchatka? Corea? Indo-China? Malay? Scandinavian? Hin- dostan ? Spanish ? Capes. — From what land does it project ? From what part of it i Into what body of water ? North ? Northeast ? Romania ? Comorin ? Bon ? Good Hope ? Guardafui ? Verde ? Agulhas ? Mountains. — In what part of the continent are they ? In w/iaf direc- tion do they extend I Alps? Ural? Altai? Himalaya? Atlas? Snowy? Blue? Plains, Plateaus, and Deserts. — Where situated , Great Plain of Europe ? Arctic Plain ? Siberian Plain ? Plain of China? Plain of the Ganges? Plateau of Mongolia? Plateau of Thibet? Plateau of Iran? Plateau of Arabia! Desert of Gobi? Arabian Desert? Sahara Desert? Oceans. — Of what continents does it wash the shores / or, around what pole is it ? Arctic? Pacific? Antarctic? Atlantic? Indian? 3, Gulfs, and Bays.— rF// 2b Low Plains Plateaus VeryEIgliXanG. » • ■• Volcanoes - Dtcectioii of Cuirentfl ICupyrighi, 1876, by EcTpar di Brvihcrt^] 12 COMPARATIVE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: CONTINENTS AND ISLANDS. COMPARATIVE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. XIV. THE CONTINENTS. MAP OF THE WORLD. Arabia, Spain, and California, at the southwest, are very si p in form, and have no such islands ; Hindostan, Italy, and the long isthmus of Central America correspond in posiaon- Questions (I.)— 1. Which has the greater surface, the Old World or the New World ? How many times as much ? What is the line of direction of the Old World 1 Of the New World ?— 3. Of what does each of these land-masses consist ? Which part is the larger > How is Africa joined to Asia ? North America to South America ?- 3 In what are South America and Africa alike ?-4. In what direction does each con- tinent widen ' In what direction does it narrow ?-5. In what direction do nearly ail the great peninsulas point ?-6. Name the three northern continents. What is their form? Name the three southern continents. What is their form?— 7. How do the coasts of the northern continents differ from those of the southern continents? (11.)— 3 Why are the two isthmuses of great commercial importance ?— 3. To what may the similarity of South America and Africa be compared?— 5. Which continents have nearly all the great peninsulas'? In what two directions do the principal shore- lines, mountain ranges, and island chains lie ?— 7. What points of resemblance have the three northern continents .' 1. The Old World has more than twice as much surface as the New World. Its Hne of direction, or line of greatest length, is from northeast to southwest. The ]Vew World extends from northwest to southeast. 2. Each of these great land-masses consists of two parts, the larger being to the north. Africa is joined to Asia by the narrow Isthmus of Suez, and South America to North America by the Isthmus of Panama. These two isthmuses are of great commercial importance, because the principal routes connecting the commerce of the great oceans pass across them. 3. The southern continents, South America and Africa, are much alike in shape and direction. Their similarity is somewhat like that of the two hands. 4. Each continent widens toward the north and narrows to a point at the south. 5. Nearly all the great peninsulas point in a southerly direction. They project from the three northern continents. The principal shore-lines of the continents, nearly all of the great mountain ranges, and most of the great chains of islands lie in a south- easterly or southwesterly direction. 6. The three northern continents, North America, Eu- rope, and Asia, are irregular in form. The three southern continents are South America, Africa, and Australia ; the first two are peninsular in form. 7. The coasts of the northern continents, and particu- larly those of Europe, are much broken by inland seas. Those of the southern continents are nearly unbroken by peninsulas or by arms of the ocean. Each northern continent has three great peninsulas projecting from its southern border. These peninsulas are curiously alike in some particulars : Indo-China, Greece, and Florida, at the southeast, have each a large archipelago southeast of them ; ISLANDS. 1. Nearly all the islands lie in curved chains or in groups. Some are the tops of hills or mountain ranges whose lower parts are under the sea. 2. Islands are of two kinds — continental and oceanic. 3. Continental islands are those lying near the con- tinents of which they appear to have been once a part. The principal chains of continental islands lie east and southeast of Asia and North America. 4. Oceanic islands are those lymg far out in the ocean. The principal chains of oceanic islands are in the Pacific Ocean. The Azores and Bermudas are oceanic groups. St. Helena and Ascension are solitary oceanic islands. VOLCANIC ISLAND. Volcanic islands are those which have been raised hy volcanic forces from the depths of the ocean. They have bold shores and lofty peaks, and may be either continental or oceanic. Must MOUNTAINS.— PLATEAUS OR TABLE-LANDS. 13 of the coast islands of Asia, the Galapagos and Sandwich groups of the Pacific, and Iceland, the Azores, Cape Verde, St. Helena, and Ascension of the Atlantic, are volcanic islands. Coral islands are those composed of coral, a limy substance formed from sea-water by certain small animals, and are found only in the warmer parts of the ocean. They are usually small and low. The Bahamas and Bermudas in the Atlantic and many oceanic chains in the Pacific are coral islands. Questions (I.) — 1. How are most islands arranged? What are some of them ? —2. How many kinds of islands? What are they? — 3. What are continental islands? Where are the principal chains of continental islands ? — 4. What are oceanic islands ? Where are the principal chains ? (n.) — 4. Name some oceanic islands. What are volcanic islands ? What kind of shores and surfaces have they ? To which class do they belong ? Name some volcanic islands of the Pacific. Of the Atlantic. What are coral islands ? Where found ? Of what size ? Name some coral islands. MOUNTAINS. 1. A mountain system is a number of nearly parallel ranges covering a wide belt of country. 2. The New World has the longest mountain system; its length is about ten thousand miles. It has two principal divisions — the Andes chains in South Amer- ica, and the Rocky Mountains and parallel chains in North America. Its highest point is in South America, and is about 25,000 feet, or 4^ miles, above the sea. 3. The chief system of the Old World begins on the Atlantic shores, and extends in an irregular line to the Pacific. It is about eight thousand miles long, and is composed of many smaller systems. Among them are the Himalaya Mountains, which are the highest in the world, the Caucasus, and the Alps. The highest point of the Himalaya Mountains is about 29,000 feet, or 5^ miles, above the sea-level. These two great systems are not far from the shores of the conti- nents in which they lie. The principal systems of Africa and Australia lie near their eastern coasts. The tops of many of the great mountain chains are always covered with snow, even in the Torrid Zone. 4. Volcanoes are found chiefly in mountainous islands, or in mountain ranges which are near the sea. The great lowland plains have no volcanoes. The volcanoes of the Western Hemisphere are mostly found in its great mountain systems ; those of the Eastern, in the island chains bordering the coasts of Asia. Many of the oceanic islands in the Pacific contain volcanoes. Most of the volcanoes of the world are in the Pacific Ocean or near its borders. 5. noantains are of great importance : they condense a large part of the moisture that falls from the atmosphere as rain or snow; they contain the sources of nearly all the great rivers of the globe ; their cold summits temper the fierce heat of the Torrid Zone; in them are found most of the metals and other minerals so important to the well-being of man. Questions (I.)— 1. What is a mountain system .'—3. Where is the longest system ? How long is it ? — 3. Describe the chief system of the Old World. How long is it ? Of what is it composed .' — 4. Where are volcanoes chiefly found ? Where are none found !■ — 5. State some of the uses of mountains. {II.) — 3. How many divisions has the great mountain system of America? What chains in each ? Where is its highest point ? How high is it ? — 3. Which are the highest mountains in the Old World ? How high is their highest peak ? What other mountains in the same system? Where are the two great systems? Where is the principal system of Africa ? Of Australia ? With what are the tops of many of the great mountain chains covered ? — 4. Where are most of the volcanoes of the Western Hemisphere found ? Of the Eastern ? What oceanic islands contain volcanoes ? Where are most of the volcanoes of the world found ? XVII. PLATEAUS OE TABLE -LANDS. 1. The great plateaus of each continent are in the same regions and lie in the same direction as the chief mountain systems. These mountains either stand upon the plateaus or form their border walls. 2. The chief plateau helt of North America ex- tends from the isthmus of Tehuantepec to the Arctic Ocean. Its highest part, the plateau of Mexico, is from 4000 to 8000 feet above the level of the sea. The Rocky Mountains divide these plateaus into two sections: the eastern section is known as the Great Plains ; the western section is covered with numerous parallel chains of mountains. 8. The chief plateau belt of South America ex- tends in a band parallel with the western coast. Its highest and widest part, the plateau of Bolivia, is more than 12,000 feet above the sea. Its edges are formed by two great chains of the Andes. In the eastern part of South America there are low and broad plateaus. 4. The plateaus of Asia are the highest and most extensive in the world. The plateau of Thibet is the highest ; it reaches an elevation of 16,000 feet. It is bordered on the south by the Himalayas. 5. The plateaus of Africa cover nearly the whole of that continent. The highest is east of the Nile River, and is from 6000 to 7000 feet in elevation. Africa is bordered on nearly every side by mountains. The Atlas, Snowy, and the ranges near the eastern coast are the principal chains. 6. The plateaus of Australia are comparatively low. This continent resembles Africa in its almost unbroken coasts and mountain borders. 14 LOWLAND PLAINS.— THE OCEANS.— DRAINAGE WATERS. 7. Europe has no large plateaus. 8. Nearly all deserts are plateaus. Questions (I.) — 1. Where are the great plateaus of each continent found? In what direction do they lie ?— 2. Where is the chief plateau belt of North America .' — 3. Of South America? — i. What is said of the plateaus of Asia?— 5. What is said of the plateaus of Africa ? — 6. Of the plateaus of Australia .' — 7. Of Europe ? — 8. What is said of deserts ? (II.) — 1. What relation have the mountains to the plateaus with which they are connected ? — 2. What name is given to the highest plateau of North America ? How high is it? How do the Rocky Mountains divide these plateaus? What name is given to the eastern section ? What is the character of the western section ? — 3, What name is given to the highest plateau of South America ? How high is it ? What mountains border the high plateaus of that continent ? Where are its low plateaus ? — 4. What name is given to the highest plateau of Asia? How high is it? What mountains border it?— 5. Where is the highest plateau of Africa? How high is it? How is that continent bordered ? Name the principal chains. — 6. In what respects does Australia resemble Africa ? XVIII. LOWLAND PLAINS. 1. The great lowland plains of the American continents lie between the high plateaus and the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, from which they are partly sepa- rated by low plateaus and mountains. The great lowland plains of Europe and Asia lie between the high plateaus and the shores of the Arctic Ocean. These plains are the most extensive in the world. Their greatest length is in the same direction as the principal mountain systems and the belts of plateaus. Smaller but important plains are found in other parts of these four continents. 2. The loirland plains of Australia lie in the central and southern portions of that continent. The greater part of these plains is yet unexplored. Africa has no large and important lowland plain. 3. The most fertile soil and the largest navigable rivers are found in the low plains of the Torrid and Temperate Zones. The greater part of the population of the world, and the chief seats of civilization, are found in these plains. The most densely populated are the plains of China, of the Ganges, and the western part of the great plain of Europe. More than one third of the population of North America inhabit its central plain. 4. The plains which border the Arctic Ocean are among the coldest regions of the globe. Questions (I.) — 1. Where are the great lowland plains of the American conti- nents ? By what are fhey partly separated from the Atlantic ? Where are the great low plains of Europe and Asia ? — 3. Of Australia ? Of Africa ? — 3. What is said of the plains of the Torrid and Temperate Zones ? — 4. Of those bordering the Arctic Ocean ? (H.) — 1. Which are the most extensive plains in the world? In what direction is their greatest length ? Are there any other important plains in these four continents ? — 2. What can you say of the lowland plains of Australia .' — 3. What are found in the plains of the Torrid and Temperate Zones ? Name the most densely populated. How much of the population of North America inhabits its central plain? THE OCEANS. 1. The Pacific Ocean is about as large as all the other oceans taken together. It is remarkable for the number of its islands and border seas ; these seas are enclosed or partly enclosed by curved lines of islands. 2. The Atlantic Ocean is about half as large as the Pacific. It is remarkable for the many inland seas that branch from it, and for the number of great rivers that flow into it. Its north- ern half is the chief theatre of the ocean commerce of the world. 3. The Indian Ocean is much smaller than the At- lantic. It is remarkable for the fewness of its seas and islands, and for the violence and frequency of its hurricanes. 4. The Arctic Ocean is much the smallest of the oceans. It is a part of the Atlantic rather than a separate ocean. All the great plains border on the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. 5. The Antarctic or Honthern Ocean is not prop- erly a separate ocean, but a combination of the southern parts of the three great oceans. It is remarkable for the intensity of its cold, and for the number and size of its icebergs. The greater part of the polar oceans, and especially the Antarctic, has never been explored. Questions (I.)— 1. What is said of the size of the Pacific Ocean ?— 2. Of the Atlantic ?— 3. Of the Indian ?— 4. Which is the smallest ocean }—5. Is the Antarctic Ocean a separate ocean ? What is it ? (11.)— 1. For what is the Pacific Ocean remarkable ? By what are the border seas enclosed ? Name four of the border seas of the Pacific Ocean. (See maps of hemi- spheres.)— 2. For what is the Atlantic Ocean remarkable? What is said of its com- mercial importance ? Name four inland seas of this ocean. Name two great rivers flowing into it from North America. Three from South America. One from Africa. —3. For what is the Indian Ocean remarkable ? Name the two great bays of that ocean.— 4. Of what ocean is the Arctic a part ? Name the three continents surround- ing it. What lands border on these two oceans ?— 5. For what is the Antarctic Ocean remarkable? Have the polar oceans been explored ? Why? XX. DEAINAGE WATEES.-EIVEES. 1. The ocean is the source of all the waters upon the surface of the land. The winds and the heat of the sun are constantly carrying away invisible vapor from the surface of the ocean ; tliis fo:ms clouds, and falls upon the land as rain or snow. This water leaves the land surface in three ways : first, the greater part is evaporated • second, a part flows directly awav, forming lakes, rivers and smaller streams ; third, a part sinks into the soil, and issues again at a lower level as springs. RIVERS.— LAKES.— GLACIERS AND ICEBERGS. 15 2. Many large rivers have their sources in the snow- covered mountains of the table-lands. Most rivers begin at springs, and are enlarged by rains and melted snows, and by other rivers. 3. A rirer system is a river with its branches. A basin or Talley is the whole country drained by a river system. A water-shed is the line of highest land that divides two basins. In the United States it is sometimes called a divide. An estuary is a broad mouth of a river. When a river enters the sea by two or more mouths, the land between the mouths is called a delta. A canon is a deep and narrow gorge through which a river runs. Rapids are those parts of a river in which the current is very swift. Falls are those parts of a river in which the water flows over a precipice. Falls of small streams are called cascades ; of large rivers, cataracts. 4. The rivers in the low plains are the chief natural channels of commerce, especially since the invention of the steamboat, by means of v/hich their swift currents may be ascended. Commerce is less expensive by water than by land. In the hill countries, rivers whose falls or rapids in- terrupt navigation furnish valuable water-power for man- ufacturing purposes. Some rivers overflow their banks at certain seasons, and by a rich deposit of mud fertilize the low lands through which they run. Where rivers run through lands which are very dry during the summer, their water is sometimes used to ir- rigate the soil. Questions (I.) — ]. What is the source of all the waters which are on the surface of the land ? — 3. Where do many large rivers have their sources } — 3. What is a river system ? What is a basin or valley ? What is a water-shed ? — i. State some of the uses of rivers. (II.) — 1. How is water constantly taken from the surface of the ocean ? In what form does it fall again ? In how many and what ways does it leave the land surface again .' — 2. At what do most rivers begin ? How are they enlarged ? — 3. What is a divide ? An estuary ? A delta ? A caiion ? What are rapids ? Falls ! Cascades .' Cataracts ? XXI. LAKES.-GLAOIEES AND lOEBEKGS. 1. Lakes are of two kinds — salt and fresh. 2. A salt lake is one that has no outlet. Small quantities of salt are washed out of the soil by the rains ; if carried to a lake having no outlet, the salt is left in the lake by the evaporation of the water. 3. The plains and plateaus of Asia have the largest salt lakes in the world. The largest of these are the Caspian and Aral seas. 4. The plains of North America and the plateaus of Southern Africa have the largest fresh-water lakes in the world. Their principal outlets are the St. Lawrence and Nile Rivers. Titi- caca, on the plateau of Bolivia in South America, is the most elevated of the large fresh-water lakes : it is 13,000 feet above the ocean-level. 5. Glaciers are vast river-like fields of ice. They are formed from snow, which is solidified by the pressure of its own weight, and by melting and freezing. They are formed in the high mountain valleys in the regions of per- petual snow. They move very slowly down the valleys — only a few rods in a year. In the Temperate Zones they are found in the highest part of the highest mountains, as in the Alps and the Himalayas. In the Frigid Zones their lower edges project into the sea ; the tides and waves here wash away their bases, and the overhanging portions at last break off by their own weight and fall into the sea : they are then called icebergs. •I 'Aim -■ . THE ORIGIN OF AN ICEBERG. 6. An icebergs is a large floating fragment of an arctic or antarctic glacier. The great glaciers of Greenland are famous for the numerous ice- bergs which they send off; many have been seen projecting more than 300 feet above the sea, seven eighths of their mass being under water. Icebergs are largest and most numerous in the Antarctic Ocean ; they are formed in the unknown lands around the South Pole. Questions (I.) — 1. How many kinds of lakes? What are they.' — 2. What is a salt lake? — 3. Where are the largest salt lakes in the world? — i. Where are the largest fresh-water lakes in the world.' — 5. What are glaciers? How are they formed? — 6. What is an iceberg? (II.) — 2. How is a salt lake formed ? — 3. Name the two largest salt lakes. — 4. What are the outlets of the largest fresh-water lakes ? Which is the most elevated of the large fresh-water lakes ? Where is it ? How high ? — .'i. Where are glaciers formed ? Describe the origin of an iceberg. — 6. What can yon say of the glaciers and icebergs of Greenland? Of the Antarctic Ocean ? Where are thev formed? 16 OCEAN CURRENTS.— WINDS. XXII. OCEAN OUKKENTS. 1. An ocean current is a broad stream of water flowing through the ocean. The great ocean currents are so connected with each other as to form a circulatory system ; some of them are of great depth. 2. Constant currents are those that always flow in the same direction. Some of them have been traced many thousands of miles. All the rivers in the world are insignificant when compared with some of these currents. The chief cause of ocean currents is the dif ference of temperature of the ocean waters in the Torrid and Frigid Zones : the warmer and lighter water flows towards the poles, an equal quantity of the colder and heavier water flowing at the same time towards the Equator. The ocean currents thus assist to cool the tropical and to warm the polar regions. The direction and velocity of currents are modified, first, by the earth's revolution on its axis ; second, by the constant winds of the Torrid Zone ; third, by being turned aside by the shores. 3. The Equatorial Currents are the widest and long- est of the constant currents. They are found in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and rnove from east to west. 4. The most important current is the Gulf Stream. A division of the Equatorial Current passes along the outer or ocean shores of the West Indies. A branch from this enters the Caribbean Sea and again subdivides. One part passes east- ward along the shores of Hayti, and rejoins the outer current. The other part passes through Yucatan Channel, and issues from the Strait of Florida as a swift and deep current known as the Gulf Stream. It rejoins the outer current at the Bahamas, and gives its own name to the entire current, which then crosses the Atlantic in a northeasterly course, and, with the winds which sweep over its warm waters, gives a mild climate to Western Europe. 5. The Japan Stream, a current similar to the Gulf Stream, passes from Japan towards North America. 6. The Polar Currents are the cold currents passing from the polar regions towards the Equator. They bring vast quantities of ice from the polar regions. But little is known of the cold currents which flow at the bottom of the ocean. The ocean water at great depths in the Torrid Zone is nearly as cold as that in the Arctic Ocean. The two broad oval spaces between the Equatorial Currents on the south and the Gulf Stream and the Japan Stream on the north are called Sar- gasso or Grassy seas, because covered with floating sea-weeds. Questions (I.)— 1. What is an ocean current?— 2. What are constant currents?— 3. Which are the greatest of the constant currents ?— 4. Which is the best known cur- rent? — 5. Describe the Japan Stream. — G. Describe the Polar Currents. (II.)— 1. How are the ocean currents connected ? What is said of their depth ?— 2. How far have some been traced ? How do they compare with rivers ? What is their chief cause ? Of what use are they ? How are their direction and velocity modified?— 3. Where are the Equatorial Currents found? What is their general direction ?-A. Describe the origin and course of the Gulf Stream. How does it affect the climate of Western Europe ?— 6. What do the Polar Currents bring from the polar regions ? What is said of the deep cold currents ? Of the deep water in the Torrid Zone ? Where are the Sargasso or Grassy seas ? Why so called ? XXIII. WINDS. 1. The atmosphere covers the earth to a height of about fifty miles. The upper portions of the atmosphere press upon the lower, and make them denser. Nearly all the moisture and all animal and vegetable life are found within three and a half miles of the level of the sea. Above this the thinness and dryness of the atmosphere, and the intense cold, render plant life, and conse- quently animal life, impossible. The mountains of Thibet have been ascended above four miles. A balloon has reached an elevation of five and three-quarter miles. These are the greatest heights ever reached by man. In both cases the suffering was very great. 2. Heat causes air, first, to expand and become lighter ; and, second, to absorb and render invisible large quanti- ties of water. Cold produces opposite effects. 3. The heat of the sun produces ascending currents of hot air, particularly in the Torrid Zone ; other air flows in below to fill the space. 4. IVinds are currents of air. The currents from the polar regions tend at first directly towards the Equator ; as they pass towards and into the Torrid Zone, the revolution of the earth on its axis causes them to turn more and more towards the west : these currents are then called the Trade Winds. 5. The Trade Winds are constant winds between the parallels of 30° north and south latitude, and always blow from an easterly direction. They carry immense quanti- ties of vapor from the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. The masses of heated air rise some miles from the surface of the earth, and flow over in two sets of currents, one towards each pole, to fill the places left vacant by the Polar Currents ; they gradually cool and settle towards the surface, striking it beyond the parallels of 30° : they are then known as the Return Trade Winds, or Counter Trade Winds. 6. The Counter Trade ^Vinds are the prevalent winds beyond the thirtieth parallels. In the Northern Hemisphere they blow from the southwest, and in the Southern from the northwest. The Trade Winds and Counter Trade Winds are similar to the ocean currents both in cause and general direction. Questions {I.)-l. To what height does the atn>osphere extend ?-3. What are he effects of heat upon an? Of cold ?-3. What are the effects of the sun's heat' In what zone is th>s effect most marked ? What other effect follows '-4 Whit ire wmds .'-5. W hat and where are the Trade NVinds ? What is their direction ? What I'dTtheyC?" '" ^"' ''"''' '- ''' '--'- ^-^^ -'"^-' ^" -»- <•*- (II.)-l. How do the upper portions of the atmosphere affect the lower > What -.ro ound only w,tbn three and a half miles of the level of the sea? W hvisrer .^ hfe above th,she,ght? What are the greatest heights over reached bv n ^ Vhu was he effect ?-4. In what direction do the Polar Currents a, firs, flow> In w a d,rect,on al.crw.rds ? What causes this change ? ^^•hat are the^- then cl ed i, D scr>be the course of the ascending currents of the Trade \\inds. ' Where do iP strd-,,. In wh u res J r^'"'" the T,ade Winds similar to the ocean currents'? '^"^ •"''•^ CLIMATE : WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAIN-FALL. 17 XXIV. CLIMATE. 1. The climate of a country is the general condition of its atmosphere in regard to heat and moisture. 2. Climate depends upon distance from the Equator, elevation above the sea level, the prevailing winds and ocean currents, and distance from the sea. 3. The Frigid Zones have an, intensely cold climate. 4. The low plains in and near the Torrid Zone are very hot. If they are open to the ocean winds, their climate is moist ; if not, it is dry. 5. The high plateaus within and near the tropics have a mild, spring-like climate. 6. The high mountains in the same regions have their tops covered with perpetual snow. The lower limit of perpetual snow is called the snow-line ; it is of less and less elevation towards the poles. 7. Winds and ocean currents mod- ify climate. The winds have by far the more marked effect. When a warm ocean wind strikes the sides of a high mountain chain, it passes up the slope, growing colder and gradually losing its moisture in rain or snow as it ascends, and at last passes over the range and down the opposite slope as a cold and dry wind. The warm and moist Return Trade Winds of the Atlantic blow upon Western Europe, and the warm waters of the Gulf Stream reach its shores ; in the same latitude, the shores of Greenland and Labrador are washed by the icy waters of the arctic cur- rents and swept by the polar winds. The one region has a mild climate, and is occupied by the most enlight- ened nations of the world ; the others are frozen wastes, sparsely inhabited by degraded savages and a few Eu- ropean traders. 8. The rain-fall of a country is the quantity of water that falls upon it as rain or snow. In the Torrid Zone the average annual fall is about 100 inches, but in some places in that zone it is four or five times as much. In the Temperate Zones it is from 35 to 40 inches, or little more than one third as much as in the Torrid Zone. In the Frigid Zones it is much less. The rain -fall usually diminishes as the distance from the sea increases. 9. The tropical rain-helt is a broad movable belt of rain extending around the world. It is about 1000 miles wide from north to south. 3 The sun is vertical to a place when it is directly over that place. This can happen only in the Torrid Zone. As the sun passes from one tropic to the other, the parts of the zone over which it is vertical have their greatest heat, and conse- quently their greatest evaporation. In those regions which are open to the Trade Winds, a heavy thunder-storm begins early in the afternoon, and continues until near sunset ; the sky then becomes cloudless until the next day about the same hour. After some weeks, the sun being no longer vertical, the rains become less frequent, and at last cease for months, till the sun again returns. The only seasons of the Torrid Zone are the wet season while under the rain-belt, and the dry season during its absence. Places near the Equator have therefore two rainy seasons and two dry seasons ; other parts of the Torrid Zone have one rainy season and one much longer dry season. The heat and moisture of the tropical rain-belt produce the most luxuriant vegetation in the world. A great belt of deserts stretches across the Old World from the Atlantic nearly to the Pacific Ocean : it is caused by the ab- sence of rain-bearing winds. These rains of the Torrid Zone are called periodical rains ; the more irregular ones of the Temperate Zones are called variable rains. THE TROPICAL RAIN-BELT AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF RAIN. Antarctic Circlc Awtarctlc Cihclc Questions (I.)— 1. What is climate ? — 3. Upon what does it depend ? — ^3. What is the climate of the Frigid Zones ? — 4. Of the low plains in the Torrid Zone ? When is it moist ? When dry !■ — 5. Of the high plateaus in that zone ? — 6. Of the high mount- ains ? — 7. What effect have winds and ocean currents ? Which have the greater effect? — 8. What is the rain-fall of a country f — 9. The tropical rain-belt? How wide is it? (II.) — 6. What is the snow-line ? How does its height vary ? — 7. Describe the effects of high mountains upon ocean winds. What two principal causes modify the climate of Western Europe ? Of Greenland and Labrador ? What are the effects ? — 8. What is the average annual rain-fall in the Torrid Zone ? In the Temperate Zones ? In the Frigid Zones ? What effect has distance from the sea ? — 9. When is a place said to have a vertical sun ? In what zone can this occur ? How does it affect the heat? The evaporation ? Describe the tropical rains. Which are the only seasons in the Torrid Zone? What seasons at the Equator? In other parts of that zone? What effects do the heat and moisture produce ? Where is the great belt of deserts ? By what is it caused ? What are periodical rains ? Variabje rains ? Where do they occur ? 18 RACES OF MEN.— CONDITIONS OF SOCIETY.— GOVERNMENT. XXV. EAOES OF MEN. 1. The naniber of inhabitants upon the earth is estimated at about 1450 millions. 2. They are divided into five great races — the Cauca- sian, the Mongol, the Ethiopian, the Malay, and the Amer- ican or Indian. 3. The Caucasian or white race is the most widely spread. It occupies Western Asia, Europe, Northern Af- rica, and large parts of North and South America and Australia. It is the most restless, intelligent, and powerful of the races, and includes all the great historic nations. 4. The Hongol or yellow race is found chiefly in East- ern and Northern Asia. 5. The Ethiopian or black race is found chiefly in Central and Southern Africa. 6. The Malay or brown race inhabits Southeastern Asia and most of the islands of the Great Archipelago and the Pacific. 7. The American or red race inhabits portions of the American Continents from Cape Horn to the Arctic Ocean. The Caucasian and Mongol races are about equal in numbers. Together they constitute more than four fifths of the whole hu- man family. The Ethiopian race comprises about one seventh, the Malay about one twenty-fifth, and the American about one one-hundredth of mankind. Questions (I.) — 1. What is the ntimber of inhabitants upon the earth ? — S. Into how many races are they divided ? What are they ? — 3. Which is most widely spread } What regions does it occupy ? — i. Where is the Mongol or yellow race found ? — 5. The Ethiopian or black race .' — 6. The Malay or brown race ? — 7. The American or red race ? (II.) — 3. For what is the Caucasian race distinguished? — 7. What part of mankind is comprised in each race ? POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. XXVI. CONDITIONS OF SOCIETY. 1. Nations and tribes may be divided, in respect to their social condition, into five classes : savage, barbarous, half civilized, civilized, and enlightened. 2. Savages are those who live in tribes, and obtain their food by hunting and fishing. 3. Barbarians are those who possess flocks and herds, and practice a rude agriculture. Those who live in tents, like the Bedouin Arabs, are called nomads. 4. Half- civilized nations are those that depend chiefly upon agriculture, have made considerable advance in the mechanic arts, and have towns and cities. 5. Civilized nations are those that engage in com- merce, practice the art of writing, and have made con- siderable progress in knowledge and morality. 6. Enlightened nations are those civilized nations that possess a thorough division of labor, have established general systems of education, and have made the greatest progress in knowledge and morality. Many nations are partly in two or more of these classes. The enlightened and civilized nations are nearly all Caucasian. Questions (I.) — 1. Into how many classes may nations be divided in respect to social condition ? What are they .' — 3. What are savages ? — 3. What are barbarians ? 4. What are half-civilized nations ? — 5. What are civilized nations ? — 6. What are en- lightened nations ? (II.) — 3. What are nomads? Name some nomads.— 6. Does each nation belong exclusively to one of these classes ? To which race do most of the civilized and en- lightened nations belong.' XXVII. GOVERNMENT. 1. The principal forms of government are the repub- lican and the monarchical. 2. A republic is a country governed by men who are chosen by the people. The chief magistrate is usually called a president. Nearly all the governments of the New World are republican. 3. A monarchy is a country in which one person succeeds to the chief power by inheritance, and holds it for life. Nearly all the governments of the Old World are monarchical. An unlimited monarchy or despotism is one in which the will of the monarch is the supreme law. A limited monarchy is one in which the power of the ruler is limited by a system of laws called a constitution. 4. A kingdom is a country governed by a king or queen. 5. An empire is a monarchy, usually of great extent. Most empires are unlimited monarchies. The sovereign is called an emperor, sultan, shah, czar, or mik.ido. 6. The capital of a country is the seat of its go\ern- ment. 7. The metropolis is the largest city. v,r"f ^*wu"^ ^^'^^^ ^^'''='' "' "^^ P"""P='' f'^'"^^ of government ?-3. What i. n re- pubhc ? What ,s the title of its chief magistrate .'-8. What is a monarcln- '-4 What .s a kmgdom >-5. An empire ? Is it limited or unlimited >-G. Wh.at is the canit tl of a country ?— 7. The metropolis ? ' (11.)— 2. What is the form of most of the governments of the New WorUl '— ;^> Of K WhV.^'r'u ^ u^'"" '' "" ""'""ited monaichyf What is a hmited monarchv^- 5. What title has the sovereign of an empire i ' 1. The surface of Kd^orth America is naturally di- vided into four parts : the Western Highland, the Eastern Highland, the Low Central Plain, and the Atlantic Plain. 2. The Western Highland, or Great Plateau Belt, extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Isthmus of Tehuan- tepec. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges are on its western border, and the Rocky Mountains divide it into two nearly equal parts. These ranges are the highest in North America, and reach their greatest elevation, about 14,000 to 15,000 feet, in the broad, mid- dle region of the table-land ; the table-land itself is quite low in the north, but rises gradually to nearly 8000 feet in the plateau of Mexico. At the ends of this highland are many volcanoes. Of these, St. Elias in the north and Popocatepetl in the south are the highest peaks on the continent. The long and mountainous isthmus of Central America may be re- garded as a continuation of this plateau belt. 3. The Eastern Highland extends from Labrador nearly to the Gulf of Mexico, Its mountains are the low ranges of the Appalachian system. The highest peaks are from 6000 to 6700 feet in elevation, very little table-land. It has 4 The Atlantic Plain is the strip of low land be- tween the Appalachian Mountains and the ocean. 5. The liOW Central Plain lies between the two highlands, and extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. It is crossed nearly midway by a low swell called the Height of Land, which divides it into two gentle and opposite slopes : the 3a northern slope is the Arctic Plain ; nearly all of the other slope, or Southern Plain, lies in the basin or valley of the Mississippi. Questions (I.)— 1. How is the surface of North America naturally divided ? Name them.— 2. Where is the Western Highland ? What and where are its principal mount- ains?— 3. Where is the Eastern Highland? What mountains has it?— 1. Where is the Atlantic Plain ?— 5. The Low Central Plain ? (II.)— 2. Which are the highest ranges in North America ? Where is their greatest elevation? How high are they? Describe the table-land. Where are volcanoes found? Name two. For what remarkable? What is said of Central America?— 3. How high are the highest peaks of the Appalachian system? Has the Eastern Highland any table-land ?— 5. By what is the Low Central Plain divided ? Into what ? What name has each ? In what basin is the southern slope ? CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND ANIMALS. 1. The West Indies, Central America, and a large part of Mexico have a tropical or constantly warm climate. The season of tropical rains lasts many weeks, the rest of the year being dry. The vegetation is luxuriant— coffee, sugar, corn, cotton, and to- bacco are extensively cultivated, and the banana, pine-apple, lemon, orange, and other tropical fruits are produced with little labor. European grains are grown on the plateaus. The forests abound in mahogany, rose-wood, and palm-trees. 2. The northern third of the continent has a very cold climate, excepting a strip along the western coast. The Polar Current passes along the eastern coast to Newfoundland. Ice nearly closes the broad entrance to Baffin Bay, and Hudson Bay is open only about six weeks in the year. The western coasts, from Alaska to the Columbia River, have a Longitude 'Wost 30 L.Migitiulo V.Mt Qf^ynglt^^^ifiy U-XTj^er ^ frofWk QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND ANIMALS. 21 POLAR Q£AR [For continuation of page t9, see next coiunm.] XXVIII. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Outlines. — What three oceans wash the shores of North America ? What great island northeast of the continent ? What archipelago between them ? What is the general direction of the Arctic coast? What great bay breaks this coast ? What island at its en- trance? What strait? What bay south ? What island near the eastern point of the continent ? What gulf and strait cut it off? What is the general direction of the Atlantic coast? What two peninsulas partly enclose the Gulf of Mexico ? What strait and what channel lead to that gulf? What island at the en- trance ? In what archipelago ? What ocean current passes through these waters ? What is the general direction of the Pacific coast? What peninsula near its northern extremity? What peninsula and gulf break the southwest shore ? What long isthmus con- nects North and South America? Between what smaller isthmuses does it extend ? High Surface. — What two great highlands in North America? Which is the greater? What is its general direction ? At what ocean does it end on the north ? At what isthmus on the south ? (Tehuan- tepec.) What mountains near its western border? What high plain forms its eastern part ? What mountains separate this plain from the rest of the highland ? What high plateau in the southern part of the highland? What plateau basin near the cen- tre? In what direction does the Eastern Highland extend ? What mountain system does it contain ? Near which coast of North America are there volca- noes ? Near what river is the central group ? Where is the greatest group ? Where the northern ? Name one in each group. What volcano in Iceland ? Lowlands and Drainage. — What plain between the two highlands? What ocean north of it? What gulf south ? What name is given to its northern portion ? What name to its southern portion ? What low swell of land separates the Southern from the Arctic Plain ? What low plateau north of the Arctic Plain ? What rivers drain the Arctic Plain ? What lakes connected M'ith them ? What river drains the greater part of the Southern Plain ? Name its four chief branches ? What chain of lakes in the Southern Plain ? What river drains them ? What lowland plain between the Eastern Highland and the Atlantic Ocean? Name the chief rivers which drain the Western Highland. much milder climate and frequent rains, the effect of the warm ocean currents and counter trade-winds of the Pacific. 3. The remaining portions of the conti- nent have a more varied climate — warm in the south, colder in the north, and very dry in the Western Highland. Moist winds from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean cause frequent rains in the Southern and Atlantic Plains and in the Eastern Highland. Excepting the prairies, these regions were originally one vast forest of oak, chestnut, pine, and other trees, of which a large part in the lowlands has been cleared away. This forest extends into the southern part of the Arctic Plain, where the trees are mostly pines and firs ; farther north the trees are smail, and at last disappear, and mosses and lichens are the only vege- tation. In winter the tropical rain-belt passes to the south and the counter trade-winds of the Pa- cific shift in the same direction (see pages 16 and 17). This gives a rainy season of sev- eral months to the region between the Pa- cific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. The greater part of the moisture falls between the summits of the Sierra Nevada and the coast, and is a chief cause of the vast crops of wheat and other grains grown in that region. The moist regions in the Rocky Mountains, on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, and from the Columbia River to Alaska, are cov- ered with forests of gigantic pines, cedars, and other evergreens. 4. The polar bear, reindeer, musk-ox, moose, walrus, grizzly bear, and many fur- bearing animals, are found in the northern parts of the continent. Among other wild animals are the deer, wolf, fox, beaver, and alligator. The buffalo or bison, once found in great herds on the high western plain is now nearly extinct. Great numbers of PTARMIGAN.-T ^L^. ^^1 I »3^/ "^^^4 kSiK-I. ..,(i^ 'M 1 y 'i ^ ^^5 ra a?^==- 22 VEGETATION.— POLITICAL NORTH AMERICA: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.-REVIEW EXERCISES. domesticated animals, such as the horse, ox, sheep, and hog, are possessed by the civilized inhabitants ; these were originally introduced from Europe, 5. Cotton is the chief production of the lowlands near the Gulf of Mexico, and corn of the central, and wheat of the northern portions of the Mississippi Valley. The rain-fall upon the slopes of the lofty mountains bordering the Western Highland leaves but little moisture to be carried over to the table-lands ; these, including those parts of the plateau of Mexico that are not visited by the tropical rain-belt, are there- fore extremely dry. Though scattered trees border many of the streams, and some of the higher mountains are covered with forests, by far the larger part of this vast region is nearly desti- tute of vegetation — the sage-bush and cactus are the principal plants which the parched soil produces. Questions (I.)— 1. What parts of North America have a tropical climate?— 2 What parts have a cold climate ? What exception to this ?— 3. What is the climate of the rest of the continent ?— 4. What wild animals are found in the Arctic Plam.' What other wild animals are found ? What is said of the buffalo ? Of domesticated animals .'—5. Where is cotton the chief production ? Corn ? Wheat ? (II )— 1. What is said of the tropical rains ? Of the vegetation .' What staples are cultivated ? What fruits ? What' grains ? Name some of the forest trees.— 2. How do the polar currents affect the northeastern coasts of the continent? What is the climate of the western coast north of Columbia River? Why ?— 3. What are the chief sources of the rains of the southeastern portions of the continent? Describe these regions. What is said of the vegetation of the Arctic Plain ? What is the cause of the rainy season in the region between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains ? What is its effect ? What is said of the forests of the moist regions ?— 5. Why is the Western Highland so dry ? How does this affect the vegetation ? POLITICAL NORTH AMERICA. XXXI. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. [Capital cities are printed in Gothic type, as WASHINGTON.] Countries. — What two countries occupy the greater part of North America ? Which is farther north ? What country northeast of Do- minion of Canada ? Northwest ? Island east ? What country southwest of the United States ? Southeast of Mexico ? Name the countries of North America. Danish America. — To what country in Europe does it belong ? (Denmark.) Name its two principal islands. What is the capital of Iceland ? Which is the most northern town in North America ? Canada. — What country and island east of it ? What general name is given to Canada, Labrador, and Newfoundland ? {British America?) To what country of Europe do they belong? {Great Britain?) What mountains in the western part of Canada ? What island ? What pen-, insulas project from Canada ? What capes ? What city is the capital? Name other cities of Canada. Name the capital of Newfoundland. United States. — What country north of the United States ? South- west? What gulf south ? What islands southeast of Florida? Name the capes on the east coast of the United States. What cape at the south- eastern point of the United States ? What capes on the west coast ? What mountains west of the Sierra Nevada? What two bays on the east coast of the United States ? What river flows into the Atlantic Ocean near Sandy Hook ? What river between Mexico and the United States? Into what does it flow? What mountains does the Columbia break through? What lake between the Colorado and the Columbia? What two cities near the head of Chesapeake Bay ? What is Wash- ington ? (The capital of the United States.) What city northeast of Baltimore? Northeast of Philadelphia ? Northeast of New York ? At the mouth of the Mississippi? Near the mouth of the Missouri? On Lake Michigan ? On the Pacific coast ? On the north bank of the Ohio? To what country does Alaska belong ? What is the name of its chief river ? Into what does it flow ? What islands in the southern part ? What town on Baranoff Island ? What town on Kodiak Island ? Mexico. — What peninsula and gulf in the northwest of Mexico? What cape at the end of the peninsula ? What bay west of Yucatan ? What mountains in Northern Mexico ? What is the capital ? What Volcano near it ? What city east of Mexico ? Central America. — What waters wash the shores of Central America ? What lake in Central America? What city in the northwest? Name the four principal islands in the West Indies. What city in Cuba ? XXXII. EEVIEW EXEEOISES. [For models, see Review of Western Hemisphere, page 9.] Countries. — Where is it? How bounded? What is tJie capital? Model. — Mexico is in the southwestern part of North America. It is bounded on the north by the United States, on the east by the Gulf of Mexico, on the south by Central America and the Pacific Ocean, on the west by the Pacific The capital city is Mexico. Danish America ? Canada ? Newfoundland ? United States ? Mexico ? Central America ? Islands. — Arctic Archipelago ? Southampton, B. ? Greenland, D. ? Ice- land, D.? Newfoundland, B. ? Bermuda Islands, B. ? West Indies? Bahama Islands, B. ? Jamaica, B. ? Cuba, S. ? Hayti, I. ? Porto Rico, S. ? Vancouver, B. ? Queen Charlotte, B. ? Baranofi, U. S. ? Note.— The countries to which they belong are thus indicated : Denmark, D. ; Great Britain, B. ; Spain, S. ; United States, U. S. ; Independent, I. Peninsulas. — Labrador? Nova Scotia? Florida? Yucatan? Alaska? California ? Capes.— Farewell? Race? Sable, iVi? Cod? Sandy Hook? Hat- teras? Sable,5.? St.Lucas? Prince of Wales? Mendocino? Flattery? Isthmuses. — What countries does it con a at? Tehuantepec ? Panama ? Isthmus of Central America ? Mountains.— Appalachian ? Rocky? Sierra Madre? Sierra Nevada? Cascade ? Coast ranges ? Popocatepetl (v.) ? Hecla (v.) ? Seas, Gulfs, and Bays.— Baffin ? Hudson? James? St. Lawrence? Delaware? Chesapeake? Mexico? Campeachy? Honduras? Behr- ing? Caribbean? California? Straits.— Davis? Hudson? Belle Isle? Florida? Behring? Rivers.— Yukon ? Mackenzie? Churchill? Nelson? Severn > St. Lawrence? Hudson? Mississippi? Missouri? Arkansas? Ohio? Rio Grande? Red? Colorado? Columbia? Lakes. — Where situated ? What oufkf has it f Great Bear? Great Slave ? Athabasca? Winnipeg? Superior? Michigan? Huron? Erie? Ontario? Great Salt ? Nkaragua? Cities and Town8.-/« ,Mat country is it ? /« what part of it t On or near what water ? t j Reykjavik? Upernavik? Halifax? Ottawa? Montreal? Quebec? St. Johns? Washington? Philadelphia? Boston? New Vo.-k > BV. timore? New Orleans? Cincinnati? St. Louis ? ChiciooV S^ „ Francisco? Mexico? Vera Cruz? Guatemala? llavunT ' Longitude West 30 from ■Washington, Copyriff/tt, 1076, iy JUarj/er & JSrUltert. 24 PHYSICAL UNITED STATES: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— POSITION, AREA, AND SURFACE. W H < m P w H l-H z ID < o OQ Oh C "" 15 i" § S^ 3 0) a, .J3 .2 "> -a li ffi^-- (U )-- -* -*-• ^^ > ■*-' ^ m > XI ^. -* -^"^ 0) rt tn S^ M JJ S M "5 V 5) 5 o P a 2 PM .§ ^ 5 1: Set; S^ s S u !2 "-■ ■" *^ «5 J^f <" ^, >^ S en C iS g C CO §S E j= ■*-* 4-1 i~i ca o > c _ C3 "^ ^ I' tn jq bJOC- « S c H H H P-i <*! H W EH o 125 O hH EH OQ H t3 •a « bjc 1) Sfx, -a I, +-' o.. t^^ n-, rt !g Ul (L) T3 G .S 7; in J3 ►r ^ fjo-- .Sf > ■*-»_£ -r-J rt O rt c ■" > s z 0) .5 "-^ (U tn (U fi ^- c3 en ^■S _c W -n t« K ^ ?! ■g 01 Ph ■£ j3 p s s « g S-3 en 0) „ 2 iz; L^ 2 « S O •=» .S I-. I. .2 13 •- > 1h u _ a »-« r? J-i ^r™ jii tf) 2 o I — I H Ph I — I L) CO w is 'O re rt - > c _^ en •-; rt CO O U OJ c V -M — 3 « 3 J3 ce) el) ft J3 .5 3 C P c 0) C en' s 0) E -P 3 s 5 en (J '% ^H J3 Pi ^ >^ en is C O c^ ^ tn ° c o ^ <« ^ o ^■~ p § S ,n 2 o ii .5 ^ oi u > C iS elj ^ — ! (LI H o oJ o Clj o _G • — ^ eu c 1) rt T3 >^ Si ta fl e^ ~ Is o ^ a. lu in o o o en ea O Vh *- ^_> 3 O OJ § o u M P ^ "^ ■£ = h-l Q OJ 4-> ca r— 4-» ■ °^ °° ^U ca -71 "« P in ta tfl flj 'Sh O O o p 3 O a, 'S c C8 c ?^ tj [V ic -^ bo 'ca •5 « ta ii o p _ 3 CU O ^ ^-o^S a> n j:3 -Q ta > 0) X> ta V o en c CD o ys O (J O 3 a CU o o o ca 3 o in j3 " ta Dh M X 02 E-i H !zi 1= H W EH Ph O Ph ^ CTi 3 CI 3 O >. fcJD _fl -3 C (U (J tn lU n3 >% . G S CU '2' CU <2 _tn _>, eu "2 '^ n J- 3 Jj bo "2 I" c ca J3 .2 Si,:: ■!n ft 3 C; ■- ■" ta OJ bo o -a bo o" c c .2 ta -j; ^ „ J3 O s ^ < I ta ft = _H ca (U (U CU J- ta CO P ^ *j bo 2 c ca .3 en (u n XI ca en TS ^ ' ta V 1-1 -s ^ 'g • i" S -a ^ -a ta ^ -7^ ■£ « o >^ Pi; ^ ca •t; — ta bO-r; ca p .P J3 ca ■i; '^ . CU .ii o bO o en -P 5 ^ ft-a ° CU 4^ CU •" ca en ca ^ 1) bo 4- o ^ '~' CD * — ' M ^ bO ^ •^^ ^ (U (U Si O ^ ^ & ^ CU j:5 eu O — o " ca en 0) .S -n CU va •> t3 ca 1) -P CU m CU (U 09, ho (U bO j:^ O c > — 4_, 'iZ " a V ft en -P cii CJ J= (U- C ■" CJ c n ^4 .p (U 3 rt, & ^ XI ca bo +j ca ■*i CU en (U & CU ea V ■♦* CU X3 +J en cd 3 f^ O o t3 -= -' :5 en re m CU O CU -M G O tn C ■3 G 3 O tn tn (U "a, 3 u CJ o •8 ■♦* •M O ta S: 0^ ^ eu 'S, .G C •" ca - <; -fi OJ >- .p - P r- G (U •5 ^ P "-> - re ta ^ •a x: ca *"' !i CU 3 eu ca - i~t en XI m ^ bo •- "^ ca en o S3 ii o > -p '" rt S <^ ^ *-» en O 3 i; o o "XI T-i ca u 3 -2 fa o tn G • I— I re G O O re en re Si re o CU rci C ^ re G Si OJ en trj CU O "B-a 01 i' 3 ■« :S " - " -c r »*.. ** e« G (U Si eu eu C eu - - tn fcH ^ eu -li ^^ Si -Tl ea ,u o qj C^ eu Si bO.-^ .S 2 » ^ re fa B en CE •£ " o u .t; ca E u s^ Ji E -9 U 4-; ;4 s-l i ? re x: •g ° 3 w .^ c ^41 1 3 SG n !i 1 m ii t^ pj s rn c/) 3 G OJ s •s M x: > bn •13 >i^ ^1 01 a J3 ^ > 26 WESTERN HALF OF THE UNITED STATES.