l9oq CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY FINE ARTS LIBRARY Cornell University Library NA2700.E241905 Architectural drawing, C. Franiilin Edmins 3 1924 015 330 131 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924015330131 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING BY C. FRANKLIN <£DMINSTER Instructor in Department of Fine Arts, PRATT INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, NEW YORK. SEVENTH EDITION ENLARGED. PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR. s Copyright, 1899, by C. FRANKLIN EDMINSTEE. Copyright, 1903, by O. FRANKLIN EDMINSTER. Copyright, 1905, by C. FRANKLIN EDMINSTER. PREFACE. This book is planned to meet the demand for a treat- ise on elementary architectural drawing. The mate- rial of which it is composed is in line with the evening work carried on at Pratt Institute. The order in which the subjects are here arranged need not be followed by the student. He should, if a beginner, commence with elementary work, such as problems in projection or in geometry. As a rule it would be unwise to spend the time requisite to perform all the geometric problems ; but some of the more important ones will be found very helpful, especially in the matter of accuracy. From the work given, several courses can be mapped out to meet the varying demands. The plates in the various, subjects are arranged con- secutively; that is, each new sheet presents a problem a little more difficult than that of the one preceding. For instance, in the study of the frame house the plan is first drawn, and with this as a basis, a complete study of all its details and framing is given, and in many instances more than one form of detail which might be used in the same position. C. Franklin Edminster. CHAPTER I. II. III. IV. Notes on Materials Geometrical Problems Simple Projection, Introducing the Principles of Working Drawings - Intersection of Solids and Develop- ment of Surfaces CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER PAGE 7 V. Projection of Shadows - 67 12 VI. Instrumental Perspective - - 96 VII. Orders of Architecture - 120 22 VIII. Study of a Frame House - - 162 IX. Studies in Masonry Construction - 212 46 X. Stair Construction - - 226 ABCDEFGHUKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ A ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV\A/XYZ a bcdefg hij klmnopqrstuv\A/x y z CDEFGHIJKL NOPQRSTUV 12 3456 7 890 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. CHAPTER I. NOTES ON MATERIALS. The student beginning the sttidy of architectural drawing should provide himself with the necessary instruments of a good quality. He should not be hampered by using inferior materials, as many diffi- culties will arise under even the best conditions. Drawing Boards. — One of the best methods of making a drawing board is to glue together narrow strips of boards, fastening two cleats (about two inches wide) across the back in such a way that there will be perfect freedom for the wood to ex- pand and contract, which it surely will do as the humidity of the atmosphere changes. This freedom may be obtained by cutting slots in the cleats through which the screws pass and placing iron washers under the beads of the screws, A much cheaper board can be constructed by securing narrow pieces across each end, which serve to hold the board from warping. This form of board will answer very well, especially if the paper used is not stretched. It is extremely important that one end and one side of the board should be perfectly straight. Drawing Paper. — Drawing paper that is to be used for general draughting and line work in pencil or ink should have a firm, smooth surface that is not easily roughened when erasures are made. As a rule, paper that is well adapted to line work will not receive a flat wash readily. Paper suitable for wash drawings is made with a surface less firm but rougher than for line work. Whatman's cold pressed paper possesses unusual properties, in that it works ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. well for both line and wash drawings. For general detail work, some of the tinted papers are more pleasant to work upon than white, as the v/hite is rather trying to the eyes, especially when used in the evening. For highly finished drawings, how- ever, white paper is generally preferred. The right side of the paper can usually be determined by hold- ing it to the light and finding the water-mark, which should read correctly on the side used. Drawing paper may be obtained in sheets of standard sizes as follows: Cap, 13" x 17"; Demy, i5"x2o"; Medium, 17" X 22"; Royal, 19" x 24"; Super Royal, 19" x 27"; Imperial, 22" X 30"; Elephant, 23" x 28"; Atlas, 26" x 34"; Double Elephant, 27" x 40"; Antiquarian, 31" x 53" ; Emperor, 48" x 68". The above terms apply only to the sizes of the sheets, and not in any way to grade or quality of the paper. T-Sq«are. — The T-square is made of two parts, the head and blade, which are fastened together at right angles to each other. This instrument should be used for drawing horizontal lines only, always holding the head against the left-hand edge of the board. Should the draughtsman allow himself to use either left or right side of the board at will, the results obtained would be very inaccurate, owing to the fact that two ends or sides of the board are seldom, if ever, parallel. Again, many times the T-square blade does not form right angles with the head. One may readily see that horizontal lines drawn under such conditions would not be parallel. Triangles. — The draughtsman should provide him- self with two triangles; the 45°, and the 30° and 60°. The triangles are used for drawing all lines that are not horizontal. Vertical lines should always be drawn by placing the triangle on the upper edge of the , T-square blade, holding the pencil or pen in a plane perpendicular to the surface of the paper, inclining it slightly, and drawing upward, but never down- ward. In drawing horizontal lines, the pencil or pen should be held in a plane perpendicular to the paper, inclining it slightly to the right. Draw from left to right. Angles of 45°, 30°, 60° and 90°, with a hori- zontal line, can be drawn at once by placing the tri- angle on the T-square blade. Instruments. — Instruments should be selected with "he greatest care. It is much better to have a few pieces of excellent quality than a great number of inferior make. Choose quality rather than quantity. Instruments should be well cared for, properly wiped each time after using, and the points prevented from ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. contact with hard substances which will tend to injure them. Compasses. — When drawing with the compasses the head should be held lightly between the thumb and two fingers, moving the leg containing the lead in the direction traversed by the hands of a clock, inclining it slightly in the direction of the line to be drawn. The joints in the legs should be so adjusted as to keep the lower sections perpendicular to the surface of the paper, and when a circle is of such a size as will not admit of this the lengthening bar should be inserted. R«Iing Pen. — The ruling pen is a very important instrument and should be made of the very best hard- ened steel; if not, it will give the student endless trouble. Most of the prepared inks in general use are provided with a quill in the cork of the bottle which lifts a certain amount of ink. The quill may be inserted between the nibs of the pen and the ink allowed to flow into the pen. The ink should not be more than one-fourth of an inch deep between the nibs. Clean the pen frequently by immersing it first in clear water and then passing a pieceof cloth or chamois skin between the nibs. The pen should never be put away after using without being thoroughly cleansed. Pencil.^The character of the work performed by a student is greatly influenced by the condition in which he keeps his pencil. It is impossible to do accurate work with a dull point. For all rule work the wedge-shaped point possesses an advantage over the round point, in that it has a greater wearing sur- face, hence will not require sharpening so often. For all freehand work nothing but the round or conical point should be used. Some draughtsmen prefer this poipt for rule work as well. The wood should be cut well back, leaving at least one-fourth of an inch of the lead exposed. One of the best sharpeners for a pencil is a fine flat file, on which the lead should be frequently applied, to produce a sharp point. Where great accuracy is required, the beginner should use a 4 H or 6 H pencil. As skill in draughting is ac- quired, a softer grade may be substituted. A medium grade pencil should be used for lining-in the drawings where strength of line is required. The Scale. — A scale is an instrument used in re- ducing a drawing that would otherwise be too large for the sheet of paper on which it is to be placed. For instance, if we have a house measuring 40 x 60 ft. , the drawing may be made on a scale of J of an inch to I ft, The space occupied upon the plate would be ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. lo X 15 in., exactly in proportion to the actual size. In using this scale, or proportion, we have taken an actual i of an inch and considered it i ft. ; and this being taken as i ft. we divide it into 1 2 parts, each part being equal to i in. There will be found several different scales upon the instrument, all of which are divided in a similar manner. Irregular Curve. — This instrument is used in drawing curves that cannot be accomplished by the use of the compass. Such curved lines usually pass through a succession of points which have already been found. The edge of the irregular curve should be so placed (by repeated trials) as to pass through as many points as possible and also a portion of the line already drawn. Never draw through the last point covered by the irregular curve. This operation requires a great deal of care in order to produce a perfectly smooth curve. Penciling. — Too much stress cannot be placed upon the first penciling of a drawing. All drawings, whether to be inked-in or left in a strong pencil line, should first be worked out with a light line and very accurately placed. Many students have the feeling that they can correct the little errors while lining-in the drawing; this is not so, the chances being that they will greatly increase rather than ditninish the faults. Infcing.^For highly finished drawings the stick India ink is generally preferred, but for ordinary work the prepared will be found satisfactory. The great advantage that stick ink possesses over the prepared is, that in case of error the line can readily be removed with the ordinary eraser. The disadvantage in using the stick ink is that considerable time each day is required to grind a fresh supply. In inking a drawing the student should ink all circles and arcs of circles first, then, beginning with the upper horizontal line, ink in order those below. With the vertical lines, be- gin on the left side of the plate and ink each line in succession. When several lines meet at a point al- ways begin to ink from that point, allowing each suc- cessive line to dry before drawing another, thus pre- venting a blot that would otherwise occur at their junction. Visible Lines. — The visible lines of an object are represented by a full black line. Invisible Lines. — Invisible lines or lines that are hidden are represented by a dash line, the dashes be- ing about one-quarter of an inch long, the spaces be- tween them being less than one-eighth of an inch. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. This line should be of the same strength as a visible line. Working Lines. — Working lines are -used to ob- tain certain i esults, and if left in pencil should be very- light, or if shown in iilk, should be very light red or short dash black lines. Arrow Heads. — Arrow heads should always be in black and made with great care, their points just touching the line to be measured. Dimensioning. — In placing the dimensions it is al- ways well to group as far as possible and not scatter them over the entire .drawing. As a rule the same measurement should not appear in more than one view. The measurement line upon which the di- mension is placed should not be drawn too near the Ime measured, usually about one-quarter of an inch away. It is customary to place all dimensions under two feet as inches, thus: 21" (twenty-one inches), and for measurements over two feet as feet and inches, thus : 5'-6" (five feet and six inches), or if in even feet, thus: s'-o" (three feet and- no inches). When the space be- tween two lines is not sufficient to place the measure- ments in the usual manner they may be placed thus : ^ Horizontal measurements should read (a „ from left to right, and vertical meas- urements should read' ujoward. Great care should be taken in making figures, as the worth and appearance of the drawing depend greatly upon them. CHAPTER 11. GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. Pfob. J. — To bisect a given straight line A B. From points A and B as centers and with any radius greater than half of the line A B, describe arcs above and below, intersecting in points i and 2. Draw a straight line through points i and 2, cutting the line A B at 3, thus bisecting the given line A B. Prob. 2. — To bisect an arc of a circle A B. From a point A as center and with any radius greater than half of curve A B, draw arcs above and belov.r. With B as center and the same radius, cut the arcs already drawn in points 1 and 2. Draw a straight line through points i and 2, intersecting the curve A B in 3, which will bisect the given arc A B. Prob. 3.