i ^^ J „ -0' l»-- Cornell Utttet^itg f k\xm% BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWNENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henrg W. Sage 1891 h-liS%l.KUie. — The Boiler and its Appendages 39 SECTION IV. Details of the Locomotive Engine continued. — Of the Cylinders, Steam Chests, Valves, and Steam Pipes. 62 SECTION V. Details of the Locomotive Engine continued — Of the Framing, Jaws, Wheels, Springs, &c 68 SECTION VI. Details of the Locomotive Engine continued. — Of the Pistons, Slides, Connecting Bods, Valve Motion, and Pumps 78 7 8 CONTENTS. SECTION vir. Bemarks on the Management of Engines Page 97 SECTION VIII. Various Patterns of Locomotives 108 SECTION IX. Tables and Calculations relative to the Locomotive... 127 SECTION X. Miscellaneous Notes and Observations 155 A Glossary op Terms applied to the Machinery, and to the Operation of the Locomotive Engine 171 In-vex 181 THE LOCOIOTIYE ENGINE, SECTION I. IHE PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND THE PHENOMENA CONNECTED "WITH ITS GENERATION. The most prominent of the properties pos- sessed by steam are its high expansive force, its property of condensation by an abstraction of its temperature, its concealed or undeveloped heat, and the inverted ratio of its pressure to the space which it occupies. Steam is the result of a combination of water with a certain amount of heat ; and the expan- sive force of steam arises from the absence of cohesion between and among the particles of water. Heat universally expands all matter 10 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. witliin its influence, whether solid or fluid; but in a solid body it has the cohesion of the par- ticles to overcome, and this so circumscribes its effects that in cast-iron, for instance, a rate of temperature above the freezing point sufficient to melt it, causes an extension of only about one-eighth of an inch in a foot. With water, however, a temperature of 212°, or 180° above the freezing point, (and which is far from a red- heat,) converts it into steam of 1700 times its original bulk or volume. All bodies may exist in either one or all of three difi'erent states, viz. the solid state, the liquid state, and the aeriform state, or state of vapour. Water, for example, may exist as ice, liquid, and steam ; and the condition which it assumes depends on its pervading temperature. Steam cannot mix with air while its pressure exceeds that of the atmosphere, and it is this property, with that which makes the condition of a body dependent on its temperature, that explains the condensing property of steam. In a cylinder once filled with steam of a pressure of 15 lbs. or more to the square inch, all air is excluded. Now as the existence of the steam THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 11 depends on its temperature, by abstracting that temperature (which may be done by immersing the cylinder in cold yrater or in cold air) the contained steam assumes the state due to the reduced temperature, and this state 'will be water. And, as the water cannot occupy the volume which it did under its former tempera- ture, it follows that its reduction in volume must remain a vacuum. A cylinder, therefore, filled with hot steam, may be condensed by an abstraction of its heat, and a vacuum will be produced in the cylinder with a few drops of water at the bottom, which may be pumped out by an air-tight pump, leaving the vacuum per- fect. When this principle is employed in removing the atmospheric pressure opposed to the back of the piston in a steam engine, such an engine is termed a condensing engine : and in such engines more work may be done with the same pressure of steam than by a non-condensing engine, as the absence of the weight of the air, or the negative pressure on the back of the piston is equivalent to a positive pressure on the other side, and contributes by so much to the 12 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. useful e£Fect of the engine. Locomotive engines, however, and most American stationary engines, discharge their steam without condensing, and to overcome the atmospheric resistance they carry higher steam; they are therefore called high- pressure engines. The next property of steam which we have mentioned is that of its latent or concealed heat. An unknown amount of latent heat exists in every element in nature : thus, iron becomes hot by merely hammering it on an anvil; air gives oif heat enough to light fire by being com- pressed into a syringe, and so on. The beating of the iron does not create the heat which it excites, neither does the compressing of the air; they both merely develop the heat, which must have a previous existence. In these examples, the heat which is excited is freed by the motion communicated, — and we have no means of know- ing its amount; but the latent heat of steam, though showing no effects on the thermometer, may be as easily known as the sensible Dr per- ceivable heat. To show this property of steam by experiment, place an indefinite amount of water in a closed vessel, and let a pipe, proceed- THE LOCOMOnVE , ENGINE. 13, iiig from its upper part, communicate with another vessel, which should be open, and, for convenience of illustration, shall contain just 5| lbs. of water at 32°, or just freezing. The pipe from the closed vessel must reach nearly to the bottom of the open one. By boiling the water contained in the first vessel until steam enough has passed through the pipe to raise the water in the open vessel to the boiling point, (212°,) we shall find the weight of the water contained by the latter to be 6J lbs. Now this addition of one pound to its weight has resulted solely from the admission of steam to it ; and this pound of steam, therefore, retaining its own temperature of 212°, has raised 6J lbs. of water 180°, or an equivalent to 990° ; and including its own temperature, we have 1202°, which it must have possessed at first. The sum of the latent and sensible heat of steam is in all cases nearly constant, and docs not vary much from 1200°. It is from this property of steam that it becomes of such essen- . tial service in heating buildings ; one square foot of superficial surface of cast-iron steam pipe will keep 200 cubic feet of air at a con- 14 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. genial summer heat; but a square foot of the surface of a bar of iron, of the same perceivahU temperature, would scarcely start the frost on the windows in a cold morning. If a known volume of steam of a certain pressure be made to occupy but one-half that volume, its elastic force will be doubled ; or, in other words, the same pressure is exerted within one-half the original capacity. By pressure we mean the initial elastic force of the steam, which is always the same in e^jual weights of steam, and which can only act with greater intensity of pressure by restricting the area exposed to its ' action. In fact, it is an established law of steam, and of all elastic fluids generally, that the press- ure which they exert is inversely as the space occupied; or, to be more precise, it is very nearly so. At the end of the present section we shall give a table of the temperature and elastic force of steam, which will show the exact in- crease of pressure corresponding with any dimi- nution in bulk. The elasticity of steam increases with an in- crease in the temperature applied, but not in the same ratio. If steam is generating from water THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 15 at a temperature which gives it the same pressure as the atmosphere, an additional temperature of 38° will give it the pressure of two atmospheres ; a still further addition of 42° gives it the tension of four atmospheres ; and with each successive addition of temperature, of between 40° and 50°, the pressure becomes doubled. It is well for the student of the steam engine to know the reason of this eflfect, and we will endeavour to explain it. We have already said that there is no cohesion among the particles of fluids, but there is, how- ever, an attraction between all matter in nature. The action of heat in generating steam has to overcome this attraction among the particles of the water, and likewise the gravity of the water ■itself. As the water becomes rarefied by heat, and, either in its natural state or as steam, occu- pies a greater volume, this attraction is di- minished, and also the weight or gravity of the water ; hence an additional rate of temperature does not have to contend with the same resistance as the temperature which preceded it, and is, therefore, enabled to produce greater effects in the generation of steam. Among a variety of facts and notes relative 16 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. to the nature of steam, we select the follow- ing:— If water be boiled in an open vessel, no tem- perature greater than that for the boiling pcint (which tor fresh water is 212°) can be produced in it. All the surplus heat which may be applied passes oiF in the steam. If the vessel be closed, and the steam as it is formed be retarined within it, the temperature may be raised, and retained in the steam. If the steam, as it is formed, is allowed to accumulate in the boiler, its pressure on the water-level makes an increased temperature ne- cessary to continue its production. Steam, in itself, is invisible, and becomes visible only upon condensation, as when a jet is discharged into the open air ; its loss of tem- perature causes it to condense, and we see it in the form of a vapory cloud. In treating of steam, the term heat is un- derstood as expressing its sensible heat, while the term caloric provides for the expression of every conceivable existence of temperature. To explain the theory of ebullition, or boiling liquids, we will observe that in metals, heat ia THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 17 communicated by the conducting property they possess ; but in liquids it is communicated by a circulation of particles. If heat be applied to the bottom and sides of a vessel containing water, that portion of the water in contact with the heated metal becomes heated and rarefied, and consequently lighter than the rest, whereby it ascends to the surface, gives off its vapour, becomes cooled, and in consequence becoming heavier, descends, again to become heated, rise, and descend as before, and to maintain these operations in a constant succession so long as the heat is applied. This action is performed in vertical planes, and if the heat be applied above the bottom of the vessel, the water below that point will receive but little heat, and can never be made to boil. ! An established relation must exist between the temperature and elasticity of steam ; in other words, water at 212° must be under the pressure of the steam naturally resulting from that tem- perature, and so at any other temperature. If this natural pressure on the surface of the water be removed without a corresponding reduc- tion in the temperature, a violent ebullition at 2» 18 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINK, the water-level is the immediate result. Thus, suppose the entire steam-room in a boiler to be six cubic feet, and the contents of the cylinder which it supplies to be two cubic feet; at each stroke of the piston one-third of all the steam in the boiler is discharged, and the surface of the water is consequently relieved from one-third of the pressure upon it before that stroke. The temperature remains the same, but as it does not bear the natural relation to this diminished press- ure, it causes the water to boil violently, and produces /oamM^. Foaming is a cause of which priming (or working water along with the steam into the cylinders) is the effect. Provision must therefore be made in all boilers, that they may have a large extent of steam-room compared with the cylinders which they supply. Another result attending the formation of steam is, that when an engine is in operation and work^ ing off a proper supply of steam, the water-level in the boiler artificially rises, and shows by the gauge-cocks a supply greater than that which really exists. This is owing to the steam forming in the water and rising in bubbles to the surface, and displacing by its bulk the amount of water THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 19 indicated by the rise at the gauge-cocks. As the production of steam under the same temperature cannot continue under an increased pressure, it follows that when the discharge of steam is stop- ped, and its entire pressure is thrown on the sur- face of the water, steam is no longer generated, and the water takes its natural level. At whatever point in a boiler steam be taken, there is a determination of water to that point, which is occasioned by the sudden reduction in the pressure, owing to the withdrawal of the steam. This is the case with all boilers having steam- domes with throttles in the same ; and it was for this reason that, on a new engine lately constructed at the Eastern Railroad Shop, at East Boston, the steam-dome was omitted, and in its stead a steam- pipe, perforated on its upper side, was extended the whole length of the boiler, occupying the po- sition usually given to the steam-pipe in ordinary locomotives. The object of this was to take the steam alike from all parts of the steam-room of the boiler, so that no rise of w;itcr should result At any one point. lO THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINB. Notet.— One cubic foot of atmospheric air weighs 527-04 Troy grains, while an equal bulk of steam at 212° weighs 258 3 grains, the specific gravity, therefore, of, steam at the pressure of the atmosphere, and taking that of the atmo- sphere at 1, is -490. The force of steam is the same at the boiling point of every fluid. 27-104 cubic feet of steam at the pressure of the atmo- sphere, equal 1 lb. avoirdupois. TABLE or THE TEMPERATURE AND ELASTIC FORCE OP STEAM : ALSO THE VOLUME OP STEAM GENERATED, COMPARED WITH THE QUANTITY OF WATER FROM WHICH IT IS RAISED AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES. INote. — Steam, raised from water at 212°, has no pressure above that of the atmosphere, and can produce no usetui effect except in obtaining a vacuum in a condensing engine. If admitted to one end of a cylinder, it would expel the air, and would there remain without jjroducing any motion, un- less the pressure of the atmosphere on the back of the piston was removed. In this table we have therefore given the temperature corresponding with the steam at pressures above that of the atmosphere. We would also here remark that the pressure in a locomotive or other boiler, as indicated by the safety-valve, is the real pressure above the atmosphere, as the air presses upon the top of the valve with the same force as a corresponding pressure of steam within. In a boiler showing 50 lbs. pressure per square inch, by the safety- valve, there is a pressure of 65 lbs., — 15 lbs. of which are expended in overcoming the pressure of the air on the top of the valve. Therefore, the remaining 50 lbs., indicated br THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 21 the valve, is the effective pressure for a non-condensing en- gine, although a condensing engine would realize nearly the full effect of 65 lbs.] Presfnre in lbs. above Temperature the atmosphere, and al- in deg. 00 including the same. Fahrenheit. 30 lbs. 45 lbs 276-4 ... Tolume of steam compar«.i with that of the watfi from which it is raiaft 610 40 ' ' 55 " 50 « ' 65 " 60 ' ' 75 " 70 ' ' 85 " 80 ' ' 95 " 90 • ' 105 " 100 ' ' 115 " 110 ' ' 125 " 120 ' ' 135 " !?0 ' ' 145 " 140 < ' 155 •• ,289-3 508 .801-3 437 .311-2 883 .3201 842 .328-2 310 . 335-5 282 342-5 260 . 3490 241 ,355-1 225 ,360-7 211 ,306-2 198 SECTION n. A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. Ha VINO illustrated the prominent properties of steam, it remains to show in ■vehat manner its use- ful effect may be realized in the production of power for locomotive purposes. Any reader would be aware that a locomotive must combine within itself the means for the generation of steam, its application to produce motion within the machine itself, and also the propulsion of the whole upon the road. A complete locomotive steam engine, therefore, combines three distinct arrangements for realizing these conditions. The source of power lies in the boiler and fire-box; the cylinders, valves, piston, and the connections are the means by which it is applied to produce motion within the machine; and the wheels, by their tractive force or adhesion to the rails, secure the locomotion of tho machinery which impels them, and also, from their surplus power above 2t THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 25 what is necessary to move the engine alone, the draught of a great load upon the rails. It is therefore necessary to understand the construc- tion of each of these parts, and also the general arrangement by which they are combined in the production of power. A reference to the figure on the opposite page will serve to show the construction of an ordinary eight-wheeled engine, as divided in the direction of the length of the boiler, so as to show the en- tire machinery for generating and applying the power. The boiler A in which the steam is first pro- duced, is of a cylindrical form, having a furnace or fire-box B at one end, surrounded by a Water casing a a communicating with the boiler, and which is to prevent the destruction of the plates of which the fire-box is formed by the intense heat of the fire. The plates which form the out- side of this water casing are united to the cylin- drical part of the boiler, and form what is called the outside fire-box. This outside fire-box sup- ports the furnace or fire-box proper by a number of stay bolts, seen at h, h; these bolts being Rcrewed at their ends into the sides of both fire- s 26 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. boxes. C is the grate, the bottom of the fire-box being open to admit the air necessary for the combustion of the fuel, and D is the door through which the fuel is admitted. At e c are shown a number of small copper tubes, their purpose being to convey the heated air through the boiler, from the fire-box to the smoke-box E. The arrange- ment of these tubes may be better understood by an inspection of fig. 2, which shows the fire-box and boiler divided transversely across its diame- ter. They are very small, and are placed so as to be but f of an inch apart in any direction. They are also very thin, so as to communicate the heat passing through them to the water which surrounds them, and which generally stands four or five inches above their upper or top row. It is the surface of the fire-box and the exterior sur- faces of these tubes that constitute the heating surface of the boiler. That portion of the boiler above the water-level (which is shown by the dotted line) is the steam-room of the boiler, and is occupied by the steam generated from ihe water above and among the tubes and in the water space around the fire-box. The forward jompartment of the boiler, or smoke-box, at E, THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 27 receives the surplus of heated air not communi- cated to the water, and the gaseous products of the combustion of the fuel in the fire-box; and the chimney F provides for their escape into the open air. The draught of the fire Fig. 2. through the tubes is excited artificially bj the escape of the steam from the cylinders of the en- gine, the arrangement and operation of which we shall explain hereafter. This, then, is the ar- rangement by which the power applied to pro- duce locomotion is first generated. The peculiar 28 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGItTE. form given to the boiler, the contact of water with the sides and top of the fire-box, and the great extent of heating surface afforded by the disposition of the tubes, secure the rapid produc- tion of a vast volume of steam within very re- stricted limits. In future pages we shall explain numerous details and appendages belonging to the boiler, and shall give its best proportions, as, likewise, of every other part connected with the engine. The second division of the entire arrangement of the engine is that in which the power already generated is applied to produce motion within the machine. Upon the top of the boiler a cylindrical chamber or dome G is formed, and the pipe which conveys the steam from the boiler penetrates it as seen at H. The object of "elevating the mouth of the steam feed-pipe is to prevent the motion of the engine from throw- ing particles of water into it, to be carried into the cylinders and to oppose a load to the motion of the engine. The mouth of this pipe is covered by a valve, provided with ports or openings lo admit steam within it, and the admission of steam is governed by the motion communicatei] THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 29 to the valve through its lever g, red h, and starting lever i, without the boiler and accessible from the footboard, where the engineer or driver stands. In the figure this valve is represented open, and the steam is descending through the pipe, in which it passes along through the parti- tion between the boiler and smoke-box and down through the branch-pipe I into the steam-chest J. This steam-chest communicates with each end of the cylinder M, by the passages seen in the figure, and steam is admitted through these pas- sages* alternately to each end of the cylinder by a sliding valve, seen at K. Within the cylin- der is a piston L, against which the pressure of tho steam is exerted to produce motion. In the position given to the valve K in the figure, the left-hand passage is open and is admitting steam to that end of the cylinder, to press the piston in the direction of the arrow. There is also a quantity of steam on the right hand of the piston, which was employed in the preceding stroke to force the piston to the left hand of the (sylmder; and its work being now done, it is * Described as induction porta. 30 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. escaping through the right-hand passage, and turning in a cavity in the under side of the valve into a third passage on the face of the cylinder, and which is situated between the two induction passages already mentioned. The ex- haust steam is carried in this last passage a short distance around the cylinder, and passes through an opening on the side of the same, into the bot- tom of a vertical pipe, part of which is seen at N. The mouth of this pipe is considerably contracted, as seen in the figure, and the resistance given by this contraction to the exit of the steam makes it discharge in a very forcible blast. This powerful draught at the mouth of the tubes excites the passage of the heated air through them, and causes a great intensity in the fire. Without this artificial draught the boiler could not, from its proportions of fire surface, generate sufficient steam to supply the cylinders. We have seen the steam entering by the left- liand passage within the cylinder, and impelling the piston toward the opposite end of the same. As the piston approaches the right-hand ter- mination of its stroke, the valve K is made to shift its position in the slcam-chest, and to close THE LOCOMOTIVE J3NGINE, 81 the left-hand passage, and likewise, by the same motion, to open the opposite or right-hand one. The left-hand passage is fully closed when the piston is within three or four inches of the end of the cylinder, and the right-hand passage almost at the same instant begins to open, so that the full pressure of steam is exerted against the right-hand side of the piston before it actually has completed its stroke in that direction. This advance of the valve on the piston is termed the lead of the valve, and when confined within cer- tain limits is found to increase the speed of the engine, as it allows the steam to act with a con- cussive force, like that of a spring, at the ends of the strokes, so as to lose no time in changing the motion of the piston. When the piston has commenced on its return stroke, and while it is in its motion, the valve moves likewise in the same direction, uncovering the right-hand passage more and more, until, when the piston lias returned to the position shown in the figure, or to the middle of the stroke, this passage is fully open ; the same as the left-hand passage shown in the figure to admit steam for the preceding stroke. 8J THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. Iho notion of the valve has transferred the cavity on its under side to the left-hand pas- sage, and the steam, which during the preceding stroke was admitted through that passage, will now discharge through it, and pass into the ex- haust port and up the exhaust pipe N, as already described. By the time the piston has reached the middle of its stroke the valve will have reached the end of its motion on the face of the cylinder, and will begin to move the contrary way, so that during the last half of the stroke of the piston, the piston and valve move in oppo- site directions. The cavity on the under side of the valve, in which the steam turns from the induction into the eduction port, must receive such a width of open- ing as to allow the exhaust steam to commence its escape from one end of the cylinder before steam is admitted to the opposite end; so that if, for instance, the lead of the valve on the induction side be |- of an inch, the exhaust must have a lead of about J inch. In other words, when one Btcam port is taking steam through ^ of an inch the other port must bo discharging steam through J of an inch. This is necessary for the free THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 33 escape of the steam, that it may oppose no load to the progress of the engines. We are now to show how the motion of the piston is communicated to the wheels, and in what manner the sliding valve K is moved within the steam-chest, so as to regulate the admission of steam to the cylinder ; and to guard against any misconception on the part of the reader, we will say here that there are two steam-chests and two valves and cylinders, together with two entire but similar arrangements for communicating the power exerted against the pistons to the wheels. The figure will admit of the representation of but one engine, (the cylinder and its valve and piston being the engine,) the other being behind the one we have shown. The steam-pipe H, after passing through the partition between the boiler and smoke-box, is divided into two smaller pipes, one of which conveys the steam to each cylinder. Within the centre of the body of the piston is keyed the rod P, which passes through a stufiBng box in the cover of the cylinder, and is attached at its other end to a cross-head having a pin or bearing for a connecting rod. This cross-head ia also attached to guides, to insure the motion of 34 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. the pistoa-rod in the line of the axis of the cylin- der. The connecting rod r takes hold of this pin at one end, and at the other to a -wrist or bearing of the crank axle s, upon the extremities of which axle are keyed the driving wheels of the engine. As there are two cylinders and connecting rods, there are necessarily two cranks in this axle, and they are placed at right angles one with the other, so that one piston may be exerting its entire force . against it, while the other is changing the direc- tion of its motion, and is exerting but compara- tively little power. The alternate motion of the pistons is thus con- verted into a continuous circular motion, and it is from this motion that the movement for operating the valves is derived in the following manner: — Four eccentric pulleys, the action of which is the same as that of short cranks, are affixed to the axle between the two cranks. There are two eccentrics for each cylinder, one being set at such an angle with the crank for that cylinder as to give the proper motion to the valve for a for- ward motion of the engine, and the other to pro- duce a backward or retrograde motion. These eccentrics are encircled each with a brass strap, THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. '6i> to -which is attached a rod t, having a hook at its remote end. At tt is a rocker shaft provided with arms on its upper and lower sides. If the hook of the forward eccentric rod be dropped on a pin in the lower arm, the motion of the forward ec- centric will be communicated to the valve through the rocker shaft u and its upper arm, and the valve stem v. And so of the hook in the back- ward eccentric rod. Another shaft mounted with arms or cams, and governed by a lever within reach of the engineer, is made to throw out either the forward or backward or all the hooks in the eccentric rods. This shaft is laid immediately beneath the hooks, and traverses in the same direction as the rocker shaft u. It will now be easy to trace the operation of the steam, and of the machinery put in motion by its action on the piston. The throttle valve at ihe mouth of the steam-pipe H being open by the lever i, the steam will be admitted to within the pipe, and will descend through it and through the branch-pipe I into the steam-chest J. From here it will find its way into the cylinder through whichever passage that may be open ; and as that ia here the left-hand one it will be admitted to 36 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. press against the left-hand side of the piston, and to move it toward the opposite end of the cylinder, by which time the right-hand passage will have been open to admit steam to force the piston back again. The motion of the piston will be communicated to the axle of the driving wheels, through the piston rod p, connecting rod r, and crank s ; and the motion so trans- mitted will cause the eccentrics to turn, and by their motion to operate the valve through the eccentric rod t, rocker shaft and arms u, and valve stem v, so as to maintain the ad- mission of steam to the cylinder in the manner described. The driving wheels as they are turned will, by their adhesion to the rails, move along the engine and its load ; and the,constant recurrence of these motions in the piston, valve, and their subordinate connections, will maintain the action necessary to produce this required progressive motion of the machine. Of the remaining parts of the engine, shows an additional pair of driving-wheels, connected with those fixed to the crank axle, and turning with them. The object of this second pair of wheels is to obtain a greater adhesion to the rails THE LOO'JMOTIVE ENaiNB. 