— EASTERN HALF OF THE UNITED STATES. 4. Three large and rapid rivers drain the greater part of this Plateau Belt: the Columbia River on the north breaks through the lofty Cascade range, and flows into the Pacific; the Colorado on the south reaches the Gulf of California after passing through a number of great canons, which are a series of the most frightful mountain gorges in the world ; the Rio Grande flows from the mount- ains bordering the Colorado Plateau through a long, nar- row, and elevated valley to the Gulf of Mexico. The beds of nearly all the rivers of the entire high- land region are far below the general level of the country through which they flow. 5. The Western Hig^hland has a warm and very dry climate. The warm southwest winds from the Pacific discharge most of their moisture as rain or snow on the high cold slopes and sum- mits of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges, and much of the remaining portion upon the lofty sides and tops of the Rocky Mountains. The plateaus are consequently dry and barren, while the coast regions have abundant rain and, particularly to- wards the north, are covered with dense forests. In like manner, the winds from the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico lose their moisture before they penetrate so far inland, and in conse- quence a large part of the Great Plains at the foot of the Rocky Mountains is one of the most desolate and arid regions of the continent. The cactus and the sage-bush are the characteristic vegetation ; they indicate a very dry climate. Wherever the streams from the melting snows of the mountains can be used for irrigation abundant crops can be raised, but the greater part of the entire highland is hopelessly barren. 6. The chief wealth of the Western Highland is in the exhaustless mines of gold, silver, and other valuable minerals with which the entire mountain district abounds. Nowhere else on the globe is there known to be so extensive a de- posit of the precious mqtals. There are hundreds of thousands of square miles rich with ores of gold and silver. 7. The bison, or American buffalo, a large and ox-like animal, once roamed in vast herds over the Great Plains and in the mountain valleys. They have been eagerly hunted for their skins or for sport, and are now nearly, if not quite, exterminated. For unknown ages these animals had furnished the Indians with food, and with materials for tents and clothing. 8. Between the Western Highland and the Pacific lies the small rich lowland of the California Basin. Questions (I.)— 1. What is the character of the western half of the United States ? By what and how is it divided ?— 2. What and where are the Great Plains ?— 3. What is the western half of the highland called? What mountains border it ? What high mountains parallel and near the Coast ranges ? Where is the Great Basin ? Where is the Colorado Plateau ? Where is the plain of the Columbia }—i. How many great rivers drain the Plateau Belt ?— What is said of the Columbia ? Of the Colorado > What are the cafions ? Which is the third great river ? What is said of most of the river beds ?— 5. What is the general character of the climate of the Western High- land ?— 6. In what is the chief wealth of the highland?— 7. What is said of the buf- falo ? — 8. What and where is the California Basin? (II.)— a What is said of a large part of the Great Plains ? Where are the plains highest? How high are they? Which of their rivers are navigable? Which are not? Why?— 3. Which are the highest mountains in North America? How high are they ? How many principal plateaus ? With what is the whole tract ribbed ? To what has it been likened? What does the Great Basin enclose? By what separated from the Colorado Plateau? How high is it? How high is the Colorado Plateau? How high is the plain of the Columbia?— 5. What kind of a climate has the Plateau Belt of the Western Highland? Why? The Great Plains? Why? The Coast re- gions? Why? What plants are characteristic? What do such plants indicate? What is said of irrigation ? What is the source of the water that may be used for this purpose ? What portion of the region is barren ?— 6. What is said of the quan- tity of gold and silver?— 7. What is further said of the buffalo? EASTEEN HALF OP THE UNITED STATES. 1. The eastern half of the United States presents a strong contrast to the western half. It is fertile and well watered throughout. It contains the Eastern Highland and two important lowland plains. 2. The Eastern Highland is small and low in com- parison with the Western. It consists of the several parallel ranges of the Appalachian system, and extends from the Dominion of Canada almost to the Gulf of Mexico. Its highest peaks are about as high as the plains at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. It contains many fertile ele- vated valleys, but no extensive plateaus. This highland is rich in water-power, in timber, and in mines of coal and iron. At its nearest apprpach to the Atlantic coast it is intersected by a remarkable depres- sion, which contains the valleys of the Hudson and the Mohawk, and forms the most important natural highway of commerce on the whole continent. 3. The Eastern Highland divides the lowlands into two unequal plains — the Atlantic Plain on the east, and the Great Central or Mississippi Plain on the west. 4. The Great Central Plain lies between the two highlands. It extends from the Gulf of Mexico, where it joins the Atlantic Plain, to the Great Lakes, where it unites with a narrow belt of lowland in the St. Lawrence 'Valley. The Valley of the Mississippi includes not only most of the Great Central Plain, but all of the land between the crests of the Rocky Mountains on one side and those of the AUeghanies on the other. It therefore embraces a large part of both highlands. It has been likened to a broad trough, the Mississippi lying in the lowest part. 5. The Mississippi and its branches together con- stitute the most extensive system of navigated ri\crs in the world. The Amazon system, in South America, is larger, but is as yet but little navigated. The Hissouri is by far the most important of the trib- utaries, being longer than the entire course of the Missis sippi itself, and, like it, navigable almost to its source. EASTERN HALF OF THE UNITED STATES : CLIMATE, VEGETATION, ETC. 27 6. The Atlantic Plain is a long belt of lowland be- tween the Eastern Highland and the ocean. It is widest at the south, but narrows rapidly towards the mouth of the Hudson River, where it almost disappears. Farther east it again widens to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The rivers of the Atlantic Plain cross it at right angles to the line of the highland, in which they have their sources. Most of them are navigable till interrupted by falls or rapids at some distance from the sea. These falls furnish valuable water- power, and have determined the location of many important cities. The Atlantic Plain is drained by numerous short, separate, and parallel rivers, and all the rest of the country by a few great river systems. 7. The climate of the low eastern half of the United States is in general much cooler than that of the Western Highland in the same latitude. Frequent rains are brought at all seasons by the moist winds from the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic, and the Great Lakes. The rain-fall on the Atlantic coast increases towards the south ; on the Pacific coast towards the north ; Lower California in Mexico is almost rainless. The winters of the eastern half are long and severe in the north, but mild in the south ; the summers are generally hot. 8. The fertile soil, warm summers, abundant rains, and great range of latitude make the eastern half of the United States, in the quantity, variety, and value of its agricultural produc- tions, the richest large section of the globe inhabited by a single nation. Dense forests cover the Atlantic Plain, the Eastern Highland, and the neighboring parts of the Great Cen- tral Plain, except where cleared for the purpose of cultiva- tion. If from Toledo on Lake Erie two lines be drawn, one to Galveston on the Gulf of Mexico, and the other to the head-waters of the Red River of the North, ne-arly all the forests in the United States east of the Cascade Mountains will be east of these lines. The southern portions of both plains constitute the region of abundant summer showers ; without these cotton could not be cultivated. Rice, sugar-qane, Indian corn, and tobacco are also characteristic agricultural productions. (See Rain Map.) Immense prairies occupy the rest of the Great Central Plain. The prairie region is broad in the north and narrow in the south. It has long and frequent summer droughts. These do not pre- The value of these advantages is greatly increased by the other physical conditions already considered. The average fall of the Mississippi, the Missouri, and their chief branches in the Central Plain, is only about four inches to the mile ; that of the 3t. Law- rence, including the Great Lakes, is still less: this opens the whole region to steam navigation. The generally level face of the country makes it easy to construct railroads, canals, and common roads. Of railways there were in 1889 over 154,000 miles in operation, or two thirds as many as in all the rest of the world. It will therefore be seen that — 9. The physical geography of the eastern half of the United States gives it agricultural and commercial advantages unequalled by those of any other country on the globe. 10. The eastern half of the United States may be divided into two regions differing remarkably in vegeta- tion, in consequence of difference in rain-fall. vent the extensive cultivation of wheat and other grains, which are produced in enormous quantities. The prairies are rapidly being converted into farms covered with hedge-rows, orchards, and forest trees. 11. Large wild animals, such as wolves, wild-cats, pan- thers, bears, and deer, once abounded. Though still found in some districts, they are greatly reduced in numbers. The country now contains miUions of domesticated ani- mals, among which are cattle, sheep, swine, and horses. Questions (I.)— 1. What is the character of the eastern half of the United States ? In what two particulars .' What subdivisions does it contain ? — 2, How does the Eastern Highland compare with the Western? In what is it remarkably rich? By what is it intersected .' What valleys in this depression ? What does it form ? — 3. How does this highland divide the lowlands? What name is given to each? — 4. Where is the Great Central Plain? — 5. What is said of the Mississippi River? Of the Missouri River.' — 6. What and where is the Atlantic Plain? How do its rivers cross it ? — 7, What is said of the climate of the eastern half of the United States f- ■• CFor the remainuig questions od this section, see page 29.] Xfl ^ < o O 2^ H C/i o W a p H p > ^ ^ H a ^ t-H ;^ sm POLITICAL UNITED STATES: DIVISIONS AND SUBDIVISIONS. 29 r 3 c * -a U n.. o "CO) T3 a !> •a rt jj "■ 1-1 U .2 J .a rt .. s f.S 3 ^::* iO| (n en P^ V, u " « J= «?, S .a rt « £ T3 JS -ti rt , 3i -^^ " 00 f.. ri 00 g 3 S t! "- ? ° w cfl ^rt +3 rt 5 rt (0 (o rt >» u CU .S^ § S g s. ■fi .2 -s c >" t! rt m g .Si S •s ^ » a> •5 « :: I a ^ 8 e-w O M U .&<«■€ ■MO-*-' «M fi Vm O -.3 O /v. U Si '2 .2 rt 3 ■§ S m S iS *e3 Cl O O M ... ..gj 3 ."3 " s « £: •c .a " M „ So ™ rt C tH .fi rt u > .fi aj "-• X! .fi fi fe- 2 'So rt S -"■ 4-. 2 ^•S.2 ^ B.I rfl ^ o O ° ^ CO F .2 j_. *? to ,i^ to « .r! " _fi r^ o 55 ^ ^4H ■» i S o •o "3 fi -^ f-i /i fi •r 5 s s i5.a ■" j: u fi "■■ ^.S o I0 B >, g g " JJ S I « fi ?1 fe- ■« J5 flj [> .M ^ -fl fi ■S ";■ u o 6, S .S .H ^ ° " .s tS 4^ J3 rt ^ o +J »^ J3 -S CO ■" ■" ^ 1= ra « 2 " -S « rt S « cL^ J to <0 > 01 -S fi c ™ (— ( o .c .fe " .> ° - u 15 "•■ ' •ti S ^ IS ' o 2 t- oj (- -a I T3 13 :g be' .5P « a 13 rt o O ^ fi -O o 5 T ^^ i JS u .s c S fi rt '^ rt •3 r^ o .2 ^ It \-°,%& '1 °d I 5 -a I I 3 ri '^^ u bo CO I ■£ f fi Sj ** .2 ' H fi bO I ■" U (U CO •a So " Q.'3 a> S 3 13 .fi •2 .tJ H I .fi ^ '^ •:!> tag"! .if g 8 (J -PH C O «| ^ CO •a 'S rt CO 4b 0) !^ ^.^ 1^ 0) .5 > ;::3 tfl 4-> ^•^ ts rt -o a .9 4J ..- Ph 13 J ^ ^ & (U rt G 13 ^ ^ 'u G G c/j hird. The the Chesap divides the s which h tn 13 1 (U -G H 1 tn G tn H Si t3 ■s ^ T3 ^ G ■0: < G rt 4-» c/a tu X H ' 0) J3 tn t^ (/3 J) 1 tn rn •f3 .S 4J _l-l 0-, % _-!-> G OJ CU in H-» G u (L) C-] -(-> OJ 'S in 'a3 (L) in (U -G Si ti3 s .G -M c-M > -Si n < /^2V.y/?. One h her half high. Second. The ateaus, and of tn ci3 s-T > "&, _&, 'tn H % a, W) T3 .y 'S h— ( en (1) i2 a g 15 -t-i 13 Ph EH Fm n G ..-1 oi u G G tZ2 QJ G • H 2 «2 ^ -i-» aJ H ^^ n 3 tn G •1 ri) M 02 H tn .2 Si M n S 5 S G G <1 1=3 OQ G 13 CU 13 tn 13 15 tn (fl >. — 1 H •I— 1 ,G CQ ^ .G Ol ^ H tu s I-H s (n .G d 2 s .1 c §> 'S .2 » Pm cc •i^ ^ "ni ^ U R r-i IN CO ■*■ i S 1 d tj -a > 1 < i n g 1— ) V ^ w r-H CJ CO n< ^, h H -«J 6b a a % 2 1 pq m g c 1 M CQ u W (M CO -* ^ S K a 1 1 c\i P d en Nebraska.. Kansas . . . Indian T. 1 en H I-l (N eo ^ 1C3 CC j~. i c3 ni i T! Ol C H en ni 3 to .3 'en ^ ^ c l-H < 3 f^^ CO •^ lO 03 u ni r/? K G i^ aj ta 'a. < in P3 !> 1 c c ^ ■S en 'tn tn Pd H lis Ed ^ <: S 1— ( (M co' '^i .tj OD H d § M s g en en c ri .0 ■3 c tj en ;^ K s. C 1— 1 l-H ^ § H I— ( IN C<3 ■* h^ u <1 w" n K K s 1 i H (5 'S U To -a ^ i» y t; h1 ?i > '^ en Pn I— 1 (N CO ■* Its CQ Q § 1 I > C/) H- 1 'S > en t % cci 1 ri ^ ^ j^ ■S 1^ ? Ph 11 Q s 3- r-i (N CO Tf lt5 U .^ H .i3 tJ ■d H m s c ■^ •A i^ 3 a H £ 1 4-> c .a en t-H' .0 a (LJ w ^ ID R Ii5 i > c c U I— 1 (n O ri 4.J ■s ^ O .M en ri u '^ cS ■& u rt ■3 en '1 m ^^ < u u ^1 0) c/l r- < ii rt S ri O *J CO « rt .y E3 <^ C ,£: & ^ C/2 'rt c C rt •JJ CD ^ 1) +j ^ CO c_. ^ . - w ^, CO C a .s ■a S ,S <5 J3 J3 j3 H H H tn '^ 5 a O "2 ■3 ■fi !2 1 p .2 3 o '^ ■K P fi C 3 "^ hH 5 ■ rt.. to ■ *J "-• c 13 "^ ■- . J3 O tu O T3 C5 .S rt '5 s ■" ■4-> .4-> c rt CO eg rt in I ^ & *^ P rt rt .fi *^ a o tn fi hH C1.1-1 Mh c iS S 2 i §12 _cn dj ^ K ■fl S-^ Y 'm CU o ■t-S. ■S.^a 13 ^ E o fe c •fi 5 g ■a t S • ,^^ ■£.«.£ S^ rt rt n .Suit en (U Jh -'-' 55 .J5 tn 13 >\ c ri -a. <1) tn rt 1;i V t< s-t 1} C5i G j-i XI 4-> . Si +H m <4-l !-i tu S ^ 13 OJ G "^3 G rt ^ ^ < .2 < -• O cs U -G H C O a QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. What group of states lies farthest east? What is the capital of each? Where situated? Name one other city in each. Where situated ? Which of these states has two capitals ? Name the capital and one or two other cities in each of the Middle Atlan- tic States. In the South Atlantic States. In the North Central States. In the South Central. In the West Central. In the States of the Plains. In the Rocky Mountain States. In the Basin States. In the Pacific States. Which of these cities are on or near the Atlantic Ocean? The Gulf of Mexico? On the Great Lakes ? On Lake Champlain ? On the Ohio River? On the Mississippi River? On the Missouri River ? In or near the Rocky Mountains ? Between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada and Cas- cade Mountains ? West of these last chains ? B^^^\\^ls\■ilU III what direction from India\iapolis is LouisviV Cinci.inati ? Pittsburgh? Cleveland? Detroit? C cago? Milwaukee? In what direction from Chic: is Milwaukee? Davenport? St. Paul ? Omal Buffalo ? In what direction from St. Louis is Omal Evansville ? Meinphis ? Louisville? Denver? what direction from New Orleans is Galveston ? ! bile ? Vicksburg ? Moiugomen,- ? Which is the largest statcin the l.'nioii?The sw tudii IVest 15 from "WaflTdn^n. t? The most northeasterly ? Soiitlieasterly? South- ly? Southwesterly? Northwesterly? Which state s the longest sea coast ? Lake coast ? What states : separated by the Mississippi River? By the Ohio ver? Missouri River? What parallel bounds the United States on the rth? (49°) On the south? (25°) In what longi- ie from Greenwich is its eastern point ? Its western int? What states are crossed by the meridian of Washington ? What is the longitude of Washington ?* Of Boston ? New York ? Philadelphia ? Charleston ? Cincinnati ? Chicago ? St. Louis ? New Orleans ? What cities on or near the parallel 40° N. ? In what zone is the United States? What is the general direction of the rivers east of the Appalachian Mountains ? Name one Atlantic river of the North Atlantic States. Name three in the * Use longitude from Greenwich. Middle Atlantic States. Seven in the South Atlantic. Three flowing into the Gulf of Mexico east of Missis- sippi River. Five west of it. Name four eastern branches of Mississippi River. Five western branches. Four southern branches of the Ohio. Three northern branches. Three western branches of the Missouri. Two branches of the Columbia. The chiefbranchof the Colorado. Two rivers in California. What river forms part of the western boundary of Minnesota ? * BTOth«TI. 32 REVIEW OF THE POLITICAL MAP OF THE UNITED STATES. XXXVIII. EEVIEW OF POLITICAL MAP OF UNITED STATES. Bound the state. Name the capital. The largest city. THE LOW HALF. Northern Division. . Providence. Middle Division. Southern Division. ATLANTIC STATES. Capital. Largest City. Augusta Portland. Concord Manchester. Montpelier Burlington. Boston Boston. Providence j Newport f Hartford New Haven. .Albany .... .... New York. .Trenton Jersey City. Harrisburg Philadelphia. , Dover Wilmington. .Annapolis Baltimore. . Richmond Richmond. . Raleigh Wilmington. . Columbia . . . Charleston. . Atlanta Atlanta. .Tallahassee Key West. 1. Maine 2. New Hampshire. 3. Vermont 4. Massachusetts.. . 5. Rhode Island. . . 6. Connecticut.. . . 1. New York 2. New Jersey 3. Pennsylvania. . . 4. Delaware . 5. Maryland 1. Virginia 2. North Carolina. , 3. South Carolina. 4. Georgia -5. Florida Northern Division. Southern Division. Western Division. CENTRAL STATES. fl. Ohio Columbus Cincinnati. 2. Indiana Indianapolis .... Indianapolis. 3. Illinois Springfield . . . .Chicago. 4. Wisconsin Madison Milwaukee. 5. Michigan Lansing Detroit. 1. West Virginia. . . .Charleston Wheeling. 2. Kentucky Frankfort Louisville. 3. Tennessee Nashville Nashville. 4. Alabama Montgomery. . . . Mobile. 5. Mississippi Jackson. Vicksburg. 1. Minnesota St. Paul Minneapolis. 2. Iowa Des Moines . . . .Des Moines. 3. Missouri Jefferson City. . . St. Louis. 4. Arkansas Little Rock Little Rock. ^5. Louisiana Baton Rouge.. . . New Orleans. THE HIGH HALF. WESTERN or HIGHLAND STATES. States of the Plains. Rocky Mountain States. States. Pacific States. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. IV. 1. 2. 3. I 4. fl. 2. .3. L4. Capital. Largest City. North Dakota. . . Bismarck Fargo. South Dakota . . . Pierre Sioux Falls. Nebraska Lincoln Omaha. Kansas Topeka Leavenworth. Indian T. Vinita. Oklahoma T. Guthrie Guthrie. Texas Austin Dallas. Montana Helena Butte. Wyoming Cheyenne Cheyenne. Colorado Denver Denver. New Mexico T. . . Santa Fe Santa F6. Idaho Bois6 City Bois6 City. Nevada .-Carson Virginia City. Utah T Salt Lake City. Salt Lake City. Arizona T. Phoenix Tucson. r 1. Alaska T Sitka Juneau. 2. Washington Olympia Seattle. 3. Oregon Salem Portland. L 4. California Sacramento. . . . San Francisco. Mountains, — Where situated 1 Appalachian ? White ? Adirondack ? Catskill ? Alleghany ? Blue Ridge? Rocky? Wahsatch? Sierra Nevada? Cascade? Coast Range? Rivers. — Where does it rise? In what direction does it flow ? Through what states 1 Into what body of water 1 Atlantic System. — St. Lawrence ? Connecticut ? Hudson ? Del- aware? Susquehanna? Potomac? James? Roanoke? Cape Fear? Santee? Savannah? Altamaha? Gulf System. — Appalachicola ? Mobile ? Pearl ? Mississippi ? Sabine ? Trinity ? Brazos ? Colorado ? Rio Grande ? Mississippi System. — Yazoo? Ohio? Illinois? Wisconsin? Min- nesota ? Des Moines ? Missouri ? Arkansas ? Red ? Ohio System. — Tennessee ? Cumberland ? Kentucky ? Monon gahela? Alleghany? Scioto? Wabash? Missouri System. — Yellowstone? Platte? Kansas? Pacific System. — Columbia? Willamette? Snake? Sacramento? San Joaquin? Colorado? Gila? Lakes. — Where situated ? St. Lawrence System. — Champlain ? Ontario? Erie? Huron? Michigan? Superior? LAEaEST OITIES DT THE UN Albany, N. Y . 94,923 Erie, Pa 40,634 Allegheny, Pa . 105,287 Evansville, Ind 50,756 Atlanta, Ga . . 65,533 Fall River, Mass .... 74,398 Baltimore, Md . 434,439 Grand Rapids, Mich. 60,278 Boston, Mass . 448,477 Harrisburg, Pa 39,385 Bridgeport, Conn. . . 48,866 Hartford, Conn 53,330 Brooklyn, N. Y.. . . 806,343 Hoboken, N. J 43,648 Buffalo, N. Y. ... . 255,664 Indianapolis, Ind. . . 105,436 Cambridge, Mass.. 70,028 Jersey City, N. J 163,003 Camden, N. J .. 58,313 Kansas City, Kan.. . . 38,316 Charleston, S. C. . . 54,955 Kansas City, Mo. . . . 132,716 Chicago, 111 . 1,099,850 Lawrence, Mass 44,654 Cincinnati, O . . 296,908 Lincoln, Neb 55,154 Cleveland, . . 261,353 Los Angeles, Cal. . . . 50,395 Columbus, . . 88,150 Louisville, Ky 161,129 Dayton. . . 61,320 Lowell, Mass 77,696 . . 106,713 Lynn, Mass 55,737 44,126 Des Moines, la.. . . 50,093 Manchester, N. H. . . Detroit, Mich . . 305,876 Memphis, Tenn 64,495 THE UNITED STATES. (CENSUS OP 1890.) Milwaukee, Wis 304,468 Minneapolis, Minn . . 164,738 Nashville, Tenn 76,168 Newark, N. J 181,830 New Bedford, Mass. 40,733 New Haven, Conn.. . 81,298 New Orleans, La . . . 343,039 New York, N. Y. . . . 1,515,301 Oakland, Cal 48,683 Omaha, Neb 140,453 Paterson, N. J 78,347 Peoria, 111 41.0-24 Philadelphia, Pa. , . . 1,046,964 Pittsburgh, Pa 338,617 Portland, Ore 46,385 Providence, R. I 133.1 46 Reading Pa 58,661 Richmond, Va 81.:!88 Rochester, N. Y 133^896 Saginaw, Mich 46,323 Salt Lake City, Utah. 44,843 San Francisco, Cal . . 298,997 Savannah, Ga 43,189 Scranton, Pa 75,315 Seattle, Wash 43.837 Somerville, Mass. . . . 40,153 Springfield, Mass 44,179 St, Joseph, Mo 53,334 St. Louis, Mo 451,770 St. Paul, Minn 133,156 Syracuse, N. Y S8.143 Toledo, O 81,434 Trenton, N. J 57,458 Troy, N. Y 60,956 Utica, N. Y 44,007 ^^'ashington, D. C . . . 330.393 Wilmington, Del . . . (51,431 Worcester, Mass 84,066 THE SOUTH. THE COTTON PRESS POLITICAL UNITED STATES. XXXIX. DESOEIPTION. 1. The United States consists of forty-four states, six territories, and a federal district. 2. The population in 1890 was about 63,000,000. About 57,000,000 were in the low and fertile eastern half of the country; and, of the remainder, about 3,000,000 were west of the Rocky Mountains. 3. The white race numbered about 55,000,000. They are chiefly the descendants of emigrants from England, Ire- land, and Germany. Negroes and mulattoes, the descendants of slaves brought from Africa, numbered nearly 7,500,000. Of Indians there were about 250,000 ; they are nearly all in the Western Highland. The Chinese numbered about 100,000. 4. A^ricnltnre is the leading industry. Its chief seats are the Central and Atlantic Plains and the California Basin. Among the principal agricultural products are the grains, which, in the order of their latitude, are rice, corn, wheat, rye, oats, and barley; corn and wheat are the most abundant. The other chief products in the same order are sugar, cotton, tobacco, hemp, hay, and potatoes ; of these cotton is commercially the most important. 5. Grazing is an important occupation in the agri- cultural regions. The prairie and the corn districts of the Central Plains furnish 5 large quantities of live stock, beef, pork, and wool. The chief supplies of butter and cheese are from the northern half of the Eastern Highland. 8. Mining is another industry of great importance. The principal mines of coal are in the Eastern Highland ; those of iron in the Eastern Highland and the Lake Superior region ; those of gold and silver in the mountains of the Western High- land ; those of lead in Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Missouri, and Kansas ; and those of copper in Montana and Ari; zona afld on the shores of Lake Superior. Agriculture, grazing, and mining supply most of the raw materials for manufactures. 7. Manufacturing industry has its chief seats in the states north of the Potomac and the Ohio. This is be- cause of their abundant water-power, fuel, and labor. The principal manufactures are cotton and woollen goods, leather, tools and machinery, flour, lumber, and salt. Fishing is a leading interest in some of the Atlantic States. 8. Commerce is of two kinds — domestic and foreign. The domestic commerce of the United States is the distribution within its own limits of imported articles and domestic manufactures in exchange for agricultural, graz- ing, mining, and forest products. 9. Three great water routes to the sea and many lines of railway are the principal channels of this commerce. The first water route is by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence to the ocean. 34 POLITICAL UNITED STATES: DESCRIPTION. The second water route is by the Great Lakes, the Erie Canal, and the Hudson River to New York. This is the principal commercial route of the continent. The port of New York is remarkable for the peculiar advantages of its position and for its excellent harbor. It is the chief natu- ral doorway to the populous eastern half of the United States. It lies at the outlet of a narrow valley which is the only deep cleft and water-way entirely crossing the Appalachian Highland. By the broad and deep Hudson and the canal through the Mo- hawk Valley it has easy access to the group of inland seas known as the Great Lakes. By the Chaniplain and Hudson Canal it connects with the Lower St. Lawrence. Through this valley the tide of emigration from Europe and the Atlantic States flowed during the middle third of the nineteenth century, spreading out over the fertile plains south of the Great Lakes and beyond the Mississippi, and changing a wilderness into the home of industrious millions. As one of the results of their industry, the commerce of this region already greatly ex- ceeds in value the entire foreign commerce of the nation. The third water route is by the Mississippi and its branches to New Orleans. By this route the grain, flour, pork, beef, coal, and machinery of the North find a market in the Cotton States, the West Indies, and Europe. All these water routes radiate from or converge towards the low plains of the Upper Mississippi and its branches, so rich in grains and live stock. CANAL AND LOCKS. 10. The railway routes are much more numerous and complicated. The principal lake-ports, sea-ports, and other cities are connected by railroads. These railroads and their branches cover the low half of the country, and especially its northern part, like a net- work of iron. The navigation of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence is prevented for several months of each year by ice : thjs gives still greater importance to the railway system. Four great railroads across the Western Highland already unite the commercial system of the East with that of the Pacific coast and others are in process of construction. Thousands of vessels ply between the principal ports, and thus complete the means for the transportation of goods, passengers, and mails. This coasting trade is much greater than the entire foreign commerce. LIGHT-HOUSB AND PILOT-BOATS. At the entrance of harbors, on capes, and at dangerous shoals of the ocean and the lakes, the General Government maintains light-houses to guide and warn vessels at night. Thousands of miles of telegraph wires convey the information by which this great commercial system is regulated, and the news- papers promptly report the state of distant markets. Domestic commerce is the chief means by which the different parts of the United States are firmly and peaceably united through mutual interests and mutual dependence. It is itself dependent upon the physical geography of the country. 11. Foreign commerce is the exchange of commodi ties between different countries. The foreign commerce of the United States is chiefly with England, Germany, and France in Europe; with Canada, the West Indies, and Brazil in America; and with China and Japan in Asia. 12. The principal exports are cotton, breadstuffs, provisions, petroleum, gold, and tobacco. The greater part, especially of the cotton, goes to England. South America and the West Indies take large amounts of provisions, flour, lumber, and other manufactures. 13. Tlie leading imports, and the principal countries from which they come, are dry goods from England and France, sugar from the West Indies, coffee from Brazil, hides from South America, tea from China and Japan, and iron and tin from England. The greater part of the foreign commerce centres in the sea-ports of the northern half of the Atlantic coast; these have the best harbors. At least two thirds of all the imports and nearly one of New Yoi! "'°"' °'''' ''"''' '^^^" P^^^ ^'-"^^'^ ^'- P-' 'tLS^r ^„:r °^^- ^^'^^--' ^^^^^^elphia. New "^tL'm ts J°"T'' .'' ''■^'^y ^^™^ °" by means of large ZZ of?" 'I'" '"'^^ P^^* ^'--^^^^d -"d controlled by Nrfondhnd a rrr":. '''" '''" '^ *° ^"^land bv wa^ of r-ewioundland and Ireland ; another is to France by wiv of Massachusetts and the island of St. Pierre, near n" foL.dland population in im\ How fcluteH P , w ''' ^^''^^ consist.^-.. What i- What is the leadingindust V wf °"' T"^ ^^'°"S^'' '° "'« ^^hite order of their latitude Wh.d, ''? ■"""' "' '^'"^ '''''' ? Name the grai, auiuae. Which are ihe most ahunHnnf? v i,. ., GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 35 products in the same order. Which is the most important ? — 5. What is said of graz- ing? — 6. What of mining? — 7. Where are the chief seats of manufacturing industry? Why? Name the principal manufactures. Where is fishing a leading interest? — 8. How many kinds of commerce ? What is domestic commerce ? — 9. What are its principal channels ? Which is the first water route ? The second ? What is said of it? The third? What is said of it? — 10. What is said of the railway routes? — 11. What is foreign commerce? With what countries in Europe is the greater part of the foreign commerce ? With what countries in America ? In Asia .' — 13. Name the prin- cipal exports. What share is taken by England ? By South America and the West Indies? — ^13. What are the chief imports ? From what countries? (II.) — 3. From whom are the white inhabitants of the United States descended ? How many negroes ? From whom descended ? How many Indians ? Where are they ? How many Chinese ? — 5. Where are the chief supplies of animal food and of wool obtained ? Of butter and cheese ? — 6. Where are the principal coal and iron mines ? Of gold and silver ? Of lead ? Of copper ? What industries supply the raw materials for manufactures? — 9. What is said of New York? Of the valleys of the Hudson and Mohawk ? Of the Champlain and Hudson Canal ? Of emigration ? What is one of the results? From what part of the country do the great water routes radiate? — 10. What is said of the railroads? Why is the railroad system important? What is said of the railroads to the Pacific ? Of the coasting trade ? How does it compare withuhe foreign commerce? What is said of light-houses ? Of telegraphs and newspapers ? What is said of domestic commerce ? Upon what is it dependent ? — 13. Where does the greater part of the foreign commerce centre? Why? What part of the imports are received at New Yorli^ Of the exports ? Name other leading ports. How is the foreign commerce chiefly carried on ? How is it directed and controlled ? Where are the ocean cables ? XL. GOVEKNMENT. THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON. 1. The General GoTernment of the United States and the several state governments are all republican, or representative, in form. The United States is the most extensive and powerful republic in the world. A republican government is one under which those who make the laws and those who execute them are elected for limited periods by the people. A state is a division of the United States, controlling its own internal affairs, but united with the other states under the Gen- eral Government. A territory is a portion of the country not yet admitted as a state, because it has not sufficient population. 2. The General Government has three distinct depart- ments — the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. 3. The legislative department, or Congress, consists of two distinct bodies — the Senate and the House of Repre- sentatives. ^- A law is made by the consent of both Houses and the approval of the President of the United States. If the President returns a bill without his approval, he is said to veto it ; it may afterwards become a law if two thirds of each House again approve it. 4. The Senate consists of two members from each state. The senators are chosen by the State Legislatures, and hold office for six years. Their present number is 88. The Vice-President of the United States is the presiding officer. 5. The House of Representatives consists of mem- bers chosen directly by the people of the several states. They are the only officers of the General Government so chosen. They hold office for two years. I'here are at the present time 332 members, each state being entitled to one for every 176,000 of its inhabitants. The representatives elect one of their own number as presiding officer or Speaker. Each organized terri- tory has a delegate in this House ; he may take part in the dis- cussion of all matters relating to his territory, but has no vote. 6. The President of the United States is the chief executive officer. The President and the Vice-President are chosen by electors. The people of each state choose as many of these electors as there are members of Congress from that state. The President and the Vice-President hold office for four years. The President is commander-in-chief of the Army and the Navy. By and with the advice and consent of the Senate he appoints the judges of the Supreme Court and certain other civil and military officers, concludes peace, and makes" treaties with other nations. 7. The Supreme Court, or judicial department, con- sists of a Chief-Justice and eight Associate Judges. 8. The complete statement of the plan or arrangement of the government is called the constitution. 9. Each state has a complete political organization or constitution, similar in most respects to that of the United States. It has a Governor elected directly by the people, a Legislature in two departments, and a Supreme Court. Neither the General Government nor any state government can make a law which is contrary to the Constitution of the United States. An organized territory has a government similar to that of a state, except that the governor and the judges are appointed by the President of the United States. • Questions (I.) — 1. What is the form of the government of the United States? Of the several state governments ? How does the United States compare with other republics ? — 3. How many and what departments has it ? — 3. Of what does the legisla- tive department consist ? What are they called ? — i. Of what does the Senate consist ? — 5. How are the members of the House of Representatives chosen ? — 6. Who is the chief executive officer? — 7. Of what does the Supreme Court consist? — 8. What is the Constitution of^he United States? — 9. What is said of the state governments? (II,) — 1. What is a republican government ? What is a state ? What is a terri- tory? — 3. How are laws made ? When is a bill said to be vetoed? How may it af- terwards become a law? — i. How are the senators chosen? For how long a time? What is their present number? Who is President of the Senate? — 5. In what par- ticular is the election of members of the House peculiar? How long do they hold office ? How many members are there at the present time ? What is the basis of representation? Who is the Speaker? What is said of territorial delegates? — 6. By whom are the President and the Vice-President of the United States chosen ? By whom are the electors chosen ? How many are there ? How long do the President and the Vice-President hold office ? Who is the head of the Army and Navy ? What other powers and duties has he .' — 9. What laws can not be made f What can you say of territorial governments ? NORTH ATLANTIC STATES: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 87 XLI. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. General. — Name the North Atlantic States. Which is the largest? Which is the smallest? Which has no sea-coast? Which has the most broken coast ? What mountain system covers a large part of New Eng- land ? (See Physical Map of U. S., page 25.) Which state has no mountains ? In what general direction do the rivers flow ? Which is the largest river ? What states does it separate ? What states does it cross ? Which state has the greatest number of lakes ? Maine. — What river forms part of the northern boundary of Maine ? Of the eastern ? Of what lakes is it the outlet ? Name four other principal rivers. From what lake does the Kennebec flow ? What bays on the southern coast ? What cape ? What island ? What city on Casco Bay? On the Saco River? On the Androscoggin? On the Kennebec? On the Penobscot? Which is the capital? New Hampshire. — What mountains in the northern part of New Hampshire? What celebrated peak? What lake near the centre of. the state ? Which is the principal river in the state ? In what state is the mouth of the Merrimac ? What three cities in New Hampshire are on the Merrimac? Which is the capital? What sea-port in the south- east? At the mouth of what river? What city near the Piscataqua ? Vermont. — ^What parallel forms the northern boundary of Vermont ? What lakes does it cross ? Which of these forms part of the western boundary? In what direction do its waters flow? Through what branch of the St. Lawrence ? What mountains in this state ? Into what other states do they extend ? Name the two highest peaks in Vermont. What town is the capital ? What city on Lake Champlain ? What town north of Burlington ? What town southwest of Montpelier ? Massachusetts. — ^What two large islands belong to the state ? What bay east ? What two bays southeast ? What three capes on the .coast ? What peak in the southwest ? In the northwest ? What two near Con- necticut River ? What river enters the state from New Hampshire ? What cities on the Merrimac ? Which of these is a sea-port ? What city is the capital ? What city northwest of Boston ? What two cities northeast? What town on Cape Cod Bay? What city on Buzzards Bay ? What city northwest of New Bedford ? What city on the Con- necticut ? Midway between Springfield and Boston ? Bhode Island. — Name the two capitals of Rhode Island. On what island is Newport ? {Rhode^ On what bay ? What two towns north of Providence ? What cape on the coast ? Connecticut. — What water south of Connecticut ? What three rivers enter it from this state? What city is the capital? What two cities on the Thames ? What two on or near Long Island Sound ? What city northwest of New Haven ? What three cities near the centre of the state? Voyages and Travels. — ^What cities, capes, rivers, and islands would you pass in a coasting voyage from Bridgeport to Providence ? From Providence to Boston ? Boston to the St. Croix River? Through what cities by railroad from Bridgeport to Boston by way of Springfield ? By way of Providence ? Boston to Bangor ? Boston to St. Albans by way of Nashua ? XLII. REVIEW EXEEOISES. States. — How bounded i What is the capital 'i The largest city? 1 States. Area in Sq.MUes. Population in 1S90. States. Area in Sq. Miles. Population in 1S90. 33,040 9,305 9,565 661,086 376,530 332,422 Massachusetts . Rhode Island. . Connecticut , . . 8,315 1,250 4,990 2,238,943 345,506 746,268 New Hampshire . . Vermont Cities and Towns. — In what part of the state 1 How situated? Augusta ? Portland ? Lewiston ? Bangor ? Biddeford ? Concord ? Manchester ? Nashua ? Dover ? Portsmouth ? Montpelier ? Rutland ? Burlington ? St. Albans ? Boston ? Lowell ? Worcester ? Cambridge ? Fall River ? Law- rence ? Lynn ? Springfield ? Salem ? New Bedford ? Plymouth ? Providence? Newport? Pawtucket? Woonsocket? Hartford ? New Haven ? Bridgeport ? Norwich ? Waterbury ? Islands. — Where situated? Nantucket ? Marthas Vineyard ? Mount Desert ? Capes. — From what coast does it project? Elizabeth ? Ann ? Cod ? Monomoy ? Judith ? Mountains. — Where are they ? Green? White? Mount Washington? Mount Mansfield? Mount Everett ? Mount Tom ? Mount Holyoke ? Bays, etc. — Where is it ? Passamaquoddy ? Massachusetts ? Cape Cod ? Buzzards ? Narra- gansett? Long Island Sound ? Penobscot? Casco? Elvers. — Where does it rise ? In what direction does it flow ? Through what states ? Into what body of water ? St. John ? St. Croix ? Penobscot ? Kennebec ? Androscoggin i Merrimac ? Connecticut ? Thames ? Housatonic ? Lakes, — Where situated ? What outlet ? Moosehead? Winnipiseogee ? Champlain? Grand? NORTH ATLANTIC STATES. XLIII. NORTH ATLANTIC STATES, or NEW ENGLAND: DESCRIPTION. 1. Position and area. — The North Atlantic States extend from the Atlantic Ocean to Lake Champlain and the valley of the Hudson. Their area is about two fifths of that of California. Maine is nearly as large as the five other states taken together. 2, Surface. — The surface is generally rough, being broken by the mountains and numerous hills of this part of the Eastern Highland. There are two principal ridges forming the sides of the long val- ley of the Connecticut River. The Green Mountains, near the western border, are the only continuous range. The irregular eastern ridge contains the White Mountains, the highest in New England. The Atlantic shores are low in the south, and bold and rugged in the east. They furnish many good harbors. 3. Lakes and rivers. — The lakes and rivers are very numerous. Some of the lakes are celebrated for their 38 NORTH ATLANTIC STATES: DESCRIPTION. beauty. The frequent rapids and falls render the rivers unnavigable beyond a short distance, but furnish the ex- tensive water-power which has made New England one of the greatest manufacturing districts in the United States. 4. Climate and soil.— The winters are long and se- vere ; the summers are short, but hot. The soil is stony, and not very fertile, except in the valleys. 5. Agricnltnre.— The agricultural products are not sufficient to supply the wants of the population. The greater part of the breadstuffs and provisions used by the people of this section is brought from the Great Central Plain. Large quantities of live stock and wool are produced. 6. Occupations. — Manufactures and commerce are the leading pursuits. The manufactures comprise fabrics of cotton, wool, leather, metal, and wood, together with machinery, tools, and other articles in great variety. The fire-arms, cutlery, sewing-machines, and boots and shoes of New England find a market in a large part of the civilized world. The forests of hemlock and pine, especially in the southeast of Maine, furnish valuable lumber. 7. Commerce. — The many excellent harbors, the com- parative nearness to Europe, and the abundance of ship- timber have contributed to establish an extensive foreign commerce. The domestic commerce consists in the exchange of lumber, marble, granite, ice, and manufactured articles for coal, breadstuffs, provisions, and cotton, iron, wool, and other raw materials. For this purpose Southern New England possesses more coasting vessels and more miles of railroad than any other equal area in the United States. 8. People. — The people of New England are chiefly of English descent. They are distinguished for industry and intelligence, and for the general diffusion of education. The numerous colleges, high-schools, normal and common schools are unsurpassed in excellence by any in the Union. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island are the most dense- ly peopled portion of the United States. '^ "^ I' ,mty SHIP-BUILDING. RAILROAD UP MOUNT WASHINGTON. Haine. — Maine, " the r ii tree State,' is noted 1 s ship-building, for its trade in lumber and ice, and for its excellent harbors. It has more good harbors than all the coast from the Chesapeake Bay to the Rio Grande. Portland, the largest city, is at the termination of the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada, and is noted for its ex- cellent harbor and its extensive commerce. It is the prin- cipal eastern gateway to the St. Lawrence Valley in the winter. Lewiston is largely engaged in manufacturing. Bangor is a great lumber depot. Augusta is the capital. 10. New Hannpshire. — New Hampshire, " the Granite State," is remarkable for the beauty of its lakes and for the grand scenery of its mountains. These mountains and lakes are much visited by tourists in sum- mer. Mount Washington, the highest peak of the White Mount- ains, is 0288 feet high; the view from its summit is more exten- sive than any other east of the Mississippi. Of the lakes, Win- nipiseogee, near the centre of the state, is the most beautiful. Concord, the capital, is famous for its manufacture of coaches and wagons. Manchester, the largest city, and Nashua are noted for the manufacture of cotton and wool- len goods. The Merrimac River is said to be more extensively used for manu- facturmg purposes than anv other river in the world. NORTH ATLANTIC STATES: VERMONT, MASSACHUSETTS, RHODE ISLAND, CONNECTICUT. 39 11. Vermont. — Vermont, " the Green Mountain State," is chiefly a grazing country. It is also noted for its rich quarries of marble, soapstone, and slate. Burlington, on LakeChamplain,is a great lumber market. Rutland has marble quarries. Montpelier is the capital. 12. Massachusetts. — Massachusetts, "the Bay State," is one of the first in the Union in the value of its manu- factures ; it is also noted for its extensive fisheries. Its area is less than one thirtieth of that of Texas. The popula- tion of the two states is nearly equal. Boston, the capital, situated at the head of Massachu- setts Bay, is the largest city in New England. In foreign commerce it ranks next after New York. It is the centre of a railway system which includes the Boston and Albany Railroad and many other important lines. In the suburbs are many beautiful towns, large and small, connect- ed with the city by railroads: such towns may be called resi- dential towns, as they contain the homes of many thousands of the mercantile population of the city. It has sometimes been called the " American Athens," on account of the excellence of its literary institutions. Lowell, Lawrence, and Fall River, famous for cotton manufactures ; Worcester, a great railroad and manufact- uring centre; Cambridge, the seat of Harvard University, the oldest and richest in America ; Lynn, famous for its manufacture of boots and shoes ; New Bedford, for cotton goods, and as the first sea-port in the world in the extent of its whale fisheries; and Springfield, containing a United States arsenal, are among its chief cities. MANUFACTURING TOWN. Plymouth is celebrated as the landing-place of the Pilgrims, who formed a settlement there in 1620. ^Lexington and Concord are famous for the opening engagements of the War of the Revolution, April 19, 1 775, 5b 13. Rhode Island. — Rhode Island, the smallest state in the Union, is extensively engaged in the manufacture of cotton, wool, iron, and jewelry. This state contains a limited supply of anthracite coal. FISHING-SCHOONERS. Providence, the second city in New England, is one of the capitals. Newport, the other capital, is famous as a summer resort. Pawtucket and Woonsocket are impor- tant manufacturing towns. 14. Connecticnt. — Connecticut is noted for a greater variety of manufactures than any other state, and for its extensive coasting trade. New Haven, the seat of Yale College, is the largest city. Hartford, at the head of nav- igation on the Connecticut, is the capital. Bridgeport, Norwich, and Waterbury are large cities. Questions (I.) — 1. What is the position of the North Atlantic States? How do New England and California compare in size? — 2. What is the character of the sur- face ? Why ? — 3. What is said of the number of the lakes and rivers ? For what are some of the lakes celebrated ? What is the effect of the falls and rapids of the rivers ? Why are they valuable .' — 4. What is the character of the climate ? Of the soil ? — 5. What is said of the amount of agricultural products ? — 6. What are the leading pursuits } — 7. What is said of the foreign commerce ? Of domestic commerce ? Of the number of coasting vessels ? Of railroads .' — 8. Of what descent are the people of New England ? For what are they distinguished ? — 9. For what is Maine noted ? Portland ? Of what is it the principal gateway? What is said of Lewiston ? Bangor ? Augusta? — 10. New Hampshire? Concord? Manchester and Nashua.' — 11. Ver- mont? Rutland? Burlington? Montpelier? — 12. Massachusetts? Which is the largest city in New England? What is its rank in foreign commerce? Of what is it the centre ? Name one of the most important lines of railroad. Name some of the other chief cities. For what is Lowell noted ? Lawrence ? Fall River ? Worcester ? Cambridge ? Lynn ? New Bedford ? Springfield ? — 13. Rhode Island ? Providence ? Newport ? Pawtucket and Woonsocket ? — 1 4. Connecticut ? New Haven ? Hartford ? (II.) — 1. What is the relative size of Maine ? — 2. What form the sides of the Con- necticut Valley? Which is the only continuous range? What is said of the eastern ridge ? What is the character of the surface near the Atlantic ? — 5. Where are the breadstuffs and provisions obtained ? Name the chief grazing products. — 6. Name some of the principal manufactures of New England. The forest product. — 8. What is said of the colleges and schools? What is said of the population of the three smaller states? — 0. What is said of the harbors of Maine? — 10. What is said of the mountains and lakes? Of Mount Washington? Of Lake Winnipiseogee ? Of the Merrimac River? — 12. How does Massachusetts compare with Texas in area and population? What is said of the suburbs of Boston ? What may these be called ? What is Boston sometimes called ? For what is Plymouth noted ? Lexington and Concord ?— 13. What mineral in Rhode Island? MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.-REVIEW EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 41 XLIV. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. General. — Name the states of this group. Which two are the largest? Which is the smallest? What mountain system covers a large part of the group ? Which state has the most mountains ? Which has none ? Which state has many lakes ? New York. — What two large islands belong to this state ? What strait between them? What mountains in the north? The southeast? The east? What river flows into New York Bay? Its most important branch? What two rivers partly separate New York from Canada? What two lakes ? Which way does Niagara River flow ? What falls in that river? What lake in the southwestern part of the state? Name four lakes in the central part. What river drains them ? What river west of the Oswego? What river flows into Delaware Bay? Chesa- peake Bay? Ohio River? What lake forms a part of the northeastern boundary? What lake south of Lake Champlain? What city at the mouth of the Hudson ? On Long Island ? Name the chief cities on the Hudson. Which is the capital ? What city at the mouth of the Os- wego? The Mohawk? On the Genesee ? Lake Erie? Near the Penn- sylvania line? What two cities between Elmira and Oswego? What city east of Syracuse ? What canal extends from Albany to Buffalo ? New Jersey. — What cape at the southern point of New Jersey ? At the northeast point? What mountains in the northwest? What city is the capital? On what river? What city on the Delaware opposite Philadelphia ? What six cities in the northeast ? Pennsylvania. — What parallel on the north ? What river forms the eastern boundary? Name its principal branches. Name the chief mountain ranges of the state. What river crosses the state ? Name its chief branches. What river in the western part ? What two rivers form the Ohio? What city on the Delaware? On the Schuylkill? On the Lehigh ? What two on the Susquehanna ? What one on its west branch? Which is the capital ? What. city near Wilkesbarre? Between Harrisburg and Philadelphia ? What two cities at the head of the Ohio ? What one on Lake Erie ? Between Pittsburgh and Harrisburg ? Delaware. — What river flows into Delaware Bay? What cape op- posite Cape May ? What city in the northern part of the state ? What city is the capital ? Maryland. — What river separates Maryland from Virginia? What federal district on that river? ' What mountains in the state? In what part? What great bay divides the state into two parts ? What two cities on or near the bay ? Which is the capital ? What city west of Balti- more ? Near the western border ? District of Columbia.— What large city in the District of Columbia? What is Washington ? What suburb has it ? Voyages and Travels.— In sailing from Troy to Brooklyn, what towns would you pass ? What cities, capes, bays, etc., from Jersey City to Phil- adelphia? Philadelphia to Baltimore? What by railroad from New York to Washington by way of Trenton ? Philadelphia to Erie ? Phila delphia to Pittsburgh ? Pittsburgh to Annapolis? XLV. REVIEW EXEEOISES, States, — How bounded^ What is the capitaU The largest city? states. Area in Sq. Miles. Population in 1890. States. Area in Sq. Miles. Population in 1890. New York. ... . New Jersey .... Pennsylvania. . . 49,170 7,815 45,215 5,997,853 1,444,933 5,258,014 Delaware Maryland Dist. of Columbia. 2,0r,0 168,493 12,210 1,042,390 70 230,392 Cities and Towns. — In what part of the state 1 How situated? Albany ? New York ? Brooklyn ? Buffalo ? Rochester ? Troy ? Syracuse ? Utica ? Auburn ? Oswego ? I'lmira ? Trenton "■ Newark ? Jersey City ? Paterson ? Camden ? Hobo- ken ? Elizabeth ? Harrisburg? Philadelphia? Pittsburgh? Allegheny? Scranton? Reading ? Erie ? Lancaster ? Dover? Wilmington? Annapolis? Baltimore? Cumberland? Frederick? Washington ? Georgetown ? Islands.— JT/^^r^ situated? Long ? Staten ? Capes. — From what coast does it project? Sandy Hook ? May ? Henlopen ? Mountains.