— To bisect a given angle ABC. With B as center and any radius, draw an arc cut- ting the lines B A and B C in points i and 2. With points I and 2 as centers and any radius greater than half of arc 1-2, describe arcs intersecting in point 3. Draw a line through points B and 3 which will bisect the given angle ABC. Prob. 4. — To trisect a given right angle ABC. With B as center and any radius, draw an arc cut- ting the sides of the right angle in points i and 2. With points i and 2 as centers and the same radius, draw arcs cutting in 3 and 4. Draw lines B 4 and B 3 which trisect the given right angle ABC. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. 13 Prob, 5. — To divide a given straight line A B into 6 equal parts (applicable for any number). Draw the line A C at any angle to A B ; lay off on this line 6 divisions, each equal to about -^ of A B. Connect points 6 and B by a straight line. From points I, 2, 3, 4 and 5, draw lines parallel with 6 B cutting A B in a, b, c, d and e. Prob. 6. — To divide line A B into the same proportional parts as the given line C D. From point A draw a line at any angle to A B. Lay off on this line the points corresponding to points on line C D. Connect points 4 and B. From points i, 2 and 3, draw lines parallel with 4 B, cutting the line A B in a, b and c. Prob. 7. — To divide a circle having the center given, into 6 equal parts. Draw the diameter 1-5. With points i and 5 as centers and radius 1-2 describe arcs cutting the circle in points 3, 4, 6 and 7, which, with points i and 5, are the desired divisions. Prob. 8. — From point A above the given line B C, draw a perpendicular to B C. With point A as center and any radius, cut B C in I and 2. With i and 2 as centers and any radius, draw arcs below. From A draw a straight line to point 3, which is the desired perpendicular. Prob. 9. — On a given line A B to erect a perpendicular at point A. With point A as center and any radius, draw an arc cutting A B in I. With i as center and the same radius, lay off points 2 and 3. With points 2 and 3 as centers and any radius, describe arcs above, cutting in 4. Connect points 4 and A, thus erecting the desired perpendicular. Prob. 10. — To draw a line C D parallel to a given line A B at a given distance, as E F above it. Erect perpendiculars at points i and 2 by Prob. 9, lay off on these the distance E F, giving points 3 and 4, Draw line C D through 3 and 4. H ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Prob. J I. —Through point C draw the line D E parallel to A B. With point C as center and any radius, describe an arc cutting A B in i. With i as center and same radius, describe an arc which will cut line A B in 2. With I as center and radius C 2, describe an arc cutting 1-3 in 3. Draw a straight line through points 3 and C, which will be the required line D E. Prob. J2. — To construct an angle equal to a given angle BAG. Draw the line D F. With A as center and any ra- dius, describe an arc cutting the sides of the angle in points I and 2. With D as center and the same radius, describe an arc cutting D F in 3. With ra- dius 1-2, and 3 as center, describe an arc cutting 3-4 in 4. Draw D E through D 4. E D F is the angle required. Prob. 13.— Through point F draw a straight line which would meet the intersection of A B and C D if continued. Draw F i and F 2 at anj' angle. Connect 1-2. From point 3 anywhere on A B make 3-4 parallel with 1-2, 3 E parallel with i F, and 4 E parallel with 2 F. Pass a straight line through points F and E, which will be the desired line. Prob. 14.— Find the mean proportion between the two lines A B and C D. Lay off on E F, 1-2 equal to A B and 2-3 equal to C D. Bisect i -3 in 4. With 4 as center and radius 4- 1 , describe a semicircle. From 2 erect a perpendicular (Prob. 9) to E F, cutting semicircle in 5. 2-5 will be the desired mean. Prob. 15.— On the given line A B to construct a square. Draw B i perpendicular to A B (Prob. 9) and equal to A B. With points A and i as centers and A B as radius, describe arcs cutting in 2. Draw A- 2 and 2-1. Prob. (6. — On a given line A B to construct an equilateral triangle. With A and B as centers, and A B as radius, de- scribe arcs cutting in i. Draw A i and B i. Prob. 17. — Having given the three sides of a trianglet as A B, C D and E F, to construct the figure. With point B as center and the radius C D, describe an arc. With point A as center and E F as radius, describe an arc cutting the first in 1. Draw A i and B I. Plate I. PROB.I. PROB.&. I PROB, 4 PROB(T} A^ zyf PROB. ^^ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ . X \ \ ^ \ \ A-^ ' ^ i ^ ' ^B a b c d e PROB. a. -^C PROB(^ PROB. e. et'" % i6 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Prob. t8.— On a given base A B to construct a regular hexagon. With A and B as centers and A B as radius, describe arcs cutting in i. With i as center and the same radius, describe a circle. A B is equal to -|- of its cir- cumference. Step off points 2, 3, 4 and 5, and draw B-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 and 5-A. Prob. 19. — Within a given square A B C D to inscribe an octagon. Draw the diagonals A C and B D, intersecting in i. With A, B, C and D as centers and radius A i, describe arcs 2-3, 4-5, 6-7 and 8-9: draw 3-6, 5-8, 7-2 and 9-4. Prob. 20. — On a given line A B to construct a pentagon. With A and B as centers and radius A B, describe arcs cutting in i and 2. Connect i and 2. With i as center and the same radius, describe an arc cutting at 3, 4 and 5. Pass a line through 3-4 to 6, and one through 5-4 to 7. With 7 and 6 as centers and radius A B, describe arcs intersecting in 8. Draw A 7, 7-8, 8-6 and 6 B. Prob. 2J.— On a given base A B to construct an octagon. Erect perpendiculars at A and B. Bisect the ex- terior angles and set off A i and B 2 equal to A B. Connect 1-2, cutting the perpendiculars in 3 and 4. Make 3-5 and 4-6 equal to 3-4- Extend line rnrough 5-6 indefinitely. Make 5-7, 6-8, 5-9 and 6-10 equal to 3 A. Draw A i, 1-7, 7-9, 9-1°. ^°-^' ^"^ and 2 B. Prob. 22.— Within a given equilateral triangle A B C to inscribe a circle. Bisect the angles of the triangle by Prob. 3. The bisectors will intersect in i. The perpendicular dis- tance from I to any side of the triangle will be the radius of the desired circle. Note, this problem is true in any form of triangle. Prob. 23. — Within a square A B C D to inscribe four semicircles, each touching one side of the square and their diameters forming a square. Draw diagonals A C and D B, intersecting in i. Draw diameters passing through i. Draw 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 and 5-2. Draw 6-7, 7-8, 8-9 and 9-6, which give us points II, 12, 13 and 14, the centers of the required semicircles. Prob. 24.— Within a given equilateral triangle A B C to inscribe three equal circles, each touching two sides of the triangle and two other circles. Bisect the angles of the triangle, letting the bi- sectors cut the sides of the triangle in i, 2 and 3. Plate 2. PBOB/ 10. j -t'"|""T''s I I I I xc I I I Oi ^ ' l2 PROS. II. Azl FROB. \Z. PROB. 14. PROB PROB,' 16. ■©. 1-^=- B i8 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. With centers i, 2 and 3 and radius 1-2, describe arcs cutting bisectors in 4, 5 and 6, the centers of the re- quired circles. A perpendicular (Prob. 8) from the center of any circle to the side of the triangle will determine the radius of the circle, and also the point of tangency. Prob. 25. — Within a given ciicle to inscribe three semicircles, each touching the circumscribing circle, and their diameters forming a regular triangle. Draw two diameters, 1-2 and 3-4 at right angles to each other, intersecting in 5. Divide the circle into twice as many parts as there are semicircles to be inscribed, beginning at i. Draw diameters 6-7 and 8-9. Connect 2-3, cutting diameter 8-9 in 10, which locates one point of the required triangle. With 5 as center and radius 5-10, set off 11 and 12, which when connected form the triangle. Draw 10- 11, 11-12 and 12-10, giving points 13, 14 and 15, the centers of the required semicircles. Prob. 26. — Within a given square A B C D to inscribe four equal circles, each tangent to two others and two sides of a square. Draw the diagonals and the diameters intersecting in I and giving points 2, 3, 4 and 5. Connect points 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 and 5-2, intersecting diagonals in 6, 7, 8 and 9, which will be the centers of the required circles. Prob. 27.— Within a given circle to inscribe <.../ number of equal circles which shall be Ungent to two others and to the cir- cumscribing circle. In this problem, five. Divide the circumference of the circle into twice as many equal parts as there are to be circles inscribed. Produce the diameters on either side of 2-7 until they meet a perpendicular erected to 2-7 at 2. Bisect angles 12 and 13 and let bisectors cut diameter 2-7 in 14. With I as center and radius 1-14, draw a circle cutting diameters in 15, 16, 17 and 18, the centers of the required circles. Prob. 28.— To draw a line tangent to a given circle through a given point A. Pass a line through center i and point A indefinitely. With point A as center and any radius, cut this line in points 2 and 3. With 2 and 3 as centers and any radius, describe arcs cutting in 4 and 5. Connect 4 and 5, which will be the desired line. Prob. 29. — To draw a line tangent to a given point A in a circle when the center is not accessible. Draw any chord A i. Bisect the chord and arc (Probs. I and 2) in 2 and 3. With A as center and A 3 as a radius, draw an arc 4-5 ; with 3 as center and 3-5 as a radius, draw an arc cutting 4-5 in 4. Draw line through A 4 tangent to the circle. PROB./IIN D 7 V_u^ C ■\ /i r\ /' 2 s 9 fi A 4 3 B Plate 3. ¥nOB.(lz./) PR0B.U5.] PHOB / y y \ PROB. 23. .3 .C \f>n/ y / / / ( / / : \ ? / My. PROB.I26. PROB.( 21.) 9, ^-^ 7 1 1 8 / / / ; ■\—- 1 1 — 1- PHOB. U4.J .2 p"°l•^^:■ ,3 20 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Pfofa. 30,— Draw a circle tangent to a given point C in line A B and through the fixed point D without the line. At point C erect a perpendicular (Prob. 9). Con- nect C D and draw a perpendicular to its center (Prob. i) intersecting the fii. oerpendicular in i, which is the center of the required circle. Prob. 3J. — Draw a circle tangent to a given circle A, also to a given line B C at a given point D in the line. Pass a line through D perpendicular to B C. Lay off D I the length of the radius of circle A and draw A I. Draw perpendicular to A i (Prob. i) intersect- ing the line i D in 2, which is the center of the re- quired circle. 3 and D are the points of tangency. Prob. 32. — ^At a given point E in line D B draw two arcs of circles tangent at this point and to the two lines A B and C D. Make B i equal to B E. Make D 2 equal to D E. Draw E 3 perpendicular to D B, 1-4 perpendicular to A B and 2-3 perpendicular to C D. Points 3 and 4 are the centers of the required arcs. Pfob. 33. — ^Having given parallel lines A B and C D, to connect by two arcs of circles which shall be tangent at points B and C and pass through point E, which is anywhere on line B C. At B and C erect perpendiculars. Bisect B E and E C, intersecting the perpendiculars in i and 2, the centers of the required arcs. Prob. 34.