37 than with only one pair, and also to relieve the principal pair of drivers from the great weight of the engine, which would otherwise come upon them — at least, all that portion not supported by the truck wheels, T. The drivers on the crank axle generally have plain rims, while those on the hind axle have flanges on their inner sides, as likewise the forward or truck wheels, in order to keep the engine on the rails. The four forward wheels a^re combined in a separate frame which turns around a pintal secured to the body of the engine, and is to facilitate the passage of the engine around curves. There are springs over the bearings of the wheels to relieve the engine from shocks arising from inequalities passed over on the rails. There are pumps, which are not shown in the figure, for supplying the boiler with water, as it is evaporated in the production of steam. These are of the forcing kind and are attached to the cross-head or to a pin on the outside of the driving-wheels. The boiler is provided with a pair of safety valves to provide for the escape of steam when it attains an unnecessary pressure, and the engine has also a whistle and bell for alarms and signals. 38 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. Many recent engines have expansion or cut-ofi valves, the use of which we shall hereafter ex- plain. From what we have said we helieve any one may acquaint himself with the general arrange- ment and operation of the locomotive engine. Our remarks on future pages will explain various details which would embarrass the reader on a first introduction to the machine, but which will serve to extend his acquaintance after he has mastered the leading principles of its action. The principal features of the engine, including the construction of the boiler and the operation of the steam in the cylinders, are universally the same, but there are various modifications in the arrangement of the subsidiary machinery, which distinguish the engines of different builders, with- out affecting, however, the purposec for whicL they are employed. SECTION III. DETAILS OE THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. — XQB EOILEE AND ITS APPENDAGES. There are several essential requisites 'vvliich locomotive boilers must possess, among which are strength, lightness, and efficient qualities for the production of steam; and these requisites can only be obtained by giving very particular atten- tion to the material of which a boiler is made, and of the manner in which it is manufactured. Owing to the diminished strength of large boil- ers compared with small ones, the diameter is very rarely made greater than 4 feet outside of the iron. The plates of which the cylindrical part of the boiler and the fire-box are formed, are from fg inch to f inch thick. Lowmoor iron is generally preferred; and the quality of the iron is determined by its general appearance and its established reputation among builders and others. We have, however, much American iron of a very excellent quality, which comes to the boiler -maker 40 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. entirely warranted by responsible dealers. Angle iron is often used to connect the cylindrical part of the boiler to the outside fire-box, and to the smoke-box. The selection of this iron requires some skill and experience, as much of it is liable to be reedy in its structure ; and for this reason some builders obtain the proper flanges for joining the boiler to the fire and smoke-boxes by turning over the edge of the boiler plate of which the shell is formed. The rivets about locomotive boilers are from f inch to f inch in diameter, and have a pitch of If inches, more or less. The stay-bolts to secure the inside fire-box are for the most part f inch in diameter, and 4J inches apart. These stay-bolts are tapped into the inside and outside fire-boxes and are then riveted at each end. Their diameter and number should depend somewhat on the width of the water space around the fire-box ; for if this be pretty wide, they must necessarily be long in proportion to their diame- ter. The usual number of stay-rods in a boiler is 6 or 7 for a 40-inch boiler, and a greater number as the diameter of the boiler is increased. These rods are \ inch to an inch in diameter, and are tapped through the hack sheet or sheet next to THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 41 the foot-board of the fire-box, and through the back sheet also of the smoke-box, and then liavo a large nut screwed tightly up at the smoke-box end, (there being a head at the fire-box end,\ and having a little red-lead putty interposed be- tween the nut and the boiler-plate to insure a tight joint. Some makers employ right and left nuts in these rods, to draw them up to a proper strain, but these are hardly necessary. The bars to stay the crown of the fire-box are generally 5 or 6 in number, and are 2 inches thick, and from 2J to 3 inches deep. These bars must rest upon the top of the fire-box only at their ends, a space of ;J^ to f inch being left all along their under edges, to prevent the crown sheet of the fire-box from becoming burnt through, owing to an ab- sence of water at those points. At the points, however, where they are riveted to the crown sheet, washers or thimbles must be placed in this space for the rivets to pass through, in order that they may have a bearing and not spring up the crown sheet. In all ordinary boilers where wood is used as fuel, all parts of the boiler, with the exception of the tube plate at the fire-box end, are formed ol' 42 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINBi. iron. These tube plates, by many makers, are made of copper. Hinkley's tube plates are f incn thick. In Winans' Coal Engines, however, the fire-box is made of f inch copper, and the tube sheet of ^ inch iron. The tubes are also of wrought iron. The tubes in wood engines are made mostly of No. 14 copper, their outside diameter being usually If inch. Wrought iron thimbles for tubes are used by most builders, generally at the fire-box end, but in some cases at both ends of the tubes. We could point to some engines having no thimbles at either end of the tubes, and which show as tight joints as many engines having thimbles. Much, indeed, depends upon the management of a boiler. If an engineman is in the habit of put- ting out his fire by throwing two or three buckets of water into the fire-box on every slight emer- gency, or running with the door open to regulate the fire, the contraction produced in such cases by the sudden cooling of the flue sheets often works nearly every tube loose. A method of tightening tubes has been used by the Lowell Machine Shop, which has given good results. It is to take a short piece, say 2 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 4{{ incnes iii length, of No. 14 copper tube, and of such diameter as to allow of its just sliding into the mouth of the boiler tube ; it is firmly united to the latter by a brazed joint an inch long. What remains of the short tube projecting out is passed through the tube sheet, which is drilled t3» receive it, and the portion projecting beyond the tube sheet is then turned over and headed in the usual manner. This brings the end of the boiler tube up to a tight bearing with the inside of the tube sheet. With long copper tubes it is sometimes deemed advisable to give them a middle bearing, for which purpose a sheet is placed midway of theii length and passing up high enough to support the top row. Our opinion, however, is, that these intermediate flue-sheets intercept the circulation of the water, and in some cases occasion priming. We have observed this to be the case in some of Norris's engines, which, having tubes 10 ft. 8 in. long, were provided with these extra sup- ports. The braces which support the boiler and serve to connect it to the frame are made either round or flat. When made round, they are made about 44 TIIK LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 2J .nches in diameter, and are turned, which adds much to their appearance. The angle-iron which secures the fire-box to the frame should extend the whole length of the fire-box, if there is nothing in the way to prevent it. It should be screwed tightly to the frame, and the screws to fasten it to the fire-box should pass through the water space, being tapped through both sheets. The heads of these screws should project outward considerably, as they are difficult to unscrew when it becomes necessarv to remove them. There should be two rows of screws passing into the fire-box, one above the other ; and the distance between the screws should be just sufiicient to enable a wrench to be readily introduced to turn them. The grates are always of cast iron, and are generally 4 inches deep at the centre. Their thickness is about f of an inch on their upper edge, and f inch at the bottom. The space be- tween them is f inch. We know of one or two engines which were foTind to make steam much better by placing a piece of plate iron, six or eight inches wide, across the fire-box at that end of the grates next the tube sheet. By admitting THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 45 air through the whole extent of grate surface, a large quantity of cold air naturally passes up close to the side of the fire-box, below the tubes, the draft being strongest there, and, from not passing directly through the fire, escapes into the tubes before it is properly heated. As this cools the tubes, it consequently checks the formation of steam ; therefore, by not admitting the air be- neath the ends of the tubes, but causing all the air to pass directly through the fire, it was found that more steam could be produced with the same fuel. The grate should be a very few inches above the bottom of the water space around the fire-box, in order that the water below it may remain qui- escent and collect any sediment that may deposit itself there. The junction of the inner and outer fire-box at the bottom of the water space is made with a bar of wrought iron IJ inches thick, having rivets passed through it and headed on the outside of the fire-box sheets. Some, however, bend the sheet of the inner fire-box outward, until it meets that of the outer fire-box, and then rivet them together. This method, though cheaper, does not t6 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. allow the water spaces to be so readily cleared of mud and deposite. Norris and some other southern builders con- struct their boilers with the top of the fire-box worked into a hemispherical form, and having a small cast iron dome placed upon the top. This makes a very high dome, and gives a large amount of steam. room; but this form of fire-box has seve- ral disadvantages, among which is the extra ex- pense of a boiler constructed in this way, there being work about the fire-box which can be done only by very skilful workmen, and requiring much more riveting. Again; the height of the dome is liable to make the engine top-heavy, which, in engines having large wheels, and having the boiler set pretty well up, is quite a serious objection. The dome, also, from exposing so large an extent of heated surface, makes the interior of the "cab," over the footboard, insufi'erably hot, which is by no means a trifling matter to a man who has to stand in its heat for several hours together. With all this the size of the dome obstructs the lookout of the engineman, and the diagonal brace necessary to steady it lies directly in his way. Witli all these objections against it, this form of THE LOCOMOTIVE ESGINB. 47 dome can hardly be said to possess any advan- tages over the old-fashioned wagon-top fire-box, having a low cylindrical dome; although it ia generally considered that drier steam can be worked from a "dome boiler," as these boilers are termed. Hinkley forms a cylindrical dome, about 22 inches in diameter and 18 inches in height, about midway on the boiler between the fire-box and smoke-box. This dome has a cast iron cover of suflScient thickness to withstand the pressure of the steam, and of such size that the aperture which it closes may admit a man to the interior of the boiler. The steam-pipe and throttle are placed on one side of the dome, so as not to obstruct the passage. The dome is made of the same iron as the shell of the boiler, is lagged, and covered with sheet iron in the same manner, and has a thin cast iron base and cap. It is believed by many that a point near the smoke-box end of the boiler is the most favourable place from which to take the steam, as it is con- sidered that the water is not in so violent a state of ebullition at that point as at the iire-box end. Locomotives generally have two safety-valves; 48 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. one of 2J inches in diameter, next the footboard, and one of 3^ inches diameter, at the forward end of the boiler. We see no reason for this differ- ence of size, unless the safety-valve next the foot- board cannot have a lever long enough for a larger valve without it projects out in the way of the engineman. The lever could be turned to one side, and thus admit the use of a larger valve. Large valves of 3| inches or 4 inches in diameter are less liable to stick, as their bearing surfaces increase only directly as their diameters, while the pressures upon them increase directly as their squares. Thus a four-inch valve has but twice the bearing surface or circumference of a two-inch valve, while the pressure on it would be four times greater. A mitre bevel, which is the bevel usually given to the safety-valves, seems too sharp. Were the bevel an angle of about 30°, that is to say having ^ inch depth to J inch width of valve seat, there would be no difficulty with the valves as to sticking. The whistles used on many locomotives are of rery heavy tone, and are, 6 inches in diameter. These whistles have a valve stem passing down through the centre and operated by a bent lever THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 49 outside. The exit passage of the steam from the lower cup should be about 35 inch in width, while the bottom of the upper cup should be chamfered on the inside so as to bring it nearly to a sharp edge. This sharp edge of the upper cup should be placed directly over the annular opening in the lower cup, that the steam from the latter may im- pinge directly upon it. A whistle 4|^ inches in diameter, and of the composition of which clock- bells are made, gives a very clear and sonorous sound. The upper cup, however, is most com- monly made of sheet brass or copper. The spark arresters in general use on New England locomotives are the common bonnet sparker, the patent sparker of French and Baird of Philadelphia, and Cutting's sparker. The bonnet sparker is the most common. A chimney of sheet iron, about 4 feet in height, is placed over the opening in the smoke-box, and a curved cast iron disc is placed immediately over this chimney. The cinders and sparks projected by the blast pipes against this disc receive from the form given to it a change in their motion, which throws them down between the bottom of the chimney and the outer casing surrounding it. 5 50 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. ihe smoke and steam also receive this motion, but readily rise, and, passing around tte disc, come out through a wire netting at the top. This wire netting is to throw down such sparks as might have been carried with the steam and would otherwise have been thrown out upon the track, becoming a source of danger to bridges and buildings along the line. A pipe sometimes leads from the bottom of the outer casing of the sparker to a spark-box on the front or sides of the smoke-box. This box, we believe, is termed the "Sub-Treasury." French and Baird's sparker and Cutting's sparker are not in so general use as the bonnet sparker, and could not be readily understood without the aid of engravings showing their structure. The opening made for the chimney in the top of the smoke-box is about the same size as the diameter of the cylinder of the engine. The following rule, however, will be found to apply in all wood engines : — Divide the number of square inches in the grate by 7-5, and the quo- tient expresses the area of the chimney in square inches.' THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 51 Example. — What should be the diameter of a chimney for a boiler having a grate 34 inches by 35 inches ? 34 35 7-5)1190(158-6, Area of chimney. And by calculation we find the nearest cor- responding diameter to this area to be 14J inches. The ash pan of a boiler is a plate iron tray, suspended by hooks or latches to the bottom of the fire-box, and should have a clear depth of 9 inches — the front side being left open to admit the air to the grates. The mouth or open side of the ash pan should be provided with a wire netting, and a damper of plate iron turning on a hinge should be fixed to draw up at pleasure by a small chain passing up to the footboard. The gauge-cocks are three in number, and are on the hind sheet of the fire-box, within reach of the engineman. They must communicate with the boiler at such a point that should the water chance to fall a trifle below the lower cock the upper row of tiibes shall not be uncovered. In 52 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. ascending a grade of 80 feet per mile, the water at the fire-box end would stand two inches liigiicr above the tubes than at the smoke-box end ; the gauge-cocks should therefore communicate with the boiler at so high a point that neither end of the tubes could become uncovered under any ordinary circumstances without their giving warn- ing of it. The English have always used glass gauge- tubes in addition to the three gauge-cocks, but one tried on an engine on the Maine road broke in the first trial. To stand the action of the steam, the interior of the tube should be round, not formed like a thermometer tube, and the bore of the tube should not exceed ^% incl ; the glass should be thick and well annealed, and there should be an expansion joint at the upper end of it. If these conditions are observed, glass gauge-tubes can be used here as well as in England. The blow-ofi" cocks of locomotives should be on the back side of the fire-box, to prevent the steam and water escaping by them from blowing up sand into the bearings of the en- gine. THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 53 The mud-hole plugs are of brass, and are about If inches in diameter, and are tapped into the outer fire-box at the bottom of the water space. They should have stout square heads, as it is very difiScult to turn them out when they have been a short time in use. Having thus explained the details and uses of the boiler and its appendages, we will pro- ceed to give the proportions adopted by different makers. The table of dimensions given on the next page includes two of Hinkley's patterns, two of the Lowell Machine Shop engines, and also of Souther's 15 in. cylinder pattern. 64 THE LOCOMOTIVTS ENGINE. !> H O o o o h^ o Sz; » H EH << Ph E-l o o M 02 w CM t-H g o J3 ;: cq CO S '"'' d - . "* 00 ¥ '^ hn"^ -ci mh< -^n ;S3 ^ i-H Cq -^ i-H CO CO »0 .a :: a : .rH <« .« ^ ;i| o (M 00 CO CO „ ^ 2 I— ii— i-^i— I COCO'tJI OO (D d - I-^ t-- CO Jri-H T3 OcoOiOS'-' M bii'tn uaoio-*--! — -topot^ -^-^"^ o"o +3 -d -«J . m u « ^ c :: .P. d,«^"- T-t M rjl T— I CO ■* o - o d ., CO Q .-2 -2 " " - ^ a- 1 o .5 o .. ° '="R ^ ^ ^ ^ 5 ^ -S 5 J5 J «> .5 i3 .2 .2 S a 3 S :-- a a pajRfiJj50i^^Q6H :a > - a ! a" s « ' "^ o fii .?a\.p3es £ -^ ^ 03 S tOf- THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 55 The 15-incli cylinder machines built at Taunton have 726 sq. ft. of tube surface, 11-23 sq. ft. of grate, and steam ports 14 by 1 in. The per- formance of these engines (with blast pipes 2f in. at the mouth) is very superior. The Taunton Company give the largest proportion of heating surface to a given capacity of cylinder of any of the engine builders in New England. In giving the fire-box surface, we have reck- oned every inch of surface above the grate, deducting only for the tubes and the door. It is of course plain that all this surface is in con- tact with the water in the boiler, although it is customary among engineers not to include any portion of that side of the fire-box next the tubes as heating surface. It will be seen from the table that Hinkley's 15-inch cylinder engine has the greatest- extent of heating surface, compared with its capacity of cylinder, of the five engines given ; and as the proportions adopted appear to answer very well, we will give the multipliers which will give the same proportions for any other size of cylinder. Multiply the square of the diameter of the 56 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. cylinder by 3'169, to get the heating surface of the tubes ; by -252, to get the heating surface in the fire-box ; by '0433, to get the area of grate ; by -309, to get the cubic feet of water room in the boiler ; by '182, to get the cubic feet of steam room in the boiler. All the engines of -which proportions are given in the preceding table, have four driving wheels and truck, with the exception of the engine by Hinkley & Drury, having 13J-inch cylinders ; this engine has four driving wheels, upon which the whole weight of the engine rests. An engine lately constructed by Robert Ste- phenson & Co., Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England, may be taken in comparison with the foregoing. This engine had two pair of 5-feet drivers and one pair of leading wheels : 14-inch cylinder : 21-inch stroke : 60 square feet fire surface in fire-box : 9-91 " « " on grate : 640 " «< " in tubes : 76.86 cubic feet water in boiler and around fire- box. THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 57 13 cubic feet steam in boiler and dome : 7.5 " " steam used at one rev. of drivers. As a further illustration of English locomo- tives, we will give the dimensions of an engine built by Bury, Curtis and Kennedy, of Liver- pool, for the Birmingham and Shrewsbm-y (nar- row gauge) railway. 15-inch cylinder ; 20-inch stroke ; one pair of 5 ft. 7 in. driving wheels ; one pair 4 ft. 1 in. leading, and one pair 3 ft. 7 in. trailing wheels. Boiler shell 47 inches, smallest inside diameter, and containing 172 If-inch tubes, 11 ft. 6 in. long. Grate, 50i in. long, by 42 in. wide, and 55 inches from crown sheet. Induction ports, 12 by ly*g in. Exhaust pol-t, 3J in. wide. Single blast pipe, 4J in. at mouth. Cylinders, 23|^ in. between centres. Bearings of driving axle, 8 in. long and 7 in. in diameter. The heating surface of locomotive boilers has of late years been considerably increased, not only having been extended with the enlargement of the cylinders but in a much higher ratio. In some recent 17-inch cylinder engines, constructed at Taunton for the New York and Erie railroad, the fire-box surface included about 90 square feet, 58 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. ■while the tube surface fell but little short of 1000 superficial feet. AVe will add a few particulars of an engine for burning bituminous coal, which was constructed for the Baltimore and Ohio railroad by Thacher Perkins, master of machinery on that road. The performance of this engine during the year 1849 was upward of 23,000 miles, and was higher than that of any other first-class engine on that road for the same time. The diameter of the cylinder was 17 inches; stroke of piston 22 inches ; four pairs of driving- wheels having chilled tires 43 inches in diameter. The diameter of the boiler was 44 inches, and there were 125 wrought iron tubes, 12 feet 6 inches long, and 2J diameter at the fire-box end, and 2f diameter at the smoke-box ends of same. The grate was 37J inches long, by 41J inches wide, and the inside depth from crown sheet to grate was 50 inches. Attached to the boiler of this engine was the patent apparatus for heating the feed water by the surplus exhaust steam of the engine, which was invented by Mr. Perkins. The exhaust steam from both cylinders enteis a square box in the centre of the smoke-box. In THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 59 this box is a movable valve by which the steaic can be discharged through the ordinary blast- pipes, or turned into a pipe leading to a steam casing surrounding the smoke-box. This pipe also continues along beneath the boiler, and is united to a steam belt surrounding the same at the fire-box end, and from which the steam finally escapes through a pipe for that purpose. The feed water can be admitted directly to the boiler, near the fire-box end of this pipe, or, which is intended in running, it can be pumped into a casing surrounding this pipe, from whence it passes into a water casing surrounding the smoke- box, and within the steam casing already men- tioned. From here it passes into the boiler a little below the water level, at the smoke-box end. In this arrangement the movable valve in the steam-box can be regulated to discharge steam enough through the blast-pipes for all ordinary purposes of draught, and also to maintain a flow of steam through the pipe beneath the boiler. The feed water receives a large portion of the heat of this steam, from its contact with it in the casing surrounding the pipe, and, retaining the heat so obtained, it passes into the water casing 60 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. in the smoke-box, where it is exposed to the heat of the waste steam on the outside, and to the temperature of the smoke-box within. It thus, when finally admitted to the boiler, has become heated quite to the boiling point, as the heat within the smoke-box of a coal engine is very great, even with long tubes. This arrangement operates as a variable exhaust by allowing any portion of the waste steam to be turned off from the blast-pipes; it effects a considerable eco- nomy in fuel by giving the water to the boiler already heated very hot ; and the water casing surrounding the smoke-box prevents the destruc- tion of the latter by the heat emitted from the tubes. In the details of this engine the expansion valve was worked from the backing eccentric, and one lever sufficed for reversing the engine and throw- ing on the cut-off. This was effected by making the cut-off rocker arm work as a shell on the main valve rocker shaft, the cams for throwing out all the hooks being on the same cam shaft, and that for the forward hook being only a quar- ter cam, so as to allow that hook to be on its pin in the rocker arm in two positions of the re- THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE 61 versing lever ; that is to say, going forward with the cut-off on, and forward with it off. The patent for the heating apparatus described is owned by L. B. Tyng, of Lowell, who has drawings and models showing the application of the same to coal and to wood en- gines. For coal engines some arrangement of this nature seems obviously necessary, while for wood engines having a large extent of tube surface, with moderate length of tubes, the application of this invention appears to promise a con- siderable economy in fuel. The apparatus may be simplified in wood engines by pumping the water directly into a single casing about the smoke-box, and withdrawing the contact oi the exhaust steam by suffering it to pass entirely uj the cfaimnev. SECTIOIS IV. DETAILS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE CONTINUED. OF THE CYLINDERS, STEAM CHESTS, VALVES. AND STEAM PIPES. The casting for a cylinder must be perfectly sound; and this, indeed, is requisite for all the castings of a locomotive. 