- Where are they ? Adirondack ? Catskill ? Highlands ? Blue ? Alleghany ? Tus- carora ? South ? Bays. — Where is it? New York ? Delaware ? Chesapeake ? Long Island Sound ? Rivers. — Where does it rise ? In what direction does it flow ? Through what states ? Into what body of water ? Hudson? Mohawk? Delaware? Schuylkill? Susquehanna? Al- leghany? Potomac? Genesee? Monongahela? Oswego? Lakes. — Where situated ? What outlet ? George ? Oneida ? Cayuga ? Seneoa ? Canandaigua ? Chautauqua ? MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. XLVI. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES: DESOEIPTION. 1. Area. — The area of the Middle Atlantic States is more than twice that of New England. 2. Snrface.— The greater part of this group, being situated within the mountain region of the Eastern Highland, has a rough surface. The principal mountain ranges are the Adirondack and the Catskill in New York and the Blue and the Alleghany in Pennsylvania. 6 The mountains lie in the great forest belt; they are covered with pine, spruce, hemlock, and other evergreens in the north, and with deciduous trees in the south. The only lowlands are a nar- row belt on the Great Lakes, and another on the Atlantic, con- nected by the valleys of the Hudson and the Mohawk. 3. Climate. — The winters are long and severe in the Adirondack region, but milder in the south ; the summers are hot. 4. Agricnlture. — Potatoes and all the grains except rice are produced in large quantities, but the population is so large, and so many are engaged in mining, manu- 42 MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES : DESCRIPTION.— NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY. facturing, and commerce, that all of these states except Maryland buy a large part of their breadstuffs. 5. Minerals. — Iron is abundant in all the states of this group except Delaware, coal in Pennsylvania and Maryland, zinc in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, salt in New York, and petroleum in Pennsylvania. 6. Manufactures. — In the value of its manufactured articles this group of states ranks first in the Union. The falls of the numerous rivers which drain the high- land, and the abundant coal, give unusual advantages to this form of industry. of the United States, excluding Texas. The common-school system is one of the best in the United States. The cataract of Niagara, in the Niagara River, is the grandest water- fall in the world. The water from the broad basin of four of the Great Lakes here falls over a precipice 164 feet high, producing a scene of wonderful sublimity. The City of New York, sometimes called the Metro- politan City, is the richest and most populous city in America. It is noted for its extensive commerce, the number of its mag- nificent hotels, banks, churches, and private dwellings, and for its Central Park. In 1890 only two cities of Europe — London and Paris — exceeded it in population. NEW YORK FROM BROOKLYN HEIGHTS. 7. Commerce. — The Middle Atlantic States are the principal commercial section of the Union. The chief routes of the vast domestic commerce of this group of states are Hudson River, the Erie Canal, the New York, Lake Erie, and Western, and the New York Central and Hudson River Railroads, in New York ; Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, and the Pennsylvania Railroad in Penn- sylvania ; the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in Maryland ; and the New Jersey Central Railroad in New Jersey. Into these few channels are gathered the extensive coasting trade and the immense system of railway and river lines of the West and South. The three great bays and the excellent harbors of the Atlantic coast, the navigable rivers, and the easy access to Europe and to the rich Valley of the Mississippi and the Great Lakes, give remark- able advantages both for foreign and domestic commerce. The Hudson is navigable to Troy, the Delaware to Trenton, and the Potomac to Georgetown. 8. New York. — New York, "the Empire State," is the first in the Union in population, wealth, and com- merce. Its population in 1 890 was more than a million greater than that of New England, and equal to that of the whole western half Brooklyn, the fourth city of the United States, is closely connected with New York by the largest suspen- sion bridge in the world and by many short ferries. The two really constitute one great city. There are also many other manufacturing and residential towns con- nected with New York by rivers and railroads. So numerous are these towns that the total number of inhabitants within a circle of thirty miles' radius around New York is not less than 3,000,000 ; the population of the city itself being over 1,500,000. Among other important places are Buffalo, on Lake Erie, the third city of the state, and Albany, the capital, are important depots of grains and other produce ; Buf- falo also supplies a large lake trade with anthracite coal from Pennsylvania. Rochester, the fourth city, has fine water-power. Syracuse is noted for its salt-works ; Troy, Utica, Auburn, Cohoes, and Oswego for water-power and manufactures. The village of West Point, beautifully situated on the Hudson, is the seat of the United States Military Academy. 9. IVew Jersey. — New Jersey, lying between the great cities of New York and Philadelphia, is largely engaged in market-gardening and fruit-raising. Newark, on the Passaic River; Jersey City, a suburb of MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES : PENNSYLVANIA, DELAWARE, MARYLAND. 43 New York ; Paterson, at the Passaic Falls ; and Trenton, the capital, are extensively engaged in manufacturing. 10. Pennsylvania. — Pennsylvania, " the Keystone State," is remarkable as the chief mining state in the Union. It produces nearly all of the petroleum, about two thirds of the coal, and much of the iron, mined in the United States. The coal of this state, with that of Maryland, supplies domestic fuel and the steam-power of vessels, locomotives, and factories for a large part of the United States. The abundance of fuel and iron shapes the industries of its leading cities. Philadelphia is the second city of the United States in manufactures, third in population, and the fourth in for- eign commerce. It also has an extensive domestic commerce, and is the greatest coal depot in America. It is noted for its Fairmount Park, its well-supplied markets, and its abundance of cheap and comforta- ble dwellings : it is sometimes called the " City of Homes." Its most famous public building is the State House, where the Dec- laration of Independence was adopted, July 4, 1116. Pittsburgh, the second city of the state, is the chief centre of the iron interest, and is one of the greatest petroleum markets in the world. It has a large trade with the Mississippi Val- ley in bituminous coal, glass, iron, and machinery. Alle- gheny is the third city in the state. Scranton, Pottsville, and Wilkesbarre are large " coal " towns in the anthracite region, which has numerous rail- ways and canals for the transportation of this product. Erie is a great lake port. Harrisburg is the capital. 11. Delaware. — Delaware is the smallest state in the Union except Rhode Island, and is noted for its fruit trade. Wilmington, the chief city, is noted for. the construction COAL-MINE, of iron ships, and for its manufacture of gunpowder and a great variety of other articles. Dover is the capital. 12. Maryland. — Maryland is noted for its mild cli- mate, and for its production of tobacco, coal, and iron. The peninsula between Chesapeake Bay and the Atlan- tic is the great peach-growing district of the United States. Baltimore is the fifth city of the United States in for- eign commerce and the seventh in population. It has an extensive' trade in tobacco, canned fruit, and oysters. It is the terminus of a trunk railway, the Baltimore and Ohio, which connects it with St. Louis, and with Chicago and other lake-ports. Annapolis, the capital, is the seat of the Naval School of the United States. 13. District of Colanabia. — The District of Colum- bia, situated on the Potomac, has an area of seventy square miles. It contains Washington, the capital of the United States. Questions (I.) — 1. What is the area of this group ? — 2. What is the character of its surface ? Why? Name the principal mountain ranges. — 3. What is the character of its climate? — 4. What are the agricultural products? What is said of the bread- stuffs? — 5. What and where are the chief minerals ? — 6. What is said of the manu- factures? Of the natural advantages for manufacturing? — 7. What is said of the commerce ? Name the principal routes. What is said of them .' — 8. For what is the State of New York remarkable ? The City of New York ? What is said of Brook- lyn and the suspension bridge? For what is Buffalo noted? Albany? Rochester? West Point? What cities are noted for water-power and manufactures!' — 9. What are the chief occupations in New Jersey? What cities are engaged in manufacturing? Which is the largest city? The capital? — 10. For what is Pennsylvania noted? What is said of its mineral products? For what is Philadelphia noted? For what is Pittsburgh noted? Which is the third city in the state? Which are the coal- towns? What city is the capital? — 11. What is the comparative size of Delaware? For what is it noted? Wilmington? What city is the capital? — 12. For what is Maryland noted? What is said of the peninsula? Baltimore? Annapolis? — 13. What is the area of the District of Columbia ? What city does it contain ? (II.) — 2. In what belt do the mountains lie? With what are they covered? Where are the lowlands? — 7. What are the commercial advantages of this section? How far is the Hudson navigable? The Delaware? The Potomac? — 8. What is said of the population? Of the common-school system? Of the Falls of Niagara? For what is New York City noted? What is said of its population? Of the manu- facturing and residential towns.' — 10. Of the coal of Pennsylvania? What determines the industries of the leading cities? What is said of Philadelphia? For what is it noted ? What is it sometimes called ? What is its most famous public building? — 11. What is said of the trade of Baltimore ? Of what great railway is it the terminus ? / 44 ATLANTIC AND CENTRAL STATES: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES. H H H ^ > . ■^i w ^ H r/} 1— H ■f-i o rt w t^ M l!^ M (M on 1^ CO Cft g. G <7^ fi^ ■"■ '"' i-i ■"^ »i c S o o o in ss ^<^ 'jp o (M QO a u § c4" cq U5 .rt >> "Cu z » bJ!) u CO s CO w w > C •s CO u s t4 g .. r> r- rrs tH in ^ m lO i-H CO "*^ H ;^ iQ >A ro OJ en eo m CO -na fs" ,-r ^£ r^ S c S O O o ir, o a h- s s IC -+ «3 to •^r? « fN o CKi rn' rH M Tf« iC CO iO lO H^ u rt i rt h^^^ R 55 .5 J5 :z: m O fe ^ ^ < 1-1 V-i 0) o Eh a "I 3 B U :2 M O r-( *-■ _ O Ph 1 O 0^ u o o en C H-l O Miz; t« > n s c VI (U *-L, ^ ■7^ i3 S^ rt C/3 >— > (^ ^^. en !>> 3 ►J -a ►J c a o c ■> o u c cu 3 o 1-1 > o c 1) ho o o c u X5 CI, C C S bJOr... 3 N ffl o e i2 o 2 ^ ^ c =1 o 5 Pi 9 ^ p o o y 3 o O ■^ en ■^£ ffi -^ s n^^ u o c 3 ?S 3 i^ « §1 ^i rj Oi OJ Ah J?S §■ Sol Sw g c o -a 3 O "-. C/3 1) O ^ < t?i 0) o a. <5 oi E 6 rt +-^ CUM C a, ■= ^ .-3 ^ If 1^ 3 J3 ^. ^ a; •< ft "-. bo <« - (U PL, ;?i en c =-• -t1 ■^- -^ ;. (.3 Rj H^ (JJ J. - -s « -« M o c I >< t^ J3 ni O -a 3 3 en '^^ 3 5 <: pss S CS 1) -. o - "a ^ y f^ < I 'g oi I- "■ o o g Ph 5 E o^ <§. rt S JD J3 g S E E 5 J3 3 O 3 b/) Pi E O -HJ % o e« 1 X3 1 O crt 3 »-i 1— 1 umber, tar, pitch, and turpentine. It extends nearly to the Mississippi on the west, and may be traced towards the north through New Jersey and Long Island. Fourth. The low, unhealthy coast region contains a chain of great swamps, extending from the Dismal Swamp of Virginia to the Everglades of Florida, and along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico to Texas. In some parts of this belt rice is extensively cultivated. It also contains forests of live-oak, which is valuable for ship-building. 3. Climate. — The summers are long and hot. The winters fire mild in the mountains and in the north ; in the southern part there can hardly be said to be any winter. The moist winds of the Atlantic and of the Gulf of Mexico give to Georgia and the Gulf States the largest rain-fall known in any part of the United States excepting Puget Sound and Alaska. The production of cotton, the great staple of the South, and one of the chief exports of the United States, is de- pendent upon the frequent summer showers. 4. Occnpation and productions. — Agriculture is the leading occupation. The principal products are wheat, corn, sweet potatoes, and tobacco in the north ; rice and cotton in the south. 5. Virginia. — Virginia, " the Old Dominion," is the second state in the production of tobacco, and has a large trade in garden vegetables. Southern agricultural staples, and in oysters from the Chesapeake Bay. The country between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghany Mountains is called the Great Valley of Virginia, and is one of the most fertile districts in the United States. Richmond, at the falls of the James, is the capital and chief manufacturing and railroad centre. It is the largest city in this gi-oup of states, and has an extensive trade in iron manufactures and tobacco. Norfolk, the second city of the state, and a leading cot- ton port, has the best harbor in the United States south of the Potomac. 6. IVortli Carolina. — North Carolina," the Old North State," produces a large amount of tobacco and cotton. Wilmington, the largest city, exports turpentine, tar, pitch. rosin, lumber, rice, and cotton, Raleigh is the capital. 7. South Carolina. — South Carolina, "the Palmetto State," produces more rice than any other state. Charleston, the largest cit)-, is an important cotton port. Columbia is the capital. ATLANTIC STATES : GEORGIA, FLORIDA.— CENTRAL STATES : SOUTHERN DIVISION. 47 8. Creorgria. — Georgia has a larger population and more extensive manufactures than any other sea-board state between Virginia and Texas. The manufactures are chiefly of iron and cotton, and are rapidly increasing. Atlanta, the capital and largest city, is an important railroad centre. Savannah, the second city and chief port, has a large cotton trade. Columbus, on the Chattahoo- chee, has abundant water-power, and manufactures a large amount of cotton goods. 9. Florida. — Florida is noted for its mild climate and its orange-groves and other tropical vegetation. The population is densest in the northeast, and within 100 miles of the northern boundary. The southern half of the state is a low raorass. St. Augustine is the oldest town in the United States, Key West, the largest city, is a wrecking station, and is largely engaged in sponge-fishing and in the manufacture of cigars. Jacksonville is a winter resort. Tallahassee is the capital Questions (I.) — 1. What is the area of the four northern states of the South At- lantic group ? Of Georgia ? — 2. Of what divisions does the surface consist ? What constitutes the western belt ? The second belt ? What does it produce .' What is the third belt ? What does it supply ? What is the fourth belt ? What are the produc- tions of this belt ? — 3. What is the character of the climate ? What is said of the rain- fall ? Of the production of cotton .' — i. What is the leading occupation ? Name the chief productions. — 5. For what is Virginia noted.' Richmond.' Norfolk? — 6. North Carolina? Wilmington? Raleigh? — 7. South Carolina ? Charleston? Columbia.'' — S.Georgia? Atlanta? Savannah? Columbus? — 9. Florida? What is said of St. Augustine? Pensacola? Key West? Tallahassee? (II.) — 3. What is said of the forests of the mountain belt? Of its water-power and minerals ? WTiat is the extent of the third belt ? — 5. Where and what is the Great Valley ? — 9. Where is most of the population of Florida ? What is the character of the southern half of the state ? THE CENTRAL STATES: SOUTHEEN DIVISION. 1. Surface. — This group of states has a diversified surface, but the greater part is in the low Central Plain. West Virginia lies in the Eastern Highland, and Mississippi in the Great Plain. Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama have large highland districts. 2. Climate. — The climate of the highlands is mild and delightful; the lowlands have long and hot summers. 3. Soil. — The greater part of the plain is very fertile. 4. Occnpatioiis. — Agriculture is the chief occupa- tion. The leading staples are cotton, corn, tobacco, and hemp. All but West Virginia produce cotton. The mountains and numer- ous rivers of the Eastern Highland give West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee unlimited water-power, coal, and iron ; these are as yet but little used. 5. Commerce. — The Cumberland,Tennessee, Alabama, and other large navigable rivers radiate from the highland and fall into the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the Gulf. These rivers and the numerous railways furnish excellent com- mercial facilities. Louisville, Knoxville, Chattanooga, Nashville, Memphis, and Mobile are the leading railroad centres. 6. West Yirg^inia. — West Virginia has a mountain- ous surface. It is rich in bituminous coal, iron, salt, and petroleum. WheeUng is the largest city. Huntington and Park- ersburg are important cities. Charleston is the capital. 'J'. Kentucky.— Kentucky is one of the most populous states south of" the line of the Ohio and Potomac rivers. It surpasses every other state in the production of tobacco, and produces half of the hemp raised in the United States. - .--/S? >• 4< J^' * ^ ^^u TOBACCO PLANTATION. Louisville, on the Ohio, is, after New Orleans, the largest city south of the Ohio and the Potomac ; it has a large trade in flour, pork, hemp, and tobacco. Covington and Newport are opposite Cincinnati. Frankfort is the capital. 8. Tennessee. — Tennessee has three physical divisions, known as East, Middle, and West Tennessee. East Tennessee is a mountainous country, and is re- markably rich in coal, iron, timber, and water-power. Knoxville, on the Holston, and Chattanooga, beautifully situated on the Tennessee, are the chief depots of this im- portant region. Middle Tennessee, the most populous division, is famous for its production of corn, tobacco, and live stock. Nash- ville, its depot, is the capital and largest city in the state. West Tennessee is the lowest and warmest part of the state. Cotton is the chief staple. Memphis is the largest city on the lower Mississippi River except New Orleans. 48 CENTRAL STATES: SOUTHERN DIVISION.— QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES. COTTON- FIELD. 9. Alabama. — The valleys of the Alabama, the Tombigbee, and the Tennessee include most and iron are the chief products. of the state. Cotton Montgomery, the capital, is an important depot for cotton. Mobile, a cotton port, is the largest city. Bir- mingham and Anniston are centres of the iron region. 10. Mississippi. — Mississippi is noted as the leading state in the production of cotton. Vicksburg is the most important city. Jackson is the capital. Although the richest in the most important export of the United States, this is the only Gulf State with no sea-port of its own. It has no large city. Questions (I.) — 1. What is the character of the surface of this division? Where does the greater part lie .' — 2. What is the character of the climate ? — 3. Of the soil ? — 4. What is the chief occupation ? Name the leading staples. — 5. What is said of the chief livers of this group .'' What commercial facilities has this section ? Name the leading railroad centres. — 6. What kind of a surface has West Virginia? In what minerals is it rich ? What is the largest city ? The capital ? — 7. For what is Ken- tucky noted ? Louisville ? Covington ? Frankfort ? — 8. How many physical divisions has Tennessee ? Name them. For what is East Tennessee noted ? Knoxville and Chattanooga? Middle Tennessee? Nashville? West Tennessee? What is the principal staple ? What is said of Memphis .' — 9. What river valleys include most of the State of Alabama ? What are the chief products ? Name the principal cotton depots. For what is Mobile noted? Birmingham? — 10. For what is Mississippi noted ? Name the most important city. The capital. (II.) — ]. Which of these states has no lowland ? Which no highland ? Which have large highland districts ? — i. Which of these states does not produce cotton ? Which are rich in water-power, coal, and iron .' — 7. How does Kentucky rank in the production of tobacco? Of hemp? — 10. Has Mississippi any sea-ports? Any large cities? LI. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. General. — Name the states of this group. Which border on the Ohio River? On the Mississippi? On Lake Superior? On Lake Michigan ? On Lake Erie ? What water connects Lake Superior with Lake Huron ? Lake Huron with Lake Michigan ? What lake between Lake Huron and Lake Erie ? What rivers connect these lakes ? Which of these states has no river belonging to the Mississippi system ? Ohio.— Name the three chief branches of the Ohio River in this state. What river in the northwest? What city on the Maumee ? What two cities on Lake Erie ? On the Ohio ? On the Miami ? What city on the Muskingum ? West of Columbus ? What three southeast of Cleveland ? What two southwest of Toledo ? What city is the capital ? Indiana. — Which is the chief river of Indiana ? What is the chief branch of the Wabash ? What city on the west fork of the White ? What two cities on the Wabash ? On the Ohio ? What city on the Maumee ? On the St. Joseph ? In the east ? What is the capital ? Illinois. — Name the three chief branches of the Mississippi in this state. What is the capital ? What city on Lake Michigan ? What two cities southwest ? On Mississippi River ? What city on Rock River ? On Illinois River ? Northwest of Peoria ? Southeast of Peoria ? Wisconsin. — Which is the chief branch of the Mississippi in this state ? What lake in the east ? What river is its outlet ? Into what bay does it flow ? What two cities on Lake Winnebago ? Three on Lake Michigan ? What cities in the west ? What city is the capital ? Michigan. — Of what does Michigan chiefly consist? {Of two great peninsulas^ What large island in Lake Superior belongs to this state ? Which is the chief river of South Michigan ? What river north of Grand River? What three cities on Grand River? \Miich of these is the capital? What city on Muskegon River? What bay on the eastern shore ? What river flows into it ? What two cities on Saginaw River ? What city on Detroit River ? Voyages and Travels. — Through what waters would you pass, and near what cities, in a coasting voyage from Chicago to the head of Lake Superior? Chicago to Cleveland ? What cities would you pass between Cincinnati and the mouth of the Ohio? By rail from Chicago to Osh- kosh? Chicago to St. Louis ? Chicago to Evansville? Chicago to Louisville by way of Logansport? Chicago to Cleveland? Cleveland to Cincinnati? Cleveland to Grand Rapids by way orDetroit? LII. REVIEW EXEEOISES. states,— 7%K/ bounded^ What is the capital? The largest dtyt States. Ohio . . . Indiana. Illinois . Area in Sq. Miles, 41,060 36,.S50 5(1,6,50 Population in 1890. S,672,B16 2,192,404 S,826,351 States. Wisconsin . . Michigan. . . Area in Sq. Miles .56,04(1 .">S,!)15 Population in 1890. 1,686,880 2,093,889 Cities and Towns.— /« what part of the- state I How situated i Columbus? Cincinnati? Cleveland? Toledo? Dayton? Spring- held? Zanesville? Akron? Sandusky? Indianapolis? Evansville? Fort Wayne? Terre Haute? New Albany ? Lafayette ? Springfield? Chicago? Peoria? Quincy? Bloomington ? Rock- ford? Aurora? " Madison? Milwaukee? Racine? Oshkosh ? LaCros.o' T v'^'Tl V^'"'"''- ^'■""^ ^^P^d^? Bay City? ' Sa,maw? Jackson? Muskegon? '&^-^?,.~Whcre is it ] Green? Saginaw? Rivers.-^^^;-^ does it rise ? In what direction docs it flow ? Through what states ? Into wliat bodv of water ? Scioto? Wabash? White? Illinois? Wisconsin? St.Marvs? Fox? Grand? St.Chur? Detroit? Maumee? S.ioinaw? l^akfi5.— lVhcrc situated I What outlet? Winnebago? St. Clair? Copyrig/U 1875 by Harper i BriAlun. 50 NORTHERN CENTRAL STATES: DESCRIPTION.— OHIO. NORTHERN CENTRAL STATES. LIII. OENTEAL STATES: NOETHEEN DIVISION. 1. This group lies wholly in the Great Central Plain. 2. Surface. — There are no mountains. There is a hilly region in the southeast, towards the Ohio, and an- other and more rugged one towards Lake Superior. The greater part of Illinois and the adjacent parts of Wisconsin and Indiana are level or rolling prairies. The rest of the vast plain, and the hilly regions, are covered with forests except where cleared for cultivation. 3. Climate. — The winters are severe, especially in the north; the summers are hot. 4. Hinerals. — The hilly region near Lake Superior contains an abundance of iron-ore and the greatest de- n* *. 1. *'■ ■ ja COPPER-MINING. posit of pure or native copper in the world ; that near the Ohio is rich in iron, and extensive deposits of coal. An important lead region covers the adjacent parts of Wis- consin and Illinois near the Mississippi. Michigan pro- duces more salt(and copper) than any other state. 5. Occupations. — Agriculture and grazing are the leading pursuits. Of wheat, corn, wool, and live stock the quantity produced is unsurpassed by that of any equal area on the globe. Manufacturing and mining are important, and are rapidly increasing in the coal and iron districts. 6. Commerce. — The commercial advantages of this group are remarkable. Three of the principal water- ways of the continent — the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the Great Lakes — form an almost complete boundary. On or near this margin lie most of the largest cities in the United States west of Atlantic tide-water. Milwau- kee, Chicago, Detroit, Toledo, Cleveland, and Cincinnati are on the inner margin of the district; and Duluth, Min- neapolis, St. Paul, St. Louis, Louisville, Pittsburgh, and Buffalo are just outside of it. The chief business of the large and important inland city Indianapolis, and of all these lake and river ports ex- cept Pittsburgh, and of the systems of railways of which they are the centres, is the collection and transportation of the agricultural and grazing products of this vast gran- ary and those of the equally productive neighboring states west of Mississippi River. Canals connect rivers flowing into the Great Lakes with navi- gable branches of the Mississippi and the Ohio, the Wisconsin with the Fox, the Illinois with the Chicago, and the Wabash with the Maumee. The falls in the St. Marys River, at tlie entrance of Lake Superior, are passed by a ship-canal in Michigan. Most of the rivers of the Mississippi system have high banks called bluffs. The depth of water in these rjvers varies greatly during the year, the Ohio sometimes having a " rise " of seventy feet. 7. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are chiefly descend- ants of immigrants from the North Atlantic and Middle Atlantic States ; most of the remainder are European immigrants. No part of the world possesses a larger proportion of intelligent, industrious, self-reliant citizens ; and no equal area surpasses this group of states in the excellence of the common schools and the general interest in public education. The Germans constitute the greater part of the foreign-born popu- lation ; the Irish are next in numerical importance ; there are also many thousands of Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes. 8. Ohio. — Ohio ranks among the first states in the Union in the production of wool and coal, and is the fourth in population. In the amount and variety of its manufactures it exceeds every other state west of the Appalachian Mountains. Cincinnati, the largest city, and the metropolis of the Ohio Valley, has an extensi\e trade in provisions and gram, and is one of the principal manufacturing cities in the United States. Cleveland, the second city, is one of the five Great Lake ports. Toledo, also a lake-port, Dayton, and Columbus, the capital, are among the numerous large cities. NORTHERN CENTRAL STATES : INDIANA, ILLINOIS, WISCONSIN, MICHIGAN. 51 9. Indiana. — Indiana is the eighth state in population, and has a level surface, fertile soil, and mines of block-coal. It is among the first states in the production of wheat, and produces a large amount of other grains and live-stock. Indianapolis, the capital and largest city, is a great rail- road centre, and one of the most important and rapidly growing cities of the Central States. Evansville and Fort Wayne are next in population. 10. Illinois. — Illinois is the first state in the Union in the production of corn and wheat, the second in that of coal, and is the third in population. It possesses one of the most extensive coal-fields in the world. This state is mostly prairie, with low hills on the Ohio and bluffs on the Mississippi. Chicago, the second city in the Union, and the com- mercial metropolis of the St. Lawrence basin, is the chief lumber and pork market in America, and, next to London, the greatest grain market in the world. A large number of railways radiate from it as a centre. The city is of recent and remarkably rapid growth, its population hav- ing increased over one hundred per cent, in the last ten years. Originally built on low ground, it has become, in its grading, drainage, and water-supply, a monument to the energy, sagacity, and public spirit of its citizens. In October, 1871, a fire, one of the most destructive in modern times, swept away three and a quarter square miles of its most valuable storehouses and residences. The direct loss was esti- mated at nearly $200,000,000, and the loss of business at $90,000,000 more. Notwithstanding this sudden calamity, the most extensive and disastrous that ever befell an American com- munity, the new Chicago that has already sprung from the ashes of the old is in every respect a grander city. Among other important cities are Peoria and Quincy. Springfield is the capital. 11. IVisconsin. — Wisconsin resembles Illinois in the abundant production of wheat, and Michigan in that of lumber. This state has a large number of beautiful lakes ; it also has an abundance of water-power, that of the Fox River, between Winnebago Lake and Green Bay, being among the most valuable in the United States. The population is mostly in the south. Milwaukee, the largest city, is one of the five Great Lake ports, and has a large commerce in breadstuffs, provisions, and lumber. La Crosse, Oshkosh, Racine, and Eau Claire are important places. Madison is the capital. 12. JWichi^an. — Michigan consists of two peninsulas. It is bordered by four of the five Great Lakes, and has more coast than any other state excepting Florida. The population is mostly in the south, which is fertile. The north- ern part of the southern peninsula is sandy, and covered with valuable forests of white pine. The North Central States furnish a ready market for the salt of Saginaw and for the lumber of Saginaw and of the eastern shore of Lake Michigan. Other '»'^iii'X: -^/iij;. REAPING SCENB. important productions are white-fish from the Great Lakes and copper and iron from the shores of Lake Superior. The country ^long the western coast of the southern peninsula is known as the Fruit Belt. The relatively warm water of Lake Michigan causes southerly winds to prevail on this coast in winter, which gives to these shores so mild a winter climate that fruit trees are seldom injured by extreme cold. Detroit, the eastern entrance to Michigan and the upper lakes, is the largest city. Grand Rapids and Saginaw are large and important manufacturing cities. Lansing is the capital. Questions (I.) — 1. Where is this group situated ? — 12. What peculiarity has its surface? Where are the prairie regions!' The forest regions? — 3. What is tlie char- acter of the climate ? — 4. What minerals in the hilly region near Lake Superior ? In that near the Ohio ? Where is the lead region ? Which of these states produces salt ? — 5. Name the two leading pursuits. What is said of the products? Of manufactur- ing and mining ? — 6. What is said of the commercial advantages ? Name the three great water-ways. What do they form ? What is said of this boundary ? What cities are on the inner margin of this district ? What cities are just outside of it ? What is the chief business of these cities ? — 7. Who are the inhabitants ? — 8. For what is Ohio noted? Cincinnati? Cleveland? What cities are next in size ? Which of these is the capital ? — 9. For what is Indiana noted ? Indianapolis ? What other important cities? — 10. For what is Illinois noted? What is said of its coal-fields? For what is Chicago noted ? What other important cities ? What city is the capital ? — 11. What are the principal productions of Wisconsin ? What is said of its lakes and water- power? For what is Milwaukee noted ? What other important places ? What city is the capital? — 12, For what is Michigan remarkable? Where is its fruit beltr For what is Detroit noted ? Grand Rapids and Saginaw 7 What city is the capital ? (II.) — 2. Where are the hilly regions? — 6. What is said of the canals? Of the ship-canal ? Of the banks of the rivers of the Mississippi system ? Of the depth of water ? How high is the rise of the Ohio ? — 7. What is the character of the people of this group ? Of the common schools ? Name the chief elements of the foreign-born population.— 10. What is the character of the surface of Illinois ? Of what is Chicago the centre ? What is said of its growth ? Of its grading, drainage, and water-supply ? With what calamity was it visited in 1871 ? What was the estimated loss? What is said of its present condition? — 11. Where is most of the population of Wisconsin?— 13. Where is most of the population of Michigan ? Where are the forests? For what products do the North Central States furnish a market? What others are im- portant ? What part of the state is favorable to the production of fruit ? Longitude "West 90 from Greenwich 94 lOno Sc)uaro Mllo: ^ lo M I Jil^AI Nit I T „ C iA _ '^,|.„ ,/, Pembina MlL i_ A Zakeo/fhe) D t.Vincvm' WEST CENTRAL STATES JlNT) STATES OF THE PLAmS, fsTTtrn'- ' ■'€.*^'i*"^**^ ,'*.««j''»f4 "'■' 't'^""^5^ IVORTHERN DWISIOIV. 7 ■^.■.-.DJ^^o^^ 1^ - -E-r-rra e ,ll,ae fallj lukfeapids jL A CSV _ ,t \L.Bent L I k^„ Montevideo ^^,7 ,s -ft Stillwater o ■pira ^\ Stevens Point riaukln jiitd**"^ /rs :to nOv. /Wftanebako X Yp/lns Vag^, 5& J /V? CaiUbrf lencoo iK^erokee using 4rle flu CUleU /P I DES\MO>^ / 7 9 Stuart l;> mbraska Cil ^'"■-^ilxowmfiii _^. ..nvlIl&C- JurlinJ >l/.:Maaisol / JSON y St ^,:^Kansak City- .ountiiAc^^^l^on Mt. ,iuua Sminiu,m>,iiiiiinairi.BxM„^ WEST CENTRAL STATES AND STATES OF THE PLAINS. 53 LIV. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. General. — How many states on this map ? Which three belong to the West Central States? (See page 29.) To what do the others belong ? Which is the smallest of the seven ? The largest ? Which are crossed by the Missouri ? Which are partly bounded by it ? Minnesota.— What chain of lakes forms the northeast boundary of Minnesota ? What ridge in the northern part of the state ? What great river rises in this state ? In what lake ? What branch crosses the southwestern part of this state ? What river has its source very near that of the Minnesota ? Into what lake does it flow ? What city is the capital ? What city west of it ? North ? What city in the south- east on the Mississippi ? What one on Lake Superior ? In what part of the state are most of the towns ? Iowa. — Between what rivers is Iowa ? What river crosses it ? What city is the capital ? What city on the Missouri ? What four cities on the Mississippi ? Missouri. — What mountains in the southwestern part of Missouri ? What two mountains in the southeastern part ? What river crosses the state ? What city is the capital .? What two other cities on the Mis- souri ? What two on the Mississippi ? What city west of the capital ? North Dakota. — What plateau occupies the central part of North Dakota ? What great river west of the plateau ? Name its chief branches in the state. What river on the eastern boundary ? Its chief branches .'' What two other rivers east of the plateau ? Name the chief cities on each of these rivers. Which is the capital ? South Dakota. — What two rivers cross the state ? What rivers form parts of the boundary? Name the chief branches of the Missouri. What three highlands in the state ? Where situated ? What city is the capital ? Name the chief citi&s of each river valley. Nebraska. — What boundary river has Nebraska ? What branch in the northern part of the state ? What river crosses the state ? In what part of the state are most of the towns ? What city is the capital ? What city west of Lincoln ? South ? What cities on the Missouri River ? Kansas.— What river crosses the southwestern part of Kansas? Which is the chief city on it ? What river north of the Arkansas ? Of what river is it a branch ? What three cities on the Kansas ? Which is the capital? What two cities on the Missouri ? What city in the southeast ? Travels. — What cities would you pass in a steamboat voyage from St. Louis to St. Paul ? From St. Louis to Yankton ? By rail from St. Louis to Topeka ? REVIEW EXERCISES. States. — How bounded 1 What is the capital i The largest city? WEST CENTBAL STATES: NORTHERN DIVISION. STATES OP THE PLAINS: NOKTHEEN DIVISION. States. Area in Sq. Miles. Population . in 1890. States. Area in Sq. Miles. Population in 1890. Minnesota Iowa 83,365 56,025 69,415 1,301,826 1,911,896 2,679,184 North Dakota South Dakota 70,796 77.650 77,500 82,080 182,719 328,808 1,058,910 1,427,096 Cities and Towns. — In what part of the state 1 How situated I St. Paul? Minneapolis? Duluth? Winona? Stillwater? Des Moines ? Dubuque ? Davenport ? Burlington ? Council Bluffs? Sioux City? Jefferson City? St. Louis? Kansas City? St. Joseph? Springfield? Bismarck ? Fargo ? Pierre ? Sioux Falls ? Lincoln ? Omaha ? Hastings ? Nebraska City ? Plattsmouth ? Topeka ? Leavenworth ? Wichita ? Kansas City ? Atchison ? Mountains. — Where are they 1 Height of Land ? Ozark ? Pilot Knob ? Iron ? Black Hills ? Rivers.— W^/5^^^ does it rise ? In what direction does it flow 1 Through what states ? Into what body of water 1 Mississippi ? Missouri ? Minnesota ? Red River of the North ? James ? Des Moines ? Platte ? Kansas ? [For Sections LVI. and LVII., see page 54.] WEST CENTRAL STATES and STATES OF THE PLAINS. WEST CENTRAL STATES. 1. The five states of this group form a belt of nearly equal width from the Gulf of Mexico to the northern boundary of the United States. (See map on page 28,) 2. Surface. — The West Central States resemble each other in the fertility of their soil and in the general level of their surface. They are mostly low prairies, with timber in the "bottom lands." The only elevations are the short, low ranges of the Boston and Ozark Mountains, and the clay and sand hills of Minnesota. Each state has the Mississippi as its eastern boundary, and is divided almost diagonally by a great navigable branch flowing towards the southeast. 3. Climate. — The chief difference is in climate, which ranges from the short summers and long, cold winters of Minnesota to the almost tropical seasons of Louisiana, 4, Productions. — The difference in climate causes a corresponding difference in the products. Agriculture is the leading interest throughout this group of states. The great staples, in the order of latitude, are rice, sugar, cotton, corn, hemp, and wheat. There are also immense quantities of live stock. Each of these states strongly resembles its eastern neighbor in cli- mate, soil, and productions. 5. Population. — The population of the northern half of this group is mostly derived from the same sources and is of the same general character as that of the North Cen- tral States. Public education is provided for with equal liberality, and the common schools are among the first in excellence. The population of the southern half of the 154 WEST CENTRAL STATES AND STATES OF THE PLAINS. J= 3 > O CD J3 a" en a; '^' OJ +-" ^ IL» cfl eg r- ° 9 k o |_5 o ez2 M CZ2 I— I o M w H M H H I— I l> M k 0) J3 : -p. ■^ s ^ t^ eft C rt -- O o TJ 55 ^ o C O tJ< CO 1 «< IB •2 = Oi CO (M -* OO lO tS j-T io" CO to CO T-H tN hi O p. W' -J, o o o pE f*- ^ A fs i-T oT io" ol CO CO CD :e^ : 0} g ^i ■: H O "f ^ u5 Hi 03 N O H g OS J> •rjo t- en s CO QO" I- '^^ 00 .3 ^ -. P ° •P. ^ M J-t tn > o o f... '^• (u o OJ -d Td -S ^ = C r- . T3 I3S ri S ni m ri ■" • rt -tJ U -»J 2 H O 4^ -a •S .H o o 0) What manufactures has St. Louis? What other business has it? Of what is it the centre? What is said of its railway connections ?-10. What is said of the resources of Arkan- sas?-ll. Where is Lomsiana situated? How does the height of its surface compare with that of the Mississippi? What are levees? What is their use? What i. a crevasse? What mineral has this state? Where is New Cleans situated? Wh^ is said of It, railways ? In what other way is it connected with tl" Gulf ? LIX. STATES OF THE PLAINS. 1. Situation — This group of five states and two ter- ritories lies chiefly in the eastern division of the Great Western Highland. 2. Surface.— It consists principallv of rolling prairies, and IS part of the high plains that extend west to the Rocky Mountains. WESTERN STATES: DIVISION OF THE PLAINS. 57 In Texas these plains are called the Llano Estacado, or " Staked Plain," from the stake-like stems of a plant that still grows in abundance on those plains. 3. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are mostly in the eastern part, near the great rivers, the country here being lower, bett/er watered, and mores fertile. 4. Norjth Dakota. — North Dakota is noted for the abundance and excellence of its wheat, its leading staple. The most populous section is in the broad valley of the Red River and parts adjacent. The surface is mostly a rolling prairie, broken by low and broad plateaus, and, especially in the west, by many flat-topped hills, called buttes. Most of the population is east of the Missouri. Bismarck is the capital and Fargo the largest city. The highest part of the state is west of the Little Missouri along the southwestern boundary, and is over 3000 feet above the sea ; the lowest part is at the northeast corner, in the Red River val- ley, 790 feet above the sea. This river is the only one in the United States whose waters flow finally into Hudson Bay. The Missouri and the Red are both navigable. North Dakota is crossed from east to west by several great trunk lines of rail- way. The eastern part of the state is covered with a network of railways. 5. South Dakota. — As in North Dakota, the general prairie surface of South Dakota is broken by low plateaus and hills. The chief products are wheat, Indian com, flax, beef, pork, and wool. The principal farming region is east of Missouri River, and includes an extensive dairy country. The southwestern counties are covered by the Black Hills, which are noted as a stock region, and are rich in mines of gold, silver, and other metals. The Black Hills country is one of the two most populous regions of the state. The other is a group of the eastern and south- eastern counties. Pierre is the capital of the state ; Sioux Falls is the largest city. The Black Hills country, the highest part of the state, reaches an elevation of 7000 feet above the pea ; the lowest point, the south- eastern corner, is about 1000 feet. The country between the Black Hills and the Missouri is dotted with buttes and other low hills, and drained by a great number of rivers whose beds lie far below the general surface of the prairie. The most remarkable district of this extensive region is known as the Bad Lands. Notwithstanding this name, these lands furnish protection and excellent pasture during the winter to immense herds of cattle. 6. Nebraska. — Nebraska exceeds in area New Eng- land and New Jersey taken together. The principal products are wheat and corn, cattle, and other live-stock. Lincoln is the capital ; Omaha is the largest city. The state is a vast diversified plain, more than half of it being a rolling prairie. Except in a few districts the soil is highly fer- tile ; the eastern part is the most productive region, on account of its greater rainfall. Among many railroads is the Union Pacific, which passes through the entire length of the state, aad is a part of a great transcontinental trunk line. 7. Kansas.— Kansas, the "Central State," is about twice the size of Ohio. In soil, climate, and productions it greatly resembles Nebraska. It is rich in coal, lead, zinc, and other valuable minerals. It is noted for its abundant crops of Indian corn. Topeka is the capital ; Kansas City is the largest city. Kansas is well supplied with railroads, some of which are parts of tranfecontinental lines. Near the western border of the state the waters of Arkansas River are extensively used for irrigation. 8. Indian Territory. — Indian Territory, more cor- rectly the Indian country, is a country set apart by Con- gress as the home of certain Indian tribes, or nations, who have at different periods been transferred from other parts of the United States. Each is organized as a tribe or nation independent of all others, and has its own internal government. The chief tribes are the Cherokees, Chick- asaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles. 9. Oklahoma. — The climate is rather dry, but suitable for stock-raising The broad and well-watered river-val- leys are well adapted for farming. Guthrie, Oklahoma, and King Fisher are the chief towns. Oklahoma was organized as a territory in 1890 out of the west- ern part of Indian Territory and some public land between Texas and Colorado. 10. Texas. — Texas is the largest state in the Union, and is noted for its great extent of fertile soil. As an agricul- tural state its resources are immense. Corn, cotton, cattle, and wool are the chief staples. Dallas and San Antonio are the largest cities. Galveston is the chief port. Houston, Ft. Worth, and Waco are railway centres. Austin is the capital. The area of Texas is more than five times that of New York, or more than thirty times that of Massachusetts. The population is rapidly increasing by immigration. There are no very large cities. Texas has at least 25,000 square miles suitable for the cultiva- tion of coiton. It has an equal area adapted to the cultiva- tion of wheat. It has a very large trade in cattle, hides, wool, and cotton. The northern part of the state has abundance of coal, iron, and copper. Questions (I.) — 1. Where is this group situated ? — 2. Of what does it principally consist ? — 3. Where are most of the inhabitants located ? Why ? — I. Describe North Dakota. What are the chief staples? What town is the capital? — 5. Describe South Dakota. Name its principal products. The capital. — 6. Describe Nebraska. Name the principal products. Which is the largest city ? The capital ? — Y. Describe Kansas. Which is the largest city ? Tlie capital ? — 8. What is the Indian Terri- tory? — 9. Describe Oklahoma. — 10. For what is Texas remarkable? What is said of its resources ? What are its chief staples ? Its largest cities ? Its important rail, way centres ? Its capital ? (II.) — 2. What name is given to these plains in Texas ? Why ? — i. What is said of the rivei-s and railways of North Dakota? — 5. What is said of the Black Hills country? What is said of the " Bad Lands"? — 6. What is said of the soil and rain- fall of Nebraska ? Of the railroads? — Y. Of the railroads of Kansas ? — 9. When was Oklahoma organized ? — 10. What is the comparative size of Texas? What is said of the population ? Of the cities? Of the production of cotton ? Of wheat? Of the trade in cattle ? In what part of the state are the minerals ? What is said of Galveston ? Limgitude AV'^st HI ironi Greciiw'lcli. 110 MAP OP THE WESTERN OR HIGHLAND STATES. BOCKY MOUNTAIN DIV., BASIN DIVISION, _^-50 PACIFIC DIVISIOIH. 4 — V-""'. V Q-*; WESTERN STATES: ROCKY MOUNTAIN DIVISION. 59 QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. G-eneral. — How many groups of states and territories on this map ? (See page 29.) How many states and how many territories in each group? What territory on the Pacific is not on this map? {Alaska.) In what direction do the Roclcy Mountains extend in Wyoming and Montana ? In Colorado and New Mexico ? Which is the principal mountain range in Washington and Oregon ? What is it called in Cal- ifornia ? What mountain ranges along the coast ? In what states ? What great river breaks through the Cascade Mountains ? Which are its two chief branches ? Through what territories does the Colorado flow? What two rivers form it? What branch near its mouth? Montana. — Name the two chief rivers of Montana. What railroad crosses it ? What town is the capital ? What towns south of Helena ? In what part of the state are most of the towns ? Wyoming. — What mountain range in the western part of Wyoming? What peak in this range ? What great rivers have their sources in this range ? What park is mostly in Wyoming ? In what part ? What lake in the park ? What railroad crosses this state ? Through what part ? What town is the capital ? What town nearly west of it ? Colorado. — What four natural parks are in Colorado ? What moun tain peaks in this state ? What great rivers flow from Colorado ? What city is the capital ? What city southwest of Denver ? What two south ? On which side of the parks are most of the towns ? What great rail- roads wholly or partly in Colorado ? New Mexico. — What river passes through New Mexico ? Which are the chief railroads of this territory ? What town is the capital ? What town southwest of Santa Fe ? Idaho. — Which is the chief river of Idaho ? Its chief railway ? What town is the capital ? What town east of Bois6 City ? Nevada. — In what part of Nevada are most of the towns ? What is the capital? What two towns north of Carson ? What railroad ? Utah. — What chain of mountains in the northeast of Utah ? What chain southwest of the Uintah Mountains ? What lakes in this terri- tory ? What city is the capital ? What city north of Salt Lake City ? South? What railroads in Utah ? In what parts are most of the towns ? Arizona. — What two rivers cross Arizona ? What canons in the Col- orado River ? Where are most of the large towns ? What town is the capital ? What two towns southeast ? What railroads cross Arizona ? Alaska. — What is the principal river of Alaska ? (See Map of North America.) What are the chief towns ? On what islands ? Washington. — What cape in the northwestern part of Washington ? At the entrance of what strait ? In what part of the state are most of the towns ? On what sound ? What is the capital ? What city east of Columbia River ? What railroad crosses the state ? Oregon. — What two boundary rivers has Oregon ? In What part of the state are most of the towns ? What city is the capital ? What city north of Salem? On what river? Of what river is it a branch? In what river valleys are most of the railways ? California. — Which is the chief mountain range in California? What peak at the northern end of the Sierra Nevada Mountains ? What two peaks near their southern extremity ? Which is the largest lake in the state ? Which are the two chief rivers ? Through what famous valley does a branch of the San Joaquin flow ? What river in the northern part of the state separates the Cascade Mountains from the Sierra Nevada? What strait at the entrance of the Bay of San Francisco? What city is the capital? What city nearly south of Sacramento? North of Sacramento ? West of Stockton ? West of Oakland ? South of Oakland ? North of Oakland ? What two towns on the southern coast ? LXI. EEYIEW EXEEOISES. States and Territories.- largest city ? -How bounded 1 What is the capital 1 The BOCKT MOUKTAIlf DITISION. BASIN DlVISIOJf. PACIFIC Division. States or Territories. Area Id Sq.MUes Pop. in 1890. states or Territories. Area in Sq.MUes. 84,800 110,700 84,970 118,020 Pop. in 1890. states or Territoriea Area in Sq.MUea. Pop. in 1890. Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico T. 146,080 182,159 97,890 60,705 108,925 412,198 122,580 158,598 Idaho Nevada Utah T. Arizona T.. 84,885 45,761 207,905 69,61i0 Alaska T.... Washington . Oregon California.. . . 577,400 69,180 96,080 158,860 31,000 849,390 818,767 1,208.180 Cities and Towns. — In what part of the state l How situated I Helena? Butte City? Cheyenne? Laramie City? Denver ? Leadville ? Pueblo ? Colorado Springs ? Santa Yt ? Albuquerque ? Bois^CiTY? Hailey? Wardner? Carson ? Virginia City ? Gold Hill ? Salt Lake City ? Ogden City ? Provo City ? Phcenix ? Tucson ? Tombstone ? Sitka ? St. Paul ? Olympia ? Tacotna ? Seattle ? Spokane Falls ? Salem ? Portland ? Sacramento ? San Francisco ? Oakland ? San Josd ? Vallejo ? Los Angeles? Stockton? Marysville? San Diego? Mountains. — Where are they 1 Rocky ? Wind River ? Uintah ? Wahsatch ? Cascade ? Sierra Nevada ? Coast ranges ? Fremonts Peak ? Pikes Peak ? Mount Shasta? Mount Tyndall ? Mount Whitney ? Mount Lincoln? Rivers. — Where does it rise ? Jn what direction does it flow ? Through what states 1 Into what body of water 1 Missouri ? Yellowstone ? Colorado ? Gila ? Green ? Grand ? Sacra- mento? San Joaquin? Klamath? Columbia? Snake? Clarkes Fork ? Lakes. — Where is iti Yellowstone? Great Salt? Tulare? Utah? WESTERN STATES. LXII. WESTERN STATES: EOOKY MOUNTAIN DIVISION. 1. Surface. — This group contains the great water-shed of North America. The Rocky Mountains, one of the highest ranges in North America, under various names, cover the greater part of this division. The Great Plains constitute the eastern part of the group, and ex- tend to the base of the mountains. 