— To draw an ellipse by means of a trammel, having the axes given. The semi-diameters of the ellipse are represented by A B and A C. Lay off on the straight edge of a piece of paper 1-2 equal to A B, also 3-2 equal to A C. Keeping point i on the short diameter and point 3 on the long, mark off as many points at 2 as desired to form the curve of the ellipse. Prob, 35, — ^To draw a line tangent to an ellipse at any given point, as E, in the curve. With point C as center and A i as radius, describe an arc cutting diameter A B in F and F', which points are called foci. Extend a line .from F' through E indefinitely. Make E 2 equal to E F. Bisect the angle F E 2, giving the desired tangent. Prob, 36. — To draw a line tangent to an ellipse, passing through a given point E without it. Find the foci as in Prob. 35. With point E as center and radius E F, describe an arc. With F' as center and A Bas radius, describe an arc cutting the first arc in points 1 and 2. Connect F' i and F' 2, cut- ting the ellipse in points 3 and 4. Draw lines from E through 3 and 4, which will be tangent at 3 and 4 Plate 4. PR0B.i29. PROB. 3S. A-^ PR0b(33A PROB. 36. CHAPTER III. SIMPLE PROJECTION, INTRODUCING THE PRINCIPLES OF WORKING DRAWINGS. The working drawings of any object are such draw- ings, accompanied by the proper measurements, as will tell all the facts concerning that object. Such drawings if sent to a mechanic would be sufficient to enable him to perform the desired piece of work without further explanation. The number of views required depends entirely upon the character of the subject to be drawn; for instance, in Plate 5, Fig. i, two views are sufficient to tell all that concerns the cube, whereas for a more complicated object three or even more views may be necessary to tell all the facts. Plate 5. — To draw the front and top views of the cube in three positions. Fig. I represents the cube so placed in the top view that two edges are parallel to an imaginary hori- zontal line. In drawing the front view we suppose the cube to be resting upon a horizontal plane upon one of its faces, and so placed as to appear as a square if seen directly in front. In the top view we are sup- posed to be looking down upon the cube, its position being unchanged. As noted before, the cube will be seen as a square in both the front and top views, and these should appear directly above one another. The space between the two views is immaterial, but should be such as to appear well on the sheet. The horizontal line should be drawn with a T-square, having its head against the left-hand edge of the board, whereas, the vertical lines should be drawn with a triangle resting on the edge of the T-square blade. Only three measurements are necessary. They should be carefully placed as indicated in the drawings, the arrow heads just touching the extension lines from those that they measure, not overrunnino- or falling short. Plate 5. riG. I. TOP VIEW 2"- W^^ u ^^r.:r.3=r::r=r:. i d 2-0 ^<^\^V\\^V^\V^V^\V^^\^\^\^^^^ SECTION Plate 13F. I — I .J—\ It- Ll IJ _i!| Ip '-4I II l!l I K n 4 !i! I F • 1 ! WORKING DRAWING or TABLE TOP VIEW l«-4"-»t2i'K- 2-4- -1-3" -^ 2^"l<-4."->( K-4- 2k" 4-0 „ 2-11 H =11 °| T i//y//>/^//^/^y//y/yy/////////^/hy^///yM \) T*' '1 -I 5 1 I ^ C * ^ ^ in v' -4'->l ? w FRONT VIEW - (O .1-1 (\I w u. __ "I"* SECTION CHAPTER IV. INTERSECTION OF SOLIDS AND DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES. The surface of an object is developed by laying out its several faces accurately upon a plane. If this drawing be cut out and folded where its several faces intersect, it will produce an object of the same shape and equal in size to the original. Any object based upon the cube, cylinder, or cone may be developed, but those based upon the sphere are non-developable. Plate J4. — Draw the front and top views of the cube. Its pattern is found by unfolding or laying out its several faces. As the cube has six faces, we have simply to lay out six squares in some convenient form. Usually it is desirable to tint the pattern with some light wash of color. It gives the student practice in laying on flat washes and the effect of the plate is much improved. Plate 14. TOP VIEW CUBE • PATTERN FRONT VIEW 48 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate J5. — The pattern of the cylinder is obtained by dividing the circumference into a certain number of equal parts, generally 12 or 24. The greater the number the more accurate will be the result, which is not absolutely correct, though near enough for all practical purposes, for we are measuring the chord each time instead of the arc. Having divided the circumference, say into 24 elements, take -^^ and step off 24 divisions on a horizontal line. The entire space upon this line will be equal to the circumference of the cylinder; and upon this line complete the rect- angular figure, which will be equal in height to the length of the cylinder. The circles represented in the pattern are equal to the bases of the cylinder. Plate 15. CYLINDER \ s 1 : 1 ! rop VIEW j [ 1 0" 1 / 1 '[ 1 \ ! \ i 1 i -U - 1 PATTERN I _ FRONT VIEW 5<5 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 16. — The base of the cone is divided into a certain number of elements as was that of the cylinder. But instead of being rolled out upon a horizontal line, its elements will form an arc of a circle, the radius of which will be equal to the slant height of the cone. Locate a circle equal to the base of the cone at any point tangent to the great arc. Plate 1 6, FRONT VIEW CONE PATTERN 52 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate J7. — The pattern of a square pyramid is made up of four triangles, equal in size to the faces of the pyramid, and a square equal to its base. The arc cut- ting the boundary lines of these triangles has for its radius the true length of one of the edges of the pyra- mid. This is found by revolving the line A B until it becomes parallel to the plane upon which the front view is supposed to be made. In the top view A' C represents the revolved position of A' B', and if pro- jected down to the front view will give us A C, which is the true length of A B. Notice that only such lines as are parallel to the plane upon which the view is made can be measured their actual length. Plate 17, SQUARE PYRAMID B c TRONT VIEW PATTERN S4 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 18. — Right elbow joint. In this plate we have the intersection of two cylinders, each being cut oE Sit an angle of 45°, forming a miter joint. Each section should be developed separately. First develop or roll out the lower member as in the previous sheet, then measure the length of the elements in their proper sequence; and through the points obtained, pass a smooth line by the use of the French or irregular curve. The upper member is developed in a manner similar to the lower. Plate 1 8. RIGHT ELBOW I TRONT VIEW PATTERN s<^ ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate J9. — To find the intersection of the two pipes in the front view, divide angle ABC into six equal parts. Three of these divisions will form lines of inter- section, two of which are seen as ellipses in the top view and may be found by projecting the several points in the front view caused by the intersection of the elements, to the corresponding elements in the top view. Members H and I are developed as in the fore- going sheet. Sections J and K should be laid out on center lines D' E' and F' G', which lines correspond to D E and F G ; the elements being measured above and below the lines to correspond with each section. Plate IC )• • FOUR PART ELBOW -^ /' / "v \ / \ / / \v \ / f 1 \\\ \ - -]--h— j) V ^ ' k^, \ _ Ii\ / 'A) 1 K ll , 1^ S >' / V / 1 F — - I!!; " ^ - = ^ - — G •>. J ii^ >1 i\ / ! j j i [ 1 i 1 1 1 1 w 1 t I i I I , 1 Hi it|op 1 < I 1 1 1 t ■ 1 IIM ! 1 1 ii i j ' II i ) 1 i'l ! 1' 1 I'l 1? 1 f — r-~-,~- ^ — \J'^Jr •^\ii i "^ 1 I ^^j^^y\J^\ y' •-ll ] ^. - 1 ^Cj<^':y\' \\ 1 U- "^ ' * — 1 \ /// / /\y\^ ^h^^--^' r"~r>^ 1 o/y/ / /xLi^ ^\\ ^—r—r^ 1 — 1 d' r' I ////tC/ /v- = - - ^ .'//// / >^\/ A J >H'\ ^\ " 1 M, ^ ~ 1 » s^ HJSH y*^\ < 1" ► B r- r r~4~X 1 T— - . ——r — 1 X i5" . {_ '4 * FRONT VIEW PATTERN S8 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 20. — The intersection of the horizontal pipe with the vertical is found by dividing the horizontal cylinder into 20 elements. Where the corresponding elements in the top view pierce the vertical cylinder, points are obtained which, projected down to the front view, will determine points through which to pass the curve causfed by the intersection. The intersection of the oblique cylinder with the vertical is carried out in a similar manner. The three cylindrical pipes should be developed first as right cylinders, after which their elements measured, giving points through which to pass curves, as in the preceding plate. The opening for the horizontal pipe iji the pattern of the vertical pipe may be found by laying off the elements i', 2', 3', 4' and s', which correspond to i, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in the top view. On these elements lay off their correspond- ing lengths as found in the front view. The opening in the center of the pattern is found in a similar manner. INTERSECTION OF THREE PIPES FRONT VIEW Plate 20. PATTERNS 6o ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 2 1, — In this problem we have a hexagonal pyr- amid piercing a square prism ; the hexagonal pyramid is drawn so it shows three faces in the front view, and the square prism is turned to present two equal faces. The intersection of the hexagonal pyramid and the square prism in the front view may be determined by projecting points from the corresponding intersection in the top view. In finding the patterns, lay out both the square prism and hexagonal pyramid as though they had not been cut, then measure the various lines as in the preceding problems. Plate 2 1 TRONT VIEW PATTERNS 62 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 22. — To find the intersection of a square pyramid and a cylinder, the square pyramid being turned to show two equal faces in the front and top views, and the axes of the two solids intersecting. Three points, as may be seen, are determined at once ; but points 2', 3', 4' and 5', and other correspond- ing points are found by dividing the faces of the pyra- mid into a certain number of elements. Where these elements pierce the solid in the top view in 2, 3, 4 and 5, project down to corresponding elements in the'front view, and so obtain 2', 3', 4' and 5'. The pattern of the cylinder is found as in the previous problems. Points 2' ",3' ",4' " and 5' " in the pattern of the square pyramid are found as shown in point 5' ", in which-the distance from 9' to 8' and 9' to 8" is equal to 9-8. Connect 8' and 8", cutting the corresponding elements, which gives 5' ". Plate 22. FRONT VIEW PATTERNS 64 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 23. — This problem presents the intersection, of a cone and a hexagonal prism. The principles differ little from those of the preceding plates. The student should not forget that the elements upon the cone should be measured on the outline, as has been ex- plained. Plate 23. ■TOP view FRONT VltW- PATTERNS CHAPTER V. PROJECTION OF SHADOWS. The principal object of workingf out the shades and shadows upon a drawing is to reveal form which would otherwise appear flat. By the cast shadows upon the fa9ade of a building one may readily determine the shapes of its various details, making the drawing far more comprehensive. We consider the rays of light falling upon an object as direct, indirect, diffused, or artificial. Direct rays are those that fall directly on the object. Indirect rays are reflected back from some other object. Dif- fused light is that reflected from ipnumerable surfaces. Artificial light is sometimes used in interior perspec- tive, but never in projection of shadows. The high light of an object is that portion which receives the rays direct. Shade on an object is due to the interception of the sun's rays by its own form. It varies in intensity, being darker at the dividing lines of light and shade, since the side directly op- posite the light receives more reflected light. Shadow on any surface is due to the absolute cutting off of direct rays by some object. The shape of the shadow will be determined by the character of the receiving surface, and the form of the object casting the shadow. Shadows are never black, but should be darker than the shade; the reason being that the shadow does not receive as much reflected light as the shade. Shadows are always cast upon surfaces that would otherwise be in the direct light, never upon a surface that is in the shade, or one that is already in shadow. 68 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. When two surfacts pin, one being lighter than the other, the contrast at the point of intersection is ex- aggerated ; tliat is, the light appears by contrast lighter than it really is, while the dark appears darker. In drawing the roof of a building against the sky the up- per portion of the roof is made darker by its contrast with the bright sky. Windows and doors are usually drawn darker in the upper portion, as the lower is supposed to receive more reflected light. If there is a door within a door the treatment is reversed; that is, the upper part is made lighter than the lower, giving contrast and transparency. Plate 24.