'The thickness of a cylinder, after boring, is from f to | inch, and about /g inch are taken off all arcund by the cut- ter of the boring bar. No cylinder can be truly and accurately bored in a boriag lathe, unless the latter be strong and steady. The thickness of the flange of the cylirJ.vr is 1^ inch or more. The flange by which it is secured to the frame is IJ inches thick, and as long as the distance be- tween the flanges to which the cylinder heads are bolted. Four or five one-inch bolts are sufficient to secure this flange to the frame. The cylinders are generally cast separately, and are united by a bar of iron 4 by 1^ inches, bolted to a project- ing flange on each. In one or two instances W9 62 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 63 have seen them cast together, but this method makes rather an awkward casting to mouUl, to bore, and to fit, yet it removes the artificial con- nection which is otherwise necessary. The faces of the cylinder and valve require to be ground perfectly smooth and flat, which is done by closing the ports with blocks of wood, as also the cavity in the valve ; they are then ground together with fine sharp sand and water, finishing off with emery and oil. The stufiing boxes for the piston rods and valve stems require a brass lining filled with Babbitt metal. The valves are generally of cast iron, but sometimes of brass. The valve stem in Hinkley's engines is laid in a deep recess in the upper side of the valve, and has nuts and check nuts screwed against each side of same. The valve is sometimes encircled by a wrought iron hoop or spectacle ^ inch in thickness, but increased to IJ inches on one side, and has the valve stem tapped into it. The expansion valve is often worked directly on the top of the port valve. When no expansion is sought, the cut-off valve rod is placed in con- nection with the port valve rod, and, acquiring the motion of the latter, is relatively at rest with 64 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. it. Other makers have the cut-off valve over the port valve, and in the same chest with it, hut interpose a plate witli valve ports between the two valves. It is, however, difficult to get at the valves where they are so placed, unless the engine has outside cylinders, or has its steam chest covers taken off from the outside. Hinkley's latest engines have covers on the side of the valve chest, which are removed from the outside of the smoke-box. But the opening on the side of the chest is no larger than to allow of taking out the valve, not being large enough to allow of setting the valves when it becomes necessary to do so, except by taking off the entire chest. In Hink- ley's engines, the cut-off valve, when not required to be used, is thrown entirely off the ports, to prevent any obstruction to the passage of the steam. This is effected by an arm on the revers- ing cam shaft, which, when the cut-off hooks are thrown out, throws the lower rocker arm, which works the cut-off valve, entirely over, and carries the valve off its ports. The valve seat requires to be slightly raised above the face of the casting on which it is formed, that any foreign substance received by THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 65 the steam pipe may be pushed off by the valve ■without scratching the valve face. Steam chests are generally of a square or ob- long form, and in inside cylinder engines aro enclosed within the smoke-box. In Souther's en- gines, however, the steam chest is round, and projects outward, so that the valve face is inclined at an angle of about 45°, — the smoke-box being made round, as a continuation of the boiler. By this arrangement he secures the advantage of a ground joint for the steam chest cover, and ready access to the valves of the engine. A ground joint is cheaper than a filed joint, and better than a putty joint. The cylinders and chests, however, from not being enclosed in the smoke-box, are exposed to the cold air, which not unfrequently, especially in winter, operates to condense the steam to an inconvenient degree. The steam chests, however, have a jacket or casing over them, and the cylinders might be lagged so as to make this a trifling objection. The steam pipe is made of thick copper, united at one end to the vertical cast iron pipe entering the dome, and at the other end to a pipe casting formed to make a tight joint with the smoke-box 6« 6G THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. sheet. The steam passes through this tee piece, and then branches oiF to each cylinder. All the joints about the steam pipe should be ground turning joints. Hangers of wrought iron must be made to support the steam pipe iii its place. The area of the steam pipe should equal the area of two of the induction ports to the cylinder, and each branch pipe should have half this area. The exhaust pipes should have nearly the same area as the exhaust ports, until we come to the copper pipe attached as a mouth or blast pipe. This pipe at its largest place should be considerably smaller than the eduction port, and at its mouth requires to be reduced to about two inches in diameter. Most of Hinkley's 15-inch cylinder engines are running with their exhaust pipes con- tracted to l|-inch diameter at the mouth. For 16-inch cylinders, the blast pipe is 2 in. to 2y'g in. English engineers are of opinion that the fire sur- face of an engine should be very much increased,* in order that a proper natural draft may exist without requiring so great a reduction in the blast * Dimensions of engine, by Bury, Curtis, and Kennedy, on page 57. THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 67 pipe. The resistance oiFered to the progress of the piston at high speeds, arising from the con- traction of the blast pipes, has been stated by Stephenson, of Newcastle, to absorb one-half the power of an engine. It appears to us that a large extent of heating surface, with the use of somo simple expedient for regulating the draft, would produce very favourable results in the perform- ances of locomotives. It has been proposed, instead of varying the mouth of the blast pipe, to establish a communication between the exhaust steam and the feed water of the boiler, by which means the draft could be regulated by turning off any part of the exhaust to heat the water. This plan, however, involves considerable complication, and cannot be regarded as eminently practical. We have no doubt, however, that some simple ex- pedient will be devised for accomplishing so de- sirable an object. SECTION V. DETAILS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE CONTINUED. — OP THE EKAMING, JAWS, WHEELS, SPRINGS, &C. The framing of all the engines now built in this country is between the wheels, and rests on the bearings of the axles of the same, through the intervention of steel springs. The frames of the most recent descriptions of locomotives are solid, and have the jaws for the bearings either forged with them, or forged separately and secured to the frame by bolts. Many of these solid frames are extremely light. The most usual kind of frame, however, is the riveted frame. Two plates of flat iron, say 5 by | inch, with a bar 2 inches square riveted between them so that one of its sides is flush with the upper edges of the plates. In Hinkley's engines, and in most others, the frame passes over the bear- ings, and is dropped down immediately in front of the forward driving axle, to the level of the 68 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 69 centres of the cylinders, and continues at that level to the forward end of the engine. This mode of reducing the height of the frame ac the forward end, gives a ready access to the work of the machine. The jaws to this frame are of cast iron, and are secured by bolts passing up through a stout rib on the upper side of the jaw, and the 2-inch bar which is riveted in the frame. Cast-iron jaws, to stand, require to be very heavy. On the "Baldwin" and "Whis- tler," (engines on the Lowell road, built at Lowell,) the want of strength in their jaws, which were of cast iron, and were continually breaking, made it necessary to replace them with a set of wrought iron jaws. A stout cast iron thimble is placed between the back and foward jaws ; also short thimbles between the two cheeks of each jaw, and a IJ-inch bolt is then passed through the whole, and has stout nuts at each end to secure it. Diagonal braces also pass from the ends of this bolt up to the frame, thus forming a complete truss. Engine wheels with rims cast in sand have solid hubs. Winans's wheels with chilled rims have the hubs cast with core prints, leaving 70 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. three open slots throughout their thickness. After the rim has cooled, these are filled tight with blocks of wrought iron, and the whole hub is then encircled with a strong wrought iron band. In the rims of his chilled wheels he casts a ring of wrought iron, to assist the strength of the rim; both to keep it from breaking, and to hold the rim from flying apart in case it should crack. Wrought iron tires have been exclusively used for drivers until the introduction of Winans's chilled rims, and the later method of using chilled cast iron tires, which were first used, we believe, by Thacher Perkins, now master of machinery on the Balti- more and Ohio Railroad. To put on a wrought tire, it is first evenly heated to a moderate heat, then dropped on the rim of the wheel and quickly cooled by throwing on cold water. Seven or eight bolts with riveted heads are then passed through the tire and rim, to secure the tire from working ofi". To remove a tire, the bolts through the rim must be taken out, or, if rivets are used, they must be drilled out: the wheel is then laid on a circular mound of earth, a few inches high and nearly as large as the THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 71 wheel; a steady but moderate heat is applied directly to the tire, the body of the wheel being covered with earth, and in a few minutes tlie wheel may be lifted out of the tire, by means of a crane. In this manner the tires are taken from a pair of wheels without removing their. from the axle, by turning the axle up on one end so as to bring one wheel on its side. The chilled tires, when properly cast, are better for some reasons than chilled rims ; but it has not yet been satisfactorily ascertained whether either can take the place of wrought iron tires. The main difiSculty anticipated in their use is an insufficient adhesion to the rails, especially in winter, when the rails are frosty or damp. The mildei climate of the Southern States has prevented this from becoming so serious an objection to their adoption there. The chilled tires are three inches thick, and are bolted to the rim of the wheel. The merits of these tires above those of chilled rims or chilled wheels are, that if a tire breaks it can be re- placed without throwing away the wheel, and they are also readily renewed when worn out; whereas, with a chilled wheel, it is 'aseless when 72 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. the rim becomes much worn, though the rest of the \vheel is perfectly sound and whole. Chilled wheels are used almost entirely for trucks, tenders, and cars. Engine trucks are generally 30 inches in diameter, and car wheels 33 inches. Some of the roads running out of Boston have imported sets of wrought iron wheels from England, and placed them under their cars for trial. On the Boston and Provi- dence road we have seen a pattern of cast wheel with wrought tire, and having a ring of hard wood, two inches thick, between the tire and rim of the wheel. On the above road they are placing these wheels generally under their passenger cars. Engine trucks and car wheels are usually secured to their axles by one stout spline, and the driving wheels by two one-inch square keys. The cranked a.xle is forged from a bar which is kinked or upset by doubling or bending, so as to form the blocks for the cranks on one side of the axle. The axle is then twisted between the cranks till they are at right angles with each other. The crank wrist is formed by drilUng out a sufiBcient portion of the block, left in THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 73 the manufacture of the axle, and then finished by turning. The cases for the bearings of Hinkley's en- gines have dowels of a composition of equal parts of copper and tin, inserted in the case in the direction of the length of the bearing. The space between these dowels is filled with Babbitt metal. The dripper or cup has flanges to hold it in the case, and is kept in position by a screw pressing against its under side. There is a stout spring over each driver, hav- ing one end attached by a loop to the frame, and the other to a bar between the drivers, which turns on a pin beneath the frame. The object of this bar is to equalize any effects arising from inequalities on the rail, by transmitting a portion of the shock to the wheel which is re- moved from this inequality. The lower end of the loop-ended rod attached to the spring should be secured in the end of the equalizing bar by a pin, as the rod is apt to break off close to the nuts where these are used. The equalizing bar is of wrought iron, and for strength must be made deeper in the centre than at the ends. The springs are generally from 27 to 34 74 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. inches iu length, and are formed of plates of J, 1% or f iiich steel, and sometimes plates of each size. A spring of the proper form, 30 inches long, and having 14 plates of /g, and two plates at the back of f inch steel, and 3 inches ■wide, makes a good spring for a driver. A tit or pro- jection is made in the end of each leaf, to fit in a punched opening in the leaf below. This is to prevent any side motion or displacement among the leaves of the spring. The end of the upper leaf is turned up to prevent the loop which passes over the end of the spring from slipping off. Rogers, Ketchum and Grosvenor have used ^-inch iron plates, six or eight inches long, in- terposed between the leaves at the middle of the spring. The leaves of the spring, when not under pressure, are in contact only at their ends ; but on the application of any weight acting upon them, are brought into contact for several inches of their length. This spring, adapted to any load, is an English idea. India-rubber springs have been applied to the driving wheels of light engines, and in many cases to the truck and tender wheels. They TnE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 75 make, at least, a very cheap spring, and have proved well. The iron truck frames in general use have in- side bearings. They are formed of /g-inch plates, with wrought-iron bars or thimbles riveted De- tween them. The side bars are made to clasp the brass boxes enclosing the bearing of the axle. A large inverted spring at each side has one end resting over the bearing of each axle, and sup- ports the frame on its upper side. The under side of the frame is faced with a plate of steel, where it rests upon the spring. The construction of this truck does not admit of any one of the wheels rising without raising the whole frame. Norris, and some other makers, however, make the action of the truck wheels independent of each other, by making what is called a live truck frame. In this frame the spring, instead of rest- ing directly on the frame, rests on the bearing by a pintal passing through the frame. Any shock of the forward wheel is thus divided, and partly transmitted through the spring to the hind wheel. The Lowell Machine Shop use a truck frame, with outside bearings, on one of their patterns. The bearings of the truck axles are from 3J to 76 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 3| inches in diameter, and 5J inches long. The bearings of the driving axle are from 6 to 7 inches in diameter and 6 inches long. The crank wrists are of the same diameter as the bearings, and are 3J to 4 inches wide. The cheeks of the cranks are 5 inches thick. The pintal bushing for the truck is of cast iron, and is riveted between the plates forming the truck frame. The pintal is secured to the toiler behind the cylinders, or is made fast to the cylinders themselves, by being passed through the flanges connecting them together, and se- cured by a shoulder beloAV and a nut above. The pintal is about 5 inches in diameter. There should be a slide and wedge between the footboard and tender, to prevent jarring and jolt- ing. This wedge is drawn up in the slide by a screw and nut. There is generally a rail, or outside frame, as it is sometimes termed, outside of the wheels. This outside frame makes a convenient support for the pump, and serves to make a walk or bal- cony by which to go to the forward end of the engine when it is running. This outside frame, if mounted with jaws and springs, might give THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 77 additional support for the driving axle, and would assist the strength of the inside frame. The eccentrics could he placed outside the wheels, and wrought iron cranks would be keyed to the axle outside of the frame, to connect the drivers. There is no great practical difficulty, in our opinion, in keeping four bearings in line on the same axle. It appears to us that a very light and strong tender frame could be made of flat bars 3J by 1^ inches, and which would cost no more than our present heavily timbered wooden ones. SECTION VI. DETAILS or THE LOCO>wOTTVB ENGINE CONTINUED. — OF THE PISTONS, ^LIDES, CONNECTING RODS, VALVE MOTION, AND PUMPS. The pistons generally have two outside rings, ■wbile some makers, as Norris and others, use three. These rings are sometimes of cast iron, and somctirnes of composition. The piston rings used on the Boston and Maine road are made from a composition of 80 parts copper and 20 parts tin. The outside rings are sometimes cut in four pieces, and are sometimes cut open only on one side. Cast iron rings, if not set out too tight against the Inside •■<' the cylinder, may be regarded as not only cneaper, but better than composition rings. And rings simply cut open, are better, for most reasons, than those which are cut in three or four pieces. The cover is usually secured to the body of the piston, by four screws. The following are the dimensions of Hinkley's 15-inch pistons on the Maine road, and 78 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 79 having the kind of packing-rings described as used by that road. Diam. of follower or cover, 14] I in.; diam. of outside rings, before cutting open, 15y'g in.; thickness of piston, 4f in.; thick- ness of follower, | in.; thickness of outside rings, f in.; depth of do., 1/g in.; inside ring of cast iron, f thick. Four screws to secure cover, each one inch in diameter, 3 in. under head, and having heads 1;^ in. square. Each screw is 5f in. from centre of piston. Four springs to set out packing, each 6 in. long, 3 in. wide, ,% in. thicK at thickest part, and having a bend or deflection of f in. Screws to set out packing, f in. diam. Key to secure piston rod. If by J g. Thickness of iron around rod. If in.; diam. of body of iron penetrated by screws to secure cover, is 2 in., and is connected to the hub of the piston head by a bridge of iron | in. thick. Winans's 17-inch piston has six screws to secure the cover, and each spring which is set out by the packing screws, presses at each end against the centre of a smaller spring, thus making 24 bear- ings against the packing rings. All this is unnecessary, and makes the springs liable to derangement. Norris's springs are 9 80 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. inches long, there being three in his 14-incb piston. The best slides are undoubtedly the flat slides first used in the old Locks and Canals Co.'s en- gines. These are now used by Rogers and others. The simplest and cheapest form of slide is the round slide used by Norris, and until recently by Hinkley. The length of cross-head bearing on the slides is generally 10 or 12 inches. The diameter of the round slides is 2J inches. One end of the slides is attached to lugs on the cylin- der cover, the other to a wrought iron loop sup- ported by a cross girt under the boiler. The connecting rods have oval or octagonal boxes on the outward sides of the bearings, and square boxes on the inner sides, or where they abut against the end of the rod. The straps are generally 1 in. to 1^ in. thick, and in width 2J- in. at the crank end, and 2J in. at the cross-head end. The straps are secured by two J in. bolts to each, and the boxes are set up by a key gene- rally If and f inch wide and f thick at the crank end, and by a somewhat smaller key at the cross- head end. The most recent method of securing the key in its place is to have its smaller end THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 81 pass through a piece of iron, on the outside of the strap, and an inch thick ; this piece being secured to the strap by one of the bolts ah-eady noticed. A set screw in this piece pinches the end of the key, while another screw at the centre of the flat face of the rod is turned against the key at that point. The rod is generally not far from six feet between the centres, and is nearly or quite 3 inches in diameter at the centre. The cross-head bearing, when of cast iron, is 2f inches in diameter. As the boxes in the connecting rod become worn, the setting them up by the keys tends to lengthen the rod, as the outside boxes retain their places, while the inside boxes are moved outward. In the main connecting rod this is no great evil, as there is generally sufficient allow- ance at the end of the cylinder for the piston to work up a little without hitting the head ; and for this purpose there should be more clearance given at the forward end of the cylinder than at the hind end; say, on a new engine, J in. allowance at the hind end, and nearly J inch on the forward end. On the rods, however, to connect the drivers together, it is essential that the ;figina/ 82 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. length of the rod be constantly preserved; and to do this, the key at one end of the rod presses the inner box outward, while the other key, being outside the box at that end of the rod, presses the outer box inward. On Winans's and on Perkins's engines, having four pairs of wheels to connect, the bearing is bored out of the end of the rod, a tight bushing inserted, and no keys used. The valve motion generally used is the indirect attachment of the eccentric, through the rocker shaft. In ordinary inside cylinder engines, a shaft If inches in diameter is secured by stands to the cross girt supporting the slides. On this shaft there are two wrought iron tubes or shells, one for receiving and communicating the motion for each valve. The thickness of these tubes is f inch. The rocker arms which support the hooks are 6J inches between the centres, their hubs f to f inch thick, and the arms are J inch thick. The pins or bolts which support the hooks have thimbles IJ in. diameter, and j\ in. thick. The rocker shaft, tubes, arms, and thimbles, are all of wrought iron. (In some instances cast iron tubes, with the arms cast therewith, have been used, and when working on a wrought iron shaft, THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 83 have less friction than the wrought iron tubes. The Taunton Co. have used cast iron rocker tubes on upwards of sixty engines, without breakage.) The pin for the valve stem is turned with a shoul- der, and is passed through the end of the upptr arm, and secured by a nut on the back side of same. The thickness of the upper arm is IJ to to IJ inches, and is of the same length as the lower arm. Th<5 arms on the rocker shaft, which receive the motion of the hand hooks, are 10 inches between the centres. The object of the hand hooks is to catch the eccentric hooks when the engine is reversed, and also to assist in start- ing in diflBcult situations, as in a drift of snow. The inside of the eccentric hooks, where they wear on the thimbles of the rocker arms, are faced with a wedge or dowel of hardened steel. The eccentric rods are 1 J to If inches in diame- ter, and have right and left nuts to adjust their length. The end of the rod is secured to the brass hoop or eccentric band by bolts, or by be- ing passed through a hub formed on same, with nuts and check nuts on each side. The eccentric band is IJ inches thick, and is lined with Babbitt metal. The eccentrics generally have three inches 84 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. throw, and, in inside cylinder engines, must be cast in two pieces to allow of their being placed between the cranks. The eccentrics are secured to the axle by set screws turned at their ends to a blunt point, and entering the axle. This is to give a chance for altering the lead of the valve when required, which could not be so readily done were the eccentrics keyed to the axle. It is for this reason, also, that the eccentrics are gene- rally cast separately, although some engines have the four eccentrics for forward and backward motion for each valve cast in one piece, or at least in two pieces, to put together around the axle. The strap under the hook is J to f thick, and long enough that the hook may traverse, when thrown out, in either direction, without striking the thimble in the rocker arms. The cams for raising the hooks arc of cast iron, and