2. The most important valleys enclosed by the Rocky Mountains are the four parks of Colorado. Some of these are as large as Connecticut or New Jersey. In the front range or eastern wall of the parks are several peaks over 14,000 feet high. The great central chain of the Rocky GO WESTERN STATES: ROCKY MOUNTAIN DIVISION. GEYSER OF THB YELLOWSTONE. Mountains, known as the Sierra Madre or National range, reaches a great elevation on the west side of the parks. From the top of Mount Lincoln the eye sweeps over a wilderness of high peaks, at least two hundred of which are nearly 13,000 feet, and not less than twenty-five over 14,000 feet high. 3. Rivers. — The only navigable rivers are the Missouri and the Yellowstone in Montana. The snow on the sides and summits of the lofty mountain ranges, melting under the summer sun, is an unfailing supply to the rivers during the months of drought. These rivers are invalua- ble as means of irrigation. 4. Climate. — The mildness of the winter climate on the east side of the Rocky Mountains, especially in the North and far into British America, is a remarkable fact in the physical geography of this group. It is of exceed- ing importance in relation to the settlement of these re- gions. In the higher regions the summers are cold. Notwithstanding the latitude and the elevation, the climate grows milder and the snow disappears from the plains as we approach the great range. This is rapidly becoming the great grazing region of the continent. Cattle unhoused can live all winter upon the rich grass that covers these plains. They have for ages been the feeding-ground of millions of buffaloes. These valuable wild animals, once found in immense herds, are now exterminated. Timber is scarce except on the slopes and in the enclosed valleys of the ranges north of Central Colorado. Towards the south the country grows more and more arid, till in New Mexico the land scape is generally one of desolation. 5. Population. — The total population of this group in 1890 was about the same as that of Connecticut which has about one one-hundredth of the area. 6. Occupations. — Mining and stock-raising are the chief occupations, although agriculture is rapidly develop- ing in Colorado. This group is very rich in metals and other valuable minerals. 7. Jflontana. — Montana has a fine climate, immense areas of rich soil and of valuable timber, and great mineral wealth. It produces a large amount of gold, silver, copper, and live-stock. Helena, the capital, is on the Northern Pacific Railroad. 8. Wyoming-. — The greater part of the population of Wyoming are in the towns on the line of the Union Pacific Railroad and its branches. Wool and immense quantities of live-stock, chiefly cattle and sheep, are shipped to eastern markets. This state includes the greater part of the Yellowstone National Park, which surrounds Yellowstone Lake, and has an area of about 3600 square miles. Its deep canons, lofty falls, and nu- merous bathing-pools, geysers, and lakes, make it in inany re- spects the most wonderful portion of the continent, and even of the world. It has been set aside by Congress as a "perpetual reservation for the benefit and instruction of mankind." Cheyenne is the capital and largest city. 9. Colorado. — Colorado contains the Great Parks and the loftiest ranges of the Rocky Mountains. It is rich in mines of gold, silver, copper, lead, coal, iron, and salt. The mountain "pineries" furnish a large amount of lumber. Grazing and coal-mining are becoming leading industries. Irri- gation is extensively employed in agriculture. Denver, the capital and largest city, is about 5000 feet above the sea. 10. IVew 9Iexico. — New Mexico was settled more than three centuries ago (1550) by the Spaniards. The inhabitants are chiefly a mixed race, descended from civilized Indians and the Spanish settlers, and speak the Spanish lan- guage ; they are mostly in the fertile Valley of tlie Rio Grande, a narrow, swift, and shallow stream, nearly all the waters of which are consumed in irrigation in dry seasons. The popula- UPPER FALL OF THE VliU OWSTONK. WESTERN STATES: BASIN DIVISION. 61 tion of the territory has lately begun to increase by immigration. Two transcontinental railways now cross New Mexico, and com- mon schools have been established. Santa F^, 6840 feet above the sea, is the capital. Albu- querque and Las Vegas are places of growing importance. Qnestious (I.) — 1. What does this group contain.' — 3. Which are the most im- portant valleys? — 3. Which are the only navigable rivers? — i. What remarkable fact in regard to climate ? Why important .'' — 5. What is said of the population ? — 6. What are the principal occupations? What partial exceptions? In what is this group rich? — 7. What is said of Montana? Name its chief resources. What is the capital? — 8. What is said of the population of Wyoming? What are its chief products ? What is the capital.' — 9. For what is Colorado noted? What is its capital and largest city? — 10. When and by whom was New Mexico settled? What is its capital and largest city ? What is said of (II.) — 1. What mountains in this division ? What character of the eastern part ? — 2. What is the size these parks ? What peaks east of them ? What mountain chain west of the parks ? What is said of the view from Mount Lincoln ? — 3. What an the effects and uses of the snow? — 4. What ii the character of this part of the plains ? To what is it best adapted? Why? What is said of the buffaloes ? W here is timber found? What is the character of the coun- try towards the south ? — 7. What does Mon- tana produce ? — 8. What is said of the high- est mountain chain of Wyoming ? Of the National Park ? — 9. What minerals has Col- orado ? What other industries ? — 1 0. Who are the present inhabitants of New Mexico? Where are they located? What is the character of the Rio Grande ? What is said of the population ? What is said of the railways of the Territory of New Mex- WESTEKN STATES: BASIN DIVISION. 1. Situation. — Nevada and Idaho and the territories of Utah, and Arizona occu- py the central and larger part of the Great Basin, which is nearly enclosed by the Si- erra Nevada, Cascade, and Rocky Mountains. 2. Surface. — The surface is very rugged and uneven. Numerous short parallel chains cover nearly the whole region. The lofty Wahsatch chain divides the high plateau of the Colo- rado, the waters of which flow to the Gulf of California, from the lower plateau of the Great Basin, where the swift streams are lost in salt lakes near the foot of its mountain walls. 3. Climate. — The climate is exceedingly dry. This is particularly the case in the south, whefe the summers are very hot ; in the extreme north the winter is cold, with deep snows. The temperature is very variable. In consequence of the great GRAND CANON OF THE COLOKADO. extent of dry soil and naked rock, an intensely warm day is followed, even in midsummer, by a cold night. 4. Veg^etation. — Timber is found only on the highest mountains. The brown sage-bush in the north and the cactus in the south are the characteristic vegetation. 5. Population. — More than half the population of this group of states is in Utah. 6. Occupations. — The chief occupation in Utah is agriculture ; in the remaining regions, mining. 7. Idaho. — Idaho produces large amounts of old and silver. Boise City is the capital. . Nevada. — Nevada is chiefly re- Jii 11 'cable for its mineral wealth. For '^ veral years it produced more than half of the lead mined in the United States, and nearly one third of the silver. Virgin- ia City and Gold Hill are fa- mous for rich mines of silver. A single vein of one Of these mines is said to have yield- ed over $22,000,000 in four- teen months. Carson is the capital. The towns are at the silver- mines, on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada. 9. Ftah. — Utah is remark- able as the home of the Mor- mons, or Latter-day Saints; they constitute four fifths of the population. Their religion has many pecu- liarities, the most important of which is polygamy. The Mormons occupy fertile val- leys at the western base of the Wahsatch range, and carry on an extensive agri- culture by means of irriga- tion. Salt Lake City is the cap- ital and largest city. 10. Arizona. — Arizona and Southern California have a drier climate than any other part of the United States. The annual rain-fall near the mouth of the Colorado is only about three inches ; that of Southern Alabama is sixty-three inches. The canons of the Colorado are the greatest and deepest river gorges in the world. The river is navigable to Callville; beyond this for more than three hundred miles the river and its tribu- taries flow with great swiftness through narrow chasms with nearly perpendicular walls, and over rocky beds from 3000 to 6000 feet below the general level of the plateau. (;■_> •^VESTERN STATES. PACIFIC DIVISION. Arizona is very rich in mineral treasures. Tiie mining of silver and of copper is the leading industry. Coal, salt, and gold are abundant. Two transcontinental railways cross the territory. In the eastern part of the territory are large pine forests. Phcenix is the capital. Tucson is the largest town. Questions (I.) — 1. What region does this group occupy? — 2. What is the char- acter of the surface ? — 3. Of the climate .' What is the climate in the south ? In the north ? — i. What is the vegetation ? — .5. Where is most of the population ? — 6. The chief occupation in Utah ? In the remaining regions .'' — 7. What metals does Idaho produce ? What is the capital ?— 8. For what is the State of Nevada remarkable .' For what are Virginia City and Gold Hill famous? What is the capital?— 9. For what is Utah Territory remarkable? What city is the capital?— 10. For what is Arizona Territory remarkable ? What is the capital ? (II.) — 3. What is said of the mountain chains ? How does the Wahsatch chain divide this section ? — 3. What is said of the temperature } — 8. Of the amount of silver yielded by a single vein ? Where are the towns ? — 9. What peculiarity has the religion of the Mormons ? Where are the Mormons located ? What is their chief occupation ? — 10. How does the rain-fall of Arizona comjjare with that of Southern Alabama? What is said of the caiions of the Colorado? What is said of the minerals of Ari- zona? Of the forests? What two railways cross the territory? LXIV. WESTERN STATES: PAOIFIO DIVISION. 1. Surface. — The lofty range known in California as the Sierra Nevada, and in Oregon and Washington as the Cascade, passes through this entire group of states. It is nearly as high as the Rocky Mountains, but has fewer passes. East of these mountains is a portion of the great interior plateau ; in Washington it is called the Great Plain of the Columbia, and is about 2000 feet above the ocean. Near the coast is a series of short, low chains, called the Coast ranges. They are parallel to the great interior chain. The coast is very bold, and without islands. Between the high chains and the Coast ranges are three important lowlands : the Valley of Puget Sound, in Washington; the Valley of the Willamette, in Oregon; and the Cal- ifornia Basin in California. Each of these is the most fertile and im- portant part of the state or terri- tory in which it is situated. 2. Climate. — The climate west of the great mountain range is mild and equable in temperature, but has great extremes of moisture. Puget Sound has a greater rain -fall than any other part of the United States except Alaska. 3. Occnpations. — Agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and lumber- ing are the leading pursuits. 4. Commerce. — Internal com- merce, except over the Pacific railroads, is quite limited. There are few navigable rivers. The Columbia is naviga- ble to where it breaks through the Cascade Mountains, and again beyond them to Priest Rapids ; its great branch, the Snake, to Lewiston, Idaho ; the Sacramento and San Joaquin are navigable for a large part of their course ; the Colorado more than 300 miles, to the mouth of the Grand Caiion; and the Yukon in Alaska, with its great branch, the Felly, nearly 3000 miles. 5. Alaska. — The great territory of Alaska, including the Aleutian Islands, was purchased of Russia in 1867. Mountain chains extend along the whole coast and through the islands ; they contain many volcanoes. The area of Alaska is over 500,000 square miles. The greater part has a severe Arctic climate. The west coasts have a mild, rainy climate. The rain- fall at Sitka is about ninety inches a year ; there are but few clear days. In the sout-h are heavy forests. A governor, collector of customs, and a few other of- ficials reside at Sitka, and are appointed by the President of the United States. It has no legislature. The inhab- itants are mostly Indians, Esquimaux, and half-breeds. They live on the coasts and islands, being almost exclusively de- pendent upon the fisheries, which are among the most valuable in the world. The skins of the fur-seal are the chief article of export. 6. WasMngton. — Washington has the most extensive and valuable lumber forests in the United States. In the number and excellence of its bays and harbors it is unsurpassed. The eastern half is noted (or wheat and live-stock ; owing- to the mild and moist climate, the western half is densely covered with valuable forests of pine and cedar. The short streams falling into Puget Sound furnish exhausdess water-power. Coal is abundant. The principal exports are lumber and wheat Olympia is the capital. Seattle, Tacoma, and Spokane Falls are the chief cities. 7. Oregon. — The greater part of the population of Oregon is in the fertile Valley of the Willamette. Wool-growing and stock-raising are the principal occupations. The salmon fisheries of the Co- lumbia are of great and increasing importance. Wheat, lumber, and canned salmon are the chief exports. Though in the latitude of New EngLmd, cattle spend the winter in green fields. TheNorthern Pacific Railroad connects Oregon and A\ashington with the Great Lakes and the Mississippi \alley. The coast is deficient in harbors. Portland, on the Willamette, is the largest city. Salem is the capital. BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA. WESTERN STATES: PACIFIC DIVISION. 63 8. Califbrnia. — California produces more gold and more wine than any other state in the Union. In manu- factures it surpasses every other state west of the Missis- sippi except Missouri. It contains the great double Val- ley of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, which is con- nected with the Pacific Ocean by the Golden Gate at San Francisco, and with the Mississippi Valley by several trunk lines of railway. The variety and value of the agricultural and mineral riches of this valley are beyond brief description, and make California a proverb for wealth and fruitfulness throughout the world. The yield of the vast gold-fields of the Sierra places California among the first of the gold -producing countries ; yet the annual value of manufactured prod- ucts already greatly exceeds that of the mineral products, while the results of agricult- ure nearly equal all the others together. Wheat, barley, wine, and fruits are excellent in qual- ity and wonderful in quan- tity. The soil and climate of the southern part of the state are favorable to the cultivation of the orange, olive, fig, almond, and other tropical fruits. They are also favorable to the growth of the mul- berry - tree, whose leaves are the food of the silk- worm. The fertile soil, the equable temperature of its climate, the succession of rainy and dry seasons which form its year, and extensive itriga- tion, give to California the most productive agriculture in the United States. The area of the state is nearly equal to that of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania. Its population in 1890, including more than 75,000 Chinese, was a little more than one fifth of that of the State of New York. The Big Trees and the Yosemite Valley are two of the chief wonders of nature. These trees are gigantic evergreens, some of which are more than 100 feet around, 400 feet high, and 3000 years old. The Yosemite Valley is a remarkable chasm ten miles long and three in greatest width, with perpendicular walls of granite from 3000 to 5000 feet high, over which the Merced River falls, in three leaps, more than 2000 feet.- ga. YOSEMITE VALLEY. San Francisco, famous for its magnificent harbor and its export of gold and wheat, is the largest city of the Pacific coast from Cape Horn to Japan, and is the fourth city of the United States in foreign commerce. Sacra- mento is the capital. San Francisco is at the western end of the Central Pacific and Southern Pacific raiilroads, and has an extensive and growing commerce with Europe, the Mississippi Valley, and the Atlantic States, and with the countries and islands of the Pacific Ocean. A large part of the trade with the Atlantic States is carried on by means of ocean steamers and the Panama Railroad. Tea and silk from Japan and China are imported in exchange for grain. Questions (I.) — 1. What lofty mountain range passes through this group of states ? What ranges near the coast ? What three important valleys between the high chains and the Coast ranges ? What is said of these val- leys ? — 3. What characteristics has the climate west of the great range ? — 3. What are the leading pursuits.' — 4. What is said of internal com- merce ? Of the mountains ? Of the railroads and rivers ? How far is the Columbia nav- igable? The Sacramento and San Joaquin? The Colorado? The Yukon ?— 5. How was Alaska obtained? When? Describe the political organization of Alaska^ Who are the inhabitants ? — 6. What is said of the forests of Washington ? What is the principal export ? What town is the cap- ital ? — 7. Where is most of the population )f Oregon? What are the principal oc- ;upations ? What is said of the salmon fisheries of the Columbia? Of its ex- ports ? Which is the largest town ? The capital .' — 8. For what is California noted ? What is its rank in manufactures ? What important valley has it ? By what is it connected commercially with the Pacific ? With the Mississippi Valley ? What is the area of this state? What natural wonders does it possess ? For what is San Francisco famous ? What city is the capital? (II.) — 1. How does the Sierra Nevada compare in height with the Rocky Mount- ains ? What is there east of these mount- ains ? By what name is It known in Washington ? How high is it above the sea ? To what are the low^chains parallel ? What is the character of the coast ? — . 2. What is said of the rain-fall of Puget Sound ? — 5. What is the character of the coast and islands of Alaska ? What is its area? What is the climate of the greater part ? Of the west coasts ? What is the amount of rain - fall at Sitka ? Where are the forests ? Where do the inhabitants live? Upon what are they dependent? What is the chief article of export ? — 6. What is said of the bays and harbors of Washington ? For what is the east- ern half noted ? What is said of the western half? What is said of the rivers ? What mineral is abundant ? — 7. How does the climate of Oregon compare with that of New England? What is said of its railroad connections? Of its coast? — 8. What is said of the agricultural and mineral riches of California ? How does California rank among the gold-producing countries ? How do the manufactured compare with the mineral products? How do the agricultural products compare with the manufactured and the mineral products ? What is said of the wheat, barley, wine, and fruits ? Of the tropi- cal fruits? Of the. mulberry-tree? What causes give California the most productive agriculture in the United States ? How does the population of California compare with that of the State of New York ? Describe the Big Trees. The Yosemite Val- ley. What is said of the commerce of San Francisco? What other trade route be- ween. San Francisco and the Atlantic States? In what does the trade with Japan and China consist? 64 COMMERCIAL UNITED STATES: INDUSTRIES.— RAILROAD AND WATER TRANSPORTATION. COMMERCIAL UNITED STATES. LXV. INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. I. — 1. Agriculture, the chief source of food, and the basis of all other industries, is by far the most important occupation of the people of the United States. The following are the leading products. 2. Maize or India?i Corn is the principal grain. In some years the product has exceeded IVYO millions of bushels. Comparatively a small part is exported ; the greater part is used in fattening cattle, swine, etc. 3. Wheat, the chief bread grain, is the second in quantity and in value. The annual export is greater than that of all other grains, and some- times exceeds one fourth of the product. Great Britain is the chief foreign purchaser. A much greater part is distributed to the manu- facturing, mining, and cotton districts of the United States. 4. Oats, barky, rye, buckwheat, and rice are the other grains. Barley is used chiefly in the manufacture of beer ; a considerable part of the wheat, rye, and maize is converted into whiskey, starch, and glucose. 5. Hay and Potatoes are of great total value, but are too bulky to pay for long transportation. 6. Tobacco is a very important product, and is one of the chief articles of export. More than one third of it is produced in Kentucky. 7. Cotton is the largest and most valuable export of the United States. Great Britain buys much the greater part, but large quantities are sent to nearly every country of Europe. The crop has amounted to nearly 6 millions of bales, of 475 pounds each, and is still increasing. 8. Sugar is a limited crop. Nearly all of it is produced in Louisiana. Note. — Products in 1879, and Leading States. — Maize, 1773 millions of bushels; Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, Missouri, Indiana, and Kansas. — Wheat, 460 millions; Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, and California. — Oats, 408 millions; Illinois, Iowa, New York, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. — Barley, 44 millions ; about one half from California and New York. — Kye, 20 millions; Pennsylvania, Illinois, New York, and '^\&con€m.— Buckwheat, 1 2 millions ; about two thirds from New York and Pennsylvania. — Rice, 110 millions of pounds ; South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana. — Hay, 36 millions of tons ; New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. — Potatoes, 200 millions of bushels ; New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois. — Tobacco, 473 millions of pounds ; Kentucky, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. — Cotton, nearly 6 millions of bales ; Mississippi, Georgia, Texas, Alabama, and Arkansas. — Cane Sugar, 250,000 hogsheads ; Louisiana, Texas, Tennessee, and South Carolina. \V. — 1. Grazing is a department of agriculture. 2. Butter and cheese are produced in great quantities in the hay dis- tricts of the Middle Atlantic and North Central States, and are among the leading articles of export. 3. Cattle zxe. also raised for beef, hides, and tallow in many parts of the country, but chiefly between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mount- ains, and in the Pacific and North Central States. 4. Sheep are raised chiefly for mutton, wool, skins, and tallow. Cali- fornia, Ohio, and Illinois are the leading states in wool-growing. 5. Swine are raised ior pork and lard. The chief supply is from the corn country. St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati, Boston, New York, and other cities are extensively engaged in the packing oi pork, lard, and beef. The greater part is sent to the cotton states and to the mining and manufacturing districts, and there is a large export trade to Europe, the West Indies, and South America. III. — Porest products. — Lumber, turpentine, and bark are the chief forest products. Maine, North Carolina, and Canada furnish the chief supply of lumber for the Atlantic States ; Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota for the Central; and Oregon and Washington for the Pacific States. Turpentine is chiefly obtained from the Carolina pine-forests. The bark of the oak and the hemlock is of great value for tanning. IV.— Fishing.— The North Atlantic States furnish the chief supply offish, including cod, mackerel, herring, shad, salmon, and lobsters. Be- sides these varieties are oysters from the Chesapeake, white-fish from the Great Lakes, and salmon from the Pacific coast. v.— 1. Minerals. — Coal and iron are the most important of minerals. In these two substances the United States is the richest country in the world. The chief deposits of coal are found in a broad belt extending from Maryland and Eastern Pennsylvania to Kansas and Nebraska. There are also valuable deposits in the Rocky Mountains. The princi- pal iron-mines are in the Appalachian Mountains, on the borders of Lake Superior, and in Missouri. Pennsylvania exceeds all other states in the production of both coal and iron. The production and the man- ufacture of iron are among the most important industries of the United States, especially in the Ohio Valley and in Missouri. 2. Petroleum is supplied chiefly by western Pennsylvania. The refined oil, known as kerosene, is one of the leading exports, and is sent to near- ly every civilized country. 3. In the production of gold and silver the United States surpasses every other country in the world. The chief supply is obtained from the Western Highland. California produces the greatest amount of gold, and Colorado of silver. 4. Among the other important mineral products are copper from Ari- zona, Montana, and Northern Michigan ; lead from Nevada, Utah, and Missouri ; and salt from Michigan, New York, West Virginia, and Ohio. VI. — Manufactures. — The principal manufacturing district of the United States lies east of the Appalachians, and between Portland and Baltimore. The second district is in the North Central States. The leading manufactures of the several states have already been described. Questions. I. — 1. What is said of agriculture ? — 2. Which is the principal grain ? What is said of it i" — 3. Which grain is second in importance? What is said of the export ? What country is the chief purchaser ? How is the rest distributed ? — 4. Name the other grains in the order of their importance. What is the chief use of barley? What grains are in part converted into whiskey t — 5. What is said of hay and potatoes ? —6. Of tobacco ?— 7. Of cotton ?— 8. Of sugar ? II. — 1. What is said of grazing ? — 3. Of butter and cheese ? — 8. For what other pur- poses are cattle raised ? Where ? — 4. Which are the chief sheep products ? The prin- cipal wool states.' — .5. The chief swine products? What is said of the packing trade? III. — Name the leading forest products. Name the chief sources of the supply of lumber. Of turpentine. What barks are used in tanning? IV. — Where are the chief supplies of fish obtained ? V. — 1. Which are the most important of minerals ? What is said of the coal and iron of the United States? Where are the chief coal deposits? The principal iron- mines ? Which is the leading state in coal and iron ? What else is said of the iron industry ?— 2. What is said of petroleum ? Of kerosene ?— 3. Of gold and silver ?— 4. What is said of the other important mineral products ? VI. — Where is the principal manufacturing district? The second district? LXVI. TEANSPOETATION. RAILROADS I. —The principal or trunk-line railroads of the United States may be divided into Eastern, Central, Southern, and \Vestern. IL-Eastern Trunk Lines.-The principal eastern trunk lines lie chiefly in the Middle Atlantic States. They are six in number, and are of leading importance in the railway system of the United States, lill \?T i L^' '"'P'"' P''"''"'^^^ °f 'h^ "«"hern half of the Mississippi Valley finds its way to a market over these lines. 1. Grand Trunk-from Portland, through Montreal and Toronto, to De- troit (861 m.). It lies mostly in Canada. 2. New York Central and Hudson River -from New York, through Poughkeepsie, Albany, and Rochester, to Buffalo (440 m.). The Jiosion and Albany extends it to Boston (201 m.). 3. West Shore-from New \ork to Buffalo (426 m.\ parallel to Hudson Jitver md New York Central. *■ f„Tj°''^'S^'^.e Erie, and Western-from New York, through Elmim and Hornellsville, to Buffalo (424 m.), with a branch to Dunkirk. '■ foXl?''i'7;;T'"^''''''''^P'^'^•^•^'°"g'^ Harrisbuig and Altoona, o N w vn t n "V- ^''^ ^'""" '^"-"-y ^'"''■"<"^- f'°>" Philadelphia to New York (90 m.), is its eastern extension. RAILROAD AND WATER TRANSPORTATION. 65 6. Baltimore and Ohio—from Baltimore, through Cumberland, to Par- kersburg, with a branch through Wheeling to Chicago (852 m'.). III.— Central Trunk Lines.— These lines lie in the North Central States. Among many important lines the following are prominent : 1. Michigan Central— from Detroit, through Jackson and Kalamazoo, to Chicago (284 ra.). Extension of the principal Canada roads. 2. Lake Shore and Michigan Southern — from Buffalo, through Erie, Cleveland, and Toledo, to Chicago (539 m.). Extension q{ Mw York Central and Hudson Rwer, and other New York trunk lines. 3. Wabash — from Toledo, through Fort Wayne, Logansport, and Deca- tur to St. Louis (436 m.), with branches to Keokuk, Quincy, and Hannibal, and direct connections to Kansas City and Omaha. 4. New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio— from Salamanca, through Mans- field and Dayton, to Cincinnati (448 m.). Extension oi New York, Lake Erie, and Western. 5. Pittsburgh, Port Wayne, and Chicago — from Pittsburgh, through Mansfield and Fort Wayne, to Chicago (468 m.). Extension of the Pennsylvania. 6. Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, or "Pan-Handle Route"— from Pittsburgh, through Columbus, to Cincinnati, and through Richmond to Indianapolis. Continued in the St. Louis, Vandalia, Terre Haute, and Indianapolis Road, through Terre Haute to St. Louis (619 m.). Extension of the T^if^wjj/z'rtWM. 7. Cincinnati, Washington, and Baltimore and Ohio and Mississippi — from Parkersburg, through Cincinnati, to St. Louis (536 m.). Exten- sion of Baltimore and Ohio. 8. Illinois Central — from Cairo, through Centralia, to Chicago (365 m.), and through Bloomington and Dubuque, to Sioux City (784 m.). 9. Chicago and Alton — from Chicago, through Bloomington, Springfield, and Alton, to St. Louis (280 m.). IV. — Southern Trunk Lines.— The following groups include most of the chief lines of the South Atlantic and South Central States : 1. Aline from Washington through Knoxville to Chattanooga; a line from Washington and Richmond, through Atlanta, to Mobile and New Or- leans; and a series of railways which, under many names, connect all the Atlantic and river ports from Jacksonville, Fla., to Portland, Me. 2. In the second group are lines extending westward from Charleston, SavannaTi, and other southern Atlantic ports, and crossing the Mis- sissippi at New Orleans, Vicksburg, and Memphis. 3. The third group includes lines extending north and south from Louisville to Mobile, Memphis, and New Orleans ; from St. Louis and Columbus, Ky., to New Orleans and Mobile ; and from Evansville, through Nashville and Montgomery to Mobile, and through Chat- tanooga and Atlanta to the southern Atlantic ports. The chief business of these lines is the exchange of the cotton and other products of the South for the manufactures and imports of the Northern and Central Atlantic States, and the breadstuffs, provisions, and manufactures of the country north of the Ohio and the Missouri. V. — Western Trunk Lines. — These lines lie mostly west of the Mis- sissippi. The Northern Pacific extends from Duluth and St. Paul to various ports on Puget Sound and the Columbia. It unites the railway and water-way systems of the Upper Mississippi and the Lakes with those of the Pacific region. The Central Pacific extends from San Fran- cisco to Ogden, is continued thence by the Union Pacific to Omaha (1914 m.). The Kansas Pacific, from Cheyenne through Denver, ter- minates at Kansas City. The Southern Pacific extends from San Francisco through southern California and Arizona to Deming in New Mexico, and thence by the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe to Kansas City. It is connected with New Orleans by the Texas Pacific and by Galveston, Harrisbicrg, and San Antonio. From Omaha, Kansas City, and St. Paul a number of important roads extend these great trans- continental routes to the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. Among these are the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific, the Chicago and Northwestern, the Chicago and Alton, and the Wabash. The Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul and the St. Paul, Minne- apolis, and Manitoba are parts of a system of important lines con- necting the chief ports on Lake Michigan with the great wheat region lying between that lake and the Upper Missouri and extending into Manitoba. Texas, California, and Oregon also have important lines. WATER-WATS. VL— The principal interior water-ways of the United States are the Atlantic System, the Mississippi System, the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, and the Canals. 1. Atlantic System. — The rivers of the Atlantic system are connected with the extensive coasting trade. They are navigated by thousands of sailing vessels and steamers. A fall or a rapid at the head of navigation is usually the seat of a manufacturing city or town. Note. — The entrances of the rivers of the Atlantic system are more or less obstructed by broad banks or shoals of mud and sand, brought down by the rivers and deposited in the sea just at their mouths. These shoals are called bars. They frequently make it dangerous and sometimes impossible for ves- sels to enter even at high tide. Most of the rivers between Chesapeake Bay and the Rio Grande can be entered only by vessels of very light draught. The Mississippi admits the largest ocean steamers. 2. Mississippi System. — The Mississippi has fifty-five great tributaries, nearly all of which have navigable branches. Numerous steamboats and barges furnish cheap transportation for the bulky products of the valley. Note. — The Mississippi system has nearly 17, OCX) miles navigable by steam- boats, and more than 20,000 by barges. The waters of the great river and its branches are subject to great changes of level, in consequence of the annual floods and droughts. Below the mouth of the Ohio the Mississippi sometimes rises more than fifty feet. At low water some of the branches can be nav- igated only by steamers of light draught, and some not at all for several months. 3. The St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes.— The Great Lakes are fresh- water seas, and are traversed by a great number of sailing vessels as well as numerous large steamers. They are closed for several months by ice, biit are not affected by tides, floods, or droughts. 4. Canals. — The Great Lakes are connected with the Mississippi and Atlantic systems by canals. The Erie Canal in New York is the only one of any present importance. A short ship-canal in Michigan enables vessels to pass the falls at the entrance of Lake Superior. The Falls of Niagara and the rapids in the St. Lawrence are passed by means of ship-canals in Canada. Note. — A number of important ship-canals have recently been proposed: one to connect the Hudson and Lake Champlain with the St. Lawrence, others to connect the Ohio with the James and the Potomac, the Tennessee with the Alabama and the Altamaha, the Illinois and the Wisconsin with Lake Michi- gan, and the Minnesota River with the Red River of the North. Questions. I.— What are trunk lines ? How may the trunk lines of the United States be divided ? II. — Where are the principal eastern trunk lines.' How many are there? Name them. Why important.' — Describe the following roads.* — 1. Grand Trunk? — 2. New York Central and Hudson River? — 3. West Shore? — 1. New York, Lake Erie, and Western? — S.Pennsylvania? New Jersey.' — 6. Baltimore and Ohio? (Has exten- sions to Washington and Philadelphia, and also to New York.) III. — Where are the central trunk lines? Name the most important of these lines. Describe them.* — 1. Michigan Central? — 2. Lake Shore and Michigan Southern? — 3. Wabash? — 4. New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio? — 5. Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago? — 6. Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and St. Louis? — 7. Cincinnati, Washington, and Baltimore? Ohio and Mississippi.' — 8. Illinois Central ? — 9. Clii- cago and Alton ? IV. — How many groups of southern trunk lines? — 1. Describe the first group. 2. The second. — 3. The third. What is the chief business of these lines ? v.— Where do the western trunk lines mostly lie ? Describe the transcontinental routes. The Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, and the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba. What is said of other western lines? VI. — How are the interior water-ways of the United States divided ? — 1 . With what trade are the Atlantic rivers connected ? By what navigated ? Of what is a fall or rapid at the head of navigation usually the seat ? — 2. What is said of the branches of the Mississippi ? By what navigated ? What is said of the importance of the system ? Of the mouth of the Mississippi .'—3. Of the Great Lakes ? What effect has winter upon all the northern water-ways? — i. How are the first three systems connected? Which is the most important of these canals ? Where are the ship-canals ? * Ask the following questions about each of these roads: In what state or states? Between and through what cities? With what other trunk lines connected? lO , Me. .' What What QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. What great railroad terminates at Portland, Through what foreign country does it pass ? lake-port of Michigan is at its western end? railroads in the central part of the state of New York? Beiween what two cities are they ? Which of these is a lake-port ? What road connects Albany with Eos- ton> With New York? What road in the southern part of New York ? What sea-port at its eastern end' What lake-port at its western end? What road between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh? Balti- more and Wheeling ' What is the general direction of these six great roads ? What lake-port is the chief railroad centre of Illi- nois? What road connects Chicago with Detroit? Of what great eastern roads is the Michigan Central an extension? What road connects Chicago with Buf- falo? Through what other lake-ports does the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern pass? With what great railways does it connect in New York? What road from Chicago to Pittsburgh passes through Fort Wayne ? Of what Pennsylvania road is it a continua- tion ? What road from Chicago passes through Wheel- ing to Baltimore ? What road from Pittsburgh runs through Columbus and Indianapolis to St. Louis? To what other port on the Ohio has it a branch from Columbus? What road from Toledo pa.ises through Springfield. Illinois ? To what two cities on t sissippi ? What road runs north from Cairo? \\ does it fork? In what city does the cistern br terminate? The western branch ? What road nects St. Louis with Chicago ? With Indianapolis Pittsburgh? With Cincinnati ? What road connects Chicago with Omaha! what more western road docs it connect ? What continues the I'niou Pacific from Ogden to Sanl Cisco? What road extends east from Denver what city does a branch from IVnvcr join the 1 I'acific ? What city on the Missouri at the caster of the Kansas Pacific? What road connects K City with Pcming ? Pcming with San Ftaiv (>rrKf>u,is$>i>tB EASTERN TIME INTERCOLONIAL TIME Vhat large city on the Mississippi is connected by lilroad with Kansas City? What road runs south- est from St. Louis ? To what gulf-port does it form art of a line? What other road forms part of a line om St. Louis and Cairo to Galveston? Through hat states does this line run ? What road runs south from Richmond ? To what 5rt? Between Richmond and Atlanta? Norfolk id Chattanooga ? Louisville and Memphis? Louis- He and Mobile ? Cairo and New Orleans ? Mobile id Cairo ? Memphis and Charleston ? What color on this map shows how far a river is ■vigable ? In which half of the United States are arly all the navigable ri-ers ? Most of the rail- roads ? Why can most of the rivers of the Atlantic coast be ascended only a short distance ? In what part of the United States are the longest navigable rivers ? Name the chief navigable rivers of the North Atlantic States. Of the Middle Atlantic. The South Atlantic. The South Central. The North Central. The West Central. What rivers of the western half of the United States are partly navigable? Which is the most important navigable river of Canada ? What three states contain nearly all the canals? {New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio.) Which is the principal canal ? ( The Erie.) What waters does it connect ? What other canals are connected with the Hudson River ? ( The Champlain and Hudson and the Delaware and Hudson.) What port on Lake On- tario is at the mouth of a branch of the Erie Canal? On Lake Erie at the mouth of the Erie Canal? At the mouth of a canal from Pittsburgh? From Ports- mouth, Ohio? From Cincinnati ? From Evansville? How many canals connect the Ohio River with Lake Erie ? What river of Illinois is connected by canal with Lake Michigan ? At what port ? Note. — It is proposed to unite the following waters by ship- canals : A. (see map) Lake Champlain and the St. Lawrence. E. Ottawa River and Georgian Bay. C. Lake Ontario and Geor- gian Bay. D. James River and the Kanawha. E. The Tennes- see River and the Ocmulgee. F. The Tennessee and the Ala- bama. G. The Wisconsin and the Fox. H. The Minnesota ajld the Red River of the North. 68 BRITISH AMERICA; QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. LXVII. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. General. — What province of the Dominion of Canada is a peninsula? What one north of Nova Scotia is an island ? What one is west of Prince Edward Island ? Northwest of New Brunswick ? West of Quebec ? West of Ontario ? On the Pacific ? What districts border on Manitoba? On British Columbia? What is the capital of the Dominion? {Ottawa^ Where situated? What large island east of the Dominion ? {Newfoundland?) What provinces and districts are crossed by the Canadian Pacific Railway? Nova Scotia. — What island in the eastern part of Nova Scotia ? What four capes on the coast ? What bay west ? What city is the capital ? What town on the southeastern coast? Prince Edward Island. — What waters surround Prince Edward Isl- and ? What town is the capital ? New Brunswick. — What three boundary rivers has New Brunswick ? Which is the principal river ? What cities on it ? What bay on the north ? On the south ? What city is the capital ? Quebec. — In the valley of what river does the Province of Quebec lie? What river separates Quebec from Ontario? What branch of the St. Lawrence is the outlet of Lake Champlain ? Name the two chief cities on the St. Lawrence. Which is the capital ? Ontario. — What lakes border on the Province of Ontario ? In what part is the peninsula ? What bay north of the peninsula ? What lake in the peninsula ? What cities on or near Lake Ontario ? Which is the capital ? What city southwest of Hamilton ? Manitoba. — What river enters Manitoba from the south? What large lakes in this province ? What is the capital ? British Columbia. — What mountains form part of the eastern bound- ary of British Columbia ? What is the capital ? Which is the principal river ? What islands on the coast ? What waters surround Vancouver Island ? What town on Frazer River ? At end of Canadian Pacific Ry. ? • Districts and Territories. — Name the five districts. The capital of four of these. {Regina^ The Territory? What river flows into Win- nipeg Lake from the west ? What river is the outlet of Winnipeg Lake ? Newfoundland. — What waters surround Newfoundland ? What city is the capital ? What capes on the coast ? What small islands south ? LXVIII. EEVIEW EXEEOISES. Countries. — Where is it? How bounded? What is the capital? Provinces. Nova Scotia Prince Edward. . . New Brunswiclc. Quebec Manitoba British Columbia. Ontario Area in Sq. Miles 20,907 2,133 27,960 193,367 65,988 384,996 223,001 Population in 1891. 450,523 109,088 321,294 1,488,586 154,442 92,767 2,112,989; Provinces. Districts of Al- ~v berta,Saskat- ( chawan and /' Assiniboia, ) The Territories. . . . Newfoundland (inc. Lab. coast) Area in Sq. Miles. 301,557 1,865,442 162,737 Population in 1691. 67,554 32,168 197,332 Cities and Towns. — /// what part of the province? How situated? Ottawa? Halifax? Yarmouth? Pictou ? Frederickton ? St. John ? Charlotte Town ? Quebec ? Montreal ? Toronto ? Ham- ilton ? London ? Kingston ? Winnipeg ? New '\\'estminster ? Vic- toria ? St. Johns ? Battleford ? Regina ? Vancouver ? Islands. — Where situated ? — Newfoun dland ? St. Pierre ? Miquelon ? Prince Edward ? Cape Breton ? Vancouver ? Queen Charlotte ? Capes. — From what coast does it pi-oject ? — Race ? Bauld ? Ray ? North ? Canso ? Sable ? Breton ? Gulfs and Bays.— Where is it?— St. Lawrence ? Fundy ? Chaleur? Georgian ? Georgia ? Straits. — Between what lands ? What waters does it connect? — Belle Isle? Northumberland? JuandeFuca? Queen Charlotte Sound? Sivers. — Where does it rise ? In what direction does if flow ? Into what body of water ?~ St. John ? St. Lawrence ? Richelieu ? Ottawa ? Saskatchawan ? Frazer ? S.t. Croix ? Restigouche ? Red River of the North? Lakes.— Where situated? What outlet ? — A\'innipegoos ? \\'innipeg ? Manitoba ? Simcoe ? BRITISH AMERICA LXIX. CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND : DESOEIPTION. 1. Divisions. — British America comprises about one third of the continent of North America, together with many adjacent islands. Its chief divisions are the Do- minion of Canada and the Province of Newfoundland. Besides these there are the Bermudas, the Bahamas, Jamaica, and many other colonies in the West Indies. 2. The Dominion of Canada has an area of about three and a half millions of square miles, or nearly the same as that of the United States. Its population is about four and one half millions. Ottawa is the capital. It is a confederation, consisting of the provinces of Quebec Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island British Columbia, Manitoba, five Districts, and the Northeast and Northwest Territories. Newfoundland, to which belotigs the Labrador coast, is not included in the confederation 3. G«vernment.~-The chief executive officer is the Governor-General, who is appointed by the soxereion of Great Britain. The Legislature consists of two brandies. The members of the lower branch are elected bv the peo- ple; the members of the other branch are appointed bv the Governor-General. Each province has a similar gov- ernment under a Lieutenant-Governor. 4. Cli.nate.-The winter climate is severe, except in the southern parts of British Columbia and of Ontario. 5^ S«rfaee.-British Columbia and the provinces cast Mo^nt ' ":r^' ''''-'' "^■'^^"^- ^^^^^--^" the Rocky Mountains and Manitoba are extensive prairies loa Copyrig/it,lS'i,by Harper Jc BroUiart. 70 BRITISH AMliRICA. DOMINION OF CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND. ST. LAWRENCE RIVER. 6. Commercial rontes. — The chief commercial water \ route is the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. The rapids of the St. Lawrence above Montreal, and the falls of the Niagara and St. Marys rivers, are passed by means of canals. There are about 12,000 miles of railway. The great trunk lines are : The Intercolonial, from Halifax to Quebec ; the Grand Trunk, from Portland, Maine, to the St. Clair River ; and the Canadian Pacific, a great transcontinental road from Quebec to the Pacific Ocean. In winter the communication of the interior provinces with the ocean is largely through the United States. 7. Traile, — The principal trade of the provinces is with the United States and Great Britain. The chief exports are lumber, grain, animal products, live-stock, and fish. 8. NoTa Scotia. — Nova Scotia has many good har- bors and valuable fisheries, and exports sheep, coal, and gypsum, or plaster of Paris. Halifax, the capital and largest city, is an important British naval station. 9. Prince Edward Island. — Prince Edward Island has a fertile soil, and agriculture is the leading occupa- tion. Charlotte Town is the capital. 10. IVew Brunswick. — New Brunswick is noted for its timber forests. Its chief exports are lumber and fish. St. John is the principal city. Frederickton is the capital. 11. Quebec. — The Province of Quebec is noted for its lumber, its picturesque scenery, and severe climate. Montreal, the chief city, and, after Chicago and Buffalo, the largest in the St. Lawrence basin, has an extensive commerce, and exports a large amount of grain to Europe. Quebec, the capital, is the second city in population, and has a large maritime commerce. 12. Ontario. — Ontario produces a great amount of grain, lumber, petroleum, and salt. Toronto, the capital and largest city, has a fine harbor and a large lake trade. 13. Manitoba. — Manitoba is noted for the production of wheat. Winnipeg, on Red River of the North, is the capital and i\ chief town. Branches of the Canadian Pa- cific connect it with the railway system of the United States. Saskatchawan River, and the large lakes and riv- ers with which it is connected, furnish more than 2000 miles of inland navigation. 14. BritisliColnmbia. — British Colum- bia abounds in salmon, timber, gold, and coal. Vancouver and New Westminster are im- portant towns. Esquimalt is a strongly for- tified naval station. Victoria is the capital. British Columbia is connected with the eastern provinces of the Dominion by the Canadian Pacific railway, a grand transcontinental line about three thousand miles long, from Montreal to Vancouver on the Pacific Ocean. 15. Districts and Territories. — Keewatin, an adjunct of Manitoba, Athabasca, Alberta, Saskatchawan, and Assiniboia are called Districts, and in part correspond to the territories of the United States. The last four have a common capital, Regina. The number of inhabitants is small, but is gradually increasing by emigration. The territories are cold and barren regions inhabited by a few Indians and Esquimaux. 16. IVeivfonndlnnd. — Newfoundland is a rocky island, with bold, broken coasts. The fisheries are the chief source of support to the inhabitants. Hardy vegetables, as potatoes, cabbages, and turnips grow to perfection. The chief exports are cod-fish, seal-skins, oils, and copper ore. The fish are caught near the coasts, and in broad, shallow regions in the sea, called " The Banks." The Banks are almost con- stantly covered with dense fogs. St. Johns is the capital and chief town. Its permanent population is about 25,000. Labrador is a name applied to the peninsula between Hudson Bay and the Atlantic. The eastern shore belongs to Newfoundland. Its fisheries find employment for about 1000 small vessels and 30,000 men. Questions (1.)— 1. What does British America comprise .' What are its chief divisions .>— 2. What is the area of the Dommion of Canada.? Its population.'— 3. Describe the government.— t. The climate.— 5. The surface.— fi. What is the chief commercial water-vout i'— 7. \\ith what countries is the principal trade of the prov- inces ? What are the chief exports ?— 8. What is said of Nova Scotia ? I lalifax .'— 9. Of Prince Edward Island? What is the capital .'—10. For what is New Brunswick noted.' What are its chief exports.' What is the principal city? Thecapital?- 11. For what is the Province of Quebec noted? Montre.il ? The city of Quebec '- 12. What are the productions of Ontario ? For what is Toronto noted?— IS What K said of Manitoba? What is the capital?- 14. In what does British Columbi.i abound ? W hat important town ? The capital ?-l.^. What is said of the Districts? O the Terntories?-16. What is Newfoundland? What is the character of the coast? What is the principal business ? The chief exports ? The capital ? r ^'!l'''r'^r'' ''" °"'^'' ""'""'^^ ^^^ ''''"^'^ America ?-2. What is the Dominion ol Canada. Of what does it consist? What large island is not included in the con- federation ?-6. What is said of the rapids and tails in the rivers ot this route? De- scribe the principal trunk lines of railway. W hat is the channel of . r.,de .n the winter ? --13 What is said of the Red River of the North?-U. Wiih what states are .'.« chief commercial nue, ests of K, ui.h Columbia ? How is B, itish Columbia connected Wha, i! 'T"^ P™y.nces?-l,;. Where are the fishing-grounds of XowKnin.lland? Tes the el t Ti \ ""' '"" ''^''"'•^"°" "^f S'- -'"'-^ ? To wh.tt province does the east mast of Labrador belong ? What >s said of its fisheries ? MEXICO; CENTRAL AMERICA. n MEXICO; CENTRAL AMERICA; WEST INDIES. [For Sections LXX. and LXXI., see page 73.] LXXII. MEXICO: DESCRIPTION. 1. Area and Population. — The area of Mexico is about one eighth less than that of all the United States east of the Mis- sissippi. The population is about 11,500,000. 2. Surface. — The great pla- teau of North America covers most of the country, the highest part being near the isthmus of Tehuantepec. The plateau is here crossed by a line of thirteen volcanoes, which are among the loftiest in the world ; Popocatepetl and Orizaba are over 17,000 feet in elevation, and their tops are covered with snow. 3. Climate. — Mexico has the. greatest possible variety of cli- mate : cold on the high moun- tains, temperate on the plateaus, and hot and moist on the coast. The plateaus north of the Tropic of Cancer are dry and barren, like those of the United States. Those south of the tropic have four months of tropical rains. 4. Inliabitants. — The people of Mexico consist of In- dians, mixed races, and Spanish Creoles. Nearly all speak the Spanish language. About four fifths of them reside in the southern half of the country. The Creoles are the white descendants of the early Spanish settlers, and form about one fifth of the population. Nearly two fifths are of pure Indian blood. 