— In working out the shades and shadows of an object, we consider the rays of light as coming downward parallel to a line drawn through the di- agonal of a cube. Fig. i shows the cube and the di- agonal drawn in three positions. The diagonal ap- pears to make an angle of 45° with the horizontal plane in the front view, and an angle of 45° with the vertical plane in both the top and side views. The student will observe that the rays of light do not appear at their true angle. That may be found, as illustrated in Fig. z, by drawing the cube in a position which will place the diagonal parallel to the vertical plane. Another method of finding the true angle of the sun's rays with the horizontal plane is given in Fig. 3, in which we have the front and top views of a line representing a ray of light. Revolve line A' B' until it is parallel to the vertical plane. Point A will appear in the front view to move in a horizontal line and will be found directly under point A". Con- necting A' " with B gives the true angle of the sun's rays with the horizontal plane. In Fig. 4 we have the front and top views of a vertical line casting a vertical line of shadow upon a vertical plane. If a line is parallel to the plane re- ceiving the shadow, the shadow will be parallel to the line casting it and have the same length. To obtain the position of the shadow, draw a line at 45° from point A', intersecting the vertical plane in C. Let fall a vertical line from C until intersected by line at 45° from A and B, giving line U E, which is the shadow cast by line A B. Fig. 5. — This problem is similar to that in Fig. 4. It is given to show that a side view may be used instead of the top view, as in many cases will De found more convenient. The student will see that the results are precisely the same. Plate 24. riG. 3. riG. 2. no. 4. ''''/\. / '|0 riG. 1. / / K X \ -^^ . / / / / / \ / / /\ \ a/ / \ y / / 1 \\ Tpp vie:* 1 / ^~Y _ 7 \ / -> 1— '\ / a"s-— M H ^' / \ / 1 >Cj^\ '^ D / / / f ^\ \ ! ./\ / B. ^\. / '' TOP VltW r FRONT VIEW FIG. 5 , , \ N V A A \ \ \ \ \ \ \ N^ ,p c \ \ \ \ \ \ E V \, \ \ \ '\ \ \ \ -.... \. c \ S E TRONT View SIDC VILW FRONT VIELW FRONT View SIDE. VIEW i 70 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 25. — In Fig. i we have the front and side views of a square plane casting a shadow upon a ver- tical surface to which it is parallel. A line parallel to the surface receiving the sh adow will always cast a line of shadow parallel to itself, therefore the outlines of this shadow must be parallel to the outlines of the plane which casts it. The various ponts in the side view of the square plane may be projected at 45° to the ver- tical plane and then carried over to obtain correspond- ing points on lines projected downward at 45° in the front view. Fig. 2. — To cast a shadow of a vertical plane that is perpendicular to the vertical plane upon which the shadow is to be cast. As the two vertical lines are parallel with the vertical plane which receives the shadow, they must produce vertical lines of shadow. A horizontal line that is perpendicular to the vertical plane will always cast a line of shadow at 45°, no mat- ter what the character of the surface may be, nor where the shadow falls ; therefore, the two horizontal lines which are perpendicular to the vertical plane will cast shadows at an angle of 45". The shadow may be completed as in the last problem. Fig. 3. — To draw the shadow of a horizontal plane that is perpendicular to the vertical plane upon which the shadow is to be cast. Two of the horizontal lines are parallel with the vertical plane upon which the shadow is to be cast, therefore they will cast horizontal lines of shadow. Two of the horizontal lines are per- pendicular to the vertical plane upon which the shadow is to be cast, and their lines of shadow will be at 45 °- Fig. 4. — To find the shadow cast by a cube upon the vertical plane. This problem is a union of the last three figures ; that is, if all the points were found the shadow would be divided into three sections : sec- tion A, corresponding to the shadow in Fig. i, section B to that in Fig. 2, section C to that in Fig. 3. No new principle is introduced; the problem is simply made a little more difficult by uniting the several sur- faces and forming a cube. Plate 25. ric. I. PROJEICTION or SHADOWS ._ A FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW riG. 2. \ FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW riG. 3. SIDE VIEW ^^ ■^ \ s \ \ \ \^ N \ \ FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW 72 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 26. Fig. i. — To cast the shadow of an octagonal plane that is parallel to the vertical plane upon which the shadow is to be cast. As all of the lines of this figure are parallel to the vertical plane, their lines of shadow will be parallel to themselves as worked out in the drawings. Fig. 2. — To cast the shadow of a vertical octagonal plane that is perpendicular to the vertical plane upon which the shadow is to be cast. This is best done by finding the separate points and connecting them as shown in the drawing. Fig. 3. — To cast the shadow of a horizontal oc- tagonal plane upon a vertical plane. This problem is worked in the same manner as that of Fig. 2. Fig. 4. — To cast a shadow of a circular plane that is perpendicular to the vertical plane upon which the shadow is to be cast. Circumscribe the circle by an octagon and find the shadow of the octagon as in Fig. 3. Having found its outline, draw an ellipse which shall be tangent to the various lines of the octagon at their centers. Plate 26. FIG. I. PROJECTION or SHADOWS FIG. 3. \\\>x-\\\-x riG. 2. FIG. 4. xX 74 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 27. Fig. i. — To cast the shadow of a vertical cylinder on a horizontal plane. The top surface of the cylinder is parallel to the horizontal plane, therefore its shadow will be parallel to itself and take the form of a circle. Find the shadow of the center of this circular surface, and on this center draw a circle equal to the diameter of the cylinder. Draw lines at angles of 45° tangent to the top view, which will meet and be tan- gent to the circle already found. Project points i and 2 downward upon the front view, which will deter- mine the dividing lines of light, and shade. Fig. 2. — To cast the shadow of a vertical cone upon a horizontal plane. Find the shadow of the apex, and from this point draw lines tangent to the base of the cone. Lines drawn from the points of tangency to the apex in both the top and front views will be the dividing lines of light and shade. Plate 27. PROJEICTION or SHADOWS FIG. I. FIG. 2. FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW 76 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 28. Fig. i. — We have given two vertical cones, casting a shadow upon ahorizontal plane. These cones are joined at their apexes and their elements make angles of 45° with their bases. First find the shadow of the base of the inverted cone and then the shadow of the point of intersection of their apexes, which will be point i. From. point i draw lines tan- gent to the base of the cone and to the circular shadow already obtained.' It will be seen that just one-quarter of the inverted cone is in the light and three-quarters are in the shade, while in the upright cone it is the re- verse, .three-quarters in light and one-quarter in shade. Fig. 2. — This problem differs from the preceding one in that the elements of the cones make angles of 35° 16' (true angles of ray of light) with their bases, instead of 45° ; but the working of the problem is pre- cisely the same. It should be noticed that the ele- ments of the inverted cone are wholly in the shade, while those of the lower cone are in the light ; this is due to the fact that the elements A-B and B-C are parallel with the rays of light. Plate 28. PROJECTION or SHADOWS FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW 78 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 29. Fig. i. — We have a sphere suspended, casting a shadow partly upon a vertical plane shov/n in the front view, and partly on the horizontal plane shown in the top view. It is evident that a portion of the sphere will be in the light and a portion in the shade. This dividing line of light and shade in both views will appear as ellipses equal in size. The diagram in Fig. 2 is given to show the method of find- ing this dividing line of light and shade. First draw the diameters 1-2 and 3-4 at 45°, 1-2 being the long diameter of the ellipse. Point 5 is the lowest point in the ellipse. To obtain this point, first draw a line tangent to the contour of the sphere at any angle of 35° 16', which line is the true angle of a ray of light. This line becomes tangent at point 6 and intersects the axis in 7. From 7 take back a line at 45", intersecting a horizontal line from point 6 in 5, which revolves the ray of light back to its .position as the diagonal of the cube. Project point 5 up to meet the diameter 3-4 in 8. Lay off 9-10 equal to 9-8. With 8-10 as the short diameter and 1-2 as the long, construct the ellipse by means of a paper trammel. Ordinarily this diagram would be worked directly upon the problem. The shadow of the sphere upon the horizontal and vertical planes is found by first determining the shadow of the centers C and C. Through these centers draw the short diameters 1-2 and 1-2', equal in length to the diameter of the sphere. 1-2 and 1-2' are bases of equilateral triangles which determine the lengths of the long diameters. Having obtained the long and short diameters, construct the ellipses with a paper trammel. o a < V) I o -3 o a. So ARCHITEtTURAL DRAWING. Plate 30. Pig. i. — Cast the shadow of a horizon- tal abutment upon a flight of steps, also upon a verti- cal plane. The shadow is more readily obtained by the use of a section, or side view, as it thus becomes a very simple matter to determine where the lines cross various angles of the tread and risers. To determine the position of a shadow cast by line A B upon the first riser, take a line back at 45° from angle C, inter- sect the line A B in i, and carry this point over to the front view, giving the point i', from which draw a line at 45°, cutting the edge C in point 2. The line casting the shadow is parallel to the receiving surface. therefore this shadow will be parallel to A B or a ver- tical line drawn through 2. The shadow of the ver- tical line A B terminates in point 3. As the horizontal line A D is perpendicular to the vertical plane, its shadow must be at an angle of 45°. Fig. 2. — Cast the shadow of a slanting abutment upon a flight of steps, also upon a vertical plane. This problem is slightly more difficult than the preceding one, but the principles are precisely the same and the student should have no difficulty in working it, having completed Fig. i. Plate 30. PROJECTION <"• SHADOWS riG. L FRONT VIEW ^^x^ \ ^-\ r If I \\\\\\\\\\\^ or^v^.^ SECTION riG. z. ^^^ \ ^N ^^^ ^ ' FRONT VIEW SECTION 82 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 3t. — We have the top and front views of a Tuscan base, upon which to find the dividing line of light and shade. In this drawing it is found by what is known as the slicing method. That is, several ver- tical slices are taken at various points (it is immaterial where), which appear as straight lines in the top view and somewhat resemble the contour of the base in the front view. A B C of top view, and A' B' C in the front view, represent one of these cutting planes. The curved lines from 14" to B' and from B' to i' are found by using horizontal planes 2-3, 4-5, 6-7, 8-9 and lo-i i, which appear as straight lines in the front view, but as semicircles in the top view. Points 12,13,14 and 15, projected from the top view down to the corresponding traces in the front view, will give points 12', 13', 13", 14', 14" and 15', through which to draw a curve made by the cutting plane. As this plane is parallel to the rays of light, the last ray falling upon the torus is found by drawing a line at 45° tangent to the section. This gives us point 1 6, through which the dividing line of light and shade will pass. The other points are found in the same manner. 84 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 32. — Find the shades and shadows on a Tus- previous plate; the student who has completed that can capital. The shadows are found in this as in the should have little trouble in performing this problem. 86 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 33. — This plate is given especially to show that the shadow of any object may be worked directly upon the front view without the use of a top view, pro- vided that the draughtsman knows how far the lines lie in front of the vertical plane receiving the shadow. In Figs. I, 3 and 5, the shadows are cast by the use of the front and top views ; in Figs. 2, 4 and 6, the objects are identically the same, the top view being omitted. Fig. 2. — To cast a shadow of a rectangular body upon a vertical plane. Point 2 is found by first making the distance A i equal to A B in Fig. i, after which let fall from i a vertical line, and from A draw a line at 45°, cutting it in 2. Points 3 and 4 are found in a similar manner, as shown in this drawing. Fig. 4. — Cast the shadow of one-half of a hexagonal plinth upon the vertical plane. Point 2 is found by making distance A i equal to A B in Fig. 3 ; from i let fall a vertical line and from Aalineat45°, intersecting in 2. Points 3 and 4 are found in a like manner. Fig. 6. — We have a rectangular body casting a shadow partly upon a molded surface and partly upon a vertical plane. It will be noted that the outline of a shadow on a molded surface cast by a horizontal line parallel to the vertical plane is a curve iden- tical to its section. Having found point i by the method given in the two previous problems, it becomes a very simple matter to complete the outlines of the various members of the molding. Plate 33. riG. I, PROJECTION or SHADOWS riG. 3. no. 5. riG. 2. FIG. 4. riG. 6. 