have a throw of two inches or more. These cams are secured to a wrought iron shaft IJ to If inches in diameter, having a pinion of 12 or 14 teeth on one end and turned by a segment, which is worked by the reversing lever on the footboard. The expansion valve is worked through the medium of a separate rocker shaft, having also a THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 86 cam shaft, with reversing rod to work the same. As this cam shaft requires to he turned but one quarter around, a simple arm attached to it is all that is necessary. The hooks are sometimes formed with V-shaped openings, in order that they may readily catch the pins when reversed. This general arrangement of operating the valve has been recently superseded in a measure by the introduction of Stephenson's link motion, although the old establishments still adhere to the use of the rocker shaft. An open curved link is attached at one extremity to the forward rod, and at the other to the backing rod from the eccentrics. A block attached to the valve stem is made to fit this link, while the link can be raised or lowered so as to bring this block within the action of either rod. By this method, when- ever the engine is reversed, the ports are ready to take steam, as the act of raising or lowering the link moveo the valve to its proper position on the face of the cylinder. As this method of working the valve admits of giving it a variable throw, advantage is sometimes taken of this cir- cumstance to work expansively. Indeed, it was 86 THE LOCOMOTIVE EN'^INB. for this purpose that Stephenson first secured a patent (in England) for its use. The valve, how- ever, should generally have a determinate throw, depending on the size of the ports which it co- vers ; and any increase or diminution of this throw is attended with a choking of the induction and eduction of the steam. This result may he made evident by making a section of the steam ports on the side of a small piece of board having its edges straight, and making a section of the valve on another straight piece of wood. If the edges of these boards are applied to each other, it will be seen that any other travel than between 2^ and 3J inches, would not readily allow of the proper passage of the steam. The travel of the valve, for this reason, is generally fixed at 3 inches. A modification of the link motion, without alter- ing, however, its essential features, was devised by Sharp, Brothers & Co., of Manchester, Eng- land, and applied to the goods engines constructed by them for the Great Western Line. The link was curved the opposite way to Stephenson's, his link being described from the centre of the axle, and was suspended by a straight link to the boiler THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 87 ar frame. The eccentric rods thus retaining one position, the block was attached to the valve stem by a jointed arm, and was raised or lowered by a lever for that purpose. There are more joints about this arrangement than in Stephenson's, and its only merit above Stephenson's is, that the jointed valve stem may be raised with less power than the whole weight of the eccentric rods and links. The use of this motion for obtaining a variable expansion is of course liable to the same objections as Stephenson's. A form of variable cut-off, introduced by Horace Gray, Esq., of Boston, upon the Fitchburg, New ifork and Erie, and other roads, consists in an open curved link formed as an arm on the upper side of the cut-off rocker shaft. The cut-off valve rod being jointed near the stufiSng-box, and at- tached to a block in this link, can be raised or lowered to acquire any throw within the limits of motion of the block. By this method a va- riable expansion is obtained without affecting the induction or eduction of steam in the cylinder. To set the valves of a locomotive, the piston is brought to the end of its stroke, the valve is placed over the ports so as to have the desired »8 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. lead or advance on the piston ; the eccentric rods are then adjusted to such a length as to allow the hooks to catch the pins, the valve retaining the position previously given. The engine is now moved either forward or backward, as may be convenient, until the piston is brought to the other extreme of its stroke; and if the valve has the same advance on the second port as on the first, it is properly set. If, however, the lead is more or less than that given to the first port to which the valve was set, the eccentrics require to be turned in the proper direction on the axle, and to such an extent as to give the desired lead. Before turning the eccentrics, the eccentric rod must be lengthened or shortened, as the case may require, so as to divide the difference of lead on the two ports, in order that it may be equal on each. A proper adjustment of the length of the rods makes the lead equal on each extreme of the stroke, while the position given to the eccentrics determines the amount of lead. The eccentrics may be properly fixed to tno crank axle, when it is detached from the wheels and from the engine. Find the point a on the side of the axle, and in THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 89 Fig. 3. the horizontal line A B, connecting the centres of the crank. Then take a piece of tin or sheet iron and describe on it the circle a m n p, of the size of the axle ; from the same centre describe a circle equal to the throw of the valve. Tlien, if the valve has an indirect attachment, as in case of the rocker shaft, lay off on the cylinder Bide of the axle, the crank being turned that way, a distance A I equal to the sum of the lap and load at one end of the valve ; draw c d through s» 90 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. the point k, and perpendicular to the line A B. Through the points e and/, where this line intor- sects the circle described by the throw of the eccentric, draw the diagonal lines I t and I s, passing through the points e and / and the centre of the axle. The points e' and /', at which these diagonals intersect the circumference of the axle, may be transferred by the compasses to the axle from the point a, already found on its side. The extremity of the line dividing the forward eccen- tric in two equal parts, will fall on e', and the line dividing the backward eccentric will fall on /', as will be seen by the diagram. In setting valves with direct attachment, the distance Jc I is applied to the other side of the centre of the axle, and the diagonal -lines tend the other way. We have already explained the nature of lead, and we should perhaps have explained the term lap before entering upon the foregoing instruc- tions for setting valves. When the valve is in the middle of its travel or motion on the face of the cylinder, the distance which it laps at each end over the induction ports, is called the lap of the valve. The effect of this lap is to shut ofi THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 91 the steam before the piston has completed its stroke, and the lap valve thus acts as an expan- sion valve, to a greater or less extent as the lap is n.ore or less considerable. Indeed, the main difficulty in the use of a lap valve for a cut-off is that of starting, especially with a heavy load or on a bad grade. Engines having no separate cut-off valves usually have as much lap to the valves as will admit the steam to the cylinders without serious difficulty in starting. The effect of combined lead and lap, when restricted within proper limits, is to augment the speed of the engine ; the lead, by assisting the change in the motion of the piston so as to lose no time, and the lap to act as a cut-off valve, to derive the benefits resulting from an expansion of the steam. These benefits, as we shall hereafter demonstrate, consist in being able to do more work with the same steam, from which result a considerable economy in fuel, and a diminution in the water carried in the boiler. The pumps of an engine are either attached directly to the cross-head, and have the same stroke as the piston, or they are worked by the same through a lever proportioned sr as to give 92 THE LOCOMOTtVE ENOTNE. the puiTip plunger one-half or one-third the stroke of the piston. Many recent engines, however, including Hinkley's patterns, have an arm at- tached to the outside crank pin, which communi- cates motion to the hind pair of drivers, the end of this arm being brought up to within 3f inches from the centre of the wheel, and working the pump plunger, giving it a stroke of 7J inches. The pumps, when this connection is used, are placed at the hind end of the outside framing, and beneath the footboard. The feed water en- ters the boiler on the side of the fire-box at a point about as high as the lower row of tubes Some contend that the feed water should be injected at the bottom of the water space about the fire-box, or at the smoke-box end of the boiler, in order that the cooling effects of the water may not act directly upon the tube sheets, and, by alternately contracting and expanding them, cause the tubes to leak. Pumps having one-half or one-third stroke are generally better for engines running quick, than full stroke pumps, as the barrel of the pump is more sure to fill, while the wear of the valves is not so perceptible. THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 93 The pumps on all recent engines are provided with air vessels of iron or brass. The form of cup valve working in a brass cage, used by Souther, appears to us the simplest foi-m of valve which can be devised. It requires much less fitting than any other form of valve which we remember to have seen. The joints between the pump and the suction and air chambers, and the joint in the check valve chamber, are usually ground joints of cast iron. These, however, when long in use, fre- auently become leaky, as a cast iron joint about a pump, or in any place where the water has access to it, is found not to hold its face well. If a composition ring be placed inside the valve chamber, to make a joint upon, the iron with which it is in contact becomes subject to a pecu- liar oxidation,- arising from a kind of galvanic action with the composition ring. The iron about this ring often becomes eat full of small holes. To remedy this evil, the pumps of Souther's en- gines have rings of a composition cast inside the valve chambers, and in every situation about the pump where a ground joint is required. These rings are first cast by themselves, and their com- 94 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. posilion IS so proportioned that when placed in the mould of the valve chambers, and having the melted iron poured around them, the iron just melts the surface of the ring, and thereby be- comes firmly cast with it, so that water, which is necessary for the galvanic action described, can- not enter between them. We regard this as a very excellent plan, as it saves much expense in keeping the pumps in order, and makes no mate- rial difference in the first cost of the pump. The keys to tighten the bearings about an en- gine should not have too much taper, as there is danger of their becoming set so tight as to cause the melting of the Babbitt lining of the boxes. When much tapered, they are also liable to work out, but this does not prevent them from being set so tight as to create the mischief referred to. All the bolts should be turned and fitted, and for such as pass through the straps of the connecting rods, and other parts in motion, check nuts are required. The thread of the screws should not be too coarse, as in that case the nuts are apt to work ofi"; while if too fine, the thread is liable to strip. A thread of eleven to the inch appears to answer very well for the medium-sized bolts. THE LOCOMOTIVE EKQINE. 95 Such rubbing surfaces about an engine as are liable to become rapidly worn, require a lining of the composition' usually named Babbitt metal, from the inventor, Mr. Isaac Babbitt, of Boston. A space is left around the inside of the shell of rhe bearing, which is filled with this composition, there being ledges around the sides of the shell to keep the soft metal from coming out. A com- mon proportion for the ingredients of this compo- sition is twenty parts tin, two of antimony, and one of copper. There should always be oil cups on the cross- heads, and means must be found to oil every rub- bing surface about the engine. There should be a little chance for end play on the pins for the connecting rod to connect the drivers, and also on the pins for the pump rod. This play on the connecting rod may amount to J inch, and is necessary to allow the wheels to ride freely around a curve. We shall have occasion to mention two or three particular patterns of engines, and in so doing shall notice some peculiar arrangements in the 96 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. vai ious parts of their moving machinery, differing from what ve have described. A disposition is constantly shown among makers for improve- ments, and new applications possessing their peculiar advantages and disadvantages are con- stantly appearing. Our most recent engines pos- sess many decided improvements over those oca- strutted but a very few years ago. SECTION VII. REMARKS ON THE MANAOBMBNT OF ENGINES, A WELL-BUILT engine, having its parts easily accessible, and possessing good qualities for the production of steam, may, with careful manage- ment, be made to run for a long time with but little expense for repairs. The points to which the careful engineman directs his attention are the manner of firing, the supply of feed water, the proper adaptation of the production of steam to the features of the road, and various other particulars of a like nature, which are necessary for the proper performance of a locomotive. It is, of course, necessary to fire up oftener when the engine is performing hard work than when the load is light. The fire should be maintained at a proper point to make sufiicient steam, and sliould not be suffered to get so low as to affect the pressure in the boiler. It is an object, how- ever, in approaching a terminal station, to havo »7 98 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. barely sufficient fire to reach the engine house. The supply of feed water to the boiler is regu- lated very much by local circumstances on the road. In ascending grades, the injection of cold ■water would check the formation of steam, and it is therefore necessary to have a good supply of water in the boiler before reaching the foot of an unfavourable grade. On long levels and on de- scending grades, one pump may be kept working to nearly its full extent. It is seldom that both pumps require to be at work at the same time. There should also be plenty of water in the boiler before reaching either roadside or terminal sta- tions. The fire door should be kept open as little as possible, as the entrance of the cold air through it contracts the tube sheets, and is some- times the cause of their leaking. If an engine has a variable exhaust, it is a good plan to open it to nearly its full extent, when firing, and to immediately contract it very much, so as to recover the fire quickly. The cylinders and valves require to be oiled at every fifteen or twenty miles of the journey. Melted tallow is used for this purpose. If the ports of the throttle valve are of the same area as ths THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 99 Bteam pipe, it is found best to keep the throttle partly closed, as when the pressure in the steam is rather less than in the boilers the engine is not BO liable to prime. The proper opening for the throttle of any engine can soon be determined from observation. In going through covered bridges and station houses, enginemon are generally cautioned to shut their dampers, and to otherwise check the draft of their engines, so as to guard against fire. The boiler requires to be blown oflF at intervals of a week or more. The times at which this operation should be performed will depend very much on the purity of the water used. When a scale deposits on the tubes, and on the internal shell of the boiler, a double handful of mahogany sawdust thrown in at the safety valve will tend t,o remove it. There should be as few putty joints about an Bngine as possible ; but where there are any joints requiring packing, putty seems to answer better than India-rubber. It should be mixed to have a very firm and even consistency, which end *i best attained by mixing the red and white 100 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. lead of which it is composed by beating with a heavy hand-hammer. Tlie hemp for packing the piston rods, valve stems, and pump plungers, should be soaked in •warm water before using, Some engineers soak it in melted tallow, but this appears to rot it. Hemp simply soaked in warm water will be found strong after two months' use. Good hemp is to be preferred to India-rubber for stuffing boxes. The frequent use of the sand-box on freight etgines has the effect of rapidly wearing out the tires of the wheels. Its use should therefore be restricted to cases where it cannot be dis- pensed with. In repainting the wood work about an engine, the best way of cleaning the work from grease and dirt is to wet it with spirits of turpentine on a handful of waste. The steam chimneys are best polished with rotten-stone, used with oil on a woollen cloth. Every engineman should know, whether the spring balances of his safety valves are correctly marked. To test the balances themselves, they can be attached to a balance known to be correct, and if the weight indicated on each balance is the THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 101 Btbiin,. <;he spring of your engine balance is cor- rect. If you wish to find whether the spring balance ifc. correctly marked, — say, for instance, to a pressure of 90 lbs. to the inch, — ^find in the first place the diameter of the valve seat, or smallest diameter of the valve, and find its cor- responding area in square inches. Multiply this area by 90, and you have the entire pressure against the whole valve. Now from this pressure deduct the weight of the safety-valve lever, with the spring balance attached and disconnected from the boiler, the lever being weighed at a point directly oter the centre of the safety valve. What remains is the pressure against the valve, which is to be overcome by the tension of the spring balance, unaided by its weight. Multiply this pressure by the distance in inches from the centre of the joint pin or fulcrum to the centre of the valve pin, and divide the product by the distance from the joint pin to the centre of the spring balance. This quotient shows the tension of the spring balance requisite to overcome a pressure of 90 lbs. per square inch against the valve. Suppose this quotient to be 81, for in- stance ; then, in re-marking the spring balance, 9* 102 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGIN15. the point showing 90 lbs. per inch should be at 81, as originally marked by the maker of the spring balance on his scale. If the original marks of the spring balance have been covered or destroyed, then attach a weight equal to the quotient found in the above calculation, and the point to which it draws down the gauge or pointer may be marked, and calculated from as though it were the original mark. If the balance be screwed down to any point supposed to show a certain pressure in the boiler, a pair of steelyards can be applied to the end of the safety-valve lever, when the spring balance is screwed to that pressure and is attached to the boiler, and the resistance or tension of the ba- lance, or the weight sufficient to just raise it, may be noted. This weight may be multiplied by the distance from the joint pin to the balance, and the product divided by the distance from the joint pin to the centre of the valve ; the quotient will be the pressure against the valve, which if divided by the number of square inches in the area of the valve, will show the pressure per inch. This method, it will be seen, gives the true result also without deducting the weight of THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 103 the lever in tlie calculation, as its weight is in- cluded in getting the tension of the spring balance. No careful engineman puts out his fires by throwing water in the fire-box, except in cases demanding the immediate withdrawal of the fire. It is even then better to pull out the grate bars by a dart, which can be done if the fire-box be not full of wood, as the injury caused by contract- ing the tube sheets is irreparable. To reverse the steam also when the engine is in motion brings a very powerful strain upon its bearings. It should never be done, except to prevent col- lision or running off the track. When, to pre- vent a collision, it sometimes becomes necessary, however, to reverse full steam ahead to full steam back, a difiiculty is sometimes found in catching the hooks. The hand hooks, too, when dropped on the pins, do not immediately catch, until they will suddenly become engaged and put the hand levers in rapid motion, so as to become a source of 'danger to the engineman. It is best, there- fore, in reversing in such cases, to place the re- versing lever first midway, with all the eccentric hooks out, when the hand hooks may be at oncfl 104 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. caught and t'he back hooks immediately thrown in. We know old engineers who say they always do this in cases of the most imminent danger; and on the whole it generally takes less time. Where an engine has V-hooks, or links, there is never any difficulty in reversing at once. In removing and replacing the steam-chest and cylinder covers, care should be taken that no one screw which secures them shall be up to a tight bearing when the others are loose. In putting them on, the nuts should be turned loosely up all around, and then gradually tightened. Unless these precautions are observed there is danger of cracking the covers. There are very few roads where any account ia kept of the work performed by their locomotives, so as to show the comparative power of each engine on the road. Every new engine is, to a certain extent, an experiment, and its perform- ance will very much depend on some of the details observed in its construction. An engine- man knowing the features of the road over which he runs — as the radii of the curves, length and height of grades, &c. — may keep a very useful »nd interesting abstract of the load drawn, or THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 105 speed attained, together with the consumption of fuel, oil, &c., on some of the trips performed by the machine in his charge. These particulars are practically useful, inasmuch as they show ■what may be expected of a locomotive under ordinary circumstances ; and they also facilitate comparisons of the different patterns of engines. Some of the roads running out of Boston keep a monthly list posted in their engine houses, of the number of miles run by each of their engines, together with the amount of oil and waste used for the same time. The following is an estimate which has been furnished us of the expenses for running a first- class passenger engine, 100 miles a day for one year : — Wages of Engineraan $720.0C " " Fireman 360.00 Wood ; 4 cords per day, 280 days, > r „ ,„ ^n 1120 cords @ $4.50 per cord / Oil; 280 gallons, @ .80 224.00 Waste; 840 lbs. ".02 16.80 Repairs; 28,000 miles, @ .06 1,680.00 Water in Boston 100.00 Water and pumping on road 150.00 Interest on first cost of engine 480.00 Total $8.770 80 106 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. This, though but an approximation, serves to Bhow pretty nearly the general expense of loco- motive power. In our railroad reports generally, no mention is made of the details of the expenditures on 'account of the locomotive department ; and while the entire success of the road depends upon the condition of this branch of its fixture, the sub- ject is passed without the least notice. Those interested in railroad matters may regard the locomotive of the present day as practically perfect ; this, however, would be a serious error, and would very much retard the introduction of beneficial improvements. On some of the Southern roads — the Baltimore and Ohio, for instance — a detailed account is appended to the superintendent's yearly report, containing the number, names, rank, classes, and builders of all the engines on the road ; their performances for the. preceding year in miles run, expense for repairs on each engine, together with details of the charges for fuel, wages, oil, waste, and incidental expenses connected tlierc- frith. THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 107 The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad* is one of the largest enterprises of the kind in the country. Its entire length from Baltimore to Cumberland, including the branch to the City of Washington, is 220 miles; and there are by the last returns sixty-three locomotives on the road. The careful attention paid to the minutiae of the running de- partment on that road presents a model which our engineers might well follow. * This Company are now extending their road to Wheeling, making the entire road, when finished, 431 miles long. The difficult passage over the Alleghany Mountains will present some of the boldest and most striking works of art to be seen in this country. The new tunnel to pass through the moun- tain ridge will be one mile and one quarter long. Several iron bridges of 180 feet span ; also stone masonry bridges of that span will be erected to carry the line across the nume- rous mountain streams. This extension will greatly increase the already immense traffic now finding its channel in the Baltimore and Ohio Road. SECTION VIII. VARIOUS PATTERNS OF LOCOMOTIVES. The most recent patterns of passenger engines bave 15-inch inside cylinders, four 5-feet or 5 J-feet drivers, and a truck frame. This general arrangement is seldom modified to any material extent, although the diameter of cylinder is made by Norris 13 inches, and in some instances, by other makers, 16 inches. The use of two pairs of drivers is necessary to obtain sufi&cient adhe- sion to the rails, although an engine having but one pair of drivers runs much easier, and is to be preferred for special trains of a few cars, and running only for short distances over a nearly level track. For freight transportation the cylinder is gene- rally 16 to 18 inches in diameter, and the driving wheels from 42 to 54 inches in diameter. Hink- ley and Norris have each patterns of ten-wheel engines, with six drivers connected, and Winans's freight engines have eight wheels connected and supporting the entire weight of the engine. 