5. Commerce. — About one half of the foreign com- merce is with the United States, and most of the remain- der with England and France. There are no large navigable rivers. The best harbors are on the coast of the Pacific. Mexico has about 4000 miles of railroad. The natural resources, mineral and vegetable, though of extraor- dinary variety and value, are as yet but little developed. 6. Government. — Mexico, like the United States, is a federal republic. It consists of twenty-seven states, two territories, and a small federal district which contains the capital. It was for three centuries the most important colony of Spain. 7. Mexico, the capital and chief city, is beautifully II POPOCATEPETL, MEXICO. situated in a fertile plain, 7500 feet above the sea, and surround- ed by lofty mountains. A railway to Vera Cruz gives the city direct access to the Atlantic, and another through El Paso connects it with the entire rail- way system of the United States. Trade and general intercourse between the two countries are rapidly increasing. 8. Guadalaxara, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, and Zacatecas are large cities on the table-land ; Vera Cruz and Acapulco are the principal ports. The chief ex- ports are silver, hemp, dye- woods, coffee, hides, and vanilla. The mines of Mexico were the chief source of the world's supply of silver for nearly three hun- dred years. Questions (t.) — 1. What is the area of Me,\i- co? The population? — 2. What is said of the surface ? — 3. Of the climate ? — 4. Where are most of the inhabitants? Of what do they consist ? — .■). What is said of the foreign com- merce ? — 6. Describe the government. Of wh.nt country w.is Mexico once a colony ? —7. What is the capital and chief city? How situated? What other important cities ? What are the principal ports ? What are the chief exports ? (11.)— 2. By what is the southern part of the plateau crossed ? — 3. What is the climate of the plateaus north of the Tropic of Cancer ? South of it ? — 4. Who are the Creoles ? — .">. What is said of the rivers, harbors, and railways ? — 7. What is said of certain railways ? — 8. Of the silver-mines ? LXXIII. CENTRAL AMERICA. 1. Central America, as a natural division, is a long isthmus. It includes the smaller isthmuses of Panama in South America and Tehuantepec in Mexico. It is chiefly important because it contains the principal routes con- necting the commerce of the two great oceans. 2. As a political division it is of less extent. It includes five indepe'ndent republics, which are really military des- potisms : viz., Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, together with Belize, or British Hondu- ras, which is a colony of Great Britain. 3. These republics are similar to Southern Mexico in surface, climate, productions, population, and social condi- tion. Like Mexico, they were once Spanish possessions. The Andes Mountains extend the entire length of the isthmus, and connect the mountains of South America and the Sierra Madre. They abound in volcanoes. L ng d V. 100 f m Green-nich, jSeming^ E W, Ch huahu 4. y> r> "e'eedo J5, '°\ 4^ '^^"i;*^ Sanl 1 es o r MAP OF MEXICO. . ^ 1000 Square Miles. Scale of Miles. r.f) im sno 300 4f> ^ F. % ^^ \ T.ojityfi^^sJ^--- -y / " c-c„ 1» Acapuico „ LoiigitTide "VVest from 23 "WasliingtoTi. icn^trude ^Veet 70 from G^eo^l'■^': '.li y^o (,1(1 ArEST INDIES AND CENTRAL .OIERICA. 1000 Square inles. -?!;»woof Jkr ISlo, l: -•:::■-■:;/ iEl-IZE Grnntl Caj:niaa*= _V i^-%-=- lUrande Gt Evunml?^ JlLong i. -j- : T^ -Croutcil. '■-•%■ o -l^ 1000 Square inles. Scale of Miles. W 100 2I>1 I r -r? / * . • ;". Turk 13. &-^Qt. Xiiflgua y- Jt. inagua ^A^ Gon v' iS // fi B E I \ I -"'><,, Ciirui i;( S 'l-nii gitml'- SV(;st fri.. 3 Ai' \ ti^lungt'iTV. 2 p^ ;a.t r- A M t- *^ ii WEST INDIES: DESCRIPTION.— QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES. 73 4. There are several navigable rivers. San Juan River, and Lake Nicaragua, of which it is the outlet, are the chief parts of a proposed ship canal between the oceans. The necessary surveys have been made, and the work of actual construction is now being energetically prosecuted. 5. The foreign commerce is limited, and is mostly with England. Coffee, rubber, indigo, bananas, cabinet-woods, dye-woods, and hides are the chief exports. 6. The capitals of the several republics are New Gua- temala, the largest and finest city of Central America, San Salvador, Tegucigalpa, Managua, and San Jose. Questions (I.) — 1. What is Central America ? What does it include .' — 2. What does it include as a political division > Name the republics.— 3. In what are they similar to Mexico? — 4. What is said of the rivers? — 5. Of the foreign commerce? Which are the most important exports.' — 6. Name the capitals of the five republics. (II.) — 1. Why is Central America important ?— 3. What are its principal moun- tains ? What is said of them ? — 4. Why is the San Juan River important ? LXXIV. THE WEST INDIES. 1. 8itnatioii. — The West Indian Archipelago extends from Florida to South America. The islands are the summits of mountain ranges which are partly under the sea, and parallel to the great chains of the western continents. 2. Area. — The land surface of the archipelago is about equal to that of New York and Pennsylvania. 3. Divisions. — The Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the Lesser Antilles are the three principal divisions. The Bahamas are low coral islands. One of them, San Salvador, is said to be the first land discovered by Columbus in 1492. The Greater Antilles have forest-clad mountains and a fertile soil. The Lesser Antilles include all the islands between Porto Rico and South America ; several of them contain lofty volcanoes. 4. Climate. — All these islands, except a portion of the Bahamas, are in the Torrid Zone. The intense heat of the tropical climate is modified by the ocean and the trade-winds. 5. Prodnctions. — The principal exports are sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco, and tropical fruits. Much of the fruit comes from Cuba, which also produces more cane- sugar than any other country in the world. 6. Ownership. — Cuba and Porto Rico are colonies of Spain ; Jamaica, the Bahamas, and most of the Lesser Antilles belong to Great Britain; the rest to France and other European countries. Hayti was once divided be- tween France and Spain ; it now consists of two inde- pendent negro republics — Hayti and San Domingo. 7. Population. — The total population of the West Indies is about equal to that of the State of New York, the greater part being negroes. 8. The three largest cities, Havana, Matanzas, and San- tiago de Cuba, are all in Cuba. Havana, the capital of Cuba, is larger than any other city in the West Indies. Questions (I.) — 1. Where is the West Indian Archipelago? — 2. What is its area? — 3. Name its principal divisions. — 4. In what zone are they ? What is said of the climate ? — 5. What are the principal exports ? For what is Cuba noted? — 6. To what countries do the West Indies belong? To what two countries did Hayti once belong ? Of what does it now consist ? — 7. What is said of the population of the West Indies ? — 8. Where are the three largest cities ? Name them. What is said of Havana ? (II.) — 1. What are the islands of the West Indian Archipelago? — 3. What is said of the Bahamas? Of San Salvador ? Of the Greater Antilles ? Of the Lesser Antilles? LXX. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Mexico, — What country north of Mexico ? What country southeast ? What gulf in the northwest ? What peninsula ? What gulf east ? What bay .' What peninsula in the southeast ? What isthmus in the southern part of Mexico ? What gulf ? What mountain chain extends through Mexico ? What river forms part of the northeast boundary ? What city is the capital ? Name the seaports of the eastern coast. Of the Pacific coast. What city near the mouth of the Rio Grande ? What city southeast of Mexico ? What three northwest ? What two in the northern part of Mexico ? Central America. — Name the divisions of Central America. Which is farthest south ? Farthest north ? What British colony northeast of Guatemala? What is the capital? What bay north of Honduras? What name is given to the eastern coast of Nicaragua ? What two lakes in Nicaragua ? What is the outlet of Lake Nicaragua ? Name the capital of each state. West Indies.— What are the three principal divisions of the West In- dies ? {Greater Antilles, Lesser Antilles, and the Bahamas?) Name the four Greater Antilles. Which is the largest group of the Lesser Antilles ? What group near the coast of South America ? What small group east of Porto Rico ? What islands north of Cuba ? What town is their cap- ital ? On what island ? What city is the capital of Cuba ? What city east of Havana ? On the southern coast ? What strait between Cuba and Florida ? Between Cuba and Yucatan ? Cuba and Hayti ? What two countries in Hayti ? Name their capitals. What strait separates Iia Hayti from Porto Rico ? What is the capital of Porto Rico ? AVhat island nearly west of Hayti ? Its capital ? What other city in Jamaica ? LXXI. EEVIEW EXEEOISES. Countries. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. Countries. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. 751,584 48,303 8,135 46,264 11,395,712 1,460,017 663,613 331,917 Nicaragua Costa Rica Belize {Colony), . . . The West Indies. . 47,859 20,877 8,292 94,398 312,845 214,264 27,668 5,488,400 Guatemala Salvador Honduras Countries. — Where is it 1 How bounded ? What is the capital i — Mexico? Belize, or British Honduras? Guatemala? Honduras? Salvador? Nicaragua? Costa Rica? San Domingo ? Hayti? Islands. — Where situated"! — The Great Antilles? Cuba? Hayti? Porto Rico ? Jamaica ? The Bahamas ? The Lesser Antilles ? Virgin Islands ? Caribbee Islands ? Venezuelan Islands ? Gulfs and Bays. — Where is it? — California ? Mexico ? Campeachy ? Honduras ? Tehuantepec ? Straits. — Between what lands ? What waters does it connect ? — Yuca- tan ? Florida ? Windward ? Mona ? Cities and Towns. — In what part of the state 1 How situated/ — Mexico ? Leon ? Guadalaxara ? Puebla ? Guanaxuato ? Vera Cruz ? Tampico ? Matamoras ? Guaymas ? Acapulco ? New Guatemala f San Salvador ? Tegucigalpa ? Managua ? San ]os± ? Havana ? Santiago de Cuba ? Matanzas ? Port au Prince ? San Domin- go ? Kingston? Spanish Town ? San Juan? Nassau? Belize? PHYSICAL SOUTH AMERICA. LXXV. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Through what part of South America does the Equator pass ? In what zone is the greater part of the continent ? What tropic crosses it ? What cape at its northern extremity ? Its eastern extremity ? Southern ? Western ? Along which coast is the belt of highest mountains and narrow plateaus ? What name is given to the broadest part of the plateau of the Andes ? What lakes in it ? What broad plateau in the eastern part of the continent? What mountain ranges in this plateau? What smaller plateau in the north ? What mountains are in the plateau of Guiana? In what part of South America are the volcanoes? What name is given to the northern part of the Great Central Plain ? With what are they covered? What river drains the llanos? What name is given to the central part of the Great Plain? With what are they covered? What river drains the selvas? What island at its- mouth? What river east of Joannes Island? What name is given to the southern part of the Great Plain ? What river drains a large part of the pampas? What branch of the Amazon is connected with the Orinoco ? What branches drain the plateau of Brazil ? What branch of the Para ? What river drains the eastern part? What two the southern part? Which of these is the main river? What name is given to the forest region between the Paraguay and the Madeira ? To the plain between the Matto Grosso and the pampas ? Where is the rainless coast? How long is it? What metals are obtained from the Andes? What two valuable minerals from the plateau of Brazil ? How many principal diamond districts ? What valuable woods are obtained from the forests of the Amazon and its branches? What gum? What vegetable productions from the northern coast? From the eastern coast? What grain from the southwestern coast? What animal products from the pampas and Sodthern Brazil? What valuable manure from the rainless coast? From what islands is it obtained ? NoTE.-It will assist to memorize the physical maps of both the American con- tinents to note the following points of similarity : Shape of continents. Position of the three coast lines. Volcanoes on the west. Rocky and Nevada Mountains. Appalachian Mountains. Western Plateau Belt Andes chains. Brazilian Mountains. Andes Plateau Belt. " Great Basin. Plateau of Bolivia. Great Salt Lake. Lake Titicaca. Labrador. Plateau of Guiana. Eastern Highland. Central Plain. Arctic Plain. Great Lakes. Southern Plain. Plateau of Brazil. Central Plain. Llanos.* Selvas.t Pampas.J: Mackenzie River. Nelson. St. Lawrence. Mississippi. Magdalena. Orinoco. Amazon. La Plata. • Llanos, a Spanish word meaning plaim. t Selvas, from a Latin word meaning ■woods, t Pamoa, an Indian word meanrnj; plaim. El Gran Chaco, means the great hunting-ground "mpas, .Andes JdTountaliia Z,TUicaea ^'tZ \ '^.''"/j" CENTRAL PLAfN MATTO QROSSO PLATEAU OF BRAZrL 12 PROFILE SECTION OF SOUTH AMERICA. S. ESPINHACO m^fta 8000 /«( Ocean 76. PHYSICAL SOUTH AMERICA: OUTLINE, SURFACE, AND CLIMATE. DESCRIPTION. OUTLINE, SUEFAOE, ETC. 1. Outline. — South America is nearly a right-angled triangle, of which the Pacific coast is the longest side. It is nearly twice the size of the United States, and has a population of about 33,300,000. Its coasts are unbroken by great gulfs or by enclosed seas. 2. Surface. — The surface of South America is natural- ly divided into four parts — the Andean plateau on the west, the plateaus of Brazil and Guiana on the east, and the Great Central Plain. The Andes Mountains stretch along the entire western coast, generally in parallel chains. Between them is a belt of plateaus, the broadest and loftiest being that of Bolivia. These gigantic border walls of the plateaus are the loftiest ranges in America, and are exceeded in height only by the great chains of Central Asia. They are highest in the northern portion of the table-land of Bolivia, where the loftiest peaks reach an eleva- tion of 25,000 feet. They are unbroken, except at the Isthmus of Panama, where the western chain subsides into low hills, and towards the southern extremity of the continent, where the mountainous coast becomes a line of rocky islands. The Andes contain several groups of lofty volcanoes. 3. The Great Central Plain extends along the whole eastern base of the Andes. This plain extends eastwardly to the shores of the Atlantic, except where interrupted by the low mountains and plateaus of Guiana and Brazil. Three great rivers, the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the La Plata, with their numerous branches, drain this plain and the mountain slopes which surround it. The remarkable rain-fall of this region is due to the tropical rain- belt and the trade-winds which sweep westwardly from the At- lantic and across the continent. 4. The northern part of the Great Central Plain, the llanos of the Orinoco, is treeless and very flat. It is about four times the size of Ohio. At the close of the tropical rainy season it is a vast meadow, and is called by the inhabitants the "Sea of Grass." It supports millions of cattle and horses. Before the end of the dry season it has become a scorched and arid desert, swept by hot winds that whirl the dry soil into the air in dense clouds of dust. During the extreme drought the horses and cattle are driven to the foot of the mountains, and the great reptiles with which the plain abounds bury themselves in the mud of the dry- ing pools, and await in a torpid state the return of the tropical rains. 5. The central part, the selvas of the Amazon, is by far the largest. It is nearly covered with a dense forest of flowering trees, inter- woven with gigantic vines, and alive with birds and insects of brilliant colors, and with millions of monkeys and other animals of the Torrid Zone ; it is almost unoccupied by civilized man, and can be traversed only by means of the rivers. This great forest, the largest in the world, also spreads far up the sides of the mountains by which the plains are surrounded. MONKEYS AND CROCODILE. 6. The southern part, the pampas of the La Plata, is more than three times as large as the llanos. It is similar to the llanos in many respects, but is far colder to- wards the south. It supports vast herds of cattle and millions of sheep and horses. These animals constitute the chief wealth of the inhabitants of the llanos and the pampas, and determine their principal occupations and exports. 7. Climate.— The greater part of South America lies within the tropics, where its broad plains have a hot and moist, and therefore sickly climate. The great moisture is caused not only by the trade-winds and PHYSICAL SOUTH AMERICA : CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND ANIMALS. 77 BOA CONSTRICTOR \\ tropical rains, but by the evaporation from the large amount of river surface and from the immense area covered by vegeta- tion. The high and cool ta- ble-lands of the Andes are noted for their health- ful climate. Partly for this reason, they contain a large part of the civilized inhabitants of the continent, and a remark- able line of elevated cap- ital cities, which are from one to two miles above the level of the ocean. The extreme southern part of the continent, west . of the Andes, is shrouded in clouds and drenched with rains. These rains are caused by the counter trade -winds of the South Pacific. The arid plains east of the Patagonian Andes are swept by violent cold winds from the icy sum- mits of the mountains. Farther to the north these plains are warmer, but their streams dry up or end in salt lakes instead of reaching the ocean. About one half of the western coast is a dry desert. The trade-winds from the east, in crossing the Andes south of the Equator, become extremely dry, and, passing down to the Pacific, cause a rainless coast nearly two thousand miles long. A large district of the high plateau of Bolivia is called " the Despo- blado," or " the Uninhabited," from the dryness and severity of its climate. 8. Vegetation. — The richness and variety of the trop- ical vegetation are indescribable. The dense forests of the plains and mountains abound in India-rubber and palm trees, and in rose-wood, mahogany, and dye-woods. Other products, such as coffee, cocoa, indigo, tapioca, cotton, and sugar, are limited only by the amount of labor and cultiva- tion bestowed upon them. 9. Animals. — Among the remarkable animals are the llama, a beast of burden, and the alpaca of the Andes ; they are something like small camels. Besides these are the puma, the jaguar, and the monkey, the boa, the condor, the nandu, or American ostrich, the penguin, and the hum.ming-bird. Insects are more numerous and brilliant than in any other continent. Horses, cattle, and sheep were introduced from Europe. Questions (I.) — 1. What is the shape of South America ? Its area ? Population f 2. Into how many parts is its surface divided? What are they? What is said of the Andes Mountains ? What is between them ? — 3. What is said of the Great Central Plain ? How is this plain drained ? — 4. What is the character of the northern part of the Great Central Plain ? What is it called ? What is the meaning of llanos? What is its area ? — 5. Which is the largest part ? What is the central part called ? What is the meaning of selvas ? — 6. What is the area of the southern part ? What is it called ? What js the meaning of pampas ? — 7. What is the climate of the greater part of South America ? Of the table-lands of the Andes ? Of the southern part of the continent ? Of the western coast ? — 8. What is said of the vegetation ? In what do the forests abound ? What is said of other products ? — 9. Which are the most remarkable ani- mals ? What is said of the insects ? Of the horses, cattle, and sheep ? (II.) — 1. What is the character of the coasts of South America ? — 3. What is said of the Andes Mountains? Where are they highest? How high are the highest peaks ? Where are they broken ? What do they contain ? — 3. How far does the Great Central Plain extend towards the east ? To what causes is the rain-fall due ? — i. What is the condition of the northern part of the plain at the close of the rainy season ? What does it support ? What is its condition before the end of the dry season? What is done with the horses and cattle during the drought?— 5. Describe the central part of the plain ? What is the extent of the great forest ? — 6. To what is the southern part of the plain similar ? What does it support ? What is said of the animals of the llanos and the pampas ? — 7. What is the cause of the moist climate of the plains? What do the table-lands of the Andes contain? Why? What is the cause of the rains west of the Patagonian Andes ? Of the dryness east of these mount- ains? What is the condition of these plains farther to the north? What is the cause of the extreme dryness of so large a part of the Pacific coast of South America? What name has been given to a part of the plateau of Bolivia? POLITICAL SOUTH AMERICA : QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES.— DESCRiPITON. LXXVII. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. General. — What countries of South America border on the Caribbean Sea? On the Atlantic Ocean? On the Pacific? Through what coun- tries do the Andes extend? What countries are drained by the Orinoco and its branches ? By the Amazon ? By the La Plata ? What countries are crossed by the Equator ? By the Tropic of Capricorn ? Brazil. — What countries border on Brazil ? Which country of South America does not border on it? What river drains the northern part of Brazil? Which is its chief northern branch? Its chief southern branch ? What island just south of the Equator ? Between what two rivers ? What mountains near the northern boundary ? What mount- ain chains near the eastern coast ? What river breaks through the Serro Espinhaco Mountains ? What branches of the La Plata rise in Brazil? What city is the capital? What cape is near it? What city south of Cape St. Roque? On the Para? Between Para and Pernam- buco? Between Pernambuco and Rio Janeiro? On what bay? Guiana. — How many divisions in Guiana? To whom do they be- long ? What is the capital of each ? Venezuela. — What countries border on Venezuela? What sea on the north? What lake and what gulf in Venezuela? What large river? What island near its mouth? What city is the capital ? What town is its port ? What other port on the coast > What town on the Orinoco ? Colombia. — What countries border on Colombia? What -cape at its northern extremity ? What waters ? Which is its chief river ? What city near its mouth ? What city is the capital ? What city in the south- west ? What isthmus in Colombia ? What two ports on it ? By what railroad are they connected ? (See small map.) Ecuador. — What countries border on Ecuador? What gulf on its shores? What volcanoes are in Ecuador? What city is the capital? How situated ? What city is its port ? Peru, — What countries border on Peru? What lake partly in it? What cape in the northwest ? What islands near Cape Blanco ? What city is the capital ? What city is the port of Lima ? What city north- east of Lima ? What city in the southwest ? What city north of Arequipa? Bolivia. — What countries border on Bolivia? What mountain near Lake Titicaca? What city is the capital ? What other cities in Bolivia? Chili. — What countries border on Chili ? What country is partly included in the southern portion of Chili? {Patagonia.) To what country does the rest of Patagonia belong? What large island be- longs to Chili? What small islands west? For what is one of these islands famous? {For having been the solitary residence of Alexander Selkirk, whose story ivas afterwards written as Robinson Crusoe.') What desert west of the Andes? In what part of Chili is the Desert of Atacama? What group of islands south of Patagonia? What group east ? What cape south of Tierra del Fuego ? What city is the capital of Chili? What large city is its port? What port north of Val- paraiso ? Argentine Republic. — What countries border on the Argentine Re- public? What rivers form parts of its boundary? What city is the capital? What city near the centre? North of Cordova? South- east of Cordova ? Near the Andes ? Uruguay. — What countries border on it ? What rivers ? What city is the capital ? Paraguay. — What countries border on it ? What rivers form parts of its boundary? What city is the capital ? LXXVIII. EEVIEW EXEEOISES, Countries. — Where is it 1 How bounded 1 What is the capital 1 Names. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. Names. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. Brazil British Guiana. . . Dutch Guiana. . . French Guiana. . . Venezuela Colombia 3,338,452 88,652 49,848 30,465 403,067 464,537 14,600,000 1 282,066 [ 66,037 25,797 2,238.900 3,821,052 Ecuador 115,680 1.304,400 Peru 439,014 515,156 299,626 1,077,032 68,999 97,726 2,980,000 1,434,800 Chili 8,165,300 1 Argentine Repub. Uruguay Paraguay 3,203,700 711,700 830,000 Cities and Towns. — In what part of the country'? How situatedl — Caracas ? La Guayra ? Maracaybo ? Angostura ? Bogota ? Po- payan ? Cartagena ? Panama ? Colon ? Quito ? Guayaquil ? Lima? Callao? Pasco? Cuzco? Arequipa? Sucre? La Paz ? Cochabamba ? Potosi ? Santiago ? Valparaiso ? Coquimbo ? Buenos Ayres? Rosario? Mendoza? Cordova? Tucuman ? Montevideo? Asuncion ? Rio Janeiro ? Bahia ? Pernambuco ? Maranham ? Para ? Santos ? Georgetown ? Paramaribo ? Cayenne ? Islands. — Where situatedl — Trinidad? Joannes? Tierra del Fuego ? Falkland? Chiloe? Juan Fernandez ? Lobos Is. Capes. — From what coast does it project 1 — Gallinas ? St. Roque ? Frio? Horn? Blanco? Mountains. — Where are they 1 — Andes? Pacaraima? Serro Espin- haco? Cotopaxi (v.)? Chimborazo (v.)? Sorata? Seas, Gulfs, and Bays. — Where is it? — Caribbean? Daiien? Vene- zuela? All Saints? Guayaquil? Panama? Rivers. — Where does it rise ? In what direction does it flow ? Through what countries? Into what body of water ? — Magdalena ? Orinoco? Amazon ? Negro ? Para ? Madeira ? San Francisco ? La Plata ? Uruguay ? Parana ? Paraguay ? Lakes. — Where situated ? What outlet ? — Maracavbo ? Titicaca ? POLITICAL SOUTH AMERICA. JL. X X I X, DESOEIPTION. 1. South America, like the northern continent, was set- tled and occupied by emigrants from Europe. Almost all of the civilized people are found in a broad band which surrounds the continent, and crosses its narrow southern part from Santiago to Buenos Ayres. The large cities of the northern and western countries are in the high and cool table-lands; those of the eastern are sea ports of the Atlantic. There are millions of Indians, the greater part of whom are half- civilized, the rest of them being savages. '2. South America has had a comparatively limited com- merce. It is now rapidly increasing, especially in Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Chili. The tropical climate and frequent civil wars have tended to repress commercial enterprise, and the grandest system of navii^able nvers on the globe is yet but little used. There are about 17,000 miles of railway; chiefly in Brazil, the Aroentine Repub- lic, Chih, and Peru. There are no good common roads. so BRAZIL.-THE GUIANAS.-SPANISH SOUTH AMERICA: VENEZUELA. -COLOM lA. The Panama Railroad crosses the isthmus. It is the most important railway in South America, being the shortest trade route between the Atlantic and the Pacific. 3. The countries of South America may be considered under three divisions : 1st, Portuguese South America, or the Republic of Brazil; 2d, the Guianas, or European colonies ; and, 3d, the nine Spanish Republics. 4. Portuguese South America. — Brazil is the largest and most important country of South America. It comprises more than two fifths of the continent, and is about the size of the United States. It was once a colony of Portugal, and Portuguese is the language of the civilized inhabitants. The population is mostly on or near the southeastern coast. The people are of three races— whites, Indians, and negroes, a large majority being of mixed races. Nearly all the negroes of South America are in Brazil and the Guianas. Brazil has about 6000 miles of railroad. The Amazon and its tributaries furnish about 50,000 miles of navigable waters, as yet but little used. An ocean telegraph connects Brazil with Portugal, and another with the United States by way of the West Indies. BRAZILIAN COFFEE PLANTATION. Brazil furnishes the greater part of the coffee used in the world, besides cotton, sugar, hides, dye-woods, India- rubber, and diamonds ; more than half of the coffee, the leading article of export, goes to the United States. The greater part of the entire South American trade of the United States is with Brazil. Rio Janeiro, sometimes called Rio, is the capital and largest city of Brazil, and is the most important port in the Southern Hemisphere. Other important ports of Brazil are Bahia, the second city, Pernambuco, Maranham, Santos, and Para. 5. The Guianas are colonies of Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands. The chief exports are indigo, co- coa, sugar, coffee, and other tropical productions. The ports of Georgetown, Cayenne, and Paramaribo are the capitals and the chief centres of commerce. 6, Spanish South America comprises nine inde- pendent republics, viz., Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Argentine Republic, Uruguay, and Paraguay. Each republic consists of a number of states under a general government, as in Mexico. The Andean portion is so rugged that the back of an Indian or of a sure-footed mule is almost the only means of travel and traffic over the rude and dangerous mountain roads. The Argentine Republic has about 7000 miles of railway. Chili 1800, Pent 1700, and Bolivia none. The others have from 50 to 300 each. These republics were once colonies of Spain. The language spoken by the civilized inhabitants is Spanish. In all the republics of Spanish America, from Mexico to Chili, the Spanish Creoles are greatly outnumbered by the Indians and mixed races. This fact has an important influence upon the en- terprise, commerce, and social and political condition of these coun- tries. 7. Teneznela. — Venezuela ex- ports coffee, cocoa, and other trop- ical products from La Guayra and Maracaybo on the Caribbean Sea, and the cattle products of the lla- nos from Angostura on the Orino- co. Caracas, the capital and larg- est city, is 3000 feet above the sea. 8. Colombia. — Colombia is the most important of the five northern republics. This is due to its geographical posi- tion. It contains the Isthmus of Pana- ma, which is the most direct route for the rapidlv increasing commerce between the countries bordering the two great oceans. A short railroad from Panama to Aspinwall is nmv die route of this commerce. A great canal for the largest sea-going ves- sels is projected across the isthmus betxNoen these cities. The work of excavation was carried on for se\-eral years under French direction. In 1880, however, after an expenditure of nearly !i;-200,000,()00, all work was suspended owin-- to lack of funds. Magdalena River is tlie chief artery of internal commerce. The chief exports are Peruvian bark, from which qui- ECUADOR.— PERU.— BOLIVIA.— CHILL— ARGENTINE REPUBLIC— URUGUAY.— PARAGUAY. 81 nine is extracted, coffee, and tobacco. Bogota, the capital and largest city, is nearly 9000 feet above the sea Popayan is the second city. Cartagena, Savanilla, Barranquilla, Panama, and Colon, are the chief ports. 9. Ecuador. — The exports of Ecuador are cocoa. India- rubber, Peruvian bark, and vegetable ivory nuts. Guaya- quil is the chief port. Quito is the capital and largest city. INDIA-RUBBER TREES. 10. Pern. — The chief exports are guano and silver. Lima, the capital, is the largest city. Its sea-port is Callao. Pasco, 13,000 feet above the sea, the most elevated city in the world, is surrounded with silver-mines. Cuzco and Arequipa are large cities. Lake Titicaca, on the borders of Bolivia, 13,000 feet above the sea, is the highest large mountain lake in the world. Its waters flow into Lake Aullagas in Bolivia. One of the Peruvian railways reaches an elevation of nearly 16,000 feet. This is now the highest point in the world where a piston moves. 11. Bolivia. — Bolivia, having neither sea -coast nor railways, has but little commerce. Peruvian bark and silver -ore are exported through Buenos Ayres. The large cities Sucre, Potosi, Cochabamba, and La Paz, the capital, are all on the plateau. 12. Chili. — Chili is one of the most enterprising coun- tries of South America, and has a large proportion of European inhabitants. It has a coast-line of about 2500 miles. The exports are guano, saltpetre, copper-ore, silver, and wheat. Guano is obtained from the Lobos Islands and other parts of the rainless coast ; saltpetre from the southern part of the same region. Santiago, the capital, is the largest city. Valparaiso, the second city, is the largest sea-port on the Pacific coast of America, excepting San Francisco. Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego form the southern part of South America. The western portion of this extensive region belongs to Chili, the eastern to the Argentine Republic. The native in- habitants are savage tribes. 13. The Ar§rentine Republic. — The Argentine Re- public is a rival of Chili in enterprise. Emigration from Southern Europe, and commerce, are increasing. Education is advancing more rapidly than in any other country in South America. The chief exports are wool, sheep-skins, hides, tallow, and other cattle prod- ucts. Two thirds of the hides are sent to the United States. The capital, Buenos Ayres, is the largest city in South America, and a great sea-port. Other important cities, Rosario, Mendoza, Cordova, Tucuman, and Corrientes, are on the great trade-routes to Chili, Bolivia, and Paraguay. 14. Urug'uay. — Uruguay is similar in its leading ex- ports to the Argentine Republic. Montevideo, the capi- tal, has a large trade in cattle products. 15. Paraguay. — Paraguay is the weakest of the nine republics, and, like Bolivia, having no sea-coast, has but little commerce. Asuncion is the capital. Questions (I.) — 1. By whom was South America settled ? — 2. What is said of its commerce ? Of the Panama Railroad ? — 3. How may, the countries of South America be considered? What are the divisions? — 4. Which is the largest.' What are the principal productions of Brazil ? What is the extent of its trade with the United States ? What city is the capital ? For what is it noted ? What other important ports? — 5. To what countries do the Guianas belong? What are the chief exports? What cities are the capitals and centres of commerce? — 6. What does Spanish South America comprise? Name them. Of what does each republic consist? What is said of the inhabitants of the republics of Spanish America ? Why is this an important fact? — 7. What are the exports of Venezuela? What city is the capital ? What is said of it? — 8. Of Colombia? What are the chief exports? What city is the capi- tal? What is said of it? Of Popayan? What are the chief ports? — 9. What are the exports of Ecuador? The chief port? What is the capital? — 10. What are the chief exports of Peru ? What city is the capital ? What is said of it ? What is its sea-port? — II. What is said of the commerce of Bolivia? What are the exports? Which are the large cities? Where are they? — 12. For what is Chili noted? What are the chief exports ? What is the capital and largest city? For what is Valparaiso noted? — 13. What is said of the Argentine Republic? ' Of emigration and commerce? Of education ? What are the chief exports ? Where are most of the hides sent ? What city is the capital? What is said of it? Which are the other important cities? Where are they ? — 14. What are the exports of Uruguay ? What is the capital ? What is said of it ? — 15. Of Paraguay ? What is the capital ? (II.) — 1. In what part of South America are most of the civilized inhabitants? Where are the large cities ? What is said of the Indians ? — 2. Why has South America so little commerce ? What is said of the roads .' — 4. What is said of Brazil ? Where is most of the population ? Of what does it consist ? Where are most of the negroes ? What is said of the railroads of Brazil ? Of the Amazon? Of the > telegraphs? — S. What is said of the Andean portion of the Spanish Republics? Of what country were these republics once colonies? What is said of the railways? Wh.it language is spoken .' — 8. Why is Colombia the most important of the five northern republics ? What commercial route does it contain ? What is the present route of this commerce? What other route is being constructed ? What is said of it ? Of the Magdalena ? 10. For what is Pasco noted' Cuzco and Arequipa? Lake Titicaca ? Where do its waters flow? What is said of one of the railways? — 12. Where is guano obtained? Saltpetre ? What country and group of islands form the southern part of South Amer- ica? To what countries do they belong ? What are the native inhabitants? PHYSICAL EUROPE: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 83 £ c W .s 0-. ^ it •so ft c 4) H) •S -S ts E 12: :2 /v. y, ft C a « Ui cd O J5 ■" ^ s '5 ft-^- a (3 .a -S o o O o a) ■*-» « !l a> o T3 E c cd II is *i r... C ^ J C I. u (n (U > C .- ." <*- (U ^ •4-1 ■4-* cn «3 ca CS OJ .i5 ■" 1> ca C!) "S ta J3 -t; ca pq (U .a 0) iS OJ o ■SO o ^ ta lU o *-< w 1-1 W) t3 o C " ca -. <-. -. •U ::: C o ^ O! 2 . "-1 M-l — O ca ftJ3 '!:! = .S o S _ca '*"' In (U ■« -c „ ^ C- ca en -d 4-. u ca IS ca £ ^S ■*-• r:! >-< C 9 <^ ca c« ca ^ I •^ ca CJ ° 2 " kS ft 0, OJ O .5 _ '3 5 3 ca ^ o r? 'ca ca -^^ cd 13 -Jo ca 43 (J CJ ■ CJ J3 +j 3 O in o V c O o.. o -^. P-^ >-. "ca u C >. CJ ea ■, y M ft ■" •S ^ -V. §0 >« 3 O 13 ^ 'S C u- J3 CJ tj *j ca ca CO CL, CJ CJ ca CJ ft-G ♦—I .4_, U O "^ _, CJ c ^•3 j= 2 ia -> -a CJ W pi; in CJ „ S J5 ca 3 .fl en ►>» .5 > c CJ ^ 13 ■^ 5 in ca ■1 ^ "5 3 C4-( O CJ .a CO ■" a; -a o c ^ ca en CJ ,-H ca n CJ CJ c ti J- c/3 ca ca 43 jq 1) A C <4-l ■« O ° -nop CJ CJ J5 J3 C 13 ca n^- ca "■• ca CJ it ca o CJ ,x c 7^ o c >, CJ CJ 4-. t!:z;te: ,§^^ o c ■" 4- M ^^■^ o PQ a 1- CJ '^ cd c en CJ tJ o a o n '^ .3 _e 44 en O en CJ CJ 6 Id ^ 3- D 0-. > ca "C c) S J3 B ca ^ o - B 3 B ca 3 13 ° la S §^« CJ cd J3 B m CJ 3 X S O 4-1 S .■-< ca jj TO o pq CJ 3 CJ 3 X o +^ ^4 1 CJ CJ X n.. ■" a a .3 CJ ca CJ ca u CO O) 3 i2 CJ cd rH o "3 2 5 3 O u CJ °8 ft 4-> fe 4= B CD 4-» 4-> Cd Id X X u « "t:^ CJ cd X 'J3 CO ■4-> TO '^' . " ■g P" CJ in iX a r.. *^ c si 2 CJ CJ -g ft c« .S o ■-1 44 b •S: f3 !2; CJ X '^. fe ed 2 5i e- X — • 4-1 +3 3 Id aOg ?^ S «i J3 t; CJ cd w w .S ;-• CJ 4-> 10 X 2 ho 3 CJ O eo X .X ^ E"' <44 "E J3 3 '5 ft cd p cd •S ft 8 s c'S CJ en S .a CJ =3 o o "" E c ^ X Oi Id CO .a s S "o ed a ° PP ^<^ M-i X IS o "" X <« CT 111 *-• .:: X CJ a A.. ca B B *4- I-" en CJ 4-* ^ i.s X « 3 ft CJ *4 X 4J 4-" ca ^ CO .5 O & cd ca pin f3 4-. fe ca »>• (U rt X ft ■*-* ca 3 (11 CJ !% u +-* o Hi 23 !^ pq W E-i o o ►—I E-i ZZ2 M t) C rt ea 3 (u HH en 4_» 44 ca "-• ca X (US J- - ft (U CJ CJ ft e ° M ^ 3 M a W 144 IJ CJ f* 44 o "Zi ■" -o 3 « 4-. <5 ca B 10 =i S t« •^ CJ t- B .S to O 4-. O C ■" s s| ^ta^ O j3 J^ a -5 E g 0-. (U S3 -S „ o " P 'i: in Mh CJ ti • ".I (-. ^ 13 rt ? 1 ■*"• «-- I >« (u I O CI4 I 44 p in b CJ 3 •- w CJ e»H X O SUM O en "■• 13 CJ B X ca ca ca X X ^ 3 'tj ^ ^ _cd S "3 "ri O, rg ^ ca ca ft T! CJ ■^ M «. CJ ai 3 g CJ o ft N P 4-. I- ca 4 '^ h- ( 1: E CJ (U ■g"s ftg "3 g. SCO •3 '4-1 3 o <" ri ftj« (u 3 •s-a, 4j CJ ca' ft X 1) CJ . o ca c^ t; M Sa a P4 CJ CJ a 5 CJ CJ X O CJ ,4-» jq ca 4.4 5^ « CJ Id 3 cd Eh pq 3 CJ "- X en '*^ 3 X ■S .s 3 « 3 CJ in 3 1 .2 > ■at CJ cd ftx .1^ 5 CJ HH ft P CJ !:. X 3 *^ W « J3 tJO cd O 3 en Sl3 • - B a Id CJ ft (U o CJ CJ X! CJ Zo ° 3 4-> CJ . K' ■J. 00 - ^. -S - 1> o CJ X ftz ^ cd ^. X en fe CJ .a '3 n CJ Oh CJ 44 ^ ed ■£ CJ o-S CJ =^ rC en p -< 13 3 ca CJ u 3 Eh B CJ : ^ •sS-< S'K.; W CJ ca cd ;5 ca CJ ft 3 CO 3 ^ 8 3 CJ cd CJ ■S 15 X 3 > w s 3 W 5-2 "n-. -2 3 3 ?■„ cd S /< ^ 3 CJ -■-' Oh ftH Id 3 en 4-> 3 3 ft E ^ B CJ ^_ -P >- cd 5? CJ E^ g £1 u 3 - O 3 EO cn ,s ^ a ^ CJ r ftH ?^ c to .-I ca ^ X "^ rri 44 aL.t; p 3 N o i Jj 13 ^ P 13 p "^.2 ;-i ,f-; g ii '"• -s S ^2 , m2 C3 ]^ ft.p ca (o a CJ g £■& ca X X 10 13 en aj CJ l4 Ji P 1- en (U ft 44 _K^ ■^ J^X CJ X -5 CJ i!J t-i en *4 CJ c 1> en E «2 jd CO _E '3 .5; : peninsular char- i part of the con- 3 3 CO -a H 3 CJ Cd g 3" s cTi OJ c C Sardinia, and re Great Brit- 3 S tJD s p oJ .. ra _cd X gf V u :_ CJ rt CO CJ H Jd CJ -S X .-t; OJ -4-> • »-( T3 8 cd ft CO CJ estern extremit rope opens a vi he waters of t cilities for mar 0) ids Candia, 2 Atlantic d Iceland. ^ 1^ *4 ,cd <4H • J ■£ rt "3 44 t-i ■n 3 cd 1^ en t, CJ CJ a £ 1^ tinent ti equalled CO the large is' Corsica; in ain, Ireland, w C • i-H ■B • •-» 3^ 1-1 linsulas ai titland an are Turk 13 a. S 1— . CJ w a a CO S ^ aller pe seas, ite thes hJ 0) g cfi en ^ ft rS s 5 Pi< <: ■4-* in 8^ ^ ^ 13 •'- •"" J ^ w (U XI •? t3 2 1— I 3 en -13 G g 3 a rt 1-4 ^ S CO •a -M -M I/} -l-I >^ 04 en 4-t C14 .2 S S X »— 1 biO e ^ Oh a a, en 3 .a -xi & .22 2 Z ^ ^ (U ^< 2 C^ c o en v W) 0-. c ■^" O (U K 1-1 •S 6 o 0) rt 3 2 en tiO cu J2 CI C O •" J:; ti P o s ►-1 . . O 1> J;? ^ a to "-• "-■ t" -c •= « U h^ g "3 3 u 3 u pq U ..« « •1^, O T3 rs ho n .1 -rt <>i. 0) O, 'S P 55 ti bJO O T^ »; -S .S S 'S 'S S Ph Ph in .S .2 eg > ^ S c -° ^«* >-( >v O ^ P 1^ l->— '•1 S ca >^^ ~ Pi i-s 1=! O eg _c3 as O) s a V, o ^> g- I ^ - ^ ^ S -K »- rt 3 '3 Ph C O •S -a 0) .2 o 'en 'O en - ■S -a 3 "^ o J- 1^ O) 3 (U 0) r-=. ^-^ O *J .— . <^ P. e cs E O o ai -" 0-. ^ <: ^ -.. > 3^ O <*H EO TO CO (u ^ 'a ■5 Q I3J a . > ^^ , 3 0) tn ■ c -I /v. ^ •T3 e 'So 3 W •T3 3 ■ ■ rt en Ph u ^O PQ rt t» rt <-; ^ tiJ H H H Hi H OQ I— i O P5 H M H M 1—1 !=► H >3 - u * 3 ti iS ^, 3 ,^. J-. ^p en '-^ (u oi 'is ■" 33 O tfl <— > I ^ "S I .5 E ~. 3 ■^ o 0) o in -a S ^ 1^ '^ 8 o E-t T3 3 .S S Pi f^ ,3 O u 3 3 W 3 o 0) .i: ^ s • H H a M !2i M M CQ hi 0) ca :3 o g C3 tn .3 "^ C3 en -, 0) in JJ 3 -^ •£ ^ 3 en "SO cii O o lit en o 3 > S 3 S in 2; O 3 <« •— o b> eu (U ■£ CO ^ M O s 3 o u J5 P -3 en 3 .Si ta 3 §-5 Us no tU .2 -3 1> C > ^ n o o 3 ^. o 1) en CL, U P "C o.a rt I. > o 3 3 o o en 3 a -S ^ O) _ O a -a ' «a ^ (u r i^ en ~ in m — ' 3 a, .2 ■" "S >^1a "^^ « fe 3 U O 'O ^ +j fe ■*-• /v. 8.S >.^ ii rM 4-. O en 13 5 ■'r! ■I ^ ° "S > '^. -S *-. 3 ^. ^ -o en ^ .ti o g -r; ex o o « c3 t; ° :^ 3 .2 en aj en ^ 3 -" Pi 3 u 3 ^ -a .t; 3 o ii IS 3 Pi ^< en -tJ o aJ 4j 3 o 55 la *r t- -3 C/3 -M r.^ rt 5 ^^ « > (It -3 •£ ^ 4J o ^ .2 O to -v. ►H in 3 88 POLITICAL EUROPE: DESCRlPTlON.-QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. DESCRIPTION. LXXXIV. GOVEKNMENTS AND POPULATION. 1. Governments. — Europe contains four empires, Russia, Turkey, Germany, and Austria; two republics, France and Switzerland ; twelve independent kingdoms, Norway, Sweden, Great Britain and Ireland, Spain, Portu- gal, Italy, Greece, Roumania, Servia, Denmark, Belgium, and the Netherlands ; one independent principality, Monte- negro, and one independent grand duchy, Luxemburg. Russia and Turkey are absolute, Germany, Austria, and the twelve kingdoms are limited monarchies. Besides these, there are in the German Empire the kingdoms of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg ; in the Austrian Em- pire, Bohemia, Galicia, Hungary, and Croatia and Slavonia ; and in the Turkish Empire the principality of Bulgaria. Andorra in the Pyrenees, and San Marino in Italy, are small but old republics. 2. Population.— The total population of Europe is estimated at 360 millions, three fourths of it being in western Europe. It is nearly all Caucasian. The three chief branches of the Caucasian race in Europe are the Celts in the- west, the Teutons from the Alps to Scotland and northern Norway, and the Sclaves in the Great Plain. The people of the eastern half of Europe belong mostly to the Greek Church ; those of the northwestern regions are princi- pally Protestants ; nearly all the rest, including more than half the population, are Roman Catholics. Near the Black Sea are several millions of Mohammedans. 3. Norway and Sweden. — Norway and Sweden occupy the Scandinavian peninsula. Norway is the smaller and more mountainous, and has less than one half as many inhabitants as Sweden. The kingdoms are separate, but the same king rules over both. 4. The maritime commerce of Norway is extensive and important. The exports are lumber and fish. 5. In Sweden railways and a system of canals from the Baltic to the Cattegat unite the internal with the maritime commerce. The exports are grain, iron, and copper. 6. Christiania, the capital of Norway, and Bergen, its largest Atlantic port, have a large trade in lumber and fish. Hammerfest, the most northern town in the world, is dependent upon the cod-fisheries. The Norwegian cod- fisheries are the greatest in the world. Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, is situated on several small islands. Gottenburg is an important port and man- ufacturing city. Norrkoping is a grain port. 7. Russia. — The Russian Empire, next to that of Great Britain, is the most extensive dominion in the world. It includes about one half of Europe and more than one third of Asia. The monarch is called the Czar, or em- peror. The inhabitants are mostly Sclaves. [For remainder of Section LXXXIV., see page 90.] LXXXV. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. England and Wales. — What three countries on the island of Great Britain ? What waters between Great Britain and Ireland ? England and France? What island in the Irish Sea? What hills between England and Scotland ? What mountains in Wales ? What bay west of Wales ? What two rivers flow into the North Sea ? For what is the Thames remarkable ? (For the largest maritime commerce in the world) What river flows into the Bristol Channel ? Into the Irish Sea ? What city on the Thames ? What port on the Humber ? What city northwest of Hull ? Southwest of York ? West of Leeds ? Near the mouth of the Mersey ? South of Leeds ? In the northern part of England ? Near tiie centre? Near the Severn? What two cities east of Liverpool? On the south coast ? In the southern part of Wales ? Scotland. — What islands northwest of Scotland ? What groups north of Scotland ? What hills in Scotland ? What peak of the Grampians is the highest in Great Britain ? {Ben Nevis, 4370 feet) What name is given to the bays of the coast of Scotland ? (Firths) Name the five chief firths of Scotland. What firth, hills, and river form the boundary between Scotland and England ? What river flows into the Firth of Clyde ? What canal in the northern part of Scotland ? What three cities on or near the east coast ? On or near the Clyde ? Ireland. — ^What bays on the western coast of Ireland ? Which is the lajgest river ? What port in the northern part ? In the northeastern ? In the eastern ? What city in the southern part ? \\'hat sea-port near it ? What port on Galway Bay ? On the Shannon ? Travels. — Through what cities would you pass in travelling by railway from Edinburgh to London by way of Newcastle ? Plymouth to Hull by way of Birmingham ? Newcastle to Liverpool by way of Leeds ? LXXXVI. EEVIEW EXERCISES. Cities and Towns.— /« what part of the country ? Bow situated?— London? Liverpool? Manchester? Birmingham'? Leeds? Sheffield? Bristol? Bradford? Newcastle? Salford? Hull? Portsmouth? York? Plymouth? Merthyr Tydvil? Swansea? Edinburgh? Glasgow? Dundee? Aberdeen? Paisley? Greenock? Dublin? Belfast? Cork? Londonderry? Galway? Limerick? Ma.iiis.— mere situated ?-U^n} Hebrides? Orkney? Shetland? Mountains.- ff%.r^ are they ?-Gmm-p[an Hills? Cheviot Hills? Cambrian ? Ben Nevis ? Seas, Gulfs, and Bays.- mere is it .?-North Sea? Irish Sea ? St. Georges Channel English Channel? North Channel? Strait of VwZ U .^l^^'^'f- I^i'-th^f Clyde? Firth of Forth ? Sohvay Firth? Moray? Pentland? Cardigan Bay? Gahvav? Donegal? ,IT!'~J^'^'"'' '^'"' ''''"'^ ^" ^'h(^t direction docs if flow? Into what body of water ?-.T).^m,,l Severn? Mersey? Clyde ? Shannon ? 90 RUSSIA.— GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 8. The exports, in the order of their importance, are grains, flax- seed, lumber, wool, flax, hemp, and cattle. The chief foreign trade is with Great Britain and Ger- many. U. The principal cities are St. Petersburg, the capital and larg- est city and greatest commercial depot; Moscow, the ancient cap- ital of Russia; and Warsaw, the chief city of Poland. The last two are manufacturing cities. Riga and Cronstadt, on the Baltic, export grain, hemp, flax, and lumber; Odessa, on the Black Sea, is a great grain port ; Astrakhan, on the Caspian, is noted for its fisheries and its caravan trade with Asia; Arch- angel, on the White Sea, exports oats, rye, flax, and forest prod- ucts. Questions (I.) — 1. How many and what empires in Europe? How many and what re- publics? How many and what kingdoms ? Which are absolute monarchies? Which are limited ? — 2. What is the population of Europe ? In what part is most of it ? Of what race ? — 3. Where are Norway and Sweden? How does Norway compare with Sweden in size ? In surface ? In population ? What political connection have they ? — 4. What is the commerce of Norway? What are its principal exports? — 5. How is the interior commerce of Sweden connected with the maritime ? What are the exports ? — S. What is said of Christiania? Bergen? Hammerfest? Of the fisheries of Norway ? Of Stockholm ? Gottenburg ? Norr- ? — 7. What is said of the extent of the Russian What does it include? What is the title of the monarch ? Of what race are most of the in- habitants? — 8. What are the leading exports? With what countries is most of the foreign trade ? — 9. For what is St. Petersburg noted ? Moscow ? Warsaw ? Riga and Cronstadt ? Odessa ? Astrakhan ? Archangel ? (II.) — I. What kingdoms in the German Empire ? In the Austrian ? What small republic in Spain? What one in Italy? What is said of them? — 2. What branches of the Caucasian race in Europe ? Wliat religions? GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. LXXXVII. DESOEIPTION. 1. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland includes these two great islands and many neighboring small ones; it has also extensive colonial possessions in other parts of the world. The kingdom with its depend- encies is generally called the British Empire. The most important colonies are British America, Australia, Tas- mania, New Zealand, British India, and Ceylon. Among its other possessions are Gibraltar, Malta, and Cyprus, in the IVTediterra- nean Sea, South Africa, parts of the east and west coasts of Africa, with St. Helena, Mauritius, and other African islands, many of the West India Islands, and parts of Central and South America. 2. Occupations. — The chief wealth of Great Britain is in its manufactures, mines, and extensive maritime commerce. Agriculture is carried to a high degree of perfection ; in Ireland it is the leading occupation. 3. JUinerals — Great Britain supplies about one fourth of the coal, iron, salt, and tin used in the world, one eighth of the lead, and same of copper. 4. manufactures. — It surpasses every other countrv of Europe in the amount and variety of manufactures. The most important are of cotton, wool, and iron. 5. Commerce.— It has a greater maiitime commerce than any other nation. It has at least 17,.^00 merchant vessels, and more than T^V^M seamen. They carry its manufactured products to everv country on the globe, and bring in return food and raw materials. A large part of the food and two thirds of the raw cotton an- ob- tained from the United States, which t.dces in return a greater quantity of manufactures than any other country. This commerce GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 91 is protected by the largest navy that has ever existed. Fortified naval depots for coal and provisions have been established on all the great routes of maritime trade. Among these depots are Gibraltar at the entrance, Malta in the middle, and Cyprus in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea; St. Helena, Cape Town, and Mauritius on the South African route, and Aden at the mouth of the Red Sea ; Singapore at one end of the China Sea and Hong Kong at the other ; Jamaica and other islands of the West Indies ; Halifax, the Bermudas, and the Bahamas on the coasts of the United States ; with many others in India and Australia, besides home depots. the empire; if opposed by a majority of the House of Commons, he resigns, and the sovereign appoints his successor. 