8S ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 34. Fig. i . — This plate illustrates the method of casting the shadow of a chimney upon, the roof of a building. The student should notice that vertical lines cast lines of shadow parallel to the angles of the roof on which they are thrown. Horizontal lines that are parallel to the oblique plane cast horizontal lines of shadow, and horizontal lines that are at nght angles to the vertical plane cast lines of shadow at 45°. Fig. 2. — The principles in this problem are car- ried out as in Fig. i. The beam A projects the dis- tance 1-2 beyond the surface of the building. Point 3' is found by letting fall an imaginary vertical line to in- tersect the edge of the roof in 4. Line 4-3' is parallel with the angle of the roof, which line is cut by a 45° line from 3. Fig. 3. — The shadow cast in the niche is found by the slicing method, as described and carried out in Plate 31. Plate 34. FIG. I. PROJECTION or SHADOWS FRONT VIEW FIG. 3 go ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 35. Fig. i. — The shadow cast by the line A B of the plinth upon the cylinder may be found by drawing lines from A and B at 45°, intersecting in i, and with i as center and 1-2 as radius describing an arc cutting the 45° lines in 3 and 4. Let drop a vertical line, 4-5, which will be the dividing line of the light and shade of the cylinder. Shadow line A 3 is cast by a horizontal line which is perpendicular to the ver- tical plane, and, as we have noted before, such a line always casts a shadow at 45". The arc 3-4 is really part of an ellipse, but is foreshortened exactly enough to appear as an arc of a circle. Cast the shadow upon the vertical plane according to principles brought out in the preceding problems. Fig. 2. — Find the dividing line of light and shade on both the circular plinth and cylinder. The shadow cast upon the vertical plane may be found by points or by method given in Fig. 4, Plate 26. The intersection of the shadow upon the vertical plane with the cylinder in I will locate the first point of shadow upon the cylin- der. Point I will also determine the height of 2, as it will be seen in the top view that they are equally dis- tant from the central ray R, which passes through the axis of the cylinder. Point 3, which lies in ray R, is determined by first revolving ray R in the front view until it becomes parallel to the vertical plane in line 4-5 (at an angle 35" 16 '). This line swung back to its apparent angle of 45° will intersect the horizontal line from point 6 in 3. Point 8 is found by cutting the dividing line of light and shade with an arc which is drawn with 9 as center and 9-7 as radius. The arc 7-8-5 is the shadow of a portion of line A B upon an auxiliary plane which is supposed to be passed through the dividing line of light and shade at an angle. of 45° with the vertical plane. This plane is represented in the top view as C D. Fig. 3 demonstrates by actual projection that a horizontal circle (such being the •lower surface of the plinth) will cast a circular shadow upon an oblique plane at 45". The actual shape of the shadow cast upon this plane is elliptical, but it is so foreshortened as to appear circular. Plate 35. FIG. I. riG. 2. FIG. 3. , I / ^v /i \i / X /I — ! — ^- — h""i I i i I 'I __4__L__L_J D 4 PROJECTION or SHADOWS 92 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 36. — Betoie beginning this plate, the student should thoroughly understand the principles 'brought out in the previous sheet. Fig. I. — The half column is resting with its axis against the vertical plane upon which the shadow is cast. Points i and i' on the contour of the torus are found by drawing 45° tangents. As the object is sym- metrical, 3 will be on a level with i. Point 5' is the lowest point in the curve, and is found by revolving a ray of light until parallel to the vertical plane, when it will become tangent to the torus in 2. Project point 2 over horizontally until cut by a ray brought back from 5 at 45°. The shadow cast by the dividing line of light and shade on the torus, upon the vertical plane, will pass through points i, 5, 3', 4' and i'. Point 5 is found in the axis which is resting upon the vertical plane. 3' is cast by 3, which distance in front of the vertical plane is equal to 3-6. From 6 let fall a ver- tical line to be cut by a 45° line from 3 in 3'. Point 4' is cast by 4, the distance of which in front of the vertical plane is equal to 4-7. Lay off 4-7' equal to 4-7, and proceed as in the last point explained. The method of casting the shadow of line A B is ex- plained in Plate 26. The dividing line of light and shade of the torus will cast a shadow upon the column. Points 8 and 9 are on the o,ame level, 8 being the inter- section of the column with a shadow already found upon the vertical plane. Point 5" will be the highest point in the curved shadow, being cast by the lowest point (5') of the dividing line of light and shade on the torus, and the same revolved ray is used in finding 5" as when obtaining 5'. Point 10 is found similarly to point 8 on Plate 35, Fig. 2. In this figure, however, we have the dividing line of light and shade of the torus instead of a circle, casting a shadow upon the imaginary oblique plane. The shadow of this dividing line will produce an oval curve passing through points 4,3" and 5. The intersection of this oval curve with the~ dividing line of light and shade on the column will give point 10. The shadow of point 3 upon the oblique plane will give 3". This is found by passing a hori- zontal plane through 3, producing a horizontal circle, the shadow of which, when cast upon the oblique plane, gives arc 1 1-3". This arc cut by a 45° line from 3 gives 3". Point II is found as in point 7, on Plate 35, Fig. 2. Fig. 2. — The dividing lines of light and shade upon this object are so simple that explanations are not necessary. Fig. 3. — First find the dividing line of light and shade of the torus, as in Fig. 1. The fillet may be con- Plate 36. riG. I. /\, V FIG. t.'' ^-v \, PROJECTION or SHADOWS FIG. 4. -V 94 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. sidered as a portion of a cylinder and the shadow found as in Fig. i. The shadow upon the column is cast by the fillet. Point i is found as point 8, in Plate 35, Fig. 2. Point 2 is found by projecting back at 45" from point 2', which point is cast by the shadow of the fillet crossing the oval curve, both being upon the oblique plane. Points 3 and 4, as will be seen by comparison with Fig. I, are located approximately by tangents at 45°, this being near enough for all practical use. Fig. 4. — The shadow cast upon the vertical plane differs little in principle from that in Fig. i. The hori- zontal line of the abacus, which is at right angle? to the vertical plane, will cut off a patch of light on the echinus at 45° in line 1-2. As the object is symmetri- cal it is evident that the front horizontal line will pro- duce a similar patch of light. This being so, point i may be projected over horizontally to 1', and 3 over to 3'. Points 4' and 5' are found by projecting from 4 and 5, which points are caused by the intersection of the oval curve with the shadow of the lower line of the abacus upon the oblique plane. Points 5 and 6 are at equal distances from the axis. Plate 37. — Having thoroughly comprehended the preceding plate, the student will have little difficulty in working this, as we have here a union of the several members explained in that sheet. Line 1-2 is cast by the lower line of the fillet. Line 3'-4 is cast by a por- tion of the dividing line of light and shade of the quar- ter round. Points 3 and 3', which are cast by the dividing line of light and shade of the quarter round, are found by projecting back a line at 45" from 3", which point is caused by the intersection of the oval curve with the shadow cast by the lower line of the fillet upon the oblique plane. Arc 5-6 represents an imaginary shadow of the astragal cast upon the oblique plane, cutting the dividing line of light and shade of the colUtan in 6. Strictly speaking, the dividing line of light and shade of the astragal would not cast an arc of a circle ; but it so nearly approaches a true circle that it is considered as such. CHAPTER VI. INSTRUMENTAL PERSPECTIVE. An instrumental perspective of any object is sup- posed to be drawn upon a transparent plane with the eye stationed at some particular point in front. While looking at any object from this fixed point through the transparent plane, lines may be imagined drawn upon it which would cover the outlines of the object ; for instance, one might stand in front of a window and trace upon a pane of glass the outlines of a build- ing in the distance. Such a tracing would illustrate an instrumental perspective. Line A B in Plate 38 represents the top view of this transparent plane, called the picture plane (P. P.). CD in the front view represents the intersection of the transparent plane and the ground plane, and is called the ground line (G. L.). E F, which is also in the front view, represents the horizon line (H. L.), and is located upon the transparent plane. The distance between this and the ground line is governed by the height of the eye above the ground. The distance from the picture plane to the eye, or station point (S. P.), as presented in the top view, indicates the distance the observer is from the picture plane. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. 97 Plate 38. — Draw two geometric solids of given dimensions at angles of 45° to picture plane, with the station point 2'-4" in front of the picture plane, the horizon line 13" above the ground, the angle A 10" to the left of station point, and angle B 10" to the right of station point, and i " within the picture. Scale ^ in. equals i in. The principal lines may be located by actual measurement as follows : Margin lines 12" X 19". G. L. , 2^" above lower margin. P. P., 8" above lower margin. S. P., 10" to right of left margin. The vanishing points of any system of parallel lines may be found by drawing a line from the station point parallel with that system of lines until it intersects the picture plane. Therefore, to find the vanishing points of the rectangular bodies given in the top view, draw from the station point lines parallel with the edges of the object, which will cut the picture plane in van- ishing points I and 2 (V. P. i, and V. P. 2). As the front edge of the cube is resting against the picture plane, we have simply to project it down to the front view and measure off its actual length, 1-2 from the ground line. From points i and 2 draw lines to V. P. I and V. P. 2. The length of these lines is deter- mined by drawing lines from 3 and 4 to the station point, intersecting the picture plane in 5 and 6. From 5 and 6 project vertical lines, cutting the lines already drawn from i and 2, and forming two edges of the cube. From point 3' draw a line to V. P. 2 ; from point 4' draw a line to V. P. i, intersecting the line from 3' in 7. The back edge of the cube may be found by letting fall a vertical line from point 7 to intersect lines to the vanishing points from points 3" and 4". The second object does'not rest against the plane, therefore its fron^t vertical line cannot be measured directly, as in the first problem. We must prolong the plane of one of its sides, and in this case we will prolong the left-hand one, meeting the picture plane in point 8. Drop a vertical line from this point, which line will be upon the picture plane. Being upon the picture plane, its true length can be meas- ured on this line, giving S'-g. Draw lines from points 98 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. 8' and 9 to V. P. i, locating the plane in which the square is contained. Draw a line from point 10 to the station point, intersecting the picture plane in 1 1. Drop a line from this point until it crosses the lines drawn from 8' and 9 ; this will be the nearest vertical edge of the object. The rest of the problem is worked out on the principles illustrated in the cube. In casting shadows, we may suppose the light to be coming downward from the left in rays parallel with the picture plane and 45° with the ground. Vertical lines will always cast horizontal lines of shadow upon a horizontal plane, and vertical shadows upon a ver- tical plane. A line casting a shadow upon a plane parallel with itself will produce .a parallel line of shadow ; in other words, this line of shadow will go to the V. P. of the line casting it. In the cube, line 1-2, being vertical, will cast a horizontal line of shadow on the ground, which will be cut off by a line drawn from point 2 at an angle of 45°, giving point 12. Line 2-4', being horizontal, will cast a line of shadow parallel to itself on the horizontal plane ; and as one extremity of the line strikes the horizontal plane at 12, a line drawn from 12 to V. P. 2 will be this line of shadow, which will be intercepted at point 13 by the second rectangular object. Should the vertical line under point 4' cast a shadow, this shadow would extend across the ground plane in a horizontal direc- tion, and upon reaching the vertical plane, would take a vertical direction until cut by a ray of light at 45° from point 4', giving point 14. Connect points 13 and 14, completing the shadow of line 2-4'. A portion of the line 4'-^ is parallel with the receiving surface, consequently its shadow must be parallel with it, or go to its vanishing point ; therefore, draw a line from 14 to V. P. i, which will determine its direction. The process of finding the shadow of the remainder of the cube is similar to that already found. The main portion of the second figure is similar to that of the first. The shadow of the apex of the tri- angle is found by letting fall an imaginary line until it intersects the horizontal plane in 15, and intersect- ing the horizontal shadow of this imaginary line by a line of 45° from the apex in point 16. Having found the several points, connect them by straight lines. Plate 38. 