108 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 109 Within a year or two there have been con- structed several engines in various parts of the country, of novel and peculiar design. The chief feature, however, in these engines has been an increase in the size of the driving wheels. Among these engines was one built by Edward S. Norris. of Schenectady, N. Y., for the Utica and Schenectady Railroad, of the following di- mensions : Sixteen-inch cylinder, 22-inch stroke ; boiler 42 inches in diameter ; H6 two-inch tubes, 10 ft. 3 in. long ; grate about 14 square feet ; one pair of wrought iron driving wheels behind the fire- box, and 7 feet in diameter; one pair of wrought iron bearing wheels just forward of the fire-box, and 4 feet in diameter, and a truck frame be- neath the smoke-box of four 3J-feet wrought iron wheels. The cylinders are outside, and are placed in a horizontal position midway between the fire and smoke boxes. A large dome, at a corresponding point on the top of the boiler, supplies steam to the cylinders through pipes running down outside the boiler to the steam chests. The valve motion is the modified form of Stephenson's link motion, on which we havo 10 no TnB LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. remarked on a preceding page. The frame of the engine is below the axle of the driving wheels, and ahove that of the 4-feet bearing wheels, the jaws for the bearings of the driving axle being formed on the upper side of the frame. There is also an outside frame having a floating bearing for the end of the driving axle, the crank and eccentrics being between this bearing and the wheel. The performance of this engine is represented as being remarkably good. The coal-burning engine built by Ross Winans, of Baltimore, and placed by him for trial on the Boston and Maine Railroad, had 17-inch outside cylinders laid horizontally, 22-inch stroke, and eight drivers, having chilled rims 43 inches in diameter, all the drivers being placed between the fire and smoke boxes. The connecting rod is applied to the third pair of wheels from the smoke-box. The distance between the centres of the extreme axle is 11 ft. 3 in. ; between the centres of the cylinders, 6 ft. 5 in. The boiler shell is made of -,®g iron, and measures, in its smallest inside diameter, 41 inches. There are 1 01 two-and-one-half-inch, and 2 two-inch wrought THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. Ill iron tubes, 13 feet in length. The upper row of tubes is nearly up to the top of the cylinder part of the boiler, the water-level being in the dome above the waist of the boiler. The dome is formed a little forward of the middle point of the boiler, having the same diameter, and rising 51 inches above it. There is a step on the back side of the fire-box, making the length of the grate 14 inches more than the length of the crown sheet. The fire box is of f-inch copper, with the exception of the tube sheet, which is of J-inch iron. Length of grate, 56J in. ; at crown sheet, 42J in. ; mean breadth of grate, 42J in. ; at centre of boiler or middle row of tubes, 39|^ in. ; all inside measures. The whole depth from the crown sheet to grate is 51J inches. The grate bars are very heavy, and are cast but two together. Their ends come through the bottom of the fire-box, on the back side, and have round holes through which to put a bar to stir them occasionally, in order to loosen the cinders and melted coal. The exhaust from both cylinders comes through a cast iron box or blast pipe having movable sides, so that the aperture at its mouth may be varied from 3J to 10 squar* 112 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. inches. There is a pipe about 9 inches in di- ameter, passing up through the smoke-box, from the bottom to the top, and entering the chimney, leaving a few inches all around it for the smoke to rise through. The exhaust enters this pipe at its bottom, and the partial vacuum created by its action supplies the blast, as in ordinary locomo- tives. The tube surface of this engine is 860 square feet ; of heating surface in fire-box, 66 square feet ; and the area of grate is 16f square feet. Messrs. Slade and Currier, civil engineers, were commissioned to make experiments with this engine, in order to institute a comparison between it and a first-class wood engine, but more particularly to test its actual value as a coal-burning engine. The results of their ex- periments have been published, but they neglect to state that the "New Hampshire" (the wood engine) was of a materially dififerent pattern from tj^e « coaler," inasmuch as it had six driving wheels and a truck frame, thereby losing a considerable per cent, of the adhesion due to its weight, as compared with the "coaler." The dimensions of the "New Hampshire" went THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 113 as follows : — 16-inch cylinder, 20-inch stroke : diameter of drivers, 46 inches ; length of tubes, 10 ft. 6 in. ; diameter of boiler, 45 inches. This engine was built by Hinkley & Drury. The experimental trips were made in the latter part of January and in the beginning of February, 1850. The entire distance from Boston to Great Falls is given as 74 miles. There was more or less snow on the track during the time in which the experiments were made. The highest grades were about 47 feet per mile. One point unfavourable for the " coaler" was the fact that from there being but about 26 miles of double track, the freight trains were subject to frequent and protracted delays, in waiting for passenger trains to pass. In waiting, the fire in the wood engine could be suffered to go nearly down, the fire-box being filled with wood when the train came in sight. In the coal engine, however, it was necessary to keep the furnace filled with coal, as, if^sufiered to get down, it would take considerable time to recover the fire. With the " coaler," the average of ten trips showed a consumption of 4786 lbs. anthracitn 114 TUE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. coal to evaporate 3512 gallons in going 74 miles; this being 10.31 lbs. coal required to evaporate one cubic foot of ■water. With the wood engine, 3 cords and j% of a foot of wood of various qualities and prices wore used to evaporate 3734 gallons of water. The cost of carrying 15000 tons one mile with wood was found to be $14.04 With coal 12.70 Favour of coal |1.34 The wood engine had a sand-box, and wrought iron tires; the "coaler" had a sand-box also, but had chilled wheels. The "coaler" took 76 cars, weighing, with freight, 433 tons, up Ward Hill, in Bradford, where there is a grade of 47 feet per mile, and also a very bad reversed curve. In going up the hill no sand Avas used, nor did the wheels slip, except, as the report states, some three or four turns where some track repairers had taken off a hand car and left a little snow on the rails. The wood engine took 61 cars up the same hill, weighing, with freight, 391 tons. Sand was constantly running from the sand-box, except THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 115 when, to ascertain whether the engine was work- ing up to its full power, the sand was turned oif, when the wheels were found to slip very much. The average cost of wood used on the through trips was f 3.63 per cord. The cost of anthracite coal, per ton of 2240 pounds, was $5.25 ; f of a ton of coal was found to be equal in effect for evaporation to one cord of wood, or $3.28 worth of coal equal to $3.63 worth of wood. The average speed of the " coaler," although having a smaller wheel and a longer stroke, was found to be ,% of a mile per hour greater than that of the wood engine ; their average speeds being 14y% and li^'j miles per hour, respectively. This was probably owing to a loss on the wood engine by slipping the wheels. In conclusion, the commissioners express their opinion that, for running heavy trains, which are not obliged to wait for any considerable length of time along the line for other trains to pass, they believe coal to be every way more economical than wood. They also say that in their re- marks they would not wish to be considered as in any way disparaging the "New Hamp- 116 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. shire," as they consider that a first-class wood engine. Winans has an express engine on the Worces- ter road, having 7-feet drivers. In this engine, however, the proportions of the boiler, &c. are very much the same as in the freight engine we have noticed. These seven-feet drivers were cast with chilled rims, and were of an extremely light pattern; in fact, they became broken before they had been used two months. There were two small steam cylinders placed on the sides of the boiler over the bearings of the driving axle, by which the weight on the drivers could be varied from three to twelve and a half tons. But when under their utmost adhesion, the drivers were found to slip very much. Many attempts have been made to burn an- thracite coal effectually and economically. Wi- nans's engines appear the best adapted for the use of this kind of fuel of any yet constructed. We regard, however, a very large extent of grate with a moderate depth of coal as still more likely to attain to superior results. For a 17- inch cylinder, let the grate be 6 feet by 3J feet, the depth of fire-box being 3 feet, and having two or THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 117 three water bridges 4 inches in thickness tra- versing its entire length. We are of opinion that anthracite might be burned in such a fire- box with increased effect in the production of steam, and with a diminished waste in the metal of the fire-box and grate bars. With such a furnace, a pair of small wheels would be neces- sary to support the hind end of it. The difiiculties encountered in the use of hard coal arise chiefly from the intense and concen- trated hea.t involved in its combustion, thereby destroying the grate bars and scaling the inside of the fire-box. This rapid burning out of the grate has led to leaving off the ash pan on the coal engines on some of the Pennsylvania roads, which appears to remove to some extent the destructive results attending the use of the coal. The ashes and cinders falling upon the track, if they do not immediately cause a fire, — which must be guarded against, — soon form an im- penetrable crust along the entire line, which removes all further danger from that source. This, though it may appear somewhat improbable at the first view, accords with the experience of the roads where it. has been tried. Much diffi 118 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. culty has been met in the use of copper tubes, as the action of the coal, from being projected iii small pieces by the blast, was found to cut them away near their mouths. This difficulty sug- gested the use of wrought iron tubes, which, however, require much caution in setting them, as the increased force necessary to head up their ends is apt to spring or bend the tube sheet. A method has been practised with much success on the Pennsylvania roads, which is to turn off an inch or more of the end of the wrought iron tube in the form of the frustum of a cone, thereby reducing its thickness one half at its extreme end. The tube is then placed through the tube sheet, and a thin thimble of copper, an inch in length, and previously turned off in the same manner as the tubes, is driven into the mouth of the tube, with its sharpest edge foremost. After being driven as far is it will go, the thick edge projecting outward is turned over and headed in the usual manner. The creation of sufficient blast by the action of the exhaust steam has also been attended ■ffith some difficulty. Anthracite requires for its proper combustion a very steady and quite THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 119 powerful blast, which the intermittent and fitful action of the blast pipe of a locomotive fails of producing. It has been attempted by many ar- rangements, however, to render this kind ol blast regular, and capable of giving the required in- tensity to the fire. The pipe described as passing up through the smoke-box of Winans's engine, has this result for its object. Although the steam enters the bottom of this pipe by sudden and violent im- pulses, the pipe must be filled with steam, which will issue in a very regular manner from the top of it, where its action is first employed in causing a draft through the tubes. It has also been tried to obtain a regular blast by letting the exhaust steam into a receiver or box a foot in diameter and a foot high, this box being in the middle of the smoke-box. Eighteen one-inch tubes in the top of this box afforded exit for the steam. This plan, however, from the resistance caused by the Bteam on the reverse side of the piston (being solicited to escape through so difiicult a passage) has rendered its operation inefficient. If future experience determines the exhaust steam to be insufficient to give a proper blast 120 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. for burning anthracite, it will become necessary to adopt some of the varieties of bituminous coals, or a mixture of anthracite and bituminous coal. We think, however, the exhaust steam will be found sufficient for burning the former, under ordinary circumstances, with a large extent of fire-box surface. We will now notice a few other patterns of en- gines from which our remarks on burning coal have arrested our attention! The "John Stevens," by Norris, Brothers, of Philadelphia, had 13-inch cylinders, 34-inch stroke, and one pair of eight-feet drivers. This engine was intended to burn coal. Its operation, however, was not attended with the anticipated results. 0. W. Bayley, of the Amoskeag Machine Shop, at Manchester, N. H., has lately built an engine with 15-inch cylinders, 24-inch stroke, and two pairs of seven-feet drivers. There were two stout shafts, resting in bearings beneath the frame, and between the cylinders and driving axle. Each of these shafts had two stout arms keyed to it, the one in a line with the piston rod, to which its upper extremity was attached by a link; the THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 121 Other outside the frame, and which, bj the con- necting rod attached to it, communicated motion to the driving wheels. The use of this arrange- ment was to obtain the supposed advantages of inside cylinders with an outside. connection. If the proposed object was to reduce the height of the boiler from the rails by avoiding the use of the crank axle, we think it might have been better attained through the use of outside cylinders, placed midway on the boiler, and connected to the hind pair of drivers. It could not be supposed that the use of inside cylinders would contribute to give the engine a steady motion on the road, so long as the power was applied outside the wheels. Had the cylinders been placed as near as they could set to the forward pair of wheels and clear them, it would have been merely necessary to let the valve stems enter the steam chests on the front side- G. S. Griggs has lately finished an engine for the Providence road, of the following general particulars : — 14f -inch cylinders ; 18-inch stroke ; about a 44-inch boiler ; 9J-feet tubes ; six driving wheels,, supporting the entire weight of the en- gme, and being 48 inches in diameter. These 11 122 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. wheels had chilled rims, and were all cast with flanges. One pair of wheels was behind the fire-box, and the connecting rod was applied to the middle pair of wheels. From the centre of the hind pair of wheels to the centre of the middle pair, was 5 feet 3 inches ; from the centre of the middle pair to the centre of the front pair, was 6 feet 9 inches ; making the entire distance between the extreme axles 12 feet. There was perhaps ^ inch end play on the axle of the back pair of wheels, none to the middle, or crank axle, and about ^ inch in the front axle. The engine had inside cylinders, inclined so as to allow the cross- heads to clear the forward axle. There was an equalizing bar between the middle and hind pairs of wheels, and an independent spring over the forward pair. The performance of this engine in the trans- portation of freight is mentioned as extremely good; and it is stated that the engine travels through a curve with all the facility of an engine of the usual pattern. . One of Hinkley's ten wheelers on the Northern road was altered by taking out the truck frame THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 123 and putting in another pair of drivers. This could be done only by setting the new drivers very far forward, and by springing up the smoke-box end of the engine, as the cylinders in this pattern, though somewhat inclined, were not intended to admit another pair of driving wheels. The distance between the extreme axles of this engine is 15 ft. 6 in. ; the two middle pairs of wheels have no flanges, and no end play was allowed in any of the boxes. The engine is said to draw a much greater load than when running with the truck frame, and is also said to ride as freely around a curve as before the alteration was made. We have never believed the use of extra large wheels on our narrow gauge roads would afford proper grounds for their general introduction. The high point at which the power of the steam must be applied to work a seven or eight feet wheel, gives the engine greater leverage in its action on the rails, and consequently involves an increased expenditure for repairs, both on the road and on the machine. The use of large wheels presents a choice of two bad arrange- ments : the boiler, to get an inside connection. 124 THE LOCOMOTIS^E ENGINE. must set very high, so as to clear the cranks; ■while the only means of reducing the height of the hoiler is to carry the cylinders outside, and to subject the whole engine to an injurious and sometimes dangerous oscillating motion, owing to the comparatively wide distance between the points at which the power is applied. Which- ever plan may be adopted is found to possess its disadvantages. True, a pair of large drivers may be placed behind the fire-box, but one pair of wheels, and at that point also, does not give the engine sufficient adhesion to the rails. On the whole, we do not believe the proposed advantages supposed to result from the use of a 3-feet stroke will ever compensate for the inju- rious effects of outside cylinders, with large wheels. The present speed of railroad travelling is as great as can be economically maintained, and any attempt to increase it increases in a higher ratio the expense of repairs and renewals. In support of our opinion, we can confidently assert that no instance can be adduced of a narrow-gauge engine, in this country, having a wheel larger than six feet, where it has been thoroughly tested and its use approved of. The THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 125 high speeds attained by 5J-feet wheels, with the express trains on the Worcester road, prove that a very rapid rate of travelling may be reached with an ordinary-sized wheel. Although we regard the only sure means of tunning quick to be found in perfecting and smoothing our roads, reducing the grades, easing the curves, and laying the road with more care for smoothness and stability, still we do not deny that a large wheel would be better for light express trains, running chiefly to transmit important despatches ; we do not, however, think the use of such engines would be advisable in running our regular and heavy trains. There are many roads where trains of two or three cars are run by twenty-two-ton engines. The injury sustained by the permanent way, from the continued passage of such unneces- sarily heavy machines, has drawn a considerable degree of attention to the subject by practical railroad men, both in this country and in Europe. On the Eastern Counties line, in England, a eteam carriage, having engine, tank, and car on one frame, — the engine having 8 inch cylin- 11* 12b* THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. der, 12 inch stroke, 5 feet wheel, and 255 feet heating surface, and the car capable of seating 84 passengers, — was placed upon a brajich road, and was found to require but llj lbs. of coke per mile, against 31| lbs., the average amount consumed by the heavy engines before used. The whole carriage, in working trim, weighed 15 tons 7 cwt. ; and with an additional car, — ^making accommodation in all for 150 passengers, — ran at an average rate of 37 miles per hour. The use of this mode of traffic, where admissible, is attended with a great diminution in the working expenses, and in the repairs of the line where it is employed. To carry 120 passengers on the present sys- tem, the weight of engine, 22 tons, tender, wood and water, 15 tons, baggage car, 8 tons, and 2 passenger cars, 20 tons, must be included. Tliis gives upward of 1200 lbs. dead weight to each passenger carried, or a train of 75 tons, at an average speed of 30 mile3 per hour. SECTION IX. TABLES AND CALCULATIONS RELATIVE TO THE LOCOMOTIVE. It is a very useful and interesting mental exercise to calculate the power, capacity, and other particulars of a locomotive. By an ac- quaintance with the expressed values of engines, deduced from natural principles, or being per- haps the results of experimental research, our minds become habituated to a better conception of their properties. At the same time, we re- quire to have the means of knowing the capa- bilities of any machine in order to direct or suggest any improvements in its arrangement ; and likewise to know that we are in possession of all the capabilities in the engine which science can point out. We therefore commence this section with a table which we have computed for the lengths of stroke and diameters of wheels of our American engines, and which is intended to express the 127 128 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. speed of the piston compared with that of the circumference of the driving wheel, the speed of the latter being taken as 1. The use of this table we shall immediately proceed to show. Zi' Diameter of DriTers. in. 42 m. 43 in. 46 in. 48 in. 54 in. 60 in. 66 in. 72 in. 78 in. 84 in. 16 18 20 22 24 ■2425 •2728 ■3031 ■3335 ■3639 -2369 -2665 -2961 -3257 -3554 ■2214 -2491 •2768 -3045 -3321 -2122 -2387 -2652 -2918 -3183 -1886 ■2122 •2358 ■2594 ■2829 -1697 ■1910 ■2122 ■2334 ■2546 -1543 -1736 -1929 -2122 -2315 -1415-1306 -1591 -1469 -1768 -1632 •1945-1795 -2122-1959 -1213 •1304 -1516 •1668 -1819 Now to calculate the tractive force of a loco- motive, multiply the sum of the areas of the two pistons by the effective pressure per square inch, the effective pressure being understood as the pressure in the boiler minus the pressure of steam barely suf&cient to keep the engine and tender by themselves just in motion; — having the product so obtained, multiply it still further by the decimal coefficient corresponding to its length of stroke and diameter of wheel, as found in the preceding table: this last product expresses the tractive force of the engine, in pounds. THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 129 To illustrate the meaning of traction, we will Buppose a deep pit to be sunk in the middle of a level track; let a weight in the bottom of the pit have a rope attached to it, the rope passing over a pulley at the mouth of the pit, and being secured at its other end to the draw iron of a locomotive. The weight which the engine could raise in this manner, entirely throngh the ad- hesion of its drivers, is equal to the tractive force of the engine. Example. — ^What is the tractive power of a locomotive having 17-inch cylinders, 22-inch stroke, 43-inch wheels, and effective pressure 80 lbs. per square inch ? The area of a 17-inch piston is 226-98 square inches. The area of two cylinders, therefore, 453-96 square inches. And 453-96 80 36316-80 •3257 the coefficient of the given wheel and stroke. 11828-38 lbs., the product, which is the 130 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. traction of the engine. The traction varies, however, according to the weight of the engine, for which this calculation does not provide. The resistance offered by the friction of one ton on a level railroad is the same as that of drawing up through the pit a weight of 10 pounds.* That is, 10 lbs. weight attached to a load of one ton, and passing over a pulley so as to act with it full weight on the load would keep it in motion. Hence, to find how many tons the above engine would draw on a level, divide the traction already found by 10, the amount of traction necessary to overcome the friction of one ton on a level, and the quotient is the desired answer. Thus : 10)11828(1182< tons drawn by the 17-inch cylinder engine on a level. Another rule for obtaining the traction of an engine, and deduced from the above, is to multiply the effective pressure per square inch by the square of the diameter of the cylinder, that product by the length of stroke, and divide * On a smooth road, with cars in good condition, the frio- tioQ is 8, and sometimes as low as 7 pounds per ton. THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 131 the whole hy the diameter of the wheel in inches. Thus, the above example would become — 289 square of 17-ijich cylinder. 80 lbs. pressure of steam. 23120 22 length of stroke. 43)508640(11828 lbs., as before. The application of this rule, it will be seen, does not require the use of the table of decimal coefficients. In going up a grade there is a certain ten- dency to roll down the hill, occasioned by the force of gravity. A portion of the tractive power of the engine is to be expended in over- coming this tendency of gravity, as well as the friction of the load. To obtain the gravity, in pounds, of one ton on any grade, multiply 2240, the number of pounds in a ton, by the height of the grade, and divide the product by the length of the grade. To obtain the gravity of one ton on a 47-feet grade, (the grade of Ward Hill, in Bradford, Mass.,) we multiply 2240 by 47, tlia 132 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. height of the grade, and divide the product by 6280, the number of feet in one mile, or the length of the grade; the quotient is 19-9 lbs., which is the gravity of one ton on a grade of that pitch. To this must be added ^e friction of one ton, already given as 10 lbs., and the whole tractive power of the engine is to be divided by their amount, thus : 29-9)11832(395-7 tons, answer. A simpler rule, deduced from the above, is to multiply the height of the grade per mile in feet, by the decimal 4242, which gives precisely the same answer. Thus : 47 X 4242 = 19-9 + lbs N. B. — The weight of the engine and tender is not included in the above answers. The friction of the engine and tender absorbs from 4 to 6 lbs. per square inch on the piston, and if the engine is not in good order it will take more. To find the quantity of water evaporated by an engine in going a certain distance, we can multi- ply the area of the piston by the length of the stroke, or by that part of the stroke into which THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 133 dense steam is admitted, where a cut-off is wseA ; this gives the capacity of one cylinder, wliich, multiplied by four, gives the amount of stoam used at one revolution. Then divide the dis- tance of your journey by the circumference of the wheel, and make a discretionary allowance for slipping ; this gives the number of revo • lutions made by the drivers in going the giver\ distance, which, multiplied by the amount of steam used at one revolution, gives the entire ■quantity of steam used in going the entire dis- tance. The question now arises, what part of this steam is water; or rather, what amount of water was required to generate this amount or volume of steam at the given pressure ? We can ascertain this by reference to the table on page 21. Suppose the given pressure of steam was 110 lbs. per square inch; opposite this pressure in the table is 241, the number of cubic inches of steam generated under a press- ure of 110 lbs. per inch from one cubic inch of water. Divide, therefore, the whole amount of steam of 110 lbs. used in the journey by 241, and you have the amount of water evaporated to generate that steam. 12 134 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE, Mxample. — How many gallons of water would an engine evaporate in running the distance from Boston to Lowell, 26 miles, the engine being of the following dimensions : — 15-inch cylinder, 18-inch stroke, 5-feet wheel, pressure 100 lbs. per inch, and cutting oflf at half stroke ? 176-71 area of 15-inch piston in square inches. 9 = inches of stroke into which dense steam is admitted. 1590-39 amount of steam used by one cyl. at one 4 stroke. 