7. London, the capital of the kingdom and of the em- pire, is the most populous and wealthy city in the world ; it is also first in commercial importance; it covers 122 square miles. Liverpool has a very large foreign com- merce, especially with the United States ; Manchester manufactures more cotton goods than any other city; BRITISH NAVAL REVIEW The several countries of Europe, and in many instances parts of the same country, differ widely in race, language, and religion. There are also intense commercial and political rivalries. As a result, mutual distrust and jealousy exist among the several governments, and Europe has become one great camp. In a time of professed peace between three and four millions of sol- diers stand ready for war, and the military service is so arranged that this vast number of armed men can be more than doubled at the outbreak of hostilities. Besides all this, great navies, that of Great Britain being the most powerful, are ready to extend upon the sea the destruction which may at any time begin upon the land. These enormous armaments are maintained by a grinding taxation and, in many countries, by a merciless conscription that with- draws millions of young men for years from all productive in- dustry. In consequence of this, in every part of Europe thou- sands of women are obliged to work in the fields, and to en- gage in other forms of the hardest and rudest labor. In con- trast with this state of affairs, the United States, though equal in area to all Europe, has but a small navy and a widely scattered army of about 25,000 men. G. Government. — Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy. The Legislature, or Parliament, has two branches— the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The members of the House of Commons are elected by the people. The execu- tive power and the entire responsibility of the government are in the hands of a small body of men called the Ministry; they are appointed by the sovereign, through the influence of the Commons. The Prime Minister is practically the real ruler of Leeds and Bradford are noted for woollen manufactures, Shefltield for cutlery, Birmingham for general hardware, Newcastle for coal. In Wales, Merthyr Tydvil and Swansea are the largest cities. In Scotland, Glasgow is the largest city ; it is also the leading manufacturing city and the chief seat of com- merce. Edinburgh, the capital ; Dundee, which manu- factures sail-cloth and other coarse fabrics; and Aber- deen, a large sea-port, are important cities. In Ireland, Dublin is the capital and largest city. Bel- fast manufactures more linen goods than any other city in the world. Cork and Limerick are also important cities. Questions (I.) — 1. What does the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland include? What other possessions has it? What is meant by the British Empire ■" — 3. In what does the chief wealth of Great Britain consist ? What is said of agricult- ure .'' — 3. Of the mines of Great Britain } — i. Of the manufactures ? Name the most important. — 5. What is said of the commerce? — 6. Of the government? — 7. What is said of London ? Liverpool? Manchester? Leeds and Bradford? Sheffield? Bir- mingham ? Newcastle ? Merthyr Tydvil and Swansea ? Glasgow ? Edinburgh ? Dundee? Aberdeen? Dublin? Belfast? Cork and Limerick? (II.) — 1. Name the most important British colonies. What other possessions has the United Kingdom ? — 5. How many merchant vessels has Great Britain ? How many seamen ? In what nre they engaged ? With what country is the chief trade ? How is the foreign commerce protected ? How is the navy made effective ? Name the depots. In what do the several countries of Europe differ ? What rivalries exist? What is the result? What is said of the standing-armies? Of the navies? What country of Europe has the most powerful navy ? By what means are these armies and navies maintained ? What is the consequence ? What is said of the army and navy of the United States ? — 6. Describe the government of Great Britain. WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 93 H hi I— I O M I— I ••§0 s 1) 2 § O -. V • 'V. I (\., •■3 C H-1 Si "1 c 0) f^ C r73 VH /^. '^. ■«^ a •«; . c N fH W g W < - « rt H O M rt CO u T3 "■• « -a rt C rt pq y 5 c3 O '^"^ 1 H^ •■^ rt 1^ S3 (1> i I I ^^ W U oj Ph 3 O a > .3 U « en n 0) S C n.. tn IS -S a c« is en § s H 3 S pq> ts.. ^ ~ O ^> e I? if n . f\.» ^ § s 2« I I ^ h1 3 ^. o 15 « .5 '>• 13 PS sS 3 s m Q *■« ^^ I 60 1^ op .a 0) S > 2 g 'G o c On-. >- C3 g -C .S CI >■ S 1-1 V u ^^ g t< a !=" ^ ° g " 15 g 5 ^ ^ — c o ■-> o s I* Q r-H ■ I '~H i-l o +^ q M-l _ -c o +-» j5 Tl tn ■!-> " B n I— I _t!i -• I en C eu 3 o s c -^ 1) ^ 3 0) IT 3 ^1 a ° ^. o C T" en nf 3 en ^ g ° o g ■> o O. 4-. o ■" (T* . . H .^ /-I .^ >^ j=; -J3 •5^ O ~ f^ /v. 4J en J3 Dh 3 -< O J3 ^ 4-. " „ J3 13 en lU O en 3 a S < ^ ■« la ca ca 3 tuo o c en 3 ^ 4-» —I ta ca OQ 3 S (^ "ii a .t; O 4-1 o o •ti o ■" o ho eu a 1) 4-» c o ta ca >-, ta 3 3 O E tn +J (U ta > ■H '^ ca T3 c 3 o XI ca ca •" eu tn n-. ca (u tn-«3 ■n § l- o en-^ 3 en eu / *4-) n. > o ell t> - , C C" ca ca -SQ > -a ^ tn ■{-> (U g^ 3 ca JS 8 en .£2 la W -. tn ca -r-l 4-» ^ eu .2 S '.3 eu ca ta u j3 3 > 3 O 0- ^ >. jj 4j C> ta la ^ x: J3 b ca r-H O Oi o -" 3 tn J5 *'"' tn -4-* O ■o U - fi "-• 3 (U T3 " ir§ eu ca --^ .a XI .5 ■" > ca .S T S « 05^ OS*' IH >H O eu c5 4-" j3 tn ■C ca o 13 i ca eu te" (U eU ^^ n.. O ca -" 2 o o 'a u ca XI o +^ en o >^ O .ti XI — ^^ ta -0^3 ^ l-L, -a 3 n en eu 3 4-» ea E B XJ 3 gj o B .. - §• — XI >, eu .J2 -P 3 3 'o O t« 4-. ti Q S ca ,3 B- •c -^ ui 55 v^ I .si (/: -4-) o " (u Q '^ I 2 >5 I t: S -« a, ■" S JS .S §3 •'^ a to tn ® S ■*-» Q "3 ia £5 O eu eu a H H H l> hi H W EH o OQ o I— I E-i i:iQ M t=» t! eu 3 c .0 o 4-> 2 X! a ca '^ eu a.y '" B tn ta eu '— ^< ca )-< (U a "^ o to -M eu a a- ia o *J ca o a 4J ij ca 0-. ^ la "S x3 bo > ^° X3 "■■ 3 eu S n ■y lu o D " « .« .a £f ^■S-S a ca 4j 3 •;:4 eu ■S a ^ bO'^ g _ B a _ 'ta aca a ■*-' 3 t^ orS ti ° -M a 3 .S ta -a > ca i> " a eu o XI *^ +j tn eu en ^ ■" ,a 1^ 03 in a i -a -S a " -• ^ y .^ (U ii ■y la X! :a X! *- > '3 1'^ C8 eu i*^ x: 4- 4-* .« (8 a •S .sl-Ba^.sc^ ^ o ca 3 <" J O r-- ^ ^ ca 4j 3 '3 t; x: q 3 -w xi ^ ^ •" g .a ^ eu a ca > b > a ta .£4 o "^ «+4 to >,'— I eu 2 S r^ 2 o eu 0) r^ [ii XI .■y J3 ;&■ 13-3-- -3^ a •- * XI -, 1. -i. "■• to (U en ^ O I>» 4-» 4J •^« 2 S S O eu M.ti ,u X! >^X3 2 ° ■" S "S ^ .^ g a- — ' 14-1 XI "■• ta 3i O -y ta (J rQ -i O ?- ell to t; .2 ^ a -v o eu a lU u ^ o 1j '^- 1-5 a o ■S ■" .^^^ a •t: ^. ^ .^^ Ti hJ -a S.g'S § XI 5 ^ XI o P4 2: t! ^ u a eu I- ta <^. S ca .a -2 5 c ■S hoO o - _ o la 0) M tn 2 S^ E.^ 4-> 'ri eu X) . - X? ^ '-' ■n ^ " B la ts " •S '■^ 4-> ■fcl tn "-■ ^ £ B en O J^ >> eu -3 4j li -w 4- ^ 5 to « --I 2 ■'-' a 3^ ca >4-i ^ - o jj ^ a I V4 i2; .a a o fS* "^ 'S o .S 3 ti !=! en "^^3 S 2 <" <" 'S' > 3-S B .s a .2 53 •g -a S o CO a 3 I " a. t; -^ ca 4-> 3 o en a 'ta 4-1 a 3 o 2 ■^13 o p^ D W PC H o < p: w H OQ W 3 u o 13 (U •t-t o C oT tn S .a OJ D C a rt -73 o u o a, nj O .S o Pu, o £1. > O Xi "? O 2 -§ o a, o 2 o < S w S rt CJ a 6 vr '^ \ QJ • <— I «~i CJ a 4-* bO a o o 0) u rt (U G rc ■> Is a; 8 •is t« 0) 13 c C3 C CD %^^'- ^U^,, 5- Ji- GATHERING CORK. The chief colonial possessions of Spain are Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands ; those of Portugal are the Azores, the Cape Verde, and the Madeira Islands, and Lower Guinea in Africa. 4. France. — The greater part of the people of France are engaged in agriculture. In the extent of its commerce and the value of its manufactures it is second only to Great Britain. Coal-mines near Belgium and in the Cevennes furnish an abun- dance of fuel for steam-power. The country is covered with a network of railways. Its four great rivers, the Garonne, the Loire, the Seine, and the Rhone, are navigable for small steamers, and are connected by canals. The leading exports are wines and liquors, silks, woollens, cot- tons, jewelry, and hardware. 5. Paris, the capital of France, is the largest city on the conti- nent of Europe. It is a great centre of learning, fashion, and the fine arts. It is noted for its magnificent public buildings, its numerous and excellent literary and scientific institutions, and its varied and tasteful manufactures. It is the central point of nearly all the railways of the country. Lyons, the second city, is the chief seat of the silk manufacture. Among the other large cities are Marseilles, the most important port ; Bor- deaux, the principal depot for wines and brandies ; Lille, noted for its cloths and cotton and linen goods; and Havre, the port of Paris. The foreign possessions of France are quite extensive. Algeria, in Africa, and the island of Corsica are provinces having represent- atives in the French Legislative Assembly. Besides these there are colonies in Africa, the West Indies, Guiana, the Indian Ocean, Polynesia, India, and Indo-China. 6. Italy. — Italy has a large export trade in olive-oil, fruits, sulphur, and in manufactures of silk, linen, and straw. The Po and the Adige are the only navigable rivers. The fertile plain through which they flow produces a large amount of wheat, maize, and rice. 7. Rome, the capital of Italy, is the most celebrated city in history. It was the capital of the ancient Roman Em- pire. It is the residence of the Pope, who is the head of the Roman Catholic Church. Its magnificent ruins, its collections of ancient sculptures and paintings, the splendor of its churches, and its religious im- portance attract great numbers of visitors from every part of the world. Naples, the largest city, is distin- guished for the beauty of its situation and for its manufactures of silk. Among other important cities are IMi- lan, noted for its silk trade and its cathedral; Palermo, the largest city in Sicily; Turin, re- cendy the capital of Italy; Florence, containing one of the finest collections of paintings and statuary in the worid; Genoa, the birthplace of Columbus; and Venice, SWITZERLAND.— AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. 95 SCENE IN VENICE. remarkable for its situation on several small islands, and for its numerous canals, which take the place of streets. 8. Switzerland. — Switzerland, the highest part of Europe, is chiefly a land of mountains. The ranges of the Alps, with their intermediate valleys, cover two thirds of the country. A high plain between the Alpine system and the Jura Mountains constitutes the remaining third. This plain and most of the Alpine valleys are carefully cul- tivated, and flocks and herds abound. 9. Switzerland is a federal republic of twenty-two small states called Cantons. About three fourths of the inhabitants are Germans, about one sixth are French, and most of the remainder Italians. 10. The manufacture of small articles, such as watches, jewelry, silk -stuffs, ribbons, and toys, is the chief occupation ; these articles, and cattle, butter, and cheese, are . the chief exports. The foreign trade is carried on chiefly through Germany and France. 11. Geneva, noted for its manufacture of watches and for its beautiful situation at the outlet of Lake Geneva, is the largest city. Basle, the second city, and Zurich are largely engaged in the manufacture of silks, Berne is the capital. Questions (I.) — 1. What is said of the commerce of Spain and Portugal ? Of the rivers ? Of the railways ? What are the chief exports of Spain ? Of Portugal ? — 2. For what is Madrid noted ? Barcelona ? Seville ? Valencia ? Malaga? — 3. Lisbon? Oporto? — i. What is the chief occupation of the people of France ? What is said of the commerce and- manufactures ? Of the coal- mines ? Of the railways ? Of the rivers ? What are the principal exports ? — 5. What is said of Paris ? Lyons ? Marseilles ? Bordeaux ? Lille ? Havre ?— G. What are the chief exports of Italy ? What are its chief rivers ? What are the productions of the plain of the Po ? — 7. What is said of Rome ? Naples ? Milan ? Palermo ? Turin ? Florence ? Genoa ? Venice ?— 8. Which is the most elevated country in Europe ? What is the general character of the country ?— 9. What is the form of government ? How many states are there ? What are they called ? Who are the inhabitants ? — ]0. What is the chief occupation ? What are the chief exports ? How is the foreign trade carried on ? — 11. What is said of Geneva ? Basle and Zurich ? Berne ? (II.) — 3. What is said of the foreign possessions of Spain and Portugal ?— 5. Of France ? What other possessions ?— 7. What are the chief attractions of Rome ?— B. What mountains cover a large part of Switzerland? Where is the high plain? XOI. AUSTRIA.-TURKEY.-GEEEOE.-DENMAEK. 1. Austrian Empire. — The proper ofHcial title of Austria is " The Austro-Hungarian Empire." It is divided into two distinct and nearly independent groups of provinces. Each group has a government of its own ; there is also a general government for the whole empire. The Kingdom of Hungary and its dependencies con- stitute nearly one half of the empire. The Emperor of Austria is King of Hungary. The provinces differ so much in nationality, race, language, and religion that the empire is with difficulty held together. One fourth of the people are Germans, and are mostly in the prov- inces bordering on Germany; one sixth are the Magyars of Hungary (Mongols) ; one half are Sclaves j the remainder are Jews, Gypsies, Greeks, etc. 2. The Danube and its navigable branches form an important system of water-ways, extending entirely across the empire. There are also numerous railways. 3. The country is rich in a great variety of agricult- ural productions, valuable minerals, and extensive forests. The chief exports are wheat, wine, salt, wool, and manufactures of linen, cotton, iron, and glass. The wines are among the most cel- ebrated in Europe. 96 ROUMANIA, SERVIA, AND MONTENEGRO.— TURKISH EMPIRE.— GREECE.— DENMARK. 4. Vienna, the capital of the empire, is the largest city ; it is the chief centre of manufactures and domestic com- merce, and is connected by railways with every part of the empire. Buda-Pesth is the capital of Hungary, and the great emporium of the kingdom. Prague is the third city of the empire in population. Trieste, the principal seaport of the empire, has an extensive commerce. 5. Ronmanla, Servia, and Montenegro. — These countries were formerly parts of the Turkish Empire, but are now independent Christian states. 6. Turkish Empire. — The Turkish or Ottoman Empire includes European Turkey, Asiatic Turkey, a large part of Northeastern Africa, a part of Arabia, Crete, and other islands. Though possessed of unsurpassed natural advantages for agricult- ure, commerce, and other industries, an oppressive government has made Turkey the lowest of European countries in thp scale of civilization. 7. The inhabitants of European Turkey are of many races, languages, and religions. The Turks are the gov- prning race, though they constitute only a small part of the population; they are Mongol Mohammedans from Asia. Bulgaria is a self-governing but tributary prin- cipality. 8. The chief exports of Turkey are tobacco, wine, olive- oil, cotton, fruits, silk, wool, carpets, and Morocco leather. CONSTANTINOPLE. 9. Constantinople, beautifully situated on the Bos- porus, is the capital of the Turkish Empire, and the residence of the Grand Sultan, or Emperor, who is also the head of the Mohammedan religion. Adrianople and Salonica are the chief commercial centres, and are noted for the manufacture of carpets, silks, and leather. 10. Greece. — Greece may be divided into Continental Greece and Insular Greece. Continental Greece includes the mainland and the peninsula of the Morea, or Pelopon- nesus; Insular Greece includes the Ionian Islands and those of the Grecian Archipelago. Insular Greece is commercially the more important. It contains one third of the population, and al] the larger towns except Athens and Patras. Greek merchants and seamen conduct the greater part of the commerce of the Black Sea and the Levant, or eastern part of the Mediterranean. The principal exports are olive-oil, honey, silk, wax, wine, currants, figs, and raisins. The ancient Greeks were celebrated above all other peoples for their valor and patriotism, and for their genius in literature, phi- losophy, and the fine arts. Their poets, philosophers, orators, historians, architects, and sculptors have never been surpassed. 11. Athens, the capital and largest city, was noted in ancient times for its pre-eminence in art and literature. Syra, or Hermopolis, is the commercial centre ; it is the chief station of the lines of steam vessels navigating the Eastern Mediterranean. Zante, Corfu, and Patras are important ports. 12. Denmark. — Denmark consists of a number of islands and the northern half of the peninsula of Jutland. The islands contain the greater part of the population. 13. Agriculture and fishing are the principal occupa- tions. Horses, cattle, butter, cheese, pork, and grain are largely exported. The colonial possessions are Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and several small islands in the West Indies. 14. Copenhagen, on the island of Zealand, is the cap- ital and largest city. Questions (I.)— 1. What is the official title of Austria? What kingdom is a part of the empire? Who is its king?— 2. What system of water-ways is there? What other means of transportation ?— 3. In what is Austria rich? What are the principal exports? What is said of the wines? — 4. For what is Vienna noted? Buda-Pesth? Prague? Trieste ?— 5. What is said of Roumania, Se.via, and Mon- tenegro?— 6. What does the Turkish or Ottoman Empire include?— 7. How do the inhabitants differ? What is said of the Turks? What is said of Bulgaria?— 8. What are the exports of Turkey?— 9. For what is Constantinople noted ? Adrian- ople and Salonica? — 10. How may Greece be divided? What does Continental Greece include ? Insular Greece ? Whicli is the more important division of Greece ? What is said of it? Who conduct most of the commerce of the Black Sea and tlie Levant? What does Levant mean? What are the exports of Greece?— 11. For what is Athens noted ? Syra ? What important ports ?-1 2. Of what does Denmark consist? Where is most of the population?— 13. What are the chief occupations? Exports?— 14. For what is Copenhagen noted? (II.)— 1 . How is the empire divided ? How governed ? Whv is Austria governed witli difficulty ? What part of the people are Germans ? \\'hat part Mon-ols ? What race is most numerous ? What other peoples in Austria ?-6. What is the rank of 1, w"v. '"'^ of civilization ?-10. For what were the ancient G.ccks celebrated? —13. What colonial possessions has Denm.ark? QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE, NETHERLANDS, AND BELGIUM. 97 Ixjngitude East 10 from Greenwich 12 MAP OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE NETHERLANDS and BELGIUM. ScJilo or Miles. 25 hO 75 IW "c^ , 16 IS A Boniholra I ^^vi'" Dcnina ,s ^ ■ - - ■ ■). A / i>r- V— ' 4- %■ > I Heidi E\ A Is. . V^ C? Willicl.,. liavcn- Enidcn/ VQiiingeb-f f^ / M .,f 'AMBUrtGl H igfclv-t E NaB ^; /^ Rott'4 5& A^^ JJ^T.^ ^ funster \ -\._ V\ Es '■P~3 =rrp ^RUSsELS-^'yi^XiJi/pi, 1^ A' 1/ w; ^ -^ ..g; ■fe^ MaHnheii ■ireves^' 4 = > Gomft^n^^iilTff!**?"^ B tha-^% ;ingeg ^ \ Cobui-g; "" ^ il!nr>'^V M g M . 3 "^ s (U Pi •^ »-• J3 o o en 0) en d •- .2 O > tn tn a a tu P>H ^ ^ ^ CD F— H 'rt ^ 3 < t3 Si rt tn d .G »— 1 r>~ (1) >% 01 < ■4-t o •+3 rt G rt" < G -1-1 rt s •T3 rt () -M G (U X o; tu rl3 :-H -l O rt !^ ^ C < Q 3 ^ in O PM j| iJ W o •a rt «-. V J2 C>H U O rt '^- bo c c rt '43 rt "u b^ -C T3 P^ en o I ^.M - '"■ -^ rt J3 O M 1 -a n.. a tn [an rt '"• J3 c o la c O rt 2 ffi (U [-1 en w rt o s ^ pq H M S ,2 -a rt N rt n.. rt u > po I ^ aj rt T3 73 K-^ a tn ^ I. tn "I ^^ p— I 3 « O bJD . Pi Pi 43 43 O S -^ O .-' O Pi \^ ^ »^ r.-. S c s ^ o - pq tu * a ° S ►J 43 o 23 a T3 H f-. -^ Pi ^ o "3 S ^. "53 •a Pi '^ pq ^. J«! Si 13 Pi U^ 3 tu P^ W SS -:: tri rt 5^ -a ■6,13 •<« C J '"' - « lu 5 tn tj '^ 3 > rt ^ — U rt E 0-. 13 .>> .s o 43 O bO r. H H ^ 3 V ^. O tn N S rt rt 2 43 H -V. en (U ° g Wo.. bo a c « o K" "*2 I- a rt *3 t; CO o o rt O- S ~'n. U •rt S'E o rt -a " 5^- .a -t-i >-. S rt 2 c Oh (J rt >^ C ^ a s --. pq u 3 o ■" 'No " s 1) a -^. .a . ..H +-■ >-.43 tn V (U tn .- rt "H ,a a tu o 43 0-. jH ri.. ■j-> tn N •H '^ frt tu 4«: .2, tn JH i-n PrnpH ffi rt rt t+H o .. t! 2 'rt 3 i! O "^43 ■fi rt MH .H 43 o ^ o r^. .*-» 1^ . u u ° 2 pq fe o ri 4-1 ^ en en (u ■?^- " a -M rt tu 43 43 tu 43 . g t!' 43 t+H M O . !=! Ph r\., tn .2 "■■ ,a en +-> .£5 ■^' en m I- -H 09 (U eu P4 ^ o a o a. 43 rt rt ti ■« ^i; B Z^ p^ f3 'S -a rt o a 43 O n.. 5 rt ^ ~.43 ■13 o « 2 rt H ■s ;?! ft o &, til tu p:.^ tu S <" ?i ?i 43 1^ a tJ o a TO eg tn •f 'a «SP2 « .s ^ >^'i' .>^-S 2 te- ■■3 . •S " rt '^• .S2 ft a ■S a « rt 1- 13 ^ Si< '^ S o ...at! a S 5 en rS '*^ O TO .2^ ft ■" o "! ^ rt 3 tu .S o tn ;^ "a tu ^ tu ■" -3 ■?1 43 rt 43 iH a tu a 1 13 tn •p a rt tu tJ rt n Ph rH en ^ O g ^ p Eh ^ W ►S .S § rt a 43 en ^ rt _u •^ '^. " rt n tu I Z tu H Ph o ^ w =2" :i !-H § ^ I o ■^ i-T t^ of jo" S g _ CO « TH 3*< O tS C- C3 CD t- eo »-l t-_^ CO rH C4_ 03_ r ED 10 oToT' ) CO CO la o I r^ eo OS t- a ^ ■te to •s -B 1 1 1 .si as m ■«! papH . sssa 0000 a S CO s^lg S S sa 5D S;SS^ OT S "S m ^'■ '"■'■' o ^"2 - o O 1 5 .y 1 B a rS Bi ,fl' IS ft 3 o H H o Ph H M EH o o I-H EH 02 H tu 43 rt tu a 3 "H •c a 11) 3 .a S 4-* rt ft a 1 tu a 3 o u rt 43 g S ^ E> ►^ 1) 4_J (+^ »^ do 'S _o ^ 'a 8 . S ■" "^ " rt C ■a i, "O ■a (U f^ nj M U O .12 N -Q -C hS ^. o o tec .H E "m t^ tri '^ t^ rt «+- ° ' - '-S •5 fc " tfi ^ +-* c — g o .y ;z; >- o "a rf " c S "^ o o .- w (jj rt g o O O "o 1> >-> -._ en !^ S "J " ^ E H o d ^ 1^ 6 w rt t/5 *'-' ft) _ .a "" oi g «l i o " 0) T3 .2 ■4-J Cj" s| ^ o -^^ jj a ^S g >^ (L) J3 o S o '^ o "Sa" rj -^ _Q /v. J3 > T3 .2 t> C <-; nj > ^. "m > ■XI <-< x; o E .?3 4-1 2 § aa cS in tS ■"• '^ y3 '. .— I-. c3 U O ■a w Ci, o -^ d Ph '-' 'S ^^ 0) C > O O 13 o IS ti3 ft* V a si u 1) T3 c t/3 Th ^'"^ t\) ^j rt 1) -a -a c s ■ ■ ^5 ^ 1^ <: ■;: H H o o CZ2 o I— I EH JZ2 M O" .5 ■S o -s s 7; E o ° a o ^C -go o a ^. T3 O en "^ o o ^&' So -i-j rt ^^ '73 tn c - a! y -y 1) O ,v. g 4-. rt t> ■3 b t! 2 /^. CO E o U M c ■a a o T3 S ° ^ 3 M m 5 ta jj "-• .^ rt O £^ j3 u c > u I— > (U ^' o 0) I .Si O '^ -H o; ■!-» s- (U O t " ? F i o W o c S rt o i! t^ MS: 1) c S 5 &.2.B o o ft jj §^ 4-1 E-i o 4_) 2 <« XI H c o c ■ft E ^ ft O rt -"• rt '^ '" 3 ft «-. *>.. r... 0-. 13 ^. s K ■-> tn C rt rt < c ►J _aj 1 "J I— I o 3 ^. o E m m F-H u 3 J3 a tn >- 13 iJ C O tfl rt.. jz! >-■ o t; ■& o -a (11 ^ .« o «3 o ^ d m •^- a "^ a ■ • - S ^ ■" J3 > in S X! 4-1 P 13 J I en oa .g -a " c 3 en cq IS en en rt 13 -a one C !fl te! a en en cq M M 45 >- I— I C/3 (S o <; .2 5 pq ta rt pi pq t; ^ c ... o /v. "■• t; "B nj .t: ft ft ce3 C U S 1) en J3 1^ ' (U XI -G <£ -2 ^ ■^ eu X! (U en rt C x: j= _ ^ o ^ 3 >• O ^-' en T, " <1 O a 4^ 0) en ^ SoE to ^^"^ .2 <5 o 13 o n .a g .y .Q .a eu bfl C C 3 4-> c n.. 3 *^ O eu C & V, 3 J3 o " W en 3 n O O ca o M-t -= ,-, O > J3 tei O C o ^ O o •-^ -a t; C o 8- ;£! ft eel 0) Xi eu .ii F J= .— , O ft 4-. n I- 5' c c m O erj ^ en 1^ eu "^ n.. -?| "o n.^ 4-. a ^ s ^■^ o ^. o x: c ■<-' ■'"' M-e en O ' '"'s. V ]; A 1 il E II T O Hii^A I X / , Oup , ■ S 'A ]{ A B At ^.T II E K A II EL TIMEUCTOl Tinlclliistl ■; F E A N "C I E Aeaiks" ; SIKRR A FREETOW .. . LEONE °^^\-', C. Mount " MouTZOuk 'n,* F E "Z Z A N / VTrnii^^r ,.ir Ciijiccr^ J3\ A' X^\~yV ^ ^C^.V^^ CPalmas Co"^' Co*' " J? >■ Bight of B nf a U I N E A Trl. ' St.ThomasT.^'-T-ib'iui TO ,E It MANY CA.^ EROON MTS \a\ pat TV ■. _ AQHRIB t^^ iMAP OF TlIE SUEZ CAXAL. SmIc of li-'i' Mi r a nrtU- «•. E rbfl "-1 1 ^.i \ /c. ?i? -•'^' AnkobaF agadoso -f ■^ Ascension I, (To Ot.BHtain ^ :JL£i> ^ Cannry Is. COFFEE , i P E S _iL R^ T BE SAHARA orGRE A T_:,D E S ■ THE SAHEL - ' 0„I'— / JrT;TJ'(SAL Tropio of Cnprlcom _ Wal/tshSay &- PHYSICAL 3IAP OF APHICA -f„, ' WINE -.fj" CAPE TOWN CAPB eooi) hop: Jlfom'basa „ Mt. . 1 1 Kilima '• ) Niaro ^^-^"iG KKMASX -T/dPfDa'a I. Tiibora° :?--^^'"'-'l7sT a^iCzANzrBAB OitJhy At tA \ W'^""'* COJIPANt-'-^ 1,1 C) CJ)elgaao / {/ Comoro CJAmber 'Fcniao I'Wosa £. ■3 Mozainbiqxie ^ A>l LA HA U I Inhamkme ^ / EC II U A N A A-SOUTH ,"'"?'" :"*"" VM ^ ^(i)J,'«BK7Ti AFRICaM ;'#V^.dor,knlc8is \ I.AN'P '■pi;ET0BiAXs^;u;^i''-'"3»>!fi. I C.hl.llni-y ) ,\}^ — "— ^lI*tf-W'JAluftlouga Laud a"\ Tropu' of Capricorn NATAl. AFFBARIA \ CAPEAGUiHAa ^£, JtASCAKENE IS. SUOAR ^5j.„ IScuuioQ L KoUrlguoa 1. o(r» Of.nrit.) ■IMua 1. {To Oi.DHi.) ajirloorn "'^ "i fii.v lOHIO ; ■ 4l.ut}6 ' Gii)jr=-iyAj,1819/i-i/drj,Br (6 BrUJitrt. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. In what zone is most of the continent of Africa? (See Physical Map.) What waters surround it ? What cape at the northern extrem- ity ? At the eastern ? The southern ? The western ? Near Cape Agulhas ? What great island is nearly parallel to the eastern coast ? What channel between them ? What mountains parallel to the south- ern coast ? To the Mediterranean Sea ? East of the Gulf of Guinea i What desert is crossed by the Tropic of Cancer ? By the Tropic of Capricorn ? What river in the northeastern part of Africa ? Name its three principal branches. What plateau is partly drained by the Blue Nile? What lakes by the White Nile? Name other lakes in the Lake Region. What river flows into the Mozambique Channel ? What rivers flow into the Atlantic Ocean? What islands northwest of Madagascar? East of Madagascar? {Mascarene Islands^ Name the two largest. What solitary islands in the Atlantic Ocean south of the Equator ? What general name is given to the countries forming the northwest- ern border of Africa ? (See Political Map.) Name the Barbary States. What country occupies the northeastern part of Africa ? What coun- try to the south is claimed by Egypt ? What country southeast of Nubia ? What countries border on the Indian Ocean ? What Brit- ish colonies and dependencies (see text, p. 119) in Southern Africa? What three republics ? What general name is given to the western coast north of the Equator? South of the Equator? To the country south of Sahara? What countries west of Upper Guinea? What country occupies the centre of Equatorial Africa ? What city is the capital of Egypt? At the western mouth of the Nile ? At the eastern mouth ? What name is given to the triangular piece of lowland having Cairo, Alexandria, and Damietta at the angles ? (The Delta, from its resemblance to A, the Greek letter B.) What towns on the Suez Canal? What cities in Abyssinia? What is the capital of Zanzibar ? On what island ? What is the capital of Madagascar ? Name the capitals of Cape Colony and Natal. Of Orange Free State. Of the South African Republic, or Transvaal. Of the New Republic. Of Liberia. Of Sierra Leone. What city is the capital of Morocco ? What city southwest of Fez ? What cities in Algeria ? What is the capital of Tripoli ? Of Tunis ? Of Fezzan ? Barca ? OVI. EEVIEW EXERCISES. Principal Divisions and Subdivisions. — Where is it ? — Barbary States ? Morocco ? Algeria ? Tunis ? Tripoli ? Barca ? Fezzan ? Egypt ? Nubia ? Egyptian Soudan ? Abyssinia ? Zanzibar ? Mozam- bique ? Cape Colony ? Natal ? South African Republic, or Transvaal ? Orange Free State ? New Republic ? Upper Guinea ? Senegambia ? Sierra Leone ? Liberia ? Lower Guinea ? Sahara ? Soudan ? Rivers. — Where does it rise ? In what direction does it flow 1 Into what body of water ?— Nile ? White Nile ? Blue Nile ? Atbara ? Zam- besi? Orange? Congo? Niger? Cities. — In what part of the country "i How situated 1 — Cairo? Alexandria ? Damietta ? Port Said ? Suez ? Gondar ? Adowa ? Antalo ? Ankobar ? Zanzibar ? Tananarivo ? Bloemfontein ? Cape Town ? Pietermaritzburg ? Pretoria ? Vryheid ? Mon- rovia ? Free Town ? Fez ? Morocco ? Mequinez ? Algiers ? Constantine? Oran? Tunis? Tripoli? Mourzouk? Bengazi? Timbuctoo? Kano? Sokoto? Kuka? Atlas Mts. SAHARA on GREAT DESERT Jfl.JfiVHinl 1,400 /«» A jilgiers Snowy Mtg. 7000 %o 10,000 ;7. \ Great Karroo 3000 /set Cape Toion PROFILE SECTION OF AFRICA. 20 L16 PHYSICAL AFRICA. 1. Africa contains about one half of all the land in the Torrid Zone. It has a larger pro- portion of plateau surface, more unbroken coasts, a hotter and dryer climate, more exten- sive deserts, and more numerous and gigantic animals than any other of the six continents. It also has a greater number of barbarian in- habitants than all the rest of the world together. The northern tropic passes through the centre of the Great Desert, and the southern tropic through the Kalahari Desert. Between these desert belts is a broad fertile region, most of it being deluged with tropical rains during several months of the year. This belt contains the greater part of the population and of the vegetable and animal life. A smaller fertile belt is found in the Atlas region, and another in Cape Colony. The Great Karroo, in the south- ern belt, is a low plateau, similar in character to the llanos and pampas of South America. The conti- nent has therefore five parallel physical belts, three of them broad tracts of fertile land, and two inter- mediate ones of desert. 2. Surface. — Nearly the whole surface con- sists of broad, low plateaus. The edges of the continent are partly bordered and its surface broken by short mountain ranges. The highest plateau is that of Abyssinia. The longest mountain ranges lie along the eastern coast. These mountains contain the snow-covered peaks Kilima Njaro and Kenia, the highest in Africa. The Atlas Mountains, near the Mediterranean, the Crystal, east of the Gulf of Guinea, and the Snowy, in Cape' Col- ony, are the only other important ranges. A narrow strip of lowland extends be- 3. tvveen the mountain borders and the coasts and PHYSICAL AFRICA.— POLITICAL AFRICA. 117 along the southern base of the Atlas. The only other lowland lies near the centre of the continent. 4. The coast is remarkable for the deadliness of the climate and for the small number of islands, peninsulas, gulfs, and navigable rivers. The entire northern coast has but one large river, the Nile ; the eastern, the Zambesi ; the western, the Niger, the Congo, and the Orange. A group of great fresh-water lakes lies upon the east -side of the continent, some of which are connected with the Nile, others with the Congo. Lake Tchad lies in the central lowland. The Victoria Falls in the Zambesi River are exceeded in grandeur only by those of Niagara. In the extreme south is the Kalahari Desert. 5. Vegetation. — Except in the middle belt, Africa is comparatively deficient in vegetation. The tropical forests, though covering a large part of the central belt, are less dense and less extensive than those of South America. Among the most useful trees are the oil- palm of Guinea, the date-palm of the Barbary States and the oases, and the acacia, which supplies the gum- arabic of commerce. 6. Animals. — Among the animals of the central belt are the elephant, rhinoceros, lion, hippopotamus, giraffe, chimpanzee, and gorilla ; in other parts of the conti- nent are the gnu and other antelopes, the zebra, and the hyena. The ostrich and the sacred ibis are remarkable among birds, and the crocodile and the horned viper among reptiles. Questions (I.) — 1. What part of the land of the Torrid Zone is in Africa? For what is Africa remarliable among the continents ? — 3. What is the character of the surface of Africa? — 3. Where are the lowlands? — i. What is said of the coast? — 5. Of the vegetation ? — 6. Of the animals ? (II.) — 1. What circle passes through the Great Desert? Through the Kalahari Desert? What lies between these desert belts? What does this fertile belt contain? What two other fertile belts ? What is the relative position of these belts ? — 2. Which is the highest plateau ? Where are the longest mountain chains ? What peaks do they contain? What other imcortant ranges.' — *■ What is said of the rive.rs? Of the lakes? POLITICAL AFRICA. CVIII. DESOEIPTIOF. 1. Population. — The population of Africa is estimat- ed at 164 milHons. The inhabitants of the Sahara and the countries north and east of it are mostly of the Caucasian race, though much darker than Europeans. The negro race occupies nearly, the whole continent south of the Sahara, and forms much the greater part of the population. 2. CrOTernment. — All the native governments are despotisms, and, except in Egypt and the Barbary States, are of the rudest and simplest description. 3. Commerce. — The limited commerce of Africa is in the hands of the white race. Caravans cross the Great Desert from the Barbary States by the lines of oases, and barter European and Asiatic manufactures for the gold, gums, ivory, and ostrich feathers of Cen- tral Africa. Similar articles from the interior are brought to the eastern and western coasts. The Suez Canal and the Alexandria and Suez Railway are a part of the com!, mercial systems of Europe and Asia. Questions— 1 What is the population of Africa? How is it distributed?— 2. What is said of the native governments ?-3. What race controls the commerce of Africa? Describe the caravan trade. To what commercial systems do the Suez Canal and Railway belong? OIX. CAUCASIAN AFRICA. 1. Egypt. — Egypt and its dependencies, Nubia and part of Egyptian Soudan, occupy the Valley of the Nile from the Equator to the Mediterranean. Egypt pays tribute to Turkey, but is really under English protection. 2. The STile. — The heavy tropical rains in Abyssinia and farther south cause the Lower Nile to overflow its banks from June to December. The water slowly rises for three months, and as slowly subsides, leaving a narrow river for the rest of the year. A belt of low land from one to seven miles wide, crossing the desert region from the mountains to the sea, is thus alternately a continuous lake and a broad green ribbon of grasses and cotton. Not a single stream joins the Nile for the last 1200 miles of its course, rain being almost unknown except in the Delta. This remarkable valley was for thousands of years the seat of a powerful empire, famous for its wealth, industry, learning, and skill in the arts. The pyramids and temples of ancient Egypt have been preserved by the dry climate, and are the most stu- pendous and magnificent ruins in the world. In 1882, an armed rebellion against the Egyptian government was suppressed by a British army which still occupies the country, to "protect" the vast political, colonial, and commercial interests of the British Empire dependent upon the Suez Canal. 3. CrOTernment. — The government is a despotism. The chief ruler is called the Khedive, or Viceroy. 4. Commerce. — Alexandria and other cities export large quantities of cotton, cotton seed, grain, and sugar. 118 CAUCASIAN AFRICA. The Suez Canal, chiefly owned and controlled by Eng- lish and French capitalists, is the most important mari- time trade route in the world. It admits the largest steamships, and connects the commerce of Europe with that of southern and eastern Asia. Alexandria, Cairo, and Suez are connected by a railway. 5. Popnlation. — The population of Egypt is about seven millions : of its dependencies about nine millions. Most of the people of Egypt are of Arab descent ; the remainder are Berbers and other African tribes, with a small number of Copts, who are descended from the ancient Egyptians. Of the Turks, the ruling class, there are about 20,000. Mohammedan- ism is the prevailing religion. 6. Cairo, the capital, is the largest city in Africa. Alex- andria is the second city and largest sea-port. Port Said and Suez are at the ends of the great canal. 7. Barbary States. — The Barbary States are Mo- rocco, Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, and Barca. The Barbary States are so called from the Berbers, a pastoral and agricultural people occupying the Atlas region. The other prin- cipal races are the Moors, the Arabs, the Turks frorri Asia, and the French from Europe ; all but the last are Mohammedans. The fertile valleys and slopes of the Atlas are called the " Tell," or Grain Country. South of the Tell is the Sahara, or Country of Oases ; it abounds in dates. The name Sahara is also given by European geographers to the Great Desert. 8. Morocco. — Morocco derives its name from the Moors. It is a semi-barbarous country, governed by a sultan. It exports wool, hides and skins, wheat, and almonds. Fez, the largest of its three capitals, is the western depot of the caravan trade between Europe and Central Africa. 9. Algeria. — Algeria is a province of France. It ex- ports grain, dates, cotton, indigo, and sugar. The chief cities are Algiers, the capital, Constantine, and Oran. Europeans form but a small part of the population, and are mostly in the sea-port towns. The rest of the inhabitants are about equally divided between the Berbers of the Tell and the Arabs of the Sahara, which here contains many small oases. 10. Tunis. — Tunis and Tripoli are dependencies of the Turkish Empire. They export olives, oil, grain, and dates. Fezzan and Barca are dependencies of Tripoli. Tripoli, the capital of Tripoli, has a large caravan trade with Central Africa. Tunis is occupied and " protected " by the French. 11. Sahara. — The Sahara is the most extensive desert on the globe. It is the western portion of the desert belt that extends from China to the Atlantic Ocean. It consists of rocky plateaus and mountain ridges, separated by broad tracts of gravel or shifting sand. Rain falls during certain parts of the year in the mount- ain regions, and oases occupy the low and moist spots. In the higher plateaus the people are said to wear furs in the winter. The general climate is intepsely hot, 12. A line of oases from TripoH through Mourzouk in Fezzan to Lake Tchad is the principal caravan route. This line divides the Sahara into two parts. The western, called the " sahel," or "plain," is sandy, and has few oases; it furnishes Soudan with salt. The eastern is the Libyan Desert, and has many oases. East of the Nile is the Nubian Desert. !. Popnlation. — Sahara is sparsely populated. The in- habitants are similar in their habits to the Bedoum Arabs. THE EDGE OF THE DESERT. 14. Abyssinia. — Abyssinia is the most elevated country in Africa. Many of its mountain peaks are covered with snow during the greater part of the year. The country has but little commerce, and is under the influence of Italy. Gondar, Adowa, Antalo, and Ankobar are the chief cities. Questions (I.) — 1. Where are Egypt and its dependencies situated ? Name the dependencies. Of what empire is Egypt a part ? — 3. How do the tropical rains affect the Lower Nile ? — 3. What is the government ? — i. What are the exports ? What is said of the Suez Canal ? What railway in Egypt .' — 5. What is the population of Egypt ? — 6. What city is the capital ? For what is Alexandria noted ? Where are Port Said and Suez ?— 7. Name the Barbary States. — 8. From what does Morocco derive its name ? What is its social condition ? Its government ? Its exports ? Its chief trade centre ? Its principal capital ? — 9. Of what country is Algeria a province ? What are its exports ? Its capital and other cities .'—10. What is said of Tunis and Tripoli? What are their exports ? What is said of Fezzan and Barca ? What is the capital of Tripoli? For what is it noted?— 11. How does the Sahara compare with other deserts?— 12. Where is the great line of oases?— 13. What is said of the pop- ulation of Sahara?— U. Which is the most elevated country in Africa? What is the social condition of the country ? Name the chief cities. (II.)— :2. Describe the effect of the tropical rains upon the Lower Nile. For what was ancient Egypt remarkable ? What is the present condition of the country ? In what respect does it resemble Europe ?— 5. To what races do the people belong ? Who are the ruling class ? What is the prevailing religion ?— 7. Why are the Barbary States so called ? What are the other principal races ? Of what religion are they ? Where and what is the Tell ? The Sahara?— 9. What part of the population of Algeria is European? Who are the rest of the inhabitants ?— 11. Of what is Sahara a part? Of what does it consist ? What and where are the oases ?— 13. How does the line of oases divide the Sahara? What is said of the western part? The eastern pait? What other desert east of the Nile ? OX. NEGRO AFRICA. 1. Coast Regions and Climate.— I'he greater part of the lowlands along the western and eastern coasts has a hot, moist climate. North NEGRO AFRICA: SOUTH CENTRAL AFRICA AND AFRICAN ISLANDS. 119 of the mouth of the Orange River the coast for seven hundred miles is entirely desert. 2. Colonies. — Under various names, such as colony, dependency, protectorate,* occupation, and "sphere of influence," all of them terms implying greater or less pretensions to exclusive possession, nearly the whole sea-coast of Africa and a very large part of the in- terior are claimed by certain great maritime nations of Europe, whose necessities impel them to seek new sources of raw material, and new markets for manufactured products. Steamers are multiplying on the great rivers and lakes of the interior, and, with a slowly develop- ing system of adjunct railways, are gradually making these regions sure to those who thus claim them. The only countries of Africa yet remaining absolutely independent are as follows : Morocco, on the Barbary coast ; Liberia, a repubhc of negroes from the United States, on the western coast ; and, in the interior, parts of Soudan and the Sahara ; and Orange Free State. As for the rest of the continent, Tripoli and its dependencies, Barca and Fezzan, belong to Turkey ; France has annexed Algeria, "protects" Tunis and the great island of Madagascar, holds as colo- nies Senegambia, parts of the Ivory and Slave Coasts, the Gaboon, and a large part of the Congo region ; Obock on the Gulf of Aden, and the Comoro Islands, and "influences" a large part of the Sahara. Total area about 2,800,000 square miles. Italy holds districts on the northeast coasts and " influences " Abyssinia. Germany has annexed Cameroons and other parts of the Upper Guinea coast ; Damara Land and Luderitz Land on the south- western coast, with avast interior; and on the eastern coast "pro- tects " the southern half of Zanzibar and " influences " the immense territories of the German East Africa Company ; a total of at least 800,000 square miles. Portugal claims as colonies nearly the whole of Lower Guinea, all of Mozambique, together with the Madeira, Cape Verde, and other islands; total area about 900,000 square miles. Spain has as colonies the Canary and other islands, and has annexed the greater part of Sahara coast and the adjacent interior; area, 240,000 square miles. Great Britain has Sierra Leone, a colony of negroes rescued from slave ships ; the Gold Coast, a colony and protectorate ; Lagos Col- ony ; and the Niger District, a protectorate ; all on the western coast ; in South Africa, Cape Colony and its numerous dependencies and neighbors, namely, Caffraria, Basutoland, Bechuanaland, a protector- ate ; " influences " a vast interior or " hinterland," extending north- eastward to Lakes Tanganyika and Nyassa; and Walfish Bay ; Natal Colony and Zululand, a protectorate; "protects" the northern half of Zanzibar, including its island capital, and " influences " the hinter- land to the northwestern confines of the Nile Valley ; the island of Socotra is a dependency; and Egypt is "occupied." Exclusive of the last the area claimed is at least 3,300,000 square miles. Congo Free State is " protected " by many nations. Area about 1,000,000 square miles. 3. Exports. — The principal exports from the eastern and western coasts, Soudan and the Congo region, are palm-oil, gums. India-rub- ber, spices, sugar, ivory, ostrich feathers, and gold ; from the southern coasts wool, hides, tallow, ostrich feathers, and diamonds. 4. Soudan. — Soudan is a broad, fertile belt crossing the continent south of the Great Desert. The principal cities are Kano, Sokoto, Kuka, and Timbuctoo. They have a great caravan trade to the Mediterranean coasts. * In a protectorate the native ruler is continued, but a foreign " resident," with a " military escort," is stationed at the court. 21 In its heavy tropical rains, extensive forests, fertile soil, and great heat, Sou- dan somewhat resembles the selvas of the Amazon. It contains a large number of populous, semi-barbarous states. Most of the inhabitants are Mohammedans, the rest Pagans. The religion of the Pagan negroes combines a belief in evil spirits, witchcraft, and magic charms, and is known as Fetichism. 5. Free-Trade Zone. — The Free-Trade Zone is a broad belt of coun- try of irregular width crossing Equatorial Africa from ocean to ocean. Its area is more than 2,000,000 square miles. It is open to the trade of all nations. Congo Free State. — Congo Free State is a part of the Free-Trade Zone. It includes nearly the whole valley of the Congo and its tribu- taries. It is inhabited by barbarous tribes of Pagan negroes. It was organized in 18S5 as a government international in character, and hav- ing for its chief objects the extinction of the slave-trade and the extension of legitima.te commerce and of civilization. All maritime nations partici- pate in its trade, and many of them are under obligation to protect it. Within the last few years the vast and hitherto unknown interior of Africa has been explored with unparalleled rapidity. Of the many illustrious explor- ers the most celebrated are Livingstone and Stanley. In ISYl Livingstone reached Nyangwe, a central Arab slave-trading station on Lualaba River. In 1876 Stanley passed down the Lualaba from this point in boats, and reached the Atlantic in ISII. His exploration proved the Lualaba to be the Congo, a small part of whose lower course had long been known. In volume of water discharged and in number of miles of in- ternal navigable waters the Congo system is probably surpassed only by that of the Amazon. The "International Association for the Exploration of Africa" was estab- lished in Europe in ISYB. It sent out many expeditions, chiefly from the eastern coast, and purchased of the natives certain rights and privileges, including sites for trading stations. Stanley's discovery showed that the Congo is a great water-way to the very heart of Africa. This led to the International Congo Conference of the great maritime nations at Berlin in 1886. An immense but irregular belt of territory stretching across the con- tinent was declared to be a Free-Trade Zone, open to the commerce of all the world. It contains at least 40 millions of people. The rights of the International Association to a portion of the Zone were recognized and its territory formally outlined and established as the Congo Free State. The King of the Belgians, the head of the Association, was declared to be the sovereign. The capital is Brussels in Europe, with a local capital at Leo- poldville, on the Congo. The area of the state is about half that of the Free-Trade Zone ; population estimated at 15 millions. Only a few sta- tions are as yet occupied. 6. African Islands. — Madagascar, a French protectorate, is about equal in area to the five North Central States of the United States. The government is a despotic monarchy. The capital and largest city is Tananarivo. Tamatave, the chief port, exports cattle and rice. Mauritius, belonging to Great Britain, exports sugar, and i« a stop- ping-place for vessels crossing the Indian Ocean. Reunion, or Bour- bon, is a French colony. The Atlantic Islands are of small size, and are precipitous, volcanic rocks. St. Helena and Ascension belong to Great Britain. The Cape Verde and the Madeira Islands, belonging to Portugal, and the Cana- ries, belonging to Spain, export wine, sugar, and coffee. Questions (I.) — 1. What is the character of the climate of the eastern and west- ern coasts of Africa ? What long desert co&,st ? — 2. What is said of the claims of European nations? What countries are yet independent? What countries are claimed by Turkey ? By France ? Italy? Germany? Portugal? Spain? Great Britain? — 3. What are the chief exports of Africa? — 4, What is Soudan ? Mention its chief cities. With what coasts do they trade, and how? What does Soudan resemble ? What does it contain ? Of what religions are the inhabitants of Soudan ? — 6. What is the Free-Trade Zone ? The Congo Free State ? Give an account of their origin. — 6. To what states is Madagascar equal in surface ? What is the gov- ernment ? Which is the capital city ? The chief port ? Its exports ? What is said of Mauritius ? Of Reunion ? What is the character of the Atlantic Islands ? To what country do St. Helena and Ascension belong ? What other islands ? To what countries do they belong ? What are their exports ? QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Name the chief Atlantic ports of North America. Which one is the most important? What ports on or near the Gulf of Mexico? Name the chief Pacific ports of North America. Which is the most important? Which are the two chief river-ports of the St. Lawrence ? Of the Mississippi ? Which is the most northwesterly port of South America ? (79*) What port near the eastern extremity of South America ? What ports between Colon and Pernambuco ? Between Pernambuco and Cape Horn ? Name the principal Pacific ports of South America. Which one is farthest north ? Near what Caribbean port is it ? By what are they connected ? (80) • The numbers in this lesson refer to pages in the book where the answers may be found. Name the two principal ports of the British Islands. For what is the port of London remarkable ? (!)1) What ports in Ireland? (SI)) In Scotland? (S'J) Which is the chief port of the north of France ? (!)2) What ports of Europe are on or near the North Sea? (87, 02) On or near the Baltic? (87,92). In Iceland ? (87) Name the chief ports of Europe between the Strait of Dover and the Strait of Gibraltar. (92) Name three Spanish ports on the Mediterranean. (92) Name the chief French port. (94) The chief Italian ports. (92) In Sicily. The chief port of Austria. (9(1) Of Greece. (9G) Of Turkey. (92) What port on the White Sea? (87) Name the chief Mediterranean ports of Africa. (1 1.|) The Atlantic ports. (lU) What port near the somhcrn extremity of Africa ? What ports on the eastern coast ? (114) At the ends of the Suez Canal? (1 14) What Asiatic ports are on the Mediterranean Sea ? (1U2) The Ked Sea? (102) Persian Gull? (10-') Ara- bian Sea? (102) On or near the Bay of Bcnsal? (102) The China Sea? (102) What Pacific ports of Asia are north of Canton? (102) Name the chief ports of Aus- tralia. Tasmania. (Ill) New Zealand. The Indian Archipelago. The Sandwich Islands. Where is the chief manufacturing district of Eu- ro|ie ? Of North America ? What lunoiican port li.ns a very large trade with the United States? (91) What are the principal exports fronr New York to Liverpool? (114, 90) How do these articles reach New York? (:!4. 42, 6-1, 6.-.) From what parts of the United Stales docs most of the wheat conic ? Of the maize ? Cotton? Tobacco? Provisions? Petroletnn ? Gold? Sil«r' Why docs not New York export dry-goods and iron to Great Britain? (90) What other jiorts of the United States have an important share of the foreign tr.idc ? (■'>*) Ubj»r.^, W'l''* 135 I^g ituSe 120 "West from 105 Gveoiraioh. re the chief cotton ports ? (New Orleans, Gal- [obile, Savannali, Charleston, Norfolk, and New The chief grain ports ? (New York, Boston, )hia, and Baltimore.) What are the chief ex- n Liverpool to the United States ? (,S+) Name les of commerce between French ))orts and the United States. The German ports. Rus- s. Spanish. Italian. Turkish. Greek, amer from London to Smyrna, with an assorted iches at Cadiz, Gibraltar, and the leading ports :diterranean : what classes of articles will prob- ititnlo the chief part of her cargo? The same ils from Smyrna to New York, stopping at tlie anean ports : what articles will she probably She then sails from New York for London : her cargo now probably be? amer from New York to Rio Janeiro touches at St. Thomas, W. I., and other intermediate ports : what ar- ticles is she likely to carry out >* To bring back ? Why not cotton ? What cargoes from New York to Monte- video and Buenos Ayres? What return cargoes? How far hy steamer from New York to Colon ? To ■ New Orleans ? At what port do New York and New Orleans steamers touch ? (Havana.) Name the chief exports of western South America. What are the chief exports of San Francisco ? Where is most of the gold and silver sent ? (To New York and China.) Of the wheat and flour ? (To England.) With what Chinese ports has San Francisco an important trade? What Japanese ports? With what ports of Australia? New Zealand ? Sandwich Islands? South * Remember that the maniifnctures of nearly all countries except tliose of Western Europe, Eastern North America, and Eastern Asia are very limited. America ? Mexico ? Why does the steamer-route from Yokohama to San Francisco differ from the route by sail ? Whence does San Francisco import most of its coal? (Australia and British Columbia.) Name six of the chief cities on the great railroad routes between San Francisco and New York. (60, 07) What are the chief exports of Tasmania, New Zealand, and Australia ? To what country ? What articles are probably imported in return ? Where are the chief whale fisheries? Seal fisheries? Cod fisheries ? Other fisheries ? Whence are the chief supplies of ivory ? Ostrich feathers ? Gums? Drugs? Opium? Teas? Tobacco? Silk? Cotton? Coffee? Sugar? Jute? Pepper? Flax-seed? Wheat? Maize? Hides? Furs? Silver? Gold? Copper? Iron? In what parts of the world is traffic still carried on by caravans ? mj 122 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY— GENERAL REVIEW. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY-GENERAL REVIEW. How is the earth known to be a globe ? What has caused it to be flattened at the poles? What is the length of the polar diameter? Of the equatorial diameter? Of the circumference ? Describe the general physical condition of the earth. (Ans. The earth is by many supposed to be a slowly cooling and shrinking ball of matter, which was once entirely in a molten state. Its cooled and hardened crust is comparatively thin, and is the surface upon which we live. Mountain ranges are the folds, ridges, and lines of fracture of the crust. The broad hollows of the surface are partly filled by the ocean. Volcanoes are openings to the still melted interior of the earth, and are mostly found upon the lines of fracture.) What evidences have we of the heat of the interior of the earth? {Ans. Volcanoes, hot-springs, earthquakes, and the gradual increase of heat with the depth in deep borings and mines.) Name the two great land masses. What is the position of the line of direction of each ? How many continents in each ? What separate continent is there ? Name the six continents in the order of their size. How are most of the islands arranged? How many classes of islands are there? What are continental islands? Where are the principal chains ? What are oceanic islands ? Wfiere are the printipal chains ? What are volcanic islands? Coral islands? Where chiefly found? Name two of each class of islands. What is a mountain system? Where is the longest system in the world?