100 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 39. — Draw a pyramid of steps according to given dimensions at an angle of 45° to the picture plane. The station point is 2'-4" in front of the pic- ture plane, the horizon line 9" above the ground line, angle A 7" to the left of station point, and 2" within the picture. Scale ^ in. equals 1 in. The principal lines of the diagram may be located by actual meas- urement as follows: Draw margin line 12" x 19" ; G. L., i^" above lower margin ; P. P., 7^" above lower margin ; and S. P. , u " to right of left margin. The vanishing points and station point do not appear upon this and the following sheets, for want of space; but they will be upon the plates drawn by the student, if he follows the measurements given. In this and in all other sheets, carry out system of lettering, as in first plate. Angle A is found, and the first step is drawn by principles illustrated in Plate 38. To find the second step, prolong its right-hand face until it intersects the picture plane in point i. Project a line downward and measure upon it the thickness of the first and second steps from point i'. Draw lines to V. P. 2, which will determine the upper and lower lines of the step. Project point 2 down perspectively, as before done with A, until it intersects these two lines, which will give the nearest vertical edge of the second plinth. Complete the step. Find the prism by the same method. The shadows in this drawing are so simple that they need no explanation. Plate 39. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 40. — Draw a box of given dimensions, hav- ing the lid thrown back at an angle of 45° to the horizontal plane. The long sides of the box are to be at an angle of 30° with the picture plane, the station point 23" in front of picture plane, the horizon line 12" above the ground line, angle A 2" to the right of station point and i " within the picture. Scale ^ in. equals i in. The principal lines of the diagram may be located by actual measurements, as follows: Draw margin lines 12" x 19", G. L. , f" above lower margin; P. P., 6" above lower margin; and S. P., 6" to right of left margin. The main lines of this box are placed at angles of 30° and 60°, instead of 45° as ' in previous drawings; accordingly lines drawn from the station point to obtain the vanishing point should also be at 30° and 60'', ■ in other words, parallel with the main lines of the object. The long oblique lines of the cover of the box may be obtained by projec- tion, as shown in this drawing, or by finding their vanishing- point. To do this, take V. P. i as a center, the distance to the station point as a radius, and describe an arc cutting P. P. in i, Project point i down to the H. L., giving i'. From i' draw a line parallel with the slant line of the cover (at 45°), in- tersecting a vertical line drawn through V. P. i, which point will be the vanishing point of the oblique lines of the cover. The vanishing point of th e sh ort oblique lines will be found by drawing a line from i ' down- ward, parallel to the corresponding edges of the cover (at 45°), until it intersects the vertical line passing through V. P. I. The shadow cast in the box may be found by pass- ing any assumed vertical plane, as 2-3, parallel with the picture plane, and appearing as a straight line in the top view ; which plane produced in perspective will cut the end of the box in a vertical line 3'-4. The ray of light passing through 2' in this plane will cut the line 3'-4 in 5, giving one point of the shadow cast by that line. As the shadow must begin at angle 6, we have simply to draw a line from angle 6 through point 5, giving us the direction of the shadow. The method of determining other lines of the shadow has already been given. Plate 40. 104 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 4J. — Draw the corner of a house according to given sketches, the front extending to the right at an angle of 30° to the picture plane, the station point 26'-o" in front of picture plane, the horizon line g'-o" above the ground, angle A 4'-o'' to the right of station point, and 4'-o" within the pictiire. Scale ^ in. equals I ft. The principal lines of the diagram may be located by actual measurement, as follows : Draw mar- gin lines 12" X 19" ; G. L., ^" above the lower margin; P. P. , 7i" above lower margin ; S. P. , &l" to right of left margin. First draw the two elevations, then locate the plan according to the conditions of the problem. The steps, water table, string courses and trim about the door and window should not be con- sidered until the main walls are drawn. The student should note that the trim occupies a different plane from that of brick and stone work, consequently it becomes necessary to use two separate planes, find- ing the lines of brick and stone in one and the trim in the other. Plate 41. :i ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 42.— The front, top and side views of a perspective of which will appear in the following stable with its general dimensions are given, tlie plate. PLAN ANo ELEVATIONS or BARN >5 6 -24-0- 8-0- SIDE VIEW -26-0- Plate 42. TOP VIEW \ 4>- -24-0- -24-0- TRONT VIEW io8 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 43. — Draw in perspective a barn of given dimensions (according to Plate 42). The long side is to be placed at an angle of 30° to the picture plane, station point 46'-o" in front of the picture plane, the horizon line la'-o" above the ground, angle A 27'-o" to the right of station point. Scale ^ in. equals i ft. The principal lines of the diagram may be located by actual measurement, as follows: Draw margin lines 12" X 19", G. L. 2^" above lower margin, P. P. iT-J" above lower margin, and S. P. 3" to right of left margin. Draw first the rectangular body of the barn, not considering any of its details. Having completed the main body of the barn, locate the lower lines of the triangular roof. We must remember that the gable and sides of the roof project beyond the barn and consequently must be worked in a different plane. The student will readily see by the drawing how the lines of the cupola are determined. In casting the shadows the light is considered as coming from the right at an angle of 45°. The shadow of the door falls partly upon an oblique plane and partly upon the vertical surfaces of the barn. To find the shadow upon this oblique surface, pass a. ver- tical plane 1-2 parallel with the picture plane, through the edge of the door, appearing in the top view as a horizontal line. Project points i and 2 down per- spectively, giving i '- 2'. Connect i ' and 2 ' by a straight line, and intersect this line by one at 45" from point 3, giving 4. Draw 4-5, which will be the shadow of the lower edge of the door. The shadow of 3-6 will travel along in line 4-1' until it reaches the vertical surface, and then up in a vertical line until cut off by a line at 45° from point 6 in 7. Connect points 7 and 8. The principles just explained should be carried out in casting the shadow of the cupola on the oblique plane of the roof. To find the shadow cast by the cornice, use a vertical plane 9-10 in the top view, which when projected down perspectively will produce a vertical trace upon the side of the barn. This trace, when cut by a line at 45° from 9', will give point 10'. This gives the shadow of one point of the cornice, through which draw a line perspectively parallel with the line of the cornice. The remainder of the shadows need no further explanation. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. • Plate 44. — This plate is given to illustrate the simple methods by which circles and semicircles may- be drawn in perspective. Lay out the diagram and place the geometric solids as given in this drawing. The student should at this stage of the work be able to lay out the ' diagram and arrange the sheet satis- factorily. The figure at the left is resting against the picture plane, the station point being directly in front. From this point of view the horizontal circles are seen as perfect ellipses, the long diameters of which are horizontal lines ; but if seen from a point to the left or right, the diameters will appear to slant. The same figure placed at the right illustrates this. In this the- horizontal circles become so much distorted as to ap- pear unnatural. This should be corrected as far as possible in practical work. Of course an exaggerated case is shown. In the first figure, the left vertical semicircle is found by dividing the semicircle into a certain number of equal parts, finding the perspective of each point in the semicircle separately, and through these points drawing the elliptical curve. The lines of the arch on the right portion of the same figure are found by enclosing the semicircle within a semi-octa- gon, and after placing the semi-octagon in perspec- tive, draw the ellipse which will pass through the center point of each line, or, in other words, be tan- gent to the sides of the octagon. Either method may be used for the upper horizontal circles. Plate 44. p. R M 'li ill Sill! .,,. / / 11 II II I nil I I, I I II I II II II up 1 1 II I I H.L. G.L. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 45. — This plate gives the front and side views ments given, the perspective of which will appear on of a simple tomb to be drawn according to measure- Plate 46. ELtVATIONS or TOMB Plate 45. -26-0- FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW 114 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 46. — If possible, this plate should be worked upon a large sheet of paper which may be made a ver- tical or a horizontal sheet, as will better fit the prob- lem. The principles brought out in this plate differ but little from those already presented. In laying out the cornice, only two or three main outlines will be found necessary. Having found these, connect the points or extremities of the lines by the various curves. The student should make an effort to have the station point as far in front of the picture plane as possible, so that the vanishing points may be some distance apart; otherwise the building will appear very much distorted. ti6 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 47. --Draw in perspective the simple outline of a building of given dimensions at an angle of 45" to the picture plane. Station point 46'-o" in front of the picture plane, horizon line 6'-o" above ground line, angle A 6'-o" to the left of station point. Scale ^ in. equals i ft. The principal lines of the diagram may- be located by actual measurement, as follows : Draw margin line 12" x ig", ground line 5^" above lower margin, station point g^" to the right of left margin. This plate presents a method in which horizontal lines may be measured without the use of the top view. The principles of finding the vanishing points in this drawing differ little from those in the foregoing sheets. In this method the points are found directly on the horizon line without the use of the top view. The measuring points are found by taking V. P. i as cen- ter, and with radius V. P. i to S. P. , describing an arc cutting the horizon line in M. P. i ; M. P. 2 is found in a similar manner. The student will readily see that all horizontal lines are measured by means of triangles, one side of which vanishes to the measuring point. To measure ig'ro" upon the horizontal line drawn from angle A to V. P. i, lay off ig'-o" on the ground line to the left of A, giving B, from this point draw a line to M. P. i, which is the measuring point of all lines going to V. P. i. The 22'-o" line going to V. P. 2 is laid off to the right, and from that point taken to M. P. 2. The reason why the line drawn from B to M. P. i measures the required distance A C, is shown in the diagram, which indicates the lines as they actually exist. Line A' B' is contained in the ground line as A B. A' C' takes the place of A C. Connect B' C and we have an isosceles triangle. The student should note that a line drawn from S. P. to M. P. I is parallel with B' C, and that M. P. i consequently becomes the vanishing point of line B C, which cuts A C equal to AB. The system of measuring vertical lines does not differ from that already presented. Plate 47. Ii8 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 48. — Draw in perspective a flight of steps and an adjacent post, according to the given dimensions, placed at an angle of 45° to the picture plane. Sta- tion point 1 1 '-6" in front of the picture plane, horizon line s'-4" above the ground line, angle A 2'-6" to the right of the station point, and 9" within the picture. Scale f in. equals i ft. The principal lines of the diagram may be located by actual measurement, as follows: Draw margin line 12" x 19", ground line 4f" above the lower margin, station point 9^" to the right of left margin. One of the principal features to be brought out in this problem is the finding of a point within the picture. Point A is z'-b" to the right and 9" within the picture. From the line of direction lay off 2'-6", giving point B. From this point draw a line to C. V. It is evident that any horizontal line drawn between these lines will be just 2'-6". From point B lay off 9" on the ground line to the left, giving point C. From C draw a line to V. P. 2, cutting the line already drawn in A. The diagram at the left jhows these lines in their relative position. The line that measures a line going to the center of vision should always go to a 45° vanishing point, no matter at what angle the object may be turned. Having obtained this first point within the picture, proceed as in the last problem, making all the vertical meas- urements on the picture plane. Plate 48. CHAPTER VII. ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. Plate 49. — This plate gives the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, according to the proportions set forth by Vignola, in which the module is used as a unit of measurement. The composite order is pur- posely omitted in this series, it being little used and differing but slightly from the Corinthian. This plate is not given as an exercise in drawing, but as a refer- ence sheet to show the main proportions of the sev- eral columns. The module, according to Vignola, is equal to ^ the diameter of the column measured immediately above the cong6 on the base. This module is divided into twelve parts when used for the Tuscan and Doric, but into eighteen parts for the Ionic and Corinthian. The measurements on the plate are given in modules and parts ; the first figures indicating modules, and the second, parts. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 50. — The drawing in the lower right-hand corner gives a simple elevation of a tomb in which the Tuscan order is used. The drawing at the left, occupying a large portion of the plate, represents the working drawing of one of its columns and entabla- ture, drawn according to the proportions given by Vignola. The measurements are indicated in mod- ules and parts, and also in feet and inches, which are reckoned to the nearest eighth of an inch to which they figure mathematically, this being near enough for all practical purposes. This plate may be drawn by the use of a scale of modules or by feet and inches, the result being practically the same in either case. The elevation of the tomb being very small, many of the lines are omitted of necessity. The technical terms applied to the various parts are as follows: A — Quarter round. B — Astragal. C— Fillet. D — Corona. E— Listel. ' F— Ogee. G — Frieze. H— Listel. I — Architrave. J — Listel. K — Abacus. L — Quarter round. M— Fillet. N— Neck. O — Astragal. P— Fillet. Q— Shaft. R— Shaft. S— Congd. T— Listel. U— Torus. V— Plinth. ■ 1<-I?- -goi- — 16- -4*-^?-^ ■|7->t<;lH< — 1>- ^S 1 I In -^9- 1 'aJ I'll u a a: o < o tn 3 mmm n UJ m 0. a w ^i:^ K 9- — 124 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 51. — The drawing in the lower right-hand corner of this plate represents an entrance drawn in the Doric style. That occupying the remainder of the plate is a working drawing of one of the columns and a portion of the entablature. The method of drawing and placing measurements is similar to that carried out in the previous plate. A — Cymatium or cyma recta. B — Mutule with drops underneath. C — Capitals of the triglyphs. D — Triglyphs with channels. E — Drops. F — ^Metope. Plate 52. 128 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 53. — This plate presents the working drawing of a window in which the Ionic order is used. The drawing of the window is particularly helpful to the student, in that it shows how to obtain the general effect without drawing all of its details. The en- larged sketch of the volute is given to show the method of construction. A— Dentils. B— Volute. C — Lintel of the volute. D— Egg. E— Egg shell. F— Dart. G— Pods. 130 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 54. — The drawing at the right represents a porch in which the Corinthian order is used ; and that at the left is a working drawing of one of its columns and entablatuc A— Volute. D— Small leaf. B— Small stem. E— Rosette. C— Great leaf. Plate 55. CORINTHIAN ORDER PLAN LOOKING UP a o UJ Q ■■m"(>iP4ii«PM«giP Plate 55 B. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL SECTION CORINTHIAN PILASTER CORINTHIAN CAPITAL PLAN LOOKING UP Plate 55 C. CORINTHIAN PILASTER PLAN LOOKING UP 138 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 58. — This sheet presents several forms of bal- rived by making the drawings much larger than in usters in general use. A greater benefit will be de- this plate. 00 tn a. lpOsC=t tn u □ < \- tn _l < DO ■\ > y ■ rv 'i^=oc:=t [^^ ^o^ w f^"^ < 00 in a. -cow » — SMTUJCiavajMa r — -30INU00 r — aZ3IUJ T-3/WyiIHOHV-j' TVOJJVO — aoM fi —^ — a( I ' ll.,! Ul |l I I — — — aow 1* aOIN'dO D - — aow f I -3 ■a n X VT avj.N3 : — ^ziaaj 3Avu±iH0iiv nvxidvo oou ». — N W n H O O 00 un 0- t 1 1 O 1 1 ^ ' 1 h -1 1 1 Z 1 1 i< ' 1 all 1 L a 00 in .-C-^C--l{ll»- ^ i' i ' / u a. r i"rr rN pMi ^^^z^ J u 1=1 H m O a. Z ■ — aouJ I *t 146 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 59. — This sheet represents several typical mouldings drawn in section and elevation. In order to secure beautiful profiles upon mouldings, they should I5e drawn freehand. The surfaces of the mouldings may be rendered with India ink, as shown in the plate. Ol in I *^^^ ^<'^^ =J \~, 148 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 60. — This and the five following- plates are reproduced from drawings made by students of the French school of architecture. They are given in this series to supplement the orders and will be par- ticularly helpful in rendering. The student should note the skillful draughtsmanship with which these plates are drawn and the excellent printing upon them. J a. Plate 63. JUPH'" t ^t iJi^ JiU' )i'l iJi jiif n'i /■■!! K^wnanssaismm '>-"^;t^ vfJ^SpSE w U.! ID < 3 <■ (.J t~ Z ut X CHAPTER VIII. STUDY OF A FRAME HOUSE. Plate 66. — With this plate we begin the study of a series of drawings showing plans, elevations, framing and various details of a wooden building. A plan is nothing more nor less than a horizontal section passing through the walls and partitions a few feet above the floor, showing the interior arrange- ments. The student should note the conventional method of representing its various parts, such as the veranda, outside and inside doors, windows, stairs, chimneys, etc. Portions of two flights of stairs are shown in this plan, one leading to the second floor and the other to the cellar. In the plan only the treads are visible, the risers being covered by lines which are the boundary lines of the treads. To obtain an easy flight of stairs, the riser should bear a certain relation- ship to the treiid ; that is, if we have a very wide tread the riser should be low, or if by necessity the tread is narrow, the riser should be proportionally high. A rule that is used to some extent is that the rise multi- plied by the tread should be about seventy or seventy- five inches. Fire-places are shown in both parlor-and dining-room. The oblong space in the masonry be- tween the fire-places represents the flue which con- nects with the furnace in the cellar. The inner lines of the flues represent the linings, which are of terra- cotta. The flue for a fire-place will never appear on the same plan with it, but is shown in that of the floor above. The two doors leading from the parlor are made to slide, all others to swing in the direction indicated by the single line. The walls and partitions through which the section passes should be tinted with a light wash of burnt sienna or some similar color. The brickwork of the chimney may be col- ored light red. Section lining as shown in the draw- ing is seldom used in practice ; only in reproductive work. > Z < -I a. o iZ I §4 ARCHItECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 67.— Tn this plan, as in the one preceding, the section is taken some distance above the floor. Were the paper of sufficient size the two plans would be made side by side, in which case many of the principal lines might be projected directly from the first floor plan, saving the trouble of repe^ating measurements. All the principal parts are represented in the same conventional way as in the first floor, the chimney flues being nearly over those of the first floor. Parts of two flights of stairs are shown in this plan ; that leading downward to the .first floor being the comple- ment of the portion seen in the first floor plan, and the other leadinsf to the attic. 0) a. -0-91 z < q: o. o a z o u u m 1 66 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 68. — The detail at the left represents a ver- tical section of the water table, passing through the foundation and a portion of the building above the sill. " In making a detail drawing, it is always best to begin with some fixed part; in this case with the foundation, sill, floor beam and stud. Having fixed the framework in its position, 'we next clothe it; that is, on the outside place the sheathing, water table, clapboards and corner board, and on the inside, draw the under flooring,, lath and plaster, baseboard, and finally, the finished floor. The order given is similar to that followed in actual construction. The drawing on the right side of the plate repre- sents the elevation of this section. All horizontal line3 may be projected directly from the section to the elevation; and, as will be seen, the members in both section and elevation project the same distance from the body of the house. The woodwork should be tinted with a light wash of burnt sienna, and the stonework may be covered with a very pale wash of blue. Plate 68. .-CORNER BOARD SECTION THROUGH WATER-TABLE i68 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 69> — To draw this plate we proceed as in the last, beginning with the framework, drawing first the stud and then placing the plate and rafter, cutting it to the desired shape to fit the trim. Complete the details as given in drawing. The shingles on the roof are i8" long and show s" to the weather, their widths varying as shown in the elevation. The drawing at the right represents the elevation, and in this, as in the last plate, vertical measurements can be obtained by projecting horizontal lines from the section. The ofiEsets in the section and elevation ' are equal. Plate 69. .^ ^^- y^^LANCH ZJP^^m \ z I — r- ^ SECTION THROUGH CORNICE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 70. — The two sections given upon this plate represent cornices differing in form from tliat in Plate 69. The one on the left shows the gutter built into the roof in such a way as not to be noticeable from the street. This form of gutter is built up with boards and lined with some kind of metal, usually copper, sheet lead, or tin. The metal should be al- lowed to run up under the shingle for some distance. The section on the right shows the construction of a cornice suitable for a curved roof. The method of constructing the gutter in this case is similar to the first, differing only in minor details. Plate 70. DETAIL or CORNICES J^^^m^ iir.> ^PLANCMER;i;t«-f7-H (J "^ v^^^^^y^iJg^/v^^^^^^^ 176 ARC?1ITF.CTURAL DRAWING. Plate 73. — The drawing on the left of the plate represents a portion of the elevation of a window. The drawing on the right is a horizontal section of a window frame. In this, first draw the studs, after which place the sheathing, laths and plaster as shown. Place the other details in their relative positions as given in the drawing, according to dimensions. For a better understanding of the details, consult iso- metric views of the window in Plate 77. Cover the woodwork with a light wash of burnt sienna, and the plaster with a pale tint of new blue. Plate 73. DETAIL <" WINDOW FRAME H SECTION ON A-B i. Copyright, 1899, by C. F. Edminster, 178 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 74. — The drawing- at the left represents a vertical section passed through the window sill, and shows the studs, header, sill and various other details in their relative positions. The angle usually made by the sill and header isabout 15°. The casing, blind stop, pulley style, parting bead and stop bead are seen beyond the section, their position being ob- tainable from the previous drawing. The drawing at the right gives the construction of the upper portion of the window, the positions of the principal details being taken directly from the drawing just described. The construction of the meeting rails is shown at the bottom of the sheet. Plate 74. DETAILS or WINDOW *i- a. 1- a cn I Q < Z J r<<^ SECTION ON r-G SECTION ON C-D SECTION ON H-l I So ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 75. — This' plate gives two more methods of constructing the window sill. In the drawing on the left the sheathing is allowed to extend into the sill, giving greater protection from the outer elements. The stool is ploughed into the sill, making a very strong, neat trim. The drawing at the right shows the general method of putting together the window frame when the sill and sub-sill are used. They should be splined to- gether to form a greater protection against the wind and water, as the upper sill is very likely to draw away from the lower or sub-sill by the action of sun and rain. The other details are essentially the same as given before. Plate 75. DETAILS or WINDOW -',?