6361-56 amount of steam used at one revolution. Now get the distance in 26 miles by mul- tiplying by 5280, the number of feet in a mile, thus : — 5280 26 15-708)137280(8739 revolutions in go- ing 26 miles, the divisor, 15-708, being the circumference of the driver in feet and deci- mals. The number of revolutions, 8739, being mul- tiplied by the quantity of steam used at one THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE, 135 revolution, 6361-5 cubic inches, the product ia 65593148 cubic inches of steam used in going 26 miles. Now the pressure is 100 lbs. ; and by the table on page 21, one cubic inch of water makes 260 cubic inches of steam of that press- ure. Now the whole quantity of steam used, divided by 260, gives the quantity of water evaporated to generate that steam, which is, we find by dividing, 213819 cubic inches ; and this amount, divided by 231, the number of cubic inches in a wine gallon, gives 925-6 gallons used, which corresponds very nearly with the actual quantity used by an engine of the given di- mensions, and running on the Lowell road. It will be seen we have made no allowances for slipping, nor for any loss of steam by blow- ing ofif. We sometimes wish to know the amount of advantage gained by using steam expansively; that is, the advantage gained by cutting off steam at any fraction of the stroke. Suppose the induction port to a cylinder to remain open during one stroke of the piston, thereby ad- mitting steam enough to fill the entire capacity of the cylinder, and of the same pressure as 136 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. ■within the boiler. We will then suppose the amount of work done or load raised by that engine to be represented by the number 3 Take then the same cylinder, place the piston at the end of the stroke, and admit steam by the valve until the piston has gone through one- third the distance of the stroke. Now the load raised by the engine is either the same load as when full steam was used, but to only one-third the distance, or one-third of the former load to the same distance. In either case, the work done ia represented by one-third the number used to represent the former load ; and that number being 3, the work done when the piston has gone through one-third of its stroke is 1. But when the piston is at that point of its stroke, one-third of the length of the cylinder is filled with steam of the same pressure as in the boiler ; this steam therefore acts upon the piston, at first with its full pressure, but as the piston moves along< thereby increasing the capacity of that end of the cylinder, the steam expands and presses with a diminished force, until the piston has arrived at the extreme of its stroke; when the steam which was admitted until the piston was at THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 137 one-third stroke has now become expanded into three times its original volume, and thereby has only one-third of its origin.il pressure remaining. But it has pressed upon the piston with a con- stantly diminishing force during the last two- thirds of the stroke, and has thereby contributed to the useful effect of the engine. The steam originally admitted, after performing an amount of work represented by the number 1, has per- formed during the last two-thirds of the stroke a still further amount of work, which in reality should be represented, by a number a trifle over ], making the entire useful effect derived from one-third of a cylinder full of steam, a trifle more than two-thirds of what it was when a full cylinder of steam was used. It is evident that none of this additional useful effect, derived from the expansive property of steam, could have been obtained had steam of full pressure been constantly admitted upon the piston throughout its whole stroke. Were there suffi- cient steam in a boiler to fill a given cylinder 12 times full, the pressure in the cylinder being the same as in the boiler, and the work performed by using this steam through the whole 12« 138 THE LOCOMOTIVK ENGINE. stroke of the piston to be represented by 12, it follows that by filling only one-third of the length of the cylinder at each stroke, there would be sufiScient steam for 36 strokes, the the efi'ect of each being represented by |, and of the whole, 24, or twice the effect obtained by using the steam at full stroke. And thus it appears that although you can never obtain the •full effect of the engine except with full steam, still, more work can be done by expansion, when compared with the amount of steam used. Hence, there is a very great economy in employing full steam through but a portion of the stroke, letting the stroke be completed by the expansion of the steam already in the cylinder. Again, this principle of expanding the steam in the cylinder, while it reduces the quantity of steam used, has no effect on the production of steam in the boiler, other than what results from throwing a surplus pressure, as it accu- mulates, upon the water-level. By tracing the practical applications of this advantage, we find a given boiler may supply a larger cylinder, or a given cylinder may be -supplied by a smaller THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 139 hoiler, and do more work than with the original proportions before expansion. With expansion, therefore, the same work may be performed with a reduction in the weight of the engine, which is a very important advantage. The less the resistance of the load, the greater may be the extent to which expansion is carried in the cylinder, and for this reason expedients are sometimes resorted to for adapting the expansion to the resistance of the train. Having thus explained the philosophy which dictates the use of expansion or cut-oi0f valves, we will give a table by which the effect of the engine may be estimated for any amount of expansion. This table is called a table of hyper- bolic logarithms ; and as an explanation of the manner in which the table is prepared would encroach upon our limits, and at the same time be foreign to the character of our work, we will confine ourselves to the manner of employing this table for the purpose of calculating the effect due to the expansion of steam. We ffill first present the table. 140 THE LOCOMOTfVE ENGINE. TABLE OF HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS. No. Hyp. No. Hyp^ No. Hyp^ No. Hyp. Log. Log. Log. Log. 105 ■049 2-05 ■718 3 05 1^115 4^05 1-399 1-1 ■095 2-1 ■742 3^1 M31 4-1 1-411 1-15 •140 2-15 ■765 315 M47 415 1-423 1-2 ■182 2^2 •788 3^2 M63 4-2 1-435 1-25 ■223 2-25 ■811 3^25 M79 4^25 1447 1-3 ■262 2^3 ■833 3-3 1^194 4^3 1^459 1-35 ■300 2-35 ■854 3^35 1^209 4^35 1^470 1-4 ■386 2-4 ■875 3^4 1-224 44 1^482 1-45 ■372 2-45 •896 3^45 1^238 445 V493 1-6 •405 2-5 ■916 35 1^253 4^5 1^804 1-55 ■438 2^65 •936 3^55 1^267 455 1^615 1-6 ■470 2^6 •956 3-6 1-281 4-6 1-526 1-65 ■500 2-65 ■975 3^65 1-295 4^65 1-537 1-7 •531 2^7 ■993 3-7 1^308 4^7 1-548 1-75 ■560 2-75 1^012 3-75 1^322 4^75 1-5.58 1-8 ■588 2-8 1^030 3-8 1^33o 4-8 1^569 1-85 ■615 2-85 1^047 3^85 1^348 4 85 1-579 1-9 ■642 2^9 1^065 3-9 ]^361 4-9 1-589 1-95 ■668 2^95 1-082 3-95 1-374 4-95 1.599 2 ■693 3 1-099 4 1-386 6 1.609 To use this table in estimating the gain by ex- pansive force : — Divide the whole length of the stroke by the distance through which the piston travels before the closing of the cut-off valve; find in the table the hyperbolic logarithm of the quotient, add 1 to it, and the amount is the ratio of uniform and expansive force. THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 141 Example. — Let the stroke of a locomotive be 18 inches, and the steam cut off at 12 inches; what is the ratio of the gain ? 18 divided by 12 gives for the quotient IJ. The hyperbolic loga- rithm corresponding to this number in the table is 405, (which we must remember is decimal ;) and adding unity to it, it becomes 1-405, the effect by cutting off at f stroke as compared with 1-5 the effect when using full steam, or -937 of the effect of full steam by using but | steam. In getting the heating surface and capacity of a boiler, we require every extent of surface in the parts which determine the shape and size .of the boiler, in order to arrive at a correct result. To get the contents of the water room in a boiler, we must first find the diameter of the boiler in inches, and find, by calculation, its corresponding sectional area. To obtain the area of water section, deduct the sectional area of all the tubes from one-half the sectional area of the boiler ; then find the average between the width of the centre of the boiler, that is, its diameter, and the width of the water-level, and multiply this average by the depth of water above the centre of the boiler. This, added to 142 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. the water section in the lower half of the boiler, gives the entire water section. Now, multiply this by the length of the cylindrical part of the boiler ; multiply the width, depth, and thickness of the water spaces together ; make the proper deduction in the contents of the back water space for the door, and in the front water space for the tubes, which pass through it; multiply the area of the crown sheet by thei depth of water on its surface, and make the proper deduc- tion for the stay bars ; and the entire contents in cubic inches, divided by 1728 for cubic feet, or by 231 for wine gallons, will give a pretty accu- rate result for the capacity of the boiler. The steam room of the boiler is calculated very much in the same way. The steam section in the cj'lindrical part of the boiler is obtained by deducting the water section and tube section from the boiler's sectional area, this being mul- tiplied by the length of the cylindrical part of the boiler, as for the water content. As the circle of the outside fire-box is generally a little larger than that of the boiler, a separate calcu- lation should be made for this part. The content of the dome must also be found, and a deduction THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 143 made for the steam pipe. In getting the extent of heating surface on the tubes, we must calcu- late it from the outer circumference of the tubes ; for, although the fire is only in contact ■with their inner circumferences, the whole thick- ness of the tube becomes heated, so that the outer circumference has the same temperature to heat the water as the inner circumference re- ceives from the fire. The English engineers reckon the tube surface of a locomotive as but one-third as efi'ective as the fire-box surface ; so. that an engine with 54 square feet of fire-box surface, and 660 square feet of tube surface, would be reckoned as having only 54 plus 220, or 274 square feet of heating surface. In getting the fire-box surface, we should reckon every square inch of heated surface in contact with the water, which would of course be the four sides and the crown sheet, deducting only the areas of the outsides of the tubes, and the space occupied by the door, and the bar riveted around it. The heating surface of the fire-box could not be considered as extending below the grate. We have already said that ihe practice is sometimes to reckon only the 144 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. back, sides, and top of the fire-box as heating surface, but we should suppose that a man having woodland, pasturage, and mowing land, might with as much propriety give the size of his mowing fields for the size of his farm. The surface of the grate is of course simply the length and breadth multiplied together. We have already given the manner of cal- culating the ratios of ^the safety-valve levers, on page 101. There can properly be no such expression as the horse power of a locomotive. The difference between a stationary and a locomotive engine is such that while the former raises a load, or over- comes any directly opposing resistance, with an effect due to its capacity of cylinder, the load of the locomotive is drawn, and its resistance must be adapted to the simple adhesion of the engine, and which may be varied even as the rims of the wheels are of wrought or cast iron, as the rails are in good or bad order, as the grades of the track, the speed of the engine, and various unsettled circumstances which cannot well be resolved so as to give an expression of the power of the locomotive in the term horses' power THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 145 Stationary steam engines are applied to a vast variety of purposes, but locomotives are only required for one kind of work. A cotton manu- facturer negotiating for a steam engine, would not care to know how many feet of lumber were sawed, nor how many bushels of grain were ground by a certain sized engine ; nor would a miller wish to know the power of an engine for spinning cotton or weaving cloth. The standard of a horse power serves as a standard of com- parison, and its utility as a unit of reference is not impaired whether it represent the actual power of one horse or three, so long as the standard is universal. But as the work of a locomotive is all of one character, it becomes an object to know the actual power of an engine in drawing freight or passengers, in preference to referring it to any doubtful standard, not ex- pressing its capabilities. This we have illus- trated at the commencement of this section ; but for the assistance of such as may have occasion to estimate the horses' power of a stationary, or even a locomotive engine, we will give the usual rule. It is as follows: — Multiply the area of the piston, the pressure of steam per square 1.3 146 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. inch, the number of revolutions per minute, and the length of stroke together, divide the product by 33,000, and take /^ of the quotient for the effective horses' power of the engine. It is a received law in mechanical science, that the effect of a machine is to be estimated from its weight or elemental power multiplied into the space through which the power acts. Our read- er^ will detect that in the above rule we have directions to employ but one-half the speed of the piston to get the power of the engine. For instance, a 16-inch cylinder engine is usually rated as a 50-horse engine ; but if in calculating its power we employ the actual speed of the piston in feet per minute, we shall find our engine to have 100 horses' power. If a horse raise 150 lbs. through 220 feet in a minute, or, through the application of wheels and axles, levers, &c., he raises 33,000 lbs. one foot high in a minute, then what is usually termed a one-horse engine will raise 66,000 lbs. through the same distance and in the same time. We have always supposed that the reason for taking but one- half of the speed of the piston in es- timating the power of an engine, arose from the THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 147 fact that the steam engine was employed or. its first introduction in pumping water from mines, and for raising water for towns, where only one stroke of the engine was effectual. A horse may raise a constant load of 33,000 lbs. one foot per minute, but in pumping he could raise but half that sum, for one-half of his time would be expended in driving the piston of the pump downward. Hence, though our present allow- ance for a horse's power answers every purpose for a standard of reference to determine merely the comparative power of engines, still we shall contend that our usual manner of getting the power of an engine gives us but one-half the proper amoiint of its capabilities. We will give an example illustrating the rule we have given for estimating the horses' power of a steam engine. What is the horses' power of an engine having a 14-inch cylinder, 42-inch stroke, the pressure of steam being 71 lbs. per square inch, and the fly-wheel making 37 revolutions per minute ? N. B. — The speed of the piston to be obtained in the usual manner, by multiplying the numher of revolutions into the length of stroke. 148 THB LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 153-94 sq. in. area of a 14-inch piston. 71 lbs. per square inch. 10929-74 lbs. entire pressure on the piston. Now we wish to ascertain the number of feet the piston travels per minute, or rather, half the actual number: — 37 number of rev. per min. 3J length of stroke in feet. 129-5 speed of piston in feet per min. 10929-74 pressure on piston. 129-5 speed of piston. 33000)1415401 (42-9 horse power. And j^ of this quotient is 30 horses' power, the power of the engine. To get the capacity of a tender tank, we must first obtain the extent of surface on the bottom of the tank, which, multiplied by its height or depth, and reduced to gallons, gives its capacity. To illustrate this calculation, we will give a diagram of Hinkley's tank for a six-wheeled tender. THK LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 149 Fig. 4. Radlu8 of corners a, a, and a', a', 6 inches. Depth of tank, 35 inches. The part A may be considered as an exact parallelogram, since the surface cut off by the corners a, a, is again made up by those at a', a'. The sum of the two semicircular terminations h, b, of the wings B, B, has of course the area of one entire circle two feet in diameter ; and these semicircles reduce the length of the straight part of the wings b, b, one foot. Hence, the area of the surface of the tank is as follows : — 13» 150 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 85 X 66 5610 area of part A. 66 X 24 X 2 3168 " " wings b, b. 452 « " terminations b, 5. 9230 sq. in. surface of tank. 35 depth of tank. 323050 cub. inches in tank. This last product, expressing the contents of the tank in cubic inches, may be divided by 231, and we shall have the capacity of the tank in gallons. This we find to be 1398J gallons. The young machinist will readily perceive there is no difficulty in making any of these calculations, as they involve only the simplest rules of arithmetic, while their solution forms a very useful and interesting mental exercise. It 18 an excellent idea for any one wishing to get thoroughly acquainted with the steam engine, to measure and preserve the proportions of every engine that may come in his way ; these dimen- sions, sooner or later, assume a high value to the possessor, inasmuch as he finds them convenient for reference in comparison, estimation, or in designing new work. They also serve to bring THE LOCOMOTIVE ENWINB. 161 him in closer acquaintance with the principles of the mechanical science involved in the theory and the practical construction of the steam engine. To get the area of a circle. — Square its di- ameter; that is to say, multiply the diameter into itself, and multiply this product by the deci- mal number -7854 ; the last product will be the area of the circle. Example 1. — What is the area of a 17-inch piston ? 17 17 289 •7854 226-98 square inches area, answer. Example 2. — What is the sectional area of a steam pipe 4 J inches inside diameter ? 4-5 4-5 20-25 7854 15-904 square incnes area, answer. 152 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGIKE. N. B. — In multiplying with decimal numbers, ve must recollect to point ofif as many places from the right hand of the product for deci- mals as there are places of decimals in the multiplier and multiplicand taken together. To get the circumference of a circle, multiply the diameter by 3'1416; the product is the circumference. Another method is to multiply the diameter by 355, and to divide the product by 113. To those accustomed to proportion, this rule might be presented thus : — 113 : 355 : : diameter : circumference. These two numbers may be readily carried in the mind from a slight peculiarity in the order of their arrangement. By setting the two numbers down in the following manner, it will be seen there are two ones, two threes, and two fives, thus: 118355. Examples. — What is the circumference of a copper tube 2 inches in diameter ? 3.1416 2 6.2832 inches, answer. THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. Iu3 What is the circumference of a driving wheel 66J inches in diameter ? 66-5 355 113)23607-5(208.9 in., answer. N. B. — In dividiifg with decimal numbers, we must point off as many places for decimals in the quotient as, taken with those in the divisor, if any, will equal the number of decimal places in the dividend. Division is the reverse of mul- tiplication, and the divisor and quotient are factors, of which the dividend is the product. What is the circumference of a 5-feet d.-iving wheel ? Five feet reduced to inches becoxhCP 60 inches. 355 60 llS12??00i'\?8 \9(\ inchee, i^nswer 154 'IHE LOJOMOTIVE ENGINE. TABLE OF THE AEEAS OF PISTONS. Diam. Area. Diam. Area. 10 in. 78-540 14} in. 165-130 lOJ 86-590 *14f 170-878 11 95-033 15 176-715 llj 103-869 15} 188-692 12 113-097 16 201-062 12J 122-718 16} 213-825 13 132-732 17 226-980 13} 143-139 17} 240-528 14 153-938 18 254-469 TABLE OF THE CIRCUMFEKENCES OF DRIVERS, Diam. Ciroum. Diam. Circum. 42 im 43 " 46 " 48 " 54 " 131-94 in. 135-08 " 144-51 « 150-80 " 169-64 " 60 in. 66 " 72 " 78 " 84 " 188-50 in. 207-34 " 226-19 " 245-04 " 263-89 •• * Size }f Grigg'B cylinders on the Providenoo road. SECTION X. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES AND OBSERVATIC Jf 8. The principal locomotive concerns in this coun- try at the present time, are the following : — Portland Locomotive Works, Portland, Maine — Horace Felton Superintendent. Amoskeag Manufacturing Co., Manchester, N. H. — Oliver W. Bayley, Superintendent. Essex Company, at Lawrence, Mass. — Caleb M. Marvell, Superintendent. Lowell Machine Shop, at Lowell, Mass. — William A. Burke, Superintendent. Boston Locomotive Works, Boston — Hinkley, Drury, and others, Proprietors; D. T. Child, Treasurer. Union Works, South Boston — Seth Wilmarth, Proprietor. Globe Works, South Boston — John Souther, Pro- prietor. 15S 156 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. Taunton Locomotive Manufacturing Company, Taunton, Mass. — W. W. Fairbanks, Agent. Mattewan Machine Works, Fishkill Landing, New York — W. B. Leonard, Agent. Norris Locomotive Works. Schenectady, N. Y. — Edward S. Norris, Proprietor. Rogers, Ketchum & Grosvenor, Paterson, N. J. Swinburn and Smith, Paterson, N. J. Ross Winans, Baltimore, Md. Baldwin and Whitney, Philadelphia, Pa. Norris, Brothers, Philadelphia, Pa. Denmead, at Baltimore, a shop at Richmond, Va., and an establishment at Cleveland, Ohio, also advertise to build locomotives. In Boston, the Maine, the Providence, and the Worcester railroads have built many engines for themselves. The Springfield Car and Engine Co., and the Ballardvale Machine Shop at Andover, Mass., have been nearly closed ; and the manufacture of locomotives at those places has been entirely sus- pended. Jabez Coney, of South Boston, built at his shop, in 1847, two locomotives for the Old Co'.ony road. THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. J.'>T The price of a first class 21-ton passenger engine, varies, according to the style, from 6800 to 8000 dollars. Freight engines, from being built from heavier patterns, generally cost more. Below we give estimates of the weights of some of the principal parts about a locomotive, and about the average prices usually charged for such items. 42-incli boiler, 7500 lbs., @ 14e |1050.00 135 If-inch copper flues, lOJ feet long, 2500 lbs., @ 30c 750.00 Turning and driving thimbles, setting do., &c 30.00 Solid engine frame, 2500 lbs., @ 6c 150.00 Jaws of wrought iron, 1000 lbs., @ 10c 100.00 Finishing frame 150.00 4 driving wheels, for 5^ ft. di., 6000 lbs., @ 3c 180.00 1 crank axle, ^ in. finish, 1500 lbs., @ 18c 270.00 1 straight axle, 650 lbs., @ 10c 65.00 2 truck axles, 3J in. journals, 480 lbs., @ 6c 28.80 4 truck wheels, 30 in. diameter 70.00 4 Lowmoor tires, 5J ft., 2850 lbs., @ 13o 370.50 Finishing wheels, cranks, and axles 200.00 2 cylinder castings, 15 inches in diameter, 1600 lbs., @ 3c 48.00 Boring cylinders 50.00 2 rough connecting rods, 360 lbs., @ 8c 28.80 The prices given are perhaps a fair average, and the whole table may serve to show about 14 158 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. tbe usual weight of the heavier and more im- portant parts of a locomotive. In regard to explosions, we do not believe any well made boiler ever gave way to do any serious damage, except through a want of water in it. If the water is suffered to get below the upper row of tubes, the fire generally burns them out, the water rushes into the fire-box and extin- guishes the fire, thus preventing all danger; but enginemen have sometimes found their water entirely run down, and the flues entirely spoilt by the fire, but not burnt out. We recollect — and perhaps others who may read this will recol- lect also — of an instance on the Lowell and Law- rence road where an ofiicer of the road undertook the management of an engine, and succeeded in boiling every drop of water away, burning the wooden lagging off the boiler, and burning the tubes so as to make it necessary to replace every one of them, though they were not burnt through. When the water is boiled entirely away, and the internal shell of the boiler becomes heated red hot, the admission of cold water generally pro- duces an explosion. Some attribute this to the immediate decomposition of the nitrogen, one of THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 159 the principal gases which enter into the compo- sition of water, and leaving the hydrogen to ex- plode by the intense heat. But the presence of oxygen is necessary for the explosion of hydrogen gas ; and a very distinguished chemist has averred that there can be no oxygen in a boiler filled with Bteam. A recent theory is that of the sphe- roidal state of water when thrown upon a red hot plate. The water, it is stated, when thrown upon a plate heated to a very high rate of temperature, assumes the spheroidal state, rolling over the plate in smooth globules, like a mass of melted lead ; while in this state, no steam can be pro- duced from the water ; but when the temperature of the plate falls to a certain extent, the water becomes almost instantaneously converted into steam of intense and overwhelming elasticity, and the consequence is, the boiler gives way in the weakest part. We would not wish to revive in this place the question of the explosion on the Providence road, about which there was so much diversity of opinion ; but we must say, that in that instance, the report of the commission, notwithstand- ing its high authority, hardly succeeded in .160 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. Batisfying the minds of a large portion of the public. A recent act of the Massachusetts Legislature requires that the boiler of every stationary, locomotive, or marine engine, running within the State, shall have a fusible plug in the crown sheet of the furnace. To answer this require- ment, a lead plug J inch in diqimeter is tapped into the crown sheet of a locomotive furnace, so that when the top of the fire-box becomes un- covered with water, this plug may melt, and by letting the steam escape into the fire-box, give notice of the danger. At the introduction of railroads, engines were built with cylinders no larger than 8 inches in diameter. In 1840, we think there were no en- gines with cylinders larger than 12 inches. In 1844, we had 13J-inch cylinders; by 1847, 15 inches: and now, Perkins, on the Baltimore and Ohio road, is building an engine with a 20-inch cylinder. The gauge of our roads remains the same now as it was a dozen or fifteen years ago — four feet eight and one-half inches inside the rails. In those days, two trains per day, drawn by the light engines, were all which the business THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 161 of a road would warrant. Now, we have twenty to thirty trains drawn over our principal roads daily, by engines averaging from twenty to twenty-five tons in weight. These facts are sufiScient to show a vast increase of business wherever railroads are extended. This constantly growing traffic must, at no distant period, demand the adoption of a wider gauge for our tracKS. Railroad men prefer engines wiih inside cylinders to those having the cylinders outside. Every engine requires apparatus for reversing and for working expansively ; and no better means, we think, have yet been found to effect these objects than the use of six eccentrics. Here the in- sufficiency of the width of the track becomes evident ; it is only by economizing every inch of room that sufficient space can be found to arrange the work of an inside cylinder engine. It would be a matter of very great convenience were the track wider than at present ; and we believe that the experience of a dozen years, at most, will de- termine it to be a matter of absolute necessity. The gauge of the Atlantic and St. Lawrence, and the Androscoggin and Kennebec roads, in Maine, is five feet six inches inside the rails, and 14-S 162 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. that of .the Sew York and Erie railroad is sis feet. Wherever a break of gauge is made, it would seem of importance that the addition in width should be uniform on all roads, as a difference in tracks disturbs the traffic, inas much as no means exist of forwarding goods by such roads, except by changing cars. Every railroad doing any considerable amount of business, should have sufficient and capacious repair shops of its own. The increased facility and convenience with which they can do their own repairs, and the saving in the profits which outside shops charge them, make it a matter of economy to repair their own work, For a rail-- road having fifteen to twenty locomotives, a shop 120 by 60 feet, and one story high, if properly laid out, makes a very convenient repair shop. For such a shop there would probably be required for tools, &c., One stationary steam engine, (25 horse,) say $1500 " locomotive boiler with wrought iron flues 1800 " large engine lathe to swing six feet 1500 " 14 feet planing machine 800 " 12 feet engine lathe, with screw feed 350 " 12 " " " without screw feed SOO Carried forward $6250 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 163 Brought forward $6250 One 10 feet en^e lathe, without screw feed ^■'iO hand lathe for iron 175 " " " wood 125 bolt-catting machine 250 wall drill 125 suspended drill for tires 125 machine for drawing on wheels 50 blower for blacksmith's shop 50 forge hammer 400 Total $7800 We merely give the above estimate to show with how few tools and at how little expense the repairing department of a railroad may be con- ducted. In arranging such a shop, however, the fancy or belief of many would lead them to have many additional tools, such as one 16-feet engine lathe, a compound planer, (the expense of these two being about §1000 ;) and for an increa.sed business, some would think a spliner (§500) and some other tools- necessary. We know, however, of some roads having twenty locomotives, and doing all their repairs with a list of tools such as is comprised in our original estimate. We give below the particulars of the weight . and performance of some of the heaviest engines on the Fitchburg road, from the Director's Report 164 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. for 1849. The whole number of engines on the road on the 31st of December, 1^49, was twenty- five. N. B. — The following engines were built by Hinkley, with the exception of the "Boston," which was built by Lyman and Souther, of South Boston. Names.' Athol Concord Shirley Lincoln Cambridge... Littleton Boston Fitchburg Ontario I I 15 in. 16 14 16 15 15 16 16 16 20 in. 20 18 20 18 18 20 20 20 four 4J ft. 5 5 5 5i 6 six 46 in. Truck outside cylind r inside " THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 165 0% 'ti |l 1 rH S^ a E^'S t< S Names. "s.g t3 g "s* . Capacity of g i S-S-S Tender. 