* What is its direction ? Where is it highest ? Name the principal mountain chains of Noi th America. Of South America. Where is the chief mountain system of the Old World? Where is it highest ? Name the principal mountain chains of Asia. Of Europe. Of Africa. Of Australia. Where are most of the volcanoes of North America ? In what countries ? Where are the volcanoes of South America ? What island chains of Asia abouiKl in volcanoes? What can you say of the volcanoes of Malaysia? {A>is. They are more numerous than in any other equal area in the world.) What volcanoes com- plete the " fire circle " of the Pacific ? {Ans. Those of Melanesia and New Zealand.) What oceanic islands of the Pacific contain volcanoes ? Which has the greatest crater in the world? What volcanoes are in the Mediterranean Sea? In Iceland? What is a plateau ? Which continent has the greatest proportion of plateau sur- face ? Which the least ? Where are the great plateaus found in each continent ? Describe the great plateau belt of North America. How high is it? What great mountain system rests upon it ? Through what countries does it extend ? Describe the Eastern Highland. What mountain system does it contain? Name some of the ranges. Where is the highest plateau belt of South America ? What countries lie wholly or partly in it? In which is it highest and broadest ? How high is it? What mountain system rests upon it ? In what country is the broadest plateau of South America ? Is it high or low? What mountains does it contain? Where is the chief highland belt of Europe ? What countries lie wholly or partly in it ? Which are its chief mountain chains ? For what are the plateaus of Asia remarkable ? In what parts of the continent are they ? Name some of them. Which is the highest ? How high is it ? What mountain chains rest upon these plateaus ? Which is the highest plateau of Africa? What mountains rest upon it? What can you say of the plateaus of Australia ? What is a lowland plain ? Where is the great low plain of North America ? By what is it divided ? Into what two plains ? Which way does each plain slope ? How can you tell this by the map ? What plain east of the Appalachian Mountains ? Where is the great low plain of South America? Name its three principal divisions. What countries lie wholly or partly in each ? Describe the llanos. The selvas. The pampas. Where is the great plain of Europe ? What mountain walls partly enclose it? What countries lie wholly or partly in it? What other plains in Europe? In what countries ? Where is the great lowland plain of Asia ? With what other plain connected ? What countries are in it ? What great lakes in its western part ? What plains in other parts of Asia ? For what are the plains of China and Hindostan re- markable ? In what part of Africa are the plains ? Name the five chief divisions of the ocean. Which are the three great oceans ? Which is the largest ? For what else remarkable ? The Atlantic ? The Indian ? The Arctic ? The Antarctic ? Name the chief islands, border seas, and gulfs of the Pacific. Of the Atlantic. Of the Indian. From what level are all heights estimated ? What can you say of it ? (Ans. After allowing for the temporary effects of tides, winds, etc., the surface of the sea stands at the same level in all parts of the world.) \\hat are ocean currents ? What can you say of their extent ? Of their causes ? Name some of the principal currents. Of what use are they ? Describe the equatorial currents. The Gulf Stream. The Japan btream. The polar currents. How high does the atmosphere extend ? Where is it most dense? Why? At what height does plant life cease ? Why ? What can you say of the composition of the atmosphere and of the use of each part? {Ans. The atmosphere consists chiefly of a mixture of three gases. Dry air contains about one fifth part oxygen, nearly four fifths nitrogen, and about one five-hundredth part carbonic acid. There is also a variable quantity of watery vapor, which is the source of all rains and dews. The oxygen is the vital element in the breath of animals, but would destroy life if it were not so greatly * For moimtains, plateaus, and plains, consult the physical maps and the sections of the continents. diluted with nitrogen. Carbonic acid furnishes all plants with carbon, of which they are chiefly composed.) What is the chief source of the watery vapor ? What are the effects of the heat of the sun upon air ? In what zone are these effects the most power- ful ? What are winds ? Describe the trade-winds. The counter-trades. In what re- spects are winds similar to ocean currents ? Of what uses are winds ? What is climate? Upon what does it chiefly depend? How affected by latitude? By elevation ? By sea winds ? By land winds ? By ocean currents ? By distance from the sea ? What is meant by the annual rain-fall of a country ? In which zone is it greatest ? Describe the tropical rain-belt. How does it affect climate and vegetation ? How do high mountains affect climate ? What is the chief cause of deserts ? Where is the great desert belt ? What states or countries in each continent have a very dry climate ? What is a river system ? A basin or valley ? What great rivers flow into the Arctic Ocean ? What plains do they drain ? What great rivers flow into the Atlantic and its seas, etc. ? What plains or what plateaus do they drain ? Which is the most extensive river system of North America? Name some of the principal branches. Of South America? The chief branches ? What great rivers flow into the Indian Ocean? What plains or what plateaus do they drain? Into the Pacific? What plains or plateaus do they drain ? What rivers of Europe and Asia do not flow into the ocean? Into what do they flow? Why are such lakes salt? Are there any salt lakes in the United States ? Where ? In any other part of the world ? Where ? Where is the Dead Sea? For what remarkable? In which continents aie the two chief systems of fresh-water lakes? With what rivers and ocean are they connected? What is meant by "perpetual snow?" By the "snow-line?" How does its height vary? What are glaciers? How formed? Where found in Europe? In Asia? In North America? What is Greenland supposed to be? {Ans. An archipelago in which both land and sea are filled with glaciers.) What are icebergs? How formed? (See page 15.) (Another cause is that the lower ends of arctic and antarctic glaciers are sometimes pushed forward along the sea-bottom and into very deep water. Being lighter than the salt water, they have a tendency to float, and thus break o€.) Upon what does the character of vegetable life chiefly depend ? {Ans. Upon climate and soil.) Where is the principal forest region of North America? What parts of it abound in pines and firs ? Where are the prairie regions ? What vegetation is found on the great western plains ? Near the shores of the Arctic Ocean ? Where is the western forest region ? Which are its principal trees ? Where are the largest trees in the world ? What is the character of the vegetation of the West Indies and the low parts of Central America? Name some of its trees. Where are the grassy regions of South America ? The desert regions ? The great forest region ? Name some of its most useful trees. The chief forest regions of Europe ? Of Asia ? Name some Asiatic plants. Where is the principal forest belt of Africa ? Name the chief food plants of the temperate regions of North America. Of the warmer regions and the West Indies. Of South America. Of southern Europe. Of the rest of Europe. Of southern Asia. Of Africa. Of Australia. Which is the principal grain of the world ? {Ans. Rice ; it supports more than one third of the human race.) Name some quadrupeds found in the colder parts of North America.* What other quadrupeds are found in that continent ? Name its largest reptile. The most remarkable birds. The most remarkable quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles of South America. Some of the quadrupeds of northern Europe. Of other' parts of Europe. From what continent were most of our domestic aniuLils originally derived? Name some of the most remarkable animals of northern Asia. Of desert Asia. Of southern Asia. What peculiarity have most of the Australian quadrupeds ? Name some of the pouched animals. Some of the birds of Australia and their peculiarities.. How is Africa remarkable in regard to its animals? Name soine of them. Name the five races of mankind. Which two are the most numerous? Which is the least? What part of mankind is comprised in each of the five races? Where IS the Caucasian race found? The Mongol? The Ethiopian? The Malay? The American ? For what is the Caucasian race distinguished ? What races are found in North America ? In what part of the continent are the Caucasians chiefly found ? Of what race are the Esquimaux? (^;„. Mongol.) Where are they? (^«.. On the shores of Alaska and of the Arctic Ocean.) The Ethiopians ? The Amcrians ? What two races occupy Europe? A\hich are the chief European branches of'the Caucasian ■T'M^!'"'^"^*^ Celts? The Teutons? The Sclavcs? To which branch do the Ir,sh belong? The Welsh ? The Germans? The English ? The Russians? Wha peoples of Europe are Mongols? {.-Ins. Lapps, Finns. Turks, and Magyars.) What three races occupy Asia? What mountains separate the Mon<^ols f.om the Caucasians? Of what race are the Persians? The Chinese? The Ar,.bs? The Hmdoos? The Japanese? The Tartars? In what part of the continent is the Malay race found ? In what archipelago is the greater part of that race ? What two races occupy Africa ? Which is the more nt.merous ? In what race ? The Caucasian ? part is the Ethiopian • In the iUustrations the anunals of each continent are arranged in the general order ot Uieir lautud.. POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHV— GENERAL REVIEW. 123 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY-GENERAL REVIEW. What is Political Geography ? What does it include ? Which are the principal forms of government ? What is a republic ? A monarchy ? A limited monarchy ? An unlimited monarchy ? A kingdom ? An empire ? Give an example of each form of government. What form of government prevails in the New World ? In the Old World? What republics in Europe? What republics in Africa? What title is usually given to the chief magistrate of a republic ? Of a state ? Of a city ? To the sovereign of Russia? Of Prussia ? Of Germany? Of Turkey? Of Egypt? Of Japan ? What is the capital of a country ? The metropolis ? What countries and islands of North America and the West Indies belong to Great Britain? To Spain? To Denmark? Which are independent? Name the capital of each country of North America. Its largest city. What language is spoken in the City of Mexico ? Quebec ? New Orleans ? Havana ? Guatemala ? Which of the countries of South America are European colonies ? Where are most ofthe civilized inhabitants of that continent ? Name the capital of each country. The largest city. What language is spoken in Caracas ? In Lima ? In Rio Janeiro ? In Valparaiso ? In Bogota ? In Buenos Ayres ? How do the Creoles of Spanish America compare with the other races in numbers? Which two states of South America are receiving a large European immigration? {Ans. Brazil and Argentine Republic.) Which countries of Europe are empires? Which are republics? Which are king- doms? Which is the most extensive monarchy in the world? Which is next in ex- tent ? Which of these two has the greater population ? What countries are embraced in the Russian Empire ? In what country is the greater part of its population ? Of what races and religions are they? What countries are included in the British Em- pire ? Of what races and religions are its inhabitants ? In what country are the greater part of the inhabitants ? Of what countries does the kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland consist? Name the capital and one large city in each. What language is spoken in London ? In Edinburgh ? In Dublin ? In Wales ? (Ans. Cymric.) In Western Ireland ? {Ans.KTse.) In St. Petersburg ? In Christiania? In Stockholm ? In Copenhagen ? In Amsterdam? In Brussels? In Paris? In Berlin? In Vienna? In Berne ? In Lisbon ? In Geneva ? In Venice ? In Naples ? In Athens ? In Constantinople ? {Ans. Many languages.) Name the foreign possessions of France. What name is given to the Swiss states? What peoples inhabit Switzerland? What is the proper title of Austria? What provinces are included in the empire ? (See map.) What peoples consti- tute the population ? Which is the most numerous ? What kingdom is on the Danube and the Save? On the Adriatic Sea? What can you say ofthe population of European Turkey? Which is the governing people? Of what race, origin, and religion? Name the provinces of European Turkey. Who is the head ofthe Mo- hammedan religion? What countries are included in the Turkish Empire? What titles are sometimes given to the Turkish government? (Ans. The Ottoman Porte and the Sublime Porte.) What are the character and effects of the government ? Name the colonial possessions of Denmark. What two separate kingdoms of North- ern Europe have the same king ? Which of these is the more populous and powerful ? Name the countries of Asia. The capital of each. What European nations have possessions in Asia ? Which are the Asiatic possessions of Russia ? Of Great Britain ? Of France ? Of Turkey ? ■ Of the Netherlands ? Of Spain ? Name the divisions of Asiatic Russia. Which is the most populous ? Name its capital. Describe the European population of Siberia. What countries are included in the Chinese Em- pire? Name in their order five governments which occupy more than half of the land surface of the globe. Where are the greater part ofthe inhabitants ofthe Chinese Empire? What is the form of government? Name the chief islands of Japan. What is the character of the government ? By whom is British India governed ? Who is Empress of India ? What countries are included in Indo-China ? What is the char- acter of the native governments of Asia ? Who are the Bedouins ? To whom do the Philippines belong ? What is the capital ? What city is the capital ofthe Dutch East Indies? Name the colonial divisions of Australia. What other British colonies are near Australia ? To whom do the Feejee Islands belong ? The Society Islands? The Sandwich? What is the character of the native govern- ments of Africa ? Name its most important countries. Name the capital of each. What countries of Africa are dependencies of Turkey? Of Egypt? Where are the Portuguese possessions ? The English ? The French? The German ? The Italian? Name the Barbary States. Which of them is independent ? What independent repub- lics in Africa? What is the Congo Free State? What coast is held by the Arabs? What African islands belong to Great Britain? To France? To Spain? To Portugal? How many states in the United States ? How many territories ? What is the form of government ? What city is the capital ? What is a state? A territory? Name the physical groups into which the United States may be divided. Name the states in each group, and the capital and largest city in each state. ' What provinces constitute the Dominion of Canada ? Describe its form of govern- ment ? Name the capital and the largest city of each province ? COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY-GENERAL REVIEW. What is domestic commerce ? Foreign commerce ? What articles of commerce do the New England Stales supply to other parts ofthe country ? The Middle Atlantic States? The South Atlantic? The South Central ? The North Central ? The West Central ? The Pacific States ? The rest of the Great Highland ? Which is the chief article of export of the United States ? Name other leading articles of export to Eu- rope. To South America. To Asia. To the West Indies. Name the principal im- ports of the United States. Name in their order five of its chief sea-ports. With what country is our principal foreign commerce? Which are the chief articles of import from England? Scotland? France? Germany? Italy? Brazil? United States of Colombia ? Venezuela ? Mexico ? Cuba ? Canada ? China ? Japan ? British India ? Dutch East Indies ?* From what countries do we import coffee ? Tea ? Sugar and Molasses ? Wool- len goods? Cotton goods? Linens? Silk goods? Raw silk? Iron and steel goods? Salt? Spices? Fruits? Rice? Hides and skins? Dye-woods? India- rubber ? Name the chief Mediterranean ports of Spain. Of France. Of Italy. Of Aus- tria. Of Turkey. Of Egypt. Of the Barbary States. Name the southern ports of Russia. The most northern port. The Baltic ports of Russia. Of Sweden. Of Denmark. Of Germany. The chief Atlantic ports of Norway. Of Germany. Ofthe Netherlands. Of Belgium. Of France. Of Spain. Of Portugal. Of England. Of Scotland. Of Ireland. Of British North America. Of the United States. Of Brazil. Of Guiana. Of Uruguay. Of the Argentine Republic. Of Iceland. Name the chief port or ports ofthe Gulf of Mexico or ofthe Caribbean Sea belonging to the United States. To Spain. To Mexico. To Great Britain. To Venezuela. To the United States of Colombia. What ports ofthe Pacific Ocean are in China ? In Indo-China ? In Japan? In the United States ? In Mexico? In the United States of Colombia? In Equador ? In Peru ? In Chili ? In Australia ? In New Zealand ? In the Sand- wich Islands ? Which is the chief port or ports in the Dutch East Indies ? In the Spanish East Indies ? On the southern coast of Africa ? On the eastern coast ? On the Red Sea ? The Arabian Sea ? The Persian Gulf? The Bay of Bengal ? * For valuable statistics of the commerce of the world, see page 128. 22 Tabular Hevievrs. — In addition to the numerous map reviews found in the text of this work, it may be found expedient to introduce topical reviews in the form of tabu- lar synopses. Models are given below. The headings for the columns may be greatly varied. The number of topics for each lesson is left to the judgment of the teacher. COUNTRIES. — % NORTH BOUNDARY. EAST BOUNDARY. SOUTH BOUNDARY. WEST BOUNDARY. Mexico. j United States. Rio Grande and Gulf of Mexico. Central America. Pacific Ocean. United States. . . { Dom. of Canada. Atlantic Ocean. Gulf of Mexico and Mexico. Pacific Ocean. COUNTEIES. SURFACE. MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS. KIVEKS. LAKES. CLIMATE. Chili j Mountainous. Andes. None. None. Dry in N., Rainy in S, Argentine | Republic. . . ( Level. Pampas. La Plata, Parana. Salt Lakes. Cold and drj in S., Trop- ical in N. COUNTRIES. GOVERN- MENT. RULER. CAPITALS. LARGEST CITIES, EXPORTS. Austria 1 Limited Monarchy. Emperor. Vienna. Vienna. Wheat, wine, and manu- factures. My 1 Limited Monarchy. King. Rome. Naples. Oil and manufactures. STATES. MOUNTAINS. KIVERS AND LAKES. RAILROADS. PRODUCTS. CAPITALS and CHIEF CITIES New York... j Adirondack, CatskiU. Hudson R., Genesee R. Seneca L., Cayuga L. N.Y.C&Hud- sonR.,N.Y.,L. Erie, & W. Iron, Salt, Butter,Cheese, Manufactures. Albany, New Yorl.. Pennsylvama J Alleghany, Blue, etc. Susquehanna R., Alleghany R., Monongahela R. Pennsylvania Iron, Coal, Petroleum, Manufactures, Harrisburg, Philadelphia. 124 CARTOGRAPHY. CARTOGRAPHY. Order of the Maps.— To obtain the best results it is advised that the maps be taken in the following order : 1. The several states of the United States ; 3. Groups of states ; 3. The continents ; 4. Separate countries of Europe ; 5. The United States ; 6. The hemispheres. Materials and Conveniences.— 1. Suitable papei-. 2. Lead - pencils— No. 3 will generally be found the best for the work ; keep sharp with fine file. 3. Ruler- one with a. scale is best. 4 A flexible ruler will be found convenient, but is not in- dispensable ; it should be a thin and narrow strip of cedar, or some other even-grained wood ; a good piece of whalebone may be made to answer. 5. Dividers are con- venient, but may be dispensed with. 6. Ink for going over the penciled coast-lines, and all other details ; India ink is the best. 7. Colors : three colors— blue, yellow, and red— are indispensable ; by proper mixtures of these all other necessary colors may be made. 8. Brushes, or hair-pencils, of different sizes, for laying on the colors two or three are enough. It is also important to have two or more right-angled rulers of different sizes, for making true corners to the maps, etc. They may be readily constructed of cardboard in the following manner : Upon a stiff piece of cardboard draw a straight line, A B, and meas- ure off two equal parts, P A and P B. With P as the centre, draw the semi- circle A E B. From any point on the circumference, as D, draw lines to A and B. The angle D is a right- angle. Cut the card on the three lines forming the triangle ; use a sharp knife. It will often be necessary to divide a straight line into a certain number of equal parts. 1. To divide a line into 3, 4, 8, or 16 equal parts, when you have neither scale nor dividers : take a strip of writing-paper having a straight edge and just as long as the line to be divided ; fold it very carefully once for halves, twice for fourths, etc., and then measure and mark these divisions upon the line. 2. To divide a straight line into any number of equal parts. Suppose A B to be the line, and that it is to be divided into five equal parts. From either end draw . ^^^ ^ ^ 6 a straight line, A C, of any convenient length, and, begin- ning at A, measure off upon A C as many equal parts (5) of any length as there are to be in A B. Draw a line from the last point (5) to B. Now from points 4, 3, 2, and 1 draw lines paral- lel to the line 5 B. They will divide A B into five equal parts. To draw these lines exactly parallel, cut from a carcj an angle that will exactly fit into the angle at .5. Put one side of this card-angle upon the line A C, with the point exactly at 4, and draw the line 4 b. Do the same at 3, S, and 1. METHOD OF DEAWING. Many plans have been devised to facilitate the accurate copying of maps. The simplest and most efficient is the method of equal squares. It has long been used in copying maps, pictures, plans, etc. The following example will sufficiently illustrate the method : To dravr the Map of North America. — 1. Divide the map into equal squares. Divide the upper and lorrer inner margins into four equal parts, marking the points lightly in lead-pencil. Commencing at the upper corners, measure off on the right and left margins distances equal to the divisions of the upper and lower margins. Connect each point with the point opposite by a lightly drawn pencil line. Observe that one of these lines is the central meridian of the map. The map is now divided into twenty equal squares and four parts of squares. These last may be omitted in drawing, if it be thought desirable. If retained, notice that they are about one quarter as wide as they are long. 2. Prepare the paper. — If the scale of the map is to be the same as that in the book, construct the twenty squares, using the same measures. If the map is to be on a larger or smaller scale, draw a line of suitable length for the upper margin, and divide it into four equal parts. At the ends of this line draw two others at right angles to it, and measure off upon each five parts equal to those of the upper line ; join the opposite points, and complete the diagram as before. Let all the lines be drawn lightly, so as to be easily removed with the rubber. 3. To copy the map, begin with the upper left-hand square, and draw the out- lines lightly in pencil, being careful to observe in what parts of the square they are to be, and where they cross the sides of the square, and so proceed with each square. While drawing, rest your hand upon a piece of paper, so as not to soil your map. Always work from above downward. If very great accuracy is de- sired, subdivide each of the squares, both of the original and the copy, into four or more smaller squares, and proceed as before. The greater the number of squares, the more accurate may the copy be made. To prevent mistakes, it is de- sirable to number or letter the squares in some regular order. If the meridians and parallels are to be inserted, mark lightly the places where they cross the sides of the squares, and draw them either with the flexible ruler or with the free hand. In drawing the outlines, include only the coasts, islands, lakes, rivers, and the boundaries of countries. To fill in the details and complete the map, observe the following order : 1. Go over the meridians, parallels, and outlines slowly and carefully with a fine pen ; use thin India ink. 2. Draw the mountains. — Use the lead-pencil. Practice first on a piece of paper : observe that the lines used are very fine ; that they are divergent, not parallel ; that they are in small groups, each of which has a blank space in the middle ; that the higher mountains have two or three sets of lines and are darker near the blank centre. 3. Letler the map. — Use the lead -pencil. Practice first on paper : be very careful as to spacing the letters, and use the simplest styles. Begin with the names which are in large capitals ; then insert the names of lakes, rivers, cities, capes, etc. As far as possible let the lines of letters follow the direction of the parallels. Go over mountains and letters with ink. Clear all pencil marks from the map before coloring. 4. Color the map.— Use only clean water to mix the colors. Do not color too strongly. If the first coat is too weak when dry, add another. To avoid drawing pencil lines across the engraved map. — This may readily be done in any one of several ways. The following is the easiest and best : Procure at the stationer's a sheet of gelatine paper, such as is used in copying plans, etc. It is nearly as transparent as glass. The piece used may be of the same size as the map in the book, or it may be of one half or even of one quarter of that size. If of the full size, rule it into squares, as directed in 3. Blacken the lines carefully with ink, and let them dry, and repeat the process if necessary. To use this sheet lay it upon the map with the lines upon the under side, so that the central meridian and margins of the map exactly correspond with the lines upon the paper. If a sheet of one half or one quarter the size is used, each large square must be divided into four smaller ones. Lay it upon the map so that its edges correspond with the central meridian and the margins, and, after drawing that half or fourth of the map, follow the same plan with the remaining portions. Another method, very suitable for home work, is to use a small pane -of glass of the half size or quarter size, and ruled into squares with a common pen filled with ordinary black paint mixed with varnish. Or the ruling may be done with a diamond, and the lines blackened. Use with the ruled side down. Still another plan is to make a frame of cardboard, or some other suitable material, and divide the enclosed space mto squares by means of fine threads or wires. Additional Hints.— Never begin to draw a line until you have carefully made up your mind as to just where it is to be and what it is to be. Small squares will be found best for maps of separate states. Observe that the meridians are not the same distance apart at the top of the map as at the bottom, and that only one of them is a perfectly straight line. It will be useful to remember that a degree on the central meridian is about sev- enty miles. The single-page maps in this book same scale. are all of one size, but are not drawn on the STATISTICAL TABLES. POPULATION OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE WOULD. [For Ihe Population of tlio Printipul Cities of the United States, Census of 1880, see page 38.] nORTH AMGBICA. British America. Montreal, Queb. 216,660 Toronto, OnL... 181,220 Quebec, Queb. . . 63,090 Hamilton 48,980 Halifax, N. S 38,666 Ottawa, Ont 37,281 St. John's, N. F. 23,610 Mexico. Mexico 2.')0,000 Leon 9n,l]00 Guadalaxara 811,000 Piiebla 65,000 Guanaxuato 62,000 S. LuisPotosi 40,000 Central America. Guatemala 6T,72S San Salvador.... 14,059 San Josi 12,000 West Indies. Havana, Cuba . . .230,000 Santiago 36,T62 Kingston,Jamaica 34,314 Port au Prince, Hayti 27,000 St. Johns, Porto Rico 18,132 San Domingo 16,000 SOUTH AJIEBICA. Teneznela. Caracas 68,000 Maracaybo 21,054 V. S. of Colombia. Bogota 40,8'?3 Panama 18,378 Popayan 8,48.') Cartagena 7,800 Ecuador. Quito 80,000 Guayaquil 20,000 Peru. Lima 101,4.'38 Callao 33,.502 Cuzco 13,370 Bolivia. La Paz 76,372 Cochabamba 40,678 Sucre 23,979 Chili. Santiago 150,367 Valparaiso 97,737 Argentine Bcpab- lic. Buenos Ayres 289,000 Cordova 28,523 Rosario 23,000 Umgnay. Montevideo 73,353 Paraguay. Asuncion 19,463 Brazil. Rio Janeiro 274,972 Bahia 128,92!) Pemambuco 116,671 Maranham 31,604 Gniana. Georgetown 35,000 Paramaribo.. . Cayenne 2i5,000 7,632 EUKOPE. Korway. Christiania 76,866 Bergen 34,388 Sweden. Stockholm 176,745 Gottenburg 78,313 Russia. St. Petersburg . . . .876,575 Moscow 611,974 Warsaw 339,341 Odessa 193,513 Riga 169,688 Kishenev 112,137 Astrakhan 57,704 Cronstadt 47,166 Archangel 20,178 Great Britain and Ire- laud. London 3,814,571 Liverpool 552,425 Glasgow 511,.')32 Birmingham 400, 757 Manchester 393,076 Leeds 309,126 Sheffield 284,410 Dublin 249,486 Edinburgh 228,190 Belfast 207,671 Bristol 206,503 Bradford 180,459 HuU 101,619 Newcastle 145,228 Dundee 142,454 Brighton 128,407 Portsmouth 127,953 Sunderland 124,960 Leicester 122,3.51 Swansea 105,949 Aberdeen 105,054 Nottingham 111,631 Cork 78,361 Denmark. Copenhagen 273,323 Aetherlands. Amsterdam 328,047 Rotterdam 157,'J70 The Hague 123,499 Belgium. Brussels 399,930 Antwerp 163,01 1 Ghent 132,839 Liege '.121,787 France. Paris 2,209,023 Lyons 370,613 Marseilles 360,099 Bordeaux 221,305 Lille 178,144 Toulouse 140,289 St. fitienne 123,813 Nantes 124,319 Rouen 105,906 Havre 105,867 Reims 93,823 Roubaix 91,767 Spain. Madrid 397,690 Barcelona 249,106 Valencia 143,856 Seville 1.33,938 Malaga 115,882 Granada 76,108 Cadiz 66,028 Portugal. Lisbon 233,389 Oporto 108,346 Germany, Berlin 1,222,360 Hamburg 410,127 Breslau 272,390 Munich 230,023 Dresden 220,818 Elberfeld-Barmen.189,364 Frankfort - on - the- Main 149,309 Leipsic 149,081 Cologne 144,751 Konigsberg 140,890 Magdeburg 137,109 Hanover 122,860 Stuttgart 117,303 Bremen 112,158 Dantzic 108,549 Sttasbours: 104,601 Nuremberg 99,619 Austria, Vienna 1,103,857 Buda-Pesth 369,821 Prague 162,318 Trieste 144,437 Lembeig. 110,260 Gratz 97,720 Switzerland. Geneva 50,043 Basle 61,399 Berne 44,087 Zurich 21,199 Italy. Naples 458,614 Milan 292,624 Rome 289,321 Palermo 236,679 Turin 213,636 Genoa 178,006 Florence 145,207 Venice 131,276 Messina :... 120,709 Bologna 111,983 Leghorn 97,410 Roumania, Bucharest 177,046 Jassy 90,000 Galatz 80,000 Scrria. Belgrade 26,970 Turkey. Constantinople. . .600,000 Salonica 80,000 Greece. Athens 68,374 AFRICA. Barbary States. Tunis 125,000 Fez 100,000 Algiers 52,702 Morocco 60,000 Mequinez 30,000 Egypt. Cairo 327,403 Alexandria 16,% 7.52 Damietta 32,730 Suez 11,327 PortSaid 3,864 ASIA. Turkey. Smyrna 160,000 Damascus 150,000 Beirut 65.000 Brusa 60,000 Erzroom 60,000 Jerusalem 28,000 Asiatic Russia. Tiflis 104,024 Tashkeud 100,000 Bokhara 70,000 Irkomsk 33,800 Tomsk 33,795 China. Pekin 1,060,000 Canton 1,500,000 Tientsin 960,000 Han-chau 600,000 Fuh-chau 600,000 Nankin 460,000 Shanghai 278,000 Ningpo 120,000 Hong Kong 102,000 Amoy 88,000 Yarkand 80,000 Kashgar 70,000 Japan. Tokio(Yedo)....811,,'>10 Ozaka 291,086 Kioto 229,810 Yokohama 67,499 Nagasaki 46,661 Hiudostan. Calcutta 794,645 Bombay 753,000 Madras 40.5,948 Hyderabad 268,005 Lucknow 261,485 Benares 207,570 Patna 168,900 Delhi 154,417 Indo-China. Bankok 600,000 Singapore 97,111 Saigon 70,000 Hue 58,000 Afghanistan. Cabul 60,000 Kandahar 50,000 Herat 45,000 Persia. Teheran 200,000 Tabritz 120,000 Mezhed 60,000 Ispahan 60,000 Arabia. Mecca 45,000 Muscat 35,000 Malay Islands. Manila 270,000 Surabaya 118,824 Batavia 97,585 Australia. Melbourne 280,836 Sydney 220,427 Auckland 39,966 Adelaide 38,479 Ballarat 30,705 Hobart Town . . . . 21,118 CHIEF RELIGIONS OP THE WORLD.— Christians, 394,000,000 ; Buddhists (Asia), 300,000,000 to 500,- 000,000; Brahmins (India), 145,000,000; Religion of Confucius (China), 60,000,000 to 100,000,000; Shinto Religion (Japan), 12,000,000 to 20,000,000 ; Mohammedanism, 199,000,000 ; Judaism, 7,000,000. MILITARY STATISTICS. [For Area and Population of Countries Countries. Army. North America. Dominion of Canada. . . British West Indies. . . . Mexico United States Central America ....... Cuba and Porto Rico.. Hayti and San Domingo South America. Argentine Republic. Bolivia Brazil Chili U.S. of Colombia... Ecuador Peru Uruguay Venezuela Standing Army, Europe. Austro-Hungary Belgium Denmark France German Empire Gt. Britain and Ireland. Greece "7. Italy Netherlands Portugal Russia Spain Sweden and Norway. . . Switzerland Turkish Empire Asia, Africa, etc. China Japan Persia British East Indies British West Indies Dutch East Indies Dutch West Indies Egypt Australia, etc Sandwich Islands 25,000 25,000 8,600 3,1100 15,000 12,600 3,000 1,200 4,700 2,600 2,240 289,000 46,000 35,000 503,000 446,000 132,000 12,000 734,000 66,000 35,000 975,000 9.5,000 41.000 117,000 360,000 300,000 37,000 58,000 190,000 War footing. 3,165,1100 300,000 32i60O 60,000 31,000 40,000 23,000 186,000 Navy. 1,126,000 I 160,000 I 49,000 3,753,000 1,492,000 578,000 35,000 1,850,000 163,000 78,000 2,733,000 450,000 203,000 211,000 610,000 1,000,000 52,000 33o',6oO 43,000 Ships. 7 "4 139 27 COMMERCIAL STATISTICS. and States, Bee Tables in the Text.] Trade with the Uuituil Sfcites, ToU,S, $40,557,000 9,636,000 17,500,000 3,400,000 68,840.000 6,242,000 5,669,000 52,783',000 3,401,000 6,815,000 782,000 4,165,000 6,894,000 1,416,000 12,634,000 921,000 88,027,000 84,492,000 217,839,000 552,000 11,644,000 6,899,000 7.68,000 2,887,000 5,934,000 948,0011 1,582,000 !,369,000 ),122,000 3,012,000 ), 636,000 r,260,O00 !,124,000 !,204,000 i, .673 , pool Imports. I Exports. Jfron. D". 3, $40,347,000 10,636,000 11,173,000 1,800,000 14,066,000 6,393,000 2,428,000 9^252,000 1,794,000 6,614,000 ii6,ooo 1,613,000 3,091,000 2,25.6,000 36,326,000 7,126,000 94,274,000 70,664,000 491,260,000 142,000 9,019,000 20,353,000 4,291,000 16,026,000 12,556,000 3,406,000 1,499,000 .'>,4SO,000 3,938,000 858,069 10,636,000 1,729,000 1,190,000 6^730,000 2,994,000 $119,600,000 33,b'o'o,ooo 642,004,028 4^,660,000 5,000,000 81,7.63,000 ,22,740,000 10,686,000 7,696,000 27,000,000 18,328,000 14,800,000 302,900,000 452,206,000 63,744,000 981,609,000 973,200,000 1,056,148,000 29,101,000 244,548,000 338,680,000 34,046,000 395,467,000 88,680,000 102,856,000 ]07,5"o'o,000 118,940,000 32,631,000 5,625,000 244,287,000 32,750,000 236,894,000 3,073,0011 $101,000,000 26,000,000 060,618,999 66,497,000 6,047,000 102,029,000 36,620,000 13,712,000 8,634,000 46,000,000 19,762,000 11,300,000 330,000,000 428,149,000 42,577,000 080,180,000 705,378,000 1,432,072,000 17,992,000 22,6,129,000 232,680,000 20,602,000 418,467,000 100,980,000 79,624,000 99,260,000 116,825,000 28,364,000 2,812,000 324,599,000 64,916,000 206,150.000 4,968,000 LENGTH AND AREA OF BASIN OF THE PRINCIPAL RITERS OF THE WORLD IN ENGLISH MILES. OLD ■WORLr). Rive Nile, Africa Obi, Siberia Yenisei, Siberia Yang tse Kiang, China Zambesi, South Africa Niger, Central Africa Lena, Siberia Amoor, Amooria Volga, Russia Murray, S. Eastern Australia Brahmapootra, South India. . Orange, South Afric^ Ganges, India 4,000 8,000 3,400 3,320 1,000 3,000 2,700 2,660 2,000 1,500 2,800 1,000 1,000 1,425,000 1,250,000 1,040,000 950,000 900,000 800,000 800,000 780,000 600,000 500,000 450,000 446,000 416,000 ISTE-VV -WORLir). Amazon, South America Mississippi (entire), U. S La Plata, South America Mackenzie, British N. America . St. Lawrence, Canada Saskatchawan, Brit. N. America. Orinoco; South America Columbia, North America Colorado, U. S., N. America San Francisco, Brazil, S. Amer. . Rio Grande. U. S.. N. A Yukon. Alaska Colorado, Texas Lengtli Area of of Rivera. Basin. 3,750 2,275,000 4,200 1,244,000 2,300 1,242,000 2,300 590,000 2,000 480,000 1,900 478,000 1,850 340,000 1,020 298,000 1,000 267,000 1,560 260,000 1,500 240,000 1,600 200,000 600 38,000 Area and Popniation of the World. Continents. Europe Asia Africa North America South America Australia, etc. . fforld inc. S. Polar ter. Area. 3,942,630 16,956,284 11,514,986 9,349,743 6,887,794 8,456,103 2,361,117 Population. 360,680,788 823,155,261 168,497,091 88,086,789 33,665,882 5,683,968 1,479,619,769 Aver. Pop. to Sq. Mile. 91.4 48.6 14.6 9.4 4.8 1.6 28.S Chief Divisions of Christians. Continents. Europe .... North America. Soutli America. Asia Africa AustandPolyn. Totals lloman Catholics. 148,000,000 24,000,000 23,000,000 6,000,000 1,000,000 800,000 Protestants. 72,000,000 32,000,090 1,000,000 2,000,000 2,-000,000 2,200,000 201,800,000|111,200,000 Eastern Churches. 69,000,000 9,000,000 8,000,000 81,000,000 HEIGHTS OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS OF THE WORLD. North America. Feet. Mt. St. Elias Coast Mountains 1 7,900 Popocatepetl Mexico 17,540 Orizaba " 17,116 Whitney Sierra Nevada 14,900 Rainier Cascade Mountains 14,444 Shasta (vol.) " " ....14,440 Tyndall Sierra Nevada" 14,380 Mt, HarvarH Rocky Moimtains 14,384 '• - ■ .-•'., 14,341 " 14,297 14,271 " 14,235 14,1.60 " 14,147 Grays Peak, Mt. Lincoln Longs Peak Uncompahgre Peak Yale Pikes Peak North America — Continued. Feet. Mt. Holy Cross Rocky Mountains 14,000 South America. Aconcagua Andes. Sahama (vol.) .... — " Chimborazo (vol ) '* .Sorata._ " Illimani.^ *' Cotopaxi (vol.) " Antisana (vol.) " ..22,422 ..22,350 ..21,424 ..21,280 ..21,145 ..19,i500 ..19,137 Mt. Blanc. Europe. ..French Alps 16,780 Europe— Continued. Feet. Mt. Rosa Svriss Alps 15,223 Matterhorn " ''.... 14,835 Finster Aarhoin " " 14,026 Jungfrau " " 18,718 Mt. Is^ran French Alps 18,271 Mt. Mulhacen Sierra Nevada 11,600 P. Nethou Pyrenees 11,168 Etna (vol.) Sicily 10,840 Vesuvius (vol.) Italy 3,948 Asia. Everest Himalaya 29,062 Dapsang Kara Korum 28,278 Kinchinjunga Himalaya 28,156 Asia^Continned. Dhawalaghiri Himalaya. . Hindoo- koosh Mt. Elburz Caucasus. . Mt. Demavend Persia Mt. Ararat Turkey . Feet. ...26,820 ...20,000 ...18,672 ...18,500 ...16,960 Fujiyama (vol.) Japan 14,000 AlHca. Kilima Njaro. 20,066 Mt. Kenia 18,000 Anstralia. Mt. Kosciusko Australian Alps 7,1 76 Mt. Hotham. . 6,414 126 STATISTICAL TABLES.— PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES-CENSUS OF 1880. states and Torritorlei. Alabama Arkansas Oilifornia Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts. .. Michigan Minnesota Mississippi M issouri Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina, . . Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania . . . Rhode Island. . . South Carolina. . Tennessee Texas Vermont Virginia West Virginia. . . Wisconsin The Territories . Total Improved Land. Acrii, 0,375,700 3,595,003 10,069,698 610,169 1,642,188 740,958 947,040 8,204,720 20,115,164 13,933,738 19,800,541 10,739,560 10,731,683 2,739,972 3,484,908 3,342,700 2,128,311 8,296,802 7,240,693 5,210,937 16,745,031 6,604,702 344,423 2,308,112 2,096,297 17,717,862 6,481,191 18,081,091 2,198,646 13,423,007 298,480 4,132,050 8,496,656 12,050,314 3,280,401 8,510,113 3,792,327 9,102,628 2,900,099 Indian Corn. 25,451,278 24,160,417 1,993,325 455,968 1,880,421 3,894,204 3.174,234 23,202,018 325,792,431 115,482,300 276,014,247 105,729,325 72,852,203 9j889,089 960,033 15,908,633 1,797,708 32,401,452 14,831,741 21,340,800 202,414,413 65,460,135 12,891 1,350,248 11,150,705 25,090,156 28,019,839 111,877,124 126,862 45,821,.631 372.967 11,767,099 62,764,429 29,006,172 2,014,271 29,119,761 14,090,609 34,230,679 2,923,728 284,771,042 1 1,764,691,676 |459,483,137 |407,868,999 WhMt. Boiheli. 1.529,667 1,269,716 29,017,707 1,425,014 38,742 1,175,272 422 3,159,771 61,110,602 47,284,863 31,154,205 17,324,141 11,356,113 6,034 666,714 8,004,804 16,768 35,632,543 34,601,030 218,890 24,900,027 13,847,007 09,298 169,316 1,901,739 11,587,766 3,397,393 46,014,869 7,480,010 19,462,405 240 962,358 7,331,353 2,667,737 337,257 7,826,174 4,001,711 24,884,089 7,785,231 Siuheh, 3,039,639 2,219,822 1,341,271 640,900 1,009,706 378,608 468,112 5,648,743 63,189,200 16,599,518 60,610,691 8,180,385 4,580,738 229,810 2,205,676 1,794,872 645,159 18,190,793 23,382,158 1,969,620 20,070,958 6,555,876 186,860 1,017,020 3.710,673 37,676,606 3,838,068 28,004,606 4,386,650 33,841,439 169,339 2.715,605 4,722,190 4,893,369 3,742,282 5,333,181 1,908,505 32.005,320 6,767,114 While Potiitoefl, 169,458,639 Sweet Potatoca. EushiU. Budack Ad e ron' dack. Admiralty Ad' me ral ty. Adrian A' dre au. Adriaiiople A dre au o'pl. Adriatic A dre at' ic. Aegean E je' an. Ar^^hanistau Al' ffan is Ian'. AguasCalicnte3...Ag' was Oal e eu'- tes. Agiilhas A guol' yas. Aisne Aue. Aix-la-Chapelle . . . Aks-la-Sha pel'. Ajaccio A yat'cbo. Akaba Ak'abah. Akron A k'l'ou. Alabama Al a bah' ma. Aland Ah' land. Alaska A las'ka. Albania Al ba' ne n. Albany AwKba ny. Albemarle Al be marie'. Albert Nyauza Al' bert N'yahn'- za. Albuquerque Al boo ker' kay. Alderney Awl' der ny. Aleppo A lep' po, Aleutian A I'yu' she an, Alexandra .-. Al ex an' dra. Alexandria Al ex an' dre a, Aljjiers Al jeerz'. Alicante Al e can' te. Alleghany Al' le gay ny, Allegheny Al' le gay ny, Alsace Al sahce'. Altai Al ti'. AlLaniaha Al ta ma haw', Alton Awl' ton. Altona AKto na. Altoona Al too' na. Amazon .- Am' a zon. Amesbury 5.mz' ber ry. Amherst Am' erst. Amieus Am'e enz. A moo. A moo'. Amoor. A moor'. Amsterdam Am' gter dam. Anam A nam'. Aucona Au co'na. Andaman An da man'. Andes An' deez. Andorra An d(n'' ra. Andover An' do ver. Androscoggin An droB cog' gin. Angara An ga rah'. Anglesea Ang'g'l se. Angola An go' la. Angostnra Ati gos too' ra. Anhalt Ahn'hahlt. Anl<;obar An ko' ber. Annapolis An uap'o lis. Autalo Au tab' lo. Antarctic Aut arc' tic. Autico&ti Au te cos' te. Au tietam Au tee' tarn. Antilles Au teelz'. Autioquia Au te o kee' a. Antwerp Aut' werj). Apeuuiues Ap' en uluz. Apostle A pos'l. Appalachian Ap pa la' die au. Appalachee Ap pa lacb' e. Appalachicola Ap pa lack e co' la. Ajipomattux Ap po mat' tux. Aral) Ar'ab. Araguay Ar a gway'. Aral Ar' al. Ararat Ar' a rat. Archangel Ark iiue'jel. Archipelago Ark e pel' a go. Ardennes Ar deu'. Arequipa Ah ray kee' pa. Argentine Ar'jeu tine. Argyle Ar ghyle'. Arica A ree'ca. Arizona Ar i zo' na. Arkansas Ar' kan saw. Arnheim Arn' hime. Aroostook A roos' took. Ascension As ceii' shun. Ashantee Ash au tee'. Ashtabula Ash ta bu' la. Asia A' she a. Aspinwall As' pin wall. Assiniboiu As sin' i buiu. Astrakhan As trakan'. Asuncion Ah soon se one'. Atacama At a cab' ma. Atbara At bah'ra. Atchafalaya Atch a fa li' a. Atchison Atcb'e son. Athabasca Al h a bas' ca. Atoll A'tol. Auburn Aw' burn. Auckland Awk'land. Augusta Aw gns' ta. Augsburg Awgs' burg. Aurora Aw ro' ra. Au Sable O sah'b'l. Austerlitz Aws' ter lilz. Australia Aws tra'le a. Auvergne O vairn'. Avignon Ah veeu yoDg'. Avon A' von. Azof Az'of. Azores A zorz'. Baalbec BahT bee Bab-el-Mandeb Bab-el-Man' Ocb. Babylon Bab' e loll. Badajos Bad a hose'. Baden Bah' den. Bagdad Bag dnd'. Bahama Ba ha' ma. Bahia Bah ee'a. Bahrein Bah rine'. JSaikal Bi'knl. Balaklava Bal a klah' va. Balearic Bal e ar'ic. Balkan Bal kau'. ISalkash Bali 1 kahsh'. Balkh B.iblk. Ballston Spa Bawlz' ton Spah. Balmoral Bal mo ral'. Baltic Bawl' tic. Baltliuore Bawl' te more. Bauca Baug' ca. Bangor Bang' gor. Banjermassiu Bahii yer mails siu', Baukuk Ban kok'. Baranoff Ba ran' off. Barbadoes Bar ba' doze. Barbary Bar' ba ry. Barbuda Bar bu' da. Barcelona Bar ce lo'na. Barfleur Bar n'yure'. Barnaul Bar nowl'. Barnegat Bar' ne gat. Basle Bahl. Bassorab Bas' so ra. Bathnrst Bath' er.«t. Baton Roltge Bah t'n Itoozh'. Bavaria Ba va' re a. Bayoniie Bah you'. Bayou Sara Bi' 00 Sa' ra. Beaufort Bu' fort (S. C). Beaufort Bo' fort (Af.). Bedouin Bed 00 eeu'. Behrlng Beer' ing. Beirut Bi' root. Belfast Belfast'. Belgium Bel'je urn. Belj;rade Bel grade'. Belize Be leez'. Belle Isle Bel He'. Beh)it Be loit'. Beloocbistau Be loo chis tau'. Benares Be nab' res. Beucoolen Ben coo' leu. Beneveuto Ben e yen' to. Bengal Ben gawl'. Bengazi Ben gah' ze. Benpnela Ben ga' la. Benicia Be nish' e a. Ben Lomond Ben Lo' mond. Ben Nevis. Ben Ne' vis. Berbera Ber be' ra. Bergen Ber' gen. Berlin Berlin'. Bermuda Ber niu' da. Berne Bern. Besaiipon Buy zabng' song. Bilboa Bilbn'a. Bingen Bing'en. Birmingham Bir' miiig ham. Biscay His'cav. Blanco Blang'ko. Blanqnilla Blahn keel' ya. Blenheim Bleu' hime. Bogota Bo go tab'. Boisi' Bwah za'. Bojador Bod ja dorc' Bokhara. Bok'hah' ra. Holivar Bol'e var. Bolivia Boliv'ea, Bologna Bo lone' ya. Bombay Bombay'. Bonifncio Bon e fnh'cho. B""thia Boo' the a. Bordeaux Bore do'. Boigne Born. Bornholni Boru ' Lolmc. Borueo Bor'ne o. Bosua Serai Bos' na Se ri', Bosnia Boz' lie a. Bosporus Bus' po rus, BoBLou Bos' ton. Bothnia Both' ne a. Buulogue Boo loue'. Bowdoiu Bo'd'n. Bowling Green. ...Bo' ling Green. Boyiie Boiu. Brahmapuotra Brah ma poo' tra. Braudeubuig Brau' den buurg. Brauufels Bruwn' fels. Brazil Bra zeel'. Brazos Braz' os. Bremen Brem'en. Breiuerhaven Bra'mer bah feu. Breslau Bres' law. Bretague Bre tahn'. Bretou Bre' ton. Briudisi Briu' de se. Britain Brit' t'n. Broukline Bruok' line. Brooklyn Brook' lin. Bruges Broo' jiz. Biniiai Broo ni'. Brunu Broon. Brusa Broo'sa. Brussels Brus' selz. Bucharest Bookaiest'. Buda Bu'da. Budweis Bood' wise. Buenaventura Bway naveu too ra. Biiena Vista Bwa' na Vees' ta. Buenos Ayrcs Bo' nos Air'ez Buffiilo Buffalo. Bulgaria Bal ga'rc a. Burgundy Bur' gun dy. Burmah Bnr'ma. Biishire Bu sheei-'. Cabul Cabool'. (•adiz Ca'diz. Caen Ca' en. Caermartheu Oar mar' then. Caernarvon Car nai''vou. Cagliari Cahl' yar e. Caicos Ki'cose. Cairo (Egypi) Ki' ro. Cairo (U.S.) t.'n' ro. Calais (.'al'is. Calcutta Oal cut' ta. California Cnl e for' ne a. Oallao Callah'o. Cambray Cam'brnv. Cambridge Came' bi-y. (.ampagna Cam pahn' ya. Campeachy Cam pe' che. Canandaigua Can an da'gwa. Canaries Can a' riz. Canaveral Can yaV e ral. Oandia Can'fli a. Cation Can'yim. Canterbury Can' ter ber e. Canton (IT. s.) Can' ton. Canton (China)... .Can ton'. Cape Girardcan...Capo Oir ar do' Capricorn C:ip' re corn. ,■""■■'':"'' C\arak'as. J^''i'ilf Car' din-. Caribbean Car ib bee an Caribbee Car e bee". Carlisle Car lile'. Carlsruhe Carlz' roo. Carolina Car o li' na. Carpathian Car pa' the au. Cartageua Cur ta je' na. Cashmere Cash mere'. Caspian Cas' pi an. Castile Cas leel'. Catasauqua Cat a saw' qua. Catoche Cab to' cliay. Cattegat Cat' te gat. Caucasian Caw ca"shun. Caucasus Caw' ca sus. Cayenne Ki en'. Cayman Ki man'. Cayuga Ca voo' ga. Celebes Cel'e beez. Ceram Se rahni'. Cerigo Cor' ego. Cettigue diet teen' yay. Cu'venues Say veil'. Ceylon Ce lone'. Chagres Chah' gre.'. Chaleur Sha Tynre'. Chalons Sha long'. Chaniplain Sham plane'. Champaign Sham pane'. Chandeleur Shan de I'yure-. Charlies Shar't'r. Chautauqua Sha taw' qua. Chattahoochee Chat ta hoo' chee. Chattanooga Chat ta 1100' ga. OhandiSre Sbo de air'. C liiapas Che ah' pa. Chelsea Chel'se. Cheltenham Chelt' nam. Chemnitz Kem' nits. Chemung she mung'. Chenango She nang' go. Cherbourg Slier' bourg. Chesapeake Ches'a peak. Cheviot Chcv' e ot, Cheyenne Shi en'. Chicago She caw' go. Chichester Chich' es ter. Chicopee Chic' o pee. Chihuahua Che wall' wuh. Chili Chc'le. Chillicothe Cbil le colli' e. Chiloe Cheloa'. Chimborazo Chim bo rail' zo. Chincha Cliin'cha. Chippewa Chip' pe wnv. Chowan Cho wawn'." Christiania (.'hris te ali'ne a. Cienfiiegos Se en iwm ' socc. Cimarron Ciin ar roiic'. Cincinnati Cin cin nali'ie. Ciudad Real The 00 dalid' Kaj a hi'. Cleveland Cloov' land. Coalzacoalcos Co abt sah co abl cose, Cobija Co lie' ha. Coblentz Cob' leiils. Cochabamba Coch a baui ' ba. Cohoes Coho/.e'. Coinibra Co ini'brn. Colcboslcr Cole'ohes lor. Cologne Co lone'. PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 127 ^o\ov^^o Colorah'do. Coinaya-iia Co mi ah' gwa. Coniorm Com' o riur Coucepcion Cou sep se one' Coiiemaiigh Oon' e mn w. Cougaree Cong ga ree'. Congo Cong' go. Comianght Con' nawu Connecticut Con uet'e cut Conseguina Con sa ghe' na. Conslautine Con stan teeu'. Constantinople Cou stan te no'p*]. Cooninssie Coo mas' se. Copenhageu Co pen ha' gen. Copinpo Co pe ah'po. Coqiiimbo Co keem' do. Cordova Cov'do va. Corea Co re' a. Corfu Cor foo'. Corinth Cor' inth. Corpus Chrisli — Cor' pus Kris' te. Corrientes Cor re en' tes. Corsica Cor'se ka. Corvallis Corval'Iis. Costa Rica Cos' ta Re' ka. Cotopaxi Co to pax'e. Coventry Cuv'^en try. Covington Cuv'ing ton. Cozumel Co zoo mel'. Cracow Cra' co. Ctiinea Cri me' a. Croatia Cro a' she a, Cionatadt Cron'stat. Cueiifa Kv/en' sa. Cumaua Coo ma nah'. Cnrapoa Coo ra so'. Cuyahoga Ki.a ho' ga. Cuzco Cooz'co. Cyclades Cyc' la deez. Cyprus Ci' prus. Czar Zar. Dahlonega T)ah lon'e ga. Dahomey Dah hiymay. Dai Nippon Di Nip' pone. Dakota Dah ko' ra. Dalhousie Dal hoo'ze. Dalles Dalz. Dalmatia Dal ma' she a. DamJetta Dam e et' ta. Dampier Land . . . .Dam' peer Land. Diinbnry Dan' her le. Danish Da'nish. Dantzic Dant'sik. Danube Dau'yoob. Dardanelles Dar da uelz', Darfnr Dar foor'. Darien Da' re en. Darmstadt Dann'stat, Dartmouth Dart' mnih. Darwin Dar' win. Dauphiny Daw' tin e. Davenport Uav'eu port. Dayton Da' ton. Deccan Dec' can. Delaware Del' aware. Delhi (Asia) Del' le. Delhi (U.S.) Del' hi. Demenira Dem e rah' ra. Denmark Deu' mark. Deseret Dez e ret'. Des Moines De Moin'. Detroit De troit'. Diamantina De a mahn te'un. Dieppe De ep'. D!jou De zhong. Dnieper Ne'per, Dniester Nees' ter. Dominica Dom e ne'ca. Donegal Don' e gawl. Dorchester Dor'ches ter. Douay Doo' ay. Douglas Dug' las. Donro Doo' ro, Dovrefleld Dov re fe eld', Dowagiac Do wa' je ac. Dravc Drah v. Dresden Drez' den, Drogheda Drog'e da. Drontheim Fiord..Drou' teem Fe ord. Dubuque Du book'. Dulnth Doo looth'. Dnm barton Dam bar' ton, Dumfries Dnm frees'. Dnna Doo'u^u Dundee Dun dee'. Dunedin Du ned'ln. Dunkirk Dan kirk'. Dunmore Dun more'. Duquesne Da kane'. DuQaoin Du Kwoin'. Durham Dar' am. Dusseldorf Dus' sel dorC Dvviua Dwi'na. Eau Claire O clair', Ebro E'bro. Ecuador Ec wadore'. Edinburgh Ed' in bur ro. Edisto Ed' is to. Egypt E'jipt. Ehrenbreitstein ...A ren brite'etine. Eider I' der. Eisenach I' ze nahk. Elbe Elb. Elherfeld El' ber feld. Elburz El boorz'. Elenthera E I'yoo' the ra. El Paso El Pah' so. Elsiuore El se nore'. Ems Emz. England In g' gland. English Ing'glish. Euikale En e kah' lay. Equator Equa' ttir. Erfurt Er'foort, Erie E're. Erz Erts. Erzroora Erts room'. Efcurial Es coo re nhl'. Esmeralda Es mer alil' da. Espinhafo Es pin yas' o. Esquimaux Es'ke mo. Estremadura Es tre ma du' ra. Eubea Yoo be' a. Eufaula Yoo faw' la. Euphrates Yoofra' teez. Eureka Yoo re' ka. Kurope Yoo'rup. European Yoo ro pe' an. Eutaw Yoo' taw. Everest Ev'er est. Eylau I' law. Eyre Air. Fahlun Fah' loon. Falkirk Pal' kirk. Falkland Fawk' land. Falmouth Fal' muth. Faribault Far e bo', Faroe Fah'ro. Fayal Fi awl'. Fayetteville Fay' ei vil. Feejee Pe'jee. Feliciana Fe le ce ah'na. Fernandina Fer nan de'na. Ferrava Fer rah' ra, Ferrol Fer role'. Fezzan Fez zan'. Fiu^al Fiug gawl'. Pinisterre Fin is tare'. Fiord Feord'. Flanders Flan' derz. Florence Flor' ence. Florida Flor' e dii. Foix Fwah. Fond da Lac Fond du Lac'. Fontainebleau Fon tane bio'. Pontenoy Fon te uoi'. Formosa For mo' sji. Port Yuma Port Yoo' ma. Frankfort Frank' fort. Fredericks hall Fred' er iks hawl. Frederickton Fred' er i k ton. Fremont Fre' mont. Freiburg Fri' burg, Friedland Freed' land. Friesland Frees' land. Frio Fre'o. Frobisher Frob' ish er. Fnh-chan Fn chow'. Fujiyama Fn je yah' ma. Gaeta Gah a'ta. Galapagos Ga lap' a gose. Galatz Ga hits'. Galicia Ga lish' e a. Galliuaa Gal le'nas. Gallipoli Gal lip'o le. Gallipolift Gal li po lees'. Galveston Gal' ves t(m. Gal way Gawl' way. Ganges .Gan'jeez. Garonne Ga ron'. Geelong Zhee long'. Genesee Gen e see'. Geneseo Gen e se' o. Geneva Ge ne' va. Genoa Gen' o a. Georgia Jor' je a. Geyser Ghi' ser. Ghauts Gawts, Ghent Ghent, Gibraltar Gib raw!' tar, Gila He' la. Gilead Ghil'ead. Gilolo , Ghe lo' lo. Girardeau Gir ar do'. Gironde Zhe ronde'. Glacier Glas'eer. Glasgow Glas'go, Glen more Glen more'. Gloucester ; . .Glos' ter. Gobi Go' be. Goderich God' rich, Gondokoro Gou do ko' ro, G(nizales Gon zah' les. Goshen Go' sheu. Gotha Go' tab, Gothland .Goth' land. Gottenbnrg Got' ten boorg. Giittingen Get' ting en. Gracias a Dios Grah' ce ahs ah De'- ose. Granada Granah'dn. Qravelines Grahvleen'. Greenock Gree' nock, Greenwich Grin' ij. Grenada Grenah'da. Griqua Grik' wa. Groningen Gron'lngen. Guadalaxara Gwah da la bah' rn. Guadal upe Gaw da loop'. Guadalquivir Gwaw dal quiv'ir. Gnadiana Gwah de ah'na. Guanahani Gwahna hah'ne. Guanaxnato Gwahna hwah' to. Guardafni Gwar da fwe'. Guatemala Gwah te mah' la, Guayama Gwi ah'ma. Guayaquil Gwi a keel'. Guaymas Gwi' mas, Guernsey Ghern'ze. Guiana Ghe nh' na. Guinea Ghin'ue. Haarlem . ' lera. Ha^ue Hfig. Hainan Hi nan'. Halle Hal'le. Hamburg Ham' burg. Hammerfest Ham' mer fest. Han-Chan Han chow'. Hannibal Hau'e bal. Hanover Han' o ver. Harfleur Har fl'yure'. Harrisburg liar' ris burg. Harz Harts. Hatteras Hat' te ras. Havana Ha van' a. Haverhill Ha' ver il. Havre Hah' v'r. Havre de Grace . ..Hah'v'rdeGrahce'. Hawaii Ha wi'e. Hayti Ha'te. Hebrides Heb' re deez. Hecla Hec' la. Hedjns Hed jaz'. Heidelberg Hi' del berg. Helena Hele'ua. Helgoland Hel' go land. Helsingfore Hel' sing ftn-z. Helvoetsluys Hel' vet sloose. Heulopen Hen lo'pen. Herat He rat'. Hereford Her' e ford. Herzegovina Hert se go' ve na. Hease Iless. Himalaya Hhn a li'a. Hindoo-koosh Hiu'doo koosh, Hindostan Hin dos tan', Hoang-Ho Ho ang-Ho', Hoboken Ho bo' ken. Hodeida Ho di' da. Hogne Hr»g. Hohenlinden Ho hen lin'den. Hohenzolleru Ho hen tsol' lern. Honduras Hon doo' ras. Hong Kong Hong Kong'. Honolulu Ho no loo' loo. Hoosac (Tunnel) . .Hoo' sac. Hoosic (River) Hoo' sic. Horicon Hor' e con. Houghton Ho' ton. Houfton .Hole' Urn, Housatouic Hoo sa ton' ic. Houston Hfi' stou. Hue Hoo a'. Humboldt Hum' bolt. Hungary Ilung'ga re. Hunm Hu'nm. Hyderabad Hi der a bad'. Idaho T'daho. Illinois II li noi'. Ilmen II men'. Inagua Euah'gwa. India In' de a. Indian In' de an. Indiana In de an' a. Indianapolis In de an ap'o lis. Indies Jn'diz. Ingolstadt Ing'gol stat. lunspruck Ine'prook. Interlachen In ter lab' ken. Inverary In ve ra' re. Inverness In ver ness'. Iowa I'o wa. Ipswich Ips' wich. Iran E rahn'. Ireland Ire' land. Irkoulek Ir kootsk'. Ironton I ron ton. Iroquois I ro kwoi'. Irtish Ir'tish. Iser E'zer. Islay (Scotland) ...I' lay. Islay (S.A.) Tz li'. Ismail Is mah eel'. Ismailia Is mah eel ya. Ispahan Is pa ban'. Isthmus Ist'mus. Itasca Itas'ca. Ithaca Ith'a ca, Ivry E'vry. Jaen Hah en'. Jalapa Ha lab' pa. Jamaica Jama' ca. Japan Ja pan'. Jassy Yas'sy. Java Jah'va. Jedburgh Jed' bur o. Jena Ya'na. Jersev Jer' ze. Jerusalem Je roo' sa lem. Jesso Yes' so. Jiddah Jid'da. Joannes Zho ah' neez. Johanuisberg Yo hahu' is berg. Joliet Jo'leet. Juan Fernandez. ..Joo'anFernan'dez. Jaba Zhoo' ba. Jungfrau Yooug' frow. Juniata Juneat'a. Jura Joo'ra. Kalahari Kah la hah' re. Kalamazoo Kal a ma zon'. Kamtchatka Kam tchat'ka. Kanawha Ka naw' wa. Kankakee Kan kaw' ke. Kano Kah no'. Kansas Kan'zas. Kara Korum Kah rah Ko' rum. Karroo Kar roo'. Kashgar Kash gar'. Kaskaskia Ka« kas' ke a. Katahdin Ka tab' din, Kea rney Kar' ne. Kearsargc . , . - Keer' sarj. Kelat Kelat', Kennebec Ken ne bee'. KeunebuiUv Ken ne bunk'. Kenosha Ken o'sba. Kentucky Ken tuck' y. Keokuk Ke' o kuk. Kewaunee Ke waw'nee. Kewatiu Ke wa' tin. Khan.. Kawn. Khanate Kawn' ate. Khartoom Kar loom'. Khedive Ka' div. Khiva Ke'va. Khorassan Ko ras san'. Kidderminster . . . .Kid' der rain ster. Kiel Keel. Kiev Ke ev'. Kildare Kil dair'. Kilinia Njaro Kil e mahu jab ro'. Kilkenny Kil keu'ny. Killarney Kil lar'ney. KiuKkitao King ke tah'o, Kioleu Keer' leu. Kioto Ke o' to. Kishenev Kish en ev'. Kissingeu Kiss'ing en. Kittannlug Kit tau'ntiig. Kittatinny Kit ta t.in'ny. Kittery Kit' ter y. Kiushm Koo' shoo. Klamath Klah'mat. Kodiac Ko'de alik. Kokoino Ko'ko mo. Kiinigsberg Ka' nigs berg. Koniggriiiz Ka' ni^ grets. Kueu Luu Kwen Loon'. Kurdistan Koor dis tan'. Kurile Koo' reel. Labrador Lab ra dore'. Laccadive Lac' ca dlv. Lackawanna Lack a waw' na. La Crosse Lah Cross'. Ladoga La do' ga. Ladrone La drone'. La Fayette Lab Fay et'. Lagoon La goon'. Lagos Lah' goee. LaGuayra Lah Gwi'ra. La Hogue La Hog'. Lammermoor Lam mer moor'. Lanark Lan'ark. Lancaster Lau' cas ter. Landau Lan daw. Languedoc Lahn ghe dok'. Lansing Lau' sing. Laos Lah' OS. La Paz LahPahz'. Lapeer La peer'. La Plata Lah Plah' ta. Laramie Lar' a me. Laredo La ra'do. La Rochelle Lah Ro shel'. La Salle Lah Salil'. Lassa Lahs'sa. Lausanne Lo zan'. Leavenworth Lev' en worth. Leghorn Leg horn'. Lehigh Le' high. Leicester Les' ter. Leinster Liu' ster. Leipsic Lipe' sic. Leith Leeth. Lemberg Lem' berg. Lena Le'na. Leon Le'on. Levant Levant'. Lewes Lfi'is. Leyden Li' d'n. Libyan Lib' e an. Liege Leezh. Lille Leel. Lima Lee' ma. Limbnri: Lim' burg. Limerick Lim'er ick. Limoges Lim ozh'. Lipari Lip' a re. Lippe Lip' pe. Lisbon Liz' boii. Liu Kin Le oo Ke oo. Llano Estacado . ..L'vab'noEstakali'- do, Llanos L'yah'noe. Loango Lo ang' go. Lobos Lo'bose. Loch Leven Lok Lev' en. Loch Lomon d Lok Lo' mond. Lodi Lo'de. Lofoden Lo fo' den. Loire Lwar. Lombardv Lorn' bar dy. Lomond Lo' mond. Irondon Lun' don. Lop Nor Lop' Nor. Lorraine Lor rain'. Los Angeles Los An' jc les. Los Roques Los Ro' kes. Lough Erne .Lok Ern'. Louisburg Loo' is berg. Louisiana Loo ee ze ah' na. Louisville Loo' is vil. Lowell Lo'el. Lubeck Loo' beck. Lucerne Loo sern'. Lucknow Luck' no. Lutzeu Loot'zen. Luxemburg Lux' em burg. Luzerne Loo zernc'. Luzon Loo zon'. Lycoming Ly com'ing. Lyons Li'onz. Macassar Ma cas' sar. Machias Ma chi' aa Mackenzie Mac ken' ze. Mackinac Mack' e naw. Mackinaw Mack' e naw. Macon Ma' con. Madeira Ma de' ra. Madras Ma dras', Madrid Ma dreed'. Maelstrom Mayl' strum, Magdaleua Mag da Is'na. Magdeburg Mag' de burg. -Maimatchm Mi ma cheen'. Malabar Mal a bar'. Malacca Ma lac' ca, Malaga Mal' a ga. Malay Malay. Malaya Mala ya. Malaysia Ma la' she a. Maiden Mawl'den. Malta Mawl'ta. Managua Ma nah'gwa. Manayunk Man a yunk'. Manhattan Man liat'tan. Manila Mah ne'la. Manistee Ma nis'te. Manitoba Man e to bah'. Manitowoc Man e to woe'. Manitouliu Man e too'lin. Mankato Man ka'to. Mantchooria Man tchoo' re a. Mautua Man' tn a. Maracaybo ■. Ma ra ki' bo. Maranhani Ma ran ham'. Maieiigo Ma ren' go. Margarita Mar ga re' ta- Marion Mar'e on, Mariposa Mah re po'za, Marmora Mar' mo ra. Marquette Mar kef. Martinique Mar tin eek'- Marseilles Mar sailz'. Mascarene Mas ca rene'. Massillon Mas'sil Ion. Matapan Mat a pan', Mattawamkeag ... Mat ta worn' keg. Matto Grosso Maht'to Gros'so. Mauch Chunk Mawk Chuiik'. Maumee Maw mee'. Manna Loa JVIow'na Lo'a. Mauritius Maw rish' e um. Mayeuce Mah yahnce'. Mazatlau Maz at lan', Medina Me de'na. Mediterranean ....Med e ter ra'ne an. Melanesia Mel a ne' she a. Melbourne Mel' burn, Memphremagog, ..Mem fre ma'gog, Menai Men'i. Mendocino Men do se'no. Mendoza Men do'za. Meqninez Mek'e nez. Merida Mer'e da. Merthyr-Tydvil . . .Mer' thyr-Tyd' vil. Messina Mes Be' na. Meuse Maze. Miami Mi am'e. Michigan Mish'e gnn. Mikado Me kah' do. Milan Mil' an. Milwaukee Mil waw'kc. Mindanao Min da nah'o. Mindoro Min do'ro. Mlquelon Mik e Ion'. Miramichi Mir a me she'. Missisqnoi Mis sis' kwoi. Misstdonghi Mis so long' ghe. Missouri Mis boo' re. Mitylene Mit e le'ne. Mobile Mo heel'. Mocha Alo'ka, Mogadnre Mog a dore'. Molnccas Mo luc'caz. Mongol Mon'gol. Monon^ahela Mo non ga he'la. Montana Mon tah'na. Mini tank Mon tawk'. Miuitenegro Mon te na'gro- Monterey Mon te ray . Montevideo Mon te vid' e o. Montmcn-enci Mont mo ren' se. Montpelier Mont peei'yer. Montreal Mont re awl'. Morea Mo re' a. Moscow Mos' CO, Mosel Mo zel'. Mount Desert Mount Dez' ert. Mourzonk Moor zook'. Mozambique Mo ziim beek'- Mnnich .. , Mu'nik. Muscat Mus cat'. Muskingum Mus kluf^'gum. Mysore My sore , Nacogdoches Nac og do' chez. Nahant Na hant'. Naniur Na' mur. Nankin Nan keen'. Naniing Nahn ling'. Nantes Nauts. Naples Na' pl'z. Nashua Nasu'u a. Nassau Nas'eaw. Natal Na'tal. Natchez Natch' ez. Natchitoches Natch e torh'ez, Navarino Nav a re' nt). Neagh Na. Nedjed Nej'ed. Neuse N'yuse. Nevada Nay vah'da. Newark New' ark. New Berne New' Bern. New Britain New Brit' t'n. Newburgh New' burg, Newburyport New ber re port. 128 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. Newfoundland — New' fund land. New Granada New Gia iiali'da. New Guinea New Ghin'iie New Orleans New Or'le anz. New Kochelle New Ko shell'. New Zealaud New Ze'laud. Nj^ami N'gah' jne. Niagara Ni ag'a ra. Nicaragua. Nic a rah'gwa. Nice Neece. Nicobar Nic o bar'. Niemen Ne' nieu. Niger Ni' jer. Nineveh Niii' e veh. Niobrara Ni o bra' ra. Nipissing Nip' is sing. -Nippon Nip poue'. Nismes Neemz. Norfolk Nor'fok. Norrkopiug Nor'ko ping. Norwalk Nor' wok. Norwich Nor' rij. Notre Dame No' I'r Dahm'. Nova Scotia No' va Sco' she a. Nova Zembla No'vaZem'bla. Novgorod Nov go rod'. Nyanza N'yuhn'za. Nyassa N'yahs' siu Oahn Wah'hoo. Oasis O' a sis. Oaxaca "VVah hah'ka. Obi O'be. Oceanica O she aii'e ca. Ocmulgee Oc mul' ghee. Oconee O co' nee. Oder O'der. Odessa O des' sa. Ogeechee O ghee'chee. Oise Wabz. Okeechobee O kee chn'bee. Okhotsk Ok hotsk'. Olrautz Oi'muts. Onniha O' ma haw. Oneida O ui'da. Onondaga On on daw' ga. Ontai-io On ta' re o. Opelika O pel'e ka. Opelousas Ope loo' sua. Oporto O p'u-'to. Oraa O rahn'. Oregon Or'e gon. Orinoco O re uo'co. Orizaba Or e z ' ba. Orkneys Ork' , Orleans Or'le Ormuz Or'mnz. Ortegal Or' te gahl. OsQge ...., O sa^e'. Oshkosh Osh' kosh. Osnaburg Oz' na burg. Ossawattomie Os sa wot' o nie. Ostend Os tend'. Oswego Os we' go, Otaheite O'ta hite. Otrauto O tran' to. Ottawa Ot' ta waw. Ottnmwa Ot' turn waw. Oude Ood. Ouse Oi>2- Owasco O was' CO. Oznka O' zah ca. Ozark O zark'. Pacaraima Pahcah rahe'mah. Pacha Pa shaw'. Padaug Pa dang'. Padua Pad'u a. Paisley Paze' ley. Palermo Pa ler'nio. Palestine Pal'es tine. Palmerston Pahm'er ston. Palo Alto Piih' lo Al' to. Palos Pah'los, Pamlico Pam' le co. Pampas Pam' paz. Panama. Pan a mah'. Papua Pap' n a. Para Pa rah'. Paraguay. Pahr a gway'. Parahyba Pahr ah e' ba h, Paramaribo Par a ma re' bo. Parana Pahr a nah'. Passaic Pas sa' ic . Passamaquoddy.