■- 7.. *6-* I-" z u J H) H < h - K Q u Ul u h Z u 3 J m VERTICAL SECTION VERTICAL SECTIJON 1 82 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 76. — The drawing on the left represents a vertical section through the upper portion of the window, and differs only in minor details fro:n the one already given. The drawing on the right is a horizontal section through the window. In this the blind stop runs back beyond the outside casing, thus permitting the clapboards to lap over and keep the outer atmos- phere from entering the house. The ground is car- ried across the pocket and joins the pulley stile, again making it more difficult for air to penetrate. The other principles are essentially the same as in the previous plate. DETAILS or WINDOW FRAME Plate. 76. VERTICAL SECTION HORIZONTAL SECTION 1 84 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 77. — This plate gives an isometric view of the lower and upper sections of the window frame. It is presented to give the students a clear conception of the manner in which the various parts of the window go together, and not as an exercise in drawing. Plate 77. ISOMETRIC DRAWING WINDOW FRAME i86 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 78. — The drawing at the left shows a portion of , the elevation of a door and frame, that at the right is a horizontal section taken through A B. In making the section, it is well to begin with the double studs and then to place the ground, laths, plaster, and finally the jamb and casings. The jambs are rabbeted to receive the door, instead of using the nailed door stop which is very likely to become dis- placed. Draw the mouldings as given in the illustra- tion, taking great care with the curved lines to keep them smooth and of the same strength as the straight lines. Plate 78. DETAIL-'' DOOR FRAME SECTION ON A-B 1 88 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 79. — The drawing on the left portion of the sheet represents one of the best methods of supporting the floor joists of the second floor upon the partition below. The studs of the second floor should be al- lowed to extend through between the joists (as shown in the drawing), thus resting directly on the cap, and not upon a sole laid on the under flooring. The drawing at the right shows the proper way of supporting a light partition that runs parallel to the floor beams below. The partition should be sup- ported by at least two floor timbers, which are suffi- ciently spread to allow proper nailing of the upper flooring to the joist. The details of flooring, base- board, lath and plaster, are similar to those in previous sheets. Plate 79. SECTION THROUGH FLOOR ANi PARTITION PAf^TITION RUNNING AT RIGHT ANGLES TO TLOOR JOIST PARTITION RUNNING PARALLEL .WITH FLOOR JOIST 190 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 80. — Having completed the various detail drawings, the student has acquired sufficient knowl- edge to enable him to make an intelligent drawing of an elevation. That is, he should now comprehend that all the various lines of the windows, doors, cor- nices and other parts, have a real meaning. Before beginning the elevation, it is always wise to draw a vertical section. In this section are indi- cated the levels of the foundation, sill, floor timbers, windows, girts and plate. The main outlines of the building, and the position of the windows, doors, columns and chimney can be taken directly from the plans. The vertical heights of the various details are projected directly across from the section. The two details at the left of the elevation are not to be drawn by the student, but are placed there simply as an aid, being nearly the size of the required drawing, if drawn to a scale of ^ in. equals i ft., which scale is very common for houses of this type. Plate 80. FRONT ELEVATION Ig2 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 8 J. — This drawing is to be carried out in a manner similar to the last, the principal horizontal measurements being taken from the plans, and the vertical measurements from a section, or from the front view already drawn. It would now be well for ,the student to draw another view without the aid of an illustration. Plate 8i, SIDE ELEVATION 194 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 82. — In a frame house the outlines of the sills generally coincide with the outlines of the plan. Having drawn the sills in their proper positions, we next locate the girders which are usually placed un- der the main partitions, 9,s in this drawing. Trim- mers and headers should then be located about the stair wells and chimneys. Where partitions do not rest upon a girder, the floor should be reinforced by an extra joist. Last of all, place the center lines of the floor timbers, which are usually from i6" to 20" apart. The floor timbers in the piazza run parallel to the building, and their tops are in a plane which inclines slightly downward from the house. .9-,?? t 1 .- ,t ..... 9 n e-.9 t'^sf [ ^^'^ ^ ^ .9-Sl — >- ft // , i o i u3dV: \ H 1 10 in c- • 1 -'■ o CM yiOHio o OJ 9-y U . . ^ ^ ^ T T s ^ ^ ^ '■31"-_9I' t b J. < r .9 -.26 1— ■ — -y ^ o \ 1 \J ,0-3\ - i o o 1- •s. < igS ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 83. — This drawing is carried out in the same general order as given in the first floor framing plan, the raised and drop girt taking the place of the sill, and the partition cap the place of the girder. Locate the proper trimmers and headers, after which place the remaining floor timbers. The student will also notice that in the piazza the plate has taken the place of the sill, and the rafters the place of floor timbers. The rafters, however, are at right angles to the floor beams. o 'tfi -.D;Zf| -jfs— ?? £• G — o — ^= '- .?^ _iz: M. a~ a: o o ~7\ 7\ ->' a z o u 'f~ LJ I « C9 Z < J... .,9-.3C ~7\ 7^ K Mi 198 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 84. — In this drawing the student should first locate the sill, then the corner posts, raised girt, attic floor beams, plate and rafters. The lengths of the sills are taken from the plans, and the vertical height of the posts from the vertical section on Plate 80. All windows and openings are located from the plan, their height being in the section on Plate 80. It will be noticed that the opehings for the windows are con- siderably wider than in the plan. The difference is made to allow for the space occupied by the pulley stiles and pockets, which in small cottages is about 6". When we speak of a window 3'-o" wide, we mean that the sash is 3'-o", in other vrords, the space from pulley stile to pulley stile. The studs are usually placed 12'' or 16" from center to center, and are indi- cated by a single center line. The piazza is not given on the front side of the building, as it would compli- cate the drawing, but a section is shown on one side. Plate 84. X A f1 ^ ri "^ //I f^ U- _ ^r-'ini y^ y c »rt-. -r'2'-j'*J|..'si||| >k xy\ m II 6"! yA ~ - |2-( -Ii IV\ c / \ 1 ii ill TTT17 // 7- — I, ^;s ^ TLW 1 3C/) * Id E^v- // 1 1 1 ' -U ar ^ ■ , ^ 4'-e^ '^^^;^:^-;;^k^^^^^M^ f^ i\^^^\^wmWM.i^^WWV^4^4W^\4^^^ 228 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 98. — This plate gives the front and top views of an open-string staircase. In laying out a flight of stairs, the first thing to be considered is the distance in inches from floor to floor. This measurement is then divided into a cer- tain number of vertical distances, each of which is termed the rise, and is, usually about 7 inches in height. The rule that is frequently applied in pro- portioning the rise to the run is, that the rise in inches multiplied by the run in inches shall be about 70 or 75. According to this, a riser that is 7 inches will require a tread that is about i o-J inches. The draughts- man will see by .this rule that the greater the rise the less the run, or the less the rise the greater the run ; these proportions vary with the limited position the staircase may haVe to occupy. In public buildings the rise is frequently as low as 5 or 5-^ inches and the run proportionally wide. The enlarged drawings of the newel and balusters are given to show more clearly the profile of the mouldings, and thus assist the student in making the drawings. _)tt ©1=^1)11 d Oh cq 230 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 99. — This drawing shows the general position and arrangement of the framework of the staircase on Plate 98, locating the newels and angle-posts in their respective places. Care must be taken to locate these so as to receive the hand-rail on its center line. This location can be obtained by refer- ring to Plate 103 at A. The narrowest part of the carriage should be at least 5 or 6 inches wide. Si ■lauLvx-ij^j^ I z ■ en a d o O CO 2 < co z < a^^a^U'l.lX X »=^«a> .<5^:j^^^^^^;?^:^55^^^^^^^^^^^^;^^^^^^^^ \\\\\^^1\\\^ 233 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING Plate JOO. — Fig. i gives the isometric projection of the framework of the upper portion of the stair- case, while in Fig. 2 the lower portion is represented. With these two drawings the student will readily see the relative positions of the various timbers, and also the manner in which the newel and angle-posts are cut. Plate I oo. FIG. 1. FIG. 2 ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS DETAIL OF FRAMING 234 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate tOtt — Fig. i represents a portion of the staircase in which the risers and treads are supported by the carriages cut to the shape of the stair. In this form the risers and treads are usually ploughed to receive the wall-string. In Fig. 2 we have an isometric projection of a portion of a flight of stairs, in which the risers and treads are housed to the inner and outer strings. The center carriages are con- structed as shown in this illustration by nailing pieces of board, cut to the desired shape, to carriage timbers, which measure 2" x 6" or 3" x 6", as the position may demand. Plate 101. FIG. 1 ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS DETAIL OF FRAMING 236 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate J02. — In this plate are represented the top and two side views of the newel-post. So many views are not necessary to make the working draw- ings of this section of the staircase, but are given principally as exercises, giving the student a thorough comprehension of all the parts of the stairs, and how they go together. In making the drawings the stu- dent should first make the front and top views, from which the side views may be projected. O a. n ^ Uj > bJ a -a— a- — n ; : » ( uj u a z 1^ ki 111 Z O -B 2^8 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. ■"Plate 103. — This drawing gives the front, top and two side views of the angle-post at A, Plate 98. After the positions of the risers and treads have been located in the several views, the angle-posts should be placed so as to receive the hand-rail in its proper position. The angle-post, supported by the trimmer, is housed sufficiently to place it in its correct position with the other members. The trimmer is placed far enough forward to form a good bearing for the carriages, as shown in the side view. The hand-rail, instead of being carried in a direct line to the angle-post, takes the form pf aramp, the height of this being such that the rails on both sides of the angle-post will be on the same level. The height ofthe hand-rail is about 2 feet 4 inches, or 2 feet 6 inches, measured above the tread on a line with the face of the riser. On landings the height of the rail equals the height of stair-rail measured at the center of tread ; it is usually 2 feet 8 inches to 2 feet 10 inches. CO o <0 a. uJ 1- (O 1 o D. < bJ O o zML =WI -11 yt* 240 ARCHITECTURAL PRAWTNG. Plate J04. — This drawing presents the front, top it is supported. As in the previous drawings, tliis and side view of the angle-post at B, Plate 98. It shoiild be located in position relative to the hand- is housed to both the header and trimmer, by which rail. t 1 0. d 2 o o z < Ut 41 uw- "TVft- £ a. o J- ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate i05. — This drawing ilhistrates the method ■generally followed in laying out a working drawing as practised in an architect's office. The student will note that the plan, or, more strictly speaking, the horizontal section, is placed across the front view. In practice this drawing would be made actual size. ■n o