60 9 ^.IS s 4 » 2- '3 ;S^S H ^.a is ^ '^ S' Galls. Cords lbs. lbs. IbB. water. wood. Athol 40,000 30,000 27,000 1,400 6 10,419 Concord.... 40,000 30,000 27,000 1,400 6 19,348 Shirley 34,000 24,000 23,700 1,200 6 23,222 Lincoln 46,600 30,900 29,000 1,600 H 8 19,050 Cambridge. 40,000 28,000 27,782 1,400 6 25,182 Littleton ... 40,000 28,000 27,700 1,400 6 2.5,474 Boston 46,000 30,000 30,000 1,500 n 8 29,000 Fitchburg.. 46,600 30,900 29,000 1,600 n 8 12,792 Ontario 47,000 36,000 28,058 1,600 Ij 8 9,516 The " Champlain," an engine of the same dimensions as the " Ontario," ran 24,628 miles in the same time. In regard to the strength of boiler iron and the eflfects of high temperatures upon it, it was ascertained from experiments made by a com- mittee of the Franklin Institute, that at a tem- perature of 32°, the freezing point, the cohesive strength of boiler iron was 4 below its maximum, and that its strength increased as an additional temperature was applied, until it had reached 570 166 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. degrees Fahrenheit, when the iron was found to have attained its maximum strength. Above this point, the strength of the iron was diminished ; at 720° it had the same cohesive strength as at 32°, or 7 below its maximum ; at 1050°, one-half its greatest strength; at 1240°, one-third; and at 1317°, nearly one-seventh. Copper follows a difiFerent law, as every addition of temperature above the freezing point appears to weaken it. At 529°, it has but three-fourths its greatest strength; at 812°, but one-half; while a tem- perature of 1300° entirely destroys its cohesive force. The adhesion of the wheels of an engine is about one-fifth the weight when the rails are clean, and either perfectly wet or perfectly dry, but only from one-tenth to one-twelfth the weight when the rails are damp or greasy. Thus, for a rough calculation, a 25-ton engine will have 5 tons adhesion ; and as the resistance of a train on a level is about jj^tt; such an engine should draw, including its own weight and that of its. tender, 1000 tons on a level. This would be its maximum load at a slow speed. We recollect the published report of the per- THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 167 formance of one of Baldwin's six-driver engines — the «' Ontario" — in 1845, on the Philadelphia and Beading road. The train consisted of 150 cars fully loaded with coal, the weight of the coal being 759 tons, and of the coal and cars 1180 tons. The engine, it was stated, moved along alone with this extraordinary train at a rapid rate. A four-wheel engine, having its entire weight on the drivers, drew from Lowell to Boston, in July, 1849, a train of one hundred and twenty-nine cars, mostly loaded. This en- gine had 13J-inch cylinders. j|@=° Having completed the original design of our little work, we here give some particulars of the present state of the railway system, which must prove interesting to all. According to the Bailroad Journal, there were,, at the commencement of 1849, 18,656 miles of finished railroad in the world, costing ^368,567,000, or about 1800 millions of dollars; also 7829 miles of unfinished road, which at the estimate of ^£146, 750,000, would give, in all, 168 THE LOCOMOTIVE BNGlifE. 26,485 miles of railroad, costing 2400 millions of dollars ; all of which has been invested since 1830! In July, 1850, there were 7742 miles of rail- road in the United States, 2423 miles of which are in New England. Whole amount expended on roads in operation since 1834, $300,000,000. At the end of 1848, there were in Great Britain "and Ireland 5127 miles opened, 2111 miles in progress, and 4795 miles authorized, but not commenced. On 4258 miles opened, in the United Kingdom, on May 1, 1848, there were 52,688 operatives. On 7388 miles of un- opened road, there were 188,177 operatives. The total amount of money and securities paid into railroad treasuries on these lines to the commencement of 1849, was one thousand mil- lions of dollars, while the companies retained power to raise by existing shares, new shares, and loans, the further sum of £143,717,773. In 1850, there were 24 roads in France,, of 1722 miles, and including portions constructing, but not finished, 2996 miles. Average cost per mile, $128,240. In 1849 there were 2294 miles of road THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 1G& opened in Austria, Prussia, and the Germau States. In Belgium, 347 miles, owned by government. In Holland, about 110 miles. In the north of Italy, there is a line, partly finished, from Venice to Turin and Alexandria. When the proposed tunnel beneath the Alps shall be completed, this road will form a main link in the great direct railroad line from London to the Adriatic. There are short roads in nearly all the States of continental Europe, except in the States of the Church, where the Pope has opposed their intro- duction. And Russia, aided by American energy and skill, is opening a vast road between her two great capitals, Moscow and St. Petersburg. u A GLOSSARY THE OPERATION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. ■"N. B. — Many of the names and terms here used are ex- plained at greater length in the body of the book.] Adhesion. — The measure of the friction between the tires ot the driving wheels and the surfaces of the rails. The adhesion varies with the weight on the drivers and the state of the rails, but with a good rail is generally from one-fifth to one-seventh of the weight on the drivers. The load drawn is no measure of the adhesion, except the resistance of friction and gravity of the load be given. Air Chamber. — A tight vessel attached to the pump. The feed water, entering it at the bottom, is subjected to the pressure of air within it which forces out the water in a steady stream. Recent engines have two air cham- bers to each pump — one on the suction, and one on the forcing side of the same. The capacity of air chamber should equal that of the barrel of the pump. Angle of Friction. — That pitch of grade at which a loaded car would just stand without descending, being kept at rest by the friction of its bearings. Allowing tho 171 172 GLOSSARY. friction to be 7 lbs. per ton, this grade would be 16J feet per mile ; for 10 lbs. friction per ton, 23J feet per mile. Ash Pan. — A box or tray beneath the furnace, to catch the falling ashes and cinders. Axle. — The revolving shaft to which the wheels are secured. Blast Pipes. — Two pipes, contracted at their mouths, to discharge the waste steam from the cylinders. Their action excites an artificial draft or blast in the fur- nace. Blow-off Cock. — A cock at the bottom of the fire-box, through which to empty the boiler. Boiler — The source of power ; the vessel in which the steam is generated. Bonnet. — A wire cap or netting, surmounting the chim- ney, to keep down the sparks and cinders. Box. — A bearing, enclosing the journal of a revolving shaft. When made in two parts, the lighter is called the cap. When made as a single piece, and supporting the end of an upright shaft, a step ; and when turned outside and fitted into a frame, or stand, a bushing. To reduce friction, boxes a,re lined with soft metal. Brake. — A block or strap applied to the rim of a wheel, to check its motion and bring it to a stop. Bunters. — Guards projecting from the ends of tenders and cars, and connected with springs, to prevent shocks from collisions. Cam. — A plate or pulley, turning on a shaft out of its centre. When made round and encircled by a strap, and employed to work the valves of a steam engine, and foi eimilar purposes, it is called an eccentric. GLOSSARY. 173 Case. — A casting sliding in the jaw, and to hold tbb brass box of an axle. For drivers, the case is lined with Babbitt metal, and forms the bearing for the axle. Check Valve. — See Valve. Counterbalance. — A large block secured between two arms of each driving wheel, to balance the momentum of the moving machinery connected with the axle. Connecting Rod. — Rod to communicate the pressure on the piston to the crank. Crank. — In inside cylinder engines is forged in the axle, and for outside cylinders is supplied by a pin in the wheel. The crank converts the rectilineal motion of the piston to the rotary motion of the wheels. Cross Head. — A block moving in guides; having the end of the piston rod secured within it at one side, and a pin to attach the connecting rod at the other. Cvt-off Valve. — An additional valve, not indispensable, to shut off the admission of steam to the cylinder, when the piston has only completed a part of its stroke. Cylinder. — A cylindrical vessel, closed at its ends by covers. Steam is admitted alternately at each end, to press upon a block called the piston. The piston is made to fit, steam tight, to the inner circumference of the cylin- der, and the action of the steam keeps it in motion, from one end of the cylinder to the other. Damper. — A door, to exclude the air from the furnace. Dome. — An elevated chamber on the top of the boiler, from which the steam is taken to the cylinders. Draw Iron. — A rigid bar, connecting the engine and lender, and secured to each by a pin. Drivers, or Driving Wheels. — Those wheels turned di- 16* 174 GLOSSAllY. rectly by the moving machinery of the engine, and Vfhich, by their adhesion to the rails, propel the engine along. Eccentrics. — See Cam. Eduction Pmi,. — A passage on side of cylinder to lead •way the waste steam from same, to the blast pipes. Eqtmlizing Lever. — A bar suspended by its centre, be- neath the frame, and connected at each end to the springs of the drivers, to distribute any shock or jolt between both pairs of wheels. Expansion Valve. — See Cut-off. Fire-box. — The furnace of the boiler. Foaming. — An artificial excitement, or too great ebulli- tion on the water-level, observed when the boiler has become greasy, or otherwise foul. Generally productive of priming. Footboard. — A plate iron floor, behind the boiler, for ths engineman and fireman to stand upon. Frame. — Made to attach to the boiler, cylinders, axles, and all cross shafts, and binds the whole fabric together. Friction, of Trains. — The friction of the bearings of the carriages, and for every ton drawn, offers a direct resist- ance of from seven to ten pounds. Frost Cocks. — Cocks to admit steam to the feed pipes leading from the tender to the pump; used when the water becomes frozen. Gauge Cocks. — Cocks at different levels on the side of the fire-box, and to ascertain the height of water in the boiler. When opened, water or steam will escape, accord- ing as the level of the water is above or below them. GLOSSARY. 175 Gland. — A bushing to secure the packing in a stuffing- box. Grade. — The inclination of a road ; expressed either by the number of feet rise per mile, or by naming the dis- tance passed in rising one foot ; thus, a grade of 1 in 330, which is 16 feet per mile. Gravity. — The tendency which all bodies have to find the lowest level. The resistance in pounds, occasioned by the gravity of one ton on any grade, may be found by mul- tiplying the grade, in feet per mile, by the decimal number ■4212. Grate. — The parallel bars supporting the fuel in the fire-box. Guides. — Rods, or bars, lying in the direction of the axis of the cylinder, and guiding the cross head, to insure a perfectly parallel motion in the piston rod. Sand Levers. — Levers to work the main valves by hand. Housing. — See Jaw. Induction Ports. — Two passages on side of cylinder, to admit steam within it, — one port communicating with each end. Javj. — A stand secured to the frame, to hold the box of an axle. The jaw must allow the box to slide up and down within it. Journal. — The part of a shaft or axle resting in the box. Lagging. — A wooden sheathing around a boiler ot cylinder. Lap. — The distance which the valve overlaps on each 176 GLOSSARY. end over tte induction ports, when in the middle of its travel. Lead. — Distance to which the induction port is opened, when the piston commences its stroke. Link Motion. — An arrangement for working the valves, described in the body of the book. Manometer. — An instrument for determining accurately the pressure on a given surface — as a square inch — ^within the boiler. Man Hole. — A hole to admit a man within the boiler. Mud Hole. — A small opening at bottom of water space around fire-box, to clear out deposites of dirt, and other matter introduced with the water. Packing. — Any substance used to make a joint steam or water tight. Pet Cock. — A small cock between the check valve and pump, to see if the latter is working. Pintal. — An upright pin. There is a pintal secured beneath the forward end of the engjne, to connect it with the truck frame, and to allow of the turning of the truck, independent of the engine. Piston. — See Cylinder. Piston Rod. — Rod secured at one end within the body of the piston, and at the other to the cross head. This rod passes through the cylinder cover, and is made steam tight by packing secured in a necking, or recess, outside of cover, and called a stuffing-box. Pluff, Fusible. — A lea.l plug tapped in top sheet of furnace, to melt and givo warning whe* the water falli below it. GLOSSARY. 177 Hunger. — The solid piston of a pump, and pressing only by one end against the water. Ports. — Openings, or passages. Priming. — The passage of water, along with the steam, into the cylinders, when the engine is working. Backer Shaft. — A shaft rocking in its bearings. Reversing Levsr. — A lever in reach of the engineman, acting upon the valve motion, and to change the direction of the progress of the engine. Safety Valve. — A valve on the boiler, to discharge the surplus steam generated, above what is required for the engine, and which by accumulating would endanger the safety of the machine. Slide. — See Guide. Smoke-box. — A chamber at forward end of boiler, where the smoke and sparks from the tubes are received and dis- charged through the sparker. Sparker, or Chimmy. — A pipe to discharge the smoke and waste steam, and surrounded by a casing to retain the sparks. Springs. — These are required over each wheel to reduce shocks and jolts. Steam Chest. — Box on top, or side of cylinder, and con- taining the valve to admit steam on the piston. Steam Pipe. — Pipe entering the dome, and communi- cating with the steam chests through two branch steam pipes in the smoke-box. Stuffing-box. — See Piston Bod. — Used in all situations wliere a rod or spindle, having any end motion, requires to be made steam or water tight around same. Sub-Treasury. — A receptacle for sparks. Slightly dif- 178 GLOSSARY. fereut from those at the custom-house, but quite as ben» ficial. Stroke. — The distance travelled by the piston at each period of its motion. Tender. — A separate carriage, to carry wood and water. Thimble. — A tube of iron or steel. Throttle Valve. — A valve in the dome, and closing the mouth of the steam pipe. Trailing Wheels. — A pair of small wheels, placed behind the drivers, when but one pair of the latter is used. Traction. — Differing from adhesion in this : The adhe- sion is the power of the engine derived from the weight on its driving wheels and their friction on the rails ; while the traction is also the power of the engine, but derived from the pressure of the piston applied through the crank and radius of the wheel. These two elements may not always be the same. Truck Frame. — A separate frame, supporting four or six wheels, and turning on a pintal, independent of the body of the engine or car. Tubes. — These are used to conduct the heat from the fire-box, through the waste of the boiler, to the smoko-box. When a tube is so large as to require to be made of plates, riveted together, it is called a flue. Yalve. — Any gate or fixture, other than a cock, to close a steam or water passage about an engine. The main, or port valve, which admits steam directly to the cylinders, is a block with a recess or cavity on its under side. The steam passes by the ends of the valve into the ports, aiiJ the motion of the valve, derived from the eccentrics, admits the stea-n at the proper time. GLOSSARY. 179 The uses of the cut-off and safety valves ha-ja been de- scribed. The pump valves are either what are called hall valves, spindle valves, or cup valves. The check valve is an addi- tional valve on the forcing side of the pump, and is to pre- vent all danger of forcing back the water from the boiler Into the pump by the action of the steam. Variable Cut-off. — An arrangement to alter the travel of either the main, or cut-off valve, to use full steam through a greater or less distance of the stroke. Variable Exhavst. — An arrangement to enlarge 'or con- tract the blast pipes. V-HooJcs. — So called from their form of opening ; — much better than the common kind, as they are sure to catch the pins, and for this reason (though an old idea) are coming into general use. WJdstle. — A hollow cup made to allow the steam to strike its lower edge, by which a shrill sound is obtained f2 Outside 124 Cut-off, principle of. 135 to estimate amount of advantage of. 140 manner of working 85 Damper... ; 61 Description of the Locomotive Enpne 24 Dome '46 Draft, shutting off in going through bridges 99 Driving Wheels 70, 173 Eccentrics 17-i Engines, details of. 39. 95 on Baltipiore ana Ohio Road 10" INDEX. 183 Engines on Fitchburg Road 163 by Bury, Curtis jfc Kennedy 57 by Thacher Perkins 58 by Taunton Loc. Mfg. Co 55 Equalizing bar 73 Estimate for Repair Shop 163 of cost of Locomotive Power 105 Experiments on Coal Engine 112 Explosions 158 Evaporation of Water 133 Fire-box 2i Flues, (see Tubes) 42 Frame 68 Outside 76 Freight Engines 108 Friction of Trains 130 Fusible Plug , 160 Gauge Cocks 51 Glass Tubes 52 of Tracks 160 Glossary 171 Grate 44 Covering up 44 Area of. 54 Griggs, G. S., Engine by 121 Gray's Variable CutOff 87 Gravity of Trains 131 Hinkley's Engines 48 Heating Surface 54, 143 Hooks 85 184 INDEX. Iron, for boilers 39 strength of. 164 Introduction 3 India Rubber Springs 74 Iron Tender Frame 77 Jaws 69, 175 "John Stevens" Passenger Engine 120 Joints, about pump 95 Putty and ground 65, 99 Steam Chest 65 Steam Pipe 65 Keys 94 Lap of Valve 90 Latent Heat 12 Large Drivers 123 Level of Water 26 Lead of Valve 31 Link Motion 85 Locomotive, details of. 39, 96 performance of. 164 cost of. 157 cost of power 105 Shops in this country 155 Load drawn by Engines 166 LoweU Machine Shop, Engines by 54 Mahogany Dust to prevent scales 99 Middle Tube Sheet 43 Mud-hole Plugs 53 IJfDEX. 185 Norris, E. S., Engine by 109 Oil used on Engines... 105 Open Spring 75 Outside Frame 76 Cylinders .'. 124 Passenger Engines 108 Packing 99, 176 Composition for Rings 79 Pipes 65 Pistons 78 Pintal 76, 176 Priming 18, 177 Properties of Steam 9 Proportions of Boilers 54 Power of Engines 128, 144 Pumps 91 Reyersing Apparatus 84 at full speed 103 Repair Shops 162 Rocker Shafts 82 Running Engines 97 Safety Valves 47 Sand-box, use of wears out the wheels 100 Sand-box on Coal Engine 114 Setting Valves on Locomotiveg 87 Sharp, Brothers & Co.'s Link Motion 86 Slado and Currier's experiments and report 112 Slides 80 Slipping the Wheels 114 16» 1 16 INBTDX. Souther, John, Engine by 54 Engine on Fitchburg Road 164 Solid Frame 68 Spheroidal State of Water 159 Spring 73 Sparker.... 49 Steam, properties of. 9 Steam Carriage on the Eastern Counties Line 125. Stephonson's Link Motion 85 Engine by 56 Estimate of power expended in blast pipe 66 Strength of Boiler Iron 164 Stuffing Boxes, packing for 100 "Sub-Treasury" 50,177 Tables and Calculations 127 Circumference of Drivers 153 Hyperbolic Logarithms 140 Co-efficients of Speed of Piston 127 Temperature and Elasticity of Steam 20 Proportions and Dimensions of Engines... 54 Performance of Engines 165 Testing Safety Vajves 100 Ten-wheel Engine on the Northern Road 122 Throttle, opening for 98 Tractive Force of Engines 129 Truck Frame 75 Tubes, setting do 42 on Coal Engines 118 Tires, setting and removing do 70 Chilled 71 Tyng's Heating Apparatus 61 Valves 68, 178 INDEX. 187 Valve Motion 81 Stem 63 Variable Exhaust 98, 17» Throw of Valve 85 V-Hooks 85,179 Water Boom in Boilers 54 to calculate 141 Water evaporated 133 Bridges 117 Waste used 105 Wheels 69 Wrought iron 71 Chilled 70 Whistle 48 VTinans, Boss, Engine by 1 10 Coal Engine on Worcester Boad J l6 IHS EHD. 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Baird. t2nio. jSi.Sc HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 3 BAIRD. — Standard Wages Computing Tables : An Improvement in* all former Methods of Computation, so arranged that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a specified rate per day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By T. Spangler Baird. Oblong folio I5.00 BAKER. — Long-Span Railway Bridges : Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and Practical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type Systems of Construction; with numerous Formulae and Tables. By B. Baker. i2mo. gi.oo BAKER.^The Mathematical Theory of the Steam -Engine : With Rules at length, and Examples worked out for the use of Practical Men. By T. Baker, C. E., with numerous Diagrams. Sixth Edition, Revised by Prof. J. R. Young. i2mo. . 75 BARLOW — The History and Principles of Weaving, by Hand and by Power: Reprinted, with Considerable Additions, from " Engineering," with a chapter on Lace-making Machinery, reprinted from the Journal of the "Society of Arts." By Alfred Barlow. With several hundred illustrations. 8vo., 443 pages $10.00 BARR. — A Practical Treatise on the Combustion of Coal: Including descriptions of various mechanical devices for the Eco- nomic Generation of Heat by the Combustion of Fuel, whether solid, liquid or gaseous. 8vo J12.50 BARR. — A Practical Treatise on High Pressure Steam Boilers : Including Results of Recent Experimental Tests of Boiler Materials, together with a Description of Approved Safety Apparatus, Steam Pumps, Injectors and Economizers in actual use. By Wm. M. Barr. 204 Illustrations. 8vo. . $3-00 BAUERMAN.— A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron : Containing Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analysis of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, etc., etc. By H. Bauerman, F. G. S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings from Drawings by J. B. Jordan, izmo J2.0C BRANNT.— The Metallic Alloys: A Practical Guide For the Manufacture of all kinds of Alloys, Amalgams, and Solders, used by Metalworkers; together with their Chemical and Ph\sicai Properties and their Application in the Arts and the Industries; with an Appendix on the Coloring of Alloys and tiie Recovery of Waste Metals. By William T. Brannt. 34 Engravings. A New, Re- vised, and Enlarged Edition. 554 pages. 8vo. . . $4.50 BEANS. — A Treatise on Railway Curves and Location of Railroads : By E. W. Beans, C. E. Illustrated. i2mo. Tucks . $1.50 BECKETT. — A Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks, and Watches and Bells : By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart., IX. D., Q. C. F. R. A. S. With numerous illustrations. Seventh Edition, Revised and Enlarged. I2mo $2-2f. HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. BELL.. — Carpentry Made Easy : Or, The Science and Art of Framing on a' New and Improved System. With Specific Instructions for Building Balloon Frames, Bam Frames, Mill Frames, Warehouses, Church Spires, etc. Comprising also a System of Bridge Building, with Bills, Estimates of Cost, and valuable Tables. Illustrated by forty-four plates, comprising Clearly 200 figures. By William E. Bell, Architect and Practical Builder. 8vo. $5.00 BEMROSE.— Fret-Cutting and Perforated Carving: With fifty-three practical illustrations. By W. Bemrose, Jr. i vol. quarto $2.50 BEMROSE.— Manual of Buhl-work and Marquetry: With Practical Instructions for Learners, and ninety colored designs. By W. Bemrose, Jr. i vol. quarto .... ;J3.oo BEMROSE.— Manual of Wood Carving: With Practical Illustrations for Learners of the Art, and Original and Selected Designs. By WiLLlAM Bemrose, Jr. With an Intro- duction by Llewellyn Jewitt, F. S. A., etc. With 128 illustra- tions, 4to. $2.30 BILLINGS.— Tobacco : Its History, Variety, Culture, Manufacture, Commerce, and Various Modes of Use. By E. R. Billings. Illustrated by nearly 200 engravings. 