-.Passa maqnod'dy. Patagonia Pat a go' ne a. Patos Pah' tose, Patras Pa tras'. Pecud ., Pa'kose. Pedee Pe dee'. Peipus.. Pa'e pus. Pekin Pe kin'. Peliug Pa ling'. Pembnia Pern' be na. Pemigewasset Pern e je wos'sit. Peusacola Pen sa co'la. Pepin Pep' in. Pernambuco Per nam boo'co. Persia Per' she a. Pesth Pest. Philippi Phe lip' pi. Philippine Phe lip' pin. Picardy Pic' ar de. Pictou Pic too'. Piedmont Peed' mont. Pietermaritzburg ,. Pee termar'itz burg. Piqua Fik' wa. Pisa Pee' za. Piscataqua Pis cat' a kwa. Pitcairu Pit kairn'. Plaquemine Plak meen'. Plateau Pla to'. Platte Plat. Plymouth Plim'uth. Poitiers Poi teerz'. Polynesia Pol e ne' she a. Pompeii Pom pa' e. Pontchartrain Pont ebar train'. Popayan Po pa yan'. Popocatepetl Pop o Ciih' te pet'l. Port au Prince Port o Prince'. Porte Purt. Porto Rico For' to Ee' ko, Porto Vecchio Por'toVek'keo. Portugal Por' tu gal. Pijsen Po' zeu. Potomac Po to' mac. Potosi Po to' se. Poughkeepsie Po ki p' se. Poyang Po yang'. Prague Praig. Pran-ie du <;hien..Pra'Ve du Sheen'. Presque Isle Pres^k Eel'. Prussia Prush'ya. Pnebla Pwa' bla. Puerto Principe... Pware' to Prcen'ce- Pyrenees Pn- eu eez. Qnatre Bras Kaht'r Brah'. Quebec Kwe bee'. Quenlun Kwen loon'. Queretaro Kay ray tah' ro, Quiloa Ke' lo a. Quincy Kwiu' ze. wuinebang Kwin e bawg'. Quito Ke'to. Racine Ra seen'. Ragusa Hah goo' sah. Rah way Raw' way. Riiinier Ra'neer. Raisin Ra' ziu. Raleigh Raw' le. Rangoon Rang goon'. Rapidan Rap id an'. Rappahannock Rap pa ban' nock. Raritan Rar'it Tin, Ratisbon Rat' is h(m. Ravenna Ra ven' na. Reading Red' iug, Keims Reemz. Rensselaer Ren sel er. ResacadelaPalma.Ray sah' ca day la Pahl' ma. Restigouche Res te goo sha'. Reykjavik Rike' ya vik. Rhone Ron. Riad Re ad'. Richelieu Reesh'e lu. Riesen Re' zen. Riesen Gebirge — Re'zenGebere'ge. Riga Re'ga. Rio de la Plata Re'odaylaPIah'ta. Rio Grande Re'o Grahn'diiy. Rio Janeiro Re' o Ja nay'ro. Roanoke Ro an oke'. Romagna Ro mahn' ya, Roncesvalles Ronse vahl'yes. Rosario Ro sah' re o. Rotterdam Rot' ter di-m. Rouen Roo' en . Roumauia Roo mah' ne a. Ronmelia Roo me'le a. Rouses Point Rowse'ez Point. Rowan Ro' an. Russia Rush'.i. Ryswick Riz' \; ik. Saarbruck Sahr' brook. Sahinas Sah be' uas. Sabine Sa been'. Sable Sa'b'l. Sact> Saw' CO. Sacramento Sac ra men' to. Sadowa Sah' do wa, Sagbalin Sag baleen'. Saginaw Sag' e naw. Saguenay Sa^' nay. Sahama Sa hah' ma. Sahara Sa hah' ra. Said Sah eed'. Saigtm Si eon'. Salamanca Sala man' ca. Salisbury Sawlz' ber re, Salonica Sal o ne' ca. Samana Sa mah'na. Samarang Sam ar ang', Samarcand Sam ar cand'. Samoan Samo'an. San Bernardino . . .San Ber nar de'no. San Diego San De a' go. Sandusky San dus'ke. San Felipe San Fay le pay. Sangamon San'ga niou. San Joa^uiu San Ho a keen'. San Jose San Ho zav'. San Juan San Hoo ahn'. San Luis Obispo... San Looees'Obis'- San Luis Potosi San Looees Po to- se. San Marino San Ma re' no. San Miguel San Me ghel'. San Salvador San Sal va dore'. Santa Barbara San' ta Bar' ba ra. Santa Clara San' ta Clah' ra. Santa Cruz San' ta Croose. Siinta F6 San' ta Fay'. Saniee San tee'. Santiago San te ah' go. Santiago de Cuba. San le ah go day Cri ba. Saone Son. Saragossa Sar a gos' sa. Saratov Sar a tov'. Sarawak Sahr a wjilik', Sarmieuto Sar me en' to. Saskatchawan Sas katch'a wawn. Sault Ste. Marie.... Soo Sent Ma' re. Save Snhv, Scheldt Skelt. Schenectady Ske nee' ta de. Schoodic .Shoo' die. Schroon Skroon. Schuylkill Skonl'kill. Schweidnitz Shwit'nits. Schwerin Swa reeu'. Scilly Sil'le. Scioto Si o' to. Scla ves Sklahvz. Scotia ....Sko'she a. Scutari Skoo' fa re. Seattle Se at' tie. Sebago Se ba'go. Sebastopol Se bas'^to pel. Sedan Se dalni'. Seidlitz .7 Sed'lits. Seine Sane. Senegal Sen'e gawl. Senegambia : Sen e gam' be a. Sennaar Sen naur', Seoul Sa ool'. Serro Espinhafo. ..Ser' ro Es peen- yah' so. Severn Sev' ern. Seville Sev'il. Shanghai Shang hi'. Shawangunk Shong'gum. Shenandoah Shen an do' a. Shikoku Shi ko' koo. Siam Si am'. Sicily Sis'e le. Sierra Leone Re er' ra Le o' ne. Sierra Madre Se er' ra M;ih' dray. Sierra Nevada Se er' ra Ne vah' da. Sihon Sehoon'. Silesia Si le' se a. Sinai Si'nal. Sinaloa Sinalo'a. Sinope Sin'o pe. Singapore Sing ga pore'. Sioux Suo. Skager Rack Skag' er Rack. Skaueateles Skan e at' e les. Slavonia Sla vo' ne a. Sleswick Holttein .Sles' wikHol'stine. Smolensk Smo lensk'. Smyrna Sinir" na. Sociitra So co' tra. Sokoto Soko' to. Somali So maw' le. Sonora So no'ra, Sorata So rah' tah. Sorel Sol'' el. Soudan Soo dan'. Spa Spah. Speyer Spi' er. Spheroid Sphe' roid. Sporades Spor' a deez. St. Anthony Sent An' tu ny, Staten Island Stat'u I'land. St. Augustine Sent Aw gus teen'. St. Croix Sent Groi . Steilacooni Sti la cooni'. Sr. Elias Sent Eli' as. St. Etienne Sent Et e cu.\ Stettin Stet teen', St. Genevieve Sent Jen e veev'. St. Helena Sent He le' na. St. Lawrence Sent Law' reuce. St. Louis Sent Loo' is. St. Pierre Sent Pe air'. Stralsund Strahl'soond. Strasbourg Stras' bourg. Stromboli Stnnn'bc) le. St. Roque Sent Roke'. Stuttgart Stoot' gart. Suchau Soo chow. Sucre Soo' cray. Sumatra Su mah' tra. Snnda Sun' da. Surabaya Sri ra hi' ah. Surat Su rat'. Surinam Sur e nam'. Suwanee Su waw' nee. Swansea Swawn'se. Syracuse Syr a case'. Tabriz Ta breez'. Tahiti Ta he'le. Tahlequali Tah' le kwah, Talladega Tal la de'ga. Tallahassee Tal la has' see. Tamaqua Tarn aw'kwji, Tamalave Tarn' a tahv. Tampico Tam pe'co. Tanauarivo . r Tan an a re vo'. Tanganyika Tahn gahn ye'ka. Tangier Tan jeer'. Taos Tab' ose. Tapajos Ta pah' yose. Tashkend Tash kend'. Tasmania Taz ma'ne a. Taunton Tahn' ton. Tauris Taw' ris. Tchad Chad. Teheran Tee he rahn'. Tehuantepec Te wahu'te pec. Tegucigalpa Ta goo se gahl' pa. Teneriffe Ten^e rif Terre Haute Ter re Hote'. Tezcuco -Tezcoo'co. Thames Temz. Thebes Theecj. Theiss Tice. Thermopylae Ther mop' e le. Thian Shan Teahn'Shnhn. Thibet Te bet'. Thibodeaux Tib o do'. Tientsin Te ent seen'. TierradelFuego..Te er'ra del Fwa'- go. Tiflis Tiriis. Tilsit Til' sit. Timbnctoo ...... . .Tim buc too'. Tirnova Teer' no va. Titicaca Titecnh'ca. Tinmen Te u men'. Tobolsk To bnlsk'. Tocaniins To can teenz'. Tokio To'keo. Tombigbee Tom big' bee. Tonquin Ton keen'. Topeka Tope'ka, Torres Tor^res. Tortuga Tor too' ga. Tonhni Too long . Toulouse Tool.ioz'. Tournay Toor na'. Tours Toor. Trafalgar Traf al gar'. Transvaal Trahns vahl'. Trebizond. Tieb e zond'. Trieste Tre est'. Trinidad Trin e dad'. Tripoli Trip'ole. Troyes. Trwah. Truxillo Troo heeryo, Tucson Too eon'. Tiicunnm Too cu man'. Tulare Too lah'rc. Turin Tn'rin. Turkestan Toor kes tan'i, Tuscany Tns' ca ne, Tyrol Tirrole'. Uintah Win' tah. Ulm Oolm. Ulster Ul'ster. Umatilla Oo ma leel' ya. Umbagog Uni' ba gog. Upernavik Oo'per uah vik Upsal Up' sal. Ural Oo'ral. Urbana Ur ba' nn. Uruguay Yoo roo gway', Utah Yoo' tah. Uticn Yoo'te ka. Utrecht Yoo' trekt. Valladolid Val la do Iced". Vallejo Val ya' ho. Valencia Vn len'she a, Valparaiso Val pa ri'zo. Vancouver Van coo' ver. Venetia Ven e' she a. Venezuela Ven e zwe'Ja. Venice Ven'icp. Vera Cruz Va'ra Kroos. Vergennes Ver jenz'. Vermilion Ver mil' yon. Verona Ve ro'na. Versailles Ver salz'. Vesuvius Ve eoo' ve na. Viceroy Vice' roy. Vienna Ys en'na. Vincennes Vi» cenz'. Vistula Vis' tu la. Vosges , Vozh. Wabash , .Waw' bash. Wachusett Waw chu' sett. Wahabee ......,, . . Wah hah' be. Wahsatch ,,..Wah satch'. Wallachia Wal la'ke n. Walla Walla Wol' la Wol' la. Warsaw , , War' saw. Warwick. . . , Wor' ik. Washita...,. Wosh'e taw. Wateree Waw ter e'. Waterloo Waw lev loo'. ^^■ankesha Waw'ke shaw. Wener .,, ...Wa' uer. Weser We' zer. Westphiilia West pha'le a. Wiesbaden „Wees bah' den. Wilkeebarre Wilks'bar re. Willamette Wil lam'et- Winuebago Win ne ba' go. Winnipeg Win'ne peg. Winnipegoos Win e pe goos'. Winnipiseogee Winne pe sok'a Winona We no'na. Winooski We uoos' ke. Woonsocket Woon sock'et. Worcester Woos' ter. Wnrtemberg Wer'tem berg. Wyandotte Wy an dot'. Wyoming W'i o' miug. Tabloiioi Ya bio noi'. Yang-tse-Kiang...Yang'-iife-Ke aug' Yarkaud Yarkahud'. Yazoo Ya zoo', Yedo Yed'o. Yemen Yem'en. Yenisei Yen e sa' e. Yezo Ya'zo. Yokohama Yo ko bah'miu Y()f^emite Yo eem'e te. Youghiogheny Yoh ho — tfe-.-/ ; I N T aVNr*^8 'lattsbut^ ■ '»'/, M \\ &j«;ii £ff>^ .-y* ■v ■*»■-■ iDuani . •bharon Sprs, , .A^i i!t(,nlW)t.rt,4tcr,^'iRamoiiavme (K / Eerne JUamDndgi nsfofctorg ■iadt ^ ffH r^ :Roi.'bui Tishlttmi iW A,R El unit"' 1\ _ ■Ma'«?'%- ■«4^,^ ^1. farksvilltt Montic ^^e (p wiick JUana^ Xitcbh f Plains river receives the waters of most of the interior lakes? What river flows wholly across the state into Lake Ontario ? What river connects lakes Erie and Ontario? What famous cataract in this river? What are the chief New York affluents of St. Lawrence River? What are the principal rivers flowing from New York into Pennsylvania ? Where do the following rivers rise, in what direction, and into what body of water, do they flow ? — Hudson, Rondout Creek, Mohawk, Hoosic, Pawlet, Au Sable, Saranac, Salmon, St. Regis, Racket, Oswegatchie, Indian, Black, Oswego, Genesee, Niagara. [Name any streams in the county in which you live.] Counties. — Which counties border on Lake Erie? On Lake Ontario? On St. Lawrence River? Whicli three form the most northerly tier of counties ? Name the counties on the west bank of Hudson River from Albany southward. On the cast bank from Troy southward. Which coun- ties border on Pennsylvania? On New Jersey? Which three counties are on Long Island? Which county is Staten Island? [In which county do you live ?] Cities. — Locate New York City. Locate Brooklyn. What other city on Long Island? What city in Westchester County? What city in Orange County? What city in Dutchess County? What city in Ulster County? What city in Columbia County ? What city in Rensselaer County ? What cities in Albany County? Which is the capital of the state? What city in Schenectady County? What is the county-seal of Saratoga County? What village in this county is a noted watering-place ? What city in St. Lawrence County? What city in Jefferson County? What city in Oswego County? Locate Utica, Rome, Syracuse. What city in Broome County? What city in Chemung County? Locate Ithaca, Auburn, Rochester. What large city in Erie County? What city in Niagara County? Name the principal cities and towns on the line of the Erie Canal. What town in Warren Count}' on the Hudson ? What town at the outlet of Chautaucjua Lake ? What town in Orange Count}' on tlie Delaware River? What is the county-seat of Richmond County? What town in the northern part of Staten Island? What town at the north-western extremity of Seneca Lake? In what county is West Point? What is the most easterly town on Long Island? THE COUNTIES OF NEW YORK. Alhany. Allegany. Broome. Cattaraugus. Cayuga. Chautauqua. Chemung. Chenango. Clinton. Columbia. Cortland. Delaware. Dutchess. Erie. Essex. Franklin. Fulton. Genesee. Greene. Hamilton. Herkimer. Jefferson. Kings. Lewis. Livingston. Madison. Monroe. Montgomer}'. New York. Niagara. Oneida. Onondaga. Ontario. Orange. Orleans. Oswego. Otsego. Putnam. Queens. Rensselaer. Richmond. Rocltland. St. Lawrence. Saratoga. Schenectady. Schoharie. Schuyler. Seneca. Steuben. Suffolk. Sullivan. Tioga. Tompkins. Ulster. Warren. Washington. Wayne. Westchester. Wyoming. Yates. X'n iorlH 1 nopeVal^yw T ill Stdnjngto,, ! r^"** ^# s jf y-- B — -r; Gull.U. ''Pluui Is. I 3BL0CK ISLAND '"Poru f®W|-\ite,J Play' ■ ' O^.-- I-- iiverhead ,, Jla) Q ;lielterj. B JMontauk Pt. c i st^r V y !> Longitufle J^ast from AVashlDgtou Zocal Time r 31 when 12 '^ ypo M on the Meridian of WaxTtington VK }' (3) NEW YORK. PHYSICAL VIEW OF NEW YORK. I si miles long, and its greatest breadth is 2i miles. Harts, Randalls, Wards, and Blackwells islands, in the East River, belong to the city, and are the seat of many of its penal, chari- table, and reformatory institutions. Bedloes, Governors, and Ellis islands, in New York Bay, are owned by the United States Government. Besides these, may be named Grand and Goat islands in the Niagara River, and the numerous islands in Lake Champlain, Lake George, Lake Ontario, the St. Law- rence River, and those near Long Island. Lakes. — The region of the Adirondacks abounds in beau- tiful lakes, some of considerable size. Schroon Lake is noted as a summer resort. Lake George, 36 miles in length, is cele- brated for the clearness of its waters and the picturesque beauty of its scenery. The valleys of the Oswego and Genesee rivers contain several lakes, the largest of which are Seneca, Cayuga, and Oneida. Besides these, Otsego, Chautauqua, and the Saranac lakes may be mentioned. Of the three large lakes on the border of the state, Erie is 255 miles in length, and from 30 to 60 miles in width; Ontario is about 180 miles in length, and 56 miles in extreme breadth ; Champlain, a long, narrow sheet of water famed for its beauty, is 126 miles long, and from half a mile to 15 miles wide. About 352 miles of the shores of these lakes are within this state. Rivers. — The Hudson, 300 miles in length, is the chief river belonging wholly to New York ; it is navigable for steam- boats to Troy, 151 miles from its mouth. Its main tributary is the Mohawk, 135 miles long, which affords considerable water-power at Cohoes and Little Falls. West Canada Creek, one of its affluents, contains the famed cascades called Trenton Falls. The Oswego receives the waters of most of the interior lakes ; and the Genesee, noted for its falls at Rochester, flows through a fertile grain-growing valley. These, with Black River, are affluents of Lake Ontario. Scenery and Waterfalls. — New York is distinguished for its fine scenery. The banks of the Hudson are world-renowned for their beauty. The shores of Lake George, and its waters studded with nearly two hundred islands, the St. Lawrence and its Thousand Islands ; and the grand expanse and picturesque shores of Lake Champlain, afford scenes of unsurpassed beauty. Niagara Falls, the grandest cataract in the world, belong in part to New York. Here the water of the Great Lakes west of Ontario is poured over a precipitous cliff about i6o feet high in two immense sheets, called the American and the Horseshoe Falls, separated by Goat Island. The total width is 2,900 feet. The other falls of any note are the Genesee Falls at Rochester; Kaaterskill Falls in Greene County ; Glens Falls, Warren County ; Cohoes Falls in the Mohawk; and Trenton Falls, near Utica. Wat- kins Glen, at the head of Seneca Lake, has several picturesque cascades, and is a place of considerable resort. Agriculture. — The jieculiar character of the soil, abounding in lime, the numerous river-valleys, the climate, and the distri- bution of moisture, contributing to the general fertility of the soil, have given to this state a leading position for its agricul- tural products. More than one-half of the total area of the state (about 16,000,000 acres) is under cultivation. In the highland regions sheep-raisino- and dairy farming take the lead; in the western valley regions grain- growing is the chief pursuit. Grape-culture is actively carried on in the lake valleys, and in the lower valley of the Hudson. The other chief products are hay, hops, maple-sugar, tobacco, broom-corn, fruit, and, near New York, market vegetables and milk. Commerce. — This state has the foremost rank in the Union for the extent of its commerce. The great bulk of the grain exported from the United States to foreign countries is shipped from the port of New York, and most of the imports received in return come through the same port. The state has also a vast domestic trade. The exports from the port of New York amount to nearly $447,000,000 annually, nearly all of which are of domestic product. The amount of imports is considerably in excess of the exports. The coastwise trade is very large, particularly at Buffalo. Ten customs districts and ports of entry have been established by the United States Government, as follows : Buffalo Creek (port of Buffalo), Cape Vincent, Champlain (Plattsburg), Dunkirk, Genesee (Rochester), New York, Niagara (Suspension Bridge), Oswegatchie (Ogdensburg), Oswego, and Sag Harbor. Internal Improvements In addition to the natural high- ways of commerce afforded by Lakes Erie, Ontario, and Cham- plain, and by the Hudson River, the state has a magnificent system of canals and railroads. Of the former, the longest and most important is the Erie Canal, 352 miles in length, connecting Lake Erie with the head of navigation on the Hudson, and thus forming a cheap and easy route for the products of the great West to the Atlantic seaboard. The Cham- plam Canal, also belonging to the state, connects West Troy and Whitehall, and is 66 miles lona,'. Besides these, the Delaware and Hudson Canal, 108 miles o£ which are m New York, joins the Delaware and Hudson rivers, connecting Honesdale, Penn., with Eddyville, near the mouth of the Rondout Creek. This canal is owned by a private corporation. Several other canals formerly belonging to the state, have been either abandoned or sold to private corporations. Of railroads, a network extends over the state, and connects with through lines to Chicago, St. Louis, and San Francisco, thus bringing the Pacific coast and the Mississippi \-alley in communication with the port of New York ^tn'nSrJ ;f "'^^ ""^^ -f '1- New York, Lake Erie and Western, Hudson iLl?' J '"'^ °""'^""'^' '''' Now York Central and Hudson River, operating roads on both sides of the Hudson and rdwttfrn ::l:1^"r"'!^'°= --^-^ '•- Delaware, ":'£:; ' and western, connecting New York with Buffalo, Utica. and Osvvego. NEW YORK. 5 The other most important railroads are the follow mg: NAME. Adirondack. Albany and Susquehanna. Boston, Hoosac Tunnel, and Western. Buffalo and Southwestern. Buffalo. New York, and Philadelphia. Delaware and Hudson Canal Co.'s R. R. Lake Ontario Southern. Newburg, Dutchess, and Connecticut. New York and Canada. New York, Ontario, and Western. New York and Harlem. New York City and Northern. NAME. Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain. Poughkeepsie, Hartford, and Boston. Rensselaer and Saratoga. Rochester and Pittsburg. Rhinebeck and Connecticut. Rome, Watertown, and Ogdensburg. Southern Central. Syracuse, Chenango, and New York. Troy and Boston. Ulster and Delaware. Utica and Black River. Besides these, there are on Long Island the following : — NAME. NAME. Brooklyn, Bath, and Coney Island. Long Island R. R. and Branches. New York and Brighton Beach. New York and Coney Island. New York and Sea Beach. New York, Woodhaven, and Rockaway. There is also a railroad on Staten Island, running along the northern shore, and in the eastern part connecting Vanderbilt Landing with Tottenville. [See map of New York City and Vicinity^ The total number of miles of railroad in the state is about 7.7SO. Manufactures. — New York takes the lead in the value of its manufactured products. The following are the most impor- tant manufacturing industries: carriages and wagons, cheese, food and food-preparations, furniture, flouring and grist mill products, lead, leather, liquors, musical instruments, printing and publishing, sewing-machines, ship- building, sugar and mo- lasses, and tobacco. The other most important branches of manufacturing industry are those of agricultural implements, boots and shoes, clothing, cotton and woolen goods, dressed furs, iron, machinery, and paper. Mining. — Mining and quarrying are carried on to a consid- erable extent in this state, although not among the most prom- inent industries. The most extensive iron-mines are found in Essex, Dutchess, Clinton, and Orange counties. The quarries of Ulster County yield the greater portion of stone ; but large quantities of marble are quarried in Westchester County. There are valuable lead-mines in St. Lawrence County ; and copper and lead occur among the Shawangunk Mountains. Limestone is abundant in nearly all parts of the state; and sandstone and bluestone, for flagging, in many of the southern and eastern districts. Beds of gypsum and sandstone are found in the central and western counties. Fisheries. — The fisheries in this state are of considerable importance, particularly the shad-fisheries on the Hudson, where there is an extensive nursery for these fish a short distance below Albany. There are also fisheries for white-fish at the east end of Lake Ontario ; and for blue-fish, mackerel, etc., in the bays of Long Island and the neighboring shores, where, also, the oyster business is extensively carried on, particularly for supplying the markets of New York City. Mineral Springs. — This state is especially noted for its mineral and medicinal springs. The salt-springs among the rocks known as the " Onondaga Salt Group," extending from Schoharie County westward to the Niagara, are exceedingly valuable. The salt-works of the Warsaw district, in the Gene- see valley, and those of Onondaga County, the latter owned and worked by the state, are among the most extensive in the world, yielding annually about 6,000,000 bushels of salt. Valuable springs of petroleum occur in Cattaraugus and Chautauqua counties. The chief medicinal springs are those at Saratoga, Ballston, New Lebanon, Sharon, Avon, Clifton, and Richfield. Of these, Saratoga Springs are the most numerous as well as the most widely famed. The village named after the last-mentioned springs contains a large number of hotels and boarding-houses, being visited in the summer season by many thousand persons. Sharon Springs, in Schoharie County, noted for its sulphur springs, is also a place of great resort. Government. — The state constitution vests the executive department of the government in a governor and lieutenant- governor, elected for three years; a secretary of state, comp- troller, treasurer, attorney-general, and state engineer and surveyor, each of whom is elected for two years. The Legisla- ture consists of a senate of thirty-two members, elected for two years, and an assembly of one hundred and twenty-eight mem- bers, chosen for one year. The highest court is the court of appeals, composed of a chief justice and six associate judges. Besides this, there are forty-six justices of the supreme court. Three of the eight judicial districts are entitled to five justices ; four, to six justices ; and the district comprising New York city, to seven justices. Education. — Ample provision has been made for the full and free education of the people. The common-school system includes more than 11,000 school districts, upward of 31,700 teachers, and affords instruction to more than 1,000,000 pupils. There are eleven normal schools, besides numerous academies and private and parochial schools, in various parts of the state, and the Normal College, in New York City. There are thirty universities, colleges, or other institutions for higher education, affording instruction to nearly 4,000 students, be- sides many scientific schools, theological seminaries, and other professional schools ; and, moreover, institutions for the educa- tion of the deaf and dumb, the blind, and the imbecile. The names and locations of the principal universities and colleges are given in the following summary : — NAME. LOCATION. NAME. LOCATION. Alfred University Alfred. Manhattan College New York. Canisius College Buffalo. Rensselaer Polytechnic > Troy. Colgate University. Hamilton. Institute > College for the Training ) of Teachers S New York. St. John's College. . St. Lawrence University Fordham. Canton. College of City of New York New York. St. Stephen's College . Annandale. College of St. Francis Xavier New York. Syracuse University Syracuse. Columbia College . New York. Union University . Schenectady. Cornell University ^ Ithaca. University of the City ~t of New York S New York. Elmira Female College" Elmira Hamilton College Clinton. University of Rochester Rochester. Hobart College. Geneva. Vassar College ' Poughkeepsie. Ingham University Le Roy. Wells College' Aurora. ' Elmira College, Vassar College, and Wells College are for female students exclusively. Cornell University admits both sexes. Barnard College is the woman's department of Columbia College. History. — Little, if any thing, was known of this part of North America previous to the famous exploring voyage of the English navigator Henry Hudson, who, in 1609, while in NEW YORK. the employ of the Dutch, entered the harbor of New York, and discovered the river which now bears his name. In his vessel, called the " Half-Moon," he ascended the river as far as the present site of Albany ; and the exploration was continued in boats some ten miles farther up. The Dutch, in 1614, established a trading-post at the south- ern end of Manhattan Island, and built a fort on the banks of the Hudson, near Albany. Fort Orange, on the site of that city, was constructed in 1628. The post on Manhattan Island soon expanded to a settlement, to which the Dutch gave the name of New Amsterdam ; and to the extensive region which they claimed, stretching as far south as the Delaware, they gave the name of New Netherland. The same year (1609) in which Hudson ascended the Hudson River, Champlain, a French explorer, discovered Lake Cham- plain and Lake George, and thus gave the French a basis for tljeir claim to a large part of the territory included in this state. In 1664 the Dutch at New Amsterdam were obliged to sur- render the town to an English fleet sent out by the Duke of York, to whom his brother, King Charles II., had granted the whole territory. This led to the name New York. With the exception of a few months in 1673, the English held possession of it till the Revolution. About the middle of the next century, disputes sprang up between the English and the French regarding their American possessions ; and a war ensued, known in history as the French and Indian war, for the Indians mostly took sides with the French. During this struggle the region in the vicinity of Lakes George and Champlain, and the upper course of the Hudson, became the scene of many interesting events. The forts at Crown Point and Ticonderoga on the banks of Lake Champlain, and Fort William Henry at the head of Lake George, were held by the French ; but, by a series of brilliant victories, they were regained by the English ; and at the close of the war, in 1763, the French were compelled to relinquish their claims. During the Revolution, New York was the scene of many stirring and important events. By a bold stroke, Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured Crown Point and Ticonderoga In 1775. The disastrous battle of Long Island, in. 1776, gave the English possession of New York City ; but the next year the glorious victories gained over Burgoyne near Saratoga, under Gen. Gates, really decided the struggle. Many posts on the Hudson became famous during this war, — Fort Washing- ton in New York, Stony Point, captured by Wayne in 1779, West Point, memorable for the meditated treason of Arnold in 1780, and Newburg, the site of Washington's headquarters, and also noted as the scene of the closing events of the great struggle and the disbandment of the army. The city of New York was evacuated in 1783. This city was subsequently the capital of the United States, and there Washington was in- augurated in 1789. During the war of 1812 many stirring events occurred along the frontier ; and an important victory was gained over a Brit- ish fleet on Lake Champlain in 18 14. Steamboat navigation was commenced in 1807 by Robert Fulton, who that year ascended the Hudson River in the "Clermont." The construction of the Erie Canal, proposed by Gouverneur Morris in 1800, and subsequently urged by DeWitt Clinton, was finished in 1825. This at once became a great channel of trade and emigration, and has contributed largely to the rapid growth and prosperity of the state. Political Divisions. — The state is divided into 60 counties, and each county into townships. There are 32 cities. New York City, the metropolis of the state, is the business and financial emporium of the New World. In commercial importance it is second only to London. It includes Manhattan Island and the mainland as far north as Yonkers, and eastward to the Bronx River (which separates it from Westchester County), together with several islands in the East River. It covers a total area of 41^ square miles, somewhat more than one-half being comprised in Manhattan Island. The popula- tion by the census of 1890 was 1,515,301. Within this city, Brooklyn, and other neighboring cities closely con- nected with New York, and forming with it one compact business center, there is a population of about 2,500,000. Steam ferries connect the city with Brooklyn at several points, with Long Island City, Jersey City, Hoboken, and Staten Island ; and a magnificent suspension bridge across the East River brings the neighboring cities of New York and Brooklyn into still closer connection. This bridge rests on two massive stone piers 278 feet high, and is supported by four immense steel-wire cables, each sixteen inches in diameter. The total length of the bridge is 6,000 feet, and its total cost is over $ 1 8,000,000. The elevated steam railways, affording rapid communication between the northern and southern extremities of the island, constitute a striking feature ; and besides these there are sur- face railroads intersecting the city in all directions. The commercial advantages of New York are very great, with its natural highways of trade, its magnificent harbor, and its 25 miles of water-front crowded with the vessels of all nations. More than one half of the foreign trade of the Union is carried on at this port, besides a vast internal and coasting trade. The greater part of the immigrants to the United States land in this city. The great railroad lines which center here bring the city into direct com- munication with all parts of the Union and the British Provinces. In the value of its manufactures, it is unsurpassed by any other city in the Union. The leading items are clothing, refined sugar, furniture, and printing, and, next to these, boots and shoes, flouring-miU products, sewing-machines, iron-cast- mgs, lead-pipe, jewelry, and tobacco and cigars. New York is widely famed for the number and magnificence of Its public buildings. There are many hospitals and chari- table mstitutions, libraries having an aggregate of 700.000 volumes, and buildings devoted to science and art, as Cooper Institute, the National Academy of Design, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the American Museum of Natural History. There are numerous public squares and parks, chief among he atter being the Central Park, which is one of the finest of the kind in the world. Within the park are several great reser- voirs, supphed with water from Croton River, 30 miles distant, by means of aqueducts. From the reservoirs the water is distrib- uted to the city. NEW YORK. It has an exten- wai'ehouses, and Brooklyn (population 806,343), the second city in the state, and the fourth in the Union, holds a high rank for its commer- cial importance and manufacturing industries sive water-front, occupied by piers, docks, shipyards. The Atlantic Dock, a massive structure completed in 1844, adds very greatly to the commercial advantages of the city. It is a huge basin in the form of a parallelogram, enclosing an area of 40 acre°s, and deep enough to accommodate the largest vessels. Besides this, there are the Brooklyn and Erie basins, covering together a space of about 100 acres. Brooklyn affords a place of residence for many persons doing business in New York, and is noted for its beautiful streets and elegant mansions. There are also many fine pubhc buildings and a large number of churches. This city has been, on that account, styled the " City of Churches." Prospect Park, which has a commanding situation overlook- ing the harbor of New York, is an extensive pleasure-ground, beautifully laid out, and covering 550 acres. There are also several cemeteries, chief among which is Greenwood, widely celebrated for its beautiful views, tasteful cultivation and costly monuments. Cypress Hills Cemetery MAP OF NEW YORK CITY AND VICINITY. and the Cemetery of the Evergreens are also of great extent and beauty. This city has a fine system of public schools and many higher institutions of learning, among which may be distinguished the Packer Collegiate Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, and the Adelphi Academy. Other Cities. — In addition to New York and Brooklyn, the following are the other principal cities of the State : — Buffalo, a port of entry, and county seat of Erie County, has a splen- did water-front on Lake Erie and the Niagara River. Its harbor, formed partly by Buffalo River, and protected by extensive breakwaters, is one of the finest on the lakes. The chief characteristics of Buffalo are its healthful and pleasant situation, handsome parks, elegant private mansions, fine public buildings, and charitable institutions, excellent schools, and abundant supply of water from the Niagara, its extensive manufactures of iron, copper and brass goods, agricultural implements, machinery, and flouring-mill products, and its grain trade facilitated by its numerous large elevators. Rochester is a port of entry at the Falls of the Genesee River, four miles from Lake Ontario, and at the junction of several important lines of railroad. It has immense water-power, and large manufacturing and milling interests, and is the center of trade for the fertile Genesee Valley. In the suburbs are the most extensive fruit and ornamental tree nurseries in the world. It is the seat of Rochester University, of Rochester Theo- logical Seminary, of the State Industrial School, an important reformatory, and a State Hospital for the Insane. Albany, on the west bank of the Hudson River, 145 miles from New York, is the capital of the state, and many of the people are descendants of the Dutch Patroons. It is the terminus of the Erie Canal, and has a large trade in lumber, extensive iron and hollow-ware foundries, factories of carriages and sleighs, and large breweries. It is the seat of the Geological and Agri- cultural Hall, the State Library, the Dudley Observa- tory, and the State Normal School. The capitol is, next to the federal capitol in Washington, the largest and most splendid edifice of the kind in America. Syracuse, at the junction of the New York Central and numerous other railroads, is noted for its immense salt-works and its varied manufactures of iron and steel, agricultural implements, machinery, clothing, shoes and carriages. It is the seat of Syracuse University and of the New York Asylum for Idiots. Troy, on the left bank of the Hudson, six miles above Albany, is the southern terminus of the Champlain Canal and an important railroad center. It hns im- mense water-power, extensive iron and steel works and laundries, and is largely engaged in the manufacture of shirts, collars and cuffs, cars, and mathematical in- struments. It is the seat of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, one of the finest scientific schools in the country. Utica, on the Mohawk River, is an important rail- road center, and has great canal facilities. It inanu- factures furnaces, clothing, and shoes, and has a large cheese trade. It is the seat of the State Lunatic Asylum, and other charitable institutions. Binghamton is at the confluence of the Chenango and Susquehanna rivers. It is largely engaged in the manufacture of boots and shoes, cigars, steam-engines, farming implements, etc., and has a large coal trade. Yonkers is on the east bank of the Hudson, north of the city of New York, and opposite the Palisades: It carries on the manufacture of felt hats, robes, and cloths, sewing-silk and ribbons, carpets, lead pencils, etc. It is the agreeable place of residence of many New York business men. Elmira is situated on the Chemung River, near the mouth of Newtown Creek, and is an important rail- 8 NEW YORK. road and commercial city. It is noted for its abundant water-power and for its rolling-mills, and other iron-works, flour-mills, breweries, tanneries, etc. Here is ihe seat of Elmira Female College. Long Island City is opposite New York, with which it is connected by steam -ferries, and is the terminus of all the Long Island steam-railroads. It is a depot for the storage and shipment of kerosene oil, and has oil- re fmeries, lumber-yards, terra cotta works, and several large piano factories. Auburn is near Owasco Lake, which supplies abundant water-power. It manufactures agricultural implements, and cotton and woolen fabrics, and has valuable limestone quarries. It is the seat of the Auburn Theological Seminary, and of one of the three state prisons. Newburg, on the west bank of the Hudson, has an active river commerce in lumber and farming produce, and carries on manufacturing industry. It is also noted for its Revolutionary associations, Washington's headquarters having been located there for a considerable time. echoes is at the confluence of the Mohawk and Hudson rivers, and near the junction of the Erie and Champlain canals. The Mohawk affords immense water-power, and the city is noted for its extensive manufacture of cotton goods, also of hosiery and knit goods, and for its rolling-mills, ax-factor^es, and manufactory of pins and knitting-needles. Poughkeepsie, on the east bank of the Hudson, has an active river trade, large manufacturing interests, and extensive iron-furnaces and foundries. It is the seat of Vassar College, and other important educational institu- tions. A fine railroad bridge crosses the Hudson River at Poughkeepsie. Oswego is a port of entry on Lake Ontario, at the mouth* of Oswego River. This city has a fine harbor, protected by jetties and a breakwater, with several miles of wharfage. It is noted for its coal trade with Canada, its starch factories and flouring-mills, and its iron-works. It is the seat of one of the state normal schools. Kingston, on the west bank of the Hudson River, is near the terminus (Eddyville) of the Delaware and Hudson Canal. It has a large river traffic, and ships great quantities of coal brought by the canal. It is also the center of the ice industry, and of an immense business in flagging and other varieties of bluestone, hydraulic cement, and bricks. Schenectady, on the south bank of the Mohawk River, is noted for its locomotive works, the Edison general electrical works, broom manufactories, knitting-mills, etc. It is the seat of Union University. Amsterdam, on the Mohawk River, is noted for its knitting-mills, and for its extensive manufacture of carpets, brooms, linseed oil,'and merallic coffins. Jamestown, at the outlet of Chautauqua Lake, in the midst of a rich farming 'and dairy country, is connected by steamers with Mayville, and is a favorite summer resort. There are various factories, machine shops, and foundries. Lockport is on the Erie Canal, where it descends 60 feet by five double locks. Immense water-power is distributed from the canal to the manufac- tories by means of a hydraulic canal three-fourths of a mile long. The chief manufactures are flour, lumber, and cotton and woolen goods. Rome, on the Mohawk River, is noted for its locomotive and car-works, rolling and puddling mills, foundries, knitting mills, and sash, blind, and planing mills. It is the site of Fort Stanwix. Minor Cities and Villages. — The characteristics of the minor cities and principal villages are stated below; Albion — in Orleans County, on the Erie Canal. Large stone quarries: saw and planing miUs, fruit evaporators, etc. Batavia — in Genesee County, on Tonawanda Creek. Seat of State Institution for Blind. Canandaigua — in Ontario County, on Canan- daigua Lake. Beautiful situarion; popu- lar pleasure resort. CatskiU — in Greene County, on the west bank of the Hudson. The landing-place for visitors to the CatskiU Mountains. College Point — in Queens County, on Long Island Sound. Population largely Ger- man. Breweries, rubber manufactures, etc. Corning — in Steuben County, on the Chemung River. The coal and lumber trade is very extensive; manufactures glassware. Cortland — in Cortland County. An important railroad center; extensive wagon and car- riage factories ; wire mills, etc. Dunkirk — in Chautauqua County, on Lake Erie. It is a port of entry, has an excellent harbor ; also extensive iron works, machine shops, etc. Edgewater — in Richmond County, is a beauti ful \illage of residence for New York busi- ness men. Flushing — in Queen's County, on Flushing Bay. Elegant residences ; extensive gardens and nurseries; numerous schools. Geneva — in Ontario County, at the north-west extremity of Seneca Lake. Beautiful situa- tion ; e-xtensive nurseries and various manu- fectories ; seat of Hobart College, and the State Agricultural Experiment Station. Glens Falls —in Warren County, on the upper Hudson, where it descends fifty feet. Extensive milling business and various manufactures; in the vicinity of quarries of black marble. Gloversville — in Fulton County, has extensive manufactures of gloves and mittens, leather goods, and various other articles. Greenbush — in Rensselaer County, on the east bank of the Hudson. A railroad center; saw and floor mills and blast furnace ; liun- ber trade. Haverstraw — in Rockland County, on the Hudson River, is noted for its extensive brick works. Hempstead — in Queen*s Count>-, twenty-one miles east of New York City. Local trade; residential village. Hoosick Falls — in Rensselaer Coimty, on the Hoosick River. It has a largely Irish population ; various manufactories, etc. Hornellsville — In Steuben Coimty, on Canisteo River, is a railroad center. It manufactures braided wire for fences, reapers and mowers, leather, etc., and has various factories. Hudson — in Columbia County, on the Hudson River. It manufactures knit underwear, steam-engines, and paper car-wheels, Ithaca — in Tompkins County, near the head of Cayuga Lake, is an important railroad cen- ter, with quite an active commerce. It is a coal depot and Aas various manufactures. Cornell Univers*y is located here. Jamaica — in Queens County. Pleasant resi- dential village. Johnstown — a prosperous village in Fulton County, on a branch of the Mohawk River. Glove and mitten factories; skin and leather dressing establishments. Lansingburg — in Rensselaer County, on the east bank of the Hudson, opposite the mouth of the Mohawk and adjoining the city of Troy. Brush factories; oil-doth and other manufactories. Little Falls —in Herkimer County, on the Mo- hawk River, where it falls forty-two feet. Cheese trade; paper, floiuing, and cotton mills ; woolen factories ; knitring-mills. Lyons — in Wayne County, on the Erie Canal. Trade in tobacco, grain, and fruit; pepper- mint distilleries. Malone — in Franklin County, beautifully situ- ated in the foot-hills of the Adirondack Mountains. Tailoring and the manufac- ture of men's clothing. The sent of the State Deaf Mute Institution. Medina — in Orleans County. Extensive sand- stone quarries: excellent water-power and various thriving manufactories; fine fruit market. Middletown — in Orange County, at the junction of the Erie, the New York and Oswego Midland, and the New Jersey Midland Rail- roads, and in the center of a rich stock- raising and dairy district. There are numerous manufactories, and fine public buildings. Mount Vernon— in Westchester County, a suburb of New York City, and the resi- dence of many New York business men. New Brighton— in Richmond County, on the north-east shore of Staten Island. Hand- some residences ; beautiful situation, com- manding view of New Yurk Bay. New Rochelle — in Westchester Countj-, near Long Island Sound, a pleasant residential village. Niagara Falls — in Niagara County. An im- portant railroad center and a growing manufacturing village; a lesort of visitors to the cataract of Niagara. Norwich — in Chenango County, on the Che- nango Ri\"er. A railroad center; various manufactures; large local trade. Ogdensburg — a port of entry on the Sl Law- rence River, has extensive lake and Cana- dian commerce in grain, flour, and lumber. Its abundant water-power supplies numer- ous flouring-mills and saw-mills. Glean — in Cattaraugus Coimty, on the Alleghany River. An important railroad center. Oneida — in Madison County. Situated in the midst of a hop-producing country. Rail- road center; important shipping point; manufactures coffins; various other manu- factures. Oneonta — in Otsego County, on the Susque- hanna River. Railroad machine shops; various manufactories ; one of the state normal schools located here. Peekskill — in Westchester County, on the east bank of the ftudson River. Beautiful situ- ation; river trade; iron foundries; stove foundries. Plattsburg — in Clinton County, a port of entry on Lake Champlain. Lumber and iron busi- ness; various manu^ctures; state normal school. Port Chester — in Westchester Couniy, on the New York and New Haven Railroad. Residential town. Port Jervis — in Orange County, on the Dela- ware River, at the mouth of the Xeviank, and at the intersection of the boundaries of New Jersey, Xew York, and Pennsyh-ania. Beautiful mountain scenery; railroad shops ; numerous manufactories; a place of sum- mer resorL Port Richmond — in Richmond Count>-, is a pleasant village on high ground, forming a delightful and healthful place of residence for the business men of New York Citj-. Saratoga Springs — in Saratoga County, at the junction of three railroads. Mineral Springs; a very fashionable summer re- sort; many large hotels, boarding-houses, and sanitariums ; bottling and e.vportadon of mineral water. Seneca Falls — in Seneca County, on the out- let of Seneca Lake. Abundant water- power ; various manufactures. Business center of a large and intelligent section. Sing Sing — in Westchester County, on the east bank of the Hudson River — Tappan Bay. Beautiful situation ; \-arious manu- factiues; several fine military schools; seat of a state prison. Tonaw^anda — in Erie County, on the Niagara River and Erie Canal. An important rail- road center ; large lumber interests. Watertow^n — in Jefferson County, is on both banks of the Black River. It has abun- dant water-power; excellent railroad facili- ties ; and manufactories of paper, steam- engines, and railroad supplies, farming implements, wagons and carriages, and all kinds of metal-work. West Troy— in Albany Count>-, on the west bank of the Hudson River, opposite Troy. Large lumber trade ; Mat of Waten liet National Arsenal ; various manufactories.