8vo $300 BIRD. — The American Practical Dyers' Companion: Comprising a Description of the Principal Dye-Stuffs and Chemicals used in Dyeing, their Natures and Uses ; Mordants, and Hovir Made ; vrith the best American, English, French and Gnrman processes for Bleaching and Dyeing Silk, Wool, Cotton, Linen, Flannel, Felt, Dress Goods, Mixed and Hosiery Yarns, Feathers, Grass, Felt, Fur, "Wool, and Strawr Hats, Jute Yarn, Vegetable Ivory, Mats, Skins, Turs, Leather, etc., etc. By Wood, Aniline, and other Processes, together with Remarks on Finishing Agents, and Instructions in the Finishing of Fabrics, Substitutes for Indigo, Water-Proofing of Materials, Tests and Purification of Water, Manufacture of Aniline and other New Dye Wares, Harmonizing Colors, etc., etc. ; embrac- ing in all over 800 Receipts for Colors and Shades, accompanied by 170 Dyed Samples of Haw Materials and Fabrics. By F. J. Bird, Practical Dyer, Author of " The Dyers' Hand-Book.'" 8vo. Jio.oo BLINN.— A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, Sheet- Iron, and Copper-plate Workers : Containing Rules for describing various kinds of Patterns used by Tin, Sheet-Iron and Copper- plate Workers; Practical Geometry; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Tables of the Weights of Metals, Lead-pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Circumference^ of Circles ; Japan, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc., etc. By Lerov J. Blinn, Master Mechanic. With One Hundred and Seventy Illustrations. l2mo, ..... JS^-S" HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. BOOTH.— Marble Worker's Manual: Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, theii Cutting, Working and Polisliing; Veneering of Marble; Mosaics; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, Secreis, etc., etc. Translated from the French by M. L. Booth. With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. i2mo., cloth $1.50 BOOTH and MORFIT. — The Encyclopaedia of Chemistry, Practical and Theoretical : Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Geology, Medicine and Pharmacy. By James C. Booth, Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chem- istry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by Campbell Morfit, author of " Chemical Manipulations," etc. Seventh Edition. Com- plete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations $3-5° BRAM WELL..— -The Wool Carder's Vade-Mecum< A Complete Manual of the Art of Carding Textile Fabrics. By W. C. Bramwell. Third Edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated. Pp. 400. i2mo i $2.50 BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils : Comprising both Fixed and Volatile Oils, their Physical and Chem- ical Properties and Uses, the Manner of Extracting and Refining them, and Practical Rules for Testing them ; as well as the Manufac- ture of .^.rtificial Butter and Lubricants, etc., with lists of American Patenis relating to the Extraction, Rendering, Refining, Decomposing, and Bleaching of Fats and Oils. By William T. Brannt, Editor of the " TeclinoChemical Receipt Book," Second Edition, Revised and in a great part Rewritten. Illustrated by 302 Engravings. In Two Volumes. 1304 pp. 8vo $10.00 BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Soap and Candles : Based upon the rtiost Recent Experiences in the Practice and Science ; comprising the Chemistry, Raw Materials, Machinery, and Utensils and Various Processes of Manufacture, including a great variety of formulas. Edited chiefly from" the German of Dr. C. Deite, A. Engelhardt, Dr. C. Schaedler and others ; with additions and lists of American Patents relating to these subjects. By Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated by 163 engravings. 677 pages. 8vo. . . 17.50 BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Ravy Materials and the Distillation and Rectificatioil of Alcohol, and the Prepara- tion of Alcoholic Liquors, Liqueurs, Cordials, Bitters, etc. .- Edited chiefly from the German of Dr. K. Stammer, Dr. F. Eisner, and E. Schubert. By Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated by thirty-one engravings. i2nio. $3-S° HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. BRANNT— WAHL.— The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book: Containing several thousand Receipts covering the latest, most im portant, and most useful discoveries in Chemical Technology, and tlieir Practical Application in the Arts and the Industries. Edited chiefly from the German of Drs. Winckler, Eisner, Heintze, Mier- zinski, Jacobsen, Koller, and Heinzerling, with additions by Wm. T, BraNNT and Wm. H. Wahl, Ph. D. Illustrated by 78 engravings, :2!no. 495 pages . $z.oo 1 ROWN. — Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Movements: Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics, Hy- draulics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam-Engines, Mill and other Gearing, Presses, Horology and Miscellaneous Machinery; and in- cluding many movements never before published, and several of which have only recently come into use. By Henry T. Brown. i2mo $1.00 BUCKMASTER.— The Elements of Mechanical Physics: By J. C. BUCKMASTER. Illustrated with numerous engravings, i2mo jSl.oo BULLOCK. — The American Con> Builder : A Series of Designs, Plans and Specifications, from $200 to ^20,000, for Homes for the People; together with Warming, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting and Landscape Gardening. By John Bullock, Architect and Editor of " The Rudiments of Architecture and Building," etc., etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. 8vo. {2.50 BULLOCK. — The Rudiments of Architecture and Building: For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, En- gineers and Mechanics. Edited by John Bullock, author of " The American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 250 Engravings. 8vo.$2.5o BURGH. — Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modem Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes. By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. i2mo. .... I1.50 BYLES. — Sophisms of Free Trade arid Popular Political Economy Examined. By a Barrister (Sir John Barnard Byles, Judge of Common Pleas). From the Ninth English Edition, as published by Ihe Manchester Reciprocity Association. i2mo. . . . Si. 25 BOWMAN.— The Structure of the Wool Fibre In its Relation to the Use of Wool for Technical Purposes : Being the substance, with additions, of Five Lectures, deliverea il 'lie request of the Council, to the members of the Bradford Technical College, and the Society of Dyers and Coloiists. By F. H. Bow- man, D. Sc, F. R. S. E., F. L. S. Illustrated by 32 engravings. Svo $6.50 BYRNE.— Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engi- neer : Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasi-ve Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing and Lackering, Apoaratus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATAIjOGUJS. y Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 wood en- gravings. 8vo. ^iS-oo BYRNE. — Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers: Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings ; the Staking out of Work ; Levelling ; the Calculation of Cuttings ; Embankments ; Earth- work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. i8mo., full bound, pocket-book form S1.50 BYRNE.— The Practical Metal- Worker's Assistant : Comprising Metallurgic Cheniistry ; the Arts of Working all Metali and Alloys ; Forging of Iron and Steel ; Hardening and Tempering ; Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding ; Works in Sheet Metal; the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal- workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufacturing Processes ; collected from Original Sources; and from the works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, .'Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn and others. , By OtiVER Byrne. A new, irevised and improved edition, to which is added an Appendix, con- taining The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. By John Percy, M. D., F. R. S. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron Castings, and Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With over Six Hundred Engravings, Illustrating every Branch of the Subject. 8vo. l>5-0<> BYRNE.— The Practical Model Calculator: For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval Architect, Miner and Millwright. By Oliver BvRNE. 8vo., nearly 600 payes ......... jl3-00 CABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE: Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. Oblong, 8vo $1.50 CALLINQHAM. — Sign Writing and Glass Embossing: A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art'. By James Callingham. i2mo JfSi-SO CAMPIN. — A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering: Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work, shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam- Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By Francis Campin, C. E. To which are added. Observations on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smokfe Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheelj ■cutting Machine. By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, Include ' ing Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking and Expansion ; and the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. 8vo. illustrated with twenty-nine plates and too wood engravings $$.09 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATAUXIUE. CAREY.— A Memoir of Henry C. Carey. By Dr. Wm. Elder, With a portrait. 8vo., cloth . . 7i CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey : Harmony of Interests : Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commer cial. 8vo. . . $1.25 Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's " Principles of Social Science." By Kate McKean. i vol. i2nio. . 32.0a Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. Jio.oo Past, Present and Future. 8vo S2.50 Principled of Social Science. 3 volumes, 8vo. . . $7.50 The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and How it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo. . . , J2.00 The Unity of Lawf : As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, Social, Mental and Moral Science (1872). 8vo. . . $2.50 CLARK. — Tramways, their Construction and Working: Embracing Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex- haustive analysis of the various, modes of traction, including horse- power, steam, heated water and compressed air ; a description of thp varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex- penses. By D. KiNNEAR C'.ARK. Illustrated by over 200 wood engravings, and thirteen folding plates. I vol. 8vo. , J!7.5t> COLBURN.— The Locomotive Engine : Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man- agement. By Zeeah Colburn. Illustrated. i2mo. . jSl.oo COLLENS. — The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia. By T. Wharton Collens, author of " Humanics," " The Histoij of Charity," etc. l2mo. Paper cover, j! 1. 00; Cloth . jll.2S COOLEY.— A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfutnery : Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles. With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae. By ARNOLD J. CoOLEY. l2rao ; . . . Jl.Jt COOPER.— A Treatise on the use of Belting for tie Traas- mission of Power. With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar- ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Relt Fasten ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal- culating the size and driving power of Belts. Plain, Particular and Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Manigement o' Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together wittt chapters on the Transmission ol Power by Ropes; by Iron and Wood Frictional Gearing; on the Strength of Belting Leather; and on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. Bj John H. Cooi-er, M. E. 8vo $3-5^ CRAIK.— The Practical American Millwright and MUler. By David Craik, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en- gravings and two folding plates. 8vo $3-5'* HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 9 CROSS.— The Cotton Yam Spinner : Showing how the Preparation should be arranged for Different Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hitherto been practiced; by having a Standard Schedule from which we make all our Changes. By Richard Cross. 122 pp. i2mo. . 75 CRISTIANI. — A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles: With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cris- TIANI, Chemist. Author of " Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illus- trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. . . . S15.00 COAL AND METAL MINERS' POCKET BOOK: Of Principles, Rules, Formulse, and Tables, Specially Compiled and Prepared for the Convenient Use o( Mine Officials, Mining En- gineers, and Students preparing themselves for Certificates of Compe- tency as Mine Inspectors or Mine Foremen. Revised and Enlarged edition. Illustrated, 565 pages, small 12mo., cloth. . $2.00 PocUet book form, flexible leather with flap . . iS2.75 DAVIDSON. — A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain- ing, Marbling, and Sign- Writing: Containing full information on the processes of House Painting in Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign- Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful Receipts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles, and numerous wood engravings. By Ellis A. Davidson. i2mo. DAVIES. — A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and Mining: By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by 76 Engravings. l2mo SS.OO DAVIES. — A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining: By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mines, Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the practice of all parts of the world. Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged by his son, E. Henry Davies. l2mo., 524 pages . . . $5-00 DAVIES. — A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying: Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations' and folding , plates. l2mo. $2.00 DAVIS. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Brick, Tiles and Terra-Cotta : Including Stiff Clay, Dry Clay, Hand Made, Pressed or Front, and Roadway Paving Brick, Enamelled Brick, with Glazes and Colors, Fire Brick and Blocks, Silica Brick, Carbon Brick, Glass Pots, Re- lo HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. torts, Architectural Terra-Cotta, Sewer Pipe, Drain Tile, Glazed and Unglazed RooBng Tile, Art Tile, Mosaics, and Imitation of Intarsia or Inlaid Surfaces. Comprising eveiy product of Clay employed in Architecture, Engineering, and the Blast Furnace. With a Detailed Description of the Different Clays employed, the Most Modern Machinery, Tools, and Kilns used, and the Processes for Handling, Disintegrating, Tempering, and Moulding the Clay into Shape, Dry- ing, Setting, and Burning. By Charles Thomas Davis. Third Edi- tion. Revised and in great part rewritten. Illustrated by 261 engravings. 662 pages ....... $5.00 DAVIS. — A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Meth- ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale : By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated by 65 engravings. 8vo. $2.00 DAVIS. — The Manufacture of Paper : Being a Description of the various Processes for the Fabrication, Coloring and Finishing of every kind of Paper, Including the IJif- fer£nt Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their Values, the Tools, Machines and Practical Details connected with an intellt gent and a profitable prosecution of the art, with special reference to , the best American Practice. To which are added a History of Pa- per, complete Lists of Paper-Making Materials, List of American Machines, Tools and Processes used in treating the Raw Materials, and in Making, Coloring and Finishing Paper. By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated by 156 ei^;ravings. 608 pages, 8vo. $6.00 DAVIS.— The Manufacture of Leather: Being a Description of all the Processes for the Tanning and Tawing with Bark, Extracts, Chrome and all Modem Tannages in General Use, and the Curiying, Finishing and Dyeing of Every Kind of Leather; Including the Various Raw Materials, the Tools, Machines, and all Details of Importance Connected with an Intelligent and Profitable Prosecution of the Art, with Special' Reference to the Best American Practice. To which are added Lists of American Patents ( 1884-1897) for Materials, Processes, Tools and Machines for Tanning, Currying, etc. By Charles Thomas Davis. Second Edition, Revised, and in great part Rewritten. Illustrated by 147 engravings and 14 Sam- ples ol Quebracho Tanned and Aniline Dyed Leathers. 8vo, cloth, 712 pages. Price j7-5° DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages, etc. : Eased upon Actual Experience. By F. Dawidowsky, Technical Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive additions, including a description of the most Recent American Processes, by William T. Brannt, Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College of Eldena, Prussia. 35 Engravings. I2mo. . . . |2-S° DE GRAFF.— The Geometrical Stair-Builders' Guide: Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all itJ necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-two Steel Engravings ; together with the use of the most approved pnncipl*! «f Practical Geometry. By Simon De Graff, Architect. 4te. $2.C0 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. n DE KONINCK— DIETZ.— A Practical Manual of Chemical Analysis ana Assaying : As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. Dk KoNlNCK, Dr. Sc, and E. Dietz, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by Robert Mallet, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., etc. American Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. l2mo. . . . jll.50 DUNCAN.— Practical Surveyor's Guide: Containing the necessary information to make any person of con» mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher By Andrew Duncan. Revised. 72 engravings, 214pp. l2mo. $1.50 DUPLAIS. — A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation of Alcoholic Liquors : Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Gmin, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Aspho- del, Fiuijs, etc. ; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy. "Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Prepar?tion of Aro- matic W.aters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatic Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Copiona Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors, etc^ etr. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. Duplais, Aine et jeune. By M. McKennie, M. D. To which are added the UnitAJ States Iniernal Revenue Regulations (nr the Assessment and Collection of Taxes on Distilled Spiriis. Illu.strated by fourteea folding plates and several wood engravings. 743 pp. 8vo. $12.^0 DUSSAUCB.— Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Matches, Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powder. By Professor H. Dussauce. izmo. .... DYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION: Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now in existence; with the Seouring Process, and plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. i2mo. $1.00 EDWARDS. — A Catechism of the Marine Steam-Engine, For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical Work for Practical Men. By Emory Edwards, Mechanical Engi- neer. Illustrated by sixty-three Eni;raVings, including examples of the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with much additional matter. l2mo. 414 pages . . . j!2 00 EDWARDS.— Modern American Locomotive Engines, Their Design, Construction and Management. By Emory EdwarcB. Illustrated l2mo $a.0O EDWARDS. — The American Steam Engineer: Theoretical and Practical, with examples of the latest and most ap- proved American practice in the design and construction of Steam Engines and Boilers. For the use of engineers, machinists, boiler- loakers, and engineering students. By Emory Edwards. Fully illustrated, 419 pages. i2mo. ' ■ . , . $2.5* 12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. EDWARDS. — Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, antf Screw Propellers, Their Design and Construction. Showing the Present Praaice ot the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the United States. Illustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates. 410. SS.dc 'EDWARDS.— The Practical Steam Engineer's Guide In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary, Portable, and Steam Fire-Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers, Injectors^ Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. Bj Emory Edwards. Illustrated by 119 engravings. 4120 pages. i2mo. . . .... . . $2 50 EISSLER.— The Metallurgy of Gold: A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-Bear- ing Ores, including the Processes of Concentration and Chlorination, and the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. Eissler. With 132 Illustrations. i2mo $5.00 EISSLER.— The Metallurgy of Silver : A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation of Silver Ores, including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Silver Bullion. By M. Eissler. 124 Illustrations. 336 pp. l2mo J4.2J ELDER. — Conversations on the Principal Subjects of Political Economy. • By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. . . . . J2 50 ELDER. — Questions of the Day, Economic and Social. By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. . fo.oo BRNI. — Mineralogy Simplified-. Easy Methods of Determining and Classifying Minerals, including Ores, by means of the Blowpipe, and by Humid Chemical Analysis, based on Professor von Kobell's Tables for the Determination of Minerals, with an Introduction to Modem Chemistry. By Henry Erni, A.m., M.D., Professor of Chemistry. Second Edition, rewritten, enlarged and improved. l2mo. FAIRBAIRN.— The Principles of Mechanism and Machinetj of Transmission • , j t. n Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and PuUevs. Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engag- ing and Disengaging Gear.. By SIR William Fairbairn, Bail C. E. Beautifully tUustiated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one Tolume. i2mo ' *^°'* FLEMING.— Narrow Gauge Railways in America. A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success, \aluable Statistica as fo Grades, Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, efc. By Howard Fleming. Illustrated, 8vo »' °^ FORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and othftr Monuments : , x j »• Containing 78 Designs. By James Forsyth. With an Introduction by Charles Boutell, M. A. 4 to., cloth . . pS-S" HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 13 FRANKEL— HUTTER. — A Practical Treatise on the Manu* ^ facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine: Based on the German of Ladislaus Von Wagner, Professor in the Royal Technical High School, Buda-Pest, Hungary, and other authorities. By Julius Frankel, Graduate of the Polytechnic School of Hanover. Edited by Robert Hutter, Chemist, Practical Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 58 engravings, cover- ing every branch of the subject, including examples of the most Recent and Best American Macliinery. 8vo., 344 pp. . $350 GARDNER.— The Painter's Encyclopaedia: Containing Definitions of all Important Words irt the Art of Plain and Artistic Painting, with Details of Practice in Coach, Carriage, Railway Car, House, Sign, and Ornamental Painting, including Graining, Marbling, Staining, Varnishing, Polishing, Lettering, Stenciling, Gilding, Bronzing, etc. By FRANKLIN B. Gardner. 158 Illustrations. l2mo. 427 pp ^2.00 GARDNER.— Everybody's Paint Book : A Complete Guide to the Art of Outdoor and Indoor Painting, De- signed for the Special Use of those who wi.sh to do their own work, and consisting of Practical Lessons in Plain Painting, Varnishing, Polishing, Staining, Pp.prr Hanging, Kalsomining, etc., as well as Directions for Renovating Furniture, and Hints on Artistic Work for Home Decoration. 38 Illustrations. l2mo., 183 pp. . ^I.oo GEE. — The Goldsmith's Handbook : Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold, including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Coloring, Col- lecting, and Refining; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of Waste; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold; with a New System of Mixing its Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful Rules and Recipes. By George E. 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With Illustrations. l2mo. .... jti.25 VOGDES. — The Architect's and Builder's Pocket-Companioa and Price-Book : Consisting of a Shoit but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo- decimals, Geometry and Mensuration ; with Tables of United States Measures, Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone, 5rick, Cement and Concretes, Quantities of Materials in given Sizes and Dimensions of Wood, Brick and Stone; and full and complete Bills of Prices for Carpenter's Work and Painting ; also, Rules for Computing and Valuing Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Paint- ing, Plastering, with a Vocabulary of Technical Terms, etc. By Frank W. Vogdes, Architect, Indianapolis, Ind. Enlarged, revised, and corrected. In one volume, 368 pages, full-bound, pocket-book form, gilt edges $2.00 Gloth . . I.S* VAN CLEVE The English and American Mechanic : Comprising a Collection of Over Three Thousand Receipts, Rules, and Tables, designed for the Use of every Mechanic and Manufac- turer. By B. Frank Van Cleve. Illustrated. 500 pp. i2mo. j!2.oo WAHNSCHAFFE.— A Guide to the Scientific Examination of Soils: Comprising Select Methods of Mechanical and Chemical Analyst and Physical Investigation. Translated from the German of Dr. F. Wahnschaffe. With additions by William T. Brannt. Illus- trated by 25 engravings. l2nio. 177 pages . . . $1.50 WALL. — Practical Graining : With Descriptions of Colors Employed and Tools Used. Illustrateo by 47 Colored Plates, Representing the Various Woods Used JE Interior Finishing. By William E. Wall. 8vo. . #2.50 WALTON.— Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated : By Thomas H. Walton, Mining Engineer. Illustrated by 34 Jatge and elaborate Plates, after Actual Workings and Apparatus. ;BS.oc 2S HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUR WARE.— The Sugar Beet. Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varietitt of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing, Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva tion, Feeding Qualities of the Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By Lewii S. Ware, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. Svo. WARN.— The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor: For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plale Workers, etc. Contain- ing a selection of Geometrical ProMems ; also, Practical and Simple Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different branches of the above Trades. By Reuben H. Warn, Practical Tin-Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing Instructions for Boiler-Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty- two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. Svo. . S3.00 WARNER.— New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for tha Computation of Earth-work : Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates of Students in Engineering, nn